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THE UNIVERSITY
OF ILLINOIS
LIBRARY
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BALLOON FRAME FOR SIDING ROUGH CAST ON BRICK-CLAD.
LIGHT AND HEAVY
TIMBER FRAMING
MADE EASY
Balloon Framing, Mixed Framing, Heavy
Timber Framing, Houses, Factories, Bridges,
Barns, Rinks, Timber-roofs, and all other
kinds of Timber Buildings : : : :
Being- a copious treatise on the modern practical methods of
executing all kinds of timber framing, from the simple scant¬
ling shed or lean-to, to the heavy and complicated timber
bridges, centers, needling and shoring, roofing and railway
work, tank frames and taper structures : : : : :
BY
FRED T. HODGSON, F. A. I. C.
Author of The Steel Square and its Uses, Modern and
Practical Carpentry, Stairbuilding Made Easy, Cements,
Mortars and Stuccos, and Many Other Technical Works
Over Four Hundred and Fifty Illustrations and Diagrams
PUBLISHERS
/
Frederick J. Drake & Co.
CHICAGO U. S. A.
Copyright 1909
BY
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
Chicago
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PREFACE
As Editor of one of the most popular building
journals in the United States {“The National
Builder"), I have frequently been asked by
readers of that journal, “if there were any books
recently published in America devoted entirely
to the science of heavy and light timber framing?”
In every case I have been compelled to answer
these queries in the negative, but in all cases I
made it a point to inform my correspondents of
the existence of such works as ‘ ‘ Bell’s Carpenter, ’ ’
published in 1857, “Hatfield’s American Carpen¬
ter,” published in 1880, and of the excellent work
published in England under the authorship of
Prof. Tredgold, and I also advised them of the
current articles that were running through the
pages of “ Carpentry and Building,” “Architec¬
ture and Building,” “The Builder and Wood¬
workers,” “The California Architect” and “The
National Builder,” all of which papers contained
a number of excellent treatises on Balloon Fram¬
ing, and the framing of heavy timber; and in many
cases, one or the other of these treatises sufficed
to satisfy the requirements of the querist. Many
readers, however, were not satisfied; they wanted
1
319542
2
PREFACE
something more comprehensive and more compact
•—something where they would not be compelled to
wade through volume after volume to find the
material they wanted—and in order to meet this
condition I have made this present endeavor to
collect together, and put in a handy form, most
of the good and useful articles on framing and
timber construction that would now be difficult
to find by the workman of the present day; and
the work herewith presented to my readers is
largely made up of matter that has appeared in
some form or other, in the books mentioned in
the foregoing, or in the journals named, all of
which have been thoroughly overhauled and put
in such an up-to-date shape, as will suit the re¬
quirements of present day conditions.
“Is heavy timber framing a lost art ?’’ is a ques¬
tion that has been asked dozens of times during
these few years by hundreds of young workmen—
and old workmen, too—in the South and West, and
particularly in the Pacific Coast States, and North¬
west Canada. The art of heavy timber framing
is not lost by any means, for there yet remains
in some of the New England States, and in New
York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin and
manv other of the Western, Southern, and Middle
States, hundreds of old framers who are capable
of taking the timber from the stump, hewing,
counter-hewing, and framing it into bridges,
trestle-work, mills, factories, barns and houses, or
PREFACE
3
into any other structure that may be required. If
there was a demand for such skilled workmen, I
feel asured the men would soon be on hand—pro¬
viding of course a suitable compensation was of¬
fered for their services.
In the larger towns and cities, the introduction
of steel structural work has in a great measure
superseded the use of heavy timber work in build¬
ings of any pretensions. Floors, roofs, bridges,
trusses, and all such similar work, are now made of
steel, thus displacing timber. Without entering
into a discussion on the merits of steel, or claiming
for it any superiority over our old timber friends,
it is easy to see that steel structural work has come
to stay, and though it may be many a long year
before its free use will make much headway in
localities where timber is cheap and plentiful, it
will in the end crowd out the extensive use of
timber for structural purposes.
While the main object of this book is to give
instruction in framing, it will also be within its
purview to illustrate and describe designs in tim¬
ber-work of all kinds, including roofs, domes,
framed walls, bridges, towers, centers, spires, and
other similar work, and in order to be able to deal
with these works in an intelligent and efficient
manner, I think it wise to give, as an introductory
chapter, a short treatise on joints in woodwork,
with an explanation of their uses and qualifica¬
tions for the work for which they are intended. In
4
PREFACE
doing this I cannot do better than follow Henry
Adams, C. E., who years ago gathered together
nearly all the joints known and published them in
one paper along with descriptions of same, most
of which I embody in the present work. The illus¬
trations showing these joints are taken from the
older works of Batty Langley, Paine, Moxen,
Nicholson, Tredgold, Barlowe, Robert Burn Scott,
Hatfield and others, where they were scattered
among other illustrations of various kinds of
woodwork.
These joints, as illustrated in this work, are
applicable to either balloon or scantling framing
or to the framing of heavy timber, and for almost
any kind, style, or shape of work, so that the work¬
man will find, in some one of the examples shown,
something suitable for the work in hand.
The examples of balloon framing shown are of
the latest and most approved designs, such as ex¬
perience has proven to be the best for the purposes
to which they are applied, and I am sure those of
my readers who have not had a training in balloon
framing, will have but little difficulty in following
them in actual work, and the older hands who have
worked for years on balloon work will also find
many things in this book that will be of advantage
to them in many ways.
With regard to heavy timber framing I have
endeavored to follow the best known methods, to
which I have added something gained by an ex-
PREFACE
5
perience of over thirty years in the designing,
superintendence, and building of heavy structures
in wood, both in Canada and the United States.
Forty years ago, when timber framing was in
“flower” and grain elevators were built of tim¬
ber, I had considerable experience in that line, and
in other railway structures and similar work, and
have ever since, in connection with my business,
been kept in touch with timber framing of more
or less magnitude, and this experience, along with
the book knowledge I have gathered together, leads
me to think I can place before my readers the sub¬
jects under consideration in a clearer and better
light, than they have ever before been rendered.
At any rate, I venture to launch this little book
on the same sea of public opinion that has always
received my books heretofore in an apprecia¬
tive spirit, and if it meets with the same favor as
my other writings and compilations, neither my¬
self nor my publishers will have any cause for
complaint.
Fred T. Hodgson, F. A. I. C.
Collingwood, Ontario ,
i
INTRODUCTORY
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING.
The joints shown in the following illustrations
are such as are mostly employed in framed wood¬
work, and although they do not cover the whole
ground, or show all the styles and methods of
framing known to the expert workman, they in¬
clude nearly all of the principal joints in general
use, both in light and heavy framing; later on I
may show other joints and splices that are not
included in the figures shown in this portion of
the work.
The introduction of steel in the construction
of buildings has in a great measure displaced
woodwork in the erection of large buildings in
towns and cities, yet timber working is still of
sufficient importance to warrant a careful study
of the properties of wood and its uses, lienee the
following descriptions of various woods are of¬
fered in order that the worker may have a more
or less intelligent idea of the nature of the mate¬
rials he is manipulating.
This short treatise it is hoped will be found
useful, interesting and instructive to the reader,
and while it is not intended to be exhaustive, it
7
8
INTRODUCTORY
♦
may be depended upon to be reliable as far as it
goes.
All trees are divided by botanists into three
classes; Exogens, or outward-growers; Endogens,
or inward-growers; and Eerogens, or summit
growers—according to the relative position in
which the new material for increasing the sub¬
stance of the tree is added; viz., whether towards
the outside, the inside or the top. Typical trees
of each class would be the oak, the palm, and the
tree fern. We have to deal with the exogenous
class only, as that furnishes the timber in general
use for construction, the term “timber” including
all varieties of wood which, when felled and
seasoned, are suitable for building purposes.
If the stem of an exogenous tree be cut across,
it will be found to exhibit a number of nearly con¬
centric rings, more or less distinct; and, in certain
cases, radial lines intersecting them. These rings
represent the annual growth of the tree which
takes place just under the bark. Each ring con¬
sists of bundles of woody fibre or vascular tissue,
in the form of long tapering tubes, interlaced and
breaking joint with each other, having a small
portion of cellular tissue at intervals. Towards
the outer edge of each ring the woody fibre is
harder, more compact, and of a darker color than
the remaining portion. The radial lines consist of
thin, hard, vertical plates formed entirely of cellu¬
lar tissue, known to botanists as “Medullary
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING
9
rays” and to carpenters as “silver grain.” Fig.
1 shows the woody fibre as seen in a magnified
vertical section, Fig. 2 the cellular tissue and Fig.
3 a typical section of the stem of a young tree, a
being the woody fibre, b the pith, c the medullary
rays, and d the bark; the three latter consisting
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
of cellular tissue and enclosing the woody fibre in
wedge-shaped portions. As the tree advances in
age, the rings and rays become more irregular, the
growth being more vigorous on the sunny side,
causing distortion. The strength of wood “along
the grain” depends on the tenacity of the walls
10
INTRODUCTORY
of the fibres and cells, while the strength “across
the grain” depends on the adhesion of the sides
of the tubes and cells to each other.
Tredgold proposed a classification of timber
according to its mechanical structure, this, as
modified by Professor Rankine which is given in
the following table, also by Trantwine and others.
Class I. Pine-wood (coniferous trees)—pine,
fir, larch, cowrie, yew, cedar, etc.
Fig. 3.
Class II. Leaf-wood (non-coniferous trees),
Division I with distinct large medullary ravs.
Sub-division I. Annual rings distinct—oak.
Sub-division II. Annual rings indistinct, beech,
birch, maple, sycamore, etc.
Division II. No distinct large medullary rays.
Sub-division I. Annual rings distinct—chest¬
nut, ash, elm, etc.
Sub-division II. Annual rings indistinct—ma¬
hogany, teak, walnut, box, etc.
Knowing now the microscopical structure of
the wood, we are in a position to understand the
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING
11
process of seasoning, and the shrinking incidental
to that operation. While wood is in a growing
state there is a constant passage of sap, or nutri¬
tive fluid, which keeps the whole of the interior of
the tree moist and the fibres distended, but more
especially towards the outside. When the tree is
cut down, and exposed to the air, the moisture
gradually evaporates, causing the fibres to shrink
according to certain laws; this is the natural pro¬
cess of seasoning. There are various methods of
seasoning timber artificially, in each case the ob¬
ject in view is to expedite the process of evapora¬
tion. The shrinkage in length is very slight, and
need not therefore be considered; but the shrink¬
age transversely is so great that it is necessary
to look closely into the nature of it, as the ques¬
tion of jointing is affected considerably thereby.
If Fig. 4 be taken as representing the section
of a newly felled tree, it will be seen that the wood
is solid throughout, and on comparing Fig. 5 with
this the result of the seasoning will be apparent.
The action is exaggerated in the diagrams in order
to render it more conspicuous. As the moisture
evaporates, the bundles of woody fibre shrink and
draw closer together; but this contraction cannot
take place radially, without crushing or tearing
the hard plates forming the medullary rays, which
are unaffected in size by the seasoning. These
plates are generally sufficiently strong to resist
the crushing action, and the contraction is there-
12
INTRODUCTORY
fore compelled to take place in the opposite direc¬
tion, i. e. circumferentially, the strain finding relief
by splitting the timber in radial lines, allowing
the medullary rays in each partially severed por¬
tion to approach each other in the same direction
Fig. 4.
as the ribs of a lady’s fan when closing. The illus¬
tration of a closing fan affords the best example
of the principle of shrinking during seasoning,
every portion of the wood practically retaining
its original distance from the center. If the tree
were sawn down the middle, the cut surfaces, al¬
though flat at first, would in time become rounded,
as in Fig. 6, the outer portion shrinking more than
that nearer the heart on account of the greater
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING
13
mass of woody fibre it contains and the larger
amount of moisture. If cut into quarters each por¬
tion would present a similar result, as shown in
Fig. 7. Figs. 8 to 12 show the same principle ap-
Fig. 12. Fig. 13.
plied to sawn timber of various forms, the peculi¬
arities of which are perhaps indicated more clearly
in Fig. 14. If we assume the tree to be cut into
planks, as shown in Fig. 13, it will be found, after
14
INTRODUCTORY
allowing due time for seasoning, that the planks
have altered their shape, as in Fig. 14. Taking the
center plank first, it will be observed that the thick¬
ness at the middle remains unaltered, at the edge it
is reduced, and both sides are rounded, while the
Fig. 15.
width remains unaltered. The planks on each side
of this are rounding on the heart side, hollow on
the other, retain their middle thickness, but are re¬
duced in width in proportion to their distance
from the center of the tree; or, in other words,
the more nearly the annual rings are parallel to
the sides of the planks the greater will be the
reduction in width. The most striking result of
the shrinkage is shown in Figs. 15-17. Fig. 15
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING
15
shows a piece of quartering freshly cut from un¬
seasoned timber; in Fig. 1C the part colored black
shows the portion lost by shrinkage, and Fig. 17
shows the final result. These remarks apply more
especially to oak, beech and the stronger firs. In
the softer woods the medullary rays are more
yielding, and this slightly modifies the result; but
the same principles must be borne in mind if we
wish to avoid the evils of shrinking which may
occur from negligence in this respect.
The peculiar direction which “shakes,” or
natural fractures, sometimes take is due to the
unequal adhesion of the woody fibres, the weakest
part yielding first. In a “cup shake,” which is
the separation of a portion of two annual rings,
the medullary rays are deficient in cohesion. This
same fault sometimes occurs in white pine and
has been attributed to the action of lightning and
of severe frosts. So far we have considered the
shrinking only as regards the cross section of
various pieces. Turning now to the effect pro¬
duced when we look at the timber in the other
direction, Fig. 18 represents a piece of timber
with the end cut off square; as this shrinks, the
end remains square, the width alone being affected.
If, however, the end be bevelled as in Fig. 19 we
shall find that in shrinking it assumes a more
acute angle, and this should be remembered in
framing roofs, arranging the joints for struts, etc.,
especially by the carpenters who have to do actual
16
INTRODUCTORY
work of fitting the parts. If the angle be an in¬
ternal one or bird’s mouth, it will in the same way
become more acute in seasoning. The transverse
shrinkage is here considered to the exclusion of
any slight longitudinal alteration which might
occur, and which would never be sufficient to affect
the angle of the bevel. When seasoned timber is
used in position subject to damp, the wood will
swell in exactly the reverse direction to the shrink¬
age, and induce similar difficulties unless this
point has also received due attention. Of course
it will be seen from a study of the cross sections
Fig. 18.
illustrated in the diagrams that the pieces might
be selected in such a way that the shrinkage and
expansion would take place chiefly in the thick¬
ness instead of the width, and thus leave the bevel
unaltered. In this consists the chief art of select¬
ing pieces for framing; but in many instances
motives of economy unfortunately favor the use
of pieces on stock, without reference to their suita¬
bility for the purpose required.
We may now leave the question of shrinkage,
and proceed to a consideration of the more im¬
mediate intention of the book. In the following
JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING
17
table, which shows the English method of classifi¬
cation, an attempt has been made to place timber
under the different terms by which it is known,
according to its size, and other accidental char¬
acteristics. This is only a rough approximation,
as no definite rule can be laid down; but it may be
of some assistance to those who’ have occasionally
to deal with workmen using the terms.
CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER ACCORDING
TO SIZE
(Approximate)
Baulk.
... 12"
X
12" to
18"
X
18"
Whole Timber.
... 9
X
9 to
15
X
15
Half Timber.
... 9
X
4} to
18
X
9
Scantling.
... 6
X
4 to
12
X
12
Quartering.
... 2
X
2 to
6
X
6
Planks.
.. . 11
to
18 x
3
to
6
Joists ...
.... 2
to
4!
Battens.
... 4i
to
7 x
3
4
to
3
Strips and Laths.. ..
... 2
to
4i x
JL
2
to
H
Pieces larger than planks are generally called
timber, but when sawn all round, are called scant-
18
TIMBER FRAMING
ling, and when sawn to equal dimensions each way,
are called die-square. The dimensions (width and
thickness) of parts in a framing are sometimes
called the scantlings of the pieces. The term “cut
stuff” is also used to distinguish wood in the state
ready for the joiner, from “timber” which is wood
prepared for the use of the carpenter. A “log”
or “stick” is a rough whole timber unsawn.
The use of wood may be discussed under the two
heads of carpentry and joinery. - The former con-
Fig. 19.
sists principally of the use of large timbers, either
rough, adzed, or sawn, and the latter of smaller
pieces, always sawn, and with the exposed surfaces
planed. The carpenters’ work is chiefly outdoor;
it embraces such objects as building timber
bridges and gantries, framing roofs and floors,
constructing centering, and other heavy or rough
work. Joiners’ work is mostly indoor; it includes
laying flooring, making and fixing doors, window
sashes, frames, linings, partitions, and internal
fittings generally. In all cases the proper con¬
nection of the parts is an essential element, and
CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
19
in designing or executing joints and fastenings in
woodwork, the following principles, laid down by
Professor Tredgold should be adhered to viz.:—
1st. To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings
so as to weaken the pieces of timber that they con¬
nect as little as possible.
2nd. To place each abutting surface in a joint
as nearly as possible perpendicular to the pres¬
sure which it has to transmit.
3rd. To proportion the area of each surface to
the pressure which it has to bear, so that the tim¬
ber may be safe against injury under the heaviest
load which occurs in practice and to form and fit
every pair of such surfaces accurately in order to
distribute the stress uniformly.
4tli. To proportion the fastenings so that they
may be of equal strength with the pieces which
they connect.
5th. To place the fastenings in each piece of tim¬
ber so that there shall be sufficient resistance to
the giving way of the joint by the fastenings shear¬
ing or crushing their way through the timber.
To these may be added a 6th principle not less
important than the foregoing, viz., To select the
simplest forms of joints, and to obtain the small¬
est possible number of abutments. The reason for
this is that the more complicated the joint, or the
greater the number of bearing surfaces, the less
probability there will be of getting a sound and
cheaply made connection. To insure a fair and
20
TIMBER FRAMING
equal bearing in a joint which is not quite true, it
is usual, after the pieces are put together, to run
a saw cut between each hearing surface or abut¬
ment, the kerf or width of cut being equal in each
case, the bearing is then rendered true. This is
often done, for instance, with the shoulders of a
tenon or the butting ends of a scarf, when careless
workmanship has rendered it necessary. When
the visible junction of two pieces is required to be
Fig. 20.
as close as possible, and no great strain has to be
met at the joint, it is usual to slightly undercut
the parts, and give clearance on the inside, as in
Fig. 20, which shows an enlarged view of a tongued
and rebated heading joint in flooring. In pattern¬
making the fillets which are placed at the internal
angle of two meeting surfaces, are made obtuse
angled on the back, in order that when bradded
into place the sharp edges may lie close, as shown
in Fig. 21. The prints used by pattern-makers for
indicating the position of round cored holes are
also undercut by being turned slightly hollow on
CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
21
the bottom, as shown in Fig. 22. The principle
is adopted in nearly all cases where a close joint
is a desideratum. Clearance must also be left in
joints of framing when a settlement is likely to
take place, in order that after the settlement, the
abutting surfaces may take a fair bearing to resist
the strain.
The various strains that can come upon any
member of a structure are:
Tension: Stretching or pulling,
Compression: Crushing or pushing,
Transverse Strain: Cross strain or bending,
Torsion: Twisting or wrenching,
Shearing: Cutting.
But in woodwork, when the latter force acts
along the grain, it is generally called “detrusion,”
the term shearing being limited to the action
across the grain. The first three varieties are the
strains which usually come upon ties, struts, and
beams respectively. The transverse strain, it
must be observed, is resolvable into tension and
compression, the former occurring on the convex
side of a loaded beam, and the latter on the con¬
cave side, the two being separated by the neutral
22
TIMBER FRAMING
axis or line of no strain. The shearing strain oc¬
curs principally in beams and is greatest at the
point of support, the tendency being to cut the
timber through at right angles to the grain; but
in nearly all cases if the timber is strong enough
to resist the transverse strain it is amply strong
for any possible shearing strain which can occur.
Keys and other fastenings are especially subject
to shearing strain, and it will be shown in that
portion of our subject that there are certain pre¬
cautions to be adopted to obtain the best results.
The following tables will serve as an introduc¬
tion to this portion of the subject:
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS IN CARPENTRY.
•Joints for lengthening ties, struts and beams;
lapping, fishing, scarfing, tabling, building up.
Bearing-joints for beams; halving, notching,
cogging, dovetailing, tusk-tenoning, housing, chase-
mortising. ,
Joints for posts and beams; tenon, joggle, bri¬
dle, housing.
Joints for struts with ties and posts; oblique
tenon, bridle, toe-joint.
Miscellaneous; butting, mitering, rebating.
I
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS IN
CARPENTRY.
Wedges,
Keys,
Pins,
Wood pins,
Nails, spikes,
Pins, screws, bolts,
Straps, stirrups, etc.,
Sockets,
And for joinery must be added glue.
We will consider these joints in the order given
above. One of the first requirements in the use
of timber for engineering purposes is the con¬
nection of two or more beams to obtain a greater
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Fig. 23.
length. Fig. 23 shows the method of lengthening
a beam by lapping another to it, the two being
held together by straps and prevented from slid¬
ing by the insertion of keys. Fig. 24 shows a
similar joint, through-bolts being used instead of
straps, and wrought-iron plates instead of oak
keys. This makes a neater joint than the former,
but they are both unsightly and whenever adopted
23
24
TIMBER FRAMING
the beams should be arranged in three or five
pieces in order that the supports at each end may
be level and the beams horizontal. This joint is
more suitable for a cross strain than for tension
and compression. Fig. 25 shows the common form
Fig. 24.
of a finished beam adapted for compression. If
required to resist tensile strain, keys should be
inserted in the top and bottom joints between the
bolts. Fig. 26 shows a fished joint adapted for a
cross strain, the whole sectional area of the orig-
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
25
inal beam taking the compressive portion of the
cross strain, and the fishing piece taking the tensile
portion. Fig. 27 shows a fished beam for the same
purpose in which a wrought-iron plate turned up
at the ends takes the tensile strain. Tabling con¬
sists of bedding portions of one beam into the
other longitudinally. Occasionally the fishing
pieces are tabled at the ends into the beams to re¬
sist the tendency to slip under strain, but this office
is better performed by keys, and in practice tabling
is not much used. The distinction between fished
beams and scarfed beams is that in the former
the original length is not reduced, the pieces being
butted against each other, while in the latter the
beams themselves are cut in a special manner and
lapped partly over each other; in both cases addi¬
tional pieces of wood or iron are attached to
strengthen the joint. Fig. 28 shows a form of
scarf adapted to short posts. Here the scarf is
cut square and parallel to the sides, so that the
full sectional area is utilized for resisting the
compressive strain. When the post is longer and
liable to a bending strain the scarf should be in¬
clined, as in Fig. 29, to allow of greater thickness
being retained at the shoulder of each piece, the
26
TIMBER FRAMING
shoulder being kept square. In this joint a con¬
siderable strain may be thrown on the bolts from
the sliding tendency of the scarf, if the shoulders
should happen to be badly fitted, as any slipping
would virtually increase the thickness of the tim¬
ber where the bolts pass through. The width of
each shoulder should be not less than one-fourth
the total thickness. Joints in posts are mostly re-
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Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30.
quired when it is desired to lengthen piles already
driven, to support a superstructure in the manner
of columns. Another form of scarf for a post put
together without bolts is shown in Fig. 30, the
parts being tabled and tongued, and held together
by wedges. This is not a satisfactory joint, and is
moreover, expensive because of its requiring extra
care in fitting; but it may be a suitable joint in
some special cases, in which all the sides are re-
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
2?
quired to be flush. Fig. 31 shows the common form
of scarf in a tie-beam. The ends of the scarf are
bird’s mouthed, and the joint is tightened up by
wedges driven from opposite sides. It is further
Fig. 31.
secured by the wrought-iron plates on the top and
bottom, which are attached to the timber by bolts
and nuts. In all these joints the friction between
J
■ »
1 (
1 ♦
• i
• i
1;
——
'! )'
<
2 *
: i
!i
If
\ r *
' i *
<*
Jl
, «
11
i«
ct 3 --
!lri;
Fig. 32.
the surfaces, due to the bolts being tightly screwed
up, plays an important part in the strength of the
joint; and as all timber is liable to shrink, it is
Fig. 33.
necessary to examine the bolts occasionally, and
to keep them well tightened up. Figs. 32 and 33
show good forms of scarfs, which are stronger but
not so common as the preceding. Sometimes the
28
TIMBER FRAMING
scarf is made vertically instead of horizontally,
and when this is done a slight modification is made
in the position of the projecting tongue, as will be
seen from Fig. 34, which shows the joint in ele-
Fig. 34.
vation and plan. The only other scarfs to which
attention need be called are those shown in Figs.
35 and 36 in which the compression side is made
Fig. 36.
with a square abutment. These are very strong*
foimSj and at the same time easily made. Many
othei foims have been designed, and old books on
carpentry teem with scarfs of every conceivable
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
29
pattern; but in this, as in many other cases, the
simplest thing is the best, as the whole value de¬
pends upon the accuracy of the workmanship, and
this is rendered excessively difficult with a multi¬
plicity of parts or abutments.
In building up beams to obtain increased
strength the most usual method is to lay two to¬
gether sideways for short spans, as in the
lintels over doors and windows, or to cut
one down the middle and reverse the
halves, inserting a wrought iron plate
between, as shown in the flitch-girder,
Fig. 37. The reversal of the halves gives no addi¬
tional strength, as many workmen suppose, but it
enables one to see if the timber is sound through¬
out to the heart, and it also allows the pieces to
season better. A beam uncut may be decayed in
the center, and hence the advantage of cutting and
reversing, even if no flitch-plate is to be inserted,
defective pieces being then discarded. When very
long and strong beams are required, a simple
method is to bolt several together so as to break
joint with each other, as shown in Fig. 38, taking
care that on the tension side the middle of one
piece comes in the center of the stand with the two
nearest joints equidistant. It is not necessary in
a built beam to carry the full depth as far as the
supports; the strain is, of course, greatest in the
center, and provided there is sufficient depth given
at that point, the beam may be reduced towards
tdr-i
Fig. 37.
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
31
the ends, allowance being made for the loss of
strength at the joints on tension side. A single
piece of timber secured to the underside of a beam
at the center, as in Fig. 39 is a simple and effective
mode of increasing its strength. It will be ob¬
served that the straps are bedded into the sides of
the beams; they thus form keys to prevent the
pieces from slipping on each other. This weakens
the timber much less than cutting out the top or
bottom, as the strength of a beam varies not only
in direct proportion to the breadth, but as the
square of the depth. The addition of a second piece
of timber in the middle is a method frequently
adopted for strengthening shear legs and derrick
poles temporarily for lifting heavy weights.
We now come to the consideration of bearing
joints for beams, the term “beam” being taken to
include all pieces which carry or receive a load
across the grain. The simplest of these is the halv¬
ing joint, shown at Fig. 40, where two pieces of
cross bracing are halved together. This joint is
also shown at Fig. 41, where the ends of two wall
plates meet each other. When a joint occurs in
the length of a beam, as at Fig. 42, it is generally
called a scarf. In each of these examples it will
be seen that half the thickness of each piece is cut
away so as to make the joint flush top and bottom.
Sometimes the outer end of the upper piece is
made thicker, forming a bevelled joint and acting
as a dovetail when loaded on top. This is shown
32
TIMBER FRAMING
at Figs. 43 and 44. When one beam crosses an¬
other at right angles, and is cut on the lower side
to fit upon it, the joint is known as single notching,
shown in Fig. 45. When both are cut, as in Fig.
46, it is known as double notching. These forms
occur in the bridging and ceiling joists shown on
the diagrams of double and double-framed floor¬
ing. When a cog or solid projecting portion is
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
33
left in the lower piece at the middle of the joint
it is known as cogging, cocking, or caulking, and
is shown in Fig. 47. Figs. 48 and 49 show two
forms of the joint occurring between a tie-beam
and wall plate in roofing. Dove-tailing is not much
Fig. 48.
used in carpentry or house-joinery, owing to the
shrinkage of the wood loosening the joint. Two
wall plates are shown dovetailed together at Figs.
50 and 51; in the latter a wedge is sometimes in¬
serted on the straight side to enable the joint to
be tightened up as the wood shrinks. Tredgold
proposed the form shown in Fig. 52 which is
known as the “Tredgold notch”; but this is never
seen in practice. Tusk-tenoning is the method
34
TIMBER FRAMING
adopted for obtaining a bearing for one beam
meeting another at right angles at the same level.
Fig. 53 shows a trimmer supported on a trimming
Fig. 53.
Fig. 54.
joist in this manner; this occurs round fireplaces,
hoistways, and other openings through floors. Fig.
54 shows the same joint between a wood girder and
binding joist, it is also seen in the diagram of
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
35
double-framed flooring. The advantage of this
form is that a good bearing is obtained without
weakening the beam to any very great extent, as
the principal portion of the material removed is
taken from the neutral axis, leaving the remainder
disposed somewhat after the form of a flanged
girder. When a cross piece of timber has to be
framed in between two beams already fixed, a
tenon and chase-mortise (Fig. 55), is one of the
methods adopted. If the space is very confined,
the same kind of mortise is made in both beams,
but in opposite directions; the cross piece is then
held obliquely, and slid into place. Occasionally
it is necessary to make the chase-mortise vertical,
but this is not to be recommended, as the beam is
more weakened by so doing—it is shown in Fig.
56. Ceiling joists, fixed by tenons and chase-mor¬
tises, are shown on the diagram of double flooring.
36
TIMBER FRAMING
In some cases, a square fillet is nailed on, as shown
in the same diagram, to take the weight of the
joists without cutting into the beam. "While speak¬
ing of floors, the process of furring-up may be men¬
tioned ; this consists of laying thin pieces, or strips,
of wood on the top of joists, or any surfaces, to
bring them up to a level. Furring-pieces are also
sometimes nailed underneath the large beams in
framed floors, so that the under side may be level
with the bottom of the ceiling joists, to give a
Fig. 56.
bearing for the laths, and at the same time allow
sufficient space for the plaster to form a key.
Brandering is formed by strips about one inch
square, nailed to the under side of the ceiling
joists at right angles to them; these strips help to
stiffen the ceiling, and being narrower than the
ceiling joists, do not interrupt the key of the plas¬
tering so much—this is al^o shown on the diagram
of double flooring. Housing consists of letting
one piece of wood bodily into another for a short
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
37
distance, or, as it were, a tenon the full size of
the stuff. This is shown in the diagram of stair¬
case details, where the treads and risers are seen
housed into the strings, and held by wedges. Hous¬
ing is likewise adopted for fixing rails to posts, as
in Fig. 57, where an arris rail is shown housed into
i
VMM
Fig. 57.
Fig. 59.
an oak post for fencing. The most common joint,
however, between posts and beams, is the tenon
and mortise joint, either wedged or fixed by a pin;
the former arrangement is shown in Fig. 58, and
the latter in Fig. 59. The friction of the wedges,
38
TIMBER FRAMING
when tightly driven, aided by the adhesion of the
glue or white lead with which they are coated,
forms, in effect, a solid dovetail, and the fibres be¬
ing compressed, do not yield further by the shrink¬
ing of the wood. In the diagram of a framed door
will be seen an example of the application of this
joint and in the adjacent diagram will be seen the
evils produced by careless fitting, or the use of un¬
seasoned material. When it is desired to tenon a
beam into a post, without allowing the tenon to
show through, or where a mortise has to be made
Fig. 60. Fig. 61.
in an existing post fixed against a wall, the dove¬
tail tenon, shown in Fig. 60 is sometimes adopted,
a wedge being driven in on the straight side to
draw the tenon home and keep it in place. In join¬
ing small pieces, the foxtail tenon, shown in Fig.
61 has the same advantage as the dovetail tenon,
of not showing through; but it is more difficult
to fix. The outer wedges are made the longest,
and in driving the tenon home, these come into
action first, splitting away the sides, and fill¬
ing up the dovetail mortise, at the same time
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
39
compressing the fibres of the tenon. This joint
requires no glue, as it cannot draw out; should
it work loose at any time, the only way to
tighten it up would be to insert a very thin wedge
in one end of the mortise. Short tenons, assisted
by strap bolts, as shown in Fig. 62 are commonly
adopted in connecting large timbers. The post is
cut to form a shoulder so that the beam takes a
bearing for its full width, the tenon preventing
any side movement. When a post rests on a beam
or sill piece, its movement is prevented by a “jog¬
gle,” or stub-tenon, as shown in Fig. 63; but too
much reliance should not be placed on this tenon,
owing to the impossibility of seeing, after the
pieces are fixed, whether it has been properly
40
TIMBER FRAMING
fitted, and it is particularly liable to decay from
moisture settling in the joint. For temporary pur¬
poses, posts are commonly secured to heads and
sills by dog-irons, or “dogs,” Fig. 64; the pieces
in this case simply butt against each other, the
object being to avoid cutting the timber, and so
depreciating its value, and also for economy of
labor. Other forms of tenons are shown in Figs.
65 and 66. The double tenon is used in framing
wide pieces, and the haunched tenon when the edge
of the piece on which the tenon is formed is re¬
quired to be flush with the end of the piece con¬
taining the mortise. Examples of both these will
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
41
be found in the diagram of framed door. In Figs.
67 and 68 are shown two forms of bridle joint be¬
tween a post and a beam. Tredgold and Hatfield
recommended a bridle joint with a circular abut¬
ment, but this is not a correct form, as the post is
then equivalent to a column with rounded ends,
which it is well known is unable in that form to
bear so great a load before it commences to yield.
A strut meeting a tie, as in the case of the foot of
a principal rafter in a roof truss, is generally
tenoned into the tie by an oblique tenon, as shown
in Fig. 69; and the joint is further strengthened
42
TIMBER FRAMING
by a toe on the rafter bearing against a shoulder
in the tie. Tredgold strongly advised this joint
being made with a bridge instead of a tenon, as
shown in Fig. 70, on account of the abutting sur¬
faces being fully open to view. A strut meeting
a post as in Fig. 71, or a strut meeting the princi¬
pal rafter of a roof-truss (Fig. 72) is usually con¬
nected by a simple toe-joint. The shoulder should
be cut square with the piece containing it, or it
should bisect the angle formed between the two
pieces. It is sometimes made square with the strut,
but this is incorrect, as there would in some cases
be a possibility of the pieces lipping out. In bat-
toned and braced doors or gates this joint is used,
the pieces being so arranged as to form triangles,
and so prevent the liability to sag or drop, which
is so difficult to guard against in square framed
work without struts or braces. When a structure
is triangulated, its shape remains constant so long
as the fastenings are not torn away, because, with
a given length of sides, a triangle can assume only
one position; but this is not the case with four-
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
43
sided framing, as the sides, while remaining con¬
stant in length may vary in position. The diagram
of a mansard roof shows various examples of a
toe-joint; it shows also the principal framing king¬
post and queen-post roof trusses, each portion be¬
ing triangulated to insure the utmost stability.
Fig. 73.
* v s
Fig. 75.
Among the miscellaneous joints in carpentry not
previously mentioned the most common are the
butt joint, Fig. 73, where the pieces meet each other
with square ends or sides; the mitre joint, Fig. 74,
where the pieces abut against each other with
bevelled ends, bisecting the angle between them, as
in the case of struts mitered to a corbel piece sup-
r~P~i
Fig. 76.
Fig. 77.
Fig. 78.
porting the beam of a gantry; and the rabbeted or
“rebated” joint, Fig. 75, which is a kind of narrow
halving, either transverse or longitudinal. To
these must be added in joinery the grooved and
tongued joint, Fig. 76, the matched and beaded
joint, Fig. 77, the dowelled joint, Fig. 78, the dove-
44
TIMBER FRAMING
tailed joint, Fig. 79, and other modifications'of
these to suit special purposes. The application of
several of these joints is shown on the various dia¬
grams of flooring, etc. To one of these it may be
desirable to call particular attention, viz.: the
flooring laid folding. This is a method of obtain¬
ing close joints without the use of a cramp. It
consists of nailing down two boards and leaving
a space between them rather less than the width
of, say five boards, these boards are then put in
place, and the two projecting edges are forced
down by laying a plank across them, and standing
on it. This may generally be detected in old floors
by observing that several heading joints come in
one line, as shown on the diagram, instead of
breaking joint with each other. It is worthy of
notice that the tongue, or slip feather, shown in
Fig. 76, which in good work is formed generally
of hard wood, is made up of short pieces cut diag¬
onally across the grain of the plank, in order that
any movement of the joints may not split the
tongue, which would inevitably occur if it were cut
longitudinally from the plank.
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
45
With regard to fastenings, the figures already
given show several applications. Wedges should
he split or torn from the log, so that the grain may
be continuous, or if sawn out, a straight-grained
piece should be selected. Sufficient taper should
be put on to give enough compression to the joint,
but too much taper would allow the possibility of
the wedge working loose. For outside work,
wedges should be painted over with white lead be¬
fore being driven, this not being affected by mois¬
ture, as glue would be. In scarf-joints the chief
use of wedges is to draw the parts together before
the bolt-holes are bored. Keys are nearly parallel
strips of hard wood or metal; they are usually
made with a slight draft to enable them to fit
tightly. If the key is cut lengthwise of the grain,
a piece with curled or twisted grain should be se¬
lected, but if this cannot be done, the key should be
cut crossways of the log from which it is taken,
and inserted in the joint with the grain at right
angles to the direction of the strain, so that the
shearing stress to which the key is subject may act
upon it across the fibres. In timber bridges and
other large structures cast iron keys are fre¬
quently used, as there is with them an absence of
all difficulty from shrinkage. Wood pins should be
selected in same way as wedges, from straight¬
grained, hard wood. Square pins are more efficient
than round pins, but are not often used, on account
of the difficulty of forming square holes for their
46
TIMBER FRAMING
reception. Tenons are frequently secured in mor¬
tises, as in Fig. 59, by pins, the pins being driven
in such a manner as to draw the tenon tightly into
the mortise up to its shoulders, and afterwards to
hold it there. This is done by boring the hole first
through the cheeks of the mortise, then inserting
the tenon, marking off the position of the hole, re¬
moving the tenon, and boring the pinhole in it
rather nearer the shoulders than the mark, so that
when the pin is driven it will draw the tenon as
above described. This method is called “draw-
boring.” The dowelled floor shown in Fig. 78
gives another example of the use of pins.
Nails, and their uses, are too well known to
need description; it may, however, be well to call
attention to the two kinds of cut and wrought nails,
the former being sheared or stamped out of plates,
and the latter forged out of rods. The cut nails
are cheaper, but are rather brittle; they are useful
in many kinds of work, as they may be driven
without previously boring holes to receive them,
being rather blunt pointed and having two par¬
allel sides, which are placed in the direction of
the grain of the wood. The wrought nails do not
easily break, and are used where it is desired to
clench them on the back to draw and hold the wood
together. [The following table gives the result of
some experiments on the adhesion of nails and
screws.
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
47
ADHESION OF NAILS.
Description of
Nails used.
No. to
the lb.
Avoir.
Inches
long.
Inches
forced
into
wood.
Lbs. Pressure
to force in.
Lbs. pressure
to extract.
Dry pine
Deal.
Dry
Pine
Deal.
Dry
Elm
Fine brads.
4560
0.44
.40
22
—
< <
8200
0.53
.44
—
37
—
Threepenny brads.
618
1.25
.50
—
58
—
Cast-iron nails.
380
1.00
.25
— ■
72
—
Sixpenny nails_
73
2.50
.50
24
—
—
< t
< i
< (
.50
76
—
—
< <
< t
11
1.00
235
187
327
1 <
< (
< <
< (
end grain
87
257
< (
(<
< (
1.50
400
327
—
((
< (
C L
2.00
610
530
—
(t
((
i i
(<
end grain
257
—
Fivepenny nails.
139
2.00
1.50
—
320
—
French or wire nails have almost driven the
cut and wrought nails out of the market. Wire
nails, however, are not as lasting as the old
fashioned ones, but they are clean, handy to work
and can be clinched whenever necessary. They
rust quickly, and should not be used for shingling
or where damp is likely to get to them.
48
TIMBER FRAMING
SUMMARY.
Across Grain. With Grain.
Adhesion of nails in Pine... .2 to 1
Adhesion of nails in Elm... .4 to 3
Entrance to extraction is as 6 to 5.
Common screw .2" diam. equals 3 times the ad¬
hesive force of a six-penny nail.
Spikes are nearly of the same form as nails,
hut much larger and are mostly used for heavy
timber work. Treenails, so-called, are hard wood
pins used in the same way as nails. In particular
work, with some woods, such as Oak, they are used
to prevent the staining of the wood, which would
occur if nails were used and any moisture after-
wards reached them. Compressed treenails are
largely used in England for fixing railway chairs
to sleepers as - they swell on exposure to moisture,
and then hold more firmly. Screws are used in
situations where the parts may afterwards re¬
quire to be disconnected. They are more useful
than nails, as they not only connect the parts, but
draw them closer together, and are more secure.
For joiner’s work the screws usually have counter¬
sunk heads; where it is desired to conceal them,
they are let well into the wood, and the holes
plugged with dowels of the same kind of wood,
with the grain in the same direction. For car¬
penters’ work the screws are larger and have often
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
49
square heads; these are known as coach-screws.
The bolts, nuts, and washers used in carpentry
may be of the proportions given in the following
table:—an example is shown in Fig. 80.
Thickness of nut .1 diam. of bolt
Thickness of head ...diam. of bolt
Diam. of head or nut over sides. 1% diam. of bolt
Side of square washer for fir. .31/0 diam. of bolt
Side of square washer for oak.2^ diam. of bolt
Thickness of washer. y 2 diam. of bolt
The square nuts used by carpenters are gener¬
ally much too thin; unless they are equal in thick¬
ness to the diameter of the bolt, the full advantage
of that diameter-cannot be obtained, the strength
of any connection being measured by its weakest
part. The best proportion for nuts is shown in
the diagram of a standard hexagon nut. A large
square washer is generally put under the nut to
prevent it from sinking into the wood and tearing
the fibres while being screwed up, but it is also
necessary to put on a similar washer under the
head to prevent sinking into the wood. This is,
however, often improperly omitted. Straps are
50
TIMBER FRAMING
bands of wrought-iron placed over a joint to
strengthen it and tie the parts together. When
the strap is carried round one piece, and both ends
secured to a piece joining it at right angles, as in
a king-post and tie-beam, it is known as a stirrup,
and is tightened by means of a cotter and gib-keys
as shown in Fig. 81. When straps connect more
Fig. 81.
than two pieces of timber together, they are made
with a branch leading in the direction of each
piece; but they are usually not strong enough at
the point of junction, and might often be made
shorter' than they are without impairing their
efficiency. Sockets are generally of cast-iron, and
may be described as hollow boxes formed to re-
ceive the ends of timber framing.
With regard to the use of glue for securing
joints, it has been found that the tensile strength
of solid glue is about 4,000 lbs. per square inch,
while that of a glued joint in damp weather is
from 350 to 360 lbs. per square inch, and in dry
weather about 715 lbs. per square inch. The lat-
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS 51
I
eral cohesion of pine wood is about 562 lbs. per
square inch, and therefore in a good glue joint
the solid material will give way before the junction
yields.
These joints, though quite numerous, do not
exhibit all that are used in carpentry and joinery,
but are quite sufficient for our present purpose, as
others will be illustrated and described as we pro¬
ceed.
In balloon or scantling buildings of all kinds,
good solid foundations should in every case be pro¬
vided, for most of the defects often found in frame
buildings such as cracks, breaks, sags, etc. are in
a great measure due to the settlement of founda¬
tion walls, pins, posts or undue shrinkage. When
possible, all wood materials such as studding,
joists, rafters, collar-beams, trimmers, sills, plates,
braces and all other timber or lumber used, should
be well seasoned, particularly the joists, as the
shrinking of the joists causes the partitions to
drop and this makes cracks in the angles of the
walls, causes the doors to drag on the floors or
to bind at the top and thus disarrange the locks,
bolts, catches or other fastenings. Shrinkage of
wall studs causes trouble around the windows and
outside doors, leaving openings for wind to make
its way through into the interior of the house.
These things, though apparently of little moment,
are quite necessary to be taken into consideration
if a good warm and substantial building is de¬
sired.
52
TIMBER FRAMING
We are now ready to undertake some examples
of real work. The first thing to be considered
when preparing for a balloon frame after the foun¬
dation wall is ready to put on the frame work, is
the sill on which the studding is to stand. Of these
there are many kinds and I propose to illustrate
a selection from which the builder may choose the
Fig. 82.
one most suitable to his purpose. Fig. 82 is about
the most simple of any and is nothing more or less
than a 2x4-inch scantling halved at the corner, and
may be fastened by a wooden pin or nailed to¬
gether as shown. A sill of this kind should be
laid in mortar and levelled up to take the joists
and studding. The joists in this case will rest on
the sill altogether, as shown in Fig. 83 or they may
be cut or “checked” so as to rest both on stone
. wall and silk. Fig. 84 shows another method of
forming a sill in the old fashioned way. This
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
53
makes a good strong sill and secures a warm con¬
nection between sill and wall. Another good plan
is shown at Fig. 85. Figs. 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 and 91
show a number of various methods of forming sills
all of which are good. All sills of this kind- should
be bedded in mortar and levelled up on their top
flats, and when convenient the spaces between the
joists on the wall should be filled in with stone or
brick-work level with the top of the upper edges of
the joists. By doing this, the building is made
more comfortable, stronger, and vermin of all
kinds will be prevented from getting into the build-
54
TIMBER FRAMING
2X 12
mm
Fig. 85.
i
pLLLD WiTH
StoHe:
V/^LL
Fig. 88.
Fig. 90.
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
55
ing, and the joists are held together solid in their
places. Of course the stone or brick work must
be laid in mortar and well flushed up.
Sometimes balloon frames are built up on timber
sills of various dimensions and it may be well to
give a few examples here of this method, although
the matter of framing and laying the sills is simple
enough.
Fig. 91.
Fig. 92.
Some timber varies in size, often from one-
fourth to one-half an inch, and in framing the cor¬
ners this fact must be noted and provided for or
the studs will be too long or too short as the case
may be, and the joists will not be in line on top.
The sills should be all sized to the same dimension,
and all joists should be -sized and made equal in
width. Fig. 92 exhibits one method of using a tim¬
ber sill. This is rather a troublesome method and
costly, but is really an excellent way as it gives a
bearing to the edge of the joists both on the sill
56
TIMBER FRAMING
and on the stonework. At Fig. 93 we show another
method of using a timber sill. Sometimes, in
cases of this kind a tenon is worked on the end of
the joists and a corresponding mortise is made in
the sill to receive it; more frequently, however,
the ends of the joists are nailed to the sill by be¬
ing toe-nailed to it. This method of using a timber
sill is not to be recommended, but when it is em¬
ployed it is always better to cut in boards tight
between the joists and nail the boards solid to
the sill. This makes a fair job and insures the
joists staying in their places. Another method,
with a part of the studded wall—in section—is
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
57
shown in Fig. 94. This illustration also shows the
second and third joists and their manner of at¬
tachment to the wall studs. The rafter and scheme
for forming the cornice are shown so that the dia¬
gram may be followed by the workman without
trouble. Fig. 95 shows another example of
heavy sill with a portion of the wall at the cor¬
ner and at one side of a window opening. It will
he noticed that the corner stud and the jamb stud
58
TIMBER FRAMING
at the window are made 4x4 inches in section.
Where such studs can he obtained it is best to
get them solid, but the usual way of forming these
corners, is to nail two studs together which answer
the purpose very well. The joists are notched or
checked onto a 2"x4" scantling which is spiked to
lower edge of the sill to receive the joists. This
is not a good way unless the lower edges of the
joists rests on the stonework as shown in Figs. 92
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
59
and 93, as the joists are apt to split at the corner
of the notching if a heavier weight happens to
be placed on the floor than was at first intended.
The old-fashioned way of framing a heavy sill to
receive joists is shown in Fig. 96. This method
now is almost obsolete and is only used where
joists are to he carried across a large room and
where a beam or bearer is not admissible as noth¬
ing must show in the room below the ceiling, and
where joists are in two lengths. It will he noticed
that there are three different methods of framing
the joists in the sill. The first shows the mortise
too low down on the sill, the second too high up,
while the third is in the strongest point where a
single tenon and mortise are employed. In the top
of the sill the stud mortises are shown, with two
60
TIMBER FRAMING
studs in situ and one out to show the tenon. There
were various methods of framing the joists into
the sills in order to obtain the greatest resistance
to pressure, among which was the double tenon,
the tusk tenon, such as shown in Fig. 97, the upper
example being disengaged and the lower one in
place. There are also many other methods of
framing joists into heavy timber sills, but I have
exhibited sufficient examples to give an idea of
the general methods, and when we get to heavy
framing, I will say more on the subject and offer
a few extra examples. Fig 98 shows another old-
time method of framing a sill. This is called
“Gaining and mortising a sill,” and was often
classification of fastenings
61
put in specifications under this term. Fig. 99
shows a method of forming a sill called a “box
sill,” ns a matter of fact it is no sill at all, be¬
ing formed of two joists. It is simple, however,
and is fairly effective. Another box sill is shown
at Fig. 100. This is often used where there is a
good foundation under it, it makes a very good
sill, when the studding is cut so as to go down
to the bottom and occasionally when spiked in
the joist as well as the sill it makes a very strong
job.
Fig. 101 is another strong way which can he con-
62
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 101.
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
63
structed a little quicker and is good for a cheap
job, but I prefer the other. Fig. 102 is cheaper
still and used a good deal, just the one piece laid
flat on the wall, the joist put on and a 2x4 nailed
on the joist, and then the studding nailed to that.
Or let the studding run down to the sill and do
away with the 2x4 on the joist.
, In forming partitions and walls in balloon and
scantling buildings much care is required in ar¬
ranging the studding at the corners and about the
doors and windows in order to get the best re¬
sults with as little expenditure of materials and
labor as possible, and in order to- aid the work¬
man in this direction, I have gathered together
from various sources a number of examples, the
very best obtainable for this purpose and embody
them in this department. Take for instance the
corner posts in a balloon frame where it has to
serve for receiving the finishing materials—board-
64
TIMBER FRAMING
ing and lathing—on both its inner and outer
angles. These should be straight, firm and solid,
and constructed so as to make a good outside and
inside corner. Fig. 103 shows a substantial way,
simply by nailing four together strong with a
good outside and nice inside corner to lath on.
Fig. 104 is another way practically as good and
saves one studding. But if the thickness of two
was not the width of one it would bother a little.
Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 105.
Fig. 105 is a method of nailing together the cor¬
ner studding in a way to avoid the difficulty just
mentioned and makes a good corner.
Fig. 106 shows how a good corner for a cheap
job can be made with two studding; if the build¬
ing is not sheathed a five-inch corner board nailed
together at the corner works alright, and cham¬
fered on the corner looks well, too. Of course, if
CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS
65
there was to be a quarter round in the corner that
corner shown would not do at all. I think you
all have a corner on that subject and now we will
mention partitions. Fig. 107 shows that where the
cross partition comes, the studding should be 3
inches (not 4) apart, and then spike the cross par¬
tition studding to them and you have a solid corner
that the plastering will have no excuse to crack in.
Fig. 108 shows corner of partition where the par¬
tition is put up the 2-inch way, as they often are
in closets and light work. If you wish the build¬
ing to show as high as possible on the outside
and not have the ceiling too high on the inside, Fig.
109 shows a good method for plate and ceiling
joists; for better job the plates could be doubled.
Fig. 110 shows a double plate ceiling joist on top
corner, cut to keep from projecting above rafter,
which makes the best job for general purposes.
66
TIMBER FRAMING
At Fig. Ill I show two other corners some¬
times used. One of these shows the least amount
of material that can be used for an outer corner
while the other one shows a solid corner formed
Fig. 109. Fig. 110.
with four pieces and is similar to Fig. 103, and
the other to Fig. 107. At Fig. 112 is shown two
examples, the upper one is for the starting point
of a partition, the lower one shows the double stud
STUDDING
67
to be used for the jamb studs for windows and
doors. Fig. 113 shows the proper method of run¬
ning lath behind a partition wall, X showing the
stud starting the partition. This is not a good
Fig. 113.
method, though very often made use of, as the
angles are likely to crack. A much better way is
shown at Fig. 114, which, if adopted, and done well
will prevent the plaster from cracking. The 2x3-
inch piece indicated by A in Fig. 114 should be
cut in every 2 feet in height of partition and well
nailed, especially to the 2x5-inch B. When 2x3-
inch studding is used in the main partition we
would suggest employing lx5-inch piece B, instead
68
TIMBER FRAMING
of a 2x5-incli. Fig. 115 shows a section of a wall
intended for a house having two stories, a cellar
and attic. This shows the sill, cellar wall and
rafters of additional annex, the annex being only
one story and cellar. Another sectional view of out-
side wall with inside and outside finish is shown
at Fig. 116. This shows the manner of forming
OUTSIDE WALLS
69
Fig. 116.
I
70 - TIMBER FRAMING
the sill, placing in window headers, cornice and
general finish. As this section is drawn to a scale
of half-inch to the foot, it may be worked from
if desired. Another section of an outside wall
of a simpler kind is shown at Fig. 117. This is
for a one and a half story house, finished quite
plainly inside and out.
In setting up inside partitions more care and
PARTITIONS
71
attention than is usually paid to the openings
should be given. .A. careless haphazard way of
trimming the heads of doorways and the conse¬
quent result after a few years, is shown at Fig.
118. This figure, of course, shows the condition
in an exaggerated form, hut the condition does
often occur very much to the detriment of the door
and its trimmings. Fig. 119 shows a good old-
72
TIMBER FRAMING
fashioned way of framing a door head so that no
movement or distortion like that shown in 118
can possibly take place as the braces at the head
FLOOR LINING
LATH
CO
X
04
floor lining
• m
2X3
DOOR OPEN
FLOOR
LINING
Fig. 120.
are toed, or notched, into the top stretcher which
prevents them from pressing out the jamb studs.
Another method which is quite common, and which
DOORWAYS
73
should be avoided, is shown in Fig. 120. This
last is a cheap slip-shod way of fixing partitions
over doors but it very often leads to trouble after
the building is occupied, and it should be avoided
in the interests of good and permanent work.
The difference in cost between building a doorway
as at Fig. 120 and Fig. 119 is so small that no
Fig. 121.
contractor should for a moment hesitate in adopt¬
ing the better plan. The sill, or girder and joist
shown in Fig. 119 need not be followed, they are
exhibited just to show the old methods of doing
good substantial work and may yet be employed
in some situations. At Fig. 124, I show a portion
of a floor with the end of the joist resting on a
74
TIMBER FRAMING
1
1
1
I
J
Fig. 122
Fig. 123.
FLOORING
75
bond timber which is supported on a ledge formed
in the brick wall by making the upper story one
half a brick thinner than the wall below. This is
a very good way to carry the joists when it can be
accomplished without injury to the wall and where
the building is not more than three stories in
height. Fig. 125 shows a section of a floor with
Fig. 125.
joists, floor, ceiling and cross bridging. This is a
good example of building a good solid floor for
all ordinary purposes.
>
76
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 126 shows cross bridging with floor or ceil¬
ing and Fig. 127 exhibits the proper way to cnt in
the joists in a brick wall where it is necessary to
run the joists in the brick wall. The joists should
rest on a timber which is built in the wall as the
bricks are laid.
Fig. 128.
A good way to set up second or third-story studs
is shown at Fig. 128. Of course, where the stud¬
ding can be obtained long enough to run the whole
height of the building it is better to get them if
the cost will admit, if not, the method shown will
STUDDING
77
answer very well. Fig. 129 shows a good method
of trussing a partition, it is simple and can be
done without much labor and is quite effective.
At Fig. 130 I show a method of preparing a wall
of scantling for veneering with brick; it is simple
and does not require much skill to make a good
wall. The proper way is to put down a stone foun¬
dation wall of sufficient thickness to carry both
78
TIMBER FRAMING
framing and brick wall, as shown at Fig. 130. The
brickwork is tied every sixth course with proper
anchors, as shown, which are about 6 inches long,
and which are nailed to the sides of the studs. The
studding may be 2x4 or 2x6 inches, and framed
in the ordinary manner. It is considered the bet-
ter way to rough board the outside of the studding
and then cover the. boarding with good building
Fig. 130.
paper, and brick against this. A good warm job is
the result if the work is properly done. The bricks
are all well laid as “stretchers” when done this
wav, and the best bricks should be selected for the
work. At this point it may not be out of place to
show some of the methods of laying down joists
and securing hearth and stair trimmers, and other
similar work. As I have shown in Fig. 127, all
LAYING JOISTS
79
joists entering in a wall should be cut with bevel
ends, so that in case of fire and the joists being
burned or broken in or about their centers, then
should they fall down, they would pry out
either the bricks or stone above them and thus
tend to destroy the wall. The employment of
bridging as shown in Figs. 125 and 126 is for the
purpose of stiffening the joists by keeping them
from twisting, and distributing the strain over a
larger number of joists than those on which the
weight comes. The bridge piers should be 2x2
inches, though 1x2 are frequently used, and they
should be accurately cut to the required angle and
firmly nailed. A good way to find the lengths and
bevels of the pieces required for the braces is to
snap a chalked line across the top edges of the
joists, parallel with the side of the wall, and a
second line distant from the first, just the depth of
joists, and of course, parallel to the first line. The
length and angle of the braces can then be ob¬
tained by laying the piece diagonally on the joists,
with its edges just touching the chalk lines on the
inner edge of both joists, keeping the thickness of
the stuff inside the two lines. In this position
mark the underside of the bridge piece with a
pencil, and both the proper angles and right length
are given. Each piece obtained this way answers
for the second piece in the same space. Two nails
should be driven in each end of the bridge piece,
if a good permanent job is desired.
80
TIMBER FRAMING
In trimming around a chimney or a stair well-
hole, several methods are employed. Sometimes
the header and trimmers are made from material
twice as thick and the same depths as the ordinary
joists, and the intermediate joists are tenoned into
the header, as shown in Figs. 131 and 132. Here
we have T, T, for header, and T, J, T, J, for trim¬
mers, and b, j, for the ordinary joists. In the
western and also some of the central states, the
FIREPLACE TRIMMING
81
trimmers and headers are made up of two thick¬
nesses of the header being mortised to secure the
ends of the joists. The two thicknesses are well
nailed together; this method is exhibited at Fig.
133, which also shows one way to trim around the
hearth; C, C, C, C, shows the header with tusk
tenons on ends, which pass through the trimmers
A, A.
t -
—-r-
rr— z.
>
4-
i
1 _
1 *
i
.
-
Fig. 133.
At Fig. 134 I show another scheme for trimming
around a fireplace in which the trimmers and
headers T, T, are seen, the headers being tenoned
through the trimmer joists with tusk tenons and
keyed solid in place. The central line of hearth is
seen at X Y, the intermediate joists at b j and the
trimmers at t j, while the bond timbers are in evi-
82
TIMBER FRAMING
dence at w p. Here there are two flues shown, also
the hearth tiling. In this example there are two
holding bolts shown by dotted lines on each side of
the fireplace anchored into the brick-wall and pass¬
ing under the hearth and through the header to
which it is secured with a nut and washer. A
dumj - ) grate is shown at s s. This is for the pur¬
pose of letting ashes down a sliute into the cellar
where there should be an iron receptacle to receive
them.
Fig. 135 shows a sectional view of the hearth
X Y, of Fig. 134. This shows a brick arch turned
under the hearth to support it, the center for which
the carpenter is expected to make. There is an
FIREPLACE TRIMMING
83
oak or other suitable hardwood strip mitred
around the tiles and of the same thickness as the
flooring. The flooring is shown at b, and the
joists and trimmer are shown at b j and t j, respec¬
tively ; the dump shute is shown at the shaded part
and may continue to cellar floor, or cut through
the wall at any desirable point convenient to re¬
move ashes.
In ordinary buildings the brick arch is seldom
employed, the header being placed pretty close to
the brick work and the joists tenoned into it, and
the tops of the joists being cut down enough to
allow a layer of concrete cement and tiles on the
top of them without raising the tiles above the
floor. In such cases strips are nailed to the sides
84
TIMBER FRAMING
of the joists, three or four inches below the top of
the cut joists. Rough boards are then laid in these
strips after which the space is filled in with coarse
mortar to the level of top edges of joists, then the
concrete cement and tiles are laid on this, which
makes the hearth pretty safe from taking fire and
brings the tiles to the floor level; where it may not
be considered safe to trim down the joists to this
requirement, the joists may be beveled on their top
edges saw-tooth shape, and this will serve the pur¬
pose nearly as well as cutting them down below
their top edges three or four inches.
Frequently it happens that a chimney rises in a
building from its own foundation, disconnected
from the walls, in which case the chimney shaft
will require to be trimmed all around as shown in
Fig. 133. In cases of this kind the trimmers A, A,
should be made of stuff very much thicker than the
joists, as they have to bear a double burden, B, B,
shows the heading, and C, C, C, C, the tail joists.
B, B, should have a thickness double that of C, C,
etc., and A, A, should at least be three times as
stout as C, C, this will to some extent equalize the
strength of the whole floor, which is a matter to be
considered in laying down floor timbers, for a floor
is no stronger than its weakest part.
• There are a number of devices for trimming
around stairs, fireplaces and chimney stacks by
which the cutting or mortising of the timbers is
avoided. One method is to cut the timbers the
FIREPLACE TRIMMING
85
exact length, square in the ends, and then insert
iron dowels—two or more—in the ends of the
joists, and boring holes in the trimmers and
headers to suit and driving the whole solid to¬
gether. The dowels are made from % to 1" round
iron. Another and better device is the “bridle
iron,” which may be hooked over the trimmer or
header, as the case may be, the stirrup carrying
the abutting timber, as shown in Fig. 136. These
Fig. 137.
“bridle irons” are made of wrought iron, 2x2y 2
inches or larger dimensions if the work requires
such; for ordinary jobs, however, the size given
will be found plenty heavy for carrying the tail
joists, and a little heavier may be employed to
carry the header. This style of connecting the
trimmings does not hold the frame work together,
and in places where there is any tendency to
thrust the work apart, some provision must be
made to prevent the work from spreading. This
86
TIMBER FRAMING
may readily be done in many ways that will sug¬
gest themselves to the workman. Perhaps the best
way is to nail a hoop iron across the points lapping
one end up the side of the trimmer or header, and
bending it over the arris, running it along the edge
of the joists across the joints, and extending it
beyond the joints ten or twelve inches.
In no case where a trimmer or header is placed
alongside a chimney stack should the woodwork be
less than iy 2 inches from the brickwork. This is
a precaution taken to prevent the heat of the stack
from setting fire to the timbers; the flooring of
course is obliged to be within one inch of the brick¬
work, but the bare board always covers the joint.
I show a few examples of trimming around a
fireplace or chimney. Fig. 137 shows a very good
way, and one very frequently employed. Another
way, and one deserving of consideration is shown
in Fig. 138. The ends of the stretchers enter the
brick wall of the chimney, into which has been in¬
serted cast-iron shoes to receive them. These
shoes prevent sparks or fire from reaching the
timbers from the flue and make them secure
against burning. At Fig. 139 I show a trimmer
with double mortises, also notches in the ends of
the stretchers. These notches are to fit over a
raised rib of iron in the cast-iron shoes, I show in
Fig. 138. Notches are sometimes cut in the
stretchers, to fit over a bar of iron which is some¬
times used to carry joists over an opening where
FIREPLACE TRIMMING
•37
Fig. 138.
Fig. 139,
Fig. 140.
88
TIMBER FRAMING
joists cannot be let into the brick wall, as shown at
Fig. 140. This also shows how joists may be car¬
ried over small openings by making nse of a flat
iron bar which has screw bolts run through them
to carry the joists below. Where a girder or tim¬
ber is used to carry joists it is sometimes neces¬
sary to drop the timbers two inches, thereby
affording greater strength in the beam, but with
the disadvantage of projecting below the ceiling.
Fig. 141 shows the proper proportions for framing
Fig. 141.
the end of the joists. In trimming for a chimney
in a roof the “headers,” “stretchers” or “trim¬
mers” and “tail rafters” may be simply nailed in
place, as there is no great weight beyond snow
and wind pressure to carry, therefore the same
precautions for strength are not necessary. The
sketch shown at Fig. 142 explains how the chimney
opening in the roof may be trimmed—the parts
being only spiked together. A shows a hip rafter
against which the cripples *or jacks, on both sides
BALLOON FRAMING
89
are spiked. The chimney stack is shown in the
center of the roof—isolated—trimmed on the four
sides. The sketch is self-explanatory in a meas¬
ure and should be easily understood.
We may now venture to build a small house and
finish same on the lines laid down, that is to say, a
balloon frame house. We already know enough
to raise the walls, put up and complete partitions
and trim and finish openings. Suppose our build¬
ing to be 24x42 feet on the ground. This should
be laid off as shown in Fig. 143, first the founda¬
tion, then the first floor as shown, then the second
floor with three bed-rooms, hall and closets. The
manner of laying the joists is shown in Fig. 145.
The joists are laid on the cellar or foundation
90
TIMBER FRAMING
A
• *!2i i - - - - •
♦
c«i
t
•
I
t
•
I
t
1
a
a
f^v/^r.c*. 1 &pj>r <§tcoK°
BALLOON FRAMING
91
Fig. 144.
92
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 145.
BALLOON FRAMING
93
walls, for the first floor, then a rougn floor may be
laid on these joists, and the string pieces for the
partitions may be laid on this floor, or the partition
studs may rest on the joists, good solid provision
being made for this purpose.
Before the partitions are built in, the outside
walls must be put up and properly plumbed and
braced. These walls must rest on sills formed on
the lines of some one of schemes or sections shown
in the preceding pages. A section of one side of
the house showing the bare walls is produced at
Fig. 144. This figure shows the openings for win¬
dows, also ends of porch and kitchen, with two
sections of roof on different levels. The lines of
joists on the second floor are shown in Fig. 145,
also the direction of rafters, ridges and hips in
the various roofs. While the house under discus¬
sion is a small one, the methods of erection are
those that may be applied to the building of all
kinds of balloon structures, large or small.
A building of greater pretensions is shown at
Fig. 146. The windows and doors show double
studding all round. This is always a good plan
to adopt, but necessarily uses up quite a lot more
material than is actually required; 2x4 blocks
nailed on the studs here and there, would answer
quite well to nail the finish to, but if a building be
boarded on both sides of the wall, neither blocks
nor a second stud would be necessary. One ob¬
jectionable feature in this frame is the use of 2x8-
94
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 146.
BALLOON FRAMING
95
inch joists in the attic floor. These joists are too
light for the space they run over; they should at
least be 2xl0-inch, then there would be little dan¬
ger of the floor sagging, particularly if the floor
joists were well bridged.
Dormers should be framed as shown in the sec¬
tion drawing, Fig. 147. An opening of the proper
size to receive the dormer should be framed in
the roof, and the studs of the dormer should be
96
TIMBER FRAMING
notched out one inch over the roof boarding and
trimmer rafter and extended to the floor. Notch¬
ing the studding onto the roof prevents the roof
from sagging or breaking away from the sides of
the dormer and thus causing a leak, and the stud¬
ding being extended to the floor also stiffens the
trimmer and gives a homogeneous surface to lath
on, without fear of plaster cracks. An enlarged
section through the dormer sill is also given in Fig.
147 showing the way in which the flashing should
be placed. The flashing should be laid over the
second shingle and the third shingle laid over it.
This keeps the flashing in place and looks better.
The upper edge of the flashing should be securely
nailed to the back of the sill. As soon as the walls
of a frame building are up they should be covered
with hemlock, spruce or pine boards, dressed one
side and free from shakes and large knot holes.
When the brace frame is used it is generally cus-
tomarv to sheath the first storv before the second
story studding is set up. The sheathing or board¬
ing should be nailed at each bearing with two ten-
penny nails, although eight-penny nails are often
used. If the building is built with a balloon frame
it is necessary to put the boarding on diagonally
in order to secure sufficient rigidity in the frame.
With the braced frame diagonal sheathing is not
necessary, although it makes a better job than
when laid horizontally, and all towers, cupolas,
etc., should be sheathed in this way.
ROOFING
97
In covering the roof two different methods are
pursued, in the first the roof is tightly covered
with dressed boarding, like the walls, and in the
second narrow boards are nailed to the rafters
Fig. 148.
horizontally and with a space of two or three
inches between them. The latter method is con¬
sidered to make the more durable roof, as it
affords ventilation to the shingles and causes
them to last longer. But if the attic is to be fin-
98
TIMBER FRAMING
ished such a roof is very hot in summer and cold
in winter, and most architects prefer to cover the
roof with boarding laid close together and then
lay tarred paper over the boarding and under the
shingles or slate; this not only better protects the
attic space from changes in temperature, but also
prevents fine snow from sifting in under the slate
or shingles. The specifications should distinctly
mention whether the boards are to be laid close
together or laid ojien, as well as the kind and
quality of the boards.
Tinned roofs should be covered with matched
boards, dressed one side, and all holes covered
ROOFING
99
with sheet iron, and the ridges planed off. Figs.
148 and 149 show how a village church spire may
be constructed by the use of scantlings 2x6 and 2x8
inches. The corner posts are formed of three
pieces 2x6 inches spiked together. The other
heavy parts are formed in like manner. Plans of
the structure are shown at A and B. Of course
this style of structure can be changed and adapted
to suit almost any style of spire or tower; hut it is
not my intention to give many examples of spires,
roofs, towers or steeples in this part, as I intend
to show a number of such in Part 2 of this volume.
I will, however, add a few light timbered exam¬
ples, as they may be considered as balloon framing.
In the formation and construction of an ogee
roof, many things are to be considered, and as
many of these roofs are built up of light timbers
and covered with thin and flexible materials it will
not be considered out of place to notice a few ex¬
amples at this point. Fig. A 150 shows a quarter
plan A B of the timbers of an ogee roof to a cir¬
cular tower. The three purlins also shown in the
plan are marked 1, 2, 3, in the elevation. The
division for the boarding on the outside is indi¬
cated by C D, that for the inside boards being
indicated by G H, while intermediate bearers for
additional fixing for boarding are numbered 4 to
8 in the elevation. Some of these bearers may be
omitted at discretion. Fig. B 150 shows elevation
and vertical sections of the wall plate, which is
100
TIMBER FRAMING
—Ofr F _
Fig. 150.
ROOFING
101
formed of two pieces, each 2 in. thick by 4 y 2 in.
wide, with joints crossed, and having crossed
bearers out of 6 in. by 4 in. stuff, halved together
at the center and at the plate; all being flush both
sides and securely bolted to the plate with 4 y 2 in.
by V 2 in. bolts. The center post is out of 6 in. by
6 in. octagonal stuff, is stump-tenoned into the
bearer at the foot, and secured with 1 in. bolts.
This post may at option be carried up above the
Fis. 151.
cap, and finished with ornamental turned or octag¬
onal worked finial. The ogee rafters are 4% in¬
wide and are made up of two iy± in. thicknesses.
The joints are crossed and securely fixed together
with screws or clenched nails, are stump tenoned
into the plate at the bottom, and are shouldered
into the post at the top, as shown by the solid line,
and stump tenoned as shown by dotted lines (see
section Fig. B).
102
TIMBER FRAMING
The rafters are secured to the plate at the foot
with angle irons 6 in. or 8 in. long by 2 1 /. in. or 3 in.
wide and 14 in- or % in. thick, fixed with % in¬
coach screws or bolts. Purlins 1 to 3 are the main
purlins. Additional purlins 4 to- 8 may be intro¬
duced if necessary. Dotted lines carried down
from section to plan show the length required, and
the section Fig. 155 shows the size of stuff required
for cutting. Fig. 151 shows the main purlins (1
Fig. 152. Fig. 153.
to 3) for one-quarter; the sections, and the surplus
stuff to be cut away, being shown by black shading.
These purlins can be cut out of 4 in. by 9 in. deals,
and with very little waste of material if the in-
%/
side (commonly called the belly) is cut out first
and glued on the back edge, two ribs being thus
got out of each 9 in. deal.
Fig. 152 shows the intermediate purlins or
bearers for one-eighth of the circle. Moulds are
taken from the plan in the same way as for the
ROOFING
103
main purlins, and the bevels for squaring are ob¬
tained in the same way in each case. Fig. 153
shows (looking upwards) the turned cap, perfor¬
ated to allow of sliding on to the octagonal post.
The shape of the outer thickness of the cover
boarding is shown by Fig. 154. The method of
obtaining the mould for these boards is as follows:
First, divide the quarter C to D into the same
number of spaces as the predetermined number of
boards to be used. Next, divide, on the outside, the
line of covering into say twelve equal spaces-—the
more spaces the greater the accuracy (see sec¬
tion numbered 0 to 12). Lay out these spaces in
a straight line (see Fig. 154) to get the stretch¬
out of the ogee from the back of the ogee (see the
dotted lines on the plan), carry down a line to the
center of one of the boards on the quarter (see
X X). Take in the compasses the width of the
board each way from the center, and transfer these
widths on the stretch-out line as Fig. 154. Trace
the widths from point to point, and the necessary
mould will be complete. Let the mould be of the
full given width. To allow for the slight difference
made by the curve of the board, the joints will be
slightly wreathed. This wreathing may be accur¬
ately obtained by following for the lower thick¬
ness the same instructions given for the upper,
when the difference in the widths of the two' boards
will give the wreathing necessary. The boards,
for convenience of bending, may consist of two
104
TIMBER FRAMING
thicknesses of % in. of 7/16 in. stuff; if % in. that
thickness has been specified. In fixing, let them lap
over the joints by allowing the center line of the
lower board to be the joint line of the upper board.
Fig. 155 shows the inner edge of the rafters, with
Fig. 154. Fig. 155.
their joints and tenons. Circular towers in framed
construction may be divided into two classes,
namely, those which have their foundations on a
line connected with the main foundation of the
ROOFING
105
Fig. 156.
106
TIMBER FRAMING
TOWERS
107
house, and second those which are carried up from
the second floor, resting on, or being supported
by, the floor beams of the second story. The latter
class will be considered, as it embodies more im¬
portant construction, although some of the matters
which will be treated are applicable to all circular
M'~ B
Fig. 158.
towers. The first thing for the practical carpenter
or builder to consider is how to so construct the
floor as to support the tower in a proper manner;
that is, so that it will sustain with perfect safety
the weight to be placed upon it.
Referring to Fig. 156, which is supposed to rep-
108
TIMBER FRAMING
resent the general appearance of a tower built on
an angle to a house. It is placed at the right
hand of the front of the building, and is designed
to form an alcove closet, or an extension to the
corner room. Its plan, as may be seen in Fig. 158,
is a three-quarter circle, the apex of the angle at
the corner being the center from which the circular
plan is struck. The radius of the plate outside is
three feet nine inches thus making the tower 7 feet
6 inches in diameter. It is intended that the
tower floor shall he level with a room in the second
story and the beams or joists must be framed in
such a manner that the flooring can he laid in the
circle of the tower, while at the same time being
so secured as to support the weight of it. The
form of construction indicated in Fig. 158 of the
engravings is well adapted for the purpose, and
an inspection will show that it consists of a double
header made of 2x10 inch timbers placed diagon-
allv across the corner at a sufficient distance back
%/
from it to give ample leverage to counterbalance
the weight suspended outside the plate. The
tower beams are framed square into this header
on the outside and the floor beams are framed into
it on the inside. By this construction a cantilever
is formed, for the header in carrying the main
beams forms a counterpoise for the superadded
weight, which is borne by the unsupported beams
which project outside. It will be readily seen
that this, obviously, is a good construction, and
TOWERS
109
much better than introducing many short timbers
after the manner indicated in Fig. 159. In the
latter case the leverage outside being much greater
than that inside, the plate being the fulcrum,
there is a strong probability of its tearing away
from the main framing. For the same reason it
is regarded as a serious mistake to attempt to
radiate the timbers as indicated by the dotted lines
in Fig. 159. The position of the timbers are shown
in the elevation of the framing, Fig. 157, and we
have no doubt that practical builders will fully
appreciate what has been pointed out.
When the beams are inserted and the main
framing has been nailed, a bottom circular plate,
110
TIMBER FRAMING
or template, marked A, in Fig. 157, is made from
two thicknesses of 1 inch stuff, and nailed on
exactly the size required. The position of the win¬
dow studs is also marked on it, as represented in
Fig. 158. The upper plate, or which is really the
wall plate proper, and indicated by B in Fig. 157
of the engravings, must also be made, and this will
rest on the top ends of the studding and support
the rafters. This plate will be a complete circle
measuring 7 feet 6 inches in diameter and struck
with a 3 foot 9 inch radius rod and laid out upon
the floor, as indicated in the roof framing plan,
Fig. 160. The pieces necessary to form the upper
and lower plates may be sawn out of rough 1 inch
pine boards from one pattern, which may be any
one of those drawn in the plan, and a number of
which go to make up the whole plate. The stud¬
ding are cut 11 feet 8 inches, which being added to
4 inches, the thickness of the plates, makes the
entire height 12 feet. The window headers, both
at the top and bottom are likewise circular and are
framed in after the manner represented in Fig. 157
to form the openings and cripple or short stud¬
ding cut in under them in the center. All studding
must be set perfectly plumb and all plates and
headers perfectly level. In order to insure this it
is well to be certain that the bottom plate is level
by placing a parallel straight edge with a spirit
level on top of it, across the plate at different
points. Then, if the studding be cut in equal length
TOWERS
111
Fig. 160.
112
TIMBER FRAMING
the upper plate must, in consequence, be placed in
a level position. A number of horizontal sweeps,
2 inches thick and 4 inches wide, as indicated at
C, in Fig. 157, require to be cut out to form ribbing
or pieces nailed in 16 inches apart, to which the
vertical boarding outside and the lath and plaster
inside are fastened. It will be seen that if this
construction is followed the whole evlindrical wall
%/
can be very strongly and economically built up.
To save time and labor and also to expedite
matters, the sweeps may be sawed out at the mill
with a band saw, although it can be done in pine
with the compass saw.
With regard to the molded roof, it may be said
that having a molded outline it will necessarily re¬
quire molded rafters sawn to the curvature called
for in the elevation. As a general thing, architects
furnish a full size working detail for roofs of this
kind, but it often happens that it is not forthcom¬
ing and the carpenter or builder is obliged to
strike out a pattern rafter himself. To do this
quickly and as accurately as possible, it is well
to lay out the whole roof on a floor, something
after the following manner: Referring to Fig.
161, draw any base line 7 feet 6 inches in length, as
A B, and divide exactly in the center, or at 3 feet
9 inches, as C. From C square up the line to 9
feet high, as C D, and divide this line into 13 equal
divisions, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 etc. Through these
points draw lines parallel to A B or square C D
TOWERS
113
Fig. 161.
114
TIMBER FRAMING
any length on each side of C D. Now, from fhe
point D dress the curve of the rafter, as indicated
by the letters E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, 0 and
P, as near to the outline as possible. A very good
method of obtaining these curves is to divide the
architect’s 4 inch scale drawing by horizontal divi¬
sion lines similar to those in Fig. 161, and to scale
off the lengths from the axis or vertical line C D.
By setting off these measurements on a full size
lay out, points will be obtained through which the
flexure of the curves may be very accurately deter¬
mined.
The 16 rafters may all be drawn from the one
pattern, as they are all alike and should be framed
to fit against a 3 inch wood (boss), as indicated
by X in Fig. 160, in order to obtain a solid nailing
at the peak. In this engraving rafters are shown
in position in elevation and also in plan, as well
as the way they radiate or are spaced around the
circle 16 inches apart on the plate. As it is always
best to board such roofs as this vertically, ribbing
or horizontal sweeps will have to be cut in be¬
tween the rafters, and as there should be as many
of these as possible for the purpose of giving a
strong framework to hold the covering boards, it
is advisable to cut in one at each of the divisions
marked on the elevation shown in Fig. 161. The
outline plan of this figure represents the top lines
of these sweeps, which are well nailed in between
the rafters. Fig. 162 of the engravings shows the
DOMICAL ROOFS
115
exact size of the headers and their positions when
nailed in. They are struck from different radii,
which shorten as they go upward. It will be
noticed that each set of sweeps is consecutively
numbered with the lines C 1, 2, 3, etc., from C to
D of Fig. 161. There will be 15 sweeps in each
course and, therefore, 15 different patterns. They
may be conveniently numbered and marked in the
following manner: For No. 2, for example, a
pattern can be cut and marked “Pattern for 15
sweeps, No. 2.” There will, therefore, be 180
altogether to be cut out, and these should be cut
116
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 163.
Fig. 164.
DOMICAL EOOFS
117
a trifle longer than the exact size, in order to allow
for fitting.
At Figs. 163 to 166, I show the construction of
a domical roof with a circular opening in the
center for a skylight. Two of the main principals,
C D and the corresponding one, are framed with
a king-post c, as shown in Fig. 165; the others at
Fig. 165.
right angles to these, with queen-posts, as seen in
Fig. 166. The main ribs correspond to the prin¬
cipals, and the shorter ribs are framed against
curbs between them, as at a Figs. 163 and 165.
Figs. 167 and 168 show the framing of an ogee
domical roof on an octagonal plan. The construc¬
tion will be readily understood by inspection; and
the method of finding the arris ribs, shown in Fig.
169 will be understood from what may be said
when treating of hip-rafters.
118
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 166.
Fig. 167.
DOMICAL ROOFS
119
Figs. 170, 171, 172 and 173 show the construc¬
tion of a domical roof with a central post b, Fig.
172, into the head of which four pairs of trussed
rafters are tenoned; four intermediate trusses
Fig. 173, are framed into the same post at a lower
level. The collars are in two flitches as shown at c
Fig. 172, and are placed at different heights so as
to pass each other in the middle of the span. The
collars of two trusses at right angles to each other
may be on the same level, and halved together at
120
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 170.
DOMICAL ROOFS
121
Fig. 172.
c#»
Fig. 194.
CORNICES
145
Fig. 196 exhibits another cornice on nearly the
same lines as Fig. 194. I may say here, that in¬
stead of wooden gutters, heavy galvanized sheet
iron gutters could be employed to advantage.
ft - s s
Fig. 196.
Fig. 197 shows a rafter resting in a foot mortise
or crow-foot in a solid heavy timber frame. This
style of framing rafters is often used iu heavy
timber -77ork, such as barns, stables, warehouses,
freight sheds and similar structures.
Fig. 198 shows another cornice which is intended
TIMBER FRAMING
Fitf. 198.
CORNICES
147
to have a wooden gutter. The method of finishing
the rafter on the lower end to receive the gutter is
shown.
Fig. 199 shows a cornice designed for a brick or
stone house having a curve at the eave. The
method of finishing is shown and is quite simple,
the furring being the main thing in forming the
• curve for the bed of the shingles or slate.
Fig. 200 shows a very good method of forming
a cornice for a balloon frame. It is very simple,
easily formed and quite effective,
148
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 201 shows a cornice where the pitch of the
roof suddenly changes at the projection, as is
sometimes the case with towers, balconies and over
bay windows. The method of construction is
shown very clearly in the illustration and may
readily be followed.
.Fig. 202 shows an ornamental cornice which may
be used either on cottage or veranda work. A
portion of the rafters shows as brackets below the
planceer,
VERANDA ROOF
149
Fig. 203 shows a part of a veranda roof, with
brackets, gutter, and facia. Here the roof has a
very low pitch and the rafters are nailed against
Fig. 201. Fig. 202.
the sides of the ceiling joists and the depression
for the gutter is cut out at the end of the rafter
as shown. The gutter, of course, like all similar
gutters, is lined with galvanized iron, zinc or tin.
150
TIMBER FRAMING
These examples of cornices are quite sufficient
for the framer to have by him; if other designs are
Fig. 203.
required, the workman should experience no diffi¬
culty in forming what he wants, having these de¬
signs at his command.
INTRODUCTION TO PART II.
“Heavy Timber Framing’’ is an art that re¬
quires considerable skill on behalf of the man who
“lays out” the work, because of the fact that this
work must be carried on without “trying” how
the work coincides, or in other words, without
being able to make use of the good old-fashioned
rule of “cut and fit.” The lengths, cuts, locations
and duties of each piece of timber used in the con¬
struction of heavy frame work, must be considered
by the framer, and each piece entering into the
building, must be mortised and wrought separ¬
ately. This is no easy task, and the person under¬
taking it assumes no small responsibility and his
position is such as should insure to him a remun¬
eration commensurate with the position and re¬
sponsibility he accepts. Unfortunately, the “boss
framer” receives as pay but very little more than
the regular carpenter, something that is not as it
should be, and if he were not ambitious, and proud
of his ability as a framer, he would not accept the
position, but rather take a place among the ordi¬
nary workmen and thus escape the responsibilities
of“Bosship.”
151
PART II.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING.
“Is heavy timber framing a lost art?” This
question has been asked me many times during
the past twenty years and I have invariably an¬
swered it in the negative.
“Heavy timber framing is not a lost art.” If
necessity arose tomorrow in the United States or
Canada, for the services of five thousand compe¬
tent framers they would be forthcoming within a
period of sixty days if inducements were suffi¬
ciently attractive. . Since the introduction of steel
frames into building construction, the use of tim¬
ber frames in roofs, buildings, bridges and trestle
work has greatly fallen off, particularly in or near
large cities, where timber lias become scarce and
costly, but in the w T est, north, and south, timber
structures are often made use of, and will be for
many decades yet. Indeed, even when steel is
made use of timber has to be frequently employed
in special cases; so that a knowledge of framing
is as necessary to the general workman to-day as
it ever was. When I say this, I do not mean that
it is necessary to become an expert framer, but
that a knowledge of the proper way to handle and
-152
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
153
lay out timber, should be possessed by every man
who aspires to be a competent carpenter.
Heavy framing is an art that requires consid¬
erable ability and intelligence on the part of the
operator, inasmuch as it is not one of those
branches of the trade where the “cut and fit”
process can be applied. Each piece of timber,
whether it be a girt, a chord or beam, a post, brace,
sill, girder, strut or stringer, must be dealt with,
and given its proper shape, length and relation¬
ship to the part or parts it is to be connected with,
without its being brought in direct contact with
it until all is ready to be put together and pinned
up solid. A clear head and a good memory, along
with the faculty of exactness, are absolutely neces¬
sary qualifications for the making of a good
framer. He must see to it that all tenons are the
right size to suit the mortises which they are in¬
tended to fill, and that all mortises are clearly
and smoothly finished and not too large or too
small to snugly receive the tenons, and all this
must be done without any “trying and fitting.”
The charm of good framing lies in the fact that
every mortise and tenon must be ‘ ‘ driven home ’ ’
with a heavy wooden mall; but tenons should not
fit so tight as to require more than ordinary driv¬
ing.
The tools required by the heavy timber framer
are not numerous, but are heavy and somewhat
154
TIMBER FRAMING
costly. I give a list of most of the tools em¬
ployed herewith:
An ordinary chopping axe.
A good heavy headed adze.
A heavy 8 or 10 inch blade broad-axe.
A carpenter’s 4 or 5 inch hatchet.
A ten foot pole made of hardwood.
A steel square, ordinary size.
A bridge builder’s square with 3 inch blade.
Two or three good scratch awls.
Chalk lines, spools and chalks.
Several carpenter’s heavy lead pencils.
One or two pairs of “winding sticks” or battons.
One “slick” or slice with 31/2 or 4 inch blade.
A good jack plane and a smoothing plane.
A boring machine with four augers.
Three or four assorted augers for draw-boring
An ordinary sized steel crow-bar.
An adjustable cant-liook, medium size.
A couple of good hickory or ironwood hand¬
spikes.
A half dozen 4 inch maple rollers.
Four good framing chisels, 2 in., 1 y 2 - in., ly 4 in.,
and 1 in.
A two-liand cross-cut saw about 5 feet long.
A good hand-saw, also a good rip-saw.
Two oil stones, and a good water-of-Ayr-stone.
Sometimes a medium weight logging chain will
be found very useful.
An adjustable bevel will come in handy at times.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
155
These, with a few other tools that will suggest
themselves from time to time as the work pro¬
gresses, will be all that will be necessary to frame
the most complicated frame structure.
While I do not intend to give a lengthy descrip¬
tion of these tools or give prosy directions re¬
garding their use, care and management, I deem it
proper to say a few words on the subject: The com¬
mon chopping or woodman axe is so well known
to every American that I need not say much of it
at this juncture. It is one of the most useful tools
the framer possesses, as it can be used for so many
purposes; indeed, in the hands of some workmen
it can be made to take the place of several tools.
It is sharpened from both faces.
The next in order will be the adze, which should
have a good heavy steel faced pole or head. This
should have a well tempered cutting blade not less
than three inches wide, and should have a handle
shaped as shown in Fig. 204. This Is a dangerous
tool for the inexperienced workman to use, and
156
TIMBER FRAMING
differs from the axe, as the cutting edge is at right
angles with the handle. It has been named “The
Devil’s shin hoe,” as it has made many a serious
wound in workmen’s shins. It is ground from one
i
j =
Fig. 205.
face only. At Fig. 205 I show the style of chisel
that should be used in framing. These can be
obtained in any sizes from half inch to three
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
157
inches. They are heavy and strong and with care
will last a lifetime.
The hatchet shown at Fig. 206 is a very handy
tool for the framer, and may be used for many
purposes, more particularly for making pins or
pegs to fit the draw-bores. It is also useful for
splitting off the surplus wood from the shoulders
of the tenons.
Fig. 207.
The mallet shown at Fig. 207 is a common type
and is used for beating mortises or hammering the
chisels. These mallets are made in several forms,
some with square heads like the one shown, or
with round heads, Fig. 2071-0, having flat faces,
and are often protected on their working faces
by leather, and having iron hoops driven on them
to protect .the working faces from splintering or
battering when being used on the chisel.
The boring machine, shown at Fig. 208, is used
for relieving the mortises of their cores and mak¬
ing them easier to “beat” out with the chisel and
158 TIMBER FRAMING
mallet. This machine can be adjusted for angle
boring as well as vertical. A loose auger is also
shown. Generally four augers of various sizes
are sold with each machine.
Hand saws will be found very useful, the cross¬
cut, as shown at Fig. 209, for cutting the shoulders,
and the rip-saw for cutting the tenons, and uses
for both will be found in much other work about
a frame building besides shoulders and tenons.
Fig. 207^.
The long cross-cut saw is an indispensable tool
to the framer (Fig. 210) for cutting off timber,
cutting shoulders and other work. It is scarcely
necessarv to show illustrations of the other tools
required by the framer, as we may have occasion
to refer and illustrate them later on.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
159
Fig. 208.
160
TIMBER FRAMING
Thirty years ago it was the custom in most of
the States where there was standing timber for
the framer to go into the woods, choose the tim¬
ber for his work, fell it, rough hew it, and finally
have it hauled to the location, by oxen or horses,
Fig. 209.
to where the barn, house, or bridge was to be
erected. This practice, I am informed, is still
continued in Maine and several of the Western
States, but owing to- the fact that saw-mills are
so numerous in wooded districts, capable of cut-
Fig. 210.
ting timber to any reasonable length, the prac¬
tice of hewing has fallen almost into disuse; and
because of this fact I deem it inexpedient to show
and describe the various methods of manufac¬
turing square timber from the round.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
161
It is often necessary to mortise and tenon round
logs for rough work, and to enable the young work¬
man to accomplish this I show, at Fig. 211, a sim¬
ple method of finding the lines for this kind of
work. The illustration shows a round stick of
timber, with chalk lines oo and RR struck on two
sides of it. These lines are first laid out on the
pattern x, as shown, from which they are trans¬
ferred to some point on the timber, as nearly the
center of its cross section as possible at each end
of the stick and as plumb from the center as can
be obtained. The pattern x which is formed of
two boards—any reasonable length—nailed to¬
gether exactly at right angles to each other, with
the ends cut off square, must then have a line
drawn on both its faces, as shown at P P. The
pattern is then laid on the timber, the top line
being made to correspond with the lower line on
the pattern. From this lower line, the second
chalk line on the side of the timber should be
struck. The end of the pattern forms a square,
and if the timber is cut off on the lines of the end
of the pattern, that end will be at right angles
with the axis of the timber.
162
TIMBER FRAMING
Mortises and tenons may be laid off from the
chalk lines by measurements as may readilv be
seen. Lines drawn across the mortises by aid of
the pattern wall be at right angles to their sides;
the tenons may be laid off in the same manner,
and by correct measurement made so as to fit into
the mortises snug and tight. If it is desirable to
“draw-bore” this work, it may be done by a proper
use of the pattern by pinking a hole through it
where the draw pin is to pass through the mor¬
tise and tenon. If a square bearing is required
for the shoulders at the tenons, it may be readily
done by squaring across the mortise, using the
pattern for the purpose.
This, perhaps, is all the information on the
subject of round timbers the ordinary workman
will ever require, but should he require more he
should have no trouble in getting through with
his work, as the foregoing contains the whole
principle of working round timber. First, the
board pattern as described, then line up the tim¬
ber with straight chalk lines, and the whole sys¬
tem is opened up, so that any wideawake work¬
man can manage the rest.
In working square timber, it is always necessary
to have all points of junction square and “out of
wind,” or out of “twist” as some workmen call
it. To take timber out of wind is quite a simple
process—when you know how—and to “know
how” is a matter only of a few moments’ thought
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
163
and experience. The tools required to do this
depend very much on the amount of “wind” or
“twist” the timber may have. If a large quantity
has to be taken off, as shown at Fig. 212, it will
require an ordinary chopping axe and a broad axe;
Fig. 212.
the first to lightly score or chip, and the last to
finish the work smoothly. Sometimes a jack plane
is used to finish the timber nicely when good clean
work is required. The winding sticks or ‘ ‘ batts ’ ’
are placed on the timber as shown at Fig. 213,
Fig. 213.
which gives an idea of the amount of wood that
must be removed before the timber will have a
fair plane surface. The manner of using the
“batts” or winding sticks is shown at Fig. 214,
where by sighting across the tops of the sticks the
amount of winding can be easily detected.
The winding “batts,” which are parallel in
width, are placed across the wood (see Fig. 213),
164
TIMBER FRAMING
and has the effect of multiplying the error to the
length of the sticks. For this reason it is as well
to make the sticks 1 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. 8 in. long. To
insure accuracy in long pieces of wood, the wind¬
ing “batts” should be moved to two or three dif¬
ferent positions down the length of the wood and
the straight-edge used lengthwise.
\
Fig. 214.
It is not necessary to use the winding “batts”
on either of the other surfaces of the wood, as the
face edge is made at right angles to the face side,
bringing into use the try-square and straight-edge.
The other two surfaces are planed true to the
gauge lines, which are put on parallel to the first
two surfaces. The writer has two of these wind¬
ing “laths” which he made for himself over fifty
years ago; they were made for bridge work and
are made of black cherry, and are as true to-day
as when they were first made.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
165
In preparing timber for framing, it is not neces¬
sary that the whole timber be made to line, as this
often entails a great deal of extra labor. The
timber may be “spotted” or “plumbed” or
“squared” at the points where girts, braces, studs
or other timbers join the main timber. The object
of this is to make a proper surface for the shoul¬
ders of tenons to sit against. This, however, may
be very much assisted by adopting the following-
rules and making winding “batts” to suit the
work.
f:* ~ '
CM
r*-—
CM
Fig. 215.
The method, in full, may be described as follows:
Referring to the illustrations, Fig. 215, shows what
is called the wind batt. In taking the wind out
of a timber, two wind batts are required. This
wind batt consists of a piece of board y 2 by 4 in.
and about 18 in. long. The edges of the batt must
be made parallel to each other. Then a line is
drawn down the center, leaving 2 inches on each
side of the line, as shown in the sketch. The brad
awl is then stuck through the bottom half for the
purpose of fastening to the end of the timber. The
wind batts are then stuck on the ends of the piece
of timber as shown in Fig. 217 of the sketches,
half the batt projecting above the timber. The
166
TIMBER FRAMING
operator then sights over the upper edges of the
batts and moves either end until the edges coincide.
He then takes the scratch awl and marks across the
bottom edge of the batts at each end of the tim¬
ber, as shown in Fig. 218. This completes one
side. The rest is easy, as in the other side the
Fig. 216.
wind is taken out by means of a steel square, as
indicated in Fig. 217. Place the inside edge of the
tongue of the square even with the line made by
the wind batt, the outside edge of the blade being
even with the smallest place on the outside of the
Fig. 217.
timber. Mark with a scratch awl down inside of
the blade. Move the square up 2 inches on the
timber and mark through to the top of the timber.
The latter is then out of wind and the operator
will proceed to line it, as shown in Fig. 216, which
represents a stick of timber with the wind taken
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
167
out and lined. Stick the scratch awl in the end of
the timber at the point where the plumb lines
cross each other, the awl being through the small
loop in the line. All four sides of the timber may
be lined without moving the scratch awl. In tak¬
ing the wind out of timber in this manner con¬
siderable time is saved, as one man can take it
out of wind and line it without other help.
rig. 218 . g. 219 .
-From another source (Carpentry and Building)
I get the following directions for preparing tim¬
ber for framing from the pen of a practical framer
who seems to know pretty well of what he is talk¬
ing and starts off by saying: “The first step in
the process is to scaffold your timber so that it
will lie straight and as nearly level as possible,
and so that you and your men who follow may
work over it in a comfortable position. That done,
suppose, as in Fig. 220, we have a corner post to
lay out which is 8 % by 8 V 3 by 16 feet, and from
168
TIMBER FRAMING
%
shoulder to shoulder of tenons is 15 feet. I would
select the two best faces that give nearest a
straight corner, taking a corner that is hollow
rather than one that is full. Then I set one square
on across the best face, far enough from the end
for a tenon, and measure 15 feet towards the other
end, making an irregular mark across the face at
this point with a heavy pencil as I did at the other
end. I then set my second square on this mark
and look over the squares. Just here comes in
the nice point in unwinding timber. If at the first
glance over the squares they should be very much
in wind, then adjust the difference at each end by
dividing. But this rule does not always work, for
the wind may all be in the last two or three feet
of the stick—more likely than not at the butt end.
You will soon learn by looking over the faces of
the timber to locate the cause or place of the wind.
You will soon learn also that it requires but a
slight change to adjust the squares so that there
may be little cutting necessary in making the
plumb spot. But to go on: With your adze or
chisel (I mostly used a 3-inch slick) level off
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
169
across the face of the timber as much as you think
will be necessary to bring the lines right in the
end. While at this end of the timber spot the side
face, then go to the other end and unwind with
the spot already completed. After making the
plumb spot on the side face take your scratch awl
and’ point with 2-in. face each way from your
plumb spot, going around the four faces of the
timber. Line through these points and work from
the lines in laying out.
Suppose we have a cap sill to frame, full length,
say 10 by 10 by 46 feet long and with the same
bearings, bays each 14 feet and the floor 18 feet
wide, all as represented by Fig. 221; I start at
one end and measure through, making at the prin¬
cipal points (14 plus 18 plus 14 feet) with irregular
pencil lines, selecting, of course, the-best face for
the outside. Then I test the timber through from
end to end, looking over the squares before start¬
ing to unwind. If the squares line up well at
first glance, then I go to work at one end and un¬
wind through. If not then I try through at the
other points. After deciding how and where to
start, the process is similar to that of the post, and
in like manner wmuld I go about unwinding all the
timbers of a frame.
From what I have just said you will observe
that my rule for spotting timber was, at the shoul¬
ders of posts and at principal bearing of long
timbers. Following this rule you will have true
170
TIMBER FRAMING
points where the most particular framing is to
be done.
Sometimes, however, when I come to the short
posts in the under frame, where several would
be of the same length, including tenons, and a
man at each end with square and pencil, as in Fig.
222 , would unwind them, marking along the square
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
171
across the end of post, allowing 2 in. for face.
Square from this line on the same hand at each
end with 2-inch face. Lining from these points
we have the posts ready for laying out, as shown
in Fig. 223.
Fig. 223.
Some framers think that time is saved by this
method, but I doubt it, for usually there is one
side extra at each tenon to size, and I am inclined
to advise that spotting in the manner first ex¬
plained is the better way.
1
1
10 X 10'
1
•• *./
10 X 10,
tr
Fig. 224. Fig. 225.
The two figures here given explain what I have
just said about the extra sizing. Fig. 224 is the
end of a post framed, where the plumb spot was
made at the shoulder. Fig. 225 that of a post
where the wind was taken out by the last process
described, in which case, unless the timber was
exceptionally well dressed, there was overwood
and sizing as shown.
172
TIMBER FRAMING
In ordinary framing it was not necessary to cut
the plumb spot fully across the face of the tim¬
ber—just far enough for the bearing to steady the
square—2 or 3 inches. If, however, you are re¬
quired to do a very nice job of framing, and are
paid for doing it, then cut your plumb spot fully
across the face of the timber and choose the full
instead of the hollow side for face. Line the over¬
wood on both corners and counter hew. If the
timber requires two faces, as for a post or wall
plate, then turn the new face up, line and counter
hew the other side. That done, mark your points,
and line for laying out.
What do I use for lining! Chalk is good, but
chalk washes off, and in the showery spring time,
the barn builder’s season, I generally used Vene¬
tian red and water in an old tin, the “boss” hold¬
ing the tin and line reel with a crotclied stick over
the line, while one of the “boys” carried the line
to the other end of the timber as it paid out.
Under favorable circumstances, with one wetting,
I was able to line the timber around on all
sides.
There is one point worthy of notice, and in
favor of the method of locating the plumb spot
as given above: It serves as a check against mis¬
takes in measurements. The process of laying
out, as practiced by myself, was to unwind the
timber as I have shown. Then starting at one
end, scribe the extreme point and lay off the
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
173
work there and work back again on the inter¬
mediate work. Coming out right was almost proof
that the work was correct, for, as you will readily
see, the timber had then been measured three
times.”
These are excellent directions and are equally
applicable to sawn as to hewn timbers. The work¬
man will, now, I trust, be fully able to understand
the importance of taking his timber out of wind,
and the proper way to do it.
Fig. 226.
The next thing to be considered are as what are
known as “witness marks.” These marks are in¬
tended to inform the men who beat out the mor¬
tises, saw the tenons and clean up the gains, and
finish up the work generally after it has been set
174
TIMBER FRAMING
out by the boss framer. There are several meth¬
ods of witnessing work by aid of the scratch awl
which I show herewith, in Fig. 226; but, besides
these, the work is sometimes witnessed with a
pencil—blue, black or red; the black being used
for mortises, the blue for tenons, and the red for
gains or squared surfaces.
The end of the mortises and shoulders of tenons
mav be witnesses in the same manner, as shown
in Fig. 226, using the pencil in lieu of scratch awl.
Fig. 227.
In this diagram the letter G represents a gain,
M is a mortise and T is a tenon, the short diagonal
marks w in the upper piece being the witness
marks. The sketch shows four different methods
of witness marking which are employed by most
workmen, while numerous combinations of these
four methods are also often used.
The best of these witness marks are those used
on the timber marked F, though it has the dF
advantage of being cut away when the mortise ifl
beaten or the tenon cut, so that should a blunder
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
175
be made in the length of mortise or shoulder of
tenon, it will be difficult to place the fault on the
right person.
1
pM
a
\
\
\
\
\
Fig. 228.
Another method of witnessing, and a very good
one too, is shown in Fig. 227. T shows the tenon,
M a mortise, A a gain, and H a halving. In this
case it will be almost impossible to get astray if
the workmen following the boss framer will only
make himself acquainted with the system.
In Fig. 228 I show a method of witnessing a
splice, and this, I think, will be readily understood.
Another splice, with the manner of making it, is
shown at Fig. 229, also the points where holes may
be bored to receive bolts when such are to be
bolted together for strength. The direction of
the bolts is also shown. At Fig. 230 I show how
176
TIMBER FRAMING
to make witness mark to cut a shoulder on a brace.
This brace shows two bevels, simply to indicate
that no matter what the bevels may be the marks
show the shoulders. The letter C is the shorter
bevel. The lines A A marked off the sketch, Fig.
231, show how a line or scratch made by mistake
may be marked so that it may be known as a line
not to be used.
Fig. 230.
These witness marks are ample to instruct the
workman in their uses, and though the examples
given do not nearly cover the whole ground where
such marks are required, they show the system
and the keen workman will apply them in their
proper places whenever it is necessary.
Mortises and tenons are usually laid out with the
steel square, but it is not the best or speediest
way, though the square is always at hand and
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
177
ready for use, and without a knowledge of its use
for this purpose the workman will not be fully
equipped for laying out a frame. Following an
authority on the subject of laying out work by the
steel square “the ends of the mortise are first
struck as indicated at A and B, Fig. 232, and
while the square is in the position indicated the
mark C is made for the working side of the mor¬
tise, which is always the narrower side unless the
two are equal. In practice it is best to mark the
cut off at the end of the timber first, or if it does
not need cutting off, place the square over the end
of the stick, and mark back along the blade the
l 1 /!-, 2 or 3 inches required for the shoulder. This
makes sure that there is no projecting corners
to give trouble later on.
If a tenon is being struck the same method is
followed, going entirely around the stick but work¬
ing in both directions from the face corner. The
178
TIMBER FRAMING
ends of the mortise or shoulder of the tenon being
thus treated, the sides are marked by reversing the
square, placing the inside of the blade at E, Fig.
233, fair with the mark C previously made, and
taking the same distance—in this case 2 inches—
on the tongue of the square, as shown at B. Now
by holding the square firmly with the thumb and
fingers of the left hand both sides of the tenon
can be marked, but great care is necessary to pre-
Fig. 233.
vent the slipping of the square. If there is any
wane on the stick it is hard to tell when the mark
D is exaetlv in line with the vertical face of the
timber, and this matter must be determined by
sighting down the side of the stick. It is also
necessary to drop the blade of the square a little
further, as at B, when squaring across a “wany
stick.”
In every heavy timber framing a bridge fram¬
ing steel square could be employed. These have
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
179
a blade three inches wide and a tongue one and
a half inches wide. The blade is used to lay out
mortises and tenons of three-incli dimensions.
There is a slot one inch wide cut down the center
of the blade, the slot is twenty-one inches long
and it may be used on one inside edge to make a
two-inch mortise or tenon; this is done by using
one outside edge and one inside edge. These
squares are made by Sargent & Co., of New York,
and cost from $2.50 to $5.00 each. The squares
are very handy for bridge builders and for fram¬
ing all kinds of heavy timber.
A kind of templet or guide is made use of some¬
times, for laying out work, it is much handier, and
easier to work with than the square, and will aid
in laying out work much more rapidly. These
templets are made in both wood and metal. They
are hinged at the angle as shown in the sketches
herewith, so they may work easily over wany edges
or can be folded together and stowed away in a
tool chest.
180
TIMBER FRAMING
Where there is much framing of a like character
to do, it is always best to make a sheet iron templet,
as the rubbing of the scratch awl against the work¬
ing edges of a wooden brass bound one will wear
away the surface and the tenons and mortises will
not be the correct sizes.
Mr. Hobart, in Carpentry and Building, de¬
scribes these templets—the wooden ones—and
adds a fair description of them and the way to
use them, and I reproduce in brief a portion of
his article on the subject: “The tool may be seen
in two positions on the squared timber at Figs. 234
and 235. The tool is made of w T ell seasoned wood
14 in. thick, three thicknesses being glued up to
form a board 8 inches wide by 24 inches long.
The boards are then mitred together lengthwise,
as shown, and a pair of ornamental brass hinges
put on, these being clearly indicated in the
sketches. Each part of the board is then notched
into four steps of 6 inches each, being made 1 C,
3, 6 and 8 inches respectively. The other side of
the tool is divided into 4, 6 and 8 inch steps, each
6 inches long. If much heavy work is to be laid
out it will pay to make one side 1 inch wider,
thus securing 1 1 3, 6 and 9 inch steps on that
side. The notched edges of the board are finished
with a great deal of exactness, and after cutting
a little scant the edge is bound with a heavy strip
of sheet brass, which is shaped and screwed to
the marking edge. The marking edge, and the
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
181
end as well, is marked off in inches and quarters,
the same as a framing square, and this proves a
great convenience when using the tool.
In order to lay out a mortise, slide the tool
along until the end comes flush with the longest
corner; then mark the end of the mortise, as at
E of Fig. 234. At the same time mark the other
end of the mortise, F, Fig. 234; then slide hack
the marker and strike that line after having first
struck the line E. Next reverse the tool and select
the width of shoulder required—2 inches in this
case—and mark alongside the board on the tim¬
ber. This fixes one side of the mortise or tenon,
and a mark alongside the right width of tool, H,
Fig. 235, finishes that mortise in very quick time.”
Apart from this description, the workman will
find in making use of this tool many places where
it can be employed to advantage. If the whole
tool was constructed of metal, it would not cost
any more than if made of wood, as described in
182
TIMBER FRAMING
the foregoing, and it would be neater, lighter,
much more compact, and would last for all time.
While it is true that this templet is a great help
in rapid framing and while in some cases where
the timber is wany or lacking on the arrises some¬
thing of the kind is necessary. Where the writer
has met with wany timber he has often tacked a
planed board on the side of the timber to be worked
keeping the upper edge even with the top of the
timber, then the square can be used for making
over as the board forms a go'od surface to work
the square from. When the templet is used, the
necessity of the board is done 'away with, as the
vertical portion of it takes the place of the board.
The method of using the square for cutting raft¬
ers, braces, and other angular work, has been
shown and described elsewhere, so I drop the mat¬
ter of the square for the present.
There is one matter in framing that I do not
think has ever been described or properly illus¬
trated, and that is the question of “boxing.” Non¬
framer may not know what the term “boxing”
means; but every “old hand” at the business has,
no doubt, a vivid recollection of the term and its
uses. “Boxing” in framing may be described as
preparing a true real square with the jaws of the
mortise for the shoulders of the tenon to butt
solidly against. To accomplish this often requires
the removal of portions of the timber before a
flat square surface is found, and this may reduce
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
183
the thickness of the timber operated upon. If
we suppose four or five posts on the side of a
building, and these posts are supposed to be 12 x
12 inches in section and in preparing these posts
to receive the tenons it is necessary to remove
over the face of each mortise one-quarter of an
inch or more, and the girts or connecting timbers
have their Shoulders cut to suit the 12-inch posts,
it will be seen that the length of the building at
the line of girts will be less than intended. If
forced into mortises made the proper distance
apart in the sills, the outside posts will not be
plumb and it will be found impossible to make the
plates fit in place, as the mortises on the ends will
be found too far apart, and this would lead to all
sorts of trouble and vexation. In boxing, we sup¬
pose the posts to be, say ll 1 /^ inches instead of
12 inches. This allows half an inch for boxing,
and this necessitates the girt between each set of
posts, to be cut one inch longer between shoulders
than if no boxing was prepared. In cases where
posts are pierced on both faces and boxed, the post
where the tenons enter, if directly opposite, may
have to be reduced to 11 inches and must be ac¬
counted for on that basis. The young framer must
be particular about the boxing and the necessary
reduction of timbers when laying off his lengths
of girts or bracing timbers, if not he will be sure
to get into trouble or botch the job.
184
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 236.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
185
I show, at Fig. 236, how the boxing is done,
and how to lengthen the timber between shoulders
to meet the requirements of the case. G shows
the girt where it is boxed into the post P, and
t-
CO
in. in diameter, but
should never exceed the latter size. Two draw
pins may be used in mortise and tenons when the
tenon is 8 inches or more wide. Less than that
width, one pin will be quite enough. In laying out
draw-bore holes have them two inches from the
side of the mortise, then on the tenons they should
be an eighth or a quarter of an inch less than two
inches from the shoulder, then if they are just two
inches from the boxing or the face of the mortise,
the pins, when driven in, will draw the shoulders
snug up to the bearing. In making draw-bore
holes care must be taken not to make a mistake
and place the hole where, when the pin is driven
home, the joint will be forced open instead of
drawn closer. A little thought when the holes are
laid out will prevent the hole from being a push-
bore instead of a draw-bore.
The braces are framed on a regular 3-foot run;
that is, the brace mortise in the girder is 3 feet
from the shoulder of the girder, and the brace
mortise in the post is 3 feet below the girder mor¬
tise.
In this building the roof is designed to have a
third pitch; that is, the peak of the roof would be
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
191
one-third the width of the building higher than the
top of the plates, provided the rafters were closely
fitted to the plates at their outer surfaces.
In order to give strength to the mortises for
the upper end girders, these girders are framed
into the corner post several inches below the shoul¬
ders of the post, say 4 inches; the thickness of
the plates being 8 inches it will be perceived that
the dotted line, AB, drawn from the outer and
upper corner of one plate to the outer and upper
corner of the other is just 1 ft. higher than the
upper surface of the girder.
The purlin plates should always be placed under
the middle of the rafters, and the purlin posts,
being always framed square with the purlin plates,
the bevel at the foot of these posts will always be
the same as the upper end bevel of the rafters;
also, the bevel at each end of the gable-end girder
will be the same, since the two girders being
parallel, and the purlin post intersecting them, the
length of the gable-end girder will be equal to half
the width of the building, less 18 inches; 6 inches
being allowed for half the thickness of the purlin
posts, and 6 inches more at each end for bringing
it down below the shoulders of the posts.
In order to obtain the proper length of the pur¬
lin posts, examine Fig. 241. Let the point P rep¬
resent the middle point of the rafter, and let the
dotted line PO be drawn square with AB; then
will AC be the f4 of AB, or iy> feet, and PC, half
192
TIMBER FRAMING
the rise of the roof, will be 5 feet, and PO 6 feet.
The purlin post being square with the rafter, and
PO being square with AB, we can assume that PR
would he the rafter of another roof of the same
pitch as this one, provided PO were half its width,
and OR its rise. This demonstration determines
also the place of the purlin post mortise in the
girder; for AC being 7^4 feet, and OR being 4
feet, by adding these together, we find the point
R, the middle of the mortise, to be 11 Yz feet from
the outside of the building; and the length of the
mortise being 7 Vi inches, the distance of the end
of the mortise, next the center of the building, is
11 feet 9% inches from the outside of the building.
The brace of the purlin post must next be
framed, and also the mortise for it, one in the
purlin post and the other in the girder. The
length of the brace and the lower end bevel of it
will be the same as in a regular three feet run;
and the upper end bevel would also be the same,
provided the purlin post were to stand perpendicu¬
lar to the girder; but, being square with the rafter,
it departs further and further from a perpendicu¬
lar, as the rafter approaches nearer and nearer
towards a perpendicular; and the upper end bevel
of the brace varies accordingly, approaching
nearer and nearer to a right angle as the bevels
at the foot of the post, or, what is the same thing,
the upper end bevel of the rafter departs further
and further from a right angle. Hence, the bevel
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
193
at the top of this brace is a compound bevel, found
by adding the lower end bevel of the brace to the
upper end bevel of the rafter.
In framing the mortises for the purlin post
braces, it is to be observed, also, that if the purlin
post was perpendicular to the girder, the mor¬
tises would each of them be 3 feet from the heel
of the post; and the sharper the pitch of the roof,
the greater this distance will be. Hence the true
distance on the girder for the purlin post brace
mortise is found by adding to 3 feet the rise of the
roof in running 3 feet; which, in this pitch of 8
inches to the foot, is two feet more, making 5 feet,
the true distance of the furthest end of the mortise
from the heel of the purlin post.
The place in the purlin post for the mortise for
the upper end of the brace may be found from
the rafter table, by assuming that Rx would be
the rafter of another roof of the same pitch as
this one, if xy were half the width, and yR the
rise. For then, since xy equals 3 feet, we should
have width of building equal 6 feet, rise of rafter,
one-third pitch, gives yR equal 2 feet; and hence
xR would equal 3 feet 7.26 inches, the true dis¬
tance of the upper end of the mortise from the
heel of the purlin post.
Figs. 242 and 243 are designed to illustrate the
manner of finding the upper end bevel of purlin
post braces, to which reference is made from the
preceding examples.
194
TIMBER FRAMING
In Fig. 242, let AB represent the extreme length
of the brace from toe to toe, the bevel at the foot
having been already cut at the proper angle of 45
Fig. 242.
degrees. Draw BC at the top of the brace, at the
same bevel; then set a bevel square to the bevel
of the upper end of the rafter, and add that bevel
to BC by placing the handle of the square upon
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
195
BC and drawing BD in. apart. For masonry they can
be spaced according to the length of the voussoirs
used. A bearing at each edge is sufficient. Fre¬
quently where the voussoirs exceed two feet in
A.
length, lagging is dispensed with altogether, the
222 TIMBER FRAMING
stones being supported by blocks or wedges ar¬
ranged as the work proceeds. This method is
shown in Fig. 277.
Oak is often used for wedges, but maple is a
better wood, being much less likely to split; it is
also naturally smooth and slips well. If oak is
used, its surface should be soaped or black-leaded.
The wood should be dry, and if machine cut, a fine
tooth saw should be used, or if cut with a coarse
saw, the faces should be planed. The thin end
should not be less than % in. thick, and the corners
of both ends “dubbed” off, as shown in Fig. 286,
to prevent splitting.
Wedges should be driven parallel to the abut¬
ments, i. e., across the ribs and have a block nailed
behind them to prevent running back.
Tbe turning piece, Fig. 262, is cut out of a piece
2 in. by 4 in.; it is used for the outside arches of
door and window openings, of slight rise, and half
a brick thick. For thicker walls the rib center,
Fig. 263, is used. This is formed by shaping two
boards, about 1 in. thick, to the curve, keeping
them at a proper distance apart by stretchers, S,
nailed on their lower edges, and covering the
curved edges with lagging pieces, L, about IV; in.
by •% in., at intervals of % in. for ordinary work.
When the rise of a center is small in comparison
to its span, it is inconvenient to describe its curve
with a radius rod, and the method shown in Fig.
264 may be adopted. Take a piece of board of con-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
223
venient size and draw a line across it from edge to
edge, equal in length to the span of the arch re¬
quired; at the center of this line draw a perpen¬
dicular equal in length to the rise, draw a line from
this point, b, to the springing point, a, and cut the
ends off beyond the line; the portion cut off is
shown by dotted lines in the sketch. Two nails arc
driven into the piece from which the segment is to
be cut, at a distance apart equal to the span, as at
a-c, and the templet placed in the position shown
in Fig. 264, with a pencil held at point b; if the
board is now moved around towards a, keeping it
pressed against the nails, one-half the curve will
be described, and on turning over and repeating
the process the other half may be completed.
An alternative method is shown in Fig. 264, suit¬
able for very flat arches. Lay off the rise, and
span, perpendicular to each other, as a, b and c,
upon any convenient surface; draw the cord line
a c, lay the board from which the templet is to be
cut in a suitable position over these lines, and re¬
produce the line a c upon it; also draw the line e d
parallel to a b; next cut the board to this triangu-
224
TIMBER FRAMING
lar shape, as shown by the shaded portion; then
if nails are driven in the board to be cut at points
a and c, and the templet moved around against
them, the curve will be described by a pencil held
at point e, as shown by the dotted line.
When the rise is more than the width of a hoard
will accommodate, a variation of this method may
he used. Into the board or hoards from which the
rib is to he cut three nails are driven, as at a, b, c,
Fig. 265, arranged so that a-c shall equal the span
and b the rise, then place two strips of wood
against the nails as shown, crossing at the crown,
and fix them together; a third piece nailed across
to form a triangle will keep them in position, if
the nail at the apex is withdrawn and a pencil sub¬
stituted ; when the triangle is moved around as be¬
fore described, the curve will be produced. One of
the legs of the triangle should be twice the length
from a to b.
A built-up center is shown in Figs. 266 and 267;
the ribs in this varietv are formed in two thick-
nesses, the laminae being nailed together in short
lengths, the abutting joints of each layer meeting
in the center of the other. These abutment joints
should not be less than 4 in. long, and should ra¬
diate from the center of the curve. The length of
the segments is determined by the amount of the
curve that can be cut out of a 9 in. board. The two
longer layers of the rib at the springing are cut off
at the top edge of the tie-pieces, and form with the
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
225
upper layer, which runs down to its bottom edge,
a rebate, in which the tie rests. The layer running
down is nailed to the tie. The tie-piece may be
from 1 in. by 7 in. to iy 2 in. by 9 in., according to
the span. The braces, of similar scantling, should
radiate from the center, and be shouldered slightly
upon the same side of the tie-piece that the ribs
Fig. 266. Fig. 267.
226
TIMBER FRAMING
run over; their upper ends are nailed on the side
of the layer of the rib, and take a bearing under
the edges of the other. This form of center may be
safely used for spans up to 12 ft., but although
sometimes used for greater, they are not to be
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
227
recommended owing to the numerous joints, and
the possibility of splitting the segments in nail¬
ing.
The framed center, Fig. 268, is better adapted
for spans between 12 ft. and 20 ft. The ribs are
solid, out of 2 in. or 3 in. by 9 in., as the span is
less or more, and if this is not wide enough to get
Fig. 269.
the curve out, in four or five lengths, must he made
up to the required width, with similar pieces
spiked on the hack. The ends near the springing
are shouldered out i/^ in. on each side to sit on the
tie-pieces, which are in pairs; the upper ends have
slot mortises cut in them to receive the tenons on
the braces (see Figs. 269 and 270). The lower
228
TIMBER FRAMING
ends of the braces are shouldered in a manner
similar to the ribs. The ends in the ties are fixed
with coach screws, the upper ends by dogs.
A trussed center of economical construction is
shown in Fig. 271, consisting of a triangulated
frame of quartering, used as a support to the ribs.
The foundation frame may take the form of either
a king or queen post truss, as the span and num¬
ber of braces required may indicate; but what¬
ever the form, as previously mentioned, the
stresses should be directed to the points of sup¬
port, in this case three. '
The joints are formed by notching the ends of
the braces into the ties, and keeping them in posi¬
tion by means of dogs. Xo tenons are used, as
from the construction all the members will be in
compression; short puncheons should be used un¬
der the joints of the ribs, as shown at PP. This
form may be used safely for brick arches up to
25 ft. span, but must be supported in the middle.
When this course is not possible a trussed and
framed center, similar to Fig. 272, may be em¬
ployed. This is a very strong construction, espe-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
229
cially suitable for masonry arclies in which con¬
siderable cross strains, due to the slower manipu¬
lation of the load, have to be met. Here it will
be seen that the haunch loads are directed to the
foot of the king post, and not to the tie; from that
point it is directed by way of the struts D to the
supports at the end of the tie. These same struts,
D, also take the crown load. The king post, tie
piece and struts D are all made solid, the latter
Fig. 273.
passing between the struts E, into which they are
notched slightly, to stiffen them (see detail, Fig.
275). Packing pieces are used at the upper ends
of the struts E, to bring the ribs up to the bearing
(see Fig. 276), the whole fastened together with
spikes or coach screws. The ends of the ribs at
cr-own and springing are sunk in about % in. (see
Fig. 274), the lower ends being spiked through
the back. The lags are 2 in. by 3 in., spaced ac¬
ini
%
m
IMiTTh
i I
^j'lW
I
Jpl
ifj Jil
Fig. 274.
Fig. 275.
Fig. 276.
230
TIMBER FRAMING
t-
tp
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
231
cording to requirements, about two-thirds of the
length of the stone from the bed joint of each
voussoir will be found the best position. The ribs
are spaced at 3 ft. 6 in. apart. The lags in the
example are shown notched into the backs of the
ribs be in.; this method is often adopted when
the center is built in situ, and the length of the
arch is such as to require several ribs. The two
end ribs should have a radius rod fixed on the tie-
piece, to be swept round, the circumference, and
the lags can be brought into the line of curve by
adjusting the depth of notch. When the end pair
are correct, a line sprung through, or a straight
edge applied, will give the depth of the interme¬
diate notching.
A trussed center for a large span is illustrated
by Figs. 277 and 283. Figs. 283 and 284 are de¬
tails of the construction.
Centers of the above description are generally
constructed as follows: a chalk line diagram,
complete, and full size, is laid down on a suit¬
able platform or floor, the timber from which the
segments of the ribs are to be cut are laid in posi¬
tion over the curve alternately, and the joints
marked with a straight edge, radiating from the
center; or, in the case of elliptic or parabolic
arches, drawn normal to the curve at the points
where the joints occur (see n, Fig. 282). When
the joints are cut the segments are laid down and
nailed together, a radius rod is then swept round
232
TIMBER FRAMING
to mark the curve, or in segmental arches the
triangle, Fig. 282, may be used; the pieces are then
separated and cut, again laid down with spikes
driven temporarily around their periphery to
keep them in place; the struts and ties are then
laid over them in position, and the lines for the
shouldering and notching drawn on; each joint
should have a chisel mark made on the pieces to
identify them, and the joints being made, the
whole can be fitted together, nailed up and bolted,
then taken to pieces ready for re-erection in situ.
Fig. 278. Fig. 279.
( lose lagged centers for various purposes are
shown in Figs. 278 and 280 and 284. The surface
of these is required to he finished more accuratelv
than in the ordinary center, because the brick¬
layer sets out the plans of his courses thereon,
and thus obtains the shape of the voussoirs. The
lagging is nailed closely round the ribs, and
brought into the curve afterwards, with tbe plane.
The profile line being obtained either by radius
rod or templet. In the case of Dome or Niche
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
233
centers, a reverse- templet affords the readiest
guide for shaping the surface.
A circle on circle center, when semi-circular in
elevation, may be constructed as shown in Figs.
274 to 278. Two ribs are cut to the plan curve,
and upon each edge of these narrow vertical
laggings, rather closely spaced, and thin enough
to bend easily to the curve, are nailed. The
bottom rib is placed at the springing, the other
about half way between it and the crown, when
this side lagging is fixed, a radius rod shaped
as in Fig. 277, and set out so that the distance
between the pivot A and the middle of the V
notch is equal to the radius of the required arch,
less the thickness of the soffit lagging; is mounted
on a temporary stretcher, C, at the middle of the
springing; this is swept round the lagging on
each side, a pencil being held loosely in the V
notch, thus 'Obtaining the outline of the elevation
234
TIMBER FRAMING
curve. (Of course if the soffit were splayed the
inner radius would be shorter, but struck from the
same level as the outer.) The boards are cut
square through to the lines and the cross lagging
nailed to their ends, as shown in the section.
When the plan curve is flat, such as would occur
in a narrow opening in a large circular wall, the
vertical lagging may be omitted and the center
built as shown in Figs. 278 and 282, plain vertical
ribs being employed, and the lags allowed to over¬
hang sufficiently to form the plan curves. They
require to be rather stouter than usual to ensure
stiffness.
There are two wa} r s in which centering for in¬
tersecting vaults may be constructed: first, when
the vault is not of great span, a “barrel” or con¬
tinuous center is made for the main vault, long
enough to run about two feet beyond each side of
the intersecting vault. The centers of the smaller
vaults are then made with the lagging overhang¬
ing the rib at one end, the two centers are then
placed on a level surface and brought together
in their correct relative positions, and the loose
ends of lagging scribed to fit the contour of the
main center, and then nailed thereto.
This method, however, is unsuitable for vaults
of large span, as the lagging would be liable to
sink at the intersection through the absence of
support. The second method, shown in Figs. 281
and 283, is then adopted; a rectangular frame is
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
235
first constructed equal in length to the proposed
*
center, and in width to the clear span between the
walls; this frame is halved together at the angles,
as shown at E, Fig. 283, and forms a firm base
for fixing the ribs to; a similar frame is made
and fixed underneath for the cross vault, and ribs
of the requisite curvature are set up at the four
ends, also at the intersecting line or groin, being
secured firmly at the base.
Fig. 281.
The groin ribs are made in two thicknesses for
convenience of beveling, the angle of the seating
being a re-entrant one.
The method of producing the bevel is explained
elsewhere. The lagging of the cylindric center
should be fixed first and worked off true with the
236
TIMBER FRAMING
aid of a plane and straiglit-edge; a thin straight
lath should then be bent round over the center of
the groin rib, and a pencil line drawn down its
edge; the ends of the lagging being trimmed off
to it with a chisel held plumb; this will give the
proper intersection for the main lags, and when
these latter are cut to fit their true outline at the
intersection may be obtained by marking on their
ends with a pencil drawn down the surface of the
cylinder. A templet, obtained as described below,
applied at the ends will give the profile at the ex¬
tremities, and each lag can be placed to fit before
nailing on.
To find the space of a groin rib when the shape
of penetrating vault is given: First, by means of
ordinates; divide the semi-circular rib, A, Fig.
283, into a number of parts, as at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; draw
perpendiculars from these to the springing line x,
and produce the lines to cut the plan of the center
of groin rib, in a, b, c, d, x; erect perpendiculars
at these points to the plan line, d-f, and mark off
on them heights to correspond with the similarly
marked heights in the section, Fig. 283; these will
give points in the curve, which may be drawn by
driving in nails at the points and bending a thin
lath round them. The curve may, however, be
drawn quicker by a trammel, taking the height, x-,
for the minor axis, and the length, d-x, for the ma¬
jor axis. -When a properly constructed trammel
is not at hand, its principle may be utilized in the
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
237
following manner: To draw an ellipse without a
trammel—Let A, C, B, Fig. 284, represent a board
upon which it is desired to draw a semi-ellipse,
joint the edge, A, B, straight, draw a line in the
center, square w T itli the edge, as C, produce it
across another piece of board resting against the
first, to D; then mark 'off, on a straight lath from
one end, the semi-major and semi-minor axes; in
other words, the rise and half-span of the arch.
Keeping these two points upon the lines, A, B, and
C, D, arrange the lath in various positions, as
shown by dotted lines in Fig. 284, and pencil lines
made at its end will give points on the curve.
To find the shape of the ribs for the main center,
Fig. 283, from the points a', V, c', d', x', in plan,
draw lines parallel to the edge of the center, in¬
tersecting the seat of the end rib in points a", b",
0", d", x"; along these lines set off heights equal •
to the corresponding ordinates in Fig. 281, and
draw the outline of the rib through them, as at C,
Fig. 284.
238
TIMBER FRAMING
To find joint line and direction for braces in
elliptic centers, see Fig. 284. First find the focal
points, with radius equal to half the span a b.
Describe an arc from center c, cutting the major
axis a b in f f; these are the foci. To find the
joint line or normal from anj r point in the curve as
n (fixed conveniently for length of stuff), draw
straight lines to the foci; bisect the contained
angle, as shown by a line drawn through the point
n and the center of the constructive arc. This
line is a normal or perpendicular to the curve at
the point in question, and indicates the direction
of joint and braces.
Fig. 285.
The method of bevelling a groin rib for the pur¬
pose of obtaining a level seating for the lagging is
shown in Fig. 283. Let c, d, b represent the plan
of one-half of a groin rib similar to H, x, Fig. 281,
and C, d', the elevation, which may also represent
the mould or templet; a, e, f, g is the piece of
board from which the rib is to be cut, on the face
side of the board draw the full line, C, d', by aid
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
239
of the mould, cut the ends square with each other,
as a, e, and d, g, then apply the bevel as found at
d in plan from point d' across the bottom edge,
square a line across the top end at C, and apply
the mould on the other side of the board, as shown
by the dotted line with its lower end at the bevel
line and its upper end to the level line from point
C. If the rib is cut to these two lines, and a simi¬
lar one made the reverse hand and nailed together,
as shown in Fig. 281, its edge will lie in the planes
of the directions of the intersecting vaults.
The methods shown in the following descrip¬
tions and illustrations further affords very con¬
venient means of jointing, for the struts can al¬
ways he made to meet at points such as A or B in
Fig. 289, making possible either a mortise-and-
tenon or a bridle joint, without cutting into the
rib; for taking either of the two positions given,
240
TIMBER FRAMING
the crossing of the sections of the curve provided
the necessary entering or receiving portion of the
joint, leaving onlv one-lialf of the joint to be
worked 'on the strut. In the solid-rib type, the
curve is made up of lengths of solid material,
with the joints between each part of the strut
connections, thereby becoming separate members
to the frame. The curve itself has no resistance
apart from its connection with the struts. The
jointing in this case is more of a permanent na¬
ture.
Fig. 290.
The arrangement of the members of the rib, so
as to give internal support to the curve, depends
on conditions that will be readily noted as the
diagrams are perused. If the span and outline
be such that the rise is not great, the struts may
all be brought directly on to the tie, and concen¬
trated on the intermediate supports, as shown in
Fig. 290. This type should have solid ribs jointed
at the points A, B, C, etc., as shown (for details
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
241
of which see Figs. 290 and 291). If, however, the
rise be great, either a flat member must be bolted
across the face of the rib so as to shorten the
struts effectively, or, better, the type shown in
Fig. 293 can be adopted, which shows the method
of arranging the members more suitably. The
struts are much shorter, and can therefore be
c
lighter. A great resistance to lifting at the crown
is obtained, and if necessary the intermediate
supports can be dispensed with. Further, the
direct supports to the curve may be all normals,
242
TIMBER FRAMING
or their equivalent, for this latter condition is sat¬
isfied if a pair of struts meet at an equal incli¬
nation (Fig. 292). Fig. 293 gives the elevation in
line diagram, and Fig. 294 gives the full details
of the construction, span 30 ft. The rib is here
Fitf. 294
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
243
built up in three one and a half inches stuff. In
both Figs. 289 and 293 the tie is double, of 2x9 in.
material. Fig. 293 fulfills the requirement of a
good center, and therefore this form may with ad¬
vantage be generally adopted and modified in the
internal trussing as the span increases.
Elliptical arches of long spans are somewhat
more difficult to deal with, and I present the fol¬
lowing merely to enable workmen to deal with
centers of this kind, having a span from 30 to 100
feet.
A
X]
f7Tl
A
A
IX
A
/ \
\
/ \
A
a
Fig. 295.
Large centers for civil engineering structures,
such as bridges crossing rivers in several spans,
are scarcely within our scope, these requiring spe¬
cial treatment according to circumstances. But
we may with advantage just note on the general
forms of centers that are adopted for compara¬
tively flat elliptical arches, together with a modi¬
fication for a greater rise. Fig. 295 is the gen¬
eral form. It has many points of support, there-
244
TIMBER FRAMING
fore little tendency to give at the crown. The
whole of the material is of large size, 6 in. by 6 in.
being the minimum, and for the platform whole
Fig. 296.
Fig. 297.
timbers 12 in. by 12 in. receive the vertical posts.
For heavier work and wider spans, the construc¬
tion given in Fig. 298 is well adapted. Details in
\
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 245
246
TIMBER FRAMING
Figs. 296 to 300 show the construction of joints
which applies throughout. This is built in two
tiers, keeping the struts comparatively short, and
effectively distributes pressure to the points of
support. The secondary horizontal member is
large enough to clasp the curved rib at the ends
(see Fig. 301), and the whole of the joints are
housed or tenoned and strapped where necessary,
and as shown in details. Transverse and longitu¬
dinal bracing is freely used in the manner pre-
Fig. 299
Fig. 300
viously described, and by careful arrangement
and sufficient bracing in vertical planes the neces¬
sity for strap connections can be reduced to a
minimum. For heavy arches such as these the
centers are struck by the introduction of lifting
jacks or sand boxes, the latter being especially
suited to the purpose. They are arranged to con¬
tain fine dry sand, with means of escape for the
sand as needed, so that the center may be lowered
easily and gradually, and to any required amount
within the provided limits.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
247
I show at Figs. 302, 303, 304 and 305 four exam¬
ples of centers in situ, carrying the brick or stone
Fig-. 301.
work, as the case may be; Fig. 302 shows a cen¬
ter for a small span. It consists of a trussed
frame, of which A is the tie, B the principal, or,
Fig. 302.
as its outer edge is curved to the contour of the
arch, it is called the felloe, C the post or puncheon,
248
TIMBER FRAMING
and F a strut. The center is carried by the piles
D, on the top of which is a capping piece E, ex¬
tending across the opening; and the wedge blocks
are interposed betwixt it and the tie-beam.
Fig. 303 shows center for a small span for an
elliptical arch.
Fig. 304 shows a center with intermediate sup¬
ports and simple framing, consisting of two
trusses formed on the puncheons over the inter¬
mediate supports as king-posts, and subsidiary
trusses for the haunches, with struts from their
center parallel to the main struts. This is an ex¬
cellent design for a center carrying a segmental
flat arch having a large span.
Fig. 305 shows a system of supporting a large
semi-elliptical center arch rib from the interme¬
diate supports by radiating struts, which, with
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
249
modifications to> suit tlie circumstances of the case,
have been very extensively adopted in many large
works connected with railroads in this country
o
CO
bh
£
and Europe. The struts abut at their upper end
on straining pieces, or apron pieces, as they are
sometimes called, which are bolted to the rib, and
250
TIMBER FRAMING
serve to strengthen it. The ends of the transverse
braces are seen at a a.
1a
o
CO
bi
The examples and details of centers given in the
foregoing are quite sufficient to enable the foreman
to lay-out, and execute any job of building a cen-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
251
ter that may confront him; and at this point we
leave the subject of centers, and take up another
important one, namely, that of timber roof fram¬
ing. While I propose discussing timber roofs and
trusses in general in this department, it is not in¬
tended to deal with roof coverings further than
may be necessary to make the instructions and
suggestions given herewith intelligible and so that
they may be understood by every workman who
can read.
There are a few general rules governing timber
roof framing the workman should always have in
mind when building or designing a roof of any
kind, a few of which I submit; and which I hope
will prove of sufficient importance to be remem¬
bered :
1 . Every construction should be a little strong¬
er than ‘‘strong enough.”
2 . Roofs should neither be too lieaw nor too
slight; both extremes should be rigorously avoid¬
ed.
3. Flat-pitched roofs are not so strong as high¬
er pitched -ones.
4. Suitable pitches of roofs for various cover¬
ings are: Copper, lead, or zinc, 6 degrees; corru¬
gated iron, 8 degrees; tiles and slates, 33 degrees
to 45 degrees.
5. Approximate weight of roofs per square:
The timber framing, 5y 2 cwt.; Countess slates,
6 V 2 cwt.; add for 1 in. pine or hemlock boarding,
252
TIMBER FRAMING
-V 2 cwt.; plain tiles, 14 cwt.; 7 lb. lead, 6 cwt.; 1-32
in. zinc, 1 y 2 cwt.
6. The construction should be able to with¬
stand an additional weight of 30 cwt. per square
for wind pressure.
7. When the carpentry forming the roof of a
building is of great extent, instead of being inju¬
rious to the stability of the walls or points of sup¬
port, it should be so designed that it will strength¬
en and keep them together.
8. Forms of roofs for various spans should
couple, up to 11 ft.; couple close, to 14 ft.; collar,
to 17 ft.; king post, to 30 ft.; queen post, to 46 ft.;
queen and princess, to 75 ft.
9. Eoof trusses should be prepared from
sound, dry timber, white or red pine, free from
large knots, sap, and shakes, all parts to hold sizes
shown in figured dimensions, and all joints to be
stub-tenoned and to fit square to shoulders. Tie-
beam should be cambered y 2 in. in 10 ft., and
straps and bolts be of best wrought-iron. No
spikes should be used in the construction except
for fixing cleats.
10. Tie beams should be supported every 15 ft.
11. Struts should be taken as nearly as possi¬
ble under bearing of purlin.
12. The straining beams in spans of 50 ft. and
upwards require support, and a king bolt or post
should be introduced.
13. To find the thickness of king post trusses,
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
253
divide the span by five and call the quotient inch¬
es. Assume 9 in. and 5 in. as the standard depth
of tie beams and principal rafter respectively for
20 ft. span; add 1 in. to each for every additional
5 ft. of span. King posts and struts to be square.
14. To find the thickness of queen post trusses,
divide the span by eight and call the quotient
inches; if odd parts result, add 1 in. for tiles, and
for slates take off the fraction. Taking the stand¬
ard depth of tie beam and principal for 32 ft. span
to be 11 in. and 6 in. respectively, add 1 in. to each
for every 5 ft. of additional span. The struts and
body of the queens to be made square.
15. Wall plates are used to distribute the
weight of roof timbers, and also to act as ties to
the walls. For this reason tie-beams should be
cogged to the plates, the latter dove-tail-halved
at the angle, and dove-tail-scarfed in longitudinal
joints. Wall plates in roofs should be creosoted
or otherwise protected against rot, and bedded.in
cement knocked up stiff.
16. Purlins should be cogged or notched on to
principal rafters and not framed between them.
When cogged or notched they will carry nearly
twice as much as when framed.
17. The available strength of tie beams is that
of the uncut fibres, and, therefore, mortises should
be shallow, and all notching be avoided.
18. Scarfs in tie beams should be made be¬
tween the points of support, and not directly un-
254
TIMBER FRAMING
der them, as any mortises or bolt-holes at these
points reduce the strength of the beam.
19. Dragon ties should be provided at the
angles of hipped roofs to take the thrust of the
hips and to tie in the ends of wall plates. It is
best that the hip should be deep enough to birds-
mo.uth over the angle brace.
20. "Wind braces, which are diagonal ties in
roofs open at the ends, as in railway stations, to
withstand the overturning or racking pressure of
the wind, may be of timber framed between the
purlins, or iron rods running from the head of one
truss to the foot of the next.
21. Hip rafters, being deeper than the common
rafters, are visible inside when the roof is ceiled,
and should be covered with a casing.
22. Hips should stand perfectly at an angle of
45 degrees with the plates on plan, as by this ar¬
rangement the rafters on either side are equal in
length, inclination, and bevel at the ends, making
the construction both symmetrical and economi¬
cal.
23. "When the span is of such extent that the
end purlin is longer than those of the side bays, a
half truss should be introduced at the center of the
end, with its tie-beam trimmed into the end trans¬
verse truss.
24. All the abutment joints in a framed, truss
should be at right angles with the direction of
thrust, and when this is parallel with the edges of
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
255
the member, the shoulders may be cut square with
the back of such member.
25. To resist the racking movement in roofs,
an effectual plan consists in the employment of
wind ties of iron. These extend usually from
the head of one principal to the foot of the next
principal, but one on the same side of the roof, and
again from the head of this latter principal to the
foot of the first one, so that the tie rods cross one
another in the form of an X. It is difficult to esti¬
mate the stress which will come upon these ties;
but very small sections, say from % in. to % in.,
will generally suffice for the purpose.
26. The amount of horizontal thrust at the
foot of a principal rafter depends partly upon the
weight of the truss and the loads or stresses which
it has to sustain, and partly upon the inclination of
the rafter. The lower the pitch of the roof, the
greater is the proportion of thrust to weight, so
that for roofs flatter than quarter pitch stronger
tie beams will be necessary.
27. In queen post trusses the position of the
queen posts may vary. Generally, however, when
there are no rooms in the roof, they are placed at
one-third of the span from the wall.
28. When rooms are formed in queen post
roofs, the distance between the queens may con¬
veniently be half the span or more, but in such in¬
stances the depth of tie-beam should be increased.
29. The best form of roof truss to be used in
256
TIMBER FRAMING
any situation may be determined by the following
considerations: (1) The parts of the truss be¬
tween the points of support should not be so long
as to have any tendency to bend under the thrust
-—therefore, the lengths of the parts under com¬
pression should not exceed twenty times their
smallest dimensions; (2) The distance apart of
the purlins should not be so great as to necessitate
the use of either purlins or rafters too large for
convenience or economy; (3) The tie-beam
should be supported at such small intervals that it
need not be too large for economy.
30. It has been found by exjoerience that these
objects can be attained by limiting the distance be¬
tween the points of support on the principal rafter
to 8 ft., and upon the tie-beam to 15 ft.
31. To determine the form of roof truss for
any given span, it is, therefore necessary first to
decide the pitch, then roughly to draw the princi¬
pal rafters in position, ascertain their length, di¬
vide them into portions 8 ft. long, and place a
strut under each point of division. By this it will
be seen that a king post truss is adapted for a
roof, with principal rafters 16 ft. long—i. e., those
having a span of 30 ft.
32. A queen post truss would be adapted to a
roof with principals 24 ft. long—i. e., about 45 ft.
span. For greater spans, with longer principals,
compound roofs are required.
33. In the case of a roof with three spans, sub-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
257
ject to the effects of lateral wind pressure, when
supported on side walls with intermediate col¬
umns, where the situation does not permit either
the addition of buttresses or of anchorage in these
side walls, the horizontal reaction of the wind
pressure may be taken by bracing the interme¬
diate columns to a concrete foundation.
34. The shoulders at the foot of king and queen
post trusses should be cut short when framed, to
prevent the tie-beam sagging when the truss has
settled, the usual allowance being y 2 in. for each
10 ft. of span.
35. Scarfing requires great accuracy in execu¬
tion, because if the indents do not bear equally, the
greater part of the strength will be lost; hence it
is improper to use very complicated forms.
36. The simplest form of joint is, as a rule, the
strongest; complicated joints are to be admired
more for the ingenuity and skill of the carpenter
in contriving and fitting than for their strength of
construction.
37. In scarfing, when bolts are used, about four
times the depth of the timber is the usual length
for a scarf.
38. Scarfed tension joints should be fitted with
folding wedges, so as to admit of their being tight¬
ened up. The wedges should be of oak or other
suitable hard wood.
39. Galvanized iron bolts do not act upon oak,
258
TIMBER FRAMING
either in sea or in fresh water, when care has been
taken not to remove the zinc in driving them.
40. In calculating the weight of roof coverings,
about 10 per cent should be added to weight of
tiles for moisture.
41. Valley boards are used sometimes on small
roofs in place of valley rafters. The main roof is
continued through in the usual way, and a 1 in. by
9 in. board is nailed up the rafters on each side at
the intersection of the two roofs to receive the feet
of the jack rafters.
42. To carry ridge boards, the purlins, ridge,
and wall-plates should oversail gable ends 12 in.
or 18 in., and short purlin pieces should be cogged
on the principals every 3 ft. for additional fixings
when the barges are very wide and heavy.
43. Finals are fixed on the end of the ridge
board with stub tenons, drawbore pinned, paint
being applied to the tenon.
44. All openings in a roof should be trimmed;
that is, cross-pieces should be framed between the
two rafters bounding the opening to carry the
ends of the intermediate ones cut away.
45. The trimmer, as the cross bearer is called,
is fixed square with the pitch of the roof, tusk-
tenoned and wedged at the ends, and the stopped
rafters are stub-tenoned into it.
46. When the opening is for a chimney, pro¬
vision must be made for a gutter at the top. Bear¬
ers, 3 in. by 2 in., are nailed to the sides of the
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
259
rafters, level, with their ends abutting against the
chimney stack; a 1 in. gutter board is nailed on
these, and a 9 in. lear board at the side on the raf¬
ters. About 3 in. up the slope a % in. tilting fillet
is fixed, and over this the lead is dressed, the other
side being taken up the back of the chimney for
6 in., and covered with an apron flashing.
47. Other openings, such as those for skylights
and trapdoors, are trimmed in the same way, and
covered with wrought linings or stout frames,
dove-tailed at the angles, called curbs.
48. Sizes of wall plates for 20 ft. span, 4 y 2 in.
by 3 in.; for 30 ft., 6 in. by 4 in.; for 40 ft., 7*4 in*
by 5 in.
49. Ground floor wall plates are best of oak,
and a damp course should be put under them.
50. The wall plates to upper floors can be kept
clear of the walls on 3 in. rough quarried stone
corbling built into the wall and projecting over
41/2 in., and supported by two courses of brick
oversailing, roughly splayed off to the shape of
the plaster cornice which will cover them. The
floor joists are thus kept clear of the wall and can
be strengthened by solid strutting between the
ends.
51. All wall-plates should be bolted down to
the wall, and the bolts should be built into the wall
as shown in Fig. 306, and should be fitted with nut
on top to bind down the plate.
52. Beams or roof trusses should not rest over
260
TIMBER FRAMING
openings. They should be placed with their ends
in pockets in the wall, and resting on stone tem¬
plates.
53. They should frame into girders with stub
tusk tenons and oak joins, or, better, should hang
in iron stirrups.
Fig. 306.
54. Binders should not be more than 6 ft., nor
girders more than 10 ft. apart.
These general rules should be followed as close
ly as possible in the making of heavy timber roofs,
but of course, must be changed or adapted to suit
the many various conditions that are sure to arise.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
261
There are many kinds or forms of roofs, a few
of which I show in the sketches submitted which
are original types. When these are crossed, mixed,
modified or combined in one building or group of
buildings, the results are not only beyond all com¬
putation, but are not unfrequently fearful and
wonderful to behold.
To diminish the excessive height of roofs, their
sharp summit is sometimes suppressed and re¬
placed by a roof of a lower slope. These roofs
have the advantage of giving ample attic space
with a smaller height than would be required by a
V-roof. They are variously known as “curb” or
“gambrel” roofs, and “Mansard” roofs, the lat¬
ter name being usually confined to those roofs in
which the lower slopes form angles of not less
than 60 degrees with the horizontal plane, while
roofs of smaller pitch are known as “curb” or
“gambrel” roofs.
The Mansard roof may be described in several
ways: (See Fig. 307.)
The triangle a d b, represents the profile of a
high-pitched roof, the height being equal to the
base, and the basal angles being therefore 60 de¬
grees each. At the point e, in the middle of the
height c d, draw a line horizontally h e i, parallel
to the base a b, to represent the upper side of the
tie-beam, and make e f equal to the half of e dj
then a h f i b will be the profile of the Mansard
roof.
262
TIMBER FRAMING
Make c e, the height of the lower roof, equal to
half the width a b, and construct the two squares
a d e c, c e g b; also make d h, e f, and g i each
equal to one-tliird of the side of either square;
then will a h f i b,. be the profile required.
Fig. 307.
On the base a b draw the semicircle a d b, and
divide it into four equal parts, a e, e d, d f, f b;
join the points of division, and the resulting semi¬
octagon is the profile required. The slopes of the
upper roof form angles of only 22 t / 4 degrees, and
this roof is therefore considerably less than
“quarter-pitch,” and would be unsuitable for cov¬
ering with slates, tiles, shingles, etc.
Whatever be the height of the Mansard c e, or
b g, or g i, equal to the half of that height, and the
height e f of the false roof equal to the half of e i.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
263
The upper roof, therefore, is exactly “quarter-
pitch. ’ ’
The form of the Mansard roof, it will be seen,
may be infinitely varied, according to the fancy
of the designer, the purposes for which the roof-
space is required, and the nature of the roof-cov¬
ering. In many cases the lower slopes are made
of curved outline, as may be seen later on, or as
shown in No. 6, in the sketches.
It is now in order to give a few examples of a
practical nature, and I will endeavor to do this
without confusing the workman with a network of
figures or mathematical formula: Like floors,
roofs may be divided into three kinds, according
to the arrangement of their timbering, as follows:
1. Single-Rafter Roofs.
2. Double-Rafter Roofs.
3. Triple-Rafter Roofs.
1. Single-Rafter Roofs are such that one roof
covering is supported upon a single system of
rafters not greater than two feet from center to
center apart. It should be used only when the
span is not greater than 26 feet. A number of ex¬
amples of this kind of a roof are shown in Fig.
308. Other similar examples will be shown later
on.
Lean-to roofs are found in a single slope, as
shown at A, the upper end of the rafters being
spiked to a wall-plate or bond timber supported
264
TIMBER FRAMING
on a corbel, and the lower end bird’s-mouthed to
a wall-plate on the lower wall. This roof should
not be used for a span greater than 14 feet, unless
the rafters are braced or otherwise supported
near their centers. When a wall occurs conven¬
iently near the center of the building, the roof
may slope down towards the center, where a gut¬
ter or trough may be placed to carry off the rain
or snow water. A double lean-to roof of this kind
is sometimes called a V-roof, on account of the
shape of its section.
Couple or span roofs are formed as shown at
B, the upper ends of the rafters being abutted
against and spiked to a ridge board, while the low¬
er ends are either bird’s-mouthed over and spiked
to a wall-plate, or crow-footed over the outside of
the plate and left projecting beyond the wall to
form an eave for cornice. This form of roof
should only be used on short spans unless the
walls are thick and firm, or the rafters are tied at
the bottom to keep from spreading, as an outward
thrust is exerted by the feet of the rafters.
Couple close roofs are similar to the previous
one, but have the feet of the rafters tied together
by means of tie-beams fastened to the rafters, as
shown at C Fig. 308. The soundest roof is pro¬
cured by tying the feet of every pair of rafters,
and indeed, this is necessary when a ceiling is to
be attached to the ties; but when a roof is open a
tie is rarely used more frequently than one for
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
265
Suggestions of Dormer "Windows
in Roofs.
The Pent or Shed Roof.
Hip Roof wiih Broken
Rafters.
Ornamented Gable in the
English Style.
Gable with Ornamented Verge-Boards.
Plate No. 1
266
TIMBER FRAMING
Oable Roof with Horizontal Fragment from, an Ancient
Cornice Returns. Castle.
Oable and Shed Roof
Combined.
A Bell Shaped
Turret.
Plofp TCn 2.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
267
every third or fourth pair of rafters. This roof
may be employed for spans up to 30 ft. At C, a
roof is shown over a span of 26 feet, but if larger
9x I't Poorcf.
(cufite (3ofle$oo|!
Cellar
Fig. 308.
roofs are to be constructed in this form the ridge-
hoard should be one inch deeper for every foot ad¬
ditional to the span See Plates 1 and 2, “Types
of Roofs.”
268
TIMBER FRAMING
When the span is unusually great, it is more
economical to suspend the ties to rafters every six
or eight feet. The ties between the bolts are
housed into and spiked to a horizontal timber
which is suspended by the bolts, as shown at D.
When suspension bolts are used the depth of the
ties may be half of that given in the foregoing
rule.
Collar-beam roofs are formed like couple roofs
with a beam or joist spiked or bolted to the rafters
as shown at E. This type of roof is employed
when a greater amount of head room is required
than can be obtained in a couple-close roof, but it
is not a sound roof, as it always exerts a thrust
upon the walls. The collars being used to pre¬
vent the rafters from sagging, are in a state of
compression, and do not tie the rafters together
as they are generally supposed to do.
Double or Purlin roofs are composed of two se¬
ries of timbers, as shown in Fig. 309, in which it
will be seen that the roofs are composed of com¬
mon rafters supported by means of purlins, for
which reason this kind of roof is often called a
purlin roof.
This sort of roof may be used for any span
whatever when the gable walls are not too far
apart, or when the rafters can be supported by
studding from floor or central wall.
The outline of this roof, Fig. 309, shows it
up as a “Mansard roof,” the upper portion being
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
269
practically a “couple-close” roof, the rafters rest¬
ing upon purlins which are tied together by the
ceiling joists, by bolts or heavy spikes. The lower
rafters are practically independent of the upper
portion of the roof, being merely bearers for the
roof covering, and are secured by spiking them to
the upper end of the purlin, and at the lower end
to the wall-plate. The feet of these lower rafters
do not need tying, as their inclination to the verti¬
cal is so small.
A couple of good purlin roofs suitable for many
places, are shown in Figs. 310 and 311.
The one shown at Fig. 310 is known as a queen
post truss, but having queen rods instead of posts.
Two additional braces and one rod have been
added to the members of the truss so as to take up
the half load between the points F and H. Ac¬
cording to the conditions of loading it has been
270
TIMBER FRAMING
formed sufficiently strong to bear all the load it
may ordinarily be called upon to resist.
Taking the roof load first and assuming 40
pounds per square foot, including wind, snow and
weight of roof itself, it is found that a load of
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
271
about 7280 pounds will be concentrated at or near
the points E and C. This load will cause a stress
of about 13,500 pounds compression in each of the
rafters A E and C B; also a compression strain
of 11,300 pounds in the straining beam E C, as
well as a tensile strain of about 11,300 pounds in
the tie beam A B. In computing the strains due
to the floor load, 200 pounds per square foot of
floor area have been taken, including the weight of
the flooring and the weight of the truss itself. The
following table gives the strain on all the members
of the truss due to both loads:
Pounds.
Main rafters A E and C B.. .65,450
Straining beam E C.41,800
Tie beam A B.55,050
Suspension rod D G.16,800
Braces D F or D H.15,700
Rods E F or C H.28,000
These figures are, of course, only approximate,
owing to the assumptions which have been made
and the smallness of the diagram submitted, but
they are of sufficient accuracy to draw the follow¬
ing conclusions: First, that the truss as shown in
Fig. 310, is sufficiently strong to carry with entire
safety the assumed loads here quoted, provided,
however, the points of supports at A and B are
sufficiently strong. From the diagram it appears
as if the tie beam was tenoned into an upright post
at each end and the parts pinned together. Con-
272
TIMBER FRAMING
sidering the heavy load liable to be placed on a
truss of this kind, it would seem doubtful whether
this point is strong enough. In Fig. 311 I pre¬
sent a view of a truss in which an attempt has been
made to improve on Fig. 310, using the same
amount of material. It will be seen that the
depth has been increased somewhat, which insures
greater rigidity, and also gives the rafters less in-
Fig. 312.
clination to the horizontal, thus causing the strain
to become less under the same load. It also af¬
fords better facilities for passing through the
space between the members from one portion of
the floor to the other. Again, the purlins rest di¬
rectly on the trusses, thus doing away with the
long 4x5 inch braces and also the short 7x7 inch
posts. The small 4x4 inch braces shown in Fig.
310, can be dispensed with, as they receive no
strains whatever.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
273
The following diagram, Fig. 312, shows the ele¬
vation of a king-post roof suitable for a span of
35 or 40 feet.
By the rules for calculating the sizes of timbers
the dimensions will be found to be as follows:
A, Tie-beam .13x5 inches.
B, Principal rafters.8^x5 inches.
C, Struts .4x2 y 2 inches.
D, King-post. 71 / 2 x 5 inches.
Fig. 313 is the design for a king-post roof, for
a span of from 40 to 45 feet.
The purlins here are shown framed into the
principals, a mode of construction to be avoided,
unless rendered absolutely necessary by particu¬
lar circumstances.
The scantling, as determined by the rules, is as
follows:
Principal rafters
Tie-beam .
King-post.
Struts .
Purlins .
10x5 inches.
111 / 2 x 6 inches.
. 7%x6 inches.
4x2 1 / 4 inches.
10 x 6 inches.
The principals being 10 feet apart.
Fig. 314 shows a compound roof for a span of
40 feet. It is composed of a curved rib c c, formed
of two thicknesses of 2-inch plank bolted together.
Its ends are let into the tie-beam; and it is also
firmly braced to the tie-beam by the king-post and
274
TIMBER FRAMING
suspending pieces B B, which are each in two
thicknesses, one on each side of the rib and tie-
beam, and by the straps a a. A is the rafter; d,
the gutter-bearer; c and b, the straps of the king¬
post. The second purlins, it will be observed, are
carried by the upper end of the suspending pieces
B B.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
275
Fig. 315 shows a queen-post roof for a span of
60 feet. This truss is designed on the same prin¬
ciple as Fig. 311, that is, with queen-posts B, and
additionally strengthened by suspension post A.
These are strapped up to the tie-beam by wrought-
iron straps, made of % by 3-inch iron, bolted to
the posts. The pitch of the principal rafter is less
somewhat than over Fig. 311.
Fig. 314.
The scantlings are as follows:
Principal rafters .11 x 6 inches
Tie-beam .121/2 x 6 inches
Queen-post B.. 8 x 6 inches
Suspending-post A. 314 x 3y 2 inches
Struts (large) . 414 x 31/2 inches
Struts (small) . 3i/ 2 x 2% inches
Figs. 316 and 317 show the use and application
of wrought iron in those portions acting as ties.
These trusses are suitable for railroad sheds, or
276
TIMBER FRAMING
Lf5
y —I
CO
be
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
277
where it is desirable to have the tie-rods raised
from a level line so as to give greater height in
the center. The sizes of timber for design 316
are as follows:
Principal rafters .
.12
x 8
inches
Struts .
. 8
x 8
inches
Purlins .
.10
x 4
inches
Common rafters ..
. 41/2
x 2
inches
Tie-rod and suspending rod... 1 y 2 in. diameter.
The timbers for design 317 are as follows:
Principals .
,14
x 8
inches
Collar-pieces .
.11
x 3
inches
(One on each side of rafter.)
Purlins .
.16
x 4
inches
Tie-rods and suspending-rod.. 1% in. diameter.
The span of truss, Fig. 316, is 36, and that of
Fig. 317, 45 feet.
Fig. 318 shows a platform roof of 35 feet span.
The tie-beam in this example is scarfed at a and
h, and the center portion of the truss has counter¬
braces, c c. The longitudinal pieces, e e, are se¬
cured to the heads of the queen-posts, and the
pieces d carry the platform rafters A. In this
connection it may be of importance to the better
understanding of the principles of strength en¬
tering into combination roof trusses to give Tred-
gold’s rules for finding the proper dimensions of
the timbers forming king and queen-post trusses,
which are quite simple.
278
TIMBER FRAMING
Rule.—Multiply the square of the length in feet
by the span in feet, and divide the product by the
cube of the thickness in inches; then multiply the
quotient by 0.96 to obtain the depth in inches.
Mr. Tredgold gives also the following rule for
the rafters, as more general and reliable:
Fis. 317.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
279
Multiply the square of the span in feet by the
distance between the principals in feet, and divide
the product by 60 times the rise in feet; the
quotient will be the area of the section of the
rafter in inches.
If the rise is one-fourth of the span, multiply
the span by the distance between the principals,
and divide by 15 for the area of section.
280
TIMBER FRAMING
When the distance between the principals is 10
feet, the area of section is two-tliirds of the span.
To find the dimensions of the tie-beam, when it
has to support a ceiling only:
Rule.—Divide the length of the longest unsup¬
ported part by the cube root of the breadth, and
the quotient multiplied by 1.47 will give depth in
inches.
To find the dimensions of the king-post:
Rule.—Multiply the length of the post in feet
by the span in feet; multiply the product by 0.12,
which will give the area of the section of the post
in inches. Divide this by the breadth for the thick¬
ness, or by the thickness for the breadth.
To find the dimensions of struts:
Rule.—Multiply the square root of the length
supported in feet by the length of the strut in feet,
and the square root of the product multiplied by
0.8 will give the depth, which, multiplied by 0.6,
will give the thickness.
In a queen-post roof. To find the dimensions
of the principal rafters:
Rule.—Multiply the square of the length in feet
by the span in feet, and divide the product by the
cube of the thickness in inches; the quotient multi¬
plied by 0.155 will give the depth.
To find the dimensions of the tie-beam:
Rule.—Divide the length of the longest unsup¬
ported part by the cube root of the breadth, and
the quotient multiplied by 1.47 will give the depth.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
281
To find the dimensions of the queen-posts:
Rule.—Multiply the length in feet of that part
of the tie-beam it supports; the product, multi¬
plied by 0.27, will give the area of the post in
inches; and the breadth and thickness can be
found as in the king-post.
The dimensions of the struts are found as be¬
fore.
To find the dimensions of a straining-beam:
Rule.—Multiply the square root of the span in
feet by the length of the straining-heam in feet,
and extract the square root of the product; multi¬
ply the result by 0.9, which will give the depth in
inches. The beam, to have the greatest strength,
should have its depth to its breadth in the ratio of
10 to 7; therefore, to find the breadth, multiply the
depth by 0.7.
To find the dimensions of purlins:
Rule.—Multiply the cube of the length of the
purlin in feet by the distance the purlins are apart
in feet, and the fourth root of the product will
give the depth in inches, and the depth multiplied
by 0.6 will give the thickness.
To find the dimensions of common rafters, when
they are placed 12 inches apart:
Rule.—Divide the length of bearing in feet by
the cube root of the breadth in inches, and the
quotient multiplied by 0.72 will give the depth in
inches.
It may be well to note some practical memor-
282
TIMBER FRAMING
anda of construction which cannot be too closely
kept in mind in designing roofs.
Beams acting as struts should not be cut into
or mortised on one side, so as to cause lateral
yielding:
Purlins should never be framed into the princi¬
pal rafters, hut should be notched. When notched
they will carry nearly twice as much as when
framed.
Purlins should be in as long pieces as possible.
Horizontal rafters are good in construction, and
cost less than purlins and common rafters.
At Fig. 319 I show one of the principals of the
roof of a church. The following are the dimen¬
sions of the timbers:
There are five principal trusses, placed 14 feet
apart.
A, tie-beam, in two thicknesses, 14 x 10 inches.
Principal rafters, 13 inches deep at bottom, HV 2
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
s83
inches at top and 104 inches thick. The rafters
bear on oak abutment pieces 11 x 74 inches, bolted
between the ties and to each other.
D, collar-beam, in two thicknesses, one on each
side of the rafter, and notched and bolted, 12 x
51/2 inches each.
E, purlins. The two lower, 13 x 64- inches; the
upper, 11 4 x 81/2 inches; notched on the rafters
and bolted.
F, common rafters, 514 x 24 inches, and 13
inches apart.
The discharging posts between the bracket
pieces and the stone corbel are of oak, 6 inches
square.
The dimensions of the ironwork are as follows:
King-rod, 1% in* square, with a cast-iron key
piece at top.
Queen-rods, 1 4 in. square, having solid heads at
rafters and secured at foot by being passed
through solid oak pieces k, placed between
flitches of the tie-beam and securely bolted,
and there fastened with cast-iron washers and
nuts.
Four bolts at abutment end of ties... .74 in. sq.
Two bolts at each oak piece, for sus¬
pending rods . % in- sq.
Two bolts at each end of collar-beam.. % in. sq.
Purlin bolts . % in. sq.
The following example, Fig. 320, is taken from
Bell’s Carpentry, and shows a strong roof, one
284
TIMBER FRAMING
that will suit admirably for a factory or machine-
shop where there is likely to be jars or shakes
caused by the machines in motion, or the rolling in
of heavy freight. This roof may have a span of
fifty feet, or even more if necessary. The princi¬
pal rafter is set back a foot from the end of the
tie-beam to give room for the wall-plate; the rise
of the roof is 5 inches to the foot. In framing
roofs of this kind the supporting rods should be
furnished before commencing the frame; for then
the length of the short principal rafters and that
of the straining beam can be regulated or propor¬
tioned according to the length of the rods. It is
best, however, for the middle rod to be twice the
length of the short ones, reckoning from the upper
surface of the beam to the upper surface of the
principal rafters, and allowing one foot more to
each rod for the thickness of the beam, and the nut
and washer. For example, the middle rod is 11
feet long and the short ones 6 feet each; which,
after allowing 1 foot, as above mentioned, makes
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
285
the length of the long one, above the work side
of the beam, twice that of the short ones.
The length of the rod above the beam is the rise
of the rafter, and the distance from the center of
the rod to the foot of the rafter is the run of the
rafter; the length of the rafter can, therefore, be
found by the usual way.
To find the length of the straining beam, add
the run of the short principal rafter to the lower
end bevel of the long one; substract this run from
the run of the long principal, and the difference
will be half the length of the straining beam.
The bolsters under the ends of the tie-beams
are of the same thickness as that, and about 5 feet
long.
Figs. 321 and 322 exhibit designs of roofs in an
improved style, particularly adapted to those of
a great span, as they may be safely extended to
a very considerable width, with less increase of
weight, and less proportionate expense, than any
of the older styles. The principle on which they
286
TIMBER FRAMING
are constructed is essentially the same as that of
the Howe Bridge. The braces are square at the
ends, the hardwood blocks between them being
beveled and placed as shown in the diagrams.
Each truss of this frame supports a purlin post
and plate, as represented.
These roofs are easily made nearly flat, and
thereby adapted to metallic covering, by carrying
the walls above the tie beams to any desired height,
without altering the pitch of the principal rafters,
u
- /A
7/
//
/ /
//
\\
w - ' •
Mft.
Fig. 322.
which ought to have a rise of at least 4 inches to
the foot, to give sufficient brace to the upper chord
or straining beam.
Fig. 321 is represented with counter-braces;
and Fig. 322 without them. The counter-braces
do not add anything to the mere support of the
roof, and are entirely unnecessary in frames of
churches, or other public buildings, where there
is no jar; but they may very properly be used in
mill frames, or other buildings designed for heavy
machinerv.
%/
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
287
The illustrations do not show the whole length
of the roof, hut enough of the construction is
shown to enable the workman to design the whole
truss.
Figs. 323, 324 and 325 exhibit three steep or
gothic roofs suitable for small churches, chapels
or similar buildings having from 40 to 45 feet
span. Fig. 323 is built entirely of wood, and Fig.
324 is of wood strengthened with iron straps and
bolts. Fig. 325 contains less wood than either of
the two preceding examples, but is supported by
iron rods and is decidedly the stronger roof of
the three. Fig. 323 makes a neat, cheap and very
simple plan, and is sufficiently strong enough for
efficient service on any ordinary building having a
span of not more than 35 or 45 feet.
288
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 325.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
289
Fig. 326, which shows an arched ceiling, may be
formed of 2-inoh planks from 6 to 10 inches wide,
which should be planed to a regular thickness and
then wrought to the proper curve on the edges as
shown. The forms thus made are laid one over
the other, breaking all joints, and may be in two
or more thicknesses, and then spiked or bolted
together as may be desired. Intermediate forms
Fig. 326.
of lighter and rougher material must be made to
be placed between the finished arches to carry
lath and plaster, and should be spaced so that
their centers would be 16 inches apart. In Fig.
327 the arch should be formed from planks 3
inches thick, and 12 inches wide and in three
courses; have all joints broken or spliced and
then well spiked or bolted together and may be
fastened to the roof braces as shown. Inter-
290
TIMBER FRAMING
mediate arches or ribs will be required to carry
lath and plaster, same as in Fig. 326. Either of
these roofs will answer quite well for a span from
65 to 70 feet between the supporting column.
I
Fig. 327.
Fig. 328 shows a cheaply made roof, and one
that is suitable for small spans. This is some¬
times called a scissor roof, because of the two main
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
291
Figr. 329.
292
TIMBER FRAMING
braces which tie the feet, collar beam and rafters
together, cross in the center.
A different roof, and a very strong one, if the
workmanship is good, is shown at Fig. 329. In
this A A represents the wall plates, which are 4
by 8 inches. B B is the bottom cord of truss, 6 by
8 inches in section. C C are truss rafters, also 6
by 8 inches in section. I) is the top cord of truss
of the same dimensions. E E shows the position
of the second plates, which are 6 by 6 in. in size
and are notched on to the truss rafters. F F are
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
293
braces framed at the top into C C. G G G are
iron rods used in strengthening the truss. Each
truss rafter is bolted at the foot to the cord. The
trusses should be placed about 10 feet apart. The
roof rafters should be about 22 inches between
centers.
I show a very good truss in Fig. 330. This is
not a costly roof, but is very strong if well made.
D shows the king-post, A the principal, C the
cross-beam, B the brace and R a supporting post.
Another king-post truss is shown at Fig. 331.
This truss is quite easy to make and easy to
understand. A is the principal, D the king-post
and C the tie beam. This is suitable for a span
of from 30 to 35 feet.
294
TIMBER FRAMING
CO
CO
ijj
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
295
Fig. 332 shows a truss that may safely be used
where the span does not exceed 50 or 55 feet.
The truss shown at Fig. 333 is quite suitable for
a light structure of about 30 feet span. The pur¬
lin posts are dovetailed into the beam and keyed.
296
TIMBER FRAMING
This makes it a very solid and stiff roof, and one
that may be depended upon to do good service.
Fig. 334 shows a little more than half of a com¬
posite roof. The rafters and struts may be made
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
297
of pitchpine, and tlie king-bolt and ties of iron.
The roof is to carry ordinary slating, and the
trusses will be spaced 10 feet apart. No holes are
Fig:. 335.
bored in struts or rafters; and all the ironwork
is such as can be forged from the bar and fitted
by a country blacksmith. The foot rests on a
stone template.
298
TIMBER FRAMING
The hammer-beam truss is a type of open tim¬
ber roof, and it is shown in Fig. 335, the letters
in which have the following references: P B, prin¬
cipal rafters; K P, king-post; C, collar; S S,
struts; H B, hammer beam; U B, upper bracket
or compass piece; L B, lower bracket; S T, stud.
A hammer beam truss exerts considerable thrust,
and, therefore, 'substantial walls and also but¬
tresses must be provided. A thickness of 18 inches
is little enough for sound work with a span of 33
feet, but possibly the walls may be somewhat
lightened by setting the window openings in 14-in.
panels and adding buttresses outside the piers.
Fig. 336 shows the finished hammer beam roof.
It may be used in public buildings or for small
churches or chapels, the trusses being placed 10 or
12 feet apart. AAA show the finishing on the
timbers and B B the drop ornament. The two
details, A and B, show the sections on a large
scale.
The example shown at Fig. 337 is an illustra¬
tion of the hammer beam roof over Westminster
Hall, London, and is said to be the finest of its
kind in the world.
Westminster Hall is sixty-eight feet wide be¬
tween the walls, and two-liundred and thirty-eight
feet long. It is forty-two feet high to the top of
the walls, and ninety feet to the ridge of the roof.
It is divided into twelve bays, which will accord¬
ingly average nineteen feet ten inches each. Con-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
299
Fig. 336.
300
TIMBER FRAMING
sequently each truss lias to span sixty-eight feet,
and to carry, in addition to its own w T eight, the
weight of slates, timbers, etc., necessary to roof
Fig-. 337.
in 2,684 feet of floor. The pitch or angle which
the slope of the roof makes with the horizon is
52 degrees. The material employed was at one
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
301
time believed to be chestnut, but is really Eng¬
lish oak. The appearance of the two woods is so
much alike that some uncertainty may -well be •
pardoned. The date of the roof is A. D. 1397, so
that it is now over five hundred vears old. The
. «/
timber is in good preservation and of large scant¬
ling; that is to say, large sectional area. The
workmanship throughout is of great beauty and
accuracy, and no extensive repair, so far as can
be seen, has ever been found necessary. The
principal rafter of each truss is of considerable
strength. The collar is placed just half way up
the rafter. The hammer beams receive the foot
of the rafters at their extremity, and each pro¬
jects rather more than a quarter of the span from
the wall, and lias its ends beautifully carved with
the figure of an angle carrying a crown. A strong
post is carried up from the end of the hammer
beam to the point where the collar and the prin¬
cipal rafters join. A timber, which may be called
a wall-post, rises from a corbel far down the wall,
and supports the under side of the hammer beam
at the point where it leaves the wall, and a second
post vertically above this supports the principal
rafter. There is a strong and richly molded rib
which acts as a bracket or strut, springing from
the corbel just referred to, and framed into the
hammer beam, near its free end. A second simi¬
lar rib, rising from the hammer beam, supports
the middle of the collar. All these pieces, except
302
TIMBER FRAMING
the principal rafter, are knit together by a mag¬
nificent arched rib springing from the corbel from
which the lowest carved rib starts, and framed to
the hammer beam, the post on the back of that
beam, the collar, and both the curved ribs. Above
the collar a second collar is introduced, and a post
connecting the two is added, while at the middle
of the truss, a central post, something like a short
king-post occurs. Between all these timbers there
is a kind of a filling-in of mullions or small posts,
the space between having ornaments at the heads.
These, no doubt, perform quite as much the im¬
portant structural duty of connecting every mem¬
ber of the great framework together, as they do
the artistic duty of filling up the great outline
with subordinate features which give scale to it,
enable its vastness to be appreciated, and bring
out the variety of its lines by their contrast with
the uniformity of the filling-in.
The usual longitudinal purlins, running from
truss to truss, are employed here, and furnish sup¬
port to the roof rafters. The purlins are them¬
selves supported lengthways from the great
trusses by braces. The middle purlin is supported
by a beautiful arched rib springing from the post
on the hammer beam. The upper purlin has a
curved brace springing from the principal rafter.
The lower purlin has a curved brace springing
from the back of the great curved rib. Below this
purlin occur the openings of the roof covering,
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
303
which correspond with the great dormer windows,
from which the hail receives a considerable por¬
tion of its light, hut which are said not to have
been part of the original design.
The fineness of the workmanship shows that
every ornamental part is equally well wrought,
and is designed with the greatest skill, and the
most honest work possible was expended on its
construction.
304
TIMBER FRAMING
A liammer beam queen-post truss is sliown at
Fig. 338. This roof is quite effective, both as to
design and construction and would answer admir-
Fig. 339.
ably for any building not more than 45 feet span.
A cheaply formed roof, and one well suited for
country churches, is shown at Fig. 339; where the
finish also for the Apse of the church is shown.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
305
For small cliurclies in the country, having a seat¬
ing capacity of from 150 to 400, this kind of a
roof and finish is well adapted. While it shows
a hammer beam roof, it is simply neither more
nor less than a scissor constructed roof.
Fig. 340.
The examples given, I take it, are quite sufficient
to enable any smart workman to design and con¬
struct almost anv kind of an ordinary roof of the
class shown, so I leave the subject of hammer
beam roofs, and, as promised in earlier pages, to
show and explain some forms of Mansard, curb
or gambrel roofs.
The roof shown in Fig. 340 is a true Mansard,
and one of the best designed roofs of the kind.
It is suitable for a span of 35 or 40 feet.
306
TIMBER FRAMING
The three sketches, A, B, C, shown at 341, give
some idea as to the rule governing the designing
of Mansard roofs. It will be seen that in each
case a semi-circle, drawn from the middle of the
base line touches the five main points of the truss.
There are cases, however, where the rule cannot
always be applied. A noted authority on timber-
work objects to this style of roof as being ungrace¬
ful in form and causing loss of room as compared
with the original roofs of high pitch; and fur¬
ther, on account of the difficulty of freeing the
gutters from snow. It is also dangerous on ac¬
count of its inflammabilitv.
ft/
Fig. 342 shows a Mansard roof, having a para¬
pet wall. This roof is suitable for a span of 30
feet, and owing to the setback from the coping on
the parapet wall, has a good appearance.
For a span of from 16 to 20 feet, the roof shown
at Fig. 343 would answer very well and prove
quite economical, both as to material and labor.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
307
A self-supporting curb roof is shown at Fig.
344, which is intended for a long span extending
50 feet or more. This shows how a flat curb roof
may be constructed. For a less span, a king-post
may be used and the two queen-posts left out.
Braces could run from the foot of the king-post
to the break in the principals at B and shaped
with iron as shown, As roller skating rinks are
308
TIMBER FRAMING
again coming in use, this truss might in some
cases be used for covering same. However, I now
leave Mansard roofs, and will give an example or
two of roofs suitable for skating rinks or for
similar purposes.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
309
The roof shown at Fig. 345 is one that has been
employed over a rink having a floor space of 60 x
150 feet, and dressing rooms and galleries on the
sides. The trusses are placed 14 feet apart. The
purlins are 2x6, and are set two feet apart. The
rafters over the galleries are 2x4 inches, set 2
feet apart, and at the upper ends are spiked into
the lower purlin which lies at the foot of the
trusses. The tie-beam is spliced in the middle by
bolting a 2 x 8 timber on each side. The braces
Pig. 344.
at the foot of the truss are spiked on both sides.
The roof is sheeted with %-inch pine boards,
nailed on to the purlins parallel with the rafters
and covered with No. 26 iron roofing. The dimen¬
sions of the timbers are marked on the sketch.
A roof more pretentious is shown at Fig. 346,
which has been in use for some time. It is a verv
economical structure and not difficult to construct:
The building is 80 x 172 feet, outside measure¬
ments, affording a skating surface of 64 x 154 feet.
310
TIMBER FRAMING
The sills are of solid timber, 8x8 inches, Norway
pine. The foundation consists of stone piers 14 x
14 inches, 24 inches deep, and 18 inches in the
ground. These are in eight rows, extending the
Fig. 346.
entire length of the building, 6 feet apart. The
piers under the arches are 24 x 24 inches in size,
and are 36 inches deep. The joists of the skating
floor are 2 x 10 inches in size, placed 16 inches
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
311
between centers. They are 14 feet long, and
lapped together and thoroughly spiked. The
cords running from arch to arch on each side of
the building the entire length to support the roof
are of 4 x 10 timber properly gained into the
principal rafters. From each arch to the outside
studding a 2 x 8 inch tie is spiked. The building
is covered with drop siding, from 6 inch C strips.
The roof projects 6 inches, and is finished with a
plain barge board and facia. The skating sur¬
face is covered with an under floor of common pine
boards, surfaced and laid diagonally. These are
nailed to the joists and are covered with felt. The
skating floor is of dry, matched, clear maple floor¬
ing, y 8 inch thick and 2y> inches wide, blind-nailed
on bearings and smooth-planed and sand-papered
after laying. The maple floor was laid with
mitered joints at the corners, and with a rectangu¬
lar space 14 feet wide in the center. The floors in
the galleries and of the platforms are of common
pine matched. The roof is hipped back from the
end walls, which are 26 feet 9 inches high to the
first arch. The entire roof is covered with cement
roofing. The building has nine arches, located as
shown on plans. These are 3 3y 2 feet high and
measure in section 10 x 15 inches. The arches are
built of 1 x 10 inch boards, planed and jointed,
and fastened together with lOd. and 20d. nails.
The feet of the arches are gained 2 inches into
312
TIMBER FRAMING
the cross-sills. The opposite cross-sills are con¬
nected together by 2 x 10 tie-joists.
A lattice truss may often be used over short
spans, or even for greater spans if the timbers
and lattice strips are made in proportion. The
truss shown at Fig. 317 will do nicely for a 27 feet
span. The lattice trusses may have a rise of 3 feet
and radius of 36 feet and be placed 7 feet apart.
The top and bottom members may be made up by
two separate thicknesses of 7-in. by l^-in. break¬
ing joint. The lattice bars may be about 2y 2 in.,
1in. and 3 feet apart, radiating as shown. The
purlins should be 3 in. by 2 in. at 3 feet centers,
and covered with %-in. boarding and tarred felt.
Cross bracing 4i/ 2 in. by % in. between trusses as
shown. The following is the rule for obtaining
the radius of roof principals of the wood lattice
pattern. If the rise be made one-tenth of the span,
the radius will be thirteen-tenths of the span.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
313
Thus, 85-ft. span equals 8-ft. 6-in. rise and 110-
ft. 6-in. radius, but this would be a large roof for
such a system. The lattices may be arranged so
that center lines through the top and bottom
apices are radial to the external curve, as shown
in Fig. 340, or the lattices themselves may be
drawn towards two points equal to span apart
and half span below tie-beam, as shown in Fig.
349. The former has the better appearance, but the
Figr- 349.
latter has more crossings where the lattices can
be secured to each other to help in stiffening them.
Galvanized corrugated iron forms a good cover¬
ing for these roofs.
Sometimes this kind of a truss is used in bridge
building, but since steel has become such a factor
in structural work, the lattice bridge or roof is
very seldom employed.
314
TIMBER FRAMING
A ooden spires, turrets and towers of various
kinds are still erected in many parts of the coun¬
try, and a book of this kind would scarcely be
complete if these framings were not mentioned:
Fig. 350 shows the construction of a spire 85 feet
high above the tie-beam, or cross-timber of the
roof. This is framed square as far as the top of
the second section, above which it is octagonal. It
will be found most convenient to frame and raise
the square portion first; then to frame the octag¬
onal portion, or spire proper, before raising it; in
the first place letting the feet of the 8 hip rafters
of the spire, each of which is 48 feet long, rest
upon the tie-beam and joists of the main building.
The top of the spire can, in that situation, be
conveniently finished and painted, after which it
may be raised half way to its place, when the
lower portion can be finished as far down as the
top of the third section. The spire should then
be raised and bolted to its place, by bolts at the
top of the second section at AB, and also at the
feet of the hip rafters at CD. The third section
can then be built around the base of the spire
proper; or the spire can be finished, as such, to
the top of the second sections, dispensing with the
third, just as the taste or ability of the parties
shall determine.
No. 2 presents a horizontal view of the top of
the first section.
Fig. 350.
316
TIMBER FRAMING
No. 3 is a horizontal view of the top of the sec¬
ond section, after the spire is bolted to its place.
The lateral braces in the spire are halved
together at their intersection with each other, and
beveled and spiked to the hip rafters at the ends.
These braces may be dispensed with on a low
spire.
A conical finish can be given to the spire above
the sections, by making the outside edges of the
cross-timbers circular.
The bevels of the hip rafters are obtained in the
usual manner for octagonal roofs, as described in
other pages.
In most cases the side of an octagon is given
as the basis of calculation in finding the width
and other dimensions; but in spires like this,
where the lower portion is square, we are required
to find the side from a erven width. The second
section in this steeple, within which the octagonal
spire is to be bolted, is supposed to be 12 feet
square outside; and the posts being 8 inches
square, the width of the octagon at the top of this
section, as represented in No. 3, is 10 feet 8 inches,
and its side is 4 feet 5.02 inches.
The side of any other octagon may be found
from this by proportion, since all regular octa¬
gons are similar figures, and their sides are to
each other as their widths, and conversely their
widths are to each other as their sides.
Another example of high spire is shown at Fig.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
317
351, in a completed state. This is taken from
“Architecture and Building,” published by Wm.
Cumstock, New York, and is a good example of a
tall slim spire.
This spire is 111 feet 6 inches high above the
plate, and the latter is 69 feet above the sidewalk.
The total height from sidewalk to top of finial is
190 feet. The tower is of stone, 19 feet square,
with buttresses as shown. The spire is a true
octagon in section, and each of the eight sides is
braced in the same way, with the exception of the
lower panel, in which the bracing is omitted on
four sides back of the dormers. Besides the
bracing shown in Fig. 352 the spire was braced
across horizontally at each purlin to prevent dis¬
tortion in the octagon. At the top the eight hips
are cut against a ten-inch octagon pole and bolted
to it in pairs. This pole is 32 feet long and is se¬
cured at the bottom by bolting to 4 x 6 cross¬
pieces, which are securely spiked to the hips. In
the center of this pole is a l^-inch iron rod,
which forms the center of the wrought iron finial.
The lower end of each hip is secured to the
masonry by ITA-inch bolts, 6 feet long. The plate
extends the full length of each side of the tower
and is bolted together and to the walls at the
corners. A short piece of 6 x 6 timber is placed
on top of the plate, across the corners, to receive
the rafters on the corner sides of the octagon.
The braces and purlins are set in 4 inches from
318
TIMBER FRAMING
*
^ <.%=?
C ->
--v -i
P|
n
■
fe
Fig. 351
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
319
the outer face of the hips to allow for placing 2 x
4 jack rafters outside of them. These rafters are
not shown in the figure; they were placed up and
down, 16 inches on centers, and spiked to the pur¬
lins and braces.
As may be seen from Fig. 351, the top of the
tower is rather light for supporting such a high
framework, and is moreover weakened by large
openings in each side. It was, therefore, deter¬
mined to transfer the thrust due to the wind pres¬
sure on the spire to the corner of the tower at a
point just below the sill of the large openings.
The manner in which this was done is shown by
Fig. 353, which is a diagonal section through top
of tower. The purlins C, C, Fig. 351, were made
6 x 10 inches, set on edge and securely bolted to
the hips. From the center of these purlins on
each of the four corner sides 6 x 10-inch posts
were carried down into the tower, as shown in
Fig. 353. These posts were secured at the bottom
to 10 x 10-inch timbers, which were placed across
the tower diagonally and solidly built into the
corners. The bracing shown was used merely to
prevent the posts from bucking. Only one pair of
posts is shown in the figure. The effect of these
posts is to transmit the entire wind pressure on
the leeward side of the tower from the purlins C,
C to the corners of the tower at the bottom of the
posts. The tension on the windward side is re¬
sisted by the hip rafters and the bolts by which
320
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 352.
Fig. 353.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
321
Fig. 354.
Platt of base/ ofSpire/, ajxci part of Hoof
322
TIMBER FRAMING
Flevalvon of Framing of Tower of Vie Town■ hall.
Milford,. Mass:
Fig. 35SL
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
323
they are anchored to the wall. This spire has
stood for five years, and no cracks have as yet ap¬
peared in the tower, although the lf,4-inch rod in
the wrought iron finial was slightly bent during a
severe gale.
The elevation and plans of the framework of a
French spire are shown at Fig. 354, the whole is
so plain that a further description of it is unneces¬
sary. This is a fine specimen of French timber
work and is worthy of study.
The tower shown at Fig. 355 is an old example
of New England timber work—the plans are
shown at No. 2 and No. 3. The illustration shows
clearly enough the construction as to render de¬
scription unnecessary.
Fig. 356 shows the elevation of a round tower,
and Fig. 357 the plan and framework of same.
As this example is somewhat different to the fore¬
going ones, some explanations are required to
make the drawings clear and understandable.
Referring to Fig. 357, let it be supposed that 1,
2, 3, 4, etc., represent the plan of the tower and
M P its rise. Strike the plan full size or to a
scale as may be most convenient.
For laying out the plan or line of the plate,
draw lines for the rafters, as 15, 26, 37 and 48.
Directly above the plan draw the elevation, be¬
ginning with a straight line, as Iv 0, to represent
the plate, and make it the same length as 37 of
the plan. Raise the center line M P the height of
324
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 356.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 357,
5
326
TIMBER FRAMING
the tower and join 0 P and K P, which will be
the lengths for all the rafters. To obtain the
horizontal pieces A, B, C, D, etc., to which the
sheeting is nailed in the manner represented in
Figs. 1 and 2, proceed as follows: Divide the
height into as many parts as desired—in this case
six, which requires five horizontal pieces between
each pair of rafters. The exact length and cut
will he given by striking out the sweeps shown
on the plan. A better idea of the manner in
which the roof Is constructed will be gained from
inspection of Fig. 356, which shows each stud,
plate, rafter and sweep in proper position, also
the covering boards nailed on half way round.
To obtain the exact shape, length and bevel for
the covering boards the following method is em¬
ployed : Take P of Fig. 357 as a center, with K
as a radius, and describe the arc K E. The dis¬
tance from Iv to R represents one-lialf of the cir¬
cle or plan of the tower. The distance from Iv to
R may be divided into as many parts as desired..
In this case it is divided into fifteen parts, thus
giving 15 tapering boards, which cover one-half
the tower. Lines drawn from P to the arc K R
are the inside lines of the joints. To obtain the
bevel of the jointed edges of the boards set a
bevel at V, as shown in Fig. 356. In the plan
shown the rafters are cut so as to fit against a
block, X, shaped to suit the plan of the roof. This
manner of butting the rafters against the block X
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 358.
saves the time and labor of cutting the side bevels
on the rafters which would be necessarv if the
block was not employed.
A turret roof is shown at Fig. 358, and explana-
328
TIMBER FRAMING
tions are given on the drawing in connection with
the framing and construction of the whole work,
all of which should be readily understood by the
workman.
Fig. 359.
I show two examples of towers in Figs. 359 and
360, and as the timbers shown are figured it would
be waste of space to lengthen our description.
With these examples I conclude on spires, tow¬
ers and turrets, and will now endeavor to show
and describe some examples of timber barns, and
work of a similar kind. • The illustrations shown
are sufficiently clear to render lengthy description
unnecessary. The sketch shown at Fig. 361 is in¬
tended to represent the end of a barn about 55 feet
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
329
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Fig. 360.
330
TIMBER FRAMING
wide. The open space under the main floor may
be left as a shelter for cattle, or it mav he built
in an excavation in a bank, forming what is known
as a “bank barn.”
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Fig. 362 shows another sketch of barn which is
slightly different from the previous one. This
may be used as a bank barn or otherwise.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
331
The sketch shown in Fig. 363 will answer for a
center bent in either of the previous examples, as
it forms a good truss in assisting the swing beam
in carrying the upper structure.
Fig. 364 shows the side of a barn 65 feet long.
This framing will suit any length of barn, and
332
TIMBER FRAMING
may be covered by any kind of a framed roof of
the usual style. The openings may be filled in
with studs and braces, or may be covered in with
heavy rolling doors.
The sketches shown at Figs. 365 and 366 are
intended to apply to roofs having a span of not
more than 40 feet. The roof shown at Fig. 365 is
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 333
nicely adapted for using a “hay fork,” as the
timber in the ridge will accommodate the fork
and its appliances.
I show a number of designs for framing barns
with gambrel roofs at Figs. 367, 368, 369, 370, 371
334
TIMBER FRAMING
and 372. These will, I think, be ample to meet
almost any requirement in this class of roofs.
Figs. 369 and 370 appear to be favorites with
framers in some parts of the west where there are
barns that have been built on these lines over
thirty years ago, and which are still doing good
service after “braving the battle and the breezes
and cyclones” so long, and they still give promise
of doing business at the old stands for many years
yet to come.
Fig. 365.
Temporary seats, or “grand stands,” for fairs,
exhibitions, outside conventions or similar occa¬
sions, are often called for, and the man who knows
how best and most economically to build same will
be the man to secure the contract for such work.
While I do not intend to go deeply into this
phase of timber framing, I deem it due to my
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
335
Fig-. 367.
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 368.
Fig. 369.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
337
readers that I should submit something to them
that may be of use should they ever be called upon
to erect structures of this hind.
To build a temporary lot of seats where the
space is limited between walls, the proposition is
rather a simple one, as the framing may easily be
338
TIMBER FRAMING
erected and slightly attached to the walls, or, if
the walls permit of it, timbers may be laid so that
their ends may rest in the walls, and they may be
supported through the center by a triangular
framework, such as shown at Fig. 373, and the
seating may be built on as shown in Fig. 374.
This shows the principles on which all stands of
this kind are built. Sometimes the timber and
planking are all spiked or nailed together. Tins
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
339
is objectionable as in that case all the bearing
strength of the frame must be on the nails or
spikes, something that should not be. A much
better way would be to put the frame together
with large screws or bolts, then the framework
can be taken down without much injury to the
material. If the seats are to have benches on
them, and to be raised above the ground at the
lower end the steps must be made wider to suit
340
TIMBER FRAMING
these conditions, as shown at Fig. 375. If chairs
are to be used on the platform the steps should
not be less than 2 feet 4 inches wide, each hav¬
ing the proper rise. The diagram shows how
such steps can be formed with a minimum of both
materials and labor.
Another manner of constructing these galleries
is shown in Fig. 376. In this case the upper plat¬
form is left about 5 feet 4 inches wide, which
leaves room enough for seating on the step and
for people to pass to and fro between the wall
and the rear of the people on the seat. The dia¬
gram shown at Fig. 377 has a much steeper pitch,
and is built over a series of trusses. This admits
of the lower portion of the truss being arched,
which gives more headroom to the floor below.
The treads or steps in this series are much nar¬
rower than those shown in previous examples.
Fig. 378 shows a portion of a gallery having an
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
341
Fig. 377.
Fig. 378,
342
TIMBER FRAMING
arched ceiling and an ornamented panel in the
angle which relieves the work and makes a good
finish. Another scheme is shown in Fig. 379.
This is figured on the plan so there is no need
of further explanation.
Two other examples are shown at Fig. 380. The
principal B is notched on the wall-plate G, and
also on the beam E; the tie is secured on the wall-
plate H and bolted to the principal. F is a beam
serving the office of a purlin to carry the gallery
joists; D is a strut; bh are the floods of the pews
or seats; and ccc the partitions; C is a hammer-
piece or bracket resting on the beam E and bolted
to the principal B; its outer extremity carries the
piece I, which supports the gallery front.
No. 2, Fig. 380, is another example of the
trussed principal A 0 C E, resting on the wall-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
343
plate H, and front beam E supports the beam K,
which carries the gallery joists B; a a and b b
are the floors and partitions of the seats.
Fig. 3S0.
In building stands of this kind, or designing
same, nothing should be let go as “good enough”
if there be anything at hand better. All timbers
should be of the very best and the workmanship
beyond suspicion. In no other structure is lion-
344
TIMBER FRAMING
est work and faithful adherence to good and
strong construction more needful than in the
building of temporary structures of this kind.
What a terrible thing it would be if, because of
your carelessness, incompetency, or defect in ma¬
terials used in the stand or gallery, the whole
Fig. 382.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
345
structure loaded with young children and lady
teachers, was to give way and throw every one
to the ground or next floor, causing, perhaps, the
loss of many young lives and many bone fractures.
See that the timber is sound, that every joint fits
snug and tight. Be sure of your foundation; have
the building well braced, and your sleep will not
be disturbed by fear of the tumbling down of
your framed work.
The framing of bridges for short and medium
spans, particularly in country, villages and towns,
will generally fall to the lot of the expert framer.
The designing of these .bridges will also be exe¬
cuted by the carpenter and framer; and knowing
this, I would not be doing my duty to the country
carpenter if I did not submit a number of dia¬
grams herewith for his guidance.
The design for a simple cheaply made bridge,
shown at Fig. 381, is quite suitable for a road
bridge having a span of about 30 ft. The timbers
shown under the main chord tend to strengthen the
whole work. The long timbers running across the
creek will require to be as long as the chords of the
truss; they will rest on the string pieces, and
should be bolted down to them. They should be
placed not more than 6 feet from center to center.
The deck of the bridge should be made of good
sound 3 inch plank. The iron rods used in truss
should be not less than seven-eighths of an inch in
diameter.
CAST CAP.
346
TIMBER FRAMING
SPAN 50 FEET.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
347
Another truss bridge is shown at Fig. 382, which
is a trifle easier to build than the one just shown.
This is for from 18 to 22 feet spah. Sizes of timber
are figured out on the diagram.
The design shown at Fig. 383 is a most excellent
one for a span of about 20 feet. This bridge will
carry an enormous load if skillfully built. The
timbers are all marked with figures, giving sizes of
stuff required. This bridge, with plenty of strin¬
gers in it, would carry a railroad train. For foot
bridges, either of the designs shown would answer
very well, with about half the timbers in them as
described on the diagram.
A very strong truss is shown at Fig. 384, that is
suitable for a span of 50 feet, or even a little more.
A part of the deck floor is shown at B B, and the
cross timbers appear at A, A, A. This makes a
good substantial bridge for a roadway and is very
popular in many country places.
The design shown at Fig. 385 is made for a span
of 40 feet. This is also a good design for a gen¬
eral roadway.
Another good truss is shown in Fig. 386 and one
which is intended for a span of 75 feet. The bridge
is 12 feet wide between trusses. The stringers
rest on the cross-ties or beams A. The floor con¬
sists of 2-inch plank nailed on the stringers. The
braces butt against a block which is bolted to the
chord with two bolts 34 -inch in diameter. The heel
of the brace is also fastened to the chord with two
348
TIMBER FRAMING
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HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
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TIMBER FRAMING
bolts of the same size. At the point B there are
two pieces 6x12 inches, notched and bolted with
two bolts at the top and bottom. There is only
a common key splice in the center of the chord.
I do not think this to be a very strong bridge for
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
351
this span, but I would suggest that in making use
of it, it should be limited to a span of not more
than 65 feet.
The trussed bridge shown at Fig. 38614, is
heavy enough for a railway bridge, though it is
not intended for that purpose, having been de¬
signed for a roadway where much heavy traffic
passes over it. The illustrations, Figs. 387 and
388, clearly show the construction and sizes of the
different parts. Where strength and stability are
desired I would not recommend that the parts he
made lighter than indicated. In addition to the
elevation of the truss, a plan is shown of the road¬
way, including the cross-braces, floor beams and
planking. The cross-braces are 3x12, the floor
beams 6x12, and the planking 2x12, laid diagon¬
ally. Other necessary particulars are furnished by
the drawings, as Fig. 338 shows a portion of the
deck or platform.
Ths truss shown at Fig. 388 is for a span of
about 72 feet. The illustration showing the con¬
struction requires no explanation other than to
say that the rods and plates should be provided
with cast-iron washers of such shape that all the
nuts will fit square with the bolts. The washers
at the angles of the main braces and upper curves
are made to take both rods and to extend over the
joint sufficiently to hold the brace. The bridge
shown is 72 feet span, or 75 feet extreme length.
It has a roadway 14 feet wide. This, on a much-
X'U
352
TIMBER FRAMING
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
353
traveled highway would be better 16 feet wide.
The bridge should be constructed with about 6-
inch spring. If oak timber is used in the construc¬
tion of the bridge, the dimensions of the pieces
may be somewhat reduced from what is shown on
the drawing.
The bridge shown at Fig. 389, is a double strut
bridge, and is a very strong one; would answer
for a roadway where heavy traffic crossed. The
two struts, CC, on each side of the center show
how it is braced, as also do the struts DD, which
add much to the stiffness of the work. A shows
the stringer, while B shows the timber for abutting
the long struts against.
Another bridge of nearly the same span is shown
at Fig. 390. This is a simple example with one
strut on each side of the center of each beam; A is
the chord or beam, B the strut, and C the straining-
piece bolted to the beam. The rail above the beam
is for protection only, and is not intended to bear
any part of the load, although, if properly framed,
it will be of service in this respect.
When the spans are too great to be bridged in
this simple manner, some method of trussing must
be adopted. With scarcely an exception, the ex¬
amples of trussed bridges may be resolved into the
following groups (391) :
1. Trusses below the roadway, and exerting
a lateral thrust on the abutments.
354
TIMBER FRAMING
2 . Trusses above the roadway, and exerting
only vertical pressure on the supports.
3. Trusses below the roadway, composed of
timber arches with ties and braces, but dependent
on the abutments for resistance to lateral thrust.
Fig. 391.
I
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 355
4. Trusses below or above the roadway, com¬
posed of timber arches with ties and braces, and
exerting only vertical pressure on the supports.
5. Lattice trusses above the roadway.
I show a bridge at Fig. 392, having a span of
over 100 feet, that is not, properly speaking, a
truss bridge, and which is not very difficult of
construction. This bridge was built more than
fifty years ago by the celebrated Thomas Telford,
C. E., and it is still doing good service; and may
continue to do so for many years yet, if it gets
good care.
I show at Fig. 393 a 100-feet span trussed bridge
constructed on the lines of the Howe Truss. I also
give some data for figuring on the strength of this
bridge and the loads it will carry. The bridge is,
of course, a compound structure of steel rods and
timber beams, which will probably be best. The
dead load may be taken for trial at 7 cwt. per foot
run, and the live load will be, say 7 cwt. per foot
run, making a total load of
100 (7+7)
20
70 tons, or
35 tons on each truss. Assume the elevation to be
as shown in No. 1, then the frame diagram will be
as shown in No. 2, and the stress diagram as shown
in No. 3. It will be necessary also to ascertain the
stresses when the first three bays only are loaded,
as this puts the fourth bay under a diagonal com-,
pressive stress when there is no compression mem-
356
TIMBER FRAMING
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HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
357
ber in the required direction, which is met by the
compression member 19-20 undergoing 2.2 tons
tension. The frame diagram for this will be as
shown in No. 4, and the stress diagram as shown
in No. 5. The stresses may be measured off the
diagrams, and the bridge will then want careful
designing to suit the material employed.
In the illustration shown in Fig. 394 is repre¬
sented an ordinary lattice bridge which may have
any ordinary span from 50 to 125 feet. No. 8 is
358
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 395.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
359
the elevation of the common lattice bridge; No. 9,
a section of the same when the roadway is above
the latticed sides; and No. 10, a section when the
roadway is supported on the under side of the
lattice. No. 11, plan of one of the latticed sides.
Although when first introduced the lattice con¬
struction at once obtained great favor from its
simplicity, economy, and elegant lightness of ap¬
pearance, yet experience has shown that it is only
adapted for small spans and light loads, unless
fortified by arches or arch braces. When well con¬
structed, however, it is useful for ordinary road
bridges where the transport is not heavy.
A lattice-truss is composed of thin plank, and its
construction is in every respect such as to render
this illustration appropriate. Torsion is the direct
effect of the action of any weight, however small,
upon the single lattice.
Fig. 395 exhibits an elevation and details for
an improved “Steele” lattice and trussed bridge,
which is intended for long spans. The example
shown was built over a span of more than 200
feet. The arch shown in the work adds to the sta¬
bility of the work very materially.
The details shown are self-evident and hardly
require explanation.
In building a Howe truss, it is quite essential
that the chords be arched or cambered. There are
several ways of getting this camber, but the one
recommended by Prof. De Yolson Wood of Ste-
360
TIMBER FRAMING
vens’ Institute, Hoboken, N. J., is perhaps, about
the best. He sa} T s: ‘ ‘ Camber may be accom¬
plished in various ways. Having determined the
length of the main braces for straight chords, if
their length be slightly increased, beginning with
nothing in the center and increasing gradually to¬
wards the ends, any desired camber may be se¬
cured. This will give an arch form.” The result,
in an exaggerated form, is shown in Fig. 396. The
bolts shown are all supposed to radiate to the cen¬
ter of the arch.
Diagram in Which the Panels at A is Shcrtest, and at E Longest
The Rolts Radiate to the Center of the Arch.
Fig. 396.
The object of cambering a truss is to allow for
any settlement which may occur after completion,
and also to prevent the truss from deflecting below
a horizontal line when taxed to its maximum ca¬
pacity. Some engineers allow 1-incli camber for a
span of 50 feet; 2 inches for 100 feet, etc., while
some, depending on the accuracy of their work,
allow only one-half this amount. By cambering
the horizontal timbers it is manifest that they must
be made longer than the straight line which joins
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
361
their ends. The increase in length of the lower
chords due to cambering would be so trifling that
in ordinary practice it could be entirely disre¬
garded. Not so, however, with the upper chord;
the increase in length of this member would be
quite an appreciable quantity, because the top
chord is cambered to a curve which is concentric
to the curve of the lower one.
Trautwine and other authorities give a rule for
determining this increase when the depth, the cam¬
ber, and the span are given, providing, however,
that the camber does not exceed one-fiftieth of the
span,
Increase_depth X camber X 8
span
using either feet or inches in the calculations. By
cambering the truss the distance between the sus¬
pension rods on the upper chords will necessarily
be greater than the distance between the rods on
the lower chords. The panels are not strictly
parallelograms, the rods converging somewhat.
By dividing the total increase in length of the up¬
per chord by the number of panels in the truss w T e
obtain the increase per panel. This, of course, will
effect the length of the braces, and great care
should be taken to cut these to the proper length.
Trautwine also gives a method for finding the
length of the braces in cambered trusses, but while
the method shown is practically correct, in so far
362
TIMBER FRAMING
as lines are concerned, yet it could not be applied
very well in a timber truss, at least, not so well as
the method shown previously.
It must be remembered, that in calculating
strains in trusses, skeleton diagrams are used, and
the lines composing these diagrams are generally
taken or drawn through the axes of the various
members. These lines usually meet at a common
point of intersection as will be seen from the
dotted lines in Fig. 397. But in practice these lines
do not always thus meet. The method shown by
Trautwine is that of finding the length of the liy-
pothenuse AC of the right angled triangle ABC;
and even were these axial lines to meet at a com¬
mon point of intersection the rule would not apply
on account of the angle blocks taking up part of
the distance. The best way to get the length would
be to lay out one panel full size.
I show, at Fig. 398, a diagram of a Howe truss
complete. This will give an idea of the way in
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
363
which these trusses are constructed. A theoretical
description of these styles of truss would scarcely
be in place in this treatise, because of the fact that
the carpenter who does the framing has but little
to do with the theory, and because of the other fact
that there are a number of excellent treatises in
the market.
Another branch of timber framing is that of
‘ ‘ shoring and needling, ’ ’ which may be analyzed
as follows:
A system of raking shores, Fig. 399, consists of
from one to four inclined timbers ranged vertically
over each other, their lower ends springing from
a stout sole-piece bedded in the ground, and their
upper ends abutting partly against a vertical plank
secured to the face of the wall and partly against
the “needles”—horizontal projections that pene¬
trate the wall-plate and the wall for a short dis-
%
tance.
The needles are generally cut out of 3-inch by
4 !/2-inch stuff, the entering end reduced to 3-inch
364
TIMBER FRAMING
Fig. 399
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
365
by 3-inch for convenience in entering an aperture
formed by removing a header from the wall. The
shouldered side is placed upwards, and cleats are
fixed above them into the wall-plate to strengthen
their resistance to the sliding tendency of the
shore. They are preferably sunk into the plate at
the top end as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig.
400.
The head of the raker should be notched slightly
over the needle, as shown in the detail sketch, Fig.
400, to prevent its being knocked aside, or moving
366
TIMBER FRAMING
I
out of position in the event of the wall settling
back.
The top shore in a system is frequently made
in two lengths for convenience of handling, and the
upper one is known as the “rider,” the supporting
shore being termed the “back shore.”
The rider is usually set up to its bearing with a
pair of folding wedges introduced between the
ends of the two shores. (See Fig. 399.)
Fig. 401.
Braces are nailed on the sides of the rakers and
edges of wall-plate to stiffen the former.
The sole-piece is bedded slightly out of square
with the rakers, so that the latter may tighten as
they are driven up.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
367
The shores should be secured to the sole-piece
with timber dogs; and, when in roadways or other
public places, it is wise precaution to fix several
turns of hoop-iron around their lower ends, fixing
these with wrought nails.
A system of flying shores, see Figs. 401 and 402,
consists of one or more horizontal timbers, called
Fig. 402.
“dog shores,” wedged tightly between two wall-
plates, secured to the 'surfaces of adjacent walls.
The middle of the shore is supported by braces
springing from needles fixed to the lower ends of
the plates, and are usually counteracted by corre¬
sponding inclined braces raking from the upper
ends of the plates.
368
TIMBER FRAMING
An angle of 45 degrees is the best for these
braces, and abutments for their ends are supplied
by straining or “crown” pieces secured to the
beam.
Wedges are inserted between the straining
pieces and the brace to bring all up tight.
When one shore only is used, the best general
position to fix it is about three-quarters the height
of the wall, but much depends upon the state of the
walls, and the nature or position of abutments
behind them.
Where opportunity offers, a complete system of
horizontal shores framed and braced to each other,
as shown in Fig. 402, is a much safer way to pre¬
vent any movement of walls than is a series of
isolated shores, which, being erected by different
gangs of men, and necessarily under a more
divided supervision by the foreman, are likely to
display considerable differences in their thrust or
resistance to the walls.
Approximate rules and scantlings for raking
shores:
Walls 15 ft. to 30 ft. high, 2 shores each system.
Walls 30 ft. to 40 ft. high, 3 shores each system.
Walls 40 ft. and higher, 4 shores each system.
The angle of the shores 60 degrees to 75 degrees
—not more than than 15 ft. apart.
Walls 15 ft. to 20 ft. high, 4 in. x 4 in. or 5 in. x
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
369
Walls 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, 9 in. x 4 y 2 in. or 6 in.
x 6 in.
Walls 30 ft. to 35 ft. high, 7 in. x 7 in.
Walls 35 ft. to 40 ft. high, 6 in. x 12 in. or 8 in.
x 8 in.
Walls 40 ft. to 50 ft. high, 9 in. x 9 in., 50 ft. and
upwards, 12 in. x 9 in.
Horizontal shoring: Spans not exceeding 15
ft.—principal strut 6 in. x 4 in. and raking struts
4 in. x 4 in.
Spans from 15 ft. to 33 ft.—principal strut 6 in.
x 6 in. to 9 in. x 9 in.; raking struts from 6 in. x
4 in. to 9 in. x 6 in.
The manner of shoring the upper part of a build¬
ing is shown in Fig. 403. Particulars are given on
the illustration, rendering further explanation
unnecessary.
Another class of framing I have not yet touched
upon is that where a timber structure, such as a
tank frame, or a frame for a windmill, is required,
and where the four corners lean in towards the
center; and I will now endeavor to supply this
deficiency: A structure of this kind may be called
a “truncated pyramid,” that is, a pyramid with
its top end cut away at some point in its height
leaving a platform level with the horizon, but of
course less in area than the base. Thus, if we
suppose a timber structure having a base 20x20
feet square, and a deck or platform 12x12 feet
square there will be a difference of 8 ft. between
370
TIMBER FRAMING
the base and platform, or the platform will be 4
feet less on every side than the base, but the center
of the base area must be directly under the center
point of the platform area. If the structure is 15
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
371
feet high, or any other height that may be deter¬
mined on, the four corner-posts will act as four
hips, and will be subject to the same constructional
rules as hip rafters, with some modifications and
additions to suit changed conditions.
Of the many methods employed of obtaining
bevels for oblique cuts on the feet and tops of posts
having two inclinations, (and there are many), I
Fig. 404.
Fig. 405.
know of none so simple as the one I am about to
describe, and which can be applied in nearly every
case where timbers meet at or on an angle, as in
the case of struts under purlins, or the junction of
purlins under hip or valley roofs. It is extremely
handy for finding the bevels required for odd
shaped tapered structures.
Let Figs. 404 and 405, show respectively an
elevation and a plan of a raking timber meeting at
372
TIMBER FRAMING
an angle with a vertical timber. To obtain the
bevel shown in the elevation Fig. 404 from the
point B, set out a line square with the raking tim¬
ber and draw the rectangle equal in width to AB,
in the plan. Fig. 405, the angle of the diagonal
of this rectangle with the pitch of the raking tim¬
bers marked F, is the bevel of the bird’s mouth
Fig. 406.
//
Fig. 407.
with the side. To obtain the bevel from the plan
Fig. 405, draw the line CD, and through B, draw
CE, equal to BC, in Fig. 404; join CE, and the
required angle, which is the same as shown in Fig.
404, is obtained. The bevel required for the side
of the strut is the angle made by the pitch of the
strut marked C, in Fig. 404, which needs no explan¬
ation. Figs. 400 and 407, show respectively an ele¬
vation and a plan of a raking timber butting at an
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
373
angle against a plank, the section of the raking
timber being shown by the dotted lines ABCD,
in the same figure; the line AD, being the required
bevel, that is, the angle it makes with a line parallel
to the edge of the raking part indicated in the fig¬
ure by the bevel. To obtain the bevel from the
plan, draw the dotted line CD, Fig. 406, at right
angles to the upright edge of the timber, making
the line CG, in the plan Fig. 407, equal to CD, in
Fig. 406; draw the dotted line CD, Fig. 407, and
at right angles to it draw X, Y, and project the
front G, to E, making the distance of E, from XY,
equal to the distance DE, in the elevation, Fig.
406; with D as a center, and E as radius, describe
the dotted arc until it meets the line XY, and con¬
tinue it down at right angles to meet a line from
G, drawn parallel to XY, in H; then join CHD,
and the angle obtained is the bevel required.
Fig. 408, and 409, show respectively an elevation
and a plan of timbers both meeting angleways, one
of them raking. To obtain the bevel from the
elevation, draw the line EF, at right angles to the
edge DB, and passing through A, making the dis¬
tance EF equal to one side of the section AB indi¬
cated by the dotted lines in Fig. 408. Draw the
line BF and the angle this line makes with a line
parallel to the edge is the required bevel for the
top surfaces of the raking part which is indicated
in Fig. 408, by J.
374
TIMBER FRAMING
A similar method is adopted in obtaining the
lower bevel, marked K, Fig. 408. The bevels are
obtained from the plan Fig. 409, in a similar man¬
ner to those in Fig. 407. Make the line HG, Fig.
409, equal to PIB in Fig. 408, and continue it down
to E at right angles to the side. Join EB and draw
XY at right angles; at right angles to XY, project
the point A to D, making the height of D, above
Fig. 408.
»
Fig. 409.
XY equal to the height of A above HB in Fig. 408.
With B as a center, and D as radius, describe the
dotted arc down to XY, and continue it on at right
angles to meet the line AF drawn parallel to XY;
the angle EFB is the bevel for the two upper sur¬
faces, and the same as the bevel J in Fig. 408. To
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
375
avoid confusion, the bevel for the lower surfaces
is not shown in Fig. 409, hut is found in the man¬
ner already explained.
Fig. 410, is a section of a purlin, showing the
pitch of the roof X, and the level line Y. Fig. 411
is a plan of Fig. 410, with a portion of a hip or
valley rafter, making an angle of 45 degrees added,
which occurs when the pitch of both sides of the
roof is the same. When the pitches are different,
bevels for the purlin on both sides of the hip or
Fig. 411.
Fig. 410.
valley must be found; the angle that it makes with
the pitch in the roof in plan being the only angular
datum required. The method of finding the cuts is
as follows: After drawing the purlin as shown in
Fig. 410, draw the plan as in Fig. 411, and through
the Point A, draw line FG at right angles to the
edge of the purlin; make FG equal in length to AC,
Fig. 410, and join CG, which will give the
bevel for the wide side of the purlin. The bevel
for the narrow side is found in a similar manner
376
TIMBER FRAMING
by drawing DE through B, making it equal to AB,
Fig. 410, and joining AE.
Fig. 411 shows all the lines necessary for ob¬
taining the bevels in Figs. 410 and 411, the indices
corresponding.
The methods shown herewith for obtaining the
bevels and cuts for raking timbers of various
kinds are quite simple compared with some meth¬
ods taught. They are not new, nor are they orig¬
inal, as they have been in use many years among
expert framers and millriglits, and have been pub¬
lished, once before now at all events; the present
method of rendering, however, I am persuaded,
will be found simple and easily understood.
In connection with obtaining bevels of timbers
that are set with an inclination, having one end
resting on a floor and the other and cut to fit
against a ceiling, the timber lying with two of its
angles in the direction of its inclination and the
other two at right angles to them.
In that case the upper end of the timber would
require to be cut with the same bevels as the lower
end, only reversing the bevels as both top and
bottom bevels are alike.
If we consider the corner post as a prism, having
four sides at right angles to each other, then when
we cut the foot of it so obliquely a bevel as at ABC,
Fig. 412, as to pitch it at the required inclination,
the section resulting will not be square but lozenge
shaped, as shown at Fig. 412, and this, of course,
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
377
would not stand over a square corner and have its
sides to correspond with the face of the sills or
plates, so make the post a prism so that its sides
will conform to the face of the sills in the “back¬
ing” of the post. The lines to shape the post cor¬
rectly to meet this condition may he obtained in
several ways, but by far the simplest is shown at
Fig. 413, where the square is employed to show the
amount of overwood to be removed. Let us sup¬
pose the sills to be halved together as shown at
Fig. 414, taking no notice of the tenon and mortise
which are shown in this diagram, and this will give
us as a ground plan of the sills, Fig. 415, KK,
showing the ends of the sills which project past
the frame. The point E in Fig. 413 will correspond
with the point E Fig. 415 when the post is in posi¬
tion, and the points C and D will correspond with
C and D in the same figure. To get the lines for
the “backing” draw the diagonal line AB, on Fig.
378
TIMBER FRAMING
413 then place the heel of the square on the line
AB, near the long corner, and adjust the square on
the timber so that the blade just coincides with the
corner C, then mark along the blade and tongue of
the square, continuing to G and H, and these points
will be the gauge points sought, showing the slabs
to be removed—DG and HC.
In laying off the bevels at the foot or top of the
post, it must be remembered that the outside cor¬
ners of the post, AA, Fig. 413 and 415, is the work¬
ing edge from which the bevels must first be taken,
so when the proper bevel is obtained, either by the
square or by an ordinary bevel, we must proceed as
follows: Bevel over from tbe corner A, first on
one face of the post, then on the other; then turn
the timber over and continue the line across the
next face to the corner, and perform the same
operation on the fourth face. The lines are now
complete for cutting the shoulders, but should
there be a tenon on the post and a toed shoulder as
shown at Fig. 414, then provision must be made
for same, a matter the intelligent workman will
find no difficulty in dealing with.
We will now deal with the bevels of the girts that
are usually framed in between the posts of taper¬
ing structures. When the post only inclines in one
direction, the problem of getting the bevels is a
very simple one, as only the angle of inclination is
required for the down cuts, the cross cuts all being
square. With posts having two inclinations, how-
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
379
ever, tlie case is more complex and requires a dif¬
ferent treatment, as all the cuts are bevels. While
it is always—or nearly so—necessary to “back”
the post on the outside, it is hardly ever necessary
to perform a similar process on the inside corners
,of the post, therefore provision must be made on
the shoulder of the girt to meet the condition, and
this is done by cutting the shoulder on a bevel on
both down and cross cuts. Let us suppose EP in
Pig. 416 to be the down cut, or the angle of in¬
clination, marked on the girt ABCD, just as the
Fig. 417.
line would appear in elevation. Then from E to G,
on F, set off a distance equal to the width of tim¬
ber used in the girt, which would be equal to DC.
Square down from the point G as shown to H, con¬
nect EH, and this line will be the bevel for the face
end of the girt. This line being obtained carry a
line across the top of the girt corresponding with
the inside face of the corner post, and to find this
line we must operate as follows: Let Fig. 417 be
a reproduction of Fig. 416, then we lay the blade
of the square on the line EF, and supposing the
TIMBER FRAMING
380
girt to be 8 inches square, we move the square
along until the point 8 on the tongue coincides with
the corner of the timber, when the heel of the
square will define the point G. From G square up,
obtaining the point K. Square across from Iv to
the point L, which is on the inner corner of the
girt. From L set off a distance back from the post
equal to the thickness of the slab that would have
been removed from the post, if backed inside,
which mark off at M, and from this point draw a
line to E; then ME will be the bevel of the cross
cut over the girt.
I have dwelled on this subject at some length be¬
cause of some of the difficulties that surround it,
and which in these pages I have endeavored to
simplify and explain. Tapered structures of the
kind discussed, whether on a square or polygon
plan, are always troublesome to deal with unless
the director of the work is well versed in a knowl¬
edge of the principles that underlie the construc¬
tion of such structures and this means, almost, an
education in itself. I have not touched on the rules
for obtaining the lengths and bevels of diagonal
braces in structures of this kind, as I am persuaded
the sharp workman, who masters the rules given
herewith, will be able to wrestle successfully with
the diagonal regular tapered work.
Sometimes an irregular tapered frame is built
to serve the purpose of a regular tank frame, then
some changes from the foregoing take place.
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
381
If we build two frames same as sliown at Fig.
418, and stand them plumb, with their faces as the
illustration shows, any distance apart, there need
be no trouble in framing them or in tieing them
together with girts, as the latter may be framed
into the posts square, and the cuts or bevels for
the posts and cross timber may readily be obtained
from the diagram of the work. Should the two
bents, however, be made to incline towards each
other, new conditions arise, that make it more diffi¬
cult to get the joints for the girts, and backing for
382
TIMBER FRAMING
the posts. When the bents draw or lean into each
other the posts have a double bevel or pitch making
it take the form of a hip and as the posts are
slanted over to form the pitch on the other side,
we find that the face side, No. 2, Fig. 419 will draw
in from the face of the sill on the corner B. The
Fig. 419.
amount the post will draw in can be determined by
cutting the proper bevels on bottom of post and
placing side No. 1 Fig. 419, flush with the bent
sill, then square out B to A on side No. 2. The
distance AB is the amount the post will draw to¬
wards the center as the bents are slanted towards
each other. This distance is nothing more or less
HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING
383
than the backing of the hip, but the bents being
framed one side on the principal of a common
rafter and then leaned towards each other, form¬
ing hips at the corners, cause the backing to come
all on one side as shown in Fig. 420. Side No. 2 is
the side that lias to be backed m order to stand
flush with sill, and the amount to take off the out¬
side corner is the distance AB. For the bevel
across the top of girts and braces on side No. 2,
419, square across the post as AC, set off AB same
as is shown at bottom of post, and connect BC. A
bevel set with stock on line of post and blade on
line BC will give the required bevel: blade gives
384
TIMBER FRAMING
cut. Tlie backing is perhaps more easily explained
by Fig. 420. Cut a section of post to required
bevels on the bottom and place a steel square flush
with side Xo. 1 and it will show plainly the amount
of backing to be taken from outside corner as
ABC. These lines will not do to set the bevel by
for cutting the top and bottom sides of girts and
braces because AC in Fig. 420 is on the bevel of the
bottom cut of hip and therefore is greater than the
thickness of the post. The cut for girts and braces
is the thickness of post and the backing applied
as shown in Fig. 419.
INDEX 'TO TIMBER FRAMING
ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED
A
Adhesion of nails . 47
A general system of floor framing. 199
Angular framing . 371
Angular joints . 43
Approximate weight of roofs. 251
Arched centers. 217
Arched roof . 275
B
Backing tapering corner posts. 384
Balloon framing . 51
Bare-face stub tenon . 196
Barn framing . 188
Barn building . 330
Barrel centering . 234
Bay-windows . 133
Beams and roof trusses. 259
Bolts for walls . 260
Bond timber . 75
Bow-lattice bridges . 359
Boxing . 182
Boxing for shoulders. 184
Box sills . 54
385
386
INDEX
Braces for purlins. 193
Bracing . 74
Bracing corner. 53
Brick clad wall . 78
Bridge centers . 249
%
Bridges . 345
Bridge stresses . 357
Bridging . 75
Builders’ centers . 218
Building . 93
Built-up beams ... 29
Built-up centers . 224
C
Ceiling joists . 203
Centers . 216
Centers for large spans.•. 226
Centers for small openings. 223
Chalk lining . 172
Chimney stack . 89
Circular towers . 105
Classification according to size of timber (table)... 17
Classification of fastenings in carpentry. 23
Classification of joints in carpentry. 22
Classification of timbers. 10
Coach screws . 49
Collar-beam roof .;. 268
Conical spires . 316
Coniferous trees . 10
Corner studs. 64
Cornice . 137
INDEX
387
Cornices . 144
Couple close roofs . 264
Cross bridging . 76
Cupola roofs . 132
Curbed frame barns . 335
Curb roofs . 261
Curved cornices . 147
Curved Mansard roof. 269
Curving a truss bridge. 360
Cutting curved rafters . 124
Cutting-off marks . 176
Cutting ribs for roofs. 123
D
Detail of centers . .. 229
Detail of timber frame. 197
Details of elliptical centers. 247
Details of groins . 241
Details of heavy centers. 242
Diagrams of joists and studs. 62
Dome roofs . 116
Door trimming . 72
Double boxing . 186
Double braced . 187
Double flooring . _ . 206
Double-rake framing. 374
Double shoring . 366
Double stands . 339
Double-tapered framing . 383
Dovetailed joints . 44
Draw boring. 185
388
INDEX
E
Elevation of frame . 198
Elliptical arches . 243
Elliptical centers for bridges. 250
End of barn. 187
Engineer’s centers . 219
Exogens, endogens, ecrogens . 8
Fished beams and scarfed beams
Fishplates and fished joints . . .
Flat centering .
Floor framing .
Flue trimming .
Foot bridges .
Forms of roofs.
Foundations .
Fox tail tenons .
Frame barns .
Framed sills and joists..
Framed wall .
Framing .
Framing bay windows .
Framing of dome roofs.
Framing of ogee roof.
Framing on the rake.
Framing scantling .
Furring pieces .
.. 25
.. 24
.. 234
80, 208
.. 83
. . 344
. . 252
.. 135
. . 37
.. 331
58
.. 94
.. 73
.. 136
.. 117
. . 120
.. 371
36
INDEX
389
G
Gains and scarfs . 30
Gambrel roofs. 261
General framing . 77
General trimming . 87
Getting curves .. . 237
Girders . 88
Gothic spire . 321
Grand stands—for public occasions. 340
Groins . 236
Gutters . 141
H
Halving joints . 52
Hammer-beam roof (for country church"). 304
Hammer-beam roofs (ornamented). 299
Hammer-beam roofs (plain) . 297
Haunched tenons . 40
Heavy timber bridges ... . . 351
Hip rafters . 254
Hip roofs . 254
Hip spans . 254
House plans . 90
House walls . 91
Howe framed roofs . 286
I
Introductory . 7
Introduction to Part II. 151
Iron angles . 209
Is heavy timber framing a lost art?. 152
390
INDEX
J
Jack-rafters . 258
Joints, in woodwork . 7
Joist hangers .*. 85
K
Keyed tusk tenon . 212
Keyed-up timbers. 210
King post roof . 272
L
Laminated roof . 275
Lantern roof . 118
Large centers . 226
Large elliptical center . 245
Lattice bridges . 355
Lattice roofs . 312
Laying out marks . 178
Laying out round timbers. 161
Lean-to roofs . 263
Lengthening piles . 26.
Lining-up timber. 170
List of tools . 154
Long lattice bridges . 358
Long span bridges . 353
Look-outs . 140
INDEX 391
M
Making mortices and tenons. 167
Mansard roofs .127, 262
Mansard self-supporting roofs. 307
Method of carving curbed roofs. 104
Method of framing joists. 60
Method of framing ogee roofs. 101
Method of putting in sill. 61
Molded roof . 112
Mixed framing, iron and timber. 200
N
Nails . 46
Non-coniferous trees . 10
O
«
Octagon spires and steeples. 316
Odd corner . 65
Ogee roof . 99
One-hundred feet span—truss bridges. 355
Ornamental cornices . 150
P
Plan of tower roof . 109
Platform and raking shores. i . 370
Preface . 1
392
INDEX
Projecting cornices . 143
Public stands . 338
Purlin plates. 191
Purlins . 102
Q
8
275
255
255
Quality of trees .
Queen post roofs ,
Queen posts.
Queen post trusses
Rafter ends. 142
Raking curves . 126
Raking shores. 364
Road bridges. 352
Roof coverings . 251
Roof framing. 89
Roofs . 251
Roof trusses . 252
Rubbeted joints . 43
Rule for cutting braces . 195
Rules for roofs. 280
S
Scarfed beams . 25
Scarf marks . 175
Scissors roof. 131
Seasoning of timber . 14
INDEX
393
Section dome roof . 121
Section of centers . 227
Section of dormer window. 95
Section of wall .57 ? 68
Section ogee roof. 120
Sections—Mansard roofs . 128
Sections of corners . 66
Sections of timber. 13
Segments for centers. 225
Self-supporting roofs . 129
Shoring and needling. 363
Short span bridges. 347
Shrinkage . 11
Sills—boxed . 54
Silver grain . 9
Single rafter roof. 263
Skating rink roofs. 310
Solid sills . 55
Spire . 97
Squaring over . 177
Stair-headers . 81
Stair trimming. 82
Steel beams . 207
Strains on roofs. 271
Strength of timber. 205
Stub tenon . 196
Studding . 76
Suitable pitches . 251
Supported arched roofs . 289
Suspended roofs. 278
394
INDEX
T
Table for nails and screws. 47
Taking timber out of wind. 163
Tapered framing . 382
Templet framing . 180
Temporary grandstands . 343
Tenoned joists . 59
Tenons . 171
The various strains on timber. 21
Timbered roofs. 107
Timbering floors . 202
Timber towers . 329
Toggle joints . 33
Towers . 97
Tredgold on joint fastenings. 19
Trimming windows . 71
Trussed bridges . 348
Trussed roofs .129, 282
Tusk tenons. 34
U
Use of glue . 50
y
Valiev boards . 258
%j
Valley rafters . 258
Various scarfs . 27
INDEX 395
Vault centering . 234
Vertical joints .:. 28
V-roofs . 261
W
Wall plates . 259
Wall section . 68
Wedges for centers. 222
Well-holes . 82
Winding sticks. 164
Window trimming. 70
Witness marks .*. 173
Wooden spires, turrets and towers. 314
Working square timber. 162
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in which the kinds of mortar to employ for various works
are defined. Chimney breasts, flues, stacks, fire-places
and chimneys, of all kinds are described and illustrated.
12mo., Cloth, 277 Pages, 300 Illustrations - Price, $1.00
SENT POSTPAID TO ANY ADDRESS IN
THE WORLD UPON RECEIPT OF PRICE
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PUBLISHERS CHICAGO, ILL.
Concretes, Cements,
Mortars,
Plasters
a.r\d
Stuccos
How to Make and
How to Use Them
Fred T. Hodgson
Architect
T HIS is another of Mr. Hodgson’s practical works that appeals
directly to the workman whose business it is to make and applj
the materials named in the title. As far as it has been possible
to avoid chemical descriptions of limes, cements and other materials,
and theories of no value to the workman, such has been done, and
nothing has been admitted into the pages of the work that do^s not
possess a truly practical character.
Concretes and cements have received special attention, and the
latest methods of making and using cement building blocks, laying
cement sidewalks, putting in concrete foundations, making cement
casts and ornaments, are discussed at length. Plastering and stucco
work receive a fair share of consideration and the best methods of
making and using are described in the usual simple manner so
characteristic of Mr. Hodgson’s style. The book contains a large
number of illustrations of tools, appliances and. methods employed
in making and applying concretes, cements, mortars, plasters and
stucco, which will greatly assist in making it easy for the student to
follow and understand the text
520 pages fully illustrated.
12 Mo. Cloth, . Price, $1.50
Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
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Frederick J. Drake Co.
PUBLISHERS CHICAGO. \J. S. A.
By WM. DOMJiLDSOX
A MODERN treatise on Hot Water, Steam and Furnace
Heating, and Steam and Gas Fitting, which is in¬
tended for the use and information of the owners of build¬
ings and the mechanics who install the heating plants in
them. It gives full and concise information with regard
to Sieam Boilers and Water Heaters and Furnaces, Pipe
Systems for Steam and Hot Water Plants, Radiation, Radi¬
ator Valves and connections, Systems of Radiation, Heating
Surfaces, Pipe and Pipe Fittings, Damper Regulators, Fit¬
ters’ Tools, Heating Surface of Pipes, Installing a Heating
Plant and Specifications. Plans and Elevations of Steam
and Hot Water Heating Plants are shown and all other sub¬
jects in the book are fully illustrated.
256 pages, 121 illustrations, 12mo, cloth, price, $1.50
Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
CHICAGO. U.S.A.
Practical
Up-to-Date
George B. Clow
200
Illustrations
f
A PRACTICA.L up-to-date work on Sanitary Plumbing, com-
prising useful information on the wiping and soldering of
lead pipe joints and the installation of hot and cold water and
drainage systems into modern residences. Including the
gravity tank supply and cylinder and tank system of water
heating and the pressure cylinder system of water heating.
Connections for bath tub. Connections for water closet.
Connections for laundi y tubs. Connections for wash-bowl or
lavatory. A modern bath room. Bath tubs. Lavatories.
Closets. Urinals. Laundry tubs. Shower baths. Toilet
room in office buildings. Sinks. Faucets. Bibb-cocks. Soil-
pipe fittings. Drainage fittings. Plumber’s tool kit, etc., etc.
iSJLO pages,
12 Mo. Cloth . $1.50
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FREDERICK J. DRAKE <& CO.
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PRACTICAL BUNGALOWS
AND COTTAGES FOR
TOWN AND COUNTRY
THIS BOOK CONTAINS PERSPECTIVE
DRAWINGS AND FLOOR PLANS
Of one hundred and fifty low and medium priced
houses ranging from four hundred to four thou¬
sand dollars each. Also thirty selected designs
of bungalows for summer and country homes,
furnishing the prospective builder with m any new
and up-to-date ideas and suggestions in modern
architecture.
The houses advertised in this book are entirely
different in style from those shown in Hodgson’s
Low Cost Homes.
12 MO. CLOTH, 420 PAGES, 400 ILLUSTRATIONS
PRICE, POSTFAID $1.00
F REDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
CF^CAGO
HODGSON’S
Low Cost American Homes
Arranged and Edited by
FRED T* HODGSON
Architect
This book contains perspective vleWf
and floor plans of one hundred housesj
churches, school houses and barns, and is
without a doubt the most practical work
ever issued. The plans shown have been
built from, and many of them duplicated
many times over. All are practical,
the creation of the well-known author,
including many other architects through¬
out the United States and Canada, and
are alike valuable to builders and any one
who has in view the erection of a house,
etc. The plans are susceptible of slight
changes that will adapt them to any taste.
The carpenter, remote from the city,
needs just, such a book to refer to, or to
exhibit to his customer so that the latter
can give his orders in an intelligible
manner. The much desired economy on
these structures is not, however, obtained
at the expense of beauty—every one of the
designs, even the very cheapest, is pleas¬
ing to the eye. Following the ideas laid
down, the builder is sure to obtain a pretty result. Another result aimed
at by Mr. Hodgson is the convenience of internal arrangements. Many
a good house has been spoiled by having the much needed closet room
omitted. All this has been carefully studied by the practical and
experienced architects who have compiled this book, so the owner oi
working builder who selects a design from this work will be sure to
secure all the elegance, convenience and economy possible in the erection
of the house. The publishers furnish perfect blue prints, including a
book of specifications at the printed prices shown in the book. Th$
average price of blue prints and specifications is $5.00 per set, and they
are just the same as plans which, if prepared especially by an architect,
would cost from $50.00 to $75.00.
The book contains over 350 pages, nearly 325 illustration
printed on a superior quality of machine finished
paper, durably bound in English cloth with
unique design
Price .$1.00
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publishers
CHICAGO, ILL.
THE AUTOMOBILE HAND-BOOK
OVER 200,000 SOLD
By ELLIOTT BROOKES, Assissted by Other Well-Known Experts
Revised and Enlarged New Edition—The largest and most practical
work published. Used by all up-to-date automobile schools as
their every day text-book. over 720 pages and
over 329 illustrations. Full Leather Limp, Round
Corners, Red Edges. Price, $2.00.
At the present time nearly all automobile
troubles or breakdowns may, in almost
every case, be traced to the lack of knowl¬
edge cr carelessness of the owner or opera¬
tor of the car, rather than to the car itself.
The automobile hand book is a work of
p actical information for the use of owners,
operators and automobile mechanics, giv¬
ing full and concise information on all
qu< stions relating to the construction, care
and opera: on of gasoline and electric auto¬
mobiles. including road troubles, motor
troubles, -rbureter troubles, ignition
troubles, battery troubles, clutch troubles,
starting troubles. With numerous tables,
useful rules and formulas, wiring diagrams
and over329illustrations.
Special efforts have been put forth to
treat the subjects of ignition, and igni¬
tion devices, in a manner befitting their
importance. A large section has been
devoted to t ese subjects, including bat¬
teries, primary and secondary, magnetos,
carburators, spark plugs, and in fact all devices used in connection with
the production of the spark. Power ti ansmissio is thoroughly discussed,
and the various systems of transmitting the power from the motor to the
driving axle are analyzed and compared.
The perusal of this work for a few minutes when troubles occur, will
often not only save time, money, and worry, but give greater confidence
in the car, with regard to its going qualities on the road, when properly
and intelligently cared for.
A WORD TO THE WISE
The time is at hand when any person caring for and operating any
kind of self-propelling vehicle in a public or private capacity, will have to
undergo a rigid examination before a state board of examiners and secure
a license before they can collect their salary or get employment.
Already New York State has enacted such c. law and before long, with
a positive certainty every state in the Union will pa*s such an ordinance
for the protection of life and property.
Remember this is a brand new book from cover to cover, just from
the press— New Edition —and must not be confounded with any former
editions of this popular work.
Sent prepaid to any address upon receipt of price
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., Publishers
1325 Michigan Avenue. » * * CHICAGO, U. S. A.
The Practical Gas &
Oil Engine HAND - BOOK
A MANUAL of useful in-
•*** formation o n the care,
maintenance and repair of Gas
and Oil Engines.
This work gives full and
clear instructions on all points
relating to the care, mainte¬
nance and repair of Stationary,
Portable and Marine, Gas and
Oil Engines, including How to
Start, How to Stop, How to Ad¬
just, How to Repair, How to
Test.
Pocket size, 4x6
232 pages. With numerous
rules and formulas and dia¬
grams, and over 70 illustrations
by L. Elliott Brookes, au¬
thor of the “Construction of a
Gasoline Motor,” and the “Au¬
tomobile Hand-Book.”
This book has been written
with the intention of furnishing
practical information regarding
gas, gasoline and kerosene engines, for the use of owners, operators and
others who may be interested in their construction, operation and man¬
agement.
In treating the various subjects it has been the endeavor to avoid all
technical matter as far as possible, and to present the information given
in a clear and practical maimer.
|6mo. Popular edition—Cloth. Price.$1.00
Edition de Luxe—Full Leather Limp. Price.. 1.59
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PRACTICAL MECHANICAL BOOKS
FOR
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Price.
Titles. Cloth. Lea.
Air Brake Practice, Modern—Dukesmith.
Illustrated . 1.50 ...
Air Brake, Complete Examinations, West-
inghouse and New York.2.00
Air Brake, Westinghouse System. 2.00 ...
Air Brake, New York System. 2.00 ...
American Homes, Low Cost—Hodgson. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Architectural Drawing, Self - Taught —
Hodgson. Illustrated . 2.00 ...
Architecture, Easy Steps to—Hodgson. Il¬
lustrated . 1.50 ...
Architecture, Five Orders—Hodgson. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Armature and Magnet Winding—Horst-
mann & Tousley.1.50
Artist, The Amateur—Delamotte. 1.00 ...
Automobile Hand Book—Brookes. Illus¬
trated . 2.00
Automobile, The Mechanician’s Catechism
—Swingle. 1.25
Blacksmithing, Modern—Holmstrom. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Boat Building, for Amateurs—Nelson. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Bricklayers’ and Masons’ Assistant, The
20th Century—Hodgson. Illustrated.. 1.50 ...
Bricklaying, Practical, Self - Taught —
Hodgson. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Bungalows and Low Priced Cottages—
Hodgson . 1.00 ...
Calculation of Horse Power Made Easy—
Brookes. Illustrated.75 ...
Carpentry, Modern. Vol. I—Hodgson. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Carpentry, Modern. Vol. II—Hodgson.
Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Chemistry, Elementary, Self - Taught—
Roscoe. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Concretes, Cements, Plasters, etc.—Hodg¬
son. Illustrated . 1.50 ...
Correct Measurements, Builders’ and Con¬
tractors’ Guide to—Hodgson. 1.50 ...
Catechism, Swingle’s Steam, Gas and
Electrical Engineering.1.50
Cabinet Maker, The Practical, and Fur¬
niture Designer—Hodgson. Illustrated 2.00 ...
Dynamo Tending for Engineers—Horst-
mann & Tousley. Illustrated. 1.50 .
Dynamo—Electric Machines—Swingle. Il¬
lustrated . 1.50 ...
Electric Railway Troubles and How To
Find Them—Lowe . 1-50 ...
Electric Power Stations—Swingle . 2.50 . . .
Electrical Construction, Modern. Illus¬
trated . 1-50
Electrical Dictionary, Handy, Weber.25 .50
Electrical Wiring and Construction Ta¬
bles—Horstmann & Tousley.1.50
Electricity, Easy Experiments in—Dick*
Inson. Illustrated . l.tro .. •
Price.
Titles. Cloth. Lea.
Electricity Made Simple—Haskins. Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Electric Railroading—Aylmer-Small. Il¬
lustrated . 3.50
Electro - Plating Hand Book—Weston.
Illustrated . 1.00 1.50
Elementary Electricity, Up To Date—
Aylmer-Small . 1.25 . ..
Estimator, Modern, for Builders and
Architects—Hodgson . 1.50 ...
Examination Questions and Answers for
Locomotive Firemen—Wallace. Illus¬
trated . 1.60
Examination Questions and Answers for
Marine and Stationary Engineers—
Swingle. Illustrated .1.50
Elevators, Hydraulic and Electric—Swin¬
gle. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Electrician’s Operating and Testing
Manual—Horstmann & Tousley. Illus¬
trated .1.50
Farm Engines and How to Run Them—
Stephenson. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Furniture Making, Home—Raeth. Illus¬
trated .60 ...
Gas and Oil Engine Hand Book—
Brookes. Illustrated . 1.00 1.50
Hand Book for Engineers and Electri¬
cians—Swingle. Illustrated. Pocket
Book Style .3.00
Hardwood Finishing, Up-to-date—Hodg¬
son. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Horse Shoeing, Correct—Holmstrom. Il¬
lustrated . 1.00 ...
Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fit¬
ting—Donaldson. Illustrated . 1.50 ...
Heating and Lighting Railway Passen¬
ger Cars—Prior . 1.25 ...
Locomotive Breakdowns, with Questions
and Answers—Wallace. Illustrated.1.50
Locomotive Fireman’s Boiler Instructor—
Swingle .1.50
Locomotive Engineering—Swingle. Illus¬
trated. Pocket Book Style.3.00
Machine Shop Practice—Brookes. Illus¬
trated . 2.00 ...
Mechanical Drawing and Machine Design
—Westinghouse. Illustrated. 2.00 ...
Motorman, How to Become a Successful.
Aylmer-Small. Illustrated .1.50
Motorman’s Practical Air Brake Instruc¬
tor—Denehie . 1.50
Modern Electric Illumination, Theory
and Practice—Horstmann & Tousley.
Illustrated . 2.00
Millwright’s Practical Hand Book—Swin¬
gle. Illustrated . ^.00 ...
Modern American Telephony In All Its
Branches—Smith. Illustrated.- 4 0*
Price.
Titles. Cloth. Lea.
Operation of Trains and Station Work—
Prior. Illustrated .1.50
Painting, Cyclopedia of—Maire. Illus¬
trated . 1.50 ...
Pattern Making and Foundry Practice—
Hand. Illustrated .1.50
Picture Making for Pleasure and Profit—
Baldwin. Illustrated . 1.25 ...
Plumbing, Practical, Up-to-Date—Clow.
Illustrated . 1.50 .. .
Railway Roadbed and Track, Construc¬
tion and Maintenance of—Prior. Illus¬
trated . 2.00
Railway Shop Up-to-Date—Haig. Illus¬
trated . 2.00 ...
Sheet Metal Workers’ Instructor—Rose.
Illustrated . 2.00 ...
Signist’s Book of Modern Alphabets—Del-
amotte . 1.50 ...
Sign Painting, The Art of—Atkinson... 3.00 ...
Stair Building and Hand Railing—Hodg¬
son. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Steam Boilers—Swingle. Illustrated.1.50
Steel Square, A Key to—Woods. 1.50 ...
Steel Square, Vol. I—Hodgson. Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Steel Square, Vol. II—Hodgson. Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Steel Square, A B C—Hodgson.50 ...
Steel Construction, Practical—Hodgson.
Illustrated .50 ...
Storage Batteries—Niblett .50 ...
Sho* Cards, A Show At—Atkinson and
Atkinson . 3.00 ...
Stonemasonry, Practical, Self-Taught—
Hodgson. Illustrated . 1.00 ...
Telegraphy Saif-Taught—Edison. Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Telephone Hand-Book— Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Timber Framing, Light and Heavy—
Hodgson . 2.00 ...
Toolsmith and Steel Worker—Holford.
Illustrated . 1.50 ...
Turbine, The Steam—Swingle. Illustrated 1.00 ...
Walschaert Valve Gear Breakdowns and
How to Adjust Them—Swingle. Illus¬
trated . 1.00 ...
Wiring Diagrams, Modern—Horstmann
& Tousley. Illustrated .1.50
Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony—
V. H. Laughter. 1.00 ...
Wood Carving, Practical—Hodgson. Illus¬
trated . 1.50 ...
THE RED BOOK SERIES OF TRADE SCHOOL
MANUALS
By F. Maire
16 mo.. Cloth, Illustrated. Price, each, $0.60
Exterior Painting, Wood, Iron and Brick.
Interior Painting, Water and Oil Colors.
Colors, What They Are and What to Expect
from Them.
Graining and Marbling.
Carriage Painting.
The Wood Finisher.
-
/
.