THE UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS
LIBRARY
From the collection of
Julius Doerner, Chicago
Purchased, 1918.
94707
1-1629
A HISTORY
OF
THE RUSSIAN WAR.
THE LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
BATTLE 03F IWKEMAM
' LO ND 0 N.
MILNER AND COMPY
PATERNOSTER ROW .
THE LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
A HISTORY
Off
FROM
ITS COMMENCEMENT IN 1853,
UNTIL
THE PEACE OF PAHIS, IN 1856.
COMPILED AND ARRANGED
FROM
THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES,
LONDON 2
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PATERNOSTER ROW.
/
PREFACE,
The war with Russia, which has now closed, may be desig-
nated as a short, sharp, and decisive one: it has been be-
gun, continued, and concluded within little more than two
years; and there are those who refuse to class it among
the great wars of Europe. But when we take into consi-
deration the magnitude of the operations, and the vast
amount of the forces engaged — the distance to which these
had to be transported — the fearful catalogue of victims,
and the heavy cost in money — when we reflect upon alj
these, we are compelled to acknowledge that we havebeen
living in a fearful struggle.
The compilation of this work has been undertaken with
a view to place before the reader something like a compre-
hensive sketch of the contest, from its commencement to
its close : thus enabling the reader to exercise his own
judgment in deciding where to blame and where to ap-
prove. Narratives of war and bloodshed are no pleasing
themes to dilate upon; but we imagine there are few Eng-
lishmen who can coldly and stoically peruae the heroic deeds
of their fellow-countrymen, and refuse to pay the tribute
of praise to those who are contending in a just and neces-
sary conflict.
This work embraces the whole struggle, from its origin
to its termination ; and the principal events connected
with it have been elaborately pourtrayed. Almost every
minor event has been touched upon ; and, when the extent
of country to which operations have been directed, and the
descriptions given of those places, are taken into account f
V
PREFACE.
vi
the work will be found to contain geographical knowledge
of some value. In short, the Compiler ventures to assert,
that the work will be found suitable to all classes of read-
ers; and from the large quantity of exciting and interest-
ing matter which it contains, he hesitates not to say that
it will be found equal, if not superior, to any work of the
kind. That the time maybe long, ere his or any other pen
shall be employed in describing the conflicts of another Eu-
ropean war, is the sincere wish of
THE COMPILER
Halifax , June, I8a8»
CONTENTS,
CHAPTER I.
PA<*B
OBiaix of tho War — Menschikoff— Gortschakoff—
Omar Pasha 9
CHAPTER II.
Danubian Principalities — Hostilities commenced by the
Turks and Russians on the Danube— Turkish Forces
—Battles of Oltenitza, Citale, Kalafat, Giurgevo —
Siege of Silistria 28
CHAPTER III.
The Western Alliance— Diplomacy — The “ Vienna
Note” — Threatening Aspect — The Slaughter at Si-
nope — Russian Justification cf the Slaughter — Re-
newed Efforts to preserve Peace — Secret Correspon-
dence — Declaration of War — Character of the War
— Neutrality of Austria and Prussia — Colonial Sym-
pathy 57
CHAPTER IV.
Preliminary Operations— Embarkation cl English and
French Troops and Material to the East— Strategy
and Instructions of the French Emperor — Malta —
Gallipoli — Scutari— Constantinople — Varna — Oper-
ations on the Black Sea— Bombardment of Odessa. 74
CHAPTER V.
The Caucasians and Circassians — Sc-hamyl, the Prophet
Warrior — Erzeroum — Trebizond — Kars — Asiatic
Campaign — Intrigues in the North-west of Turkey
—Greek Attacks on the Borders of Turkey .. 117
viii
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER VI.
The Baltic Sea— Sir C. Napier— The Allied Fleets in
the Baltic — Operations in the Baltic — Cronstadt —
Bombardment and Capture of Bomarsund — The Pa-
cific and White Sea 150
CHAPTER VII.
The Crimea — Arrival of the Allies in the Crimea— Bat-
tle of the Alma— The Flank March — Death of Mar-
shal St. Arnaud 196
CHAPTER VIII.
Manoeuvres of the Fleets — Bombardment of Sebasto-
pol — Battle of Balaklava — The Two Battles of Inker-
mann— Storm in the Crimea, &c 248
CHAPTER 1X7
Winter Life in the Crimea — Dreadful sufferings ofthe
British — Sick and Wounded — Miss Nightingale and
the Hospital Nurses at Scutari — British Sympathy
and Philanthropy — Balaklava Railway — Operations
at Eupatoria— Siege of Sebastopol 316
CHAPTER X. '
Fruitless Negotiations— Death of the Emperor Nicho-
las — Vienna Conference — Progress of the Siege in
1855 346
CHAPTER XI.
Death of Lord Raglan — Sir James Simpson appointed
Corr.mander of the British Forces — Battle of the
Tchernaya — Bombardment and Fall of Sebastopol. 371
CHAPTER XII.
The Baltio Fleet — Operations in the Baltic — The Han-
f o Massacre — The Fleet before Cronstadt — Bom-
ardment of Sveaborg — The War in Asia— Capitula-
tion of Kars — Summary 393 1
CHAPTER XIII.
Official Text of the Treaty of Peace— The Conventions
*~The Protocols— Conclusion 419
A HISTORY
OF
THE RUSSIAN WAR.
— i $ m*+~
CHAPTER L
Origin of the War— Menschikoff— Gort-
chakoff — Omar Pasha.
The writer of European history, in narrating the events
occurring between the years 1815 and 1855, has been
spared the painful task of recording the devastating
effects which attend upon the battle field. About the
middle of the former year a great battle was fought on
the plains of Waterloo, and was followed by a peace
which had continued uninterrupted until the commence-
ment of the year 1854. Although, in the years 1848-9
there occurred in many parts of Europe severe
struggles betwixt the governers and the governed,—
and thrones and potentates tottered and fell, — yet those
struggles were confined to each separate nation, and
each was allowed to settle the difference without
foreign interference and foreign aid. During the latter
part of the year 1853, however, the peaceful horizon of
Europe became overclouded, and the minds of many
were uneasy at the aspect presented in the aggres-
sive policy pursued by Russia towards her weak neigh-
bour, the Ottoman empire.
10
OBICtIN OB THE WAB.
Prior to the commencement of the last century,
down even to the present time, the policy pursued
by Eussia has been signally marked by that of aggres-
sion. Peter the Great, who ascended the throne of
Eussia in 1689, was animated with unbounded ambi-
tion, and with a determination to extend the boundaries
of his country on ever y hand. He assumed the title of
“Emperor of all the Eussias !” and, with an earnest-
ness that would have been praiseworthy in a better
cause, he persevered in the accomplishment of this his
darling object. Surrounded by a race of rude
Sclavonians, he aspired to be considered as a reformer
of manners; and, although he had many faults, yet he
merits the title of one of the greatest men of his age
and country. It is not, however, our intention to ex-
patiate on the history of Peter I. Suffice it to say,
that he at that early period had designs of encroaching
on the Ottoman empire, and carried out those designs
by seizing a portion of its territories ; although these
territories were afterwards reconquered by the' Turks.
In 1717 Peter sent a distinguished personage to Khiva,
eastward of the Caspian, apparently on a friendly
mission, but with secret instructions to seize upon cer-
tain gold mines which he believed existed there ; but
hi3 treachery was defeated by the cunning of the
Khivians, who put to death all the members of
his embassy. His next attempt, which was on the
territories of Persia, was not more successful ; although
he had at one time gained possession of four provinces
in that country, yet the terrible Nadir, who assumed
the title of Shah of Persia, soon compelled Peter to re-
linquish his newly-gained possessions. Peter died in
1725, and was succeeded by his w idow 7 , Catherine, who
was originally a peasant girL
Catherine I. reigned hut two years, and was suc-
ceeded hv the notorious Catherine II. This empress
reigned 34 years ; and, if w e may credit history, she
exhibited traits of character throughout her long reign
et variance with those we generally expect to find in the
OUT GUN OF TH F. WAH,
1.1
female sex. During the short reign of her predecessor,
the Ossetians, a pagan tribe in the Caucasian moun-
tains, had become tributary to Russia ; but the cruel
tyranny of Catherine II. over the tribes near the Cau-
casus was such, that the Circassians sought refuge in the
nearly inaccessible fastnesses of their mountains; the
Nogays looked for shelter and safety under the Khan
of the Crimea — then an independent Tartar state ; the
Kabardans of Circassia forsook Christianity for Islam,
preferring the Turkish to Russian rule ; and the Kal-
mucs took the astonishing resolution, in 1771, of re-
moving in a body to their original territory in Chinese
Tartary. Nothing, perhaps, is recorded in history
more wonderful than this voluntary journey of
600,000 human beings to a distance of 2,000 miles, as
the means of fleeing from Russian despotism. At a
later period disturbances broke out in Georgia — a fruit-
ful country southward of the Caucasus, between the
Black and Caspian Seas — Persia and Turkey strug-
gling for its possession, when Russia stepped in, of-
fering to assist the one in opposition to the other,
and, eventually, took Georgia to herself as the reward
of her good intentions.
During these transactions in Asia, Catherine was not
lukewarm in her designs on other portions of Europe.
Poland had become disturbed on account of differen-
ces regarding the succession to the crown, when Cath-
erine managed to place one of her dependents on the
throne ; at the same time scattering her agents all over
that unhappy country. Turkey at length became
alarmed at ibe aggressive spirit which animated the
Empress, for the acquisition of Poland would place
Russia too near the Ottoman territories ; and the sul-
tan, having received many insults and injuries from
Russia, declared war against that power in 1769.
England took part wflth Russia, and sent a fleet to as-
sist her against Turkey ; and the results were so dis-
astrous to the Ottoman army, that Turkey was com-
pelled to submit to several humbling concessions, con-
12
OEIGIH OF THE WAS,
tained in the treaty of Kainardji. By this treaty Rus-
sia obtained the free navigation of the Black Sea, the
passage of the Dardanelles, the privilege of having
one ship of war in those quarters, and the possession
of Azof, Taganrog, Kertch, and Kinburn ; she also
acquired the extension of her frontier to the river Bug
or Boug ; assumed the sovereignty of Kabarda, near
the Caucasus, and obtained the relinquishment by
Turkey of suzerain power over the Khan of the Cri-
mea — a stroke of policy which Russia took good care
afterward to turn to her own advantage. In the year
1776 she constructed a line of posts, embracing near-
ly thirty fortresses, from the Black Sea to the Caspian.
Some few years later, the Christian princes of Georgia,
Imetria, and Mingrelia — all on the southern base of
the Caucasus — wrought upon by Russian gift9 or
overawed by Russian threats, relinquished their alle-
giance to Turkey, and became subject to the Russian
yoke ; so also did several petty chiefs in the princi-
palities in the Persian dominions.
By the Treaty of Kainardji the Crimea had be-
come independent of Turkey ; and in a short time
Catherine began to manifest her protection over the
Khan in that extraordinary way which we may expect
the wolf to exhibit when pretending to protect the
lamb. It became evident at this time that Russia
had designs of obtaining possession of Constantinople,
and war was again begun betwixt Turkey and Russia.
Potemkin and Suvaroff spread their forces through
the Caucasian region; and other armies, under the
pretence of protecting the Khan against the Turks,
forcibly took possession of the Crimea, deposed the Khan,
and put to death all the Tartar nobles who endeav-
oured to support the independence of their sea-girt pen-
insula. About this time Russia offered her protection
to the voyvodes or princes of Moldavia and Wallaehia,
and so managed matters as to induce them to
look up to her, rather than to the sultan, as a su-
zerain ; the Christians in Servia and Bulgaria were
ORIGIN OP THE WAH.
IS
likewise encouraged to revolt, and claim her protec-
tion at what times they pleased, against the sultan,
— all in defiance of any previously existing treaties.
The seizure and slaughter in the Crimea took place
in 1783 ; but before this there had been a treaty,
signed at Constantinople in 1779, consisting of a few
clauses, but it had little effect in settling the relations
between the two countries. There was a commercial
treaty made between Turkey and Russia in 1783 ;
but Catherine took care not to declare her intention
to seize the Crimea until after thi3 treaty was signed.
The city of Kherson was built at the mouth of the
Dnieper, close upon the Turkish frontier ; and in 1783
Catherine made her public entry into the city, pass-
ing under a triumphal arch, on which was inscribed in
Greek characters — “ The way to Byzantium .” The
war was again renewed between Russia and Turkey ;
and the struggle was again unsuccessful on the part
of Turkey, which was forced to sacrifice the territory
between the rivers Bug and Dniester ; to give up all
control over Georgia and the adjacent provinces, and
to allow Russia a certain claim to influence in other
parts, without actual sovereignty.
While grasping these portions of territory in the
South, Catherine was successfully pursuing the same
policy in her empire toward the West. Poland’s first
dismemberment took place in 1772. It is firmly be-
lieved that Prussia was the first instigator of this ne-
farious project; and that a slice was presented to Aus-
tria as a bribe to gain her consent to the act of spolia-
tion. According to the treaty of St. Petersburg, sign-
ed Aug. 6, 1772, Russia grasped Polotsk, Vitepsk, Mi-
cislaf, and Polish Livonia ; Prussia seized Malborg,
Pomerania, Varmia, and parts of Culm and Great Po-
land; Austria helped herself to Galicia, with portions
of Podolia and Sandomir ; while poor Poland had to
do as well as she could with what was left to her.
Russia gained by the transaction 3440 leagues of ter-
ritory, and 1,500,000 inhabitants. If Prussia waa
14
OBIGIN OB EHE WAK.
foremost in devising this first spoliation, Russia took
good care to be the foremost in dictating those which
followed. Unhappy Poland — exhausted alike by inter-
nal dissensions, external attacks, and foreign bribery
— was doomed to become the prey of grasping des-
pots; and, in 1793, the second partition was perpe-
trated, by which the Russian boundary was extended
to the centre of Lithuania and Volhynia; while Prus-
sia received the remainder of Great Poland and a part
of Little Poland. Austria not having any share in
this second spoliation. Poland had now dwindled
down to about 4000 square miles. The noble and pa-
triotic attempt of the brave Kosciusko to regain the
liberties of his suffering country was unsuccessful, and
brought on the third partition, in 1795, which erased
Poland from the list of nations. Austria got Cracow
and the country between the Pilitza, the Vistula, and
the Bug; Prussia appropriated the country as far as
the Niemen ; while Russia absorbed all the rest.
Paul and Alexander, during their reigns, followed
the policy of their predecessors ; and from 1796 to 1825
gained a larger accession of territory from Persia than
from Turkey. Paul appears to have inherited from
Catherine two great desires — one for a road to India
through Persia, and the other a path to Constantinople
through the Danubian principalities. During the first
quarter of the present century there were several
struggles between Russia and Persia, which generally
resulted in loss of territory on the part of the latter,
and consequent gain to the former. Georgia was an-
nexed in 1800; Mingrelia and Imetria, in 1802;
Sheki, in 1805 ; and various other parts, in 1812 and
1814. Turkey enjoyed a few years of apparent peace
after the death of Catherine ; but the plots and dis-
sensions which incessantly occurred in Moldavia, Wal-
lachia and Servia, became so intolerable, that the sul-
tan declared war against Russia in 1806. In 1804,
during the complexity of European politics, Turkey
narrowly escaped a snare. A friendly alliance was
ORIOIH OF THE WAR.
u
just on the point of being cemented between Turkey
and Russia : but the Sultan Selim looking cautiously
at the clauses, luckily found one by which Alexander
claimed, as part of the price of Russian friendliness,
that all the subjects of the Porte professing the Greek
religion should be placed under the immediate protec-
tion of Russia. The sultan refused to agree to this,
and war was the consequence. Turkey was ill pre-
pared for war ; many of the rulers who were tributary
to the sultan held aloof from assisting him, and se-
veral years were spent in war, which eventually termi-
nated in the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812, by which
the czar obtained Bessarabia, extending the Russian
frontier westward from the Dniester to the Pruth, —
securing the navigation of the Danube to merchant-
ships — and obtaining for his ships of war a right to
ascend the Pruth up to its junction with the Danube.
Alexander also succeeded in procuring an amnesty for
the rebellious Servians who had aided him against
Turkey ; and stipulated for the demolition of the for-
tresses recently erected by the Turks in Servia. Thus
was Turkey again humbled and despoiled by her over-
bearing and powerful neighbour.
Sweden was next singled out as a fit object for the
northern autocrat to pounce upon. Under the pre-
tence that this state had refused to close her ports
against England, during a disagreement betwixt Rus-
sia and Great Britain, Alexander suddenly despatched
an army to Finland before war had been declared;
and when Sweden thereupon declared war, two years
were spent in hostilities, which ended with the treaty
of Friedrichsham, in 1809. Sweden, by this treaty,
surrendered Finland, the whole of East Bothnia, and
a part of West Bothnia. With her most fertile
provinces, she lost more than one fourth of her
inhabitants. These proceedings were contrary to
all the principles of justice and equity. Alexander
invaded a neighbour’s country without declaring war ;
and when the injured monarch resisted the encroach-
16
ORIGIN OR THE WAR.
ment, he was punished for his resistance by a great
loss of his possessions.
The congress of Vienna, in 1815, settled the affairs
of Europe, without interfering at all in the vast terri-
tories which Russia had grasr ed from Poland, Sweden,
Turkey, and Persia ; and she was left to govern those
possessions as she thought proper. In 1825 Nicholas
succeeded Alexander as Emperor of all the Russias;
and he sooil gave striking evidence that he was not
inferior to any of his predecessors in his desire to ex-
tend the boundaries of Russia whenever and where-
ever he saw the least chance of success. Secret agents
were spread through most of the neighbouring states,
whose chief object appeared to be, to foment disturb-
ances, and then Russia would offer her aid to either par-
ty, and thus further the object she had in view, by be-
ing well paid for her protection either in money or ter-
ritory. She fomented disturbances in Greece, and
offered her military aid to Turkey, to quell the distur-
bances ; but when this was refused, Nicholas pretend-
ed to be offended. In J uly, 1827, Engl and and France,
induced probably by solicitude in behalf of Christian
interests in Turkey, signed, with Russia, the Treaty of
London, binding all three to insure a settlement of the
Greek affairs in Turkey. A short time afterwards,
Russia signed the convention of Akermann, with Tur-
key, in which Russia pledged herself to a certain course
which could not by any means be in agreement with
the Treaty of London. The battle of Navarino ; the
destruction of the Turkish navy; the compelled ac-
knowledgment of the independence of Greece — all were
additions of strength to the czar; and when after two
campaigns in 1828 -9, the Treaty of Adrianople was sign-
ed, Turkey was compelled to yield Anapa and Poti,
with a large extent of coast on the Black Sea — a part
of the pachalik of Akhilska, the two fortresses of Ak-
hilska and Akhilkillak — and the virtual possession of
the islands formed by the mouths of the Danube. Nor
was, this the whole. Certain Turkish fortresses were
OSIGIN OE THE VTAB.
17
to be abandoned; Moldavia and Wallachia were to be
governed according to arrangements which Kussiahad
introduced when she protected them ; immunities were
to be granted to Eussian subjects in Turkey ; an im-
mense sum of money was to be paid to Eussia for her
expenses in the war — the czar holding possession of
the Principalities and Silistria, until the money was
paid. The Treaty of Turcomanchai, at this time, gave
to Eussia immense advantages in Persia, being the
command over the Caspian Sea and the Caucasian
provinces.
Mehemet Ali, the Pacha of Egypt, raised a serious
revolt against the sultan ; and the latter was so unwise
as to accept Eussian aid to subdue it. This was evi-
dently a rash step, for when the Treaty of Unkiar-
Skelessi was framed, a secret article was inserted,
stipulating that Eussia would forego the debt from the
last war, if Turkey would close the Dardanelles against
all vessels of war whatever, except those of Russia .
The position of Eussia now became extremely menac-
ing ; and the other states began to be alarmed. They
did not pay much regard to the treaty which prevent-
ed any Mohammedan from living in Moldavia and
Wallachia, or any Turkish army from been stationed
in those countries ; nor had they much anxiety in re-
gard to the Treaty of St. Petersburg in 1834, which
increased the power of Eussia in Asia Minor; but the
closing of the Dardanelles was a serious matter ; and
they became alarmed. Therefore, after much conten-
tion, an agreement was signed in London, in 1841,
between Turkey, Eussia, Austria, England, and France,
that the Dardanelles should be closed to all ships of
war, so long as Turkey should remain at peace ; and
ihat Turkey should be allowed to solicit the naval aid
of any of the five, in case of attack from any of the
others. This agreement, as will be afterwards per-
ceived, had an important influence on England and
France in 1853.
We have thus briefly glanced at the policy which
246 b
18
ORIGIN OR THE WAS.
Russia has pursued for a series of years; and we hesi-
tate not to say, that every one who has any regard
for equity and justice, must condemn that policy.
Aggression appears to have been the ruling passion of
every governor of that colossal empire. In the year
1772, the population of Russia was 14,000,000; in
1850, is was 65,000,000! Sir John M’Neill, in his
“ Progress and Present Position of Russia in the East,”
thus sums up the increase in her territory: — “ The
acquisitions she has made from Sweden are greater
than what remain of that kingdom; her acquisitions
from Poland are as lfcrge as the whole Austrian Em-
pire; the territory she has wrested from Turkey in
Europe is equal to the dominions of Prussia, exclusive
of her Rhenish provinces; her acquisitions from Tur-
key in Asia are equal in extent to all the smaller states
of Germany, the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, Bel-
gium, and Holland, taken together ; the country she
has conquered from Persia is about the size of Eng-
land ; and her acquisitions in Tartary have an equal
area to Turkey in Europe, Greece, Italy, and
Spain.”
Nicholas I. now determined to have the last clutch
of what remained of Turkey in Europe; and an excuse
for this was not long wanting.
THE HOLT PLACES A BONE OF CONTENTION.
The Holy Places are those in and around J erusalem,
where the principal events of the life and death of our
Saviour are said to have taken place. These are the
Holy Sepulchre where the body of our Saviour is sup-
posed to have been laid, the stone of unction, the
grotto of the cross, the chapel of the Virgin, the
cemetery of Mount Zion, the tomb of the Holy Vir-
gin, the grotto of Gethsemane, the grotto of the man-
ger at Bethlehem, Mount Calvary, and several others,
In almost all ages since the separation of the Greek
Church from that of Rome, which took place in 1054,
OBIGIl? OF THE WAE. 19
the squabbles, scrambles, and contentions for the pos-
session of those places by different classes of Christians,
Greeks, Latins, Armenians, Abyssinians, Syrians,
Maronites, Cophtites, &c. have been frequent, and
scandalous ; ending in some instances in the shedding
of blood. The great object of contest, however, is the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre ; and the rival claimants
are the Christians of the Greek and Latin Churches.
During the contentions of the Christians, Jerusalem
was conquered by the Turks in 1076, and this was a
signal for all Europe to despatch its troops to free the
Holy Sepulchre from the Infidels. Hence arose the
celebrated Crusades, which sent such myriads of peo-
ple of the Western nations to the Holy Land, many
of them to perish miserably by the way. In 1049 tiie
European kings took J erusalem, and retained it for
85 years, founding a Latin kingdom there, which had
nine successive kings. Then it was taken by the fam-
ous Saladin, king of Evpt and Syria, in 1137, and again
was retaken by the Turks in 1217, who have retained
it ever since. But though in the possession of the
Mahomedans, it has never ceased to be visited by
swarms of Christian devotees, supposed to amount con-
stantly in Jerusalem to twice the number of its inhabi-
tants.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is the
grand resort of pilgrims, is a large structure, at the
end of which is a superb rotunda and cupola, without
any other light than what comes from the top ; and
directly under this opening is the Holy Sepulchre,
placed in a small chapel, having three openings in the
roof to let out the smoke of the hundreds of lamps
which are kept lighted. This church of the Holy
Sepulchre was originally built by the Empress Helena,
the mother of Constantine, in the fourth century, but
it was burnt down in 1808 . It is pretended by the
monks to include the places not only where Christ
was crucified, but where he was buried, that is, not
only Mount Calvary, but the garden of Joseph of Ari-
26
osmiir ov TPS was*
mathea. It would take long to relate all the troubles
which the quarrels and conflicts of the Christians
have given the Sultan, and the number of firmans and
hatti-sherifs which he has been, from time to time,
compelled to issue to attempt to make peace amongst
them, and to direct which party should have the
keys of those holy places. The scandalous conten-
tions of the Greeks and Latins were such as to des-
troy all respect for Christianity in the East, and with-
in the last century France has put herself forward as
the champion of the Latin or Catholic Christians, and
Russia as that of the Greek Christians.
As the Russian power in the East has advanced,
these contentions have grown still more violent, and
the preponderance has been given to the Greek
Church in power and prestige. From 1850 4o 1852
the disputes between Russia and France raged inces-
santly, and the Sultan was placed in the most tantalis-
ing difficulty between those powers. In vain he at-
tempted to arrange the disputes between them ; if he con-
ferred the privileges which the Latins enjoyed in 1740,
their most palmy season, the Russians were violently
indignant on account of the Greeks ; if he endeavour-
ed to modify that ascendancy, the French were as irate
on behalf of the Latins. The English ambassador re-
mained neutral, offering his services to mediate be-
tween the contending parties. In vain, there were
motives behind which admitted no pacification. Rus-
sia was resolved to pick a quarrel, and the Holy Places
were the pretence. In the beginning of the year 1853,
the great struggle came to a crisis. Prince Menschi-
koff appeared on the scene, delegated by the Czar as
his plenipotentiary, with extraordinary power to set-
tie or unsettle the matter altogether.
This man, who appeared to have been selected es-
pecially for his overbearing haughtiness and insolence,
was descended from Peter the Great’s favourite, a
pastry-cook in the streets of Moscow, whom Peter,
amongst his many whims, made a prince and com-
ORIGI W OP THE WAR.
21
panion of. Menschikoff, with all the arrogance of an
upstart, very quickly brought matters to a rupture.
He made the most imperious demands, used the most
peremptory language to the Sultan and the Grand
Vizier, insulted the minister for foreign affairs, Fuad
Effendi, in the grossest manner, so as to cause his
resignation. Notwithstanding all this, so temperate
and conceding was the Sultan, that the disputes res-
pecting the Holy Places were actually brought to a
close ; Turkey appeared to have given entire satisfac-
tion, and on the 5th of May appeared the firman which
completely settled the question.
But this settlement was precisely what Bussia did
not want. She was disappointed, instead of pleased ;
/and, therefore, to the astonishment of all parties, on
the very same day that the firman terminating the
dispute about the Holy Places appeared, the haughty
Menschikoff suddenly shifted his ground, took up ano-
ther cause of quarrel, and sent an official note to Bi-
faat Pacha, the foreign minister, demanding that the
protectorate over the Sultan’s Greek subjects,
11,000,000 in number, should be vested at once and
completely in the Emperor of Bussia ; or, in other
words, that the Czar should be made as much sov-
ereign in Turkey as the Sultan himself !
It was now evident that Bussia was determined to
have a quarrel with Turkey, and was about to unmask
herself. Menschikoff’ s conduct since his arrival had
been extremely arrogant and overbearing; and he
had endeavoured to entrap the Turkish government
into a secret treaty with Bussia, and requested the
ministers to promise not to reveal to the English or
French ambassadors what was the nature of it. The
ministers very properly refused to comply with this
request. It very shortly became known that the object
was the protectorate before spoken of, with a promise
to despatch to Turkey 400,000 troops in case of a breach
with the Allies. Menschikoff, who was himself ex-
tremely pressing, received on the 13th of April a letter
ORIGIN OS THE WAR.
f
from the Czar to quicken his movements, and order-
ing him to demand a peremptory assent to all the czar’s
requirements.
During the whole of these proceedings Russia was
pouring down troops towards the Turkish frontiers,
and increasing its navy in the Black Sea. And all
this time, too, it was declaring, in answer to the in-
quiries of the British government, both at St. Peters-
burg and Constantinople, that nothing offensive was
intended, and that Russia was desirous of' maintaining
peace. On the 5th of May the Sultan issued his fir-
man, settling the dispute much in favour of the Greek
Christians ; on the same day Menschikoff sent in his
peremptory note, opening his sudden and fresh quarrhl
about the protectorate of the Greek Christians in Tur-
key ; and on the 21st of the same month, the Sultan,
after consulting with the ambassadors of England and
Prance, declined to comply. Menschikoff hereupon
quitted Constantinople in a haughty manner; the
Imperial arms were pulled down from the Russian em-
bassy, and war was inevitable. It was intimated to
the Porte that Prince Menschikoff would remain a
short time at Odessa, and that if, within a week, a
note, complying with the demands of the czar, was re-
ceived, a rupture with Russia might still be avoided.
The note was not sent — the die was cast — war began.
As we have said, through all these negotiations, and
while the Russian Czar was protesting that he had no
intentions whatever to disturb the peace of Europe, he
was filling all the provinces bordering on Turkey with
troops. All the neighbouring provinces of Russia
were alive with soldiers, who descended the Don, the
Dnieper, and Dniester, concentrating themselves to-
wards the Pruth, the boundary between Russia and
Turkish Moldavia. On the 2nd of J uly, the Russians
committed the actual aggression and deed of war by
crossing the Pruth with a large force, provided with
seventy-two pieces of cannon of heavy calibre.
When it became known at Constantinople that thg
ORIGIN OB THE WAR.
2a.
Russians had crossed the Prutb, the news caused great
excitement. The two ministers, Redchid Pacha and
Mustapha Pacha, who had been all along endeavour-
ing to bring about a peaceful result by negotiation,
became very unpopular, and their dismissal was urged
upon the Sultan, who was prevented from doing so by
the energetic expostulations of Lord Stratford de Red-
cliffe. On the 14th of July the Porte issued a formal
protest against the invasion of the Principalities, view-
ing that step as a virtual declaration of war. The
war-party in the Divan, or Grand Council at Constan-
tinople, at whose head was Mehemet Ali, the seraskier,
were anxious to hurry matters to a crisis, against the
wishes of Redchid Pacha and the peace party.
Matters were in a very critical state at this time in
Constantinople ; great excitement prevailed on every
hand. The Sultan, who, from all accounts, is very
unlike what one might conceive of the characteristics
of a Turk, was forced on, apparently much againsthis
will. He appears a quiet, indolent, well-meaning man,
who would prefer allowing the world to go on smooth-
ly, without much interference on his part. However,
he had previously called upon the Pacha of Egypt for
his contingent of troops, and these troops arrived at
Constantinople in the middle of July, to the number
of 12,000. Turcoman chiefs had also arrived, offering
the aid of their lawless tribes to assist in the defence
of Islam. Daily there were vast assemblages in the
streets of Constantinople, and the public feeling rose
so high, that the Sultan became alarmed, and solicited
the English and French ambassadors to send for two
or three of their ships, which were stationed at a short
distance southward of the Dardanelles. This was
done; and soon the novel spectacle of six war-frigates,
three French, and three English, was presented to
the warlike subjects of an unwarlike Sultan.
Early in September a levy of 80,000 was made, and
troops were gradually concentrated in and around
Constantinople.
24
OKIGIN OP THE WAS.
On the 4th of October, the Sultan issued a manifes-
to ; and on the following day the declaration of war
against Eussia was published in Constantinople. In
this document, all the principal points of the quarrel
are enumerated — the desire of Turkey to remain at
pbace ; the demands of Eussia concerning the Holy
Places ; the arrogant tone in which these demands
were made ; the founding of fresh claims regarding the
Greek Church, after the question of the Holy Places
had been apparently settled ; the seizure of the princi-
palities as a “ material guarantee the “Vienna Note,”
and its conditions ; the evident desire of Russia that
the terms of that note should be left vague, in order
that she might interpret them as she pleased ; and the
necessity thence arising that Turkey should repel ag-
gression by force of arms.
We have before stated that the Eussians crossed the
Pruth on the 2nd of July, with a large force, number-
ing 74,000 men, and 72 pieces of cannon. This army
was under the direction of Prince GortchakofF, as com-
mander-in-chief, who, so soon as he had established
himself and his troops in their various positions, issu-
ed a specious and deceptive proclamation to the inha-
bitants. This document was charactersitic of the
usual policy pursued by Muscovite officials in their
predatory expeditions. Its predominant tone and spi-
rit was couched in ambiguous language; promising
great things to the inhabitants if they would permit
themselves to be protected by their kind and affection-
ate friend the Czar. It was apparent that secret agen-
cy had been at work some time before the Russians en-
tered the Principalities, for Prince Ghika was very
lukewarm in his attachment to the Sultan ; and when
GortchakofF made a journey of 160 miles from Jassy
to Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, he was receiv-
ed by a deputation of bishops and nobles with obse-
quiousness and adulation. Whatever might have been
the opinion of the masses, the higher orders appear to
have been wrought upon by some influence which af-
fected them very much in favour of their invaders.
OBIG-IN OF THE WAK.
A rough estimate of the strength of the Ottoman
army has been made on paper, which has been divided
into the following different corps : — The Nizam,
150,000 ; the Eedif, 150,000 ; Auxiliaries, 120,000 j
Irregulars, 90,000 ; Constabulary, 30,000 ; Total,
640.000. But this, like many other armies on paper,
was far above its actual numbers : the sultan would
find it as difficult in raising and supporting an army
of 300,000, as the Emperor of Russia would in raising
and maintaining a force of 1,000,000 — and probably
more. The number of troops under the Ottoman
sway at this time did not most likely reach more than
260.000. The Nizam is the regular army, and the men
are engaged for five years, after which time they may
return home, but they are liable to be re-called during
the next seven years, to do active duty as the Redif.
The Redif is a reserve corps. The Auxiliaries are
those troops which the various pachas choose to raise
and maintain in their several pachaliks. The Irregu-
lars are a motley assemblage of Bashi- Bazouks, and
other wild adventurers, and are not much to be depend-
ed upon. The Constabulary are a kind of police, and
serve to do duty when the regular troops are called
away to some other sphere of action.
The general selected by the czar to conduct the
Danubian campaign has been already stated. His
antagonist who was at the head of the Turkish forces,
was Omar Pacha — a man far more remarkable than
Gortchakoff— remarkable for his relinquishing his na-
tionality, and becoming a follower of Islam; his un-
daunted bravery and well-known skill as a military
commander ; and the almost uniform success which at-
tended his movements in the field. The career of this
individual has indeed been a strange one. He was an
Austrian subject, born at the village of Haski, in
Croatia, in 1802 ; and his name was Lattas — his fa-
ther being at the time administrator-general of the
circle of Oguline. The young Michael Lattas studied
in the school of mathematics at Thurm, in Transylva*?
26
ORIGIN OF THE WAR.
nia ; and then entered the military corps of Ponts et
Chaussees, belonging to Austria. He had a tolerably
competent knowledge of mathematics ; but, after serv-
ing in two offices as a clerk under government, he dis-
agreed with his rulers, changed his religion, quitted his
country, and became a Mahomedan. He now be-
came a clerk to a merchant at Widdin; and, after
changing his name from Lattas to the more Oriental
one of Omar, he engaged himself as tutor in a wealthy
family — his knowledge of the Servian, Italian, and
German languages being a sure recommendation for
this office. When the family in which he resided re-
moved to Constantinople, Omar by degrees became
perfect master of the Turkish language : and succeed-
ed in becoming acquainted with military men. After
some time he obtained a situation in one of the military
schools founded by the late Sultan Mahmoud; and
while in this office, he obtained the friendship and pa-
tronage of Khrosrou Pacha, the sultan’s great auxili-
ary in the reforms that were then taking place. The
aged pacha obtained for him a post in the army, made
him his aide-de-camp, and secured for him the office
of writing-master to the future sultan, Abdul Med-
jid, then a boy. Omar shortly afterwards marri-
ed Kbi osrou’s ward, a daughter of one of the last of
the Janissaries. He engaged energetically in the
army reforms projected by the sultan, first as chief of
battalion, and afterwards as aide-de-camp and inter-
preter to General Chzanowski, who taught the Tur-
kish troops European tactics at Constantinople.
Omar was next employed to superintend a topographi-
cal survey in Bulgaria and Wallachia — a situation
which proved of valuable service to him, in qualifying
him for the important duties which devolved upon him
in later years. He was lieutenant-colonel when Abdul-
Medjid came to the throne in 1839 ; but he was speed-
ily promoted first as colonel, and then as major-gener-
al. At this time he had seen no service in the field ;
but betwixt the years 1840 and 1847, he was engaged
ORIGIN OF THE WAR,
27
in quelling insurrections in Syria, Albania, and
Bosnia — outbreaks from which Turkey is seldom
free, only for short intervals. As a reward for the
services he rendered to the Ottoman power in those ar-
duous duties, he was made lieutenant-general, and
pacha. In the year 1848, he was despatched into the
Principalities, on a mission — partly military and part-
ly diplomatic — a mission which required great skill and
judgment ; and so well did he succeed, that his impe-
rial master conferred on him the dignity of mushir.
He also, in 1851, when the Moslem inhabitants of
Bosnia refused to yield to the reforming tendencies
of the sultan, displayed great military abilities, and suc-
ceeded in inducing the refractory both in Bosnia and
Montenegro to bow to the will of the sultan. When
the crisis arrived that Turkey must either draw the
sword or bow the neck to the yoke of Russia. Omar
Pacha was appointed generalissimo of the Turkish
army, and most worthy did he eventually prove him-
self of the choice.
In his private and domestic life Omar Pacha is des-
cribed as a most exemplary husband, and tender and
affectionate father.
At the close of October, 1853, then, a Russian army,
under the command of Prince Gortehakoff, and a
Turkish army, under the direction of Omar Pacha,
met face to face on the opposite banks of the Danube.
CHAPTER II.
Danubian Principalities — Hostilities com-
menced by the Turks and Russians on the
Danube — Turkish Forces — Battles of Olte-
NITZA, ClTALE, XALAFAT, GlURGEVO— SlEGE OF
SlLISTRIA.
The early Greek writers have given to the Danube
the name of Istros. It was called by the Romans
Ister; but they learned the name Danubius from the
natives on the upper course of the stream. Strabo
says that the upper parts of the river, as far as the
cataract, are called Danubius ; the lower parts as far
as the Black Sea, are called Istrus. It is now called
by the Hungarians, Duna, and by the Germans, Do-
nau. Its course is said to be 1,770 miles, and the sur-
face drained by it and its tributaries to exceed 300,000
square miles. A strange destiny is that of the Dan-
ube ! When the traveller approaches the Black For-
est, and enters upon Suabia, the guides inquire whe-
ther he would like to see the source of one of the grand-
est rivers of Europe. They conduct him to the small
garden of the palace at Donaneschingen ; they show
him a miserable stone trough — and say, “ Behold the
source of the Danube !”
Geographers commonly divide the course of the Dan-
ube into three parts. The upper course is through
the hilly country, the Bavarian plain, and the moun-
tains which divide that plain from the plains of Hun-
gary. A few miles east of Vienna the first course ter-
minates. The middle course reaches from Vienna to
the Demirkaji, and the lower traverses the Wallachian
plains. The Wallachian bank seldom rises more
28
OAFtJJSlA'Sr PRINCIPALITIES.
29
than fifty or sixty feet above the level of the sea ;
whilst at Silistria, Rustchuk, Sistova, and Nicopoli,
there are heights of from one to three hundred feet.
A little farther inland — for example, at Razgrad —
there are elevations of nine hundred feet ; and further
on, before arriving at Skumla, there is a table-land that
reaches the elevation of one thousand four hundred
and fifty feet.
The Banubian provinces, which derive their name
from this great river, are Moldavia, Wallachia, and
Bulgaria.
Moldavia is a province of northern Turkey, bounded
on the east by the Russian province of Bessarabia, and
separated from it by the river Pruth. It contains an
area of about 17,000 square miles ; its greatest length —
that is, from south to north — is 200 miles ; its breadth,
about 120. The climate, in summer, is remarkably
hot ; in winter, intensely cold, so that the rivers are
frozen and the ground covered with snow for a con-
siderable time. The mineral wealth of the district is
said to be great ; but, in consequence of the unsettled
state in which the country has been for several cen-
turies, little advantage has been taken of it. The
soil is exceedingly fertile. Vast herds of horses, cattle,
and sheep are fed in the luxuriant meadows. The
numerous forests which abound in the locality produce
nearly every description of timber. J a3sy is the capi-
tal of Moldavia, and occupies a position on the banka
of the Bachlei, a small stream which flows into the
Pruth.
Wallachia is bounded on the north by the Carpa-
thian mountains, and joins the principality of Mol-
davia. According to Balbi, the area extends over
28,649 square miles, and the population numbers
970,000. The climate resembles that of Moldavia,
but the temperature is somewhat milder. The waters
are well supplied with fish. The Wallachian harvests
are abundant. The vines grow well. Timber is plen-
tiful* Only one-third of the country is cultivated}
SO DANUBIAN PltftfCIfcALITim
but the trade and commerce, which formerly lay al-
most in the hands of Jews, has lately considerably
improved. Bucharest i3 the capital city. It is plea*
santly situated in the eastern part of the country, on
a rich and spacious plain. The name signifies “ City
of enjoyment.” It is the great commercial mart of
the principality, but possesses no architectural beau-
ty to recommend it.
Bulgaria is an extensive district stretching to the
southern banks of the Danube, from the borders of
Servia to the Black Sea. It is separated from the
plains of Eoumelia, by the Balkan chain of moun-
tains. The Balkan is divided into two sections, the
greater and the less. The first rears its gigantic peak
six thousand feet in height ; the latter are not half
that altitude.
The lesser Balkan is so remarkable in its form that
it has been compared to half a roof. It is distinguish-
ed by a single rise, steep and abrupt, from the plains
of Boumelia to the top of the ridge, from which there
is a beautiful gradual descent to the great levels of
Wallachia. This descent is not by one slope, but by a
long series of vales of increasing depth, until the last
reaches the noble Danube. Several of these valleys
are watered by small streams. One, from its impetu-
osity, its sudden rises and falls, is called the Mad
Kiver ; and another, from its regularity, the Intelli-
gent Biver.
There are several passes across the Balkan. The
principal are, Trajan’s Gate, to the westward, on the
route from Widdin and Sophia to Philippopoli and Ad-
rianople, which last town is distant from Constantino-
ple about forty-five leagues; the Chipka pass, on the
road from Sistova and Tirnova to Adrianople; and
the great pass of Shumla, on the road leading from
Bustchuk, or Silistria, by Shumla, to Adrianople. The
rocky defiles of the Balkan, and the shores of the
Black Sea, present a succession of defensive positions
favourable to the manner of fighting common to the
Moslems. Sophia is the chief town of Bulgaria,
fcANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES.
31
Jassy, or as it is sometimes called Yassy, occupies
a large space of ground, and is a place of much
importance. Most of the dwellings in the city are
divided from each other by courts, and gardens, and
plantations of trees. There is something very impos-
ing in the aspect of the place. The strange architec-
ture of the cathedral and the palace of the Hospo-
dars, the mass of houses so peculiar in their form, the
broad open country, and the city backed by the lof-
ty Carpathians, all unite to present a scene never to
be forgotten.
Jassy has frequently been taken by the Russians, but
has always been restored on the cessation of hostili-
ties, In 1723 it was entirely destroyed by fire; deso-
lated by the pestilence in 1772 ; burned by the Janis-
saries in 1822 ; consumed again in 1827. These two
last conflagrations reduced the town almost to a ruin.
Before this the population was reckoned 40,000 ; it
had forty-three churches and twenty-six convents.
The countries of Moldavia and Wallachia are close-
ly connected. They are simply separated by political
boundary, and were originally the same country.
Time out of memory they have been the battle-fields
for contending forces, subjected to great devastations
by the several hordes which have invaded the Byzan-
tine empire. About the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury, a colony, under Bogdan, began to re-occupy the
country. The locality was then called by the Turks
Bogdania ; the name of Moldavia is derived from a
river which bears a similar appellation. From this
period the rulers of Moldavia, called voyvodes — a Sla-
vonic term signifying military leaders — were often
subject to the kings of Hungary, but also frequently
asserted their independence, until 1536, when they
submitted to the protection of the Turks. This was
under the voyvode Roydan, who acted under the ad-
vice of his father Stephen, in order to insure those pri-
vileges by submission which must have been entirely
lost had the country fallen under the Ottoman arms.
BANTTBTAtf BBINClBAT/tTIES.
32
To Wallacliia the sultan had already granted certain
rights and privileges, which were now extended to
Moldavia. For this an annual tribute was demanded,
and willingly given. The military rulers were now
to be elected by the clergy and nobility, and the elec-
tion to be ratified by the sultan. But the sultan
was not to interfere in the government of the princi-
pality. Turks were not to settle within its borders.
The voyvodes were at liberty to make peace or declare
war without reference to the sultan, and exercised the
power of life and death over their subjects. No Mol-
davian or Wallachian could be summoned to Constan-
tinople by the Turkish government, or to any part of
the Turkish dominions. The various modifications
w T hich these privileges have undergone are too well
known to need recapitulation here. And into the cir-
cumstances connected with the abolition of the elec-
toral right we shall not enter.
The Wallachians call themselves Bumani, or Ro-
mans. The name by which they are more commonly
known is said to be derived from wloch , a Servian
word signifying shepherd ; or, as some have supposed,
from Wolschi, a Turkish nation living north of the
Danube, and in Russia. Others, again, derive the
name from the Slavonic Wlosh, which, among the
Poles, the Servians, and other Slavonic nations, still
signifies an Italian, or a Roman, and seems to be the
same as the German Walsh.
The struggle betwixt the Turkish and Russian troops
on the Danube in 1853-4 will always redound to the
honour and glory of the former; for their untiring ef-
forts amidst dangers and difficulties won them the
praise and admiration of all persons acquainted with
military tactics. They indubitably proved to Gort-
chakoff and his troops that they had no contemptible
foe to contend with.
On opening the campaign, the leaders of the oppos-
ing forces issued proclamations, in the names of their
sovereigns, to the inhabitants of the Principalities,
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE. 83
stating the reasons why each was taking the step that
brought them into the country. Of course these do^
cuments contradicted each other — the one stating that
to be black, which the other declared to be white — but
then such anomalies are to be expected in declarations
and counter- declarations of war.
The number of the Ottoman forces at the time Omar
Pacha took the field was calculated as follows, — about
120.000 in Bulgaria, betwixt the Balkan and the Da-
nube ; 15,000 in Bosnia and the north-western pro-
vinces of the empire ; 6,000 on the Servian frontier;
50.000 in Roumelia, around Adrianople; and from
80.000 to 100,000 in Asia — making in the whole about
250,000. There was a bustling active military spirit
at work, at the time, and measures were adopted to
embody 60,000 of the redif to be stationed around
Constantinople, and other chosen places. The enthu-
siasm was very high in Constantinople, and the horses
requisite for the redif cavalry were supplied in one
day. The men also came forward in a prompt and cheer-
ful manner, willing to fight for Islam and the sultan.
Patriotic gifts were poured in from all quarters, con-
sisting of jewels, money, horses, houses, and lands.
Similar offerings, it is said, were made by the Rus-
sians in aid of the opposite cause.
The dress of the Turkish soldier, since it was remo-
delled on the French system, has become more easy
and simple. It consists of blue trowsers ; a single-
breasted jacket of coarse cloth ; a red front to the col-
lar, and red edges to the cuffs ; and white cross-belts.
The Bashi-Bazouks are a wild lawless tribe, and any
attempt to remodel their costume proved abortive ;
they appear in whatever kind of dress suits their
fancy.
We must attribute in a great measure, the success
of the Ottoman forces, which we are now about to
narrate, to the skill and strategy of Omar Pacha. He
was thoroughly acquainted with the country in which
be was about to commence operations j therefore b*
246 c
34 CAMPAIGN ON THE BANTTB8.
arranged his plans in accordance with the knowledge
he possessed; and well did the result justify him in the
anticipations which he entertained of the success of
those plans. We now proceed to notice the more ex-
citing and active operations of the belligerents.
In the periods between 1853 and July, 1854, the
events of this campaign became separated- into two
characteristics. In the one the Turks crossed the
Danube from Bulgaria into Wallachia, and attacked
the Russians ; in the other, the Russians crossed from
Wallachia and Moldavia into Bulgaria, and attacked
the Turks. In the one, the actions have become fa-
miliar by the names of Kalafat, Citale, Oltenitza, and
Giurgevo ; in the other the operations are connected
with Silistria, and with the Dobrudscha, towns of Ras-
sova, Kustendji, Hirsova, Matchin, Isakcha, and
Tuttcha.
The Turks crossed the Danube at four widely sepa-
rated points, in each case entering Wallachia from
Bulgaria. One of these transits was from Widdin to
Kalafat ; another from Rustchuk to Giurgevo : a third
from Turtukai to Oltenitza ; and a fourth from Silis-
tria to Kalarasch ; and the period during which these
movements were made, was from 28th October to 4th
November. Three out of four of these proceedings
led to important results; the fourth, the crossing from
Silistria to Kalarasch, was of non- effect ; for the Rus-
sians drove back the Turks, and afterwards laid siege
to Silistria. The most western of these movements
was from Widdin to Kalafat. Widdin is a town of
about 30,000 inhabitants, and has for centuries past
been a strong post in all the contests between the Turks
and their northern neighbours. Viewed from a dis-
tance, the mosques and minarets tower rather oddly
above the fortified walls.
Kalafat, the Wallachian town opposite Widdin, is n
smaller place ; but, nevertheless, it has 2000 houses, a
town-hall, a custom-house, three churches, a barrack
for cavalry, a quarantine station, and fortified walls.
CAMPAIGN Off THE DAKTTBE.
35
There are two high hills outside the town, about a
mile asunder, which have furnished the means of sup-
plying Kalafat with strong fortifications. In the cam-
paign of 1828, these hills were occupied by the Rus-
sians ; but in that of 1853—4, the Turks had this ad-
vantage.
It was from Widdin to Kalafat that a Turkish force
about 12,000 strong, crossed the Danube on the 28th
of October, occupying both Kalafat itself and a small
island near the Wallachian shore. The Russian force
situated in this part, being too weak to resist the Turks
retired to a position at Slatina, a town on the Aluta.
The Turks did not attempt much in the way of pur-
suit, but proceeded at once to fortify Kalafat and its
vicinity. They raised redoubts of great strength and
extent; some of them on the two lofty hills, and com-
pletely commanding all approach to the Danube in
that direction. The little island, too, was defended by
strong earthen intrenchments, mounted with large
guns. Taken in connection with Widdin and its de-
fences, the two towns and the interlying island formed
one stronghold, well fortified, supplied with 250 heavy
guns, and occupied by a large army.
The Russians were not prepared for such a vigorous
attack in this one spot. In the first place, they did
not expect that Omar Pacha would have so promptly
kept his word, to attack Gortchakoff unless he with-
drew from the Principalities within fifteen days ; and
in the next place, they had 400 miles of the Danube
to look to, and could not spare a large force at each
important place.
While these events were occurring at Kalafat, stir-
ring scenes were presented at 01tenitza,two hundred and
fifty miles lower down the river. The Turkish forces
that crossed the Danube from Turtukai to Oltenitza
have been numbered by the Turks at about 12,000. A
corps had been for some days concentrated near Tur-
tukai, concealed from the enemy partly by bushes and
partly by a fog. An island stands in the middle of
36 CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
the Danube, exactly between Turtukai and Oltenitza,
and this island played an important part in the tac-
tics of the battle. On the 2nd of N ovember, the Turks
began to make the passage, favoured by the interpo-
sition of the island; and by the morning of the 3rd
6000 men were on the island, 6000 had crossed over to
the northern or Wallachian shore of the Danube, and
2000 were in barges ready to cross. During the night,
the rest crossed ; and the morning of the 4th found
the Turks ready to meet the Russians, who were plac-
ed in pickets along the shore. The picket of Oltenit-
za, with a reserve behind the town, amounted to about
6000 men ; but other reinforcements came up in the
course of the day. The engagement commenced at
dawn of day, and lasted many hours. The Russians,
inferior to their opponents in number, fought well ;
and the contest was severe on both sides. About noon,
the Turks suffered a temporary check ; but when
night closed in, they remained masters of the shore,
while the Russians retired behind Oltenitza.
Omar Pacha, in transmitting a detailed account of
the battle at Oltenitza to the Turkish government
states the various plans he adopted before the battle.
He then alludes to the success attending those plans;
and makes honourable mention of those who particu-
larly distinguished themselves for bravery among his
troops. And concludes by announcing the utter dis-
comfiture of the enemy’s efforts ; — the flight of the
Russians, and the severe loss they sustained. Above
1,000 Russians were left dead on the field, and up-
wards of 2,000 wounded. The loss of the Turks amount-
ed to 106.
The Russians state that their numbers before the
battle were 9,000 to 18,000 Turkish troops. But this
statement is widely different from the Turkish ac-
count ; and it is difficult to decide the matter correct-
ly. The Russians were commanded by Dannenberg
and Perloff. The Turks were prevented from pursu-
ing the Russians, by heavy rains, from Oltenitza to
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE. 37
Bucharest ; and they recrossed the Danube about the
middle of November.
Nothing of any particular importance occurred be-
twixt the contending parties during the last few weeks
of the year 1853.
We must now direct the attention of the reader to
the splendid affair which ushered in the year 1854
near to Kalafat, an accomplishment which buoyed up
the spirits of the Turks, whilst it depressed and cast
down those of the Russians. It was called the battle
of Citale ; but it was in reality a number of struggles,
lasting several days. The Russians, in the months
of November and December, gradually strengthened
themselves in Lesser W allachia. General Aurep receiv-
ed orders to advance upon Kalaf at from Kraj ova; and
he endeavoured to render the roads passable for artil-
lery between Slatina, Karacal, Era] ova, and Kalafat.
At the close of December, the Turks had succeeded in
compelling the Russian General Fischbach to quit
Krajova, and to retire behind Aluta. About the first
day of the New Year, three Russian columns advanc-
ed through Karacal, one along Aluta, and a corps of
more than 20,000 men towards Kalafat.
Prince Gortchakoff was no doubt very much
chagrined at the Turks being at Kalafat; he sent
large reinforcements from Upper Wallachia to Krajova
— a town about sixty miles north-east of Kalafat with
orders to drive the Turks back across the Danube by
a resolute attack on their position at Kalafat. The
account of this brilliant affair is pourtrayed in the
following vivid manner : —
“ The Russians succeeded in getting round on the
flank of the Turkish intrenchments, and flung up re-
doubts at Citale, a village rather higher up the Dan-
ube than Kalafat. The intelligence of the intended
attack had reached the Turks ; and Achmet Pacha, the
general in command, determined to anticipate it. On
the 5th January, he sent a strong corps from Kalafat
to Maglovet, a little village on the way to Citale, where
38
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE,
they bivouacked during that night. Next morning
they were under arms. As yet, however, not a glimpse
had been seen of the Russians. Not a sound was to
be heard in the village ; not a sentinel was even visi-
ble; and it was conjectured that the village might
have been evacuated. Six companies of chasseurs,
under the command of Tefnik Bey, Omar Pacha’s ne-
phew, were sent up the hill to begin the attack, and
advanced, firing as skirmishers, but without bringing
any response. They were just in the act of entering,
when a single cannon-shot, followed closely by a whole
broadside, revealed the presence of the enemy, who
now made their appearance, and seemed disposed to
contest the ground on the outside. Some sharp firing
ensued, but the chasseurs were pushed on, and close
behind followed the four battalions of infantry under
Ismail Pacha, with a battery of field-artillery, which
opened a heavy fire with great effect. The Russian
gunnery was bad ; few of the balls hit, and the shells
nearly all burst in the air, and fell harmless. Ere the
Turks had fired a dozen shots, the enemy retired into
the village, sheltering themselves in and around the
houses, and opened a deadly fire of musketry upon the
advancing column. ‘Ismail Pacha’s appearance at
this moment struck all who saw him with admiration,
as it spoke volumes for his daring hardihood as a sol-
dier, though it said but little for his prudence as a ge-
neral. He rode into the village at the head of his
troops, sword in hand, mounted on a white horse, his
orders glittering on his breast, and wearing a white
pelisse — the mark for a thousand bullets at every step.
But he seemed to bear a charmed life; for though two
horses were killed under him, it was long before he
was wounded, and then only slightly in the arm.’
“ The battle soon began to rage fearfully. As the
troops rushed on, the numbers falling increased on
both sides. A rush was made on the houses with fix-
ed bayonets, and the conflict was then indeed terrific.
The Russians contested every wall and room with en*
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
30
during courage, and were literally massacred en masse.
No quarter was asked or given. The Turks, enraged
by the resistance, put to death all who fell in their
way ; nor were the Russians slow to follow the exam-
pie. The officers were seen, in several instances, pul-
ling down their caps tightly on their foreheads, and
rushing furiously on death, scorning to yield. In lit-
tle more than an hour, the high road and the space
round the houses were covered with dead carcases, and
the blood ran in streams down the hill. The combat
raged in this way for nearly four hours, with heavy
loss on both sides. Towards twelve o’clock, every house
had been carried at the point of the bayonet, and the
enemy fell back upon the road, but found that they
were intercepted by the Turkish cavalry, two regiments
of which had advanced along the ravine on the right,
and placed themselves in the rear of the village. Be-
ing thus cut off, the Russians had no resource but to
throw themselves into the redoubt, carrying their ar-
tillery with them. This they were enabled to accom-
plish in safety.
“ Critical was the hour of noon for both armies.
Another half hour would most likely, have seen the
destruction of the remaining Eussians, if the attention
of the combatants had not been drawn by events of
weightier importance in another part of the field.
News of the dangerous position of the Eussians had
been transmitted to various villages wffierein troops
were stationed, and a formidable reinforcement appear-
ed about half-past twelve. The Turkish reserve pre-
pared to receive those fresh troops, who numbered
10,000 men — consisting of nine battalions of infantry,
a regiment of Uhlan's, and a regiment of the Paske-
vitch Hussars, with sixteen guns. Four battalions
advanced in line, three in column as a second line, and
two as a reserve ; the cavalry and artillery were placed
on the flanks, and their march was directed towards
the Kalafat road. The object was to place the Turks
between two fires, and cut off tbeir means of communi-
40
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE,
cation. With five Turkish battalions as reserve, Ach-
met Pacha prepared to receive these new foes. On
the side of the hill below the ravine on the right was
a sort of old fence, inclosing a square space of ground ;
and the Turkish troops were deployed to the right,
above this inclosure, three battalions in line, and two
in reserve, the right wing behind it, and the left ex-
tending into the plain; on the right flank was placed
a battery of four 12-pounders, and on the left, one of
six field-pieces. The cavalry at the village was recall-
ed, and in conjunction with those of the reserve,
was stationed on the left, one regiment a little advance
of the rest. The time occupied in making these ar-
rangements was one of painful suspense ; and when
all was ready, the inferiority of the Turkish force was
very evident ; but they had no other resource than to
defend their position as bravely as they could.
“ Now arrived the moment of conflict. ‘The ad-
vance of the Russians was an imposing sight. No-
thing could exceed the steadiness of their march; eve-
ry line and column stepped in time as one man, and
all the distances were as accurately observed as if they
were parading at St. Petersburg. As they began to
get nearer, three or four officers rode out in front to
reconnoitre the ground, and then hastily retired. Im-
mediately afterwards, the two battalions of reserve
changed their position, and advanced with two pieces
of artillery towards the ravine on the right of the
Turks/ The Russian artillery appears to have been
badly served, whereas the Turkish, under Hadji Mus-
tapha, was worked with skill and effect. Onward,
nevertheless, came the dense mass of Russian infan-
try ; and a slight confusion having occurred among
the Turks, occasioned by the bursting of a gun, the
Russians prepared to charge with the bayonet. The
Turkish batteries now opened a tremendous shower of
grape-shot, every shot telling with fearful effect upon
the close ranks of the column, sweeping them away
one after the other, a a fast as they were filled up. The
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
it
infantry, at the same time, becoming impatient, the
order was given to advance, and the whole line came
forward — the right wing entering the enclosure — and
fired and loaded as they marched, shouting their na-
tional war-cry. The Russians for some minutes bore
up bravely ; but at laist the head of the column began
to waver. In vain the officers urged the men to move
onwards. Broken by the iron shower from the bat-
teries, and the close and raking fire of the musketry,
they fell into disorder, and turned and fled -pell-mell
across the plain, casting aside everything — muskets,
and even musical-instruments. The Turkish cavalry
neglected, or were unable, to pursue ; and the Rus-
sians were thereby enabled to carry off their artillery.
Although the Russians had thus been defeated both in
the village and the plain— for, in effect, there were two
distinct battles — yet the Turkish general did not think
it desirable to renew the attack on the Russian reboubt
at Citale : he retired with all his forces to Kalafat,
which he retained, while the Russians voluntarily
abandoned Citale, and the whole of the villages in the
neighbourhood. The Turkish wounded were brought
into Kalafat for the night, and were from thence con-
veyed across the Danube to Widdin.”
The Turks must evidently have worked their artil-
lery much better than the Russians. The loss was
serious on both sides : that of the Turks amounted to 338
dead, and 700 wounded; whilst the Russians num-
bered 1,500 dead, and an untold number wounded.
Prince Gortchakoff and General Aurep both incurred
the czar’s displeasure for their want of success at Ci-
tale; as did also Dannenberg, for his failure at 01-
tenitza.
The Russians now lay on their arms for a while, and
employed the time in strengthening their posts. Prince
Gortchakoff proceeded on a tour of inspection and ex-
amination to Krajova ; and made such arrangements
as he thought most desirable. Meanwhile reinforce-
ments continued to arrive, until the Russian force in
4-2 CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
Lesser Wallachia amounted to about 40,000. About
the beginning of February these troops were concen-
trated together, awaiting for the time when they might
make a second and more determined attack upon the
Turks at Kalafat ; while their antagonists, strengthen-
ed by more troops from Widdin, waited undauntedly
to receive them.
But we must leave these contending forces for a
time, and attend to transactions taking place in Upper
Wallachia, after the victory of Oltenitza, early in No-
vember. Of the four passages of the Danube taken
by the Turks, when they entered the Principalities in
October and November, two were at Bustehuk and
Turtukai. A small body of Turks crossed from Rust-
chuk to Giurgevo, between which two places is an
island in the Danube; and they took possession of
this island, and continued to hold it for some time in
spite of all the efforts of the Russians to dislodge them.
Rustchuk, which continued for many months to be re-
garded by each of the belligerents as an important
position, is a large town of 50,000 inhabitants, with a
considerable trade.
The transactions which took place during the last
two months of 1853, and the first two of 1854^ in this
part, may be designated as a succession of almost
uninterrupted daring and sudden attacks — a small force
dashing across the river, inflicting some mischief on
the enemy, and then returning. The Russians could
make no permanent lodgment on the south bank, nor
the Turks on the north.
The Russian plans and the Russian commanders
underwent many alterations during these four or five
months. The want of success brought some of the gen-
erals into disgrace; and the presence of the Allied
fleets interfered with any operations in the directioR
of Varna. When Osten-Sacken’s corps entered the
Principalities, two camps of cavalry were established
near Kremanzoff and Charcov, intrenchments were
formed near Bucharest, and the general operations of
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
43
the campaign were conducted from this town as a cen-
tral depot. About the middle of J anuary, there were
18.000 Russians near Giurgevo under General Simon -
off, and 5000 at Kalarasch under General Aurep,
watching the Turks at the opposite towns of Rustchuk
and Silistria. By the end of January it was announc-
ed that the army of occupation would be augmented
to 200,000 men, thus distributed — 30, 000, at Radovan,
to keep the Turks in check at Kalafat ; 40,000 at
Bucharest and other posts in Wallachia and Molda-
via; 40,000 to cross the Danube into the Dobrudscha;
60.000 to cross at Giurgevo, 20,000 to cross at Olten-
itza, and 20,000 to cross at Turnu or Tuma. There
can be ho doubt that many or all of these measures
were planned; but the activity and frequent successes
of the Turks greatly interfered with the prosecution of
the Russian schemes. It is difficult, too, between the
names of Paskevifcch, Gortchakoff, Osten-Sacken,
Liiders, and Schilders, to discover who was the real
leader at any particular time; for changes were fre-
quent.
If reliance is to be placed on the statements made,
the actual forces engaged on the side of the Russians
in these encounters, would appear to have been about
130.000 troops sent across the Pruth at the close of
January ; of these 35,000 were cut down by the sword,
cold, sickness, and desertion— leaving 95,000 in the
Principalities at that time.
It appears to have been the intention of the Russian
generals, when the severities ol winter had ceased, to
begin so determined an attack on Kalafat as to ensure
its capture. It was said the Emperor Nicholas had
commanded it to be taken, “cost what it might;” for
by its capture he hoped to penetrate into the western
part of Bulgaria, and thence cross one of the western
passes of the Balkan. This hope, however, was doom-
ed to be disappointed. There were certainly frequent
skirmishes between the Russians and Turks near to
Kalafat, yet no decided advantage resulted from them.
44 CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
Thus February, March, April, and May, passed away
without anything remarkable occurring; and during
these months the command of the Russian troops was
changed and re-changed several times — first Gortcha-
koff, then Schilders, and then Liprandi. Two circum-
stances embarrassed and perplexed the Russians in
Lesser Wallachia, as summer drew on — the dogged
resistance of the Turks at Silistria, — which will be pre-
sently noticed : and the proposition of Austria to hold
the Principalities for the Turks against the Rus-
sians.
When midsummer brought about the unexpected
failure of the Russians at Silistria, matters became se-
rious to Russia. Bulgaria was no longer a place for th6
czar’s troops ; the eyes of the generals began to turn
occasionally to their line of retreat towards the Pruth
■ — having to take into account both the Turks and the
Austrians. It was at this time that the Turks crossed
the Danube, and fought the battle of Giurgevo. Re-
lieved from all fear for Silistria — the Russians being
driven from that place — they perceived that the time
for an advance was come ; and notwithstanding the
departure of the Turkish general, in some small mea-
sure from the instructions given him by Omar Pacha,
yet a series of operations commenced which led to ul-
timate success.
The battle of Giurgevo, ably contested and sanguin-
ary, may be considered as the closing serious conflict
between the Turks and the Russians in the Danubian
campaign ; and it showed that the Turks were equal
to their adversaries in bravery a nd courage. In the
middle of the Danube, between Rustchuk and Gi-
urgevo is a narrow island, about two miles in length.
This island is 900 yards from the Bulgarian side, but
is separated from the W allachian by a very narrow
channel only. There is a shallow pool along the cen-
tre of the island, and much sedge and marshy weed is
in other parts. This island was one of the first places
fortified by the Russians when they arrived at the Da*
CAMPAIGN ON THE! DANUBE.
45
nube in the autumn of 1853 ; and it was destined to be
the last scene of conflict, for the engagement took place
on the island, as well as the village of Giurgevo. There
were on this occasion many English officers in the
Turkish army.
When the siege of Silistria seemed to be ending dis-
astrously for the Russians, Hussein Pacha, Turkish
commander at Rustchuk, resolved to make a dash at
the island, and, through it, at Giurgevo. He imagin-
ed the Russians were in retreat, and determined to
pursue them without previously consulting Omar
Pacha ; he was wrong in his belief, and his determina-
tion led him into difficulties which taxed his courage
and skill. Among the officers under his command
were General Cannon— under the Oriental name of
Behram Pacha — Lieutenant Burke of the Royal En-
gineers, Lieutenant Meynell of the 75th, Captain Ar-
nold of the Bombay Engineers, and Colonel Ogleby —
all of whom took a sort of voluntary honorary share in
the proceedings. These English officers, in fact, man-
aged the expedition, under the orders of Hussein Pa^
cha. At about four o’clock in the morning on the 7th
of July, four boats filled with 350 men passed over
from Rustchuk to the island : while a steamer landed
200 men rather higher up — the one party commanded
by General Cannon, the other by Colonel Ogleby.
The Russian pickets retired hastily ; but soon after-
wards a body of riflemen appeared, and fired at the
Turks from among the sedge and brushwood. The
Turkish riflemen replied, and kept up a sharp fire.
Russian infantry, however, now began to advance in
great force ; and General Cannon recrossed to Rust-
chuk, to announce to Hussein Pacha that he must ei-
ther have reinforcements or withdraw his troops. The
two small bodies of Turks had by this time joined, un-
der Colonel Ogleby, and were driven back to the very
edge of the island, bravely bearing up against formid-
able numbers. Reinforcements now arrived from
Rustchuk, until Ogleby found himself at length at the
4 Ci
CAMEAHtN ON THE EANtTBE.
head of 6000 men ; while the Russians were, in like
manner, reinforced from the Giurgevo side. For ten
hours continuously did the struggle last, until night-
fall put an end to it. Busily did the Turks occupy
themselves during the night, throwing up intrench-
ments, and preparing for a renewal of warm work on
the morrow ; but when daylight arrived, they were
surprised to find that the Russians had retreated dur-
ing the night, and were at that moment passing out
of the village of Slobodsa, on the Wallachian side.
The Turks immediately advanced, and occupied Giur-
gevo. The loss was severe; 300 killed and 600 wound-
ed on the side of the Turks ; and a much larger, but
unknown number, on the side of the Russians. The
floating of dead bodies down the Danube conveyed to
Silistria the first news of the engagement. Soon after
this, a corps of engineers laid down a bridge from the
island to the Wallachian shore, an l Omar Pacha pass-
ed the Danube with an army of 45,000 men.
The battle of Giurgevo was very disastrous to the
English officers engaged. Lieutenant Burke, Lieu-
tenant Meynell, and Captain Arnold crossed to the is-
land early in the day, with a few hundred men each ;
but, through want of sufficient concert, they landed at
three different points, and were never able to assist
each other. Burke and his party were fiercely attack-
ed by the Russians immediately on landing ; they
were all, after a long struggle, either bayoneted or
driven into the river; and Burke himself, sharing
manfully the dangers with those under him, fell with
two rifle-balls and thirty bayonet wounds. Meynell
experienced almost exactly the same fate as Burke, at
a different part of the island-shore. Arnold had at
first a gleam of success : he advanced against one of
the Russian batteries, and drove them out of the in-
trenchment ; but a superior force came against him,
and the bayonet and the river put an end to his corps
63 to the other two. Not only were these three un-
fortunate small bodies of troops separated from each
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
47 -
other, but each and ail were far distant from the main
body under Colonel Ogleby. The bodies of Arnold and
Mcynell were never found. Burke’s body was found,
and was interred in a simple way — affecting from its
very simplicity. His loss was greatly regretted : for
he was not only a skilful officer, but it was remember-
ed that he had strongly objected to Hussein Pacha’s
attack, as being in its character injudicious , and his
loss, under such circumstances, was all the more to be
lamented. He had just rendered Omar Pacha service
in the defence of Silistria ; and was about to depart for
the scene of operations on the Circassian shores of
the Black Sea, when his career was thus suddenly
ended.
After the contest at and near Giurgevo, some of the
Bussians retreated to Erateschti, some to Kalugereni,
and some to a position still nearer Bucharest. The
Turks crossed the Danube at two other points, a few
miles below Eustchuck, nearly at the time when the
attack upon the island took place; and there were, in
effect, three battles in progress at once — one on the is-
land, and two between the Danube and Bucharest.
The Eussian generals were unfortunate in these en-
counters; Pagoff and Beboutoff were both wounded;
while General Aurep, disgraced by the czar for his
want of success, committed suicide. The Turkish
Generals, Iskender Bey, Halim Pacha, and Said
Pacha, had various and frequent advantages over
their antagonists of the Eussian army. The two
leaders were in near vicinity; and in proportion as
Omar Pacha advanced into Wallachia, so did Prince
Gortchakoff retire. The latter gathered his scatter-
ed forces from various directions, and posted them,
to the number of 60,000, behind the river Arjish, in
a position to command the roads from Giurgevo to
Bucharest. These busy events in and around
Giurgevo occurred during the first two weeks of
July.
During the winter and spring, while the Turks were
CAMPAIGN 01 $ THE HAtftBS!.
43
making determined attacks on the Wallace ian side of
the Danube, and gaining possession of positions from
whence they could not be dislodged, the Russians were
making attacks on the Bulgarian side, which there
placed the Turks on the defensive. These attacks were
nearly all made in the Dobrudscha, near the mouth of
the Danube; and at Silistria, which sustained a for-
midable siege.
The operations in the Dobrudscha were not of any
great importance ; the Turkish troops energetically
endeavoured to contest several points with their ene-
mies, but the Russians were too powerful in numbers,
and succeeded in possessing Tultcha, Matchin, and
Isakcha; also Hirsava, and Czernavoda, near the
Rassova end of Trajan’s Wall. These advantages ren-
dered the Russians in a great measure masters of the
Dobrudscha ; but it was not without heavy losses that
they gained their successes. But worse were to follow ;
for the Turks prevented the Russians from advancing
southward out of the Dobrudscha — thus shutting them
up for two months in a dismal, marshy, and unwhole-
some district, with a broad river behind them, an ac-
tive enemy in front of them, a hostile fleet on the east,
and a discontented peasantry around them. So com-
pletely was the Russian army locked up, as it were, in
the Dobrudscha, that it contributed little during the
remainder of the campaign, to the furtherance of the
czar’s darling objects.
The cruelties practised by some portions of the Rus-
sian army towards the peasantry in the Dobrudscha,
were the cause of much hatred and animosity being
manifested by the latter to the Russian troops ; and
frequent bloodshed was the consequence.
We will now endeavour to give the details of the
siege of Silistria — the most distinguished event which
took place in the Danubian campaign.
Silistria is perhaps the most important town possess-
ed by Turkey on the banks of the Danube. It is
doubtful whether in a military sense it is equalled by
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
4-9
Widdin. The Danube is extremely broad at Silistria.
The town contains about 20,000 inhabitants. The
Russians held it for some time as a pledge for the ful-
filment of the provisions of the Treaty of Adrianople ,
and a large Greek church and convent were commenc-
ed during that period. The townis almost semi-circu-
lar in form, with five bastions on the river-side, and
seven landward. All the scarps and counter-scarps
are of solid masonry. The main strength of the place
consists in a series of detached forts, commanding the
whole enceinte of the town. One of these forts, called
Abdul-Medjid, after the name of the sultan, is on an
eminence at the back of Silistria, and is flanked on the
right and left by two others — the three enclosing a sort
of oval shape. The positions of these forts have direct
relation to the bastions of the town ; and most of these
great defensive works were constructed by the Turks
during the last six months of 1853 — so important is
Silistria deemed by them in a time of war. The forti-
fications were planned by Colonel Gutskavskai, a Po-
lish officer. The chief defences however, in the great
struggle, were earthworks, constructed eastward of the
town.
Both the Russians and the Turks were fully aware
<)f the stratagetical importance of Silistria. If that
place was taken, the Turks lost at once one angle of the
triangle which it forms with Rustchuk and Shumla ;
and they would be in danger of losing any troops
which they might have in the Dobrudscha, which might
thus be cut off. And the Russians, by gaining Silistria,
would possess a tete de pont for operations on Shumla
and Yarna, in the direction of the Balkan. Although the
Russians found the conquest of Silistria practicable in
1828-9, yet, in 1854, they found their antagonists of a
different character.
About the 14th of April the Russians commenced
the bombardment of Silistria. The cannonading was
continued for almost a fortnight, day and night, during
which time a great many balls and shells were thrown
246 d
60 Campaign on the Danube.
into the town. Other batteries were constructed, and
shot and shell were now poured into Silistria from both
the north and south banks of the Danube. Dreadful
was the destruction; the Turks were so perseveringly
active, so bold and resolute, that every operation by
General Schilder was watched and met promptly. The
Russian forces were, however, tremendous; besides
enormous batteries on the north shore, there were
60,000 troops transported to the south shore ; while the
Turks could not muster 10,000 altogether. To the
east of the town there were some earthworks which
the Russians were determined to take ; but the Turks
were determined they should not take ; and the hand-
to-hand conflict became terrific.
The Turks continued this dogged resistance for some
time, and showed that they were possessed of courage
and hardihood, when properly commanded and officer-
ed. But notwithstanding all their efforts, their situation
was anything but cheerin g ; surrounded by overwhelm-
ing numbers, their spirits began to droop ; and they
would have drooped more, but for two Englishmen,
Captain Butler and Lieutenant Nasmyth, who stop-
ped at Silistria on their way from India. Their blood
warmed up at the heroic defence made by the Turks ;
and, under their direction, the Turks made frequent
sorties, and inflicted great loss on the Russians.
By the middle of May, the Russians outside Silistria
amounted to 70,000. The fort Abdul-Medjid, or Med-
jidie-Tabia, was too strong to be attacked until the
earthworks were taken ; and for three weeks was an
incessant bombardment of the Arab Tabia maintained,
conducted by Prince Paskevitch in person.
On the 29th of May the Russians made a furious
attack on the redoubt near the Stamboul gate. Their
approach having been made under the cover of dark-
ness, they penetrated into the works before they were
discovered, and a lieutenant of artillery was cut down
by a Russian officer who led the attack. But the garri-
son were soon on the ftlert ; the officer was killed ;
CATJPAIGTT OF TITS EAFTTDE/
51
p.nd, after a furious struggle, the enemy was driven out.
Buffering severely from the grape and canister tired
from the ramparts. A second and third attack were
made on the same redoubt before daybreak, with no
better success — theEgyptian and Albanian troops who
defended that portion of the works driving the Rus-
sians back with great gallantry, and pursuing them as
far as their own batteries. The loss of the Russians in
this attack exceeded 2,000, while the defenders lost only
68 killed and 121 wounded, among whom were several
officers. The enemy's dead were taken to the batteries
of the besiegers by the Turks, under the protection of
a white flag. The Russian officers complained of the
mutilation to which many of the bodies had been sub*
je«ted ; but this was the work of the barbarous irre-
gulars called Bashi-Bazouks, and was contrary to a
special firman of the Sultan. On the night of the 30th
the Russians again advanced in force to the walls ; but
after throwing a shower of shells for an hour they re-
tired. Mussa Pacha, the brave governor of Silistria,
was killed by the bursting of a shell near him on the
2nd of June, just as he had informed the messenger
who brought him the order of Medijidie from the Sul-
tan, as the reward of his faithful services, that he wish-
ed to receive the decoration without any pomp or cere-
mony. He was an active, intelligent, and zealous offi-
cer, and his death was a great loss to the Turkish cause.
He was succeeded by Hussein Pacha, who had previ-
ously commanded at the works which had been attack-
ed and so gallantly defended on the 28th and 29th of
May. The enemy had at this time sunk a mine be-
neath the fort : but it was fired bo clumsily that, in-
stead of blowing up the works, it exploded backwards,
destroying a great number of the Russian storming,
party, who were ready to rush forward. During the
month of June the fortifications were several times as-
sailed by the Russian infantry anffia^jllery in great
force, but in every instance tfey were* repulsed with
great loss, and at length gre^ft dd it was
AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN
62
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE*
a work of difficulty with the officers to get their men to
march against the walls. Even the pictures of the
saints, borne by the priests, failed to stimulate that
religious enthusiasm upon which the Czar had so
much relied for success in this war. But things were
not much better in Silistria ; for the garrison had
grown dispirited, the Arnauts clamoured for arrears of
pay, and the Prussian officer of engineers who had con-
ducted the defence advised Hussein Pacha to capitulate.
The only chance of avoiding that alternative seemed to
be in the arrival of reinforcements, which would have
enabled them to sally forth and drive the Bussians from
before the town. But Omar Pacha was detained at
Shumla by the presence of the enemy in the Dobruds-
cha, and no reinforcements came. Fortunately, the
Bussians were themselves so dispirited with the pro-
tracted operations, their successive defeats, and the pre-
sence of sickness in the camp, that they raised the
siege during the night of the 23rd ; and when the sun
rose the next morning not a Bussian could be seen.
Troops of light cavalry were sent out to scour the coun-
try, and the infantry issued forth to level the trenches.
A special messenger was sent off to Shumla with the
intelligence, and the news reached Lord Baglan’s quar-
ters the same evening. A hasty council of war was
held, and the result of their deliberations was that Lord
Burghersh started at eleven o’clock at night for Devna,
with orders for the Earl of Cardigan to take a portion
of the cavalry under his command and scour the coun-
try in search of the Bussians; for it was not known at
that time in what direction they had marched. He
reached the English camp at two o’clock next morn-
ing, and before four the 8th Hussars and 17th Lancers
were in pursuit. The Bussians had crossed the Dan-
ube, and no encounter took place. General Paske-
vitch, notwithstanding his great age and his long and
valuable services to his government, was ordered
by the caar to retire to his estates in Podolia, for not
having succeeded in capturing Silistria.
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
53
The abandonment of the siege was announced by
Omar Pacha in nearly the following terms : — “ You
know that there were before Silistria 80,000 Russians,
who were continually attacking the town night and day.
In spite of their efforts during forty days they were not
able to make themselves masters of any point. You
also know that I had assembled all our forces before
Shumla, and that I was about to march to the assist-
ance of Silistria. Six regiments of cavalry and three
batteries had already left Shumla for that destination.
The Russians, having become acquainted with this
movement, retreated precipitately upon the left bank
with all their artillery. During the forty days on
which the investment of the place continued, the Rus-
sians had 25,000 men killed.” Other accounts repre-
sent the Russian loss as somewhat less, but there can
be no doubt, owing to the protracted and sanguinary
nature of the struggle, that it has been very great.
The loss of the Turks is estimated at from 3,000 to
4,000, and that of the enemy must have been at least
four times as great.
Captain Butler, the young English officer before
mentioned, fell a sacrifice to his voluntary aid in the
Turkish cause during the siege. While making a re-
connoissance of the enemy’s works, in order to a sortie,
lie was struck in the forehead by a ball; and although
no serious effects were apprehended, he sunk eight days
afterward.
Omar Pacha wrote to Lord Raglan, eulogizing the
conduct of the young officer , and expressing his deep
and heartfelt regret for the loss of such a devoted
friend.
It is asserted that the Turkish commander was more
affected by the death of Captain Butler than by any
other event that took place during the campaign. The
young Englishman was followed to the grave, in the
Armenian cemetery at Silistria, by officers from every
company of the Turkish army.
A correspondent of one of the London newspaper^
64.
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
was permitted by OmarPaclia to visit Silistria directly
after the siege. He says : “ The street through which
we passed was broken every few yards by large holes,
five feet deep and three wide, in which were the rem-
nants of Russian shells. The roofs of the houses were
all more or less pierced by the passage of these terrible
balls, and the party- walls were full of holes. The mina-
rets in many places were pierced into steeples a giorno ;
but though many were much damaged, none had fallen.
Nor had the houses crumbled to the ground under the
fire, but stood bravely up under their wounds ; it
seemed, in truth, as if the edifices of Silistria had par-
taken of the spirit of its defenders, and had determin-
ed, like them, not to fall at any price. It is almost
needless to say, that in Silistria no inhabitant had re-
mained — they had all taken refuge in eaves scooped
out of the earth at the side of the hills, where they lay
safely ensconced, suffering no doubt from want of mo-
tion, and sometimes from want of food, but safe. The
soldiers alone remained in this place, sleeping at their
posts by the walls, where they could man them at a
moment’s notice.” It appears there was a spot where,
during the siege, the Russians imagined the Turks were
hidden in underground passages. “ Upon this spot
they had thrown thousands of shells. The places where
they exploded harmlessly, were marked by little sticks
planted there by the Turks; they were willow-wands,
which, if they were to grow, would make a small forest.
To the right of this favourite spot, no less than 2000
unexploded shells were picked up during the progress
of the siege. This may give a faint idea of the
warmth, more than tropical, there during several
weeks.”
Lieutenant Nasmyth — who was promoted to the
rank of major by his own government, decorated with
the Cross of the Legion of Honour by the French, and
with that of the Medijidie by the Turks— commented,
with some severity, in a letter in the Times , on the
Russian tactics at Silistria. “ The Turkish army, he
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANU£N.
5S
says, “ may well talk with pride. Their opponents
had an army on the right bank of the Danube, which
at one time amounted to 60,000 men. They had 60
guns in position, and threw upwards of 50,000 shot
and shell, besides an incalculable quantity of small-arm
ammunition. They constructed more than three miles
of approaches, and sprang six mines. Yet during forty
days, not one inch of ground was gained ; they aban-
doned the siege, leaving the petty field-work against
which their principal efforts had been directed, a
shapeless mass from the effects of their mines and
batteries, but still in possession of its original defend-
ers.”
The shores of the Danube became, by the end of
July, an uncongenial residence for the Russian troops.
Gortchakoff found that his position at Bucharest was
untenable ; and he therefore prepared to quit, by issu-
ing a proclamation to the inhabitants, telling them that
the all-powerful czar had ordered the troops to evacu-
ate their unhealthy quarters on the Danube, for a
short time, but they would soon return, punish the bar-
barous Turks, and deliver the Wallachians from the
Ottoman rule. He left the city on the 28th of July ;
and on the 8th of August the Turks entered it, with
colours flying, drums beating and trumpets sounding.
The inhabitants of the city welcomed the Turkish
troops on their entrance : for they had tasted the bitter
fruits of the Muscovite occupation. Hamin Pacha is-
sued a proclamation, which contained sentiments of the
purest and noblest morality and charity, and was wor-
thy to be compared with any document of the kind is •
suing from any Christian power.
Without any previous concurrence of England and
France, a Treaty was entered into between Turkey and
Austria, agreeing that the Austrian troops should oc-
cupy the Principalities, to protect them against Bus-
sia, until such time as matters were brought into such
a state as that Austrian occupation would be no longer
necessary. This Treaty was signed on the 14th of
68
CAMPAIGN ON THE DANUBE.
July ; and, though it appeared fair on the outside, yet
it was much canvassed at the time.
Accordingly, on the 6th of September, the Austrians,
under the command of Count Coronini, entered Bucha-
rest. As they came as the friends and allies of Turkey,
proceedings were taken to render them a kind of tri-
umphal entry. Omar Pacha, with a Turkish division,
and a detachment of Wallachian militia, went out to
meet them: the members of the administration,
several boyards or nobles, and a vast concourse of
people, were assembled on the occasion; and Count
Coronini at the head of his army was conducted into
the city. Dervish Pacha, the Ottoman commissioner,
issued a proclamation, stating why the Austrian troops
were about to occupy the Principalities ; assuring the
inhabitants that they came as friends, and would con-
duct themselves as such — paying in a just and equita-
ble manner for everything they needed; and would re-
gard the rights and property of the inhabitants in the
strictest manner.
How far the Austrians fulfilled these declarations
we will not at present say; but we will venture to as-
sert that the poor Moldo-Wallachians are and have been
from time to time treated in a most shameful manner
— at one time under the controul of the Moslem swa y
— then under that of the followers of the Greek church
— now that of the believers in the Latin Christianity.
Truly, their condition was pitiable.
The Russians re-crossed the Pruth about the middle
of September, and entered their own dominions ; and
thus ended the Danubian campaign — a campaign which
reflects great honour on Omar Pacha, and the troops
under his command.
CHAPTER III.
The Western Alliance— Diplomacy— The
“ Vienna Note” — Threatening Aspect — The
Slaughter at Sinope — Russian J ustipication
op the Slaughter — Renewed Epports to
preserve Peace— Secret Correspondence-
Declaration op War — Character op the
War— Neutrality op Austria and Prussia
—Colonial Sympathy.
We now come to that part of the contest which more
nearly affects the English reader. The real nature of
the dispute, at the commencement, appeared trifling;
and man y people imagined that matters would have
been amicably settled without recourse to arms.
But when once discord is permitted to enter into socie-
ties or nations, the strife grows larger and larger, and
draws within its vortex all that is subjected to its influ-
ence. At first it appeared but a paltry squabble ; then
it progressed to angry debates and warlike threats ; then
it extended to fierce and bloody battles and terrible
sieges on the banks of the Danube ; and lastly it drew
within its deadly embrace the Western Powers — Eng-
land with her formidable navy, France with her une-
qualled army. We will not now enter into all the in-
tricacies of diplomacy, for probably most of our read-
ers would derive but little instruction from such de-
tails.
Suffice it to say, that during the dispute at Constan-
tinople, England remained neutral ; but when the dis-
pute merged into threats, and when vast bodies of
Russian troops were evidently pouring down on the
Turkish frontier, our government- began to bestir itselfi
67
6$ THE “ VIENNA NOTE.”
England was bound by treaties which she had deter-
mined should be respected by the contracting parties,
or the sword must be drawn to defend the right. Our
ambassador at Constantinople, after the abrupt depar-
ture of Prince Menschikoff, wrote to the Earl of Clar-
endon on the matter, and the latter authorized Sir
Stratford de Redcliffe to order the British fleet at
Malta to steer towards the Dardanelles ; and soon after
the French government sent orders to their fleet, under
Admiral de la Susse, to join the English fleet, under
Admiral Dundas, at Besika Bay— immediately outside
or southwards of the Dardanelles — there to wait further
orders from the two ambassadors at Constantinople.
It is a significant circumstance that throughout the
voluminous correspondence of that period, all the other
powers condemned the conduct of Russia, in picking
a quarrel with Turkey, after the matter regarding the
" Holy Places” had been settled.
The Russian government, in the middle of June, is-
sued a circular, addressed to all its ministers at foreign
courts, explaining the reasons which had induced the
czar to act as he had done. At the beginning of July,
the representatives of England, France, Austria, and
Prussia, met in “ Conference” at Vienna ; where, with
the sanction of their several governments, they pre-
pared a “Note,” or schedule of agreement, which should
be transmitted to St. Petersburg and Constantinople ;
and that the four powers should use their utmost ef-
forts to obtain the consent of the two belligerent pow-
ers to the terms therein contained. This note, as
drawn up on the 26th of July, presented the form of a
declaration from the sultan to the czar. The sultan,
after expressing his “ unbounded confidence in the emi-
nent qualities of his august friend and ally,” declared
that he will remain faithful to the letter and to the
spirit of the Treaties of Kainardji and Adrianople re- •
lative to the protection of the Christian religion; and
that his majesty considers himself bound in honour to
cause to be observed for ever, and to preserve from all
THREATENING ASPECT.
59
prejudice, either now or hereafter, the enjoyment of
the spiritual privileges which have been granted by
his majesty’s august ancestors to the orthodox Eastern
Church, and which are maintained and confirmed by
him ; and moreover, in a spirit of exalted equity, to
cause the Greek rite to share in the advantages grant*
ed to the other Christian rites by convention or spe-
cial arrangement. There were some smaller matters
inserted, relating to the pilgrims at Jerusalem, a Bus-
sian church and hospital in or near the same city,
and an increase of power to the Eussian consuls in
Palestine.
This “ Vienna Note” was the subject of much dis-
cussion during the latter part of 1853. The Turkish
government saw that the wording of it might be so used
by Eussia as to suit the purposes of the czar ; and the
avidity with which Eussia accepted it was sufficient to
cause suspicion, if nothing more. There were a few
words left out, which, when inserted by the wish of
Turkey, materially altered its phraseology, and at the
same time were so absolutely necessary, that the other
powers saw at once that their omission was a great
oversight on their part, and at once acquiesced in the
insertion of the additional words. The pith of the alter-
ation consisted in the declaration, that the Porte will
both concede and protect, in respect to the Christians
of Turkey; whereas the original clauses would have
given a handle for the czar to enter in his assumed ca-
pacity as “ protector” of the Greek worship. Protec-
tion to Greek Christians might be all right, but pro-
tection by the czar was the point wished for by Bus-
eia. The czar refused to accept the note in it*
amended form, and this attempt failed.
The month of September approached — a month
which generally proves so boisterous, that shipping
lying at anchor in Besika Bay is often in great dan-
ger. Every effort was made to induce Eussia to accept
the amended note, but all was in vain : and the month
of October brought the serious intelligence of probablo
eo
SLAUGHTER AT SINOPE.
collisions in the Black Sea between the several fleets*
Admiral Dundas received orders to inform the Russian
admiral commanding at Sebastopol, “ that if the Bus
sian fleet should come out of thatjport for the purpose
of landing troops on any portion of the Turkish terri-
tory, or of committing any act of overt hostility against
the Porte, his (Admiral Dundas’ s) orders are to protect
the sultan’s dominions from attack.” V arious plans and
measures were adopted to heal the breach, but all were
ineffectual : and, by the end of the month, all efforts
were cut short by the crossing of the Danube, and the
virtual commencement of hostilities. The Earl of
Clarendon issued a circular letter to all the British
ministers abroad, dated the 7th of November, in which
the imminency of approaching war was touched upon.
Meanwhile the Russian proceedings in the Danubian
Principalities had become so audacious, that all the
other powers became alarmed at them.
At length came the astounding news of the battle, or
rather massacre, at Sinope, which was effectual, more
than any other thing, in rousing up a spirit of indig-
nation throughout Western Europe. The news reach-
ed London and Paris on the 11th of December. An
investigation into all the circumstances was made by
the steamers Retribution and Mogador, sent to Sin-
ope for that purpose immediately after the catastrophe ;
and the following is the substance of the information
obtained : —
“On the 13th November a Turkish flotilla, consist-
ing of seven frigates (one of 60 guns), three corvettes,
and two steamers, anchored in the Bay of Sinope.
On the 21st a Russian squadron of three two-deckers,
a frigate, and a brig, stood in for Sinope, and, after
reoonnoitreing the Turkish position, cruised off the
harbour, maintaining the blockade in spite of the very
heavy weather. It was suggested to Osman Pasha, the
Turkish commander-in-ehief, that as an action would
be unavoidable, the best course would be to force the
blockade, and make a rimning fight of it; but not
ELAtraHTEB AT SINOPE
61
contemplating any reinforcement of the Russians, ha
unfortunately rejected the advice of his subordinates,
upon the consideration of some of his vessels having
been damaged in a recent gale, and on the probability
of a successful result if the action were fought at an-
chor. On the forenoon of the 30th, a large Russian
squadron, composed of three three-deckers and three
two-deckers, under the command of Vice-Admiral
Nachimoff, having also the flag of a rear-admiral,
stood in for the bay under full sail before the wind,
and took up a position close alongside the Turkish
ships, the latter not firing upon them while doing so.
Two frigates and three steamers remained outside to
cut off the retreat of any Turkish vessel attempting to
escape. Osman Pasha forthwith signalled his fleet to
fight bravely to the last in defence of their country,
and at noon a desperate action commenced. For up-
wards of an hour and a half the Turkish frigates re-
sisted these fearful odds without flinching. The first
of their losses was the Navick, frigate, whose captain,
Ali Bey, being menaced with boarding by a huge
three-decker, and having abandoned all hope of suc-
cessful resistance, with desperate devotion blew up
his vessel. At the end of the above period the des-
truction of the Turkish force was frightful and com-
plete. Some of the ships were burnt by the enemy’s
red-hot shot ; others blew up ; and the others, whose
sides were literally beaten in by the enormous weight
of the Russian metal, slipped their cables, and with
the exception of two, drifted on shore. The Russians
now manned their yards, and cheered in honour of
their bloody victory. Having done this, they recom-
menced firing upon the helpless wrecks, from which a
feeble drooping fire was still maintained with un-
equalled fortitude, and did not cease until they had
completed the work of destruction and butchery. They
then took possession of the two vessels which had not
gone on shore, but, from their battered condition,
abandoned and destroyed them the following day.
BTATTGUTEK AT S1!T0?E.
m
One of the Turkish steamers, the Taif, alone escaped.
She had slipped her cable shortly after the commence-
ment of the battle, and, after forcing her way at some
risk through the force cruising outside, brought the
first intimation of this fatal event to Constantinople.
Before the action commenced, the Turkish crews num-
bered 4,490 men; of these 358 have survived, the
others have been slain to a man at their posts. Most
of the survivors are wounded; among them are 120
prisoners, who were taken onboard the frigates aban-
doned by them, and who have been carried off to Se-
bastopol. Osman Pasha, the commander-in-chief,
who was wounded in the action, is among the prison-
ers. Hussein Pasha, the second in command, while
trying to escape from his burning vessel, was struck
by a grape-shot on the head, and killed. The loss on
the Russian side is not accurately known, as they re-
tired immediately after the battle; but four of their
ships were disabled in their spars, 'and were towed out
by steamers. The support afforded to the Turks by
the land batteries was ineffectual, owing partly to the
lightness of their guns, and partly to their fire being
intercepted by the Turkish ships. The town of Sinope
is completely destroyed, either by shells or burning
timbers, and the whole coast is strewn with dead
bodies. A few survivors have made their way, by
swimming, to the town ; but such is the consternation
among the local authorities, that all action on their
part is paralysed, and they can scarcely find means
even to procure medical assistance for the sufferers.
These latter found speedy alleviation at the hands of
the medical officers brought by her Majesty’s steamer
Retribution and the French steamer Mogador, who
w ere zealously assisted by three of the survivors, sur-
geons on board the Turkish fleet.”
From the above report it is clear that the Turks
fought bravely, and stood to their guns to the last.
Ali Bey, the commander of the Navick, seeing that his
Bliip could not stand against the three-decker opposed
SLAUGHTER AT SItfOEE.
63
to him, ordered her to be blown up ; but not feeling
certain of the execution of that order, he himself
threw a lighted match into the powder-magazine. In
1850 Ali Bey conveyed the Legione Monti (who were
returning to Italy, having taken part in the war in
Hungary) from Constantinople to Genoa and Caglia-
ri, on board the frigate Illat, for which services the
King of Sardinia presented him with the cross of
Saints Maurice and Lazarus.
The following statement shows the loss of ships,
men, the wounded, &c. : — Turkish fleet, 12 ships, 434
guns, and 4,490 men ; Russian guns, 600, besides four
steamers and two frigates, notin the action. Weight
of Russian shot, 68 lbs., 42 lbs., and 32 lbs. Several
shells and carcases used did not explode.
Men.
Wounded and sound, brought to Constantinople by
Retribution and Mogador 200
Left at Sinope, in charge of badly wounded . . 10
Wounded, left at Sinope, could not be moved 20
Prisoners, as supposed . . . . 150
Escaped on shore, it is presumed 1,000
Escaped, per Taif steamer 300
1,680
Total number of men 4,490
Accounted for 1,680
Unaccounted for 2,810
The news of this horrible slaughter was received in
Russia with great joy; and the czar transmitted to
Prince Menschikoff, and through him to the officers and
seamen of the Russian fleet, his thanks for their meri-
torious conduct in achieving this glorious victory over
the infidel Moslems.
The Russians attempted to justify this massacre by
asserting that the Turkish flotilla had on board troops
and ammunition destined to the rebellious tribes in an
attack on Secoume Kale, a Russo-Circassian town on
#4 RENE WED EFFORTS FOR PEACE.
the north-east of the Black Sea; and that Russia was
justified in destroying the flotilla under such circum-
stances. On the other hand, Turkey and her allies
declare that the flotilla was only carrying provisions to
Batoum, a Turkish town near the Russian frontier of
the Black Sea ; and that the destruction of a Turkish
flotilla in a Turkish harbour was virtually a defiance
to the Alliance, who had agreed to defend Turkey. The
general impression produced in England and France,
as well as in Turkey, was one of indignation ; and this
evidently weakened every effort to preserve peace.
At the close of the year, circulars were sent from the
English and French governments to their ministers
abroad, relating the proceedings which had occurred,
regretting that all attempts to preserve peace had failed,
and announcing that the Allied fleets would enter the
Black Sea, and take up an attitude that would at once
prevent such another catastrophe as that at Sinope.
One more effort was made at the close of 1863 to pre-
serve peace, by presenting to the Sultan an “Identic
Note,” or proposal in which all the four powers — Eng-
land, France, Austria, and Prussia, were agreed, con-
taining the basis for a settlement of the difficulties be-
tween Turkey and Russia. The sultan assented to
this on the 31st of December, and proposed that forty
days should be allowed for the czar to signify his as-
sent. All the four powers were satisfied with this ac-
ceptance by the sultan, as maintaining the independ-
ence of the Turkish nation, and at the same time
meeting every demand that Russia had a right to
make.
The commencement of the year 1854 was character-
ised by active efforts of the four powers to induce Rus-
sia to accept the “ Identic Note;” but when the Al-
lied fleets entered the Black Sea, — which they did on
the 4th of J anuary — all attempts to preserve peace
were unavailing, — the czar refusing to listen to any
overtures ; — and early in February, the Russian am-
bassadors were withdrawn from London and Paris, and
SECEET CORRESPONDENCE.
the English and French ambassadors from Russia.
Thus, all the efforts of statesmen, ambassadors, with
the accompaniment of notes, protocols, conferences,
despatches, &c. &c. were fruitless and abortive. War
between the Western Powers and Russia must take
place.
In the Spring of 1854, there was great surprise ex-
cited in the houses of parliament and among the peo-
ple, by the discovery that during the preceding year
there had been an under current at work in the affairs
of Turkey, viz. that a " Secret Correspondence” had
been carried on between the English government and
the government of Russia. This secret correspondence
related to the state of Turkey. The Russian govern-
ment intimating that Turkey was in a state of rapid
decay, and that it would be an act of kindness to take
the “ sick man,” under the joint care of England and
Russia ; and that as a recompense for their kind guar-
dianship over the “ sick man” they should become tes-
tators and executors before his death, and each seize a
portion of his property — in plain terms, Russia pro-
posed the dismemberment of the Turkish dominions.
The English government refused to be a party to such
a nefarious scheme; but the refusal was couched in
such smooth and courtly terms, that the czar did not
fail to make a handle of them in his after-projects. It
appears also that there were several private conversa-
tions between the Czar and Sir H. Seymour, our am-
bassador at the court of St. Petersburg, during that
year, on the same subject. Our ambassador, however,
to his praise, plainly gave the emperoT to understand
that the British government would never concur in any
such project. Strong animadversions, both by the
English press, and by members of both houses of par-
liament, were made on this t l secret correspondence.”
The diplomacy, whether secret or open, was of no
avail in healing the wounds which affected Europe ;
and war against Russia was declared in March, 1854.
The Western Powers regarded it as a political war — a
246 e
66 BECiABATIOlf 6* WAS.
war to preserve the balance of power in Europe by pre-
venting Russia from crushing Turkey ; but Russia gave
it a religious aspect, as if the existence of the ortho-
dox faith were imperilled. A correspondence betwixt
the Emperor of France and the Emperor of Russia
took place a short time previous to the declaration
of war : the French Emperor proposing that Russia
and Turkey should appoint two plenipotentiaries, who
should agree upon a convention to be submitted to the
other powers ; but that previous to this, an armistice
should by signed, and the Russian troops withdrawn
from the Principalities, and the Allied fleets from the
Black Sea. The czar’s reply was non-effective to the
maintenance of peace; he requiring the withdrawal of
the fleets from the Black Sea, before the Russian troops
were withdrawn from the Principalities ; and that Tur-
key should send an ambassador to St. Petersburg to
sue for peace.
Another effort, of a rather singular character, was
made to preserve peace. Three members of the Socie-
ty of Friends, Henry Pease, of Darlington; Joseph
Sturge, of Birmingham, and Robert Charlton, of Bris-
tol, on the 20th of January, set out on a journey to
St. Petersburg, which, after much toil and difficulty,
they reached, had an audience with the Emperor, who
received them courteously; and endeavoured by
all the means in their power to prevail upon the czar
to adopt some other means to heal the wounds between
him and the other sovereigns, than that of bloodshed.
They had taken a long journey on a fruitless errand ;
the czar refused to comply with their request.
To return to public affairs : soon after the withdraw-
al of the ambassadors, the czar issued a manifesto, stat-
ing in his own way how matters stood ; how anxious
he was to maintain peace ; throwing all the blame upon
Turkey and the Western Powers; boasting of the prow-
ess of the Russian arms in former contests; and final*
ly appealing to the Almighty to assist them in com-
bating for their persecuted brethren, followers of the
ftfeCIASATIOff O? WAE* 6 1
faith of Christ ; calling upon all Russia to exclaim —
“ 0 Lord, our Redeemer, whom shall we fear ? May
God be glorified, and his enemies scattered !”
This manifesto caused an unpleasant feeling through-
out Western Europe ; it so palpably showed that Russia
was determined to rouse up the religious fanaticism of
its millions of serfs in support of the czar’s views, and
to create in their minds implacable hostility against
Western Europe.
We will now give the declaration of war by England
in full, as an official record of the circumstances which
led to the war : —
“It is with deep regret that Her Majesty announces
the failure of her anxious and protracted endeavours
to perserve for her people and for Europe the blessings
of peace.
“The unprovoked aggression of the Emperor of
Russia against the Sublime Porte has been persisted
in with such disregard of consequences, that after the
rejection by the Emperor of Russia, of terms which
the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the French,
and the King of Prussia, as well as Her Majesty, con-
sidered just and equitable, Her Majesty is compelled
by a sense of what is due to the honour of her crown,
to the interests of her people, and to the independence
of the states of Europe, to come forward in defence of
an ally whose territory is invaded, and whose dignity
and independence are assailed.
“ Her Majesty, in justification of the course she ia
about to pursue, refers to the transactions in which Her
Majesty has been engaged.
“ The Emperor of Russia had some cause of com-
plaint against the Sultan with reference to the settle-
ment, which His Highness had sanctioned, of the con-
flicting claims of the Greek and Latin Churches, of a
portion of the Holy Places of Jerusalem and its neigh-
bourhood. To the complaint of the Emperor of Russia
on this head, justice was done, and Her Majesty’s Am-
bassador at Constantinople had the satisfaction oi
DECLARATION ©£ WAR.
@8
promoting an arrangement, to which no exception was
taken by the Russian Government.
“ But, while the Russian Government repeatedly
assured the Government of Her Majesty, that the
mission of Prince Menschikoff to Constantinople was
exclusively directed to the settlement of the question
of the Holy Places at Jerusalem, Prince Menschikoff
himself pressed upon the Porte other demands of afar
more serious and important character, the nature of
which he in the first instance endeavoured, as far as
possible, to conceal from Her Majesty’s Ambassa-
dor. And these demands, thus studiously concealed,
affected, not the privileges of the Greek Church at
Jerusalem, but the position of many millions of Tur-
kish subjects in their relations to their sovereign the
Sultan.
“These demands were rejected by the spontaneous
decision of the Sublime Porte.
“Two assurances had been given to Her Majesty-
one, that the mission of Prince Menschikoff only re-
garded the Holy Places ; the other, that his mission
would be of a conciliatory character.
“In both respects Her Majesty’s just expectations
were disappointed.
“ Demands were made which, in the opinion of the
Sultan, extended to the substitution of the Emperor of
Russia’s authority for his own over a large portion of
his subjects, and those demands were enforced by a
threat; and when Her Majesty learned that on
announcing the termination of his mission, Prince
Menschikoff declared that the refusal of his demands
would impose upon the Imperial Government the ne-
cessity of seeking a guarantee by its own power. Her
Majesty thought proper that her fleet should leavo
Malta, and, in co-operation with that of His Majesty
the Emperor of the French, take up its station in the
neighbourhood of the Dardanelles.
“ So long as the negotiation bore an amicable char-
aoter, Her Majesty refrained from any demonstration
DECLARATION OE WAR.
of force. But when, in addition to the assemblage of
large military forces on the frontier of Turkey, the
Ambassador of Eussia intimated that serious conse-
quences would ensue from the refusal of the Sultan to
comply with unwarrantable demands, Her Majesty
deemed it right, in conjunction with the Emperor of
the French, to give an unquestionable proof of her
determination to support the sovereign rights of the
Sultan.
“ The Eussian Government has maintained that the
determination of the Emperor to occupy the Principali-
ties was taken in consequence of the advance of the
fleets of England and France. But the menace of
invasion of the Turkish territory was conveyed in
Count Nesselrode’s note toBedschid Pasha of the 19th
(31st) of May, and re-stated in his despatch to Baron
Brunow of the 20th May (1st J une,) which announc-
ed the determination of the Emperor of Eussia to or-
der his troops to occupy the Principalities, if the Porte
did not immediately comply with the demands of
Eussia.
“ The despatch to Her Majesty’s Ambassador at
Constantinople, authorising him in certain specified
contingencies to send for the British fleet, was dated
the 31st of May, and the order sent direct from
England to Her Majesty’s Admiral to proceed to the
neighbourhood of the Dardanelles was dated the 2nd
of June.
“ The determination to occupy the Principalities
was therefore taken before the orders for the advance
of the combined squadrons were given.
“ The Sultan’s Minister was informed, that unless
he signed within a week, and without the change of a
word, the Note proposed to the Porte by Prince Mens-
chikoff on the eve of his departure from Constantino-
ple, the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
would be occupied by Eussian troops. The Sultan
could not accede to so insulting a demand j but when
the actual occupation of the Principalities took place 9
10
DECLARATION 1 OF WAR.
the Sultan did not, as he might have done in the ex-
ercise of his undoubted right, declare war, but ad-
dressed a protest to his Allies.
“ Her Majesty, in conjunction with the sovereigns of
Austria, France, and Prussia, has made various at-
tempts to meet any just demands of the Emperor of
Russia without affecting the dignity and independ-
ence of the Sultan ; and had it been the sole object
of Russia to obtain security for the enjoyment by the
Christian subjects of the Porte of their privileges and
immunities, she would have found it in the offers that
have been made by the Sultan. But, as that security
was not offered in the shape of a special and separate
stipulation with Russia, it was rejected. Twice has
this offer been made by the Sultan, and recommended
by the Four Powers — once by a Note originally pre-
pared at Vienna, and subsequently modified by the
Porte ; once by the proposal of bases of negotiation
agreed upon at Constantinople on the 31st of Decem-
ber, and approved at Vienna on the 13th of January
— as offering to the two parties the means of arriving
at an understanding in a becoming and honourable
manner.
“ It is thus manifest that a right for Russia to in-
terfere in the ordinary relations of Turkish subjects to
their Sovereign, and not the happiness of Christian
communities in Turkey, was the object sought for by
the Russian Government. To such a demand the
Sultan would not submit, and His Highness, in self-
defence, declared war upon Russia; but Her Majesty,
nevertheless, in conjunction with her Allies, has not
ceased her endeavours to restore peace between the
contending parties.
“ The time has, however, now arrived when — the
advice and remonstrances of the Four Powers having
proved wholly ineffectual, and the military prepara-
tions of Russia becoming daily more extended— it is
but too obvious that the Emperor of Russia has ep-
CHARACTER OF THE WAR.
71
tered upon a course of policy which, if unchecked,
must lead to the destruction of the Ottoman Empire.
" In this conjuncture, Her Majesty feels called upon,
by regard for an ally, the integrity and independence
of whose empire have been recognised as essential to
the peace of Europe, by the sympathies of her people
with right against wrong, by a desire to avert from
her dominions most injurious consequences, and to
save Europe from the preponderance of a Power
which has violated the faith of treaties, and defies the
opinion of the civilised world, to take up arms, in con-
junction with the Emperor of the French, for the de-
fence of the Sultan.
“ Her Majesty is persuaded that in so acting she
will have the cordial support of her people ; and that
the pretext of zeal for the Christian religion will be
used in vain to cover an aggression undertaken in dis-
regard of its holy precepts, and of its pure and bene-
ficent spirit.
“Her Majesty humbly trusts that her efforts may
be successful, and that, by the blessing of Providence,
peace may be re-established on safe and solid fouuda
tions.
" Westminster , March 28, 1854.”
As has been before stated, the English and French
governments invariably maintained the political char-
acter of the contest, — particularly England, who had
no interest whatever with the question of the Holy
Places, except as a friend willing and ready to heal the
wounds of all parties, had that been possible. The fore-
going declaration clearly sets forth the purport of the
war. Lord Palmerston, in a speech which he made
soon after the accession of Alexander II. to the throne
of Eussia, alluded in energetic terms to the aggressive
policy pursued by Eussia from Peter the Great down
to the present czar ; and declared that the time was
come when this policy must be curbed. In another
speech he animadverted strongly on the prevarication
72
IffSTaUCTIONS,
and falsehood which characterised the statements of the
Russian minister. Lord J ohn Russell also delivered
similar sentiments on the conduct of Russia.
These views and opinions accorded in a great mea-
sure with those of the nation at large ; but we regret
that a firm attitude was not always maintained by go-
vernment towards the disturber of the peace of Eu-
rope.
On the 15th of April a convention was ratified be-
tween England and France, in which they mutually
agreed to maintain the integrity of the Turkish domin-
ions, by their united efforts ; and stipulated rules by
which they would be governed in carrying on the
war.
The following instructions were sent by England
and France, to all consuls, and colonial governors, na-
val commanders, &c., belonging to each nation : — “ It
is a necessary consequence of the strict union and alli-
ance which exists between Great Britain and France,
that, in the event of war, their conjoint action should
be felt by Russia in all parts of the world ; that not
only in the Baltic, and in the waters and territory of
Turkey, their counsels, their armies, and their fleets,
should be united either for offensive or defensive pur-
poses against Russia, but that the same spirit of union
should prevail in all quarters of the world ; and that,
whether for offence or defence, the civil and military
and naval resources of the British and French Empires
should be directed to the common objects of protect-
ing the subjects and commerce of England and France
from Russian aggression, and of depriving the Russian
f overnment of the means of inflicting injury on either.
’or these reasons, Her Majesty’s government have
agreed with that of His Majesty the Emperor of the
French, to iiistruct their civil and naval authorities in
foreign parts to consider their respective subjects as
having an equal claim to protection against Russian
hostility; and for this purpose, either singly or in con-
junction with each other, to act indifferently for the
COLONIAL SYMPATHY.
73
support and defence of British and French interests •
It may be that, in a given locality, one only of the pow*
ers is represented by a civil functionary, or by a naval
force; but in such a case, the influence and the power
of that one must be exerted as zealously and effici-
ently for the protection of the subjects and interests
of the other, as if those subjects and interests were its
own.”
So acted England and France ; with regard to Aus-
tria and Prussia, the attitude they assumed towards
Bussia was far less definite. They entered into a con-
vention betwixt themselves, certainly, but that conven-
tion did not bind either to take up arms against Bus-
sia, but merely stipulated their agreement to assist
each other in maintaining the integrity of their own
dominions, and Germany generally, whether attacked
by Bussia, or any other power.
It is peculiarly gratifying to notice the sympathy
and good-will which were manifested by our colonial
possessions generally towards England and France at
this time. Numerous loyal addresses were transmit-
ted to the mother-country from Canada, New Bruns-
wick, Newfoundland, Barbadoes, Grenada, Gibraltar,
New South Wales, Van Diemen’s Land, South Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, &c.
Numerous were the Declarations, Proclamations,
and Orders in Council, issued by the government, from
February to April, relating to the prohibitions, &c. con-
nected with the shipping.
CHAPTER IV.
Preliminary Operations— Embarkation of En.
glish and French Troops and Material to
the East — Strategy and Instructions of the
French Emperor— Malta— Gallipoli— Scu.
tari— Constantinople — Yarna — Operations
on the Black Sea — Bombardment of Odessa
—Loss of the Tiger, etc.
Few, who took an active part in the great struggle
which prevailed in Europe, during several years at the
commencement of the present century, are now con-
nected with the British army ; yet there are a few.
And now, how changed the scene and the circumstan-
ces ! Then, Englishmen and Frenchmen stood oppos-
ed to each other in deadly fight ; bitter animosity rank-
ling in the bosom of each. Now, the stolid and reso-
lute Englishman grasps the hand of the light-hearted
and brave Frenchman, and mutually they fraternize
side by side in the conflict of protecting the weak against
the strong and overbearing. What a great and glori-
ous contrast ! Long may the alliance betwixt these
two great powers continue ! And may the Almighty
avert any untoward circumstance ever severing it!
England had enjoyed so many years of peace ; and
during those years had been so materially reducing her
warlike establishment, both in the army and navy,
that she was indifferently prepared to enter upon a
great war. However, operations were commenced ;
and the first part of these operations related to
tlie strategical plans. After due consideration, it was
resolved that both powers should despatch fleets to the
Baltic and Black Sea; that both should send armies
to Turkey, there to be employed as circumstances
f hould suggest : and that the forces of both powers
7i
PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS.
75
should act together — sharing the cost and dangers
equally— earning equally any glory which might ac-
crue from the struggle — and contributing equally to
the liberation of Turkey from the trammels of Russia,
and Europe generally from the baneful influence of the
czar’s power.
Sir J. Burgoyne and other distinguished engineer
officers were sent out to Turkey, in order to reconnoi-
tre and arrange proper situations for the reception and
location of the army.
Though the navy of this country may be considered
the most powerful arm of the service, yet, in 1854, the
transport service was in a woefully inefficient state. Go-
vernment, therefore, being almost wholly unprovided
with the means of transport to the East, tenders were
sought from such shipowners as would undertake the
service. In order to greater expedition, steamers were
selected in preference to sailing vessels ; and for this
reason a great amount of steam-power was called into
immediate use. But this was found to be so costly, that
sailing-vessels were made use of for transporting the
artillery and heavy stores. During the month of Feb-
ruary, the Admiralty was required to furnish means
for transporting 609 officers, 10,933 men, 272 women,
12 children, 1598 horses, 750 tons of camp equipage,
850 tons of baggage, 989 tons of ordnance, 1088 tons
of provisions. This may appear a small army, yet
there was an enormous weight of material belonging
to it ; and when it is considered that this had to be
transported a distance of 3,000 miles to reach the
Black Sea, it will be seen that it was no light under-
taking. The government afterwards purchased two
noble steamers, the Himalaya and the Prince , belong-
ing to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam-navigation
Company.
At the commencement of the year 1864, the British
army, besides the Guards composing the Household
Brigade, consisted mainly of 100 regiments of the line,
including the rifle brigade, together with 8 local corps.
7$ EMBAEKATIOH op teoops.
The cavalr y, including 7 regiments of dragoon-guards,
made up 23 regiments. The artillery numbered 14-
battalions. The 23 regiments of dragoons, light dra-
goons, dragoon- guards, hussars, and lancers, together
with the horse-guards and 2 regiments of life-guards,
supplied about 12,500 sabres ; the regiments of the
line, with the grenadiers, coldstreams, fusileers, and ri-
fles, amounted to about 105,000 infantry. Making al-
lowance for certain deductions, the effective army, at
the end of 1853, barely exceeded 100,000. It was aug-
mented, however, shortly before the commencement of
the war, by 10,000 and 15,000 ; and in that state it
consisted of 4600 commissioned officers, and 123,000
non-commissioned officers and privates.
The English portion of the Allied Army was placed
under the command of Lord Eaglan, who, as Lord
Fitzroy Somerset, had during many years been mili-
tary secretary to the Duke of Wellington. The Duke
of Cambridge, the Earls of Cardigan and Lucan, Ge-
nerals Brown, Evans, England, Bentinck, Scarlett,
Campbell, andPennefather, were among the chief offi-
cers appointed to the expedition.
There was great excitement when the various regi-
ments began to leave the shores of Old England for
their destination in the East. So long a period had
elapsed since the din and turmoil of war had been
heard in England, that a new generation had sprung
up, whose knowledge of the costs and horrors of war-
fare was little other than traditionary. Two months
elapsed before any cavalry left England, for it was
doubtful whether it would be transported through
France, or round by way of Gibraltar ; but the infan-
try began to depart at the end of February — a month
before the actual declaration of war. As regiment af-
ter regiment embarked, cheers, tears, good wishes,
high hopes, accompanied them. The Fusileers, quar-
tered in the Tower, were among the first to depart ;
and when the cavalcade, headed by the band playing
inspiriting airs, emerged from the old fortress, and
EMBARKATION OS TROOE3. 11
threaded its way through the busy streets of the me-
tropolis, countless thousands watched and greeted the
soldiers as they passed — not that all understood the
real nature of the quarrel which was to issue in bat-
tling ; for many of the soldiers could never compre-
hend why they were called upon to fight against an
emperor, merely because that emperor had behaved
wrongfully towards the sultan. Setting politics aside,
however, the troops, actuated by an esprit de corps t
departed cheerfully for the East, resolved to maintain
the honour of their flag and country in any contests in
which they might be engaged. Southampton was one
of the chief ports of departure ; and the military va-
lue of railways was fully experienced in the facility
with which troops were conveyed from London and
the heart of England to that port. Cork was the chief
place of embarkation for the troops despatched from
Ireland. Liverpool was another scene of active oper-
ations. The embarkation of the 88th was one only
among many exciting scenes which that town display-
ed during the early spring. The regiment arrived at
Liverpool by raiiway from Preston, and marched
through the streets to the landing-stage. The troops
were in high spirits ; but there was the usual draw-
back to their enthusiasm. “ A number of women, the
wives and sweethearts of the men, were taking their
adieus ; and it was most painful to witness their un-
restrained grief, and the efforts of the men to comfort
them. A few minutes before one o’clock, the order
was given to march; the band playing several bars of
St. Patrick’s Day , and the multitude cheering hearti-
ly as they set out. In defiling through the streets,
old men, women, and young boys, jostled with each
other, and struggled for the honour of shaking hands
with the troops, who were greeted with good wishes
from all sides.”
The Ripon steamer was one of the first which con-
veyed troops to Malta, on their way to the East,
This fine vessel, belonging to the Peninsular and Ori«
EMSAftKAtlOI? Of fSOOPa.
?8
ental Steam-navigation Company, made the passage
from Southampton to Gibraltar in five days. Each day
the men were exercised at Minie- rifle shoo ting, firing at
a target hanging from the end of one of the ship’s yards ;
while in the evening, soldiers and sailors joined in
dancing and singing. As with the Grenadiers on
board the Ripon , so with the Coldstream Guards on
board the Orinoco , all went well, under the care of
the commanders of those vessels. It was on the 22nd
of February that these two vessels, accompanied by
the Manilla , received detatchments of the House-
hold troops at Southampton ; and on the 23rd, all
three started for Gibraltar, in the midst of a rough
sea, which tried the patience and good-humour of the
men.
The embarkation of the Highlanders drew together
an immense concourse of spectators. From the cita-
del at Plymouth to the gates of the Royal Victual-
ling Yard, thousands of persons assembled previous to
the time fixed for the departure of the regiment; and
when the men appeared, the greatest enthusiasm was
manifested. The weather was remarkably fine, and
numerous boats and small vessels were on the waters,
filled with gaily-dressed people; the bands of the
Royal Marines, and the 20th Regiment, played the
rare old Scottish tune of “ Auld Lang Syne/’ and
the martial strains of “Scots wha hae wi’ Wallace
bled.” But amid all the enthusiasm exhibited as the
steamers moved off and rounded the point opening in-
to Plymouth Sound, where lay the Himalaya , there
was much sadness and distress — sorrowful women,
whose downcast looks and tearful eyes betokened that
it was no high holiday for them.
Malta became a place of much excitement and im-
portance. Steamer after steamer arrived, loaded with
troops and war materials, until the island was full to
repletion. Valetta, the chief town, became busy as a
fair, and the Maltese reaped a rich harvest from their
visitors.
RRENCH STRATEGY, ETC!. 79
France, being more of a military nation than Eng-
land, had a far larger army ready to enter on a cam-
paign. It was estimated that the French army
amounted at this time to 300,000 men, and 60,000
horses ; besides a large reserve, that could be made
available, if necessary.
The strategical plan marked out by the French
government, probably with the consent of their Eng-
lish allies, was contained in the instructions drawn up
by the Emperor of the French, for the guidance of
Marshal St. Arnaud, to whom the command was
given. The principal paragraphs of these instruc-
tions, which were dated the 12th of April, 1855, were
the following
“ In placing you, marshal, at the head of a French
army, to fight at a distance of more than 600 leagues
from our mother-country, my first recommendation is
to have a care for the health of the troops, to spare
them as much as possible, and to give battle only after
having made sure first of, at least, two chances out of
three for a favourable result.
“ The peninsula of Gallipoli is adopted as the prin-
cipal point of disembarkation, because it must be, as a
strategical point, the basis of our operations — that is
to say, the place d’armes for our depots, our ambu-
lances, our provision-stores, and whence we may with
facility either advance or re-embark. This will not
prevent you on your arrival, should you deem it advis-
able, from lodging one or two divisions in the barracks
which are either to the west of Constantinople or at
Scutari.
“ As long as you are not in presence of the enemy,
the spreading of your troops cannot be attended with
inconvenience, and the presence of your troops at Con-
stantinople may produce a good moral effect ; but if,
perchance, after having advanced towards the Balkan,
you should be constrained to beat a retreat, it would
be much more advantageous to regain the coast of
Gallipoli than that of Constantinople ; for the Bussian i
06
QUENCH STRATEGY, E?&
would never venture to advance from Adrianople upon
Constantinople, leaving 60,000 good troops on their
right. . If, nevertheless, there should be the intention
of fortifying the line from Kara-su, in front of Con-
stantinople, it should only be done with the intention
of leaving its defence to the Turks alone ; for, I re-
peat it, our position would be more independent, more
redoubtable, when on the flanks of the Russian army,
than if we were blockaded in the Thracian penin-
sula.
“This first point established, and the Anglo-French
army once united on the shores of the Sea of Marmora,
you must concert measures with Omar Pacha and Lord
Raglan for the adoption of one of the three following
plans : —
“1. Either to advance to meet the Russians on the
Balkan.
“ 2. Or to seize upon the Crimea.
“ 3. Or to land at Odessa, or on any other point of
the Russian coast of the Black Sea.
“ In the first case, Yarna appears to me the most
important point to be occupied. The infantry might
be taken there by sea, and the cavalry more easily,
perhaps, by land. On no account ought the army to
go too far from the Black Sea, so as to be always in
free communication with its fleet.
“ In the second case, that of the occupation of the
Crimea, the place of landing must first be made sure
of, that it may take place at a distance from the enemy,
and that it may be speedily fortified, so as to serve
as a 'point d’appui to fall back upon in case of a re«
treat.
“ The capture of Sebastopol must not be attempted
without at least half a siege-train and a great number
of sand -bags. When within reach of the place, do not
omit seizing upon Balaklava, a little port situated about
four leagues south of Sebastopol, and by means of
which easy communications may be kept up with the
fleet during the siege.
SRircrnT troops.
gl
^In tlie third case, my principal recommendation is
— never to divide your army; to march always with ali
your troops united, for 40,000 compact men, ably
commanded, are always an imposing force ; divided, on
the contrary, they are nothing.
“ If compelled, on account of scarcity of provisions,
to divide the army, do so in such manner as always to
be able to unite it on one point within twenty.four
hours.
“ If, when marching, you form different columns,
establish a common rallying-point at some distance
from the enemy, that none of them may be attacked
singly.
“ If you drive back the Russians, do not go beyond
the Danube, unless the Austrians enter the lists.
“ As a general rule, every movement must be concer-
ted with the English Commander-in- chief. There are
only certain exceptional cases, where the safety of the
army might be concerned, when you might act on your
own resolution .”
The French Southampton and Liverpool were Tou-
lon and Marseilles in the stirring spring of 1854. The
French, being much more au fait in military matters
than the English, proceeded in their plans systematic-
ally and quickly. About the end of March the em-
barkation commenced; 20,000 troops and a large
number of horses were despatched on board 25 or 26
vessels, the whole of them sailing within a few days
of each other ; and other contingents took their de-
parture at a later date. The men were generally des-
patched from Toulon, the cavalry horses, munitions,
provisions, and camp material, from Marseilles.
By an arrangement between the two governments,
Malta was adopted as a midway resting-place for a
few of the French troops, in addition to the English
who had arrived; and thus the island became still
more animated and bustling. The Christophe Colovu
be and Mistral , which had left France on the 19th
of March, arrived at Malta on the 23rd, bringing
82
FRENCH TROOPS.
Generals Canrobert, Bosquet, and Martemprey, about
50 other officers, and 800 or 900 soldiers. It was a
singular scene to the men. Malta had perhaps never
before been visited by English and French troops at the
same time, except during the heat and strife of war j
and the soldiers now gazed upon each other with sur-
prise. The dress of the Highland regiments was a
strange garb to the eyes of the French troops, while
the Arab-like Zouaves of the French was no less surpri-
sing to the English. But these feelings soon gave way
to enthusiasm ; for the troops “ fraternised” with
each other in a cordial and hearty manner, and the
national anthems, God save the Queen , and Partant
pour la Syrkj were exchanged from ship to ship, and
band to band, in complimentary style. The Zouaves
were originally a tribe of Arabs, in or near the regency
of Algeria. When the French took possession of
that country, some of the Zouaves consented to join
their army ; and, being fearless, active, and dashing
fellows, they became great favourites: young Pari-
sians joined their corps, though in distinct compa-
nies; and by degrees there was formed a regular
branch of infantry under the name of Zouaves —
French in composition but Arab in dress — and suit-
ed for a particular kind of service in active warfare.
The 6tay of the French troops at Malta was mere-
ly temporary, a day or two, and then they would pro-
ceed on their voyage. The beginning of April found
French as well as English soldiers tossing on a fre-
quently boisterous sea, towards the Dardanelles. The
officers reached their destination in many ways — some
via Marseilles and Malta, some by the way of Vienna
and Trieste, while others took the sea-route from
Southampton to Gibraltar and the Levant.
A strange scene was presented to the Turks when
the Allies took possession of Gallipoli. This place
had been chosen rather hastily, it was thought, as the
centre of operations, or, at all events, as the depot of
the expeditionary French and English forces. It is
Q-ALliVOU.
85
& miserable den, a horrible conglomeration of dirty
slipshod Turks, dirty Jews, and cunning Greeks; and
is situated on the European side of the Dardanelles, at
the nearest extremity of the strait, just where it
commences to expand into the Sea of Marmora.
From the sea Gallipoli looks like a congregation of
red- roofed barns. It is a place much exposed to the
sun , but the camping ground beneath the hills is con-
sidered healthy, while it is an excellent spot in rela-
tion to the defence of Constantinople, where the army
could be transported with extreme celerity. But it is
not a place fitted to be a centre of action. It is al-
most on the narrowest portion of the spot of land
which, running between the Gulf of Saros on the
west and the Dardanelles on the east, forms the west-
ern side of the strait. An army encamped here com
mands the Egean and the Sea of Marmora, and could
be easily marched northward to the Balkan, or des-
patched to Asia or Constantinople. Besides, it is a
bad place to obtain provisions, fodder, and horses.
Food is dear, and the collection of so large a body of
men in so poor a district is inconvenient.
The French, who are the best foragers in the world,
having arrived first at Gallipoli, were at once active-
ly engaged in looking up the good things of this
earth. They chose the Turkish quarter which is
friendly; while the English were put in the Greek
quarter, filled by a population burning with hatred
for Turks and all friends of Turks.
Following up the search for lodgings, the newly ar-
rived from England or France must hunt up water ;
and such is the scarcity of attendants, that we are
credibly informed, on the very best authority, that the
correspondent of the Times was seen walking up the
street to his residence with a sheep’s liver on a stick,
some lard in his hand, and a loaf of black bread under
his arm. Butter there is none, meat but little, fish
unknown, ^ine good, and eggs come in great plenty.
The French, however, at once established coffee-
SALLIPOii.
$4
Louses, restaurants, etc., which was a great convcni*
ence to the officers. They enjoyed great advantage
from the fact that the local languages are better un-
derstood by them than by us. They also had the ad-
vantage of choice of situation and the usual reward of
being “ first come.” They are, moreover, not so
strictly particular as the British, and under any diffi-
culties try the effect of kicks and blows rather freely
upon the natives. “ Sometimes our servant,” says an
Englishman, “is sent out to cater for breakfast or
dinner — he returns with the usual, ‘Me and the
colonel’s servants have been all over the town, and can
get nothing but eggs and onions, sir,’ — and lo!
round the corner appears a red-breeched Zouave, or
chasseur, a bottle of wine under his left arm, half
a lamb under the other, and finally, fish and other
luxuries dangling round him — ‘I’m sure I don’t know
how these French in Algiers have got used to this
sort of thing. They have published a tariff of prices,
which the natives know nothing about ; but that is no
matter. A chasseur sees a fowl, he snatches hold of it,
gives the owner a franc, and without caring for his
rage and fury, marches off and devours his prize. The
English pay dearer for everything andean get no poul-
try at all. But it is already certain that the English will
be more popular than the Erench, from this very con-
sideration of character. The French have little respect
for the dead, and they have already outraged the feel-
ings of Gallipoli by making a road through a cemetery,
knocking down tombstones, turning up skulls, and
scoffing over their work with pipes in their mouths.
The natty little vivandiers are of considerable use to the
Erench army.”
By the 21st of April there were 22,000 French and
6000 English soldiers in the peninsula, cooped up in
quarters ill prepared for their reception. Gallipoli
presented at that time a motley spectacle to the troopa
which successively arrived. The elements of the East
and the West were there, mingled in utter confu»
doss*
GALLIPOLI.
85
The English officers and men complained strongly
of the privations and discomforts to which they were
subjected. Kustum Pasha, the Turkish governor, ef-
fected all that good-will could accomplish ; but he could
not render Gallipoli suddenly capable of accommoda-
ting: twice its ordinary number of inmates.
At a later period, when complaints reached the home-
government, flat contradictions were frequently given
in parliament concerning their truth ; and it appears
that if the government machinery had been fitted for
harmonious working, many of the discomforts ought
not to have been experienced ; but it was the want of
harmony which lay at the root of the evil. The Duke
of Newcastle, when examined before the Sabastopol
Committee, was asked whether, in his capacity as
minister of war, he had sought information as to the
capabilities of Turkey to furnish supplies for the wants
of the army, to which he replied : —
“ Directions were given to the commissariat officers, who
were sent out at the very commencement — on the 7th or
8th of February. Inquiries as to the capabilities of the
country were not, in the first instance, made in Bulgaria,
but were confined to KoumeHa — the first object being to
send troops to Gallipoli. Commissary-general Smith was
sent from Corfu, he being to a certain extent acquainted
with the languages of the East, Greek and Italian. He had
provided, I believe, generally speaking, sufficient supplies
before the arrival of any troops at all at Gallipoli. It was in
consequence of the recommendation of Sir J. Burgoyne,
on strategical grounds, that Gallipoli was occupied; that
officer’s opinion being confirmed by that of Colonel Ardent,
who had been sent by the Emperor of the French for a si-
milar purpose.
u What steps were taken to prepare for the reception of
troops at Gallipoli ? — Instructions were given to the commis-
sariat, who were informed of the number of troops for whom
they would have to provide.
“ Did you receive information that they had provided for
the wants of the army when it came ?— I did not receive
any such information from the commissariat directly. It
was not then under me. The commissariat corresponded
with the Treasury, and from the latter department l o
83
GALLIPOLI.
ceived information of its movements. I should say vast
supplies of all kinds were sent from England.
“ What supplies did you expect to find in the country
where the army was to be sent ? — Principally fresh meat,
and, of course, bread to the greatest extent to which it
could be obtained. In apprehension of the possibility of
the supply of bread there failing, a large supply of biscuit
was sent out from this country.
“As to forage for horses ? — I considered that ought to be
provided in that country, but provision was nevertheless
made for sending out provision from England. I appre-
hend none of that hay was landed at Gallipoli, as it was
sent from here in sailing-vessels, which would not arrive
until after the troops had left Gallipoli. Ho cavalry was
landed at that place.
“But the infantry had all their wants supplied at
Gallipoli ? — At first there were complaints : but, to the best
of my recollection, more of want of transport than of pro
visions.”
Many letters from officers and men found their way
into the newspapers : one of which we present as a
specimen of most of the others
“ Camp, Gallipoli, April 18.
“ Our encampment is very wretched, and hardly anything
except the men’s rations to be got to eat j no beer, or any-
thing but rum — “ one gill,” the same as the men. The com-
missariat-is dreadfully managed : nothing of any sort. The
French have everything — horses, provisions, good tents,
and every kind of protection against contingencies. To-
morrow morning, we march at six o’clock to another en-
camping-ground, where we are to throw up trenches, and
remain two months ; it is about seven miles from this place ;
the ground is beautifully situated, overlooking the Bay of
Gallipoli. It would be a good lesson for some of our go-
vernment to take a lesson from the French : the care and
attention paid to their troops are perfect. I had to pur-
chase a mule, and pay £11 for him. Everything is dear. I
cannot get any tea to drink ; I should have found it a great
comfort. The streets are horrible and the town is bad. I
never saw anything to equal it anywhere. We are all ob-
liged to sit on the ground, and eat what we can. My break-
fast consists of a piece of brown bread — no butter, and no
milk : and till yesterday our men got no breakfast. We
get eggs, and they are the only things to stand by at pro-
GALLIPOLI.
8?
sent, as the meat served out is so bad no one can touch it.
We have no potatoes, or any other kind of vegetables, ex-
cept onions. It is really more than a joke, and all owing
to the very bad management of our commissariat depart-
; ment.”
Thus we see that the commissariat, whether in fault
or not, had to bear the burden of censure — a burden
which those officers felt to be exceedingly unjust. A
private in one of the regiments wrote home thus :
“ The French are one hundred years in advance of us
in regard to military equipments for the field. We
are loaded like packhorses, with our knapsacks, cross-
belts, with sixty rounds of ammunition, haversa ck, and
an article termed a ‘canteen/ shaped like a butter
firkin, which would wear out a pair of trowsers in a
month. We were nicely fooled at home as to getting
all the things furnished to us at about cost-price. Wj
were to get the best London porter at 4d. per quart —
I have not seen a drop of porter since I came here.”
This “ London porter” grievance was bitterly dwelt up-
on by the men ; owing to clumsy management, the
casks of porter were far away from the spot where the
beverage was needed.
The principal portion of the army remained idle for
several weeks in and near Gallipoli. This idleness was,
however, not shared in by the sappers and engineers,
who were employed in forming a series of field- works
and intrenchments across the peninsula. English and
French troops worked in turn to construct these works.
The French camp was not far distant from that of the
English; and there was daily rounds of visitings be-
tween the troops of the two nations. The novelty of
the alliance raised a doubt in the minds of some con-
cerning the light in which the soldiers would regard
each other; and Lord Raglan judged it prudent to
issue the following order : —
“ The commander of the forces avails himself of the
earliest opportunity to impress upon the army the ne-
cessity of maintaining the strictest discipline; of re-
SB
GALLIPOLI.
specting persons and property, and the laws and usag-
es of the country they have been sent to aid and de-
fend ; particularly avoiding to enter mosques, church-
es, and the private dwellings of a people whose ha-
bits are peculiar and unlike those of other nations of
Europe. Lord Eaglan fully relies on the generals and
other officers of the army to afford him their support
in the suppression of disorders; and he confidently
hopes that the troops themselves, anxious to support
the character they have acquired elsewhere, will en-
deavour to become the examples of obedience, order,
and of attention to discipline, without which success
is impossible, and there would be evil instead of advan-
tage to those whose cause their sovereign has deemed
it proper to espouse. The army will, for the first time,
be a ssociated with an ally to whom it has been the lot
of the British nation to be opposed in the field for ma-
ny centuries. The gallantry and high military quali-
ties oi the French armies are matters of history; and
the alliance which has now been formed will, the com-
mander of the forces trusts, be of long duration, as
well as productive of the most important and the hap-
piest results. Lord Eaglan is aware, from personal
communication with the distinguished general who is
appointed to command the French army, Marshal St.
Arnaud, and many of the superior officers, that every
disposition exists through their ranks to cultivate the
best understanding with the British army, and to co-
operate most warmly with it. He entertains no doubt
that Her Majesty’s troops are animated with the same
spirit, and that the just ambition of each army will be
to acquire the confidence and good opinion of each
other.” Any doubt on this matter was speedily dis-
pelled ; the troops greeted each other heartily on all
occasions; and, indeed, the “fraternisation” was
at times so excessive, that a Zouave and a Highlander
on one occasion partially exchanged dresses under the
influence of an exhilarating cup, and appeared at mus-
ter the next morning in strange motley — kilt and bag-
gy red trousers having changed places,
SCUTARI.
89
The residence of the troops at and near Gallipoli,
gave abundant evidence that the French are far better
foragers than the English ; for the French hunted for
eggs, caught tortoises, gathered herbs, and made “ pot-
tages” which perfectly astonished their Anglican
neighbours.
Gallipoli having been found insufficient for the ac-
commodation of all the allied forces, the English, with
the exception of 6,000, were sent to Scutari, where the
Turkish government had provided for their recep-
tion.
The town of Scutari, which is well fortified, is the
capital of a pashalic in Albania, one of the most im-
portant in European Turkey. It contains a strong
citadel on a solitary rock, several mosques, and some
[Roman Catholic and Greek churches. The greater
part of the population are members of the Greek
church, and are presided over by a bishop of that
church. There is also a Homan Catholic bishop in
the place.
Scutari is built in a straggling manner upon un-
even ground. The population is about 20,000. They
are chiefly employed in making arms, the manufac-
ture of cotton and woollen goods, fishing, timber trade,
and the building of small vessels. Near Scutari is the
lake of Scutario, about sixteen miles long, and from
three to five broad. It is by means of the vessels
which ascend the river Bojano to this lake that a
great part of the trade of the place is carried on.
Scutari occupies the site of the ancient Scodra, the
capital of Illyria in the time of King Gentius, which
afterwards became a colony of the Homan Empire.
When Sir J ohn Hobhouse was on his travels in Al-
bania, about thirty years ago, the power of the chief
resident at Scutari was very considerable.
A correspondent wrote the following short note to
one of the papers, on the 25th of May : —
“ I have just been to see the camp of the English
at Scutari, and have took notice of their costume*
90
CONSTANTINOPLE.
The officers have rather more of a free*and«easy air
about them than accords with very strict notions of
military discipline. Whatever complaints may be
made of the choking stock, tight buttoning, and the
heavy encumbrances of the private soldier, nothing of
the sort is applicable to the costume of the officer.
On the whole, I am happy to say the English forces
are admirably equipped. The camps are pitched in
an excellent position, and well supplied with every-
thing needful for health and comfort. If there is a
little freedom of manner allowed, it is not carried, to
an improper extent. While the men are indulged as
far as circumstances will permit, they are still kept
in perfect discipline and order.”
A brief description of Constantinople will not be out
of place here.
Constantinople proper is situated on a triangular
tongue of land at the south-western outlet of the
Thracian Bosphorus. This tongue of land is form-
ed by an arm of the sea, which stretches from this
narrow strait almost a mile inland, the northern part
being the so-called Golden Horn, the harbour of Con-
stantinople, and the southern shores of the peninsula
on which the city stands being washed by the Sea of
Marmora. Accordingly the western side of Con-
stantinople stands in connexion with the Thracian
mainland, whilst eastward it stretches between the
two bodies of water last mentioned, to where the waves
of the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus, and the Sea of
Marmora mingle together.
This powerful quarter of Constantinople, has a cir-
cumference of nearly eleven and a half miles, and
is surrounded on the land side by a triple wall, built in
the Byzantine times, and partly restored by the Turks.
This wall is pierced by twenty-eight gates, and nine
smaller entrances. Through one of these gates, former-
ly called the gate of St.Romanus, and now Stop Ka-
pusi, or Cannon-gate, the Turks first rushed when they
captured Constantinople on the 29th of May, 1453*
CONSTANTINOPLE*
91
There are fifteen suburbs to Constantinople, the most
celebrated of which are Galata, Pera, Tophavna, Scu-
tari, and Kadikoi. Constantinople proper is built in
the form of terraces, on account of the hilly nature of
the ground, and accordingly presents, especially on the
side towards the Golden Horn, where its seven hills
come very prominently into view, a magnificent and
picturesque appearance with its countless gardens,
mosques, palaces, minarets, and towers. But a closer
inspection, to be sure, is only the more disappointing
from the meanness and filth which it discloses, even al-
though of late better buildings have been erected, many
of which are of stone. The most remarkable edifices
are the old and new seraglios (both of them imperial
palaces) ; the mosque of St. Sophia, formerly the church
of St. Sophia : the mosques of Soliman, Achmed, Mo-
hammed, Mahmoud, Selim, Bajazet, Osman, and the
little church of St. Sophia ; the castle of Seven Tow-
ers, where, formerly, when the Porte was involved in
war with foreign powers, the ambassadors of these pow-
ers were received in order to secure them from popu-
lar violence ; the obelisks of the ancient Hippodrome,
the greatest of the public squares in Constantinople,
called by the Turks, Atmeidan. The castle of the Se
ven Towers now serves as an arsenal and powder-maga-
zine. Amongst the monuments may further be men-
tioned the two great aqueducts, built by the emperors
Valens and Justinian; several great reservoirs, includ-
ing the Cisterna Basilica, with 336 columns, still in
good preservation, and the Cistern of Philoxenus, with
224 marble columns ; and lastly , the remains of the
Byzantine imperial palace, Magnaura. Of the numer-
ous columns of ancient Constantinople there are still
preserved that of Constantine, that of Theodosius in
the garden of the Seraglio, and that of Marcian. In the
suburb of Cassim Pasha is the palace of the Capitan
Pasha, and the great arsenal with its magazines and
dockyards. The suburb of Galata, inhabited by the
European merchants; is the staple place of trade, and
CONSTANTINOPLE*
contains many strongly. built warehouses and resident
tes. Here also stands the lofty and beautiful light-
house, whence there is an extensive prospect over land
and sea. With the suburbs of Cassim Pasha, Constan-
tinople is joined by three bridges. On the Bosphorus
lies Top-fcaliana, with the imperial cannon-foun-
dry, a beautiful mosque built by Mahmoud II., and an
elegant fountain. On the mountain which lies in the
rear of this suburb, Pera is built, the ambassadors’ quar-
ter, with its fine and magnificent palaces. Here the va-
rious elegancies of the west are combined — a good Ita-
lian Opera, splendid and convenient hotels, and sump-
tuous shops of every kind. Besides the Pranks, many
Greeks and Armenians reside in Pera. The Greeks
also form the principal part of the population of Fa-
nar, a quarter of the city which lies along the harbour,
as well as the suburb Dimitri. On the other side of
the Bosphorus lies Scutari, in the front of which, on the
Bosphorus, is situated the Tower of Leander. It was
anciently called Damalit, and was rebuilt in 1143 by
Manuel Commenus, in order to part off the Bospho-
rus and the Golden Horn with iron chains. In Eyub,
which is inhabited exclusively by the Turks, is the se-
pulchre of Eyub, the Prophet’s standard-bearer, and a
mosque in which every successive sultan is girt with
the sword of Osman on his accession — a ceremony
which amongst the Turks stands in the place of coro-
nation. In this mosque is also deposited the standard
of the prophet, the great palladium of the empire, call-
ed in Turkish Sandshak-sherif. On the Bosphorus,
moreover, are situated the suburbs Dolmabagdsche
and Tsheragen, with the superb palaces of the sul-
tan.
The number of houses in the entire city of Constanti-
nople is about 90,000, that of the inhabitants 800,000,
only the half of whom profess the religion of Islam.
It contains more than three hundred mosques, fourteen
Greek churches, nine Catholic churches, wit h two cha-
|*els i and six monasteries, one Anglican, one Scotch, and
(SOtfStAsrfi iroptft
§3
One other Protestant congregation with their chapels,
and numerous Jewish synagogues. Of educational in-
stitutions, Constantinople has three hundred medresses
in which the Ulemas or Turkish clergy are trained — -
three hundred and ninety-six maktab, or elementary
schools, a marine school; an academy in which in-
struction is given in mathematics, astronomy, and the
science of engineering and artillery ; an academy of
sciences, a school of medicine, a Greek gymnasium, and
a veterinary college. The erection of a university is
projected. The benevolent institutions, which are very
numerous, consist for the most part of provision stores
for the poor, called Imarets. The institutions of the
Franks consist of a Societa artigiana di pieta , a
charity for the support of poor workmen ; two Ger-
man, one English, one French, and an Austrian hos-
pital, in which poor sick persons belonging to the
several countries are tended, and provided for gratuit-
ously. Constantinople has forty public libraries,
thirteen of which are Turkish. It numbers three
Turkish and several European printing-offices, in which
two Turkish, one French, one Greek, one Armenian,
one Bulgarian, and several Italian newspapers, are
printed. The number of public baths is nearly three
thousand. Barracks, guard-houses, bazaars, mosques,
warehouses, hospitals, and coffee-houses, are very
numerous.
On the 24th of May, being the Queen’s birthday,
15,000 British troops were paraded on the outskirts of
Scutari, the spectators being a few Turks, who cared
sufficiently about it to walk half a mile, and a large
number of foreigners from the opposite side of the Bos-
phorus. N early all the principal officers were present,
including Lord Eaglan, the Duke of Cambridge, the
Earl of Lucan, Sir George Brown, Sir De Lacy Evans,
Sir Colin Campbell, and Generals Bentinck, Pennefa-
ther, Airey, Adams, Buffer, &c.
But it was at Constantinople that the gay trappings
pf war were exhibited in the highest splendour, to the
astonishment and admiration of the Turks. This was
a review of the French troops.
The following account is from an eye-witness : — “ At
nine o’clock in the morning an immense crowd hasten-
ed from Constantinople to witness a spectacle so unu-
sual in Turkey. Soon after, the troops began to leave
their barracks and take up their respective positions on
the vast plain between Daout Pasha and the military
hospital of Bami Tachiftilik. They formed into two
lines on the road which intersects the plain. It was a
sight well worth seeing to observe the movements not
merely of the troops, but of the numerous spectators.
The Turks, both men and women, kept going among
the ranks, and examining with the greatest curiosity
the costumes of the soldiers, their arms, and their varied
evolutions. Not even the slightest movement escaped
their prying observation. The Zouaves from Algeria
especially attracted their attention, on account of their
Oriental costume. At first they took them for Turks;
but when they heard them speak French, they stared
with amazement, and went to the Europeans in the
crowd, and asked them with a comic sort of simplicity
whether the green turbans were really French.
“At about noon Prince Napoleon arrived with a nu-
merous staff of attendant officers, and was the object of
much curiosity, on account of the name he bears, as
well as the responsible office he fills. An hour after,
the cortege of the Sultan was seen in the distance.
The prince then drew up with his staff to receive him
with due honour. The Sultan came mounted on a
splendid horse, with Marshal St. Arnaud on his right
hand. After them came a numerous and brilliant suite,
consisting of officers of the palace and the marshal’s
staff. The troops immediately presented arms, and
the Sultan halted at the head of the line to salute the
prince, and, after conversing with him and the marshal
for some time, he passed along to witness the review
of the troops, which was accompanied by the music of
the band of light infantry. Prince Napoleon continu-
COtfSTAHTIffOrLE.
£5
ed by the side of Marshal Arnaud. The Sultan passed
slowly through all the ranks, stopping every now and
then to examine anything that took his attention, and
asking questions of the prince and the marshal. He
expressed himself highly delighted with the condition
and discipline of the troops, and lavished flattering com-
pliments upon their commanders.
“ After having carefully observed everything, the Sul-
tan retired to a magnificent tent which had been pre-
pared for his reception. There the lady of Marshal
St. Arnaud was presented to him, and received from
him every possible mark of attention and respect.
Shortly afterwards the troops defiled in front oi the
tent, under the command of Prince Napoleon. Then
came a battalion of Turkish infantry, a squadron of
lancers, and two batteries of artillery. When all was
over, the Sultan returned to his palace, with Marshal
St. Arnaud on his right, and abreast with him. This was
the first time that such an honour was ever conferred
by any Turkish sovereign, as to allow another to
accompany him side by side, and on a level with him.
Usualfy, those who ride with him are a little in advance
or behind. It is also the first time that a Sultan wa
seen in public, familiarly conversing with Christians.
Formerly such a liberty would have been deemed fatal
presumption. We cannot but hope that this break-
down of old prejudices and barriers to free communi-
cation with Western Europe will be attended with the
happiest efforts, not only in Turkey, but also through-
out the whole of Europe.”
During the stay of the Allied armies at or near Con-
stantinople, many of the Turkish boatmen reaped a
rich harvest from the officers belonging to the army.
So many courtesies were exchanged between the
French officers at Pera, and the English officers at
Scutari, that the boatmen were fully employed.
We must now advance a further stage in the pro-
ceedings of the Allies, that is, the expedition to Varna.
This Turkish seaport is on the western shore of the
VAStfA,
Black Sea, about 180 miles from Constantinople, 100
north-east of Adrianople, by land, and 100 south-east
of Silistria. The siege of Silistria was taking place at
the time when the Allied army arrived at Varna, and
it was partly on that account that the army moved to
Varna. This town bears a somewhat similar appear-
ance to most others in the Turkish territory — it is
crooked, irregular, dirty, dilapidated, and unfitted for the
accommodation of either visitors or the carrying on of
mercantile transactions. Thus the Allies found it when
necessitated to make it a temporary military residence.
The first division of British troops which reached
Varna, consisted of the 7 th and 23rd Fusileers, the
Connaught Bangers, the rifle-brigade, the 33rd, 77th,
and 19th — 6000 or 7000 men in all. — These troops were
assisted in their disembarkation by the boats of the
Allied fleets, which were then stationed near Varna.
Other portions of the British army arrived at different
times, either from Malta or direct from England. The
Himalaya brought 300 or 400 of the 6th Dragoon
Guards, with all their horses, direct from Cork to Var-
na, in the short space of twelve days. There were three
camps of the British army — one near Varna; one at
Aladyn, nine or ten miles distant; and a third at
Devno or Devna, eighteen or twenty miles inland from
Varna. Omar Pasha had provided an immense num-
ber of horses, oxen, buffaloes, and carts, to assist in
conveying stores and provisions from the shore to the
camps.
The troops, when they landed at Varna, did not ex-
pect that they were to remain in such an unhealthy
situation for seventeen weeks. Some of the more ex-
perienced officers entertained doubts respecting the sa-
lubrity of the places where the camps were pitched ;
and when General Canrobert visited the camps after-
wards, he expressed an opinion that they were exposed
to the liability of malaria, and its attendant agues and
fevers.
By the end of June, the neighbourhood of Varna had
VkWtA. i
97
become one huge camp of 60,000 English, French, and
Turks ; while 600 vessels lay in Kavarna Bay, ready
to ship English troops from Varna, or French from
Baltschik. When the news reached Varna that the
siege of Silistria was raised, all hopes of sharing the
honour of beating the Russians in that quarter were at
an end ; and officers and men began to speculate on the
future events before them.
Prince Napoleon arrived at Varna in the third week
in June, and took the command of one of the Erench
divisions; and fresh acquisitions of English and
French troops continued to arrive in the bay. The
Duke of Cambridge at first fixed his quarters at Var-
na, but afterwards camped out near the men of his di-
vision.
Great dissatisfaction was manifested by both officers
and men belonging to the English army, at the inade-
quate supplies of almost every requisite necessary for
the due performance of military duties. The want of
draught -horses or other beasts of burden, was severely
felt ; and, of course, the commissariat officers fell in
for perhaps more than their merited share of blame.
It is therefore nothing but right that an eye-witness
should say a word or two in their defence. The Times
correspondent at that place wrote: — “A commissariat
officer is not made in a day, nor can the most lavish
expenditure effect the work of years, or atone for the
want of experience. The hardest- working Treasury-
clerk — and, I must say, they all evince the greatest
zeal and most untiring diligence in the discharge of
their duties — has necessarily much to learn ere he can
become an efficient commissariat- officer in a country
which old campaigners declare to be the most difficult
they ever were in for procuring supplies. Let those
who have any recollections of Chobham, just imagine
that famous encampment to be placed about ten miles
from the sea, in the midst of a country utterly deserted
by the inhabitants, the railways from London stopped
up, the supplies by cart or waggon cut off, corn scarce-*
246 <3r
V ABIT A.
iy procurable, carriages impossible, and the only com*
munication between camp and port carried on by means
of buffalo and bullock arabas travelling about one
and a half mile an hour — and they will be able to
form some faint idea of the difficulties of getting the
requisite necessaries out here. Besides, here we are
absolutely at war — obliged to carry enormous masses
<?f ammunition, as well as tents and tent-equipage,
provisions for the men, medical stores, all the various
articles and means for cooking, &c., through a country
which, to all intents and purposes, is held by enemies
(in so far as the Bulgarians hate the Turks). To give
you a notion of the requirements of such a body as this
army Df 25,000 men in the field, I may observe that it
was stated to me on good authority the other day,
that not less than 13,000 horses and mules would
be required for the conveyance of baggage and stores.
About twelve o’clock to-day, just as the officers were
making preparations for their start to-morrow morn-
ing, orders were received countermanding those which
had been issued for the march of the division ; and it
may be inferred, that the difficulties of which I was
just writing when the aide-de- camp arrived have been
found to be insuperable, and that the commissariat
has not been able to provide the means of conveyance
for the stores, either of Sir George Brown’s or of the
Duke of Cambridge’s division. To continue my re-
marks on the nature of these difficulties, I may ob-
serve, that not only is it a work of time, labour, and
money to find horses, mules, and buffaloes, bullock and
araba carts, required for our march, but that when we
get them we cannot keep them. Buffalo and bullock
carts and their drivers vanish into thin air in the space
of a night. A Bulgarian is a human being after all.”
On another occasion the same well-informed author-
ity wrote as follows : — “The report in the camp is, that
the commissariat declare themselves unable to comply
with the requisitions for moving the division, and that
therefore we do not move to-morrow, or probably the
TAS1TA.
m
aext day. I regret very mueli to have to state, that
tor several days last week there was neither rice, nor
sugar, nor preserved potatoes, nor tea, nor any substi-
tute for these articles, issued to the men ; they had
therefore, to make their breakfast simply on ration
brown bread and water. The dinners of the men con-
sisted of lean ration- beef boiled in water, and eaten,
with brown bread, without any seasoning to flavour it.
The supplies ran out, and it was no fault of the com-
missariat that they did so. Who was to blame, I don’t
pretend to say. No one,” it is remarked by the same
authority, “ unacquainted with the actual requirements
of an army, can form an adequate notion of the various
duties which devolve upon an English commissariat-
officer, or of the enormous quantity of stores required
for the daily use of men and horses. In the middle
of July, when most of the^ troops in the English
army were quartered at distances varying from ten
to twenty miles from Varna, there were required
daily for the men, 27,000 pounds of bread, 27,000
pounds of meat, besides rice, tea, coffee, sugar, &c. :
and for the horses, 110,000 pounds of corn, chopped
straw, &c.” Besides being responsible for the sup-
ply of these immense quantities, the commissariat-
officers were burdened by the strange organization of
the service, with the duty of providing horses, carts,
saddles, tents, and interpreters.
But soon a more severe calamity than occasional
want of supplies, visited the army. Disease and death
began to spread rapidly throughout the camps.
The troops had been stationed generally in accord-
ance with the advice of Omar Pasha, who had been ap-
pealed to on the occasion ; though in one single instance
some troops were located near to a lake, contrary to his
advice ; hence arose the commencement of that sickness
which proved such a scourge to the Allied armies.
In the middle of June slight sickness was experien-
ced throughout the camps. The French were attack-
ed more severely than the English ; and the Turks and
100
Egyptians more severely than either. lumbers of
officers, being placed on the sick list, returned home
when able to do so. When the heats of J uly arrived,
military ardour was very much damped by disease.
The still hotter month of August approached, and sick-
nessincreased greatly in the camps. Many were afflicted
with cholera; nearly all with diarrhoea. The Duke of
Cambridge was among the officers ati acked with illness*
The First Division, the Light Division, and the Third
Division, were all attacked, more or less ; and it be-
came a melancholy task for the men to bury their dead
companions by dozens and scores. Upon the French,
however, the dread disease fell with the greatest sever-
ity ; and they sank under it at the rate of 60 to 100
per day. A portion of the French army, under Gen-
eral Canrobert, had gone from Yarna to the margin of
the Dobrudscha; to these were added 2500 Zouaves,
who went by sea from Varna to Kustendji; and these
unfortunate troops, passing through a marsh where
the Russians had left dead men and horses, were
struck down by whole companies. Canrobert left
nearly 3000 of his hapless troops in that valley of
death.
The French generals, amid these disheartening
events, foased up the spirit of their troops by animating
proclamations, commending in energetic terms their
fortitude and endurance ; and bidding them look for-
ward to triumphant success in the cause in which they
were engaged. Marshal St. Arnaud issued the follow-
ing spirited document when the troops were about to
leave Varna for the Crimea: —
“ Soldiers ! — You have just given fine examples of per-
severance, calmness, and energy, in the midst of painful
circumstances which must now be forgotten. The hour is
come to fight and to conquer. The enemy did not wait for
us on the Danube. His columns, demoralised and destroy-
ed by disease, are painfully retiring. It is Providence,
perhaps, that has wished to spare us the trial of these un-
healthy countries ; it is Providence, also, which calls us to
the Crimea, a country as healthy as our own, and to Sebas*
vxwxa .
101
topol, the seat of the Russian power, within whose walls we
go to seek together the pledge of peace, and of cur return
to our homes. The enterprise is grand, and worthy of you.
You will realize it by the aid of the most formidable mili-
tary and naval force that has ever been seen collected.
The Allied fleets, with their 3000 cannons, and their 25,000
brave seamen, your emulators and your compauions-in-
arms, will bear to the Crimea an English army, whose high
courage your forefathers learned to respect ; a chosen di-
vision of those Ottoman soldiers who have just approved
themselves in your eyes; and a French army, which I have
the right and pride to call the elite of our whole army. I
see in this more than pledges of success. I see in it suc-
cess itself. Generals, commanders of corps, officers of all
arms, you will partake of the confidence with which my
mind is filled, and will impart it to your soldiers. We shall
soon salute the three united flags floating together on the
ramparts of Sebastopol with our national cry, ** Vive
V Emjpereur V*
“ A. de Si Arnaud.
“ Head-quarters, Yaena, August 25.’*
The ardour and enthusiasm of the French troops were
further heightened by a proclamation from the Em-
peror, issued about the same time. The document was
in the following animating terms : —
“ Soldiers and Sailors of the Army of the East !—
You have not fought, but already you have obtained a sig-
nal success. Your presence, and that of the English troops,
have sufficed to compel the enemy to recross the Danube,
and the Russian vessels remain ingloriously in their ports.
You have not yet fought, and already you have struggled
courageously against death. A scourge, fatal though tran-
sitory, has not arfested your ardour. France, and the
sovereign whom she has chosen, cannot witness without
deep emotion, or without making every effort to give assist-
ance to such energy and such sacrifices.
“ The First Consul said, in 17 97, in a proclamation to his
army : * The first quality required in a soldier, is the pow-
er of supporting fatigues and privations. Courage is only
a secondary one.’ The first you are now displaying. Who
can deny you the possession of the second ? Therefore it
is that your enemies, disseminated from Finland to the
Caucasus, are seeking anxiously to discover the point upon
svbich France and England will direct their attacks, whic^
102
THE BLACK SEA FLEETS
they foresee will be decisive ; for right, justice, and war-
like inspiration are on our side.
“ Already, Bomarsund and 2000 prisoners have just fallen
into our power. Soldiers 1 you will follow the example of
the army of Egypt. The conquerors of the Pyramids and
Mont Thabor had, like you, to contend against warlike sol-
diers and disease ; but, in spite of pestilence and the efforts
of three armies, they returned with honour to their coun-
try. Soldiers ! have confidence in your General-in-chief
and in me. I am watching over you, and I hope, with the
assistance of God, soon to see a diminution of your suffer-
ings and an increase of your glory.
“ Soldiers I farewell, till we meet again.
“Napoleon. 5 *
When convalescence was in some measure restored
among the troops, active preparations were commenc-
ed to move the Allied army from Varna to the Crimea.
We shall, however, leave the troops for a short time,
and attend to operations occurring in other parts. Our
reader’s attention will be first directed to what was tak-
ing place on the shores of the Black Sea.
The Allied fleets, the English under the command
of Admiral Dundas, and the French under Admiral
Hamelin, entered the Black Sea at the commencement
of the year 1854. Among the principal men-of-war
composing the English fleet, were the Britannia , Al-
bion, Jupiter, Vengeance, Sanspareil, Rodney , Belle ro-
phon, Trafalgar, Agamemnon, London, Queen, and
Terrible ; while the French sent out the Bayard, Ville
de Paris, Jena , Henri IV, Valmy , Friedlancl, Charle-
magne, Descar tes, tyc. The largest of these vessels were
steamers ; and accordingly the Black Sea in 1854 in-
troduced a new era in the history of naval warfare. A
signal was hoisted on the flag-ship — “ Turks are to be
protected from all aggressions by sea and land !” This
was the first intimation that the Allies would employ
the force of arms against Russia, if necessary.
No event of any importance occurred during the stay
of the Allied fleets in the Black Sea, at this time.
Some five or six vessels were despatched as an escort to
ft Turkish flotilla carrying arms and ammunition to
THE BLACK SEA FLEETS.
103
Trebizond and Batoum — Turkish ports on the south-
ern and south-eastern shores of the Black Sea. The
presence of the Allied fleets in the Black Sea, no doubt,
prevented the Russian war ships from attacking the
Turkish forts ; but having not been empowered by the
home authorities to make any active demonstration
against the Russians, the fleets, after remaining a few
weeks, returned to the Bosphorus.
At the beginning of March, Admiral Dundas des-
patched Captain Jones in the Sampson , on a recon-
noitring cruise along the coast of Anatolia, Georgia,
Circassia, and the Crimea, from which he returned
to Beicos Bay about the 12th of the month ; and
soon after the Allied fleets sailed from the Bospho-
rus, and anchored in Kavarna Bay, a portion of the
Black Sea. a little northward of Varna. The fleets
consisted at this time of ten English and eight French
line-of-battle ships, with six English and six French
steamers, of smaller size; others were added after-
wards.
The Russian coasts of the Black Sea, at the com-
mencement of the war, were very little known to the
English and French admirals ; the jealousy between
the various powers having restricted the facilities for
the entrance of ships of war into that sea. The Rus-
sian portion of this coast commenced at the eastern-
most extremity of the sea, marked by Fort St. Nikola'ia,
near to which, on the Turkish border, is Batoum. This
point is 330 miles eastward of Sinope. From thence
the Russians possessed all the coast to the Sea of Azof,
the entrance to which is formed by the straits of Yeni-
kale or Kertch ; then, all the coast of the Crimea ; and,
lastly, the north-western coast of the Black Sea, from
Perekop, past Kherson and Odessa, to the mouths of
the Danube. Silently and perseveringly did the czars
build fort after fort along this extensive line of coast;
and it became essentially necessary, on the breaking
out of war, that the Allies should know something con-
cerning the number gnd strength of these posts* A|
104
THE BLACK SEA FLEETS.
that time, the chief of the forts eastward of the Crimea
was at Anapa, a distance of a few miles from the straits
of Yenikaie. This important fortress, originally con-
structed by the Turks to protect their commerce with
the tribes of the Caucasus, had been afterwards con-
verted by the Russians into a strong military position.
Commercially, it is of little importance, for the harbour
is open to every wind, and can only be used in the fine
season. The western chain of the Caucasus commen-
ces at Anapa ; and this was practically the eastern lim-
it of Russian power in that sea ; for the Circassians
laid claim to all the coast, and the Russians have never
succeeded in establishing any first-class fort beyond
Anapa. The forts further east have always been iso-
lated ; the garrison being in danger of destruction if
they left the protection of stone walls. At a short
distance from the coast are mountains and forests,
among which the Circassians and other tribes find a
home; the Russians have seldom yet been left by these
tribes in quiet possession of the north-east shores of
the Black Sea. At the period of the commencement
of the war, the first Russian fort eastward of Anapa
was Soudjuk Rale (Sudjuk Kaleh), defended by three
redoubts ; it was at this place that a Russian squadron
captured the British ship Vixen , causing thereby great
diplomatic excitement in 1837. Next to this was Ghe-
lendjik (Gelendshik,) possessing a fine and safe har-
bour, and regarded by the Russians as a place of much
importance : a flotilla being there located, to watch the
movements of the Circassians. A few miles further
east is the Bay of Pchiat, at the entrance of which the
Russians built a fort in 1837. Numerous little bays
then occur, fringed with villages, the inhabitants of
which have succeeded in repelling all hostile attacks of
the Russians. After passing Xavakinskoi and Gagri,
there were presented Pozunda and Bomborai in Aba-
sia; and then SoucoumXale (Suchum Xaleh,) posses-
sing one of the best bays in this part of the coast. At
the mouth of the small river Ingour was Port Anakli$*
THE BLACK. SEA FLEETS.
105
Be doubt Kale and Poti, at the mouths of two other
small rivers, were also provided with Russian forts.
The last Russian fort was at St. Nikola'ia, near the
boundary between the ancient provinces of Mingrelia,
and Gouriel. The Russian forts, from the Straits of
Yenikale to the Turkish frontier, were about sixteen
in number.
Many a cruise was made during the summer to these
Circassian coasts, first as a mere matter of reconnois-
Bance, but, after the declaration of war, as a means of
conquest, or destruction. Fort after fort was visited,
and the exact state of all ascertained. These forts were
mostly alike, and generally situated at the mouths of
rivers ; and most of them were found to be construct-
ed of sandstone, brought from Kertch. Each fort had
a garrison 500 to 1000 men, living in wooden barracks.
Most of these forts were blown up, after the garrisons
had been removed, to prevent them being captured by
the Allies. Sir Edmund Lyons, with the Agamemnon,
Charlemagne , Highflyer , Sampson, and Mogador, ap-
peared off Redoubt Kale, on the 19th of May ; he saw
Russian officers on the parapet of the fort, and Cos-
sacks galloping at full speed from the beach towards
the town; he sent a flag of truce, demanding the im-
mediate evacuation of the place. The Russians remit-
ted an evasive answer, to gain time; and just before
the ships were about to open fire, masses of smoke be*
gan to ascend from the town — the Russians had fired
it. The conflagration became very striking ; houses
and trees burned together during the whole night;
and fierce flames and lurid smoke illuminated the decks
of the ships. Redoubt Kale was the most important
of all the Russian forts between Anapa and the Turk-
ish frontier; it was on the Georgian coast, command-
ing the communication between Tiflis and the Black
Sea, and was the place of landing for many of the
troops of the Russian army in Asia. Redoubt Kale,
or what remained of it, was handed over to the keep-
ing of the Turks as soon as the Allies had fright enec$
103
THE BLACK SEA FLEETS.
the Russians from it ; the Turks proceeded immedi-
ately to repair some of the fortifications; while the
Sampson , under Captain Jones, remained in the har-
bour as a protection.
About the middle of March, just previous to the ac-
tual declaration of war, but when war was inevitable,
the Emperor Nicholas had ordered the abandonment
of all the forts, except three of the most importance—
namely, Anapa, Soudjuk Kale, and Redoubt Kale,
and thus it arose that the forced evacuation of the
last named was regarded as important by the Al-
lies. Sir Edmund Lyons, in the course of this
expedition, examined the Straits of Yenikale, open-
ing into the important Sea of Azof; but the result
of his examination was to deter him from imme-
diate operations in that quarter, owing to the shal-
lowness of the water. One of his ships grounded
in water marked “ deep” on the Russian charts, and
was with difficulty set afloat again ; this, and many
other events during the war, introduced a belief in some
quarters, that the Russian authorities had purposely
sanctioned the dissemination of erroneous charts, so as
to entrap their enemies.
Viewed in relation to the immediate necessities of the
Turks, the east end of the Black Sea was regarded by
the Allies as of more importance than the northern
coast ; and it was on this account that one or two ships
of war remained for several weeks off Redoubt Kale.
Nor was the precaution superfluous: for the Russians,
in June, returned to the place, from the heart of Geor-
gia, and would perhaps have besieged it but for the
presence of a couple of formidable war- steamers.
During the first two or three months of the year
1854, the Turkish fleet was not applied to much use
by the Allied admirals ; but on the 4th of May, it left
Constantinople for the Black Sea, after a long deten-
tion in the Bay of Buyukdere. It was a fine fleet of
22 ships, comprising one first-rate of 124 guns, the
filaJwoudie; three of 104 guns; two of 90; two o|
THE BLACK SEA FLEETS.
107
84 ; and one o f 74. One of the 84 gun ships, the Tech-
rife, was commanded by an Englishman, who had
been many years in the Turkish service— Admiral
Slade, under his Oriental designation of Mouchavir
Pasha. The fleet also comprised three large frigates,
two brigs, and seven or eight steamers. The fleet
was inspected before its departure by Mehemet, the
Capudan Pasha. Admiral Slade, combining his ex-
perience as an English naval officer with his know-
ledge of Turks and Turkey, was a valuable coadju-
tor in the fleet. This fleet, after conference with the
Allied admirals, was bound for the Circassian coast,
to aid in those operations already described. It ap-
pears, however, that little as the English and Erenck
fleets effected in the Black Sea during that year, the
Turks were permitted hardly any share even in that
little. A correspondent at Constantinople, of one of
the journals, writing in August, thus commented on
the matter : “With all deference ti nautical men, it
may be allowed to regret that this squadron, strong in
the number and size of its vessels, and in, at least, the
valour and determination of its crews, was not turned
to a better use during its last visit to the Black Sea.
To hear the contemptuous manner in which the Eng
lish officers have spoken of it, and of the necessity of
keeping it quiet for fear of its impeding the operations
of the Allies, one would think that a succession of Tra-
falgar had occupied the last few months, and that these
inexpert Mussulmans had been condemned to Balts-
chik Bay that they might not interfere with the ac-
tivity and brilliancy of our own operations. But
where nothing is done, the Turk stands as high as his
supercilious critics. No doubt the Ottoman sailors,
though capable of obstinate resistance in a fight like
that of Sinope, are not sufficiently skilful for elabo-
rate evolutions; still, they might have been made
more serviceable than they were during their two
months in harbour, where they died of starvation and
scurvy, and were as useless as if they had remained
108 THE BLACK SEA FLEETS.
within the Bosphorus. * * The unhappy Turks
were left, without money or necessaries, to starve in
the sight of plenty, and perish with disease, close to
crews in perfect health. They saw provisions bought
up and taken to the Allied fleet, while they had no-
thing but ther wretched allowances ; they became de-
moralised and dispirited, and out of their moderate
squadron they lost 1000 men.” The Turks had, in-
deed, no great reason to be delighted with their Allies,
who failed to come to their aid during the critical exi-
gencies of the Danubian campaign and the siege of
Silistria, and neglected their willing and well-meant
co-operation in naval matters.
We will now notice the active operations of the
great fleet in the Black Sea, during the spring and
summer of 1854.
The welcome tidings of the Declaration of War
reached the fleets in Kavarna Bay on the 9 th of April,
and caused great joy amongst both officers and men.
On the 13th of April, before the proclamation of war
could have reached Odessa, the Furious was fired up-
on when it went there with a flag of truce to fetch
the English consul. So foul a breach of the law of
nations, so gross a violation of the usages even of
war, could not be allowed to go unpunished. Accord-
ingly Admirals Dundas and Hamelin no sooner re-
ceived intelligence of this last specimen of Russian per-
fidy and barbarity, than they determined upon steps
for taking reprisals. As the place is rather a mer-
cantile port than a military station, they deemed it
unnecessary to bring any great display of force against
it. They contented themselves with six three-deckers,
thirteen two-deckers, and eight or nine steam frigates.
At the same time, the affair appeared to them of suf-
ficient importance to justify their going in person to
superintend the operations. On the 21st of April, at
about four o’clock in the afternoon, they cast anchor
two miles from the town. They immediately 6ent a
flag of truce with a demand for the surrender of ihf
Bombardment oe Odessa. 10$
I Russian, English, and French vessels in the quaran-
tine harbour No answer having been returned, the
nine steamers commenced an attack upon the batter-
ies of the Imperial Mole at half past six on the morn-
ing of the 22nd of April. Though the steamers were
none of them large — the heaviest of the fleet carrying
only twenty eight guns — yet, with the assistance of
boats, from which the congreve rockets were discharg-
ed, they did plenty of execution, as appears from the
following despatch received by the Turkish ambassa-
dor at Vienna :
“ I have just received the following despatch from
Belgrade; it has been communicated to me by Omar
Pasha, who begged me to transmit it to you. Eight
steam frigates belonging to the combined fleet proceed-
ed to Odessa, and commenced bombarding the military
port on the 2-nd. In a few hours they destroyed all
the fortifications, the batteries, and the military estab-
lishments of the Russians. Two powder magazinies
blew up, and 12 of the enemy’s vessels were sunk.
The commercial port was spared, and merchant ves-
sels escaped. Thirteen Russian vessels, laden with
stores and ammunition, were captured.”
“The town of Odessa was defended by four batter-
ies, which were constructed about the beginning of
this year, and were placed as follows: — The first, of 13
guns, on the mole of the quarantine port, defending
the entrance of the great roadstead ; the second, of
six guns, below the boulevard and to the right of the
flight of steps which comes down to the sea, and di-
vides the boulevard in two ; this battery defends the
quarantine port; the third to the left of the steps,
placed in such a manner as to cross its fire with
that of the second battery, and to command the road-
stead; the fourth on the quay of the 'port de pratique
below the Palace of Prince Woronzoff ; each of these
two last named batteries had eight guns. In addition
to these four batteries there were three others ; one on
the opposite side of the Gulf of Odessa, at the Russian
iio
LOSS OF THE TIGElt,
village of Dofinofka, nearly opposite the quarantine
port ; the other, to the south of the port, near the
country-house of the Countess of Langeron ; and the
third, in the same direction, and near the Cape of the
Great Fountain, where a lighthouse is also placed.”
It reflects the highest honour upon the admirals that
such precautions were taken to avoid doing any more
injury than was absolutely unavoidable to the com-
mercial part of the harbour and town ; and it is satis-
factory to know that those precautions were not with-
out effect. This careful discrimination forms a strik-
ing contrast with the wholesale slaughter perpetrated
under circumstances of the grossest barbarity upon
all alike at Sinope. Instinctively as we shrink from
the thought of so fearful a waste of human life as these
scenes involve, it is difficult not to regard with a satis-
faction equally instinctive the just retribution for that
brutal outrage which the Imperial autocrat had the
daring effrontory to make the theme of a grand na-
tional thanksgiving to the God of justice, mercy, and
truth.
The policy of sparing Odessa may however be ques-
tioned, as it afterwards proved the principal depot for
provisioning the Russian troops during the continuance
of the war.
Soon after this event, the Tiger , Vesuvius , and
Niger , were detached from the Allied fleets, and or-
dered to reconnoitre Odessa, concerning which the ad-
mirals appear to have remained in some anxiety. A
dense fog speedily led to the separation of the three
ships ; and on the evening of the 12 th of May, at about
six o’clock, the Tiger ran aground, four or five
miles from Odessa, near a light-house, and under
a high cliff. The crew immediately got out her boats,
laid t^ie anchor astern, and lightened her by throwing
the guns overboard. The Russians, on the look-out
above, did not fail to take advantage of the situation
of the unfortunate ship. The seamen were annoyed
with musketry while employed in endeavouring to re-
LOSS OP THE TIGEE.
ill
lieve their vessel; and about nine o’clock, the firing
became still more determined, by the employment of
field-pieces. The luckless Tiger — a steamer of six-
teen guns, and about 1270 tons burden — resisted until
Captain Giffard had received desperate wounds, and a
midshipman and two seamen were killed, and one
wounded. The captain, seeing his hopeless condition,
stiuck his flag, and the Russians took the crew pri-
soners. At this critical time, the Niger and Vesuvius
hove in sight. The Russians therefore ordered the
prisoners to hasten on shore, or they would again fire;
and when the two steamers came within gunshot, the
prisoners were placed in front of the Russians on the
beach. Captain Giffard and his poor fellows were
then marched or conveyed to Odessa, where they re-
ceived every kindness from the inhabitants ; Giffard
himself being lodged in the governor’s house. They
were allowed considerable liberty ; were permitted to
write to their friends ; and were visited, under a flag
of truce, by the first-lieutenant of the Vesuvius. Care
seems to have been taken, on this occasion, that the Rus-
sians should not be open to the charge of dishonouring
a flag of truce. The news speedily reached St. Peters-
burg; and the Invalide Russe, on the 19th, contained
a depatch from General Osten-Sacken to Prince
Paskevitch — stating that the Tiger , when too much
injured to be preserved, was purposely burnt by means
of red-hot shot ; that the flag and Union-jack had been
kept as trophies; that some of the guns had been se-
cured, and taken to Odessa ; and that the prisoners,
besides Captain Giffard, numbered 24 officers and
warrant-officers, and 201 seamen and marines. Mrs.
Giffard, wife of the unfortunate captain of the Tiger,
went to Odessa early in June in the Vesuvius , with
the determination to share the captivity of her hus-
band; she reached that place on the 9th, but found
that he had sunk under his suffering a week previous-
ly. She was allowed to land for a few hours to visit
his grave, and to converse wi&h some of tho captured
112 DEATH 01? CAPTAIN PAUSES.
crew of the Tiger; and she was treated with much
consideration by the authorities.
The loss of the Tiger was very mortifying to the
Allies ; and there was another affair that caused deep
regret in the minds of the English nav al officers. This
was the death of Captain Parker, which occurred a few
weeks afterwards. His death was announced to Ad-
miral Dundas in a despatch, of which the following is
an extract : — “ Captain Hyde Parker directed a strong
party of boats from the Fireband and Vesuvius to ac-
company him up the Danube, for the purpose of des-
troying some works which were occupied by the Rus-
sians. At two p. m., the boat entered the Danube,
Captain Parker’s gig in advance. At the bend of the
river, opposite a number of houses on the right bank,
and a large stockade on the left, a sharp fire was open-
ed upon him, and his boat was nearly riddled. Some
of his men were wounded. The heavy boats were
coming up, and Captain Parker at once pulled back to
them, hailing me (Commander Powell) to land the
marines, and be ready to storm. This order was exe-
cuted by the marines and a detachment of seamen in
the same gallant spirit with which it was given. Cap-
tain Parker then dashed on shore in his gig, and at
once advanced with a few men. He was in front and
greatly exposed. A tremendous fire was soon opened
by the enemy upon them, and a few minutes after
landing, -a bullet passed through their leader’s heart,
and in a moment this gallant sailor ceased to live.’*
The achievements yet mentioned in the Black Sea
were of far too trivial a nature to satisfy the aspiration
of men who had entered upon the campaign with such
ardour as the British naval officers and seamen. The
tars wished to distinguish themselves by daring and
successful exploits ; to do something which should give
them renown when they returned to England. They
were tired of excursions to the Circassian coast ; of es-
corting Turkish ships ; of firing shot and shell into a
town without any definite object or result. The bays
EXPLORATORY EXPEDITIONS.
113
at Varna, Kavarna, and Baltschik, werepiaces of ren-
dezvous for the fleets in the intervals between the pe-
riods of active service — intervals too many and too long
to be welcome.
On the 17th of April the combined squadron took
their departure from Kavarna Bay, exploring the Cri-
mea and the Circassian coasts, and returned on the
20th of May, after a cruise of about five weeks. No-
thing of importance occurred during this cruise, and
Admiral Hamelin, writing to the French government
an account of his proceedings, complained that the
Russians would not give them anything to do. He
says : — “ It has not depended on us that the feats of
war which have occurred from time to time during that
month’s cruise were not more numerous and more im-
portant ; but the Russian naval forces have kept them-
selves so completely shut up at Sebastopol, and under
the shelter of the thousand guns of that place, that
during the twenty days passed in cruising at a short
distance from that port, we have not been able to in-
duce a single vessel of the enemy to venture on a com-
bat, even with our look-out vessels. On the other
band, our steam -cruisers were picking up throughout
the whole length of the Black Sea vessels bearing the
Russian flag, which constitute a tolerably good num-
ber of prizes.” The Allies had been able to count, in.
the inclosed harbour of Sebastopol, from 14 to 18 Rus-
sian sail-of-the-line, 15 steamers, and 7 frigates.
One or two smart encounters occurred at different
times between a small steamer and one or two Russian
frigates on the coast of the Crimea ; but nothing cf im-
portance resulted from them.
On the 2nd of J uly, the French squadron under Ad-
miral Bruat joined that under Admiral Hamelin, at
Baltschik : bringing 90 0 troops from Gallipoli to Var-
na, and increasing the French fleet in the Black Sea.
There were then, anchored off the line of coast between
Varna and Baltschik, seventeen British ships-of-war,
and fourteen French line-of- battle ships, besides sever*
246 H
114
32'XPlOjRATOltY E^PEDITIOKS.
al steamers. After spending nearly a month in inacti*
rity, the greater portion of both fleets sailed and steam-
ed out of harbour, bound on another exploratory cruise*
and carrying some of the generals of the Allied armies*
The object which the expedition had in view was to
minutely examine Sabastopol and the adjacent coast of
the Crimea. An officer on board the fleet thus des-
cribed what took place : — “ The Fury, Terrible , and a
French steamer, were purposely sent in somewhat
ahead, so as to arrive at early dawn. The moment
they showed themselves, there were commotion and
preparation in the harbour ; steamers sent up tall co-
lumns of smoke, to help out the large ships, with un-
furled sails, &c. But before they had sailed out to
chase these impertinent foes with an overwhelming
force — to be recorded in a magnificent despatch as a
grand victory — the signalman on the hills above des-
cried the fleet coming in ; so the steamers moved up
into the dockyard creek, and put their fires out; the
ships furled their sails ; and we were tranquilly allow-
ed to make a narrow examination of them and their
prison from sunrise to sunset of a beautiful clear sum-
mer’s day. Before we came up, the Fury, Terrible ,
and French steamer had ventured in rather near to the
north side of the harbour, and several shots -were fired
at them. The distance might have been about a mile
and a half, and the Russian fire was so good, that the
the rigging of the Terrible was cut immediately, and
the little Fury was hulled just below the water : the
ill-conditioned shot destroying two jars of the midship-
men’s butter in their berth. Luckily, nobody was
touched. The fire was returned, and the steamers
moved on. The works on the northern shore have been
much strengthened since my last look at the place, and
the strength of the sea-batteries is undeniable. Inside,
the Russians have, of course, a complete sense of secu-
rity at present. No sea-force could damage them with-
out exposing itself to destruction. With telescopes
we could see the men bathing from the two OF
ALARM AT ODESSA. 115
;hree liners behind the booms at the harbour’s
nouth.”
The fleets returned to Varna and Baltschik, after
he generals and admirals had satisfied themselves by
■i close examination of the formidable Sebastopol.
When, late in the month of August, the Allied fleets
md armies, after a wearisome period of sickness, and
letention, prepared for a vast expedition to the Crimea,
;he inhabitants of Odessa were thrown into a state of
rreat trepidation. The following proclamation was
posted up on the walls : —
*« To the Inhabitants or Odessa. — The enemy is again
^een, in greater force than ever before, at no great dis-
tance from our city. We are armed, and well prepared.
Any attempt made by the enemy to land will be energeti-
cally resisted ; but the guns of his vessels have a very long
range. Do not lose courage, but keep wet cloths and hides
Df oxen prepared to cast over any shells which may be
thrown into the city. Tubs full of water must be kept on
the roofs of the houses, so that any fire may be extinguish-
ed. Should the enemy, however, carry on the war with ob-
stinacy under protection of his guns, we will retire to Tir-
aspol, after having reduced the city to ruins and ashes, so
that no asylum may be found. Woe be to those who
may remain behind, or attempt to extinguish the fire !
“ Krttsenstern, Governor.
" August 30, 1854.”
This Moscow-like proclamation increased the con-
sternation. Almost all the corn was removed to Tir-
aspol, a town on the Dniester, sixty miles from Odes-
sa ; the women and children were sent away ; the pave-
ment of the streets was taken up ; the male population
were drilled every day ; and the defences were strength-
ened. IN o attack was, however, made ; Odessa was
again spared — for reasons which were not publicly
known at the time, but which may require notice in a
later Chapter.
At length, in the beginning of September, 1854, were
completed all the arrangements for one of the most
stupendous enterprises of modern times — an attack on
116 PREPARATIONS POR THE CRIMEA.
Sebastopol by tlie Allied naval and military forces*
comprising, in effect, three fleets and three armies.
This was to be the crowning reward for all that the sol-
diers and sailors had suffered for want of employment.
The detentions at Malta, at Gallipoli, and Bulair ; at
Adrianople and Constantinople ; at Scutari and Unkiar-
Skelessi; at Varna, and Aladyn, and Devna — all were to
be compensated to the troops by an immediate and im-
portant onslaught on the Russians. The delays at
Besika and Beicos, at Varna and Baltschik — all were
to be made up to the tars by a dashing attack against
Russian ships or Russian granite forts.
CHAPTER V.
The Caucasians and Circassians— Sohamyl, the
Prophet Warrior— Erzeroum — Trebizond —
Kars -Asiatic Campaign— Intrigues in the
North-west op Turkey — Greek Attacks on
the Borders op Turkey.
We now, in the order of time, proceed briefly to no-
tice the operations which took place in the year 1854)
in Asia. The Turks had, single-handed , repelled the
hordes of Russian mercenaries on the banks of the
Danube ; the Allied troops had arrived in large numbers
on Eastern soil, and were preparing to invade the Cri-
mea; the Allied fleets, in formidable strength, were
swarming the waters of the Black Sea; and, in the
Asiatic neighbourhood of that Sea, Turkish troops were
endeavouring to maintain their hold of the possessions
to which they laid claim, against the encroachments of
Russia. It is to be regretted that the Allies did nofc
sympathize and assist tiiem more in their endeavours;
for the campaign in Asia, in 1854, was very disastrous
to the Turkish cause. The position of Schamyl, the
Caucasian chief, was in some measure connected with
these operations ; therefore we shall make no apology
for introducing a brief notice of this extraordinary
man, and the heroic tribes of which he is the leader. "
The interval between the Black and the Caspian seas
is filled up by a ridge of mountains in which occur
some of the noblest aspects, the loftiest peaks in nature,
and in the varying heights of which, races and clans
find their home. The inhabitants are various in their
origin, their customs, and their names. Yet, na they
may all be designated by the general name of Cauca-
117
118 THE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS.
sian, so may they be in common characterised as su-
perior to most other races on earth, alike in bodily form
and essential endowment. Noble in blood, they enjoy
the inestimable advantage of having noble recollections ;
their historical traditions run back many centuries 5
they themselves and their country appear in the dawn
of Western fable; and while Grecian poetry made the
Caucasus one of its favourite spots, Persian philosophy
placed there the abode of its satan, Ahriman, the prince
of darkness. Even the Old Testament has been made
to lend its contribution to the venerableness of the land;
for the prophet Elijah has been honoured with a cavern,
where he is worshipped, and where, according to the
popular belief, he still works miracles. Euins, too, rise
here and there, to add at once to the beauty of the
scene and the self-respect of the people. These facts
combine to show that the Caucasians are anything but
that semi-barbarous race that they are commonly ac-
counted. Scarcely, indeed, could they be called highly
civilized, if we take as types of civilization a Parisian
belle or an English philosopher. But viewed relative-
ly to their mountain home, the Caucasians have a cul-
tivation which befits their position, and raises them
high above their neighbours. Living a pastoral life,
thinly scattered over the valleys, they coalesce in cities
only on the plains where they border on Eussia in the
north, and Persia in the south. Yet they are united
together, individuals with individuals, and, to some ex-
tent, tribe after tribe, in social and religious bonds,
which at once betoken and confirm their culture. The
bond would now be far more intimate and extensive
than it is, but for the intrigues and gold of Eussia, who
has spared neither treasure, nor blood, nor honour, to
bring these independent tribes under its yoke. Scarce-
ly less injurious to the moral sentiments has been the
prevalence among them of a species of slave- trade of by
no means the least degrading kind. The Circassian,
whether male or female, is naturally handsome, and the
beauty which nature has given in lofty stature, graceful
THE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS. 119
contour, well-turned features, an eagle eye, and a clear,
brilliant complexion, is set off to the best advantage by
loose and flowing robes, and by a native elegance of
manner, which art might spoil, but could not bestow.
While these qualities are common to the sexes, the fe-
male possesses them in a very marked degree ; and
she enjoys that inestimable privilege which she has
received from nature, of well knowing how to make
the most of them for attraction and fascination.
This loveliness has been fatal to thousands of Circas-
sian girls, who, in consequence of their charms, have
for ages been in great request, that they might
minister to the unworthy pleasures of the polygamist
Moslem or Turkish voluptuary. Hence arose a trade
in beautiful virgins, by which even the parents of very
many did not disdain to profit. Lovely girls became,
so to say, the circulating medium of the country, and,
indeed, of the whole district ; the father bartered his
daughter for arms ; the purchaser, conveying her to
Turkey, exchanged her for gold or for merchandise,
and with the gain loaded his own coffers, or made new
purchases, in order to obtain a fresh supply of the mar-
ketable article, feminine beauty. The trade has of late
greatly declined. That it should ever have existed is
very distressing, and the only mitigation of the evil is,
that in the sale of their daughters the brave and liber-
ty-loving natives obtained the means of self-defence
and of assault, by which they could make even Russia
feel their power, and rise to a hope of national independ-
ence.
The Circassian female is the centre of much that is
no less romantic than lofty. Whether as a girl or a
mother, she feels the nobility of her race, and readily
acts with a poetry or a heroism, as the occasion demands.
Passionately fond of music and dancing, the Circassians
spend much time in those amusements. The vales and
mountain- tops echo with popular songs, and few are
the more remarkable spots that are not dignified and
made dear by the blood of a brother, a lover, a father,
120 THE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS.
shed in behalf of Circassian liberty. The land is thus
strewed with the materials of poetry, which local bards
know how to weave into bands and chaplets lovely as
well as strong. When once the light-hearted girl has
given her heart, she therewith gives a high moral sen-
timent, which inspires her intended husband with the
loftiest aspirations, of which national liberty is the cen-
tre thought. And when the maiden has passed into
the mother, she infuses with her milk the love of free-
dom and independence into her child’s heart.
In a country where liberty is so precious, free insti-
tutions might be expected to exist. In reality the
government is patriarchal; the father is the head, not
of the family alone, but of the clan ; and several elans
combine together under a patriarch to form a tribe,
from which , by a union of tribes, a people or a nation ari-
ses. Government with such a people will be both local
and general, particular and central ; rising in the ex-
tremities, it will radiate to a common point, while the
influence of that common point, where the social pow-
ers are concentrated, will difluse itself over the whole
surface, and add to the efficiency wherein it had its own
origin, and in which still it finds its chief support. Ac
cordingly, every village has its own common council,
comprising all its male adults, which is convened only
when some obvious use, or clear, *if not pressing neces-
sity calls. The several village assemblies are easily
fused together into a provincial meeting, and by depu-
ties the general will may be represented in a national
council. The union here implied is cemented and made
efficient by customs as well as prescriptions ; and less
difficult than we, in our state of society, should con-
ceive, is it to communicate a sympathy or an aim
through every fibre of the social body, or to arouse the
collective force of the country for the promotion of a
common object. This concentration has been of lato
very much augmented by the wonderful influence of
one of those lofty characters which are called into ex-
istence by great social necessities. We allude to the
THE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS.
121
pvopliet and hero of the Caucasus, Imaum Schamyl,
who, though past the middle period of life, seems not
unlikely to p i ay a part which may place him side by
side with Eouli Khan, or even Mohammed.
For now above twenty years have the chief and best
tribes of the Caucasus been struggling more or less
manfully against the ambitious designs and the oppres-
sive yoke of Russia. With due allegiance to old Blu-
cher’s motto, namely Vor warts (Forwards), which ex-
actly describes Russia’s ceaseless aim, the government
of that huge country has been straining every nerve
to break down the barrier set by that line of mountains
against its advance on Persia, AfFghanistan, India,
Asia. But for the wall of adamant (stronger even than
those mountains) which the bravery of the Caucasians
has thrown up, Russia would years ago have met Eng-
land foot to foot on the plains of the Indian Delta. Yet,
though able to throw off the chains as fast as they were
imposed, the Caucasians had not povrer to vindicate
their national independence. Every year opened
with aggressions from new and augmented hordes of
Russian invaders, though every autumn saw them dri-
ven into fortresses, where they remained cooped up
during the winter — a sign at once of their own impo-
tence and of Caucasian independence. Disunion was
the main reason of the partial success which rewarded
the worthy struggles of the mountaineers. That dis-
union Schamyl nearly banished. With the aid of a new
religion, compounded of an ancient philosophy and a
popular Mohammedanism, he has fused the several
elements into one mass, and so gained powder to
achieve brilliant victories, with comparatively small
forces, over large numbers of Russian serfs. The
first generals that Nicholas had at his command have
had their laurels tarnished. Even the present Empe-
or made a visit thither in vain ; and, with an army of
not less than 120,000 men, Russia could scarcely' main-
tain her foothold in those parts, and has suffered de-
feat, and even loss of territory, which she is ashamed
to confess, and almost afraid 10 reiiec*; ua.
122 SHE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS.
Whatever may be the cause of the strong resem-
blance between the various tribes on the eastern Eux-
ine coast, it is an unquestionable fact, that their man-
ners, their appearance, and their dress are all nearly
the same. There is everywhere a total absence of set-
tled order and regular government. Each canton, each
valley, comprises a separate community, governed by
traditions and customs handed down from generation
to generation. Legal disputes between different can-
tons are decided by general assemblies, over which men
eminent for their high character, and venerable on ac-
count of their years, are called to preside. This repub-
lican sort of government is often modified by the influ-
ence of a prince, or a talented man, who, by the means
of his wealth and his connexions, manages to impose
laws upon his tribe, and become the powerful chief of
his clan. An alliance between several of these tribes,
or a general levy for a foraging expedition, is a rare
and transient occurrence among them. When such an
occasion does present itself, all the men who are capa-
ble of bearing arms assemble together at an appointed
place, and there, in a tumultuous manner, discuss the
plan of attack, and choose generals to head their force.
Sometimes the want of harmony among them breaks
up the alliance they have formed, or, it may be, some
unfavourable omen, or some traditional superstition
induces them to put off the expedition to another time. (
A hare crossing their path is decidedly a bad omen,
and this simple circumstance is often sufficient to dis- i
hearten the most valiant among them. On the other 1
hand, the time when the moon is in its first quarter \
is considered very favourable to success in any enter-
prise.
A s soon as a decision has once been formed, the war-
riors march out with their chiefs and their standards
at the head. They observe no regular order of march ;
the best horses go first, and the rest follow as they can.
The cavalry do not accompany the infantry, except
upon extraordinary occasions. They are very rapid m
THE CAUCASIANS AND CIRCASSIANS. 123
their movements, and do not encumber themselves with
any baggage, even when the expedition is likely to last
several days. They travel many miles in the night,
but always in such a manner as to be ready for a sud-
den attack at break of day, which is greatly facilitated
by their admirable mode of arming themselves for such
surprises. The horses are not shod ; the sheath of their
sabre is wooden and covered with leather ; and they
carry their gun in a felt case ; there is nothing about
them that glitters or rattles ; and the consequence is,
that a troop of Tcherkessians give no sort of indication
of their approach, even when they are at full gallop.
A writer thus sums up his remarks on these ene-
mies to Russian aggression: —
“ How should a people be conquered who have a
spirit as noble as the Hungarian, and mountains, in-
stead of plains, for a battle-field and a refuge? ‘If
England and Turkey abandon us,* exclaimed one of
their chiefs (the one who originated the oath of the
league), ‘we will burn our houses -md property, and
retire to the high rocks, and there defend ourselves till
the last man falls.* And this was not the momentary
enthusiasm of one man. In congress and councils it
has been repeatedly declared that if the Russians suc-
ceeded in erecting forts in every bay of the coast, the
inhabitants would never yield. ‘We have abundance
of mountains,* they have often said ; ‘ and to these we
retire and defend ourselves, if we are unable to retain
the coast.* They have, however, made stupendous ef-
forts to retain the coast, and, on the whole, with suc-
cess. Their rocks and trees are incessantly all alive
with human eyes. If a friendly vessel arrives with
salt (their great want) or other commodities, out rush a
string of men into the sea to seize the rope ; or boats
full of armed men to row round the vessel and divert
the Russian fire. If the Russians draw near to cut
out a vessel or storm a fort, there is sure to be some
breastwork, if only of hurdles filled with shingle, and
concealing a trench ; and from behind, the aim taken is
124
BC1TAMY1,
always deadly. Their songs are a curious contrast to the
hymns of the Russian soldiery — a contrast which re-
minds the traveller of that which is on record on the
siege of Jerusalem, when the Roman trumpets, in the
camp sounded harsh and mechanical in comparison
with the wild Hebrew music which swelled from the
city walls. The Russians chaunt the hymns prescrib-
ed and taught. The Circassians have their bards, who
exhort and prophesy. ‘You men rush forth to the
battle ; for brave youths love war. If you fall, you
are martyrs. If you live, you have half that glory.*
This is no mere romance. It is about the most solid
and significant fact of the last century, this successful
defiance of Russia by Circassia alone, when all the rest
of the world gave way. This little country has wea-
thered the long, dreary storm ; and now the worst is
past, w T e may hope. The Black Sea is opened, never
more to be closed. All western Europe -- the foremost
people of all the earth — are to be the allies of Cir-
cassia. She asked only salt, ammunition, and a clear
sea ; and she must henceforth have them all. And how
much more — how much of reinforcement and of com-
merce — how much of the. gratitude of Turkey and the
ad n iration of western Europe and America, a few years
will show.”
But one of the most formidable enemies with whom
Russia has to contend in Asia is the chief Schamyl,
whose life, as related bv most writers, reads more like
romance than sober history. Extraordinary in itself,
it has been raised almost to the miraculous, by the
various additions which have been made to it, from the
natural propensity of men to exaggerate what strikes
them with astonishment.
It appears that for about thirty years a spirit of
mysticism has prevailed among the tribes of the Cau-
casus, favoured, in some degree, by the solitude w hich
surrounds them, and productive of mighty effects upon
them. Towards the year 1823, it took the form of a
sort of system ander the name of sufism ; those who
BCHAIOfc.
m
are initiated in it being supposed to bold direct com-
munication with God, and to be entrusted with the
destiny of their brethren in the Mohammedan faith. One
of the leading teachers of this system was Kasi Mol-
lah, who demanded unlimited faith and obedience from
his followers, and surrounded himself with a select few,
caile murids , who had devoted themselves to death, if
necessary, in the defence of their faith.
Schamyl was one of the most distinguished of these
murids . He was born in the year 1797, at the small
Circassian village of Himri. From his earliest youth
he displayed a lofty pride, a strong love of independ-
ence, and great earnestness of character. ^ Disdaining
the sports and amusements of his youthful compan-
ions, he withdrew himself from their society , to peruse
the Koran, and meditate upon the sayings of the pro-
phet. Though feeble in bodily constitution, he under-
went all sorts of fatigue, braved every species of dan-
ger, and cared not what he suffered as long as he could
surpass his rivals. If in his struggles with them he
happened at any time to be beaten, he retired, in sad-
ness and desperation, to deplore his misfortune and
disgrace. Even at this time a strong religious enthu-
siasm took possession of his mind, which being foster-
ed by his teachers, failed not to produce striking re-
sults.
Schamyl had become the favourite of Kasi Mollah
by the time when the disastrous conflict at Himri took
place. Pursued by the Russians, the Tcherkessians,
under the command of Kasi Mollah, had taken up their
position in this fortress, which they thought inaccessi-
ble. General Rosan advanced in spite of every obsta-
cle, and laid siege to the citadel. For four days and
four nights it was bombarded. Foremost among his
murids stood Kasi Mollah, beseeching and encourag-
ing his soldiers, who fell around him covered with
wounds. After a most heroic resistance, nothing re-
mained for the Circassians but to die bravely. The
Russians, after fighting hard for five-and-twenty days,
SCHAMYL,
126
had just taken the last redoubt. Twenty-four murids
yet survived ; covered with wounds, and dripping with
blood, Kasi Mollah, committing his soul to the God of
armies, was upon his knees calling upon Allah, and
still urging on the small remnant of his force. All the
murids soon perished, with the exception of one, who,
though struck by two balls and stabbed by a bayonet,
managed to effect his escape from destruction , and af-
terwards became Russia’s most implacable foe. This
one, who was left for dead in the fortress of Himri,
was Kasi Mollah’s favourite disciple, Schamyl. How
the young horo escaped is a mystery which has not yet
been solved. But when he again appeared at the head
of the Tcherkessians, he was regarded by the Russians
as one risen from the dead. From this time forth his
fellow country-men considered him the special favour-
ite of Heaven, and he became the first of the murids .
Another escape equally miraculous, when Hamsad Bey
perished in the siege of the fortress of Chunsach with
all the other murids , raised him still higher in their es-
timation, and led to his appointment as successor to
Hamsad Bey.
The Czar now sent General Grabbe to the army in
the Caucasus, with orders to pursue this Schamyl
wherever he might be, as his influence and daring were
daily becoming more and more formidable. The gen-
eral, resolved to attack the lion in his den, went straight
to the fortress of Alkucho, where he had taken up his
residence. For four long months the fort was batter-
ed by the cannon of the Russians, who lost a great
number of men. It is even said, that out of fifteen
hundred who commenced the assault, only about a
hundred returned alive. However, after many despe-
rate efforts, Gen. Grabbe did at last manage to get
possession of the fortress. The Russians were in pro-
portion of thirty to one; they slaughtered every body
they saw ; old men, women, and even children fell vic-
tims to their fury. When there remained no single
survivor, they sought eagerly among the heaps of the
doHAMYX,.
m
eiain for the body of Schamyl, but it was nowhere to
be found. He had escaped, as on the two previous oc-
casions, and in this wav.
There was in the sides of the mountain a large cave
to which some murids had retired, and among them
was Schamyl. It was no easy matter to escape, as all
the avenues were in sight of the Russians. What
could the faithful murids do? They sacrificed their
lives to save that of the prophet. Finding in the cave
some trunks of trees and old planks, they tied them to-
gether with cords, to make them into a raft, which
they launched upon the river that flowed by the foot
of the mountain. Scarcely had they embarked upon
it, before the Russians, perceiving them, cried out,
“ There is Schamyl !” Orders were immediately given
to pursue the raft. They did their utmost, dashed into
the river with the horses, soon reached the raft, and
massacred every one of the murids upon it. Surely
Schamyl is now dead. Not so; he has escaped. While
the attention of the Russians was fixed upon the craft,
a man struck out from the cave into the river unob-
served, swam across and soon disappeared in the moun-
tains on the opposite side. We may imagine the ef-
fect of this third escape upon his countrymen. His
defeat contributed even more to his influence among
them than any victory, for it proved to all the tribes
that he was veritably sent by God and protected by
Omnipotence.
After the capture of Alkucho, the unconquerable he-
ro retired to Dargo, whither the Russians, intoxicated
with their late success, soon directed their march.
Dargo is situated in the midst of steep rocks, on the
top of a mountain, towards which there is no approach,
except by tortuous defiles and immense forests. Scha-
myl, bent on revenge, gave orders to the Circassians
not to fire a single gun as long as the expeditionary
force of General Grabbe was on the march. Then,
when the’whole troop was completely within his power,
he poured down upon it a host of mountaineers from
128
SCHAMSIh
all sides like a torrent. The Russians, hemmed in both
before and behind, and furiously attacked in the flank,
were nearly all slain. Never was there a more fright-
ful carnage. General Grabbe, who had counted upon
a brilliant victory, with great difficulty escaped, ac-
companied by a few cossacks. As a mark of the au-
tocrat’s displeasure, he was superseded in the com-
mand by General Gurko, who was more cautious, but
equally unsuccessful. Before the Russians had time to
recover from their disaster, Scharayl invaded Awaria,
which was allied with Russia, besieged a Russian gar-
rison there, and reduced it by famine to surrender at
discretion. Some troops had been sent to its relief,
but Schamyl, getting information of their approach,
waylaid them and slaughtered every man.
Warned by these disasters, the Czar increased his
army, and sent General Kluke to Awaria with a force
three times as great as that of Schamyl. Scarcely had
he arrived there before Schamyl gave him battle and
immediately defeated him. He then pursued him in
his flight, overcame him again, and at last drove him
to take refuge in the fortress of Chunsach. The war-
like prophet was just on the point of taking the place,
when General Dolgoroucki arrived with fresh forces.
Though he had fought almost incessantly for three
months he did not refuse battle. His men rushed upon
the enemy like lions, drove them back, and were all
but victorious, when they were attacked in the rear, and
were obliged to face two armies. Schamyl now per-
formed prodigies. Seeing himself shut in by fire and
sword on all sides, he rushed at the head of his men
upon a Russian square, threw it into disorder, and
made his way through it. The Russians were saved
from entire destruction, but many were lost. Schamyl
returned, ravaged Aw r aria, and made prisoners of all
the inhabitants. Some weeks afterwards he boldly laid
siege to another fortress, occupied by two Russian gen-
erals. Thus he blockaded the remains of two armies
Which had been sent against him one after the other,
1ST A.TIC CAMPAIGN. 139
and Russia was obliged to despatch a third to deliver
them.
0ur limits will not permit us to pursue the biogra-
phy of this remarkable hero to any greater length.
Suffice it to say, he is as great a legislator and gover-
nor as he is a warrior. For eight-and-twenty years he
has maintained an unequal but successful struggle
against the Russian autocrat. At the head of a mere
handful of men he has completely kept him at bay.
Schamyl is of middle height ; his hair is of a bright
blond colour; his eyes flash brilliantly from beneath
thick, black eyebrows ; and his beard is almost white.
Notwithstanding his indefatigable activity, he is re-
markably abstemious, eats moderately, drinks nothing
but water, and sleeps only a few hours.
Such, then, is Schamyl, such the mountaineers of
the Caucasus; such the relation between them and
Russia at the commencement of the war. A struggle
between the Turks and Russians in Asia was inevita-
ble, whether the Caucasians sided with the former, or
remained neutral ; for the Asiatic boundary between
the two empires is not less than 400 miles in extent,
in the irregular line from Batoum to Mount Ararat.
This celebrated mountain forms the meeting-point of
the empires — the Russian, Turkish, and Persian; and
from thence to the Black Sea at Batoum, the Russian-
ised countries of Georgia, Imerita, and Min grelia, con-
front the rugged regions of Asiatic Turkey.
The effective force of the Turkish army in Asia, at
the commencement of the war, amounted to about
36,000 foot, 4000 horse, and 100 guns. During the
autumn, 24,000 Bashi-Bazouks and other irregulars
joined the army ; and, in addition, a fresh levy was
ordered in Syria and Anatolia. Two-thirds of these
troops were encamped at Kars, under Abdi Pasha ; the
greater half of the third part was at Batoum, under
Selim Pasha; and the remainder in the vicinity of
Bayazid, under another Selim Pasha.
At the same time, the strength of the Russian army
246 I
130
ASTATIC CAMPAIGN.
of the Caucasus, as it was called, was powerful, and
numbered about 80,000 men ; but it was scattered over
a vast extent of territory, which it was called upon to
defend. One portion of duty was to defend the fron-
tier-line running along the base of the mountains,
from the Black Sea to the Caspian ; another, to oc-
cupy the ports and fortified posts of the Crimea; a
third, to maintain the forts on the north-east of the
Black Sea, such as Anapa and Soudjuk Kale; a fourth,
in the protection of the great military road over the
Caucasus from Vladikaukus to Tiflis ; a fifth, in watch-
ing the movements of Schamyl up in the mountains ;
and a sixth, in guarding the frontier-line on the south-
ern base of the Caucasus. These duties left but a
small force to repel any hostile attack on the part of
the Turks ; — at most, about 25,000 men, disposed in
five positions — viz. 10,000 men at Gumri ; a smaller
portion in the Upper Koor valley; a third partin the
province of Gouriel; a fourth, on the main road from
Erivan to Bayazid ; while the fifth was kept as a dis-
posable reserve at Tiflis.
The officers connected with the Turkish army in
Asia were composed of a number of foreigners from
various countries — Hungarians, Poles, Italians, and
others ; some, no doubt, possessed of those qualifica-
tions requisite for stations of military authority, whilst
others might be deficient of the necessary talent. But
the system adopted by the Turkish government in ap-
pointing officers to posts of military responsibility was
very bad ; for favouritism characterized the appoint-
ments in too many instances.
At the time when the sultan declared war against
Russia, the year 1853 was far advanced, and little
chance occurred for hostilities in Asia. Klapka as-
serts that the Turkish commander should have guard-
ed his army against partial losses, by remaining
strictly on the defensive in respect to the Russian main
army opposite Kars ; and should have struck a well-
planned and rapid blow against Erivan, in Russian
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
131
Armenia, as a means of obtaining the aid of the in-
habitants of the Lower Koor, who are always ready to
act against the Muscovites. Abdi Pasha adopted one
of these plans, but neglected the other; he posted part
of his army as a corps of observation near Kars, and
placed the rest in winter-quarters atErzeroum as are-
serve. He received orders from Constantinople, how-
ever, to commence an active attack, leaving to his
own judgment the selection of place and circumstan-
ces.
All around this neighbourhood is a region of rugged
mountains. The pashalic of Erzeroum is the most
important in Asia Minor, extending over a popula-
tion of 800,000 souls, distributed in 1500 villages and
a few large towns. The chief city itself, Erzeroum,
is roundly estimated to contain 40,000 inhabitants, be-
sides the garrison, of which number 30,000 are Os-
manlis ; for here, as in Asiatic Turkey, the real Turks
are found mostly in the towns, while the villages are
chiefly inhabited by Armenians, or other Christian na-
tives.
Kars and Tiflis are north-east of Erzeroum ; Eri-
van and Bayazid are nearly east ; and Trebizond north-
west. From Erzeroum to Trebizond it is 180 miles;
from Kars to Erzeroum, 150 ; and from Tiflis to Erze-
roum, 250 miles.
While Abdi Pasha was executing the operations in-
trusted to him, ZarifMustapha Pasha, governor of the
province of Erzeroum, collected a body of Bashi-Ba-
zouks, crossed from Ardahan into the district of Ak-
haltsik (Akhiska), and impetuously attacked a small
body of Russians there posted. The Russians retreat-
ed, shut themselves up in the fortress of Akhaltsik,
and were there besieged by Mustapha, aided by an
additional body of troops sent to him. In the mean
time, the main Turkish army crossed the frontier near
the river Arpachai, and established a camp upon Rus-
sian ground, as a base for an offensive movement
©gainst Gumri. The last-named fortress is an im*
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
182
pcrtant defence for the city of Tiflis, the capital of
Georgia, and was well looked to by the Eussians during
the war. At first, the plan of Abdi Pasha seemed
likely to be attended with some success ; but he was
without a siege-train ; the winter set in with great seve-
rity, and his Bashi-Bazouks had devastated the coun-
try all around, rendering the labours of the Turkish
commissariat exceedingly difficult. He was obliged to
retreat from Gumri to Kars ; the Eussians followed
him, overtook his army about midway between the
two towns, at a place called Gedikler, and utterly rout-
ed them. The Eussians, deeming a further advance
imprudent, retreated to Gumri, where they fortified
and provisioned themselves for the winter, while the
Turks similarly retreated to winter at Kars. This
was not the only discomfiture experienced by the Turks.
While Abdi Paslia was thus sustaining a defeat at
Gedikler, Zarif Mustapha Pasha was equally unfortu-
nate at Akhaltsik ; the Eussian garrison of this place,
receiving an augmentation of force under General
Andronikoff, was enabled to attack and defeat the, Turks
who were besieging the fortress, and to drive them
over the frontier back to Ardahan. These twofold
defeats, at Gedikler and Akhaltsik, depressed the
Turkish troops, annoyed the government, and led to
the deposition of Abdi Pasha. The Turks in Asia
Minor had no Omar Pasha among them, and were
not well commanded.
There wer^ two circumstances occurred to render
these successes less advantageous to the Eussians than
they otherwise might have been. A heavy fall of
snow, presaging the immediate approach of stern win-
ter, put an end to any further operations near Kars ;
while Schamyl, at a time when the Eussians were en-
gaged in another direction, suddenly descended from
his mountains to the plains of Georgia at the head of
16,000 horse, fired 200 small villages, and carried away
as hostages several Eussian ladies, who were residing
in their country-houses near Tiflis- The Eussians, to
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
133
expel these intruders, found themselves called upon
to confine their attention during the winter mainly to
the vicinity of Tifiis and Gumri.
Trebizond is situated on the Black Sea. It was a
colony of Sinope, and was founded by the Milesians. It
is famous in history as the resting-place of the ten thou-
sand Greeks after their famous retreat. They remain-
ed a month. They ate some honey in the neighbour-
hood, from which many of the soldiers died; and
Tournefort, the celebrated traveller, explains this by
mentioning the poisonous plants which the bees fed
on. The Romans took possession of this town during
the war with Mithridates. It became a free town.
About two hundred and fifty years before Christ it
was a large and opulent place, but was then plunder-
ed by the Scythians. It did not recover until the
reign of Justinian, who restored it to its old grandeur.
It is now called Trabezar by the Turks. Its present
population is said to be about forty thousand. Its cas-
tle is remarkable. It possesses a bazaar, beautiful
marble baths, and a temple of Apollo, now a Greek
church.
As a seaport, Trebizond is next to Odessa, in the
Black Sea, and has a regular communication by steamer
with Constantinople. It is to a certain-degree pictur-
esquely situated.
As the spring of 1854 advanced, the Turks strength-
ened themselves at Kars, and the Russians at Gumri.
Reinforcements were received by both — more especial-
ly the Turks ; but the sultan’s forces unfortunately
suffered in consequence of the wrangles between the
officers ; the Poles were in many cases jealous of the
Hungarians, and the Osmanlis jealous of both. Had
not the Russians been doubtful concerning the inten-
tions of the vacillating court of Persia, an attack on
the Turkish positions would in all probability have
been made in spring ; but, distrusting their own safe-
ty , they postponed their advance.
The first hostile encounter in the year was a small
134
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN
affair. Towards the end of April, about 3000 Cossacks
and Russian infantry, with a battery of guns, left
Gumri, crossed the river Arpachai, and attacked an
outpost of Bashi Bazouks at the village of Engene ;
they killed a few, took a few more prisoners, and then
returned to Gumri. D uring April and May, the Turks
at Kars were regularly drilled, to fit them for an evi-
dently approaching conflict with the Russians. In this
necessary work, however, the best arrangements were
certainly not made. None of the European officers
were regimentally employed ; they were appointed to
the staff headed by Guy on, and w*ere employed as in-
spectors of artillery practice, instructors in cavalry
movements, and overseers of the commissariat ; these
services were valuable, in so far as the jealousy of the
Turkish pashas permitted their development; but
even then the troops lost the benefit of the aid that
might have been derived from the Hungarian gener-
als in all that related to regimental drilling. The army
at Kars having at that time reached 25 , 000 , Guyon
advised a march across the river Arpachai, to be fol-
lowed by the seizure of Erivan; and the troops were
themselves eager to advance to action ; but Guyon
was outvoted by the Osmanli pashas at the council of
war, and nothing was done. This council was held on
the 18th of May ; and the few Englishmen who were
then with the army were forcibly struck with the con-
trast between the men and their leaders, in all that re-
lated to courage, activity, and honesty. The sultan
indeed, throughout the war, was inefficiently support-
ed by his generals, except in a few instances.
Kars, thus likely to be the scene of the contest be-
tween the opposing forces, was at one period the capi-
tal of a petty Armenian kingdom of the same name ;
but it had fallen greatly in importance, and at the
breaking out of the war, it was scarcely known to Eu-
rope. Merchants stopped there, on their road to and
from Persia; but it was a poor, dull place ; and hence
the inhabitants, about 15,000 in number, became great-
ASIATIC CAMP.UGS.
135
[y excited when their town was occupied by the Turk-
ish army. The inhabitants suffered before the troops
advanced towards Gumri in October 1850; they suf-
fered still more after the disastrous defeat ; and the
ensuing winter and spring brought them little relief,
for the pashas were w T ont to seize all the humble stores
of the shopkeepers and peasants, leaving the question
of payment in a very unsettled state. The town is
commanded by an extensive castle, built while the Ge-
noese were possessed of this district ; the castle, now
nearly crumbled into ruins, stands perched on a rocky
hill, at the foot of which flows the little river Kars-
chai. This hill is, however, overtopped by one still high-
er, on the opposite side of the river, the Kara-dagh or
Black mountain ; and when prince Paskevitch attack-
ed Kars in a former war, he obtained control both over
the town and the castle by occupying this higher hill
with a few guns. One of the duties which the Turks
undertook in the spring of 1854 was to crown this
Kara-dagh with defences, which Guyon recommended
should consist of eight redoubts, carrying 48 guns.
The whole of the adult males of Kars were forced to
assist in constructing these earthworks, which by de-
grees assumed formidable proportions.
Gumri, in possession of the Russians, had been ren-
dered much stronger than Kars ; having as many as
150 mounted cannon, many of them casemated. The
distance between Kars and Gumri is less than twelve
leagues ; and the Russians, by means of spies, knew per-
fectly well what was transpiring at Kars, while the in-
dolent Turkish commander at Kars made no efforts to
gain a knowledge of what was taking place at Gumri.
Many of the emissaries sent by or to Schamyl to con-
cert measures with the pasha, were intercepted by the
Russians ; and Zarif Mustapha, the Turkish command-
er, continued in ignorance even of the proceedings of
Selim Pasha at Batoum. In the month of June, the
opposing armies drew nearer to each other. In the
preceding month 500 Russians, with four field-piece^
136
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
had crossed the Arpachai into the Turkish territory,
pitched their tents, and threw up a field-work, indicat-
ing an intention on the part of Prince Bebutoff to be-
gin hostilities. On the 9 th of J une four regiments of
the Russian cavalry, one of infantry, and fifteen guns,
left Gumri, and took up a position at Technitz, on the
Arpachai; here they encountered a body of Bashi-Ba-
zouks, under the Hungarian Kmeti, when a skirmish
ensued, followed by the retreat of both parties to their
different camps.
It was, however, high time that active operations
should be commenced ; for the bullet and the sword
would have been less destructive to the Turks, than
the ravages of disease to which they were exposed.
From November 1853 to June 1854 the Ottoman ar-
my in and around Kars had been reduced 10,000 men
by typhus, hunger, cold, and other privations, most of
which might have been avoided, if the pashas had been
in possession of a moderate amount of skill and hones-
ty. The Russian army did not fare much better. Two
Regiments of the sixth corps d’armee had been nine
months marching from Moscow to Gumri, over the
Caucasus, amid sore privations ; and even those quar-
tered near Tifiis had been swept off in large numbers by
disease. At a council of war, held at Kars, General
Guyon propounded a well-skilled plan for an at tack on
the Russians, which, had it been adopted by the inca-
pable Zarif Mustapha, would, in all probability, have
been attended with complete success. But he had not
the penetration requisite to appreciate the advantages
of such a plan ; and an army of 30,000 was allowed to
remain discontented and inactive ; now suffering a3
much from the intolerable heat, as it had before en-
dured from rigorous cold. Mr. Duncan, a writer on
this part of the campaign, asserts that, had Guyon
and Kmeti been permitted to command the army,
within two months Tifiis would have been captured,
and the Russian forces cut to pieces, or driven out of
Georgia, across the Caucasus $ so much larger was tkp
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
137
Turkish army at this time at Kars, than that of the
Russian force at Gumri. The Ottomans now num-
bered 40,000, with 120 pieces of artillery ; while it
was believed that the Russian force did not much ex-
ceed 20,000.
At the beginning of July, the garrison of Gumri,.
15,000 strong, sallied forth under Prince Bebutoff,.
crossed the Arpachai, and took up positions near
the valley of Kurekdere and Ingedere, at about,
one hour’s march only from Sobattan and Hadgi-Veli--
koi, at that time occupied by the Turkish outposts..
There is a small mountain near the two villages; and-
this mountain the Russians began immediately to for-
tify. On the 3d, Zarif Mustapha, vacillating between
many plans suggested by his pashas, moved his army
from Kars to Hadgi-Velikoi, and traced out an en-
campment. Here he was soon joined by Kerim Pa-
sha, who brought the Turkish left wing from Ardahan,
while Bebutoff in like manner received reinforcements
which raised his army to 28,000 ; insomuch that there
were now assembled nearly 70,000 Russian and Turk-
ish troops, in the vicinity of the four villages above
named. The Turks formed two camps, with Bashi-
Bazouks in the van and on the flanks, and the cavalry
and artillery in the centre. The advanced camp or di-
vision was placed under Kerim Pasha, while Zarif Mus-
tapha himself took the command of the rear division.
The Turks had a small mountain in front of them,
like as the Russians ; and these two mountains were
occupied as observatories by the staffs of the respective
armies.
The incompetent Turkish commander at length re-
solved on an attack. On the 12th, he left his position,
and advanced to within two miles of the Russian en*
campment. The Russians also advanced, and formed
in order of battle. Kmeti began to skirmish with his
Bashi-Bazouks, while the cavalry manoeuvred to the
flanks, and the artillery advanced to the front. Just
$t this moment a storm broke forth, with a violence
138
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
hardly known before in that district ; the ground was
speedily converted into a deep morass ; the Russians
retreated to their encampment, and Zarif Mustapha
ordered a similar retreat. This unexpected event great-
ly disappointed the Turkish troops ; they had braced
themselves up to a bold and soldierly achievement, and
there can hardly be a doubt that they would have ac-
quitted themselves well if their efforts had been well
directed by their commander. Many wet, stormy days
succeeded, and the Turks became disheartened, while
Zarif exhibited the utmost bewilderment in attempting
to decide whether to advance or to do nothing. From
the moment when the advance of the army from Kars
was made, the unruly Kurds who inhabit the mountain
districts began to make predatory excursions; the
roads between Trebizond, Erzeroum, and Kars were
rendered unsafe and the unhappy villagers suffered
greatly.
General Kmeti, with his Bashi-Bazouks, during the
night of the 16th, made a very spirited attack on
the extreme flank of the Russians. Dividing his horse-
men into three columns, he got to their rear without
detection, and then advanced silently to Baindir, a vil-
lage near Gumri, defended by a body of Cossacks and
Georgian militia. At day-break, one column attack-
ed the village ; one assailed the redoubts manned by
the Russians, while a third remained in reserve. The
Bashi-Bazouks completely routed the enemy, taken
thus suddenly by surprise ; but the main Russian army
now approached ; and Kmeti and his active troops suc-
ceeded in returning by another route to the Turkish
camp, and bringing in five prisoners, and 400 sheep.
This daring act greatly delighted the Turks. Kmeti
had offered to capture Gumri itself, with his Bashi-Ba-
zouks, but his timid commander would not permit him
to make the attempt.
On the 22nd, another night attack was planned by
the Hungarian, to which Zarif Mustapha promised the
§id of the regular troops. Shortly before daybreak
ASTATIC CAMPAIGN.
139
Knieti charged with his Bashi-Bazouks at the centre of
the Russian camp, and penetrated into the very tents of
the enemy, capturing the first line of outposts. Speed-
ily was he surrounded by the whole Russian army, and
then it was that he looked for support from the regu-
lars. But where were these ?• Zarif Mustapha, as usual
• — timid, irresolute, incompetent — did nothing; no
regulars appeared, although ardent and eager to be en-
gaged ; and Kmeti had no resource but to cut his way
back to the Turkish camp, losing many by the way,
and burning with indignation at the unworthy treat-
ment which he had received from his commander. The
Bashi-Bazouks, under this heroic man, had shown
themselves susceptible of orderly discipline ; they had,
indeed, acted as a light cavalry of an efficient kind, far
better than Omar Pasha had been able to obtain for
his Danubian campaign ; and bitterly they lamented
that the mushir of the army of Asia was utterly une-
qual to the duties of his high command. Little wonder
that many of these primitive irregulars disbanded, and
returned to their homes.
August arrived, and with it a conviction that unless
the Turkish commander speedily attempted something
definite, his army would melt away or become disor-
ganised. % Onthe6th, a night-attack was resolved upon;
Kerim Pasha to command the right division, Yely Pa-
sha the left, and the mushir himself to superintend
both — or to spoil both, as the case might be. Guyon
marked out the plan of the attack ; but his plan was
not practically carried out.
On Sunday the 6th of August, was fought a battle
which covered Zarif Mustapha with disgrace, and un-
did all that the Turks had effected in Asia, whether
much or little, during the year 1854.
In the dead of the night, the Turks left their en-
campment and began the march. The first mistake
made manifest was, that the right division reached the
enemy long before the left could come up to its sup-
port, in obedience to a stupid order by Zarif that the
140
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN
left should halt two hours, that daylight might assist
its progress. The consequence was, that when the
Bussians — who were to have been taken by a night-
surprise — saw that the right division was thus isola-
ted, they at once concentrated all their troops upon it,
and commenced active proceedings before the left could
arrive. The Turkish forces comprised 12 battalions
of Arabistan infantry, 20 of Anatolian, 16 of redif, and
2 of rifles — making 20,000 infantry ; together with
3700 cavalry, 1300 artillery, and 78 guns. * The Bus-
sians counted 20 battalions of infantry, 26 squadrons
of dragoons, 4000 irregular cavalry, and 800 artillery,
with 64 guns. Each army consisted of about 25,000
men ; but the Turks had also 8000 or 10,000 Bashi-
Bazouks, who were, however, not engaged in this bat-
tle. If Guyon’s plan had been followed, the two divi-
sions of Turks would have attacked the Bussians sim-
ultaneously, while a third Turkish corps would have
obtained possession of the heights which commanded
the enemy’s encampment. But Zarif Mustapha ruin-
ed the scheme, and comfortably smoked his chibouque
while the right division was about to be attacked by
nearly the whole Bussian force. This division, under
Kerim Pasha, numbered about 10,000 men. The ar-
tillery opened fire on both sides. The Bussian infantry
advanced, but were repelled by the Turks. The Bus-
sian dragoons then boro down at high speed, and with
a loud cheer rushed upon the Turks, who, seized with
a panic, turned and fled, leaving their artillery unpro-
tected. This artillery then bore a series of terrific at-
tacks from the dragoons ; both sides behaved courage-
ously, and the fire was murderous. The Bussian infantry
made a second attack in large force against the batta-
lions of redif, who then witnessed fire for the first time ;
the result was disastrous, for the redif turned and fled
wildly towards Kars. The mor^ disciplined Turkish
troops seemed to have been chiefly in the left division,
unfortunately absent w*hen most wanted. Meanwhile,
the dragoons, after repeated attacks, captured the gunc^
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
141
the Turkish artillerymen remaining steadfast until
nearly the last man was cut off. The dragoons, pre-
viously almost maddened with drink, then rushed in-
discriminately at infantry, cavalry, and artillery; and
the Turks, completely paralysed by the impetuosity of
the onslaught, gave way in all quarters ; the cavalry
fled, the infantry were mowed down, the artillery-
horses were shot, and the guns were captured. All the
efforts of Kerim Pasha to re-form his division were
vain. By this time the left division had arrived, and
opened a vigorous cannonade on the Russians. For a
time the tide turned. Kmeti attacked the Russian in-
fantry vigorously ; Tahir Pasha poiu'ed in a terrible fire
from the artillery under his command ; and Guy on
bore down with 4000 cavalry on the Russian masses
which began to waver. This was the critical moment
— fatally critical for the Turks. The cavalry, coming:
suddenly upon a Russian infantry regiment at a spot
where none was expected, were seized with so resistless
a terror, that they fled panic-stricken, leaving Guyon
alone with his personal staff. These cowardly horse-
men communicated a panic to the Bashi-Bazouks, who
in their turn threw the infantry into such inextricable
confusion that the generals lost command over them.
All fled together in wild confusion towards Kars, pur-
sued by the grapeshot of the Russian artillery and the
sabres of the dragoons.
Thus ended the disastrous battle of Kurekdere. The
Turks lost 3500 in killed and wounded, and 2000 pri-
soners; while the Russians acknowledged a loss of
more than 3000 in killed and wounded. The Russian
dragoons and the Turkish artillery greatly distinguish-
ed themselves , Had the Turkish cavalry possessed any
soldierly qualities, they might have redeemed even the
disasters occasioned by Zarif Mustapha’s folly ; but they
and the untried redifs ruined all. The Russian officers
were brave throughout, heading their men in all tho
charges, insomuch that no less than 111 of their num-
ber were killed or wounded ; whereas the Osmanli ofli-
142
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN
cers lurked in coward fashion in rear of their troops,
with very few exceptions. Bitter must have been the
anger of Kmeti and Guyon to witness such conduct.
Kerim Pasha, second in command, was one among the
small number of exceptions; he was a brave old man,
and exerted himself indefatigably to keep up the cour-
age of his troops. The defeat was most complete ; for
not only did the Turks lose 5000 to 6000 men, but 6000
more fled in dismay to their homes after the battle,
while the remaining moiety returned towards Kars in
a state of the utmost disorganisation.
Before closing our notice of this disastrous Turkish
campaign in Asia in 1854, we will briefly allude to
the proceedings of the subsidiary forces in other parts
of Armenia and Georgia.
Selim Pasha, who commanded the Turks in the;
neighbourhood of Batoum, sent forward on the 9th of
June, 3000 Bashi-Bazouks and half a battalion of re-
gulars, to attack two redoubts about twenty miles
from Orzugheti, on the road to Kutais. The Turks
were ignorant of the numbers and position of the Rus-
sians, and were defeated with great loss. A still more
serious defeat followed Selim’s army near Orzugheti
on the 16th, when the Turks lost about 2000 men.
Selim wa3 forced to retreat to Churuk-su; and the
victorious Russian commander was able to spare
troops to swell the main army at Gumri. Another
attack upon Selim, between the 18th and 19th, pro-
duced some success to the Russian arms, but not of
much importance. Selim Pasha was summoned to
Constantinople, to answer for his ill-luck, and was suc-
ceeded by Mustapha Pasha, who had distinguished
himself at Oltenitza, under Omar Pasha. -
There were some minor operations took place at
Ardahan ; but these principally consisted of skirmish-
ing. At Bayazid, however, near the frontier line of
Mount Ararat, the Turks met with a serious defeat.
The Turks, 6000 in number, were commanded by Selim
Pasha (not the unlucky Selim at Batoum); and, as
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN.
143
they were weak, Selim was recommended not to make
any attack on the Russians, but to retreat on Kars or
Erzeroum, if pressed by the Russians. This advice he
neglected : and, having gone to meet a Russian force
of 8000, under General Wrangel, Selim encountered
a total defeat, leaving 1500 dead, wounded, and pri-
soners. It is astonishing how the Russian generals
can have the effrontery to practise deceptions, so
egregiously in exaggerating the number of their op-
ponents, when sending their accounts forth to meet the
public eye. Wrangel stated that the Turks were
15,000 ; and that 3000 were left dead on the field.
Schamyl’s name has been but little mentioned in this
section. The mountain-warrior was not engaged in
any regular actions ; but there is no doubt but he conti-
nually influenced and perplexed the movements of the
Russians ; and, had he earlier been supplied with arms
and ammunition by the Allies, there can be no ques-
tion that he might have given a different turn to the
campaign. During the summer, Schamyl frequently
threatened Tiflis, and so distracted the attention of the
Russians, that if Guyon had commanded at Kars in-
stead of Zarif, the Turks would almost for certain have
fought a winning campaign.
When the disasters of August arrived, it was un-
questionably Schamyl who prevented the Russians
from following up their advantage. He threatened
Tiflis with 16,000 men; and Prince Bebutoff was
forced to send back a large portion of his army from
Gumri to repel this attack. On the 1st of September
— with part of his force at Akhalgori ; part at Gori,
on the river Koor ; and part at Mycht, near Tiflis-^
Schamyl surprised and beat off the Russians, took much
booty and many prisoners of high rank, and rendered
it imperative that Bebutoff should suspend all further
operations in Armenia. Advantages were gained by
the Lesghian chieftain also at Pekhalon, Tavi, Childi,
Alaza, Kavaril, Kaktala, and other places whose names
are scarcely to be met with on the maps, over tho
ASIATIC CAMPAIGN,
Russians generals W rangel and Tchartchatz. In short,
Schamyl, although his name appears in a flitting,
meteor-like way, assisted the Turks more effectually
than their English and French allies had up to this
time done. The Emperor Napoleon sent him 12,000
muskets in September ; but those muskets would have
rendered better service if despatched earlier.
The year 1854 closed in Asia in this manner. The
Turks, utterly broken and disorganised at the battle of
Kurekdere, could do nothing more than remain on the
defensive at Kars; while the Russians, afraid of
Schamyl and his mountaineers, durst not advance
westwards of Gumri lest they should be attacked.
Kars and Gumri remained the head-quarters of the
two armies at the end of the year, as they had been at
the beginning ; but the Turks had been weakened in
the directions of Bayazid and Ardahan, while the
Russians had become masters of the roads between
Turkey and Persia.
The chief cause of the disastrous result of the Turkish
arms in the Asiatic campaign of 1854, is to be attribu-
ted in a great measure to the want of skill and energy
in their chief officers ; for the troops, when properly
led, have, on more than one occasion, displayed in-
stances of courage and bravery excelled by few. Mr.
Duncan, a gentleman whose judgment on the merits
of the Ottoman troops is to be relied on f thus speaks of
the rank and file of the Turkish force : — “ The causes
that have largely contributed to weigh down the exist-
ing virtuous elements in the Ottoman army, are the
corruption and incapacity that prevail among its
higher ranks, and the disgraceful ignorance which
distinguishes its subaltern officers. The Turkish pri-
vate soldier, if well directed, is capable of great deeds ;
but the corps of officers and non-commissioned officers
are alike inefficient and unsusceptible of improvement.
Promotion by merit alone is unheard of in the Otto-
man service. The subaltern ranks are filled by the
personal slaves or domestics of the pashas j and such
mumtfEs Mr European turkey. i4o
commissions are often the wages of disgrace. Promo-
tion to the superior ranks is obtainable only by bribery
or intrigue; the grade of colonel or pasha is purchased
by the highest bidder ; who subsequently recovers the
sum he has disbursed, by defrauding his regiment,
or robbing the government. The simplest military
rules are ignored by the officers, who are often with-
drawn from a civil appointment to occupy a high mili-
tary position. This was the case with the commander-
in-chief of the army of Anatolia, Zarif Mustapha
Pasha.”
General Williams, an English officer of engineers,
was appointed British Military-Commissioner to the
Turkish army in Asia. As a sort of authoritative ad-
viser in military matters, he might possibly have exerted
some influence over Zarif; but he did not reach Kars
until September, when the mischief had been already
achieved. He was a man who knew well the Turks
and the Turkish language, and was much liked among
them; on this account, his presence a month or two
earlier would have been especially valuable. But in
this appointment, as in many other particulars, the
movements of the Allies were tardy.
We must now direct the attention of the reader to
what was occurring in some portions of European
Turkey. Russian agents were at work in Bulgaria,
Servia, Bosnia, Turkish Croatia, Herzegovina, and Mon-
tenegro ; and by intrigue and stratagem were endeavour-
ing to Russianize the feelings of the people, and wean
them from their attachment to the Ottoman power.
The principal actors in this drama were priests con-
nected with fhe Greek Church; and their object was
in a great measure to promote discord among the dif-
ferent religious sects which were spread over these
provinces.
In Bulgaria the inhabitants mostly profess the Greek
faith ; and the priests of the villages abundantly show-
ed during the campaign that they were heart and hand
with the czar. Russian emissaries, both lay and cle«
246 K
146 INTRIGUES IN EUROPEAN TURNED.
rical, represented to the simple Bulgarians that the
Emperor Nicholas was their great protector, and would
avenge the harsh usage they had received from the Os-
manlis in past ages. Happily the success of Omar Pa-
sha, and the presence of the Allies at Varna, prevented
Russia from fomenting an insurrection in Bulgaria.
Proceeding westward from Bulgaria, we come to
Servia, which is now nearly as free as a tributary state
can be. At the commencement of the war Russian in-
trigue was busy in Servia; emissaries endeavoured to
embroil the Servians with the sultan ; but there was a
spirit of nationality manifested. Servia refused to per-
mit a Turkish army to traverse the province on its
way from Bosnia to Widdin; she warded off the en-
trance of an Austrian army ; and she had a sufficient
insight into the nature of Russian protection, to keep
her guard against the mischievous intrigues of the czar.
Servia continued unmolested.
In Bosnia and Turkish Croatia, Austrian intrigue is
more predominant than Russian ; there being a pre-
ponderance of adherents to the Roman Catholic faith
over those of the Greek Church. But as each of these
sects are unfavourable to Islamism the efforts of each
were employed in fomenting discontent to Turkish
power. But nothing occurred of a serious nature.
In Montenegro, however, matters assumed a
more threatening aspect. There were frequent col-
lisions between those who braved and those who de-
fended the Turkish authority ; but the Turks succeed-
ed in repelling the Montenegrins. The vladika, in
March, issued a proclamation, calling upon all the
mountaineers to declare whether they would join him
in a hostile attack upon Turkey, “ to shed their blood
for the Holy Cross, orthodox faith, and their country’*
—language precisely similar to that used at the same
time by the czar and his generals. 4000 men came for-
ward in a crusading spirit ; and 20,000 armed men, in
all, were ready to join in any pressing exigency. Va-
rious plans were arranged ; but Austria interfered, and
put a stop to further proceedings.
GREEK ATTACK ON TURKISH BORDERS. 147
A brief allusion to the attack on the Turkish borders
will close this chapter. Many of our readers will know
that previous to 1827, Greece was tributary to Turkey ;
in that year however it was formed into an indepen-
dent state ; Otho, the younger son of the king of Ba-
varia, being appointed to reign over the newly-formed
kingdom. At the formation of the new state, many
Greeks were spread abroad in various Turkish provin-
ces ; and, of course, these Greeks remained subject to
Ottoman rule. Discontent and dissatisfaction were en-
gendered and fostered amongst these parties by the
emissaries of Russia; and matters went so far in 1854
as to establish secret societies for the purpose of devis-
ing plans for the avowed object of fomenting a revolt,
and depriving Turkey of all authority over those pro-
fessing the faith of the Greek Church. It was mani-
fest that the young king, Otho, secretly encouraged
these proceedings of the disaffected, and that matters
were assuming a very serious aspect. The Turkish go-
vernment became uneasy; and the governments of
England and France began to bestir themselves in the
matter. A small English and Turkish flotilla sailed
from Constantinople to the Gulf of Volo, to watch the
movements in Thessaly ; while Admiral Dundas sent
a few ships to the Gulf of Arta, to protect Prevesa and
other parts of the coast of Epirus. The two gulfs here
named mark, respectively, the east and west termini of
the boundary-line between the two kingdoms. Ships,
however, could render little aid to the towns and villa-
ges in the interior. The insurgents obtained posses-
sion of the defile of Pente Pegadia, on the only road
from Janina to Arta ; and hence the Turkish pasha of
the former place experienced more difficulty in sending
any reinforcements to Arta, which was one of the foci
of the insurrection. In the port of Arta itself, a Greek
gun-boat sank the Turkish guard-ship, before the Eng-
lish vessels arrived. An action took place near Arta,
on 23d February, in which the insurgents defeated the
Turks ; and hence the latter, although retaining the
citadel of Arta, lost possession of the town.
148 GRE3!K ATTACK OK TtTEKISE BORDERS*
Matter -s had now armed at a pitch too serious for
the Turkish government to remain longer quiet. Un-
til the riontli of March, the Turkish charge d’affaires,
Nesset Bey, remained at Athens, complaining and pro-
testing in vain against the proceedings of the Greek
government. He demanded on the part of his court,
the prosecution of those who had crossed the frontier,
should they ever return within it ; and the exercise of
control over one or two newspapers, which systemati-
cally promulgated the most violent doctrines respecting
the extermination of the Osmanlis and their religion.
The king refused his assent ; the Porte withdrew its
representative from Athens about the end of March ;
the charge d’affaires of Greece was withdrawn from
Constantinople ;• and diplomatic relations ceased be-
tween the two countries. One consequence of this se-
ries of events was most disastrous. Turkey contains a
vast number of Greeks, and the Porte ordered the de-
parture of such of their number as were subjects of
the king of Greece. Constantinople itself contained at
that time 25,000 or 30,000 of such Greeks, who had
sore reason to deplore the weak folly of their sovereign.
They were all ordered to quit Turkey within a specified
time. A resident at Constantinople, in April, said that
every steamer which left that city for the Archipelago
Was crowded with human beings, so thickly wedged
together that to walk the decks was impossible. Most
of these wretched creatures had been reduced to the
depths of poverty ; and when thrown ashore, friend-
less and destitute, in Greece, three-fourths of the men
went to swell the ranks of the Thessalian insurgents,
or took to their old trade of piracy in the iEgean.
A Turkish force of 1700 men, under Fuad Effendi
sent direct from Constantinople, met with the insur-
gents at Peta, near to Arta, and utterly defeated them.
A mass of correspondence was seized, which plainly
proved the complicity of the Greek government in the
insurrection. After the defeat at Peta, many of the
insurgents returned home, panic-struck ; and, though
GREEK ATTACK ON TURKISH BORDERS. 149
partial success attended the efforts of the insurgents in
other places, yet their endeavours as a whole were
futile.
In the middle of May, the English and French go-
vernments determined to send a combined military
force of 6000 or 7000 men, to be placed under the com-
mand of the French General, Torey. This force was
to proceed to the Pireus, the port of Athens, to take
possession of that port, and to remain there until the
infatuated king should see his error. This had the de-
sired effect. The king awoke from his dream ; ac-
knowledged his error ; and everything was conceded to
Turkey and her Allies.
CHAPTER YIL
The Baltic Sea — Sie C. Napier — The Allied
Fleets in the Baltic — Operations in the
Baltic— Cronstadt — Bombardment and Cap-
ture op Bomarsund—The Pacific and White
Sea.
The name of the Baltic is familiar to all. English
poets have sung the battle of the Baltic, and many an
Englishman has loved to sail on the waters along which
sailed the Norseman of an earlier day. In modern
times the ships of our merchantmen have become as
familiar with its ports as with those of our native land,
and now, when it was to be visited by one of the most
magnificent fleets the world ever witnessed, the Baltic
Sea became doubly interesting.
Most of our readers, we take it, understand the po-
sition of the Baltic, which is usually understood to com-
mence south of the Danish Islands, and is thus un-
questionably the most nearly isolated of any similar body
of water in the world. It is about 840 miles long; its
width varies from 75 to 150 miles, and its area is esti-
mated at about 155,000 square miles, without includ-
ing the Kattegat and Skager Rock. No part of the
world is better watered than the region of the Baltic.
Upwards of two hundred and forty rivers find their way
into it. The lakes in its neighbourhood are all but in-
numerable, and altogether, this sea drains more than
a fifth part of the whole surface of Europe. In the
latitude of Stockholm the Baltic separates into two
great gulfs, of which one, the Gulf of Finland, runs
nearly due east, between the Russian territories of Fin-
land and Revel ; the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, a lit tie
THE BALTIC SEA.
151
east of north, between Finland and Sweden. The
Baltic is extremely shallow and tideless ; but though
tides are wanting, at irregular intervals a variation in
height, frequently equal to three and a-half Swedish
feet, is observed. This phenomenon, says M'Culloch,
occurs at all seasons, but chiefly in the autumn or
winter, or at the time of heavy rain, or when the at-
mosphere is charged with clouds, though unattended
with falling weather. The water maintains its height
frequently for several days, sometimes even for weeks ;
produces considerable agitation in the gulfs and straits,
and, except in winter, when its power is restrained by
the accumulated snow and ice, inundates the low
lands to a considerable extent. Prevalent winds,
flooding rains, melting snows, and many other causes
have been assigned for this very remarkable pheno-
menon, which continued, however, to occur under cir-
cumstances totally incompatible with all or any of
these ; but in 1804, a Swedish physician, after collect-
ing all the observations that had been made, found
that the greatest height corresponded to the greatest
depression of the barometrical column, and conversely.
The Baltic is remarkably transparent. A gentleman,
when living on its borders, often heard of cases where
parties, principally Englishmen, had been drowned,
owing to their having, while bathing, jumped into the
water, thinking it shallower than it really was. It
contains also a very small proportion of salt. This
freshness of the water, combined with its shallowness
and confined situation, renders the Baltic peculiarly
liable to congelation. In fact, it is every year encum-
bered with ice, and its straits are usually impassable
from December till April. Severe frosts made the sea
passable in its widest parts between Denmark and
Prussia in 1333, 1339, 1423, and 1429. : The climate,
like that of all Europe, and more especially of Ger-
many, has become more mild under the effect of better
drainage and cultivation ; but even within recent times
Charles III. marched across the Sound and the two
152
THE BALTIC SEA.
Belts to the attack of Denmark ; and so late as 1809 a
Russian army crossed the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice.
The Romans knew but little of the Baltic. In the
imperfect knowledge of those days, it was the theatre
of the wonders which always cease to exist as know-
ledge increases and men become better informed. The
origin of the name Baltic is, of course, a moot point
with etymologists. Some derive it from the Spanish
beltu or girdle ; others from the word bait a, which in
the Lithuanian tongue means white. The inhabitants
of its shores call it the Oost Sea (Eastern Sea) to dis-
tinguish it from the Atlantic or Western Ocean.
The entrance to the Baltic from the Atlantic is by a
large gulf called the Kattegat, which separates Den-
mark from Norway and Sweden, and by three straits
—the Sound, the Great Belt, and the Little Belt—
which may be considered the three gates by which the
Baltic is entered. Having passed the pine-crowned
cliffs of Norway, and threaded the numerous small isles
of the Kattegat, we approach these formidable gates.
The southernmost, or Little Belt, which separates the
peninsula of Jutland from the island of Eunen, is too
long, the navigation too intricate, and the depth of
water too variable, to be attempted by large vessels.
The middle entrance, the Great Belt, separates the
islands of Funen and Zealand. Its navigation, owing
to innumerable little islands and shoals, is also danger-
ous. The third entrance, the Sound, through which
our fleet passed, separates Sweden from the island of
Zealand. It is about twenty miles long, and at the
entrance, where it is narrowest, is only a mile and a
half across. The fortress of Kronburg is about twenty-
five miles from Copenhagen. It is placed at the ex-
tremity of the tongue of land on which stand the town
and castle of Elsinore, and commands the entrance of
the Sound. The whole of these three entrances are
completely fortified, and are as much the keys of the
Baltic as the castles and fortresses of the Dardanelles
H re the keys of the Black Sea and Constantinople ; and it
THE BALTIC FLEET.
153
really seems, as a recent writer has well remarked, as
if nature had thus interposed obstacles to the ambiti-
ous designs of Russia, by placing her, as it were, under
arrest in her own vast dominions, with sentries at her
only points of egress, both on the north and south.
The northern shore of the Baltic is generally high and
precipitous, and covered with magnificent pine forests,
producing timber of the finest quality. The southern
coasts, on the contrary, are low and marshy, and lined
by numerous sand-banks, thus rendering the navigation
perilous.
When the despatch of a formidable fleet to the Bal-
tic was ordered, the command was given to Sir Charles
Napier, whose long and brilliant service in various
parts of the w®rld had won for him a high reputation.
Indeed, the delight with which the appointment was
hailed was rather perilous to the veteran himself;
since the disappointment would be the greater if cir-
cumstances should prevent him from achieving any
great results. During the period of no less than fifty -
ty-four years, Napier had been battling either against
human antagonists, or against winds, and waves, and
storms. As a volunteer in the Martin and the Re-
nown ; as a midshipman in the Greyhound ; as lieu-
tenant during a short period ; as a commander in the
Pultusk and the Recruit; as a captain in the Furieuse
and the Euryalus — the gallant officer had seen service
in almost every part of the world, even before the
peace of 1815. Fourteen years of peace left him with-
out employment ; but in 1829 he commenced a new
career; he was for three years captain of the Galatea;
he then commanded Don Pedro’s fleet in the contest
against Don Miguel concerning the crown of Portu-
gal ; and next, as commodore, he rendered brilliant
service under Admiral Stopford off the coast of Syria.
This last achievement won for him the honour of
K.C.B. and an aide-de-camp to the Queen, and insig-
nia from Russia and Prussia. In 1846, Commodore
Napier became rear-admiral; and in 1853, vice-ad-
miral.
154
THE BALTIC FLEET.
The vessels destined for this Baltic war assembled
at Spithead ; and the review of the fleet by Her Majesty
was a spectacle worthy of the queen of a maritime na-
tion. A review on the same spot in the previous Au-
gust had produced a great impression, as a manifesta-
tion of the naval power of Britain; but the display
in March was yet more grand. Sir Charles Napier’s
fleet was to consist of about 44 ships-of-war, manned
by upwards of 22,000 seamen, mounting about 2200
guns, and propelled by 16,000 horse-power of steam.
Only six out of the whole number were to be sailing-
vessels — the Neptune, 120; St- George , 120; Prince
Regent, 90; Boscawen, 70; Monarch ,84; Cumber -
land , 70 — all the rest being either screw or paddle
steamers. It was arrranged that some of these should
form a first division, to start under Sir Charles Na-
pier ; that others, as a second division, should follow
under Admiral Corry; and that the rest should be
subsequently despatched. Sir Charles’s division con-
sisted entirely of steamers, sixteen in number ; com-
prising 8 screw line-of-battle ships, 4 screw-frigates,
and 4 paddle-steamers. The Duke of Wellington and
th eRoyal George were three-deckers. Sir Charles’s
flag floated on the Duke of Wellington ; Admiral Chad’s
on the Edinburgh ; and Admiral Plumridge’s on the
Leopard.
Th eDuke of Wellington was originally laid down at
Pembroke as a man-of-war of 120 guns, but she un-
derwent three changes — she was cut in two at the
middle, and lengthened by 23 feet, for the reception
of 11 additional guns ; she had a screw-propeller fit-
ted as an auxiliary to the power of the sails : and her
launching, occurring as it did about the time of the death
of the great warrior, led to the change of name from
the Windsor Castle to the Duke of Wellington. Thus
was produced the majestic three-decker of 131 guns —
having an extreme length of 278 feet, extreme breadth
of 60 feet, and the total weight, when fully equipped
for sea, of 6600 tons. Such a leviathan had never be*
THE BALTIC FLEET.
155
fore ploughed the seas, for it possessed large steam-
power in addition to the usual fittings for a sailing
man-of-war of the first-class. The problem was yet to
be solved, how far a vessel necessarily drawing so
great a depth of water would be fitted for active ser-
vice in a closed, shallow, intricate sea like the Bal-
tic.
Exciting was the day when Queen Victoria witness-
ed the departure of the fleet to the Russian waters.
On the 11th of March, 1854, the shores of Hampshire
and of the Isle of Wight were crowded with thousands
of eager spectators, who then for the first time witness-
ed the departure of a large fleet destined to a possi-
ble career of war and destruction. The various ships
being assembled at Spithead, the Queen came from
Osborne in the Fairy yacht, steamed up to the gigan-
tic flag-ship, received all the principal officers on board
the yacht, and bade them farewell and God-speed.
Early in the afternoon the signal was given, and the
ships weighed, and sailed or steamed forth. The Roy-
al George led the way; then followed the St Jean d*
Acre and the Tribune ; to these succeeded the Imperi -
euse, Blenheim , Amphion, Princess Royal , and the
other ships in succession. Her Maj esty literally head-
ed the fleet ; the little Fairy darted on in advance of
all, insomuch that, when returning westward, the
Queen passed the stately ships in succession. Nearly
all the seamen were enabled to catch a glimpse of their
sovereign, as she stood upon the deck of her yacht ;
and the recognition was not likely to be forgotten
either by seamen or sovereign. No such sight had
been witnessed, perhaps, on English shores since
Queen Elizabeth’s parting visit to her defenders at
Tilbury, 266 years earlier, on occasion of the Spanish
Armada.
The fleet — or more correctly one division of the fleet
under Sir Charles Napier — passed the Downs at mid-
day on the 12th. It pursued its majestic course up
the German Ocean, through the Skager Rack, thence
166
THE BALTIC FLEET.
to Helsingor, at the mouth of the Sound, and onward
to Copenhagen, where Sir Charles landed on the 20th
to pay his respects to the King of Denmark. The pad-
dle-steamer Hecla had previously been sent out, on the
the 19th of February, to make a preparatory survey of
the Baltic, carrying several masters and pilots; she
was absent about five weeks, during which time a run
of 3000 miles had been made.
No sooner had the naval authorities at Portsmouth
despatched the first division of the fleet under Sir
Charles Napier, than arrangements were made to send
off the second division under Kear-admiral Corry — an
officer who had seen nearly half a century of active ser-
vice, although his name was not associated in a marked
degree with any special achievements. On the 16th
of March, the Queen visited Corry’s squadron at Spit-
head, as she had before visited that of Napier. The
ships ready at that time were few in number, not ex-
ceeding six or seven : they sailed in the following week
— to be succeeded by other vessels as rapidly as the
equipment and manning could be completed.
On the 28th of March, at Kiel, in the Holstein, news
reached the fleet of the declaration of War. Despat-
ches reached Sir Charles Napier by mail-route from
London ; and, in consequence of the information thus
received, the following characteristic address was
issued to the fleet by its indomitable commander : — ■
“Lads — War is declared. We are to meet a bold
and numerous enemy. Should they offer us battle, you
know how to dispose of them. Should they remain in
port, we must try to get at them. Success depends
upon the quickness and precision of your fire. Lads,
sharpen your cutlasses, and the day is your own.”
Having thus traced the British fleet to the Baltic, it
becomes necessary to notice the maritime contingent
furnished by our French ally for the same service.
France, as a military nation, has paid far more atten-
tion to campaigns on land than to encounters at sea.
Her shipwrights and engineers, however, have not fail**
5S3 3AMIC FLEETS.
167
ed to watch and to profit by the improvements intro-
duced in England; and during the long peace, a fleet
of considerable power was gradually formed. At the
beginning of 1854, the naval forces of France compris-
ed 290 sailing-ships and 117 steamers ; presenting an
aggregate of about 13,000 guns, and 30,000 horse-pow-
er for the steamers. Of this force, about 30 vessels
were set apart to share in tbe Baltic expedition ; com-
prising 9 ships-of-the-line, 12 frigates, 4 brigs and cor-
vettes, and the remainder smaller vessels. This fleet
was placed under the command of Admiral Parseval-
Deschenes, who left Paris for Brest on the 20th of
March, and the ships began to leave Brest for the Bal-
tic on the same day.
The Kussian naval forces at the beginning of 1854,
appear, from the figures furnished by Haxthausen and
other writers, to have comprised about 60 ships-of-the-
line, ranging from 70 to 120 guns; 36 frigates, of 40
to 60 guns; 70 corvettes, brigs, and brigantines; and
40 steamers — the whole carrying about 9000 guns, and
requiring a force of 40,000 seamen. Somewhat later
in the year, it was known that at Helsingfors (Svea-
borg) and Cronstadt, the Russians had not less than
30 ships of 74 guns or upwards each; with- an aggre-
gate armament of 2468 guns ; besides 3 steamers of
400 horse-power each, 2 of 120 horse-power, and 1
steamer-corvette of 450 horse-power — the six steamers
carrying collectively 56 guns. The numbers could not
have deviated much from this in April, at the time
when the English and French fleets entered the Bal-
tic.
Although the Allied fleets entered the Baltic early
in April, the sea was not yet fitted for navigation by
large ships, owing to the length of time during which
the ice of winter clings to the ports and inlets. Cron-
stadt, the island-fortress which guards St. Petersburg
and the Neva, was naturally the point to which the at-
tention of the two admirals was mainly directed; and
this island, together with the mouth of the Neva,
1S& dfE&ATiONS ON THE EAItffe.
were known to be encumbered with ice at thd
time. In no case did the opening of the Neva occur
till April ; most of the openings were in the third or
fourth week of that month ; while some were retarded
until May. The closing begins generally some time in
November. The ice lingers about Cronstadt nearly a
week later than at the mouth of the Neva, insomuch
that the month of May is in most years fairly advanc-
ed before the vicinity of that fortress can be safely ap-
proached by large ships. This icy fringe- work is pre-
sent during about 150 days in each year.
Slowly and cautiously did the Allied admirals ad-
vance, watchful of shoals on one part, and of ice in
another. * Of the enemy, there was rather a fear that
he would not be met with ; the seamen were eager for
an encounter ; but it began already to be suspected
that the Russian ships would shelter behind stone-for-
tresses. To many, even among the educated officers,
the expedition partook of the nature of a voyage of dis-
covery, or at least of exploration in a little-known re-
gion. “ The Baltic had entered little into our specula-
tions as a seat of war, and was to ships of the navy al-
most a mare ignotum. Merchant-vessels had travers-
ed it backwards and forwards, and visited all the differ-
ent ports with their cargoes ; but the professional
knowledge of its water and shores was very small, and
derived chiefly from foreign charts. The men of the
last war, depending chiefly on their seamanship and
enterprise, had added little to our scientific infor-
mation on the subject, and, as the result of their expe-
rience, only the warnings of disaster and a few oral
records. The high hopes, therefore, which followed the
departure of the first Baltic fleet, must have been dash-
ed by a fear that some of the magnificent ships might
return no more.” The merchants engaged in the Bal-
tic trade do indeed know the perils of that region —
taught, as they have been, by costly experience. In a
series of years immediately preceding the war, the ves-
sels which passed the Sound, either inwards or outwards
DILATIONS Off THE BAXTIO. ISO
numbered no less than 15,000 annually, of which near-
ly one-fourth were British. Never did a year pass
without many of these ships being wrecked. The Bal-
tic navigators have found the most dangerous points,
in so far as regards wrecking on the coast, to be —
Sandhammer and Falsterbo, near the southern extre-
mity of Sweden ; the east coast of the island of Goth-
land ; the Aland Islands ; the Dager Ort, near the en-
trance to the Gulf of Finland ; and a hazardous shoal
between Christiana and Gothenbord. Any criticism
on naval manoeuvres in the Baltic would be unjust
which did not take into account the perils of such a sea
to bulky ships drawing so great a depth of water as
those in Sir Charles Napier’s fleet.
When Sir Charles Napier thus began to move east-
ward, in the middle of April, his armament had accu-
mulated to nearly forty ships, of which more than half
were screw-steamers. The whole had on board about
1700 guns and 18,000 men; with Corry, Plumridge,
and Chads, as the three admirals under Napier. But
from that time, it was seldom that all the ships were
assembled at or near one spot ; special expeditions
being always in progress, by detached portions of the
fleet.
The French fleet, commanded by Admiral Par-
seval-Deschenes, comprised about twenty-four vessels.
The commander hoisted his flagon the Inflexible ; while
Bear- admiral Penaud, second in command, sailed in
the Duguesclin. Unlike the English armament, this
French fleet took out a small body of infantry, and
another of artillery, ready for prospective land-service.
These ships joined Sir Charles Napier’s fleet at differ-
ent times and different places.
The huge vessels passed from Kioge Bay to the is-
land of Gothland, and remained there some time.
Early in May, Sir Charles Napier moved the fleet to
Hango Head, despatching single ships to the north
and east of it. A spirited affair occur ed on the 19 th,
wilder the management of Captain Yalverton of th*?
165 OPERATIONS ON THE BALTIC?.
Arrogant, and Captain Hall (who had won distinc-
tion a few years earlier in the Chinese War) in the
Hecla — both steamers. The two vessels steamed up a
small firth which bounds the Hango peninsula on the
east, and which is marked at the entrance by the town
of Ekness or Eknas. Yalverton and Hall determined
to capture one, at least , of three large laden Russian
merchant- vessels which were lying at anchor in Ek-
ness Bay; but the whole coast was bristling with de-
fences — a sandbank-battery in one place, a stone-bat-
tery in another, a masked-battery behind a wood near
the shore, infantry armed with Minie -rifles in one
place, and a troop of horse-artillery in another. Shot
and shell and Minie-balls flew about in all directions :
the Hecla had several shots through her funnel, steam-
pipe, and hull, and both vessels were studded with
Minie-balls. Nevertheless, in the midst of a torrent
of shot, Captain Hall ran into the harbour at Ekness,
captured a bark, and towed her away, much to the as-
tonishment of the inhabitants. The little Hecla , a 6-
gun steamer, bore most of the rough usage ; the Arro-
gant, 46 guns, was too heavy to approach the shoal wa-
ter as closely as Captain Yalverton would have wished.
It was, indeed, an extraordinary fight thus maintain-
ed by the Hecla ; for the Russian infantry, cavalry,
and artillery moved along the coast parallel with the
steamer’s course, dodging its movements, and firing
incessantly. This was the first among many examples
furnished in the Baltic, that vessels of light draught
are better fitted to render useful service in that sea
than first-class men-of-war.
Another subsidiary expedition was intrusted to Cap-
tain Cooper Key, with the Amphion (34) and the Con-
flict (8,) both screw-steamers. The destination was the
coast of Courland, not far from the Prussian frontier.
Arriving off the port of Libau, Captain Key learned
that several Russian merchant -vessels lay in the port,
and that the place was defended by 600 or 700 soldiers.
He resolved to capture the vessels, some or all. Ha?-
OPERATIONS ON THE BALTIC.
101
ing steamed within gunshot of the town on the 17th
of May, the governor was summoned by Captain Key
to surrender; a refusal led to the manning of all the
boats belonging to both ships — those of the Amphion
being commanded by Captain Key, and those of the
Conflict by Captain Cumming. The boats had to pull
a mile and a half up a small creek or river to reach
Libau ; and the river was only fifty yards broad. The
captains deemed it fortunate that the Russian soldiers
did not appear on the banks, else might the 'fate of the
boat-expedition have been doubtful. The invaders
were 130 men in all only, against a population of
10,000, aided by 600 soldiers. Nevertheless, so judici-
ously did Captain Cumming manage a conference with
the magistrates, that all the ships were given up, with-
out a shot being fired on either side; and the Amphion
and Conflict , before nightfall, steamed forth with eight
new Russian merchant- vessels in tow.
An achievement of a somewhat similar nature was
performed by Captain Wilcox, in the Dragon , a pad-
dle steamer of 6 guns. While cruising in the Gulf of
Finland, he recomioitered the port of Revel, situated
on the coast of Esthonia, nearly opposite Sveaborg.
Seeing two vessels at anchor there, he made a dash at
them. Regardless of the shot poured towards his lit-
tle steamer from the batteries, he ran in close ashore,
captured both the ships, and towed them into Hango
Bay on the following morning.
The destructive expedition of Admiral Plumridge
was closed by an encounter in which defeat, instead of
success, attended him. On the shore of Finland, a
little south of Brahestad, are two small towns named
Gamle (Old) and Ny (New) Karleby. The Odin and
the Vulture arrived off Gamle Karleby on the 7th of
June; and sent out several boats at eleven o’clock in
the evening — at which hour there is still a little day-
light in the summer of high latitudes. A summons
to surrender any stores contraband of war, made two
hours earlier, seems to have been refused. The boats
24-6 L
162 OTEltATIONS 01 $ THE SAiTie.
approached the shore, and attempted a landing. Two
pieces of artillery, and two companies of infantry, re-
sisted the attempt ; and a brisk interchange of bullet
and ball ensued for nearly an hour. The boats were
ultimately obliged to retire, carrying away a few dead
and wounded, and leaving a lew prisoners in the hands
of the Russians. The water is so shallow at that part,
that the steam-frigates could not safely come within
four or five miles of the shore ; and this circumstance
prevented them from assisting the boats. Whether
the insignificance of the place (comprising less than
2000 inhabitants) rendered the admiral indifferent to a
second attack, certain it is that the result of the hour’s
fighting greatly elated the Russians, and gave occasion
for high coloured accounts in the Journal de St. Pe-
tersburg and the Invalide Russe, in which the Rus-
sian loss was set down at “four men slightly wound-
ed.”
Shortly after these transactions in the Gulf of Both-
nia, the French fleet arrived, and joined the English.
Admiral Parseval-Deschenes made his appearance off
Hango, on the 13th of June; on the following day, Sir
Charles Napier, accompanied by Admirals Corry and
Chads, made a visit of ceremony to the French admir-
al : and on the 15th, Parseval-Deschenes made a simi-
lar complimentary visit to his brother officers on board
the Duke of Wellington. It was a novel and exciting
scene ; for never before had English and French fleets
met in amity on the Baltic ; and the crews, when once
they had learned to rub off early prejudices, cheered
each other right heartily. The blockade of all the Rus-
sian ports in the three Gulfs of Livonia, Finland, and
Bothnia, had been formerly effected by Sir Charles Na-
pier before the French arrived, and was officially noti-
fied in the London Gazette on the 16th of June.
Sir Charles Napier had delayed his advance up the
Gulf of Finland, partly to await the arrival of his
French allies, and partly by reason of numerous diffi*
cultics which had to be encountered.
OPERATIONS ON THE BALTIC.
1 <$
Instead of, or in preference to, any attack on Svea-
borg, the Allied admirals advanced up the Gulf of
Finland to Cronstadt, the island which constitutes vir-
tually the fortresses in defence of St. Petersburg. This
advance was made during the last week in June.
When within ten miles of the island, three small pad-
dle-frigates, the Lightning , Bull-dog , and Magicienne,
were sent on ahead to sound and reconnoitre more
closely, and especially to search for any “infernal ma-
chines” or submarine explosives, the existence of which
in these parts was apprehended. Three larger vessels,
the Tmperieuse, Arrogant, and Desperate , followed them
at a short distance to afford protection. JNo “infernal
machines” were found ; but the reconnoitring vessels
approached Cronstadt sufficiently near to render man-
ifest a formidable array of granite batteries, and a large
fleet sheltered within the harbour. The admirals had
heard of certain destructive machines, which had been
made at a government establishment near Moscow ear-
ly in the year — copper vessels, capable of holding 700
pounds of powder, to be exploded either by percussion
or by galvanic current ; the knowledge obtained was
vague, but sufficient to induce a cautious examination
of all the approaches to Cronstadt, lest any such sub-
marine apparatus should endanger the hulls of the ships.
So far as could be discerned, the Eussian fleet within
the harbour nearly equalled in number — about thirty
—the Anglo-French ships on the outside; but made
no attempt to emerge from their hiding-place behind
stone walls. Some of the English officers landed at
the small island of Tolbuken, or Toll Beacon, westward
of Cronstadt, ascended to the summit of a light-house,
and there inspected, in the distance, such a tremend-
ous range of granite batteries as astonished all. A
general impression was made, that the place could not
be taken by a naval attack; and thereupon, after a
careful examination of the vicinity, the fleets return-
ed early in July from Cronstadt to Baro Sound.
The "whole subject of the fortifications of the Baltic
164
CRONSTADT.
was at the commencement of the war a matter of great
interest. But the eyes of the civilised world were fix-
ed on Cronstadt. We shall, therefore, give a rather
lengthy description of this stronghold of Russian
powder.
A vessel that shall be sailing up the Gulf of Finland
will have to the north the Finnish coast, to the south
the Ingrian and Esthonian coasts. These gradually
recede until they leave a space of nearly a hundred
miles; but after you pass Narva Bay the shores again
near each other, and, narrowing by degrees, are at last
only eight miles apart. And at the east-end of this
channel is St. Petersburg and the Neva estuary. This
is the vulnerable part of Russia, as a capital must al-
ways be a matter of vital importance to the existence
of a nation. To render this point invulnerable, and
to secure the chief city of the vast Muscovite empire,
Peter the Great, that renowned rival of Sweden, erect-
ed the fortress of Cronslott, thus laying the founda-
tion of that system of military defences which we are
now viewing from afar with so much interest. A
writer, who appears to have studied the matter from
a military point of view says: — “The strength or the
impregnability, as the case may be, of the positions
of this bulwark of St. Petersburg will be easily, un-
derstood by attention to the following considerations.
The Island of Hotline is an irregularly shaped acute
triangle, seven miles long, planted in the Gulf of Fin-
land in an oblique direction, with its base towards St.
Petersburg, and its apex seawards. The broad and
eastern end is covered by the town of Cronstadt, the
sharp, or north-western, point being marked by the
lighthouse of Tollboken.”
It would appear on the surface that any man-of-
war which should wish to make the mouth of the
Neva had but to round the Tollboken, and bear up, by
sailing round Cronstadt, to the north, and thus head- .
ing up between the island and the shore of Finland ;
or it might steer to the south, with Cronstadt on one
hand and the Ingrian shore on the other.
CBONSTjLDT.
165
But Russia, which has for years been preparing for a
gigantic contest with the whole world, has taken care
that it shall not be so easy to do these things as it may
appear on paper. The northern channel has been
blocked up and destroyed by means of long rows of
piles, miles in length, round about which stone and
other barricades have been cast, so that the whole chan-
nel between Cronstadt and Lisi Noss has become use-
less, to an advancing force, unless it used gun-boats of
a very peculiar construction. That something of the
kind might be brought to bear, is evident from the fact
that the smaller craft of the place still use this channel,
which is made useless to large ships under quite novel
circumstances.
The long delays and hesitations which have taken
place with regard to Constradt, will be appreciated by
all who know anything about the locality, except
that knot of persons in all countries who are so fond
of excitement as to want nothing less than a bombard-
ment every morning with their breakfast. But war is
bad enough in every sense, without aggravating its
evils by recklessness and foolhardiness — qualities which,
under the name of desperate courage, have led men to
do such useless deeds of valour. A calm examination
of the fortified place we now speak of, will open the eyes
of many persons to facts that they were not previously
aware of.
The north channel is impassable to ships. It is a
fact which may be seen by sea-charts of these waters,
that the centre channel, which averages from five to
seven feet, is in the shape of a triangle, of which the
base stretches from Forts Alexander and Risbank, while
the point is the narrow mouth of the same channel be-
tween Cronstadt and the shoal which is called the Or-
amenbaum Spit. This at once gives an idea of the na-
ture of the obstructions which are to be found at once
in the south channel.
To the left of an invading force would be Fort Alex*
ander. This is a most formidable construction, evi-
166
CRONSTADT.
dently intended to cope with a very huge invading force.
A military writer says : “ This fort is, in its ground
plan, of a somewhat elliptical shape, and consists of a
front, with four tiers of embrasures, and two flanks
of three tiers, and a rear wall mounted with guns en
barbette. It is built on rocks of granite, on a founda-
tion of piles driven in eighteen feet of water.” The
whole casemates of this very serious fortification would
pour a fire of 116 eight-inch and ten-inch guns on an
enemy; so that the loss of human life would necessarily
be very great, while it would take a considerable time to
silence them.
The fort of Bisbank, in about the same range, is quite
new, and was finished, it is quite clear, with a view to
the late war. In 1852 it was in a very unfinished state,
but has been hurried on to be prepared for all contin-
gencies. It rests upon similar foundations in sixteen
feet of water, but it differs from its twin fort in being
oblong. When it was last heard of, it had two tiers of
guns, one on a level with the water, and another some
distance above. The number of guns is believed to be
about half those of the other fort. They are very heavy
guns.
The next difficulty a fleet would have to encounter,
supposing these first obstacles overcome, would be the
guns of the bastion of Fort Peter. This, one who
speaks from intimate knowledge assures us, has three
towers or bastions with two curtains to unite them.
This fort, which sweeps in various directions, has
twenty-eight guns in its bastions in casemates, and
twenty- eight above. The curtains have twenty guns
mounted on the summit.
The next defence is of a less imposing character,
quite different from what we should expect a fortifica-
tion erected by Peter the Great would be. It pre-
sents to the sea nothing but a long line of timber case-
mates, with altogether forty guns, in ten batteries, on
a level w ith the water. It is nothing but a mole sup-
ported on piles, built in the form of an irregular pen-
CR6NSTA-DT.
167
tagon. This is Cronslott, which has been also hurried*
ly armed since the demonstration of Menschikoff at
Constantinople.
This, however, forms a very important part of the
defences of the anchorage, t] lough less important than
some interior fortifications. One of these is the mole
which flanks the harbour for merchant- vessels, on the
side towards the sea. This is about a thousand yards
long, and joins the land fortifications. There are
three basins in the harbour, one of which is set apart
for. the merchant service. This dock is not an excava-
tion, but an inclosure made by driving piles in and in-
closing the space necessary. The piles are of great
strength, as they are made to support a heavy mass
of timber and granite, sometimes timber alone, some-
times granite alone. This makes a kind of flat ram-
part covered by guns, some of them are of very heavy
calibre, with plates of sheet-iron under them, where
they rest on wood. The men who would work these
guns would have no protection, so that ships’ batter-
ies would rake them in a very short time, and silence
them effectually, if once the great Fort Menschikoff
could be silenced.
Eut here is the great difficulty ; and on this point
one acquainted with fortifications has written a very
remarkable paragraph: — “ We will assume, for argu-
ment’s sake, that some fortunate accident has removed
the whole of this elaborate machinery for boring holes
and exploding mines in the scantlings of enemies’ ships,
and that a screw-liner has advanced up to the begin-
ning of the narrow channel between Cronslott and the
mole-head. For more than one ship at a time to at-
tempt, amidst the smoke and confusion of battle, to
run through an opening only 250 yards wide, where
there is always risk of going aground, would be almost
an impossibility. And when the successful Austerlitz
or Ajax arrives, and that alone, at the end of ‘ the
great road,’ she is at once raked by a fort bearing th®
ominous name of Prince Menschikoff.
168
CBOSTSTADT.
“ Fort Menschikoff, built of cubes of granite on a
bastion projecting from the mole of the merchant har-
bour, mounts forty-four ten-inch and eight-inch guns
in four tiers of casemates. The flank turned towards
Cronslott is pierced with loop-holes for musketry, five
on each of the three lower tiers. The back is not sus-
ceptible of defence against a coup de main ; but this is
of little consequence, as the necessary coup is not very
likely to reach it before the fall of Cronstadt itself.
The ventilation is secured by six arched longitudinal
openings, the draught from which would, when the
wind blew from the eastward, carry the smoke out of
the casemates. That the broadside of a line-of-battle
ship, directed against Fort Menschikoff, would produce
a very sensible effect upon its flat front, is not to be
denied. What we doubt, is, whether our screw wiL
ever be able to bring her broadside so to bear ; as, be-
fore taking up the position necessary to effect this, she
must first come end on against Menschikoff, and then
present the steadiest of targets to the Russian gun-
ners. Making every allowance for the relative infe-
riority of the enemy’s aim, we do not think that such
a mark could be well missed ; and some of the shells
plunging down from the upper tiers of the battery
through the ship’s decks, would not improbably find
their way into the engine-room or the powder-maga-
zine. Meanwhile the steamer could only reply
from her bridle ports and sixty -eight-pounder pivot
guns, so that the damage inflicted by her before coin-
ing into position would be quite insignificant. And if
the Russians were to adopt the very obvious measure
of mooring three or four line-of-battle ships on a line
parallel to the face of Fort Menschikoff, they would be
able to rake the entrance to the Little Road with an
additional fire of 150 guns. A few old vessels sunk
near the mole would, however, settle the question still
more effectually ; and as there is no actual night in a
Cronstadt summer, there could be but little chance of
the attacking party being able to remove such obsta-
CBONSTADT.
169
cles. Under these circumstances again, the Russian
fleet, if withdrawn into the furthest basin, would be
tolerably safe from the dangers of that uncertain oper-
ation — a bombardment.”
But all the fortifications are not yet mentioned.
There are two sides to Cronstadt. There are the bat-
teries against an attack from without, and those ap-
parently directed against an attack from within. It
would seem as if the cunning of the government of
Russia had been directed to provide against insurrec-
tionary movements in St. Petersburg.
Mention has already been made of the mole which
runs along the basins, both those provided for the mer-
chantmen and those for the men-of-war. This part of
the fortifications trends away in a new direction oppo-
site Cronslott, and runs along the northern side of the
island for about a mile. It is this part of the mole
which separates the Mercantile and Central Harbour
from the Little Road. On the front of the bastions of
this same fortified rampart is Fort Menschikoff, of which
we have already spoken ; and at the end of the Cen-
tral Harbour is the Military Harbour, which is rectan-
gular in shape, about nine hundred yards in length, by
three hundred and fifty broad. At the extremity of
this are two bastions, and two on each flank. The
bastions on the side of the Little Road “are truncat-
ed,” and they have an opening for the passage in and
out of ships. Except under and around Port Mens-
chikoff, the mole is of timber ; but in other places it is
of heavy masses of granite. Up to the time when
English visitors could see it, this mole was defended
only by a few guns, but it is probable that the warlike
preparations made elsewhere have also been carried
out here. It has been suggested that a line of hulks
has probably been brought to bear so as to clear the
mole.
Line-of-battle ships are not able to advance beyond
the end of the last basin ; only steam frigates after
that point being able to find enough water. Behind
170
ATTACK ON BOMAKSBND.
this, and under the embankment which runs along the
southern and eastern part of the island, none but small
boats and little sailing craft can approach. The bank
is connected with a brick wall, about a hundred yards
long, which has a gateway in it leading to a wooden pier,
which is used by the steam ferry-boats which ply between
the island and the main land. Access to this gateway
is afforded by a draw-bridge, and near the gate is a
well -fortified guard-house. This military fort is fur-
ther guarded by a battery of sixteen guns, which are
pointed towards the capital of the empire. Then
comes a dead wall, a barracks, and the huge hospital
of the city ; and then a platform battery. Beyond all
this is another line of works, double, with a rampart
rising up from the water’s edge. Then they traverse
the whole breadth of the island with a parapet three
thousand yards long. There are other batteries com-
manding the shallow water, which are however of lit-
tle importance.
About the middle of June, while the main portion of
the English fleets was yet in Baro Sound, an attack on
Bomarsund was planned by Captains Hall, Scott, and
Buckle, in the Hecla , Odin, and Valorous . On the
21st, the three steamers took up a position in front of
the town, about 2000 yards distant, and opened fire.
The fortress was heavily mounted, and was defended
also by two companies of riflemen. A brisk cannonade
was kept up for several hours. The English account
of the transaction was — that two strand-batteries were
soon silenced; that scarcely any of the Russian shot
reached the ships; that all the houses, vesseis, and
ships’ stores were burnt o# otherwise destroyed; that
the ships left when, during the night, thefortress was
in flames in several places; that the loss of the
enemy must have been severe ; and that the Allies
had none killed and only five wounded. According
to the Russian version, however, a red-hot ball from
the fort set fire to one of the ships ; the English did no
serious damage to the fortress ; they were obliged to
OPERATIONS ON THE BALTIC.
171
ive up the contest and retire'for the night ; the English
3 ss must have been considerable; while the Russians
iad only two killed and fifteen wounded. Such contra-
ictory accounts would be embarrassing, were it not
hat the Journal de St. Petersburg , during the war,
^resented so many instances of untruthfulness and
faring exaggeration. A gallant act was perform-
id by Midshipman Lucas on this occasion; one of the
>ombs fired by the Russians having fallen on the deck
)f the Hecla , Lucas boldly picked it up, and threw it
nto the sea before the fuse had ignited the explosive
lompound within : it was a question of life or death for
nm in either case, whether he touched the dread mis-
sile or not.
On the 18th of July, the fleets weighed anchor, left
Baro Sound, and steered for Aland — leaving some of
die ships behind, however, to watch the movements of
:he Russians at Sveaborg and Cronstadt. They reach-
ed Led Sound, south of the Aland Islands, on the 21st.
On the 22<1, the Edinburgh , Blenheim , Hogue , Ajax,
Amphion , and Alban, arrived off the forts of Bomar-
sund, passing beautiful scenery by the way, but re-
quiring delicate handling to prevent them from going
on shore. As it was fully expected that Russian
troops were hidden behind the woods on shore, pre-
paration were made to guard the ships from a sudden
attack ; shot and shell were brought up ready on deck,
the men were placed at the guns, 10-inch guns were
loaded with canister-shot, and a screen of hammocks
was fitted up ; for the ships sailed and steamed so close
to land, on some occasions, that “a biscuit might
have been thrown ashore.” The precaution was not
unnecessary, for shot and shell speedily began to pour
forth from Bomarsund, which would have wrought
great injury if better aimed. The admiral, in accord-
ance with instructions from home, suspended active
operations until military reinforcements should arrive ;
he therefore ordered the ships to retire beyond reach
of the guns at Bomarsund, but continued a very care-
172 OPERATIONS ON THE BALTIC.
fill survey of the intricate channels between the islands.
Two or three of the ships went on shore in the narrow
passages, and were with difficulty liberated. The
officers, by the aid of their glasses, could observe that
the great fort or battery at Bomarsund had a double
range of casemates ; it was built in a curve, command-
ing the whole sweep of the harbour, and had a bomb-
proof roofing, covered by a layer of sand four feet in
depth. Besides this, there were two round towers or
forts, built on elevated spots of ground. A temporary
strand-battery was also visible on the beach.
On the 30th of July, from the mast-head of the
Duke of Wellington , Sir Charles Napier’s flag-ship, at
Led Sound, the ships which brought the first division
of the French troops were descried. General Bara-
guay d’Hilliers came in the Reine Hortense ; while
the Algiers, 91, Royal William , 120, St, Vincent, 104,
and other large ships, brought the troops. Courtesies
and congratulations speedily followed ; visits of cere-
mony were paid ; admirals and generals, English and
French, vied with each other in friendly demonstra-
tions ; and all felt that now, at least, somewhat ought
to be achieved to give eclat to a campaign which had
hitherto been deficient in stirring incidents.
The commanders, military and naval, immediately
commenced arrangements for an attack on Bomar-
sund; they steamed up to the vicinity of the fort, to
make such reconnaissances as might determine the na-
ture of the plan to be adopted. Three Russians, es-
caped from Bomarsund, gave information that the for-
tress contained two round towers and a long battery,
1000 troops of the line, 350 irregulars, 100 armed con-
victs, and 550 artillerymen ; while on various parts of
the islands were 500 riflemen, 700 irregulars, 80 Cos-
sacks, and 4 field-pieces. The statements of deserters,
however, are to be received with caution; and the
Allies simply made use of this information as one
among several means of arriving at the truth. Some
of the ships were so placed as to form a cordon round
30 MBA.Bl>MEir» OB BOMABSTT^B. 173
be islands, to remain at signal- distance to watch the
lovements of the troops on shore, and to cut off all
upplies of provisions and ammunition ; while others
ntered the straits or fiords leading up to Bomar-
und. .
The Eussian Commandant at Bomarsund, m accord-
ance with the spirit which had dictated the burning of
doscow in a former war, fired most of the villages
ground, and changed the neighbourhood to a scene of
nisery and desolation.
By nine o’clock on the morning of the 8th of
August, the disembarkation had been effected, and
;hc troops began their preparations for a march to the
forts. Sir Charles N apier, in the mean time, was busi-
ly moving from place to place, from ship to ship, re-
connoitring the shore, and signaling orders to the vari-
ous ships of the fleet, of which nearly fifty were in the
immediate vicinity, four-fifths of the number being
steamers. The small steamers were employed in carry-
ing ammunition and provisions on shore ; while the
larger vessels were preparing to bring their broadsides
to bear upon any assailable points.
The 10th, 11th, and 12th, of August were busily oc-
cupied by the Allies in making preparations for the com-
mencement of the bombardment ; both the sailors and
soldiers being fully employed in this necessary
duty* .
The following was the position and arrangement of
the forts. Close to the shore was a range of fortifica-
tions, with two tiers of guns, forty being mounted in
each tier. On a hill above, about a mile and a half
from the shore, was a round tower, also with two tiers
of guns; on another and higher hill, to thewest of
this, was a second round tower, and a third occupied
the summit of a hill on the extreme east. These three
towers were perfectly similar, and from twenty to
thirty guns of large calibre were mounted on each.
Shortly after daybreak, on the morning of the 13th,
the French, having been actively employed since the
174
BOMBABDMENT OP BC MABSUNB.
8th in bringing up and planting their siege-train, and
having finished their battery No. 1, opened fire on
.Fort Tzee, and continued with very little interruption
throughout the day. The effect was tremendous, al-
though the guns and mortars were few in number;
the shells burst in the embrasures and on the roof; and
the face of the stone-work was shattered to fragments.
Towards evening, the Russians exhibited, not for the
first or the last time during the war, a disregard of the
honourable principle which usually regulates an a gree-
ment under a flag of truce. A flag was hoisted; Gen-
eral Baraguay d’Hilliers went up with a small escort;
a request was made that the Russians might have an
opportunity to bury their dead ; and he so far assented
as to yield one hour. It is understood, in such mat-
ters, that the time shall be really appropriated in the
manner specified ; but the Russians, on the contrary,
sent down to the great fort, and brought up a new
store of ammunition wherewith to continue the
struggle. This breach of honour greatly exasperated
the French commander; insomuch that he refused a
second flag of truce, when signaled at a later stage of
the proceedings. The contest became very severe as
night approached for, on the one hand, the French
chasseurs, clambering upon the rocks, poured a des-
tructive fire of bullets into the embrasures of the fort,
striking down the Russian gunners where they stood ;
while, on the other hand, FortNottich rendered aid to
Fort Tzee, by sending shells completely over it into the
French camp.
The first conquest of any of the forts was effected on
the 14th. The vigorous firing by the mortars and the
chasseurs told so severely on Fort Tzee, that it surren-
dered during the forenoon, and about fifty men became
prisoners. The nimble chasseurs appear to have taken
the place by surprise. General Jones’s battery was
not at that time finished, an,d could render no aid in
capturing the first fort; but as the great fort and Fort
Nottich maintained a vigorous fire, it speedily became
necessary to attack them.
fcOMBARDMEET OB BOMARSUND.
During many hours on the 14th, the French, secure
in the possession of Fort Tzee, were busily engaged in
erecting on an adjacent elevated spot' a battery for
breaching the great fort. The state of Fort Tzee itself
had encouraged the Allies to persevere in a similar at-
tack on the other forts; for, during a bombardment of
twenty-four hours, the granite face of the tower was
jagged and splintered in all directions, and the sides
and edges of the embrasures were thickly marked by
the bullets which the deadly aim of the chasseurs had
poured into them. The English battery was by this
time finished, and presented a formidable appearance,
with its array of sand-bags nine or ten feet in height.
Although Fort Tzee was only 300 yards distant, and
Fort Nottich 750, yet, as the former had just been ta-
ken by the French, the English turned their guns
against the more distant fort, and in eight hours suc-
ceeded in breaching the side opposite to them. The
battery was manned by seamen and marine-artillery
from the Hogue, Edinburgh, Ajax , and Blenheim, under
the direction of Captain Ramsay, of the first-named
vessel. Sir Charles Napier, in his despatch relating to
the capture, summed it up in these brief words: “ Their
fire was beautiful ! At six p. m., one side was knocked
in, and the tower surrendered.” It appears that by
three o’clock the interior of the tower or fort had been
laid open, and its guns silenced. At six o’clock, a white
flag having been hoisted, Brigade-major Ord was sent
to take possession; he did so; but finding that it would
not be possible for him to maintain his communications
with the English advanced-posts after daylight, in con-
sequence of the proximity of the great fort, he left the
place, bringing away with him 3 officers and 115 sol-
diers. In the fort he found sixteen 18- pounders, and
two 32-pounders. The two forts, the second of which
was thus taken, so much resembled towers, that they
were described indifferently by either name. Mean-
while the ships were preparing to take part in the at-
tack on the great fort, which, from its proximity to tho
176 BOMBARDMENT OR BOMARSUN©.
shore, was more within their reach. The Asmoctee,
Phlegetkon , Darien , Arrogant, Amphion , Valorous ,
Driver, Bull-dog, Hecla, Trident , Duperre, Edinburgh,
and ^ya,r, kept up a well-directed fire of shells, which
worked much mischief on the stern granite fortification.
Captain Pelham, of the Blenheim, landed a large 10-
inch gun, and planted it on the earthen battery which
the Russians had been forced to abandon a few
days before ; and there he bore with wonderful coolness
an attack of a formidable character. The crew raised
a high defence, and kept up a steady fire with their one
gun against the south-west end of the large fort, while
the enemy, with a double range of heavily shotted and
shelled guns, returned the fire with far greater force ;
shells burst over and around the solitary gun, but the
blue-jackets took matters very cheerfully, throwing
themselves on the ground until the shells had burst.
Captain Pelham maintained his position, despite the
formidable antagonist against which he had pitted
himself. In another part of the scene of contest, Port
Tzee, warm work of a different kind was in progress dur-
ing the day. After this fort had been taken by the
French, and before Port Nottich had yielded to the
English, the commandant of this latter fort, knowing
the danger to be apprehended from the presence of the
French in the other, maintained a fierce fire against
it; and at length a shell, falling apparently on a mag-
azine, blew up the greater part of the fort with a tre-
mendous explosion.
At length came the day, the 16th of August, when
the final conquest of Bomarsund was to be achieved by
the capture of the formidable strand-fort. While
dawn had yet hardly broken, a force was despatched
to Fort Nottich, to take the prisoners who had sur-
rendered to Captain Ramsay at six o’clock on the pre-
ceding evening. The marines and seamen, when they
entered the place, found three officers and about 100
men ; and these prisoners were marched down three
miles to the beach there to be placed on board one of
BOMBARDMENT OB BOMARSUND.
177
the ships: the commandant was a colonel in the Bus-
eian army. As day advanced, the land-batteries and
the ships’ guns kept up a deafening roar, maintaining
an incessant cannonade against the great fort. The
arrangements, however, called for much caution;
the narrowness of the slip of ground on which the
French had established their breaching-battery,
circumscribed the operations, else might the ships
have fired upon the French troops in the endeavour
to hit the great fort ; while the limited space in the
anchorage before Bomarsund, and the intricacy of
the navigation, prevented the ships from making
so near an approach as could be wished. The fort,
replying to the ships and to the land-batteries with
some of its guns, had still a few to point to the auda-
cious one gun which Captain Pelham had maintained
in position during the preceding day; his situation be-
coming perilous, the ships were ordered to increase the
rapidity of their fire. Seven of the ships who happen-
ed to be within range with their 10-inch guns, were
ordered by Sir Charles to “ give them a shot and shell
every five minutes” — as if he were speaking of pills and
powders for a sick man. This iron torrent, in conjunc-
tion with that which was being poured out by the
French breaching-battery, was too much to be borne
long : a flag of truce was held out, and the place sur-
rendered. It was the opinion of 'Sir Charles Napier,
expressed in his despatch, that if the fort had not sur-
rendered on the 16th, the whole place would have been
reduced to ashes on the 17th, so terrible was the power
of the breaching-battery which General Niel had ju-
diciously placed within 400 yards of the fort, and so
heavy the weight of metal poured in from the ships.
Admiral Plumridge, during this busy day, was render-
ing service north-east of the town and forts ; he placed
his squadron so as to prevent reinforcements from be-
ing thrown in from the Finland coast — a contingency
which might else have happened ; for the Allies had
reason to believe that two Bussian admirals had been
246 M
178
BOMBARDMENT OP BOMAHST7ND.
sent among the islands, to determine the practicability
or otherwise of aiding the beleaguered forts. It had
been intended that Plumridge’s squadron should aid
the attack by shelling the north side of Bomarsund ;
but finding that he could not do so without endanger-
ing the men in the French breaching-battery, he di-
rected his attention to the Prasto fort. Admiral Plum-
ridge, who had the Leopard , Hecla, and Cocyte , at his
disposal, described, in characteristic language, in his
despatch to Sir Charles, the tactics he adopted : every-
thing is “beautiful” to a professional man, which exhi-
bits efficiency in his own particular vocation. He
moved his three ships “ into a delightful sequestered po-
sition, screened from observation by the trees on the
neck of land to the eastward of the tower; having the
great Bomarsund fort and it in one [in a right line],
so that our over-shot and shell should fall to the lot of
Bomarsund. The simultaneous opening fire from the
three broadsides was the first intimation the tower had
of our movements ; and I had the satisfaction of see-
ing at times, from aloft, the steadiness and precision
with which the shot and shell were delivered from each
vessel. I only regret that the trees alluded to obscur-
ed us all from your view, as I feel almost assured this
bit of service would have been deemed worthy of bet-
ter notice than it becomes me to give at so short a dis-
tance from your flag.”
Meanwhile, Prasto was the scene of separate oper-
ations. The tower or fort, mounting 20 guns in two
casemated tiers, and 6 en barbette on the roof, had been
invested by a combined force of French and English
marines, with some field -pieces, on the 15th; and on
the 16th, it was attacked both by this force and by Ad-
miral Plumridge’s squadron. When it was known that
the great fort had yielded, the commandant of Prasto
hoisted a white flag. The Allies approached ; the gates
were thrown open ; the garrison marched out ; and the
whole became prisoners of war. These prisoners, num-
bering three officers and about 150 men, were removed
in one of the ships.
BOMBARDMENT OE BOMARSUND. 179
When the flag of truce was held out from the great
fort, the Admiral sent Captain Hall on shore ; and he,
in company with an officer from Admiral Parseval-
Deschenes, and two staff-officers from General Bara-
guay d’Hilliers, entered the fort, and received the sur-
render of the place. The three commanders, Napier,
Parseval, and Baraguay, then went to receive the sub-
mission in form. The governor, General Bodisco, at-
tempted a parley in the first instance ; hut nothing less
than an unconditional surrender being admissable, he
gave up his sword, and yielded himself and the garri-
son prisoners. Chasseurs poured down from the bat-
teries on one side, marines and artillerymen from the
other ; the place was entered, the magazine secured,
and the prisoners taken. The victors demanded the
arms, which were brought and piled up in the square,
near the furnace in which somany of the shot had been
made red-hot. All the principal generals and admi-
rals on the part of the Allies were drawn up in a bril-
liant group ; the troops formed a .line of about half a
mile from the entrance of the port to the mole or land-
ing-place; and the Russians, care-worn, dispirited,
and, in some few cases, frenzied with drink, were march-
ed down to the place of embarkation. From a state-
ment made by Governor Bodisco, it appears that the
Russians had been as much annoyed by Captain Pel-
ham’s single gun, placed on their own abandoned mud-
battery, as by whole ranges of guns elsewhere— so fa-
tal had been the shots aimed through the embrasures
The loss of this great fortress was the first defeat of
consequence the Russians had suffered in the Baltic,
and they were deeply mortified; for it wa3 not simply
a surrender of the piace, but a yielding of all the men
as prisoners of war. The victors captured 112 mount-
ed guns, 3 mortars, 7 field-pieces, and 79 unmounted
guns. When all had surrendered, and had been fairly
shipped for England, the prisoners amounted to the
following numbers — 323 shipped in the Hannibal , 420
in the Algiers , 764 in the Royal William i 207 in the
180
BOMBARDMENT OP BOMARSTJND.
Termagant , and 521 in the St. Vincent ; making a to-
tal of 2236, of whom 51 were officers, 28 women; and 13
children.
The courage displayed during the siege shows that
the long peace has not deteriorated the fighting quali-
ties of the nation’s defenders ; and our brave allies have
well maintained the honour of La Belle France. At the
same time, it is but just to observe that the Eussians
held out as long as they were able, and only surrender-
ed when a further resistance would have greatly in-
creased the sacrifice of human life, without at all affect-
ing the result. The western tower was blown up on
the day following its capture, by a well-directed shell
from the long fort, and a French sapper was killed, and
two or three others wounded.
The arrival of the Eussian prisoners in England and
France excited a great deal of interest in both coun-
tries, it was so long since we had to receive the men of
other nations in any other way than that of friends.
General Bodisco, who surrendered at Bomarsund, to-
gether with a number of Eussian officers, was placed
on board the Souffieur , and taken to France. He was
accompanied by his wife and son, a child about four or
five years old, together with his aides-de-camp, Cap-
tains Tosche and Yienberg. The prisoners received
the utmost kindness and attention, and were conduct-
ed to the Golden Eagle Hotel. The general was about
sixty years of age, although on his first entrance into
Havre he appeared considerably older. Madame Bo-
disco was much younger, and seemed less cast down by
her reverse of fortune than her noble husband.
The Valorous and the Termagant brought a vast
number of prisoners to England. The ladies of
the Eussian officers were permitted to accompany their
husbands, and even the soldiers’ wives, though se-
parated from them on the voyage, were permitted
to rejoin them. The officers were stout-built powerful
men, but the men had that thin lathy appearance
which is seen in the inmates of our workhouses and
BOMBARDMENT OV BOMAB8UND. 131
prisons. The prisoners brought by the Termagant were,
for the most part, young men, and had little about
them of that military air and carriage which the na-
tions of the West inseparably associate with the pro-
fession of arms. So far from being stiff and formal in
their ways, they were quite the opposite, squatting
themselves on the deck with a freedom which remind-
ed one of their eastern origin. Their long great coat,
reaching to the ankle, appears a comfortable garment,
wrapping closer round the body than in our service,
and of right colour for warfare. Their forage caps
also seem convenient, without being frightfully ugly,
like that worn by our Foot Guards. The knapsack is
of undressed skin, apparently capable of holding very
little, and held on the back by broad cross-belts of
black leather. One half of the prisoners belonged to
a Russian corps, and wore red facings ; the other were
Finnish Chasseurs, and had blue facings. During
the voyage, they held themselves entirely aloof from
each other.
While the captives from Bomarsund were on their
way to the land of their captors— while the English
and French nations were exchanging congratulations
on the important achievement — the Allied generals
and admirals were called upon to decide on the line of
conduct to be pursued towards the Aland Islands and
their inhabitants. There was no evidence that the
Western Powers had previously agreed on ‘the course
to be adopted in such a contingency ; unity of plan
was difficult of attainment where two governments
claimed to have an equal voice in all important pro-
ceedings; and on this account, at Aland, as well as
at other parts of the seat of war, the commanders were
frequently at a loss to interpret faithfully the wishes
of their respective governments. After the fall of
Bomarsund, the Allied commanders issued the follow-
ing proclamation to the Alanders: —
“We, the undersigned Commanders-in-Chief of the com-
bined naval and land forces, hereby authorize the authori-
182
BOMBAEDMENT OF BOMAESTTKD.
ties of these islands to continue in the administration of
their respective duties, and we rely on their doing so with
zeal and circumspection.
“ In times of tumult and war, it devolves upon every well-
disposed citizen to do his utmost in maintaining order and
E eace j the lower classes must not be led away with the
elief that no law or order exists, for these will be enforc-
ed with as much rigour as heretofore.
“ Since the late events, which have changed the aspect of
these islands, the blockade has been raised, and the pub-
lic are informed that they are at liberty to trade with
Sweden on the same conditions and privileges as hereto-
fore.
“Each and every one is cautioned against holding any
communication or intercourse with the enemy or Finland j
and if any one is found aiding them in any way, he will be
punished most severely.”
The demolition of the forts at Bomarsund was the
first work to be done. The vast constructions on
which Nicholas had spent so many rubles, and so many
years of time, were doomed to destruction. All the
fortifications of Bomarsund were to be reduced to a
shapeless mass of stone and brick. It was about a
fortnight after the conquest that the demolition com-
menced. The fort which Admiral Plumridge had at-
tacked, Fort Prasto, and which, from its position, had
had little influence on the progress of the struggle at
the main stronghold, was blown into atoms by a
large store»of powder placed beneath it. The other
three forts, nearer the town, had already suffered se-
verely; the work of destruction was already half ef-
fected; nevertheless, they were blown up by a succes-
sion of explosions, and many a scene of terrific gran-
deur was presented — granite blocks flying up, timbers
blazing, and unspent shells bursting. The wives of
about a hundred Russian officers and men were safely
conveyed by the Alban to the coast of Finland near
Abo. The poor Alanders were benefited in some de-
gree, in their forlorn desolation, by receiving all the
stores of corn and meal which, in immense quantity,
had been found in the forts; the peasants were allow*
BOMBARDMENT OB BOMATLSUND.
183
ed to come and take it away in carts, as a reserve
against possible starvation in the ensuing winter. A
part of one of the forts was left standing for a time,
that Admiral Chads might have an opportunity of try-
ing the power of his guns against it ; the Edinburgh
was brought up, with its broadside about 600 yards
distant, at which range the shot made a thorough
breach in the walls, knocking several embrasures in-
to one, and splintering the granite in all directions;
the ship then retired a distance of 1000 yards, a change
which materially affected the potency of the shot.
When the work of destruction was completed, the sol-
diers embarked in the various troop-ships, and return-
ed to Led Sound; guns and trophies being carried
away, some by French, and some by English, and on-
ly a few ships remaining for a time at Bomarsund.
The time had now arrived for the military com-
manders to assist the admirals with their judgment
concerning the possibility or impossibility of capturing
Helsingfors and its great fortress, Sveaborg (Swea-
burg). The army was too large to be profitably
employed in cruising about among unimportant
places : was it powerful enough to capture a second
of the czar’s strongholds, in size and in strength more
formidable than Bomarsund ? Many of the ships be-
longing to the fleet had passed and repassed Sveaborg
frequently during the summer, partly to examine its
fortifications, and frequently to tempt the Bussian fleet
to emerge from its granite hiding-place. Bear-ad-
miral Martin, with a squadron of twelve or fourteen
ships, was, at the time of the siege of Bomarsund, em-
ployed in a double service : his larger ships were an-
chored off the island of N argen, in the Gulf of Finland,
blockading the port of Bevel ; while his smaller steam-
ers were cruising between Bevel and Sveaborg, of-
fering a tempting bait for the Bussian ships to come
out and attack them — a bait, however, which failed
in its purpose, both here and in every part of the Baltic
throughout the year. Later in the month, Martin as-
184
SECONNOITRING SVEABOEa.
sumed the command of a flying squadron in the Gulf
of Finland. General Baraguay d’Hilliers, Brigadier-
general Jones, and the two admirals-in-chief, went
in a steamer to examine carefully Sveaborg and the
Finnish coast. Abo, as Captain Scott had before re-
ported, was found to be well defended, both by gun-
boats and by land batteries ; the ships of the Allies
were amply powerful to destroy or take it, could they
have approached sufficiently near ; but this was one
among many examples furnished during the year, in
which gun-boats would have rendered more service
than ponderous ships-of-the- line ; the channel for deep-
draught shipping into Abo was too narrow to warrant
an entry by vessels-of-war drawing so many feet of
water. As the reconnoitring steamer rounded Hango
Head, on the way from Abo to Sveaborg, the Allied
commanders found that the Russians had destroyed
the fortifications which defended that headland, fearful
lest the enemy might, capture and retain them. Fort
Meyerfeld had first been blown up ; next, Fort Gustaf
Adolf; and, lastly, the main defence, Fort Gustafs-
varn : the entire garrison, and many country-people,
having been employed in this work of demolition.
The Allied commanders then advanced to Sveaborg,
the inspection of which was long and earnest ; for they
knew that they would be .called upon to justify their
proceedings, whether those proceedings involved or
not an attack on the island-fortress.
This famous stronghold — rendered famous by th&
knowledge acquired in 1854, for it was little known
to the Western nations before that year — is in effect
a group of islands. To understand its arrangemen t,
the distinction between Helsingfors and Sveaborg
must be clearly apprehended. Helsingfors, the capi-
tal of the Russian government at Finland (Abo w as
the capital when Finland belonged to Sweden), is sit-
uated at the mouth of the river Vanna or Wanna, on
ihe north coast of the Gulf of Finland, at about one-
third of the distance from Hango Head to Cronstadh
TtECONNOlTEING- SVEAJBOZIQ-.
135
The town was built by Gustavus I. of Sweden ; it was
burned during the war with Russia in 1728, but re-
built. When Finland was ceded to, or rather forcibty
taken by, Russia in 1808, Helsingfors was selected as
the site for a powerful naval station. The town un-
derwent a remodelling in 1815 — masses of rock being
blown up, and inequalities levelled to obtain space for
new buildings. The defences are of a formidable nature,
and have evidently engaged much attention on the part
of the Russian government. There are two forts on the
mainland — Braborg and Ulricaborg, defending and
partly inclosing a port in which sixty line-of-battle
ships might safely lie at anchor. The outer works,
built on a series of islands, bear the collective name of
Sveaborg ; the islands are seven in number, all forti-
fied in immense strength, and some of them connected
by bridges. The forts altogether mount nearly 1000
guns ; while complete accommodation is provided for
a garrison of at least 12,000 men. Some of the most
formidable of the works have been constructed in the
solid rock ; and the barracks, arsenals, and magazines
are on a complete scale.
The scrutiny of Sveaborg by the Allied commanders,
from such a sea-distance as could be safely maintained,
resulted in a decision that the stronghold could not
be advantageously attacked. Between the islands
which constitute Sveaborg, only on; j war- ship can pass
at a time ; and any hostile vessel, sailing up to Hel-
singfors, would encounter the muzzles of 300 or 400
large pieces of ordnance, which would effectually rid-
dle the hull, if not set the ship on fire, ere the perilous
passage had been completed, unless some unforeseen
and fortuitous occurrence aided the adventure. It
seemed to the commanders that a powerful army, land-
ing at a short distance, and encircling Helsingfors,
could alone, by drawing off much of the defensive
power in that direction, enable the fleet to succeed in
an attack sea-ward: an opinion analogous to that
which had before been formed concerning Cronstadt.
m
RETURN OR THE FLEET.
At a latter date, Sir Charles Napier, indignant of ac-
cusations which, somewhat hastily and ungenerously,
had been brought against him concerning his want of
success in the Baltic, communicated to the Times a
plan and a letter, in which the danger of the region
around the fortress, by reason both of the shoals and
the batteries, was forcibly depicted.
About the middle of the month of September, Sir
Charles Napier received a despatch ordering him to
send the principal part of his remaining ships to Kiel,
on their way to England.
In accordance with this order, the Duke of Welling •
ton , St. Jean d’Acre, James Watt , Princess Royal ,
Blenheim , Hogue , Edinburgh , Royal George , Nile ,
Ccesar , Majestic , and Cressy , weighed anchor, and
commenced their westward journey on the 10th. Dur-
ing several days, the weather was boisterous, insomuch
that the ships were scattered, and each captain steered
towards Kiel without waiting for the others ; it was not
until the 28th that all assembled at the rendezvous off
Kiel. A squadron of steamers, including the Imper-
ieuse , Euryalus f Arrogant , Magicienne , Desperate , Ba-
silisJc , Bull-dog , and Dragon , under Captain Watson,
was left to maintain the blockade in the Gulf of Fin-
land down to the latest date the season would permit.
In respect to the Gulf of Bothnia, the blockade
was formally raised during the last week in the
month.
The last month of the year witnessed the final se-
paration and departure of this great armament. In
the first week of December, Captain Watson announc-
ed that the state of the ice in the Gulf of Finland was
such as, in virtue of his instructions, warranted him in
steaming away towards Kiel ; which he accordingly did.
Borne of the larger ships about the same time steered
towards the Sound, ready for orders to take their final
departure. Those orders speedily came ; and Christ-
mas-day witnessed the presence of all, or nearly all, the
ships and crews on English shores. Sir Charles Na»
BETTJRN OR THE RIEET. 187
pier himself landed at Portsmouth on the 18th of De-
cember, where he was received kindly and heartily by
the inhabitants. On the last day of the year, the Duke
of Wellington , Blenheim, Imperieuse , Arrogant , Bene-
lope , and Locust were at Portsmouth ; the St. Jean d 9
Acre , Princess Royal , Nile, Ccesar, and Euryalus at
Devonport; the Edinburgh , Cruiser, Archer , and
Magicienne at Leith; the Odin at Woolwich ; the
Cressy , Majestic, Royal George, and Amphion at
Sheerness ; the Conflict and Desperate at Hull ; the
Bull-dog at North Shields ; the Dragon , Rosamond,
Basilisk, and Vulture at Cromarty ; and the Driver at
Harwich.
Thus ended the operations in the Baltic in 1854-
operations which had involved large military and naval
arrangements ; which had called into use a larger fleet
than had ever before entered the Baltic ; which had
been commenced amid the most extravagant anticipa-
tions, by the English nation, of great results ; which
had entailed a vast outlay ; and which had ended in
much disappointment to the nation, the officers, and
the men.
There was great disappointment and chagrin felt by
many in England at the barren result of the Baltic ex-
pedition. In the Houses of Parliament conflicting
opinions were expressed by various members on the
causes which had prevented the fleet from accom-
plishing more important effects. At length, Sir
Charles Napier and the government were at issue;
and much acrimony and bitterness were engendered
between the Admiral and one or two members of the
government. Sir Charles, in his bluff off-hand way,
did not appear to pay that deference to those in office
to which they thought they were entitled.
We will now just glance at what was taking place
about this time in and near the White Sea. In
the first week of June, the English frigate Eurydice,
26 guns, the screw-corvette Brisk (16,) and the Mir-
anda (16,) anchored off Hammerfesfc, in Norway, tha
18S
OPERATIONS IN THE WHITE SEA*
most; northern town in Europe, and the last of any
importance met with on the sea-route from England
to the White Sea ; here they remained for awhile, and
then proceeded eastward, on the look-out for Russian
men-of-war or large merchant-ships. Late in the
same month, the entrance to the harbour of Archangel
was reached ; and from that time an almost continu-
ous process followed of boarding trading-vessels, to
ascertain whether their ownership or their contents
were such as to render them liable to capture.
Towards the close of August, the cruising brought
the little squadron near the town of Kola, situated at
the junction of the rivers Kola and Toulom, in Russian
Lapland, a considerable distance north-west of the
White Sea. Kola was the extreme north-west fortress
of any importance belonging to Russia, being within a
short distance of the Norwegian frontier, and is often
regarded with uneasiness by Norway, as a fulcrum for
the Russian love of conquest. Kola became a fortified
town in the time of Peter the Great ; and, being situated
some distance up a river not easily navigable, it has al-
ways been regarded by the Russians as beyond the
reach of probable capture. Understanding that the
creeks adjacent to the Kola River were likely to conceal
vessels belonging to the enemy, and knowing that Kola
■was so far a place of importance as to be the scat of
government for Russian Lapland, and to have a mili-
tary garrison, Captain Ommancy of the Eurydice, com-
mander of the squadron, determined that the place
should be reconnoitred, if not attacked. This duty he
intrusted to Captain Lyons, in the Miranda ; and on
the 21st of August the enterprise commenced.
So great are the difficulties of the Kola River, in the
thirty miles of distance from the sea to the town, that
five miles of it are laid down in the charts as unnavi-
gable ; and the river is in some places so narrow that
a ship can scarcely turn in it; in fact, Kola had been
hitherto regarded as inaccessable to anything but boats.
Captain Lyons, therefore, had abundant call for the
OPERATIONS IN THE WHITE SEA.
199
exercise of judgment. By sending boats ahead to
sound, he succeeded on the first day in reaching to
within two miles of the town. At one point, the steamer
had to pass within fifty yards* distance of a precipitous
cliff, which, if defended, might have seriously checked
her progress; but nothing interfered with her anchor-
ing for the night. On the 22d, the Miranda resumed
her course upwards amid incessant difficulties — run-
ning aground repeatedly, owing to the narrowness and
intricacy of the channel, and the violence of the spring-
tide. At six in the evening, she anchored within 500
yards from the town, which was found to be defend-
ed by a 2-gun battery, built of stone and faced with
turf, an extensive stockade, with blockhouses at the
corners, and loopholes in the houses for musketry.
Lieutenant Buckley was sent on shore, under a flag of
truce, to demand its surrender. The night having passed
without any response to the summons, and early morn
on the 23d having shown that the battery was manned
and the defences made ready, Captain Lyons saw that
the Russians intended to resist ; and he accordingly be-
gan active operations immediately. He hauled down his
flag of truce, and opened fire on the battery, stock-
ade, and loopholed houses ; the battery-guns were soon
dismounted, and the battery was demolished.
A few other smaller achievements of this character
terminated the year’s proceedings in the White Sea.
No Russian ships-of-war were encountered; and as
Archangel could not be reached on account of the shal-
lowness of the water, no town of any importance suf-
fered from the Allies, except Kola. The expedition
was without political importance; yet was it justifiable
in the existing ignorance of the nature and extent of
Russian power in that remote region. Here, however,
as at Aland, the Allies departed too soon; for at the
end of October and the beginning of November, the
port of Archangel was full of shipping, busily engaged
in exporting and importing during the few remaining
days of an unusually favourable autumn*
ISO OPERATIONS IN THE NORTH PACIFIC
When war broke out, the operations of the Western
Powers, besides expeditions on land, of course com-
prised the adoption of plans against Bussian skips-of-
war, in whatever part of the world they might be. In
this sense, and in this sense only, was the North Paci-
fic worthy of the attention of the English and French
governments. Petropaulovsk, Okhotsk, and Sitka,
might have been left untouched, had it not been ne-
cessary to keep a watch on all ships belonging to the
Kussian navy. The czar was known to possess three
or four men-of-war in the Pacific at that time, which
might have wrought great injury to the English com-
merce in the Chinese and Australian seas if left unmo-
lested; hence the necessity for active interference.
Admiral Price, in command of the British squadron in
the Pacific, was off Callao when he received news, ear-
ly in May, of the declaration of war. The squadron
sailed in a few days to the Marquesas Islands, situated
nearly in the centre of the Pacific, almost due west of
that part of the coast of South America marked by the
port of Callao. At one of these islands, Nukahiva,
the French had a settlement consisting of a small fort
of three guns, storehouses for salt provisions, a few
neatly built houses for the governor and officers, and
barracks for. about 150 soldiers belonging to the
French colonial regiments ; a French ship-of-war was
stationed there, the captain of which acted as gover-
nor. The settlement was kept up partly as a means
of retaining a place of rendezvous for French ships in
that region of the Pacific, and partly as a rich store-
house of bananas, cocoa-nuts, guavas, and numerous
fruits and vegetables with which to victual either war
or trading ships. Near this remote settlement at the
Marquesas, several English and French ships-of-war
remained at anchor during the greater part of the
month of J une. Thence, when another ship had arrived
from Bio J aneiro, the whole sailed northward or north-
westward to Honolulu, one of the Sandwich Islands;
the English and French nations here, as elsewhere.
OPEKATlOffS AT KAMTCHATKA, 101
taking equal part in the enterprise. Honolulu is in the
direct route from the Marquesas to Karntchatka ; and
being a very fertile island, it was a convenient spot at
which to complete arrangements necessary for the due
victualling and watering the ships.
The Allied squadron remained at Honolulu from the
17th to the 25th of July. It comprised eight ships,
four English and four French. The English division,
under Bear-admiral Price, consisted of the President ,
frigate, 50 guns, Captain Burridge ; Pique , frigate, 40
guns, Captain Nicholson ; Amp]\itrite i frigate, 24 guns.
Captain Fredericks; and Virago , steamer, 6 guns, 300
horse-power, Commander Marshal. The French divi-
sion, under Bear-admiral Fevrier des Pointes, consist-
ed of La Forte , frigate, 60 guns, Captain de Miniac;
L' Eurydice, frigate, 32 guns, Captain Lagrandiere;
V Artemise, corvette, 30 guns, Captain L’Eveque ; and
V Obligado , brig, 16 guns, Captain Bosenavat. The
French guns were more numerous, but the English of
heavier metal. All the ships left Honolulu on the
25th; but the Amphitrite and the Artemise were de-
tached on the 30th, to sail east or north-east to San
Francisco; while the remainder of the squadron pro-
ceeded on their northern route to the rugged seas
around Xamtchatka.
On the 29 th of August the Allied squadron arrived
off Petropaulovsk, after five weeks* voyage from Hono-
lulu. The admirals speedily formed a plan of attack,
which was to be made on the 30th; when suddenly
the English squadron was thrown into consternation
by an announcement of the suicide of Admiral Price,
J ust as the action was about to commence, Admiral
Price went down into his cabin and shot himself: this
was the beginning and the end, so far as his brother
officers knew. He was a brave officer, and had seen
much service.
On the 31st of August, the weather being calm, the
three English Frigates, under the command now of
Capt. Sir F. W. E. Nicholson, were placed in position
192
OPEHATION& AT KAMTCHATKA.
by the steamer, broadsides on towards, the batteries
outside Petropaulovsk. The marines from the Presi-
dent , under Captain Parker, were transferred to the
Virago steamer, and landed to take possession of the
3- gun battery, which was expected to give much an-
noyance. Although greatly impeded by brushwood of
an almost impenetrable character, the marines, aided
by English and French seamen, soon reached the bat-
tery, which they found deserted. A 6-gun battery
was soon silenced ; and there remained a fascine- batte-
ry of 11 heavy guns, on which the ships directed their
fire, which, after some time, they succeeded in silenc-
ing.
On the 4th of September the contest was renewed
by the ships, and a party of marines and seamen on
land. This land- expedition had a disastrous result.
The plan was that the marines and French seamen
should ascenci Nikolai ska Hill, which commanded the
town on the north ; and that the English seamen should
proceed by a road to the left, with a view to storm cer-
tain batteries in the town which commanded the pas-
sage of the Gorge. Immediately on the landing of
the force, the Eussians, strong in position and in num-
bers on the hill, opened fire on them. The marines,
supported by a small portion of the seamen, ascended
the hill as well and as quickly as they could; but
they were sadly impeded, not so much by the steep-
ness of the hill as by the thick jungle which covered it.
The Eussians, however, were driven back and the Al-
lies succeeded in outflanking some of the batteries ; but
their loss was most severe ; for the Eussians were in
considerable force on the brow of the hill, while other
parties kept up a harassing fire of musketry from log-
houses at a short distance. When, struggling against
these difficulties, the Allies reached the top of the hill,
Captain Parker was killed while gallantly leading on
the marines, and Lieutenants M‘Callum and Clements
wounded. The men, losing their commanders, began
to give way; and after many rallies, they were com*
OPERATIONS AT PETXtOTATTlOVSK.
193
pelled to yield to the incessant fire maintained against
them. They retreated to the boats ; but even here
further loss attended them, because the boats had to
be brought within range of the enemy’s musketry.
Besides Captain Parker of the Royal Marines, Cap-
tain Lefebvro of the Eurydice was killed ; and in ad-
dition to Lieutenants M’Callum and Clements, Lieu-
tenants Howard and Palmer were wounded. It was
a mortifying termination to the enterprise. Captain
Burridge, in his despatch relating to the movement,
said : “ The difficulties of the land and the jungle were
more than they could contend against, while an un-
seen enemy was firing upon thorn from all sides.” The
numerical strength of the garrison was greater than
the Allies had been led to expect. The left attack, by
the road, was frustrated by the strong defences of the
Gorge, in musketry and field-pieces ; while the right
attack, up the hill, was checked by the dense jungle,
which at once impeded the advance and covered the
defenders.
Whether the advance up the hill to the jungle was
justifiable, depends on the amount of information which
the commanders possessed at the time; but it put an
end to the contest and to the whole expedition. All
the eye-witnesses, whether engaged or not, described
the contest on land as terrible ; and all bore evidence
to the bravery with which the Russians defended their
positions. One sentinel attracted especial admiration :
sixty rifle-shots were aimed at him ; but he never ceas-
ed for an ins* ant to pace to and fro at his post, regard-
less of the balls which whistled around his head : he
escaped untouched. The marines on the hill were ex-
posed to a succession of perils; w T hen, impeded by the
thick bush of underwood and brambles, they were com-
pelled to retreat, many of them came to the edge of a
precipice seventy feet deep; deadly volleys were pour-
ing in upon them from the rear, and they had the al-
ternative of being shot as they stood, or of jumping
”46 ‘ i r
194
OPERATIONS AT PETROPAULOVSS.
down the precipice : many took the leap and were ei-
ther maimed or killed.
The 5th of September was a mournful day for the
Allies. Instead of renewing the attack with a hope of
victory, they buried their dead. In their official re-
turns, they were obliged to include “killed” and “miss-
ing” in one entry; tor they remained in ignorance of
the real fate of many of their companions. The totals
presented in the two squadrons were — Killed or miss-
ing, 4 officers and 48 men; wounded, 6 officers and 148
men : upwards of 200 in all ; among whom, however,
many were merely contused.
As it was felt that the force, thus reduced, had not
strength sufficient to take or destroy either the town
or the two Russian frigates, preparations w’ere made
to leave the place. These preparations being complet-
ed on the 6th, the two squadrons took their departure
on the 7th — the English to Vancouver, and the French
to San Francisco. The Russian commander congratu-
lated his garrison, and rightly so, on the repulse of the
enemy ; he acknowledged a loss of 40 killed and 75
wounded ; but when he put down the Allied loss at
300, “ besides the killed and wounded on board the
ships,” he indulged in the usual Russian exaggeration
on such subjects.
Immediately on leaving Petropaulovsk, the Allies
encountered two vessels outside the harbour. One,
a small Russian government schooner, the Anadis ,
was captured by the Virago ; the other, the Sitka, a
merchant-ship of 800 tons, with a valuable cargo of
stores and provisions from Hamburg for Petropaulo-
vsk, was taken by the President . The Anadis was
emptied, dismantled, and burnt ; while the Sitka was
taken away as a prize ; and there can be little doubt
that the Russians at Petropaulovsk afterwards suffer-
ed severely by the loss of the stores contained in the
latter vessel. The French squadron, arriving at San
Francisco early in October, remained there several
weeks to repair damages, before proceeding southward
OPERATIONS AT PETROPAUPOVSK.
195
to winter-quarters. The Allied fleet was short of pro-
visions and stores; and this appears to have influenced
the commanders, in some degree, in abandoning any
further operations after the conflict on the 4th, The
object of the Allies was not so much to destroy Petro-
paulovsk, as to engage and capture the Russian fleet
in the Pacific, be ir large or small ; but it was not un-
til after conversation with the prisoners taken on board
the Sitka, that the Allied Admirals ascertained parti,
culars respecting certain Russian ships-of-war safely
harboured at the mouth of the river Amur, at the
eouth-west corner of the Sea of Okhotsk. Had this
knowledge been possessed earlier, it is possible that the
Allies would have steered in that direction; but the
unfortunate encounter at Petropaulovsk had unfitted
them for further enterprise.
CHAPTER VIL
The Ceimea— Aeeival oe the Allies in the
Ceimea— Battle of the Alma— The Flank
Maech — Death of Maeshal St. Aenaud—
Deeences of Sebastopol.
We have endeavoured, (though imperfectly) to des-
cribe the operations of the contending forces on the
Danube ; the occupancy by the Austrians of the Prin-
cipalities ofWallachia and Moldavia; the commotions
in the northern and western provinces of Turkey ; the
strugglesof the petty court of Athens to raise a Greek
empire on the ruins of the Osmanli power, through
the intrigues and crafty scheming of the myrmidons of
the czar ; the encounters in Asia Minor and the Cau-
casus; the achievements of the formidable fleets in
the Black Sea and the Baltic ; and the smaller affairs
in the White Sea, and the regions around Kamtchat-
ka; — but all would have been insignificant if it had
not been for the stupendous, protracted, but eventual-
ly successful campaign in the Crimea.
Both the climate and the soil of the Crimea are re-
markably varied — so much so, indeed, that a description
which might be perfectly true of one part, would re-
quire to be directly reversed in order to become appli-
cable to another. The fact is, the peninsula consists
of distinct portions, which are separated from each other
by the river Salghir, flowing from west to east. The
northern portion is almost wholly composed of exten-
sive plains, winch, though bare of trees, are not defici-
ent in rich pasture, except where marshes and salt-
lakes are found. Some of these salt-lakes, which are
very numerous towards the sea-coast, are fifteen or
twenty miles around. Throughout the northern part
of the Crimea the climate is decidedly unhealthy, being
ffJSE CRIMEA. 197
oppressively hot in summer, and bitterly cold, as well
as damp, in winter.
On the contrary, in the south — particularly in the
valleys and mountain slopes — a delicious mild temper-
ature prevails, and fruits of all kinds are produced in
rich abundance. Among the productions of this region
may be mentioned corn, hemp, flax, tobacco, olives,
vines, mulberries, pomegranates, figs, and oranges.
Dr. Clarke gives the following description of a district
in the south of the Crimea : — “ If there exist a terres-
trial paradise, it is to be found in the district interven-
ing between Kutchukoy and Sudak, on the south coast
of the Crimea. Protected by encircling alps from
every cold and blighting wind, and only open to those
breezes which are wafted from the south, the inhabit-
ants enjoy every advantage“of climate and of situation.
Continual streams of crystal water pour down from
the mountains upon their gardens, where every species
of fruit known in the rest of Europe, and many that
are not, attain the highest perfection. Neither un-
wholesome exhalations, nor chilling winds, nor venom-
ous insects, nor poisonous reptiles, nor hostile neigh-
hours, infest their blessed territory/’ This bears pretty
evident marks of being tinged with the hues of the
writer’s glowing fancy, though in some respects con.
firmed by the testimony of other travellers. However
true it may be of the particular district in question,
there is certainly, no other part on the Crimea so
highly favoured ; for at certain periods of the year
reptiles of various kind infest even the south, the air
is far from salubrious, and fevers are pretty preva-
lent.
The authority of various writers has been cited in
support of the different views enunciated, but among
those who are entitled to credit we have observed
that of a man who, from his accuracy of observation,
his personal knowledge of the country, and his scientific
acquirements, is placed among the foremost. We al-
lude to Pallas, the well-known traveller and naturalist,
198
THB CRIMEA.
who visited Siberia, in 1798, to make astronomical
observations. Pallas visited the Taurida, various parts
of Eussia, and even penetrated to the confines of
China. After his second journey to the southern
provinces of Eussia, he speaks as follows of the
Crimea: —
“ The climate of the Crimea is subject to great vari-
ations. I have experienced some winters, for instance
in 1795-6, when the plants of spring were in full
flower from the 6th of February, and completely buri-
ed in snow the whole of the month of May, but with-
out a strong frost coming on, which might have killed
them. The severe winters of 1798-9 and of 1799-1800
lasted, on the other hand, from the end of October to
the month of April, with frost more or less severe, and
accompanied by violent tempests from the north to
such a degree, that the thermometer (Eeaumur) fell
to 18 degrees under zero, which was, in fact, the ex-
treme cold in the winter of 1787. In the last of those
winters, and during the most violent tempests of the
north, not only the Sea of Azof and the Bosphorus,
but also a part of the Bay of Kaffa and of the Black
Sea were frozen, and the ice was strong enough to bear
men and horses. But long winters are as little com-
mon as the prolonged presence of the snow. The
winds are very variable: those of the west and south-
west bring rain : those of the south, mild weather with
fog; those of the east, dry and calm weather; and of
the north, ice. The greatest cold is generally felt in
month of February.’*
The earliest attempts of Eussia to obtain possession
of the Crimea occurred about the milddle of the seven-
teenth century. In 1689, the grand invasion was
made, headed by Peter the Great, and so sudden and
overwhelming was the attack, that it appeared proba-
ble that the final subjugation of the people would be
made at once ; but Selym, the brave Khan, aroused
his followers, and drove his foes out of his dominions.
But the aggressive march of Eussia was still pursued.
THE CRIMEA.
199
defeats were sustained, but the powers of the Czar
were great, and the second Catherine carried on by
force of arms and force of strategy the same line of
policy. Of this we have already penned an historical
sketch, telling how treaties were made and broken-
broken by the rattle of masketry and the roar of artil-
lery — and how oaths were but as idle breath.
“ One of the most important events,” says a recent
writer, f5 in connexion with the conquest of the Crimea
was the triumphal entry of Catherine into that country.
It had long been her ambition to make such an expe-
dition, partly for the purpose of sowing dissensions,
and partly, it is said, for the purpose of conducting
her grandson, Constantine, to the gates of the vast
empire which she intended to bequeath to him. On
the 18th of J une, 1787, she set out from St. Peters-
burg, accompanied by her ladies and favourites, and
the ambassadors of England, France, and Austria;
but without her grandson, who, much to her chagrin,
was taken suddenly ill with measles, just as the expe-
dition w T as on the point of starting. The imperial
procession travelled day and night, ^without cessation ;
a great number of horses being posted at each station,
in order (bat no time might be lost. Fires were light-
ed along the road, at equal distances, and immense
crowds were gathered in different parts to witness the
spectacle, and to congratulate their sovereign on
her new acquisitions. Arrived at the Dnieper, she
found fifty magnificent galleys in waiting to convey
her down the rirer. At Kanieff she was visited by the
Xing of Poland ; and at Krementschouk an army of
12,000 men, brilliantly accoutred, enacted her wars
with the Turks in divers manoeuvres. The borders of
the Dnieper were covered with fictitious villages,
elegantly-dressed peasants, and numerous flocks and
herds, all in the most flourishing condition. So that
what with the natural beauty of the season, and the
magical effects of the artist, this barren, ugly region had
&11 the appearance of a delicious, richly-peopled couu*
200
THE CRIMEA.
try. At Kherson she was joined by the Emperor
Joseph II. At Perekop she was welcomed by the
principal Myrzas, whose troops made evolutions; a
thousand Tartars, at the same time, surrounding the
imperial carriages, to escort them into the peninsula.
This movement at first excited considerable alarm ;
but Potemkin restored tranquillity by assuring the
Empress that the Tartars in question had been chosen
by himself for the express purpose of acting as her
escort into her newly-conquered province.
“The degrading insult to the Crim Tartar race,
couched under this obsequious homage, is but too
apparent. Here were a thousand Tartars openly con-
ducting a Russian sovereign to the palace of their Khan.
Hot content with having bribed this people to betray
their country and their King, the Russian intriguer
must make them repeat the dastardly act for the amuse-
ment of the Empress !” Such was the recognized be-
ginning of imperial sway in the Crimea.
The Crimea, having an area little in excess of that
of Wales, presents an irregular quadrilateral figure,
with the corners directed nearly to the four cardinal
points, and with a peninsula att ached to its eastern ex-
tremity, called the peninsula of Eertch. The greatest
distance north and south, from Perekop to a cape near
Balaklava, is about 125 miles in a straight line ; while
the extent east and west is 200 miles. On three sides
it is washed by the Black Sea, and by the Sea of Azof
on the fourth. The Isthmus of Perekop (called Orka-
pi by the Tartars), by which the Crimea is connected
with the mainland, is about twenty miles long by four
in its narrowest part : it is washed on the west by the
Black Sea, and on the east by the Sivach More o?
Putrid Sea, an arm of the Sea of Azof.
Ho country in the world, perhaps, presents a great-
er contrast, within the number of miles, than the Cri-
mea, so far as concerns the natural features of the
surface. Three-fourths of the area constitute an arid
plain or steppe, occasionally interrupted by hollow*.
THE CEIiMEA*
201
but for the most part flat, dull, and dreary, having a
soil in which sand is a principal constituent. In the
neighbourhood of the two seas, this plain is dotted
with numerous small lakes, shallow and salt ; sepa*
rated from the beach by low narrow strips of land,
and surrounded by a soil impregnated with salt. In
this whole extent — as large as Yorkshire — the Cri-
mean plain is almost entirely destitute of wood and
water, although it has a little green-sward; as a con-
sequence, its inhabitants are few, and its appearance
desolate. The inhospitable nature of the region has
rendered it a task of much difficulty to the Russians,
since their occupation of the Crimea, to send supplies
inland to Sebastopol and Simferopol, either from
Perekop, or from Arabat to Genitchi, or other places
on the shore of the Sea of Azof. One of the most
remarkable features of this uninviting waste, is the
Rosa Arabatska'ia, or Kotche a tongue of land, be-
ginning at the town of Arabat, where the peninsula of
Kertch joins the larger section of the Crimea, and ex-
tending northward till it nearly touches the mainland
of Russia at Genitchi ; it cuts off the Putrid Sea from
the Sea of Azof in every part except the Strait of
Genitchi. This tongue, although more than sixty
miles long, is little more than a quarter of a mile in
general width ; it is low, sandy, salt, and marked by
several small lakes or ponds of salt water ; a road, ex-
tending along its whole length, contains a few inns at
distant intervals ; and these inns present the only re-
lief to the oppressive monotony of the region.
Far different is the southern part of the Crimea,
with its bold hills and fertile valleys. A mountainous
tract extends nearly parallel with the south-eastern
coast, from Cape Chersonese, near Sebastopol, to Kaf-
fa, whence to Yenikale it is hilly, if not mountainous.
This mountainous tract, in some parts forty miles
wide, has an average width of twenty miles ; between
Balaklava and Alushta, past Alupka and Yalta, it
rears its head like an immense wall near the sea, in-
m
THE CRIMEA,
terrupted by bold headlands, fearful precipices, and
small sheltered inlets. As the crest of the mountain-
ridge, generally about 2000 feet in height, is not far
distant from the sea, the streams which descend to
the coast are short and torrent-like. The summit of
the ridge presents, not a series of peaks, but an un-
dulating plateau or table-land, relieved at intervals by
bolder elevations ; the plateau is enriched with good
herbage for cattle during the short hot summer; but
the snows, which remain during a somewhat length-
ened winter, render it for the most part unfitted for
permanent habitation. The gradually sloping ground
from the plateau to the northern plain, and the ftrip
of beacli along the southern shores, constitute the
most fruitful, habitable, and valuable portions of the
Crimea; indeed, the lateral ridges and the smaller
hills north of the plateau, inclose valleys of the most
exquisite character, which draw forth encomiums from
every traveller; and when it is considered that a few
hours’ ride will change this lovely scene to one of de-
pressing monotony and dreariness, the diversified char-
acter of the Crimea will be sufficiently understood.
The most elevated part of the Crimea is the Tchatir-
dagh, “ tent* mountain,” having a flat top surrounded
by a number of tent-like elevations, the highest peak
being 5000 or 6000 feet above the level of the sea.
The rivers Alma and Salghir flow from the Tchatir-
dagh ; the Katcha, and Belbek, and the Tchernaya,
from the more western plateau ; while the Tchuruk-
su and other rivers take their origin further to the
east.
The southern coast of the Crimea gradually be-
came, during the first half of this century, the Vent-
nor or Bonchurch for wealthy Russian families; it
possesses all, and more than all the beauties of the
Isle of Wight during the summer months ; and, as
a consequence, it became studded with the holiday
mansions of the Galitzins and the Woronzows of the
empire. The tourists’ road, if so it may be called.
THE CRIMEA.
203
runs along the coast from Alushta to Yalta and Al-
upka, and so through the small valley of Baidar to
Balaklava, traversing a scene of varied beauty from
end to end. Mr. Scot speaks thus concerning it :
ff The last eight miles of the journey to Yalta is through
a lovely country, where the mountains again recede
from the coast, giving place to a series of valleys,
over which nature has spread some of her choicest
blessings — unrivalled position, soil, aspect, and cli-
mate; and man has not forgotten to acknowledge
these generous gifts. The fairest flowers and fruits
of the earth are there cultivated, and the chateaux
of the nobility are studded about. We seemed once
more to have reached civilisation : elegant private
carriages, gentlemen on horseback, and well-dressed
women, were to be seen as we dashed through a vil-
lage of villas. ,, If this description renders intelligible
the delight of the Eussians in spending a summer or
autumn in the Southern Crimea, Mr Danby Seymour’s
account of the Northern Crimea in winter will bring
vividly before us the terrific nature of the steppe, and
the stupendous difficulties necessarily encountered in
the transport of an army, of provisions, or of com-
modities of any kind, across such a country in such a
season : “ During the winter, the ground is covered
with snow, which at times lies several feet deep. Un-
impeded by mountains, forests, or rising- ground, the
winds from the north-east passing over many hun-
dred miles of frozen ground, (in the country around
the river Don), blow with resistless violence, and of-
ten uninterruptedly for several weeks. When the
frost is severe, and the snow in a dry powdery state,
the wind drifts it about and obscures the air. These
snow- storms are called by the inhabitants ‘ meteP or
‘boura,’ and have often proved fatal to the half- fro-
zen, blinded, and bewildered traveller, who, having
lost his way, is wandering over the dreary icj steppe
in quest of refuge. Detached houses and whole vi'-
lages are sometimes buried by the drifting snow,
804
THE CRIMEA*
through which the inmates are obliged to cut their
way. At times the traveller looks in vain for the
solitary post-house at which he is always anxious to
arrive, and learns that he has reached his temporary
resting-place only by a slight rise in the snow, and by
his sledge being overturned into a hole, through which
he creeps down into the cottage, which is sometimes
thus buried for several weeks. When the wind blows
with violence, and the snow is drifted about in ed-
dies, the storm has a singularly bewildering and stun-
ning effect ; the inhabitants themselves lose their way ;
and the herds of horses, cattle, and sheep that hap-
pen to be surprised by it, become seized with panic,
and, rushing headlong before the gale, defy every
obstacle that presents itself to their wild career — they
are then inevitably lost.” The experience of the Rus-
sian armies during the war verified most fearfully
this character of the Crimean steppes when covered
with snow and blasted by wintry winds.
With such scanty knowledge as they had been able
to gather, the commanders, in obedience to orders from
their respective governments, prepared to make a
descent on the Crimea. The town of Sebastopol with
its magnificent harbour, fortress, arsenal, and fleet,
being the principal object of attention, there arose an
inquiry whether a landing should be made on the
western or southern coast. Many military authorities
were of opinion, both before and after the achievement,
that a happier selection of a landing-place might have
been made ; but the commanders having resolved on a
descent upon some point of the western coast, north-
ward of Sebastopol, the only question now to deter-
mine was — how far distant should this point be ? The
rivers Belbek, Katcha, and Alma flow into Kalamita
Bay, north of Sebastopol, and all are commanded by
rising-grounds on their southern banks, and if these
slight elevations were defended by the Russians, &
landing tfould be very difficult. On the other hand,
if a landing were effected at Eupatoria, higher up the
PASSAGE OV THE TROOPS. 205
;oast., the invading army would be enforced to traverse
brty or fifty miles of waterless plains to reach Sebas-
iopol, whether or not a Russian antagonist might ap-
pear. There was a choice of difficulties ; and circum-
stances afterwards proved that the commanders had
lot arranged their plans even when the vast armament
ciad reached the Crimean shores.
Never in modern times had such an armament been
jeen — never such a display of war- vessels, and trans-
ports laden with troops, speckling one sea at one
time: bright pendants flying, bands playing, the scar-
let of the soldier contrasting with the blue of the sai-
lor, the steamers vomiting forth their curling smoke,
and the guns booming forth their signals or their
courtesies. The admirals conferred with the generals
on the formation of a plan for supplying ships to
transport the troops, and for the establishment of
such rules as might obviate danger and confusion dur-
ing the voyage and the landing. It was arranged
that each division of the army should have a complete
division or fleet of transports at its service, and that
each of these fleets should be convoyed by a squadron
of war- ships — thereby establishing a bond of connec-
tion between the troops, the transports, and the men-
of*war, and between the generals, admirals, and cap-
tains. The last week in August and the first in Sep-
tember were weeks of incessant movement : English
and French soldiers; and English artillery (the French
artillery came by another route, without being land-
ed at or near Varna) being brought down to the
beach, and there embarked on board the transports,
several hundreds in number. That the transports
were indeed numerous will easily be imagined, when
it is considered that 60,000 or 70,000 troops were
about to be conveyed from the shores of Bulgaria to
those of the Crimea, a distance of not less than 300
miles. The smaller transport-vessels were appropri*
ated to the conveyance of the infantry, the artillery,
and the immense stores required by a large army;
208 LANDING 01? THE TBOOES.
but the British cavalry were for the most part convey-
ed in the magnificent steamers which had already ac-
quired a reputation more than European — the 8th
Hussars and the 17th Lancers in the Himalaya , the
4th Dragoons in the Simla , the 13th Dragoons in the
Jasoriy the 11th Hussars in the Trent , &c.
The immense squadron of ships conveying the allied
forces extended for nine miles, with an unknown depth,
so that, as far as the eye could reach, the spars of the
vessels of both nations were seen rising from the
water. . Old Fort, where the landing was effected, is,
according to the best maps, 21f miles to the north of
Sabastopol, and 14 to the south of Eupatoria, a little
above the Bulganak. This position is indicated in
some maps by the name of Traktir. As the English
ships drew up in lines as nearly as possible parallel to
the beach, the French fleets passed under steam and
extended to the right. Their small war-steamers went
much nearer the shore than our own were allowed to
go, and soon the tri-color was floating on the beach,
and the shouts of “ Vive VEmpereur /” rang through
the air. The French were the first to take possession
of the Crimea.
The place selected for the landing of the British
troops was a low strip of beach and shingle, cast up
by the violence of the surf, and forming a sort of cause-
way between the sea and a stagnant salt-water lake,
one of those remarkable deposits of brackish water so
frequent along the shores of the Crimea. The cause-
way is not more than 200 yards broad, leading to an
irregular table land, extending with gentle undulations
to the chain of rocky heights called the Tent Moun-
tains. As the vessels approached the shore, the prolific
character of the country became apparent; and fields
of corn and pasture lands, herds of cattle, and grain
in stalk, with many apleasant-looking farm-house, gave
indications of prosperity. From the earth arose an
aromatic perfume from the wild lavender covering the
stubble fields, and here and there groups of the people
1ANDIHG OP THE TKOOPS.
207
not unlike the Bulgarians in appearance — were seen
at various parts. The aspect of the country was pecu-
liarly beautiful, as its cultivated spots and wild barren-
ness, its hills and valleys, became distinguished beneath
the beams of the noonday sun.
We have said the French were the first to land; and
everything connected with that landing was admira-
bly conducted, and did great credit to the military
skill and discipline of the imperial troops. The whole
labour and responsibility of the disembarkation of our
troops rested with Sir Edmund -Lyons — no light or
easy task. At the appointed time a black ball was run
up the fore of the Agamemnon, and the report of a
gun was heard. The boats then gathered around the
ships, and the disembarkation began in earnest. It
was a grand and imposing sight; those vast masses
of men, with their red coats and glistening bayonets,
crowding where but a few hours before the sea-gull
and the wild fowl alone were seen. Now the -whole
line of coast was thronged with men — men bent on
conquest — men of different nations, who had united in
this expedition, and were determined to uphold with
their lives truth and justice against tyranny and
wrong. The loading and unloading is described as
having been a very amusing sight. A gig or cutter,
pulled by eight or twelve sailors, with a paddle-box
boat, flat, or Turkish pinnace, would come alongside a
steamer or transport, in which troops were ready for
disembarkation. The officers of each company first
descended, each man in full dress. The officers were
followed by the privates, each carrying his blanket
and great- coat strapped up into a kind of knapsack,
inside of which was a pair of boots, a pair of socks, a
shirt, and a forage cap ; they also carried water can-
teens, rations, firelock, bayonet, cartouch box, fifty
rounds of ball cartridge for rifle, and sixty rounds for
smooth bore arms.
As this busy scene was at its height, and the throng
of soldiery on the shore and boats upon the water ra«
208 LANDING OF THE WHOOPS.
pidly increased, news came that a Russian camp had
been discovered not eight miles distant. Orders were
immediately issued for the Sampson, the Fury, and the
Vesuvius, together with three French steamers, to pro-
ceed to the place indicated. There the report was con-
firmed. A Russian camp of 6,000 men was discover-
ed not a mile from the shore. The steamers opened
fire with shell. The French were unsuccessful, but
the English pitched shell after shell in among the tents,
knocking them over right and left, and driving out the
soldiers in swarms. -
While this was going on, the disembarkation was still
continued, and the good feeling subsisting between the
soldiers and sailors is graphically described by a writer
in the leading journal : —
“ As each man came creeping down the ladder, Jack
helped him along tenderly from rung to rung till he
was safe in the boat, took his firelock and stowed it
away, removed his knapsack and packed it snugly
under the seat, patted him on the back, and told him
‘not to be afeerd on the water treated ‘the sojer,’
in fact, in a very kind and tender way, as though ho
were a large but not very sagacious * pet/ who was
not to be frightened or lost sight of on any account,
and did it all so quickly that the large paddle-box
boats, containing 100 men, were filled in five minutes.
Then the latter took the paddle-box in tow, leaving
her, however, in charge of a careful coxwain, and the
same attention was paid to getting the ‘ sojer’ on shore
that was evinced in getting him into the boat, the sai-
lors (half or wholly naked in the surf) standing by at
the bows, and handing each man and his accoutre-
ments down the plank to the shingle, for fear ‘ he’d fall
off and hurt himself.’ JST ever did men work better than
the blue-jackets; especially valuable were they with
horses and artillery, and their delight at having a horse
to hold and to pat all to themselves was excessive.
When the gun-carriages stuck fast in the shingle, half-
a-dozen herculean seamen rushed at the wheels, and
LANDING OP THE TROOPS.
209
with a ‘ Give way, my lads — all together.’ soon spoked
it out with a run, and landed it on the hard sand.
No praise can do justice to the willing labour of these
fine fellows. They never. relaxed their efforts as long
as man or horse of the expedition remained to be land-
ed, and many of them, officers as well as men, were
twenty- four horns in their boats.”
The first night on shore was about as wretched as it
is possible to conceive. Seldom have 27,000 English-
men been more miserable. The sky grew black and
lowering, the wind arose and the rain fell. The showers
increased in violence about midnight, and early in the
morning the water fell in drenching sheets, which
pierced through the blankets and great-coats of the
houseless and tentless soldiers. During the night it
blew freshly from the west, a heavy sea tumbled into
the bay, and sent a high surf on the beach.
On the following day the high surf upon the beach
greatly interfered with the operations of the troops,
especially in the landing of the cavalry and artillery.
Several valuable horses were drowned. Never per-
haps did meD work so cheerfully and so well, under
such drawbacks and disadvantages. Before the day
was out, orders were given to land the tents — an order
which was very readily obeyed — the men had experi-
enced enough of the inconvenience of being without
them. They did not seek a repetition of the miseries
of the night before. Whilst our poor fellows had been
soaked through, their Gallic allies had provided them-
selves with tents; an example our men were glad
enough to follow. On the next day the disembarka-
tion was continued with even increased spirit and en-
ergy. Provisions, too, became plentiful, sixty arabas
laden with flour having been seized on their way to
Sebastopol, and a meat and vegetable market being
also established.
Throughout all these operations, reports were raised
from time to time of a ^Russian attack, and the utmost
vigilance and caution had to be observed. They
246 0
210
THE FLANK MAUCft.
marclied at length towards the object of their coming g
and as their ranks approached the Alma, the utmost
enthusiasm prevailed — enthusiasm not to be daunted
by the wild stories of the Tartars as to the whole country
being undermined, awaiting but a signal to hurl the
invaders to destruction. Such stories are always
common enough in time of war.
Various rumours were afloat as to the actual extent
and position of the Eussian army. All these rumours
were contradictory, as by some the forces of the Czar
were represented as amounting to 8,000 men on the
road to Sebastopol, and by others to 45,000.
On the night of the 18th, Lord Eaglan issued orders
that the British army should strike tents at daybreak
on the 19th, and prepare to march. The French mar-
shal issued like orders to the troops under his com-
mand. A striking difference in the arrangements of
the two camps was observable in this particular ; that
the French carried their tents with them, whereas the
British re -embarked theirs on board ship. The French
conveyed their tents in pieces, each man bearing a
share of that which would cover him at night ; whe-
ther it was that the British tents were too heavy, or so
constructed that they could not readily be separated
into portions, the result was unquestionable — that the
British troops had thereafter to pass many a comfort-
less night without shelter, while their companions in
arms were under canvas. It may have been that, as
the Cossacks and Eussian cavalry were known by this
time to be employed in laying waste the country, sweep-
ing off the supplies, and burning all the houses that lay
between Old Fort and the Alma, the march was order-
ed too hastily to permit the tents to be taken. Be this
as it may, however, the tents were ordered to be con-
veyed down to the beach ; and boats came from the
ships to re-embark them, and one brigade of the 4th
division remained on the spot until this duty was per-
formed.
The march began in early morn. Officers and men
SHE FLANK MAECH.
m
Scrambled up after their hasty night’s rest, and made
such arrangements for equipping and breakfasting as
circumstances permitted. The scarcity of water was a
sad evil; it limited the power of obtaining an early re-
past, and it prevented the men filling their kegs pre-
paratory to a march over ground where water was
nearly unattainable. Some of the officers breakfasted
on cold roast pork and “ a pull at the water-barrel,”
while large numbers of the men started without a morn-
ing-meal of any kind.
It was a splendid sight. Stretching far and wide,
presenting a martial front from east to west, and ad-
vancing in columns separated by small intervals, this
army of more than 60,000 chosen men formed a gal-
lant body. Here, the red coats of the line regiments,
the bear-skin caps of the Guards, the picturesque dress
of the Highlanders, relieved by the sober darkness of
the riflemen ; there, the simple caps or shakos of the
French, the bulky red trousers of the Zouave, the flow-
ing costume of the other African regiments, and the
nimble tirailleurs ; further on, the Turks, Europeanis-
ed except in relation to the red fez ; and each — British,
French, and Turk — anxious to stand well in the eyes
of the others. The artillery too threw its bright specks
into the picture. Each British division of infantry was
attended by a division of artillery, consisting of eight
9-pounder guns, and two 24-pounder howitzers ; and
with the cavalry division was a troop of 6 -pounder
horse-artillery. As the artillery maintained a position
at the right of its respective division, it threw a diver-
sity into the scene. Turks close to the beach ; French
next ; then English ; then cavalry ; and Rifles and light
skirmishers furthest inland — presented a magnificent
front ; while behind these came the trains of horses
carrying the reserve ammunition, the baggage-animals,
the arabas with sick men and commissariat stores, the
droves of oxen and sheep — which the commissaries had
with immense difficulty collected — and the rear-guard
to bring up the whole. The moving mass covered se-
m THE YlkTSK MAEC5?.
veral square miles, and carried with it the hopes of
three nations. Nor was even this the limit of the pic-
ture; a splendid fleet steamed and sailed southward
as the army marched and rode southward — each,
fleet and army, watching and admiring the other.
It was apparent to the troops that an encounter was
not far distant ; for on the afternoon of the 19th, be-
fore the expedition had reached the Bulganak, curling
wreaths of smoke could be discerned on the south and
east, marking the spots where villages and houses had
been fired by the Cossacks, and where the poor Tartars
were rendered homeless by this characteristic specimen
of Eussian tactics. Next could be seen hovering upon
and around the distant hills, dark bodies of cavalry,
whose object appeared to be to check the advance of
the Allies by harassing attacks on the left flank. A
portion of cavalry, about 600 in number, belonging to
the 8th, and the 11th Hussars, and the 13th Light Dra-
goons, commanded by the Earl of Cardigan, galloped
onwards to meet the Cossacks. These Cossacks ap-
peared thrice the number of the small force which went
out against them ; therefore Lord Eaglan ordered
them to be recalled. Whilst these skirmishers were
slowly returning to the main body, the Cossack squa-
drons separated so far as to give play to some pieces of
artillery, which poured forth a succession of shot upon
this small body of British cavalry. By this time a
troop of horse-artillery had arrived, which dealt out
its missives with such effect as to cause the Eussians
to retire. Had this small body of 600 cavalry advanc-
ed farther up the hill, there is no doubt but perhaps
one half would have been swept down by the hidden
Eussian artillery. The few casualties of broken arms
and legs consequent upon the Eussian shots showed
that British troops could bear pain without wincing.
This work was not, however, left wholly to the Eng-
lish, for a body of French wound round the hill, and
scattered a squadron of Eussian cavalry . by a few 9-
pounders. Prince Menschikoff’s plans were to take up
THE FLA5K MARCH.
215
a defensive position on the Alma ; and, in his account
of this his first encounter with the Allied troops, he did
not give exactly the same colouringto it as the Allies ;
but as the skirmish was merely a trifle, neither side at-
tempted to make much of it. When the whole of the
Allies — the Russians having retired to the Alma — had
crossed the Bulganak, preparations were made to bi-
vouac for the night — a night which was cold, damp,
and comfortless ; — and sleep, in most instances, was
out of the question. Many, however, having been
weakened by cholera, at Varna, slept the sleep of death,
that night, and were not permitted to be partakers in
the victory of the coming day.
Morning dawned on the 20th of September — the
day of the Battle of the Alma — amid a busy camp,
a buckling-on of accoutrements, a harnessing of hor-
ses, and a hasty breakfasting on the part of those who
had time and materials for obtaining that welcome re-
past. Many expected, though none could know, that
the dawn would usher in the day on which the first
great battle would be fought by the English and French
armies during this war — the only contests worthy of
note before that day having fallen to the lot of the
Turks, on the banks of the Danube and in Asia. Lord
Raglan had made his head-quarters at a little post-
house on the banks of the Bulganak, which the Cos-
sacks had not succeeded in quite destroying by fire ;
whether the officers had aught to cover them is doubt-
ful : the supper, the sleep, the breakfast, were all al
fresco , leaving few domestic chattels to be disposed of
when the morning’s march commenced. The distance
from the Bulganak to the Alma is between four and
five miles ; and as it was by this time known that the
Russians had strongly posted themselves on the banks
of the last-named river, the Allies prepared by proper
equipment for an encounter as soon as the Alma should
be reached. The French had bivouacked during the
night nearest to the sea ; next to them the Turks ;
and the English further inland — the three camps form-
214
THE RIVER ALMA.
ing a line nearly three miles in extent, at right-angles
with the sea-shore. In this same order did they com-
mence their march southward to the Alma : the line
being now much more than three miles in length, ow-
ing to the skirmishing outposts of rifles and light ca-
valry, scattered far and wide inland to keep a keen
watch on the enemy.
To understand the military operations of this mo-
mentous day, it becomes necessary to notice — first the
topographical features of the river’s banks ; then the
arrangements made by the Russians in defence of those
banks ; and next, the plans of the Allies in relation to
the forcing of a passage.
The river Alma, formed by the junction of several
streams which have their origin in the Tchatir-dagh,
flows north-west to the road leading from Sebastopol ^
to Simferopol, being crossed by that road at a point be- *
tween Baktcheserai and the last-named town. From
this point a course nearly westward takes it to the sea ;
its banks being dotted with several villages, of which
those nearest to the scene of action are Kaniichkoi,
Tarkhanter, Bourliouk, Almatamak, and Akles. The
river, cutting through a soft red clay soil, is in most
places shallow enough to be forded ; but there are oc-
casional depths which render fording dangerous. The
highest bank is sometimes on the right, sometimes on
the left of the river; but for a considerable distance
near the mouth it is on the left or south side ; and thus
the Allies, coming from the north, found themselves on
the banks of a stream commanded by higher ground
on the other side. Small rivulets force their way into
the Alma on the south bank, forming miniature ra-
vines, or lateral valleys, which separate the southern
banks into hillocks, knolls, or detached heights. The
road from Old Fort joins the road from Simfero-
pol at a point near the village of Bourliouk, and is
carried over the Alma by a timber bridge. The knolls
near the river’s bank become united further inland in-
to a plateau, which is commanded by a billy ridge 6QQ
THE JSI7EB ALMA.
215
or 700 feet in height, extending quite to the sea, where
it presents an abrupt cliff : this ridge, like the lower
plateau, being cut up by lateral gullies into isolated
Such being the topographical features of the river and
its banks, there was an obvious advantage on the part
of the Russians over the Allies, both in the possession
of higher ground, and in the defences they had had a
whole week to form since the Allies made a landing at
Eupatoria. Prince Menschikoff, who commanded in
the Crimea at that time, did not fail to make use of
these precious days. He took possession of all the
heights which commanded the gullies, the river, and
the northern bank : planting formidable batteries at
every salient position; some were earthworks, hastily
thrown up, but armed with 24 and 32-pounders; while
others were field-batteries, further aided by howitzers.
The chief of these batteries was an earthen redoubt,
whose face formed two sides of a triangle, with the
apex pointing towards the little bridge over the Alma,
and the sides directed to two reaches or bends of the
river, one above and the other below the bridge : this
single work, therefore, commanding an extensive por-
tion of the river’s course. Not only was this redoubt
rendered formidable by its position near the brow of a
hill, but the ascent to it was enfiladed or commanded
by three or four batteries placed on neighbouring
heights, the guns of which swept the slope of the hill
leading up to the redoubt, or could readily be made to
bear upon the bridge and the village. The various bat-
teries and the redoubts were heavily armed with ord-
nance, mostly brass guns of fine workmanship. Fur-
ther to defend the ridge, and to prevent an ascent up
the slopes which led to it, masses of skirmishers, arm-
ed with rifles, were placed ; insomuch that it would, in
every sense, be an uphill struggle on the part of an
enemy attempting to gain the ridge. The redoubt,
being placed near the spot where the high road from
Eupatoria to Sebastopol cuts across the ridge, was vir-
216
PEEPAEATIONS 02? IHE ALLIES,
tuaily the key to the whole position: whoever retained
that redoubt, when the battle was over, would be the
victor of the day. A large force of Russian lancers
and heavy dragoons, and a formidable body of infan-
try, were ready to defend these batteries at all points,
and to descend upon the Allies if any favourable oppor-
tunity should offer. The right wing was on the east
of the main road ; the centre on the west of the same
road; while the left wing extended from the centre
some distance towards the sea, from which the impor-
tant point occupied by the redoubt was two and a half
miles distant. An additional defence lay in this : that
although the river is shallow, and generally fordable,
the banks are extremely rugged, and in most parts
steep ; the willows along the margin were cut down by
the Russians, to prevent them from affording cover to
the attacking party. Lord Raglan, in his despatch
relating to the battle, shows how much he was im-
pressed with the strength of the Russian position, the
defences of which he estimated at not less than 45,000
or 50,000 men, besides the formidable artillery. Mar-
shal St. Arnaud reported to his government that the
Russian forces included the 16th and 17th divisions of
infantry, a brigade of the 13th division, a brigade of
the riflemen, a force of about 6000 cavalry, and four
brigades of artillery.
The plans which the Allies formed for forcing a pas-
sage through these tremendous obstacles were as fol-
low : — On the morning of the 20th, before the battle,
the extreme right of the Allies was in the rear of the
village of Loukoul, a short distance from the mouth of
the Alma : it consisted ot General Bosquet’s or the 2d
French division, with the Turks in the rear; both be-
ing within a short distance of the sea, where the com-
bined fleets could be seen in majestic array. The cen-
tre consisted of the 1st French division, under General
Canrobert, and the 3d under Prince Napoleon, with
the 4th division and the artillery in reserve. Further
inland still, forming the left wing of the Allied army,
BATTLE 0 E THE 2LMA.
217
were the 2d and light British divisions, under Sir de
Lacy Evans and Sir George Brown ; behind these were
the 3d and 1st divisions, under Sir Richard England
and the Duke of Cambridge ; and to bring up the rear,
the 4th division under Sir George Cathcart, and the
cavalry division under the Earl of Lucan. About
65,000 men were thus placed in splendid order, with a
frontage of nearly four miles, and a depth of half a
mile. The system of operation determined on by the
Allied commanders consisted principally in this — that
the French right should assail the Russian left by cros-
sing the Alma at and near its junction with the sea,
and climbing the steep rugged cliffs to the heights
above; that the French left and the English right
should cross the river at or near the bridge, and as-
cend the heights immediately opposite ; while the Eng-
lish left should operate on the landward flank of the
enemy. In view of the formidable position of the great
redoubt, the English would appear to have had the
hardest work cut out for them ; but this could only be
judged by the result. Boats had, on the previous day,
ascertained that the Alma was fordable near its mouth,
and that one of the French divisions could easily cross
it. Admiral Hamelin, it was arranged, should place
eight French steamers off the cliff which forms the sea-
side end of the ridge, to pour in a storm of shells upon
any battery or battalion of the enemy which might at-
tempt to interrupt the crossing of the troops.
It fell to the lot of General Bosquet to commence
*he battle, aided m a remarkable manner by the French
steamers. The heights descend to the sea so abruptly
and steeply, that Menschikoff appears to have relied
mainly on natural defences at this part, placing most
of his men and guns further inland, near the high road.
The Allied commanders had not failed to notice this
circumstance ; and Bosquet’s attack was part of a plan
for taking advantage of it : it was hoped that he might
be able to ascend the rugged cliff-like steep, to gain
the plateau, to outflank the left of the enemy, and thus
218
BATTLE OE THE ALMA.
distract them from the main attack in front. Rapid-
ly but steadily did the French and Turks advance,
crossing the Alma very near its mouth, and sending
ahead a party of skirmishers and light troops to clear
the gardens and brush-wood of any opponents ; but
none such appeared ; for either the Russians did not
regard the movement as one of importance, or they
had no available batteries or battalions to bring to
bear on that point. With inconceivable activity the
French climbed the cliff : the Zouaves being especially
agile at this work — running, leaping, crawling on hands
and knees, surmounting all obstacles of bush and gully.
They gained the plateau; and then, and then only, did
the Russians open upon them. A smart interchange
of firing took place, and Bosquet advanced by degrees
towards the central position, although no fewer than
five batteries were pouring forth their missiles.
During the single hour, from half-past eleven to
half -past twelve, in which Bosquet was thus employed
in obtaining possession of the heights between the ene-
my and the sea, Canrobert, with the 1st and part of
the 4th divisions, was making arrangements to afford
him aid at a time when he was becoming severely pres-
sed by the Russian batteries. The river was boldly
crossed by a ford at the village of Almatamak ; and
Canrobert and Prince Napoleon found a small path
which led up to the heights ; artillery was dragged up
the opposite slopes in face of the Russian batteries and
sharp-shooters; and Bosquet, this diversion being
made, was enabled to maintain his advantageous posi-
tion. In order still further to assist Bosquet, Marshal
St. Arnaud sent to him the remaining moiety of Ge-
neral Forey’s division, th#4th; and thus there were
two streams of French troops crossing at different
points, to aid Bosquet in maintaining his advantageous
position.
Now commenced a most exciting struggle. As Bos-
quet advanced by one oblique route, and Canrobert by
another, they met on the heights near an unfinished
BATTLE <*£' THE ALMJL
210
octagonal tower, which was probably intended for a te-
legraph ; and around this spot the Russians had as-
sembled a formidable power of infantry and field-bat-
teries. Again and again did the French attach; and
each time did the Russians repel the onslaught. The
Zouaves, more Arab than French in appearance, fought
with all the ardour which Algerine campaigning had
engendered ; bullets were forgotten as soon as the men
came within bayonet distance; hand-to-hand contests
were maintained on all sides ; and it became at length
difficult for the batteries on either side to fire without
hitting their own men. When at length the French
obtained command of the position, and the Russians
retired, the vicinity of the tower was found to be co-
vered with an unbroken mass of wounded and dying
men, the opponents intermingled one among another.
The French fleet afforded valuable aid during these
operations ; the steamers ran in as close as they could
to the bluff cliff, and shelled the heights in amazing
style — pouring forth these terrible missiles, which pas-
sed over the crest of the bluff, and fell among the Rus-
sian batteries and battalions, at a distance of 3000 yards
from the ships.
Hot work this had been for the French. In the
centre of the line, too, the exertions were immense, and
the success great. The general movement of Marshal
St. Arnaud, with the chief of his forces, commenced at
the moment when Bosquet with his division appear-
ed on the heights. Infantry and artillery pressed on
towards the river, pouring out volleys against the Rus-
sian sharp-shooters, and forcing them to retreat up the
opposite slope. The French dashed into the river, each
man crossing where he could or where he liked, re-
formed on the other side, and pressed onward and up-
ward with irresistible force : the infantry and guns in
the lower position gradually gaining an ascendancy
over those in the upper. The marshal and the officers
were on the alert during this period, galloping about
from point to point, to render aid where aid seemed t©
220 BATTLE OP THE ALMA.
be most required ; and the troops behaved with the ar-
dour and courage which the French are wont to exhi-
bit. The same men who would have cried “ Vive la
Republique I” at one time, now cried " Vive VEmper -
enr l ” for the glory of France was in either case the
sentiment which animated them : the cry was a bat-
tle-cry, an outpouring of enthusiasm.
Few but terrible were the hours during which the
British were engaged in fighting on this day of blood,
and trying was the ordeal to be passed through by the
men, very few of whom had actually seen war; but
Lord Raglan trusted in them, and his trust was not
in vain. When the movement began, the light divi-
sion, strengthened by horse- artillery, and the 2d divi-
sion, fronted the enemy, and were likely to be the first
to fire and to receive fire ; the 1st and 3d divisions were
in the rear ; while the 4th division and the cavalry
were still further from the river, to act as a reserve,
and to protect the left flank and rear against large bo-
dies of the enemy’s cavalry which had been seen in
those directions. The advance having commenced, and
the banks of the river nearly attained, the Allies were
thrown into some confusion by the well-timed burning,
by the Russians, of the village of Bourliouk, directly
opposite the centre of the Bus si an position : it was
well-timed, because such a manoeuvre, among the sad
but inevitable concomitants of warlike tactics, created
a continuous blaze and smoke for 300 yards, obscured
the Russian position, and obstructed the plans of the
British for crossing the river. The advance was to be
made when the French right had gained a certain po-
sition on the heights; and, awaiting this moment,
Lord Raglan ordered his troops to lie down, to escape
in some measure the murderous hail; there they lay,
balls and shells falling into and upon and among
them; until at length the general, brooking no longer
delay, ordered a rise and an advance. Sir de Lacy
Evans’s division thereupon'separated into two brigades,
plie of which forded the river above the burning vi|»
ftmiiB OF THE ALMA. 221
lage, and the other below ; the fording-places being
deep and dangerous, and a destructive fire being main-
tained against them by the infantry and artillery on
the opposite bank. And now did the execution be-
come indeed tremendous; for the Russians had placed
twigs and sticks to mark the exact angles at which
their ordnance would command the banks of the river
at various points. Missiles whizzed over the heads of
the British troops, ploughed in among their columns,
rebounded, dashed up the soil in clouds, and carried
death into every regiment. The disadvantages were
rendered still more obvious by this circumstance : that,
owing to the steepness and ruggedness of the banks,
the artillerymen found it almost impossible to trans-
port their guns to the opposite side of the stream ; in-
somuch that the battle was far advanced ere two guns
were successfully brought over by Captain Dickson.
It was the light division, under Sir George Brown,
that crossed the river under the most trying circum-
stances ; for this division was directly in front of the
hill on which the formidable redoubt was placed. The
banks of the river at that spot, rugged and broken,
offered serious obstacles ; and the vineyards through
which the troops had to pass, as well as trees which
the enemy had felled, created additional impediments,
which prevented the men from forming incompact
order. The noble fellows bore a fierce torrent of
shot, shell, and musketry, while wading through the
Alma; and then scrambled up the slopes, through
thickets and vineyards, scattered and dispersed, and
exposed to a terrible fire in front and on both flanks.
They were mowed down with fearful rapidity; but,
on the other hand, the English artillery wrought yet
more fatal execution on the dense masses of Russian
infantry, posted on various parts of the slope of the
hills. Lord Raglan and his staff plunged into the
river, and crossed near the bridge ; three of his staff-
officers were struck down by the side of their com-
mander, and the contest became most deadly. Iha
222 BATTLE OF THE ALMA.
veteran Sir George Brown saw his division cut down
by fifties at a time ; but he never wavered ; he head-
ed his men ; he was unhorsed, but rose again, shout-
ing “Twenty- third, I’m all right!”
Now came the time when the 1st division, under
the Duke of Cambridge, was to do its work: it con-
sisted of splendid troops — Guards and Highlanders.
Grandly it advanced, crossing the river, and ascend-
ing the slopes in defence of the light division, advanc-
ing in line as if on parade, and regarding with su-
perb disdain the batteries and dense columns high
above them — arriving gradually nearer and nearer
to the redoubt, but having its ranks thinned at
every instant by the incessant fire from the various
batteries. An immense and compact body of Rus-
sian infantry was now seen approaching, to aid still
more in defence of the main redoubt. The crisis
approached. Unless the redoubt could be taken, the
passage of the ridge could not be forced, nor the vic-
tory gained ; while, unless the Russian phalanx could
be broken, the British could hard-ly hope to reach the
redoubt. A few large guns were therefore brought to
bear upon the dense mass ; and these, by a well-di-
rected fire, broke it, and forced the infantry to re-
treat in various directions. Then came the moment
for the grand charge of the Guards and the Higland-
ers ; the former approaching the redoubt on the right,
and the latter on the left. Cheered on by their com-
manders, they dashed up. Sir Colin Campbell, lead-
ing his Highlanders, and reminding them in a few
terse exclamations of the old glories of the regiments,
rushed up, ordering the men not to fire a shot until
they came near the redoubt, when the musket and the
bayonet were to work in rapid succession. The
Duke of Cambridge cheered on the Guards, who, how-
ever, needed little prompting to do their duty at such a
moment. Up they -went, Guards and Highlanders,
through thickets, across gullies, over abattis of sharp-
pointed branches, and amid the firing of batteries and
BATTLE OE THE ALMA.
223
battalions on all sides. They met the Russians muz-
zle to muzzle : they entered the redoubt ; and the 1st,
2d, and light divisions speedily commanded the hill and
its defences, and virtually achieved the victory ; but
not before the vicinity of the redoubt had become
strewn with slain. The French by that time had at-
tained a position which enabled them tp pour in a
destructive fire upon the retreating masses; if they
could have advanced somewhat further on the plateau,
they would have seriously impeded the retirement of
the Russians ; but the battle had been fought chiefly
by infantry on the part of the Allies, and there was
no cavalry in a position to pursue the enemy. Hence
Menschikoff was able to retire in tolerable order, and
to carry off his guns : this, however, he could not ef-
fect until he had brought up his reserve cavalry and
artillery to cover the retreat.
So many concurrent movements were made during
the battle, that it becomes difficult to recognise their
relative bearings one upon another ; but, expressed in
brief, they may be understood as follows : — General
Bosquet’s division succeeded in turning the enemy’s
left flank, by the clever ascent of the bluff near the
sea; General Canrobert’s division, with some field
pieces, crossed the river about a mile higher up, as-
cended the opposite bank, relieved Bosquet, and en-
abled him to maintain his commanding position ;
Prince Napoleon’s and Sir de Lacy Evans’s divisions
crossed the river at various points near the centre of
the scene of operations, and surmounted the numerous
obstacles presented on the opposite banks ; while Sir
George Brown’s and the Duke of Cambridge’s divi-
sions crossed above the bridge and burning village, and
maintained the fearful struggle on the ascent to the
* heights. The artillery was brought effectively to bear
on such points as it could command, and contributedma*
terially to the success of the day’s achievements. The
cavalry was not called upon for active service ; but its
position was important, keeping in check the lancers
224 BATTLE OE THE ALAI A,
and the dragoons whom Menschikoff despatched to the
left flank of the Allies. Sir George Cathcart’s and
Sir Bichard England’s divisions were not largely en-
gaged ; though called partially to the front, they con-
stituted rather a reserve force available in any contin-
gency which might present itself. The Turks are
scarcely mentioned in connection with the operations ;
they were with Bosquet, — martial in appearance, proud
of taking rank beside their Allies, and eager to be
employed; yet they were nearly neglected. General
Bosquet, it is true, spoke in his dispatch of the “ pro-
digies of rapidity” which the Turks executed in their
inarch towards the Alma ; but little mention is made
of any duties subsequently assigned to them. It can
scarcely be said that the English and French rendered
justice to the Turkish soldiery during the war ; ap-
pellations, partly in pleasantry, and partly contemp-
tuous, were thrown at them ; they were condemned
and abused if any of their manoeuvres terminated un-
fortunately, while few opportunities were afforded
them to display soldierly qualities. This course of
proceeding was neither wise nor generous ; for, when
well commanded, the Turks showed many heroic quali-
ties on the Danube and in Asia. Omar Pasha under-
stood them well ; and where he commanded, they ful-
ly maintained their ancient military reputation.
Numberless were the tales which all, officers and
privates, had to tell of this eventful day. Lord Bag-
lan, in a despatch which scarcely described with suf-
ficient clearness the operations of the battle, pointed
out the disadvantages with which his officers and men
had to contend. In naming the officers — always an
invidious duty — who had distinguished themselves, he
somewhat dissatisfied those whose names did not ap-
pear ; but this is one of the natural consequences of the
system — a system of questionable utility, because, as
the subordinate officers are rarely mentioned by name,
even-handed justice cannot be rendered, however kind
and conscientious the general maybe. The etiquette
BATTLE O* THE ALMA* 225
of the English army renders still less possible the
naming of any sergeants, corporals, or privates, who
may have performed heroic deeds. It was not until
the numerous “ soldiers’ letters” appeared in the pub-
lic journals, that the minute and wonderful details of
the battle of the Alma became known. An opinion
has at times been expressed, that such letters consti-
tute the best description of a battle, coming as they
do from men who were plunged in the thickest of that
which they describe ; but it should be considered that
soldiers do not know the plans of their commanders,
neither can they see what is transpiring in distant
parts of the field ; the letters are valuable as elucida-
tions of minor matters, which each man may feel
acutely, but which become buried among the more
important incidents of the day. Many of them, thus
regarded, are valuable. They are full of eloquence;
the thoughts of home, and the heroic determination
of the soldier, are mingled together in a narrative
which derives force from its simplicity and truthful-
ness.
A melancholy time was that when the muster-roll
was called over, to ascertain who had been killed, who
wounded, at the battle of the Alma. All knew that it
would be a fearful list; and a feverish anxiety prevail-
ed in every part of the United Kingdom, from the date
of the first telegraphic despatch, to know which belov-
ed father, husband, brother, son, had fallen. It was
soon evident, from the peculiar tactics of the battle, that
the officers had been very much exposed, and that many
families of the higher grades of society would have to
join with those of humbler rank in mourning over the
events of the day. They had, indeed, fallen thickly.
Captain Monck, of the 7th, after felling a Kussian near
him, was shot dead by another ; Lord Chewton was se-
verely wounded; Captain Drew fell while serving one
of the batteries ; and in all the regiments which had
been most warmly engaged, the ratio of officers killed
or wounded was seriously large. The London Gazette
246 F
226
BATTLE OE THE ALMA.
of the 8th of October contained the names of all the
officers killed and wounded; while that of the 17th was
crowded with columns of names, those of non-commis-
sioned officers and privates; and never, perhaps, were
gazettes more keenly perused by those who, hoping al-
most against hope, ran the eye down the columns with
a wish that a cherished name might not be there. The
first return contained the names of 26 officers killed,
and 76 wounded; the second comprised 327 non-com-
missioned officers and men killed, and 1557 wounded
or missing — a total of 353 of all ranks killed, and 1633
wounded. To this list, however, must be added those,
many in number, who died subsequently of wounds
received on this day. The inequality of loss among the
different divisions was very striking, showing in what
different degrees they had been exposed to danger dur-
ing those three fatal hours ; the light division, with
which Sir George Brown crossed the river, and ascend-
ed the hill under such a murderous fire, had no less
than 967 brave fellows struck down, either killed or
wounded ; the 2nd division, 498 ; and the 1st division,
439 ; while the 3rd, the 4th, and the cavalry divisions,
the engineers, and the artillery, had less than 100 kill-
ed and wounded altogether. The 7th, 19th, 23rd,
33rd, 77th, and 88th regiments, together with the se-
cond battalion of Rifle Brigade, forming unitedly the
light division, suffered unequally among themselves,
according to the particular points at which they were
called upon to bear the awful storm of ball and bullet ;
the 7th, 19th, 23rd, and 33rd, each lost more than 200
of its number — a fearful gap ; the 77th, 88th, and Rifles,
suffered less severely.
The following is a list of officers killed at the battle of
the Alma : — Lieut. Abercrombie, 93rd ; Lieut. Butler,
23rd Fusiliers ; Lieut. Cardew, 19th; Lieut-Colonel
Chester, 23rd Fusiliers ; Lieut. Cockell, Royal Artil-
lery; Capt. Conolly, 23rd; Capt. Cust, Coldstream
Guards; Capt. Drew, Royal Artillery; Capt. Dowdall,
95th ; Capt, Eddington, and his brother, Lieut. Ed-
BATTLE OF THE ALMA.
227
dington, fell together, both of the 95th; Capt*
Evans, 23rd Fusiliers ; Lieut. Knowsley, 95th ; Lieut.
Luxmore, 30th ; Lieut. Montague, 33rd ; Capt. Monck.
7th Fusiliers; Lieut. Polhill, 95th ; Major Rose, 55th ;
Lieut. Radcliffe, 23rd Fusiliers; Capt. Schaw, 55th:
Ensign Stockwell, 19th; Lieut. Walsham, Royal Ar-
tilley ; Capt. Wynn, 23rd Fusiliers ; Lieut. Young,
23rd. The following died of their wounds soon after
the battle : — Viscount Cbewton, Captain in the Scots
Fusilier Guards: Major Hare, 7th Fusiliers; Lieut.
Colonel Haly, 80th regiment. Lieut. Irwine, 13th, and
five or six other officers, died of cholera, shortly after
their arrival in the Crimea.
The Russian accounts of the Battle of the Alma were
all couched in such a manner as to attempt to lessen the
disgrace of the Russian arms as much as possible; the
government organ, the Journal de St. Petersburg , as-
serting that the fighting-men on the side of Russia,
only amounted to 33,000, whilst those of the Allies
numbered 70,000. Menschicoff had boasted, a short
time before the battle, that he could hold his position
/n the Alma for three weeks against an army of 100,000;
but the Allies drove him and his forces from that posi-
tion in three hours ! Marshal St. Arnaud estimated
the loss of the Russians at from 5000 to 6000 men.
The carriage belonging to Prince Menschikoff was
captured, containing documents of some import-
ance.
During the time which intervened between the 20th
to the 24th, the Russians retreated towards Sebastopol,
which they entered on the 21st, and Menschikoff im-
mediately ordered the execution of some very import-
ant alterations in and around Sebastopol. The land
defences were very materially strengthened; many ad-
ditional guns mounted; and the fortifications were
rendered more impregnable to any force that might be
brought against them. Besides these precautions, ano-
ther astounding manoeuvre was executed, namely, the
sinking of a fine fleet of seven ships-of-war in the bar-
228
DELAY AETEE THE BATTLE.
bour of Sebastopol, in order to prevent another fleet
from entering. This fleet consisted of one ship of 120
guns, two of 14, two of 80, and two of 40. Unexam-
pled as the proceedure was, it was most effectual in the
object contemplated ; for this barrier prevented any
vessels from entering. After these plans had been
carried out, Menschikoff and a great portion of his for-
ces left Sebastopol, crossed the Tchernaya, advancing
over Inker in an bridge, and moved towards Baktche-
serai, about twenty -four miles north-east of Sebastopol,
as a means of checking the advance of the Allies to-
wards the centre of the Crimea, and as a means,
also, of commanding the high road from Simferopol,
by which important route all supplies were brought
from the mainland.
This movement also, as stated in a despatch, had
three other objects, namely, to obtain provisions which
were on the road from Perekop to Simferopol ; to obtain
reinforcements from Kertch under Khomoutoff ; and
to attack the English and French on their rear and
left flank, in the event of their march to the north-side
of Sebastopol.
These items of information, picked up from various
sources, reached St. Arnaud and Eaglan in due course,
and had the effect of modifying very considerably the
plans of the generals. In the first instance, the south-
ward march was resumed, from the Alma to the
Katcha, with an intent to approach the northern
side of Sebastopol ; a deviation from this manoeu-
vre was not contemplated until a day or two af-
terwards.
After the terrible battle on the 20th, the French
were ready to move before the English — as was the
case, indeed, in most of the operations, on account of
the imperfect organisation of many departments in the
British army. The French removed all their wounded
to the ships in a few hours, and St Arnaud proposed to
march the next day : this, however, Lord Eaglan de-
clined^ account, probably, of the lamentable deficiency
DELAY AFTER THE BATTLE.
229
m his means of providing for the wounded. It is diffi-
cult to estimate the value of the two momentous days
thus lost ; had the Allies proceeded at once to Sebastopol,
the whole aspect of the campaign might have been
changed ; and if the French chafed a little at the inac-
tion thus forced upon them by their ally, they might
justly be pardoned. On the evening of the 20th, on
the whole of the 21st and 22d, were the British — bands-
men, soldiers who had not been much engaged during
the fight, sailors, and marines — employed in burying
dead British and Russians, and in conveying wounded
British and Russians down to the beach ; and even
then, distressing as it must have been to the kind heart
of Lord Raglan, numbers of wounded Russians were
left behind on the hills — the necessity for marching
being now extreme. The surgeons worked night and
day, amputating shattered limbs and binding up
wounds. The wounds were such as are only to be seen
on a battle-field. One of the surgeons, writing con-
cerning the “ pluck” of the British soldiers at Alma,
said: “They laugh at pain, and will scarcely submit to
die. It is perfectly marvellous — this triumph of mind
over body. If a limb were torn off or crushed at home,
you would have them brought in fainting, and in a
state of dreadful collapse ; here they come with a dang-
ling arm, or a riddled elbow, and it’s ‘ Now, doctor, be
quick, if you please — I am not done for so bad but I
can get away back and see !’ And many of these brave
fellows, with a lump of tow wrung out of cold water
wrapped round their stumps, crawled to the rear of
the fight, and with shells bursting round them, and
balls tearing up sods at their feet, watched the progress
of the battle. I tell you this as a solemn truth, that I
took off the foot of an officer, Captain , who insist-
ed on being helped on his horse again, and declared
that he could fight now that his * foot was dressed l* **
The surgeons attended the Russians, too, on the 21st;
but 700 of these miserable relics of MenschikofFs army
still remained where they had fallen, and where they
230
«?HE FLANK MARCH.
had lain sixty long hours, the victims of unspeakable
suffering and privation. Lord Raglan humanely ren-
dered these poor fellows all the aid he possibly could
under the circumstances.
On the 24th of September, Lord Raglan and Marshal
St. Arnaud determined on their flank movement from
the Katcha and the Belbeck to Balaklava. On the
same day, Prince Menschikoff had resolved on his flank
movement from Sebastopol to Baktcheserai. It was
perhaps the most remarkable day for strategy through-
out the war ; each army being ignorant of the move-
ments of the other ; each attempted to frustrate the
supposed plans of the other ; and each would neces-
sarily cross the path of the other at some point near
Kutor Mackenzie, or Mackenzie’s Farm. This plan
of the Allied commanders was adopted on considering
the difficulty or impossibility of procuring the indis-
pensable supplies by way of the Katcha or the Bel-
beck.
Admiral Hamelin, however, attributes this change
in the rpute of the Allies from the north side of Sebas-
topol to the south side of that town, to the circum-
stance of the sunken ships in the harbour of Sebasto-
pol. In a despatch, he further says, “the generals-in-
chief decided upon turning Sebastopol by the east, and
throwing themselves upon the south of the town, after
they had placed themselves in communication with
the fleets at Balaklava, and obtained provisions and
munitions.” Whether advantageous or not in other
respects, and apart from the boldness and brilliancy
which characterised the manoeuvre, there can be little
doubt that this flank-movement was in a manner forced
upon the Allied commanders by the defensive Russian
arrangements at the mouth of the Belbeck and at Se-
bastopol.
On the morning of the 24th the Allies were strength-
ened by the arrival of the Scots Greys and an in-
fantry regiment, also by 9000 French ; all of whom
had been landed at the mouth of the Kafccha. Abou$
TUB FLANK MARCH.
231
mid-day, the march began, under the heat of a scorch-
ing sun ; crossing the Belbeckby a small bridge, about
four miles from the sea ; and, on reaching the southern
bank, and ascending the hill, the officers could espy,
with the aid of their glasses, that city which had dur-
ing so many months occupied men’s thoughts — Sebas-
topol ; the houses and windows being distinctly visible.
Near this bridge the armies encamped for the night,
some on the hills, some in the hollows between the
hills, and the officers in the village.
The 25th was a day to be remembered by all in the
army, for it was a day of much difficulty and fatigue.
The distance from the Belbeck to Balaklava is but
fourteen miles; but the troops had to pass through a
thick forest or jungle; and every officer and soldier
had to tell how this daring scramble was effected.
Had the Bussians been aware of the situation of the
Allied troops at this time, it would have been a disas-
trous day to the Anglo-French army ; for the regiments
were scattered and intermixed in an apparently inex-
tricable mass of confusion : each man threading a path
as he best could, and many thousand infantry emerg-
ed from the jungle about two o’clock.
It was at this time that occurred the most extraor-
dinary incident in this extraordinary march. Lord
Eaglan rode at the head of the British army, the
French and Turks being at some distance on the flank.
He was one of the first to emerge from the wood upon
the high road, and suddenly found himself close to a
portion of the Bussian army ! The two lines had inter-
sected. The opponent commanders had commenced
their flank-marches nearly at the same time : Mens-
chikoff having the start by a few hours — the Allies
south-east from Belbeck towards Balaklava, the Bus-
sians north-east from Sebastopol towards Simferopol:
each planned a flank-march, which was really cleverly
conceived ; each was entirely ignorant of the other’s
movements; each took Mackenzie’s Farm in the line
of route ; and the two encountered at this spot. Not
232
THE FLANK MARCH.
on equal terms, however, for the van of the British
came upon the rear of the Russians ; and although the
surprise was perhaps equal on both sides, the terror
was on the part of the Russians, who had been great-
ly dispirited by the battle of the Alma, and who had
formed an exaggerated estimate of the strength of
the Allies. A few cavalry only, Scots Greys and others,
were near Lord Raglan at the time; yet did the Rus-
sians, entirely ignorant of the extent of the force thus
suddenly coming upon them, lose all presence of mind.
The British brought a few guns, a squadron or two,
and a battalion of Rifles, to bear on the spot ; a volley
and a charge followed ; and the Russians, after a brief
stand, rushed pell-mell along the road to Simferopol,
leaving everything behind that might have impeded
their flight, and strewing the road for two or three
miles with waggons, carts, tumbrils, provisions, ammu-
nition, the military- chest, baggage, officers* uniforms,
personal ornaments, and a countless array of miscel-
laneous articles. Some portions of this captured booty
were placed under guard by Lord Raglan’s orders, but
much also was left as a prize to the men — a prize
which not a little pleased them as a relief from the
laborious work of this day. “Our gunners,” said one
of the artillery officers, “ got hold of the baggage of
some general officer and his staff, for they were soon
laden with embroidered hussar jackets, pelisses,
and garments of various kinds ! they also got a quan-
tity of jewellery and watches; and some, more lucky
than the rest, got hold of the general’s luncheon-
basket, and feasted on wild-boar, washed down with
champagne.”
As the stragglers came up, by dozens or twenties,
a halt was made for an hour or two, on the heights
near Mackenzie’s Farm. This farm is about six
miles in a straight line from Belbeck Bridge, whence
the flank-march had commenced ; and another straight
line of four miles marks the distance from the farm
to the Tchernaya, on the way to Balaklava ; but the real
THE FLANK MAKCH,
233
distances traversed by the troops were much greater,
and the necessity for a little mid-day repose became
evident. From time to time, the right flank of the
army approached so near the eastern end of Sebasto-
pol, that the red-coats must unquestionably have been
seen from the houses and public buildings; yet not
the smallest attempt was made to check the march.
From evidence afterwards obtained, it appears certain
that the town contained few troops ; troops and in-
habitants were alike in a terror-stricken state; and it
remains a fair problem, whether the Allies might not,
on the night of the 25th or the early morn of the 26th,
have forced the few defences at the upper end of the
harbour, and entered Sebastopol. With the uncer-
tain knowledge possessed by the Allies at that time,
however, concerning the movements of MenschikofF,
and with a natural anxiety to establish a line of com-
munication with the fleet, such a venture was not made ;
Balaklava, and not Sebastopol, was the goal towards
which all eyes were on that day turned. When the men
had rested for awhile on the heights, Lord Eaglan re-
sumed his march, taking the steep winding road from
the farm down to the Tchernaya. On the banks of
that river he rested for the night ; he and his officers
being so completely separated from their baggage,
which was far in the rear, that a dry ditch served as a
bed for many of them. During the night, the bag-
gage and stores arrived, as well as the 4th division,
which had been left behind during a few hours as a
rear-guard. On this day, and indeed ever since leav-
ing the Alma, officers and men had been heavily laden.
One officer wrote : “ Each man carries everything he
possesses. We are allowed no tents and no baggage-
waggons ; so you may imagine the difficulty and delay
in moving an army of this description. At the end
of a march, each man is glad to hunt for wood, fill his
little water-barrel — every officer and man carries one
— cook his rations, lie down as near the bivouac-fire as
he can, and get to sleep till daylight* should he be for*
234
DEATH OE MARSHAL ST. ARNATJD»
iunate enough not to be for picket.’* And in relation
to the fourteen hours* incessant exertion on the me-
morable 25th, the same officer described the position
of himself and his men when their water-barrels were
emptied before the Tchernaya was reached. The
whole truth is conveyed in these few words : " I would
gladly have given my last guinea for a drink of pure
water that afternoon.”
On Tuesday, the 26th of September, the British
army arrived from Tchernaya Bridge at Balaklava
— a place which on that day acquired a European re-
putation, and which was never afterwards to be for-
gotten, either by soldiers or readers. The route be-
tween the two places was nearly south-west, general-
ly on an ascent, and at an average distance of six or
seven miles from Sebastopol. The French adopted a
more circuitous route, and did not reach the heights
southward of Sebastopol until the following day,
having encamped on the Mackenzie heights during
the night.
About this time, two events, or, more properly, a ru-
mour and an event occurred, which caused much sen-
sation — the one, the reported capture of Sebastopol,
transmitted by electric telegraph from Varna. Lon-
don and many other parts of England were in a fe-
verish state of excitement; and many towns manifest-
ed their delight by ringing of bells, music, and other
joyous demonstrations. The report stated that the
Kussians had lost 18,000 men in killed and wounded;
22,000 prisoners; Fort Constantine was destroyed; and
other forts, mounting 200 guns taken; and six sail-
of-the-line were sunk. This was a mere stock-jobbing
fraud upon the public, and caused much indignation
when the deception was discovered.
The other event — the death of Marshal St. Arnaud
—was no idle rumour ; it was a stern reality, occur-
ring immediately after the flank-march to which the
Allied generals attached so much importance. Born
in Paris, in 1801, St. Arnaud was yet in the middle
DEATH OE MARSHAL ST. ARNAUD.
235
of life ; but he had seen much rough service. He
entered the Gardes du Corps at the age of fifteen ; and #
next served as a sub-lieutenant in the line. After a
few years’ absence from the army, he re-entered it in
1831, first as a sub -lieutenant, and then as lieutenant.
He was engaged under Marshal Bugeaud in various
duties during the early years of Louis Philippe’s
reign. The year 1836 took him to Algiers, where his
reputation was chiefly established. As a captain, he
distinguished himself at the siege of Constantina, for
which he w T as rewarded with the decoration of the Le-
gion of Honour. After engaging in many battles, he
was placed, in 1840, in command of the 18th regi-
ment of infantry; which he left some time afterwards
to join the Zouaves. He was further raised to the rank
of lieutenant-colonel in 1842, colonel in 1844, and ma-
jor-general in 1847, and incessantly occupied in military
duties of various kinds. In 1850, he attained the
high position of commandant of the province of
Constantina, where he w r as engaged in a hot contest
with the Kabyles. Returning to France the following
year, after fifteen years’ service in Africa, he was ap-
pointed to a command in the army of Paris. Being
among the small number of distinguished generals who
aided Prince Louis Napoleon to overthrow the French
republic, and to become the Emperor Napoleon III.,
St. Arnaud naturally rose in high favour at court ; he
was made Minister of War, then Marshal of France,
then Senator, and then Commander-in* chief of the
French army in the East.
Such was Marshal St. Arnaud, who, on the 29th of
September, sank under accumulated bodily sufferings,
just at the moment when the Allies began to perceive
that a formal siege of Sebastopol would be necessary.
The declining state of his health had long been known;
indeed, when he left Paris to join the army in the East
his strength was already broken; and during the au-
tumnal months, his life was one continued struggle
against fate. His death occurred on the 29th, nea?
236
GENERAL CA.NROBERT*
Balaklava. His body was sent on board the Berthol-
let to Constantinople, where it was embalmed at the
residence of the Trench embassy ; and on the 11th of
October, the Bertliollet ended her melancholy duty by
landing the remains of the deceased marshal at Mar-
seilles. Madame St. Arnaud, who had resided at Con-
stantinople during the expedition to Varna and the
Crimea, returned to Trance in the same ship that con-
tained the dead body of' her husband. After a solemn
service had been performed in the cathedral at Mar-
seilles, the body was transmitted to Paris, where, on the
16th, a military funeral on an imposing scale was per-
formed : the body being interred in a vault in the
Chapel of the Invalides. Thus terminated the career
of one who, a roving actor and wild adventurer in his
youth, afterwards showed many of the qualities of an
energetic military commander.
General Canrobert, on whom the command of the
Trench before Sebastopol devolved, was a favourite in
the army. Born in 1809, and entering the army early,
he embarked for Africa in 1835, with the rank of lieu-
tenant. He was speedily engaged against* Abd-el-Ka-
der ; then in the expedition to Mascara ; and then in
various other services, which gained for him the rank
of captain in 1837. He joined the Due de Nemours
and General Damremont in an expedition to Constan-
tina in that year, during which he was wounded. Ke-
turning to Trance in 1839, he received the decoration
of the Legion of Honour, and an accession of rank.
Another period of service in Africa then awaited him;
from 1840 to 1850, he was engaged in an incessant
scene of warfare in every part of Algeria, serving under
Cavaignac and other generals, and executing many
achievements requiring courage and address. In 1850,
he came once again to Trance, receiving decorative
honours, the rank of general of brigade, and various
duties connected with the armies of Trance. In 1853,
he became general of division; and in 1854 he was ap-
pointed one of the generals under St. Arnaud in the
DEFENCES 03? SEBASTOPOL.
237
war in the East. Raised to an onerous command at
the age of forty-six, Canrobert briefly addressed his sol-
diers at the period of St. Arnaud’s death, and then set
himself earnestly to the study of the arduous work be-
fore him.
In describing the town and fortifications of Sebasto-
pol, this peculiarity presents itself — that the descrip-
tion must be in the past tense. The bombardment by
the Allies before the capture, the cannonade by the
Russians from the northern side when the southern was
held by the Allies, and the systematic destruction
which followed, almost extinguished Sebastopol from
the list of towns ; while the Russian defences, enlarged
incessantly during the siege, imparted to the fortifica-
tions almost a wholly new character. The best way,
therefore, to render the details of the siege intelligible,
will be first to describe the town and the fortifications
as they existed shortly before the war, when additional
defences had not yet been commenced. Taking the
descriptions from several eye-witnesses, we may be
able to form a judgment concerning the arrangement
and appearance of Sebastopol in the years 1853 — 4.
Two years ago the place was scarcely fortified at all
on the land-side, and was commanded by the adjacent
heights ; but the hills nearest to the town have since
been partly levelled, and the earth used to fill up the
intervening hollows. On the ground thus prepared, a
circular wall has been traced out, commencing at the
citadel, which arises behind the quarantine station.
This wall is a work of much importance, but whe-
ther it is as strongly constructed as it should be, and
fortified with towers and lunettes, is somewhat doubt-
ful. It has been run up very hastily, but as forty
thousand men are said to have been incessantly employ-
ed in its construction, it is possible that it may be more
formidable than the hurried manner of its erection
would seem to imply.
Viewed from the sea, the fortifications of Sebastopol
present a very formidable appearance. Cape Constant
238
©EtfENCES OE SSBASTOPO?*
tine is defended by a battery of seventeen guns ; it is
just below the telegraph post, to the right of Fort Con-
stantine, which juts into the sea, and has 104 guns
mounted. On the same side of the harbour are two
other batteries, mounting respectively eighty and
thirty-four guns,; and on the heights above, connect-
ed with Fort Constantiue by a military road, is the
citadel, the strength of which in guns is not known.
On the right is the quarantine battery, mounting
fifty-one guns, so disposed that, while the fire of some
can be directed across the mouth of the harbour, so as
to intersect the line which the shot from Fort Con-
stantine would describe, that of others would complete-
ly command the inlet on the shore of which the quar-
antine station is situated. The next headland is de-
fended by a battery of sixty-four guns, the fire of which
would cross that from Fort Constantine in one direc-
tion, and that from the quarantine battery in another.
Nearer the town is another battery of fifty guns, while ,
the entrance of the inner harbour, on the other side of
the town, is defended by a formidable fort, mounting
no less than 192 pieces of cannon. This is called Fort
St. Nicholas, and the fire from its quadruple tiers of
guns is crossed by that of Fort St. Paul, on the oppo-
site point. On the side of the inner harbour, defended
by the last-named fort, is the suburb, inhabited by the
artificers employed in the docks, &e., and there also is
the marine hospital. The total number of guns mount-
ed is calculated at 1370, but if those composing the fly-
ing batteries are counted, the aggregate will be increas-
ed to little less than two thousand.
In the construction of these batteries the system of
casemates has been adopted, but the solidity of the
works is very much questioned by military engineers.
The cost of these fortifications to the Eussian govern-
ment thas been estimated at 150,000,000 francs, or about
£7,291,666.
That Sebastopol is a place of great strength there
can be but little doubt; and if the numerous forts are
DEFENCES OF SEBASTOPOL.
239
as strong as they appear to be — a point concerning
which strong doubts exist in the minds of competent
military men— it may even be considered as impregna-
ble as any fortified place can be said to be. The term
must always be accepted with a certain degree of re-
servation, for no place can be said to be truly impreg-
nable ; the fact of a place never having been taken is
no proof of it impregnability, as the Spaniards found
at Gibraltar, and the French at Louisburg. This may
be the case with Sebastopol, especially if the walls are
no better constructed than were those of the long fort
at Bomarsund. It is the opinion of experienced engi-
neers that, however impregnable the place may be by
sea, it might be reduced by a sufficient land force with
a facility that would astonish the imperial nerves. In
spite of the partial levelling of the heights, Sebastopol
is still commanded by rocky hills, to the removal of
which there are insuperable obstacles, and on which
the position of an intrenched camp for an attacking
force may be traced out by nature. It is true that
from the sea, neither the inner harbour, nor the masts of
the vessels lying at anchor in it, can be seen, on ac-
count of the position being too much below the cliffs
along the coast ; but when the siege works shall have
been carried towards the right, the harbour may be
raked by cannon along its entire extent.
Various opinions, similar to the above, were indulg-
ed in by persons who had either been eye-witnesses of
the place, or gathered their knowledge from perusing the
writings of others. The justness or fallacy of these
opinions was proved by the result of the operations of
the Allied forces.
When Lord Raglan arrived with his army on the
heights above Balaklava, on the 28th, he expected lit-
tle opposition in that quarter ; but, as a measure of pre-
caution, he sent on the Rifles to crown the heights, and
arranged other battalions in commanding positions.
On one of the heights was a small post of little value,
an old ruined Genoese castle, that was soon taken by
240 PREPARATIONS POE THE SIEGE.
the artillery and the Rifles ; but before this capture,
Lord Raglan had a narrow escape from a shell discharg-
ed by the garrison. The villages of Kadiko'i and Bal-
aklava, the one on a small river two or three miles from
the harbour, and the other on the eastern shore of the
harbour itself, were taken and occupied ; and the heights
being now also occupied, the British had secured a
wholly new base of operations. A narrow defile con-
stitutes the only approach to the harbour on the land-
side; a small force of the enemy stationed here might
have proved a formidable obstruction to the British ;
but the Russians, not expecting an attack in this quar-
ter, had left the defile undefended. Lord Raglan en-
tered the village about noon ; the inhabitants pre-
sented to him fruit, flowers, bread, and salt ; and he
assured them they were safe from molestation. Small
as the harbour is, the waters are deep, and the Aga-
memnon steamed in safely. Lord Raglan joyfully
greeted Sir Edmund Lyons, who had arrived by sea;
for a position had been now attained where the supplies
from the fleet were immediately in the rear of the ar-
mies requiring that service.
Lord Raglan despatched a message to Admiral Dun-
das by Sir Edmund Lyons, who immediately brought
the whole of the steam-squadron, headed by the Aga-
memnon , and accompanied by several transports car-
rying siege guns, which arrived in the evening of the
26th off Balaklava, doubling Cape Chersonese. 1000
marines were sent round in the Agamemnon , to take
the place of the same number of soldiers, employed in
guarding the heights that overlook the little har-
bour.
Busy were the hours and days at Balaklava. Ships
found ingress and egress by a gap so narrow, that care-
ful handling was necessary to prevent collisions; and
these ships brought supplies of various kinds, not only
from the main fleet at the Katcha, but from Constan-
tinople and other depots. The largest and longest
steamers could not enter, on account of the tortuous
PREPARATION S POR THE SIEGE.
241
direction of the mouth : they anchored outside, while
the smaller steamers and transports entered the har-
bour. The tents for the army were among the first
articles landed; during ten or twelve days the soldier.;
had obtained but little covering at night, little shelter
from rain, cold, and wind; and many a poor fellow
was cut off by the sickness thus engendered. The
landing of the siege-artillery was more formidable
work ; for Balaklava, being a mere village, had no quay
worthy of the name, and hence the difficulties were se-
rious in disembarking guns of great magnitude and
weight : they were lowered from the ships into barges
provided with a kind of drawbridge; artillerymen and
seamen aiding in this labour, and strings of horses be-
ing then employed in dragging the guns up to the
heights forming the plateau between Balaklava and
Sebastopol. About sixty heavy guns of the siege-train
were thus successively landed. Among the reinforce-
ments which, together with supplies, arrived during
the first few days, were the 4th and 6th regiments of
dragoons ; but it was speedily found that the medical
department was defective in strength : many men fell
daily under the influence of cholera, and medicines
were too few for the wants of the surgeons, who were
themselves also too few in number.
By the 30th, all the heavy guns having been “ park-
ed” or collected on the heights above Balaklava, the
time had arrived for arranging the march towards Se-
bastopol, and the selection of ground for head' quarters,
divisional quarters, depots, &c. On the 2d of October,
the advance was made and the positions taken up ; the
six divisions of the army being disposed in conformity
with the general plan whereon the siege was to be con-
ducted ; and posts of sentinels, pickets, vedettes, &c.,
established to watch the movements of the enemy.
When the soldiers were thus removed from Balaklava,
the 1000 marines pitched their camp on the hills bound-
ing the harbour, made a road and cut some intrench-
ments; the position was easily defended by musketry,
246 ^
242
PREPARATIONS FOR THE SIEGE.
and prevented any attack by the Eussians on the ships
in the harbour. A naval brigade or division was also
formed, under Captain Lushingtonof the Albion; and
the sailors, about 1000 in number, displayed great ala-
crity and delight in pulling up their guns to the
heights, being well disposed towards any tactics which
would afford them a scene of excitement and of possi-
ble glory. The position taken up by the head quar-
ters of the army was about half-way between Sebasto-
pol and Balaklava, three to four miles from each in a
straight line; but the advanced posts were much near-
er the enemy, and received many a shot from the larger
guns at Sebastopol.
Meanwhile, the French had been landing their sup-
plies and siege-material at another part of the penin-
sula, west instead of south of Sebastopol. As the har-
bour at Balaklava, with all its advantages, can accom-
modate only a small fleet at once. General Canrobert
soon decided on adopting a landing-place elsewhere ;
he selected the two bays near Cape Chersonese, gener-
ally called Kamiesch and Arrow Bays, between Sebas-
topol and that Cape. The French quickly formed a
landing-place in Kamiesch Bay, established a little
town or cantonment on the beach, landed their artille-
ry and stores, despatched their regiments up to the
heights, and commenced their arrangements for the
attack of the formidable stronghold. The 3d and 4th
divisions, under General Forey, were charged with the
duty of besieging the left or we3t side of Sebastopol ;
while the 1st and 2d divisions, under General Bosquet,
were formed into a corps of observation, to occupy the
positions commanding the Valley of the Tchernaya,
and to protect the siege operations against any attempt
on the part of the enemy coming from the interior of
the Crimea. The Turkish division, it was agreed,
should form a reserve for either of these two French
corps, as circumstances might render desirable. The
landing having commenced at Kamiesch on the 30th
of September, the advanced French pickets came, on
PREPARATIONS OR THE SIEGE.
243
the 1st of October, within 400 yards of the Cossack ve-
dettes outside Sebastopol. On the next day, the 4th
division took up a position about two miles from the
town, its left resting on the coast at Arrow Bay, its
, right on a point about two miles further south, and its
front commanding the west and south-west sides of
Sebastopol. On the 3d of the month, siege-material
continued to be landed in large quantity, while the
generals and engineers made many and careful obser-
vations on the movements and defences of Sebastopol ;
thirty large guns from the ships were landed, to be
worked by Captain Eigand ; and 1000 soldiers were
formed into a naval brigade, similar to that on the
English side. On the 4th, the third division took up
its place to the right of the fourth, and extending
thence to a great ravine which runs down to the inner
harbour of Sebastopol ; and on many successive days,
stores of all kinds were landed at Kamiesch, and car-
ried up to the siege- camp.
During this time, Menschikoff was not idle ; hav-
ing by his spies ascertained that the north side of Se-
bastopol was free from danger, he immediately set about
strengthening the south- side. He obtained the assist-
ance of a very clever engineer, named Todtleben, a
young man who had risen from a low grade to a post
of eminence, on account of his superior genius.
Sebastopol having no defensive wall of any account,
it was left for Menschikoff and Todtleben to construct
such towers, forts, redoubts, batteries, or lines of for-
tified trenches and ramparts, as might repel the Allies,
or at least delay the capture. None of the great forts
situated on the harbour commanded the southern land-
side ; hence new works had to be constructed. From
the battery near Artillery Bay, a crenellated wall, or
wall loopholed for musketry, was constructed, follow-
ing the steep of the hill to the plateau, where it joined
a large round tower or fort, mounting twenty guns on
the platform, and surrounded by a battery at a lower
level. Under the cannon of this round fort was a large
244
PREPARATIONS POR THE SIEGE.
fortified barrack, flanked and armed by several strong
works. From this fort, a line of defence was con-
structed entirely round the south and east of the town,
to the spot where the Careening Bay enters the har-
bour ; making the whole circuit of defence, from Ar-
tillery Bay to Careening Bay, nearly five miles in ex-
tent, including sinuosities. This was not a perfect mi-
litary wall or rampart, but a sort of ridge about three
feet in thickness, with a ditch in front, the earth from
which was thrown outwards, to form a glacis between
the besiegers and besieged. The wall, if it may so be
called, was not broad enough for cannon ; but on those
points where, in a regular fortification, bastions would
have been constructed, Todtleben threw up platforms
whereon heavy guns could be mounted, to fire over the
wall, many of which were the guns taken from the
ships in the harbour. The centre of the line was de-
fended by a large fort, raised on a high point at the
upper or southern end of the town. The names Flag-
staff Battery, Garden Battery, Barrack Battery, Great
Redan, Little Redan, Mamelon Fort, Malakoff Fort —
some belonging to a later period in the history of the
siege — were all applied to works constructed in conse-
quence of the commencement of the siege itself, and
on various elevated spots outside of the town, and in
most cases exterior to the “ lines” of trench and ram-
part.
The Allied position gradually assumed a definite
character during the month of October, dependent in
part on the defensive arrangements made by the Rus-
sians. The entire camp occupied a plateau six miles
in length by four in breadth ; but the siege-works of
course grouped themselves near the town to be attack-
ed. The plateau, bounded by an abrupt descent on
the east, was defended along this edge by a breast-
work, or earthwork breast-high, constructed by the
French nearly from Balaklava to Inkermann, with bat-
teries, redoubts, and redans, to defend the more assail-
able points — the last named of these, redans, being
PREPARATIONS FOR THE SIEGE.
245
earthworks forming two sides of a triangle, like one
tooth of a saw. This line of defence was intended to
guard the plateau from an attack by the Russians on
thei east. The northern edge of the plateau, not much
above the level of the highest part of the town, has
several spurs, or hilly knolls, putting out north-west
towards the Karabelnaia or eastern half of the town ;
and on these spurs the English constructed their
breaching-batteries, while the French constructed their
approaches and parallels on the south-west of the main
part of the town. Between the spurs are gorges or ra-
vines, running down towards the harbour. Various
batteries were constructed by the British, none at a
less distance than two-thirds of a mile from the town.
In rear of the batteries, beginning on the right or
north-east, was the 2d division, then the 1st, the light,
the 3d, and the 4th, in order, each occupying such a
position as should render its services most available
when the siege commenced, or to repel any sortie of
the garrison. Between the English and French posi-
tions was the longest and deepest of many ravines,
running down to the inner harbour ; and westward of
this were the French batteries, not perched upon spurs
between gorges, but occupying a plain almost on a le-
vel with the highest part of the town. The English
approaches, zigzags, and parallels, were directed to-
wards the forts that defended the Karabelnaia ; where-
as the French approached gradually nearer and nearer
to the main streets of Sebastopol, on the other side of
the inner harbour.
The difficulty of dragging the heavy siege-guns up
to the heights from Balaklava and Kamiesch, and of
digging the trenches in very hard soil, retarded the
progress of the siege, and afforded Todtleben time to
construct his defensive works. The French establish-
ed their first parallel on the 10th of October, at a dis-
tance of 700 or 800 yards from the place; while their
allies were compelled to commence at a greater distance,
on account of the obstacles afforded by the site.
248
PREPARATIONS FOR THE SIEGE*
The trench-work proceeded vigorously during the
second week of the month. On one particular even-
ing, after sunset, 2400 French took up a position in
line, in front of the fortress, set to work with pick and
shovel, and by daylight the next morning had dug a
trench three-quarters of a mile in length, at a dis-
tance of about 1000 yards from the forts ; the Rus-
sians, to their astonishment, saw a ditch, parapet, and
banquette, where nothing had been visible on the pre-
ceding evening. Each French soldier dug and guard-
ed in turn ; and as each had about twenty inches of
length entrusted to him to excavate, the whole number
were enabled to accomplish this extensive work during
the night; at a subsequent period, gabions and
fascines were bro glit up, to face and strengthen the
embrasures of this parapet, ready for the reception of
a long row of guns. Such was the general plan on
which the approaches were made by both armies :
working-parties would go out in the dusk of the even-
ing, and form as much trench, parapet, and banquette
as could be accomplished during the night ; returning
to camp at daylight — wearied, cold, sleepy, hungry,,
and perhaps stricken with the beginnings of ague,
cholera, or fever. The pickets, under the charge of a
colonel or captain, were sometimes more trying than
the trenches ; since the men, throughout a night
which might be piercingly cold or incessantly stormy,
had no relief from the duty of keeping watch in the
silent darkness, ever on the alert against the possible
approach of an enemy.
* The Russians showed themselves worthy defenders
of the place ; they not only worked night and day to
strengthen the lines and forts, but they poured out
shot, shell, and bullet against all the men and batteries
which the Allies brought within range. This torrent
kept the besiegers ever watchful, and occasioned much
loss. Sometimes a 66, or even an 84-pounder would
plunge down into and plough up the earth within a
yard or two of an officer’s tent, or would even {tierce
PREPARATIONS POE THE SIEGE.
247
then tent itself, and carry off some of the simple chat-
tels with which it was furnished. To kill the men, to dis-
lodge the guns planted upon the earthen batteries, to
crumble the batteries themselves into fragments — all
were objects aimed at by this firing from the garrison ;
and the nearer the approach of the besiegers, the more
perilous became their position on account of the fire.
The firing was mostly during the day; but when the
Eussians could guess at the position of the working-
parties, it continued during the night also, maintain-
ing a roar that rendered it difficult for officers or men
to snatch a few hours’ sleep.
Bay after day passed, marked — on the part of the
Eussians — by the reception of reinforcements, the
steady construction of new works, and the outpouring
of shot and musketry against the besiegers ; and on
the part of the Allies, by the landing of men and
stores at Balaklava and Kamiesch, the dragging of
the heavy guns up to the heights, the formation of
trenches, parapets, and earthen batteries, the mount-
ing of these parapets and batteries with heavy guns
and mortars, and the encamping of the three armies —
English, French, and Turkish — in convenient positions
behind the lines and batteries. All this time passed
without any firing on the part of the Allies ; the com-
manders decided that no cannonading should com-
mence until all was prepared for a formidable bom-
bardment; and thus it happened that, during the first
half of the month of October, the besiegers were the
attacked party rather than the attacking — greatly to
the astonishment of those who, at a distance from the
scene of operations, and imperfectly acquainted with
the arrangements necessary for a siege, longed impa-
tiently for news of ramparts battered down, forts des-
troyed, breaches stormed, the fortress entered, and
the flags of the victors floating over the captured
town.
CHAPTER VIII.
&Ian(ettvres op the Fleets— Bombardment op
Sebastopol — Battle op Balaklava — The Two
Battles op Inkermann— Storm in the Cri-
mea, etc.
The English and French nations, auguring from the
success attending the Allied forces at the battle of
the Alma, imagined that the progress of the troops was
to be one continued series of uninterrupted triumphs,
and consequently became very impatient. The news-
papers endeavoured to allay the anxiety and impati-
ence of the people by representing the formidable na-
ture of the work the Allies had to perform ; but few
had any idea that the Siege of Sebastopol, which was
now about to commence, would be protracted to ten
or eleven months, ere the Allies could enter this
stronghold of the Russian power. The sanguinary
contests, however, at Balaklava and Inkermann, wffiich
will be narrated in this chapter, were sufficient, one
would imagine, to satisfy the most voracious appetite
for slaughter and bloodshed ; and served, for a time,
to pacify the grumblers, who were comfortably enjoy-
ing tlieir ease and luxuries at their own firesides.
We have, in the last chapter, brought the operations
of the Allies to the point of getting a portion of the
fortifications and batteries into something like order,
preparatory to the bombarding of the city; we will
now briefly allude to the manoeuvres of the naval por-
tion of the armament.
Two or three minor operations by portions of the
fleets had been performed during the flank march of
the army — minor we mean as to their immediate
effects— but still of such importance as to convince
248
PREPARATIONS POR THE SIEGE. 249
the Russians that they had no contemptible foe to
contend with.
Sebastopol, however — the great Sebastopol— was
the object yearned for, the place towards which the
thoughts of the admirals and seamen were chiefly di-
rected. Occasionally, during the first two weeks in
October, a steamer would approach to reconnoitre ; or
an audacious little gun-boat, proud of its one gun,
would fire away at Forts Constantine or Alexander,
to try the effect of iron against stone at a distance of a
mile and a half or two miles. Admiral Dundas, in a
despatch to the Admiralty, dated the 13th of October,
stated that Sir Edmund Lyons continued to be busily
occupied with the steam-squadron, assisting the British
army at Balaklava; that Admiral Bruat, with a French
squadron, was aiding the French in their position at
Kamiesch and Arrow Bays ; that the Sidon, Inflexi-
ble, Cacique , and Caton, were off Odessa, preventing
any communication by sea with the Crimea ; and that
the principal sailing-vessels of both fleets, under Ad-
mirals Dundas and Hamelin, were anchored off the
mouth of the Katcha. Four days after this, the great
bombardment commenced.
On the 16th, the night before the bombardment, a
boat was sent in with muffled oars, to examine two
shoals near Forts Constantine and Alexander; the
boat rounded the shoals, and approached so near the
forts that the sailors could overhear conversation : two
small Russian steamers were outside the line of sunken
vessels; but the crews either did not see the boat or
mistook it for a Russian. The boat-party ascertained
that the small water-spaces left between the sunken
vessels and the forts were too uncertain in depth to
allow great ships to enter ; and it became evident,
as had long been suspected, that the fleets could effect
little in the actual capture of the forts ; they could on-
ly co-operate by creating a diversion in favour of the
land-forces, and helping to reduce the place if the land*
besiegers should be successful.
250
BOMBARDMENT OE SEBASTOPOL.
Morning dawned on the 17th of October, amid tre-
mendous preparations for bombarding Sebastopol.
The land-cannonade was to begin about six o’clock ;
aud, at the urgent request of Lord Eaglan and Gen-
eral Canrobert, the admirals agreed that the whole of
the ships should assist the land-attack by engaging
the sea-batteries north and south of the harbour, on a
line across the port. In accordance with this ar-
rangement, the magnificent fleets took up positions
opposite the forts and batteries. The great sailing
men-of-war were lashed to smaller steamers, as a
means of moving more readily from place to place ;
but the crew of each steamer regarded its bulky neigh-
bour as an incubus, which retarded its own movements,
and lessened the probability of obtaining a shot at the
enemy. Meanwhile, the French had not been idle.
Admiral Hamelin went from the Katcha to Xamiesch,
in the Mogador, on the 13th ; had an interview with
Canrobert on the 14th ; and arranged the plan of na-
val attack with Dundas on the 15th. According to
this plan, the French fleet was to be placed southward
of the harbour, at seven cables’ length from the cliff,
to operate against the Quarantine, Alexander, and
Artillery forts or batteries; whilst the English were
to be similarly engaged opposite the northern forts;
and the Turks to anchor midway between the two.
The magnificent array of ships thus drawn up, broad-
sides on toward the forts of Sebastopol, was little less
than two miles and a half in extent, from Wasp Bat-
tery on the north to the Bay of Cherson.
Few were the sentences in which the admirals des-
cribed the events of the 17th in their despatches. Admiral
Dundas, after naming the ships and explaining the in-
tended plan of attack, dismissed the naval bombard-
ment itself in the following few words : — “ The action
lasted from about half-past one to half-past six p.m.,
when, being quite dark, the ships hauled off.” Admiral
Hamelin described the operations somewhat more ful-
ly. On the morning of the 17th,” he said, “the at-
BOMBAEDttENT OF SEBASTOPOL. 251
tack by the siege-batteries commenced ; but, as the
weather was calm, it was necessary to attach the
ships-of-the-line to the steam-frigates before develop-
ing against Sebastopol the line of the twenty-six ships
of the Allied squadrons. Nevertheless, in spite of this
difficulty, and the separation which had taken place
between the ships of the Allied squadrons, a part of
which had anchored at Kamiesch, and part before the
Katcha, I have the satisfaction to announce that the
ships of our first line advanced about half-past twelve
in the day under fire of the batteries of Sebastopol,
whi«h they stood against at first during more than
half an hour without replying. A few minutes after-
wards, they replied vigorously to the fire, which did
not fail to incommode them, from their small number.
Afterwards, the other French and English vessels suc-
cessively arrived, and the attack became general.
Towards half-past two o’clock, the fire of the Russian
batteries slackened; it was stopped at the Quarantine
Rettery. This was the exact object desired by the
French squadron, but our firing was redoubled and
continued without interruption till night. At the
time I am writing, I am not aware of what was the
success of our siege -batteries, whose fire had com-
menced before ours, and which attacked the Russian
fortifications on the land-side. If the Russians had
not closed the entrance to Sebastopol by sinking
their ships, I do not doubt that the vessels of the
squadrons, after the first fire, would have been able
successfully to enter the port, and place themselves in
communication with the army. Perhaps they would
not have lost many more men in doing this than we
have now to regret ; but the extreme measure which
the enemy adopted of sacrificing a portion of his ships,
forced us to confine ourselves to attacking for five hours
the sea -batteries of Sebastopol, with the object of si-
lencing them more or less, of occupying a great many
men of the garrison at the guns, and of giving thus
to our army, material as well as moral assistance.”
252
BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOPOL,
When night closed in and put an end to the firing,
and when the morning of the 18th enabled the crews
to look around them, it was found that the Bussians
had been severe opponents to deal with. The Aga-
memnon received sixteen shots near the water-line, but
none had gone through; several had penetrated the
main and lower decks ; the masts, sails, and rigging,
were perforated in all directions ; the main-sail had
been three times on fire. The Albion and the Are-
thusa suffered se verly ; when anchored before the W asp
Battery, the cables by which they were lashed to the
steamers were cut by shot, and they became un-
manageable just when facility of movement was most
desirable ; the Albion , after being set on fire three
times by the fierce cannonade from the battery, was
on the point of getting on shore, when the Cambria
steamer ran in and extricated her, suffering fearfully
from deaths and wounds among her crew ; the Arethu -
sa was hulled in all directions by shot. The Rodney ,
lashed to the Spiteful steamer, went on shore close
under the fort about dusk, and would there have been
lost but for the assistance rendered by the Orinoco ;
through an unlucky mistake, this ship threw a shell
that burst against the main -mast of the Retribution
and the Trafalgar lashed to it. The Sanspareil and
Belter option also received some rough usage. But
when the crews were counted up, the loss was found to
be more serious than any which the injuries to the
ships entailed. Admiral Dundas’s despatch told of 44
killed and 266 wounded in the British portion of the
fleet ; twenty-one vessels shared in this loss, whereof the
Albion and the Sanspareil bore, the former 10 killed and
71 wounded, and the latter 11 killed and 59 wounded.
The Agamemnon , owing probably to the fine steaming
qualities of the ship and the masterly way in which
she was handled, had only 4 killed and 25 wounded,
although this was the vessel in which the greatest in-
terest of the day's proceedings centered. The French
had a fair share in the activity and loss. The Chari*-
BOMBARDMENT OP SEBASTOPOL. 253
mag ne and the Ville de Paris were hotly engaged,
giving and receiving shot during many hours ; and Ad-
miral Hamelin, in the latter-named ship, had a nar-
row escape; for a shell, bursting on the stern, shat-
tered the poop to fragments, and killed one and
wounded three of the four aides-de-camp who were by
the admiral’s side. The total loss of the French in kill-
ed and wounded was little less than that of their Al-
lies.
And now the all-absorbing inquiry arose whether any
of the forts had succumbed to the terrible missiles which
had been hurled against them ; and whether Sebastopol
had suffered much from a bombardment by sea ? The
answer to this important inquiry was anything but sat-
isfactory to the Admirals and the fleet; for apparently
little injury had been sustained by the besieged. A
few words contained in a letter written on board the
Sampson , tell in a simple way of the trifling injury re-
ceived by the forts from the cannonade, and of the
mingled surprise and disappointment evidently felt by
the cannonaders: “Our liners were not close enough
in, and therefore their shot did not tell with full force.
The Sampson stationed herself right opposite a square
fort mounting eight guns, and did her work by silenc-
ing it three times, knocking some good pieces out of
it ; but the worst of it was that, not being able to take
possession of it, as soon as we turned our attention and
guns to some other point, the fellows came running
down into it again, and re-opened fire on us.’* The
“ fellows” did indeed bravely defend Sebastopol, as our
soldiers as well as seamen full well knew.
We will now allude to the military operations con-
nected with the bombardment.
The great day arrived -the day on which many
hopes were entertained that Sebastopol might fall.
Instructions were issued by Lord Raglan on the pre-
vious evening for the guidance of the siege train, and
the army divisions. The principal points dwelt upon
were the following j— -That the cannonade would com-
254» BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOEOt.
mence at half-past six in the morning, indicated by a
discharge of three mortars; that ail troops off duty
would be ready for any immediate service in their re-
spective camps, without knapsacks, great coats, or blan-
kets ; that horses would be attached to the field-batter-
ies, to move the field-guns, if required; that each divi-
sion would be provided with a body of sappers, sup-
plied with picks, shovels, crow-bars, sledge-hammers,
felling axes, scaling-ladders, and bags of powder, in the
event of any assault being attempted ; that each divi-
sion would also have a corps of engineers provided with
rockets and gun-spikes; that reserved musket-ammu-
nition would be placed at ready disposal of the infant-
ry divisions ; and that the cavalry, together with all the
regiments placed near Balaklava, would be ready for ac-
tion in any immediate need.
At the appointed hour on the morning of the 17th,
the bombardment began — such a bombardment as the
annals of war had seldom equalled. The troops of all
the nations — British, French, Turkish, Russians — and
non-combatants who were within sight and hearing —
all appear to have been vividly impressed with the tre-
mendous outburst. Lieutenant-colonel Hamley says :
“ The silence was broken by such a peal of artillery as
has scarcely ever before, in the most famous battles or
sieges, shaken the earth around the combatants. One
hundred and twenty-six pieces, many of them of the
largest calibre, opened at once upon the Russian defen-
ces, and were answered by a still larger number, of
equal range and power. The din was so incessant, and
the smoke in the batteries so dense, that after a few
rounds the gunners laid their pieces rather by the line
on the platform than by view of the object aimed at.”
Lieutenant Peard, who had been ordered into the
trenches at four o’clock on that morning, to unmask the
guns by opening the embrasures, speaks thus : “ At
daylight, the guns in the British batteries, and in the
French, presented their muzzles to the enemy. At 6.
SO AM,, our batteries opened fire, which was as sharp*
BOMBARDMENT OF 3EBAST03P0Iu 255
ly responded to by the Russians. It was now three
weeks since we had been before Sebastopol, and it is
impossible to say how relieved we were to be able to
answer their fire. Our guns were loaded and fired as
fast as it was possible to do it. The fire from the ene-
my was beyond all conception ; and their shell and shot
were accompanied with canister-shot, which, skimmin g
the parapet, and coming through the embrasures, made
a most unpleasant whizzing.”
Lord Raglan, in a despatch sent to the government,
at this time, said : “ On this occasion, we employed
about sixty guns of different calibres, the lightest be-
ing 24-pounders. It may here be proper to observe,
that the character of the position which the enemy oc-
cupied on the south side of Sebastopol i9 not that of a
fortress, but rather that of an army in an intrenched
camp on very strong ground, where an apparently un-
limited number of heavy guns, amply provided with
gunners and ammunition, are mounted. The guns
having opened as above stated (about a quarter after
seven), a continuous and well-directed fire was carried
on from the works of the two armies until about ten
o’clock a.m., when unfortunately, a magazine in the
midst of the French batteries exploded, and occasioned
considerable damage to the works, and, I fear, many ca-
sualties, and almost paralysed the efforts of the French
artillery for the day. The British batteries, however,
manned by sailors from the fleet, under the command
of Captain Lushington and Captain Peel, and by the
Royal Artillery, under the superintendence of Lieu-
tenant-colonel Gambier, kept up their fire with unre-
mitting energy throughout the day, to my own and the
general satisfaction, as well as to the admiration of the
French army, who were witnesses of their gallant and
persevering exertions : materially injuring the enemy’s
works, and silencing the heavy guns on the top of the
loophole (Malakoff) tower, and many of the guns at
its base, and causing an extensive explosion in the rear
of a strong redoubt in our immediate front. The
258 BOMBARDMENT Of SEBASXOTOI.
enemy, notwithstanding, answered to the last from
a number .of guns along their more extended line.”
When night closed in, and the gunners retired wear-
ily from their work, the Allies could not conceal from
themselves that the results were unsatisfactory. Hoj^cs
had mounted high during many days. Some authori-
ties had pronounced that the Russian batteries would
be silenced in three days ; while others limited the time
to a few hours. Many parts of the Russian works, it
is true, were injured; the Malakoff Tower was deeply
scarred by the heavy 68-pounder shot, and many of its
gnns dismounted, although at a range of more than
2000 yards ; a magazine was fired in the rear of the
Redan by a shell, and many guns silenced thereby ;
and all the defence-works were shaken and scarred by
the tremendous force brought against them. Still, the
damage was of small amount, considering that the
works were mostly of earth, and that Sebastopol con-
tained a large number of men wholly at the disposal
of Menschikoff. Those Russians who, whether soldiers
or civilians, had not worked severely during the day,
were set to repair the parapets and embrasures at
night ; insomuch that, when morning dawned, the Al-
lies had the mortification of finding that the battering
of the preceding day had left the Russians little the
worse. Prince Menschikoff, in his despatch to the czar,
statedthat in one of his forts nearly all the guns, thir-
ty-two in number, had been dismounted ; that Fort
Constantine had been much damaged by the ships ;
but that most of the other forts had suffered slightly.
Me estimated his loss at about 500 killed and wounded;
among whom General Kornileff was killed, and Ad-
miral Nachimoff and Captain Yerganyscheff wounded.{
The progress of the siege, from the first day onward,
was governed by the circumstance that Sebastopol was
never invested. In most other sieges the town is gen-
erally surrounded by the besiegers : but in this case,
the available force of the Allies was too small, and the
circuit of the place too large, for thi3 desirable object
EESlIITISCEffCES OE TTTE STEGE. 95 ?
to be accomplished. The southern side of the harbour
was only invested; leaving the formidable forts on tho
north unassailed, and the roads from Simferopol
and Eupatoria free for the passage of supplies.
The incidents of the siege to the end of October were
not distinguished by any important result ; sometimes
the besiegers made some apparently decided hits ; then
in turn, the besieged effected some trifling advantage;
but nothing of moment occurred.
A few brief passages from familiar letters, written
by officers engaged, and afterwards published, will suf-
fice to convey a notion of the state of the Russian works
at that time, of the picket-duty on the part of the Bri-
tish, and of the trench-duty. After adverting to the
supposed disappointment of friends in England at the
protracted duration of the siege, one officer thus speaks
of the state of the town: " We can knock the civilian
part of the town to pieces ; but the great difficulty is
to get at the dockyards, arsenals, &c., which are com-
pletely protected from straight shooting by the high
cliffs of the harbour ; they, therefore, can only be reach-
ed by shells and rockets. Thus, in long range, it is
very difficult to fire at exactly the right elevation ; con-
sequently we pitch almost as many shells into the har-
bour as we do into the stores. Again, I suspect all
their roofs are bomb-proof, as we have not succeeded
in setting them on fire to any great extent, although
there have been almost nightly blazes of small huts,
&c., in the outskirts. It must ultimately be taken by
assault, and, therefore, the sooner that takes place the
better. W e have had a great many deserters, and they
all agree in declaring that the streets are strewed wish
dead; and they add, that as soon as resistance becomes
useless, the troops will all go over to the other side,
where they have immensely strong batteries, which,
together with Fort Constantine, completely overlook
the southern shores, and will, I suspect, prevent us
from holding the place long.” Next comes the Eng-
lish side of the field of struggle. “ I am on picket,
246 a
258 EEMtffISCJESrCES O? THE SIEGE.
This is a duty that begins at four in the morning, and
ends at four the next morning. Each regiment fur-
nishes two companies of pickets daily; therefore it
takes place every fourth day. A picket is an advanced
guard thrown out close to the enemy’s lines, in order
to protect the camp from a surprise ; consequently the
sentries can see each other, and we can see large mas-
ses of Russians manoeuvring in the hollow all day. We
command, from our position, a road which is a short-
cut for the enemy into Sebastopol ; and, as they often
try to dodge past our sentries, hardly a day passes that
we have not a brush with the enemy.” A Zouave in
a French rifle-pit furnishes another phase of outpost-
duty. “ I am almost like a poacher. I go out every
day to shoot Russians. This is the way we do. As
early as two o’clock in the morning, our toilet being
completed — and that of a Zouave is not long — we leave,
carrying with us ammunition and one or twe biscuits.
Arrived in the intrenchments, we take sand-bags, a
spade, and a pickaxe ; then, at a given signal, we leap
from the parapets with the rapidity of deer, and esta-
blish our homes close to the forts. There we dig a
hole, a sort of warren, to hide ourselves in. We place
our sand-bags to protect us, and our residence is then
furnished. We remain in these pits all the day, and
it is not until night is rather advanced that we are
permitted to leave them. This we often do in the
midst of a shower of grape-shot. You will ask me
what we do in the pits all day. Very good work, I as-
sure you. We fire almost as fast as we can, and every
discharge demolishes a Russian artilleryman.” The
trench-duty had its own peculiar severities : “ We have
five batteries, and these require a large armed guard
and fatigue-party day and night— a fatigue-party to
keep the works in repair after the enemy’s fire, and a
guard to defend them from sorties. This is the most
dangerous of our recreations, and not a day passes that
two or three fatal cases do not occur. At night, they
thell us incessantly from the forts ; but night-shells are
klTSSIAN TACTICS.
not so dangerous as in the day, because we can always
track their fiery course for half a minute through the
air. * * * Sometimes, after lying on the wet
ground all night, my limbs are all pains, and my teeth
quite loose in my gums.” When the same officer con-
gratulates himself on having been “ lucky enough” to
purchase two flannel-shirts for £2, and a tooth-brush
for 8s., he just touched the beginnings of that terrible
winter, the incidents of which will be mentioned in the
next chapter.
The Allied generals had reason to believe that while
they were busily engaged in the siege, Prince Menschi*
koff was feeling his way round by a winding road along
by the Tchernaya from Sebastopol, by the Traktir
Bridge from Baktcheserai, hoping to attack his oppo-
nents in the rear of their camps and siege-works.
Sometimes the flashes of the guns at night would ren-
der dimly visible a dark battalion of Russian infantry,
moving at a distance that portended no immediate
danger, but indicating the existence of some plan or
scheme. On another occasion, an alarm having been
given that the Russians were marching to attack the
rear on the Balaklava road, Lord Raglan and his staff,
with a body of troops, moved in that direction, and
found that the Russians had taken advantage of a fog
to creep up to the vicinity of the Turkish redoubts,
but that their number had not been so large as to en-
danger the position occupied by the Turks. On ano-
ther morning, signals having been given by the vedet-
tes that Russian infantry were approaching, the Scots
Greys and other cavalry, with the horse-artillery and
the 93d Highlanders, quickly made ready for an en-
counter; and the Turks fired from their redoubts on
small bodies of the enemy within sight : but the Rus-
sians, not calculating on so much alertness, retreated
for the night. The next day witnessed a similar ap-
proach of Russian cavalry, a similar alertness on the
part of Sir Colin Campbell and his Highlanders, and
a similar retreat of the enemy as the evening drew on.
§60
BATTLE OE BALAKLAVA.
A body of cavalry would post itself on the Baktchese*
rai road, perhaps accompanied by artillery, and would
then wind out of sight behind the hills. Thus matter*
continued day by day ; until at length, on the morn-
ing of the 25th of October, General Liprandi appeared
openly on the plain, having drawn from the defiles and
behind the hills an army of 30,000 Russians, ready to
meet the Allies in fair fight.
The incidents of this eventful day, varied and fre-
quently confused as they may appear, resolve themselves
into five struggles or contests, forming collectively the
Battle of Balaklava — namely, the capture by
Russian infantry of a series of earthen redoubts, man-
ned by the Turks ; the heroic repulse, by the 23d High-
landers, of a furious cavalry charge ; the defeat, by the
British cavalry, of a much larger body of Russian ca-
valry; the mistaken but wonderful onslaught, by a
handful of British Light Cavalry, against a complete
army of artillery, cavalry, and infantry ; and a dash-
ing charge of the Chasseurs d’Afrique, -which finished
the work of the day, and left the Allies victors — al-
though with such a modification of defence- works as
afforded Menschikoff a pretext for claiming, in his
despatch to the Czar, a brilliant victory.
Balaklava was defended by a line of earthen redoubts
covering the crests of the hills in its front ; the right
resting on high cliffs, covered by our marines, and the
left on the elevated plain, held and fortified by two
French divisions. The redoubts before Balaklava were
armed with heavy guns — 32-pound howitzers and 18-
pounders belonging to the English artillery train. The
guns were manned by our artillerymen, supported by
companies of Turks. At ten o’clock on the morning
of the 25th of October, the Russians having mustered
in force in the vale leading up towards the extreme
right of our position, advanced at considerable speed
to the redoubt on their extreme left, and charged the
Turks with the bayonet. Our artillery had barely time
to fire one round when the Turks were seized with a
BATTLE OB BALACLAVA. 261
sudden panic, and, throwing away their pieces and
packs, ran down the declivity to Balaklava.
As the Eussians advanced, the panic increased ; and,
when it came to close quarters, there was a general
run. The wretched Turks swarmed down the hill like
bees ; and our artillerymen, seeing the rout, spiked the
guns and retired. The Turks in the other redoubts,
finding that their comrades on the right had fled, took
the alarm, and the whole of them were in a few mi.
nutes, running out of the redoubts, abandoning our
guns and artillerymen to their fate. This disgraceful
flight took place, when no enemy was threatening, ex-
cept cavalry, which, witnessing the route of our allies,
instantly followed in pursuit, and were observed in a
few moments, crowning the height and occupying the
whole line of our forts. Happily, the guns in all the
works had been spiked, and the enemy were not able
to fire into us with our own artillery. The Eussians
lined the crests in time to see the 93rd Highlanders
deployed in line on our right, and the Heavy and Light
Brigades drawing up in order to the left, on the very
ground where they had struck their tents. Their as-
tonishment must have been considerable to see the 93rd
pour in a volley at the flying Turks, to prevent them
from running. Elated by their success, and seeing our
cavalry and the 93rd below, immoveable, two regiments
of Hussars, the Weimarski and Leuchtenborgski, charg-
ed down the slope, at the Highlanders, with a tremen-
dous cheer. On they came, at the top of their speed,
as if to annihilate everything. The Highlanders, how-
ever, headed by their gallant Colonel (Ainslie), disdain-
ed to form into square to receive them, but poured in
a sharp fire at fifty yards, which made them sheer olF
to their right. As they turned they found themselves
in front of our Heavy Cavalry Brigade, which, after a
pause, they charged with considerable vigour. They
were met by a squadron of Scots Greys, headed
by Colonel Griffith, and by a squadron of the Ennis-
killings, headed by Colonel White. A tremendous
262
BATTLE OP BALAKLAVA.
hand-to-hand conflict was the instant result. The
thick woollen cloaks of the Russians, being admirably
calculated to ward off steel, deadened at first the effect
of our blows. But our men attacked the head instead
of the limbs, and several of the enemy were laid in the
dust. Colonel White, in the first shock, received a
tremendous blow, which cut through his helmet, but
did him no injury. The number of the enemy being
greater than ours, they had by this time considerably
outflanked us. The Hussars, who had been followed
by numerous Cossacks, were beginning to attack us on
both flanks, as well as in front, when Major Shute gave
the word to his squadron of Enniskillingers ; the Roy-
als moved at the same moment; and the enemy, being
overlapped in his turn, began to flag, and commenced
a retreat. This they did under cover of some field-
pieces moved up by the Russians to the crest, but not
without damage from our artillery, which now advanc-
ed to the front, and from our guns in position before
Katichioi. The last charge of British cavalry in the
battles of Europe was called the charge of the National
Brigade, because it was furnished by the Royals, En-
niskillings, and Scots Greys. The first charge of our
cavalry in the Crimea was made by the National Bri-
gade, and resulted in considerable loss to the enemy.
Upwards of thirty men and horses remained killed or
wounded on the field; but the numbers who retired
wounded cannot be counted, the Russians having the
habit of strapping themselves to their saddles, that
their horses may carry them out of action when they
are wounded. All the men who fell with their horses
were found to have been thus buckled. As the caval-
ry moved on in pursuit of the enemy, the ground had
the strangest aspect imaginable. The tents had been
struck at the signal of alarm, but no time was given to
pack them. They lay on the ground with the kits of
the men and baggage of the officers, and in the midst
of these lay dead men and wounded, whilst a skulking
Turk or Greek might be seen here and there turning
BATTLE OF BALA KLAVA.
283
up the effects with a view to plunder. Many valua-
bles were unfortunately lost in this way. Would that
this had been the only disaster to record during the
day.
As our cavalry moved on, supported by our artillery,
the enemy retired from the redoubts on our left, and
held their ground in two of thoseon our extreme right.
The 93rd remained in line before Katichioi, and the
infantry from divisions in front of Sebastopol, were
observed coming down. Several companies from the
1st battalion of the Rifle Brigade moved up, and hav-
ing taken possession of the centre redoubt abandoned
by the enemy, advanced beyond in skirmishing order.
The Third Division, under Sir G. Cathcart, followed ;
and whilst a wing of the 20th occupied the ditch of
the redoubt, the other wing lay down behind, with the
63rd, 57th, and 68th behind them, and the rest of the
division in the rear. The Guards, under the Duke of
Cambridge, were placed so as to cover the road to
Balaklava. Whilst these movements were going on,
two regiments of French Chasseurs d’Afrique moved
down from the heights, and took up a position on our
left, amidst tremendous cheers. The position of the
Russians and Allies at this time formed almost a par-
allelogram. Our infantry and guns occupied one side ;
and at right angles with them were the French Chas-
seurs and our Heavy Brigade of Cavalry. The Rus-
sians occupied with artillery and infantry a line of
heights parallel to that which we occupied, whilst
their masses of infantry and cavalry fronted the French
Chasseurs. The Russians, however, had the addition-
al advantage of holding two of our intrenched redoubts.
They were thus enabled to pour in a destructive fire
upon us from right, left, and front.
At the moment when the contending parties occu-
pied these positions, Captain Nolan was observed
galloping up to Lord Lucan, who headed the Light
Brigade of Cavalry. He was the bearer of an order
from Lord Raglan to charge the enemy. It is not
264
EAT I LB OB BALASLAVA.
known whether any discretion was left to Lord Lucan
to obey or disobey, nor is it even certainly known what
was the exact wording of the order ; but, at the signal
of command, the Light Brigade, which was posted on
the left of the redoubt occupied by General Cathcart’s
division, was observed to move. The 17th Lancers led
with 150 sabres, the 11th followed with 150, the 4th
with 140, the 13th with 100, and the 8th with 100
sabres. Right at the enemy’s guns the devoted column
started with Lord Cardigan at its head. Trot, canter,
gallop — on they rushed in the midst of a most dread-
ful fire. A field-battery, on the heights of the Russian
right, decimated them ; whilst another fire, equally
terrific, spread destruction through them, from the
guns on the Russian left; and a third mowed them
down in front. It was a fearful sight to behold our
brave fellows falling in fifties to the ground, most of
them to rise no more ; others, dismounted, rushing to
the horses of their dead comrades, and following up ;
whilst others, again, endeavoured to limp back through
the fire of the enemy. On, however, the Light Bri-
gade proceeded, like lightning; Lord Cardigan was
the first man at the enemy’s guns. Down went the
gunners at their sides as our men rushed at them : not
one, save those who fled at the onset, remained alive.
Fourteen guns were, for a moment, in our possession.
But the Russian cavalry was on them; they cut in be-
tween the guns and the Light Brigade, and it became
time to retreat. The 11th and 4th covered the 17th,
the 8 th, and the 13th. Lord Cardigan charged back
through the Russian Lancers with bis two regiments,
and the enemy opened to let them pass ; but a file fire
from numerous Russian squares kept up a quick and
deadly discharge of Minie balls; whilst the triple fire
of the enemy’s cannon continued to overwhelm them
with showers of shell and shrapnell. Fortunately for
the shattered remnant of this brigade, the French
Chusseures d’Afnque had charged up the heights on
the Russian right, and caused the artillery therefore
BATTLE OE BALA KLAVA.
2C5
tire. One squadron advanced right up, and into a
Russian square, which had not entirely formed ; the
Adjutant-Major was killed in the centre of the
square ; and another officer, with fifteen men, were
laid low. The Light Brigade rallied behind the Scots
Greys, Enniskillings, Royals, and the rest of the
Heavy Brigade. It was fearfully diminished in num-
bers. Of the 11th, there were hardly 40 men safe; of
the 17th, barely the same number ; of the 13th, 34 ; of
the 4th, 39 ; and of the 9th, but a handful. Captain
Holan, who brought the fearful order, was the first
man who fell ; he had not gone 200 yards before he was
shot through! the heart. A ball ripped off the top of
Lord W. Paulett’s cap, and took the head off Charteris,
Lord Lucan’s Aide-de-Camp. Of the 13th, Captains
Goade and Oldham, and Lieut. Montgomery, were
killed. Of the 17 th, Captain Winter was killed, Morris
and Webb severely wounded, Chadwick and Thompson
missing, Captain White shot through the leg. Cor-
net Wombwell, who had been taken prisoner after
being dismounted, was rescued, as well as Morris, by
the home charge of the 11th. Of this, Lord Cardi-
gan’s own regiment, Houghton and Trevelyan were
wounded, the latter through the leg ; Lockwood miss-
ing ; and Colonel Douglas was only saved from a rifle
shot by the revolver at his side. The lead alighted on
one of the nipples, which exploded the barrel of the
pistol, which did no harm. Captain Maxse, Lord
Cardigan’s Aide-de-Camp, was wounded slightly in the
foot by the bursting of a shell in the beginning of the
'•barge. There was a grim pause as the shattered
Light Brigade re-appeared. The firing ceased, and
was not resumed during the rest of the day. Both
sides remained observing each other till evening, when
Lord Raglan ordered the whole of the redoubts still in
our possession to be evacuated. The Russians main-
tained themselves in the position they had taken, hav-
ing gained possession of seven guns. Such is the
faithful description of the attack on Baiaklava and its
BATTLE OE BALACLAVA*
losses. The Russians may have suffered to the extent
of 200 men; on our side, no less than 500 men, killed,
wounded, or taken prisoners, filled the list of casual-
ties.
The following graphic description is given of the
Light Cavalry Charge : — “ The whole brigade scarcely
made one effective regiment, according to the num-
bers of the Continental armies ; and yet it was more
than we could spare. * As they passed towards the
front, the Russians opened on them from the guns in
the redoubt on the right, with volleys of musketry and
rifles. They swept proudly past, glittering in the
morning sun in all the pride and splendour of war.
We could scarcely believe the evidence of our senses.
Surely that handful of men are not going to charge an
army in position ? Alas ! it was but too true — their
desperate valour knew no bounds ; and far indeed was
it removed from its so-called better part — discretion.
They advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as
they closed towards the enemy. A more fearful spec-
tacle was never witnessed than by those who, without
the power to aid, beheld their heroic countrymen rush-
ing to the arms of death. At the distance of 1200
yards the whole line of the enemy belched forth, from
thirty iron mouths, a flood of smoke and flame, through
which hissed the deadly balls. Their flight was mark-
ed by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead men and
horses, by steeds flying wounded or riderless across
the plain. The first line is broken — it is joined by the
second — they never halt or check their speed an in-
stant ; with diminished ranks, thinned by those thirty
guns, which the Russians had laid with the most dead-
ly accuracy, with a halo of flashing steel above their
heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fel-
low’s death* cry, they flew into the smoke of the bat-
teries, but ere they were lost from view, the plain was
strewn with their bodies and with the carcasses of
horses. They were exposed to an oblique fire from
the batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a
BATTLE OF BALAKLAVA.
267
direct fire of musketry. Through the cloud* of smoke
we could see their sabres flashing as they rode up to
the guns and dashed between them, cutting down the
gunners as they stood. We saw them riding through
the guns, as I have said; to our delight we saw them
returning, after breaking through a column of Russian
infantry, and scattering them like chaff — when the
flank fire of the battery on the hill swept them down,
scattered and broken as they were. Wounded men
and dismounted troopers flying towards us told the
sad tale — demigods could not have done what we had
failed to do. At the very moment when they were
about to retreat, an enormous mass of Lancers was
hurled on their flank. Colonel Sheweli, of the 8th
Hussars, saw the danger, and rode his few men straight
at them, cutting his way through with fearful loss.
The other regiments turned and engaged in a desper-
ate encounter. With courage too great almost for
credence, they were breaking their way through the
columns which enveloped them, when there took place
an act of atrocity without parallel in the modern war-
fare or civilised nations. The Russian gunners, when
the storm of cavalry passed, returned to their guns.
They saw their own cavalry mingled with the troopers
who had just ridden over them, and, to the eternal
disgrace of the Russian name, the miscreants poured a
murderous volley of grape and canister on the mass of
struggling men and horses, mingling friend and foe in
one common ruin. It was as much as our Heavy
Cavalry Brigade could do to cover the retreat of the
miserable remnant of that band of heroes as they re-
turned to the place they had so lately quitted in all
the pride of life. At 11,35 not a British soldier, ex-
cept the dead and the dying, was left in front of these
terrible Muscovite guns.”
Equally thrilling is the description of the heroic
Charge of the Heavy Brigade : — “ The Russian caval-
*y, about 4000 in number, rapidly advanced with the
evident intention to attack our cavalry. Ho sooner
288
BATTLE OB BALAKLAVA.
was this perceived, than, the bugle sounded the ad-
vance for our men, who instantly moved forward at a
canter. As they approached the enemy, and began to
ascend the hill, the canter merged into a charge, and
the pace was terrific. The Scots Greys and the En-
niskillings went right at the Russian centre. For a
moment it was a glorious sight. The glittering hel-
mets and weapons and varied uniforms of our fellows
as they pressed forward to the charge, with sabres
raised and lances levelled, made the mere spectacle
beautiful; but, accompanied with all its terrors, it
was one of most awful grandeur. The solid earth
shook and reverberated with a sound like thunder, as
a thousand horses spurred to their utmost speed, went
tearing up the hill, scattering the turf and grass like
a cloud of sand behind them. The enemy were no-
thing loth to accept the challenge, and, indeed, they
had little reason, for their numbers were as nearly three
to one. In a line of two-thirds of a mile they swept
down from the hill upon our men, meeting them about
half way up. The dull heavy noise with which they
closed could be heard at the distance of a mile, and
made the listener’s blood run cold.
“ With the first shock, about a hundred men and
horses instantly fell ; and both sides seemed to recoil
and clutch their weapons closer for a deadly hand-to-
hand combat. In another moment there was nothing
to be seen but a confused crowd of Hussars, Cossacks,
Scots Greys, and Lancers, who were shooting, cutting,
and stabbing at one another in all directions. It was
impossible to say which did best, for the dust, smoke,
and confusion were too great to permit anything like
accuracy of observation ; but it was quite evident both
fought well, for neither gave way, though the bodies
of men and horses cumbered the ground. After a
minute’s contest, part of the Greys drew off for a few
yards, and turning at a gallop made a desperate at-
tempt to break the Russian line; they were almost
successful at the first onset, and the 17th, imitating
1UTT1E OP BALAKLAVA. 26$
the examule, levelled their lances, and charging for a
few yards, made an awful gap in the enemy’s ranks*
To crush these attempts before they had time to be
successful, the Russian line, which, from their im-
mense superiority of number completely outflanked
ours on both sides, tried, by wheeling round, to inclose
our gallant Greys ; but before the manoeuvre could be
effected, the supporting regiments of the Heavy Bri-
gade, the First Dragoon Guards and Sixth Enniskil-
lings, carne down like a thunderbolt upon the Russian
flanks. The charge was well timed and well executed,
and attended with complete success. The light wheel-
ing Cossacks disappeared like snow before the charge
of our Dragoons ; the Hussars broke up in disorder,
and in another instant the Dragoon Guards, Greys,
and Enniskillings were among them, sabring and pis-
toling right and left. Unlike our regiments, the Rus-
sians, while disordered, made no attempt to rally. The
instant their line was broken, they scattered and fled
like hares to the top of the hill and across the high
road, closely harassed in the rear by our men. Un-
fortunately they were unable to continue the pursuit,
from the proximity of the Russian batteries ; and the
instant our cavalry halted, the Russians halted also,
and commenced re-forming their line (still twice as
numerous as ours), in order to renew the contest;
our men in the meantime were compelled to withdraw
under cover of the hill, as while exposed on the heights
and high road, the cannonade of the enemy told severe-
ly among them. After an interval of ten minutes,
during which the Russians poured a perfect shower of
shot and shell into our lines, and during which also
the long wished-for reinforcements from the intrench-
ed camp were discerned coming up to our assistance,
the enemy’s cavalry again advanced to the attack.
This time they came in with a battery of Horse Ar-
tillery; and, after a severe cannonade of a few
minutes upon our men, again descended the valley,
end advanced to the charge. The whole of our Heavy
^70 BAiTLE OB BAIA'KLAVA.
Cavalry in one strong line met them on this occasion.
There was the same desperate charge, the same shock,
but not the same fighting. After a minute’s resist-
ance, the enemy’s whole line gave way, and retired
in confusion towards the heights. On this, the Rus-
sian cavalry General — who, to do him but bare justice,
conducted himself with undoubted skill and bravery
throughout the day — halted the flying squadrons, and
persuaded them to stand again and face our men, who
were within ten yards in hot pursuit. The contest
was, therefore, for a moment, renewed on the heights.
But the struggle lasted only for a few minutes ; the
remnants of the Light Cavalry came up in proper
time; and the ferocity with which they dashed into
the enemy’s flanks carried all before them. The Rus-
sians again broke and fled ; but, this time, our men
were among them strewing the plain with carcasses.
To save themselves from the slaughterous attack, the
Russians sought shelter under the batteries in that fa-
tal valley where our Light Cavalry had suffered so
severely. Two or three troops of our horse imprudent-
ly followed in pursuit close up, and were terribly maul-
ed by the batteries as they retired.”
When the day’s sanguinary work was ended, it was
found that the cavalry — as may be inferred from the
nature of the attacks— had suffered more severely than
the infantry. There were about 40 cavalry and artil-
lery officers killed or wounded, together with 400 non-
commissioned officers and privates, and nearly as many
horses. The infantry loss was trifling. Menschi*
koff acknowledged to ja loss of 300 Russian infan*
try, without naming the numbers in cavalry.
Lis tyof officers, killed or missing, at the Battle of
Balaklava : — Hon. W. Charteris, Capt. G. Lockwood,
staff; Lieut. A. Sparke, 4th Light Dragoons ; Lieut.
J. C. Viscount Fitzgibbon, Cornet G. Clowes, 8th Hus-
sars ; Capt. J. A. Oldham, Capt. T. H. Goad, Capt.
H. Montgomery, 13th Light Dragoons; Capt. J. P.
Winter, Lieut. J. H. Thompson, Cornet and Adjutant
Battle oe balakla^a. $71
Chadwick, 17th Lancers; Capt. S. Childers, Artil-
lery; Capt. L. C. Nolan, 88th regiment. There were
27 officers wounded ; some severely, others slightly.
Such was the Battle of Balaklava. It became
speedily evident that some misconception had led to
the light cavalry charge. Lord Raglan, scrupulously
avoiding all occasions of disagreement, passed the
matter lightly over in his despatch, in these words :
" From some misconception of the instruction to ad-
vance, the lieutenant-general considered that he was
bound to attack at all hazards ; and he, accordingly,
ordei’ed Major-general the Earl of Cardigan to move
forward with the light brigade.” It did not escape
notice, however, that while praising the officers of the
light brigade, the commander withheld praise from
the Earl of Lucan. Time passed; the subject was
much discussed at the camp ; and at length the Lon-
don newspapers containing Lord Raglan’s despatch
reached the army. The Earl of Lucan, still retaining
his position as chief of the cavalry, then addressed a
long letter to Lord Raglan, which at a later date was
read before the House of Lords and printed in the
debates. After complaning of the serious nature of
the “misconception” attributed to him, the earl gave
an account of the transaction. Whether or not any
correspondence immediately followed the writing of
this letter, it became afterwards fully evident that
each officer retained his own opinion, and that an es-
trangement existed between them as long as the earl
remained at the camp. Lord Raglan deemed the let-
ter one that ought not to have been addressed to him,
and recommended its withdrawal : the earl declined ;
whereupon the commander wrote home to the Minis-
ter of \V ar, inclosing a copy of the earl’s letter, and
giving such a version of the transaction as appeared
to Lord Raglan to be correct. This imparted a more
serious aspect to the discussion ; for Lord Raglan now
dwelt upon two misconceptions, instead of merely one,
which he had to attribute to the earl. Taking the
272 BUTTLE OV BALAKLAYA,
two consecutive orders into consideration, and the
periods of the battle at which they issued, it appears
to have been Lord Raglan’s intention that the cavalry
should aid in regaining the heights surmounted by the
redoubts taken from the Turks, or, in default ot' this,
to prevent the Russians from carrying off the guns
from the redoubts. In what sense the earl understood
these instructions, his own letter explains. Whether
Captain Nolan rightly interpreted and rightly con-
veyed the message intrusted to him, can never bo
known : he fell gallantly in the charge that followed.
The Earl of Lucan, addressing the House of Lords on
the subject, made a comment which seems to show that
a mere verbal error may in part have occasioned the
sad misconception. Speaking of Lord Raglan’s first
order, he said : “ The order put into my hands was :
‘ The cavalry to advance, and take advantage of any
opportunity to recover the heights. They will be sup-
ported by infantry, which had been ordered. Advance
on two fronts.’ The original order did not say * to
advance;’ but it is possible that the word ‘ to’ may
have been inserted by mistake in the copy which I
furnished to Lord Raglan, and I therefore wish to im-
pute nothing to his lordship with respect to it. There
was a full stop after the word ‘ ordered,’ there was no
‘ to,’ and there was a large ‘A’ to ‘advance.’ It
would have made a great difference if * to’ had been
inserted and * advance’ had commenced with a small
‘ a,’ so as to make the whole one sentence. But the
sentence, ‘ Advance on two fronts,’ stood by itself.”
If a small error like this led to the calamity, the oc-
currence is, perhaps, still more to be regretted.
The earl, feeling more and more severely the position
in which he was placed, demanded a court-martial,
that the whole subject might be investigated : this de-
mand was refused by Lord Hardinge, the commander-
in-chief, with the sanction of the government ; and the
House of Lords showed a disinclination to permit
Jcngthened discussions on the matter during its sittings.
ANOTHER REPfflSE OP THE RUSSIANS. 273
The newspapers then became the vehicles of communi-
cations, together with pamphlets, and even volumes :
and during many months a vehement, and often acri-
monious, contest was kept up between the advocates
on different sides. The controversy was never satisfac-
torily closed. It was never clearly shown whether the
blame was distributable between Lord Raglan, Gener-
al Airey, Captain Nolan, and the Earl of Lucan, or in
what proportions: or whether the earl and the captain,
or the earl only, were responsible for the error. All
that the nation knew was — that two-thirds of the num-
bers in a gallant body of men were struck down in
attempting to achieve something, they knew not
what, against a force that rendered success almost im-
possible.
Exciting and st artling events now rapidly succeeded
each other in the Crimea ; for scarcely had one portion
of the Allied army at Balaklava been permitted to
sheath their swords after a most sanguinary conflict
on the 25th of October, than another portion on the
Heights of Sebastopol, on the following day, were call-
ed upon to bear the brunt of a formidable host of Rus-
sians, maddened bv T religious enthusiasm and drink.
This encounter was preparatory to the more formida-
ble one which occurred a few days afterwards ; and
therefore we may justly style these affairs as the Two
Battles op Inkeemann. An eye-witness thus des-
cribes the attack on the 26 th:—
“ This day, at two o’clock in the afternoon, the Rus-
sians advanced to the attack of our positions in front
of Sebastopol, and were repulsed with loss. The bold-
ness of the enemy in advancing to force our right —
which they did with 8000 men and 32 guns — is ex-
plained by the following circumstance: — On the 25th
(after the affair at Balaklava) special messengers were
sent into Sebastopol with the exaggerated tidings of a
great victory gained over the English. Our troops in
the trenches heard the tremendous cheer which was
sent forth by the garrison of Sebastopol when it re-
246 s
274 AftoiHEE Repulse of the B0ssian&
reived the intelligence. Yesterday the troops were ail
drawn out to hear a general order read, detailing the
losses of the enemy, the capture of its positions and
guns, and the annihilation of its cavalry. A prayer of
thanksgiving and “Te Deum” were then solemnly
chanted in the great church ; and, after a distribution
of extra grog to the troops, they became so enthusias-
tic, that the Russian general took advantage of the
moment to make an attack upon the right of our po-
sitions. The Russians moved up on our right along
the road which leads towards the Inkermann ruins;
and, turning off to their right, they ascended the
heights near which was encamped the Second Division,
under Sir de Lacy Evans. The hill which they ascend-
ed is called Shell-hill by our men, who have always
met with a warm reception there whenever they show-
ed themselves above a small ruin on its summit, which
serves as a protection to our pickets. To our left of the
ruin, a strong force is usually in observation. To our
right an equally strong party lines a stone intrench-
ment, erected across the road, which winds down to-
wards Sebastopol; and further on, a fourth picket co-
vers a spur over-hanging the road on the other side.
The Russians advanced in three columns of 1500 men
each, and drove in the small picket in the ruins. They
deployed to the right and left; and, whilst their right
moved down into the dip on our side of Shell-hill, their
left stretched down, crossed the Sebastopol road, and
endeavoured to turn our position by gettingroundtho
spur which covers the camp of Sir de Lacy Evans’ di-
vision. Their advance was made with great confidence
and in good order ; but our pickets behaved admira-
bly; they retired in complete order, firing through
the intervals with such regularity and precision that
the Russians were loth to advance any but skirmish-
ers ; and two hours were spent before the grand at-
tack came on. There is no record, I believe, of pick-
ets, amounting in all to five companies, keeping an
enemy of such force at bay for so long a time ; and it
ANOTHER REPULSE 0F THE RUSSIANS. 2 %
is therefore with a feeling of pride that we record the
admirable conduct of Captain Conolly of the 49th, the
clever resistance of Captain Atcherley of the 30th, at
the ruins, and that of Major Champion of the 95th, on
our right. Captain Conolly had fought manfully for
a considerable time, when a few of the enemy closed in
upon him, and he defended himself with his sword in
one hand and his telescope in the other, until he was
rescued ; unfortunately at that moment he was shot
through the side by a conical ball, and fell badly
wounded.
“ In the meanwhile the division had been speedily
moved out and covered its pickets. The 30th march-
ed out to the right with the 95th, whilst Captains Tur-
ner and York’s batteries moved to a position above
the enemy on our right, and the 55th supported them.
General Adams’s brigade moved forward on the left,
toward the ruins ; the 41st, 47th, 49th, taking com-
manding positions. The Russians advanced with con-
siderable vigour, and in good order, to the attack, un-
der cover of their guns. They seemed, however, to
have had considerable difficulty in moving their artil-
lery, for they could only get five of their guns into play,
and these were so mauled in a few minutes, by our
batteries, that they ceased firing, and were withdrawn.
This was the moment when the Russians began to
waver ; they quailed before the fire of our men, and as
we advanced upon them, they gave way, retiring in
disorder over the scrubby ground which they had taken
up. Their masses at the moment offered a deadly aim
to our Artillery, which poured in volleys of grape and
shells into them, and committed tremendous havoc.
Their disorder increased, and then a general pursuit
commenced. General Pennefather’s brigade followed
them over the hills, in their headlong flight, almost
down to the trenches of Sebastopol, from whence it
made its way back under the old familiar fire of In-
kermann Lighthouse, and a stream with which every
man in Sir de Lacy Evans’s division is well acquaint-
2^6 ANOTHER REPULSE OR THE RUSSIANS.
ed. The Lancaster gun on the right of Gordon’s at-
tack could not miss so fine an opportunity, but sent
shell right into the retreating Russians with immense
execution.
“ The loss of the Russians in this affair was 500 kill-
ed and wounded ; and we may say, with out exaggeration,
that we had all our own way during the time the af-
fair lasted. Our loss only amounted to seventy men
killed and wounded. We took sixty-nine prisoners,
amongst whom were four officers, and one of them was
the identical man who had a few days previously cap-
tured Lord Dunkelin. It may afford Lord Clanricarde
pleasure to know that his son is well, and cared for,
in Prince Gortsehikoff’s own house. The Prince him-
self, however, is said to have been seriously wounded
during this affair, and there is even a rumour of his
death. W e regret to say, that in this encounter Cap-
tains Atcherley and Baily, of the 30th, were badly
wounded; Captain Cahili, of the 49th, also badly hit,
as well as Captain Harriot, of the 40th. Captain Co-
nolly has spent a good night, and is doing well. Cap-
tain Harriott has a ball lodged under his shoulder-
blade, and will, in all probability, recover ; and the
rest of the wounded are in a fair way. Though none
but the Second Division was engaged in this affair,
it was supported by detachments from the Light, the
First, and Third Divisions, and by three regiments,
sent up by General Bosquet. So that, had the enemy
been three times as numerous as they were, they
would have been overmatched. Besides prison-
ers, several trophies w ere taken — such as drums, co-
lours, trumpets, and quantities of musketry and am-
munition.”
An heroic achievement, quite characteristic of the
British sailor, attracted much attention during and af-
ter this engagement. Captain Lushington command-
ed the naval brigade employed in the siege, and under
him was Mr. Hewett, acting mate of the Beadle , who
had charge of one of the Lancaster guns, From a de-
ANOTHER REPULSE OP THE RUSSIANS. 277
spatcli sent by Admiral Lushington to Admiral Dun-
das, and forwarded to the Admiralty, it appears that
when the Russians made their sortie in such force on
the 26th, this gun was in jeopardy; indeed, Rus-
sian skirmishers approached within 300 yards, and
poured in a volley of Minie bullets upon the gunners.
An order was received to “ spike the gun and retreat ;”
but Hewett, surmising that a mistake might have occur-
red in the conveyance of this order from the officer of
the picket, sent this simple reply : “ Such an order does
not come from Captain Lushington, and I will not
obey it until it does.” He then pulled down the earth-
en parapet of the battery on which the gun was plac-
ed, obtained the aid of some of the soldiers in swinging
the gun round to a position it could not have occupied
while the parapet remained, and poured a most des-
tructive fire of grape-shot into a large column of Rus-
sians ; and, on their retreating from the British, he
followed them down the hill with 68-pound shot, and
fired with fatal precision into the Russian masses. The
happy audacity which induced this disregard of an or-
der, or supposed order, contributed materially to the
success of the Allies on this day; and the Admiralty
marked their sense of the service rendered, by confer-
ring on Mr. Hewett the rank of lieutenant. About this
period, the fleets had so few opportunities of rendering
service in their own characteristic way, that such an
adventure on shore as that of Hewett, afforded great
delight to the seamen. For the rest, the ships con-
tinued to be simply assistants to the armies. After the
threatened attack on Balaklava on the 26th, the Aga-
memnon , Sans pared , Wasp , Cyclops , Vesuvius , and
other steamers, were sent to the little port, to render
aid in the event of any more serious contingency;
while the Firebrand , Niger , Beadle , and Arrow , per-
formed the office of couriers between Balaklava and
Katcha : carrying sick and wounded from the former
place to the latter, and stores and ammunition from tk<$
latter to the former.
278
LOED EAGLAN’S TACTICS.
Lord Raglan, in his despatches, at the close of Octo-
ber and the beginning of November, alluded to a per-
ceptible accumulation of Russian troops, not only in
Sebastopol, but also in the valleys and plains north
and east of the plateau. The Russian force in the
Valley of the Tchernaya was greatly augmented, and
was pushed on to the heights near to Balaklava. The
Allies therefore immediately strengthened their lines
of defence ; but it does not appear that Lord Raglan
made mention of strengthening at the point opposite
to the valley of Inkermann, where the ascent from the
valley is sufficiently easy to permit an attack if the
heights be undefended. Lord Raglan said : — “ The
movements of the Russians have induced me to place
as strong a force as I can dispose of on the precipitous
ridge in that direction (the plain of the Tchernaya,) in
order to prevent any attempt to get round to Balak-
lava : and the whole line is strengthened by a breast-
work which has been thrown up by the Highland brig-
ade, the royal marines, and the Turkish troops — thu3
circumscribing that part of the position; while imme-
diately in front of the gorge leading into that town, a
strong redoubt is in course of being constructed, which
is to be garrisoned by the 93rd regiment, and armed with
several guns ; and on the high ground behind and to the
left is a battery manned by seamen, which terminates
the position to be defended by the troops under the
command of Major-general Sir Colin Campbell.” Still,
he makes no mention of the position at Inkermann,
although this despatch was written on the 3rd of No-
vember. His Lordship watched Menschikoff on one
side, and Liprandi on the other ; and even in regard to
those two opponents he said : “ I should be more sat-
isfied if I could have occupied the position in con-
siderably greater strength.” He appears to have been
entirely ignorant of Dannenberg’s movements at that
time.
Being fully aware that his army was far too weak
for the onerous duties imposed on it ; foreseeing that
UTTSSTAtf REINEORCEM7WT3. 279
he had an anxious responsibility to look forward to ;
believing that the Bussians, besides strengthening their
works, had obtained large reinforcements, — the British
commander was still far from suspecting the formida-
ble nature of the preparations made by the enemy for
the 5th of November, the day of the great Battle op
Inkermann: he did not know that priestly fanaticism
and imperial encouragement were to be added to mili-
tary ardour. Shortly before that day, General Dan-
nenberg arrived at Sebastopol, via Perekop and Sim-
feropol, with a well-appointed army of 30,000 men, to
augment those already under MenschikofF and Lipran-
di: it was composed of the 10th, 11th, and 12th divi-
sions, each consisting of sixteen battalions of infantry,
two batteries of artillery, and a strong force of cavalry.
To impart greater importance to this army and its mis-
sion, Dannenberg was accompanied by the Grand-
dukes Michael and Nicholas, the third and fourth sons
of the czar — young men who, it was doubtless hoped,
would for the first time witness a splendid victory gain-
ed by Bussian troops. On the 3d, at a council of war,
it was determined that an attack should be made upon
the Allied forces two days afterwards ; the army was
to advance towards Inkermann, take possession of the
fortified works crowning the heights, and surround the
plain or valley of the Tehernaya : this accomplished,
the eastern defence-works of the Allies on the plateau
and near Balaklava were to be attacked ; while, at a
concerted period, a vigorous sortie was to be made from
the south-west of Sebastopol upon the French siege-
works. MenschikofF took upon himself the command
of the town and the management of the sortie ; while
one of the Gortschikofis was intrusted with the com-
mand of the army of operation in the field — the two
grand-dukes being placed upon the staff.
On th 4th of November, an extraordinary scene was
witnessed amongst the Bussian troops. A number of
Bishops had accompanied Dannenberg’s army ; and
these prelates performed a mass with all the pomp and
280
BATTLE OK INKEEMAtfW.
ceremony imaginable ; and then one of them addres*
Bed the Russian soldiers, praising their military quali-
fications, and depreciating those of their opponents
He ended by invoking a blessing, and distributing me-
dals.
It rained most incessantly throughout the night of
the 4th of November, and the early morning gave no
promise of any cessation of the heavy showers which
had fallen for the previous four-and-twenty hours.
Towards dawn a heavy fog settled down on the heights
and on the valley of In k ermann. The pickets and 1 a en
on outlying posts were thoroughly saturated, and their
arms were wet, despite their precautions : and it is
scarcely to be wondered at if there were some of them
who were not quite as alert as sentries should be in face
of an enemy, for it must be remembered that the small
British army was almost worn out by its incessant la-
bours, and that men on picket are frequently men who
had but a short respite from work in the trenches or
from regimental duties. The fog and vapours of drift-
ing rain were so thick as morning broke that one could
scarcely see two yards before him. At four o’clock the
bells of the churches in Sebastopol were heard ringing
drearily through the cold night air, but the occurrence
had been so usual that it excited no particular atten-
tion. During the night, however, a sharp-eared ser-
geant on an outlying picket of the Light Division heard
the sound of wheels in the valley below, as though they
were approaching the position up the hill. He report-
ed the circumstance to Major Bunbury, but it was
supposed that the sound arose from ammunition carts
or arabas going into Sebastopol by the Inkermann
road. No one suspected for a moment that enormous
masses of Russians were creeping up the rugged sides
of the heights over the . Valley of Inkermann on the
undefended flank of the Second Division. There all
was security and repose. Little did the slumbering
troops in camp imagine that a subtle and indefatigable
enemy were bringing into position an overwhelming
BATTLE OF INKERMANN.
231
artillery, ready to play upon their tents at the first
glimpse of daylight. It must be observed that Sir de
Lacy Evans had long been aware of the insecurity of
this portion of our position, and had repeatedly point-
ed it out to those whose duty it was to guard against
the dangers which threatened us. It was the only
ground where we were exposed to surprise, for a num-
ber of ravines and unequal curves in the slope of the
hill towards the valley led up to the crest and sum-
mit, against the adverse side of which our right flank
was resting, without guns, intrenchments, abattis, or
outlying defence of any kind. Every one admitted the
truth of the representations addressed to the authori-
ties on this subject ; but indolence, or else false secur-
ity and an overweening confidence, led to indifference
and procrastination. A battery was thrown up with
sandbags and gabions and fascines on the slope of the
hill over Inkermann on the east, but no guns were
mounted there, for Sir de Lacy Evans thought that two
guns in such a position, without any works to support
them, would only invite attack and capture. In the
action of the 26th of October, the enemy tried their
strength almost on the very spot selected by them this
morning, but it may now be considered that they mere-
ly made a reconnaissance en force on that occasion, and
that they were waiting for reinforcements to assault
the position where it was most vulnerable, and w T here
they might speculate with some certainty on tbeeffects
of a surprise on a sleeping camp on a winter’s morn-
ing. Although the arrangements of Sir de Lacy
Evans on repulsing the sortie were, as Lord Raglan de-
clared, “ so perfect that they could not fail to insure
success it was evident that a larger force than the
Russians employed would have forced him to retire
from his ground, or to fight a battle in defence of it
with the aid of the other divisions of the army ; and
yet nothing was done. iNo effort was made to intrench
the lines, to cast up a single shovel of earth, to cut down
the brushwood, or term an abattis. It was thought " not
to necessary.”
232
BATTLE OF INKERMANN’.
It was a little after five o’clock on this eventful morn*
ing, when Brigadier-General Codrington, in accord-
ance with his usual habit, visited the outlying pickets
of his own brigade of the Light Division. It was re-
ported to him that w all was well,” and the General
entered into some conversation with Captain Prety-
man, of the 33d Regiment, who was on duty on the
ground, in the course of which it was remarked that
it would not be at all surprising if the Russians avail-
ed themselves of the gloom of the morning to make an
attack on our position, calculating on the effects of
the rain in disarming our vigilance and spoiling our
weapons. The Brigadier, who has proved a most ex-
cellent, cool, and brave officer, turned his pony round
at last, and retraced his steps through the brushwood
towards his lines. He had only proceeded a few paces
when a sharp rattle of musketry was heard down the
hill and on the left of the pickets of the Light Divi-
sion. It was here that the pickets of the Second Di-
vision were stationed. General Codrington at once
turned his horse’s head in the direction of the firing,
and in a few moments galloped back to turn out his
division. The Russians were advancing in force upon
us. Their gray greatcoats rendered them almost invi-
sible when close at hand. The pickets of the Second
Division had scarcely made out the advancing lines of
infantry, who were clambering up the steep sides of
the hill through a drizzling shower of rain, when they
were forced to retreat by a close sharp volley of mus-
ketry, and were driven up towards the brow of the
hill, contesting every step of it, and firing as long as
they had a round of ammunition on the Russian ad-
vance. The pickets of the Light Division were assail-
ed soon afterwards, and were also obliged to retreat
and fall back on their main body, and it was evident
that a very strong sortie had been made upon the
right of the position of the allied armies, with the ob-
ject of forcing them to raise the siege, and, if possible,
of driving them into the sea. About the same time
BATTLE or XtfKEEMAKar. 233
that the advance of the Russians on our right flank
took place, a demonstration was made by the cavalry,
artillery, and a few infantry in the valley against
Balaklava, to divert the attention of the French on the
heights above, and to occupy the Highland Brigade
and Marines, but only an interchange of a few harm-
less rounds of cannon and musketry took place, and
the enemy contented themselves with drawing up
their cavalry in order of battle, supported by field ar-
tillery, at the neck of the valley, in readiness to sweep
over the heights and cut our retreating troops to
pieces should the assault on our right be successful.
A Semaphore post had been erected on the heights
over Inkermann in communication with another on
the hill over their position, from which the intelligence
of our defeat was to be conveyed to the Cavalry Gen-
eral, and the news would have been made known in
Sebastopol by similar means, in order to encourage the
garrison to a general sortie along their front. A
steamer with heavy shell guns and mortars was sent
up by night to the head of the creek at Inkermann,
and caused much injury throughout the day by the enor-
mous shells she pitched right over the hill upon our
men. Everything that could be done to bind victory
to their eagles — if they have any— was done by the
Russian Generals. The presence of their Grand
Duke Michael Nieholavitch, who told them that the
Czar had issued orders that every Frenchman and
Englishman was to be driven into the sea ere the year
closed, cheered the common soldiers, who regard the
son of the Emperor as an emanation of the Divine
presence. They had abundance of a coarser and more
material stimulant, which was found in their canteens
and flasks ; and, above all, the priests of the Greek
Catholic Church “ blessed” them ere they went forth
upon their mission, and assured them of the aid and
protection of the Most High. A mass was said for
the army, and the joys of Heaven were freely offered
to those who might fall in the holy fight, and the fa*
284
BATTLE 03? INKEEMAtfH.
vours of tlie Emperor were largely promised to those
who might survive the bullets of a heretical enemy.
The men in our camps had just begun a struggle
with the rain in endeavouring to light their fires for
breakfast when the alarm was given that the Russians
were advancing in force. Brigadier- General Penne-
father, to whom the illness of Sir de Lacy Evans had
given for a time the command of the Second Division,
at once got the troops under arms. One brigade,
under Brigadier- General Adams, consisting of the 41st,
47th, and 49th Regiments, was pushed on to the brow
of the hill to check the advance of the enemy by the
road through the brushwood from the valley. The
other brigade (Brigadier- General Pennefather’s
own), consisting of the 30th, 55 th, and 95th Regiments,
was led to operate on their flank. They were at once
met with a tremendous fire cf shell and round shot
from guns which the enemy had posted on the high
grounds in advance of our right, and it was soon found
that the Russians had brought up at least 40 pieces of
heavy artillery to bear upon us. Meantime the alarm
had spread through the camps. Sir George Cathcart
with the greatest promptitude turned out as many of
his division as were not employed in the trenches, and
led the portions of the 20th, 21st, 46th, 57th, 63d, and
68th Regiments, which were available against the ene-
my, directing them to the left of the ground occupied
by the columns of the Second Division. It was intend-
ed that one brigade, under Brigadier-General Torrens,
should move in support of the brigade under Briga-
dier-General Goldie; but it w;is soon found that the
enemy were in such strength that the whole force of
the division, which consisted of only 2,200 men, must
be vigorously used to repel them. Sir George Brown
had rushed up to the front with his brave fellows of
the Light Division— the remnants of the 7th Fusi-
liers, of the 19th Regiment, of the 23d Regiment, of
the 33d Regiment, and the 77th and the 88th Regi-
ments, under Brigadiers Codring ^on and Buller. As
BATT1E 02 IffKEKMANff.
285
they began to move across tlie ground of the Second
Division, they were at once brought under fire by an
unseen enemy. Tire gloomy character of the morning
was unchanged. Showers of rain fell through the
fogs, and turned the ground into a clammy soil, like a
freshly-ploughed field ; and the Russians, who had, no
doubt, taken the bearings of the ground ere they plac-
ed their guns, fired at random indeed, but with too
much effect on our advancing columns. While all the
army was thus in motion, the Duke of Cambridge was
not behind-hand, in bring up the Guards under Briga-
dier Bentinck — all of his division now left with him,
as the Highlanders were under Sir Colin Campbell at
Balaklava. These splendid troops with the greatest
rapidity and ardour rushed to the front on the right
of the Second Division, and gained the summit of the
hill, towards which two columns of the Russians were
struggling in the closest order of which the nature of
the ground would admit. The Third Division, under
Sir R. England, was also got under arms as a reserve,
anc\ one portion of it, comprising the 50th, part of the
2Sth and of the 4th Regiments, was engaged with the
enemy ere the fight was over.
And now commenced the bloodiest straggle ever
witnessed since war cursed the earth. It has been
doubted by military historians if an enemy have ever
stood a charge with the bayonet, but here the bayonet
was often the only weapon employed in conflicts of
the most obstinate and deadly character. We have
been prone to believe that no foe could ever with-
stand the British soldier wielding his favourite wea-
pon, and that at Maida alone did the enemy ever cross
bayonets with him, but at the battle of Inkermann
not only did we charge in vain — not only were des-
perate encounters between masses of men maintained
with the bayonet alone — but we were obliged to resist
bayonet to bayonet the Russian infantry again and
again, as they charged us with incredible fury and do-
termination. The Battle of Inkermann admits of no
286 BATTLE OF INKEBMAN*.
description. It was a series of dreadful deeds of dar-
ing, of sanguinary hand-to-hand fights, of despairing
rallies, of desperate assaults— in glens and valleys, in
brushwood glades and remote dells, hidden from all
human eyes, and from which the conquerors, Russian
or British, issued only to engage fresh foes, till our
old supremacy, so rudely assailed, was triumphantly
asserted, and the battalions of the Czar gave way be-
fore our steady courage and the chivalrous fire of
France. No one, however placed, could have witness-
ed even a small portion of the doings of this eventful
day, for the vapours, fog, and drizzling mist obscured
the ground where the struggle took place, to such an
extent as to render it impossible to see what was going
on at the distance of a few yards. Besides this, the
irregular nature of the ground, the rapid fall of the
hill towards Inkermann, where the deadliest fight
took place, would have prevented one under the most
favourable circumstances seeing more than a very
insignificant and detailed piece of the terrible work be-
low. It was six o’clock when all the Head-Quajter
camp was roused by roll after roll of musketry on the
right, and by the sharp report of field guns. Lord
Raglan was soon infor-med that the enemy were ad-
vancing in force, and soon after seven o’clock he rode
towards the scene of action, followed by his staff, and
accompanied by Sir John Burgoyne, Brigadier- Ge-
neral Strangways, R.A., and several aides-de-camp.
As they approached the volume of sound, the steady,
unceasing thunder of gun, and rifle, and musket told
that the engagement was at its height. The shells of
the Russians, thrown with great precision, burst so
thickly among the troops that the noise resembled con-
tinuous discharges of cannon, and the massive frag-
ments inflicted death on every side. One of the first
things the Russians did, when a break in the fog en-
abled them to see the camp of the Second Division,
was to open fire on the tents with round shot and
large shell, and tent after tent was blown down, torn
BA.TXIE OP INKEMAXtf.
287
to pieces, or sent into the air, while the men engaged
in camp duties and the unhappy horses tethered up in
the lines were killed or mutilated. Colonel Gambier
was at once ordered to get up two heavy guns (18-
pounders) on the rising ground, and to reply to a fire
which our light guns were utterly inadequate to meet.
As he was engaging in this duty, and was exerting
himself with Captain D’Auilar to urge them forward,
Colonel Gambier was severely but not dangerously
wounded, and was obliged to retire. His pl^ce was
taken by Lieutenant-Colonel Dickson, and the con-
duct of that officer in directing the fire of those two
pieces, which had the most marked effect in deciding
the fate of the day, was such as to elicit the ad-
miration of the army, and to deserve the thanks of
every man engaged in that bloody fray. But long ere
these guns had been brought up there had been a great
slaughter of the enemy, and a heavy loss of our own
men. Our generals could not see where to g?
They could not tell where the enemy were — fror$
what side they were coming, nor where they were
coming to. In darkness, gloom, and rain they had
to lead their lines through thick scrubby bushes and
thorny brakes, which broke our ranks and irritated the
men, while every pace was marked by a corpse or man
wounded by an enemy whose position was only indi-
cated by the rattle of musketry and the rush of ball
and shell.
Sir George Cathcart, seeing his men disordered by
the fire of a large column of Russian infantry which
was outflanking them, while portions of the various
regiments composing his division were maintaining
an unequal struggle with an overwhelming force, rode
down into the ravine in which they were engaged, to
rally them. He perceived at the same time that the
Russians had actually gained possession of a portion
of the hill in rear of one flank of his division, but still
his stout heart never failed him for a moment. Ho
rode at their head, encouraging them; and when a cry
£33
BATTLE OS IffKEfcMASlf.
arose that the ammunition was failing, he said coolly,
“ Have you not got your bayonets P” As he led on
his men it was observed that another body of men had
f ained the top of the hill behind them on the right,
ut it was impossible to tell whether they were friends
or foes. A deadly volley was poured into our scat-
tered regiments. Sir George cheered them, and led
them back up the hill, but a flight of bullets passed
where he rode, and he fell from his horse close to the
Russian columns. The men had to fight their way
through a host of enemies, and lost fearfully. They
were surrounded and bayonetted on all sides, and won
their desperate way up the hill with diminished ranks
and the loss of near 500 men. Sir George Cathcart’s
body was afterwards recovered, with a bullet wound
in the head and three bayonet wounds in the body.
In this struggle, where the Russians fought -with the
greatest ferocity, and bayonetted the wounded as they
fell, Colonel Swyny, of the 63rd, a most gallant oiS-
cer, Lieutenant Dowling, 20th, Major Wynne, 68th,
and other officers, met their death; and Brigadier
Goldie (of the 67th Regiment) received the wounds
from which he has since died. The conflict on the
right was equally uncertain and equally bloody. In
the Light Division, the 88th got so far into the front
that they were surrounded and put into utter confu-
sion, when four companies of the 77th, under Major
Straton, charged the Russians, broke them, and re-
lieved their comrades. The fight had not long com-
menced before it was evident that the Russians had
received orders to fire at all mounted officers. Sir
George Brown was hit by a shot, which went through
his arm and struck his side ; and deep was the regret
when he was borne on a litter from the field; for it
was well known that the troops had lost the services
of a good soldier that day. Further to the right a
contest, the like of which, perhaps, never took place
before, was going on between the Guards and dense
columns of Russian infantry of five times their uum.
EATTIE 02 INEBBMANK.
289
ber. The Guards had charged them and driven them
back, when they perceived that the Russians had out-
flanked them. They were out of ammunition too.
They were uncertain whether there were friends or foes
in the rear. They had no support, no reserve, and
they were fighting with the bayonet against an enemy
who stoutly contested every inch of ground, when the
corps of another Russian column appeared on their
right far in their rear. Then a fearful mitraiUe was
poured into them, and volleys of rifle and musketry.
The Guards were broken ; they had lost 14 officers,
who fell in the field ; they had left one-half of their
number on the ground, and they retired along the low-
er road of the valley. They were soon reinforced,
however, and speedily avenged their loss. The
French advanced about 10 o’clock, and turned the
flank of the enemy.
The Second Division, in the centre of the line, were
hardly pressed. The 41st Regiment in particular
were exposed to a terrible fire, and the P5th were in
the middle of such disorganizing volleys that they on-
ly mustered 64 men when paraded at two o’clock. In
fact, the whole of the division numbered only 300 men
when assembled by Major Eman in the rear of their
camp after the fight was over. The regiments did not
take their colours into the battle, but the officers
nevertheless wree picked off wherever they went, and
it did not require the colour staff to indicate their pre-
sence. Our ambulances were soon filled, and ere nine
o’clock they were busily engaged in carrying loads of
men, all covered with blood, and groaning, to the
rear of the line.
About half-past nine o’clock, Lord Raglan and his
staff were assembled on a knoll, in the vain hope of
getting a glimpse of the battle which was raging be-
low them. Here General Strangways was mortally
wounded, and he met his death in the following way :
—A shell came right in among the staff — it exploded
in Captain Somerset’s horse, ripping him open; a
246 T
‘290
BATTL2 01? iSTKERMAHtf.
portion of the shell tore off the leather overalls of
Captain Somerset’s trousers, it then struck down Cap-
tain Gordon’s horse and killed him at once, and then
blew away General Strangways’ leg, so that it hung
by a shred of flesh and a bit of cloth from the skin.
The poor old General never moved a muscle of his
face. He said merely, in a calm and gentle voice,
“Will any one be kind enough to lift me off my
horse?” He was taken down and laid upon the
ground, while his life blood ebbed fast, and at last he
was carried to the rear. But the gallant old man had
not sufficient strength to undergo an operation, and in
two hours he had sunk to rest, leaving behind him a
memory which will ever be held dear by every officer
and man of the army.
The fight about the battery, to which allusion has
been made, was most sanguinary. It was found that
there was no banquette to stand upon, and that the
men inside could not fire upon the enemy. The Rus-
sians advanced mass after mass of infantry. As fast as
one column was broken and repulsed, another took its
place. For three long hours about 8,500 British in-
fantry contended against at least four times their num-
ber. Ho wonder that at times they were compelled to
retire. But they came to the charge again. The ad-
mirable devotion of the officers, who knew they were
special objects of attack, can never be too highly prais-
ed. Nor can the courage and steadiness of the few
men who were left to follow them in this sanguinary
assault on the enemy be sufficiently admired. At one
time the Russians succeeded in getting up close to the
guns of Captain Wodehouse’s and of Captain Turner’s
batteries in the gloom of the morning. Uncertain
whether they were friends or foes, our artillerymen he-
sitated to fire. The Russians charged them suddenly*
bore all resistance down before them, drove away or
bayonetted the gunners, and succeeded in spiking some
of the guns. Their columns gained the hill, and for a
few moments the fate of the day trembled in the b&*
BATTLE 0£ IKKERMAWK.
lance, but Adams’s Brigade, Pennefather’s Brigade
and the Light Division made another desperate charge,,
while Dickson’s guns swept their columns, and the
Guards, with un diminished valour and steadiness,
though with a sadly decreased front, pushed on again
to meet their bitter enemies. The rolling of musket-
ry, the crash of steel, the pounding of the guns were
deafening, and the Russians as they charged up the
heights yelled like demons. They advanced, halted,
advanced again, received and returned a close and
deadly fire ; but the Minie is the king of weapons —
Inkermann proved it. The regiments of the French di-
vision and the Marines, armed with the old and much
belauded Brown-Bess, could do nothing with their thin
line of fire against the massive multitudes of the Mus-
covite infantry, but the volleys of the Minie cleft them
like the hand of the Destroying Angel, and they fell
like leaves in autumn before them. About ten o’clock
a body of French infantry appeared on our right, a
joyful sight to our struggling regiments. The Zouaves
came on at the pas de charge. The French artillery
had already begun to play with deadly effect on the
right wing of the Russians. Three battalions of the
Chasseurs d’Orleans rushed by, the light of battle on
their faces. They were accompanied by a battalion of
Chasseurs Indigenes — the Arab Sepoys of Algiers.
Their trumpets sounded above the din of battle, and
when their eager advance was seen riuht on the flank
of the enemy it was known the day was won. Assail-
ed in front by our men — broken in several places by
the impetuosity of our charge, renewed again and again
—attacked by the French infantry on the right, and
by artillery all along the line, the Russians began to
retire, and at twelve o’clock they were driven pell-mell
down the hill towards the valley, where pursuit would
have been madness, as the roads were all covered by
their artillery. They left mounds of dead behind them.
Long ere they fled, the Chasseurs d’Afrique charged
them most brilliantly over the ground, difficult snd
BATTLE OE INKEBMAK2*.
broken as it was, and inflicted great loss on them,
while the effect of this rapid attack, aided by the ad-
vance of our troops, secured our guns, which were only
spiked with wood, and were soon rendered fit for ser-
vice. The British cavalry, the remnant of the Light
Brigade, were removed into a position where it was
hoped they might be of service, but they were too few
to attempt anything, and while they were drawn up
they lost several horses and some men. One officer,
Cornet Cleveland, was struck by a piece of shell in the
side, and has since expired. There are now only two
officers left with the fragment of the 17th Lancers—
Captain Godfrey Morgan and Cornet George Womb-
well. At twelve o’clock the battle of Inkermann seem-
ed to have been won, but the day, which had cleared
up for an hour previously so as to enable us to see the
enemy and meet him, again became obscured. Bain
and fog set in, and as we could not pursue the Bus-
6ians, who were retiring under the shelter of their ar-
tillery, we had formed in front of our lines and were
holding the battle-field so stoutly contested, when the
enemy, taking advantage of our quietude, again ad-
vanced, while their guns pushed forward and opened a
tremendous fire upon us.
General Canrobert, who never quitted Lord Baglan
for much of the early part of the day, at once directed
the French to advance and outflank the enemy. In
his efforts he was most ably seconded by General Bos-
quet, whose devotion was noble. Nearly all his mount-
ed escort were down beside and behind him. General
Canrobert was slightly wounded. His immediate at-
tendants suffered severely. The renewed assault was
so admirably repulsed that the Bussians sullenly re-
tired, still protected by their crushing artillery.
The Bussians, about ten, made a sortie on the French
lines, and traversed two parallels before they could be
resisted. They were driven back at last with great
loss, and as they retired they blew up some mines in-
side the Flagstaff Fort, evidently afraid that the French
would enter pell-mell after them.
BATTLE OF INKERMANN.
29$
At one o’clock the Russians were again retiring. At
1 40 Dickson’s two guns smashed their artillery, and
they limbered up, leaving five tumbrels and one gun-
carriage on the field.
In the account written by General Bosquet to Gen-
eral Canrobert concerning the share borne by the for-
mer in the day’s proceedings, he commented on three
points of attack selected by the Russians: namely,
near the bridge of Inkermann; opposite the telegraph
(where the Woronzow road ascends from the plain to
the plateau) ; and further south towards Kadikoi. He
formed an opinion that the two latter were mere feints,
and that the serious point of attack would be at the
extreme right of the English. To this quarter, there-
fore, he sent assistance. He placed the whole of his
troops under arms as quickly as possible ; and sent to
the scene of struggle portions of his Zouaves, Algerine
tirailleurs, and chasseurs, together with battalions of
the 6th, 7th, and 50th regiments. It was with these
troops that Bosquet aided the heroic band of English
to drive the enemy finally over the crest, and pursue
them with a crushing fire towards the bridge. The
time was indeed critical : the British had been fight-
ing several hours, sinking rapidly in numbers and in
physical strength, though not in moral determination.
How much longer they could have maintained the un-
equal contest is doubtful ; but when Bosquet brought
forward his chasseurs and Zouaves, and when these
nimble fellows dashed at the Russians with all the en-
ergy of ardent French troops, the repulse of the ene-
my became most signal and rapid. And when, in the
afternoon, the enemy made one last grand attempt to
regain the lost fortunes of the day, it was mainly the
French who repulsed them, and drove them finally
across the valley. It is the opinion of all, that with-
out this aid the British must ultimately have given
way, despite their heroism.
General Forey bore a share in the labours of this
tremendous day, as commander of the French siege-
294
BATTLE OB INKEBMANK.
army. It was he who was called upon to check and de-
feat the sortie from the town, constituting part of the
Russian system of operations. At nine o'clock in the
morning, while the British Guards were so fiercely en-
gaged near the redoubt, he was suddenly attacked by
a force of 5000 strong, which emerged from the streets
of Sebastopol, crossed the lines of defence, and ap-
proached his siege-works — the force, according to Fo-
rey’s despatch, consisting of four battalions of the regi-
ment of Minsk, one of the regiment of Volhynia, and
a body of volunteers. The Russians left the town by
the Quarantine bastion, and advanced along the ra-
vine situated between that bastion and the French
works : enveloped in a damp November mist, they ap-
proached unperceived and threw their force upon the
French batteries No. 1 and No. 2. The defenders of
those batteries, apparently unable to contend against
the large numbers opposed to them, retired to a short
distance, as did likewise a portion of the troops placed
in defence of the trenches. Forey speedily brought
some of his regiments — including the 19th and 39th,
with battalions of chasseurs and of the Foreign Legion
— to the rescue ; these advanced upon the Russians,
who abandoned the two batteries, and retired beyond
the ravine. Generals de Lourmel and D’Aurelle were
sent forward in pursuit of the enemy, while General
le Vaillant and Prince Napoleon held themselves in
readiness to support these movements. Forey placed
himself at the head of the chasseurs and the artillery,
with a view to cut off the retreat of the enemy in case
they should attempt to advance beyond the two bat-
teries. The Russians speedily found themselves pur-
sued in great force, besides being reached by a destruc-
tive storm of shot from artillery brought by the French
up to the heights overlooking the Quarantine ravine ;
they were driven back into the town, and thus the sor-
tie ended. General de Lourmel was wounded by a
ball while pursuing them almost to the very walls of
the place. Forey owned to a very serious loss, and
BATTLB OF INKERMANIT.
295
estimated the Russian loss at 1500. The whole affair
was simply a frustrated attack, leaving each side in
possession of the same works and positions as before ;
the Russians spiked the eight guns in the two French
batteries, but this mischief was soon afterwards repair-
ed. The French had to mourn the loss of a favourite
officer in General de Lourmel ; for the wound received
during the action proved fatal. When struck in the
breast by a ball, the general betrayed neither emotion
nor suffering, but told his orderlies to keep secret the
fact of his being wounded. Half an hour elapsed be-
fore he would consent to be taken from his horse ;
when he did so, he attempted to walk, but his strength
speedily failed him, and he submitted to be carried.
Still, he required his attendants to stop every fi?w mo-
ments, that he might look back at his troops, give or-
ders, and correct movements. Arrived at his tent, and
placed under the care of the surgeons, his wound spee-
dily exhibited fatal symptoms : the ball had passed
completely through the body ; and after many hours
of pain, borne with a soldier’s fortitude, General de
Lourmel ceased to live.
A third point on which the French were engaged
was on the south-east margin of the plateau, where
Liprandi made an attack, supposed to be intended as
a feint, to draw off the attention of the Allies from the
heights of Inkermann. It shows how alarming was
the danger the Allies escaped on that day. Three dis-
tinct armies, in three different places of the plateau
whereon the Allies were encamped, and this, too, vrith
overwhelming numbers, and in a manner completely
unexpected. Lord Raglan, speaking of the Russians
actually engaged, said: “I am led to suppose that they
could not have been less than 60,000. Their loss was
excessive ; it is calculated that they left on the field
near 5000 dead, and that their casualties amounted in
the whole, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, to not
less than 15,000, The number of British trcops ac-
tually engaged little exceeded 8000 men ; whilst those
296
BATTLE OF INKERMASTIT.
of General Bosquet’s divison only amounted to 6000,
the remaining available French troops on the spot
having been kept in reserve/’
So obstinate a conflict would not fail to supply
numerous examples of personal hazards or escapes.
A sergeant was left alone for a few minutes, in ad-
vance of his regiment, and five Russians were speedily
on him ; he shot one, bayonetted a second, and foil
under the attacks of the other three, being wounded in
five places; at this moment a horse’s hoofs were heard ;
the Russians fled ; a British colonel pulled up the ser-
geant on his horse, and galloped off with him in safety.
A sergeant of artillery was seen alone in the midst of
a body of Russians who had made an at tack on a
British battery ; he had one arm round the muzzle of
his gun, as if to guard it, and with the other was de-
fending himself fiercely, sword in hand, against those
around him : he fell at last, and when his body was
found, it had received upwards of fifty bayonet- wounds.
Lieutenant Crosse, of the 88th, was wounded by four
Russians: he shot two in front of him with his revolv-
er ; Private Houlaghan rushed out of the ranks, shot a
third Russian, bayonetted the fourth, took up the lieu-
tenant in his arms, and ran back with him in safety
to the rear of the regiment. When Captain Nichol-
son, of the 77th, was lying wounded on the ground, a
dastardly Russian approached and bayonetted him ; but
the captain, getting at his revolver, shot the fellow
dead on the spot. An English gun was on the point
of being captured, when Major Townsend, in com-
mand at that spot, turned round to the few artillery-
men near, and cried out in the agony of a soldier’s
pride: “You won’t disgrace me!” On the instant a
shell from the enemy’s battery killed him on the spot ;
whereupon a young lieutenant drew his sword, gallop-
ed towards the gun, rode over one Russian, killed ano-
ther, thrust several more aside, and the gun was re-
captured. One of the Fusilier Guards describes his
part in the terrific contest around the redoubt in lan-
BATTLE OF INKEBMANN.
207
guage which, while it commands credence for its
straightforward clearness and simplicity, illustrates the
insensibility to pain exhibited by men at such mo-
ments.* A soldier of the 49th was engaged for four
hours defending a battery of English guns before he
was shot, during which he fired nearly a hundred
times ; a musket-ball at length struck him in the thigh,
but as he could not retire without certain destruction,
he simply tied a handkerchief round his wound, and
resumed his duties. Presently he saw four Russian
soldiers and an officer creeping through the brushwood
and stabbing the British wounded — an atrocious pro-
* “ We fought about an hour upon the high ground be-
fore I was struck. My front rank was shot dead. I took
his place, and was firing away as fast as ever. In a few
moments, a musket-ball went through my right arm. It
w as just like a pin touching me at the time. I continued
firing about five minutes; then I got a ball in the left
breast. I never fell ; but, thank God, the ball passed
quick as lightning through my back, just below my shoul-
der. The wound is three or four inches higher before than
it is behind, because the enemy were higher than we, they
firing in a slanting direction. I thought at this time the
ball was in my chest. I fired thrice after this — then I
reeled like a drunken man. I could scarcely stand for the
want of blood. I was not able to load the fourth time after
this shot. We were now within ten yards of some of the
Russians, and every moment walking over their dead and
wounded. We just got the word ‘ charge bayonets’ as I
fell to the rear. I threw my firelock from me. I had my
blanket and great coat on my back ; I pitched them off. I
was staggering down the hill as well as I could, when I was
soon struck on the arm with a bib of shell. I bad not
time to say a word till another ball went through my left
thigh. I got about twenty yards further down, and then
fell on my face. I never got timorous till then. The balls
were flying over me by wholesale. I tried to get up, and,
with the help of God, I got to my feet once more. I was
not one minute on my feet till a ball struck me on the first
joint of the middle finger of my left hand, and broke it. I
still kept my feet, and got to the bottom of the hill, where
I fell, and lay for four hours before I was carried away. Ia
my next, I will tell you how I got off the field.”
298
BATTLE OP INKEItMAjtfN.
ceeding so frequently adopted during the day as to ex-
cite the most intense indignation on the part of the
Allies ; the soldier fired his rifle, and struck down one
of the Russians ; three others rushed at him with the
bayonet : he hurled his bayonet at one like a lance,
and pierced him; then, picking up a revolver, dropped
by some wounded or killed officer, he shot the two
others, and took the officer prisoner. While carrying
him off, and stooping to pick up a water bottle to re-
fresh them both, he received a cowardly stab from the
officer, whom he speedily despatched for his treachery. —
But, in truth, the soldiers' letters after the Battle of In-
kermann were full of exciting incidents. It is worthy
of remark, that the men were enabled, after the battle
of the Alma, to give, each in his own simple way, an
account of the battle itself ; but after the more deadly
struggle of the 5th of November, the recitals were of
terrific personal encounters, in which each man had to
fight for very life : he had no time to understand or
think of tactics.
Lord Raglan’s description of the battle;—
“ My Lord Duke,— I have the honour to report to your
Grace that the army under my command, powerfully aided
by the Corps of Observation of the French army, under the
command of that distinguished officer, General Bosquet,
effectually repulsed and defeated a most vigorous and de-
termined attack of the enemy on our position overlooking
the ruins of Inkermann, on the morning of the 5th inst.
“ In my letter to your grace, of the 3rd, 1 informed you
that the enemy had considerably increased their force in
the Valley of the Tehernaya. The following day this aug-
mentation was still further apparent, and large masses of
troops had evidently arrived from the northward, and on
two occasions persons of rank were observed to have joined
the Russian camp.
“ I have subsequently learnt that the 4th corps d'armce ,
conveyed by the carriages of the country, and in the slightest
possible order, had been brought from Moldavia, and were
to be immediately followed by the 3rd corps.
“ It was therefore to be expected that an extensive move-
ment would not be long deferred.
BATTLE OP 1NKEKMANN.
299
“ Accordingly, shortly before daylight on the 5th, strong
columns of the enemy came upon the advanced pickets co-
vering the right of the position. The pickets behaved with
admirable gallantry, defending the ground foot by foot
against the overwhelming numbers of the enemy, until the
Second Division, under Major-General Pennefather, with
its field-guns, which had immediately been got under arms,
was placed in position.
“ The Light Division, under Lieutenant-General Sir
George Brown, was also brought to the front without loss
of time; the First Brigade, under Major-General Codring-
ton, occupying the long slopes to the left towards Sebasto-
pol, and protecting our right battery, and guarding against
attack on that side ; and the Second Brigade, under Brig-
adier-General Buller, forming on the left of the Second
Division, with the 88th regiment, under Lieutenant-Colonel
Jeffreys, thrown in advance.
“The Brigade of Guards, under his Koyal Highness the
Duke of Cambridge and Major-General Bentinck, proceed-
ed likewise to the front, and took up most important ground
to the extreme right on the alignement of the Second Di-
vision, but separated from it by a deep and precipitous ra-
vine, and posting its guns with those of the Second Divi-
sion,
“ The Fourth Division, under Lieutenant-General Sir
George Cath cart, having been brought from their encamp-
ment, advanced to the front and right of the attack ; the
First Brigade, under Brigadier-General Goldie, proceeded
to the left of the Inkermann road; the Second Brigade
under Brigadier-General Torrens, to the right of it, and on
the ridge overhanging the valley of the Tchernaya.
“The Third Division, under Lieutenant-General Sir
Bichard England, occupied in part the ground vacated by
the Fourth Division, and supported the Light Division by
two regiments under Brigadier-General Sir John Campbell;
while Brigadier-General Eyre held the command of the
troops in the trenches.
“ The morning was extremely dark, with a drizzling rain,
rendering it almost impossible to discover anything beyond
the flash and smoke of artillery and heavy musketry fire.
“ It, however, soon became evident that the enemy,
under cover of a vast cloud of skirmishers, supported by
dense columns of infantry, had advanced numerous bat-
teries of large calibre to the high ground to the left and
front of the Second Division; while powerful columns
of infantry attacked with great vigour the Brigade of
Guards.
300
BATTLE OT 1NKEEMANK.
'‘Additional batteries of heavy artillery were also placed
on our left by the enemy on the slopes to our left ; the guns
in the field amounting in the whole to ninety pieces, inde-
pendently, however, ofthe ship guns and those in the works
of Sebastopol.
"Protected by a tremendous fire of shot, shell, and
grape, the Eussian columns advanced in great force, re-
quiring every effort of gallantry on the part of our troops
to resist them.
" At t his time two battalions of French infantry, which
had on the first notice been sent by General Bosquet, join-
ed our right, and materially contributed to the successful
resistance of the attack, cheering with our men, and charg-
ing the enemy down the hill with great loss.
“About the same time a determined assault was made on
our extreme left, and for a moment the enemy possessed
themselves of four of our guns; three of which were reta-
ken by the 88th, while the fourth was speedily recaptured
by the 77th Begiment, under Lieutenant-Colonel Egerton.
“ In the opposite direction, the Brigade of Guards, un-
der his Eoyal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, was en-
gaged in a severe conflict.
“ The enemy, under the cover of thick brushwood, ad-
vanced in two heavy bodies, and assaulted with great de-
termination a small redoubt which had been constructed
for two guns, but was not armed. The combat was most
arduous; and the Brigade, after displaying the utmost
steadiness and gallantry, was obliged to retire before very
superior numbers, until supported by a wing of the 20th
Eegiment, of the Fourth Division, when they again advan-
ced, and retook the redoubt.
" The ground was afterwards occupied in gallant style
by French troops, and the Guards speedily re-formed in
rear of the right flank of the Second Division.
“ In the meanwhile, Lieut-General the Honourable Sir G.
Cathcart, with a few companies of the 68th Eegiment, con-
sidering that he might make a strong impression by de-
scending into the valley, and taking the enemy in flank,
moved rapidly lbrward; but, finding the heights above him
in full occupation of the Eussians, he suddenly discovered
that he was entangled with a superior force; and, while
attempting to withdraw his men, he received a mortal
wound ; shortly previous to which, Brigadier-General Tor-
rens, when leading the 68th, was likewise severely wounded.
" Subsequently to this, the battle continued with unaba-
ted vigour and witn no positive result, the enemy bringing
BATTLE OS INKERMANK.
m
upon our line not only the Are of all their field batteries,
but those in front of the works of the place, and the ship-
guns, till the afternoon, when the symptoms of giving way
first became apparent; and, shortly after, although the fire
did not cease, the retreat became general, and heavy mass-
es were observed retiring over the bridge of Inkermann,
and ascending the opposite heights, abandoning on the field
oOOO to 6000 dead and wounded, multitudes of the latter
having been already carried off by them. I never before
witnessed such a spectacle as the field presents, but upon
this I will not dwell.’*
General Canrobert’s description of the battle: —
“ The action, summarily expressed in my last despatch,
was one of the hottest and most violently contested. From
the very first musket shots that were fired, the deserters
that came over to us revealed the true state of the Russian
army with respect to its effective strength, and we are en-
abled to calculate the reinforcements it has successively re-
ceived since the battle of the Alma. There are — 1st, some
contingents from the Asiatic coast, from Kertch and Kaffaj
2ndly, six battalions and some detachments of Marines from
Mcolaieff ; 3rdly, four battalions of the Cossacks of the
Black Sea; 4thly, a great part of the army of the Danube;
lOthly, llthly, and 12thly, some divisions of infantry, form-
ing the 4th corps, commanded by General Dannenberg.
These three divisions were transported by post horses, with
their artillery, from Odessa to Simferopol in a few days.
Finally arrived the Grand Dukes Michael and Nicholas,
whose presence could not fail to over-excite the army, which
forms, with the garrison of Sebastopol, a total of at least
100,000 men.
“ It was in this condition that 45,000 men of this army
surprised the point of the heights at Inkermann, which the
English army had not been able to occupy with sufficient
forces. Only 6000 English took part in the action, the re-
mainder being employed on the siege-works; they valiant-
ly sustained the shock until the moment when General Bos-
quet, arriving with a part of his division, could render them
such aid as might insure success. One hardly knows which
most to praise, the energetic firmness with which our allies
braved for a long time the storm, or the intelligent vigour
displayed by General Bosquet, when conducting a part of
the brigades Bourbaki and d’ Autemarre, in order to attack
the enemy, who extended beyond them on their right.
n The 3rd Regiment of Zouaves, under the chefs de bataiU
m
BATtLE Of iJfEEEMA^Ha
on, Montaudon and Dub os, there justified most signally the
old reputation of the arm. The Algerian Rifles {tirailleurs)
Colonel de Wimpffen ; a battalion of the 7th Light Infan-
try, Commander Vaissier; the 6th Regiment of the Line,
Colonel de Capias, vied with them in ardour. Three times
they crossed bayonets with the enemy, who only yielded
ground after the third charge, upon which he left it strew-
ed with his dead and wounded. The Russian heavy artil-
lery and their field-pieces were very superior in number,
and had a commanding position. Two horse batteries, Com-
mander de la Boussiniere, and one battery of the Second
Division of Infantry, Commander Barral, the whole under
the orders of Colonel Borgeot, sustained concurrently with
the English artillery, the struggle during the entire day.
“The enemy decided on beating a retreat, leaving behind
more than 3000 dead, a very large number of wounded, a
few hundred prisoners, as well as several powder chest3, in
the hands of the Allies. His losses in the gross aggregate,
cannot be put down at less than from 8000 to 10,000 men.
“ While these events were taking place on the right, about
6000 men of the garrison made a vigorous sortie on the left
of our attack siege line, undercover of a thick fog, and
along the ravines that facilitated their approach. The troops
on duty in the trenches, under the orders of General de la
Motterouge, marched against the enemy, who had already
invaded two of our batteries, and repulsed him, killing more
than 200 men on the site of these batteries.
“ Lieut-General Forey, commanding the siege corps, ar-
rived by rapid and skilful evolutions with the troops of the
Fourth Division to the support of the Guards in the tren-
ches, and himself marched at the head of the 5th Battalion
of the Chasseurs a pied. The Russians, repulsed along the
whole line, retired precipitately on the fortification, with
considerable loss; when General Lourmel, seeing them fly
before him, and carried away by a chivalrous courage,
flung himself headlong in the rear, with his brigade, and
fell wounded under the very walls of the fortification. Ge-
neral Forey had much difficulty in extricating him from
the very advanced position to which, yielding to the impulse
of superabundant courage, he had led his brigade. The
Brigade of Aurelle, which had occupied an excellent posi-
tion on the left, covered his retreat, which was effected
not without a certain loss under the fire of the fortification.
Colonel Niol, of the 26th Regiment of the Line, who lost
his two chefs de batailon, had taken the command of the
brigade, the energetic conduct of which was beyond all
BATTLE OF iNKEEtoAHtt.
303
! )raise. The enemy in this sortie lost a thousand men
rilled, wounded, or made prisoners j and, in addition to
this, received a very considerable moral and physical check.
“ The battle of Inkermann, and the contest maintained
by the body of besiegers has shed great glory on our for-
ces, and has augmented the moral strength which the Al-
lied armies have always possessed. At the same time, we
have suffered severe losses, which must be regretted. The
English army has lost 2400 men killed or wounded, among
whom are to be reckoned seven Generals, three of whom
are killed. The French army has suffered to the extent of
1726 killed or wounded. We have bitterly to regret the
loss of General de Lourmel, since dead from his wounds,
whose brilliant qualities promised a grand career in the fu-
ture. It is my painful duty also to acquaint you with the
death of Colonel du Cum as, of the 6 th Regiment of the
Line, killed at the head of his troop, at the very instant in
which they came in contact with the enemy.
“ The vigour of the Allied troops— subject as they were
to the twofold struggles of a siege of unprecedented diffi-
culty, and of battles which recall the greatest struggles of
our military history — cannot be too highly praised.”
Prince Menschikoff’s description of the battle: —
“ Yesterday the 5th, a sortie was made from Sebastopol,
on the side of the bastion No. 1; the following troops took
part in it: — Of the Tenth Division of Infantry: the regi-
ments of Catherineborg, Tomsk, and Kolyvon. Of the
Eleventh Division of Infantry: the regiments of Seling-
hinsk, Yakoutsh, and Okhotsk. Of the Sixteenth Division
of Infantry : the regiments of Vladimir, Souzdal, and Ou-
glitch ; and of the Seventeenth Division of Infantry : the
regiments of Boutirsk, Borodino, and Taurautino. As
many guns were employed as the difficulty of the gates
permitted the men to take with them.
“ The command of the troops was confided to General
Dannenberg, the Commander-in-chief of the Fourth In-
fantry corps.
« Our first attack on the heights was very fortunate j the
English fortifications were carried, and eleven of their guna
spiked. Unfortunately, in the first movement, the com-
manders of the troops, who were attacking the intrench-
ments and redoubts, were wounded. While these events
were passing, the French forces arrived in aid of the Eng-
lish. The siege artillery of these last was placed in position
on the field of battle, and it was no longer possible for
304
BATTLE OF ItfKERStASTSI.
our field-pieces to contend with it to advantage. The nu-
merical superiority of the enemy’s infantry, armed with
rifles, occasioned great losses in horses, artillerymen and
infantry officers.
“ This circumstance made it impossible for us to com-
plete, except by a great sacrifice of troops, the redoubts
which during the fighting we bad begun to throw upon
points which the enemy’s position commanded, even as far
as the town of Sebastopol itself.
“The retreat was effected in good order on Sebastopol
and over thebridge of Inkermnann,and the dismounted guns
were carried ofi' the field of battle back into their place.
“The Grand Dukes Nicholas Nichola’i^vitch and Michael
Nicholai^vitch were in the midst of this terrible fire, set-
ting an example of calm courage in the fight.
“ Simultaneously with this sortie the infantry regiment
of Minsk, with a light battery of artillery, under the com-,
mand of the Major-General of Artillery, Timofeiefif, execu-
ted another sortie against the French batteries, and spiked
fifteen of their guns.
“ Our loss in dead is not yet exactly known, but the
number of the wounded amounts to 3500 men and 109 offi-
cers. Among the latter there are : — Lieutenant-General
Soimonoff shot through the body, and who soon sank be-
neath the effects of his wound : the Major-Generals Ville-
bois and Ochterlone; the Colonels Alexandr off, command-
ing the infantry regiment of Catherinebourg; Poustovoi-
toff, commanding the infantry regiment of Tomsk ; Bibi-
koff, commanding the Okhotsk Chasseurs ; Baron Delwig,
commanding the infantry regiment of Vladimir; and Ye-
reuvkine-Sch&uta II., commanding the regiment of Boro-
dino Chasseurs.
“Major General Kischinsky, Chief of the Artillery, re-
ceived a contusion from the splinter of a bomb ; Major-
General Prince MenschikofF, in the suite of your Imperial
Majesty, was hurt in the neck; Colonel Albedensky, the
Aide-de-Camp of your Imperial Majesty, and the cavalry
captain, Greigh, my Aide-de-Camp, were struck on the
head.
“ General Dannenberg had two horses killed under him,
End all the persons surrounding him were wounded.
“ The loss of the enemy cannot have been less consider-
able either, and the sortie of General Timefeieff cost the
French dear, for, whilst pursuing him with dense masses,
they fell under a heavy fire of grape from the bastiosi
No. 6.
BATTLE OB INKERMANtf.
305
“Whilst these movements were going on, the troops
placed under the command of Prince Grortschikoff execut-
ed a strong demonstration against Kadiko’i, and thus kept
the enemy’s detachment at Balaklava in a state of inac-
tion.”
List of officers killed at the battle of Inkermann
Lieut. Gen. Sir George Cathcart, G. C. B., Brigd.-
Gen. I. L. Goldie, Lieut. Col. C. I. Seymour, staff;
Lieut. W. H. Dowling, 20th regt.; Lieut. H. F. E.
Hurt, 21st ; Capt. E. Stanley, 67th; Lieut. Col. E. S.
I. Swyny, Lieut. G. C. W. Curtois, Ensign J. H.
Clutterb’uck, 63rd ; Major H. G. Wynn, Lieut. F. G.
Barker, 68th ; Capt. A. A. Cartwright, 1st Bat. Rifle
Brigade; Lieut. Henry Thorold, 33rd; Capt. James
Ker, 19th; Capt. J. Nicholson, 77th; Lieut. L. W.
Malcolm, 2nd Bat. Rifle Brigade; Lieut. W. G. Dash-
wood, 50th ; Cornet Archibald Cleveland, 17 th Lancers ;
Brigd. -Gen. T. Fox Strangways, Major P. Townsend,
Royal Artillery; Capt. H. I. Butler, staff; Lieut.-
Col. E. W. Pakenham, Capt. R. L. Newman, Bart.,
Capt. Hon. H. A. Neville, 3rd Bat. Grenadier Guards;
Lieut.-Coh Hon. T. V. Dawson, Lieut.-Col. J. C.
Cowell, Capt. Hon. G. C. C. Eliot, Capt. H. F. Rams-
den, Capt. L. D. Maekinnon, Capt. H. M. Bouverie,
Lieut.-Col. H. Greville, Lieut. Disbrowe, 1st. Bat.
Coldstream Guards; Capt. W. K. Allix, staff; Capt.
A. Conolly, Lieut. A. Gibson, 30th ; Lieut.-Col. G.
Carpenter, Capt. E, Richards, Lieut. A. Lalor, Lieut.
J. W. Swaby, Lieut. J. Stirling, 41st ; Major T. N.
Dalton, Lieut. B. S. Armstrong, 49th, &c., &c.
There were also 103 officers wounded, some severely,
and others slightly.
Mournful was the duty performed on the 6th of No-
vember — English, French, Russians, all were carrying
away the wounded and burying their dead, so far as
the possibility of doing so presented itself. Yawn-
ing pits were dug, thirty or forty feet deep by nearly
as much in breadth, and in these the mutilated dead
bodies were laid as closely as they could be packed—
246 u
6T0HM m TEE C&IMM<
308
the only soldiers* grave practicable at such a time. It
was a sad and painful duty to Lord Raglan to attend
the funeral of his general officers — Cathcart, Strang-
ways, Goldie, and others — who were interred with such
military honours as the occasion permitted. But even
at such a time of mourning, when the ferocity of com-
batants is usually allayed, the atrocities of the Rus-
sians were renewed. Ambulances, arabas, and vehi-
cles of all kinds, were employed by the British to con-
vey their wounded down to Balaklava ; and upon these
vehicles, as upon the British burying-parties, the Rus-
sian ships in the harbour maintained an unceasing fire
of shells. Lord Raglan sent in a flag of truce to Prince
Menschikoff, complaining of this departure from all the
honourable rules of war, and also of the stabbing of the
wounded, which the Russians had systematically adop-
ted on the previous day. Prince Menschikoff sent a
reply, partly denying, partly justifying, and partly de-
ploring the alleged conduct ; but it remained too evi-
dent that the Russian soldiery, roused to a state of
maddened excitement by drink and by priestly fanati-
cism, had been encouraged to regard the Allies as infi-
dels, whom it would be a praise-worthy action in the
eyes of Heaven to kill.
Thus terminated the Battle of Inkermann.
Little more than a week had elapsed after the san-
guinary conflict at Inkermann had ended, ere the troops
on shore, and the vessels and crews on the Black Sea,
had another kind of foe to contend against — the ele-
ments waged war in a furious manner against them,
and caused much havoc in loss of life and property.
Stern as is the Black Sea in winter, murky its at-
mosphere, piercing its cold, violent its winds, and
turbulent its waves, there has rarely been known a
tempest equal in frightful fury to that which raged in
those regions on the 14th of November, 1854; bringing
pitiless destruction to ships and mariners, strewing the
coast with fragments of vessels and disrupted cargoes
of valuable merchandise, and adding manifold to the
efoitM iv tse cetmea. &f>7
discomforts of those who, by the exigencies of war, were
living in camps and tents.
Early in the morning of that day, when light had
barely dawned, the officers and men encamped on^fbe
plateau outside Sebastopol, found the strength of uieir
canvass tents exposed to a severe test. The night had
been one of heavy rain: the surface of the plateau had
been converted into a sort of slime, through which
walking was difficult ; and rivulets of muddy water
found an entrance into almost every tent, and disar-
ranged every man’s bedroom comforts. Gradually
the rain abated and the wind arose, rushing over the
plateau with a roar as of a distant cannonade ; until at
length, overcoming all obstacles, the wind pierced into
and under and around the tents, in many cases blow-
ing them away altogether. The slimy compost on the
outside, receiving the full action of the blast, was hurl-
ed into the faces of the tentless soldiers, producing a
scene of unutterable discomfort. Some of the tent-
poles snapping in the middle, the officers and men were
fora time buried beneath a load of wet canvass: and
when, rudely disturbed in their morning slumbers, and
deprived of all shelter from the murky heavens above
them, they looked around on the plateau, the scene pre-
sented was frightful, even though mingled in some
cases with the ludicrous. The storm, having no respect
for rank or office, had levelled alike the tent of the staff-
officer and that of the subaltern : the strongest was on
that day the best, by whomsoever possessed. Officers,
high in rank, were to be seen wildly struggling with
the flapping canvass of their overturned tents, or rush-
ing about in almost hopeless attempts to save their ap-
parel, books, or other chattels, from the fury of the
wind. There were a few huts near head-quarters ; and
such of these as escaped prostration were speedily
sought by tentless officers, who — saturated with miry
water, and almost riven by the piercing blast — rushed
to find shelter from the storm.
The recitals given of this scene, by the newspapes
m
BTOHM 1ST THE CRIMEA.
correspondents, officers, and privates, were full of
strange incidents. “The principal medical officer of
the British army might be seen in an unusual state of
perturbation, seeking for his garments, ere he took
to flight. Brigadier , with mien for once disturb-
ed, held on, as sailors say, ‘like grim death to a
backstay/ by one of the shrouds of his marquee.
Captain , in drawers and shirt, was tearing
through the rain and through the dirt like a maniac
after a cap, which he fancied was his own, and which
he found after a de sperate run, was his sergeant’s.’*
Many of the narrators say that the air was filled with
blankets, hats, great coats, little coats, and even tables
and chairs; that mackintoshes, quilts, India-rubber
tubs, bed-clothes, sheets of tent-canvass, went whirl-
ing like leaves in the gale towards Sebastopol; that
the shingle roofs of the outhouses were torn away, and
scattered over the camp ; that large arabas or waggons
and ambulances were overturned; that men and horses
were knocked dow T n, and rolled over and over ; that a
large and heavy table in one of the tents was lifted
off the ground, and whirled round and round till the
leaf flew off ; that inside the commissariat-yard, over-
turned carts, dead horses, and groups of shivering men
were seen, not a tent standing ; and that “ Lord
was seen for hours sitting up to his knees in sludge
amid the wreck of his establishment, meditative as
Marius amid the ruins of Carthage.” The power of
the hurricane was indeed great. Heavy commissariat
stores were hurled down as if they had been light par-
cels ; compressed masses of hay for the cavalry, weigh-
ing 200 pounds each, were whirled over the ground,
and down the ravine towards Sebastopol; and a large
flock of sheep was so utterly scattered, that, while
some of the poor animals were driven to distant camps,
others were almost literally hurled into the beleaguer-
ed city.
But what were the miseries of the officers compar-
ed with that the common soldiers had to contend
STORM IN THE CRIMEA*
309
against. These poor fellows, the most of them en-
gaged in camp, picket or trench duties, were exposed
to all the rigours of the hurricane ; and when they re-
turned from those duties — worn and haggard with fa-
tigue — they found the tents blown down, and no shel-
ter whatever to cover their wearied bodies.
The soldiers’ letters were full of strange recitals.
An Enniskilling dragoon wrote : “ I was on trumpet-
er’s guard at the time the storm came across the plain,
accompanied with hailstones and snow ; and it blew
all our tents down. The only way to keep still was
to lie down ; I did so for fear of being borne among
the dirt. You may think in what sort of a state our
tents were, as, after it was all over, we had to lie down
that night on the wet ground without anything to
eat, the cooks being unable to keep the fires in.” A
private soldier wrote thus: “Lieutenant — — had just
come in from night-duty. I had got him to bed com-
fortably, when down came his tent, and left the poor
fellow stark naked. I had to carry him away with
only a blanket around him, and he remained in that
state all day, but he bore it remarkably well. Lieu-
tenant was blown away on his bedstead. The
doctor’s cocked-hat was blown right into Sebastopol,
so we expect to find it on the head of Prince Menschi-
koff when we get there.” A rifleman, on the heights
above Balaklava, thus records his experience of that
memorable day: “We had such a terrible gale that
our tents were all blown down, and many blown over
the cliffs into the sea ; the one in which I stopped
shared such a fate. * * It was a fearful night that we
passed ; every now and again might be seen men rub-
bing one another as the cramps took them in different
parts of the body. The night was long, but morning
broke at last ; and it was found that two of our poor
fellows were de$d from sheer exhaustion.” Another
soldier said : “ In spite of all these misfortunes, every
man made light of it until the hospital marquee went
down i it was dreadful to see sick and wounded men
310
8TORM IN THE CRIMEA.
actually blown away.” An officer, after describing his
brother-officers as wandering about, drenched to the
skin, in search of shelter, as a consequence of the de-
molition of their tents, says : “ All the tents have been
struck, as nothing could withstand the tempest, ex-
cept the Turkish; these infidels understand tent- work
better than we civilized folk.” This, from various con-
current testimonies, appears indeed to be the case. A
Turkish tent, although not constructed of such good
material as an English bell-tent, resists the wind much
more ( ffectually and stands more steadily ; on account,
possibly, of a better proportion of its height to its
circumference ; the men dig about a foot deep and
throw the earth round on the sides, where it serves
to steady the whole tent, and prevents at the
same time the water from penetrating ; in the officers*
tents, there is also a raised settee of stamped earth,
available as a couch.
The effects of the hurricane were, however, felt most
severely by the naval department of the Allied forces ;
numerous wrecks strewing the coast, many lives being
lost, and much valuable property destroyed. The fol-
lowing account was given by one who was on board
one of the vessels : —
“ The first mishap which occurred in the anchorage
off the Katscha (where the Commander-in-Chief was
stationed, and the larger number of the Allied vessels)
was to her Majesty’s ship Samson , which, together with
other steamers, had got up steam the moment the gale
began. About half-past seven a.m. it began to blow
up fearfully, many old sailors saying they had never
seen it blow so before. Two transports were lying
ahead of the Samson ; No. 20 being a little ahead of
No. 1. About nine a.m. we observed No. 20 part and
fall athwart-hawse of No. 1. both bowsprits and cut-
waters getting smashed, and then they both drove on
top of the Samson . The Samson being close we could
see everything. They turned their hands up and went
ahead, full speed, seemingly to separate the transports,
STORM IN THE CRIMEA.
311
which was done; No. 20 passing on the port side of
the Samson and bringing up just under her stern, and
there smashing the stern boats, bulwarks, &c. No. 1
fell ath wart-hawse the Samson , and topped her bow-
sprit right up and in on her forecastle. Shortly after,
the transport’s foremast fell, and was followed by the
Samson's foremast failing against her mainmast, main-
mast against her mizenmast, and she lay a wreck. No.
20 was under hei stern with her foremast gone, and N o.
1 drifted astern, where she brought up. Both Nos. 20
and 1, about an hour after, drove and went on the
shore, followed by Nos. 31, 57, and 89 transports, to-
gether with the Maltese barque Lisle Aclam and five
or six small brigs — in ail, making fourteen wrecks on
the beach on Wednesday. We could see the Cossacks
come down and take the crews of one or two prison-
ers, as well as pick up anything of value on the beach
and load their horses.
“ At ten o’clock on Tuesday morning a small French
brig stranded near the mouth of the Katscha, and
from this time till darkness hid the scene from view, a
series of terrible disasters followed each other in quick
succession. Fortunately, the shore in the neighbour-
hood of the river is terminated by a sandy beach;
hence here we have not had to deplore the loss of life
as well as property. At one p.m. her Majesty’s ship
Terrible parted all her anchors, and the cry rose to
every tongue, 4 The Terrible will be on shore,’ but gra-
dually the noble ship faced round to the wind, and pass-
ed majestically out through the fleet. The wind, per-
haps, was at its utmost height about 10.30,; but after
successive squalls, accompanied by sleet and hail, it
passed to W.S.W. and W., from which none of our
anchorages on the Crimean coast afford any shelter ;
and an awful rolling sea then set in , during which the
English transports Rodsley and Tyrone , a Maltese
brig, and four more small French transports, went on
shore. Meanwhile hordes of Cossacks and cavalry
hovered round the wrecks, and, as each of the smaller
812
STOEM IN THE CRIMEA.
vessels was thrown up, were seen occupied in examin-
ing what the chances of the sea and war had sent them.
The French sailors could be seen from the ships, led off
towards Sebastopol with horsemen before and behind
them. Our transports, from their greater burden, were
at some distance from the shore; and the Cossacks
rode backwards and forwards regarding them as the
hungry fox did some grapes in the days of ^Esop. Soon
after midnight its force was broken, and men thanked
God, for neither hemp nor iron could have stood such
a si rain much longer. But the sea continued as heavy
as ever during the darkness, which was only broken by
the lurid flash of cannon over Sebastopol, showing that
the war of the elements had been powerless to suspend
that of men. The grey dawn showed that to the dis-
asters of the previous day had been added that of ano-
ther transport, No. 89, Lord Raglan, and that the
Egyptian line-of- battle ship, which still remained, had
been compelled, during the night, to cut away her fore
and mizenmast, and had also lost her bowsprit. Day-
light also showed the inland hills covered with snow.
In the course of the morning the transports on shore
made signals of distress to the Admiral, who ordered
the Fury to weigh; she, however, signalled that com-
munication was yet impossible, on account of the surf ;
but, in the afternoon, the sea had gone down sufficient-
ly to attempt their relief, although the effort was still
attended with much danger. The Cossacks had been
busy during the day, and they made one or two at-
tempts even to swim off to our transports ; but were
carried back by the surf, aided by a knock or two on
the head from our merchant sailors, who by no means
relished the idea of a Christmas in Sebastopol. One
gentleman in a carriage drove down to the beach near
the Tyrone, and, in good English, exhorted the sailors
to make a trial of Muscovite forbearance. ‘We, too/
said he, suiting the action to the word, ‘have hearts
as well as the English/ The reply was what some-
body calls John Bull’s great everlasting ‘No!’ ac*
STORM IN THE CRIMEA.
813
companied by certain rather strong adjectives. No
fire had been opened on the enemy during the day
from the fleet, and it was determined not to do so till
they proceeded to overt acts of hostility. About four
p.m., volunteer boats from the Queen , Rodney , London ,
and some steamers, pulled in, and the Firebrand got
under way to cover them. On seeing them approach-
ing. the Cossacks drew up on the cliff, and fired on the
boats, killing a man belonging to the Queen . This fire
was immediately returned from the steamer, and they
at once scurried off. The surf prevented the crews
being rescued till the morning of the 16th, when they
were recovered by the boats of the Firebrand and other
steamers, after having, in one of the ships, fired a part-
ing salvo at the Eussians with cartridges which had
been collected from the field of Alma.
“ The tempest commenced at Balaklava about seven
o’clock in the morning of the 14th, and in two hours
eleven transports had been wrecked and sis dismasted
and rendered unfit for service. The most terrible dis-
aster was the total loss of the new magnificent steam-
ship Prince , which had arrived a few days previously,
with the 46th regiment and a cargo valued at £500,000,
and indispensably necessary for the prosecution of the
siege and the comfort of the army. The loss of the
Prince seems to have been partly owing to the negli-
gence of her officers. When she arrived at Balaklava
she let go one of her anchors in thirty fathoms of wa-
ter. It appears that the cable had never been clinched,
and the whole of it ran out; anchor and cable were
lost together. She then let go another anchor, the cable
of which was so inefficiently fastened that she lost this
also. She then steamed out to sea until she could get
up another cable from her hold, and at last let go a
smaller anchor, with which she rode until the tempest
broke upon her on Tuesday morning. An eye-witness
88 w her carried from her moorings on to the rocks
with such force that in ten minutes there was hardly a
piece a yard long remaining. She might almost be
314
STORM 1<* THE CRIME!,
said to go to powder. Of a crew of 150 only six were
saved. This splendid vessel, of 2600 tons, was pur-
chased by Government some time since, and sent out
full of most valuable stores and munitions of war.
Everything is lost. With the exception of the troops
everything remained in her at the time she was dash-
ed on the rocks. The whole of the winter clothing for
the men went down— 40,000 suits of clothes, with un-
der-garments, socks, gloves, and a multitude of other
articles of the kind; vast quantities of shot and shell;
and, not least in consequence, the medical stores sent
out in consequence of the deficiencies which formerly
existed.
“ A first glance at Eupatoria after the storm showed
that it had suffered even more than the Katscha. True,
the Bellerophon and Leander rocle it out, but the total
wreck of an Egyptian line of battle ship, and near the
beach the tricolour floating mournfully over the Henri
Quatre — strong and erect as ever, but never again to
carry the flag of France to victory — as well as the
stranded transports in front and to the southward of
the town told a dreary sl ory. In front lay the strand-
ed remains of five French merchant vessels ; just be-
yond it, along the sandy isthmus, between the sea and
Lake Sasik, lay what three days before were strong
and well-found ships, in the following order, comment
ing from the town : — No. 81, Georgiana ; No. 61, Har •
linger; French Government screw-steamer Pluto;
No. 3, Her Majesty; No. 65, Glendalaugli; a small
French steamer ; No. 63, Asia; an Egyptian two-
decker ; Henri Quatre , 100 guns. All these ships, with
the exception of the two line-of-battle ships, were
stranded during the day. The Henri Quatre parted
after the force of the gale was spent ; but when the
sea was heaviest, shortly after six in the evening, she
went on shore without any damage, and no doubt
might have been recovered in better times. The Egyp-
tian was a perfect wreck; she also stranded during the
night. The Sea Nymph foundered during a heavy
STORM IN THE CRIMEA.
315
squall in the day. The enemy took advantage of the
gale by advancing on Eupatoria with about 6000 ca-
valry and twelve field-pieces; they were, however,
warmly received with such a heavy fire, both of guns
and rockets, that they retired with a loss of about 100
killed and wounded. Our loss amounted to only two
men wounded. Lieutenant Hood of H. M. Arethusa ,
was in command of the battery which repulsed this for-
midable assault.”
When the frightful losses occasioned by the Novem-
ber hurricane became known in England, great alarm
was reasonably felt; for the very existence of the Al-
lied army in the Crimea depended on the conveyance
of supplies across this stormy sea during the winter
months. The loss of human life during the tempest —
English, French, and Turkish — was little under 1000
souls ; the vessels wrecked or rendered useless were
more than forty in number, besides many more serious-
ly injured ; the property lost was worth many millions
sterling ; but all these losses would sink into insignifi-
cance, compared with those likely to result from any
inability on the part of the transport-ships to convey
troops and ammunition, food and clothing, huts and
tents, fuel and medicines, to the armies encamped on
the bleak, cheerless inhospitable plateau between Ba-
laklava and Sebastopol. And even if such voyages
were possible, the calamity that had befallen the Prince
showed only too clearly how necessary would be some
better organisation of the service at Balaklava, to in-
sure a due reception of the reinforcements and supplies
sent out from England.
CHAPTEK IX.
Winter Life in the Crimea— Dreadful suf-
ferings of the British— Sick and Wounded
— Miss Nightingale, and the Hospital Nur-
ses at Scutari — British Sympathy and Phi-
lanthropy — Balaklava Bailway — Opera-
tions at Eupatoria— Siege of Sebastopol.
When the British troops left the shores of England
in the early part of 1854, few of them probably ima-
gined that they would have to endure the rigours of
winter in the Crimea; — and none perhaps ever dream-
ed that they would have to undergo such terrible suf-
ferings as fell to their lot during those dreary months.
Bravely had they maintained their prestige on the bat-
tle-field in their conflicts with the Muscovite foe;— and
as bravely did they struggle and endure the contest
with sickness and privation, which during the winter
assailed them with relentless fury. Honoured be the
names of those who had nobly fought and bled and
died in this just war ! And honoured he the survivors,
who patiently and uncomplainingly passed through
the severe ordeal which befel the remnant of the Bri-
tish legions in the Crimea in the winter of 1854-5,
A series of causes had been leading to one result, viz.
the inevitable necessity of the Allied armies encamping
during the bleak months of winter on the elevated
plateau outside of Sebastopol. Privations had already
commenced ; but those which had been experienced
were trifling to what were yet to be borne. Balaklava
was the depot for every kind of commodity ; the di-
lapidated houses in the main street being occupied by
dealers, who obtained their supplies from Constantino-
ple, Varna, and elsewhere. These dealers were pri*^
WINTER LIFE IN THE CRIMEA. 317
ci pally Greeks, Jews, and Maltese, who brought toge-
ther a miscellaneous stock of articles at an exorbitant
price. This wretched street was crowded from side to
side with ordnance-carriages, strings of dragoon hor-
ses carrying forage to the camp, trains of mules bear-
ing commissariat supplies, rows of high- wheeled carts
similarly employed, flocks of sheep newly landed, pack-
horses bearing officers’ kits and trunks, Turks carry-
ing the dead bodies of their comrades to a neighbour-
ing cemetery, and a menagerie of horses, donkeys,
mules, and dromedaries, variously engaged as beasts
of burden or of draught. Officers were glad enough
to act as their own servants at such a time, if they
could only effect purchases that might enable them to
carry up a miscellaneous store of domestic necessaries
or comforts in their saddle -bags and holsters to the
camp. A still more miry alley, branching out of tho
miry street, led to the post-office — a tenement sought
Dy many a Seating heart, anxious for news from Eng-
land. It frequently happened that provisions were
landed in the wet, stacked in the mud, and remained
until half spoiled, before hands could be found to carry
them up to the camp ; and it was saddening to see the
condition of those who occasionally acted as porters on
such occasions; “the very ragged, gaunt, hungry,
looking men,” as one officer described them, “ with mat-
ted beards and moustaches, features grimed with dirt,
and torn great-coats stiff with successive layers of mud
— these men, whose whole appearance speaks toil and
suffering, and who instantly remind you of the very
lowest and most impoverished class of the Irish pea-
santry — are the picked soldiers from our different foot-
regiments, strong men selected to carry up provisions
for the rest of the camp.”
The severest miseries experienced at this time and
place were those which the Turks had to undergo.
Ever since their cowardly conduct at Balaklava, these
unfortunate creatures had to endure, besides much
other suffering, the scorn and contempt of the British
BIS WI&IE& LIFE ITS THE CHIME!.
soldiery ; and, finding no comfort or favour at thd
camp, they made the little village their rendezvous.
Dirty and filthy in their personal habits, neglected by
the Ottoman government, and despised by their Allies,
the Turks contracted the seeds of disease which made
Balaklava a very pest-house ; a typhoid fever, of a vi-
rulent and malignant character, sweeping them down
with desolating rapidity. How the unhappy wretches
existed at all is inexplicable ; there was no commis-
sariat for them at Balaklava, and they had scarcely any
other resource but begging and stealing, until the Bri-
tish were in a manner compelled to provide for them ;
but even then, as the storm had committed such havoc
among our own supplies, there was little indeed
to spare for those miserable beings.
The road from Balaklava to the camp was in a most
wretched condition, being frequently on wet days a
complete puddle, so that the beasts of burden engag-
ed in carrying supplies, sunk deep in the mud at every
step, and many were the mishaps which occurred in
consequence. Numbers of mules and other beasts of
burden were landed, but there being a deficiency of
forage, the poor animals had to suffer starvation and
death, without help. The reinforcements which ar-
rived at Balaklava were often in a miserable plight in
their march to the camp for want of the stores requi-
site for their support. The 63rd landed at Balaklava
near the end of November, and were ordered up to the
front to relieve the over- wrought troops in the trenches.
The length and nature of their march was thus des-
cribed in a letter by one of the officers : -“We marched
up the road through the valley where the cavalry ac-
tion took place on the 25th of October j the road was
most dreadful, up to the knees in mud, and encum-
bered with dead bodies of mules, bullocks, and horses.
What a sight this place would be for some enthusias-
tic member of the Humane Society ! French and
Turkish troops were marching in every direction,
arabas laden with provisions to supply the wants of
Vi:; ilFW iir *jxe ctrimea.
319
the immense army surrounding the place. Well, we
proceeded on as best we could through the mud till
dark, and to every inquiry how far the 3rd division
was, ‘Five miles* was the invariable answer. As it
became perfectly dark, we began to suspect that our
guide, an orderly of the 13th Dragoons, did not know
much about the country. At last, we reached a French
camp, and asked them where the English were. They
guided us to a camp, and, to our great dismay, we
found we were among the light division, on the ex-
treme right of the whole position, about four miles be-
yond our camp. As it could not be helped, we turn-
ed to the right-about, and again went on ; out of 120
men, not more than thirty remained with us, and, if
it had not been for shame, I should have laid down
too. * * At last, we reached our camp about eight
o’clock, after having, by our wanderings, converted a
march of six miles into nearly twenty.”
The clothing of the troops began to show the effects
of the arduous duties the men were called to fulfil in
the trenches ; many of them were in shreds and tat-
ters, and besmeared with gravel and miry clay. Their
shoes and boots also were, in many instances, worn-
out ; and the men had to traverse the sludgy roads
many of them without shoes, or in suoh as let in
water in many places.
A mournful but instructive paragraph might be
made up by a selection from those parts of the soldiers*
simple and truthful letters bearing upon their war-
worn garments. A sergeant said : “ Half the regi-
ment were in tatters ; no one ever saw such miserable
creatures in soldiers* clothes before, for trousers and
everything were all sorts of patches, and many of the
men had not had a clean shirt for a month.*’ One of
the Guards, who had fought so gallantly at Alma and
Inkermann, thus wrote to his mother : “ I am wear-
ing my clothing that I have worn for two years ; my
red jacket I mended with a piece of black stuff ; the
trousers that I am wearing are my pipe- clay whites,
320
WINTER LIFE TW THE CRIMEA.
and it is twice as cold as it is in England. Our officers
pity us, to see the miserable state we are in.” Ama-
rine, op the heights above Balaklava, wrote : “ I have
not had my clothes off to sleep since I have been
here, and I shan’t if we stop for six months. I should
like you just to see my ‘mug;’ I have not had a
shave these ten weeks, and I get a wash once in
three or four days.” A trooper in the light dra-
goons, writing to his mother, said : “ I am at this mo-
ment wdthout a shirt on my back, and no boots to my
feet, only a pair of highlows, and they are very lit-
tle protection to my feet where there is much mud
and water ; and oniy one flannel shirt, one pair of
drawers, and one pair of socks, and those I had to take
off a dead man, or I should have had to go without;
it was no harm, as the poor fellow would never want
them again, or else, you may depend upon it, I should
not have done it ; at once I should have shuddered at
the bare idea.” A rifleman wrote: “Our men are
clothed in smocks made by themselves from blankets;
leggings also ornament them, made from the same
material, some from old sacking ; and some have none
of this, but still wear what is left of our old clothing.
Fancy our regiment paraded in such different cos-
tumes; it would be a grand parade in Hyde Park!”
With such details did the poor fellows fill their letters,
written towards the close of the year.
It would extend this volume far too much were
minute details given of the various kinds of suffering
endured by the troops throughout the winter. In ad-
dition to exhausting labour and deficient clothing,
the men had many times to go short of sufficient
food ; this arising in a great measure from the want
of the transport service. The cavalry horses were,
according to the testimony of an artillery officer,
Lieutenant-Colonel Hamley, in a wretched condition.
He states that the surviving horses of the Scots Greys,
long-haired, bony, spiritless, and soiled with mire, pre-
served no trace of their former beauty. Dying and
8IC&KESS IK TTTE SHITTSTT CAM?.
321
dead horses lay scattered around the artillery and ca-
valry camps, and on the Balaklava road — struck down
by fatigue, cold, or starvation. Once down, a horse
seldom rose again : after a few feeble attempts, he
would lie still, nibbling at the bare ground ; then he
would fall over on his side, and, stretching out his legs,
would so end his career, leaving a smooth space in the
mud where his head and neck had moved slowly to and
fro, or where his hind-legs had scratched convulsively
before he died. Sometimes an ownerless horse, lame
and unserviceable, would linger about the neighbour-
hood of an encampment; day after day he would be
there, patiently waiting, wondering why no corn or hay
was given him ; getting thinner and thinner, he ob-
tained no relief, for each trooper had insufficient fod-
der for his own horse; he dropped and died a linger-
ing death, unless, perchance, some friendly bullet put
a quicker end to his sufferings. Swollen and bloated
carcasses would be seen at one spot; while at another
would appear the remains of a horse, whence all but
the bones and skin had been removed by ferocious
dogs.
Towards the end of November, cholera broke out a
second time among the poor fellows, striking down
nearly a hundred in one night, and the miseries of the
suffering troops were redoubled ; for increased com-
forts and necessaries were wanted, at the very time
when fewer hands were obtainable as carriers ; the de-
pots became so exhausted that the army was literally
dependent for its daily bread on Balaklava : if supplies
had not been carried up every day without interruption,
the privations must have been greatly augmented.
The British troops marched, as has been stated, from
their landing-place in the Crimea to Balaklava with-
out their tents — bivouacking under circumstances of
discomfort that laid the foundation for many a fatal
disorder. The tents reached them gradually on the
plateau in front of Sebastopol* but these tents, too
few in number, and often defective in quality, became
246 x
S22 8TTFEEEIN&S m THE TRENCHES.
wretched domiciles even before the rains and tempests
of IN’ ovember began ; what they became afterwards, ex-
perience too painfully manifested. The French began
to render their tented homes comfortable long before
their Allies had any materials for so doing ; and short-
ly before the November storm, many of them ingeni-
ously constructed residences partially under ground —
that is, they dug shallow pits, and thatched them over
with twigs and branches. The British could not have
adopted this plan, even if they had possessed the in-
genuity so to apply their hands, for the ground on
the part of the plateau occupied by them was too hard :
they were dependent, in the first instance, on no other
covering than that of the blue vault above them; tfien
upon tents admitting rain-water as through a sieve ;
and then, after a long interval, upon wooden huts.
But here at once arose a difficulty lamentable and vex-
atious; the timber was near at hand, but means were
wanting for conveyance up to the camp. After the
hurricane, the shores were strewn with the remains of
wrecked ships, available in many cases for hut-building;
and towards the close of the month, supplies of prepar-
ed timber arrived ; but in the one case as in the other,
the deficiency of beasts of burden rendered it a work of
enormous difficulty to transport the timbers to the ne-
cessary spot.
Of all the calamities which the troops had to strug-
gle with, that of trench-duties was the most testing
and destructive to the constitution ; and the trenches
being in many instances too shallow, when tall men
stood upright they were in great danger of having their
heads split by shot which was continually flying from
the guns of the enemy. And these tall men had no
other method of escaping this danger, than by kneeling
or lying down in the water and slush for hours toge-
ther. It was not unfrequent for the men to be march-
ed to the trenches at four o’clock in the afternoon, and
there remain sixteen hours, exposed to rain and snow
during the whole period ; and to take this duty on al«
StlEEEStlNGS Itf THE TEEFCFEg. 323
fternate days. One of the regiments sent out to rein-
force the army, landed at Balaklava in the rain, march-
ed up the wretched road in the rain, pitched tens in the
rain, slept on the wet ground, and took trench-duty in
the rain on the next night : as a consequence, nearly
one-third of the men were dead or disabled within ten
days. Of the 46th regiment, seven men died in the
trenches on the first night. The poor fellows engaged
in these nightly duties compared their position with that
of the French, and bitterly felt how unfavourable was
the contrast.
The general burden of the soldiers* letters, relating
to the nights in the trenches and pickets, may be read-
ily inferred. One, not a mere private, but an officer,
wrote : “ I was myself on picket the day before yes-
terday, for twenty-four hours ; this morning I was on
a working-party in the trenches from four o’clock until
the same hour in the afternoon: and to-morrow I am
on picket again: now, what manner of man, think you,
can stand this?” An officer of the EoyalstoL! how that
in one week, about Christmas, he was sent out to repel
a Russian sortie towards midnight, and returned to
camp at four in the morning on the next day ; a few
hours afterwards, he went on picket to a place against
which the Russians maintained a warm fire during the
night; returning to camp at seven in the morning of
the third day, he went in the evening to guard the am-
munition reserve, where he remained until ten o’clock
on the following morning ; at four o’clock on this, the
fourth day, he was sent in charge of a working- party
in the left siege-train ; after nine hours* service, he re-
turned to the camp in the dead of the night, sat urated
with wet, and then had to delay his rest until, in the
early morn of the fifth day, he had read the burial-ser-
vice over two unfortunates who had died in the tren-
ches. Another officer in the same regiment wrote
proudly but mournfully of his men: “They drag on
to the trenches while they can searcely stand, and take
a pride in never shirking or casting their duty on
HOSTITAM AT eCTTT*.Ht.
tu
others.” Truly might he say : " It is very wearisome
trying to walk about in slush for twelve hours at a
time : indeed the young hands cannot do it ; they sit
or lie down in the wet, get cramps, and are carried to
the hospital, where they die ; the old soldiers know their
only chance is to keep moving about, which they do
while they can stand.”
The number of sick and wounded in the camp hos-
pital increased daily ; and, to add to the misery of the
sufferers and the dilemma of the medical men, there
were no medical stores to administer to the patients.
There were no proper vehicles to convey the sick
from the camp to Balaklava ; for, although there were
ambulances, yet there were no horses, and therefore
the ambulances were useless. Hence the camp hospi-
tal became full to repletion. A surgeon of the 63rd
regiment, examined by the Sebastopol Committee, stat-
ed that in the first instance there were no regulations
whatever for the removal of the sick from the camp to
Balaklava, and that even when such rules were laid
down, they became at once cumbrous and unmanage-
able. Being himself ill, this witness had been recom-
mended by his superior medical officer to go for a time
to Balaklava, and had obtained from him a properly
signed recommendation to that effect ; this recommen-
dation required to be counter-signed by the quarter-
master-general, then by the colonel of the regiment,
then by the general of the division, and, finally, by the
adjutant-general; but while undergoing this complex
process it was lost, for the person in whose behalf it
was drawn up never saw it again. The paper had
been six days travelling about the camp, under the
curse of formalism : during which time the sick sur-
geon was enforced to bear his sickness as he best he
might.
When it was determined, with the assent of the
sultan, to establish a British military hospital at Scu-
tari, a portion of the barracks was set aside for this pur-
pose. So immense was this building, that one side of
HOSPITALS AT SCUTARI.
the square and half of another could afford accommoda-
tion for 3500 invalids, besides seven hundred in the
Turkish hospital attached to the barracks. If the en-
tire structure had been similarly appropriated, it could
have received 6000 sick men ; and, being on a height, it
was healthily situated.
Many accusations were made by anonymous corres-
pondents in different newspapers against the army sur-
geons, charging them with unfeeling conduct towards
their patients, and utter neglect and indifference to the
urgent cases of the sufferers. Many of these accusa-
tions were most probably utterly groundless.
“ O war, war, how doest thou in thy utter bitterness
of trial curse our race ! Sowing penalties and pains
broadcast over our living soul, heaping up more of
poverty on the very poor, deriding the widow in her
bereavement, making her childless ; casting on them
who only in hopes are wives, pangs as bitter as those
of widows ; thou begettest orphans ; in the very wan-
tonness of thy cruelty seekest victims from every other
class ; reckless of all social distinction, levelling all to
one condition — that of the heart-broken and desolate :
men crown thy triumphs with laurel — the cypress of
the cemetery, the yew of the village church-yard, these
are the real emblems of thy accursed work.”
Thus wrote the Rev. S. G. Osborne, one among
many Englishmen who — doubting whether it were
possible that such miseries could have beset the Crimean
army as were from time to time communicated to the
public journals — resolved to test the verity of the
statements by personal observation. He went out to
visit, not the troops at the camp, but the sick and
wounded at the Scutari hospitals, near which he took
up his residence from the 8th of November until the
approach of Christmas. Gladly did two of the Eng.
lish ministers, the Earl of Clarendon and Mr. Sidney
Herbert, afford him facilities for his visit. Gross as
was the mismanagement somewhere, no reflecting per-
son could countenance the charges of deliberate cruel*
326
HOSPITALS AT SCUTAEI.
ty and neglect hastily brought against these and
other leading statesmen : none would more willingly
have re-ordered and improved the rickety machine of
departmental government; but, unfortunately, such
ameliorations can ill be effected in the midst of the
calamities that suggest them.
Mr. Osborne’s picture of the dread terrors of war
arose, not merely from the sight of wounds and death,
but also from the terrible augmentation of suffering
caused by defective arrangements. The hospital no-
ticed in a former paragraph was the first established for
the use of the British forces ; but towards Christmas,
the number had increased to five — the General Hos-
pital, the Barrack Hospital, two Floating Hospitals,
and a Naval Hospital. The General Hospital and the
Barrack Hospital were those to which the greatest im-
portance attached during the winter.
Mr. Osborne carefully examined these hospitals at
Scutari, and published a work entitled " Scutari and
its Hospitals,” wherein he freely animadverted on
many defects in the conducting of these establishments ;
and suggested emendations. He made comparisons
between the English and French mode of managing
these institutions, and gave the meed of praise to our
Allies, for the manner in which they treated their sick
and wounded. Mr. 0. gives a dismal picture of the
arrival of a cargo of invalids, at the landing-place at
Suctari. “ I have seen,” said he, “ the bodies of the
dead, stores for the living, munitions of war, sick men
staggering from weakness, wounded men helpless on
stretchers, invalid orderlies waiting to act as bearers,
oxen yoked in arabas, officials stiff in uniforms and
authority, all in one dense crowd, on this narrow, in-
convenient pier, exposed to drenching rain, and so be-
wildered by the utter confusion, natural and artificial,
of the scene, that the transaction of any one duty was
quite out of the question.” Sometimes the wounded,
when landed at the pier, were kept exposed to incle-
ment weather until orderlies, themselves invalids is$
HOSPITALS AT SOUTAEI.
327
process of recovery, in sufficient number, could be ob-
tained to carry them on the stretchers up to the hospi-
tal ; then, finding the Barrack Hospital to be full, the
miserable burdens would be re-shouldered, and jolted
half a mile further on to the General Hospital ; this
also being full, the wretched procession would return,
and the sick men would be deposited at the doors and
along the passages of the Barrack Hospital, until ac-
commodation could be provided for them, or would be
huddled up for hours in a ward without beds. Per-
haps the most terrible fact connected with these scenes
was, that many of the invalids were literally starved
nearly to death ; so disgracefully inadequate had been
the arrangements for provisioning them during the voy-
age from the Crimea. Mr. Osborne asserted, that al-
though he had seen much of misery and starvation in
Ireland and in the East, he had never seen such gaunt
skeletons as some of those who, a few short months
earlier, had been the gallant guardsmen of the House-
hold Brigade.
In consequence of the dismal accounts which reach-
ed England of the state of the sick and wounded troops
in the East, public sympathy was roused in their be-
half, and remedial measures were immediately resorted
to. The first suggestions pointed to the establishment
of a supernumerary medical staff; a second assumed
a new form : the truth was recognized that woman is
the best nurse for the sick, the best comforter in the
hour of suffering. One lady recommended that nurses
should be selected from the Sisters of Charity in Ca-
tholic countries; another source of female aid was
sketched in the following words : — “ We have the sol-
diers’ wives who are left here dependent on the public
charity ; why should not the most intelligent of them
be selected — say six or eight, from the regiments to
which their husbands belong, and be immediately sent
for a few weeks’ practice into our hospitals at home ?
There these women could be taught the way to wash
and dress light wounds, and attend on the sick, under
328
MISS NIGHTINGALE, AND
the direction of the doctors ; and, as soon as they are
competent, let them be sent for hospital-service to the
East.”
The plan or proposal which was followed by the
most practical result, was contained in a letter to the
Bishop of London, from the Rev. Mr. Shepherd,
Master of St. John’s House in Westminster, a kind
of sisterhood of Protestant ladies devoted to acts of
kindness and charity ; he proposed that ladies from
that house should go out as a hospital-nurses, with no
other fee or reward than the consciousness of doing
good to suffering and neglected men. The plan speedi-
ly assumed form and working- order; ladies offered
their services, not only from St. John’s House, but
from other places in and out of London. The next
duty was, to provide a superior, gouvernant, or ma-
tron ; one who should have a moral and practical con-
trol over the nurses or nursing-sisters, and at the same
time should be placed in some definite relation to-
wards the medical authorities of the hospitals — the
latter claiming of course a controlling voice in all the
arrangements. The Duke of Newcastle, as minister
of war, had this subject under his attention through-
out the summer ; the military authorities at home had
discountenanced the plan of hospital-nurses, on vari-
ous grounds ; but when the miseries of the Scutari
hospitals became known in England, and when so
many ladies had expressed their willingness to go out
as nurses, it was resolved to foster the plan if a super-
intendent could be found. Through the intervention of
Mrs. Sidney Herbert, the lady of the secretary at war, it
was ascertained that one eminently fitted was willing
to undertake this most trying and responsible office.
Miss Florence Nightingale, belonging to a Hampshire
family of station and fortune, and richly endowed with
natural gifts, developed by an education of more than
usually extensive character, and by travelling in vari-
ous parts of Europe, had, despite the attractions of
wealth, birth, and high social connections, already
THE HOSPITAL NURSES.
329
manifested a yearning to employ her time and ser-
vices in succour of the sick and wretched. She had
tended the poor in the vicinity of her father’s abode ;
she had visited the hospitals and reformatory estab-
lishments of London, Edinburgh, and the continent ;
she had spent three months ministering in a German
hospital; and she had voluntarily assumed the man-
agement of the asylum for sick governesses in London.
And now she accepted the office of superintendent of
the hospital-nurses at Scutari. But what an office !
Leaving a happy home, with all its genial associations
and comforts — closing a door against those social at-
tractions her varied accomplishments enabled her so
well to appreciate — departing from the sphere of those
whose cultivated minds could give grace and value to
conversation— going out to a country wherein every
turn spoke of war and slaughter — taking up her
abode in a building containing none of her own sex,
save those who might accompany her— walking and
tending, from mom till night, among hundreds or
even thousands of men, uneducated, rough, ragged,
bloody, dirty, wounded, sick, hungry, miserable —
undertaking painful and laborious duties at a time and
place marked by every kind of deficiency in the neces-
sary supplies— placing herself in a position not clearly
defined towards the various “ authorities” at Scutari
— responsible for the conduct of all the nurses who
joined her in this noble mission : all these things con-
sidered, there has indeed rarely been such an example
of heroic daring combined with feminine gentleness.
It was well observed, at the time when this tremen-
dous duty was assumed, that— although there is a
heroism in dashing up the heights of Alma in defiance
of death and all mortal opposition, worthy of all praise
and honour — the quiet, forecasting heroism and
largeness of heart, in this lady’s resolute accumu-
lation of the powers of consolation, must rank yet
higher among the qualities that adorn human
i ure.
330
MISS NIGHTINGALE, AND
Offers of personal assistance poured in so numevous-
ly from ladies in various parts of the kingdom, that
Mr. Sidney Herbert deemed it necessary, in an ex-
planatory letter, to show how trying were the duties
required, and how essential the possession of skill and
firmness by the nurses. “ Many ladies,” he said,
“ whose generous enthusiasm prompts them to offer
their services as nurses, are little aware of the hard-
ships they would have to encounter, and the horrors
they would have to witness, which would try the firmest
nerves. Were all accepted who offer, I fear we should
have not only many inefficient nurses, but many hys-
terical patients, themselves requiring treatment in-
stead of assisting others.” The ladies selected, who
departed from London with Miss Nightingale on the
23rd of October, were thirty-eight in number; com-
prising six from St. John’s House, eight from Miss
Sellon’s house of Sisters at Devonport, ten Eoman
Catholic Sisters of Charity, and fourteen experienced
hospital-nurses. Six weeks afterwards, another par-
ty of nearly fifty departed, made up in a similar way.
Of those who went out with Miss Nightingale, all
were chosen or approved by herself; and each receiv-
ed a certificate from the government, authorizing her
to occupy a position in the hospitals at Scutari. With
one common consent, men of all creeds and countries
rendered honour to those ladies for their noble devot-
edness; Catholics and Protestants alike bade them
God-speed at the hour of their departure by railway
from London ; the authorities at Boulogne prepared a
welcome reception for them; the fishwives at that
town busily aided in carrying their luggage from the
steamer to the station ; the railway officials through-
out the route from Boulonge to Marseilles paid them
marked attention; and the captain and crew of the
Vectis steamer strove to show how proud they were
of such passengers to the East.
Arrived at the hospitals at Scutari, all the romance
pf their position departed from these ladies: the stern
THE HOSPITAL HOUSES.
331
realities of life — life in its most desperate forms — at
once pressed upon their attention); and they bravely pre-
pared for their self-imposed duties. Accommodation
was hastily provided for them within a tower at one
of the corners of the Barrack Hospital. Mr. and
Mrs. Bracebridge, who accompanied the ladies, were
enabled to afford them countenance and support in
various difficult contingencies likely to arise. They
all reached Scutari within twenty-four hours of the
first arrival of the wounded from Inkermann, and their
services were immediately called into requisition
in a way that put their firmness and zeal to a severe
test.
The nurses entered on their arduous duties amid
many difficulties; Miss Nightingale frequently found
her firmness and patience severely tested ; and had
it not been for the encouragement she invariably re-
ceived from Lady Stratford de Redcliffe at Constanti-
nople, and the kind aid of Mr. Macdonald, Mr. Os-
borne, and Mr. Stafford, her sphere of usefulness would
have been greatly circumscribed. Her duties were of
a very multifarious and onerous nature ; for they con-
sisted of nothing less than a remedying, so far as might
be possible, of the varied evils resulting from the de-
fects and confusion in the government departments ;
a rendering of services others ought to have rendered,
but did not ; a supervision over details so numerous,
and complications so vexing, that it is a marvel how a
delicately nurtured lady could bear the pressure of
such a burden. To administer to the wants of 4000 sick
men was a formidable task ; but nobly did this devot-
ed friend of suffering humanity fulfil her God-like mis-
sion.
Miss Nightingale has earned for herself an imper-
ishable fame ; her name will be handed down to pos-
terity, and her deeds of mercy will be the theme of
England’s matrons to their daughters as long as time
shall last. All ranks of people in England vied with
each other in sympathy for the sufferers in the camps
839
MISS NIGHTINGALE, AND
and hospitals, and in admiration of the self-denying
services of Miss Nightingale. That illustrious lady
who so highly adorns the exalted station she is called
by Providence to fill as ruler of Great Britain, mani-
fested her interest and sympathy on the subject, as
will be perceived by the following letter :
“Windsor Castle, December 6 , 1854.
" Would you tell Mrs. Herbert that I begged she would
let me see frequently the accounts she receives from Miss
Nightingale or Mrs. Bracebridge, as I hear no details of
the wounded, though I see so many from officers, &c.,
about the battle-field, and, naturally, the former must in-
terest me more than any one ?
“ Let Mrs. Herbert also know that I wish Miss Night-
ingale and the ladies would tell the poor, noble, wounded,
and sick men, that no one takes a warmer interest, or feels
more for their sufferings, or admires their courage and
heroism more than their Queen. Day and night she
thinks of her beloved troops. So does the Prince.
“ Beg Mrs. Herbert to communicate these my words
to those ladies, as I know that our sympathy is much valu-
ed by these noble fellows. (Signed) “Victoria.’*
This letter was addressed to Mr. Sidney Herbert,
Secretary at War, and was transmitted by Mrs. Her-
bert to Miss Nightingale. A perusal of this letter
renders evident the fact, that the official despatches
from the East told little concerning the sufferings and
fate of the poor wounded soldiers; the Sovereign
“ heard no details of the wounded j” those details, if
given at all, were wrapped up in departmental for-
malism, whereby living men were treated as little
other than bales of goods, to be packed aside in heaps
and there forgotten. Subsequent events have fully
proved, that had it not been for the newspaper press,
the English nation would never have known the terri-
ble truths concerning the Crimea and Scutari.
In the silence of the night, when all who could
sleep were earnestly yearning so to do, might often
be seen a slender form gliding noiselessly through the
yvards and corridors, boimded by long rows of beds,
fctfE fiOSPiTAt NURSES.
333
each occupied by a prostrate soldier. It was Miss
Nightingale, who, ending a day of untiring activity,
would take a last look to ascertain whether any duty
had been neglected, any urgent case forgotten, any
solace unadministered. When Mr. Macdonald, his
mission ended, was about to leave Scutari, and when no
longer restrained by a fear of hurting the delicacy of
one who would brave dangers to serve others while
shrinking from hearing her own praises, he stated, in
one of his numerous letters to the Times , that “where-
ever there is disease in its most dangerous form, and
the hand of the spoiler distressingly nigh, there is this
incomparable woman sure to be seen ; her benignant
presence is an influence for good comfort, even amid
the struggles of expiring nature. She is a ‘minister-
ing angel/ without any exaggeration, in these hospi-
tals; and as her slender form glides quietly along each
corridor, every poor fellow’s face softens with grati-
tude at the sight of her. When all the medical offi-
cers have retired for the night, and silence and dark-
ness have settled down upon those miles of prostrate
sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in
her hand, making her solitary rounds. The popular
instinct was not mistaken, which, when she set out
from England on her mission of mercy, hailed her as
a heroine ; I trust that she may not earn her title to
a higher, though sadder appellation. No one who has
observed her fragile figure and delicate health, can
avoid misgivings lest these should fail. With the
heart of a true woman, and the manners of a lady, ac-
complished and refined beyond most of her sex, she
combines a surprising calmness of judgment, and
promptitude and decision of character.”
During the time that these events were taking
place in the Crimea and at Scutari — while the troops
on the heights of Sebastopol were stricken down by
wounds, fever, dysentery, cold, hunger, nakedness,
and every kind of neglect ; while Balaklava was a con-
centration of every thing abominable and repulsive $
334
THE PATRIOTIC UtT!T&.
•
while the weekly and almost daily passages of vessels
from that plaee to Scutari were marked by scenes heart-
rending to witness — the British nation was roused up
to adopt extraordinary means for evincing how nobly
it appreciated the heroic devotion of the army. It
was wanting as a state; it maintained its exalted
position as a nation.' It adopted the ready and gen-
erous plan of affording relief, through the instrumen-
tality either of individuals or of societies formed for
the especial purpose. No incidents connected with
the war were more worthy of record than these ; since
they illustrated — not merely the just and kind feelings
entertained on the subject by all classes, without refe-
rence to party, creed or rank, but also the remarkable
and wholly unprecedented way in which the newspa-
per press bore its share in the good Work; showing
how truly in effect, if not formally and legally, the
press has become one of the “ institutions’* of the coun-
try. The succour rendered was partly in funds, part-
ly in commodities, and partly in personal services.
Before the time of the declaration of war, a society was
established under the title of the “ Central Association
in Aid of the Wives and Families, Widows and Or-
phans, of soldiers ordered to the East.” The object
was countenanced by several members of the Koval
family, and many other distinguished individuals. By
the end of May the fund had reached £40,000, in a
measure through the impetus given by collections
made on the “Day of Humiliation;” and, before the
year expired, the amount exceeded £100,000. Dif-
ficulties arose as to how to arrange in regard to
the females married to soldiers without the sanc-
tion of the commanding officer; but, after much de-
liberation, it was resolved to treat all alike. There
were about 6000 women and about 8000 children
receiving relief in money, clothing, food, furniture,
medicines, or other ways.
As the year progressed, and the number of deaths
in the East augmented, a feeling began to be spread
SHE PATRIOTIC FUND.
335
throughout the country that a fund directly sanction-
ed *by the crown, and established with all the weight
the crown could give, would he proper and even
necessary. — Hence commenced the munificent pro-
ject, the “ Patriotic Fund,” the Queen and Prince
Albert heading the list of subscribers by the liberal
sums of £500 each. This fund was placed under the
management of thirty commissioners — mostly persons
well known in public life. Started under such auspi-
ces, the Patriotic Fund grew in magnitude, and ad-
vanced with a rapidity never paralleled, perhaps, in
any age or country. All ranks and conditions poured
in their contributions — the ancient feudal nobility, the
" merchant princes,” traders and manufacturers, pro-
fessional men, shopkeepers, workmen in factories,
children in schools — all brought their gifts to cast in-
to this treasury for the British army and those depend-
ent upon the men composing it. hTot only every
town and village in Great Britain, but also many of
those in our colonies, and other parts of the world, sub-
scribed towards this noble object. By the time the
spring had well advanced, the sum had reached
£1,000,000 ; and at a latter period £1,600,000.
The noble and munificent sum of £20,000 was sub-
scribed by several generous individuals, who sent their
individual moieties of this sum to the Editor of the
Times newspaper, relying upon his integrity and
judgment in the due appropriation of the money to
the object contemplated; and the commencement,
progress, and end of that fund, were among the
brightest incidents afforded during the war.
One remedial measure, however, which strikingly
characterizes the energy of the present age, was the
construction of a railway from Balaklava to the camp.
Among the many novelties introduced into the mili-
tary art during the ^Russian war, certainly this was
one of the most remarkable — the formation of a rail-
way in an enemy’s country, the more effectually to
besiege a town belonging to him. When the govern-
336
BALAKLAVA RAILWAY.
menfc determined that a railway should be formed from
Balaklava up to the camp, there was no want of men
able and willing to effect the work. Messrs Peto,
Brassey, and Betts, eminent railway- contractors, hav-
ing signed an agreement with the government, adver-
tised for artisans and labourers who would consent to
go out as railway-makers in the Crimea. The war
being popular, and public sympathy being aroused in
favour of the suffering soldiers, the appeal was warm-
ly responded to; and an ample number of excavators,
masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, plate-layers, engine-
drivers, and others, offered their services. Many of
those chosen had been employed under Mr. Beatty in
the construction of Canadian railways, whereby they
had become acclimatised to great variations of heat
and cold ; and they were placed under the same man-
aging engineer for the Crimean service — all engaged
at high wages and for six months certain.
Shortly before Christmas the first consignment of
men and materials left England ; and, at the close of
January, 1855, the railway flotilla arrived at Balak-
lava. The ships were speedily disburthened of their
contents ; and, the instructions from home being de-
finite and complete, the managerimmediately proceed-
ed to lay out his plans. The work was carried on
with vigour and energy ; and, by the middle of Feb-
ruary the work was extended as far as the village of
Kadikoi, where a railway depot was established. By
the beginning of April the railway was in full operation
in conveying stores and ammunition betwixt Balakla-
va and the camp. The formation of this railway was
one of the most beneficial measures adopted for the
carrying on the war ; for it enabled the British com-
mander to bring up to the front an enormous mass of
artillery and ammunition in an amazing short time ;
and, no doubt, had the railway been constructed ear-
lier, it would have been the means of saving many
valuable lives.
Many official investigations were instituted during
OPETiATIOKS AT EUPATOEIA.
337
the winter, to inquire into the various abuses which
were alleged to prevail in the management of the
army in the Crimea. These investigations were indeed
noteworthy in a threefold point of view — some of them
led to immediate improvements ; some suggested ex*
tensive reforms available for future times ; while others
conduced, although indirectly and imperfectly, to a
readjustment of the national verdict on the characters
of the officials engaged — restoring the fair fame of some
who had been cruelly misjudged, and reducing to a
lower level others who had been overpraised.
Two very important investigations were carried on
during the spring of 1855 — important, as they brought
to light abundant evidence of misrule, pointed out
many of its causes, and suggested modes of future im-
provement. These investigations were carried on, the
one in London, by the “Committee for inquiring in-
to the State of the Army before Sebastopol,” and the
other in the Crimea, by commissioners appointed for a
similar purpose; the one initiated by the House of
Commons, the other by the minister of war ; the one
to report to parliament, the other to the government.
The revelations given before the “ Sebastopol Commit-
tee,” (as it was generally called,) by the different wit-
nesses, fully proved that gross mismanagement had
been for some time carried on by those entrusted with
the direction of the several departments of military
and naval routine ; and the Crimean Commissioners’
Reports tended to the same conclusion.
We have not space to enter further into those pain-
ful details ; but will now turn to the operations at
Eupatoria during the winter. When the Allies sailed
from Yarna, it was at first intended to effect a landing
at Eupatoria ; but strategic considerations led to the
selection of Old Fort in preference. On the 9th of
Sept. Eupatoria was formally occupied as a military
position by the Allies; but the garrison for a consider-
able time scarcely exceeded 600 men, consisting
chiefly of seamen, marines, and sappers: but they
2 46 Y
338 OPERATIONS AT ETJPATORIA.
threw up works sufficiently strong to keep the Cos*
sacks at a distance, formed a corps of Turkish irregu-
lars to protect the flocks outside the town, and acted in
conjunction with a small fleet in the harbour to strength-
en the position generally. As the year approach-
ed its close, the augmentations of the garrison became
more frequent and important. On the 25th and 2fith
two Turkish battalions arrived from Kamiesch and
Balaklava. In the beginning of December the Rus-
sians made an attempt on the town, but were, as
usual, repulsed. The Allied commanders having
agreed, at a council of war, that Omar Pasha’s army
should occupy the town, the first division of that army
began to arrive on the 9 th of December; others follow-
ed as rapidly as possible, until an army-corps was
formed under Mehemet Ferek Pasha. As the whole
of Omar’s army could not be accommodated in such a
small town, camps were formed on the exterior in good
positions, well defended both by continuous lines and
isolated redoubts on a range of low hills. Eupatoria
became, in fact, one of the strongest places in the
Crimea. The whole of the Turkish army had been
transported, under much difficulty, from Varna to Eu-
patoria; Omar Pasha himself embarked at Varna on
7 th of February. He landed at Eupatoria, amid winds
which rendered that exposed coast very unfavourable
for the disembarkation of an army, and in sight of the
hapless Henri Quatre and the four stranded transport
vessels, all high and dry on the beach.
Squadrons of Cossacks had been noticed hovering
about Eupatoria at different times in the beginning of
February; and slight skirmishes had occurred betwixt
these and the Turkish out-posts. On the 18th, however,
proceedings of some importance took place. Early on
the morning of that day, the sudden withdrawal of
he Turkish vedettes, and the whizzing of shells
and balls, told that the Russians had reached the
vicinity of the town, and the contest had begun. One
of the advanced works of the Turks, on a knoll ot
WfiRATIOUB At EUPATORIA.
339
fcillqck, was the scene of conflict. Dark masses ©f
[Russian infantry were dimly visible through the
gloomy mist of a cold February morning, protected
but not hidden by a formidable line of guns. The
Turks, remembering Kalafat and Citale, Oltenitza and
Silistria, and knowing that their best general was
among them, proudly and confidently looked at their
foes, and prepared to render a good account of their
prowess. The artillery kept up a brisk fire on both
sides ; while Omar Pasha, between the fitful clouds of
smoke, sought to ascertain the numbers and the pro-
bable plans of the enemy. Three tumuli, forming a
line parallel with the landward margin of the town,
had been occupied by the Russians as a base of at-
tack ; cavalry in great force occupied one of these
tumuli, infantry the two other, while riflemen formed
the ends of a crescent by which this line of attack was
extended to two small lakes north and south of Eupa-
toria ; eight or ten batteries of artillery were posted in
front of the troops, and a few slight earthworks accom-
modated a corpse of riflemen whose duty it was to pro-
tect these guns from a coup de main. The armed line
was thus very formidable in appearance and in strength.
At first, the Russians directed their fire mostly against
the ceutre of the Turkish position, but afterwards
turned their attention rather to the Turkish right,
posted near a Greek cemetery outside Eupatoria.
The Valorous and the Curacuo steamers, the Viper
gunboat, and a Turkish steamer, took up positions op-
posite the north and south flanks of the Turkish line,
and sent their shot and shell right over the Turks,
pell-mell into the Russian masses. After two hours
of heavy cannonading, the Russian infantry commenc-
ed an attack chiefly upon the Turkish right, south of
the town ; two columns advanced rapidly, cheered on
by their officers ; the Turks regarded them unflinch-
ingly, allowed them to approach within sixty or seven-
ty yards, and then poured forth a volley which made
wide gaps in the Muscovite line. For a moment con-
340 OPEBATIONS AT ETTPATOBXA.
fused, and forced to retire, the Russians re-formed,
and made another advance ; but again the Osmanlis
Steadily confronted them, allowed them to make a
near approach, and sent out a torrent of shot against
which they were unable to stand. Seeing the enemy
thus discomfited, Ismail Bey sallied forth with the 7th
regiment of Roumelia, and, aided by Skender Beg with
a body of cavalry, completed the route of the enemy,
who retired precipitately, leaving 100 dead on the
field. The repulse was decisive, for the Russians did
not renew the attack at this point, nor indeed did they
make any other clearly marked infantry attack; for
though they maintained a fierce fire against the Turk-
ish centre, this was the work of artillery. It required
the combined aid of English, French, and Turkish
guns, naval as well as military, to repel the large force
of artillery possessed by the enemy, probably that of
General Liprandi, who commanded. The Allies could
espy a carriage among the enemy’s forces ; and after
many cavalry officers had held communication with
the occupant of this carriage, there appeared to be an
order of retreat issued. The infantry marched off,
protected by the artillery, while the artillery itself was
protected from sudden attack by the cavalry : all re-
tired slowly and safely ; and as the sun about that
time burst forth through the clouds, the glittering
Russian mass appeared rather as if going through a
review than a retreat.
The battle was certainly not a great one; but it was
important in many ways — among others, in showing
that the Turks, when well commanded, can not only
fight well behind earthen ramparts, but can meet
steadily a charge from the enemy in the open field, one
of the most trying tests of soldierly qualities. The
Russian army, estimated at the time at 30,000 in num-
ber, was afterwards believed to have amounted nearer
to 40,000 ; it cannot be said to have maintained its
attack with much resolution or skill. This army had
left Sebastopol three days previously, with six days’
OPERATIONS AT EUPATORIA.
341
provisions for the men; and as the commissariat-
waggons were still far distant, it is possible that the
commander distrusted his power of effecting much at
Eupatoria before his supplies might run short, consi-
dering the almost impassable condition of the roads in
winter. Some of the prisoners stated that there were
100 guns with the army. When the brief contest was
over, Omar Pasha visited the camp, and complimented
his troops on what they had achieved — a proceeding
that gave them extravagant pleasure; for the Turkish
soldiers , patient under afflictions, are easily gratified
by a little judicious commendation. In the advanced
work against which the chief fire of the Russian artil-
lery was directed, Selim Bey, commander of the Egyp-
tians, was killed, and his second in command, Suleiman
Bey, severely wounded, as was likewise Ismail Pasha.
The Turkish loss in killed and wounded was about
200; the Russians much greater, although, as the
wounded were carried off by them, the numbers could
not be accurately known. Omar Pasha, in a despatch
to Lord Raglan, estimated the Russian killed at 450.
By drawing Liprandi’s army away from the vicinity of
Balaklnva and Inkermann, the Turkish occupation of
Eupatoria greatly relieved the Allies encamped out-
side Sebastopol ; and by defeating it, the Turks more
than redeemed the credit they had lost at Balaklava.
In the latter part of February and in March, the
Turks made two or three reconnaissances, and harras-
eed the enemy rather severely ; but nothing of very
great importance resulted to either party. The Ba-
shi-Bazouks, being partial to booty, in one of their en-
counters, loaded themselves with spoil taken from a
squadron of Cossacks, which they had forced to retire.
The month of April thus found the Ottoman forces,
with a small portion of English and French, in pos-
session of Eupatoria, while that town had become one
of the strongest positions in the Crimea.
The siege, during the early months of 1855, pro-
gressed with very little variation ; although on som<
342
AST ATTACK PLANNED.
particular occasions the Russians (probably to divert the
attention of the besiegers from a sortie they were about
to make,) would open a tremendous cannonade against
the Allied works. The Russians received large rein-
forcements in the beginning of the year ; whilst the
British at the same time were much reduced, especi-
ally in officers. Although Lord Raglan received rein-
forcements in January, they did not materially increase
the strength of the army, for they were chiefly raw
and inexperienced; and many of them were struck
down almost as soon as they arrived. The incidents
of the siege, and operations of the Allied army in the
month of February were somewhat varied, but yet
void in a great measure of any great result to either
party. On the 13th of Feb. a sortie, headed by a
dashing young officer, was made on the French posi-
tions, but it was speedily checked and the young officer
wounded and taken prisoner. This heroic young man,
who died of his wounds, was believed, by the French,
to be a natural son of the Emperor Nicholas.
In the third week of February, the cold was intense;
and some Tartar spies, who had been set to watch the
movements of the Russians on the plateau, came in,
and reported that, although the main body ofLipran-
di’s forces had gone off towards Eupatona, about 6000
infantry and a few guns had been left near the Tcher-
naya. The Allied commanders at once resolved on an
attempt to capture this force. The light division, un-
der Gen. Bosquet, one regiment of Zouaves, Sir Colin
Campbell’s Highland Brigade, a body of French cav-
alry under Gen. d’Allonville, a small force of English
cavalry, and a few batteries of English and French
artillery — forming in the whole an army of consider-
able magnitude — were told off for the service. It was
arranged that Sir Colin, with his Highlanders, should
advance cautiously upon the front of the enemy;
while the French, winding round to the 6outh and
east would suddenly appear upon their left flank, and
cut off their retreat on the Traktir Bridge over the
A VEXAEIOITS DISAPPOINTMENT.
343
Tchernaya. The arrangements were skilfully made,
but the carrying out of them was thwarted by the se-
verity of the weather. During the early part of the
night there was a drenching rain and boisterous
wind ; then, towards the morning, the wind suddenly
changed, and there came on an intense frost and
a heavy fall of snow. Bosquet, under the circum-
stances, deemed it prudent not to hazard the destruc-
tion of his troops, through encountering this dreadful
weather; therefore, he remained with his forces in
their tents. Not so Sir Colin Campbell and his brave
followers ; they left their quarters about two o’clock
in the morning, and traversed their way to the ap-
pointed place of meeting, amid blinding snow and
biting frost, scarce being able to hold their mus-
kets in their frozen hands; and, after encountering
many difficulties, arrived at the appointed place. No
French troops, however, were there; they waited as
patiently as men under their circumstances could be
expected to wait, urtn the grey dawn of morning be-
gan to appear, and then the Russians were seen, evi-
dently surprised, but in full retreat over the heights
beyond Tchorgound. A messenger had been sent off
to apprise Sir Colin of the resolution which Bosquet
had come to, and to request him to defer proceeding
on the expedition ; but when the messenger arrived,
Sir Colin and his troops had been gone about two
hours. The brave old general and hardy troops had
to return, chewing the cud of bitter disappointment —
many of the men almost frozen to death. There is
no doubt had the troops met and made the attack, the
whole of the 6000 Russians would have been made pri-
soners of war. 400 of the intrepid band who went out
with Sir Colin on this dreadful night were so frost-bit-
ten, that they had to be placed under the care of the
hospital surgeons.
The most remarkable movement in February, took
place two days after the snowy journey of Sir Colin
Carapb'Tl’s division. The scene of this activity was
344
REPULSE OF THE FRENCH.
south-eastward of the Rarabelnia, between the suburb
and Sebastopol. The Malakoff Tower stood on or near
the line of defence outside the ELarabelma, between
the suburb itself and the attack- work of the Allies ;
and, by extensively fortifiying the hill on which the
tower stood, it became a stronghold of the most for-
midable kind, necessitating greatly increased attack-
works on the part of whomsoever might attempt to
capture the town. All this the Allies well knew ; but
they did not know, or did not act as if they knew, that
there was another hill fully deserving their attention.
Outside of the Malakoff, outside the defence-works —
indeed much nearer to the French trenches than to
the Russian works — was an elevation subsequently to
acquire a world-wild reputation under the name of the
Mamelon. This hill is about one-third of a mile in ad-
vance of the Malakoff, and somewhat less than a quar-
ter of a mile in circumference at the base, gradually
narrowing towards an irregular flat summit ; the side
next to the Allies, having been quarried for stone,
was high and steep, broken and rugged, with large
masses of rough stone lying about it; and as the
height was very considerably above the level of the
most advanced French works, an attack upon such a
spot, if defended, would be a serious undertaking,
since a noiseless approach would 6e impossible, over
the rough crags and rolling stones.
Though the Allies permitted this important position
to be neglected, the Russians did not. On the dark
night of the 22nd, an immense body of Russian work-
ing soldiers emerged in silence from behind the Mala-
koff, and marched quickly over the space which inter-
vened between that fort and the Mamelon hill, taking
with them every thing required for the erection of
defence-works. The Allied pickets and trench-guards
heard subdued sounds during the night, and remain-
ed more than usually watchful against a sortie ; but
suspecting nothing further, made no other pre-
paration. The morning of the 23rd broke out cold
and misty, the Mamelon almost imperceptible, but
REPULSE OP THE FRENCH.
345
when it cleared up a little, they were astonished and
mortified to perceive that the Mamelon had become a
fort since the preceding evening. Two complete rows
of gabions bad been filled, and placed all round the
summit of the hill, under cover of which the working-
party were busily engaged in digging trenches, mak-
ing platforms for heavy guns, and completing all the
arrangements necessary for a regular fortification.
This was a galling sight for the French, as it placed
a barrier between them and the Malakoff, rendering
necessary a conquest of the Mamelon before the re-
moter fort could be silenced. A plan to attack the
Mamedon, ere it assumed formidable proportions, was
formed by the French; but there was a traitor in the
camp, an Italian, who divulged these plans to the
Russians, and fully prepared them tc resist the in-
tended attack. The French force consisted of about
2500, consisting of Zouaves, chasseurs, and ma-
rines : General Monet was placed in command, and
was ordered to make the attack at midnight. The
attack was made; and the French were requlsed, with
great loss; General Monet was dangerously, though
not fatally, wounded ; and nearly 600 French troops
were either killed or wounded.
This was entirely a French attack; for the English
knew nothing about it until roused from their slum-
bers by roar of artillery in the Malakoff. A murder-
ous fire poured from the Malakoff and Redan; and
the French troops were so galled and frenzied by the
burning tempest, that they would have rushed upon
the Malakoff itself, but this w ould have been madness.
About 150 days had elapsed since the Allies had ar-
rived in the Crimea; and, although much had been
done through their bravery, yet much remained to he
achieved ere the object contemplated by the besiegers
could be accomplished. However, notwithstanding
all the difficulties which the British and French forces
had to contend with, they prepared for further conflict ;
being determined to overcome every obstacle, or per-
ish in the attempt*
CHAPTEE X.
Fruitless Negotiations— Death of the Empe-
bob Nicholas -Vienna Conference — Pro-
gress of the Siege in 1855.
The aim of the compiler of this work was not so much
directed to the presenting to the reader an historical
narrative of minor particulars and events connected
with the countries engaged in the war ; but to a detail
of the chief operations and struggles in which the con*
tending forces bore a conspicuous part. Already has
too much minuteness been indulged in; but in further
prosecuting the task to completion, the attention of
the reader will be chiefly directed to the principal
events during the remainder of the contest.
At the commencement and throughout the progress
of the war, there were many who indulged the hope
that the broken-up nationalities might again be res-
tored — that Poland, Hungary, and Italy, might again
be placed among the list of independent nations*
However desirable this consummation might be, and
however favourably inclined the British government
were to the accomplishment of such an object, yet,
under the circumstances, it could not be a party to the
resuscitation of the national independence of those
countries, without coming into direct collision with
the states with which it was on friendly terms. This
hope, therefore, was doomed to be disappointed.
There were negotiations going on betwixt the gov-
ernments of England and France on the one hand, and
Austria and Prussia on the other, for several months,
but, as they led to no important results, a detail of
them is unnecessary here. One event took place at this
period that deserves to be noticed, which reflects great
honour upon the small state which so boldly stood
346
DEATH OP THE EMBEBOB NICHOLAS. 347
forth to protest against Russian policy. This state
was Sardinia. The king entered into a convention
with the Allied powers to transmit 15,000 Sardinian
troops to the Crimea, to aid the Allied forces against
the Russians; these troops consisting of infan try, cav-
alry, and artillery. Nobly did those troops distinguish
themselves during the remainder of the war.
The early part of the year 1855 was marked by dis-
sensions in the government of Great Britain. The
Aberdeen ministry had long been in bad odour with
the country; and the formation of the “Sebastopol
Committee” was the primary cause of its break-down,
which event took place in the beginning of February.
Several days elapsed ere another ministry could be
formed; Lord Derby endeavoured to form one, but
failed; Lord John Russell also failed. At length
Lord Palmerston succeeded in bringing together a
portion of the former ministry, making up the re-
mainder by placing those in office on whom he thought
he could rely for possessing the necessary qualifi-
cations for the posts he assigned them. Several
changes, however, subsequently took place, ere the
government was placed in any thing like stability.
During these complicated and harassing transactions,
an event took place which startled all Europe — nay,
all parts of the civilized world. This was the death of
the Czar Nicholas. Throughout the early weeks of
1855 rumours had had been rife that the emperor was
in ill health; and those who knew how little prone he
was to listen to advice, either from physicians or
others, augured a possibly unfavourable result, at a
time when severity of weather and intensity of men-
tal anxiety combined to affect him. On the 23rd of
Feb. he was so ill that he transferred all authority
in imperial matters to his eldest son Alexander. On
the 1st of March his physician ventured to announce
to him that his end w as approaching ; he therefore
took farewell of his wife, kissed all his children and
grand-children, thanked his principal servants for their
348
THE MILITIA-BILL*
faithful services; and then lost the power of speech
for a faw -hours. On the 2nd he rallied a little, and
regained the power of uttering a few sounds. The
last words he was heard to utter were : “ Tell Fritz
to remain constant to Bussia, and not to forget the
words of his father.” The “Fritz” here mentioned
was Frederick William of Prussia ; but the real mean-
ing of the word was unknown to all but those imme-
diately concerned. At about noon, the Emperor Ni-
cholas ceased to live. The death of the czar was
known in most of the capitals of Europe on the very
day on which it occurred.
Negotiations were in progress at the time when the
Emperor Nicholas died ; and Lord John Eussell,who
was empowered to negotiate on the part of Great
Britain, was on his way to Vienna when that event
took place. These negotiations at Vienna, like former
ones, ended without coming to any satisfactory issue.
The demands of Prince Gortchakoff on the part ofBus-
sia were so imperious, that the other negotiators could
not acquiesce in them.
During the time Lord Derby was in power a mi-
litia-bill was passed in parliament, empowering them
to raise a force numbering 80,000 militia, the period
of whose service was to be five years. When war be-
gan, the militia were embodied, and in December, 1855,
an act was passed enabling the government to send
militia regiments to render garrison duty at Gibral-
tar, Malta, and Corfu, in order that the regular troops
might be placed at the disposal of the commander at
the seat of war: every militiaman exercising a choice
whether he would volunteer into this special service.
The halo of glory thrown around the soldier’s life by
the deeds of Alma and Inkermann, together with the
increased bounty, enabled the government to obtain a
considerable increase both in the regular army and
the militia. Strengthened as it was by recruits to the
regular regiments, and furnished with a reserve of
disciplined soldiers by the embodimen* of the militia,
THE 20RE1CH tEGtOlf.
m
gradually augmenting in amount during the progress
of the war — the British army was nevertheless placed
in a position for receiving still further numerical pow-
er, by the formation of a Foreign Legion.
When the Aberdeen government brought forward a
measure for sanctioning the raising of a foreign legion,
the bill was received with little favour. In parliament
and by the public press it was regarded by many as
dishonouring to the British nation : as a virtual con-
fession that we could not honestly fight our own hon-
est battles by our own resources. The Earls of Der-
by, Ellenborough, and Malmesbury opposed it in the
Lords ; while the opponents in the Commons comprised
many of the Conservative and Liberal parties, who
joined their votes on this occasion. Nevertheless, the
bill passed, probably because the ministers threatened
to resign if defeated. The act empowered the Queen
to raise a legion expressly for foreign service ; it lim-
ited the number in England at any one time to 10,000 ;
it declared that the legion was to be commanded and
officered by foreigners, with certain stipulations con-
cerning pay and rank; and it limited the application
of the act to a period not later than one year after
the ratification of a definitive treaty of peace with
Russia. The measure, however, never met with a
warm response from the nation ; and, on account of
the epithets which had been used by many when
speaking of the recruits offering for this arm of the
service, volunteers were very tardy in coming forward.
Enlistment in foreign countries was much opposed by
the officials in many nations, and brought the British
government into much obloquy ; even endangering the
friendly relations which existed between England and
America.
Camps were formed at Chobham, Aldershott Heath,
and Shorncliffe, chiefly for the purpose of training and
inuring the troops to endure camp life in foreign
countries. The camp at Shorncliffe was confined to
the bivouacking of the Foreign Legion; the men
3oO CHANGE IN THE FBENCH COMMANDERS.
being mostly obtained from North Belgium, Germany,
and Holstein ; and, being principally composed of men
who had before been in service, all speedily assumed
a respectable military appearance.
In addition to strengthening the army in its gener-
al organization, there were two new corps added to it;
those were the Army Works and the Land Transport
Corps. Besides the regular military duties devolving
upon the troops, the men had been harassed and fa-
tigued by hard work not altogether within their pro-
vince, such as mending roads, building hovels, carry-
ing heavy burdens, and various other duties, not alto-
gether connected with the duties usually expected of
soldiers. The formation of those two corps was intend-
ed to relieve the regular soldier from these onerous
and fatiguing duties ; and to assist the railway in con-
veying stores and provisions to the camps.
There were two other additions to the army con-
structed during 1855 ; but, as their services were not
much required, little wiil be said regarding them.
These were the Turkish and Sardinian Contingents,
composed of men from various countries : the Turkish
Contingent, however, did not progress very favoura-
bly, but the Sardinian one assumed a very respectable
appearance.
In the beginning of May, General Canrobert resign-
ed the command of the French army, preferring the
subordinate office of general-of-division to the more
important one of commander-in-chief. He still re-
mained with the army in the Crimea. The command
was conferred on Marshal Pelissier, whose military
qualifications were of the highest order; and many
now expected that the capture of Sebastopol would
speedily be accomplished.
To return to the operations of the Siege. The month
of May was signalized by many important events.
On the night between the 21st and 22nd the French
attacked the Russian ambuscades situated on their ex-
treme left, in front of the Central Bastion. The Rus-
OPERATIONS ON THE SEA OP AZOF. 351
eians made an energetic defence, and the works were
taken and retaken five times. On the morning follow-
ing, <*ir allies attacked the works again, and earned
them. The loss of the French amounted to 600 killed
and 2000 wounded ; that of the Russians was estimated
at 1500 killed and 6000 wounded. General Pelissier ,
states that 1200 dead bodies were given up to the
Russians during a short truce which he granted.
Two days after this victory the Allies took possession
of the heights of theTchemaya, the enemy making no
resistance.
Rut still more important events took place on the Sea
of Azof. On the 22nd a fleet of English and French
vessels, under the joint command of Sir E. Lyons and
Admiral Bruat, and accompanied by a force of 15,000
troops and five batteries of artillery, under the com-
mand of Sir George Brown, left the anchorage off
Sebastopol, and proceeded towards Kertch, arriving
there at early dawn on the birth-day of her Most Gra-
cious Majesty the Queen, both army and navy con-
fidently anticipating a successful celebration of that
auspicious day. The fleets steamed rapidly up to
Kamiesh, where the army landed under cover of the
guns of the steam-frigates, and immediately ascended
the heights without opposition, whilst the steamers of
of light draught of water pushed on towards Kertch
andYenikale; and the enemy, apparently taken by
surprise at the rapidity of these movements, and at
the imposing appearance of the expedition, blew up
his fortifications on both sides of the straits, mounting
not less than fifty guns (new and of heavy calibre),
which fell into the possession of the Allies, and re-
tired, after having destroyed three steamers and
several other heavily-armed vessels, as well as large
quantities of provision, ammunition, and stores — thus
leaving the Allies masters of the entrance into the
Sea of Azof, without our having sustained any loss
whatever.
As the disembarkation was unopposed, in con-
§52 OEEEATIONS ON THE SEA O’B AZOF.
sequence of the fire of the steam-frigates having arrest-
ed the advance of the enemy, there was no field for the
gallantry that animated every one in the expedition ;
but the duties they had to perform were very arduous.
An incident occurred during the day that called forth
» the admiration of both fleets, and which deserves to be
particularly noticed. Lieutenant M’Killop, whose gun-
vessel, the Snake , was not employed like others in land-
ing troops, dashed past the forts after an enemy’s
steamer, and although he soon found himself engaged
not only with her but also with two others who came
to her support, he persevered, and, by the cleverness
and extreme rapidity of his manoeuvres, prevented the
escape of all three, and they were consequently des-
troyed by the enemy ; and the Snake had not a man
hurt, though shot passed through the vessel.
Had this expedition been deferred but a short time
longer, there would have been many and great diffi-
culties to overcome, for the enemy was actively em-
ployed in strengthening the sea defences, and in re-
placing the sunken vessels which had been carried
away by the current during the winter months.
Of the forty vessels sunk the year before, some still
remained, and a French steamer touched upon ene of
them. It appears that the enemy did not succeed in
destroying the coals either at Kertch or Yenikale, so
that about seventeen thousand tons remained, which
were available for our steamers.
A very short time afterwards an English gun- boat
of light draught of water was directed against Yenikale,
to cut short the progress of a Russian steam-vessel,
which was attempting to make for the Sea of Azof.
A serious engagement immediately commenced bet ween
the two boats, in which the batteries of Yenikale also
took part. The Fulton was brought up, whose guns
were quickly directed towards the theatre of the
struggle, while she was exposed to a very brisk fire.
The Megre was ordered to assist her ; and Admiral
Lyons, on his side, supported the cannonade. How-
OPERATIONS ON THE SEA OF AZOF. 353
ever, the Eussian vessel, which was knownto carry
the treasure of Kertch, escaped, leaving in our hands
two craft, laden with valuables and a part of the civil
and military archives. But the confusion of the Eussi-
ans, taken suddenly both by land and sea, became such
that they soon gave up a too long resistance, and did
not even take the t rouble to carry off the wounded
that they had brought from Sebastopol. In the
course of the day they had set on fire some consider-
able magazines which they possessed at Kertch.
At last, having evacuated Yenikale, they set fire to a
magazine, which contained nearly 60,0001bs. of powder.
The concussion was such that several houses were
destroyed, and vessels at ten miles* distance felt it.
The enemy lost 160,000 sacks of oats; 360,000
sacks of corn ; 100,000 sacks of flour. A foundry of
guns and gun-carriages was destroyed.
Three steam-vessels were sunk by the Eussians
themselves ; thirty transports were destroyed, and as
many taken. About 200,0001bs. of powder was de-
stroyed in the several explosions. The guns that fell
into our hands numbered from sixty to eighty, and were
very fine, and of large calibre.
After taking possession of Kertch and Yenikale, the
fleet proceeded to Genitchi, landed a body of seamen
and marines, and, after driving the Eussian force from
the place, destroyed all the depots and vessels laden
with corn and supplies for the enemy. In this affair
one man only was wounded. On the 26th, the
Allied flotilla having appeared before Berdiansk, the
enemy set fire to four of their steamers and to some
large storehouse. On the following day the Bay of
Arabat was visited, but no vessel was seen. The fleet
exchanged a brisk cannonade with the forts, and
one of its shells blew up a powder magazine. Altoge-
ther, the enemy lost, in four days, an immense quan-
tity of provisions, four steamers, and 240 vessels em-
ployed exclusively in provisioning the troops in the
Crimea.
246 b
SIEGE QE SEBASTOPOL©
The bombardment recommenced on the afternoon of
Wednesday, the 6th of June. Up till two oclock on
that day, active preparations were making in our bat-
teries, but no sign wa9 given to the enemy. The heat
was very great ; notwithstanding a refreshing breeze
which was blowing over the heights, the thermometer,
placed on the ground in the open air, indicated a tem-
perature of 95 degrees Fahr. This comparative still-
ness continued until just two o’clock, when the loud
boom of a gun resounded from the French works on
Mount Sapoune. This was followed in quick succes-
sion by other guns, the shots being discharged against
the Kamtchatka Redoubt on the Ma melon Vert. The
Russian redoubts on Mount Sapoune (east of Careen-
ing Bay) quickly replied. The guns on the left French
attack next took up the fire, then our guns on the left
attack, and lastly those on our right attack — making
altogether 157 guns and mortars on our side, and above
300 on that of the French. The combined roar of the
artillery was fearfully grand. In a short space of
time, from the French batteries on the sea-shore, to
their works on the Inkermann heights, dense columns
of white smoke arose, so as almost to form one con-
tinuous cloud, veiling every thing beyond from view.
The fire of the Allies was kept up for the first three
hours with excessive rapidity, the Russians answering
by no means on an equal scale, though with consider-
able warmth. On our side the predominance of shells
was very manifest, and distinguished the present can-
nonade in some degree even from the last. The supe-
riority of fire over the enemy became apparent at va-
rious points before nightfall, especially in the Redan,
which was under the especial attention of the Naval
Brigade. The Russians displayed, however, plenty of
determination and bravado. They fired frequent sal-
vos, at intervals, of four or six guns, and also, by way
cf reprisals, threw heavy shot up to our Light Division,
and on the Picket-house-hill. Shortly after sunset
the Russians ceased firing from their batteries. Aa
SIEGE! OS’ SEBASTOPOL.
incessant shelling was kept up all night from our works,
to prevent the enemy from repairing damages. So si-
lent were the Russian works that it seemed probable
the guns had been drawn from the embrasures and
placed behind the parapets, and that the gunners them-
selves had also retired to places of shelter.
The excitement in both camps throughout the day
following was extreme. At noon a deputation of .
French officers, non-commissioned officers, and men of
every regiment of General Bosquet’s troops waited on
him to state that they wished and desired to be led to
the assault. Every one was on the qui vive , and even
the artificers attached to each regiment, who generally
are exempted from fighting, were under arms. In the
afternoon it became known that operations were to
commence in earnest in the evening. The French
were to assault the Kamtchatcka Redoubt on the Ma-
melon-hill, and also the redoubts on the east side of
Careening Bay. As soon as the Mamelon was secured
the English were to take the Quarry work in front of
the Redan, and the Russian trenches in front of French-
man’s hill. The French had served out to them cook-
ed rations for forty-eight hours, and a pint of wine
each. All were in high spirits, eager for the struggle,
and confident of the result.
At five p.m. the French divisions marched to the
attack. The Second Division, with General Carnot in
front, led the way. About six or seven hundred yards
from the entrance to the Karabelnaia ravine the regi-
ments were halted, and, shortly after, General Bosquet
arrived, with his staff, and addressed a few words to
each regiment in turn. By each, at the conclusion of
his remarks, the General was greeted with loud cheers.
The order to move forward was then given. A batta-
lion of the Algerian troops led the way, marching in
column of subdivisions. They left behind their white
turbans, and wore only the scarlet fez ; their blue open
jackets, the blue vests, with yellow embroidery, their
trousers in ample folds, of the same colour, contracted
356
SIEGE 03? SEBA8TOPOl<
only at the waist and in the leg, where the yellow lea-
ther greaves and white gaiters covered them, their bare
necks, their light elastic tread — all presented a perfect
picture of manly ease and activity. Their swarthy,
and in many instances jet black, countenances beamed
with excitement and delight ; they gave vent to their
feelings in exclamations which only those versed in Af-
rican warfare are familiar with; and seemed with dif-
ficulty to restrain themselves to the measured tread of
the march. They were followed by three battalions of
the 50th Regiment of the Line. The 3rd Regiment of
Zouaves came after — powerful, active, sunburnt Euro-
peans —in their Eastern costume and agile movements
seeming the twin brothers of the Algerians who had
preceded them. The Chasseurs a pied followed; and
three battalions of the 7th Regiment of the Line suc-
ceeded. There were about 12,000 men in this division.
The Second Division wa3 scarcely lost to sight in the
winding valley of the ravine, when the Fifth Division
came in sight. This division, under General Brunet,
was arranged to form the working partly, to secure
the hold of the Mamelon Vert as soon as the attacking
columns had taken it. It included the 4th battalion of
the Chasseurs a pied, with the 11th, 25th, 69th, and
16th Regiments of the Line — altogether 10,000 men.
At the same time Omar Pasha moved with a force, ap-
parently about 15,000 strong, of Ottomans and Egyp-
tians, and occupied the space on which were formerly
encamped the Second British Division and the brigade
of Guards, near the inkermann heights. These troops
had come up during the night from the Balaklava
plain. They protected the right flank against any at-
tack from the Russian forces encamped on the northern
heights and Inkermann mountain, who might, other-
wise, with impunity have come up by way of the In-
kermann valley, and sought to annoy the troops en-
gaged in the attack on the Russian works in front.
Soon, after the French divisions had passed down the
ravine, General Pelissier, with General Canrobert and
SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL.
357
an immense staff, amid loud cheering, rode past the
front of the British troops, and going by the right of
the Victoria Redoubt, took up his station in a small
outwork, made for the purposes of observation, about
five hundred yards in advance. From this observatory
a full view could be obtained of the operations on the
right of the Careening Bay ravine, as well as those
immediately against the Kamtschatka redoubt on the
Mamelon Vert. Lord Raglan, it was understood, was
to take up his position in advance of the Third Divi-
sion, whence there was a good view of the Quarry in
front of the Redan — the more immediate object of the
British attack.
At half-past six, four incendiary rockets, the signal
for the starting of the attacking columns, took their
flight from the Victoria Redoubt. At the signal of the
first rocket the troops were all formed, and at the third
rocket were seen on the right above Careening Bay,
and along the advanced trench at the foot of the
Mamelon — a living wall. The fourth rocket had no
sooner taken its flight than the parapets were cleared.
Forward went the lines, throwing out a cloud of
skirmishers. The Russian trenches on the side of the
Mamelon Vert were climbed over, trench after trench,
apparently without any opposition. Then the steep
sides of the hill were mounted. The French were seen
in three columns, one ascending towards the west face,
another towards the east face of the works, while the
third moved directly up towards the face fronting the
Victoria Redoubt. But the whole surface of the hill
was soon covered with their skirmishers. After one
discharge from some of the heavy guns, the Russians
got into the embrasures and upon the parapets, and
fired a few shots from their rifles, without, seemingly,
doing any execution ; but the volleys from the skir-
mishers, or else the consciousness of the inutility of
resistance, compelled them quickly to retire. Their
force was evidently small. They had not expected an
attack at such an hour, by daylight. Nothing could
358
SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL.
be finer than the “ dash” with which the French troops
ascended the steep slope — a natural glacis — towards
the parapets. The Eussians were evidently staggered.
At first the MaiakofF batteries and the Eedan offered no
attempt to impede the progress of the assailants. Whe-
ther the tremendous fire which was poured against
them, from the English batteries of both the left and
right attack, restrained them, or whether they were
bewildered at the nature of the assault, they scarcely
fired a shot while the first columns of French mounted
the hill. Presently the French were swarming into
the embrasures, mounting on the parapets, and des-
cending into the work. Shortly after the Eussians
were observed escaping by the way leading from the
redoubt towards the hill crowned by the ruins of the
MaiakofF Tower and the numerous batteries around it.
And now occurred the grand mistake which subse-
quently entailed a great loss of life among our brave al-
lies. The arrangements had been made for taking and
securing the large redoubt on the Mamelon-hill ; but it
was not intended to go further at that moment. Such,
however, was the impetuosity of the troops, such the
excitement of the officers and men at their first success,
that they could not resist the pursuit of the Eussians
on the one hand, or the attempt to storm the MaiakofF
itself. Between the MaiakofF and Mamelon hills is a
deep saddle-like hollow. Across this saddle, dipping
down towards the right of the MalakofF-hill, is the or-
dinary way of communication between the Marine
suburb and Mamelon. In this direction the Etissian
troops took their flight, and these and their pursuers
were soon lost to sight behind the ridge. But the great
body of the French troops moved straight across the
saddle, and mounted the Malakoff-hill. The Eussians,
aware of their danger, poured down a heavy fire upon
the assailants, from the batteries, and apparently brought
field-pieces so as to take them in flank. In spite of
these, the French still mounled, and at last were seen
to reach the abattis work drawn around the hill. So
SIEC-E OP SEBASTOPOL.
uo
short a distance was this from the lower tier of batteries
that the Russians could no longer depress guns suffici-
ently to bear upon them, and standing upon the para-
pets they were seen to throw large stones, besides keep-
ing up a heavy musketry fire, against the French.
The French had evidently met with a difficulty they
could not conquer : they were observed to be looking
on all sides for an opportunity of advancing, but yet
were unable to move on. Presently a sudden sense of
their dangerous position seemed to seize them, and they
retired back towards the Mamelon. The Russians by
this time had assembled their reinforcements behind
the Mai akoff works, and, as the French were seen mov-
ing down the dip of the saddle towards the Mamelon,
these troops were seen to come up in a dense mass,
pouring a heavy flanking fire against the allies. At
the same time they came within range of the guns of
the works around the Malakoff Tower (the Korniloff
Bastion), which, notwithstanding the shower of shell
and rockets from our batteries, kept up a galling fire
against the French as they retired. Some confusion
followed ; the Russians followed the French into the
Kamtchatka Redoubt, and the latter were next com-
pelled to evacuate it. That was a time of deep anxiety
for all who were watching the engagement. But con-
fidence was again resumed, when the French, who had
descended the Mamelon-hill, were seen to be steadily
re-forming in the Russian trenches which surround its
base. Up they went again, sending a shower of balls
among the Russians, who were now in crowds covering
the parapets. The redoubt was fringed with smoke
and flames from the fire of the Russian rifles against
the French as they mounted the hill, and the hill-side
was covered with the fire of the assailants. It was now
a few minutes before eight o’clock ; a dense bank of
black clouds rested on the horizon, and the sun had
sunk behind it. The Russians made for some time a
gallant resistance, but in vain; as the French mounted
they were seen to waver, and just as the French reach*
360
SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL.
ed the parapets they leaped down and retired. Our
allies were again masters of the Mamelon Vert.
While all this was going on, a sharp struggle had
ensued between the French and the Russian troops
occupying the redoubts on the east side of the Careen-
ing Bay ravine. The French had been seen to rush
from the right flank of their works, towards the fore-
most redoubt. In front of this were two large ambus-
cades and a trench : one volley appeared to be fired by
riflemen in the pit, after which they hastily fell back
on the redoubt. The contest at the first redoubt was
speedily settled ; at the second redoubt the resistance
was more obstinate. Here the Russians had a deep
and secure covered approach, which descended the slope
of the cliff, crossed the ravine, and was connected
with a like approach from the Mamelon Redoubt. A
complete parallel was thus formed. The enemy in the
Careening Redoubts were evidently dismayed when
they saw the Mamelon Vert fall into the hands of the
French, for this principal communication by which
supports could arrive to them was thus cut off, and
they were not in strength sufficient without reinforce-
ments to resist with effect the overpowering force of
their antagonists. They retired, therefore, partly by
the covered way, and partly towards the slope of the
hill, as it falls upon the roadstead ; and the work re-
mained in the hands of the French. Upwards of 500
prisoners were taken in these redoubts and 73 guns.
As soon as the Mamelon was taken by the French,
the order was given by Colonel Campbell for the small
force told off for attacking the Quarry to advance.
One end of the Quarry, that looking eastward in a di-
rection towards the Malakoff Tower, was connected
with three parallels which the Russians had dug in
front of the most advanced works, on Frenchman’s hill,
to prevent our further advance. The large rifle-pit
which the Russians contrived to throw up after ,e Eger-
ton’s pit” had been taken from them was connected
with the foremost of these parallels. When the order
SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL.
30t
was given for our attacking party to advance, the 88th
and 7th rushed out from the right of the zigzag ap-
proach on the left of our advanced work, the men of
the 47th and 49th Eegiments from the left of the ap-
proach. While some rushed up the hill towards the
Quarry, others took possession of the enemy’s rifle-pit
and advanced trench. It appeared that the Russians,
on seeing the attack of the French against the Mame-
lon, had moved along their trenches towards the right,
where they became connected with the trenches or
other works on the Malakoff-hill, so that the left, that
side on which our men advanced, was almost wholly
deserted. A trifling opposition met with in the Quar-
ry itself was quickly reduced, and our troops congratu-
lated themselves on having gained an easy victory.
Carried away by their enthusiasm, they even advanced
towards the Redan, and perhaps had they been in
force, such was the confusion and alarm of the Rus-
sians, they might have carried this important work.
As it was, the enemy returned with comparatively pow-
erful reinforcements, and suddenly opened a flanking
fire, which compelled our men to abandon the Quarry.
It was not armed as had been anticipated. A second
time our men moved against this work, and took it
from the enemy,' who had again entered it; nor was
this the last time, for still later in the evening a third
contest for its possession took place, which ended, as
before, in our being victors, but at a severe expense.
No less than eighteen officers, and a large number of
men, amounting to upwards of half the original at-
tacking force, were placed liors de combat, including
killed and wounded. Colonel Campbell behaved with
the most determined gallantry. He was struck no less
than four times, once so severely by a musket-bali,
which providentially was prevented from inflicting a
more serious wound by striking the front of his sword-
belt, that he fainted. Nothing but the unflinching
bravery of the troops could have enabled them to re-
tain the Quarry after they had wrested it from the
382
SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL.
enemy. The ground at the back of the Quarry was
fortunately found to be loose and soft, so that the work-
ing party were enabled to throw up some cover in this
direction without much difficulty.
During the night repeated attacks, six in all, were
made upon our men in the Quarries, who defended
their new acquisition with the utmost courage and per-
tinacity, and at great sacrifice of life, against superior
numbers, continually replenished. The strength of the
party told off for the attack was in all only 1000, of
whom 600 were in support. At the commencement
200 only went in, and another 200 followed. More
than once there was a fierce hand-to-hand fight in the
position itself, and our fellows had frequently to dash
out in front and take their assailants in flank. In one
of the attacks the Russians experienced some difficulty
in bringing their men again to the scratch. At length
one Russian officer succeeded in bringing on four men,
which Corporal Quin, of the 47 th, perceiving, made a
dash out of the work, and with the butt end of his
musket brained one, bayoneted a second, and, the other
two taking to their heels, brought in the officer a pri-
soner, having administered to him a gentle prick by
way of quickening his movements.
Russian prisoners and deserters represented the loss
to the enemy as being enormous ; 25,0l>0 men were
spoken about as their loss since the re-opening of the
bombardment; 15,000 alone during the attack on the
7th.
On the 18th of June ay attack on the Malakoff and
Redan was made by the Allies, which was met by the
Russians in a determined and successful manner ; the
Allies being repulsed, and compelled to retire, suffer-
ing great loss.
The original plan of attack contemplated a joint
English and French assault of the Malakoff, which, as
commanding the Redan and forming the grand key to
the whole network of redoubts and batteries in front
of the place, would, if taken, have at once rendered the
SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL.
383
former untenable, and placed the whole town and har-
bour at the mercy of the captors. For reasons, how-
ever, which nobody can understand, this very sensible
and apparently most practicable design was abandon-
ed, and the plan was changed into one simultaneous
attack of the two great works — the Malakoff being un-
dertaken by the French and the Redan by the English.
The first manifest disadvantage of this arrangement
was the spreading of our forces over a field of difficul-
ties nearly double in extent, and enabling the enemy to
bring a vast number of guns to play against us, which
in the former case would not have injured a man. To
vastly enhance the chances of failure involved in this
plan to ourselves, our whole attacking force, including
supports and everybody else, was limited to some 4000
men ; whilst the French, with a much juster appreci-
ation of the difficulty that fell to their share, told ( off
25,000. Of our handful, again, a large portion con-
sisted of raw recruits, recently arrived to fill up the
gaps in the regiments selected for the service — regi-
ments which, with one or two exceptions, had borne
the whole brunt of our trench fighting, and suffered
accordingly.
Though the bombardment had been kept up rigor-
ously during the whole of the 17 th, yet night neces-
sarily put a stop to it ; and then the Eussians were
busily engaged in repairing and strengthening their
defences ; it was therefore arranged by the Allied gen-
erals that at daybreak on the 18th a terrific fire of shot
and shell should be poured in to render as many of
the guns as possible incapable of mischief. General
Pelissier, however, an hour before daybreak rode over
to the English camp, and, in consideration of the num-
ber of men he would have in the trenches, requested
Lord Eaglan to consent to an immediate assault on
the Malakoff and Eedan as soon as day dawned.
Lord Raglan consented ; and, accordingly, soon after
the first streaks of sunlight broke over the horizon,
the doomed thousands rushed to defeat and death.
364
SIEGE 03? SEBASTOPOL.
The French plan of assault on the Malakoff appears
to have consisted in assailing the work on both flanks
simultaneously, and with overwhelming numbers.
They found the redoubt swarming with defenders, and
guns bristling in every embrasure. The French army
of attack was divided into three divisions, headed re-
spectively by General Meyran, General Bronet, and
General d’Autemarre, and the intention was to com-
mence operations at three o’clock; but, instead of
waiting for the attack, the Russians, at a quarter be-
fore three, opened fire on General Meyran’s division,
placed on the side of the Careening Bay, and decimated
it before the two other divisions could recover from
their surprise ; so that by the time General Pelissier
arrived on the ground, which was not till three o’clock,
his combinations were irretrievably deranged. So
audden and complete was the destruction dealt on
General Meyran’s division — the general himself being
wounded — that the Russians were able to turn their
whole attention on General Bronet, whose division
was taken in flank and crippled, and the General kill-
ed, by the time the Third Division came up, to be
likewise decimated. Thus it was that the Russians
took the French bv surprise, and were able, as a con-
sequence, to execute the manoeuvre which has ever
been the aim of great captains, that of beating the ene-
my in detail.
The manner of the English attack on the Redan was
as follows: — The senior brigades of the Light Divi-
sion, the Second Division, Third Division, and Fourth
Division, were to furnish each one column of 1750 men,
to whom were joined 60 sailors, and those columns
were to be employed against the Redan, and the Cem-
etery and batteries on the left of the Redan, close to
the neck of the Dockyard Creek. The second brigades
of these divisions were to be in reserve, and the Guards
Brigade and the Highland Brigade were moved up
and kept in reserve also for any duty that might oc-
cur. The attacking party of the Second Division was
SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL*
the only exception to these rules, as it was formed of
broken brigades. Sir George Brown had the direction
of the assault. The 1750 men in each instance were
formed of 400 men for the assaulting column, a work-
ing party of 400 men to cover them in case of a lodg-
ment and to reverse the work, 800 men as a support,
and 100 riflemen or sharpshooters preceding the head
of the assaulting column to keep down the fire of the
batteries and of the enemy’s Chasseurs, and 50 men
carrying woolpacks to bridge over the ditches. To
these were added 60 sailors, bearing scaling-ladders.
The Light Division column was to attack the right of
the Bedan at there-entering angle ; the Second Divi-
sion column was to attack the apex after the Light
Division and Fourth Division had gained the flanks,
and effected a junction along the base of the works,
when they were to prevent the consequences of forcing
a strong body of the enemy from the flanks into the
angle of the Bedan. The attacking column of the
Light Division was furnished by the 7th Fusiliers,
23rd Welsh, 33rd Begiment, and 34th Begiment.
The storming party was led by Colonel Yea, of the
7th. The 19th, 77th, and 88th Begiments, or the
Second Brigade, were in reserve, under Colonel Shir-
ley. Soon after twelve o’clock they moved down from
camp and took ground in the trenches under the direc-
tion of Major Halliwell, the deputy Assistant Quaiv
termaster General of the Division. The Second Divi -
sion was on their left, the Fourth Division on the left
of the Second Division, and the Third Division on the
extreme left. The movement was simultaneous, and
the troops moved off together till they came into the
trenches, from which they were to issue forth to attack
the dark wall of earth serrated with embrasures before
them.
As the 34th Begiment advanced, the supports by
some means or another got mixed together with them,
and some confusion arose in consequence. On cross-
ing the trench, our men, instead of coming upon the
see
SIEGE 0? SEBASfOEO!.
open in a firm body, were broken into twos and three*,
This arose from the want of a temporary step above
the berme, which would have enabled the troops to cross
tho parapet with regularity ; instead of which they
had to scramble over it as well as they could; and as
the top of the trench was of unequal height and form,
their line was quite broken. The moment they came
out of the trench the enemy began to direct on their
whole front a deliberate and well-aimed mitraille ,
which increased the want of order and unsteadiness
caused by the mode of their advance. Poor Colonel
Yea saw the consequences too clearly. Having in vain
tried to obviate the evil caused by the broken forma-
tion and confusion of his men, who were falling fast
around him, he exclaimed, “This will never do!
Where’s the bugler to call them back ?” But, alas !
at that critical moment no bugler was to be found.
The gallantold soldier by voice andgesture, tried to form
and compose his men, but the thunder of the enemy’s
guns close at hand, and the gloom of early dawn frus-
trated his efforts; and, as he rushed along the troubled
mass of troops which were herding together under the
rush of grape, and endeavoured to get them into order
for a rush at the batteries, which was better than
standing still or retreating in a panic, a charge of the
deadly missile passed, and the noble soldier fell dead
in advance of his men. In the 34th, Captain Shiff-
ner and Capt. Robinson were killed close by their lead-
er, and in a few moments Captain D wilt, Captain Jor-
dan, Captain Warry, Lieutenant Peel, Lieutenant Alt,
Lieutenant Clayton, and Lieutenant Harman, of the
same regiment, fell more or less wounded to the
ground. Altogether the division lost upwards of 320
men killed and wounded, and it suffered severely as it
retired from the futile attack. The signal for our as-
sault was to be given by the discharge of two service-
rockets, which were to be fired when the French got
into the Malakoff, and the latter were to have hoisted
a flag as a signal of their success-
SIEGE OB SEBASTOPOL
367
It is certain that the French did for a short time es-
tablish themselves in the MalakofF, but they were soon
expelled with loss, and several persons say that they
saw a large triangular blue and black flag waving from
the MalakofF all during the fight. The moment the
rockets were fired, the Light Division rushed out of
cover ; and in a quarter of an hour this infantry Balak-
lava was over, so far as any chance of success was
concerned. Poor Sir John Campbell seems to have
displayed a courage amounting to rashness. He sent
away Captain Hume and Captain Snodgrass, his Aides-
de-Camp, just before he rushed out of the trench, as if
averse to bring them into the danger he meditated,
and fell in the act of cheering on his men. The 67th,
out of 400 men, had more than a third killed and
wounded, and it became evident that the contest on
the left was as hopeless as the fight on the right, and
in fifteen minutes all was over.
The brigade under Major-General Eyre, which was
destined to occupy the Cemetery and to carry the
Barrack Batteries, consisted of the 9th, 18th, 28th, 38tb,
and 44th Regiments. Four volunteers from each com-
pany were selected to form an advance party, under Ma-
jor Fielden, of the 44th Regiment, to feel the way and
cover the advance. The 18th Royal Irish followed as
the storming regiment. The brigade was turned out
at twelve o’clock, and proceeded to march down the
road on the left of the Greenhill Battery to the Ceme-
tery, and halted under cover while the necessary dis-
positions were being made for the attack. General
Eyre, addressing the 18th, said, <e I hope, my men,
that this morning you will do something that will make
every cabin in Ireland ring again !” The reply was a
loud cheer, which instantly drew on the men a shower
of grape. The skirmishers advanced just as the gen-
eral attack began, and, with some French on their left,
rushed at the Cemetery, which was very feebly defend-
ed. They got possession of the place after a slight
resistance, with small loss, and took some prisoners ;
but the moment the enemy retreated, their batteries
368
SIEGE OE BEBASTOPOS*
opened a heavy fire on the place from the left of the
Bedan and from the Barrack Battery. Four com-
panies of the 18th at once rushed out of the Ceme-
tery towards the town, and actually succeeded in
getting possession of the suburb. Captain Hay man
was gallantly leading on his company when he was
shot through the knee. Captain Esmonde followed;
and the men, once established, prepared to defend the
houses they occupied. As they drove the Bussians out
they were pelted with large stones by the latter on
their way to the battery, which quite overhangs the
suburb. The Bussians could not depress their guns
sufficiently to fire down on our men, but they directed
a severe flanking fire on them from an angle of the
Bedan works. There was nothing for it but to keep
up a vigorous fire from the houses, and to delude the
enemy into the belief that the occupiers were more
numerous than they were. Meantime the Bussians did
their utmost to blow down the houses, and fired grape
incessantly ; but the soldiers kept close, though they
lost men occasionally, and they were most materially
aided by the fire of the regiments in the Cemetery be-
hind them, which was directed at the Bussian em-
brasures ; so that the enemy could not get out to fire
on the houses below. The 9th Begiment succeeded in
effecting a lodgment in the houses in two or three dif-
ferent places, and held their position, as well as the 18th.
A sergeant and a handful of men actually got posses-
sion of the little Wasp Battery, in which there were only
twelve or fourteen Bussian artillerymen. They fled
at the approach of our men, but when the latter turned
round they discovered they were quite unsupported;
and the Bussians, seeing that the poor fellows were
left alone, came down on them and drove them out of
the battery. An officer and half-a-do 2 en men of the
same regiment got up close to a part of the Flagstaff
Battery, and were advancing into it when they, too,
saw that they were by themselves, and, as it was futile
to attempt holding their ground, they retreated.
About fifteen French soldiers on their left aided them.
SIEGE OB SEBASTEPOL.
369
but as they were likewise unsupported, they had to re-
tire. Another officer with only twelve men took one
of the Russian rifle-pits, bayoneted those they found
in it, and held possession of it during the day. Mean-
time, while those portions of the 5th and 18th and par-
ties of the 44th and 28th were in the houses, the de-
tachments of the same regiments and of the 38th kept
up a hot fire from the Cemetery on the Russians in
the battery and on the sharpshooters, all the time be-
ing exposed to a tremendous shower of bullets, grape,
round shot, and shell. The loss of the brigade, under
such circumstances, could not but be extremely severe.
One part of it, separated from the other, was exposed
to a destructive fire in houses, the upper portion of
which crumbled into pieces or fell in under fire, and
it was only by keeping in the lower story, which was
vaulted and well built, that they were enabled to hold
their own. The other parts of it, far advanced from
our batteries, were almost unprotected, and were
under a constant mitraiUe and bombardment from
guns which our batteries had failed to touch.
The detachments from the Naval Brigade suffered
severely. Two parties of 60 men each were engaged in
carrying scaling ladders and wool-bags to place for
the stormers ; and in this service 14 men were killed
and 47 wounded. All the officers but three were either
killed or wounded. Lieut. Kidd, in trying to bring in
a wounded soldier, was shot in the breast, and died an
hour after.
Next morning there was hardly a gun fired on either
side ; and about twelve o’clock the English hoisted a
flag to request the necessary truce for the burial of
their dead. The truce was granted, and the dead and
wounded were brought in.
During this proceeding a number of Russian offi-
cers mingled amongst our party, and, as several of them
spoke English fluently, a good deal was said. Their
“ pumping” inclination, however, was so marked as in
most cases to defeat itself j though one of our officers
246 2 a
370 SIEGE OP SEBASTOPOL*
was guilty of the indiscretion of informing a very
suave interrogator that their grape did sad injury to
our men in possession of the lately-taken Quarries — a
remark which procured his instant order to the rear,
by General Airey. It was by one of these polite foes
that the inquiry was made of an Englishman whether
“ our generals had really been drunk or not during the
recent assault.” The Russians having helped our men
to gather in the dead, the whole sad duty was soon
performed, and the truce brought to an end.
Sir John Campbell was interred on Cathcart’s-hill,
his favourite resort, where every one was sure of a
kind word and a cheerful saying from the gallant Bri-
gadier. “It was but the very evening before his
death,” says a correspondent, “that I saw him stand-
ing within a few feet of his own grave. He had come
to the ground in order to attend the funeral of Captain
Vaughan, an officer of his own regiment (the 38th),
who died of wounds received two days previously in
the trenches, and he laughingly invited one who was
talking to him to come and lunch with him next day
at the Club-house of Sebastopol.”
List of British officers killed on the 6th, 7th, and
18th of June : — Capt. G. Dawson, Lieut. T. G. Low-
ry, Royal Engineers ; Capt. B. H. E. Miller, 2nd Bat.
1st Foot; Lieut. H. M. Lawrence, 34th; Lieut.
Richard J. T. Stone, 55th ; Major W. F. Dixon, Capt.
J. B. Foster, 62nd; Lieut. James Marshall, 68th; Bre-
vet-Major Edward Bayley, Capt. Edward Corbett,
Captain Jackson Wray, Lieut. E. H. Webb, 88th;
Major- Gen. Sir J Campbell, Bart.; Lieut. J. W„
Meurant, 18th ; Lieut. O.G. S. Davies, 38th ; Capt.
Frederick Smith, 9th; Capts. Bowes Fenwick, Hon.
C. Agar, F. W. Caulfield, 44th ; Capt. J. L. Croker,
17th ; Lieut.-Col. Thomas Shadforth, Lieut. J. C. Ash-
win, 57th ; Colonel L. W. Yea, Lieut. J. S. Hobson,
7th; Lieut. V. Bennett, 33rd.; Capts. John Shiffner,
F. Hurt, Lieut. H. D. Alt, 34th ; Capt. E. F. For-
man, Second Bat. Rifle Brigade; Capt. Wm. Jessie,
Lieuta. James Murray, T. Graves, Royal Engineers.
CHAPTER XL
Death op Lord Raglan-— Sir James Simpson
appointed Commander op the British For-
ces. — Battle op the Tcherna*a — Bombard-
ment and Fall op Sebastopol.
The closing part of the last chapter referred to the
repulse and defeat of the Allied troops in attacking
the strongholds of the Russian defences. But though
the besiegers had been repulsed, they were still reso-
lute and determined to overcome every obstacle ; and
the events about to be narrated in this chapter will be
an evidence that the Allied forces were fully compe-
tent to contend with and overcome their numerous and
brave opponents.
In chronicling the events occurring in the Crimea
at the close of J une, our first painful duty will be to
record the death of the British commander-in-chief,
Lord Raglan. He had just been called upon to bear
the loss of 1600 brave companions-in-arms, in an at-
tack from which much was expected ; he knew that
his countrymen at home were impatiently waiting for
news of the capture of that formidable fortress which
had for such a great length of time baffled the
besiegers ; he knew that his own troops were dissatis-
fied with the operations of the day ; and he also felt
that the two armies, French and English, each wish-
ed to lay the blame of failure chiefly on the other.
On the 18th of June the unsuccessful series of assaults
had been made ; on the 28th of the same month Lord
Raglan expired. True, the assigned cause of death
was a malady very prevalent in the camp at that time,
cholera; but mental anxiety unquestionably bore a
heavy share in producing the result. The last despatch
371
372 BATTLE OB THE TCHERNAYA.
from Lord Eaglan made public was dated June 25th,
announcing the death from cholera of Major-general
Estcourt, adjutant-general of his army ; and the same
mail brought a despatch from General Simpson, com-
municating the sad news that the British commander
himself had sunk on the evening of the 28th. Lord
Eaglan, unwell for some time previously, was pro-
nounced by his medical attendants much better on the
morning of that day; nevertheless, as evening ap-
proached, he gradually weakened and died.
Sir James Simpson, on account of Sir George
Brown having left the Crimea through ill health, suc-
ceeded to the command of the British forces; though
his health was precarious. However, the British go-
vernment confirmed his appointment; and he engaged
in the task to the best of hiaability.
During the months of July and August the deaths
in the trenches were terrible. The daily booming of
cannon, and the unwearied assiduity of the Allies in
getting nearer the defences of their antagonists, were
the principal events which characterised the month
of J uly and the begining of August.
On the 16th of August, however, occurred an event
which reflected great honour on the French and Sar-
dinian troops, and caused dismay and consternation
in a large portion of the Eussian forces. This was
the Battle oe the Tchernaya. The following
is a description of this brilliant affair : — The Allied
Generals had reason to believe that the Eussians would
attempt, by a vigorous attack, to force them to raise the
siege. This they endeavoured to do on the morning
of the 16th, but the result was most glorious to those
of the Allied troops who had the good fortune to be
engaged. The action commenced before daylight, by
a heavy column of Eussians, under the command of
General Liprandi, and composed of the 6th and 17th
divisions, with the 4th and 7th divisions in reserve*
attacking the advanced posts of the Sardinians. The
ground occupied by them was on the commanding hilla
BATTLE OP THE TCHERNAYA.
373
an the right of the position, on the left bank of the Sou-
haia river, where it forms its junction with theTcher-
naya, with two advanced posts on the opposite side.
These were held with very determined gallantry for a
considerable time; but, being separated from their
Supports by the river, and not having the protection
of artillery, they were compelled to leave the most ad-
vanced one. About the same time the 5th and 12th
Divisions, to which were added a portion of the 17th,
advanced against the bridge of Traktir, held by one
battalion of French infantry of the line, who were for a
short time obliged to yield and fall back upon the mam
supports ; with these, however, they soon retook the
bridge at the point of the bayonet. Again the Rus-
sians attacked with persevering courage, and were en-
abled to follow up their advantage by gaining the
heights which rise precipitously on each side of the
river: their success was but momentary; they were
driven back across the river, leaving the ground cov-
ered with dead and wounded.
The Russian General, no way daunted by the failure
of his two attempts, ordered a second column, of equal
force to the first, to attack ; they advanced with such
impetuosity, covered by the fire of their numerous
artillery, that a third time the bridge was carried, and
the heights above it crowned, but they were again re-
pulsed, and retired in great confusion into the plain,
followed by the bayonets of our gallant allies. The
general officer who commanded the Russian column,
who was it is supposed General Read, was killed, and
in his possession were found the orders for the battle,
signed by Prince Gortschakoff, who commanded in
person. From these it would appear that it was a
most determined attempt to force us to raise the siege.
Had they succeeded, Balaklava was to have|been attack-
ed by one portion of the army, whilst the heights were
to be stormed with the other; at the same time a
vigorous sortie was to have been made from the town,
on the French works on our extreme left, from til©
374
BATTLE OE THE TCHEENAYA.
Quarantine, and another on the works on our extreme
right on Mount Sapoune.
The action was most glorious to the arms of the
French and Sardinian troops. To meet the force
of the Russians the former had but 12,000 infantry,
and four batteries of artillery engaged ; the latter had
10,000 men in position, 4500 actually engaged, and 24
pieces of cannon. The Russian forces consisted of
from 60,000 to 60,000 men, with 160 pieces of artillery,
and cavalry to the amount of 6000. This disparity of
numbers will readily explain the difficulty that would
have been experienced had an attempt been made to
follow up the advantage by a pursuit. The Russian
retreat, moreover, was protected by the fire from the
heavy guns in position on the Mackenzie heights.
The loss sustained by the Russians is estimated at be-
tween 6000 and 6000 men, including 600 prisoners ;
whilst on the part of the Allies it did not amount to
more than 1000 men.
This brilliant affair caused the greatest delight
amongst the ranks of the Allied army; and while it
added fresh lustre to the gallant achievements of the
French arms, it is with the utmost pleasure that we
have to record the intrepid conduct and gallant bear-
ing of the Sardinian troops, under General Della
Marmora, who for the first time met, conquered,
and shed their blood against our common enemy, who
was then disturbing the peace of Europe. Captain
Mowbray’s battery of 32-pounder howitzers was placed
in advance with the Sardinian troops, and did most
excellent service in preventing the advance of the
enemy’s artillery. Our cavalry, under Lieutenant-
General Sir J. Scarlett, K.C.B., was placed in the plain
of Balaklava, prepared to take advantage of any cir-
cumstance that might present itself, but the oppor-
tunity did not arise for calling upon their services.
On this occasion, as at Inkermann, there was hardly
any opportunity for the use of cavalry, and none wore
employed on either side. On our part we had about
S*ALL OF SEBASTOPOL.
375
8000 horses in readiness, whilst the Russians had in a
hollow on their right no less than sixty squadrons
drawn up in beautiful order. The battle, in truth,
was a very simple one ; there was no great manoeuv-
ring genius shown in it. It was a preconcerted affair,
carried out in a preconcerted way. It was Inkermann
over again, minus the energy of the soldiers, for it is
the opinion of all who saw them that the Russians
fought- ill and without vigour.
We regret to say that General Montevecchio, of
the Piedmontese army, who was shot with a musket-
ball at the approach of the Russians, since died.
Although there were daily cannon adings betwixt the
besiegers and the besieged, during the closing days of
August and the beginning of September, yet the fire
was not anything like brisk, until the 6th, when it as-
sumed a formidable aspect. We now proceed to give
a description of the final bombardment and capture of
this stronghold of Russian power : —
“ The bombardment which had been kept up with less
vigour than usual during the night of the 7th, broke out at
daybreak into a complete fire from end to end of our lines.
It burst over every part of the Russian works with the
fury of a tornado, sending up clouds of dust and smoke,
which were driven into our camp by a cold north wind,
blinding the men whose duty called them to the trenches,
and filling the air so densely as to render objects indistinct
at a certain distance. As the bombardment commenced,
preparations for the assault were made in the camps of
the Allies, and numerous regiments were drawn up under
arms at dawn. It had been considered proper to forward
the men in detachments, and not in columns, so as to keep
the enemy as much as possible ignorant of our inventions.
The storm was intrusted to the Second and Light Division,
portions of which were to form immediate supports, whilst
the rear was to be kept by the Fourth Division, the Guards
and Highlanders, and the Third Division. Sir William
Codrington had the general command of the storm, and
was supported by General Markham. At half-past nine all
d:he regiments of the Second and Light Division, as well as
the Generals and Staff, had made their w ay to the trenches s
General Codrington taking up his position in the fifth pan*
876
FAT, T OF SEBASTOPOL.
allel, whilst General Markham had his in ft pit called
Egerton’s Pit, in the third parallel. The stormers consist-
ed of portions of the 30th, 41st, 65th, and 62nd, from the
Second Division, oftke90th, 97th,23rd, and 88th, from the
Light Division. The ladder parties were told off from the
3rd Buffs and 97th Eegiment. The supports of theseregi-
ments, as well as other regiments of the same dnision
were in reserve in the fourth and third parallels ready for
action. At the foot of the Malakoff had also been massed
stormers from the French First Division, consisting of 400
men of the 1st Zouaves and 450 men of the 1st Chasseurs
de Vincennes, under the command of General MacMahon.
The Fifth Division furnished stormers for the Little Eedan
and the works on the proper left of the Malakoff. The
Second Division kept the trenches, whilst the Fourth was
in reserve. General Pelissier and his Staff rode through
the British Camp on the way to Inkermann at half-past
eleven, passing the Guards and Highlanders as they moved
up the Woronzoff road to the trenches. General Simp3on
took up a position near the Picket-house on the Woron-
zoff road. There were few spectators on the hills, on account
of precautions taken by General Simpson to stop all egress
from Balaklava. At a few minutes before noon the bom-
bardment was urged to a terrific blaze of fire, which pour-
ed upon the Russians from embrasures purposely kept
closed until that moment.
“ At ten minutes past twelve the signal for the storm on
the Malakoff was given by the explosion of two mines close
to the counter-scarp, and in the confusion caused by the
smoke and uproar the Zouaves and Chasseurs rushed on.
They made their way over ground ploughed up by the ex-
plosion of shells, and full of holes, and elevations of jag-
ged and irregular formation. Their speed was scarcely im-
peded by this obstacle, and they jumped down the ditch
and up the sides of the works without using the scaling-
ladders. The Russians, who were completely taken by
surprise, were driven out of the redoubt or killed, and left
the French perfect masters of it; the short distance of
twenty -five yards, which separated the ditch of the Mala-
koff from the parallel, contributinglnot afjlittle to the fortu-
nate issue of the storm. In the meanwhile two other at-
tacks had been almost simultaneously made upon the Rus-
sians with far less fortunate results. General Codrington,
hearing the signal for assault on the Malakoff, after a short
pause gave the order to storm the Redan. The ladder-
parties of the 3rd and 95th dashed out, and favoured by
3* ALL OF SEBASTOPOL.
377
tolerably even ground, passed the abattis which was no
sensible obstacle to their progress, and planted their lad-
ders on the salient angle of the work. The stormers, less
active than they had been, were delayed by their inability
to issue from the parallel, except by one aperture, and
when they succeeded in reaching the scarp of the Sedan,
the ladder-party had already mounted to the assault. Tde
stormers followed, mounting on each side of the salient
angle, and fought their way into the Redan, killing the
Russians within the first traverse; but, in their eagerness
to outstrip each other, the parties on the left pressed across
the work to join those on the right, and in doing so fell into
the concentrated fire of the enemy, whose supports, up-
wards of 2000 in number, were rapidly coming up. A
hand-to-hand conflict followed, desperate in its nature, —
the Russians fighting for the hold with the tenacity of bears,
and using every sort of missile, in addition to their arms.
Stones, loose grape, stocks of broken muskets, were hurled
in broken volleys from the summit of the traverses, on our
men, whose ammunition began to fail. They in their turn
grasped at stones, and hurled them against the Russians;
who now, encouraged by the arrival of reinforcements and
the diminution of our men, poured down upon our devot-
ed stormers, and fought with them hand to hand. Many
were the despairing efforts that then took place — men clung
to men, and the agony of both was undergone on the same
spot. This was too terrible to last. Either our Generals
must bring on supports, or the stormers retreat. The
former was delayed, and the remnant of our men gave way
in disorder from the parapets and embrasures which they
had so gallantly stormed. At this time there were several
regiments in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th parallels which did not
move sufficiently qaick, and were not in time to save the
relics of the stormers. The Redan was thus won and lost.
The French attack on the Little Redan and works upon
the Careening Bay were failures for other reasons. The
troops moved resolutely on, rapidly crossing a broad space
which lay between them and the Russian redoubts. They
were thrown into considerable confusion by rows of holes
called trous a loup, into which the men stumbled in the
midst of the darkness caused by dust and smoke ; their
attack was deprived by this of its firmness, and was re-
pulsed by the enemy. The struggle, however, was main-
tained doubtfully for a considerable time. The first body
of stormers, almost annihilated by the musketry of the
Russians, covered the parapets of the works with their
37 *
FALL OP SEBASTOPOL.
bodies ; when fresh supports came up, and struggled to
gain the summit of the scarp; but at every fresh attempt
they fell back discomfited into the ditch, covering the
ground with dead and dying. The Russians not only had
the advantage of position, but they had been materially
assisted in this portion of the attack by the fire of the
steamers which fired broadsides upon the Malakoff and the
counterscarps of the Little Redan. The Vladimir , always
so ably handled that, when anything daring was done by
the Russians, the French said “ c'est dn Vladimir ,” steam-
ed rapidly up under the very mouths of the French batter-
ies on Mount Sapoune, delivered her broadside, and then
majestically steaming round, delivered a second, without
eliciting in the confusion any reply from the French.
These broadsides committed dreadful havoc, and threw tha
ranks of the assaulting columns into inextricable confusion.
Notwithstanding every adverse circumstance, however, the
French maintained their ground at the foot of the scarp
and in the ditch of the Little Redan and Black Batteries,
firing resolutely at every Russian who showed himself over
the parapet, whilst the Russians on their part were equally
quick in returning shot for shot when a Frenchman raised
his person more than usual. This part of the fight par-
took at last of a certain Indian character, the struggle from
cover to cover resembling those of which we have all read
in the glowing pages of Cooper.
“ These painful phases of the combined assault proceeded
whilst the main attack on the Malakoff rapidly lost its ear-
ly characteristics. The ditch about the Malakoff was
about fifteen feet deep, and the scarp twenty feet high.
The embrasures and platforms were elevated above the le-
vel of the work, which was divided into parts by traverses
of irregular shape, in which small openings were made for
the passage of men. These traverses were mostly quar-
ried works, the galleries of which were supported by dou-
ble rows of gigantic beams of Norway pine, and the height
of earth forming the roof made every vault bomb-proof.
The traverses generally measured 12 to 15 feet in height,
and being most irregular in their form must have render-
ed complete possession extremely difficult. The Redan
was similarly arranged internally. The very security of
the soldiers in these strongholds must have increased a
chance of surprise, and the instant occupation of the work
and destruction of its defenders :n a short period are a
proof of it. The Russians, however, did not passively al-
low their enemy to enjoy his new possession* They ha$
FALL OF SEBASTOPOL.
379
no sooner been driven out than they attaoked the French
with the energy of despair, and the Zouaves and Chasseurs
found themselves defenders instead of assaulters oftheMa-
lakoff. The Russians trusted more to stones and missiles
of that nature than to their muskets, and from the summits
of the traverses they heaved all kinds of miscellaneous ar-
ticles, such as stones, beams, buckets, old grape-shot, and
muskets. The French, short of ammunition, replied with
the same weapons, varying their resistance by rushes at
the point of the bayonet. They were giving way, however,
before the advancing Russians, discouraged by intelligence
of impending failure at the Redan and Black Works; but,
at the critical moment, the supports of the division march-
ed up, and entered the work on all sides. The Imperial
Guard, consisting of Grenadiers and Zouaves, swarmed in-
to the Malakolf and commenced a desperate conflict. Hand
to hand amongst the labyrinthine windings of the redoubt,
amongst shell-holes, broken gabions, and irregular eleva-
tions, each side fought and bled. They fell side by side,
and in many instances above each other. The ground was
strewed with them so as to be completely invisible. To
add to the horror of the moment the shells from the Redan
and steamers fell in numbers upon the portion of the
work in possession of the French, and added to the heavi-
ness of their losses. But the Russians were unable to re-
gain the Malakolf. As the French poured in fresh sup-
ports every moment, and brought in field artillery over a
hasty bridge into the redoubt, the Russians slowly yielded,
and commenced a retreat which ended in a rout. The scene
of it was the way leading from the Dockyard to the Mala-
kolf, a road traced inside of the second line of defence,
to which the Russians trusted as a means of retrieving their
losses. The rapidity of the French movement when the
Russians first commenced their retreat, prevented the lat-
ter from using their second line of defence efficaciously.
The hand-to-hand conflict down the descent did not ena-
ble them to kill a foe without destroying a friend; and thus
the French passed down from the "Malakolf towards the
town until they came to the base of the hill, and on a level
with the Dockyard. From that spot they receded, moving
to their right, and driving the Russians through the streets
of the Karabelnaia suburb ; whilst the field artillery and
some of the lighter guns left in the Malakoff were turned
against the second line of defence, which it successfully
enfiladed. Darkness now supervened, and the Russians,
under its cover, withdrew from the works of the Karabei-
paia„ the Little Reclan, and Black Battery.
380
FALL OF SEBASTOPOL.
‘'The capture of the MalakofF, and failure of the attacks
on the Redan and works of Careening Bay, were not the
only episodes of the day on which the Allies finally esta-
blished a footing in the heart of the Russian defences.
General Pelissier had combined his attack in such a man-
ner a3 to prevent the enemy from concentrating heavy
masses against any point of our approach. It had been
previously concerted that, whilst the Black Batteries, Ma-
lakoff, and Redan, were assaulted at noon, storming co-
lumns should be moved against the Central Bastion and
the Flagstaff Redoubt on the western side of Sebastopol.
Had all these attacks been simultaneous, success would pro-
bably have crowned the efforts of the Allies on more than
one point, and the French might have established a firm
footing on the west, whilst we effected a lodgment on the
Redan. The operations were not undertaken simultane-
ously, perhaps because the commanders were unwilling to
risk the loss of life consequent upon failure, had we been
repulsed at all points. The Malakoffwas therefore storm-
ed first, and the attacks on the other points undertaken af-
terwards. The consequence was that time was given to
the Russians to make preparations, which rendered their
resistance effectual on all but the first point, spiritedly
carried and maintained by the French.
“ The failure of the French storm of the Central Bastion
remains to be recorded. The columns, concentrated in
close proximity to the work, were formed at an early part
of the day ; but the signal to storm was not given till two
o’clock in the afternoon,, The enemy had an imposing
force concentrated in expectation of the attack, as the
fierce bombardment, kept up for sixty -two hours on the
left on the French, had led him to anticipate the most pow-
erful assault there. In consequence of this, 30,000 men
were moved to that point ; while the deficiencies on the
proper left of the position were made good by draughting
the 14th Division into the town. The storming parties of
the French rushed firmly on to the assault, and effected a
lodgment in the Central Bastion after a short and spirited
combat. The Russians were either killed or driven out,
and left the work in the hands of the stormers ; but this
success was momentary. Heavy masses were speedily ad-
vanced to the front, which engaged the assaulting party
with all the advantage of freshness. The contest then as-
sumed a close and deadly aspect, and the French, over-
powered by a shower of missiles of every description, were
forced to draw back in the same way as our stormers had
PALL OP SEBASTOPOL.
381
retired from the Sedan. A short time elapsed, and the
red forms of our allies were observed falling back over the
parapets of the Central Bastion, jumping down into the
ditch, and scrambling up the counterscarp. A momentary
panic was then visible, in the midst of which the French
General in command (whose name we regret to be unable to
record) rallied his men in a most gallant manner, and led
them a second time to the assault. This second effort was
apparently as irresistible as the first, and the stormers
again made their way into the body of the work, notwith-
standing prodigious efforts on the part of the Russians.
Another struggle in the bastion followed, and, fresh sup-
ports coming up to the enemy, the French again wavered,
and failing in ammunition, assailed by stones, cold grape,
and pickaxes, they were finally forced out of the work, and
the Russians left masters of the field. This was the only
action fought on the western side of Sebastopol, the at-
tack on the Flagstaff Bastion having been abandoned after
the failure of that on the Central Redoubt.
u One grand result compensated the Allies for the car-
nage which had marked the operation of the day. The
Malakoff taken, gave us such a hold over the remainder
of the town, that it was obvious the Russians could not re-
main there. The movements of the French Generals on
this successful point were vigorous and decisive. They
turned not only the first, but also the second line of Rus-
sian defence, exposing the rear of the Redan to a sweeping
fire, which was immediately opened from the Malakoff
with guns captured in the place, and those which had been
dragged into the redoubt in rear of the stormers. At
sunset every disposition had been made to maintain the
advantages obtained, and a dropping fire from the Russians
in the Karabelnaia suburb alone told where isolated con-
tests showed the despairing energies of the besieged pitted
against the persevering efforts of the besiegers. Gradually,
as the gloom of night spread its dark mantle over the town,
a mournful silence succeeded to the roar of battle, and
songs of victory alone broke the stillness of the atmosphere
as the wind moaned against the innumerable tents of the
Allied Camps, and swiftly drove heavy lowering clouds
over the dark grey of the sky. The crowds which had as-
sembled on the hills, hovering round and swooping at times
upon the wayworn soldiers who straggled from the field to
give the details of the victory, gradually thinned and dis-
appeared. A hum as of a mass moving through Sebastopol
was then heard, and presently portentous clouds of smoko
382 FALL OF SEBASTOPOL.
were seen to issue from the houses which lay clustered
along the sides of the harbour. From the base of the co-
lumns of smoke flames then began to issue, and as mid-
night came, glaring masses of flame burst out from the
town and proclaimed the Russians vanquished and retreat-
ing. Undisturbed in their work of destruction, the enemy
were allowed to proceed ; and as the forked fire illuminated
the horizon, spreading from house to house, and ob-
scuring the sky with dense masses of smoke and vapour,
a few belated spectators witnessed the scene of a burning
city destroyed by its defenders. The flames spread rapid-
ly from street to street, and the stillness of the night, and
the howling of the elements, was broken by a series of ter-
rible explosions, which startled the echoes of surrounding
hills, shaking the ground for miles, and casting up burning
fragments from the earth high into the air as forts and
redoubts were blown up. The ships of the Allies, wearing
at their anchors, were illuminated by the glare which burst
from the magazines of the works along the shore, as they
were exploded in succession by the retreating Russians.
Then the roar of the flames gained the ascendant over all
other sounds, and whilst flitting forms were seen amongst
burning masses, the retreat commenced. Long before the
columns of the Russians began to cross the bridge of rafts
on their way to the north, the Redan had been occupied
by the Highland brigade in charge of the trenches. Vo-
lunteers from several regiments entered the work shortly
after midnight, and found it deserted of defenders. At dawn
the masses of the enemy were still swiftly crossing the
bridge and lining the hills of the Severnaia, whilst the
Vladimir and other steamers covered the passage with their
broadsides. With the exception of these the harbour was
tenantless of any floating vessel, except boats. The state-
ly three-deckers which had so proudly rested on the wa-
ters of Sebastopol were sunk, and their places only marked
by the breaking of the waters over their white masts, as
the waves were dashed along them by a north-east gale.
Shortly after day-break the last straggler of the Russian
army had abandoned the south side, and the bridge of
rafts was cut adrift and taken in tow by the steamers.
The only souls in the town were convicts left to keep up
the fire of the town, who did their work with unflagging
energy ; but who were not left undisturbed in their labours,
as crowds of soldiers— -chiefly French — entered the town
even before the Russians retreated ; and, fearless of the
explosions which took place at intervals, ransacked the
fALL OF S8BA8T0P0I.
m
houses, and either took the incendiaries prisoners or shot
them when they met. Few sights can be conceived more
grand than that of Sebastopol burning in the morning.
The western side was in a mass of blaze, and flames were
issuing from the largest buildings. The churches alone
were spared, and the mushroom steeple of one, as well as
the Athenian columns of another, and the pointed spires
of a third, were fitfully thrown into light when the north-
east wind wafted the smoke into the air, and removed the
curtain of flames which at times covered the scene. Light
red and yellow smokes were relieved by black ones of
equal density, and at the base of all shone the flames which
fed them. Fort Nicholas, the dockyard buildings, and the
Naval Hospital, were illuminated by the sheer hulk, which
burnt with uncommon brilliancy ; and the Karabelnaia su-
burb, which bad been so thoroughly destroyed as to require
no further efforts of the Russians, loomed duskily in the
distance. Between the dockyard and the suburb, Fort
Paul stood perfect in light, and all behind was in partial
obscurity.”
Thus terminated the great siege of Sebastopol, which
had been in progress nearly a year ; which had involv-
ed the construction of 70 miles of trenches, and the
employment of 60,000 fascines, 80,000 gabions, and
1,000,000 6and-bags ; and during which more than
1,500,000 shells and shot had been fired at or into
the town from the mortars and cannon of the besie-
gers 1
List of officers killled on the 8th of September: —
Deputy Assistant Commissary W. Hay ter, Royal Ar-
tillery; Lieuts. L. L. G. Wright, C. Colt, 7th Foot;
Lieut. P. Godfrey, 19th; Lieut. R. H. Somerville,
Lieut, and Adjt. D. Dynely, 53rd; Lieut. -Col. J B.
Patulls, Capt. J. C. N. Stephenson, Ensign R. G.
Deane, 30th ; Lieut. H. G. Donovan, 33rd ; Lieut.-
Col. J.Eman, C. B., Capts. E. Every, J. A. Lockhart,
41st; Capt. G. Rochfort, 49th; Brevet Lieut.- Col.
W. H. Cuddy, 66th ; Capt. L. A. Cox, Lieut. L.
Blakiston, 62nd ; Capt. W. Parker, 77 th ; Capt. H.
W. Grogan, 88th; Capts. H. Preston, LL M, Vaug«
384
INCIDENTS.
han, Lieuts.A. D. Swift, H. F. Wilmer,90th; Lieut.-
Col. Hon. H. R. Handcock, Major A. F. Welsford,
Capt. J. Hutton, Lieut, and Adjt. A. H. M’Gregor,
97tk ; Capt. M. M. Hammond, Lieut. H. S. Ryder,
2nd Bat. Rifle Brigade.
INCIDENTS CONNECTED WITH THE EINAI
BOMBAEDMENT.
The heroic course which Colonel (now General) Wind-
ham took in the assault on the Redan may be reckoned
amongst the most glorious achievements of the war. The
difficulties with which the storming party had to contend,
from the superior numbers and position of the enemy, and
from a general impression entertained by the soldiers that
the place was mined, and that they mightbe at any mo-
ment blown up, the frightful and disproportionate loss of
officers, who fell by reason of their prominence in endea-
vouring to dissipate an undue apprehension of the kind
— we are told that, the Brigadiers capable of guiding the
attack were reduced to one — Col. Windham. This gallant
officer did more than could be expected of human energy
to accomplish, in order to obtain a prompt and adequate
reserve, with which he felt the Redan might have been
held, despite any amount of force the Russians could bring
to bear upon them. Three times did Colonel Windham
send officers to Sir E. Codrington for reinforcements ;
for, though the need of help must h ave been obvious to
the superior officer placed in a position to command the en-
tire attack, none came. All three officers failed to deliver
their message, in consequence of being wounded whilst
attempting to pass from the ditch to the rear of the Redan.
The Colonel’s Aide-de-Camp, Lieut, Gwire, was next des-
patched, but he, also, was dangerously wounded as he
went on his perilous errand. For an hour the enemy were
mowing our men down by hundreds, and even the small
driblets that from time to time arrived, were so disorder-
ed from the fire to which they were exposed, as to be al-
most useless. At length Colonel Windham determined up-
on taking a course which, for personal daring and reck-
lessness of his own life, has rarely been paralleled. A Rus-
sian officer stepped over the breastwork, and tore down a
gabion with his own hands; it was to make room for a
field-piece. Colonel Windham exclaimed to several, sol-
INCIDENTS.
385
diers who were firing over the parapet, “Well, as you
are so fond of firing, why don’t you shoot that Russian?”
They fired a volley, and missed him, and soon afterwards
the held piece began to play on the head of the salient with
S ape. Colonel Windham saw there was no time to be lost.
e had sent three officers for reinforcements, and, above
all, for men in formation, and he now resolved to go to
General Codrington himself. Seeing C apt. Crealock, of
the 90th, near him, busy in encouraging his men, and ex-
erting himself with great courage and energy to get them
into order, he said, “ I must go to the General for sup-
ports. Now, mind, let it be known, in case I am killed,
why I went away.” He crossed the parapet and ditch and
succeeded in gaining the fifth parallel, through a storm of
grape and rifle-bullets, in safety. General Codrington
asked him if he thought he really could do anything with
such supports as he could afford, and said he might take
the Royals, who were then in the parallel. “ Let the offi-
cers come out in front— let us advance in order, and if the
men keep their formation, the Redan is ours,” was the
Colonel’s reply ; but he spoke too late — for at that very mo-
ment the men were seen leaping down into the ditch, or
running down the parapet of the salient, and through the em-
brasures out of the work into the ditch, while the Russians
followed them with the bayonet and with heavy musketry,
and even threw stones and grape-shot at them as they lay
in the ditch. Colonel Windham is universally allow ed, by
the course which he took, to have retrieved, in his own
person, the honour of the army on that day, aided by
those brave men who fell for the most part at his side in
the attempt to sustain this unequal contest. These emi-
nent services are thus recognised in the General Order for
Colonel Windham’s promotion : — The Queen has also been
most graciously pleased to command that Colonel Charles
Ash Windham, C.B., shall be promoted to the rank of
Major-General, for his distinguished conduct in heading
the column of attack which assaulted the enemy’s defen-
ces, on the 8th of September, with the greatest intrepidi-
ty and coolness, as specially brought to the notice of her
Majesty in the public despatch of the Commander of the
Forces, dated the 14th of September, 1855.
A sapper, who was exploring the batteries of the Redan,
just as the Russians were evacuating the town, discovered
a rather large cable, which he cut in two by a blow of an
axe, and then called the attention of the officers to it*
246 2 b
38S
INCIDENTS.
On further examination it was found to be of thick m6»
tallic wire, covered with a coating of gutta percha. This
wire led to a very large powder magazine dug under the
Redan, and the discovery of which made the boldest trem-
ble when they thought of the frightful explosion from which
they had escaped. The wire came from across the town
as far as the sea, which it crossed to the other shore, from
whence the electric spark was to be despatched to set fire
to the volcano. It was discovered just at the nick of time,
as the last soldier had not yet evacuated the town when
the forts blew up, one after the other, filling the trenches
with the ruins.
As soon as it was dawn (Sunday, 9th) the French began
to steal from their trenches into the burning town, un-
dismayed by the flames, by the terrors of those explosions,
by the fire of a lurking enemy, or by the fire of their own
guns, which kept on slowly discharging cannon-shot and
grape into the suburbs at regular intervals, possibly with
the very object of deterring stragglers from risking their
lives. But red breeches and blue breeches, tepi and Zou-
ave fez, could soon be distinguished amid the flames, mov-
ing from house to house. Before five o’clock there were
numbers of men coming back with plunder, such as it
was ; and Russian relics were offered for sale in camp be-
fore the Russian battalions had marched out of the city.
The sailors, too, were not behind-hand in looking for
“loot and Jack could be seen staggering under chairs,
tables, and lumbering old pictures, through every street,
and making his way back to the trenches with vast accu-
mulations of worthlessness. Several men lost their lives
by explosions on this and the following day.
My first entry into the interior, on the morning after
its abandonment, was made by a bridge of broken fascines
and gabions laid hastily over the dead bodies that had just
been gathered into the ditch for burial, which has since
been done by levelling over them a portion of the parapet
above. The ghastly piles nearly filled the vast trench to a
level with the outer surface, and the thin covering of earth
which concealed them from view barely fell below the
summit of the low bank in front. What first struck one in
passing up the cut made by our sappers through the broad
parapet was the unusual solidity and strength of this last,
averaging thirty or thirty-five feet along its entire front.
On each a solid mass of gabions, fascines, sand-bags and
tfrClDEfftS.
m
•arth, I need hardly say that artillery of even the heaviest
calibre could have no sensible effect : sixty-eight or nine-
tv-eight pound shot might enter, but they could not pene-
trate. Compared with this massive structure of mud and
wickerwork, the thickest of our own or the French works
is as paper to a deal board. Then within, besides the great
superiority of their mantles, strong ropen curtains hung
across the embrasures to shelter the gunners from the be-
siegers’ riflemen. You admire the cover provided for their
artillerymen when not actually working the guns, in little
retreats proof against any but the very heaviest splinters
of shell. But these, again, are nothing when compared
with the shot and shell-proof chambers for the shelter of
larger bodies of troops, which abound throughout the work.
I dived into several of these half subterranean waiting-
rooms, and found many of them fitted up with fireplaces,
cooking conveniences, benches, and other suitable furni-
ture ; whilst in others of smaller dimensions, and which
had evidently been occupied by the officers, there were in
addition bedsteads, chairs, tables, and in some even hand-
somely glazed cupboards, containing empty wine-bottles,
and other traces of their occupants’ regard for creature
comforts. On the shelf in one of them I lighted on a cheap
Farringdon-street reprint of “ Paul Clifford,” and an old
copy of the “Illustrated London News,” — the latter with
sundry engravings of scenes from the siege . — Daily Newt
Correspondent.
General Pelissier says : — “ Of the 4000 cannon found at
Sebastopol, at least 50 are of brass. Others were thrown
into the roadstead at the time of their retreat. I have or-
dered them to be sought for. We have already taken
200,000 kilogrammes of powder away from the place, and
there is still more to be found. The number of projectiles
will exceed 100,000. A despatch from Admiral Bruat, of
the same date, anuounces'that the vessels of the Allies de-
stoyed in the Sea of Azof, between the 6th and 11th of
September, five fisheries on the coast of Serviank, and 68
in the lakes and rivers of the neighbouring coast ; they
burnt 31 storehouses, containing nets or provisions, and
08 boats laden with provender and provisions.”
Some of the Highlanders went into the Redan on Sunday-
morning, and finding it altogether abandoned, providenti-
ally left it immediately for their former position. They
had no sooner done so than a mine was sprung, and a
883
TftCIDISttTS, M<S.
tremendous explosion followed. The enemy had very pro-
bably perceived our entrance, for which they had been wait-
ing, and then caused the explosion. Our allies were not
bo fortunate on the right. The 11th Regiment of the Line
and other troops, who had assailed the Little Redan, were
establishing themselves there for the night. J ust about the
time when the explosion occurred in the Redan oppo site
to our works, another mine was sprung in the Little Redan.
It produced a frightful effect, hurling a great number of
French into the air, and scorching or otherwise injuring
many more. It is said that as many as three hundred
suffered by this explosion. The prudence of the French
engineers prevented a similar catastrophe at the Malakoff.
They had examined for mines and galleries, and had come
across a large pipe charged with gunpowder. This they
had carefully cut asunder, and they had separated each
end from communication with the other* It was subse-
quently proved to be a channel of communication between
the mine in the Little Redan and one in the Malakoff; had
it not been that the continuity of this tube had been des-
troyed, an explosion in the Malakoff would have taken place
almost simultaneously with that in the Little Redan, and
numbers must have perished.
The English had 29 officers, 36 sergeants, 6 drummers,
314 rank and file, killed; 124 officers, 142 sergeants, 12
drummers, 1608 rank and file, wounded; 1 officer, 12
sergeants, 163 rank and file, missing. Total— Killed, 385;
wounded, 1886 ; missing, 176 — 2447.
The French had 5 Generals killed, 4 wounded, 6 contus-
ed; 24 superior officers killed, 20 wounded, and 6 missing;
116 subaltern officers killed, 224 wounded, and 8 missing;
1499 sous officers and soldiers killed, 4259 wounded, and
1400 missing. Total French loss, 7551.
In the month of June, a squadron from the fleet in
the Black Sea, under the command of Capt. E. M.
Lyons and Monsieur de Sedaiges, did much execution,
and caused great havoc and destruction to Russian
property. The squadron first visited Taganrog, and
summoning the governor to surrender all the govern-
ment stores, a refusal was returned ; when the squadron
commenced bombarding the town, and, in a short time,
the long ranges of stores of grain, plank, and tar, and
OPERATIONS IN THE SEA OP AZOF. 389
the vessels on the stocks, were in a blaze, as well as
the Custom-house, and other government buildings,
and unfortunately, but unavoidably, the town in many
places. The loss of the enemy must have been severe,
as many were seen to fall. A Russian sergeant who
deserted, stated the number of troops in the town
to have been 3200. A Russian war- schooner, which
had been run on shore near the town and abandoned,
was set fire to and burnt ; and so was a large raft of
timber.
Anapa was also visited by a squadron under the
command of Rear-Admiral Houstan Stewart, and,
after holding out for a short time, the Russians evacu-
ated the place, first spiking the guns and burning the
barracks and other buildings, and destroying large
quantities of grain and other stores. The powder
magazines were all exploded ; and the troops, which
were estimated at seven or eight thousand, retired on
the Kouban River, which they crossed by a bridge, and
then destroyed it.
The squadron under Captain Lyons and Monsieur
de Sedaiges likewise proceeded to Marogoul, Grhiesk,
and Kiten, destroying large quantities of grain, flour,
hay, &c. besides many other stores, buildings, and ma-
terials of various kinds. The conflagration was so
great at some of those places, that it lasted for several
days. Thus, in the space of two or three weeks, the
Sea of Azof was swept by the Allied squadrons, and the
enemy deprived of the supplies which existed in the
different depots, and also of the means of transporting
the coming crops.
On the 15th of October, the Allied squadron appear-
ed before Ejnburn. The weather, however, being
very squally, operations could not be commenced for
two days ; the forts continued during these two days
firing upon the vessels, but without doing much dam-
age. The following account of the Bombardment and
Capture of K. inbum, is from a private correspondent
gf one of the papers?—
890
CAPTURE OP KINBURH.
“Wednesday, 17th. The anniversary of the naval
attack upon Sebastopol was fine enough to permit the
combined fleets to attack. The wind was blowing from
off shore, and the swell subsided. This was indispen-
sable, because many of the line-of-battle ships were
drawing 26 feet water, and they were to anchor and
attack with only two or three feet water under their
keels. This was a ticklish job, in a narrow difficult
channel, hitherto almost unknown to us. Well, at
eight a.m. the sand -batteries opened at a steamer and
gun-boat which forced their way inside the spit. The
French floating batteries were smoking up, preparing
to go in, and at 9. 30 they opened a tremendous fire at
600 yards, from twelve large guns on each broadside.
At ten the mortar-boats opened fire, three French gun-
boats were working along from the southward, by
the shore, where the troops had been landed. The
boats of the Firebrand , Furious t and Leopard had been
digging out their own paddle-box boats and fiats which
had been swamped! in the surf, and were half buried
in the sand. At 10. 16 these steamers weighed and
proceeded to the flag-ship. At this moment fifteen
gun-boats were blazing away over the mortar-boats
and batteries. Some heavily-armed French steamers
and the Odin were firing. Shells were bursting over
the fort, which was firing very rapidly. The Russian
gunners could be seen, standing up boldly on the ram-
part, sponge and rammer in hand, loading and firing
away as if they were at exercise. When one was
knocked over, another jumped up. Three of them
were enough to work each gun ; one to work the ele-
vating-screw and let the gun slip down the incline to
run it out ; one to lay and fire (the recoil sent it in
again) ; one man to sponge, &c. This accounts for
their killed being so few. 11. 30. Signal made to VaU
orous to weigh immediately ; also to Sidon, Curacoa ,
and Gladiator to follow; Firebrand to go in at once,
engaging batteries at both sides. The two earth-and-
gand batteries on the spit were spittjng away merrily
CAPTURE OF KINBURtf.
391
out of their ugly mouths. It was not a pleasant thing
to look at their square black embrasures, looking like
five or six old black tobacco* stained teeth stuck in a
fury’s upper gum, and to see they were only waiting
to get you in a favourable position to open fire upon
you at 500 yards. The Curacoa went in at them in a
business-like way ; the Dauntless very gingerly and
circumspectly indeed — remarkably careful; but the
Terrible hammered them so hard as almost to bury
them in a heap of stony sand. She did her work ad-
mirably, and nearly shut them up. It was a brilliant
sight to see the Valorous , Sidon , Firebrand, and Glad-
iator run in to 800 yards, engaging north shore ; then
run down to within 500 yards of the sand battery, en-
gaging that; and then float into the calm waters at
the Dnieper’s mouth, where few British ships have
floated before. Noon. The liners going to work.
The barracks in the fort burning fiercely, especially
round where the Russian colours were hoisted. Their
guns firing rapidly still. 12. 30. The line*of-battle
ships opened at once; the Hannibal alone bestowed
her attentions at a most respectable distance upon the
sand-batteries. Her brave Admiral Stewart had gone
into the Valorous. But this was not peril enough, so
he hoisted his pretty white ensign on a small steam
gun-boat, the little Pilot Fish , in front of all, and
there he led in his little squadron like a gallant dash-
ing fellow as he is. 2. 30. A flag of truce was hoist-
ed, and the whole Russian garrison marched out under
arms. The gunners from the sand-forts marched in,
bearing on stretchers their wounded ; one dead ; they
buried him, stretcher and all, in the sand, stuck up a
rude cross at his head, and marched doggedly on. The
Allied troops marched into the fort, and the union of
Red Ensign and Tri-colour was seen on high. The
General and officers of the Russian battalion were made
to pile their arms outside the fort. The muskets were
new, and in first-rate condition. They walked on,
bearing the banners and ornaments of their church*
392
MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS*
and were placed under a French guard at the head-
quarters, about three miles south of the town. They
formed one complete battalion, two Colonels, 4Majors,
4 Captains, and about 1200 men. The loss is said to
be about 100 killed and wounded, very few being kil-
ed. The English lost two men by the bursting of 68-
pounder guns of the Arrow gun-boat, one or two
wounded. The French lost about 27, in their floating
batteries.”
Subsequently the fortress of Otchakoff, on the
right bank of the Bug, was blown up by the Russians,
and the place evacuated.
The operations of the squadron in the White Sea in
1855, were confined to blockading the ports, and the
capture of a few prizes.
On the 10th of September the Admiralty received
despatches from Admiral Bruce, commander-in-chief
of the vessels on the Pacific station, stating that the
Russian squadron had departed from Petropaulovski,
and that the place was completely evacuated. It ap-
peared that, since 1854, the Russians had constructed
some formidable batteries ; these, however, were utter-
ly destroyed by the British forces. Two men, belong-
ing to the fleet which visited the station in 1854, had
been left ; these were, through the exertions of Admir-
al Bruce, delivered up to the English, who brought
them away. The squadron diligently searched every
port and inlet in order to discover if any vessel belong-
ing to the enemy remained on or near the station ; but
no enemy could be discovered, except a Russian whaler,
of about 400 tons, which was deserted* this vessel the
Admiral ordered to be destroyed.
CHAPTER XII,
The Baltic Fleet— Operations in the Baltic
—The Hango Massacre— The Fleet before
Cronstadt — Bombardment of Sweaborg —
The War in Asia — Capitulation of Kars-
Miscellaneous Events.
The preceding chapter is a record of sanguinary and
bloody conflicts — great and glorious achievements.
This will be an epitome of a rather different character.
Although the fleets which proceeded to the Baltic Sea
in 1854 and 1855 were perhaps the most complete and
formidable that ever ploughed the waters of any sea,
yet their achievements were not what was anticipated.
This, however, through the cautiousness of the enemy
was a natural consequence ; for where no foe appeared,
no foe could be conquered. But though no Russian
fleet was destroyed in the Baltic, many vessels and
large quantities of property were destroyed ; and the
blockade of the different ports harassed and punished
the enemy in a very severe manner. The surrender
of Kars was an event which caused sorrow and deep
regret in, the bosoms of many.
The Baltic Fleet of 1855 was much stronger both in
the number of vessels and men, than that of 1854 ; and
the fleet of 1854 was composed of a mixture of sailing
vessels and steamers, but the fleet of 1855 consisted
wholly of steam-ships. The fleet numbered 50
steamers; and in addition there were 28 gun-boats, 8
mortar- vessels, and 4 floating batteries, hospital-ship,
shell magazines, and powder-magazine. The Duke of
Wellington carried the flag of Rear-Admiral the Hon.
R. S. Dundas, C.B., commander of the fleet.
The fleet left Spithead on the 4th of April, and
steamed out to sea in splendid order. When the fore*
393
394
THE HANGO MASSACRE.
most vessels entered the Baltic they encountered much
ice, and were placed in rather disagreeable circum-
stances thereby. The English fleet arrived at Kiel on
22nd of April, and were joined by the French fleet,
under the command of Admiral Penaud. The first
intelligence received from the fleet was of a startling
and distressing nature. In the middle of J une, the
telegraph reported that a cold-blooded atrocity had
been committed by large force of Russian troops on a
small party of British sailors, in a boat under the com-
mand of Lieutenant Geneste, who was conveying,
under a flag of truce, three prisoners who had been
taken in a merchant vessel, to the shore. This diabo-
lical transaction took place off Hango Head. Admiral
Dundas despatched Captain Fanshawe to the scene of
this catastrophe, to make inquires, and gain what par.
ticulars he could of the affair. The following is the
statement given by Captain Fanshawe to Admiral
Dundas : —
“H.M. Steam-ship Cossack, War gen Islands,
7th June, 1855.
** Sir, — It is with the deepest concern that I have to re-
g ort to you the destruction of a cutter’s crew and the of-
cers who went into Hango with a flag of truce yesterday,
the 5th inst., in order to land the three prisoners who had
been taken with some merchant vessels by her Majesty’s
ships Cossack and Esk, and also four others to whom I
gave a passage to Nargen,they having received their liber-
ty from the prize officers of the vessels captured by her
Majesty’s steam-ship Magicienne.
“ The ship having arrived off Hango Island yesterday
forenoon, the boat was despatched at eleven a.m., in charge
of Lieut. G-eneste, with orders to land the above persons,
and to return without delay, taking care that no one strag-
gled from the boat. The officers’ stewards were allowed
to go in the boat on the same conditions, as was also, at
his request, Mr. Easton, surgeon of this ship.
“ The inclosed; statement of what occurred on the boat’s
approaching the shore is that of the only man who has re-
turned alive, and I have every reason to believe it cor-
rect.
" Finding that the boat did not duly return^ I sent the
THE HANGO MASSACRE.
395
First Lieutenant, about half-past four p.m., in the gig, also
with a flag of truce, to ascertain the cause of the delay ;
and as neither had returned at the close of the day, I an-
chored with this ship and the JEsk in the inner roads.
“ The gig returned about half-past eight, after a long
search, having discovered the cutter hauled within a small
jetty, and containing the dead bodies of two or three of her
crew.
“It being then late, I made arrangements that the ships
should weigh at half-past two o’clock a.m., and take posi-
tions as close to the inner village and telegraph station as
possible ; and, as I then supposed that the rest of the crew
and officers had been made prisoners, I proposed to send
in a letter to the nearest military authority, demanding
that they and the boat should be given up.
“ But whilst getting under way the cutter was observed
to leave the shore with one man at the stern, who was en-
deavouring to scull her out. I therefore immediately sent
a boat to her assistance, which bought her >on board, and
she was found to contain the dead bodies of four of the
crew, which were riddled with musket-balls.
“The man who came out in the boat made the accompa-
nying statement of the details of this atrocious massacre ;
he is very dangerously wounded in the right arm and shoul-
der, and was left for dead in the boat j but the account ho
gives of what he saw before he was struck down is clear
and consistent, — viz., that on the boat reaching the jetty.
Lieutenant Geneste, Mr. Easton, surgeon, Mr. Sullivan,
master’s assistant, and the Russian prisoners, stepped on
shore, and advanced a few paces, Lieutenant Geneste car-
rying and waving a flag of truce. On their landing, a largo
party of soldiers commanded by an officer who spoke Eng-
lish, appeared suddenly, and advanced in a threatening
manner. The officers then pointed to the flag of truce,
and claimed its protection, and also endeavoured to explain
the reason of their landing, but of no avail. A volley of
musketry was immediately fired at them, which killed them,
and also some or all of the Russian prisoners ; volleys were
then fired into the boat, by which all were struck down,
and the assailants then rushed into the boat and threw
most of the bodies overboard, and then removed the arms
and ammunition which were stowed underneath.
“Neither before nor during this indiscriminate slaugh-
ter was any resistance made, nor hostile intention shown,
by the boat’s crew with the flag of truce — the muskets that
were in the boat not having been loaded, and being in tha
396
THE HANGO MASSACRE.
bottom of the boat ; and therefore there appeared to be
nothing to justify this barbarous infringement of the usages
of war.
“ I therefore opened fire with both ships upon the place,
at about 600 yards distance ; but it was not returned, ei-
ther with rifles or artillery ; and a thick fog having come
on shortly afterwards, I ceased firing, and withdrew the
ships, the position which they were in not being one in
which they could with safety remain at anchor.
“ I inclose herewith the names of the officers and men
who have met their deaths on this occasion. I have, &c.,
(Signed) E. G. Fanshawe.
“Rear- Admiral Hon. R. S. Dundas, C.B., &c.
“ List of officers and cutter’s crew who were killed at
Han go on the 5 th June, 1855 : — Louis Geneste, lieutenant;
R. T. Easton, surgeon; Charles Sullivan, master’s assis-
tant; Edward Thompson, leading seaman; Benjamin
Smith, able seaman; James Cornwall, ordinary seaman;
John Gliddon, able seaman ; George Boyle, ordinary sea-
man ; William Roskelly, ordinary seaman; Thomas Stokes,
ordinary seaman, 2nd class ; John Haughey, stoker; Fran-
cis George, ordinary seaman ; Owen Francis, able seaman;
William Lynn, captain’s steward; William Banks, gun-
room steward; John Lorton, subordinate officer’s stew-
ard.
(Signed) “ E. G. Fanshawe, Captain *
Subsequent accounts were received at the Admiralty,
from which it appeared that several of the boat's crew
of the Cossack , w ho were supposed to have been killed,
were alive, though prisoners. A complete list is sub«
joined of the killed and of the prisoners, both wounded
and unwounded: — Killed. — Thompson, coxswain of
the boat; — Lynn, captain’s steward; — Cornwall;
Benjamin Smith, ordinary seamen; Joseph Banks.
Prisoners. — Wounded. — J ohn Lorton, George Boyle,
Joseph Giddon (right arm amputated), Thomas
Stokes. Unhurt. — Lieutenant Louis Geneste, Sur-
f eon Robert Easton, Mr. Sullivan; Owen Francis,
Villiam Roskelly, John Hockey, Francis George.
The Journal de St. Petersburg contained a very
long reply to the letter addressed to the Russian Go-
vernment by Admiral Dundas relative to the Hango
fffE fl.EETB BEEOItE CEO^fiTADT.
affair. The Cabinet of St. Petersburg, finding the
sensation which that incident had produced, confided
to Genera* de Berg the mission of instituting a rigid
examination into the circumstances of the case, and,
in the report of the officer appointed to carry it on, he
says : — “ No flag of truce was seen flying on board the
Cossack , nor in the boat which came towards the land-
ing-place, nor in the hand of the officer who landed on
Russian territory. This declaration has been confirm-
ed by every one who witnessed the occurrence. While
the affair was going on on shore, the sailors who re-
mained in the boat had time to throw overboard a
small swivel-gun with which the boat was armed.
Among the muskets seized during the action, three
were found which had been recently discharged, not-
withstanding the assertion to the contrary made by
Brown, the seaman. Three others were loaded with
ball. The crew of the boat had on them 360 cartridges,
400 caps, and two incendiary tubes, with their matches
attached. These arms, taken from the enemy, prove
that the expedition of Lieutenant Geneste, even though
he had ostensibly covered it by a flag of truce, could
not have been simply to set at liberty some Finland
seamen, and to procure fresh provisions, as stated by
the lieutenant.”
At noon on the 9th of June, the Merlin , carrying
the French Admiral Penaud and several French and
English Captains, proceeded to reconnoitre Cronstadt.
They were attended by the Dragon , Firefly , and the
corvette D'Assas, Going first along the north side of
the island, they approached within 4000 yards of the
block ships lying in the open water between Cronstadt
and St. Petersburg. They consisted of four liners, five
frigates, and two corvettes, moored in a line along
the three-fathom bank, with their broadsides bearing
upon the northern passage. Inside these, fourteen
steam gun-boats lay at anchor, and under the wall of
Man-of-war Harbour, anchored in three lines, were
twenty-four row gun-boats. When the Merlin went
308 THE FLEETS BEEOEE CEOtfSTADf .
in so close, two of the steam gun-boats came out, and
one fired a shot at her, but it fell short. In the Man*
of- War Harbour were seventeen line-of-battle ships,
four fully rigged, and others in progress. Between
this harbour and Fort Hr on slot were ten steamers of
various sizes, some of them screws ; and between Krons-
lot and Menschikoff two three-deckers moored bow to
bow, with their broadsides commanding the only en-
trance. The island seemed full of soldiers; for, besides
those quartered in the town and batteries, three large
camps were formed outside — two on the north, and the
other on the south side. Immense new earthworks
had been erected; a complete chain of them ran from
the Governor’s house across the island to the old Kes-
sel Battery, dividing it into halves — one fortified, the
other without a gun upon it. Just as the Merlin was
returning, and when going about seven knots an hour,
a severe shock was felt, as if she had struck upon a
sunken pile. It made the ship quiver from stem to
stern. The engines were instantly stopped and re-
versed, but before she had stern- way upon her, another
blow, ten times more severe than the first, struck her
on the starboard bow, just before the paddle-wheel,
sensibly lifting her over to port, and making her masts
bend and shake as if they would topple down. The
Firefly was immediately in the Merlin's wake, and be-
fore she could stop, she ran to starboard of the Merlin,
and partly turned round, when a tremendous explosion
took place under her bows, causing her to stagger, and
proving very plainly that they were over a nest of Pro-
fessor Jacobi’s infernal machines — the existence of
which was now beyond a doubt, and also that they were
not such very formidable affairs after all. They then
proceeded carefully until they got into deep water, with-
out meeting any more, and then reconnoitred the south
side, getting so near the shore as to witness a sort of
review of the Eussian Horse Artillery, and afterwards
returned to the fleet. A diver was immediately sent
down to examine the Firefly , and not the slightest in*
OBEBATIONS IN THE BALTIC.
m
jury could be detected; but inside the ship almost
every bit of crockery was broken, and the bulkheads
were thrown down or displaced. On examining the
Merlin , eight sheets of copper were blown, not scrap-
ed, off, and the side appeared charred. All the inside
fitting in the engineers’ bath-room, mess-room, and
store-room, were completely demolished. An iron
tank, which was bolted to the ship’s side, and contain-
ing 13 cwt. of tallow, was knocked a distance of four
feet. Shot were shaken out of the racks, and almost
everything moveable in the ship was displaced.
On the 21st of June the Amphion, 36, screw-frigate.
Captain Key, while employed in reconnoitring at
Sveaborg, accidentally mistook the channel, and in con-
sequence grounded. The boats were immediately des-
patched in all directions to sound, and, while so em-
ployed, one of the nearest forts opened a brisk fire
upon the frigate. Four shot struck her, killing one
man and wounding two others. Captain Key, how-
ever, nothing daunted, returned the compliment with
such energy and precision, that he succeeded in blow-
ing up a large Russian powder magazine, and occa-
sioned other serious damage to the fort.
On the 21st of J une a small squadron, under the
command of Captain Yelverton, succeeded in blowing
up the fort at Rotsinshalm, and destroying the bar-
racks, capable of containing 6000 men, at Kotha, also
the stables, storehouses, and hospital. And, on the
28th, Captain Yansittart destroyed 30 large galliots
laden with blocks of granite, at Werolax Bay. Cap-
tain Yelverton also, on the 6tb of July destroyed Fort
Svartholm, with the barracks and stores at Lovisa. In
the latter part of June, Captain Storey destroyed 90
Russian vessels, amounting to upwards of 20,000
tons.
On the 17th of July the Commander-in-Chief, ac-
companied by Admiral Penaud, Admiral Seymour,
and Commodore the Hon. F. F. Pelham, proceeded
in the Merlin to reconnoitre Sveaborg and Helsing-
m
ovmkrto'58 isr tffE ba me.
fors ; they were also attended by two gun-boats and a
French steamer. When about 3000 yards from the
batteries, several infernal machines were exploded by
means of galvanic wires connecting them with the
shore ; but they seem more useless than those which
explode by being struck, for it is next to an impossi-
bility for any one on shore to ascertain, by taking an-
gles or any other means, when a ship is so exactly over
one of the machines that the explosion would damage
her ; this was proved by the experience of the 16th,
for none exploded nearer than fifty or seventy yards
of the ships. To be effective the machine should
touch the ship’s bottom, for if it exploded with two
feet distance between, the shock would be diffused over
such a large surface as to be harmless. Two line-of-
battle ships had been sunk in the western channel.
The Amphion saw them go down. One heeled over as
she sank, and remained on her side; the other had
her bulwarks just above the water. Only two ships
and a few small vessels could be seen in the harbour,
but the crest of every hill and small island bristled with
cannon. No less than seventy new batteries and
earth- works had been erected since 1854. Having sat-
isfied themselves, the Admirals returned to the fleet.
On the 20th of July, a successful attack was made
on a Russian fleet at Frederickshaum, situate on the
western coast of the Gulf of Finland, midway between
Wiborg and Helsingfors. Captain Yelverton com-
manded the expedition, whioh consisted of four ves-
sels. The enemy returned the fire of the ships for an
hour and a half, and then were compelled to abandon
the place, all the guns being disabled, and the fort it-
self being terribly shattered. The enemy suffered
severely, many were seen carted away dead or wound-
ed. A mounted officer was seen to fall from his horse,
a shell having cut him in two. The town was set on
fire in several places by stray rockets.
It being arranged by the Allied Admirals that pos-
i&ission should be taken of the Island of Kotka, Cap*
BOMBARDMENT OR SVEABORG. 401
tain Yelverton, with a considerable squadron, proceed-
ed thither, and, landing the marines, took possession
of the Island, without opposition. A very large num-
ber of buildings for military purposes were then des-
troyed ; also a vast quantity of property of a miscella-
neous description.
The cruisers visited Uleaborg, Simo, and Windau,
and destroyed Bussian ships and stores.
The next operation in the Baltic, worthy of note,
was the Bombardment or Sveaborg-.
On the 7th of August the English fleet sailed for the
fortress. At 9.30 a.m. signal was made from the flag-
staff, “ Outward and leeward-most ships weigh.” The
fleet, consisting of nine British line-of-battle ships,
thirteen steam frigates and sloops, sixteen mortar-
vessels, and an equal number of gun-boats, sailed from
Nargen, and after a pleasant run of five hours anchor-
ed at a distance of about 6000 yards from the fortress
of Sveaborg. In the course of the same evening the
French fleet joined, and immediately commenced
throwing up a battery on the island of Langorn,
situate some 2000 yards to the north of the cluster of
five islands which form the principal part of the for-
tress of Sveaborg. Next day, the 8th, both fleets were
busily employed preparing for action; the mortar-
vessels were towed into position about 3700 yards from
the fortress, with 400 fathoms each of cable to “ haul
and veer on,” as circumstances might require. This
arrangement proved of the greatest advantage, and
much credit is due to the originator of it. The line-
of-battle ships remained in the same order they had at
first anchored in. The steamers Magicienne , Vulture ,
and Euryalus took up a position in rear of the mortar-
vessels, for the purpose of being ready to give them and
the gun-boats any assistance they might require. The
Lightning and Locust were ordered to hold themselves
in readiness to . tow out any gun or mortar- vessels
that might be injured, or otherwise rendered incapa-
ble of remaining longer under fire ; in fact, every pos-
24G 2 o
4.02 BOMBARDMENT OB SVEABORG.
eible arrangement having been made which prudence
and foresight could suggest, the signal was made from
the flag- ship at 7.15 on the morning of the 9th, “ Gun
and mortar-vessels open fire with shell ”
At 7. 30 a. m. the first mortar was fired, and taken
up along the whole line, the gun-boats running in to
within 3000 yards, and getting their range. The
enemy returned our fire very briskly with red-hot shot
and shell ; but, although their range was good, the
damage inflicted was comparatively trifling, owing
principally to the excellent handling of the gun-boats
and mortar- vessels — the former being continually on
the move, and the latter hauling or veering on their
400-fathom cable as soon as they found the Eussian
shot falling too close to he pleasant. At 10.20 the first
Eussian magazine exploded, and a fire broke out in
the Arsenal. About noon a second magazine explod-
ed; and at 12.15 a most terrific explosion took place,
followed by a succession of minor ones. The force of
this was so immense that a battery of guns en barbette
was literally blown' to pieces. At 12.40 more maga-
zines exploded ; at this time, the dockyards, arsenal,
barracks, all the Government buildings, storehouses,
&c., were burning furiously. The sight was most
grandly imposing. The yards and poops of the line-of-
battle ships were crowded with the excited “tars,”
who cheered vociferously after every explosion, as only
British sailors know how to cheer. To add to this
frightful din, the liners Cornwallis and Hastings ,
and steam-frigate Amphion , , opened their broadsides
at the same moment ; and, as if to crown the whole, the
Arrogant , Cossack and Cruise , chimed in with this
tremendous chorus, by commencing a heavy fire, with
good effect, on a large body of troops which they
chanced to espy on a small island to the eastward of
the fortress. The cannonade continued with little
abatement up to eight o’clock p.m., when the gun-
boat recall was hoisted. Several of the mortar- vessels
were also found to be injured from the quick and in-
BOMBARDMENT OF SVEABORG.
403
cessant firing, and had to be brought out to undergo
repairs; those, however, which were not damaged,
still kept their fire, in conjunction with the French
mortar battery, until 10.30. p.m at which hour the
rocket- balls from the fleet went in and kept up their
part of the performance until daylight. The scene
during the night was grand beyond description : the
whole of Sveaborg appeared one mass of flame, the
rockets and shells adding not a little to the awful
splendour of the fiery landscape.
At 5.30 a.m., on the 10th, the fire again opened from
our whole line, and continued through the day, at the
end of which little appeared left to be done ; all the
mortars, French and English, were more or less in-
jured. Some idea, however, of the services rendered
by these vessels may be gathered from the fact that
during the two days’ bombardment not less than 1000
tons of iron were thrown into a space of about half a
mile in diameter by the English vessels alone, and
that upwards of 100 tons of powder were expended.
On Friday night, the 10th Aug., the rocket-boats
again went in and played with great effect. On Satur-
day no firing took place, and Sunday was a day of
rest. On that day everything was quiet and in repose.
The tolling of the bells at Helsingfors was dictinctly
heard : the dull and plaintive sounds, mingled with
the strains of sacred music from our men-of-war, came
floating over the calm waters, and offered a soothing
contrast to the noise, turmoil, and excitement of the
two preceding days.
At six a.m. on the 13th all the fleet got under way
from off what remained of Sveaborg, and, crossing the
Gulf in a rather irregular manner, anchored in Kevel
roads again at noon. At the time they left, the fort-
ress, once so renowned and formidable, was still on fire,
having burnt almost without mterruption during the
space of three days and a half.
One hundred and sixty gun-boat sheds, many with
row boats in them, were totally burnt, as were also
404
BOMBARDMENT OE SVEABORGh
the Government rope walk, storehouses, dockyard, bar.
racks, main- guard, and signal station. The fire was
so hot and the practice so admirable, that the three-
decker moored across the entrance, after having sever-
al shot in her, was forced to haul out of her position,
and take shelter behind the stone walls. The value of
public property destroyed is estimated at £2,000,000.
Admiral Dundasgave a long account of thi proceed-
ings, but he did not attempt to give any account of the
amount of damage inflicted on the enemy. Admiral
Penaud, in a despatch to the French Minister of Ma-
rine, dated August 11, said: —
“ The bombardment ceased this morning at half-past
four; it consequently lasted for two days and two
nights, during which time Sveaborg presented the ap-
pearance of a vast fiery furnace. The fire, which still
continues its ravages, has destroyed nearly the whole
place, and consumed storehouses, magazines, barracks,
different Government establishments, and a great
quantity of stores for the arsenal. The fire of our
mortars was so accurate that the enemy, fearing that
the three-decker which was moored across the channel
between Sveaborg and the Island of Back-Holmer
would be destroyed, had her brought into port dur-
ing the night. The Eussians have received a serious
blow and losses, the more severe, as on the side of the
Allied squadron the loss is confined to one English
sailor killed, and a few slightly wounded. The enemy’s
forts returned our fire vigorously, and did not slacken
it until the moment of the explosions above mention-
ed, but the precision of our long-range guns gave us
an incontestable superiority over those of the Eussians.
Every one in the division filled his duty with ardour,
devotion, and courage ; the crews evinced admirable
enthusiasm, and have deserved well of the Emperor
and of the country. I am perfectly satisfied with the
means of action placed at my disposal. The mortar-
vessels and gun-boats rendered immense services, and
they fully realize everything that was expected from
OPERATIONS IN THE CRIMEA. 405
them. The siege battery produced very line results,
and it may be said that it was from an enemy’s island,
on which we had hoisted the French flag, that the most
destructive shots were fired.”
The English and French fleet returned to Nargen
on the 13th.
The operations of the Baltic fleet after the Bombard-
ment of Sveaborg, were not distinguished by any im-
portant exploit. Squadrons of cruisers continued to
destroy Russian vessels and stores wherever they could
discover and come up with them.
In returning to events in the Crimea, there was no-
thing occurred of moment after the evacuation of the
south side of Sebastopol, for several weeks. In the
month of November, Sir James Simpson, on account
of his shattered state of health, resigned the command
of the British army, and General Codrington was ap-
pointed to succeed General Simpson as commander of
the British forces in the Crimea. The despatches
transmitted to government from time to time by Gen-
eral Codrington, were chiefly relating to the state of
the army, and occasionally noticing the discharges of
guns from the north side of Sebastopol against the
Allied positions ; but these sallies of the Russians did
little or no harm.
Frequently reconnoitring parties went out, and oc-
casionally encountered Cossack pickets, when some
sharp skirmishing ensued; but invariably the Russian
troopers were worsted.
Many were the speculations indulged in by those who
were not so fortunate as to be able to penetrate into the
future, as to what would be the next move, and where
would be the scene of further operations. It was cur-
rently reported time after time that the Russians were
about to evacuate the north side of Sebastopol, and
retire into the interior ; but still they remained there,
until winter came on. We will therefore leave them
there, on the north side, with a determined foe con-
m
CAMPAIGN - IN ASIA.
fronting them on the south side ; and proceed to no-
tice the operations connected with the Turkish army
in Asia.
In October, 1854, it was known that the Russian
forces in the trans-Caucasian provinces were more than
adequate to drive back those of Turkey, then in Ar-
menia; and the result of the campaign in that year
was, to place the Russians in possession of points in
advance of their own territory, and within the Turkish
frontier, and to shut the disorganised forces of Turkey
within the fortresses of an interior or secondary line
of her Armenian frontier. To remedy this state of
things, a few British and Hungarian officers were sent
to remodel the Turkish forces, and no other tangible
assistance appears to have been given to this front of
the grand campaign against Russia. All these officers
nobly did their duty; but one especially, General
Williams, displayed military talents and courage that
won the admiration of every one.
General Mouravicff, with an imposing Russian force
of from 35,000 to 40,000 men, and a formidable train
of artillery, surrounded Kars, and completely in-
vested it. The whole Turkish force at Kars did not
exceed 10,000 ; but they had been so organised by
their heroic leader, that they were a band of resolute
and valiant men, determined to struggle with their
foes to the death. Many brilliant sallies did these
Ottoman troops make against their Muscovite ene-
mies, whenever they spied a favourable opportunity.
The brace General Kmety would select a chosen few,
and rush out of the invested city, upon an unsus-
pecting party of Russians, and cut them to pieces.
At the close of August, Omar Pasha proceeded with
15,000 troops from Varna on his way to Batoum. The
Generalissimo, no doubt, was anxious to afford relief
to the brave defenders of Kars, but he had so many
obstacles to contend with, that he was unable to reach
that devoted city, in time to be of service.
On the 3rd of September, a party of horse, chiefly
BATTLE OH THE HEIGHTS OE KAES. 407
Bashi-Bazouks, left Kars, and were intercepted by a
large force of Russian cavalry, and, after sustaining
the conflict manfully for some time, they were over-
powered, and made prisoners. The Russian General
Mouravieff, in the Inva tide Russe , boasted of this as a
signal victory ; but, ere the month closed, his troops
had to suffer a defeat as humiliating as ever an army
had to endure. We proceed to give a sketch of this
brilliant affair, from the pen of a private correspondent
to one of the English journals.
“On the 29th September, about 3.30 a.m. the Rus-
sians were seen advancing up the Shorak valley in
dense masses, but in what order could not then, on
account of the darkness, be ascertained. Our troops
were in a moment under arms, and at their posts.
General Kmety, with one battalion of infantry and
seven companies of chasseurs, was stationed in She-
shanegee Tabia; Major Teesdale, with one battalion
of infantry, in Yuskek Tabia; and Hussein Pasha,
with the Arabistan Corps, in Tahmasb Tabia, where
he was soon joined by Kerim Pasha, the second in
command of the army. Bashi-bazouks were also dis-
persed throughout the different works, and the Laz
held a small work called Yarem Ai Tabia. General
Kmety was the first to open fire with round-shot on
the advancing battalions of the enemy; he was im-
mediately answered by two guns placed in position on
a height forming the north-west boundary of the Sho-
rak valley. In a few minutes the whole visible force
of the Russians charged up the hill with loud cries;
they were received with a terrific fire of grape and
musketry, which mowed down whole ranks at every
volley. General Kmety’s position was attacked by
eight battalions of the enemy; they advanced very
gallantly to within five paces of the work, when so
heavy a fire was opened on the head of the column that
the whole corps wavered, halted, then turned, and
fled down the hill in the greatest confusion, leaving
860 dead. They did not renew the attack there.
408 BATTLE ON THE HEIGHTS OE KAES.
“ Tahmasb Tabia bore the brunt of the battle;
about sixteen battalions, with many guns, were brought
up against it, but its garrison was undaunted, and
for a long time the Russians could not even get pos-
session of the breast- work forming the left wing of
that battery ; but at length an overwhelming force
obliged the Turks to retire within the redoubt. A
scene of carnage now ensued perfectly terrible to be-
hold. As the Russians came over the brow of the hill
within the breastwork, to take the battery in rear,
Tchim and Tek Tabias and Fort Lake opened on them
with 24- pound shot, which tore through their ranks,
but they did not heed this. They charged Tahmasb
Tabia, which was one sheet of fire, over and over again,
and so resolute were their assaults that many of the
Russian officers were killed in the battery, but they
could not succeed in carrying it.
“General Kmety, after having repulsed the Rus-
sians, went forward with four companies of chasseurs
to Yuksek Tabia, which was sorely pressed. Major
Teesdale pointed out a battalion of Russian chasseurs
which lay hidden behind Yarem Ai Tabia (this work
having been abandoned by the Laz at the commence-
ment of the battle.) and begged that they might be
dislodged. The General at once determined to carry
the battery ; so, forming up his men, he charged and
drove the Russians down the hill; leaving a company
to defend the work, he returned to Yusek Tabia, from
whence perceiving a battalion o f the enemy trying to
turn the right wing of Tahmasb Tabia, he reinforced
his corps with three companies from Major Teesdale,
and charged the Russians : here, too, he was success-
ful. In the mean time reforcements were sent up
from below ; these formed behind the tents of the re-
serve, and watched their opportunity in attacking
the Russian columns, when driven back from an as-
sault on the batteries. For seven hours this went on ;
reserve after reserve of the enemy was brought for-
ward, but only to meet death. Nothing could shake
BATTLE ON THE HEIGHTS OE KABS.
i
fl
30 m
?d in
the firmness of our troops, till at length the Russi
wearied and dispirited, at eleven a.m. turned and
down the hills in a confused mass, not one single com
pany keeping its ranks. The army was followed ii
its flight by the towns-people and Bashi-bazouks, who
brought down hundreds as they fled. While the in-
fantry were engaged in this conflict, the Cossacks
tried'to penetrate into the tents of the reserve, but
they were soon driven back by the towns-people and
infantry reserves with heavy loss.
“One battalion of Russian infantry attempted to
march round the position, and take a small battery si-
tuated in a commanding position on the road leading to
a village called Tchakmak. It commen ed its march
in splendid order, but ere it went 600 yards, it was
broken and in great disorder, and so terrified, that fifty
or sixty of our chasseurs drove the broken mass down
the Tchakmak valley like a flock of sheep. The cause
of the terror was the terrible fire opened upon it by
Yuksek Tabia, the guns of Sheshanegee Tabia and
Fort Lake.
“ A column of eight battalions, with sixteen guns and
three regiments of cavalry, attacked the English lines
at half-past five a.m. This line of fortification was at
the time very weakly garrisoned; the breastwork was
carried in a few minutes; the batteries Teesdale, Thomp-
son, and Zohrab, successively fell into the enemy’s
hands, and the men who formed their garrisons retired
into Williams Pasha Tabia. The Russians then brought
up their artillery into position in front of Zohrab Tabia,
and began firing upon Fort Lake and shelling the
town, but Fort Lake (under the able superintendence
of the gallant officer whose name it bears), Arab Tabia,
and Karadagh, opened so heavy a fire on them with
24-pounders, that they were compelled to withdraw
their artillery altogether. The Russian infantry then
charged Williams Pasha Tabia, but were repulsed by
a flanking fire from Fort Lake, and a severe fire of
musketry from the defenders of the battery attacked.
BATTLE OS’ THE HEIGHTS OE KAES.
jy retired into Zohrab Tabia, re-formed and again
vaulted; a body of their chasseurs was at the same
ime sent forward to within 500 yards of Fort Lake, to
take a small open work called Churchill Tabia, which
was doing the enemy outside much harm. This was '
occupied by two companies of our chasseurs : they
turned to receive the attack of the enemy; and, after
retiring a short distance, halted, and kept the Rus-
sians at bay. While this was going on, Capt. Thomp-
son, who had charge of the batteries of Karadagh and
Arab Tabia, sent over the 5th Regiment of Infantry
from Arab Tabia to retake the English tabias of Tees-
dale and Thompson, aud from below two battalions of
the 2nd Regiment came up to recapture Zohrab Tabia.
The forces commenced the attack together from each
end of the line, and drove the Russians out of the forts
and breastworks at the point of the bayonet. Once
out of the lines, they did not attempt to retake them.
Unfortunately the enemy had time, while in possession
of the batteries, to take away five guns, and to spike
three, but they abandoned three of the captured guns
at a short distance from the redoubts, so that we only
lost two. As the enemy retreated, our long guns again
played on their columns, and they retired as speedily
as possible.
“Some cavalry attempted to engage tho battery
above the village of Tchakmak, but again the terrible
guns of Fort Lake drove them off. By 10.30 a.m. the
English tabias were silent,
“ Such was the dreadful battle of * the heights Oi
Kars.' This is but a very lame account of the glori-
ous fight. I have not the time to enter into greater
details, but I will give an idea of what our men did
and had to endure. The forces of the enemy exceeded
30,000, while ours, engaged, were below 8000. Not
one of our men had tasted anything since the previous
afternoon; hungry and thirsty, they remained un-
daunted, and were rewarded with perhaps the most bril-
liant; victory that has been gained during this war.
BATTLE Off THE HEIGHTS OP KAHS. 411
jLiic iieid of battle was too horrible ever to be for-
gotten by me ; the dead lay in vast heaps in every di-
rection around the forts — the ditches were full of mu-
tilated bodies — the tents were torn to rags — arms,
clothes, broken ammunition-boxes, lay strewed about.
Upwards of 6000 Russians fell, and more than 4000
muskets have been collected, 150 prisoners taken. The
total loss to the enemy in killed and wounded must
have been very near, if not more than, 15,000. Sever-
al Generals were killed or wounded : amongst the for-
mer, reports say, GeneralBreumer, the second in com-
mand ; and General Baklanoff, who commanded the
attack on Canly Tabia on the ^th of August. Thou-
sands of carts have been sent to Gumri (Alexandropoli)
with wounded.
“ Our list of casualties is but small, about 1000 in
killed and wounded. Dr. Sandwith, the Inspector of
Hospitals, had made his arrangements, and, thanks to
his abilities, the hospitals are in good order.
“ For this great victory Turkey has to thank Gen-
eral Williams ; during the past four months his exer-
tions to get things into order have been astonishing ;
night and day he has laboured. He has had many and
great obstacles to overcome, but nothing could break
his energy. On the memorable 29 th he directed the
movements of the troops ; the reinforcements always
reached their appointed positions in time. The great
results of the day prove how well his operations were
conceived.
“ The loss inflicted on the enemy fully shows how
well the positions of the redoubts were chosen by Co-
lonel Lake. All the batteries flanked each other, and
the Russians were unable to bring up guns to com-
mand any of our positions. The troops kiss the bat-
teries, and say that the Miralai Bey (Colonel) was
“ Chok akilli” (very wise) when he made them
work.
“ Captain Thompson aided greatly in recapturing
the English lines. He directed by order the guns of
412
CAMPAIGN IN ASIA.
Arab Tabia and Karadagh, and sent the troops over to
attack the Eussians.
“ Major Teesdale was in the hottest fire, and acted
with great coolness and bravery. He is the admiration
of the Turks. He showed them how English officers
behave in battle.
“All the Turkish officers did their duty nobly.
Kerim Pasha was slightly wounded, and had two
horses killed under him; Hussein Pasha was hit;
two Colonels, and many other officers, were killed.”
The Invalide Russe published a nominal list of the
officers killed and wounded at Kars. The list was as
follows: — 1 General (General Kovalevski), 4 Colonels,
2 Lieutenant-Colonels, 5 Majors, 14 Captains, 18 Lieu-
tenants, 15 Subalterns, and 17 Ensigns, making a to-
tal of 76 officers killed. The list of wounded compris-
es — 3 Generals (viz., Generals Prince Gagarine,
Mafdel, andBroneffsky), 5 Colonels, 3 Lieutenant-Co-
lonels, 14 Majors, 30 Captains, 35 Lieutenants, 39 Sub-
alterns, and 47 Ensigns ; making a total of 176. The
killed and wounded together thus number no less than
252 officers.
Nothing of importance occurred during the month
of October ; but, at the beginning of November, Omar
Pasha, with an army of about 7000, attempted the
passage of the Ingour. The Eussians, to the number
of 10,000, disputed the passage, when a short but
bloody battle ensued; which ended in the utter defeat
of the Eussians, leaving from 300 to 400 dead and a
very great number wounded. The Eussians retreated
towards Kutais. The loss of the Turks amounted to
about 100 killed, and 300 wounded. The English offi-
cers in the Turkish army displayed great courage ;
three of whom had their horses shot under them.
It is now our painful task to record the Capitula-
tion op Kars.
The year 1855 advanced, and with it the season for
action, when the Eussians were found in better order
than before, and headed by one of their best native
CAPITULATION OP KA3RS.
413
generals, invading Turkey in Asia, obtaining their own
supplies, to a great extent, by forays on all the open
country, and inclosing the Turkish forces in their lair
at Kars, while other Turkish forces in Erzeroum either
could not or would not venture out to the relief of their
brethren. After the season best fitted for active oper-
ations had passed away, Omar Pasha, fretted by idly
parading for months with his troops at Eupatoria or
Baidar, was allowed to enter the Asiatic field, and
made, when too late, and with too small a force, a di-
version upon the right flank of the Russians. This
movement, however ably planned, both in itself as con-
nected with the Caucasian tribes, and in its bearings
on the communications of the main Russian army,
seems to have been based on a miscalculation of the
condition of the garrison of Kars, and was made too
late in the season, and at too great a distance from the
Russian base, to produce any effect in relief of the main
Turkish force ; and Kars, hanging on the events of a
few days, eventually fell by famine.
The following were the conditions of the Capitula-
tion : —
Art. 1. Stipulates for the surrender of the fortress
and all the materiel of war intact ; guns not to be
spiked, and stores and arms to be delivered up in the
state they were at the time of signing the act of sur-
render. It then goes on to provide for the manner
in which possession of the foregoing is to be given up
to the Russians.
Art. 2. Refers to the surrender of the garrison, as
prisoners of war, and provides, “ as a testimonial of
the valorous resistance made by the garrison of Kars,’*
that the officers of all ranks are to keep their swords.
The different positions to be taken up by the Turkish
troops is then indicated; and the Mushir Commander-
in-Chief is required to present a muster-roll of the gar-
rison, which is to be called over by delegates of the
Russian army. This article further provides for cer-
tain portions of the troops being permitted to return
414
CAPITULATION OP KAHSf
to their homes, and specifies the route they are to take,
their order of march, &c. The Turkish military au-
thorities on their part engage to leave behind a suffi-
cient number of medical officers and nurses to attend
to the sick in the hospitals.
Art. 3. provides for the security of the private pro-
perty of members of the army of all ranks.
Art. 4. and 5 refer to the militia regiments and
non-combatants, who are to be privileged to return to
their several homes.
Art. 6, which evidently refers to the Hungarians
and other foreigners who had enlisted in the Turkish
army, is as follows : — “ To General Williams is reserved
the right of designating his choice in a list, which
must be previously submitted to the approval of Gen-
eral Mouravieff, of a certain number of persons, to
whom permission will be given to return to their
homes. Military men, subjects of one of the belliger-
ent Powers, are excluded from this list.”
We give the remaining articles in extenso : —
“ Art. 7. All persons indicated in Articles 4, 5, and
6, engage themselves by their word of honour not to
bear arms against his Majesty the Emperor of all the
Eussias during the whole duration of the present
war.
“ Art. 8. The inhabitants of the town throw them-
selves upon the generosity of the Eussian Govern-
ment, which takes them under its protection.
“ Immediately the troops have given up their arms,
the inhabitants of the town are to send a deputation,
consisting of the principal inhabitants of the place,
to give the keys to the Eussian Commander-in-Chief,
and to trust themselves unreservedly to the generosi-
ty of the august Sovereign of Eussia.
“Art. 9. The public monuments and buildings of
the town belonging to the Government are to be res-
pected and left intact.
“ It being the principle of the Eussian Government
to respect the customs and traditions of the people
CAPITULATION OP KARS.
416
subjected to its government, and especially the build-
ings devoted to worship, it will not allow any damage
to be done to the religious monuments or historical
souvenirs of Kars.”
The act of surrender, which bears date Nov. 13 (25),
is signed by General Williams on the side of the
Turks, and by Colonel de Kauffmann on behalf of the
Russians.
The following letter from Erzeroum, dated Novem-
ber 27, before the news of the surrender was known,
will give the reader some idea of the miserable imbeci-
lity and indecision that pervaded the various classes of
Turkish officials : —
“ Couriers from Kars follow each other in rapid succes-
sion, imploring succour in men and provisions. Meanwhile,
Selim Pasha has appealed to the surrounding districts for
volunteers, and makes preparation formarching in person
in the direction of Kars. As long ago as the 9th and 10th,
he assigned 1,000 men of the regular troops to take charge
of the heaviest guns, and his best horses to be used in the
transport of stores. Nevertheless, I regret to say that all
preparations are made with a degree of slowness that is
intolerable, and utterly incompatible with the critical situ-
ation of the brave and devoted garrison of Kars. More-
over, the mountains are already covered with snow, which
threatens to descend to the level of the plains, so a»to ren-
der any movement of the army difficult and perilous. The
Pessimists among us go about saying that there is no long-
er a possibility of relieving Kars, and that, by this time,
the garrison, hemmed in by the enemy’s cavalry , and pres-
sed by famine, must either have capitulated, or resolved
to attempt to cut their way, sword in hand, through the
investing army. But if Selim Pasha is sufficiently active,
there is room for hope that Mouravieff may find it neces-
sary to retreat to Alexandropol, to avoid finding himself
placed between two fires — the advancing succours and the
garrison which might make a sortie.
“The Russian detachment at Ddli Baba and Uch Klis-
eia remains in position. A few days ago, Mehemet Bey
(nephew of Behlut Pasha, a prisoner with the Russians,
who commands the Turkish outposts,) had an affair with
the enemy, of whom some score were killed and eight taken
prisoners, who are expected to arrive here to-day. Me-
Uemet Bey was himself wounded, but no* seriously.
416
CAPITULATION OP KARS.
“ Nov. 28. — Yesterday evening Generals Kmety (Ismael
Pasha) and Coleman (Feigi Pasha) arrived here from Kars,
which they left three days before. They report that on
the 22nd, General Williams had received despatches from
this place to the effect that he need expect no succours on
our part, inasmuch as the Mushir, Selim Pasha, could not
be moved to send them, and that he must look upon him-
self as abandoned to his own resources. Next day, (the
23rd) the General called a council of all the Turkish offi-
cers, over which Muchir Yassif Pasha presided, and re-
presented to them the condition of Kars, and the contents
of the despatches he had received, submitting to them the
following questions : — Did they believe that the garrison
was able to hold out longer ? Did they believe that enough^
of provisions remained to support them for a little longer ?
Did they believe it possible to meet the enemy in the field ?
The whole of the Pashas placed themselves unreservedly at
the disposal of the English General. The same evening
General Williams despatched his aide-de-camp. Major
Teesdale, to General Mouravieff, to request a personal in-
terview, with a view to agree upon terms for the surren-
der of Kars.
“ At the 3ame time. Generals Coleman and Kmety left
Kars, with an escort of fiveKurds, who pledged themselves
for their safety, after having given in their resignations to
our brave General, on the ground that their services there
were no longer available. The account they give of the
condition of Kars is the most lamentable that can be im-
agined. For more than a week the women and children
had been dying of hunger, and had gone iu their agony to
the door of General W illiams to implore him for food, and
to lay their bodies on his threshold. The soldiers were
dying at the rate one hundred a day j the hospitals were
crammed with sick, the streets with corpses — all from hun-
ger. Let us hope that General Williams may be able to
mitigate the sad termination of the siege ; but from what
I know of the gentleman, I dread his falling a victim to his
sensitive nature.’'
It would appear from the foregoing letter that all
the enthusiasm, ah the energy, all the devotedness of
the region, were concentrated within Kars; outside of
its forts, all — except in the Kussian camp — was sheer
trifling and child’s play. But in Kars the garrison
CAftTlTRATlON 02 KAItS.
417
were heroes to the last. When General Williams —
after receiving intelligence from Erzeroum that it was
in vain to hope for relief from the Mushir — assembled
the Turkish field officers, to obtain their opinion as to
the possibility or expediency of prolonged resistance,
these brave men, with true Turkish sang-froid , placed
their fate implicitly in his hands. Had he said the
word, they, with all their soldiers, would have died to
a man at their guns, or in the field, fighting hand to
hand with the enemy. A strong conviction that to
save the place was impossible, and commiseration for
the wretched inhabitants, determined the General to
surrender. And thus, after six months of heroic en-
durance, enhanced by repeated displays «of desperate
valour, the survivors of the garrison of Kars became
captives of the Muscovite.
The state to which the town and garrison of Kars
were reduced before the capitulation was agreed on,
appears to have been painful in the extreme. One ac-
count states that 100 men a-day were dying of hunger
and privations, and that on the 24th an English offi-
cer gave 26s. for a rat ! The little meat th^ t remained
of the slaughtered beasts of burden was reserved for
the hospitals, in which the [Russians found 3,000 sick
and wounded. On the 27th the enemy sent a large
convoy of provisions into the town. Sentries were
placed in all the streets for the protection of the inha-
bitants. According to all the accounts received,
the Russians appear to have behaved well and even
generously. S urgeons, medicines, and other requisites
were immediately supplied to the Turkish hospitals.
The number of guns taken in Kars is 250, of which 80
were field artillery*
Hr. Sandwith was set at liberty, and retired to Er-
zeroum ; Mr. Churchill, secretary, and Zorah, the in-
terpreter, were also set a t liberty ; but they preferred to
remain with General Williams, and accompany him to
Tiflis. Hr. Sandwith has since arrived in England,
and has been welcomed by his countrymen with great
eclat,
246 2 d
418
SUMMARY.
We have now brought the narrative down to th0
close nearly of 1855 ; the severity of the season, and
other causes, producing a lull in the din of war. The
despatches received from time to time by the British
government, as well as the letters sent to the English
journals by their several Correspondents, spoke in
animating terms of the great improvement in the
condition of the British army. Indeed, it was declar-
ed by our Allies, that the English troops at the close of
the year, were as fine a body of men as any nation could
produce. The Allied troops, at the end of 1855, and
the beginning of 1856, were engaged in demolishing
the docks at Sebastopol, which work was successfully
accomplished. In the month of December, Austria,
which had all along been indefatigable in its endea-
vours to bring the contending powers to an agreement,
submitted to the Western Powers a fresh proposal, to
the terms of which, after some deliberation, the go-
vernments of the Allies agreed. This document was
immediately despatched to Bussia, for acceptance or
rejection ; and, in the middle of J anuary, 1856, an an-
swer was received, stating that Bussia accepted un-
conditionally the terms proposed, as a basis for bring-
ing about peace. This intelligence was received with
joy by many ; with doubt by some ; and with disap-
probation by others. Paris was ultimately chosen as
the place where the Conference was to be held; and it
was arranged that each of the contracting powers
should be represented by two Plenipotentiaries. At
the commencement of the Conference, Prussia was not
admitted to take part in the deliberations; but towards
the close, two Plenipotentiaries were permitted to take
part in the discussions on European matters. The
first meeting of the Plenipotentiaries took place on the
3rd of March, and the Conference was brought to a
close within a day or two of the end of the month.
Pull particulars are given of the Treaty of peace, Con-
ventions, and Protocols, in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XIII.
Official Text of the Treaty of Peace — The
Conventions— The Protocols — Conclusion.
(translation.)
General Treaty between Her Majesty , the Emperor of Aus-
tria, the Emperor of the French, the King of Frussia,
the Emperor of Russia, the King of Sardinia, ami the
Sultan.
(Signed at Paris, March 30, 1856. Ratifications exchang-
ed at Paris, April 27.)
In the Name of Almighty God !
Their majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of the French, the
Emperor of All the Russias, the King of Prussia, the
King of Sardinia, and the Emperor of the Ottomans, ani-
mated by the desire of putting an end to the calamities of
war, and wishing to prevent the return of the complica-
tions which occasioned it, resolved to ^ome to an under-
standing with his Majesty the Emperor of Austria as to
the bases on which peace may be re-established and conso-
lidated, by securing, through effectual and reciprocal guar-
antees, the independence and integrity of the Ottoman em-
pire.
For these purposes their said Majesties named as their
plenipotentiaries, that is to say, —
(Here follow the names of the plenipotentiaries, with all
their titles, orders &c.j but we simply subjoin the
names).
Great Britain.. .William Frederick, Earl of Claren*
don.
Henry Richard Charles, Baron Cow-
iey.
Austria Charles Ferdinand, Count of Buol-
Schauenstein.
Joseph Alexander, Baron de Hubner.
France Alexander, Count Colonna Walewski.
Francis Adolphus, Baron de Bour«
queney.
Russia Alexis, Count Orloff.
Philip, Baron de Brunnow.
419
fREATY OR PEACE.
m
Sardinia Camille Benso, Count of Cavour.
Salvator, Marquis de Villa Marina.
Turkey Mehammed Emir Aali, Pacha.
Mehammed Djemil, Bey.
Plenipotentiaries subsequently invited:—
Prussia Otho Theodore, Baron de Manteuffel.
Maximilian Frederic Charles
Francis, Count of Hadzfeldt.
The Plenipotentiaries, after having exchanged their full
powers, found in good and due form, have agreed upon the
following articles :
Article I. — From the day of the exchange of the rati-
fications of the present treaty, there shall be a peace and
friendship between her Majesty the Queen of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, his Majesty the
Emperor of the French, his Majesty the King of Sardinia,
his Imperial Majesty the Sultan, on the one part, and his
Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias, on the other part,
as well as between their heirs and successors, their respec-
tive dominions and subjects in perpetuity.
II. — Peace being happily re-established between their
said Majesties, the territories conquered or occupied by
their armies during the war shall be reciprocally evacuat-
ed. Special arrangements shall regulate the mode of eva-
cuation, which shall be as prompt as possible.
III. — His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias engages
to restore to His Majesty the Sultan the town and citadel
of Kars, as well as the other parts of the Ottoman territo-
ry of which the Russian troops are in possession.
IV. — Their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of the French,
the King of Sardinia, and the Sultan, engage to restore to
His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias the towns and
ports of Sebastopol, Balaklava,Kamiesch,Eupatoria,Kertch,
Yenekale, Kinburn, as well as all other territories occu-
pied by the Allied troops.
V. — Their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of all the Rus-
sias, the King of Sardinia, and the Sultan, grant afull and
entire amnesty to those of their subjects who may have
been compromised by any participation whatsoever in the
events of the war in favour of the cause of the enemy. It
is expressly understood that such amnesty shall extend to
the subjects of each of the belligerent parties who may
have continued during the war to be employed in the ser-
vice of one of the other beUigerente.
TREATY OR TKAC*. 421
VI. — Prisoners of war shall be immediately given upon
either side.
VII. — Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, his Majesty the Emperor of
Austria, His Majesty the Emperor of the French, His Ma-
jesty the King of Prussia, His Majesty the Emperor of
All the Eussias, and His Majesty the King of Sardinia, de-
clare the Sublime Porte admitted to participate in the ad-
vantages of the public law and system ( concert ) of Europe.
Their Majesties engage, each on his part, to respect the
independence and the territorial integrity of the Ottoman
Empire; guarantee in common the strict observance of
that engagement ; and will, in consequence, consider any
acts tending to its violation as a question of general inter-
est.
VIII. — If there should arise between the Sublime Porte
and one or more of the other signing powers, any misun-
derstanding which might endanger the maintenance of their
relations, the Sublime Porte and each of such powers, be-
fore having recourse to the use of force, shall afford the
other contracting parties the opportunity of preventing
such an extremity by means of their mediation.
IX. — His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, having, in his
constant solicitude for the welfare of his subjects, issued
a firman which, while ameliorating their condition with-
out distinction of religion or of race, records bis generous
intentions towards the Christian population of his empire,
and wishing to give a further proof of his sentiments in
that respect, has resolved to communicate to the contract-
ing parties the said firman, emanating spontaneously from
his sovereign will. — The contracting powers recognise the
high value of this communication. It is clearly understood
that it cannot, in any case, give to the said Powers the
right to interfere, either collectively or separately, in the
relations of his Majesty the Sultan with his subjects, or in
the internal administration of his empire.
X. — The Convention of the 13th of July, 1841, which main-
tains the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire relative to
the closing of the Straits of the Bosphorus and of the Dar-
danelles, has been revised by common consent. — The Act
concluded for that purpose, and in conformity with that
principle, between the high contracting parties, is and re-
mains annexed to the present treaty, and shall have the
same force and validity as if it formed an integral part
thereof.
* XI»— The Black Sea is neutralised j its waters and itg
422
TREATY OP PEACE.
ports thrown open to the mercantile marine of every nation*
are formally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag of
war, either of the Powers possessing its coasts or any other
Power, with the exceptions mentioned in articles 14 and 19
of the present treaty.
XII. — Free from any impediment, the commerce in the
ports and waters of the Black Sea shall be subject only to
regulations of health, customs, and police, framed in a spirit
favourable to the development of commercial transactions.
—In order to afford to the commercial and maritime inter-
ests of every nation the security which is desired, Eussia and
the Sublime Porte will admit consuls into their porta situ-
ated upon the coast of the Black Sea, in conformity with
the principles of international law.
XIII. — The Black Sea being neutralised according to
the terms of ArticlqXI. the maintenance or establishment
upon its coast of military-maritime arsenals becomes alike
unnecessary and purposeless. In consequence, his Majes-
ty the Emperor of all the Kussias and his Imperial Majes-
ty the Sultan engage not to establish or to maintain upon
that coast any military-maritime arsenal.
XIV. — Their Majesties the Emperor of all the Eussias
and the Sultan having concluded a convention for the pur-
pose of settling the force and the number of light ves-
sels necessary for the service of their coasts, which they
reserve to themselves to maintain in the Black Sea, that
convention is annexed to the present treaty, and shall have
the same force ,and v alidity as if it had formed an integral
part thereof. It cannot be either annulled or modified
without the assent of the Powers signing the present
treaty.
XV. — The act of the Congress of Vienna having estab-
lished the principles intended to regulate the navigation of
rivers which separate or traverse different States, the con-
tracting Powers stipulate among themselves that those prin-
ciples shall in future be equally applied to the Danube and
its mouths. They declare that this arrangement henceforth
forms a part of the public law of Europe, and take it under
their guarantee. The navigation of the Danube cannot be
subjected to any impediment or change not expressly provid-
ed for by the stipulations contained in the following arti-
cles. In consequence, there shall not be levied any toll
founded solely upon the fact of the navigation of the river,
nor any duty upon the goods which maybe on board of ves-
sels. The regulations of police and of quarantine to be es-
tablished for the safety of the States separated or traversed
TREATY OP PEACE.
423
by that river, shall be so framed as to facilitate, as much as
possible, the passage of vessels. With the exception of such
regulations, no obstacle whatever shall be opposed to free
navigation.
XYI. — With a view to carry out the arrangements of the
preceding article, a commission, in which Great Britain,
Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey
shall each be represented by one delegate, shall be charged
to designate and cause to be executed the works necessary
below Isatcha, to clear the mouths of the Danube, as well
as the neighbouring parts of the sea, from the sands and
other impediments which obstruct them, in order to put
that part of the river, and the said parts of the sea, in the
best possible state for navigation. In order to cover the
expenses of such works, as well as the establishments in-
tended to secure and to facilitate the navigation at the
mouths of the Danube, fixed duties, of a suitable rate, set-
tled by the Commission by a majority of votes, may be le-
vied, on the express condition that in this respect as in every
other, the flags of all nations shall be treated on the footing
of perfect equality.
XVII. — A commission shall be established, and shall be
composed of delegates of Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime
Porte, and Wurtemberg, (one from each of those Powers, )to
whom shall be added Commissioners from the three Danu-
bian Principalities, whose nomination shall have been ap-
proved by the Porte. This Commission, which shall be
permanent : — 1. Shall prepare regulations of navigation
and river police. — 2. Shall remove impediments, of what-
ever nature they may be, which still prevent the application
to the Danube of the arrangements of the treaty of Vienna.
— 3. Shall order and cause to be executed the necessary
works throughout the whole course of the river. — And 4.
Shall, after the dissolution of the European commission,
see to maintaining the mouths of the Danube, and the
neighbouring parts of the sea, in a navigable state.
XVIII. — It is understood that the European Commission
shall have completed its task, and that the river commission
shall have finished the works described in the preceding ar-
ticle, under Nos. 1 and 2, within the period of two years.
The signing powers assembled in conference, having been
informed of that fact, shall, after having placed it on re-
cord, pronounce the dissolution of the European Commis-
sion, and from that time the permanent river commission
shall enjoy the same powers as those with which the Eu-
ropean Commission shall have until then been invested.
m
TREATY OR PEACE.
XIX. — In order to insure the execution of the regulations
which shall have been established by common agreement,
in conformity with the principles above declared, each of
the contracting Powers shall have the right to station, at all
times, two light vessels at the mouths of the Danube.
XX. — In exchange for the towns, ports, territories, en-
numerated in Article 4 of the present treaty, and in order
more fully to secure the freedom of the navigation of the
Danube, his Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias con-
sents to the rectification of his frontier in Bessarabia. The
new frontier shall begin from the Black Sea one kilometre
to the east of Lake Bourna-Sola, shall run perpendicularly
to the Akerman road, shall follow that road to the Val de
Trajan, pass to the south of Belgrade, ascend the course of
the river Yalpuck to the heights of Saratsika, and termin-
ate at Katamori on the Pruth. Above that point the old
frontier between the two empires shall not undergo any
modification. Delegates of the contracting Powers shall
fix, in its details, the line of the new frontier.
XXI. — The territory ceded by Russia shall be annexed to
the Principality of Moldavia, under the suzerainty of the
Sublime Porte. The inhabitants of this territory shall en-
joy the rights and privileges secured to the Principalities,
and during the space of three years they shall not be per-
mitted to transfer their domicile elsewhere, disposing freely
of their property,
XXII. — The Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
shall continue to enjoy, under the suzerainty of the Porte,
and under the guarantee of the contracting Powers, the pri-
vileges and immunities of which they are in possession. No
exclusive protection shall be exercised over them by any
of the guaranteeing Powers. There shall be no separate
right of interference in their internal affairs.
XXIII. — The Sublime Porte engages to preserve to the
said Principalities an independent and national administra-
tion, as well as full liberty of worship, of legislation, of com-
merce, and of navigation.. ‘ The laws and statutes at present
in force shall be revised. In order to establish a complete
agreement in regard to such a revision, a special commis-
sion, as to the composition of which the high contracting
powers will come to an understanding among themselves,
shall assemble without delay at Bucharest, together with a
commissioner of the Sublime Porte. The business of this
commission shall be to investigate the present state of the
Principalities, and to propose bases for their future organ*
isation.
TREATY OP PEACE,
425
XXIV. — His Majesty the Sultan promises to convoke
immediately in each of the two provinces, a divan ad hoc,
composed in such a manner as to represent most closely
the interests of all classes of society. These divans shall
be called upon to express the wishes of the people in regard
to the definitive organisation of the Principalities. An in-
struction from the Congress shall regulate the relations be-
tween the Commission and these divans.
XXV. — Taking into consideration the opinion expressed
by the two divans, the commission shall transmit without
delay to the present seat of the Conferences the result of
its own labours. The final agreement with the Suzerain
Power shall be recorded in a convention to be concluded at
Paris between the high contracting parties j and a hatti
sheriff, in conformity with the stipulations of the conven-
tion, shall constitute definitely the organisation of these
provinces— placed thenceforward under the collective guar-
antee of all the signing Powers.
XXVI. — It is agreed that there shall be in the Principal-
ities a national armed force organised with the view to
maintain the security of the interior, and to insure that of
the frontiers. No impediment shall be opposed to the ex-
traordinary measures of defence which, by agreement with
the Sublime Porte, they may'be called upon to take, in
order to repel any external aggression.
XXVII.— If the internal tranquillity of the Principali-
ties should be menaced or compromised, the Sublime Porte
shall come to an understanding with the other contracting
Powers in regard to the measures to betaken for maintain-
ing or re-establishing legal order. No armed intervention
can take place without previous agreement between those
Powers.
XXVIII. — The Principality of Servia shall continue to
hold of the Sublime Porte, in conformity with the Imperial
Hatts which fix and determine its rights and immunities
placed henceforward under collective guarantee of the con-
tracting Powers. In consequence the said Principality
shall preserve its independent and national administration
as well as full liberty of worship, of legislation, of commerce,
and of navigation.
XXIX. — The right of garrison of the Sublime Porte, as
stipulated by anterior regulations, is maintained. No arm-
ed intervention can take place in Servia without previous
agreement between the high contracting Powers.
XXX. — His Majesty the Emjperor of all the Russias and
His Majesty the Sultan maintain in its integrity the state
426
TREATY OF PEACE.
of their possessions in Asia, such as it legally existed before
the rupture. In order to prevent all local dispute the line
of frontier shall be verified, and, if necessary, rectified,
without any prejudice, as regards territory, being sustain-
ed by either party. For this purpose, a mixed Commission,
composed of two Russian Commissioners, two Ottoman
Commissioners, one English Commissioner, one French
Commissioner, shall be sent to the spot immediately after
the re-establishment of diplomatic relations between the
Court of Russia and the Sublime Porte. Its labours shall
be completed within the period of eight months after
the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty.
XXXI. — The territories occupied during the war by the
troops of their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, the
Emperor of the French, and the King of Sardinia, accord-
ing to the terms of the convention signed at Constantinople,
on the 12th of March, 1854, between Great Britain, France,
and the Sublime Porte: on the 14th of June of the same
year between Austria and the Sublime Porte ; and on 15th
of March, 1855, between Sardinia and the Sublime Porte,
shall be evacuated as soon as possible after the exchange of
the ratifications of the present treaty. The periods and the
means of execution shall form the object of an arrangement
between the Sublime Porte and the Powers whose troops
have occupied its territory.
XXXII.— Until the treaties or conventions which existed
before the war between the belligerent Powers have been
either renewed or replaced by new acts, commerce of im-
portation or of exportation shall take place reciprocally on
the footing of the regulations in force before the war ; and in
all other matters their subjects shall be respectively treat-
ed upon the footing of the most favoured nation.
XXXIII. — The convention concluded this day between
their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of the French, on the
one part, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the Rnssias on
the other part, respecting the Aland Isles, is and remains
annexed to the present treaty, and shall have the same force
and validity as if it formed a part thereof,-
XXXIV. — The present treaty shall be ratified, and the
ratifications shall be exchanged at Paris in the space of
four weeks, or sooner, if possible.
In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have
signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their
arms.
CONVENTIONS. 427
Done at Paris, the 30th day of the month of March, in
the year 1856.
CLARENDON. C. M.D’HatZFELDT.
Cowley. Orlofe.
Btjol-Schauenstein. Brunnow.
Hubner. C. Cavoub.
A. Walewski. De Villa Marina.
Bourqueney. Aali.
Manteufjel. Mehemmed Djemil.
An additional article of the same date provides for the '
temporary use of the Straits of the Dardanelles for the pur-
pose of removing troops* &c.
CONVENTIONS ANNEXED TO TEE PRECEDING TREATY.
I . — Convention between Her Majesty, the Emperor of Aus-
tria, the Emperor of the French , the King of Prussia, the
Emperor of Russia , and the King of Sardinia , on the one
part , and the Sultan on the other part, respecting the Straits
of the Dardanelles and of the Bosphorus.
(Signed at Paris, March 30, 1856. Ratifications exchanged
at Paris, April 27, 1856.)
In the Name of Almighty God !
Art. 1 His Majesty the Sultan, on the one part, declares
that he is firmly resolved to maintain for the future the
principle invariably established as the ancient rule of his
empire, and in virtue of which it has at all times been pro-
hibited for the ships of war of foreign powers to enter the
Straits of the Dardanelles and of the Bosphorus, and that,
so long as the Porte is at peace, his Majesty wilLadmitno
foreign ship of war into the said Straits. And their Ma-
jesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the
Prench, the King of Prussia, the Emperor of All the Rus-
sias, and the King of Sardinia, on the other part, engage
to respect this determination of the Sultan, and to conform
themselves to the principle above declared.
2. The Sultan reserves to himself, as in past times, to
deliver firmans of passage for light vessels under flag of
war, which shall be employed as is usual in the service of
the missions of foreign powers.
3. The same exception applies to the light vessels un-
der flag of war, which each of the contracting powers is
authorised to station at the mouths of the Danube, in or-
der to secure the execution of the regulations relative to
the liberty of that river, and the number of which is not to
exceed two for each power.
428
CONVENTIONS.
4. The present convention, annexed to the general treaty
signed at Paris this day, shall be ratified, and the ratifica-
tions shall be exchanged in the space of four weeks, or
sooner if possible.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have
signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their
arms.
Done at Paris, the 30th day of the month of March, in
the year 1856.
Clarendon. C. M. D’Hatzfeldt.
Cowley. Orloff.
Buol-Schatjenstein. Brunnow.
Burner. C. Cavour.
A. Walewski. De Villa Marina.
Bourqueney. Aali.
Manteuffel. Mehemmed Djemil.
II. — Convention between the Emperor of Russia and the
Sultan , Limiting their Naval Force in the Black Sea.
(Signed at Paris, March 30. Ratifications exchanged at
Paris, April 27, 1856.)
In the Name of Almighty God I
Art. 1. The high contracting parties mutually engage
not to have in the Black Sea any other vessels of war than
those of which the number, the force, and the dimensions
are herein-after stipulated.
2. The high contracting parties reserve to themselves
each to maintain in that sea six steam vessels of fifty me-
tres in length at the line of floatation, of a tonnage of 800
tons at the maximum, and four light steam or sailing ves-
sels of a tonnage which shall not exceed 200 tons each.
3. The present convention, annexed to the general
treaty signed at Paris this day, shall be ratified, and the
ratifications shall be exchanged in the space of four weeks,
or sooner if possible.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have
signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their
arms.
Done at Paris, the 13th day of the month of March, in
the year 1856.
Orloff. Aali.
Brunnow. Mehemmid Djemil.
III. — Convention between Her Majesty , the Emperor of the
French , and the Emperor of Russia , respecting the Aland/
Islands 9
CONVENTIONS. 429
(Signed at Paris, March 30, 1856. — Ratifications exchang-
ed at Paris, April 27, 1856.)
In the name of Almighty God !
Art. 1. His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, in
order to respond to the desire which has been expressed
to him by their Majesties the Queen of the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Emperor of the
French, declares that the Aland Islands shall not be forti-
fied, and that no military or naval establishment shall be
maintained or created there.
2. The present convention, annexed to the general
treaty signed at Paris this day, shall be ratified, and the
ratifications shall be exchanged in the space of four weeks,
or sooner, if possible.
In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have
signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seal of their
arms.
Done at Paris the 30th day of the month of March, in
the year 1856.
Clarendon Bourquenet.
Cowley. Orloff.
A. Walewski. Brunnow.
DECLARATION RESPECTING MARITIME LAW.
Signed by the Plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, Austria,
France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assem-
bled in Congress at Paris, April 16, 1856: —
[Translation.]
The Plenipotentiaries who signed the treaty of Paris, of
the 30th of March, 1856, assembled in conference, — Con-
sidering that maritime law, in time of war, has long been
the subject of deplorable disputes; that the uncertainty of
the law and of the duties of such a matter gives rise to dif-
ferences of opinion between neutrals and belligerents which
may occasion serious difficulties, and even conflicts ; that
it is consequently advantageous to establish a uniform doc-
trine on so important a point ; that the Plenipotentiaries
assembled in congress at Paris cannot better respond to
the intentions by which their governments are animated
than by seeking to introduce into international relations
fixed principles in this respect; the above-mentioned Ple-
nipotentiaries, being duly authorised, resolved to concert
among themselves as to the means of attaining this object;
and, having come to an agreement, have adopted the fol-
lowing solemn declaration : —
1. Privateering is, and remains, abolished.
430
PROTOCOLS.
2. The neutral flag covers enemy’s goods, with the ex-
ception of contraband of war.
3. Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of
war, are not liable to capture under an enemy’s flag.
4. Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective
—that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to
prevent access to the coast of the enemy.
The Governments of the undersigned Plenipotentiaries
engage to bring the present declaration to the knowledge
of the States which have not taken part in the Congress of
Paris, and to invite them to accede to it.
Convinced that the maxims which they now proclaim can-
not but be received with gratitude by the whole world, the
undersigned Plenipotentiaries doubt not that the efforts of
their Governments to obtain the general adoption thereof
will be crowned with full success.
The present declaration is not and shall not be binding,
except between those Powers who have acceded, or shall
accede, to it.
Done at Paris, the 16th of April, 1856.
Buol-Schauenstein.
Hubner.
Walewski.
Bourqueney.
Clarendon.
Cowley.
Manteuffel.
Hatzfeldt.
Orloff.
Brunnow.
Cavotjb.
De Villa Marina.
Aali,
Mehemmed Djemil.
t
THE PROTOCOLS OF THE CONFERENCES.
These official records of the proceedings are of enormous
length, occupying between twelve and thirteen ordinary
newspaper columns. A brief abridgment will, however, in
most cases, convey all that is interesting to the reader.
But what has been done to the arsenals of Nicolaieff, and
other places, and the important conversation which took
place respecting the state of Italy and other European
countries, we give in full :
Protocol No. 1, Feb. 25. — The first meeting took place
on the 25th of February, at the Hotel of the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs, Paris. All the Plenipotentiaries were
present. Count Buol proposed that Count Walewski
should be president (a course not only sanctioned by pre-
cedent, but an “ act of homage to the sovereign whose hos-
pitality they were at that time enjoying.”) This proposi-
tion was unanimously adopted. Count Walewski made a
short speech, advising a conciliatory spirit, M. Benedetti
PROTOCOLS.
m
was appointed to draw up the protocols, and was then in-
troduced. The protocol containing the Austrian proposi-
tions was adopted and signed as containing preliminaries
of peace. An armistice was then concluded, and the meet-
ing separated.
Pbotocol No. 2, Feb. 28. — It was mutually announced
that orders had been given to suspend hostilities. The
first point of interest was the objection of Baron Brunnow
to the word “ Protectorate” (in the Austrian proposition)
as describing the relations of Russia with the Principali-
ties. Count Buol remarked that the protectorate existed
in fact, if the word itself was not in the diplomatic stipu-
lations with Turkey ; that the term used was in effect that
of “ guarantee,” but that it was important to find a form
of expression calculated to show clearly that an end would
be put to this exclusive guarantee. Aali Pasha remarked
that the word “protectorate” was employed in diplomatic
documents, and specifically in the Organic Statute of the
Principalities. After this discussion, the Plenipotentiaries
agreed that the question of the administration of the Prin-
cipalities and the navigation of the Danube should be re-
ferred to a commission. In the course of this day’s debate.
Count Orloff remarked that Prussia should be invited to
take part in the negociation until the principal clauses of
the General Treaty should be settled. On the point rela-
tive to the Christians in Turkey being alluded to. Count Or-
loff asked what were the intentions of Turkey with regard
to it, stating that he thought the subject should appear
in the general treaty. Aali Pasha stated that a new hatti-
sherif has renewed the religious privileges granted to the
non-Mussulman subjects of the Porte, and prescribed new
reforms.
Pbotocol No. 3, March 1. — This sitting was devoted to
the settlement of the 5th point. Count W alewski demand-
ed in the name of the Allies that there should be no naval
or military establishment on the Aland Islands. Count
Orloff agreed to the demand. Count Walewski then de-
manded that the state of Territories to the east of the
Black Sea should be specially inquired into. After a short
conversation, in which all agreed as to the utility of veri-
fying the Asiatic boundaries of Russia and Turkey, it was
agreed that a mixed commission should be sent to the spot.
The question of rebuilding the Russian forts on the east
coast of the Black Sea was mentioned, but nothing definite
was decided. Count W alewski demanded that Kars should
be restored. Count Orloff, after a few remarks, claiming
432
PROTOCOLS.
credit for Russian concessions on the fifth point, assented
to the restitution.
Protocol No. 4 , March 4 ,— The mixed commission to
verify, and if necessary to rectify,” the Asiatic frontier, was
nominated. The Conference then came to the ‘‘neutralis-
ation of the Black Sea,” and here we follow the words of
the official documents. “The first Plenipotentiary of Great
Britain states that Russia possesses at Nicolaieff an arsen-
al of the first class for maritime works, the maintenance of
which would be in contradiction to the principles on which
the paragraph of which the congress has just settled the
terms is founded. The arsenal not being situated on the
shores of the Black Sea. Lord Clarendon does not mean
to assert that Russia is bound to destroy the ship-building
yards which exist there, but he remarks that public opinion
would be authorized in attributing to Russia intentious
which she cannot entertain, if Nicolaieff were to retain,
as a centre for all maritime works, the importance which it
has acquired. — The first Plenipoteniary of Russia replies
that the Emperor, his august master, on acceding with sin-
cerity to the propositions of peace, firmly resolved strictly
to carry out all the engagements resulting from them ; but
that Nicolaieff, being situated far from the shore of the
Black Sea, respect for her dignity would not permit
Russia to allow a principle solely applicable to the coast to
bo extended to the interior of the empire j that the security
of and watching over the coasts required, moreover, that
Russia should have, as had been admitted, a certain number
jf light vessels in the Black Sea, and that if she consented
to give up the ship-building yards of Nicolaieff she would
be compelled to establish others in some other point of
her southern possessions ; that, in order at once to pro-
vide for his arrangement of the naval service, the Emperor
intends only to authorise the construction at Nicolaieff of
the vessels of war mentioned in the bases of the negotation.
— The first Plenipotentiary of Great Britain, and, after
him, the other Plenipotentiaries, consider this declaration
satisfactory. — The Earl of Clarendon inquires of the Pleni-
potentiary of Russia whether he agrees to the insertion of
this declaration in the protocol. After having replied in
the affirmative. Count Orloff adds that, in order to prove
the sincerity of his intentions, the Emperor has instructed
him to demand a free passage through the Straits of the
Bosphorus and the Dardanelles for the two ships of the
line which alone are now at Nicolaieff, and which would
have to proceed to the Baltic as soon as peace was eon-
PROTOCOLS.
433
eluded.’*— The authorization of the residence of foreign
consuls in the Black Sea ports, and the convention given
above, were then determined upon.
Protocol No. 5, March 6.— “The first Plenipotentiary
of Great Britain (we again follow the official words) in-
quires of the Plenipotentiaries of Russia whether the
declaration made by Count Orloff in the preceding sitting,
on the subject of Nicolaieff, applies equally to Chersonahd
to the Sea of Azoff.” “ The first Plenipotentiary of Russia
replies that, like Nicolaieff, the Sea of Azoff cannot be in-
cluded under the direct application of the principle accepted
by Russia; that, on the other hand, it is indubitable that
large vessels cannot navigate that sea ; he abides, however,
by the assurance to which theEarl of Clarendon has referred,
and he repeats that Russia being desirous of acting wholly
in comformity with the engagements which she has con-
tracted, will not build , anywhere on the shores of the Black
Sea, or in its tributaries , or in the waters which are depend-
ent on it, any ships of war other than those which Russia will
maintain in the Black Sea , according to the terms of her
convention with Turkey .** The rest of the sitting was de-
voted to discussions as to the commissions to be appoint-
ed to regulate the navigation of the Danube.
Protocol No. 6, March 8. — The question discussed is
the rectification of the Bessarabian frontier between Russia
and Turkey. Baron Brunnow reads a memorandum tend-
ing to prove that the character of the localities, and the
direction of the roads of communication, do not admit of
a direct line being drawn between the two extreme points
indicated in the preliminaries of peace. He proposed ano-
ther line to start from Waduli-Tsaki on the Pruth, follow
the Val de Trajan , and terminate on the north of Lake
Yalput. Russia would abandon the Islands of Delta, and
raze the forts of Ismail and Kilia-nova. This proposition
is combatted by the representatives of Austria, France, and
Great Britain, as opposed to the spirit of the Austrian pro-
position. After a discussion, it is proposed to the Pleni-
potentiaries of Russia to settle the frontier by a line which,
starting from the Pruth between Leova and Hush, would
£ iss to the north of Lake Salayk, and terminate above
ake Albedies. The Russian Plenipotentiaries ask time
to consider this proposition. The Congress then discuss
the question of the government of the Principalities. Count
Walewski advocates the union of the Principalities. The
first Plenipotentiary of Great Baitain shares in and sup-
ports this opinion, relying especially on the utility and ex-
246 2 E
434
PROTOCOLS*
pediency of taking into serious consideration the wishes of
the people, which it is always right, he adds, to take into
account. The first Plenipotentiary of Turkey contests it.
Aali Pasha maintains that the state of things to which it is
proposed to put an end cannot be attributed to the separa-
tion of the two provinces ; that some individuals, influenced
by personal considerations, have propounded an opinion
adverse to the existing state of things, but such certainly
is not the opinion of the people. Count Buol, although
not authorised to discuss a question which is not provided
for in his instructions, agrees with the first Plenipotentiary
of Turkey, that nothing could justify the union of the two
Provinces; the people, he adds, have not been consulted.
A discussion ensues, in which Count Cavour and Count
Orlofi’ express themselves in accord with Great Britain and
France as to the union of the Principalities. A declara-
tion is finally made by Aali Pasha that the Plenipotentiaries
of Turkey are not authorised to pursue the discussion on
this basis, and the Plenipotentiaries of Austria being them-
selves without instructions, the question is adjourned.
Protocol No. 7, March 10. — The frontier line in Bes-
sarabia is again discussed. It is finally decided that the
frontier shall start from the Black Sea, one kilometre to
the east of Lake Bourn a Sola, shall run perpendicularly to
the Akerman road, follow this road as far as the Val de
Trajan, pass to the south of Belgrada, ascend the Yalpuck
river to the heights of Saratsika, and terminate at Kata-
mori on the Pruth. A commission composed of engineers
and surveyors, shall be charged with fixing in its details the
line of the new frontier. Count Walewski then proposes
that Prussia be invited to the Congress. The Congress as-
sents. Lord Clarendon expresses his confidence that the
Kussian government will respect the graves of the Allied
soldiers in the Crimea. Count Orloff readily states that
measures will be taken to realise the wishes of the Allied
Powers.
Protocol No. 8, March 12. — In mentioning that Rus-
sia and Turkey had concluded a convention as to the light
vessels each should have in the Black Sea, Count Orloffre-
marked that Russia was anxious that each should have, in
addition, some vessels of small tonnage for the execution
of the administrative and sanitary regulations of the ports.
After a short discussion, Russia gives up this point. A con-
versation on the free navigation of the Danube concluded
this sitting.
Protocol No, 9, March 14.— The question of the com-
protocols. 435
position of the commission to regulate the government of
the Principalities is discussed.
Protocol No. 10, March 18.— Several paragraphs of the
treaty are read and agreed to. (Second sitting). The
Plenipotentiaries of Prussia are introduced.
Protocol No. 12, March 22.— A committee is appointed
to draw up the preamble of the treaty.
Protocol No. 13, March 24.— The articles recognising
the recent hatti-sheriff of the Sultan are discussed.
Protocol No. 14, March 25.— Baron Brunnow proposes
an alteration in the words recognising the hatti-sheriff.
His version differs from that finally adopted by the use of the
term “pledge” applied to the Turkish document. After
a short conversation, the Russian plenipotentiaries with-
draw their proposition. A conversation then ensues on the
commercial relations of Turkey with the other Powers.
After a lengthened discussion, the Plenipotentiaries unani-
mously recognise the necessity of revising the stipulations
which regulate the commercial relations of the Porte with
the other Powers, as well as the position of foreign-
ers resident in Turkey ; and they decide upon reporting
in the protocol their wish that a deliberation should be
opened at Constantinople, after the conclusion of peace,
between the Porte and the representatives of the other
contracting Powers, with the view of obtaining the two-fold
object in such a way as to afford entire satisfaction to all legi-
timate interests. In reply to some remarks by Count Buol, on
Montenegro, the Russian Plenipotentiaries state that their
Government has no other relations with Montenegro than
such as spring from the sympathies of the Montenegrins for
Russia, and from the friendly dispositions of Russia towards
those mountaineers.
Protocol No. 15, March 26.— Several paragraphs of the
treaty up to 14 are read and adopted.
Protocol No. 16, March 27.— The articles up to article
80 are read and adopted.
Protocol No. 17, March 28. — The remaining articles are
read and adopted.
Protocol No. 18, March 29.— The drafts of the treaty
and the conventions are read and adopted.
Protocol No.19, March 30. — The armistice is prolonged.
Lord Clarendon proposes that the Plenipotentaries should
proceed to the Tuileries to inform the Emperor of the re-
sult of their negotiations. The Congress adopts the pro-
position.
Protocol No. 20, Arril 2.— France and England declare
that the blockade will be immediately raised.
436
PROTOCOLS.
Protocol No. 21, April 4.— The Plenipotentiaries ofEus.
sia announce that they are authorised to state that the pro-
hibitive measures, adopted during the war for closing the
Russian ports to commerce of exportation, are about to be
revoked. In consequence of this declaration, and in con-
formity with the resolution which it adopted at its preced-
ing sitting, the Congress determines that an armistice by
sea is concluded between France, Great Britain, Sardinia,
and Turkey, on the one part, and Russia on the other, and
that prizes made subsequently to the signature of Peace
shall be restored. It is consequently agreed that orders
shall be given for the immediate raising of the existing
blockades, and that the measures adopted in Russia during
the war, against the export of Russian produce, and espe-
cially of grain, shall be revoked without delay.
Protocol No. 22, April 8.— Some miscellaneous bu-
siness was transacted, including some further arrangements
respecting the Daaubian Principalities. The congress then
adopted, subject to some modifications, instructions of
which M. le Baron Bourqueney presented the project.
The commission not having yet been appointed, it was
agreed by the congress that these instructions should not
at present be made public. Count Walewski then brought
before the conference the subject of the state of Italy and
other countries : — “ Count Walewski says that it is desir-
able that the Plenipotentiaries, before they separate, should
interchange their ideas on different subjects which require
to be settled, and which it might be advantageous to take
up in order to prevent fresh complications. Although spe-
cially assembled for settling the Eastern question, the con-
gress, according to the first Plenipotentiary of France,
might reproach itself for not having taken advantage of
the circumstance which brings together the representatives
of the principal Powers of Europe, to clear up certain
questions, to lay down certain principles, to express inten-
tions, in fine to make certain declarations, always and sole-
ly with a view of insuring the future tranquillity of the
world, by dispelling the clouds which are still looming on
the political horizon, before they become menacing. It
cannot be denied, he says, that Greece is in an abnormal
state. The anarchy to which that country was a prey has
compelled France and England to send troops to the Pi-
raeus at a time when their armies, nevertheless, did not
want occupation. The congress knows in what state
Greece was j neither is it ignorant that that in which it
now is is far from being satisfactory. Would it not there-
PROTOCOLS,
437
fore be advantageous that the Powers represented in the
congress should manifest the wish to see the three protect-
ing Courts take into serious consideration the deplorable
situation of the kingdom which they have created, and de-
vise means to make provision for it? Count Walewski does
not doubt that the Earl of Clarendon will join with him in
declaring that the two Governments await with impatience
the time when they shall be at liberty to terminate an oc-
cupation to which nevertheless they are unable, without
the most serious inconveniences, to put an end, so long
as real modifications shall not be introduced into the state
of things in Greece. The first Plenipotentiary of France
then observes that the Pontifical States are equally in an
abnormal state; that the necessity for not leaving the
country to anarchy had decided France as well as Austria
to comply with the demand of the Holy See, by causing
Pome to be occupied by her troops while the Austrian
troops occupied the Legations. He states that France had
a twofold motive for complying without hesitation with the
demand of the Holy See— as a Catholic Power and as an
European Power. The title of eldest son of the Church,
which is the boast of the sovereign of France, makes it a
duty for the Emperor to afford aid and support to the
Sovereign Pontiff; the tranquillity of the Bom an States
and that of the whole of Italy affects too closely the
maintenance of social order in Europe, for France not
to have an overbearing interest in securing it by all
the means in her power. But, on the other hand, it
is impossible to overlook the abnormal condition of a
Power which, in order tomaintain itself, requires to
be supported by foreign troops. Count Walewski does not
hesitate to declare, and he trusts that Count Buol will join
in the declaration, that not only is France ready to with-
draw her troops, but that she earnestly desires to recall
them so soon as that can can be done without inconve-
nience as regards the internal tranquillity of the country
and the authority of the Pontifical Government, in the
prosperity of which the Emperor, his august Sovereign,
takes the most lively interest. The first Plenipotentiary
of France represents how desirable it is for the balance of
power in Europe that the Boman government should be
consolidated in sufficient strength for the French 8nd Aus-
trian troops to be able, without inconvenience, to evacuate
the Pontifical States, and he considers that a wishexprego
scd in this sense might not be without advantage. In anf
438
PROTOCOLS.
case he does not doubt that the assurances which might be
given by France and Austria as to their real intentions in
this respect would have a salutary influence. Following
up the same order of ideas, Count Walewski asks himself
if it is not to be desired that certain governments of the
Italian peninsula, by well-devised acts of clemency, and by
rallying to themselves minds gone astray and not pervert-
ed, should put an end to a system which is directly oppos-
ed to its object, and which, instead of reaching the enemies
of public order, has the effect of weakening the govern-
ments, and of furnishing partisans to popular faction. In
his opinion it would render a signal service to the govern-
ment of the two Sicilies, as well as to the cause of order in
the Italian peninsula, to enlighten that government as to
the false course in which it is engaged. He is of opinion
that warnings conceived in this sense, and proceeding from
the Powers represented in the Congress, would be the bet-
ter received by thelTeapolitan government, as that govern-
ment could not doubt the motives which dictated them.
The first Plenipotenti ary of France then says that he must
call the attention of the Congress to a subject which, al-
though more particularly affecting France, is not the less
of great interest for all the Powers of Europe. He consi-
ders it superfluous to state that there are every day print-
ed in Belgium publications the most insulting, the most
hostile against France and her government ; that revolt
and assassination are openly advocated in them; he re-
marks that quite recently Belgian newspapers have ven-
tured to extol the society called “ La Marianne,” the ten-
dencies and objects of which are known; that all these pub-
lications are so many implements of war directed against
the repose and tranquillity of France by the enemies of so-
cial order, who, relying on the impunity which they find
under the shelter of the Belgian legislation, retain the brae
of eventually realising their culpable designs. Count Wa-
lewski declares that the intention and sole desire of the
government of the empire is to maintain the best relations
with Belgium ; he readily adds that France has reason to
be satisfied with the Belgian government, and with its ef-
forts to mitigate a state of things which it is unable to al-
ter, its legislation not allowing it either to restrain the ex-
cesses of the press, or to take the initiative in a reform
which has become absolutely indispensable. We should
regret, he says, to be obliged to make Belgium compre-
hend the strict necessity for modifying a legislation which
does not allow its government to fulfil the first of interna-
PROTOCOLS*
439
tional duties, that of not assailing, or allowing to be assail’
ed, the internal tranquillity of the neighbouring States. Ke’
presentations addressed by the stronger to the less strong
have too much the appearance of menace, and that is what
we desire to avoid. But if the representatives of the great
Powers of Europe, viewing in the same light with our-
selves this necessity, should find it useful to exDress their
opinion in this respect, it is more than probable that the
Belgian Government, relying upon all reasonable persons
in Belgium, would be able to put an end to a state of things
which cannot fail, sooner or later, to give rise to difficul-
ties, and even real dangers, which it is the interest of Bel-
gium to avert beforehand. Count Walewski proposes to
the Conference to conclude its work by a declaration which
would constitute a remarkable advance in international law,
and which would be received by the whole world with a
sentiment of lively gratitude. The Congress of Westpha-
lia, he adds, sanctioned liberty of conscience; the Congress
of Vienna, the abolition of the slave trade and the freedom
of the navigation of rivers. It would be truly worthy of
the Congress of Paris to lay down the basis of an uniform
maritime law in time of war as regards neutrals. The
four following principles would completely effect that ob-
ject 1. The abolition of privateering; 2. The neutral
flag covers enemies’ goods, except contraband of war ; 3.
Neutral goods, except contraband of war, are not liable to
capture, even under enemies’ flags ; 4. Blockades are not
binding except in so far as they are effective. This would
indeed be a glorious result, to which none of us could be
indifferent.
The Earl of Claeendon, sharing in the opinions expres-
sed by Count Walewski, declares that, like France, Eng-
land proposes to recall the troops which she was obliged to
send to Greece, so soon as she shall be able to.do so with-
out inconvenience to the public tranquillity ; but that it is
necessary, in the first instance, to provide solid guarantee
for the maintenance of a satisfactory state of things. Ac-
cording to him, the protecting Powers may agree among
themselves upon the remedy which it is indispensable to
apply to a system injurious to the country, and which has
altogether departed from the object which they had pro-
posed to themselves when establishing there an independ-
ent monarchy, for the well-being and the prosperity of
the Greek people. The first Plenipotentiary of Great
Britain remarks that the treaty of March 30 opens a new
era; that, as the Emperor had said to the Congress onr#»
440
PROTOCOLS.
ceiving it after the signature of the treaty, this era is that
of peace ; but, in order to be consistent, nothing should be
omitted to render that peace solid and lasting : that, re-
presenting the principal Powers of Europe, the Congress
would fail in its duty if, on separating, it sanction by its
silence a state of things which is injurious to the political
equilibrium, and which is far from securing j)eace from all
danger in one of the most interesting countries of Europe.
We have just provided, continues the Earl of Clarendon,
for the evacuation of the different territories occupied by
foreign armies during the war; we have just taken the so-
lemn engagement to effect the evacuation within the short-
est period ; how would it be possible for us not seriously to
advert to occupations which took place before the war, and
to abstain from devising means for putting an end to them ?
The first Plenipotentiary of Great Britain does not consider
it of any use to inquire as to the causes which have brought
in foreign armies upon various points of Italy, but he con-
siders that, even admitting that those causes werelegitimate,
it is not the less true, he says, that the result is an abnor-
mal and irregular state of things which can be justified only
by eitreme necessity, and which shall come to an end as
soon as that necessity is no longer imperiously felt; that
nevertheless, if endeavours are not made to put an end to
that necessity, it will continue to exist ; that if we are con-
tent to depend upon the armed force instead ol seeking to
apply a remedy to the just causes of discontent, it is cer-
tain that a system little honourable for the governments,
and lamentable for the people, will be perpetuated. He
conceives that the administration of the Eoman States pre-
sents inconveniences from whence dangers may arise which
the Congress has the right to attempt to avert ; that to
neglect them would be to run the risk of labouring for the
benefit of the revolution. The problem, which it is a mat-
ter of urgency to solve, consists, he conceives, in combin-
ing the retreat of the foreign troops with the maintenance
of tranquillity, and the solution depends on the organisation
of an administration which, by reviving confidence, would
render the government independent of foreign support :
that support never succeeding in maintain a government to
which the public sentiment is hostile, and there would re-
sult from it, in hie opinion, a part which France aud Aus-
tria would not wish their armies to perform. For the well-
being of the Pontifical States, as also for the interest of the
Pope, it would, therefore, in his opinion, be advantageous
to recommend the secularism of the government, and the
PROTOCOLS,
441
organisation of an administrative system in harmony with
the spirit of the age, and having for its object the happiness
of the people. He admits that this reform might perhaps
offer in Kome itself at the present moment certain difficul-
ties; but he thinks that it might easily be accomplished in
the Legations. The first Plenipotentiary of Great Britain
observes that for the last eight years 'Bologna has been in a
state of siege, and that the rural districts are harassed by
brigands; it may be hoped, he thinks, that by establishing
in this part of the Eoman States an administrative and ju-
dicial system, at once secular and distinct, and by organis-
ing there a national armed force, security and confidence
would rapidly be restored, and the Austrian troops might
shortly withdraw without having to apprehend the return
of fresh troubles ; it is at least an experiment which, in his
opinion, ought to be attempted, and this remedy proposed
for indisputable evils ought to be submitted by the congress
to the serious consideration of the Pope. As regards the
Neapolitan Government, the first Plenipotentiary of Great
Britain is desirous of imitating the example given him by
Count Walewski, by passing over in silence acts whichhave
obtained such grievous notoriety. He is of opinion that
it must doubtless be admitted in principle that no govern-
ment has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of
other states, but he considers there are cases in which the
exception to this rule becomes equally a right and a duty.
The Neapolitan Government seems to him to have confer-
red this right, and to have imposed this duty upon Europe;
and as the governments represented in the Congress are all
equally desirous to support the monarchical principle,
and to repel revolution, it is a duty to lift up the voice
against a system which keeps up revolutionary ferment
among the masses instead of seeking to moderate it. “We
do not wish,” he says, “ that peace should be disturbed,
* and there is no peace without justice ; we ought, then, to
make known to the King of Naples the wish of the Congress
for the amelioration of his system of government — a wish
which cannot remain without effect — and require of him an
amnesty in favour of the persons who have been condemn-
ed or imprisoned without trial for political offences.” As
regards the observations offered by Count W alewski on
the excesses of the Belgian press, and the dangers which
result therefrom for the adjoining countries, the Plenipo-
tentiaries of England admit their importance ; nut as the
representatives of a country in wh ich a free and indepen-
dent pre3si3, so to say, one of the fundamental institutions.
m
PROTOCOLS.
they cannot associate themselves to measures of coercion
against the press of another state. The first Plenipoten-
tiary of Great Britain, while deploring the violence in which
certain organs of the Belgian press indulge, does not hesi-
tate to declare that the authors of the execrable doctrines
to which Count Walewski alludes, the men who preach as-
sasination as the means of attaining a political, object are
undeserving of the protection which guarantees to the press
its liberty and its independence. In concluding, the Earl
of Clarendon observes that, like France, England at the
commencement of the war sought by every means to miti-
gate its effects, and that with this view she renounced, for
the benefit of neutrals during the struggle which has now
come to an end, principles which up to that time she had
invariably maintained. He adds, that England is disposed
to renounce them difinitively, providing that privateering
is equally abolished for ever ; that privateering is nothing
else than an organised and legal piracy, and that privateers
are one of the greatest scourges of war ; and our condition
of civilisation and humanity requires that an end should
be put to a system which is no longer suitable to the pre-
sent day. If the whole of the Congress were to adopt the
proposition of Count Walewski, it should be well understood
that it would only be binding in regard to the Powers who
may accede to it, and that it would not be appealed to by
governments who may refuse their accession.
Count Oeloff observes that the powers with which ho
is furnished having for their sole object the restoration of
peace, he does not consider himself authorised to take part
in a discussion which his instructions had not provided for.
Count Buol congratulates himself on seeing the govern-
ments of France and England disposed to put an end, as
speedily as possible, to the occupation of Greece. Aus-
tria, he gives the assurance, wishes most sincerely for the
prosperity of that kingdom, and is equally desirous with
France that all the States of Europe should enjoy, under
the protection of public law, their political independence
and complete prosperity. He does not doubt that one of
the essential conditions of so desirable a state of things
exists in the wisdom of a legislation so combined as to pre-
vent or repress the excesses of the press which Count Wa-
lewski, with so much reason, has blamed, when speaking
of a neighbouring State, and the repression of which mus fc
be considered as a European necessity. He hopes that iu
all the States of the Continent where the press presents
the same dangers, the Governments will be able to find in
PEOTOCOLS.
443
their legislation the means of restraining it within proper
limits, and that they will thus be enabled to secure peace
against fresh international complications. As regards the
principles of maritime law which the first Plenipotentiary
of France has proposed for adoption. Count Buol declares
that he appreciates their spirit and bearing, but that not
being authorised by his instructions to express an opinion
upon a matter of such importance, he must, for the time,
confine himself to announcing to the Congress that he is
prepared to request the orders of his Sovereign. But here,
he says, his task must end. It would be impossible for
him, indeed, to discuss the internal situation of independ-
ent States, which are not represented at the Congress.
The Plenipotentiaries have received no other commission
than to apply themselves to the affairs of the Levant, and
they have not been convened for the purpose of making
known to independent Sovereigns wishes in regard to in-
ternal organisation of their States ; the full powers depo-
sited among the acts of Congress proved this. The in-
structions of the Austrian Plenipotentiaries, at all events,
having defined the object of the mission Which has been in-
trusted to them, they would not be at liberty to take part
in a discussion which those instructions have not anticipat-
ed. For the same reasons, Count Buol conceives that he
must abstain from entering into the order of ideas adverted
to by the first Plenipotentiary of Great Britain, and from
giving explanations upon the duration of the occupation of
the Roman States by the Austrian troops, although adher-
ing completely to the words uttered by the first Plenipo-
tentiary of France on this subject.
Count Walewski observes that there is no question
either of adopting definitive resolutions, or of entering into
engagements, still less of interfering directly with the in-
ternal affairs of the governments represented or not repre-
sented at the Congress, but merely of consolidating, of
completing the work of peace, by taking into serious con-
sideration beforehand the fresh complication which might
arise, either from the indefinite and unjustifiable prolong-
ation of certain foreign occupations, or from a turbulent
licentiousness, at variance with international duties.
Baron Hubneb replies that the Plenipotentiaries of
Austria are not authorised either to give an assurance
or to express wishes ; the reduction of the Austrian army
in the Legations sufficiently shows, in his opinion, that the
Imperial Cabinet intends to withdraw its troops as soon aa
such a measure shall be considered opportune.
444
P&OTOCOLS.
Baron Manteuffel declares that he knows enough of the
intentions of the King, his august master, not to hesitate
his opinion on the questions on which the Congress is engag-
ed, although he has no instructions on the subject. The
maritime principles,says the firstPlenipotentiary of Prussia,
which the Congress is invited to adopt, have always been
professed by Prussia, who has constantly exerted herself to
obtain their recognition ; and he considers himself author-
ised to take part in the signature of any act having for its
object their definitive admission into the public law of
Europe. He expresses his conviction that his Sovereign
would not withhold his approval from the agreement which
might be established in this sense among the Plenipoten-
tiaries. Baron Manteuffel by no means overlooks the
great importance of the other questions which have been
discussed, but he observes that an affair of the utmost in-
terest for his Court and for Europe has been passed over
in silence : he refers to the present situation of Neufchatel.
He remarks that this principality is, perhaps, the only
point in Europe, where, in contradiction to treaties and to
what has formally been recognised by all the great Powers,
a revolutionary power which disregards the rights of the
Sovereign holds sway. Baron Manteuffel demands that
this question should be included in the number of those to
be inquired into. He adds that the King, his sovereign,
anxiously wishes for the prosperity of the kingdom of
Greece, and that he ardently desires to witness the disap-
pearance of the causes which have produced the abnormal
state of things occasioned by the presence of foreign
troops ; he admits, however, that it might be proper to
examine into circumstances calculated to present this
matter in its true light. As for the steps which it might
be considered advantageous to take, in what relates to the
state of affairs in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Baron
Manteuffel observes that such steps might be well to ask
oneself whether admonitions such as those which have been
proposed would not excite in the country a spirit of oppo-
sition and revolutionary movements, instead of answering
to the ideas which it had been contemplated to carry out,
certainly with a benevolent intention. He does not deem
it proper to enter upon an examination of the actual situa-
tion of the Pontifical States. He confines himself to ex-
pressing the desire that it may be possible to place the
government in a condition which would henceforth render
superfluous the occupation of foreign troops. Baron
M anteuffel concludes by declaring that the Prussian
£&OTOCOI,S.
Cabinet fully admits the pernicious influence exercised by
the press, the subversion of all regular order, and the danger
which it propagates by preaching up regicide and revolt ;
he adds that Prussia would voluntarily take part in the in-
quiry into the measures which might be deemed suitable
for putting an end to such practices.
Count Cavour does not mean to question the right of
each Plenipotentiary not to take part in the discussion on
a question which is not contemplated by his instructions ;
it is, nevertheless, he thinks, of the utmost importance that
the opinion manifested by certain Powers, in regard to the
occupation of the Roman States, should be recorded in the
protocol. The first Plenipotentiary of Sardinia states that
the occupation of the Roman States by the Austrian troops
assumes every day more of a permanent character ; that it
has lasted seven years, and that, nevertheless, no indication
appears which would lead to the supposition that it will
cease at a more or less early period ; that the causes which
gave rise to it are still in existence ; that the state of the
country which they occupy is assuredly not improved; and
that in order to be satisfied of this, it is enough to remark
that Austria considers herself obliged to maintain, in its
utmost severity, the state of siege at Bologna, although it
dates from the occupation itself. He observes that the pre-
sence of the Austrian troops in the Legations and in the
Duchy of Parma destroys the balance of power of Italy, and
constitutes a real danger for Sardinia. The Plenipotentiaries
of Sardinia, he says, deem it, therefore, a duty to point out to
the attention of Europe a state of things so abnormal as that
which results from the indefinite occupation of a great part
of Italy by Austrian troops. As regards the question of
Naples, Count Cavour shares entirely the opinions expressed
by Count Walewski and the Earl of Clarendon, and he con-
ceives that it is in the highest degree important to suggest
modifications which, by appeasing passions, would render
less difficult the regular progress of affairs in the other
States of the peninsula. — Baron Hubner, on his part, says
that the first Plenipotentiary of Sardinia has spoken only of
the Austrian occupation, and kept silence in regard to that of
France ; that nevertheless the two occupations took place
at the same time, and with the same object; that it was
impossible to admit the argument drawn by Count Cavour
from the permanency of the state of the siege at Bologna,
that if an exceptional state of things is still necessary in
that city, while it has long since ceased at Rome and Anco-
na, this appears to the utmost to prove that the dispositions
446
PROTOCOLS.
of the people of Rome and Ancona are more satisfactory
than those of the city of Bologna. He remarks that in
Italy it is only the Roman States which are occupied by
foreign troops, the communes of Menton and Requebrune
forming part of the principality of Monaco, having been
for the last eight years occupied by Sardinia; and that the
only difference which exists between the two occupations
is, that the Austrians and the French were invited by the
sovereign . of the country, while the Sardinian troops enter-
ed the territory of the Prince of Monaco contrary to his
wishes, and maintain themselves therein notwithstanding
the remonstrances of the country.
In reply to Baron Hubner, Count Cavotjb says that he is
desirous that the French occupation should cease as well as
the Austrian, but that he cannot help considering the one
as being far more dangerous than the other for the independ-
ent States of Italy. He adds, that a small corps d'armee
at a great distance from France, is menacing for no one;
whereas it is very alarming to see Austria resting on Ferra-
ra and on Placentia, the fortifications of which she is en-
larging, contrary to the spirit, if not to the letter, of the trea-
ties of Vienna, and extending herself along the Adriatic as
far as Ancona. As for Monaco, Count Cavour declares that
Sardinia is ready to withdraw the fifty men who occupy
Menton, if the Prince is in a condition to return to the coun-
try without exposing himself to the most serious dangers.
Besides he does not consider that Sardinia can be accused
of having contributed to the overthrow of the ancient go-
vernment, in order to occupy those States, since the Prince
has not been able to maintain his authority in the single
town of Monaco, which Sardinia occupied in 1848, in virtue
of the treaties.
Baron Bbunnow thinks it his duty to point out a particu-
lar circumstance, that the occupation of Greece by the Al-
lied troops took place during the war, and that relations be-
ing happily re-established between the three protecting
courts, the time is arrived for coming to an understanding
as to the means of reverting to a situation in conformity with
the common interest. He gives the assurance that the Pie-,
nipotentiaries of Russia have received, with satisfaction, and
will eagerly transmit to their Government, the intentions
manif ested in this respect by the plenipotentiaries of France
and Great Britain, and that Russia, with a conservative ob-
ject, and with a view to ameliorate the state of things exist-
ing in Greece, will readily join in every measure which may
appear calculated to effect the purpose contemplated in the
protocol.
447
foundation of the Hellenic kingdom. The Plenipotentiaries
of Russia add, that they will take the orders of their court
upon the proposal submitted to the Congress relative to the
maritime law.
Count Walewski congratulates himself on having induc-
ed the Plenipotentiaries to interchange their ideas on the
questions which have been discussed. He had supposed
that it might have been possible, perhaps with advantage,
to express themselves in a more complete manner on some
of the subjects which have fixed the attention of the Con-
gress. “ But such as it is,” he says, “the interchange of
ideas which has taken place is not without advantage.'* The
first Plenipotentiary of Prance states that the result of it is,
in effect: — “ 1. That no one has contested the necessity of
seriously deliberating as to the means for improving the si-
tuation of Greece, and that the three protecting Courts have
recognised the importance of coming to an understanding
among themselves in this respect.— 2. That the Plenipoten-
tiaries of Austria have acceeded to the wish expressed by
the Plenipotentiaries of France for the evacuation of the
Pontifical States by the French and Austrian troops, as soon
as it can be effected without prejudice to the tranquillity of
the country and to the consolidation of the authority of the
Holy See. — 3. That the greater part of the Plenipotentiaries
have not questioned the good effect which would result from
measures of clemency, opportunely adopted by the govern-
ments of the Italian Peninsula, and especially by that of the
Two Sicilies. — 4. That all the Plenipotentiaries, and even
those who considered themselves bound to reserve the prin-
ciple of the liberty of the press, have not hesitated loudly to
condemn the excesses in which the Belgian newspapers in-
dulge with impunity, by recognising the necessity of reme-
dying the real inconveniences which result from the uncon-
trolled license which is so greatly abused in Belgium. 5. That
finally, the reception given by all the Plenipotentiaries to
the idea of closing their labours by the declaration of prin-
ciples in the matter of maritime law, must give reason ta
hope that at the next sitting they will have received from
their respective governments authority to adhere to an act
which, while completing the work of the Congress of Paris,
would effect an improvement worthy of our epoch.”
(The signatures follow.)
Protocol Ho. 23, April 14. — The Earl of Clarendon,
having demanded permission to lay before the Congress a
proposition which it appears to him ought to be favourably
received, states that the calamities of war are still too pre-
448
CONCLUSION.
sent to every mind not to make it desirable to seek out
every expedient calculated to prevent their return; that a
stipulation had been inserted in Article 7 of the treaty of
? eace, recommending that in case of difference between the
( orte and one or more of the other signing Powers, recourse
should be had to the mediation of a friendly State before
resorting to force. After a long discussion, the following de-
claration is inserted in the Protocols: — The Plenipotentia-
ries do not hesitate to express, in the name of their govern-
ments, that States between which any serious misunderstand-
ing may arise, should before appealing to arms have re-
course, as far as circumstances might allow, to the good of-
fices of a friendly Power. The Plenipotentiaries hope that
the Governments not represented at the Congress will unite
in the sentiment which has inspired the wish recorded in the
present protocol.**
Peotocol No. 24* Apeil 16.— Count Orloff proposed a
vote of thanks to Count Walewski. The Earl of Clarendon
seconded the proposition, which was unanimously adopted.
Thu3 was the war brought to a termination; and
peace once more reigned throughout Europe. The
terms of the peace, however, did not meet with the
approbation of all; there were those who found fault
with the lenity with which Eussia had been treated :
and many of the combatants both in the army and
navy belonging to England were anxious to test their
strength and valour another time against the Musco-
vite foe. Many friendly meetings took place between
the contending forces during the time of the armistice,
and after peace was established. In the month of
May, 1866, the Allied forces began to leave the Cri-
mea, and return to their various countries. May the
time be long before they are called upon to engage in
a similar struggle.
THE END.
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