THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY b ?> 0. T I W X b ^ I — \ 0 (r? Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/modernsilo9110plum NQN CIRCULATING CHECK FOR UNBOUND CIRCULATING COPY UNIVERS.'TV OF ILLINOIS S3RICULTURE G ^C.7 iv.: Q I ■ i Purdue University. 7 Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station C. S. PLUMB, Director. 1 lyaFayette, Ind. Bulletin No. 91, Vol. XI Tanuarv 1002 T.e preceding ,unetin was N O. 90, Oc Jer, 1901, Intre^Uy ^ The Modern Silo. by C. S. PrUMB. In June 1892, a bulletin of 20 pages was prepared by the writer and published by this Station, under the title, “The silo and silage in Indiana." This bulletin contained information on silo construction, crops for silage and brief experimental results in leeding silage at this and other stations. Reports were also giv- Fig. I. Wi.sconsin silos of Dr. Thompson. cn^ from 35 persons in the State who had used or were then using si os; the oldest one reported in use being that of Mr. C. !• .Harris of Goshen, who adopted the silo in 1885. Of the 33 persons reporting, only one had made use of the round form 84 Since the publication of this bulletin in 1892, a great ad- vancement has taken place in silo construction. At the present time, nearly all of the silos made are circular in form, prominent among which is the stave of tub type. In 1892 perhaps not over 50 persons at the outside owned silos in the state. Today there are many in the dairy districts, and just at present the subject of silo construction is attracting much interest among farmers. It is to supply the demand for this information, that this bulle- tin is published for the special assistance of Indiana farmers de- siring suggestions on silo construction. Previous to 1898 at the Indiana Station the silos in use con- sisted of two small square ones in the cattle barn where they were constructed in 1889. These were each 15 feet square and 20 feet deep and held about 60 tons each. The square silo, however, does not represent the most economical or desirable construction. There are corners in which the silage does not always pack satisfactorily, and where losses through decay very often occur. Further, the square or rectangular wooden silo often weakens with age, and spreads at the sides, and consequently the silage ruined by the entrance of air at these weak points. This defective feature of the straight- sided silo, led to the adoption a dozen or so years ago of the cir- cular or round silo. The round silo has two distinct advantages. First — There are no corners in which decay may develop. Second — The pressure is equally distributed from the center to each side, so that there is no unequal strain upon the walls or sides of the silo of this form, while the pressure from above on the silage below is uniformly distributed. These advantages have been found to be so distinct and important that at this time but comparatively few silos are built, excepting of the circular form. There are several types of silos that it is proposed to discuss in this bulletin, each of which has its advantages and disadvan- tages, and many of the wooden forms of each have been con- structed and are used with general satisfaction. 85 Wisconsin Round Silo. In the summer of 1891, the Wisconsin Experiment Station published a bulletin (No. 28) on the construction of silos, in which the first detailed or illustrated description of a round silo was giv- en in a station bulletin. The recommendations given in this bul- letin no doubt resulted in the construction of a large number of Fig. 2. Dia(jram sfiowin{j construction of Wisconsin Silo, after King. A, gen- eral view. B, shows placing of studding. C, underside of roof, looking up. Rafters are not used for conical roofs, but circles instead, made by bending and nailing together strips of half inch lining, making a hoop or circular plate 4 inches thick, as shown in C. Roof boards in C and II are made by cutting 8-inch common lx)ards in two diagonally. D, shows wall, with studs, sheeting, paper be- tween and where cement and wall joint. E, .shows method of ventilation. F and G shows construction of feeding doors, which open inside. Filling door should be three feet wide to allow for a man (o enter by side of carrier or blower. 86 round silos, based on the description given by Professor King. This silo is so admirable in character that it is thought best to briefly give its construction herewith. The illustration on the first page is of a pair of silos of this type on the farm of Dr. Thompson near Indianapolis. Figure 2 is reproduced by court- esy of the Wisconsin Station. The foundation may be marked out by driving a stake in the ground at the center of the desired site, driving on level ground to the height of the desired wall. A nail should then be driven in the top of the stake. Next take a straight-edged stick of con- venient material, plenty long enough to measure more than half the diameter of the proposed silo. Bore a hole in one end of the stick, so that it may neatly slip over the nail, and saw the other end off, so that it may describe a circle when turned on the stake, equal to the size of the silo. If desired, the outer end of the stick may represent the outer circle of the wall and a mark on the stick at suitable distance, the inner edge of wall. The foundation may be made of stone, brick or concrete, and it is desirable to have it at least 12 inches above the ground, and two to three feet below the surface. In fact it will be well to have the silo in part below the ground, though not to a depth such as to make emptying difficult. Four or five feet below however, will not be unsatisfactory. The wall should be air-tight, with a thick- ness of one and one-half to two feet for silos 25 to 30 feet high. Sill pieces of 2xq’s should be cut in sections about two feet long and on the curve of the wall, bedded in mortar and toe- nailed together. The studs should be of 2xq^s and of length depending on depth of silo. A silo 28 feet deep can use studs 16 and 12 feet long to advantage. If four feet of wall is a part of the silo depth, then studs 14 and 10 feet long are desirable. The studs should be placed a foot apart from center to center, unless the silo is over 30 feet in diameter. This is to give a chance to keep the lin- ing nailed close and to the curve of the circle. The studs should alternate in length, as for example a 16 feet length being nailed to the sill first, then a 12, then 16, etc. The upper line of studs will 87 of course alternate to bring the top on a common level. Thes» studs may be held in place, by naili'ng a connecting strip on them and a post set in the center of the silo and five or six feet higher than the sill. Plumb each stud towards the center of the silo. After a number of studs have been set and toe-nailed flush to the front of the sill which lays against the outer side of the wall, plumbed and fastened by stays, they may be held together on the outside by a piece of sheeting nailed on temporarily as In'o-h up as a man can reach. In this way the first line of studs may be erected. W here the doors are to be located place an extra stud along side the studs to furnish sides to the doors, and space the door studs far enough apart to make a comfortable width, say 24 inches. Leave a stud standing between the double studs at center of where the doors are to be. This can be cut out in il’oor spaces later. The sheeting should be made of first class lumber. Leave out black knots and shaky boards. No. i fencing ripped to form scant half-inch boards will do. Two inch planks sawed to make four boards is really a more profitable purchase of timber than using fencing. Begin at bottom of studs in putting on the sheeting, work- ing upward. Put on first a layer of sheeting around interior as high as can be conveniently reached by hand, and then begin the second layer, placing between the two a layer of first grade acid I^roof, tarred paper, lack the paper on at intervals, and let the paper over-lap six or eight inches. See that the sheeting breaks joints by lapping half over the boards above and below it. Also nail sheeting so that each round will begin with the next stud be- yond the one the previous course began with. Use two eight- jienny nails in each board in each stud. Staging may be erected in the silo by little trouble on 2x4^s, supported at the height de- sired by uprights, and cross planks nailed to 2x4’s to make a ser- viceable working platform. Always keep the studs plumb and rigid for working on, and be sure that the rounds of sheeting are kept level in the courses, anrl are nailed close to the studs or undcr .sheeting. .Fig 2 at D. gives a sectional view, showing the 88 lapping of sheeting with the tarred paper between, this illustration being from bulletin 59 of the Wisconsin Station. The outside of this silo may be covered with a layer of lap siding to suit the cir- cumstances. If the silo is over 18 feet in diameter, it is advised to first put on the studs a layer of half inch sheeting, and over this drop siding. If the silo is small, say 10 or 12 feet in diameter, chen half-inch sheeting only can be used, as the heavier siding will not bend to the short curve of the small silo. The plate is made similar to sill, from two foot pieces, sawed to the curve and spiked to the top of studs. The top line of sheet- ing on one side should not come to the plate, but a space of an inch or two be left, over w^hich wire mesh can be tacked to keep out mice and rats and through which a circulation of air can pass from between the studs. The draft from blow can be secured by boring holes in outside lining with a good sizer auger, just above sills and wire mesh also tacked over this to keep out the vermin. Ventilation is necessary between the studs to pre- vent decay of the woodwork, which would gather moisture but for a circulation of air. The lining between the sheeting, as already stated, should be tarred paper, of high grade, and acid and water proof. If one desires to go to the added expense, light weight galvanized iron may be used as lining. This will strengthen the silo as paper will not, and has more durability. The doors should be in line over each other between the double sets of studs already referred to, and about two and a half feet apart. The layers of sheeting should be cut out between the studs, to make openings the width between the double studs and 30 inches high or more. Each door may be made of tongue and grooved flooring, nailed and screwed to another layer of the same stuff cross laid to it, with heavy tarred paper between. This door should be placed against the jambs formed by the two inside studs, and held in place by lag screws. The door should be placed flush with the inside lining, with its vertical boards inside. A gasket of rubberoid roofing can with advantage be placed be- tween door and jamb, and when the silo is to be filled, a layer of 89 roofing paper well lapped over the entire door will help preserve the silage at this point. Mr. H. E. VanNorman of this Station in Fig. 3 suggests another door construction. Fig. 3. Directions for Consiructing Door in Wisconsiiv Silo. By H. E. VanNorman. 1 and 2 are the two thicknesses of sheeting put on horizontally which make up the walls of the silo. 3 and 4 are the pieces jointly of the same thickness as the silo wall, which constitute the door and that are nailed to the 2x4 cleats. 90 No 5. vertically, put on with paper between and breaking joints. Nos. 8, 8 are 2x6 used instead of the 2x4 studs which come each side of the doors. No. 7 is a cleat 1::2 — 20 inches long nailed or bolted to the 2x6 op- posite the doorway. Nos. 5, 5 are 2x4’s cut on one side to the curve of the silo wall and notched at opposite sides to make room for wedge. No. 6 which is driven in between the cleat on the door and the strip on the studding to hold the door in place. On each side of the row of openings use 2x6 studs in places of 2x4. When first sheeting is put on make opening the desired size and flush with studs. Make opening in inner sheeting one inch smaller on all four sides, thus making a one inch flange against corresponding flanges in which the door will fit, bringing the inside face of the door flush with the inside wall. The door is thus held in place by wedges driven in be- tween the 2x4 cleats, 5, 5, on the door and the strips 7, 7, na,iled or bolted to the studs. Strips for a ladder to reach the upper doors may be nailed on the studs 8, 8, which will prevent studs from spreading. This door may be removed from the outside by loosening the wedges without disturbing the silage against it. The roof may be made of any kind desired, but the conical form, as shown on the first page is simple and attractive. Often the silo may be placed next to the barn, and a lean-to roof from the barn carried over the silo; this is cheap, yet serviceable. The floor, if artificially made, should be of cement, being grouted about three inches, with a smooth layer of cement or con- crete on the surface. A well cemented floor has a great advan- tage in keeping out the rats, and to a certain extent air. The side wall should be plastered over with cement, and connect with the floor to make an air tight joint. Only the best Portland cement is to be recommended for the floor and sides of this silo. The Modified Wisconsin Silo. Cheap silo construction in a general way is not to be com- mended, but the round silo may be built after the Wisconsin idea in a manner that will give very satisfactory service and yet at con- siderably reduced cost over the method described. In 1901 this Station erected a silo of about 65 tons capacity. 91 which may be termed a modified form of the Wisconsin silo. This was 12 feet inside diameter, 28 feet high, using 16 and 12 foot studs end to end, and the studs were set on a circular founda- tion of two layers of brick laid in mortar. The silo was placed on the general level of the ground, and no special flooring was pro- I'ig. 4 Modified Wisconsin silo of W. Gove. vided. The inside was sheeted about as directed in the preceding description, although the studs were 17 inches apart. No siding was placed on the outside of studs and no roof was provided. The total cost of this silo in round figures was $60.00, not including the cost of labor, which was supplied by two of the regular farm 92 laborers of the Station. The lumber involved in the construction cost $56.58. This silo appears strong and efficient in character. Fig. 4 represents a silo of this same type, constructed by Mr. E. W. Gove on a farm near I.aFayette under the direction of this Station. This silo is first class in every respect, so far as con- structed. The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way up there are three layers of sheeting against the studs with tarred ])aper between. The upper half of the studs has but two layers of sheeting. The sheeting was made by taking 2x6 inch white pine planks and sawing to make four boards. This silo rests on a stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. The silo is 30 feet high, and is 18 feet, 4 inches inside diameter, and holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive but durable roof was placed over it. The cost of this structure, as given to the writer, is as fol- lows. As the work was all done by the regular farm help at odd liours, the item of labor is given as an estimated cost: Studding, $13.03 ; sheeting, $63.00 ; 5 rolls paper, $6.25 ; nails, $2.40 ; cement for \vall, $2.40; labor, $20.00; total $107.08. The owner of this silo is so pleased with the service this one has rendered since its construction, that he now plans to build another like it this sum- mer of 1902. This silo as is indicated by the illustration, is con- nected by a covered passage and chute with the feeding fioor of the cattle barn. The construction of this type of silo calls for as much care in putting on sheeting, making doors and keeping out air at these ])laces and at the foundations, as is recpiired with the more ex- pensive form first described. The need for outer siding will de- pended in a measure on circumstances. Mr. Gove has had no trouble with his silage freezing this winter, while the silage at this Station froze in for a distance of a foot or more. Silage, however, is usually warm, although that in our silo the past win- ter, for almost the first time in the experience of this Station was cold, so that no heat was at hand to practically resist freezing. In northern Indiana the siding would naturally be more necessarv than in the southern half of the state, but generally speaking, in the writer’s opinion siding is not necessary, although it docs ma- terially add to the attractiveness of the silo. 93 The Stave or Tank Silo. The stave silo represents a type that has become very popu- lar during the past few years. This is of more recent adoption than the Wisconsin form. Stave silos are now extensively in use in various parts of the United States and Canada, and find many advocates. In 1898 this Station erected a stave silo. This was 12 feet inside diameter, and 28 feet high, 16 and 12 foot staves being used to get the necessary height. This silo did not extend below ground, and the foundation which was laid out as directed for ihe Wisconsin round type, was about two feet deep. In the construction of this silo white pine staves were used, dressed on four sides and with each edge bevelled 1-16 inch. The staves alternated in length, so that 16 and 12 foot lengths came side by side. The butting ends were held together by a strip of galvanized iron sheeting 2x5 inches, which was placed in a notch for the purpose sawed in the ends of the butting staves. Ten hoops of five-eighths inch round iron, with three-fourths inch ends threaded eight inches were used, the ends being welded on rhe rods. These were in two parts to facilitate tightening. As a support for the hoops at two points on opposite sides of the silo, taking the place of staves, and thus forming a part of the circle with the staves, was i)laced a 4x6 piece. Through the projecting four inches of this 4x6 at proper intervals were bored holes tlirough which ends of the hoops were j^assed. The hoops were l^ent to the curve of the silo, by placing the rod on a curved piece of oak, following the curve of foundation, and bending to a line of curve by striking with the back of a heavy maul. The erection of the stave silo will depend somewhat on local conditions, whether in a barn, quite near it on the outside, as at this Station, or some distance away, say 25 feet or more. The following is the method by which this silo was erected above the foundation, and the doors provided for. We first placed the two 12 foot 4x6 pieces in position, toe- nailing lightly the end resting on the wooden sill on the wall and bracing the upper end with a board nailed to a stake in the 94 Fig 5. Stave silo of William Thorne. 95 ground. Hoops were then put in place, being supported by the 4x6 pieces, and by a stave placed half way between them, which was held to the hoops by a staple. The holes in the 4x6 varied in distance apart, according to point in silo depth. The bottom one was six inches from foundation, and the next six were two and one-half feet apart, with the two upper spaces under the top hoop, three feet apart, the top hoop being six inches from the top. The staves were then placed in position on the lower half of silo, 16 feet length joining the 4x6 pieces, and alternating all around with a 112 foot length. One half of the lower part was first put together and the hoops tightened, after which the op- posite side was completed. Each stave was held in place by a wire nail driven in over the hoop and bent over as a hook. A good wire staple, however, is better. Before putting up the second tier of staves make a scaffolding on which to work, as directed in the construction of the Wisconsin silo on page 87. The 16 feet 4x6 pieces were then placed on end against the silo with the upper end resting between the same staves as the 12 feet length 4x6’s A hoop was put in next to the top hole, then two men at each timber raised them, hoop and all up to their places. A brace with one large nail at each end, allowed the pieces to be raised with- out tipping over. The bottom hoop for the top half was then put in place but not tightened. The staves were then put up as in the first half ; a ladder being leaned against the hoop, upon which a man worked at the top line of the silo. A a matter of convenience the strip of iron was placed in the base of the upper stave, and then dropped to the top of the lower stave and fitted in place. In putting in the upper staves, the hoops nearest to the points where the staves join should be fairly loose, otherwise the upper staves cannot be readily crowded in place. After the staves were in place, and the four hoops were drawn tight enough to hold securely, the remaining hoops were put on. One man stayed on the inside to drive back any stave which was too far in, while another tightened up the hoops. Four doors were cut by sawing four staves at an angle of 45 degrees, the long side of the door being inside the silo. In 96 constructing the silo, when the place was reached where the row of doors should come, one stave was sawed nearly through in the right place for each door, and then the work of putting in staves continued. A narrow board was tacked on to prevent breaking this stave in handling. \Mien ready to saw out the door-s, this board may be removed, and as many staves cut as desired, for width of door. Late in the season after the silo was filled, a roof was put on which is rather unique in itself. This consists of three parts. First two 2x6 pieces were laid on edge across the top and center of silo, extending north and south, and about two and one half feet apart, the north end projecting about eight inches, the south two feet beyond the staves. These were nailed to the staves. The reason for the two foot of projection is to hold the end of the carrier while filling. Next, two more 2x6’s were placed on edge on top of the silo, one on each side and outside of the previous 2 x 6 's, the ends projecting eight inches beyond the staves. To these two pieces were butted and spiked 2x4 pieces, which served as rafters, extending with a slight slope from the upper edge of 2x6 to the top of staves and equally distributed over the section of silo covered, the spaces between being about two aiTd a hall feet apart. Where each 2x4 rested on a stave, a notch about one inch deep w^as cut. These two frames of one 2x6 and four 2x4*8 were then covered with ordinary roof boarding, and each 2x6 hinged to the nailed piece along side of it and hooked to the cir- cumference of silo on inside, a board cover was then laid over the central space, the boards being nailed to 2x2 pieces which dropped down on each side to the outside 2x6 like a trap door ar- rangement. The section was also hooked to the central 2x6’s. A tinner then covered each section with tin roofing, which was afterwards painted and the work was done. This roof which is almost flat, can be easily removed at any time ,is of the most convenient type when filling, and is a safe place to work on. This stave silo without a cement floor, cost as follows, which represents a greater sum than would be necessary to spend in many localities. 97 COST OF STAVF SITO. Lime in cement in foundation $ 5 00 ]\Iason labor 3 60 Staves 70 70 Four 4x6’s for hoop supports 5 20 Ten hoops 10 00 Staples and nails 30 Roof (lumber $5.00, tin $G.00) 11 00 Labor, two men for four days 10 00 $115 89 The writer would call attention to the several features in stave silo construction that are worthy serious consideration, and if thought best, adoption. Woven wire fencing may be used as l)ands to hold tlie staves together, in place of iron hoo|)s. This fencing of the narrower width and of any good standard woven pattern, should be cut so as to give the necessary length to go about the silo, with each end securely wound and fastened al^out 4x4 pieces the length of the width of the fencing. Holes should l)e bored througli the 4x4, suital)le for half-inch or larger bolts. When this fencing is wound about the silo, the sides of the g'xg’s should be about six inches or more apart. The bolts arc tlien ])assed tlirougli the two pieces of wood with washers on eacli side, and nuts placed thereon, and the 1)locks of wood drawn toward each (Rher and the staves tightened uj). d'his fencing wire can easily be adjusted at any time. At Cornell University lilxi)eriment Sta- tion the writer examined a silo constructed on this t)lan, and it seemed very well ])ut together, simple and inexpensive. In reference to method of tightening, King in discussing hoo]) for the stave silo, states that hvc-eighths iron rods in about 16 foot lengths form the best hoops.* He recommends long threads joined with iron lugs and nuts. “The iron lugs should always be used in preference to the 2x4’s ♦Physics of Agriculture, 19U1, p. 422. 98 or 4x4’s because they are better in every way.” In visiting over loo silos in 1891, he found that the heavy timber held dampness and caused rotting in three or four years, which will not be the case where iron lugs are used. When the door of the stave silo is put in ,just at filling time, if the bevel of the door is plastered with a thick coat of puddled day, and the door forced against it, air will be excluded more satisfactorily than where the clay is not used. A layer of tarred paper between door joints and silage is also recommended There is more or less swelling and contracting on the part of stave silo that must be carefully watched. In summer the staves shrink in the empty silo, and the hoops must be kept tightened, or staves may fall in. After the silo is filled, the staves swell and then the hoops need loosening to provide for this expansion. To as- sist in keeping the staves in place it will be well to have a shoulder in the foundation wall jut into the silo about two inches, with a similar shoulder on the outside. This is really equivalent to drop])ing the staves into a loose grove where there will be rooni for adjustment for shrinkage and swelling. Staves used in silo construction are prepared in various ways. Some are simply rough sawed, but with the sides true in width. Others have the edges beveled slightly, as is usual in tank con- struction, while others use tongue and grooved staves, made with great care. The writer has seen silos with staves prepared in these different ways, and has seen superior silage in the roughest construction. Yet unquestionably too great care cannot be used in selecting material and m having each piece uniformly and well made. For this reason tongue and grooved material will be as a rule most satisfactory, although not in itself essential in every case to sucessful silage making. Objection to Stave Silos. Considerable criticism has been made against the stave silo, notwithstanding, its extensive use. King calls attention to the objection to the shrinking and swelling process of the staves,* and the movement on the sills, by which ♦Physics of Agriculture, 1901, p. 420. 99 air obtains access frequently to the silage and says : “There is no reason to hope that good silage with small losses in dry mat- ter can be made in the stave silos which are not carefully con- structed of good lumber, with the staves both bevelled, and tongued and grooved. It is really more difficult to make a stave silo air tight than it is a tank water tight, and we have found by careful tests that the unavoidable losses in a new stave silo next to the walls were as high as 23 to 28 per cent.” Numerous instances have occurred with stave silos located out of doors being moved on the foundations, or partly or en- tirely blown over. One very extensive farm in this State erected several stave silos, 25 feet each in diameter. They were made of the best material and of superior workmanship, but it was finally found absolutely necessary to line them with a layer of smooth, horizontal sheeting .to keep them from collapsing when empty, as they would repeatedly buckle owing to the pressure of wind against the slight outward curves of the sides. These silos were placed on good foundations and were stayed by guy wires, but the diameter was too great for the type of silo. Consequently, stave silos of great diameter are not to be recommended. Prob- ably 15 feet is a maximum diameter, two small deep ones, being more desirable than one large one. In the judgment of the writer, the modified Wisconsin silo is preferable to the stave form. The expense is less, the con- struction is easier, more rigid and durable, there is no cost for hoops or bands, and the silo does not require frequent adjust- ment to keep in satisfactory condition. Pro 1 )ably no form of modern wood silo will give more satisfaction than the one first described in this bulletin, with the modified form the next best thing. The Brick or Stone Silo. The early silos made in this country and France were usually made of brick or stone, with the walls covered with cement plaster. The desire for something cheaper turned Americans into the con- lOO striiction of the wooden one, until the silo made of wood became the rule and not the exception. The brick or stone silo, however, is undoubtedly the most permanent of construction and should give satisfactory preser- vation of silage. If one has the money to spart, and stone or brick are conveniently at hand, then such a silo is to be recom- mended. In constructing a brick silo, it will be well to guard the following points. Make the foundation of stone if practicable, and let the first course of brick come flush on the inside with the stone work. Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the stone work in the upper part before laying the brick, in order to keep the pressure of brick from spreading the wall before the mortar be- comes set and hard. Make a two inch air space in the walls up to within one third of the top. This will make a i>4 inch wall of three courses of brick. If however, the silo is to be over 24 feet inside diameter, then a four brick wall is really necessary one- third the way up, then the next third of three bricks and the last third of two bricks. The air space should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron tie rods should also be laid around in the wall be- tween the doors, as recommended in the stone work. It is also important that the brick shall be wet when laid; otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be dried out too rapidly. The walls should be plastered over very smoothly with a coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick, and then every two or three years this should be well whitewashed with thin cement to keep the wall protected from the effects of the acid in the silage. King recommeuds that the floor jambs be made of 3x6’s or 3x8'’s, rabbetted two inches deep to receive the door on the inside. The center of the jambs outside should be grooved and a tongue in- serted projecting three-fourths of an inch outward to set back into the mortar and thus secure a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The doors may be made of two layers of matched flooring with tarred paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb so as to give a perfectly smooth face next to the silage. 101 The stone silo should have a wall about two feet thick below the surface of the ground, and this may be laid in the cheaper grades of cement. Above the surface a good grade of Portland cement should be used. A thickness of wall of i'8 inches at the surface of the ground is desirable but this may be gradually re- duced to 12 inches at the top, keeping the inner surface of the silo perpendicular. It is important to have five-eighths inch iron rods, with angles on the ends, laid in the wall at intervals be- tween each door, to keep the wall from cracking or spreading be- fore the mortar or cement is thoroughly set. These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the curve of the wall, and the angled ends should lap by each other for three or four inches. Mr. Samuel Smith of Cass Co., in 1901 constructed a round stone silo 30 feet deep and 14 feet inside diameter. The stone is 12 feet below the ground on a hillside, and 18 feet above, and is laid in Portland cement. The stone is pointed on the outside and is plastered on the inside with cement. He states that No. i quarry stone was used and “any stones large enough to reach both sides of the silo wall, were broken so that the weather would not have a direct conductor inside and I never have had one bit of silage frozen.” He used 4x4 pieces, four feet long, set into the wall at top and projecting five inches above, to which the roof was anchored.. A skeleton frame of 2x4's covered with shingled sheeting forms the roof. It will be well to place silos below the surface a distance. This should not be deep enough on level land however, to require great exertion to get out the silage. Under such circumstances, four feet is deep enough. Cement or Grout Silos. During the past few years the use of cement silos has been adopted in Canada, especially in Huron and. Perth countries. Valuable information on this subject has been contributed to the Farmers* Advocate, of London Ontario, Canada, by users of cement silos, from which the following notes are abstracted. 102 The foundation should be sunk in the ground some distance, and the wall rest on a hard bottom. One person states that he dug a trench two feet deep to hard bottom, and then filled it with cement and large stones, having a wall i8 inches wide and two feet high. The walls are erected above ground by the aid of ‘‘cribs.” “We have a double set of cribs. Each crib is i8 inches deep, and in four sections, the inside crib hinged in three places and tightened at the fourth with a clamp. The outside one is bolted together, and two one inch washers taken off every time you raise the crib, so as to get the right taper on the outside of the wall. There is a rim around the top side of each crib, one fitted into the other, so that they cannot get out of shape. We stand eight poles around die outside of the silo, and tie poles across these, and then lay planks across the corners, and that makes a good scaffold, on which you can wheel the cement around in a wheelbarrow and shovel it into the wall. We use twO' wheel- barrows, one getting filled while we empty the other. We draw all the cement up with a horse and swing pole. In mixing cement and gravel, we use from one to nine to one to twelve, according to the quality of gravel.” For plastering the inside the best quality of clean gritty sand and Portland cement is necessary, one part cement and two parts sand which has been well sifted. The walls arc usually thicker at the bottom than at the top. A foot wall of i8 inches and top of nine inches will no doubt prove satisfactory. Wdiile stay rods are not placed in all cement silos, they prevent the cracking of the walls during the process of drying. It is important that a silo of this type be built early in the summer and the walls kept frequently sprinkled so as to not permit them to dry too rapidly. There should be several weeks for the wall to set in. The cost of such, a silo as this varies as might be expected. One man gives the total cost of a silo 28 feet high and iij feet in diameter inside at $110.90, which includes labor and board. 103 The cost given by another for a silo of about this same size and capacity was $iio.oo. Still another gives the cost of a silo 30 feet high with inside diameter of 14 feet at $162.50, including $15.00 for a roof. These silos quite generally give satisfaction. Capacity of a Round Silo The following table is adapted from bulletin 59 of the Wis- consin Station, by King, using round figures mainly, instead of decimals. The Approximate Capacity in tons of Round Silos for well matured Corn Silage. Depth of Silo In INSIDE diami:ter ok silo, ; IN FEET. feet 15 16 17 18 19 2^ 21 1 22 1 23 24 25 26 1 20 58% 67 751/2 84% 941/2 104i/2iil5%ll26i/2 1138% 150% 163% 176% 1 21 63 711/2 80% 901/2 101 Ill%|l23%ll35% |148 161 174% 189 22 671/4 761/2 86 1/2 96% 108 119 1/2 il 31% 1144% 1158 172% 18634 202 1 23 71% 81 V 2 92 103% 115 1271/2 il40%!l54% 16834 183% 199% 215% i 24 76 861/2 97% 1091/2 122 135% 149% 1 163% 179 195 211% 22834 1 25 ' i 8O1/2 89% 1031/2 116 129% 143% 1158 11731/2 189% 206% 224 242% 1 2G 8514 97% 109% 123 137 152 11 671/2 1183% 201 21834 237% 256% j 27 90% 1021/2 115% 129% 144% 100% 1 176 34! 194 212 230% 250% 271 28 95 1108 122 1 ZQ % 1521/2 169 1861a [204% 223% 243% 264 285% 29 100 !113% 128% 144 160% 1771/2 195341215 235 25534 277% 300% 30 105 11191/2 134% 151 I681/2 1861/2 20534122534 246% 26834 291% 315% 31 110 125 141 158 176% 195%|21534!23G%I258% 28134 305 330 LJ^ 115 |l36 147% 165% 1841/2 204% 12251/2 1247% 1270% 294% 319% 345% This table should be of considerable service to persons con- templating building. One may readily ascertain his own silo needs, by figuring on the amount his stock will consume per day during the non-pasturing or soiling season, or say 180 days. One mature cow will consume to advantage from 25 to 50 pounds per day, depending on size and conditions. A beef animal should not be fed quite so heavily as a dairy cow, and 50 pounds is an ample feed for a heavy milker, for all cattle should also be fed hay as well as silage. 104 Should a Silo Have a Roof? Should a silo have a roof is an important question. At the present time many consider the roof quite indispensable, but there are numerous silos to-day located outside the barn, without a roof over them. While a roof may perhaps not be considered a necessity, it is a convenience, and has its advantages. In re- gions of considerable snow and rain, silage free from snow and uniform in its moisture is preferable to that which is receiving large washings of water or is more or less covered with snow at frequent intervals. A silo, however, without a roof is filled to its top more conveniently than where the roof is on, and occasion will also happen when the rain water will be a desirable addition to the silage. The roof however, during the warmer months of the year, if silage be used, should protect the silage from drying out too rapidly and will also keep the walls of a wooden structure in better shape than when exposed to sunshine to such a degree as to pronif te rapid shrinkage or drying cut. Estimating Material and Cost of Silos. The cost of material for constructing a silo varies greatly ac- cording to location. Timber is cheaper in northern or southern Indiana than in Central Indiana or the prairie region. Conse- quently no figures of cost for construction will be given in detail, for persons to base their estimates on. Instead, bills of material are herewith given, with spaces in which one may write the cost of the same as obtained in his neighborhood by which he may ap- proximate the cost of a silo of moderate size. These estimates are made for silos built in the open on level land. On hillsides deeper walls may be made to advantage and where the silo is lo- cated wdthin a building, no roof will be needed. Consequently various factors may alter the application of these estimates, which are only offered as suggestive, with the hope they may prove helpful. 105 ESTIMATE OF MATERIAL FOR WISCONSIN IMPROVED SIEO. Si 2 e 30 feet deep, M feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. Cost Brick — 3375 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep Studs — 50 pieces 2x4 — 16ft. long Studs — 50 pieces 2x4 — 14 ft long Flooring for doors — 32 ft 4 matched Sheeting — 3,000 ft half inch resawed from 2x6 — 16 ft. plank sawed three times, dressed one side to uniform thick- ness for inside lining of two layers Lining — 1,500 feet of same for outside Tar building paper — 200 yards water and acid proof Nails — 200 lbs. 8 penny Spikes — 20 lbs Rafters — 22 12x4 — 10 ft. long. For usual ridge roof Sheeting for roof — 350 feet of 16 ft boards Shingles — 3,000 Shingle nails — 12 lbs Dormer window for filling through Paint — 7 gallons providing two coats Cement — 2 bbls. cementing bottom Total Cost ESTIMATE OF MATERTAD FOR MODIFIED WISCONSIN SIEO. Same capacity as preceding. Cost Brick — 350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16ft long Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 14ft long Sheeting — 3,000 ft. half-inch, resawed from 2x6, 16ft plank sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for in- side lining of two layers Tar Building Paper — 200 yards water and acid proof Nails — 150 lbs. 8 penny .• Spikes — 12 lbs Total Cost No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided for in this construction. estimate of MATERIAL FOR STAVE SIEO. Size 12x28 feet. Capacity 60 tons. Brick — 1,800 for foundation, 1ft thick 2ft deep Staves — 77, 2x6, 16ft. dressed 4 sides Cost io6 Staves — 77, 2x6, 12ft. dressed 4 sides.. Rods — 10, 19V2 ft. long of V 2 inch iron, with 5-8 threaded ends and nuts Staples — 2 gross i/^x2 inch Iron Tighteners — 20 holding ends of hoops Rafters — 2, 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center Rafters — 2, 2x6 pieces, 13ft. long for roof, next center.... Side rafters — 48 ft. 2x4 pieces Roof sheeting — 170 ft. common Tin sheeting — 196 ft Cement for floor, 2bbls Total Cost Location of Silos in Indiana. Silos are found most abundant in the more distinctively dairy sections of the State, and especially about the larger cities and in the counties where creameries are common. South of Indian- apolis but comparatively few silos occur. Lake, Porter, Allen, IMarion, Henry, Wayne and Union counties probably represent the best silo districts in Indiana. Persons wishing to inspect silos before building, will fmd good specimens of round ones at the following addresses, which represent a wide distribution over rhe vState. You should enclose a stamp for reply if you write an} of the following addresses : Wisconsin round form Y/. L. Thompson, Indianapolis, Marion Co. Stave J. J. W. Billingsley, Indianapolis, Marion Co. Wisconsin modified E. W. Gove, LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. ^yisconsin modified and stave... Experiment Station, I.aFayette, Tippecanoe Co. Stave C. T. Mattingly, Plymouth, Marshall Co. Stave *. J. M. Hack, Crown Point, Lake Co. Stone Samuel Smith, I.ogansport, Cass Co. Stave T. E. Ellison, Fort Wayne, Allen Co. Wisconsin School Feeble Minded Youth, Fort Wayne, Allen Co. Stave T. C. Burnside, Liberty, Union Co. Stave Call Hiisselman, Auburn, DeKalb Co. Stave, sheeted American Farm Co., Morocco, Newton Co. Round, plastered. . .E. F. Hanning, Evansville, R. R. 3, Vanderburg Co. Stave J. W. Griffiths, Dunreith, Henry Co. Stave William Thorne, Huntington, Henry Co. The word Silage is considered a preferable word to Ensilage. Purdue University. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station. C. S. PLUMB, Director. LaFayette, Ind. Bulletin No. 92, Vol. XI, April, 1902. Fertilizer Tests on Tomatoes. BY H. A. HUSTON. At many points in central Indiana are large establishments for canning vegetables. One of the most important products of these factories is canned tomatoes. There are six states in which large quantities of tomatoes are canned and among these, Indiana stands second. For the past five years, 1897 to 1901, Maryland packed an average of 1,840,000 cases; Indiana, 697,200 ;New Jer- sey, 685^,400; California, 473,200; Delaware, 360,000 and Ohio, 190,200. A case contains 24 cans holding three pounds each. The amount packed each year varies greatly; thus the cases packed in each of the six states for five years were as follows : STATE. I 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 j Maryland i . .| 1382000 1919000 2840000 13G8000 1G91000 ! Indiana . . 1 588000 1020000 828000 G30000 420000 New Jersey . . ; 520000 810000 871000 815000 411000 California . . 30GOOO 300000 508000 556000 69G000 Delaware . . 1 209000 450000 547000 381000 213000 Ohio . .| 153000 211000 249000 234000 104000 These statistics are furnished through the courtesy of Mr. W. A. Sampson, vSecretary of the Indiana Canners’ Association. One bushel of tomatoes will make 14 cans of three pounds each, or one case of tomatoes rej)resents 1-7^5 bushel of tomatoes, so that Indiana ])roduces on the average 1,200,000 bushels of toma- toes each year for which farmers receive about $240,000. The above table is published mainly for the purpose of f.alHng attention to the very great variation in the crop from io8 year to year. With our grain and corn crops, the amount of rainfall during the growing season is the main factor in de- termining the amount of the crop. The rainfall is of the utmost importance in determining the yield of tomatoes, but in addition to this a late spring or an early frost in the autumn may diminish the crop fully one half. The crop is also subject to fungus diseases which are more apt to result in serious damage when sev- eral successive tomato crops are grown on the same land. Most of the work published on the subject of tomato raising relates to the early market crop. For this reason many of the sug- gestions offered are not applicable to the crop for canneries. In raising tomatoes for canneries, the grower, first of all seeks a large yield. Barly maturity is of less importance since he contracts to sell the whole crop at a fixed price. This fact must be taken into consideration in selecting the variety of tomato to be raised, the soil, and the kind of fertilization. In Indiana the usual practice is for the canneries to furnish the plants so that the grower has only to deal with the selection of the soil, the fer- tilization, the cultivation, and harvesting of the crop. The Soil. For tomatoes for canneries a much heavier soil and one of higher natural fertility may be used than is recommended for to^ inatoes for the early market. In Indiana the growing season in the field is in an average year from May i'5 to September 15. In very favorable seasons the growing season may extend a month longer. Hence, there is ample time for the plant to utilize the food in- gredients present in the soil, provided the water supply is uni- form enough throughout the season. During many seasons the rainfall is low in July and August, and the growth of the plants is checked. This may be provided against in some measure by deep plowing of the land. This is best done in the fall ; if fall plowing is impracticable the land should be plowed as early as possible in the spring, so as to store as much as possible of the water of the spring rains. After a thorough preparation of the land for setting out the plants, a thin layer of fine earth main- 109 tained on the surface by shallow cultivation will render great ser- vice in saving the water supply. Lands which have had green crops turned under or to which applications of barnyard manure have been made will have their water holding capacity increased and will also retain the water better. Where barnyard manure is used on tomato land it is advisable to apply it in the fall and work it well into the soil at that time. While it is rather more difficult to cultivate tomatoes on heavier lands it is the experience of catsup makers that on these lands a tomato of superior cpiality is produced in that the relative cpiantity of pulp in the tomato is increased. For heavy yield it is essential that strong land or heavy fertilization be used. The crop for the cannery is one for which a relatively low price is obtained and hence the cost of fertilization has to be carefully considered. While it is true that on many of the soils of central Indiana a remunerative crop may be produced without fertiliza- tion, it is also true that on nearly all of these soils additional fer- tilization may be prohtable. The tomato plant is a gross feeder and requires an abundant supply of potash. Voorhees* estimates that lo tons of fruit with the accompanying vines would contain 57 pounds of nitrogen, 16 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 94 pounds of potash. While the composition of the crop does not indicate tlie quantities of each fertilizer ingredient that can be most profital.dy used, it is useful when considered in connection with the known qualities of the soil. There is no question that in Indiana soils that contain con- siderable clay, phosphoric acid is relatively low and that for crops like corn and vegetables the application of potash is also needed to produce the most profitable crops. These needs are greater in proportion to the number of years that the land has been under cultivation. The nitrogen supply is more variable, but on lands where a rotation with clover has been used, the nitrogen sup[)ly is ♦Fertilizer, p. 233. no probably considerable higher than on the eastern lands devoted to the late tomato crop. As a rule, the canneries in Indiana are located in sections of the state where very little fertilizer is used on any crop and where farmers have never given any attention to the subject of commer- cial manures. The manufacturers of fertilizers for use in Indiana have not oflered goods especially prepared for tomatoes because of a lack of demand and from a lack of knowledge of the requirements of our soils. During the past few years both growers and canners have occasionally asked for advice and assistance in regard to fertilizers to be used on tomatoes. As the fertilizers in our market were not of the composition found most useful for late tomatoes, in other sections it was deemed advisable to undertake some experimental work on the subject. Fertilizer E,xperiments on Tomatoes. In the spring of 1899, I met a large number of tomato grow- ers at Franklin, Indiana and later arranged to conduct tests on four farms at Franklin and Greenwood. The formula used was based on that recommended by Voorhees for late tomatoes*, but instead of using bone tankage we used azotin and acid phosphate in proper amounts, since it was desirable to have plants to which no phosphoric acid was applied. Voohees’ formula calls for a fertilizer containing: Nitrogen 4.7 per cent. Prosphoric acid 7.2 per cent. Potash 12.5 per cent. It is the intention to have part of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid immediately available, and a part of each available during the maturing period. With this purpose in view the goods are made of Nitrate of soda 400 pounds Bone tankage 700 pounds Acid phosphate 400 pounds Muriate of potash 500 pounds The bone tankage is a product often called butchers’ tankage, and ♦Voorhees; Fertilizers, p. 233. Ill contains about five per cent of nitrogen and 1 1 per cent of phos • phoric acid. The other materials are all well known and readiU obtained in the Indiana markets. It is recommended to use 500 pounds of this mixture to the acre, and our experiments were based on this amount. The materials for one ton of this mixture could be purchased at retail for about $32.00, making the cost per acre $8.00. The system adopted in planning these tests was the usual one for field testing of soils. The plats were one twentieth of an acre each, and some extra plats were used for special purposes. The only farm on which the work was completed was that of Mr. Charles Keay of Franklin. Mr. Keay continued the work for two years and his reports are complete in every detail, and give evi- dence of most careful work. Mr. Ktay’s land originally had a good deal of beach timber on it ; it is a moderately heavy clay loam in good mechanical condition, has been cleared 30 years, was never manured, and in a fair season will raise 24 bushels of wheat per acre or 50 bushels of corn. At the rate of setting plants on this farm, there were 2240 tomato plants to the acre or 112 plants in each plat. The plats were arranged to consist of four rows of 28 plants each, and be- tween each plat two rows were left to which no fertilizer was ap- plied. The following a])plications were made to the plats : Plat No. 1.... No fertilizer. Plat No. 2 .... 121/2 lbs. Nitrate of soda 10 lbs. Azotin 6 lbs. Acid phosphate 10 lbs. Plat No. 3.... 61/4 lbs. Nitrate of soda 5 lbs. Azotin 3 lbs. Acid phosphate 5 lbs. Plat No. 4.... 121/2 lbs. Acid prosphate 10 lbs. Plat No. 5.... Plat No. 6 .... ....Muriate of potash I 2 V 2 lbs. Nitrate of soda 10 lbs. Azotin 6 lbs. 112 Plat No. 7.... ....Nitrate of soda... 10 lbs. Azotin 6 lbs. Acid phosphate... 10 lbs. Plat No. 8 .... Nitrate of soda... 10 lbs. Plat No. 9.... Azotin 13 lbs. Plat No. 10.... Plat No. 11.... in 1900 only. The fertilizers were prepared at the Station, and the quantity for each plant was put in a small paper sack. In 1899 the plants were set May 19, and in 1900 they were set May 18. The fertilizer was well mixed with the soil about the plant at the time of setting-. Plat 3 to which only one half the amount of fertilizer was added was included to get a little light on the ques- tion of the amount of fertilizer necessary. Plat 8, on which ni- trate alone was used, was introduced because in the eastern states nitrate alone has often proved very profitable, and Plat 9 was introduced to compare organic nitrogen with nitrate. Plat II was introduced in 1900 by Mr. Keay to observ^e the ef- fect of barnyard manure. Part of the manure was applied to clover sod in the spring of 1899, and the land plowed in the spring of 1900, and top dressed with manure. Mr. Keay esti- mates that the manure was applied at the rate of V2 to 15 two horse loads (35 bushel wagon bed) per acre. In tables i and 2 are Mr. Keay’s records for each year. They are given in detail in order to show not only the total gain bur also the gain at each picking, since it seldom happens that all the tomatoes are harvested before the vines are killed by the frost and it is a matter of much importance to learn if the fertilizer aids in increasing the relative amounts on the early pickings The results on plats 2 and 3 in both seasons show the desir- ability of using a complete fertilizer on lands of this kind, and that it is desirable to use it in liberal amounts. The increased yield on plat 2 over that on plat 3 is much more than enough to pay for the increased cost of the fertilizer. The use of nitrogen alone was unprofitable either in the form of nitrate or in the form of organic nitrogen. It is probable that on lands of this type where (0 u o H < S o H 2 O to h 2 S b] ou X b] bj N H4 H4 h b) b< >> <0 w :x£ tf) <9 x: U *0 E 1 ^ i O ■Ji £ M 00 00 1—1 C000Ot-iHTt<05t-05t- iHrHTH(MLOCNq(MCOC CO oosc-oooasco-^^ooooc- i- O i-iTHi-IC^COlOiH r-l r 1 tsi 00 (M r}i Csl r !cd o 1-H iH 1 00 1 r. OOOOLOOOCCC^LOO'^CO CO .o rH Csl CO CO CO i-H Ttl 1—1 l"’ 1 li-H OO QQ COOOOi-'Oit-'t'COOCD tH ;LO ,05 ,o cocNqloa5(MC W X OOt-rHTtNOt-THai— ITJI CM to rH* COlOi-H(Mt— cot— 00 CD CM •rfCOrHCOOC''flOt— iH(M , CM CM CD 00 CM Tt< o T-H t- CM OC001(M-iru000i-'CMi-H t- CO X 1 -Hi-H CMCOCNJiHlOr-iCO CM i P rH CO j o 0) bi) 1 c o Ui p cJ rt Jiw4^00O5tOtO OOtOOO OO OO 00 C71 00 00 OO to to (05 CO to to OO CO H-i to 00 to (Ol CO to 00 4^ to O TABLE II. YIELDS IN 1900 ON KEAY FARM. >5 clover is used in rotation, a fertilizer containing nitrogen three per cent, available phosphoric acid, seven per cent, .and potash twelve per cent would be nearly as serviceable as one containing five per cent of nitrogen and the cost of fertilizer could be reduced about $5.00 per ton. If growth was not vigorous enough, 50 to 100 pounds of nitrate could be applied early in July. The remark- able result on plat 7 in 1900 is probably due to some peculiarity of the soil on this plat. At the time the plats were laid out, it was noticed that the appearance of a part of this plat was quite different from the rest of the land. The remarkable results of the use of manure on plat 1 1 are of much interest as indicating what may be accomplished on soils that have received no manure for 30 years. Neither season was very favorable to tomato growing, and the yields are below the average. Mr. Keay especially calls attention to the fact that on the fer- tilized plats there was not only a great increase of yield but that many more tomatoes ripened early in the season, a matter of much importance in years when early frost occurs. This early ripening did not occur on the manured plat. The results of these experiments certainly indicate that there is a field for the profitable use of commercial fertilizers in to- mato growing on lands such as were used. In 1899 the ex- periments were duplicated on the Station farm with the result tha/ the use of fertilizers gave very little increase in yield*. The yields were large, 12 tons per acre. The Station farm is second bottom land and experiments in the past show that it does not re- spond to the use of fertilizers on vegetables. The formula given for compounding the fertilizer uses muri- ate of potash. Some experiments on early tomatoes seem to indi- cate that the sulfate of potash gives tomatoes of better quality. If one wishes to secure better (piality as well as an increased yield it would probably be better to s])ecify potash derived from sulfate. All properly made tobacco fertilizers contain the sulfate and the material is readily obtained. The same fjuantity should be used as i.s given for muriate. Asth annual report, p. dS. Purdue University. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station. C. S. PLUMB, Director. LaFayette, Ind. Bulletin No. 93, Vol. XI, June, 1902. The Influence of Condimerital Stock Food in Fatten- ing Swine, BY C. S. PLUMB. For years American stockmen have fed to a more or less ex- tent what are g-enerally regarded as conditional stock foods. The foods often contain considerable oil meal, some fenugreek, which gives it a pleasant ordor, ground ginger, gentian, etc. These foods are more especially used by owners of horses and cattle, and perhaps have been comparatively little used by pig feeders. So far as I am aware, foods of this class have not been fcrl swine at our Experiment Stations, excepting in a very small way, and no definite information has been available as to the merits of such food fed swine. To get some data on the subject, eight pigs were selected and the following experiment was begun on October 16, iBqq, under the charge of Mr. H. E. VanNorman, assistant to the writer. The oniwals used consisted of six Poland China sows, far rowed on June 22, 1899, and two Chester White sows farroweif on Tunc 10, 1899. They were divided into two groups, so as to Il8 bring three Poland Chinas and one Chester White in each group, as follows : Nos. 257, 258 and 260 in Lot I, and Nos. 254, 256 and 259 in Lot II are Poland Chinas, and No. 265 in Lot I and No. 264 in Lot II are Chester Whites. On October 16 the four pigs in Lot I weighed 260 pounds or 65 pounds each, while those in Lot II weighed 257 pounds or 64 pounds each. The pigs in each lot zverc fed a mixture of half shorts and half hominy feed, while those in Lot I were given in ad- dition a small amount of American stock food in each ration. This character of feed was supplied during the term of the ex- periment which extended from October 16, 1S99 to February 14, 1900, a term of 122 days. The following table shows the amount and character of tlie food eaten by each lot of pigs during each weekly period : TABLE. I. Total food fed per period, lbs. and oss. Periods, 7 days each Lot I Lot II Shorts Hominy feed Americin Stock food Shorts Hominy feed I Oct 18-25 j *“42 34 m 42341b lib 15 oz 423^1b 423^1b II Oct 25-Novl i 511/2 lb 51 1/2 lb 21b 14 oz 51 1/2 lb 511/2 lb III Nov 1-8 • 1 56 lb 56 lb 21b 10 oz 56 lb 56 lb IV I Nov 8-15 56 lb 56 . lb 21b 10 oz 56 lb 56 lb V Nov 15-22 63 lb 63 lb 21b 10 oz 63 lb 63 lb VI Nov 22-29 70 lb 70 lb 21b 10 oz 70 lb 70 lb VII Nov 29-Dec 6 83 lb 83 lb 21b 10 oz I 83 lb 83 lb VIII Dec 27-Jau 3 84 lb 84 lb 51b 4 oz 1 84 lb 84 lb IX 1 Dec 13-20 84 lb 84 lb 31b 8 oz 84 lb 84 lb X Dec 20-27 84 lb 84 Ib 31b 8 oz 84 lb 84 lb XI Dec. 27-Jan 3 84 lb 1 1 84 lb 51b 4 oz 84 lb 84 lb XII Jan 3-10 84 lb 1 ' 84 lb 51b 4 oz 84 lb 84 lb j XIII Jan 10-17 84 lb 1 84 lb 51b 4 0z 84 lb 84 lb 1 XIV Jan 17-24 91 lb 1 i 91 lb 51b 4 oz 91 lb 91 lb I XV Jan 24-31 98 lb 1 1 98 lb 51b 4 oz 98 lb 98 lb j XVI .Jan 31-Feb 7 68 lb 1 1 68 lb 51b 4 oz 85 lb 85 lb 5 XVII Feb 7-14 1 90 lb ' 1 90 lb 51b 4 oz 90 lb 90 lb :’ '20da Total ||1273 Vj lb |T273%lt) 164tb 5 oz ||129Ft41b |1290i4m 1 ii9 During the experiment the pigs in each lot were weighed at the end. of each weekdy period, and a record was kept of the same. The general health of the animals was excellent, and there wa.s no set-back to the experiment. Table II gives the weights of each pig, which are as follows: TABLE II. Weights of pigs in pounds. Date Lot I Lot 11 1 Gd Americau Stock Food. Ftd no 1 Stock Foo . 1&9;L No. No. No. No. Total No. No. No. No. Total I'.HJO 257 258 200 to 5 Wt. 2.54 270 25!) 204 Wt. Oct 18.. 1 58.5 i 44. 67. 94.5 1 !264. 53. 56.5 “6275“ “^887“ ' 126i7 Oot 25.. 1 69. i 51. 1 75.5 108. 1 1303.5 60. 65. 70. 98. i [293. Nov 1.. 1 78. 1 1 57.5 i 86. 117. 1 1338.5 1 72. 71.5 78. 107.5 i [329. Nov. 8. . II 89. 1 65. 1 95. 1 il28. 1 j377. j 82.5 82. 89.5 120. 1 !374. Nov. 15.1 j 95. 1 jl03. 1 |137. 1406. 1 87. 90.5 93. 123. 1 i393.5 Nov. 22.1 M06.5 81.5 1114. 150.5 1 [452.5 jioo. 99. 100.5 134. 1 [433.5 Nov. 29. j |119. ! 91. |126.5 160. 1 1496.5 1113.5 112.5 110. 148. 1 [490. I>ec. 6...I 130. ■105.5 ,138. 174. 1 [547.5 [128. 1 121. 129.5 103. 1 i541.5 Dec 13. .| 1140.5 I 113.5 1147. 189.5 [590.5 |l3o. T29. 137. 170. ' [571. Dac 20. . . j 1)149.5 1131.5 ■|161. [202.5 ]644.5 1147.5 [146.5 147.5 184.5 j 16^6, Dec 27.. 1 il64. [135. ,175. [216. [690. 162.5 159. 159.5 191. ! |G72. •Ian. 3... |169. ;i4L 1184. [221. [715. 169. ]166. 169.5 197. 1 |701.5 Jan 10.. |l85. T54. ■198. 234. [771. 181. 182.5 181. 205. 1 1749.5 Jan 17.. 1194. 1163. 205. |239. 801. 193. 194. 191.5 208. 1 786.5 Jan 24.. 1202. [ 175 . 1213. |256. 846. 206. 203. 204. 216. 1 829. Jan 31.. 1219. >193.5 '[229. |271. 912.5 [217. 215. 209. »235. 876. Feb. 7.. [217. 1192. ;227. [258.5 894.5 1 [227. 225. [221. 235. 908. Feb 14.. 'I 22 . 3 . )202. 1245. [276. 1^46. 1 [241. 231. |235. 242. 949. To’l gain|jl64.5 j158. 11787“ )181T5~' [[6827“ 111887“ 17475“ |f72.5" 1547“ 16897 From the tables it is shown that the following gains were made : Lot. T Con (lirnental 1‘ood . Total gain in 120 days 682.0 lt)s Average gain per pig 170.5 Tbs Average daily gain per pig 1.42IT)S Average daily gain per lot 5.68 tbs Lot II. No Condimenial Kood. 689.0 lbs. 172.2 lbs. 1.431bs. 5. 74 lbs. 120 If we examine into the cost of production, taking- seventy cents(./0 cts.) per hundred as the cost of the shorts and hominv feed which was the case at this time, and estimating five cents (.05 cts.) per pound as tlie price of the stock food, we obtain the following resuluts : Lot I. Lot II. Total pounds of gain 682 689. Value of gain at cts per lb $30.69 $31.00. Total cost of food consumed 21.03 18.06. Profit $ 9.66 $13.94. Cost of producing each pound of gain 3.0 cts 2.6 cts Pounds of food required per lb of gain 3.84 3.71 The results of this experiment favor Lot II where no condi- mental food was used. Another experiment in this same field was taken up by ^Ir. C. W. Ely, a 1902 graduate of the School of Agriculture of Pur- due University, under the direction and supervision of the writer. Mr. Ely made a very complete report upon this experiment, from which the writer abstracts the following details: Six grade Poland China barrows were used, and were divid- ed into two lots of three each. On January 23, 1902, Lot I weighed 176^ lbs. and Lot II, 177! lbs. For one week following this date each lot was fed the same food, consisting of equal parts corn meal and shorts. On January 30, when the experiment be- gan, Lot I showed a gain of 14 lbs, and Lot II of 1 lbs. Beginning on January 30, in the afternoon Lot I was fed one tablespoonful of Rauh's Stock Food, in the grain ration which was the same for each lot as during tlie previous week, this be- ing adopted as the permanent ration. An analysis of this Stock Food given in the Twelfth Annual Report of this Experiment Station, shows that it contains 53.70 per cent protein, and that it contains a large amount of animal matter. On March 6, Standard Stock Food was substituted for the Rauh's. Table III gives the weekly weights of the individual pigs in each lot, and the total weights. TABLE III. Weights of pigs, in pounds. 1900. 1 Lot I Lot II I No. 1 No No. Total No. No N(K Total I Date :597 393 j 399 487 lbs., while Lot II showed a gain of 366 lbs., or 21 lljs in favor of Lot I. The.se pigs were fed and ate the following amounts of food, as shown in Table IV. TABLE IV. Pounds and ozs. of food fed per week. Lot I Lot II Date li, corn meal, V 2 shorts and stock food 1/2 corn meal and V 2 shorts 1 9 0 2 Meal and shorts ^ Stock food Jan. 30-Feb. 6 . . . | 63 lbs. 12 ozs. 5% ozs. I 61 lbs. 1 Feb. 6-Feb 13 ...| 74 lbs. 0 ozs. 5% ozs. 7.0 lbs. 12 ozs. Feb. 13-Feb. 20 ...' 86 lbs. 6 ozs. 5% ozs. 82 lbs. 0 ozs. Feb. 20-Feb. 27 ... 93 lbs. 0 ozs. 534 ozs. 1 89 lbs. 0 ozs. j 1 Feb. 27-Mch. 6 . . 106 lbs. 12 ozs. 8 ozs. ] 103 lbs. 10 ozs. 1 1 Mch. 6*-Mch. 13... .i 107 lbs. 2 ozs. 534 ozs. ] 113 lbs. 12 ozs. 1 1 Mch. 13-Mch. 20 .. 113 lbs. 0 ozs. 8.4 ozs. [ 113 lbs. 6 ozs. i j Mch 20-Mch 27 .. 126 ll.s. r s. 1 4 ozs. 1 1 127 lbs. 0 ozs. / 1 Mch. 27-Apr. 3 ... 130 lbs. 4 ozs. 1 934 ozs. 108 lbs. 10 ozs. ' 1 Apr. 3-Apr. 10 .. 141 lbs. 14 ozs. 1 11.2 ozs. 133 lbs. 6 ozs. [ Apr. 10- Apr. 17 .. 143 lbs. 4 ozs. 11 .8 ozs. 152 lbs. 0 ozs. j 1 Apr. 17-Apr. 24 .. 169 lbs. 0 ozs. 14. ozs. 170 lbs. 4 ozs. 1 1 Total 1 11354 lbs. 8 ozs. i 10014 ozs. 1324 lbs. 12 ozs. j * Began use Standard stock food March 6. During the first three or four weeks the pigs fed condimental food ate apparently with more relish than did Lot II, hut this dif- ference in appetite gradually disappeared. As Lot I ate slightly more than Lot II, perhaps this was due to the condimental fooil although it is more probable that it is due to the fact that Pig No. 402 of Lot II was a poorer individual than the other five pigs, 'fhe health of the pigs was fairly good all through the experiment. A financial statement of this experiment appears as follows : Lot. I Lot II Gain in weight 387 lbs. at 6 cts per lb $23.22 Value of 67714 lbs. corn meal at $1.35 cwt 9.14 Value of 67714 lbs. shorts at $1.00 cwt 6.77 Value of 614 lbs. condiment at 5 cts 33 Total value $16,24 Profit 6.98 Gain in weight 366 lbs. at 6 cts. lb $21.96 Value of 662% lbs. corn meal at $1.35 $ 8.84 Value of 662% lbs. shorts at $1.00 6.62 Total value $15.46 $15.46 Profit $ 6.50 This shows a profit in favor of the condimental food, of 48 cents. These two different experiments, in results are very general- ly in harmony with experiments conducted by Lawes and Gil- bert in England, on the influence of stock foods, and also with other experiments where similar studies were made. In themselves, there is no special objections to stock foods. In fact there are brands made that are rich in nutriment, and have a high value as a food. The principle criticism that can be made i-f the excessive price generally charged for them, which is far beyond their value. No doubt, in many cases oil meal will give fully as satisfactory results as the stock food. The feeder should study this matter carefully, and if he will use a variety of food, including oil meal, and will ascertain the value of some of the more common tonics that may be given stock in the foods, he will secure no doubt equally good results at the least cost. He will in fact be able to make his own stock food, and thus save paying high prices for feed of an unknown character. - Purdue Universitu Aoricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN No. 94. Vol. 12 FEBRUARY, 1903 DISEASES OF SHEEP. rrr.MsiiEi) I’.v THE Si’A'iton, LaFave'I'I'e, Ini)., r. S. A. BOARD OF CONTROL, William V. Stuaet, President, WILLIA3I A. Banks, Sylvester Johnson, David £. Bee3I, Job H. YanXatta, LaPayette, Tippecanoe Co. LaPorte, LaPorte Co. Irvington, Marion Co. Spencer, Owen Co. LaPayette Tippecanoe .Co. .Port Wayne, Allen Co. (rreenfleld, Hancock Co. Port Wayne^ Allen Co. Shelby ville, Shelby Co. James M. Barrett, Charles Domning, Charles B. Stemen, Charles Major, Edward A. Ellsworth, Secretary. James M. Powler, Treasurer. STATION STAFF. WiNTHROP E. Stone, A. M., Ph. D., Henry A. Huston, A. M., A. C., WILLIA3I C. Latta, M. S., James Troop, S., Joseph C. Arthur, 1). Sc., Arvill W. Bitting, D. V. M., M. D., Hubert E. A'anXorman, B. S., - John H. Skinner, B. S., Alfred T. AViancko, President of the University. Director and Chemist. Agriculturist. Horticulturist. Botanist. Veterinarian. Dairyman . Livestock. Assistant Agriculturist. Diseases of Sheep. General Treatise by R. A. Craig, D, V. M. Laboratory Work by A. W. Bitting, D. V. M,, M. D. Sheep are subject to as great variety of diseases as most other farm animals. Some of the diseases are much more common than others, and this fact together with the great similarity in the behavior which the ani- mal shows in most diseases, has led flock-masters to think that sheen are subject to few ailments. The similarity in behavior in the early stages makes it difficult to form a diagnosis without a thorough examination of the animal and surroundings. In examining a sh^ep, the behavior, appearance, general condition and surroundings must all be taken under consideration. The history should be obtained from the attendant as frequently that is of importance in arriving at a diagnosis and in determining the line of treatment. In none of the domestic animals, can disease be more successfully combatted by prevention than in sheep. It is along this line of treatment that we must direct greatest attention as the animals are not good patients when once attacked. The Symptoms inform us as to the condition of the animal at the onset and auring the progress of a disease. Thus we have the symptoms con- nected with (a) the pulse; (b) the respiration; (c) body temperature; (d) the mucous membrane; (e) surface of the body; (f) secretions ahd excre- tions; and (g) nervous system. The pulse is not as good guide to the condition of the sheep as in the horse or cow as it is too readily influenced by excitement, by the pres- ence of strangers and unusual handling. We obtain the pulse in sheep by pressing the femoral artery on the inside of the thigh. The pulse in the nealthy sheep is subject to considera- ble variations, from 60 to 80 beats per minute, and when excited or nervous may run considerably above one hundred. The following varieties of pulse are recognized in disease; frequent or infrequent, quick or slow, large or small, hard or soft, and regular or intermittent. The frequency 4 of the pulse has reference to the number of pulsations per minute: quick or slow has reference to the time required for the pulse wave to pass; large or small to the volume of blood that passes; hard or soft to the sense of feeling while passing under the finger; and regular and intermittent to the interval between the beats. There may be a number of beats regular in time and then the missing of one or two, or there may be an acceleration of a few beats. The condition of the circulation may also be judged by plac- ing the hands on each side of the chest as nearly over the heart as possi- ble. This is applicable especially in lambs and sheep thin in fiesh. When the sheep is quiet, the number of respirations will vary from twelve to eighteen per minute: if excited, exercised, or when warm this number will be greatly increased. In most animals there is a comparatively close relationship between the respirations and pulse, (1 to 4 or 1 to 5), but in sheep this relationship is not very constant. In disease the res- pirations may be quickened and their character changed as in fever, pleu- risy, peritonitis, etc. In abdominal respiration the movements of the wall of the chest are limited — as occurs in pleurisy, while in thoracic respira- tion the muscles of the abdomen are held rigid and the walls of the chest make up for the deficiency. This latter condition is seen in peritonitis. In inflammatory conditions of the air passages, irritation from dust or parasites, the secretions are modified and there is dryness or discharge, and usually sneezing or coughing. There may be modified respiratory sounds that are of value in making a diagnosis. The normal temperature of the sheep is subject to variation. It is taken per rectum, the ordinary fever thermometer being used. The varia- tions are from 100° to 105° Fahrenheit. During exercise and when the weather or stable is warm and close, the body temperature is elevated: during cold weather or after drinking cold water it will be lowered. In order to get at the normal temperature it is well to take the temperature of several sheep in the flock. In health the mucous membranes are usually of a pale reddish color. Exercise will cause them to become more vascular. When inflamed they are of a bright-red color. In collapse, internal hemorrhage, impoverished or bloodless conditions they are pale. In chronic indigestion the mouth is foul and soapy; if irritated, the mucous membranes are excessively moist, and if feverish they are dry In some of the parasitic and liver dis- eases they are yellowish. 5 The fleece should look smooth and have plenty of yolk: the skin should be of a light pink color. When the animal is diseased or is unthrifty, the wool may become dry and brittle, and the sidn pale and rigid. If affected with external parasites, the fleece looks “taggy”, or the wool lost over large areas, and the skin itself is changed. During febrile diseases the temperature of the skin is not uniformly distributed. If fatally affected the skin feels cold. When debilitated, especially if the debility be due to iniernal parasites, dropsical swellings may occur under the jaw and in different pans of the body. The character of the excretions from the kidneys and bowels become modified in disease and should be considered in making a diagnosis of the different diseases. The state of the nervous system is indicated by dullness, excitability, turning the head to one side, walking in a circle, throwing the head back, or by paralysis. Administration of Medicine. Drugs may be administered by way of the following channels: (a) by the mouth, (b) by hypodermically inject- ing into the tissues beneath the skin, (c) through the skin, (d) by way of the air passages and lungs, and (e) per rectum. The most common method of administration is by way of the mouth in the form of a drench. This can be done when the sheep is in the standing position or when thrown on its haunches and held between the 'knees. The standing posi- tion is to be preferred and it is best to give the drench w’ith a small dose syringe. Care should be taken to not throw the head too far back, espe- pecially if the drench is bulky or irritating, as a part may get into the air passages and cause serious trouble. If a prompt, energetic effect is desired, and the drug non-irritating, it may be injected into the tissue beneath the skin. In sheep, this method of administration is seldom used. Iflniments, blisters and poultices are applied to the skin for their local effect. Absorption does not readily take place unless considerable friction is used in applying the medicine or the outer layer of skin is removed by blistering or by other means. Volatile drugs as chloroform, ether, etc., are rapidly absorbed by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs. Anesthetics are seldom used in this class of animals and when medicine is administered by way of the res- piratory track it is generally used in the different respiratory diseases. This is done by partly filling a pail with boiling water, adding to it an ounce or two of creolin, turpentine or w'hatever drug is desired and allowing the sheep to inhale the vapors as they rise from the pail. To direct the steam toward the animal’s nose, a light stable blanket can be thrown over the head of the sheep and allowed to drop over the sides of the pail. An enema or clyster is a fluid injection into the rectum and is for the following purposes; (a) to increase the action of a purgative; (b) to stim- ulate the peristaltic movement of the intestines; (c) for a local effect on the rectum, and (d) to administer medicine and supply food. An injection is generally given for its purgative effect and it is best to allow the fluid to gravitate into the bowels from a height of about two feet. The apparatus needed for this purpose is a funnel and two or three feet of rubber tubing with a nozzle at one end. Before introducing the nozzle into the rectum it should be lubricated with vaseline. In giving a large injection, it is best to elevate the hind parts of the animal. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. STOMATITIS. SORE MOUTH. Causes. The lining membrane of the mouth of sheep is rather deli- cate, but so carefully do they select their feed that it is seldom injured. Stomatitis, or sore mouth may be seen as a complication in infections and febrile diseases. Young and debilitated lambs when kept in unhygenic quarters (poorly ventilated, filthy, damp stables) are prone to the ulcera- tive form of sore mouth. The disease seems to be communicated from one lamb to the other and is no doubt due to some of the pathogenic germs. Symptoms. In simple stomatitis the parts are congested, swollen and inflamed. At first the lining membrane is dry, but in a short time the secretions become excessive and the saliva dribbles from the mouth. The decomposition of the food, etc., going on in the mouth gives rise to a very disagreeable odor. Eating is quite painful and the animal is generally unable to take food. Recovery usually takes place in a few days. In the ulcerative form the gums become dark red, spongy and bleed easily. In a short time a part dies, sloughs out and a deep, ragged looking 7 ulcer forms. The ulcer can be seen on the lips and gums and may become quite extensive, the teeth loosening, dropping out and perforations occur- ing in the lips. Threads of saliva dribble from the mouth and the breath has a disagreeable odor. The lamb refuses to suckle, becomes weak and may have a foetid diarrhea. This disease frequently results in death in about one or two weeks and if recovery occurs it is very slow. The lin- ing membrane of the fourth stomach may be reddened and the lungs in- flamed and the seat of bloody exudations. Treatment In simple stomatitis washing the mouth with antiseptic and astringent washes once a day is all that is necessary. A four per cent watery solution of boric acid can be used. Plenty of this solution should be used and the mouth washed thoroughly. The animal must be fed soft feeds and gruels. In the ulcerative form preventive measures are important. This consists in improving the hygienic conditions and isolating the sick lambs. The quarters should be cleaned and the floors and walls washed with a disinfectant. The local treatment consists in removing the dead tissue from the ulcers, washing the mouth with a two per cent watery solution of creolin and touching the ulcers with lunar caustic. DEPRAVED APPETITE. WOOL EATING LAMBS. This disease is more common in lambs than in older animals. The thriftiness of the lamb is interfered with and in a large per cent of cases may prove fatal. The loss due to the injury to the fleeces is of some importance from an economic point of view. Causes. By some it is considered to be due to a depraved sense of taste and is classifled as a nervous disease. In most cases it seems to result from example and improper food, especially food deflcient in saline matter. Sheep shut up during the winter may get into the habit of chew- ing each other’s fleeces. Lambs are especially apt to contract this habit when suckling ewes having long hair on the udder that is soiled with urine and faeces. Symptoms. It may be sometime before symptoms of unthriftiness are manifested and outside of the loss to the fleece, no symptoms are noticed. Finally the digestive tract becomes involved, due to the irrita- tion from the hair balls that accumulate in the stomach, digestion is deranged and the sheep loose flesh. The animals are sometimes consti- 8 pated or have a diarrhea. Death may he due to the small hair balls drifting along and obstructing the openings from the different apart- ments of the stomach, or as a result of the inflammation of the stomach, and intestines. The course of the disease varies from a few months to a year. Treatment. Avoid keeping sheep in too close quarters and allow plenty of exercise. When the disease occurs on poor pasture a change to a bet- ter one and a liberal allowance of salt will prevent it, or a well balanced ration of grain can be added. The long wool on the udder of ewes should be clipped off and if the lambs contract this habit they must be separated from their mothers except when nursing. When indigestion is present the following bitter tonics can be given; bicarbonate of soda (two ounces), powdered gentian (one ounce), sulphate of soda (six ounces); mix and give one teaspoonful in the feed morning and evening. ACUTE TYMPANITIS, BLOATING, HOVEN. Bloating is more common among cattle than among sheep, but usual- ly when it does occur a number of animals in the flock are affected. The disease is more common during late summer and early fall than at any other season of the year. Causes. Diseases of the rumen or any part of the digestive track predisposes sheep to tympanitis. When due to these conditions, it usually takes on a chronic form". It may occur as a symptom of choking. A very common cause is succulent foods such as clover, rape, green corn, etc., especially if wet with dew or a light rain and when the animal is not accustomed to eating them. Frozen food and drinking large quantities of cold water after eating may sometimes cause a fermentation of the food in the rumen. Symptoms. The abdomen is distended with gas and is larger than normal. The left flank is distended at first but when the gas forms in large amounts the whole abdomen becomes distended. This occurs very quick- ly, is elastic and resonant. The sheep stop eating and ruminating, look anxious, the eyes are prominent, the mucuous membranes are congested and faeces are expelled at irregular intervals. If not relieved the respirations become labored and the pulse weak. Saliva dribbles from the mouth. The animal becomes very stupid and finally sinks to the ground and dies. Death occurs as a result of the absorption by the blood-vessels of a toxic 9 product from the stomach and the interference with the aeration of the blood in the lungs due to the pressure on the air cells by the distended rumen. Acute tympanitis takes a very rapid course. If the gas escapes by way of the gullet or intestines a spontaneous cure may result. Treatment. Preventive measures are important. A change to a suc- culent diet should be made gradually; musty grains, fodders, roots and frosted foods should not be fed to sheep. It is not best to allow a flock to graze in clover or eat any succulent food if wet with dew or light rain. The gas can be removed very quickly by puncturing the rumen with the trocar and canula. The seat of the operation is on the most prominent portion of the left flank. A small sized trocar and canula should be used and to guard against infection, it should be sterilized before using and the skin over tlie seat of the puncture washed with a disinfectant. The instru- ment is then plunged through the walls of the abdomen and rumen, the trocar withdrawn and the gas allowed to escape. Before withdrawing the canula the trocar should be replaced. It is always best after using the' in- strument to boil it in water. This will insure a clean instrument when needed. When a number of sheep in the flock are affected and there is a running stream in the pasture, it is best to drive them into it. The cold water coming in contact with the wall of the abdomen may stimulate the movement of the rumen and the gas will be then worked off by the natural passages. Dipping them into water will have the same effect. To prevent further fermentation, a tablespoonful of turpentine can be given in three or four ounces of linseed oil. The following receipt is useful; glauber salts (half an ounce), powuered gentian (one dram), aromatic spirits of ammonia (two drams), water (six ounces); mix and give as a drench. CHRONIC TYMPANITIS. Causes. The chronic form of tympanitis is generally due to some chronic disease of the digestive track. The persistence of some of the causes of the acute form may lead to the conditions becoming chronic. Symptoms . The whole digestive system seems to lack tone and vigor. The bowels are irregular and the sheep falls away in condition quite rapidly. Instead of the bloating being severe and intermittent as in the acute form it is continuous and the gas does not form rapidly. Treatment. The cause should be removed if possilfle, but in some chronic diseases this cannot be accomi)lished. The sheep should be fed 10 easily digestible food and have free access to plenty of common salt and pure water. As a laxative, four ounces of sulphate of soda can be given in about ten ounces of water. As a digestive tonic the following can be given; sulphate of soda (six ounces), powdered gentian (one ounce), and powdered mix vomica (one half ounce) ; mix, and give one tablespoonful in the feed morning and evening. Whenever necessary the trocar and canula should be used. OVERLOADING OF THE RUMEN OR PAUNCH. Causes. Overloading of the paunch is generally due to a sudden change from indifferent or poor food to palatable, succulent food, such as green clover, corn, sorghum, etc., when eaten in excess. If the digestive track is diseased and the movements of the paunch are weak overloading is very apt to occur. Symptoms. The animal shows evidence of abdominal pain, does not ruminate or eat and is dull and feverish. The abdomen is distended on the left side, is not elastic as in tympanitis, but feels doughy when pressed on with the fingers. Some gas may form but the distension of the rumen is mostly due to the mass of food. When the disease is acute the symp- toms are quite severe, the expression is anxious, the head is extended, eyes prominent and the respirations hurried. Constipation is a prominent symptom. Death may take place in a few hours but generally runs a course of several days. When the symptoms are mild, recovery is com- plete in a few days. Treatment. The proper preventive precautions should be used. The sick animal should be subject to a rigid diet. Exercise and rubbing of the left flank may restore the normal movements of the paunch. Cold water injections are useful. If gas forms the trocar and canula must be used. As a purgative from four to six ounces of epsom salts can be given in plenty of water. To excite the movements of the paunch four drams of aromatic spirits of ammonia in two ounces of linseed oil can be given every few hours or the following tonic; powdered mix vomica (one half ounce, powdered ginger (one ounce), bicarbonate of soda (two ounces); mix and give a shiall tablespoonful in a drench morning and evening. Strychnine if given hypodermically in the region of the paunch may stim- ulate it to contract. Rumenotomy (opening the paunch in the left flank and removing about two-thirds of its contents with the hand) is not fol- 11 lowed bj" as good results as in cattle, and unless the operation is careful- ly performed will result in the death of the animal. IMPACTION OF THE THIRD STOMACH. STOMACH STAGGERS. Causes. This disease may occur during the course of digestive troubles or febrile diseases. The third stomach may become irritated and inflamed by sudden changes in the diet or by food not prepared Tor en- trance to this apartment, as bran or meal swallowed hastily. Dried and innutritions food when eaten in excess and lack of water, are very com- mon causes of impaction. Symptoms. The disease usually develops slowly. The appetite is diminished, rumination occurs at irregular intervals, the sheep is dull and feverish and sometimes its movements are accompanied by a slight groan. Colicky pains and grinding of the teeth are sometimes present. The animal is constipated at first but if recovery occurs it may have a diarrhea. In the acute form nervous symptoms are sometimes manifested. The animal is dull, drowsy and listless and staggers when it walks. At times it becomes delirious, the eyes are prominent, it is restless and runs about coming in contact with whatever is in its way until it becomes exhausted or dies in a convulsion. The acute cases usually run a rapid course but in the chronic form the disease may last for days. Lesions. The third stomach appears larger and harder than normal When cut into the food lying betw^een the folds of the mucuous membrane may be so hard and dry that it can be powdered between the fingers. The lining membrane of the stomach is inflamed and the intestines may be also involved. Treatment. The sheep must be subject to a rigid diet and given plen- ty of water. A purgative of epsom salts (six ounces in plenty of water) or a liberal allowance of flaxseed tea can be given. The action of the purga- tive should be aided by an injection. It is usually best to give a tonic of powdered nux vomica (one half ounce)and sulphate of soda(four ounces); mix and give one tablespoonful in a drench three times a day. If brain symptoms develop we should prevent the sheep from doing itself harm, and relieve the inflammation as much as possible by applying ice to the head. Irritating purgatives must not be used. When convalescence takes place, the animal should be fed laxative and easily digestible food. 12 CHOKING. Causes. Greedy feeding animals are predisposed to choking. The foreign bodies present in the oesophagus or gullet generally consist of pieces of roots (potatoes, turnips, etc.) hay, grass, or ears of corn. Chok- ing may be due to a diseased condition of the oesophagus as inflammation, paralysis, strictures and dilations. Symptoms. The sheep stops feeding, looks anxious and saliva drib- bles from the mouth. The respirations are hurried and more or less dif- ficult. Bloating may occur. If the choke is complete the animal is unable to take liquid or solid food and death may occur in a few hours. If incom- plete the symptoms are not marked and the accident generally terminatea favorably. Treatment. If the foreign body is lodged in the back park of the mouth or pharynx it can be removed with a blunt hook or a long iron spoon; if in the neck portion of the oesophagus, it may be worked back into the pharynx by pressure with the thumbs just below the object. If unable to force the object back into the mouth we must then resort to the probang and endeavor to force it on into the stomach. This instru- ment is several feet in length, hollow and has a bulb at the lower end. A probang for sheep should be half an inch in diameter, flexible and strong. In an emergency a light rod of hickory or elm rounded at both ends, the lower end covered with a piece of chamois firmly fastened, may be used. Heavy walled small rubber tubing will answer for the ordinary case. It is best to drench the sheep with an ounce or two of oil and smear the instrument with oil before passing it. The best position for the sheep is on its rump, the body gripped between the knees and the fore feet held with the hands. The operator should then grasp the tongue with one hand, draw it out of the mouth, rest the end of the probang against the hard palate and pass it rapidly into the oesophagus. It may require con- siderable pressure with the probang to remove the object, also the exercise of good judgment in doing this or the wall of the oesophagus may be in- jured. DYSENTERY IN LAMBS. WHITE SCOURS. Causes. This is not an uncommon disease of young lambs. A weak constitution and unhygenic surroundings, damp, dirty, overcrowded, poorly ventilated quarters, are important predisposing causes. Retention of the 13 meconium is at times a cause of scours. The most common causes are too much milk and variations in its character. It may be due to a conta- gious element that gains entrance to the body by way of the umbilical cord. Symptoms. The lamb is dull, depressed, is careless of the teat and re- fuses to suckle. Constipation may precede the diarrhea. The lamb sometimes shows evidence of abdominal pain by switching the tail and acting uneasy. If fermentation takes place the abdomen is distended, The diarrhea is foul smelling, the tail, hips and legs soon become soiled, the animal is feverish, extremities cold, and rapidly becomes weak and emaciated. Death may follow as a result of exhaustion. If the cause of the disease is of infectious origin a large per cent, of the lambs will die. Treatment. This is largely preventive. Dry, well ventilated, clean quarters should be provided and the lamb should be allowed plenty of ex- ercise. If the mother’s milk does not agree with the lamb and the fault is in the ration or general management, it should be corrected. If the diarrhea is due to a specific cause, the quarters must be cleaned and disin- fected. As soon as the disease makes its appearance the umbilical cord of all new born should be swabbed with a ten per cent, solution of carbolic acid as nearly as possible. At first a laxative of castor oil (two drams), should be given; this can be followed by five or ten drops of lauda- num three ' times a day. If there is much fermentation and the ' faeces foul smelling the following can be given; subnitrate of bismuth (one dram), salol (one half dram^ and bi- carbonate of soda (four drams); mix and divide into twelve powders; give one powder in a little milk three times a day. When extremely foe- tid the following recipe is of more benefit; calomel (one half dram) chalk (six drams); mix and give one teaspoonful in milk three times a day. It is best to diet the lamb and give the irritated stomach and intestines a short rest. GAvSTR0-ENTP:1R1TIS. inflammation of the fourth stomach AND THE INTESTINES. Causes. Poorly fed, weak and debilitated sheep are predisposed to this disease. Irritating foods, (rich, spoiled, or frosted foods), drinking water swarming with gei-ms, over driving, aud over feeding; exposure or anything lessening the resisting powers of the system may cause it. The 14 twisted stomach worm is a common cause of inflammation of the fourth stomach. Symptoms. The appetite is poor or lost and the sheep stops ruminat- ing. The pulse and respirations are quickened and the body temperature elevated. Colicky pains may be present and when pressure is made with the hand over the region of the fourth stomach (right hypochrondriac) it will sometimes cause the animal severe pain. At flrst the bowels are constipated, but this soon changes to a foul smelling diarrhea that is mixed with mucuous and sometimes tinged with blood. In severe cases the sheep suffers much pain, grinds its teeth strains and nevous symptoms are manifested. The general condition of the animal is greatly changed in a short time, becoming poor and weak, and it stands around with the back arched or mopes along after the rest of the flock. Death may occur in a few days or at most a few weeks. The prognosis is not very favor- able. Lesions The tissue changes are mostly in the small intestines and fourth stomach. The lining membrane is reddened, thickened and may contain a few ulcers. The walls of the intestines are softened and break when handled. Treatment. If due to any mistake in the feeding or handling, it should be corrected at once. Plenty of exercise and access to pure water should be allowed. In summer time it is best to give the sheep the run or a grass lot where there is plenty of shade. In winter time they should be given warm, comfortable quarters. To relieve the constipation and re- move the irritation, a laxative should be given; (epsom salts three to four ounces, or linseed oil flve to ten ounces.) If the constipation persists this must be supplemented by an injection of warm water and glycerine. If the bowels move too freely and the sheep is in pain a teaspoonful of laudanum can be given two or three times a day or the following prescrip- tion can be used: subnitrate of bismuth (one ounce), salol (six drams), and bicarbonate of soda (three ounces j ; mix and give one teaspoonful every three or four hours. A tonic is sometimes indicated. When this is the case, artiflcial Carlsbad salts (equal parts of sulphate of soda, bicarbon- ate of soda, and chloride of soda) can be given. The addition of powdered gentian or mix vomica to the salts will greatly increase their value as a tonic. 15 INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. PARENCHYMATIS. HEPATITIS. ACUTE YELLOW ATROPHY OF THE LIVER. Causes. This disease is caused by excessive quantities of food too little exercise, musty, decomposed, irritating fodders, excessive heat, in- juries to the liver, and damp swampy pastures. It is frequently seen in contagious diseases and parasitic affections of the liver. This condition is always present in lupinosis. Symptoms. At first the symptoms may be obscure. Nothing charac- teristic is noted. The body temperature is elevated, the pulse is slow, or if the attack is severe, quickened, the appetite is lost or irregular, and the sheep acts dull and stupid. Jaundice may be present. The more characteristic symptoms are as follows: tenderness when pressure is ap- plied over the region of the liver, (right side just back of the last rib); constipation followed by slightly colored, fetid diarrhea; colicky pains and a tendency to stagger. If the disease continues for some time the animal becomes weak and emaciated. Complications may occur, the most common being peritonitis. The prognosis is not favorable in the chronic cases. Treatment. Preventive measures must be resorted to. The treat- ment consists in subjecting the sheep to a spare diet, applying a blister to the right side, giving a purgative of Epsom salts or calomel and re- peating it if necessary. Artificial Carlsbad salts (equal parts of sulphate of soda, bicarbonate of soda, and chloride of soda) in teaspoonful doses should be given in the feed two or three times a day. When the acute symptoms have abated the following bitter tonic can be given; powdered gentian (one ounce) potassium chlorate (one ounce) bicarbonate of soda (two ounces); mix and give one teaspoonful in the feed twice a day. JAUNDICE. This is not a disease in itself but symptom of disease, and is called jaundice or yellows, because of the yellow color of the mucuous mem- branes, skin and different connective tissues of the body. Jaundice is nearly always present in sheep affected with the liver fluke, is quite com- mon in sheep affected with the twisted stomach worm and is associated 16 with other parasitic disease. Many cases are seen, too, at slaughter houses the cause of which has not been determined. Causes. Any conaition that may impede the flow of bile toward the intestines may cause jaundice. Overfeeding, lack of exercise, gall-stones and concretions in the gall duct are common causes. When sheep are allowed to pasture on rich grass lands, the liver sometimes becomes af- fected and jaundice is seen as a symptom of this condition. The disease has been known to occur among sheep kept in low, damp undrained pas- tures. Jaundice is a symptom of a disease caused by a toxic substance contained in lupines. Symptoms. The different tissues of the body are tinged with yellow, caused by the interference with the secretion of the bile from the liver and its reabsorption by the blood, from which it is deposited in the dif- ferent connective tissues of tne body. In the simplest form, the sheep has a slow pulse, is languid and sleepy, the appetite is irregular and the bowels constipated. Treatment. When the disease is caused by faulty hygenic condi- tions, they should be corrected if possible. A changed diet is always ad- visable. To cause free movement of the bowel three or four ounces of Epsom salts can be given in a drench, or in chronic cases, calomel in ten grain doses repeated every'two or three days if necessary. A liberal al- lowance of common salt is said to be a preventive. If the sneep is weak a tonic can be given of powdered gentian (one ounce), sulphate of soda (two ounces), and bicarbonate of soda (two ounces); mix and give one teaspoonful in the feed two or three times a day. , PERITON'ITIS. INFLAMMATION OP THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE ABDOMEN. Causes. Peritonitis may follow as a result of castration. It is not uncommon for it to occur as a complication of a difficult birth or an in- flammation of an internal organ. Exposure, poor care, blows or wounds on the abdominal wall, and a rupture of the stomach, intestines or womb may cause this disease. Symptoms. The most prominent symptom is pain. The sheep moves stiffly, the hind limbs are dragged, the back arched and the abdominal wall is held as rigid as possible. Pressure on the abdominal wall causes 17 pain. The body temperature will vary. In some cases there is no eleva- tion of temperature in others it is quite high. The sheep may be consti- pated or have a diarrhea. When fluid is present in the abdominal cavity we can detect it. by placing the ear against the wall and listening to the abdominal sounds. The prognosis is not very favorable. The animal may die in a few days. When the disease is prolonged for several weeks it ends in a chronic peritonitis. In favorable cases the symptoms gradu- ally subside and recovery takes place in a week or ten days. Lesions The peritoneum is inflamed and there is an exudate in the abdominal cavity. This may contain fibrin or pus and may have a disa- greeable odor. Different internal organs may take part in the inflamma- tion. Treatment. Preventive measures consist in using the proper anti- septic precautions when castrating sheep and not operating on the lambs when young. The sheep should be kept as quiet as possible, given good quarters and care and fed nothing but easily digestible food. To clean out the intestines and remove the bacteria which becomes a source of danger, a laxative must be given and injections frequently used. Mucila- genous drinks are advisable. To relieve the pain the following is useful: laudanum (one ounce), and linseed oil (three ounces); mix and give half a tablespoonful every three or four hours. To relieve the in- flammation and lessen the pain, hot water fomentations or ammonia water can be applied to the abdominal wall. In cases having high tem- peratures, it is best to give the following febrifuge: acetaniled (one ounce), quinine sulphate (one ounce), and powdered mix vomica (one half ounce); mix and divide into twelve powders; give one powuer every three or four hours. To relieve the diarrhea and fermentation in the Intestines the following can be used: subnitrate of bismuth (one ounce), salol (one and one-half ounces), and bicarbonate of soda (three ounces); mix and give in one or two teaspoonful doses every three or four hours. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. ACUTE CONGESTION OF THE KIDNEYS. Causes. During the course of some contagious diseases the kidneys 2 18 may become the seat of inflammatory process. Food containing toxic ele- ments, irritating drugs and cold are common causes. Symptoms. Tne sheep lags behind the flock and is often seen lying down. The back is arched, the loins tender, the gait stiff and straddling and frequently it strains and passses bloody colored urine. As the disease advances the animal becomes weak, dull and stupid and when it walks, the gait is uncertain and it frequently stumbles. Death may take place in about a week. If the disease is mild recovery usually occurs in a tew days. Lesions. The kidneys are reddened and larger than normal; the kidney tissue becomes friable and in some cases almost like pulp. Treatment. A sudden change from a dry diet to grass early in the spring should be avoided by feeding the sheep a little roughness or grain the first few days they are turned out. Irritating drugs whether applied to the skin or given internally must be used cautiously. After the disease has developed the animal must be given good, nourishing food and comfortable quarters. Plenty of oil or flaxseed meal is a very use- ful food in this disease. The bowels must be kept loose by feeding laxa- tive food or by frequent doses of castor oil. The following preparation can be given; powdered mix vomica ,one ounce), sulphate of quinine (one ounce), salol (one half ounce); mix and give in teaspoonful doses three times a day. INPLAMiMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. ACUTE NEPHRITIS. BRIGHT’S DISEASE. ' Causes. Congestion of the kidneys may terminate in an inflamma- tion. The common causes of nephritis are similar to those causing a con- gestion of these organs. Symptoms, pain is not as prominent a symptom of this disease in sheep as in other domestic animals. There may be considerable fever and a weak pulse. The urine is passed in small amounts and at frequent in- tervals. Toward the latter stage of the disease, the urine may be tinged with blood and the animal have convulsions. Unless the inflammation terminates in the early stages of the disease, dilferent organs of the body become affected. . Lesions. The kidneys are enlarged, mottled, of a red or yellowish color. Large abscesses sometimes form in the kidney tissue. 19 Treatment. The sick sheep must be given comfortable quarters. Mu- cilaginous drinks are indicated. Counterirritants in the form of hot com- presses to the loins will help in relieving the pain and inflammation. We must help in getting rid of the waste products formed in the body by the use of purgatives and diuretics. As a diuretic, bicarbonate of soda (one teaspoonful) and iodide of potassium (twenty grains) can be given in the drinking water two or three times a day. Castor oil can be given to keep the bowels lax. The same tonic recommended in congestion of the kidneys can be given. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. Causes. Irritating drugs (cantharides, turpentine, etc.) when given in large doses may be present in the urine in large enough amounts to ir- ritate and inflame the lining membrane of the bladder. Irritation due to retention of the urine and exposure to cold may also cause it. Symptoms. The body temperature may be higher than normal. The sheep walks stiffly, strains frequently .and passes a small amount of urine. The lining membrane of the bladder is inflamed and thickened. In advanced cases due to the shedding of the epithelium, there may be large raw surfaces on the membrane. Treatment. Irritating drugs should not be used in a careless manner. If due to retention of the urine the cause must be removed if possible. The medicinal treatment consists in administering the remedies that will modify the inflammation. Mucilaginous drinks are indicated and the sheep should be kept quiet and the bowels lax. The following can be given; salol (one-half ounce), powdered mix vomica (one ounce), and chlorate of potassium (one and one-half ounces) ; mix and give in tea- spoonful doses, in the feed twice a day. RETENTION OF URINE. This is not a disease in itself but a symptom of disease, and is more common in the male than in the female. Causes. The causes of retention of the urine are as follows: foreign bodies in the bladder (calculi), sediment in the S curvature of the urethra of the ram, pressure on the urethra by a tumor, inflammation of the sheath, displacement of the uterus, paralysis of the bladder, general weakness and infrequent urination. The feeding of a large ration of roots will also cause the trouble especially in males. 20 Symptoms. The sheep refuse to eat, is drowsy and weak. Fre- quently strains and tries to urinate, but no urine is passed. Sometimes the urine runs off drop by drop. If not relieved the bladder is ruptured, or the blood becomes charged with poisonous substances and the disease terminates fatally, uraemia. Treatment. If a calculus is present in the bladder it must be removed if possible. In spasm of the neck of the bladder morphine or belladonna can be given, and when paralyzed, it is necessary to pass the catheter fre- quently. If due to an inflamed prepuce, the part must be washed with warm water and castile soap, and vaseline applied to the part. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. COLD. CATARRH. CORYZA. Causes. This affection is due principally to exposure to cold, rainy weather, and in some years, is very prevalent. Too early clipping may also be a cause. Confinement in basements of barns without sufficient ventilation will produce it. Coryza is sometimes caused by the larva of the sheep bot fly. Symptoms. The membrane lining the anterior air passages is irritat- ed, reddened and inflamed and the sheep sneezes frequently Or has a slight cough. During the early stage of the inflammation, the nasal membrane is red and dry. It soon becomes moist, the discharge from the nostrils is watery at first, in a short time may be changed to a heavy white floccu- lent, purulent fluid. The mucuous membrane of the eye may take part in the inflammation; sometimes a slight fever accompanies the cold. If the discharge persists the animal becomes emaciated. If the attack is severe and the exposure continues, the inflammation may extend to other parts of the respiratory track. The prognosis is usually favorable. Treatment. The preventive measures consist in providing the flock with good, clean, dry and well ventilated quarters, when necessary and wait- ing until a favorable season before clipping them. Usually, good quarters is all the treatment required for the sick animals. Steaming the sheep will relieve the irritated membranes. The steaming should be kept up for about half an hour and repeated two or three times a day. Eerly in the 21 attack, a laxative can be given, and if necessary, febrifuges. Liquor am- monia acetate is sometimes given in half ounce doses every few hours. A nourishing, easily digested diet will be of much benefit. If due to bot fly larva, the only successful treatment is to trephine into the sinuses of the head and remove the parasites. If the catarrh develops early in the fall and the sheep are in good condition; they may be turned over to the butcher, if in the spring, good food with grain will carry them through until the fly comes away. INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX AND PHARYNX. SORE THROAT. Causes. Sore throat may occur independently of simple catarrh, but more commonly is seen as a complication of that disease. Exposure to frequent colds, changes in climate, wet, chilly weather and such unsani- tary surroundings as hot, close, dirty buildings are common causes of sore throat. Symptoms. When caused by the inflammation spreading from the nasal cavities to the larynx and throat the early symptoms are the same as described in cold in the head. When the throat becomes inflamed, however, the cough is harder and more troublesome. Pressure over the outside of the region causes the animal pain and provokes coughing. In severe cases the throat is swollen, saliva dribbles from the mouth and the sheep is unable to take food. If the nostrils become plugged by the secre- tions the animal breathes through its mouth. Ordinarily, recovery occurs in one or two weeks. Treatment. The ventilation of the sleeping quarters must be looked after carefully. The sheep house must be clean, free from draughts ana not over-crowded. The same treatment used in cold in the head is indi- cated in this disease; easily digested feed, laxatives, hot water inhala- tions, and feorifuges. After the first few days, the wool on the throat can be clipped off and the following liniment applied: spirits of turpen- tine, aqua ammonia and linseed oil (equal parts of each); mix and rub on the throat once a day. 22 BRONCHITIS. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. Causes. Bronchitis is more often seen in the spring and early fall than at *any other season of the year and may exist as a regular enzootic among sheep. The same conditions giving rise to cold in the head ana sore throat may cause bronchitis, or it may occur as a complication of some of the infectious diseases. Symptoms. The sheep is depressed and feverish, the eyes watery and visible mucous membranes reddened. The cough is hard and dry and usually there is a mucuous discharge from the nostrils. If we place the ear to the walls of the chest we hear louder bronchial sounds than normal. In the croupous form of bronchitis the respirations are more noisy and labored and disponea may occur. When the disease is mild the symptoms are not marked, recovery takes place in a few days. Unless complications occur the prognosis is favorable. Treatment. The treatment for common cold is usually sufficient. A cathartic of Epsom salts (three or four ounces) can be given. In the early stages of the disease febrifuges and expectorants should be given in order to lower the body temperature and stimulate the secretions of the inflamed mucous membranes. The following can be given: liquor ammonia acetate in half ounce doses every three or four hours; or potas- sium bicarbonate (seven drams), ammonia carbonate (seven drams), and powdered digitalis (one half dram); mix and divide into eight powders; give one powder three times a day. CROUPOUS PNEUMONIA. Causes. Too warm buildings, heavy fleeces and sudden plethora pre- dispose sheep to pneumonia. It may follow as a complication of bronchi- tis. A common cause of pneumonia is dipping and shearing during changable seasons of the year. Catarrhal pneumonia is usually due to the lung worm of sheep. Symptoms. The disease generally takes a very acute form. The body temperature is high; the pulse and respirations quickened; nostrils dilated and the breathing labored, causing the flanks to heave. The sheep eats and ruminates irregularly or not at all, has a painful cough and a distressed anxious look. If the disease is going to terminate unfavorably the breathing becomes more difficult, the animal stands in one position with the head extended and the nostrils dilated. When the disease takes 23 an unfavorable turn, the respiratory sounds are deadened and the pulse rapid and almost imperceptible. In sheep pneumonia does not run through the different stages as in some of the other domestic animals. Death sometimes occurs in the first stage, the period of engorgement. Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in avoiding such con- ditions as may cause the disease. When the pneumonia sets in the sick animal must be provided with comfortable, clean, well-ventilated quar- ters and kept as quiet as possible. As soon as the first symptoms are manifested a laxative of castor oil (two or three ounces), or in strong plethoric animals a purgative of Epsom salts (four ounces in warm gruel) can be given. The diet should be light and easily digested. The follow- ing febrifuges can be given: liquor ammonia acetate in half ounce doses every three or four hours; or acetanilid (one and one-half ounces), bicar- bonate of soda (one ounce), and powdered mix vomica (two drams); mix and divide into eight powders; one powder can be given in a drench every four hours. As a counterirritant to the walls of the chest aqua ammonia can be used. PLEURISY, INFLAMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE CHEST. Causes. Pleurisy may occur as a complication of pneumonia, the inflammation extending from the lungs to the pleural membrane. Clipped ' sheep, or sheep that have lost w'ool as a result of scab if not sheltered or protected during the changeable seasons of the year are subject to pleuri- sy. Washing and dipping during the cold weather or injuries to the chest sometimes cause it. Rheumatic affections may be accompanied by pleu- risy. / Symptoms. The general symptoms are as follows: high fever, quick, small pulse, quickened respirations (the expiration being prolonged and the inspiration short and arrested), appetite impaired, rumination sus- pended. The animal holds the walls of the chest as rigid as possible and when the spaces between the ribs (inter costal spaces) are pressed upon it causes pain. The cough is short, dry and on account of the pain suffered whenever the ribs are moved, it is suppressed as must as possible. In the first stage of the disease when we listen to the respiratory sounds, friction sounds are heard, due to the dried, inflamed membranes rubbing against each other whenever the animal breathes. Later these sounds disappear 24 and we may be able to detect fluid in the pleural cavity (hydrothorax.) Treatment. The same preventive measures and the same general line of treatment laid down in pneumonia is indicated here. After the first day or two, aqua ammonia and linseed oil can be applied to the walls of the chest by parting the wool and applying it in lines. If there is a collection of fluid in the chest cavity and the heart action is weak, the following preparation can be given: tincture of digitalis (one ounce), iodide of potassium (one ounce), and enough water to make eight ounces. One tablespoonful can be given every four hours. In instances where the sheep cannot receive careful attenuon a little nitrate of potassium can be given in the drinking water. HYDROTHORAX. FLUID IN THE CHEST CAVITY. Causes. This is a common complication of pleurisy. If the flow of blood in the large veins is impeded or if there is organic heart or chronic kidney trouble present, this disease may occur independently of any In- flammation. When this is the case, dropsical swellings are present in dif- ferent parts of the body. Symptoms. In pleurisy, when the acute symptoms subside quickly, it indicates a collection of fluid in the chest cavity. If but a small collection of fluid is present the pain is lessened, but if it forms in large amounts it presses on the lungs and heart, seriously interfering with the functions of these organs. By placing the ear to the side of the chest the fluid can be detected. When the ear is applied to ihe lower part of the chest walls no respiratory sounds are heard, but if applied high up the sounds may be normal. The exudate in the thoracic cavity is not always the same in character. It may be of yellow, citron or red color, grayish or muddy if it contains pus or flbrin, and clear, limpid, or transparent if a true dropsical efliusion. Dropsical swellings may be present in different parts of the body. Treatment. The sheep must be given good care. Counter- irritation to the chest walls, as in pleurisy is indicated. If constipated, a cathartic must be given. To help get rid of the effusion, the following prescription may be given: tincture of digitalis (one ounce), iodide of potassium (one ounce), fluid extract of gentian (one ounce), and enough water to make eight ounces; mix and give one tablespoonful three times a day. 25 When the sheep begins to improve one teaspoonful of iron sulphate can be given in the feed two or three times a day. In bad cases, tapping the chest and drawing off the fluid by means of the trocar and canula is tne only successful treatment. DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. INFLAMMATION OF THE HEART AND ITS MEMBRANES. Causes. Sharp objects as needles, wire, nails, etc., that are taken into the stomach along with the food and finally pass through the walls of the stomach and injure the heart and its coverings are common causes. Pericarditis (an inflammation of the coverings of the heart) and endo-car- ditis (an inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart) are some- times seen in rheumatic diseases. Pericarditis may occur as a complica- tion of pleurisy, the inflammation extending from the pleural membrane to the pericardium. Symptoms. When caused by foreign bodies penetrating the pericar- dial sack from the stomach, symptoms of indigestion may precede the cardiac symptoms. The most prominent symptom is pain. The pulse beats are irregular, the temperature elevated, and the sheep weak. The expression is anxious and denotes suffering, the animal does not lie down and may remain in one position for some time. By placing the ear just over the region of the heart we may be able to detect the heart sounds. If no fluid is present in the pericardial sack we sometimes hear friction sounds; if fluid is present, fluid sounds. In endocarditis we may hear a blowing sound. In the beginning of the disease the heart beats are strong, palpitating and bounding and the breathing is difficult and distressed. The general condition is soon changed and the sheep becomes thin and weak. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment. When the disease is due to the presence of foreign bodies no curative treatment can be given. The sheep should be given a cathar- tic of Epsom salts (three ounces). To regulate the action of the heart belladonna or digitalis can be given at short intervals and when recovery oegins, bitter tonics. The animal must be kept (piiet and as comfortaLiP as possible. 26 PALPITATION. THUMPS. Causes. 'Palpation is generally seen in animals that are in a weak^ anaemic, bloodless condition and appears under the slightest exciting circumstances. In acute inflammatory diseases of the heart or. its mem- branes, palpitation is generally a prominent symptom. Symptoms. When the palpitation is due to a weak anemic condition, the animal is emaciated^ the skin and mucuous membranes pale and there may be local dropsical effusions in different parts of the body. In these cases the palpitation depends on some excitement and is regular, the jerking of the muscles in the region of the flank corresponding as a rule to the heart beat. Abnormal heart sounds are absent. Treatment. Keep the sheep quiet and avoid exiciting it. When asso- ciated with anaemia, bitter tonics should be given along with good nour- ishing food. One teaspoonful of iron sulphate can be given in the feed twice a day. The following prescription is useful: fluid extract of gen- tian (one ounce), tincture of digitalis (two drams), and enough water to- make eight ounces; mix and give one tablespoonful three times a day. ORGANIC DISEASES OP THE HEART. The short term of life and the method of handling sheep make such or- ganic heart troubles as fatty degeneration, enlargement, dilation and val- vular diseases of the heart quite rare. In old overfed, pampered sheep, and those fitted for show purposes the fat may accumulate in and around the heart muscles, replacing the muscular tissue and interfering with the action of the organ. Dilation of one or both sides of the heart may ac- company fatty degeneration. In these cases the sheep should be kept quiet and the forcing system of feeding abandoned or the animal sold to the- butcher as soon as possible. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. ENCEPHALITIS. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. Injuries to the brain due to blows on the head from a whip or club, or to the sheep fighting among themselves may cause it. Over- feeding with grains or feeds rich in albumenoids or proteids (peas, beans,. 27 cotton seed, gluten, oil meal, etc.,) unhygenic surroundings (close, damp, poorly ventilated quarters) and violent exertion during the hot weather are common causes. Spoiled fodders and grains that are mouldy, or contain smut and microbes are probable factors in inflammation of the brain. Certain substances, containing narcotic substances, as intoxicating rye grass will sometimes cause it. The larva of the oestrus ovis or grub of sheep will when present in or on the surface of the brain irritate and inflame it. Symptoms. The sheep is often drowsy, stupid and disinclined to move, the head is hot, carried upwards or to one side, the eyes flxed, rolled up and reddened, the pupils dilated and the gait stiff and stagger- ing. The sheep may be excited, charge objects, work the jaws, froth at the mouth and bleat. When excited the respirations and pulse are usual- ly rapid. Sometimes it is seen with its head pushed against the wall or lying by itself with the head low or turned backwards. Finally paralysis sets in. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment. If the disease is due to unhygienic conditions, spoiled foods, or a faulty ration, the cause must be removed or a number of the flock may become affected. As soon as any of their number take sick, a purgative of Epsom salts (from four to six ounces) should be given to the whole flock. The sick animal or animals must be kept in a cool, quiet place, and cold in the form of wet cloths or ice applied to the head as long as it feels hot. When excited and feverish, acetanilid in one dram doses should be given, or chloral hydrate in one or two dram doses every four hours. As soon as possible, in order to restore tone to the nervous tissue the following can be given; iodide of potassium (one ounce), fluid extract of nux vomica (six drams), and enough water to make eight ounces; mix and give half an ounce three times a day. When sick and during the convalescent stage, the bowels should be kept lax and the ani- mal fed an easily digestible ration. HDROCEPHALUS. DROPSY* OR WATER IN THE VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN. This disease is frequently seen in lambs, many times they are born with it, the head being so enlarged that delivery is quite difficult. If this is the case the lamb is generally dead, or if alive, rarely lives more than a few days. 28 Causes. In-breeding is said to cause it. Its prevalence in some locali- ties would suggest some local influence, as the food and water as factors in causing the disease. Symptoms. The head is large in proportion to the size of the rest of the body. The sheep is lazy, dull, stupid, the gait staggering ana uncer- tain and the animal is not inclined to move. Sometimes the disease is complicated by digestive disorders. Uusally the head is twisted on the neck or turned to one side. Treatment. If the disease is caused by mistakes in breeding, the management of the flock must be changed. If to local conditions it would be advisable to move the flock to another location. Medicinal treatment is of no use. CEREBRO SPINAL MENINGITIS. INFLAMMATION OF THE COV- ERINGS OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD. Causes. But little is known regarding the cause of this disease. It is probably due to several different toxic principles, but by some it is claimed to be due to a specific cause (a germ), flhe disease is frequently seen in young animals, generally during the winter and spring. Symptoms. The head feels hot, the mucuous membranes are con- gested and the pupils dilated. The animal grinds its teeth, saliva dribbles from the mouth, the lips are contracted, it is weak and dull and shows a tendency to move in a circle. We soon And it stretched upon the ground as if paralyzed, the head thrown back and the muscles of the jaw, neck and back rigid. Sheep in this condition are very sensitive and may have con- vulsions. Death usually occurs in a few hours, or a few days, but some- times it lives for several weeks. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment. The treatment is the same as that recommended in in- flammation of the brain. If mistakes in the care and feeding of the sheep exist, they should be corrected at once. If a number of animals in the flock are affected, the sick should be separated from the healthy ones, and the sheep house and pens cleaned and disinfected. APOPLEXY. SOFTENING OF THE BRAIN. Causes. Any condition increasing blood pressure in the brain may cause this disease. * In highly fed, pampered sheep, excitement, extreme heat and over-exertion may produce it. Mechanical injuries may also cause it. If degenerative changes occur in the walls of the cerebral vessels, 29 they become so weak that the slightest increase in blood pressure will rup- ture them. Floating particles (emboli) in the blood stream may plug a cerebral vessel, cutting off the blood supply to a part, thus bringing about apoplexy, not by pressure on the nerve tissue, but from anaemia. Symptoms. As a rule the disease comes on suddenly without our notic- ing that the sheep is sick. In the acute cases it staggers, falls, there is a complete loss of consciousness, convulsive movements of the legs and in a short time the animal dies. In most cases, however, it is dull, unsteady in its gait, or shows a tendency to move in a circle. The pulse is weak, respirations slow, labored, irregular and stertorous, the visible mucuous membranes intensely congested, eyes dilated and pupils enlarged, some- times more in one eye than the other. The paralysis may be general or involve only certain muscular groups. Treatment. In acute cases, this is very unsatisfactory. In mild at- tacks at the outset, cold applications to the head and bleeding can be practiced. The sheep must be kept perfectly quiet. When able to swal- low, a purgative of Epsom salts (four to six ounces) can be given. Bro- mide of potassium should be given in small doses to keep down the force of the circulation. To help absorb the exudate or blood clot that may be present and restore tone to the nerve tissue the following can be given; iodide of potassium (one ounce), powdered nux vomica (six drams); mix and divide into twenty powders; give one powder three times a day. A course of vegetable and mineral tonics together with a laxative diet is advisable as soon as the animal shows signs of improvement. EPILEPSY. FITS. Causes. Epilepsy may be due to lesions in the brain, walls of the cranium, or spinal cord. Disorder in the cerebral circulation or such ab- normal conditions as are present in uremia, lead poisoning, etc., may bring on this condition. In young animals intestinal parasites and irreg- ular management and feeding are common causes. Symptoms. Epilepsy will vary in intensity and duration, depending on the cause. The sheep will suddenly stop ruminating or eating, look about in a stupid manner and after turning or staggering, fall to the ground and have violent convulsions. The fit may last but a few sec- onds or minutes, and the animal will get up pnd go to feeding as though nothing had happened. Generally, it continuea dull and sleepy for some time. 30 Treatment. If the cause of the epilepsy is known and can be re- moved, the treatment must be directed to the cause. When a sheep is in a fit, it should be prevented from injuring itself and cold water dashed on the head. Bromide of potassium is useful in treating epilepsy and should be given in from ten to thirty grain doses in a drench, three or four times a day. Iodide of potassium may also be given. Out door life, moderate exercise and bitter or iron tonics are very important. PARALYSIS. Causes. Pressure from diseased vertebrae, tumors or abscesses, and growing parasites on the nerve tissue of the spinal cord or brain, will cause a paralysis of that part of the body that depends on the injured nerve tissue for its nerve supply. Symptoms. The paralysis may come on suddenly and the symptoms manifested resemble those seen in inflammation of the spinal cord or brain. Generally, it comes on giadualiy and may involve a certain set «f muscles or organs, or may be general with the special senses clear. The parts affected will point to the seat of the trouble. Sensory troubles, in- creased sensibility or loss of sensibility, are sometimes present. Treatment. The sheep should be made as comfortable as possible and fed easily digested food. ' To keep the bowels lax, it is advisable to administer a laxative every few days. Nerve tonics such as strychnine (one thirtieth of a grain) or powdered mix vomica (thirty grains) should be given in the feed two or three times a day. Treatment is generally un- successful and it is usually advisable to slaughter the animal. HEAT STROKE. HEAT EXHAUSTION. Heat exhaustion generally follows violent exertion during the hot weather. The symptoms are as follows: weak, small pulse, general de- pression, muscular weakness and collapse. The animal soon goes down, is restless and finally dies. Treatment. The treatment consists ‘in diffusible stimulents (alcohol in half ounce doses every few hours) tincture of digitalis in teaspoonful doses to sustain the heart and cold douches on the head and fore parts. If the body temperature is sub-normal, warm baths can be given. SUN STROKE The cause of sun stroke is exposure to severe summer heat and may 31 occur during or after hard exercise, especially if the sheep is fat or out of condition. Symptoms. The symptoms are as follows: rapid breathing, open mouth, reddened, prominent eyes, high temperature, unsteady gait, con- vulsions and death. Unless the treatment is prompt, the prognosis is un- favorable. Treatment. During warm weather conditions that may cause sun stroke should be avoided. When a sheep becomes affected, place it in a shady place and apply cold water to the head, neck and entire body. This can be done by placing the sheep in a tub or tank for a few minutes. The medicinal treatment is the same as thatjiseci in heat stroke. DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. AiiORTION. Abortion occurs when the foetus is expelled twenty days before the normal period. It is not a common accident among ewes. • Causes. Abortion may be due to the following causes: ergotized grass, acrid plants; frozen food or water if taken in large amounts, filthy water, indigestible foods, or food of a bad quality. Injuries to the abdo- men, general diseases, excitement, over-exertion and fear or fright pro- duced by dogs. Poorly cared for and neglected ewes may abort as well as extremely fat ones. Symptoms. The symptoms will vary and in some cases are so trifling that ihe accident is not noticed at the time. The ewe may, however, be- come quite uneasy and bleat continually. The genital organs are enlarged, a glazy like discharge is seen around the lips of the vulva and sometimes a portion of the foetal membrane is visible. Soon after these symptoms are manifested, the foetus is expelled. If the abortion becomes complicat- ed by retention of the foetal membranes, the ewe will remain away from the rest of the flock, is dull, feverish and refuses to eat. If properly treated, these symptoms pass away in a short time. It may lermlnate in an inflammation of the womb, l)ut this is not (common. The lamb is usual- ly dead. Treatment. The treatment is mainly preventive and consist in avoid- ing such conditions as may cause the accident. When the maternal pas- 32 sages are not prepared for the entrance of the foetus, the ewe is in pain and becomes very restless. The pain can be relieved and the parts relaxed somewhat by hot applications to the region of the pelvis. The ewe must be given a good bed and kept in a quiet place away from the rest of the flock. If weak a stimulant (whisky) can be given. If the act of parturi- tion is prolonged, the necessary aid must be given but it is never best to meddle too soon. If the membranes do not come away within a day or two after aborting they must be removed with the hand and the uterus and maternal passages washed with a watery solution of creolin (two parts of creolin to ninety-eight parts of water). We must not neglect the removal of the after birth or its retention will be followed by bad re- sults. EVERSION OF THE UTERUS AND VAGINA. Causes. It consists in a displacement of the parts, * in which the uterus and vagina are turned partially or completely inside out, the everted portion of the uterus escaping through the opening of the neck of the womb and projecting like a large tumor from between the lips of the vulva. Treatment. The eversion must receive prompt attention or there is danger of the tissues becoming torn, bruised or gangrenous. The parts must be first cleaned and the swelling reduced by washing them with a warm watery solution of creolin. After this has been accomplished, the next step is to replace them. The ewe should be turned on her back and the hind parts elevated and the uterus and vagina returned to their natur- al positions. Strong stitches should next be taken in the skin on each side of the vulva or through its lips, and crossed in sucn a way as to prevent the recurrence of the displacement. Care must be taken that the stitches do not interfere with urination. If the uterus is badly lacerated or gangrenous, it can be amputated and the ewe prepared for the butcher. INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA AND UTERUS. VAGINITIS. IMETRITIS. Causes If during labor the walls of the vagina or uterus become torn or bruised, germs may enter and bring about an inflammation of the parts. It may follow retention and decomposition of the foetal membranes. Dirty instruments and dirty hands at the time of birth frequently carry disease 3 : producing germs into the uterus. Conditions here are favorable for their development and may result in a fatal inflammation of tne parts. Symptoms. The ewe is feverish, dull and weak; the appetite is im- paired and she frequently strains as if to pass urine. There is more or less discharge from the inflamed parts and the lining membrane of the vulva is red and tumiefled. These symptoms may pass off in a few days or become worse. The animal will stand with the abdomen tucked up or lie down most of the time. The ewe may be constipated or have a diar- rhea, suffer considerable pain and have a high temperature. The progno- sis is generally unfavorable when the disease takes a turn of this kind. In some cases the inflammation becomes chronic. It is then called leu- corhoea, the principal symptom being the discharge from the vagina. Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in practicing the proper antiseptic precautions at the time of the birth and removing the foetal membranes before decomposition has occurred. Before assisting in removal of the foetus the hands and instruments must be cleaned by washing the hands and allowing the instruments to lie in a two per cent, watery solution of creolin. The maternal passages and uterus should then be washed with a similar antiseptic solution. If the parts become in- flamed, they must be washed daily and when the animal is feverish, the following febrifuge can be given; acetanilid (six drams), quinine sulphate (three drams), calomel (one dram), powdered nux vomica (two drams); mix and divide into eight powders; give one powder in a drench every four hours. MAMMITIS INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. Causes. Congestion of the mammary glands is due to various causes. Exposure to cold, bruises from the head of the lamb, lying on stones or on the ground in damp folds, yards or pastures, and irritation from retained milk, are common causes of inflammation of the udder. Symptoms. In most cases the inflammation does not cause the animal much pain and disappears in a few days. It may, however, if neglected, become serious. The udder will then become swollen and painful, the skin covering it red and shiny, and later abscesses may form. The gland se- cretes but little milk and it is frequently coagulated or contains pus. The ewe looses flesh, is feverish and has a poor appetite. Treatment. In mild casees of mammitis but little treatment is neces- 3 sary. It is generally advisable, ho^'ever, to diet the animal. When fever- ish, a purgative of Epsom salts (three or four ounces) should be given In a drench. The following ointment can be rubbed on the inflamed gland twice a day; vaseline (four ounces), camphor ointment (two ounces), ex- tract of belladonna (one half ounce) ; or a linament of linseed oil (six ounces) and carbolic acid (one dram) can be used. When the milk is clotted or contains pus, it must be drained off wtih a teat siphon once or twice a day and a two per cent, solution of creolin injected into the gland. A convenient, apparatus for this is a teat siphon with about a foot or two of rubber tubing attached and carrying a small glass funnel at one end. CASTRATION. Castration of male lambs is best done when the animal is from two to six w'eeks old and in strong, healthy lambs, the operation may be per- formed as early as the third day. Flockmasters who allow the lambs to become two or three months old usually suffer some loss, even when the operation is carefully performed. The operator should provide himself with a table, castrating knife, a pan or pail containing an antiseptic solution and an assistant, to eaten and to hold the lambs. When the knife is not in use it should be dropped into the antiseptic solution. The assistant catches the lamb and holds it in a convenient position on the table. The region around the scrotum should be washed with an antiseptic, and if covered with wool, it should be clipped to insure cleanliness. The end of the scrotum is then cut off and each testicle in its turn is drawn out with the thumb and foreflnger of the left hand, until the spermatic cord is ruptured. Some- times it is necessary to pull out the testicle and scrape the cord with the edge of the knife until it breaks off. After removing the testicles if the opening in the scrotum is small, it should be enlarged. This is nec- esary as there is danger of the margins of the incision adhering before the part si healed, thus interfering with the draining off of the pus and en- 'dangering the life of the animal. In castrating a buck, it is necessary to conflne him in some way. He should be laid on his back on me ground, and the hind legs held by an assistant, or tied in such a way as to pre- vent his struggling. On account of their being more danger from hem- orrhage, it is advisable to scrape the spermatic cord until it breaks or. 35 better, to cut it off with an emasciilator. Lambs do better if allowed to run in the pasture. If kept in the sheep house or in a yard, everything should be clean to avoid infection from germs. DISEASES OF THE EYE. SIMPLE CONJUNCTIVmS. SORE EYES. Causes. Conjunctivitis is due to irritation from various foreign bodies getting into the eye (dust, seeds, pollen, flies,* etc.) and injuries of various kinds (blows from a whip, stones, branches of trees, brush,' etc.) Gener- al diseases, cold winds and wet weather may also cause it. Symptoms. The eye is held more or less closed, especially if the light is bright. The discharge is at first watery, but soon becomes heavier and more pus like and adheres to the margins of the lids. The conjunctiva is inflamed, thickened, red and swollen. The cornea usually takes part in the inflammation and when it does, it looks white and opaque and the blood-vessels around its margins often become quite prominent. The in- flammation may extend to the deeper layers of the eye. Recovery gen- erally takes place in about a week. Treatment. If any foreign body is present, it should be removed and the eye washed with an antiseptic or astringent lotion. If the lids are wounded, it may be necesary to use hot or cold water applications in or- der to keep down the inflammation. The following eye lotion can be dropped under the lids with a medicine dropper or applied once or twice daily. Boric acid (thirty grains), sulphate of zinc (fifteen grains), and distilled water (three ounces). Equal parts of boracic acid and calomel by weight may be blown into the eye with an insect powder blower. ENZOOTIC OPT HAL MI A. Causes. The direct cause of this disease is not known. By most investigators, it is held to be of an infectious nature, but some attribute it to irritating pollen or soil. The disease is spread by diseased sheep coming in contact with healthy ones and in a short time will affect a large number of animals in a neighborhood. Low, damp, land; and level prairies seem to favor the development of the disease. Dust and pollen may act as carriers of the germ. Symptoms. At first the eyes are closed and there is an abundant secretion of tears. This is followed by a heavy pus like secretion. The 36 lids are inflamed, red and swollen, the cornea opaque and thickened. Ul- cers may form on the cornea and the eye ball become milky white and hard. Usually at the beginning of the disease the body temperature is elevated and there is a partial or complete loss of appetite. When properly treated but few of the sheep go blind and recovery occurs in a short time. Treatment. It is best to separate the sick from the healthy sheep. The affected sheep should be given cool, dark quarters and the eyes cleaned daily by bathing them with warm water. Following this, calomel and boric acid of equal parts by weight should be blown directly into the eye with a powder blower. If a large number in the flock are affected and suitable quarters cannot be provided, treatment with the powder alone is followed by good results. . ECZEMA. Eczema, of non-parasitic origin, is not a common disease among sheep, due to the skin being so well protected by the wool and the abundant secretions of the skin. What is commonly known as rain rot may be seen in sheep in poor condition and exposed to heavy cold rains. The rain softens the outer layer of the skin, irritates it and allows the mi- crobes to enter. Symptoms. The skin is red and inflamed, and vesicles and pimples form. The skin may become covered by scabs and scruf, and the wool shed in places. When the weather improves and the animals are kept under more favorable conditions, recovery takes place sponianeously. INJURIES FROM GRASS. A few years ago some sheep were reported to be afflicted with a strange skin disease, supposed to be due to a worm. The symptoms were rubbing, “tagging” of the wool, lack of thrift, and death of a number of sheep. The sheep were from a shipment received from a western state. Upon examination it was found that the skin was badly pricked with the awns or barbs from porcupine grass. (Stipa Spartea.) The awns had broken off in lengths varying from one-eighth to more than an inch in length and left just under the skin. 37 RHEUMATISM. Causes. Rheumatism is more common during the late autumn or early spring than at any other season of the year. Sudden changes in temperature, cold, wet weather, untimely shearing, exposure, draughts, etc., seem to favor the development of the disease. Different theories in regard to its cause are advanced by different authors. The muscles, ten- dons or joints may be affected. Symptoms. Generally the muscles of the back and loins are affected. It may, however, affect the neck or hind quarters. The gait is stiff and the limbs are carried straight and rigid. When the joints are affected, they become swollen, hot and painful and the disease may shift from one to another. In acute cases the body temperature is higher than normal, the respirations quickened and the appetite lost or impaired. When the disease takes on the acute form the animal becomes emaciated and in a short times dies. Treatment. The preventive measures consist in keeping the sheep in comfortable, dry quarters, free from draughts. When the rheumatism is localized, local treatment in the form of liniments or blisters can be used. Internally the following can be given: salicylate of soda (one ounce), fluid extract of gentian vone half ounce), and enough water to make eight ounces; mix and give half an ounce In a drench two or three times a day. FOOT ROT. Causes. Splinters or other foreign bodies getting into the foot may cause it. It is common in sheep that are moved from hilly into boggy or low land pastures. Filth, decomposing grass, etc., getting into the spaces between the claws will irritate and inflame the feet. The disease may be due to a speciflc cause and is spread about on the litter, pastures, roads, etc., by matter from the feet of diseased sheep. The contagious foot rot frequently described is not known in this country. Symptoms. The feet become hot, tender and sore. One or more of the feet may be involved, the animal is lame and frequently it is seen grazing on its knees. The sheep falls away in flesh quite rapidly. If well cared for the loss is not great. Treatment. In small flocks it is possible to treat each animal separ- ately. In large flocks this is impossible. Foreign l)odies in the interdigi- 38 tal space should be removed and the foot trimmed and washed with about a four or five per cent, watery solution of some of the creolin preparations. In bad cases, a stronger solution can be used. In treating large fiocks, a long, shallow tank can be placed at some convenient point and filled to a depth of four or five inches with a strong antiseptic solution. The fiock should be driven through this at least once a day and not hurried, but given plenty of time. INFECTIOUS DISEASES. ARTHIRITIS OF LAMBS. Causes. This disease is due to septic substances entering the body by w'ay of the umbilical cord.Filthy quarters and a large umbilical cord that does not dry as soon as ordinary are the predisposing causes. Symptoms. These are manifested soon after birth. The lamb is fe- verish, weak, and careless of the teat. One or more of the joints become enlarged, hot and painful. Constipation is frequently present or it may have a diarrhea. Sometimes the lamb is unable to walk or when it does, it is stiff and lame. Pus sometimes forms in the affected joints, and dif- ferent internal organs. The disease usually proves fatal and if the lamb does recover it is worthless. Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in washing the um- bilical cord soon after birth with about a ten per cent, watery solution of carbolic acid. This will cause it to dry and prevent the entrance of germs. The quarters must be dry and clean, and if the disease is present in a fiock, the sheep house must be cleaned and disinfected. MALIGNANT OEDEMA. BLOOD POISONING. Causes. Malignant oedema is due to a germ (the bacillus of odema). The germ is present in large numbers in the soil and infection takes place by a wound in the skin becoming contaminated with dirt, faeces, dust, etc. Symptoms. A swelling forms in the neighborhood of the infected part. This is at first small but spreads gradually in all directions and feels doughy. The center of the swelling is cold, painless and crackles when pressed on. On the margin it is tense, hot and painful. When cut into it has a disagreeable odor. Pus forming germs are present in the 39 older areas. The general symptoms are loss of appetite, fever, quick, weak pulse, etc. The disease usually terminates fatally in a few days. Treatment. The treatment is mainly surgical and consists in making a number of incisions into the oeaematous swelling and obtaining drain- age as well as admitting air. The part must be washed out with a strong creolin solution two or three times a day. If very weak, stimulants can be given. RABIES. HYDROPHOBIA. Rabies is an infectious disease and is caused by the sheep being bitten by a rabid dog. It i snot as common a disease of sheep as of cattle, due to their body being so well protected by wool. The period of incubation will vary twenty-five to ninety days. Symptoms. The expression of the face is usually staring and when approached the animals may become restless, stamp the foot, bleat, etc. If a stick is held in front of them they will frequently bite at it. On ac- count of the bite itching intensely, the sheep may rub and bite the part. The sexual desire is generally increased and the rabid sheep will crowd and push against the other members of the flock, jumping on them and bleating with a dull, rough voice. Weakness soon sets in and in the latter stage of the disease, when startled, it may drop to the ground, lie still for a time and have difficulty in rising. In some cases the sheep acts dull and does not manifest these rabid symptoms. Death takes place in a few days or a week. When symptoms of rabies are manifested, the sheep should be sep- arated from the rest of the flock or destroyed at once. VARIOLA. SHEEP POX. In the early part of the last century, variola was a formidable plague of the flocks of Europe. In 1819 over a million sheep died of this disease in France alone, and in 1823 half a million in Austria. In some European countries it is still prevalent. This disease bears an interesting relation with cow pox in cattle and small pox in man. Causes. Variola is a highly contagious disease, the contagious element l)eing present in the crusts from the pustules on the skin, in the excretions, blood and expired air. It can be carried a long distance. The exact nature of the virus is not known. In sheep sheds, yards, etc., the virus may remain active for a month or six weeks, but is easily destroyed l)y pntre- 40 faction, a high temperature and the ordinary disinfectants. Variola is spread by animals that have had it within a period of a few weeks or a month, by innoculated sheep, wool, dogs, manure, fodder, etc. One attack ' causes a life-time immunity. The period of incubation is from four to seven days. Symptoms. The sheep is depressed, weak, hangs its head, breathes quickly, is feverish and has chills. in a day or two red spots or pimples appear on the skin not covered or incompletely cov- ered wuth long w-ool. When the eruptions are close together the skin be- comes badly swollen. In about five days the vesicles or pustules form, dry up and scab over, the swelling then disappears and the scabs loosen and drop off leaving a pit in which no w^ool afterw'ards grows. As a prevention, healthy animals are given a mild form of the disease by innoculating them on the ear, tail, etc., wdth a virus obtained from a mild case after it has run for six or eight days. The disease does not occur here. SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX. BLACK LEG. Causes. This is not a common disease of sheep. The specific cause is a germ, a bacillus that w'hen conditions are favorable wull probably de- velop in the soil and live for years. The germ gains entrance to the body by some wound on the leg, mouth or body. The period of incubation is from one to five days. Symptoms. The tumors may develop on different parts of the body, develop rapidly and are sensitive at first. The skin over the tumor soon becomes gangrenous and cold, and w'hen cut into the tissues are dark col- ored and a frothy, red liquid together with gas escapes. I'he general symptoms are loss of appetite, weak pulse, high temperature and finally difficult respiration, violent colic, brain complications, coma, insensibility and death. The disease runs a rapidly fatal course. Treatment. This is purely preventive. When the disease is present in a fiock, vaccination should be practiced. ANTHRAX. Anthrax has been knowm for centuries, but it has been only within the last fifty years that its true character 'was discovered. In this coun- try the disease is not very prevalent and is not common among sheep. Causes. The specific cause of this disease is a bacilus, the bacilus of 41 anthrax. Outside of the body this germ will grow and multiply whenever the conditions are favorable, and it will resist to a remarkable degree, if spores are formed, germicides, dessication, high temperature, low temper- ature and other unfavorable conditions. It develops best in dark soil rich in organic matter, manure, mud, etc. In anthrax countries the over- flowing of river bottoms in the spring or a very hot, dry summer will fa- vor the development of the organism and may cause an outbreak of the disease. The germs are taken into the body with the food or by way of a wound in the skin, tongue or mucuous membrane of the mouth. When a carcass is not properly disposed of flies and other insects act as carriers of the disease and infect healthy animals. It is not uncommon for the carcass of a sheep or other animal that has died from this disease to be dragged over the pasture, road or street and healthy animals may inhale the germs along with the dust, or take them into the body along with the food. Commercial fertilizers, hides, etc., sometimes act as carriers of the disease. Symptoms. Anthrax in sheep generally takes on a very acute form. The animal is suddenly stricken with apoplexy, staggers, falls down, is seized with convulsions and dies in a few minutes. Black blood is dis- charged from -the anus and mouth. When the disease takes on a less acute form the symptoms will differ. The animal may act restless at first. The respirations and pulse are quickened, the mucuous membranes are dark colored, it frequently tries to pass faeces, is delirious or dull and finally liBS down and dies in a short time. Treatment. Ihis is wholly preventive and consists in destroying the cadaver by burning or burying deeply at some distance from barns, yards or public highways, and vaccinating all susceptible animals. The dead animals must not be dragged over the ground but disposed of as near the place of aeath as possiole. Disinfectants must oe freely used around the place where the animal died. TUBERCUJ.OSIS. CONSUMPTION. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease and is caused by a specific germ, the bacillus of tuberculosis. This disease is rarely met with in sheep. Infection is said to take place through being kept with tuberculous cattle and in lambs by drinking of the milk from tuber^culous cows. 42 Symptoms. The symptoms will depend on the organs involved and the stage of the disease. In the early stages the symptoms are not suf- ficiently developed to enable ns to make a diagnosis, later it can be easily recognized. The sheep may have a slight cough at first or a chronic indi- gestion. Glands in different parts of the body may become enlarged. In the last stages, the animal is usually emaciated, the fleece ragged, it stands with the back arched, the respirations are rapid, the lung sounds dead- ened and it breathes through the mouth. Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in not exposing the sheep to the disease. When the symptoms are sufficiently developed to enable us to form a diagnosis, the animal should be destroyed and the carcass disposed of in a proper manner. TETANUS. LOCK JAW. Causes. This is an infectious disease and is caused by the bacillus of tetanus, a germ that is present in the soil, especially if rich in organic matter. The disease is more common and takes a more acute form in warm than in cold countries. Infection takes place by dirt containing the bacillus entering a wound. Punctured wounds caused by nails or splinters of wood and contused wounds are most suitable for its development. The disease may follow an operation, especially castration, when performed without proper antiseptic precautions. The period of incubation is short, usually less than a week. Symptoms. In this disease the germ remains at the point of innocula- tion and there manufactures poisonous substances that have an action on the body similar to strychnine. The symptoms are acute. The sheep stands immovable, with all four legs stretched out as if on stilts, the tail is rigid, neck and back stiff and jaws closed. The muscles of the neck and back are hard, the respirations quick and difficult, the pulse weak, and fi- nally it goes down and dies in a short time. In sheep the death rate is very high. Treatment. It is important as a preventive measure to treat all wounds properly and to use the necessary antiseptic precautions in per- forming surgical operations, especially castration. It is only in subacute cases that medicinal treatment is beneficial, and in this disease the ad- ministration of medicine is less beneficial than careful nursing. The wound must be cleaned and disinfected, and the sick animal given a quiet. 43 dark stall and made as comfortable as possible. Plenty of fresh water should be provided and if it can eat, soft, sloppy foods or green grass can be given in preference to dry food. If constipated an enema can be giv- en. Chloral hydrate in half dram doses, every hour in the drinking water or feed may relieve the spasms. INFLUENZA. MALIGNANT CATARRHAL FEVER. Influenza is an infectious disease the speciflc cause of which is not known. It is especially prevalent during certain years and when the conditions are favorable may affect a large number of animals in the flock. As in other diseases, age, breed, care, hygienic conditions, etc., will influence the number of animals aifected in a flock. Exposure, draughts, confining the flock in too close quarters and poor ventilation are the com- mon predisposing causes. Symptoms. The general condition of the sheep is greatly disturbed and the animal presents a droopy, depressed appearance. It is feverish and weak, stands with the back arched and may have a staggering gait. It generally refuses to eat, has a cough and swallows with difficulty. The respiratory mucuous membrane is inflamed, the discharge from the nos- trils is increased and sometimes swelling appears under the jaw. Diarrhea is sometimes a prominent symptom. When the respiratory apparatus is generally affected the respirations are difficult and rapid. Pneumonia and inflammation of the brain and its coverings are frequent complications. In some cases both the external and internal parts of the eye become in- flamed, the lids are swollen, the conjunctival membrane and the eye take on a milky appearance. The duration of the disease is from a few days to several weeks. In mild cases recovery occurs in a few days, but if not cared for properly a relapse may occur. The prognosis is unfavor- able in the severe type. Lesions. The change in the tissues of the body will vary . In acute cases they are not marked, but when the disease is complicated and the duration a week or more, various tissues and organs are affected. The principal changes are in the respiratory organs. The mucuous mem- brane lining the pharynx, larynx, tra(;hea, and bronchial tubes is red and thickened; that lining the sinuses of the head is also involved and a por- tion of the lung tissue may be affected by a catarrhal pneumonia. In se- vere cases the pleural membrane as well as a large portion of the lung is 44 affected. Other lesions are in the brain, stomach, intestines, liver, kid- neys, spleen, heart and lymph glands. Treatment. The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that will predispose the flock to the disease. If the disease is present in a flock, it should be looked over carefully every day and the sick sheep separated from the healthy ones and given comfortable quarters, good care and good nourishing food. In mild cases this may be all the treat- ment necessary. In the catarrhal form the following prescription is use- ful: tincture of belladonna (four drams), tincture or aconite (one-half dram), and sufficient syrup of squills to make a four ounce mixture; mix and give one tablespconful three times a aay. This treatment is best followed by tonics and expectorants. The following recipe can be given; tincture of gentian (four drams), iodide of potassium (two drams), and enough water to make four ounces; mix and give one tablespoonful twice a da5^ If diarrhea is present one ounce of linseed oil and a dram of tincture of opium given two or three times a day will give good results. PARASITIC DISEASES. GRUB IN THE HEAD. OESTRUS OVIS, Linn. The parasitis disease of the nostrils of sheep is generally known as grub in the head. The presence of the parasite is not seen from a general examination, only the catarrhal discharge. The grubs are only found on a careful post mortem examination. As a matter of fact, we have very little catarrh of sheep affecting only one side of the nostrils and that usually in late winter and early spring. These supposed catarrhs are nearly al- ways due to the grub stage of the sheep gad fly. The sheep gad fly is unknown to the sheep breeder in anything ex- cept the larval or grub state. The mature fly is like an over-grown house fly of a dullish yellow color so closely covered with small, black spots as to give the whole a brownish appearance. The abdomen con- sists of flve rings, velvety and variegated with brown and straw color. The feet are brown; the wings are transparent and quite large. The head is whitish underneath. There are no mouth parts and the eyes are pur- plish brown, 'j’here are three eyelets on the top of the head. The space between the eyes in the male is very narrow, being less than one-tnird that of the female. The fly is only obtained by hatching the grub in a cage 45 and watching developments. They are very sluggish and remain in hiding until fully matured and the temperature is sufficiently high. The female rises high and flies swiftly to a flock and deposits an egg containing a de- veloping larvae. The male never bothers a flock. The female only flies during the hot months and in the middle of the day. The attack of a flock of sheep by these flies is attended witn the same fright as is seen when the horse gad fly strikes the horses nose. The sheep will push their noses down into the ground between their legs, run, Section of sheep’s head showing grubs in the sinus or cavity above the air passage and in front of the brain. Stamp, snort and huddle together, seek the shade of low sheds, or under buildings. The attack seems to strike terror to them. The sheep are not molested during the morning or evening. As the mature fly has no mouth parts or means of feeding, it is evident that its sole mission is to propa- gat the species. The young hot begins to make its way up the nasal passage as soon as it is deposited. This is accomplished by means of the hooks and spines. The operation is attended with some tickling or irritatif)ii as there is often violent sneezing and snorting but apparently without avail. 46 The larvae find their way to the superior part of the nasal cavity, between the turbinate bones, the frontal or facial sinuses, or between the ethemoid cells. Their presence causes some irritation and stimulation of secretion, which it uses as food. It lives in this location for several months, at least over the winter, and make their escape in the spring. Ordinarily we do not find more than one, two, or three grubs in the head of affected sheep. Occasionally eight or ten will be seen. Some writers record from twelve to twenty grubs in bad cases and there are records of from sixty or eighty. When the number is small there are no serious symptoms. When there are several, there is usually marked ca- tarrhal discharge and we have the thick effusive mucous characteristic of the snotty nose. Treatment. This must be preventive as far as possible. The fly does not attack sheep in the shade and only seeks its prey during the middle of the day. A low temporary shed that will afford shade in the pasture will be a great protection. Valuable breeding stock can well be stabled and allowed to graze during the morning and evening, riome resort to putting tar on the noses every few days to prevent attack. This can be done by smearing the sides of a narrow feed trough so that the sheep can not avoid touching in the attempt to get the grain. The treatment of a sheep already affected is unsatisfactory. Injecting turpentine into the nostril as so often recommended reaches only a few that may not be in the sinus. Trephining or opening the skull is rather theoretical and not practical on large fiocks. Occasional fumigating the stable with turpentine or smoke from tar will palliate the catarrh. If the disease develops in the fall, fatten as fast as possible and dispose to the butcher. If in the spring use good care and feed to carry the sheep along until the grub comes away. SHEEP TICK. The sheep tick as it is commonly called is one of the commonest of the parasites affecting sheep. It is not a true tick but a wingless fly. This parasite is not a native of this country, but has been brought here through importation from Europe. It was first rather confined to the eastern states, but owing to the purchase of breeding stock, and subse- quent traffic in sheep, it has been carried to a large percentage of the flocks in this state. The losses occasioned are not from destroying the 47 sheep by killing, but from the lack of thrift occasioned by their irritating and biting the skin. It is difficult to estimate the losses occasioned in a flock by the presence of this parasite, but where they become numerous there can be no doubt but that it amounts to a considerable sum. The state has been called upon to investigate cases of supposed scab that were due to ticks. The parasite of this disease, Melophagus ovius, Linn, is a wingless fly. It has six well developed legs, a short, flat head set closely upon the Sheep-tick. Dorsal or back view. Ventral or under surface. body and a large, oval abdomen. Their resemblance to the tick, with its large abdomen, small head and eight slender legs is not so very close when critically examined. The full grown tick is auout one-fourth of an inch in length and about one-third as wide as long. The body is short, flattened above and below, very tough and leathery in character. The color varies trom an ashen to reddish gray and quite a bright red, dependent upon the quantity of blood imbibed and the time elapsed since the meal. The head is broad and very flat and somewhat sunken into the thorax. The eyes are small and on about a level with the head. The proboscis is tubular and reinforced at the upper part. Its end is armed with teeth. The thorax is nearly square and bears the strong legs. The abdomen is bag like. Ifiie legs are each pro- vided with two sharp claws. The legs and body are covered with bris- 48 ties. There are not wings but a couple of bristle spots take their place. The sexes may be separated by their size and the form of the sexual apparatus. The tick being wingless depends wholly upon its ability to crawl for locomotion. It is able to crawl through the wool at quite a lively rate. It bites, and sucks the blood for its food. Formerly it was thought that it lived in part upon the oily matter of the wool and the epidermis of the skin. The fact that the tick soon starves to death even when kept in fresh wool practically settles the matter that it is, almost, if not wholly dependent upon the blood for its nourishment. The bite at the time of its infliction is not painful, but afterward it becomes reddened and itches even more than that inflicted by the mosquito. The tick does not reproduce rapidly like the sheep scab mit#. Only one egg is laid at a time and not more than eight or nine are produced during the lifetime of the female. A number of observers believe that there are only one or two. The egg is large and resembles a seed. It has a hardened case, having a row of seven dots one on each side. The spe- cial peculiarity of the egg is the fact that they contain half developed pupae at the time they are deposited. The eggs are laid in the wool and a slight waxy substance secures their adhesion. The insect comes out with fully developed characters. The length of time required for the eggs to hatch is variously given at from three to four weeks. A large number of eggs taken by myself from sheep, and placed in wool at body temper- ature required from 17 to 22 days to develop. The tick is a true parasite and can not live off the sheep more than a few days. Not being able to fly they must depend upon crawling to in- fect new stock, and this necessitates close contact, or the use of very recently used pens. The tick may fall upon the bedding and by chance crawl upon another animal. Their slow rate of multiplication prevents them from becoming very numerous except in the spring of the year. At shearing time from fifty to two hundred may be found on badly affected animals. After shearing, the tick will migrate to the lamb because of lack of protection and under such circumstances may cause considerable loss. The means of destroying the tick is by dipping, the same as for scab. The dip used for this purpose need not be more than one-third or one-half as strong as that used for scab. The preferable dips are those containing 49 crude carbolic acid or creolin. The sheep or lamb need not be in the bath more than a few seconds. The sheep become no wetter by continued immersion. Unlike the condition in scab the parasites are all on the out- side and readily accessible. Sheep giving evidence of this trouble should be dipped at any time if the weather is favorable. They should be dipped after shearing as the quantity of dip then required is small. It is also a good plan to dip again in the fall. The expense is small, costing only about a fourth or a half cent per head, and in an ordinary tank two hun- dred can easily be passed through in an hour. SHEEP SCAB. Sheep scab is a parasitic disease of sheep, the parasite causing the disease is known as the scab mite or itch mite. The disease is the same as mange or itch in other animals. There are four varieties of scab, com- mon or body scab, caused by Psoroptes commuins; Furst, variety ovis. The head scab is a variety almost wholly confined to the head or where the weel is quite short, and caused by Sarcoptes scabiei; de Gier, variety ovis. The third variety affects the feet and legs and under parts of the body, is called foot scab and is caused by Chorioptes communis; Verheyen; variety ovis. The last form affects the eyeiids and is produced by Demo- dex folliculorm; variety ovis. All except the first variety are of such rare occurrence as to be of lit- tle economic interest. During ten years of experience in the state we have not met or seen a case other than of the first vareity. While we distinguish these varieties and the affections which they produce are easily recognizable, the life history and habits are so nearly alike that one description will suffice for all. The common scab mite is very small, being only about a fortieth of an inch in length in the female and one-sixtieth of an inch in breadth. The male is still smaller, being one-fiftieth of an inch in length and one- eightieth of an inch in breadth. The body is oval in shape, slightly round- ed above and flat below. It is possessed of eight legs, which are short, the two front pair being quite stout and the last pair is very small. The head is pointed and set close to the body. There are some hairs on the legs and body. The color is a reddish or yellowish gray. These parasites are too small to be recognized by the unaided eye on the body of their 4 50 host. Placed upon a dark background in strong sunlight, they may be seen to crawl. The parasite has very feeble powers of locomotion. The scab mite lives by biting the surface skin which, in turn, through the irri- tation causes an exudate to be thrown out that crusts or scabs. Under these scabs the ovoid eggs are deposited. It only requires two or three days for the eggs to hatch, but about twelve days more for the young to Dorsal and ventral views. undergo its transformation and become an adult. The new parasite then seeks a new area to repeat the process and thus the margin of the original site of infection becomes extended indefinitely. Each female lays about fifteen eggs, two-thirds of which develop females. Gerlach made a study of the enormous rapidity with which such mul- tiplication takes place and shows that the offspring from a single pair in three months would reach the enormous number of 1,500,000. His method of computation is as follows: Generation. Days. Females. Males. First 15 10 5 Second 30 100 50 Third 45 1000 500 Fourth 60 10000 5000 Fifth 75 100000 50000 Sixth 90 1000000 500000 While it may be that the conditions are never so favorable as to se- cure complete development of all eggs and some adults become loosened from the body with the wool before reproduction occurs, it does account 51 for the very rapid development of the disease on a flock, and the enormous number of parasites to be seen in small particles of crusts. It is probable in most instances that only a very few parasites are transferred from a diseased to a healthy animal, and it can be easily understood that slow progress would oe made in the first forty-flve days and that it might escape attention for the first sixty days after the infection. It has happened more than once that sheep passing through stock- yards to farms for feeding purposes have apparently been all right for a month or more, and then develop the trouble. The scab mite is a true parasite, that is one that can not multiply off the animal body and cannot thrive on another host for more than a short Male scab mite. Dorsal and ventral views. time. Its life off the body is limited to that of the individual adult para- site, or to well-protected eggs. Just what this period is in each case has not been determined as satisfactorily as it should be. The probabilities are that the period is short and not some months as some assume. Sheep scab is one of the most annoying diseases that can attack a flock. Attention is not drawn to it, until it has been present for some time and is about ready to make rapid progress. It is destructive of both fleece and animal if not treated promptly and vigorously. It spreads more rapidly during the winter while sheep are penned and tne fleece is long. The disease is one of so much importanc that it is made the sub- ject of special legislation in many of the states and by systematic efforts may be stamped out. Sheep scab as it occurs in this state is due almost wholly to the bringing in of sheep for feeding purposes. The recent investigations of about 5,0Q0 cases reported has shown that more than nine-tenths were sheep that had been in the stock yards or shipped on board cars. The yards and cars may be considered permanently infected and the single dipping given at the yards will not suffice. The disease if present is only checked and after a couple of months of feeding in warm stables begins to show itself. It is a serious question whether it would not be advisable to prevent the bringing in of all sheep except on permit. The act of the legislature approved March 6, 1901, provides that sheep scab shall be reported to the State Veterinarian — being a contagious disease — and provides specifically as follows: Sec. 4. That all sheep consigned to or passing through stockyards shall be dipped before leaving, if intended for any other purposes than immediate slaughter in the State, the time of dipping, the manner of dipping, and kind of dip used to be subject to the approval of the State Veterinarian: Provided, That in the winter and at such times as the dipping of sheep would be hazardous to their health, the sheep may be withdrawn upon permit from the State Veterinarian, which permit shall be issued upon the written agreement of the owner that the sheep will remain in his possession, and that ne will dip at such future time and in such manner as the State Veterinarian may direct. That all sheep found affected with scabies shall be dipped at such time and in such manner and with such dip, as the State Veterinarian shall direct, and at the expense of the owner. Symptoms. The effect of the scab mite is one of irritation to the skin. Whether this is due wholly to the biting in the effort to obtain food, or whether some part is due to some poisonous substance secreted and innoculated with the bite is not known. The very intense itching, papules, and inflammation with the attending exudate would seem to indi- cate that it is due to something more than mere mechanical injury. The itching causes the sheep to scratch and rub and bite and this is aggravated by the heat. A sheep with a long, heavy fleece in a warm sta- ble will show this irritation much more than one shorn and in the open field. The wool will loosen at the points of attack and by rubbing and biting is pulled out, first in small bunches, and then in large masses giving the fleece a very rough or ragged appearance. In advanced stages these 53 patches run together and leave the body almost bare. The effect of biting is to cause an inflammation of the skkin and an exudate which forms a crust or scab. It is under this crust or scab that the eggs are deposited, and when the new generation is brought forth, they migrate a short dis- tance and repeat the biting process and thus increase the area. The dis- ease is distinctly one of progression requiring a month or more from the time of infection to develop symptoms that will attract attention, sixty days more to develop a well-marked case, and ninety days or inore to ren- der much of the animal bare. The disease does not tend to self-recovery, but to destruction unless vigorously treated. Aside from causing loss of life it causes loss of fleece, loss of flesh, and breeding ewes may loose their lambs. Treatment. The treatment of sheep scab consists in using some ap- plication which, when brought in contact with the parasite or eggs, will kill them. Sanitary measures are essential, but as the disease is not caused by unsanitary surroundings alone, sanitary surroundings alone will not prevent or cure. No internal medication is efflcatious. Of the exter- nal applications, the dips alone are worth considering. Ointments or dips for hand application are only advisable where one or two sheep are afliected; where a few are affected, and the weather is too cold to dip, or for temporarily arresting the disease in ewes in an advanced stage of preg- nancy. All local applications applied by hand may be put down as only palliative. It is a rare thing that they are so well applied that they cure. The application of scab or lice powders are likewise lacking in efficiency, and the use of any of these means only means the postponing of the date when general infection of the flock will occur unless separation has taken place at the same time. The essentials of a good dip are that it should kill the parasite and should cause little or no harm to the sheep, the fleece, or the operator. The combination of all these qualities is not easily attained, otherwise there would not be as many formulae or so many discarded dips. There have l)een bulletins published giving numerous formulae for the preparation of dips, but the basis of about all have been lime, sulphur, tobacco and arsenic. These have been used in varying pro- portions and in combination, sometimes in such manner as to be quite harmful and at other times almost harmless. The whole question of dips was carefully investigated l)y the Bureau of Animal Industry, and the 54 conclusion reached that probably the most effective dips were those com- posed of sulphur and tobacco, and sulphur and lime of known quantities, and of such strength that they were not injurious to the sheep or fleece. The composition of the sulphur and tobacco, and lime and sulphur dip, and the manner of preparing can be followed by any intelligent stock owner. The objections to tobacco and sulphur dips, and lime and sulphur dips arise from classing all the dips composed of these materials as being the same while as a matter of fact there is widest latitude in their com- position and method of prepartion. In some formulae the lime and sul- phur are present in equal proportions, in some, the lime is in excess at the rate of two to one, and in others the sulphur is in excess at the rate of of three to one. The quantity of lime and sulphur present may vary from thirty pounds to the hundred gallons of dip to two hundred and fifty pounds per hundred gallons of dip. The very strong dips are dangerous to the life of the sheep and injurious to the wool. The dips containing the least lime and sulphur have been found to be effective and produce no noticable ef- fect upon the wool. The Colorado dip consists of thirty-three pounds of flowers of sulphur, eleven pounds of unslaked lime, and one hundred gal- lons of water, and is regarded as very effective. The Bureau of Animal Industry dip consists of the same proportions, but in still less quantity, twenty-four pounds of flower of sulphur, eight pounds of unslaked lime, and one hundred gallons of water. The objections urged against lime and sulphur dips based upon the injuries or damages done by the very strong dip cannot be applied to these. To make a lime and sulphur dip requires more time and care than is usually given to make a proper mixture. The lime and sulphur should be weighed and the exact quantity of water measured. The given quantities of lime and sulphur are taken and water added until it can be rubbed into a creamy paste. This mass is now boiled in from twenty-five to thirty gallons of water for two and one-half to three hours and stirred occasionally during the boiling period. The mixture is now allowed to stand over night in a barrel, or other receptacle, so that all the solid matter may settle and the clear liquid may be drawn off. It is important that only the clear liquid should be used. The clear liquid is then diluted in the dipping tank with sufficient warm warm water to make one hundred gallons and is ready for use. On the basis of first cost of 55 material the lime and sulphur dip is very economical, but where only a few sheep are to be dipped, the trouble attending its preparation is so great that it is doubtful whether it is the most economical to use. The tobacco dip may be made as follows. Take sixteen pounds of to- bacco leaves or stems and cover with warm water and let stand for a day. The amount of water used should not be less than thirty gallons, and it is preferable that it should be the full quantity to he used, one hundred gal- lons, if the receptacle is large enough to hold it. At the end of a day, bring the tobacco infusion to the boiling point for a few minutes and allow it to stand over night. Strain off the infusion. Take as many pounds of flower of sulphur as tobacco used, mix the sulphur in sufficient water to make a smooth, creamy mass. When ready to dip warm the infusion to one hundred degrees, and if only thirty gallons of water has been used, dilute to one hundred gallons and add the sulphur and keep it well stirred during the dipping. The tobacco and sulphur dip is the most effective that has been used in this state, but is tedious and disagreeable to make and while we have no desire to advertise any particular dip, we believe that few can afford to make the dip under ordinary farm conditions, so long as good tobacco ex- tracts may be purchased in the open market. The first cost of materials for the tobacco infusion would be less than for the extract, but if a man’s time is worth anything, or he is affected by the disagreeable odor from the tobacco in preparation, the extract from the leaves is to be prefered. There are a number of good proprietary dips upon the market, and in the state, the practice is to allow the owner to select his own dip as long as the results desired are accomplished. Where advice is given, however, it is to use tobacco extract with sulphur. For ticks the creolin-like prep- arations are preferable but cannot be relied upon for scab . An arsenical dip may be made as follows: arsenic, two pounds, sulphur four pounds, and carbonate of soda, two pounds for each one hundred gallons of water. The soda and arsenic are first dissolved in a couple gallons of water and then the flower of sulphur added and stirred vigorously for a few minutes until it makes a smooth paste. This is then kept ready and added to the rerpiired amount of water at time of dipping. The arsenical dip is not any more effective than the tobacco dip and is not so good be- cause of being poisonous and accidents are likely to follow. The sheep 56 must be kept off all pasture until tnoroughly dry so that the dripping may not fall upon that which may be eaten. Every particle of dip not used should be buried to insure that no stock shall. find access to it. Arsenical dips were used very extensively but so many accidents have resulted that they cannot be recommended except in such cases where great care will be exercised. All dips should be used fresh. It is bad practice to dip a fiock of sheep and allow the residue to remain in the vat for ten days or until the next dipping. The failures and alleged injurious poisonous effects may often oe traced to such practice. The quantity of dip required will depend upon the number of sheep to be dipped, the length of the fleece and the extent to which the drainage re- turns to the vat. It requires several gallons of dip in which to immerse a sheep so that the loss is large when only a few sheep are to be dipped. In general it may be said that after shearing, and until the wool becomes about an inch in length that each sheep will carry off from a quart to a quart and a half of dip after it has been allowed to stand for a few min- utes. In the latter part of winter and before shearing, the loss will be nearly one gallon per head. These amounts may seem large, but are about the average as found in practice. Arrangements for Dipping. Sheep may be dipped with very simple arrangements, a box just large enough to hold a sheep and dip and a few square feet of drain board on which to place the sheep for a short time will suffice. Effective dipping may be done in this manner, but with much labor and loss of time. Such a method is probably justifiable where there are only a few sheep that must be dipped in an emergency. If a large number of sheep are to be dipped or dipping is to be done every year, it will be found more economical to build or buy a dipping tank as it will be more convenient, and save dip and labor. The dipping tank should be narrow at the bottom, wide at the top, straight up and down at the end where the sheep are expected to enter, and the bottom built on an incline at the other end so that the sheep may walk out and not rquire to be lifted out. The incline is one of the most important features of the tank as it is desirable that the lifting of the hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of soaking sheep be avoided. The dipping tank should be located at some 57 convenient point for corralling the sheep, as a barn floor, or along the side of a fence and a hurdle erected to drive the sheep to the end of the tank. The tank should be partially sunk into the ground to make it con- venient for the operator and to avoid the necessity of getting the sheep up so high. A draining floor must be provided about flve by ten feet, water tight and so placed and inclined that the excess dip will return to the tank. Where small flocks of fifty to three hundred are to be dipped. A simple arrangement for dipping sheep. we have found nothing so quickly made to serve this purpose as a good wagon bed. If it leaks it can be made perfectly tight with linoleum at little expense. The accompanying picture will show a convenient ar- rangement that may be obtained on any farm with probably the minimum trouble and expense. 58 INTERNAL PARASITES THE BLADDER WORMS. Taenia marginata; Batsch. On dressing sheep and lambs it happens sometimes that the folds of the omentum or caul will contain a number of semi-transparent bladder like bodies from a half to one inch in diameter, A similar condition may be found on the brain due to another variety of the parasite. These bladders contain a worm known as the bladder worm and are one stage in the development of the tape worm. The Taenia marginata; Batsch, is the variety affecting the abdomi- nal cavity. In from one to two weeks after sheep ingest the eggs of this parasite, the young will have developed and migrated from the intestinal canal and a favorite place for them is on the surface of the liver. They may migrate from any part of the intestinal tract and therefore may be found at any place along its course. The bladders are composed of a del- icate, whitish membrane and when viewed toward the light, one point will appear to be denser than the rest. As these bladders grow this spot becomes thicker and denser. This is the head and the part by which it is attached to the cyst wall. This head is fully developed with hooks and suckers, and when freed becomes the starting point for the development of the mature state in some other animal. The parasite requires about two weeks from the time of the ingestion of the eggs to develop and mi- grate through the intestinal wall. It requires about eight weeks more to develop into mature cysts, but when matured as cysts they may remain in this condition for a long period of time. This is as far as the parasite ever develops in the sheep. To complete its life cycle the sheep, when it is killed or dies, must oe eaten by a dog, wolf or other carnivorous animal, the cyst is ruptured and the head attaches itself to the intestinal wall and begins to develop into the form known as the tape worm. The tape worm becomes fully developed in from ten to twelve weeks, and the young worms in the form of eggs, and the segments are discharged with the faeces. These embryos fall upon pasture and are taken up by grazing sheep to run another life cycle. The bladder worms are likely to cause peritonitis when migrating in large numbers from the intestine or liver. The bladder worms that come 59 to the surface of the liver either result in destroying their host or die after a couple weeks, the location not being favorable for development. Those finding their way into the folds of the omentum seem to cause little incon- venience. The sheep may become infected at any time of the year, preferably during the grazing season, but may from eating hay containing the excre- ta of dogs. The young sheep are susceptible, but those past five or six years possess a resistance that protects them even against intentional feeding. The diagnosis of the trouble in sheep is difficult to make except by post mortem. There have been severe losses attributable to this disease, but it is of less importance in this state than in many others. The Treatment must be wholly preventive. When once the cysts have been formed there is no remedy that can reach them. In the dog the tape The bladder worm. The mature segments as found in the dog. The head. The booklets. The Ijladder as found in the sheep. worm may be expelled by suitable remedies. The sheep husbandman must therefore treat the dog, keep off all dogs, and burn or bury carcases of affected sheep so that dogs will not have access to them. Areca nut powdered, two grains for each pound of body weight, or ethereal extract of male shield-fern are suitable remedies for causing their expulsion from the dog. 60 THE BLADDER WORM OF THE BRAIN. Taenia coenurus, Kuch. The bladder worms found on the brains of sheep resemble those found in the abdominal cavity except that they are smaller. They are about the size of hazel-nuts, have a fairly tough membrane and translucent when held up to the, light. The bladder worm of the brain is the cystic state of a different species of tapeworm from that affecting the abdomen. In this The mature bladder worm of the brain. case the eggs a.re taken in with the food and as soon as the embryos are freed, they begin to migrate. They enter the circulation and are carried by the blood current to various parts of the body, but those lodging at any point execpt in the brain or spinal cord die, the same as those that find way to the surface of the liver in Taenia marginata. When the embryos, find lodgment in the brain they begin to channel their way to the surface and in doing so may make any kind of track 61 straight or crooked. On arriving at the surface the cyst or bladder is formed. On being examined toward strong light, instead of one dense, white body on the inside a dozen or more may be seen. On opening these all appear as heads, in this respect differing from the bladder worms found in the abdomen. The number of these little heads reach into the hun- dreds. The adult stage of this worm is found in the dog, wolf, fox and some other carnivorous animals. The eggs are passed with faeces and thus find their way upon pasture where they may be taken up in the grazing. The egg covering is dissolved and the embryo freed. It begins its migration at once as already described. It remains in the cyst stage until the sheep is killed or dies and can only cause trouble again if the brain is eaten by some animal as already mentioned. The multiplication of heads in the cyst stage seems to be a final effort to maintain the species as the possi- bilities of a mature worm ever being developed must be only one for sev- eral million eggs voided, only one possibility out of many that of those ingested one will reach the brain, and a still smaller number would ever be devoured with the carcass as the brain would be best protected. The disease caused by the bladder worm is known as gid, turn sick, or staggers. There are two stages when the symptoms are presented, first when the embryo is migrating to the surface. The injury caused at this time is that of a character to be accompanied by inflammation. The symptoms usually develop within a couple of weeks after the infection. The sheep are dull, stupid, hot, and most often the head is turned back- ward. The position in which it is held will depend in part on the seat of the inflammation. It may be extended, or cramped to one side. If lying down the head is usually forced backward, the movements force the animal back, and there will be spasm and convulsions. There is redness of the eyes. Death results within a week. In the second stage the symptoms are due to pressure of the cyst. The head turns, the sheep walk in a cir- cle and this gives it the name of gid or turnsick. It acts stupid, trembles, staggers and has convulsions, refuses to eat or drink and dies. Only a few recover when once the symptoms are well developed. There is no treatment for tfie trouble that is practical. It may be prevented by destroying all heads of sheep that die, or by treating the dogs as indicated for the Taenia marginata. 62 FRINGED TAPE WORM. Thysanoscma actinioides, Diesing. The fringed tapeworm is a very common parasite of western sheep, by some considered to produce more trouble than any other parasite with the exception of the scab mite. It is found in greater or less number in the majority of flocks in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Nebraska and ad- joining territory. The parasite is not of much consequence in this state, except as it is brought in with feeding stock. Whole car loads of sheep brought from St. Louis and Chicago have suffered from the affection, and as high as sixty per cent, have died. In some few cases, the disease has been communicated to the home-grown sheep; but, as a rule, recognition of trouble has been so early or the flock kept intact until re-shipped so that little spreading has occurred. The losses trom the fringed tapeworm are not due directly to the active ravages of the worm, but to the second- ary effects, as lessened growth of wool, poor flesh, and inability to stand cold weather. This variety of tapeworm is slow growing, requiring per- haps seven or eight months to mature. They are usually present in con- siderable numbers and have attained large size before the symptoms at- tract attention.' Description Thysanosoma actinioides. Dies. Strobila 15-30 cm. long; head large, nearly square wnen viewed en face, 1-1.5 mm. broad, placed like a “T” on the neck. Suckers very large, prominent; openings large, elongated or oval, at the four corners, and directed forward or half forward. Neck is exceedingly flat, dorso-ventrally, and quite broad. Segmentation begins almost immediately back of the head. The broadest segments measure 5-8 mm. wide by 0.4-0. 6 mm. long, and are situated about 2 cm. from the posterior end. The posterior segments show a decided tendency to become longer and narrower. Mature segments attain a thickness of 2.2 mm. The posterior flap 'of the segment is broken up into flmbriae, which in the end segments attain the length of the segment itself. There are present in each segment two lateral genital pores, two ovaries, two vitellogene glands, but only one uterus. The latter is situated in the anterior por- tion of the median fleld, is composed of a small canal witn numerous blind sacs, and surrounded by thick, flbrous tissue. The genital canals pass from the median field between the dorsal and ventral canals, and 63 dorsally of the nerve. The dorsal canals are somewhat smaller than the ventral canals, and connected by transverse segmented canals.* The fimbriate tapeworm is from six to eighteen inches in length and found almost wholly in the gall ducts and front part of the small intes- tine. The worm has been found a half inch in length in lambs two months old, but not in the adult in lambs under ten months. The adult stage is usually found in yearlings and two-year-olds. The gorwth is very slow, being at the rate of only about one inch per month, and after they have attained full size, it is usually sometime before they mature. This tapeworm grows as do the other varieties, by continuous segmen- tation at the head. Each segment is complete in itself. Each contains two sets of sexual organs, male and female that show a lateral opening or pore. The reproduction is hermaproditic: The male organs are devel- oped first, when the segment is still near the head. The ovaries develop later and the uteri last. The development is complete when the segments are about half the length of the worm from the head. The eggs develop an embryo which is held in the uteri. As the segments ripen, they break loose and are discharged with the faeces. What becomes of the worm from the time the eggs are discharged until it is found as a worm a half inch in length in some sheep is not known. It is certain that the eggs do not have to pass a larval stage in some one of the higher animals. It is not so certain that they may not have an intermediary stage in some of the lower forms. In some experiments by Curtice, of infection by feeding- on a dry lot, it would seem that the infection might be direct. Experi- ments by feeding the ripe segments were not positive so the life history of the inter stage, is still undermined. The worms when present in sheep as a rule show every stage of de- velopment indicating that infection may extend over nearly the whole year. 'Occasionally all will be of nearly the same size indicating short pe- riod of exposure. The symptoms do not usually develope until late in the fall or winter when the number and bulk have attained such pro- portions or mass as to interfere with the biliary secretion and digestion. The symptoms are lack of nourishment, undersize; hide bound, large *C. W. Stiles. A Revision of the Adult Cestodes of Cattle, Sheep, and Allied Animals. Bureau of Animal Industry: pp. .^>8. Washington; 1893. G4 head, digestive disturbance due to intestinal irritation and obstructed bile, grinding the teeth, lagging behind the flock, unusual attention to sup- posed harm, as dogs and strangers, foolish actions and sometimes slovenly gait. These symptoms may all be accounted for by the lack of nourish- ment, and impoverished blood. The Treatment of the fringed tapeworm is not very satisfactory. Med- icinal agents become much diluted before reaching the small intestine and none can be made to reach those in the bile duct. A remedy that is rec- ommended is a solution of copper sulphate commonly known as blue stone. One pound (av.) of clean bluestone crystals is dissolved in two quarts of boiling water, and whep dissolution is complete, seven and four-fifths gal- lons are added. The dose of this solution is about two thirds of an ounce for lambs one months old, one and one-third ounces for lambs two months old, two ounces for lambs three months old two and two-thirds ounces for lambs four months old, three ounces for lambs five months old and older. Care must be used in measuring the parts in mixing up the preparation and in getting the size of the dose. Copper sulphate is quite poisonous and must be handled with care.* The sheep are prepared for dosing by keeping them off feed and water for fifteen or eighteen hours and holding them off for a few hours after ward. The medicine is best administered by means of a long necked rub- ber syringe and discharging the amount well back in the mouth. Care must be used lest some of it be inhaled and cause pneumonia. The writer has not had personal experience in dosing such affected sheep and the recent report upon the subject by the Bureau of Animal Industry is rather negative. THE BROAD TAPEWORM. Moniezia expansa; Rud. The broad tapeworm is the variety that more nearly Alls the popular conception of what a tapeworm should be. It is a long worm of twelve to fifteen feet and a half to three quarters of an inch in breadth. It is of only ocasional occurrence, however, and as far as known not the cause of any serious losses in this state. *C. W. Stiles. The Inspection of Meats for Animal Parasites. Bureau of Animal Industry. Pp. 133: Washington. 1898. 65 \ r.. / r,\;v,vv..'./,\.'/.v.v\v..-.‘,‘.'.V'< P'ririKPd tape worin. Adult natural sizx-. ' lOdue and side views of the head. Enlarged mature .segment. Hroad tape worm. End and side views of the liead and a few segments. 5 66 Description. Moniezia expansa R. (i8io). Strobila attains 4-5 m. in length; ante- rior portion usually whitish, posterior portion generally yellowish. Head 0.36-0.7 mm. in diameter, obtuse, more or less square, slightly lobed; suck- ers distinctly raised, apertures directed diagonally forward. Segments al- ways much broader than long; and segments attain 16 mm. in wddth ana are quite thick. Topography of nerves, longitudinal canals, genital ca- nals, and female glands similar to M. planissima: (pores double situated in in the anterior portion of the lateral margin, vagina and cirrus on the same transverse plane on the right, vagina ventral, cirrus dorsal; left side; vagi- na dorsal, cirrus ventral; genital canals pass dorsally of the longitudinal canals and nerves;) testicles usually arranged in a quadrangle, rarely in two triangles except in the younger segments. Interproglottidal glands localized around blind sacs which open between segments. Ova 50-60 // bulb of pyriform apparatus 20 * The complete life history of this tapeworm is not known: what be- comes of the worm from the time the ripe segments pass out of the body with the faeces and what changes it undergoes until it infects some other sheep have not been determined. The presumption is that the eggs freed from the broken down segments are eaten by some insect, snail, worm, or other low form of animal, that the tapeworm passes through the cystic stage and later these insects, worms or whatever they may be are swallowed by the sheep while feeding and the cyst set free in the intes- tinal tract. It is certain that in the case there is an intermediary host, that it is some low form of life. Sheep kept shut up in stables have been found to become affected but only rarely so. In fection usually occurs upon pasture. Experiments made to infect sheep by direct feeding, of ripe segments have not been successful. They have become infected when fed the segments and eggs in high, dry lots, but in all cases there was op- portunity for infection. The fact that this tapeworm is found rather rarely in winter and spring while the sheep are upon dry feed, and in stall-fed sheep, and that it is most often found in late summer and fall, shows that natural infection is associated with the grazing. *C. W. Stiles. A Revision of the Adult Cestodes of Cattle, Sheep, and Allied Animals. Bureau of Animal Industry, pp. 34. 1893. 67 The tapeworm disease affects lambs and young sheep more often than the older. The young seem to be especially susceptible and the old to have a natural resistance. The growth of the worm is very rapid, as adults have been found in lambs three months old. After attaining the full growth they remain some time before shedding their segments. In the case of this species practically the whole body is shed at about the same time leaving only the head and three or four inches of the neck. When these begni to grow the sheep may have attained such an age as to resist the inroads, and the heads be eventually expelled. The number of worms present may vary from one to more than a hundred, but it is not usual to find more than a dozen. The Symptoms are those of lack of nourishment. The sheep are usual- ly infected for some time before attention is directed to them. They be- come thin in fiesh, the wool is white and without yolk, lips and eyes pale, flanks tucked up, the appetite is likely to be depraved and the sheep eat large quantities or unusual articles. It frequently happens too that there is diarrhea. The sheep are not strong, lag behind the balance of the flock, and are easily affected by cold. The whole appearance is that of absolute loss of blood. A postive diagnosis cannot be made without seeing the segments of the w'orms in the faeces or by holding a post-mortem. The sheep begin to improve as soon as the worms shed their seg- ments. The medicinal treatment is not very satisfactory. Many preparations have been used and recommended, but the more learned about them by direct experiments, the less effective they seem to be. LIVER FLUKE. Fasciola hepatica; Ifinn. The liver fluke is of very rare occurrence in this state. As far as known to the writer only^six flocks have been affected in the past ten years and in these the infection was brought onto them from the south-west. There is no fear of permanent infection of our pasture. The liver fluke is a broad flat worm found in the liver of sheep, goats and cattle. It is described as follows: Description. Fasciola hepatica. L. Body; ])ale brown, leaf like, flattened. 18-15 mm. G8 long by 4-13 mm. broad. The anterior 3-4 mm. forms a rather thick, con- ical portion which is followed by a large flat, leaf-like body of elongate, oval form this latter widens rapidly to the maximum breadth, and then decreases, gradually in width to the posterior end which is bluntly point- ed; cuticle is covered with numerous spines placed side by side in alternating rows; oral sucker is anterior, round and terminal, but inclines ventral; acetabulum about 3-4 mm. caudad of oral sucker, with which it closely agrees in size; genital pore median, about half way between oral Liver fluke.* sucker and acetabulum; oesophagus rarely over 1 - 1 -Y 2 times as long as the pharynx; intestine dentritic; cirrus frequently extended from pore and then recurved; testicles profusely branched, situated for the greater part posterior to transverse vitello-duct. Vulva is at side of cirrus; uterus forms a rosette with its numerous coils, and is frequently visible to the naked eye as a dark-brown spot, immediately posterior to the acetabelum; ovary branched, anterior of transverse vitello duct; vitellogene glands profusely branched, and occupy the entire margin of the body from aceta- bulum to posterior extremity; they lie dorsally as well as ventrally of the intestine, becoming wider posterially. Oviparous. From Bulletin No. J8. Texas Experiment Station. 69 Eggs; oval, 0.13-0,14 mm. long by 0.075 to 0.09 mm. broaa; miracidiiim conical, ciliated with oval papillae, two cup shaped eye spots, rudimentary intestine; metamorphosis (sporo cyst, redia, cercariae) take place in small snails of the genius Linneae; L., trucatula, and others.) Cercaria whitish, owing to excessive development of capsule glands; encysts upon plants.* The life history of the liver fluke is one of great interest. The eggs are produced in immense numbers and pass through the gall duct to the intestine and out with the faeces. Those that fall in favorable places as puddles of water escape from the shell. They are very delicate, covered with hair to aid in swimming and have a proboscis to puncture the body of a variety of small snails. It is necessary that it should And a snail in a day or two otherwise it will die. If it should And a snail it punctures the body to the respiratory tract, and becomes encysted. It is here known as the sporocyst and may divide into several bodies, flve to eight and these are develop into rediae. The rediae are about one-twelfth of an inch long. These raediae are liberated from the sac and these in turn develop within themselves from fifteen to twenty bodies known as cercariae and it is these latter that escape from the suail. The cercariae after some slight change become encrysted on grass or wherever it may happen to be. In this stage will resist drying, temperature changes, etc., and is the form in which it is swallowed by the sheep. The swal- lowed cyst has the shell digested by the action of the gastric juice and the young soon finds its way to the liver where it becomes an adult and the process is repeated. By some form of migration the flukes may And their way into lungs. The eggs seem to be passed through a period of a month or more during the summer, the first development of the offspring takes place in the summer and the cyst comes on later in the fall. The Symptoms of fluke disease are not all recognized by the stockman. There is a period of migration from the intestine to the liver lasting dur- ing the summer that is attended by little disturbance. During the late fall and winter the affected sheep show a lack of thrift, disinclination to eat heartily; a paleness about the eyes and lips, yellow tinge in the skin; ♦Stiles, Ch. Warden and Hassell, Albert — Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, XV. pp. 302, 1894. 70 there may be fullness between the jaws, the wool is dry, brittle and easily pulled. The third stage follows the second and not easily separated from it. The animal looses flesh rapidly, becomes emaciated, the appetite keeps up but the most marked character is the wasting. The fourth stage is that of natural migration of the parasite late in the spring, and sponta- neous recovery. The sheep as a rule die in the second or third stage if badly infected. No remedies are servicable in this disease. THE TWISTED STOMACH WORM. Strongylus contortus, Rud. Tne stomach worm, or twisted stomach worm, Strongylus contortus, Rud., is a very common parasite of sheep. From an economical stand- point, it is the most important of all the parasites in this state. It has caused the death of as many as 85,000 sheep in a single year in this state. Probably the average annual loss that may be attributed to this cause will be about 30,000 head. The parasite is to be found in greater or less numbers in nearly all flocks, but it is only when they occur in large numbers or occur in connection with some other disease that they cause great loss. Lambs are particularly liable to the affection, those hav- ing passed the suckling age and older sheep are better able to withstand the attack. The Strongylus contortus is a small thread-like worm. The female is from one-half to about one inch in length and the male from three eights to one-half inch in length. The males are thicker in proportion to their length than the females. The bodies vary from a reddish brown to white depending upon the fullness of the intestine with blood, which has been abstracted from the stomach wall. The bodies are pointed, more at the tail than at the head. The mouth is located slightly behind the fore end and is marked by two small eminences. The female is made conspicuous by two white spiral tubes extending nearly the whole length of the body which are the uteri. They appear so promiently because of the contrast with the intestinal contents . It is these that give the parasite the name rather than the shape of he body as a w’hole. The parasite is easily recognizable in the stomach of a recently I killed sheep, but are easily digested by the stomach fluids and therefore Twisted stomach worms. Adult female. Adult male. The head showlnjc the barb. Small worms are natural size. 72 frequently escape observation if a post-mortem be made late. In the recent case the worm will be found closely attached to the mucous mem- brane. In a post-mortem deferred for some time the worms will be loose in the stomach contents, of a grej^er color and so much resemble the fibers of plants that to the untrained eye they may escape observation, even when hundreds are present. The worm may be found in very stage in the fourth stomach. They are found in greater numbers in the summer and early fall than at other seasons of the year. The life history of this parasite seems to be quite simple. The eggs contain a young embryo when deposited, and pass through the intestines and fall upon the pasture with the excrement. If they be kept moist or find their way into stagnant water they undergo such transformations as are necessary outside the body. The extent of these changes is not well known. The worm may then be taken up by some other sheep while eating or drinking the surface water. The amount of moisture retained on grass after rains or dews is sufficient to sustain them if the grass be able to shade the ground. The young are killed by drying which accounts for the lessened disease on high ground and in dry seasons. It is believed that it is necessary that the eggs pass out of the body and undergo some change and that they cannot hatch and mature in the stomach of the same ani- mal in which they were deposited. Such being the case it would seem that the disease is communicated only through feeding upon infected pas- tures or drinking surface water that had become foul through excrement. The reason that lambs are more seriously affected than old sheep is prob- ably due in part to a milk diet with their feed and to a more tender con- dition of the stomach wall. The Symptoms of the presence of stomach worms are not distinctive; that is, taken as individual cases an absolute diagnosis could not be made. The affected sheep show lack of thrift, inclination to move slowly, they are stiff in one or more legs, the back is arched and to spend considerable time in the shade. The appetite is poor or they will eat unusual objects. The thirst is increased, there is often grind- ing of the teeth, and black diarrhea. Examined closely the mucous mem- brane of the eyes and the lips are pale. These are the symptoms in the typical case and as a rule it runs a course of several days or a few weeks. In the acute cases these symptoms are greatly aggravated and death re- 73 suits in a few days. In very acute forms death may result from inflam- mation of the stomach as a result of a sudden attack of the parasites upon that organ. I have seen a few cases in which the affected animal exhibited no recognizable symptom in the morning and be found dead in the field at noon. In addition to these symptoms the history of several animals being affected will often have much weight in deciding the diagnosis. A post-mortem upon a recent case will give an absolute diagnosis. Treatment. This must be divided into preventive and curative meas- ures. As a preventive measure we take advantage of the fact that the eggs fall upon the grass, and that they will be killed by drying. When the disease is suspected or known to exist in a flock, we can alternate the use of pasture fields every third day in very wet seasons, avoid the use of low pastures or too short pastures, at any time; to give a part dry feed ration or hay in order to increase the hard woody stomach content and later in the summer to pasture a part of the time in the corn field. Wnere the flocks are small and it is feasible to do so, I find that this latter is a particularly good practice, and has given excellent results. The weeds and such grass as may be present in the corn will not be infected and the droppings will fall upon bare ground so that no infection can take place. Here sheep will do little damage to the’corn. The medicinal treatment is a nuisance tp administer and unsatisfac- tory in results. It requires the administration of the medicine to each individual and repeatedly. The worms being located in the fourth stom- ach can not be reached oy the medicinal agent until it becomes so much diluted that its efficiency is greatly reduced. A vermifuge powder may be made as follows: Areca nut, powdered, one-half pound. Worm seed, powdered, one-half pound. Gentian, powdered, one-fourth pound. Sulphur, powdered, one-fourth pound. Sulphate of iron, powdered, one-fourth pound. Mix thoroughly and give with meal^ or crushed grain at the rate of an ounce to ten or a dozen lambs, or six old sheep. This should be done in the morning after the sheep have been kept up in a lot over night and it is well to hold them from pasture for a couple of hours after its admin- istration. The dose should be rei)eated about every third evening for a 74 couple of weeks. In flocks not too badly infected or where it was almost necessary that some preparation should be used with the food, I have found the foregoing to be the best of a large number tried. Diseases requiring vigorous treatment, I add two ounces santonine to the above amount. There have been a very large number of remedies proposed for the treatment of stomach worms, but in practice there have been, but few found to be efficacious. One of, the most largely used agents is an emul- sion of turpentine in milk or oil. An emulsion of an ounce of turpentine to a pint of milk freshly prepared and from two to four ounces admin- istered depending upon the size of the lamb. The emulsion with oil is made by adding one ounce of turpentine to two ounces of raw linseed oil and giving from one-half to one ounce of the mixture. The emulsion with either milk or oil should be freshly prepared and well shaken up prior to drawing off the dose. Gasoline is a newer remedy recommended for use. Each dose must be mixed separately in linseed oil or milk, and the quantity to be used is a teaspoonful of gasoline for the lamb or a tablespoonful for the sheep, in an ounce of the oil or two ounces of milk. This treatment has been most highly recommended by some investigators and many sheep-men in the past few years. Our personal experience has not been with such favor- able results. In the giving of turpentine or gasoline the sheep should be kept in an enclosure away from feed over night and the dose administered in the morning and no food allowed for a couple of hours afterward. The dose can best be administered with a syringe having a soft rubber tube that can be passed well back into the mouth. The sheep should be held in the standing position and the head should not be held up as -it increases the danger of the fluid passing into the lungs. For a complete treatment these remedies will need to be repeated each day for three days. One treat- ment often gives such good results that the repetition is not made. The latest treatment of which much has been said is coal tar creosote. This is administered as a one per cent solution in water, the dose being about two ounces for a lamb. This has given us better results with a single treatment than any other. 75 INTESTINAL WORMS. Strongylus vsntricosus, Riicl. This species is found associated with Strongylus fielicollis in the upper part of the small intestine. It is generally found in the fall of the year. It is very small and so far as known, of little consequence. Description Male, 6 mm.; female, 13 mm. Body very small and comparatively stout. Males and young females usually spirally coiled; body of old female straight, with cephalic end coiled; skin transversely striate, marked by fourteen longitudinal lines; the larger standing at equal interspaces on the dorsal and ventral surfaces, the two smaller standing close together on the sides. The crossings of the striae and long- itudinal lines make pits which are quite characteristic. Head little larg- er than neck, but hemispherical and continuous with the cylindrical infla- tion of the neck. No head or neck papillae visible. Mouth terminal, very small and round. The end of the head is furnished with a spherical cap- shaped chitinous piece. Other oral armature apparently absent. Inflated portion of head about one-fifth the length of oseophagus. Unicellar glands not apparent. Male about one-half the length of female; bursa conical and bilobed, the ventral membrane being narrow, the dorsal wide; ventral costae not separate; smaller than the ventro-lateral which is stout; lat- eral widely separate and apparently formed of three nearly equal costae; dorso-lateral slender; dorsal notched at the end and giving off laterally a very short side branch. Spicula 0.36 mm. long, short and stout, and mar- gined oy a fringe-bearing sinuous membrane. They are tipped by a soft pad-like expansion of the membrane. Female characterized by a swelling at the vulva which gives the species its name. This character is more pronounced in older specimens. Vulva from two-ninths to one-third of the entire length of the female from the tail. Uteri directed anteriorly and posterioraly from the vagina. Ova 0.13 mm. long, 0.07 mm. wide, compara- tively large, and found in all stages of segmentation, embryo not observed. Strongylus filicollis, Rud. This is one of the very small worms affecting the intestine of lambs and sheep. Taken by itself it probably does little harm. It may be found in consideraable numbers in the fall. It is so delicate that it would escape observation from the ordinarv observer. Stron^rylus filicollis. 1. Male. 2. Female. :i. Head. 4. Bursa. StroiiKylus vertricosus. 5. Male. 6 . Female 1 77 Description. Male, 8 to 15 mm.; female, 16 to 24 mm. Body very small; cephalic end, thread like and tortuous; caudal end, especiany of fe- male, thick and straight. Skin marked by longitudinal lines standing at about equal distances apart. Head very small, subspherical, continuous, with a swollen cylindrical neck; the length of the inflated portion is about one-fourth that of the oesophagus. Four head papillae visible; the lateral papillae are probably present but can not be easily made out. Mouth ter- minal; apparently without chitinous armature. Oesophagus linear spatu- late; unicellar gland ducts present. Position of ventral cleft not deter- mined. Male; Aliform and uniform in size throughout its length; bursa strong- ly bilooed; the membrane being well filled' on the dorsum but absent on the ventrum; cannot be spread without tearing; costae generally synimet- rically arranged, ventral slightly separated; ventro-lateral either joined to lateral or ventral; lateral scarcely separated; dorso-lateral joined to the dorsal, dorsal notched and with the dorso-lateral form a stem, the two pairs uniting to form the dorsal stem; the lateral costae are the longest. Spicula 1.5 mm. long cylindrical, very slender and dark colored; their points are tipped with an oval inflation of the membrane and are more or less flrmly attached. Female: Tail obtuse; vulva situated about one-third of the entire length of the worm from the tail; body of the egg-bearing female en- larged in front of the vulva by the swollen and crowded uterus. Uteri directed each way from the vagina, and filled with comparatively few and large eggs in all stages of segmentation. Eggs, 0.17 mm. long, 0.08 mm. wide, ovoid; laid in the morula or gastrula stages. Embryo not observed. Dochmius cernuus, Creplin. This is a rather stout parasite of the small intestine and may be mis- taken for the twisted stomach worm by those not accustomed to examin- ing for parasites. It is fairly stout and is found attached to the mucous wall, as it feeds upon the blood. This worm is rarely found in large num- bers, otherwise it might become a serious parasite. It probably causes more losses now than is attributed to it. Description Female, 20 to 26 mm.; male 13 to 17 mm. Body very dark colored when fresh; whitened when preserved; attenuate towards the ends. Head curved, the mouth being directed dorsally. Mouth round. 78 smaller than the oral surface and opens into an ovoid dark-colored capsule About the opening stand four teeth, two on each side, their base being sunk into the capsule and their free edges projecting into ‘the cavity. The ven- tral are the larger, thicker and more opaque; their edges form an unbroken sinuous line. At the caudal opening of the capsule are one pair of ventral and a single dorsal tooth; the latter is conical, very large, and rises to near the mouth. In the pharyngeal opening are six very small club- shaped, spinuous, chitinous appendages of the oesophageal supports or rods; they seem to be jointed. There are six papillae, dorsal, lateral, and ventral pairs. The lateral may give off a branch on the dorsal side. There are two lateral neck papillae, nearly opposite the middle of the oesopha- gus; the ventral cleft is situated a little anterior to a line connecting the latter. Unicellar neck glands quite plain. Male: Bursa funnel-shaped; will not spread without tearing; costae unsymmetrical as to form; ventral pair not separated; lateral widely sep- arated; dorsal; notched; dorso-lateral unequal in length and differently attached to the dorsal stem. Spicula 0.6 mm. long, aculeate, fenestrated, and provided with a narrow membranous margin. Female: Vulva about three-fifths of entire length of the body from the end of the tail. Vagina opening at right angles to the side of the body. Uteri, lying one anterior, the other posterior; each forms an S-Uke loop; the anterior ovary is directed towards the tail, and with the poste- rior forms an intricate sinuous net work surrounding the intestine. Eggs elliptical; laid in the morula stage; length 0.06 mm.; width 0.03 mm. THE NODULAR DISEASE. Oesophagostoma Columbianum, Cur. During the winter and early spring many sheep, particularly breeding ewes die, and on post-mortem show a large number of nodules on the in- testines. These nodules are most abundant at the upper end of the large intestine, but may be found at any place between the stomach and rec- tum. These nodules are often taken to be tubercular, as they contain a yellowish or greenish cheesy matter. This peculiar disease has not been known for very many years and seems to be gaining its foothold quite rapidly. The nodular disease is caused by a very small intestinal worm. The worm is very small, from only one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in 5 fi ' i i !!■ 1 j 4 \ Dochmius ceriums. 1. Fenuile. 2. V, 03soi)hii>,'ostonia Columliiaiium. 5. Hursa. 0. Cyst. Male. Male. 4. Head 3 Nodular disease of the intestines. 81 length. They inhabit the front part of the large intestine in particular, but when present in very large numbers they lodge in almost any place. The eggs are laid and passed out of the intestine with the faeces to fall upon tne pasture and infect another through the food or drink. It appears as though some of the eggs may be matured in the intestine and the young pass into the intestinal wall and develop very slowly. This occurs most- ly in the latter part of summer or fall, and these young require the whole of the winter to make their change. It is apparently a method of slow development provided by nature to insure the carrying of the species from one season to the next All classes of sheep may be more or less affected but apparently old sheep suffer more than lambs. The loss is ob- served more especially in breeding ewes because the general nutrition is interfered with at or about lambing time. The extra nutrition required due to advanced gestation is too great and death results. While the worm remains in the intestinal tract it passes unnoticed owing to its very small size and if it produces any harm at that time it has not been recognized. When the young pass into the Intestinal wall, they become encysted and are marked by small whitish spots. Their pres- ence causes irritation and a local inflammation with debris deposit This gradually increases and the very small cyst develops into a nodule the size of a millet seed to that of a grain of corn. The older the cyst the harder will be the content in that part while in the vicinity of the worm the content is softer. The parasite lives on this debris. While the sheep have grass or succulent food these nodules remain fairly soft and interfer- ence with nutrition is not great. When the sheep receive hay, straw, fod- der and grain the contents of these nodules become dryer and often calcareous and they may add some obstruction to the bowel as well as otherwise interfere with nutrition. When the worm emerges from the nodule to the intestine the irritation stops and the content is absorbed. THE CAECUM WORM. Trichoceohalus affinis, Rud. On opening the caecum of sheep at slaughter houses or upon post- mortem, there is nearly always to be found a few whip-like worms from one and one-half to two and a quarter inches long. The body or handle portion is only one-fourth to one-third the total length and the remainder 83 is very delicate. This worm is to be found in small numbers in nearly all sheep during the summer and fall, but oftener can not be found in late winter and spring. In the ordinary numbers it causes no trouble so far as known, but possibly does when present in the large numbers sometimes seen. Description. The parasite is described as follows. Male and female about equal, 40 to 70 mm. long. Body whip-like possessing a short, stout, caudal end, 12 to 18 mm. long, and a very thin hair-like cephalic end of twice this length. The latter contains the oesophagus and intestine; the former the reproductive organs and intestine. The head is very small and thin, without noticable papillae or chiti- nous armature. It is said to sometimes have two vesicular, transparent, wing-like inflations. Skin of the neck transversely striate, and when highly magnified shows a serration of the sides indicating cuticular lay- ers which overlap each other like shingles on a roof. Oesophagus and ce- phalic portion of intestines very minute; its posterior end is large and dark, and empties at the caudal end of the body. On one side of the head there appears to be a canal filled with granules. The male is to be distinguished by its highly curled caudal end. The testicle, beginning near the caudal end, continues anteriorly as a sinuous tube for about two-thirds the length of the thick portion of the worm; it then becomes plaited to the end of the thick part, where it turns and continues posteriorly as an enlarged seminal duct for about half the length of the thickened body, where it is constricted; the remainder con- tinues to the cloaca as a slightly enlarged tube. The intromittent appa- ratus consists of two parts, an external membranous tube bristling with spines and an internal long, slim spiculum. It is always found exserted, and usually has one coil in it. The tube shows at its end that the ex- ternal covering continues around the end into the tube to form a lining membrane, which may be retracted or protruded. There is considerable space between these membranes at the tip, and it assumes various forms varying between a large sphere, (as shown in the figures) and an elon- gate cylindrical body. The chitinous spiculum is terminated by an acute point. It is from 5 to G mm. long, with a width of 0.025 mm. The tube is about three or four times as wide. The spiny points are turned away from the end. 84 The female has a thick body, and only slightly curved. Tail, obtuse, ovary begins at the caudal end, continues as a plaited canal to the ce- phalic end of the thick part of the body, then contracting returns to the caudal end where it enlarges, forms a fold and becomes the uterus, which empties through a sinuous vagina and the vulva at the cephalic end, where the body jegins to enlarge. Eggs characterized by having refran- gent polar bodies at each end. They measure 0.077 mm. in length, in- cluding these bodies, or 0.056 mm. excluding them (Raillet). They are elliptical and dark brown. The eggs are passed with the faeces and develop on damp ground where they will continue to live for sometime. The experimnts with tnis parasite are nearly enough complete to show with scarcely any doubt that the embryos may be taken directly into the stomach with the food and that no intermediate host is required. HAIR LUNG WORM. The hair lung worm is the smaller of the two varieties of worms af- fecting the lungs. It is the one that inhabits the smaller air cells and the disease caused by it is a pneumonia, as distinguished from the large lung worm affecting tne broncni and causing a bronchitis or hacking cough. Description. Male, 16 mm.; female, 25 mm.; width, 0.5 mm.; female 1.7 mm. Ca- pillary integument of worm very transparent, the cavity of the body ap- pearing as a dark line. Head not winged; four papillae; mouth naked. Male, bursa pointed,, compressed, terminal, costae (apparently) seven; one posterior, twice notched two pair lateral, one pair anterior; spicula sym- metrical, spatulate, curved; 0.15 mm. long, divided into two nearly equal parts; the anterior consisting of a cylindrical chitinous skeleton with a membranous expansion, the posterior of a transversely ribbed skeleton, margined by a thin, broad, curved membrane, the two spicula forming a partially closed tube. Female oviparous, with two uteri and ovaries. The former empty into a vagina at 0.8 mm. from vulva. Vulva 0.1 mm. from anus. Anus 0.8 from tip of tail. Tail ends in a blunt point. Eggs in uteri 0.1 mm. long, 0.04 mm. wide. The eggs segment after being laid. Embryo provided with snarp pointed tail. This lung worm is so small that it escapes the attention of the flock master, and farmer. What he flnds upon post-mortem is solidified lung 85 as in pneumonia. The disease is generally referred to as pneumonia, and it is only when a competent observer is employed or that the history of a number of cases is presented, do we get a diagnosis of the parasitic char- acter. I feel quite certain that the disease is of much more frequent oc- currence in this state than is at all suspected. The complete life history of the worm remains to be determined. The young escape from the lungs during acts of coughing, but what becomes of them from that time until they are again found in the lung has not been determined. It is surmised that they undergo such changes as may be necessary on the pasture or in water and after a short time are again taken into another animal while grazing or with the drink. Whether they find an intemediate host in some insect or low form of animal life is not known. Some observers reasoning from analogy consider that such is a part of the life cycle. Other observers do not consider such to be a necessary part of the life cycle. The disease is only on certain pastures — pastures that have become infected through bringing in some diseased sheep. The disease spreads throughout a flock to greater extent on very wet years than in years of drought. A fairly low pasture used continu- ously throughout the season is also bad. Whether the embryos are swallowed and migration takes place from the stomach to the lungs, or whether the parasite enters by ways of the trachea is also an undetermined matter. In some parasites such migration does take place, but these parasites have never been found between the stomach and lungs. It would seem, too, that it would be a difficult mat- ter for the worms to become disassociated from the food in the throat while the animal was in the act of swallowing and make its way down the trachea. How long a period of time is necessary for the parasite outside the body and how long inside to complete a life cycle are also points that have not been determined. Its ill effects are most marked up- on old sheep seemingly indicating that it requires considerable time. This parasite penetrates the air passages to its most minute branch- ing. It causes irritation and inflammation of the wall of the air passage and cells and a general breaking down of the tissue. As in all inflamma- tory processes nature attempts its arrest of extension by walling it off. Each worm then becomes the center of a slight inflammatory area that is walled off and resembles a tubercle. The contents of the inside are brok- en down and galatinous, outside the capsule is firm and fibrous. These tubercles are about a twentieth of an inch in diameter at first, but in the later stages become about an eight of an inch in diameter. The parasite is always found in the central part surrounded by greenish or yellowish ma- terial, thin and pus-like, or may be dry and cheesy. They may become calcareous by lime deposition. These tubercles undergo quite a series of changes from that of a simple blood spot under the pleura to that of a 86 hard grey nodule. When the worm matures it migrates to the bronchia to mate and lay eggs, and these hatch and the young being very active set up an inflammation. If it is severe we have the pneumonia that sickens or kills the sheep. The pneumonic areas are small, limited to the point of parasitic involvement and resembles the ordinary catarrhal form. With the exudate numerous worms and eggs are thrown off in the act of cough- ing. The fact that the worms are present in every stage of development and tubercles show every condition from the hemorrhage to dry caseous and calcareous infiltration indicates that multiplication may take place in the lungs as well as from infection from without. The diagnosis can not be made until the disease has progressed to the point of producing pneumonia and a post-mortem is made. The progno- cis will depend upon the extent of parasitic invasion. No medicinal treatment can be given that will secure the expulsion of the worm. As a preventive precaution, pasmres where the disease has been known to occur should be abandoned for at least a year. It is desirable htat the sheep be pastured upon land that has been under continuous cul- tivation as that tends to destroy any parasites that may be present THE THREAD LUNG WORM. Stongylus filara, Rud. This is the larger lung worm and is the one generally referred to by most observers in reporting lung worm disease. It may be seen on open- ing the trachea and bronchi and is identical with that found in calves. Curtice regards this as of being of less frequent occurrence than the hair worm and that it often occurs that the lesions found due to the hair worm are erroneously ascribed to this one. Description. Male, 33 to 54 mm.; female, 55-80 mm. Worm filiform, white, with a dark hair line, showing throughout its length; head obtuse, without noticable papillae or wings; mouth circular, naked; unicellar neck, glands quite large; cuticle longitudinally striated. Male, bursa shallow, campa- nulate, opening laterally; fiA^e sets of costae; the dorsal are trifid, the later- al bifid and the ventral separated. Spicula arcuate cylindrical; 3.35 mm. long by 0.075 mm. wide; short, very thicK, dark brown; chitinous por- tion a curved fenestrated conical tube; fleshy portion a membrane, which forms a bulb-like expansion toward its free end. Female, vulva three sev- enths of her length from the head; uteri symmetrically directed anterior- ly and posteriorally; posterior oviduct becoming continuous with the uterus near its flexure at the tail; ovo-viviparous; eggs ellipsoid, 0.075 to 0.120 mm. long; 0.045 to 0.082 mm. wide. Plmbryo 0.25 to 3 mm. 87 The complete life cycle of this worm is not fully determined. The eggs, or rather the em- bryos, are expelled by the act of coughing and distributed upon the pasture, the feed, water trough and whatever may be near. How much time is necessary to be spent outside the body and whether they must pass any part of their existence in some lower animal is not known. Professor Leucart has kept the young of this species alive for several weeks on damp earth and observed them to molt and then die. They have been kept alive for several months in water. This latter statement may account for the persistence of the infection In some cases. How the parasite finds its way into the lungs, too, after being taken into the mouth with the food or water is not clearly demonstrated. The worm develops quite rapidly in me bronchi and is found to effect principally lambs and young sheep, thus differing from the hair lung worm. The symptoms of lung worm are those due to the irritation of the bronchial tubes. The bronchitis differs in no respect from a bron- chitis associated with a cold. There are ac- cumulations of mucous, sometimes of a bloody character, sometimes a cough and expulsion of this mucous. In some cases the cough is the prom- inent symptoms and in that way gets the name of “hoose.” With it may be difficulty in berath- ing. The general health is impaired. The ap- petite may remain good, but what is eaten does not seem to do much good. The wool be- comes dry and harsh, without yolk, slips easily the skin is thin and tender giving the name of paper skin. There is paleness of the mu- cous membranes of the eyes and lips. The ani- mals are thin and become exhausted easily either from exercise or exposure. The course extends over a period of three or four months. The disease is most noticeable in summer, fall and early winter, begins to wane during the middle of winter and practically disap- 88 pears in the spring. A damp season favors the development of the worms. When the symptoms develop early there is little chance for recovery, but when they develop late, the chances of recovery are good. When recovery takes place the lamb will always remain dwarfed and there will be loss of flesh and fleece. As in the case of the hair worm, where the disease develops on a pasture, the same should be abandoned for a year and in its stead fields used that have been in crops. The use of surface water should be avoided. Medicinal treatment promises more in the case of this parasite than In that of the hair lung worm. These parasites lying free in the bron- chial tube may be reached to a limited extent. Internal medicants that may be eliminated through the lungs, inhalation and intra-tracheal medi- cation have all been recommeded. After reviewing a considerable litera- ture upon the subject, it appears that few remedies are better than tur- pentine. This may be given both internally and by inhalation. If given internally, about a dram may be administered with a little milk or oil to make an emulsion. If given as an inhalation, a couple of ounces may be placed on the surface of a bucket, or kettle of hot water and allowed to diffuse in a small, close stable. Or equally as good, a quantity poured on some hot bricks. Either method will require repetition. Good food and tonic will also be necessary to maintain the general body condition. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. The cuts of parasites and the scientific descriptions where not otherwise credited, are from the United States Bureau of Animal In- dustry report upon “Parasitic Diseases of Sheep” by Cooper Curtice; Washington, 1890. The data relative to the frequency of occurrence of the different af- fections in this state has been made possible through the office of State Veternarian. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 95. Vol.* XII. March, 1903. Unproductive Black Soils. a Pnbllslied l)y llie siallon: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA, U. S. A, BOARD OF CONTROL William V. Stuart, President, William A. Banks, Sylvester Johnson, David E. Beem, Job H. VanNatta, James M. Barrett, - Charles Domning, Charles B. Stemen, Charles Major, LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. LaPorte, LaPorte Co. Irvington, Marion Co. Spencer, Owen Co. LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. Fort Wayne, Allen Co. Greenfield, Hancock Co. Fort Wayne, Allen Co. - Shelbyville, Shelby Co. Edavard a. Ellsavorth, Secretary. Jaaies M. Foavler, Treasurer. STATION STAFF. WiNTiiROP E. Stone, A. M., Ph. D., Henry A. Huston, A. M., A. C., William C. Latta, M. S., Jaaies Troop, M. S., Joseph C. Arthur, D. Sc., Ara'ill AV. Bitting, D. V. M., M. I)., Hubert E. VanXoraian, B. S., John H. Skinner, B. S., Alfred T. AViancko, President of the UniA^ersity. Director and Chemist. Agriculturist. Horticulturist. Botanist. Veterinarian. - Dairyman. Live Stock. Associate Agriculturist. THE. IMPROVEMENT OF UNPRODUCTIVE BLACK SOILS. By H. a. Huston. OCCURENCE. In nearly every coLinty in central and northern Indiana may be foLind a kind of black soil, often known as ‘‘bogus land.’’ It is also sometimes called “alkali,” but not correctly, for the land has none of the real characteristics of alkali soil. The size of the areas of unproductive black lands varies from a few square rods to a hundred or more acres. Many of the places where it is found were formerly marshes or the bottoms of old ponds. Such land is found at all elevations above the level of the water courses from bottom lands beside the streams to the summit of the ridges or divides between the water courses. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE LAND. The unproductive soil itself consists of partially decomposed organic matter mixed with more or less sand and clay. In the large areas the organic matter makes up the greater part of the material and the soil has the general character of muck lands. In some of the smaller areas there is more mineral matter present. Often these small areas are low places in fields of clay or loam and differ from the remainder of the field only in having more black matter in the soil, and being at a lower level. On digging down in these small areas it is generally found that the distance to the hard pan, clay or gravel, is much greater in the “bogus” places than in the good soil near the border of the bogus place, indicating that at one time the “bogus” place was filled with water to a considerable depth and gradually became filled up with the washings from the higher land surrounding it and with the products of the decay of the wafer plants growing in it. In the larger areas the stratification and general characteristics of muck beds are found, the muck being from a few inches to fifteen feet in depth. I have collected numerous sani])les of such soil and have re- ceived many samples from different ])arts of the State. In no case has a sample shown any acid reaction nor have I found metallic sulphides or ferrous iron compounds ])resent. The waters of such soils have always given the slightly alkaline reaction common to the waters of this section. 4 As none of the causes usually assigned as the reason of ductiveness in soil were present, it was determined to class of land more fully. A chemical examination for the three plant food compounds most frequently deficient in agricultural soils showed that from a chemical standpoint the soil was rich in nitrogen and contained much more phosphoric acid than the fertile loams of the State. , ^ i r a The total potash is only about one-fifteenth of the potash found in average soils of the State. Yet the fact that ^mplete ana yses of both soil and subsoil of the productive and unproductive land from the same field showed practically the same potash fact the same content of all ingredients, led one to believe that, while potash might be exceedingly low in these soils, there was probab y some addhional difficulty to be overcome. The unproductive soil seemed to be quite low in sulfur and experiments bearing on the use of sulphates on such soils are now in progress. ■ The amount of humus^ in all the soils was so high as to lea to the belief that there was an abundance of available nitrogen. ■ The air dry sample of soil and sub-soil contained; Soil. Sub-soil. Water 16.32 16.23 Ash 42.87 Nit-.ogen 3-22 ■ 2.64 Phosphoric Acid, Pj O5. . . 0.46 Potash, K, 0 0.105 0.108 Attention was next directed to the question of drainage. For this purpose unproductive lands in White, Carroll, Tippecanoe an Clinton Lunties were examined. With the exception of the tract in White County, which was drained by a system of deep, open ditc , these lands “had been thoroughly tiled and the tile had been laid by an expert ” The examination showed that the tile had been laid through these lands at the usual depth and at -tervah o 150 feet between the laterals. There was no obstruction of the tile found The White county tract belonging to Mr. Samuel Virden, and tract belonging to Mr. John McCoy were selected for further inves- t gati^ The Virden farm is a portion of the prairie through which Honey Creek runs. The creek has been straightened and Sdged out to a siifficent depth to afford a large outlet drainage water On this farm the “bogus” soil occurs in small areas not ex ceeding an acre in extent. The field on the McCoy farm consists of ^terminecl by Huston modification of Grnnde.au method^Bui. «^Vok IV. Indiana Ex. Sta.; Chem. Div. Dep’t of Agri., Bui. 38, p. 84; W.iey, Agr. Chem. Anal., p. 326. 5 about twenty acres lying between the bottom land of Wea Creek and the higher lands to the east. One half of this field has pro- duced about 70 bushels of corn per acre continuously for nineteen years, while the unproductive portion has produced practically noth- ing. In wet years, perhaps, two or three bushels per acre might be obtained. The tile is laid lYi to 4 feet deep and laterals are 150 feet apart. (Laterals are 4 inch tile). The sketch, fig. i, will show the arrangement of the tile and the boundaries' of the field. Fig. I. The soil is of muck from to 5 feet deep. The muck is under- laid by a mixture of shell marl and muck. Below, this is a layer of ■fine white sand which rests on a very thin layer of clay. Under this clay is a layer of gravel carrying a strong flow of water. The shaded area in fig. 'i shows the location of the bogus land. Four lines of 4-inch tile, laid 3^2 feet deep, extend through the unpro- ductive land. At the point 4, fig. i, a tile well is introduced in which the flow from the upper half o.f the main tile and that from two of the laterals may be observed. The lateral to the south of the main tile at about the point 5 runs through the water bearing grav- 6 el for a short distance. The flow of water, from this tile is always greater than that from the main tile and the north lateral combined. An examination of the main tile and of the north laterals showed that these tile were not obstructed. Openings were made and the north laterals were laid bare for a short distance. After a short time the water flowed into the openings and stood at a distance of 30 inches below the surface of the ground, and stood 6 inches deep over the hare tile, showing that v/here the tile was laid in the raw muck the water could not enter th<=‘ tile as the pores and joints of the tile were stopped up by the raw muck. Fifteen openings were made in the unproductive areas reaching to the water bearing gravel. The gravel was found at different depths from 5 to 8^ feet. But in every case as soon as the gravel layer was reached the water at once rose in the hole until it stood at 2g to 30 inches be- low the surface of the ground. Some of these holes were left open during the summer and ex- aminations made from time to time showed that the water level remained the same. It is evident then that this unproductive area has under it a sheet of water fed from a source high enough to main- tain this constant water level. An opening was also made at the point I in the productive part of the field. The water bearing gravel was found at 60 inches, and as soon as the gravel was reached the water rose in the hole to 42 inches below the surface and remained at this level during the season. It is evident then that the south lateral of the tile system which passes through gravel for a short dis- tance at a depth of 42 inches has reduced the water level of that part of the field to the same depth as that at which the tile is placed. The thickness of the various layers differ somewhat in differ- ent parts of the field, but the following sections are typical ones. The holes were dug Aug. 22, 1892, and temperature reading taken by inserting a thermometer into the sides as the work progressed. In the fertile soil a small local vein of water probably due to the space occupied by a decayed root, was found and the variation in the temperature at 42 inches was probably due to water from a higher level falling in this as the depth of the hole increased. At the time of taking the temperature the ground had a corn crop on it. Possibly the lower temperatures of the productive land was due to the fact that the ground was more heavily shaded by the crop. All the observations on this soil lead to the conclusions that the real difficulty was the high permanent zvater level. An examina- tion of the corn roots in the fields in Tippecanoe, Carroll, \\diite and 7 [/Lrn^ ^it-XA''. 0 <7/ /-v-iyt'>>y ^/x. ycXt-t^ c£iz^. >^y- 0 y-<^ y*r 2^yr''t.crx_ ypidci 7/ / rPaAy ~Ctxxy (yt/ QyrtlAy<^ yy-Aj(M^-lrtayuAy^ 7 APcy(yy-t^ yyyyy/cu.ynAo^ Fl('.. 2. 8 Clinton counties showed that when the roots reached the permanent water line the tip of the roots turned black and that the tissue was destroyed. With this destruction of the tip of the root the corn plant turns yellow and from this time forward the plant is in an un- healthy condition. Many of the stalks bear no ears and where ears form there are very few that are marketable. During Septembei many of the stalks fall down owing to the weakness of the stalk be^ tween the ear and the ground. The stalks are almost always hol- low and nearly free from pith. The white material that is often found on the surface of this kind of land and is supposed to be “white alkali” has, in all the cases examined, been found to consist of a low form of fungus, the growth of which is favored by the moisture and richness of these soils. On some of these lands farmers report that when the surface is dry there is much annoyance caused to men and animals by the in- tense itching which arises after working a short time on the land. In the cases I have examined, this trouble seems to be due to min- ute sharp pointed particles of silica wliich represent the skeletons of low forms of life present in the water when the formation of the muck bed was in progress. There seems to be no remedy for this trouble except the better protection of the legs of men and animals that work on the land. WHY ARE THESE LANDS UNPRODUCTIVE? After an experience of eleven years in making observations and experiments on lands similar to those described above, I am con- vinced that in every case that I have examined, the difficulty arises from bad drainage and a failure to reduce the water level to the proper point. I believe that for corn culture (and these lands are of high value as corn lands and often not desirable for other crops) the permanent water level should be reduced to 42 inches. It is cer- tain that with a permanent water level of 30 inches, very little corn can be raised, while with a permanent level of 42 inches first-class crops have been grown continuously for 30 years. METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT. While there is no question that proper drainage is the best method for permanent improvement of these lands, the fact that the lowering of the permanent water level by the ordinary means calls for an outlay that the owners are not always willing or able to make at once, justifies one in trying to find some means for the temporarv improvement of these lands. 9 For this purpose field experiments were undertaken in the spring of 1892, on the farms of Air. S. T. Virden, at Guernsey, White county, and on the farm of Mr. John McCoy, eight miles south of LaFayette in Tippecanoe county. The experimental work included sub-soiling to a depth of 18 inches, and the treatment of the soil with lime, straw and kainit. Kainit is one of the German potash minerals, consisting mainly of the sulphates and chlorides of potash and magnesia and common salt. The usual cost is about $15 per ton, plus the freight from point of purchase. EXPERIMENTS ON McCOY FARM. A strip of ground in the unproductive portion of the field was selected and eleven plats staked off, each wide enough for four corn rows, 14 feet 8 inches, and long enough, 149 feet, to make the area of each plat equal to 1-20 acre. The arrangement of the plats is shown in the following diagram: Ordi- 1 nary 1 plow- \ ing. y 1. Straw. 1 2. Nothing. 3. 100 lbs. kainit. 4. 100 lbs. kainit, 500 lbs. lime. 5. 500 lbs. lime ( Sub ( soiled ] 6. Straw. 7. Nothing. 8. 100 lbs. kainit. 9. 100 lbs. kainit, 500 lbs. lime. 10. 500 lbs lime. 11. Nothing. The straw applied was rather short wheat straw and a layer about three inches thick was plowed under. The lime was removed from the barrels sometime before plowing and was allowed to air slack. All the material was plowed under on ATay 23 after long continued rain. Much care was exercised to secure an even distri- bution of the material. Owing to unfavoral)le weather the corn was not planted until the second week in June. The corn on the plats to which kainit or straw was applied made a continuous growth. 10 and after the middle of July these plats could readily be distin- guished from a distance by a darker color. The treated plats did not ripen as early as the others and the fodder was slightly damaged by frost on Sept. 27, although no injury was done to the ears. The corn was cut on Oct. 3rd, and husked on Oct. 19. The result of the experiment calculated to the acre basis, ap- pear in table i. TABLE I. Plat Yield per acre. No. Plowing. Treatment. So’nd cornjpoor corn, bushels. bushels. Fodder tons. 1 Ordinary Straw 48.4 28.6 55.8 5.1 11.0 4.4 2.30 1.39 2.43 2 None 3 Kainit Kainit 4 1 Lime 52.4 6.8 2.48 5 Lime 25.1 48.6 16.1 60.4 52.0 11.6 4.5 12.0 2.3 2.2 1.48 1.92 1.04 2.43 2.21 6 Sub-soiled Straw 7 ( 4 None 8 44 Kainit Kainit 9 1 Lime 10 44 Lime 15.04 10.5 1.04 11 44 None ! . . . 4.0 12.6 0.96 In this preliminary test no spaces were left between the plats as it was desired to leave a strip of unproductive land beyond plat 1 1 for further investigation. When the crop matured it was evident that plats 2 and 7 had derived much benefit from the applications made to the plats on each side of them. It was found that the roots of the corn on plats 2 and 7 extended over into the plats on either side of them. The results from all the plats are given, but plat ii is the only one that bore any resemblance to the untreated portion of the field, and in making comparisons, moreover, the difference be- tween plat II and plat 2, 24.6 bushels, ought to be credited to the treatment on plat i and plat 3 and the difference between plat ii and plat 7, 12. i bushels ought to be credited to plats 6 and 8, in order to get a correct idea of the effect of the materials applied. If this be done it will bring the yields of sound corn on plats i, 3, 6 and 8 fully up to the average of the productive part of the field. Plat 7 derived less benefit from the adjoining plats probably on account of the subsoiling which permitted the roots to go downward rather than laterally. 1 1 Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Station. Bulletin 95. Plate I. Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp, Station. Bulletin 95. Plate II. 12 I I PLAT n PLAT to PLAT 9 ^ rsoTHiHG MliMH * lime 13 Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Station. Bulletin 95. Plate 111. Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Station. Bulletin 95. Plate IV. 14 Hud corn. Sound corn. I^iid corn. Sound corn. 15 The appearance of the ends of plats 6 to ii on October 3d are given in plates I and II, and the appearance of a part of the side of plat II is shown in plate III. The crop from these plats showing the good and bad ears is shown in plate IV. As these plates do not show the quality of the bad corn very clearly the appearance of typical ears of each is shown in Fig. 3. A. From treated plats. FIG. 3. B From untreated plat.s. In this experiment it appears that the best yield was obtained from the use of kainit, the next best from the use of kainit and lime, and the next best from the use of straw. But it is to be noted that on both plats 4 and 9 where kainit and lime were used that the yield' is less than where kainit alone was used. The lime appears to give a slight increase on plats 5 and 10, but in my judgment this increase is derived from the materials applied to the adjoining4)lats. The lime does not appear to mix readily with the soil and four years after the lime was applied, the plats receiving lime could readily be located by the lime on the surface, AFTER EFFECTS OF THE TREATMENT. Since 1892, no further materials have been applied to the plats, but observations were continued on them. The tileage operations and the tendency of the corn roots to extend laterally has nearly ob- literated plats 2, 5 and 7, and they can only be located by observing that in one or two rows there are more bad ears and a few hollow stalks that have broken down ; plats 10 and 1 1 are still well defined. It was not considered desirable to make weighings of the crop on account of this. At. this time, the whole area embraced in plats I to 9 presents practically the some appearance as the productive portion of the field and is sharply defined against the unproductive portion surrounding it. The crop on these plats during the years 1893 to 1902, has in the judgment of the owner and of myself been better than in 1892. COMMERCIAL BEARINGS OF THE WORK. All who have watched the progress of the experiments have agreed that the yields of the past ten seasons on the treated plats have exceeded the yields of the first season. It, therefore, seems that one will be justified in calculating the returns on the yields of 1892. On this basis the application of a three-inch layer of straw in 1892 has given a net increase of no less than 44 bushels of sound corn per acre for eleven years, or a total of 484 bushels. I think that any farmer will admit that this is ample return for the expense of spreading and turning under a three-inch layer of straw. The net returns from the use of one ton of kainit per acre are not less than 54 bushel per acre for eleven years, or a total of 594 bushels. A ton of kainit can be ])urchased and distributed on any field in Indiana for not more than $20. During these years the av- erage selling price of corn at this point is estimated at 35 cents, giv- ing a return of $207.90 for the investment of $20. In the case of small areas of unproductive soil in fields, it is the custom of farmers to plow and plant this unproductive area the i; same as the productive part of the field. The treatment of these small areas with straw or kainit will render the labor applied U) these places effective. There is every reason to believe that the in- fluence of the treatment will be effective for some years to come so that the statement above does not include the total return, but only what has been obtained from eleven crops. EXPERIMENTS ON THE VIRDEN FARM. The unproductive soil on this farm is in small areas, not often over one acre in extent. The top soil contains more mineral matter than that on the McCoy farm. The sub-soil is clay, resting on 3^ellow sand, which in turn is underlaid by water-bearing gravel. An examination showed that the water level was about 30 inches below the surface of the unproductive soil. The unproductive soil is in low places and an examination showed that a sheet of water underlaid the whole field. The productive soil was high enough above the un- productive area to make the permanent water level from 40 to 60 inclx'^s below the surface of the productive soil. In favorable seas- ons the land produces from 40 to 60 bushels of corn per acre. On the unproductive areas 01 this farm, clover an'd grasses do fairly well, but corn is practically a failure. In the spring of 1892 a piece of unproductive land on this farm was selected in a field that was to be planted in corn. A portion of this area had received a dressing of manure during the winter. The manured area was included in plats 2, 3 and 4, and on this account these three plats received a dressing of manure over the remainder of the unmanured portions of them. The diagram following shows the plan of the ]:>lats and the treatment of each. 1. i Subsoiled. i8 Owing to continued rains the land was not plowed until June 22, the materials having been distributed the day before. The corn was planted June 22. The ground was so wet that the sub-soil plow did not work to advantage. The late planting and wet season prevented the ripening of the corn, and both fodder and ears were seriously injured by frost. For this reason the corn was not sorted. An examination of the field at the end of September showed that there was a marked difference in favor of the treated plats and the plats presented practically the same appearance as those similarly treated on the McCoy farm. The total weight of ears on the plats is given in table 2. Sim- ilar weights from the McCoy farm being given for purposes of com- parison. TABLE 2 .— TOTAL WEIGHT OF EARS HARVESTED. Treatment McCoy Farm. i Virden Farm. Sub-soiled 87.5 lbs. 1 25 lbs. Manure 38 “ Ivinie 102.5 “ 27 “ Ivime and kainit 163.5 “ 40 “ Nothing' 111. i 24 “ Kainit 167. 42 “ Straw 150.5 “ i 32 “ In the results from the McCoy farm I have used for the sub- soil and no treatment plats, the plats that occupied as nearly as pos- sible the same relative positions as those in the work on the Virden farm. The real results of the treatment do not appear from such a comparison, as the most marked effect of the treatment with straw and with kainit is not so much to increase the total number of ears as to increase the number of marketable ears and to reduce the number of bad ears. From a personal examination of the Virden field at the end of September I was convinced that the results would have been relatively as good as those on the McCoy farm, if the crop had been permitted to mature. In regard to the after effects of the treatment, Mr. Virden writes under date of Oct. 29, 1895. “Our plats had a crop of oats in 1893-94, and corn in ’95. Both oat crops grew very rank and lodged some. The yield for the field ( 10 acres), including plats, was about 41 bushels in ’93, and 44 bush- els in ’94. The plats were in the best parts of the field, and their yield would exceed the average. The stubble was thick and burned well each year. We burned just before sowing in ’94, and before plowing for corn this year. 19 “The corn crop this year is an average one. We have it cut but not husked. I should estimate 33 to 35 bushels to the acre. The drouth badly affected the crop. “As to noticing difference between the plats, it was very difficult to distinguish. It seemed that the manure and kainit plats were slightly better, but it would have taken close weighing to determine. The lime never seemed much good. The blank plats seem to be about as good as the remainder.’' The death of Mr. Virden prevented further observations on this land. The results of the field work show that there are satisfactory methods of temporary improvement — methods that are easily applied and that are exceedingly profitable from a commercial standpoint. While there is reason to believe that the effects of this tempo- rary improvement may extend over a number of seasons, it is desir- able to look for a means of PERMANENT IMPROVEMENT. The methods of temporary improvement have been based on counteracting the effects of the bad condition of the land. The meth- ods of permanent improvement must remove the cause of this bad condition. The unproductiveness of the soil in question is caused by bad water conditions, the permanent water level being too near the suf- face, and to some extent by a lack of available potash. In raw muck lands the water will not readily enter a tile, and the water moves through such soil with great difficulty. On the unproductive lands the water level is maintained by some source of water in the surrounding higher ground and reaches the muck soil through a water bearing sand or gravel layer belo-sv the muck. The water moves very readily through the gravel, and if we can devise some plan of drainage by which a portion of the tile will pass through this gravel layer a permanent water level will be reduced to the level of the tile. Where ever this can be done at reasonable expense it is the simplest and most satisfactory solution of the problem. Before the drainage of such lands is undertaken, it would pay the owner a thousandfold to make a preliminary drainage survey by digging holes in the muck bed to ascertain the character of the lay- ers below the surface and particularly to learn the depth of the water-bearing sand or gravel that is almost invariably found below such lands. These holes should be left open for a few days to allow the water to take its permanent level. After a few such holes have 20 been dug the labor may be much lessened by boring holes with a two inch augur, welded to a piece of ^ inch gas pipe, with a 7 ‘ screwed on the top to hold the cross handle. The augur and pipe used by me is about 7 feet long, and two extra sections of pipe five feet long, with couplings provided for deeper borings, should they be found necessary, \\dth such a tool there is no difficulty in tell- ing when the gravel layer is reached and finding out its depth. \\'hen the augur is drawn the softer or wet layers usually close the opening behind the augur. If it is desired to work in a clear and dry hole a casing of 2^2 inch pipe, made in sections of the same lengths as the augur sections is driven down and the boring made inside of this pipe. By this means' the water is kept out and the portions of each layer brought up by the augur are readily exam- ined. The casing is easily pulled up when the boring is finished. A cap should be screwed on the top of the casing when it is driven down. The distance from the surface to the water bearing gravel often varies several feet in different parts of the field, and from the re- sults of such a preliminary drainage survey a plan may be often worked out by which the permanent water level may be sufficiently reduced to make the whole field productive by laying short lines of the tile in this gravel instead of wasting long lines of tile in the raw muck where they will do little or no good. ]\lany of these unproductive fields have already been tiled, and in some cases, the tile is laid in raw muck to a depth of 3^2 feet, but for the reason already given the field is still unproductive. The question arises whether these old tile lines can be utilized as a part of a system to reduce the permanent water level. In many cases this can be done. Perhaps we can best illustrate the method of procedure by a section of the field on the INIcCoy farm, and an ex- planation of how the tile already in position can be utilized. Fig. 4 shows the layers, the position of the tile, and the permanent water levels of a north and south section, extending through both the productive and unproductive portions of the field. The distance below the surface in inches is given at the side. The total length of the section is 650 feet, and of course the depth is much exaggerat- ed in proportion tc the length. On this account the slopes appear very abrupt in the figure, while in the field the slopes are low, the steepest found being 3^2 feet in 100 feet. Near the division, line between the productive and the unpro- ductive portions of the field, the layers seem to be broken by the in- trusion of the clay at point A, which prevents the movement of the water in the gravel from the unproductive to the productive side of the field. A similar ridge of ^lay, rising above the surface between 21 \\jT\yYo^uoC'\x\re Pr 0 A VC c V i VC the unproductive portion oi the field and the creek (See Fig. i), prevents the flow of water to the creek. The permanent water level in the productive part of the field is shown at the same level as the tile, while on the unproductive por- tion the water line is located at 29 to 30 inches, as determined by repeated observations and measurements made in holes left open for the purpose. The simplest way to reduce this water level on the unproduc- tive portion would be to run a tile line deep enough to strike the gravel at the point B where it comes to within 5 feet of the surface. On this land tne fall to the creek is great enough to permit this, and the fall of the main tile is great enough to permit a lateral to be 5 feet deep at the point B and have sufficient fall to strike the main tile at a distance of about 400 feet from B. In some fields, however, the necessary fall cannot be obtained without digging a main ditch for such a long distance that the value of the reclaimed land would not justify the expense for ditch- ing. In such cases special methods of drainage can be used in con- nection with the tile lines already laid. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 5 where a well is sunk into the water-bearing gravel and bricked up, the tile line passing through the well. Such a well at once becomes a strong flowing 22 spring and its level cannot rise above the height of the water in the tile. In case the flow of water is very strong it may be well to run a rod or two of the tile in the gravel and let it enter the well at the bottom. Such a line is best laid in a direction crossing the tile already in, in order not to disturb the old tile line. The tile for this deep line will, of course, have to be laid under water, and it may aid Fig. 5. in getting these tile in place if they are attached to a wood support shaped like old-fashioned plank drain, before being laid down, as it is difficult to lay tile so far under water and get the joints properly in place. A few such wells built along the tile line involve but a small ex- pense and will often reduce the water level all that is necessary. By leaving the top of the well open the flow of water in the tile sys- tem can be examined at any time. Another system that has been reported successful has been tried but I have not had an opportunity to make a personal examination of it. In many places a sheet of water in gravel is found at a depth of 30 to 50 feet below the surface. This gravel is covered with from 20 to 40 feet of clay. This water sheet is at nearly the same level for a comparatively large area and remains practically at the same height throughout the year. Where such a sheet of water under- lies unproductive areas that cannot be drained profitably by ordin- ary means, a well three or four feet in diameter is dug until it reaches this water-bearing layer at a depth of 40 to 50 feet. The tile system is then put in and this well takes the place of the ordin- ary outlet of the tile system. In this way the basin on top of the clay in which the unproductive soil is found, is connected with the 23 deep gravel layer and this gravel layer has so great a water holding capacity that the drainage water entering the well is readily carried off. Of course in putting in such a system care must be taken to put the tile in such a layer that the water can readily enter the tile ; and the tile should be laid and covered with especial care in order to prevent mud from being carried into the well and filling it up. Trials with driven wells have been made for this purpose, but the pipe is reported to have become clogged up. There is another class of “bogus” spots which consists simply of lower places in quite level fields in which it would be very diffi- cult to reduce the tile levels and the spots are so low that the special devices in connection with tile already laid can not be used because the tile if laid through the center of these small low spots would often be not over i8 inches deep. These spots as a rule do not have the characteristics of muck lands nor the springs under them but they have a high water level simply because the surface water from the land about them flows into these low places. The amount of rain actually falling on these spots is not enough to cause any difficulty and if the surface drainage from the surrounding land can be kept out the spots will generally become productive. The ordinary tile layer simply runs the tile through the center of these spots and of course fails to reduce the water level below the level of this tile which is generally too near the surface in these low places although it may be 33^ to 4 feet deep in the higher portion of the field. The simplest way to keep, out the surface water from the surrounding land is to divide the tile line at the edge of the spot and send a line around on each side, uniting the lines again when beyond hte spot. This permits the tile to pick up the drainage water from the surrounding land before it gets to the low places. A number of farmers who have tried this simple and inexpensive method have reported it verv efifective in transforming unsightly barren spots into the most productive portions of the field. It often hapens that unproductive black lands have such a sit- uation that a single line of tile may be laid near the division between the muck land and the higher lands near it that will take the water from the layer feeding springs and so reduce the general water level that it will be unnecessary to put any additional tile in the muck land. In such a case it is necessary to have the single tile line so deep that it will be 42 inches below the lowest part of the surface of the muck bed. It is also essential that the tile be laid in a porous layer of sub-soil since water moves very slowly through a sub-soil of raw muck and will hardly move at all through the marl (often mistaken for white clay) which frequently underlies these muck 24 beds. The raw muck and the marl will often close up the 'joints and pores of a tile so as to render it practically impervious to water. Some of the springs about the low areas in northern Indiana contain considerable carbonate of iron in solution. When the water is exposed to the air the gases which aid in holding the iron in solu- tion escape and the iron compounds are deposited as a fine brown sediment. In one case that came under my observation a main tile line had been entirely closed up by a deposit of this kind. Where tile has already been laid in such springy land it is desirable to test the tile to see if any trouble of this sort exists. The roots of trees sometimes enter the tiles and stop them up but most of the unpro- ductive lands are bare so that roots seldom cause much trouble on such lands. UNPRODUCTIVE BLACK SANDY SOIL. Practically all of the preceding material is contained in bulletin 57 published in 1895. This bulletin has long been out of print but there has been so much inquiry in regard to this class of land that it has become necessary to publish another edition somewhat revised and to which results of further observations and analyses have been added. Several advanced students in Agricultural Chemistry, working under my direction, have chosen as subjects of theses the investiga- tion of unproductive black soils found on their home farms. The muck lands on which experiments were first conducted contained so much organic matter that anything like a mechanical analysis of the soil was impossible. Some of the unproductive black soils investigated later by my students were of another class, con- sisting mainly of sand and silt. ]\Iuch soil of this character is found in central and northern Indiana and in the northern counties much of it is not yet under cultivation, while the remainder has been un- der cultivation for only a limited time. iNIany unproductive spots are found and where the land has been under cultivation for a con- siderable time it is reported that the unproductive spots have in- creased in size. In some localities large areas of black sandy soil produce good corn crops for two or three years after the first plowing and then fail to yield enough to be profitable. The same thing sometimes hap- pens on muck lands. The explanation is that the moss and water plants that originally covered the land are turned under and for a short period furnish enough plant food and permit enough air to enter the soil to provide for the first crops. But when the effect of these coarse materials is exhausted the productiveness of the land falls off very rapidly. 25 NEWTON COUNTY. Investigations by Wm. Simons, 1900-1901. The soils of this county are of three general types — muck soils, found in the great swamp region along the KankaKee river; sandy soils covering most of the northern half of the county ; these shade into what is described locally as a rich prairie loam in the southern part of the county. It was on the last type of soil that the investi- gation was conducted and the results show that the soils contain more sand and less clay than the usual types of loam. The soil is considered too sandy for wheat raising. The farmers who first plowed the prairie, state that the unpro- ductive areas, known locally as “Alkali spots’’ were not noticed for some time after the lands were brought under cultivation but have gradually developed and are increasing in size. . Corn and clover will not grow on the unproductive spots but timothy and oats can be produced to some extent, although the oat crop ripens later than on the neighboring productive land. The unproductive areas are usually more sandy than the productive lands about them and the sub-soil of the unproductive soil is sand while that of the produc- tive soil contains considerable clay. Before the country was drained these unproductive areas were known as “sink holes” or quick sand areas. They are usually located in the lower levels of the fields and surrounded by the most productive land. The owners have found that heavy applications of barn-yard manure will make these spots produce good crops and that when large quantities of straw are burned on the land a good crop follows. The particular areas investigated were located one mile east and one-half mile south of Kentland. One field was tiled, the lines being 20 rods apart. The unproductive areas were mid-way be- tween the tile lines. Water levels were taken on the 25th of May. Seven spots were examined. On five the permanent water level was found to be over 4 feet below the surface, on one 20 inches, and on another, 30 inches below the surface. In the case of one of the high- water levels the tile was obstructed while in the other the tile was not deep enough, being at the same depth as the water level. On tlic productive lands surrounding these spots the water lavels were from 3 to 4 feet below the surface. It would therefore seem that other cases than high-water level must be sought to explain the unproduc- tiveness of the first five spots examined. A quantity of the unproductive soil was extracted with water for 72 hours and the solution examined for soluble salts. Potassium 26 and sodium sulphates and sodium chloride were the only substances dissolved and these were present in such small proportions (0.0645 per cent.) that no injurious action could be ascribed to their pres- ence. MECHANICAL ANALYSES. The unproductive soil contained 95 . 23 per cent, fine earth (passing 0.5 m. m. sieve) while the productive soil contained 93.93 per cent. This fine earth on further examination showed the following results : Productive Per cent. Unproductive Per cent 1st 6 inches. Unproductive Per cent. 1th 6 inches. Sand .0.5 — 0.25 mm. 14.10 26.87 50.67 Fine sand .0.25 — 0.125 “ 12.50 1 23.54 28.56 Sand and silt. . . .0.125—0.05 41.47 1 20.91 9.11 Clay and dust. . . .0.05. 16.40 14.21 7.72 Org-anic matter. 10.48 10.70 1.34 Moisture 3.33 2.64 1.00 Tt will be noticed that not only is the unproductive soil more sandy but that the sand increases very rapidly as we enter the sub- soil. The moistures given are the quantities of moisture retained by the soil after exposure to the air until no further loss occurred. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION. The soils were examined by the methods of the a. o. a. c. ' Productive Per cent. Unproductive Soil Per cent. Unproductive • Sub-soil Per cent. 1 Insoluble in H Cl 81.26 82.34 92.88 Soluble in H Cl Phosphoric acid 0.17 0.22 0.07 Potash 0.47 0.23 0.23 Soda 0.38 0.32 0.19 Nitrog-en 0.33 0.44 0.04 The soil of the unproductive areas would seem to have a fair supply of total plant food, although the potash is only one-half of that on the productive land. The fact that in the sub-soil the reduc- tion of organic matter is accompanied by a corresponding reduction of phosphoric acid and nitrogen while the potash remains constant, suggests that the potash is probably in a much less available condi- 27 tion than the other plant foods and that this_ may in part at least ac- count for the failure of corn and clover on the unproductive spots where the drainage is satisfactory. It is quite possible that even on the productive lands the potash may not be in an available form, for on lands of this same character in other counties the application of from 75 to 150 pounds of kainit to the acre has given very profitable returns with the corn crop. HENDRICKS COUNTY. Investigation by Julian Ensminger, 1900- 1901. The unproductive soils in this county occur in spots or narrow strips on which water stood nearly all the time before the country was drained. Both the productive and unproductive soils are very loose dark loams containing considerable organic matter, and pre- senting practically no difference in appearance, lire sub-soils are stiff heavy clays. The water stood but 16 inches below the surface on the unproductive land while on the productive land the water level is practically down to the tiles, 40 inches. The mechanical analyses of these soils show : Productive Per cent.* Unproductive Per cent* Sand 0.5 — 0.25 m. ni. 2.52 9.24 Sand 0.25—0.05 16.14 17.24 Silt 0.05—0.01 76.50 69.05 Dust 0.01 4.69 3.35 Organic Matter. 14.26 13.16 Moisture 4.12 3.44 The chemical analyses show : Productive Per cent Unproductive Percent Insoluble in H Cl Soluble in H Cl 71.96 73.94 Phosphoric acid 0.284 0 . 222 Potash 0.680 0.181 Nitrogen 0.473 0.557 • The high-water level of this land would prevent the production of all ordinary crops and must be reduced before the best results can *Tho pfrcentage of sand, silt and dust were calculated to basis of mineral matter only. 28 be expected from any other treatment. The great difference in the amount of potash in the two soils, otherwise quite alike, would in- dicate the desirability of using potash in this class of land after the drainage is made satisfactory. FOUNTAIN COUNTY. Investigation by Julian Ensminger, 1900-1901. This land is a part of prairie that was formerly dotted with clumps of jack oaks on the higher part of the land. The unpro- ductive soil is found where one of these groves grew and has been unproductive ever since the land was cleared. The area of the un- productive place has constantly been increasing. The tiles in the land are 3 feet deep and as the unproductive spot is higher than the general level of the field and the soil is open the unproductiveness cannot be attributed to high-water level. The soil is in fine physical condition and has the appearance of very fer- tile land. Heavy applications of farm-yard manure cause it to pro- duce a fair crop but without manure the plants live but a few days after they appear above the ground. For purposes of comparison Mr. Ensminger selected a fertile river bottom soil subject to over- flow. MECHANICAL ANALYSES. River Bottom 1 Percent’*' | Unproductive Per cent.* Sand 0.5 - — 0.25 ni. m. 1.34 9.74 Sand 0.25—0.05 10.13 7.45 Silt 0.5 —0.01 83.69 80.88 Dust 0.01 3.92 1.91 Organic matter. 6.63 8.96 Moisture 2.52 2.37 CHEMICAL ANALYSES. River Bottom Per cent. Unproductive Per cent. Insoluble in H Cl Soluble in H Cl 79.37 81.95 Phosphoric acid 0.123 0.154 Potash 0.428 0.281 Nitrogen 0.131 0.186 *The percentage of sand, silt and dust were calculated to basis of mineral matter only. 29 On this unproductive land it would be desirable to conduct sys- tematic experiments with phosphoric acid and potash. The probabil- ity is that the potash is not in an available condition and the same may be true of tne phosphoric acid. The nitrogen supply seems to be fairly good but possibly there may not be enough lime present to insure rapid nitrification. Organic matter plowed under might be useful in increasing the water holding capacity. On the sandy black soils of Northwestern Indiana there has been a marked increase in the use of fertilizers during the past three years. In some cases kainit alone has been used and in other cases a phosphate and potash containing 8 to lo per cent of soluble and reverted phosphoric acid and 4 to 5 per cent of potash has been used. Such a mixture frequently consists simply of two parts of acid phosphate of high grade (14 to 16 per cent soluble and revert- ed phosphoric acid) and one part of kainit. The usual application is from 100 to 200 lbs. per acre. It is quite likely that heavier appli- cations than 200 lbs. per acre would prove profitable. In judging of the effects of fertilizers containing no nitrogen it is very necessary to actually weigh or measure the crops from equal areas of fertilized and unfertilized land, for such fertilizers do not give striking results in the color of the foliage even when there may be a considerable increase in the quantity of the grain. In estimating the yield in such cases farmers have often said that they could see no difference in fields on which actual weights showed a difference of 10 to 15 bushels per acre. UNPRODUCTIVE MUCK OF DELAWARE COUNTY, Investigation by L. V. Shoemaker, igoo-1901. These soils in general appearance and texture resemble the soils of the McCoy farm. The lands are located 2^4 miles east of Dale- ville. Two samples of unproductive soil and two of productive soil were selected for examination. The Chemical examination showed : Unproductive Percent Product ve Per cent Moisture 10.03 6.25 4 . 00 3.37 Or^<-anic matter 48.14 34.15 18.77 12.07 Insoluble in Hydrochloric acid Soluble in Hydrochloric acid 40.70 47 . 07 64.86 72.78 Phosphoric acid 1 .01 0.46 0.16 0.36 Potash Nitro^^'en 0.32 0.35 1.38 0.21 0.22 0.45 30 The phosphoric acid in the unproductive soils was so much high- er than had ever before been noted in this State that the results were carefully checked on new samples. In these soils the plant foods are much more abundant than in the productive lands in the same fields. The unproductive muck is i8 to 28 inches deep and is under- laid with sticky marl. The land is drained by a large open ditch into which the tiles discharge. The water level on the unproductive area was found to be 25 inches below the surface while on the productive area the water level was 33 inches. These readings were taken May 4. On May 17 the water on the unproductive area at stood at 25^ inches and on the productive area at 34>4. The first thing to do with this land is to secure adequate drainage. Probably the sticky marl prevents the water entering the tiles. The supply of plant food would seem to be abundant and with proper drainage and aeration it ought to become readily available. All of the unproductive muck lands that I have examined can be drained and made productive by one of the methods mentioned above. But before any special method is determined upon, it will always be both desirable and profitable to make a preliminar3^ drainage sur- vey of the land in question in order to determine its present water level and the depth below the surface of the real water-bearing lay- er. With these facts before us the most economical method of reduc- ing the water Ifevel can be determined upon. 31 SUMMARY. 1. Thousands of acres of ground, now unproductive, may be improved and made the most productive corn lands in the State. 2. The use of straw or kainit has proved very profitable as a means of temporary improvement of such lands. 3. The permanent improvement of such land‘d demands, in ad- dition to the above treatment, efficient drainage. This drainage will usually be of a special character. 4. Before making any outlay for the permanent improvement of such lands a preliminary drainage survey should be made, and the system of improvement should be based on the results of this survey. 5. On black lands containing considerable sand but not having a high-water level, kainit and other potash-salts have proved very profitable fertilizers for corn. The other potash-salts are muriate of potash and sulphate of potash. They contain about four times as much potash as kainit. The application should be from 25 to 50 lbs. per acre to equal the usual application of kainit. A pound of actual potash in the form of high-grade salts costs less than in the form of low grade. On this class of land it might be well to try phosphoric acid, in addition to the potash salts, at the rate of 100 to 200 lbs. per acre of high-grade acid phosphate. Much land of this character is found in the Northern counties of the state. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 96. Vol. XII. July, 1903. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING CARE OF MILK AND BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM. PuDllslied liy ilie siatlon: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA, U. S. A. BOARD OF CONTROL. WiirLiAM V. Stuart^ President, - LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. W11.UAM A. Banks, - _ _ . LaPorte, LaPorte Co. Sykvkster Johnson, - - . . Irvington, Marion Co. David E. Bejam, - - - Spencer, Owen Co. Job H. VanNatta, - _ . LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. James M. Barrett, - _ . . port Wayne, Allen Co. Charles Downing, - - - _ Greenfield, Hancock Co. Charles B. Stemen, - . . . port Wayne, Allen Co. Charles Major, - . _ . Shelby ville, Shelby Co. Edward A. Ellsworth, Secretary. James M. Fowler, Treasurer. STATION STAFF. WiNTHROP E. Stone, A. M., Ph. D., President of the University Arthur Goss, M. S., A. C. - - - Director and Chemist. William C. Latta, M. S., - - - - Agriculturist. James Troop, M. S., - - Horticulturist and Entomologist. Joseph C. Arthur, D. Sc., ----- Botanist. Arvill W. Bitting, D. V. M., M. D., - - Veterinarian. Hubert E. VanNorman, B. S., - - - - Dairyman. John H. Skinner, B. S., - - - - - Live Stock. Alfred T. Wiancko,/3A,<^. - - - Associate Agriculturist. WiLLAM J. Jones, Jr., M. S., A. C., - - Assistant Chemist. M. L. Fisher, B. S., - - - Assistant Agriculturist. R. M. Hamer, - Stockman. Nellie Tracy, ----- Clerk and Librarian. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING CARE OF MILK AND BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM. E. VanNorman^ B. S. While Indiana is not counted among the leading dairy states, there is a large amount of milk produced which reaches Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Fort Wayne, Evansville and other cities, in the form of milk, cream and butter, to say nothing of that which finds a market closer home. The comparatively little study given the subject of farm butter making and care of milk by the large number who ‘'only make enough to supply the family and sell or trade the surplus at the store,” or “send a little to the creamery after the calves are weaned the possibility of increasing the income from the few cows kept, to- gether with the frequent calls upon the Experiment Station for in- formation relating to the care of milk, butter making, separation, etc., has prompted the preparation of this bulletin of general infor- mation which is not a report of original research ; rather a gathering together of useful data and suggestions not easily accessible to the farmer. In the new agricultural building there has been equipped a dairy laboratory for teaching and experimental purposes. It is the wish of those in charge to make this department of the Experiment Sta- tion as useful to the state as possible ; to this end those interested are invited to correspond with and call upon the Dairy Department for such assistance as it can render. Information is desired regarding the location of creameries, cheese factories and the development of the dairy interests in general. INDIANA CONDITIONS. The last Government Census shows 221,897 farms in Indiana, 214,366 of which are reported as having milch cows, or 96.5 per cent of Indiana farms have milch cows on them, while only about three per cent of the farms derive as much as 40 per cent of their income from the sale of dairy products, and are therefore called dairy farms. The great mass of farms undoubtedly belong to the class where cows are kept to supply the family with milk and butter or to raise beef calves and are only milked for a time after the calves are weaned. The surplus over and above the family needs is dis- posed of in the form of butter to the huckster or the grocer and often paid for in trade, bringing only 12 to 15 cents per pound. Much of this butter, because made under unfavorable surroundings, as a 4 secondary consideration and in rather small amounts, does not find a ready market among consumers but goes to the huckster, the country store and eventually the renovating factory, where it is melted, clarified, churned with milk or cream, worked, salted and sold to the consumer in the larger cities at from five to ten cents per pound more than the producer received. Not infrequently the con- sumer has asked for the best creamery butter and thinks he is re- ceiving what he has paid for, when in reality it is renovated butter. The law now requires that renovated butter be so marked, which in a measure protects the purchaser. Believing that there is a large loss annually to the Indiana farm- ers in producing 12 to 15 cent butter, when the consumers, especially in our large towns and cities, complain of an insufficient supply ol the best butter, and openly say that they prefer oleomargarine to much of the country butter they are forced to take, the following suggestions are offered with the hope that some may be in a position to take advantage of them. First. If possible send the milk or cream to a good creamery, where, with the necessary apparatus and some one who makes a business of buttermaking, you will have the advantage of the high- er price that large shipments of butter of uniform quality com- mand, to say nothing of the increased yield of butter which may be secured with the separator as compared with the gravity methods usually of necessity employed on the farm where dairying is not made a business of; or the saving in hard work which com- monly falls to the lot of the women folks. Second. If the creamery is not available, study the principles involved and methods employed by the best butter makers, and make such changes in your methods as may be necessary to enable you to make a first class article which will command at least 20 or 25 cents per pound on the market. Then keep cows and make enough butter to warrant the care necessary to make butter of uni- form excellence and enough of it to pay to get it to a profitable market. Third. If neither of the above plans are practicable under your conditions, make just as little butter as possible to be sold at 15 cents per pound or less, as the margin of profit, if any, is too small to justify the hard work and time required in making cheap butter, and the market is overstocked with it. The last Government census report also shows that the average Indiana milch cow only produces $27.40 worth of dairy products per year, while careful estimates show that the ordinary cow eats feed which at market prices is worth from $29.00 to $32.00 a year. The Experiment Station records show that many cows, reasonably well fed and cared for, will produce 250 pounds of butter which, 5 at 20 cents, would be $50 . 00 for the year’s product as compared with the low average above. In the leading dairy counties of Illinois, the average returns for all the cows, good and bad, is from $43.00 to $50.00 per cow per year. Making due allowance for errors in figures and in judgment the fact remains that the income from many of the cows now on Indiana farms, does not pay for the feed eaten. In very many cases the returns can be increased by some change in the methods of care and feed of the cows to reduce cost and increase yield, and in care of milk and butter to save loss and improve quality. A further study of the returns from the individual cows in the herd will frequently show that there is one or more cows which pro- duce from one to ten dollars less milk or butter, in a year, than the value of the pasture and feed eaten. If such individuals were dis- posed of even for little or nothing the remaining cows in the herd would show a larger margin of profit. SUGGESTIONS ON CARE AND FEED. Have some oats and peas, sweet corn, sorghum, early planted field corn, other forage crops, or left over silage, to supplement pas- tures in dry time. Allow the cows in a darkened shed or barn in fly time. Keep the cows out of the stalk field in winter. Cut the corn and feed fodder in the stable or yard. Shelter from raw winds, even on bright days in the winter. Feed a combination of feeds from the following lists, at least one from each rather than only one or two from either, and that corn, and corn stover or timothy hay. I II corn corn stover corn silage millet hay oat straw sorghum hay timothy hay wheat straw alfalfa hay bran clover hay cow pea hay cotton seed meal gluten meal linseed meal oats soy beans Since the feeds in the first column are rich in fat and heat pro- ducing material, and especially poor in protein, which is absolutely necessary for milk production, and the feeds in the second column 6 are all much richer in protein, a larger yield of milk will be secured when a combination of feeds from the two groups is fed. Breed the cows to calve in the early fall, and make the most milk and butter at the season when conditions are favorable for mak- ing and prices are high, and there is more time to care for the cows, the milk and butter. Don’t breed to a scrub sire. The best one available is none too good. Raise the calves by hand and substitute vegetable fat in the form of ground flaxseed jelly, and later corn meal, etc., in connec- tion with skim milk, for the butter fat in the whole milk. Know which cow is not earning her feed and dispose of her. Brush with a brush or wipe with a damp cloth the udder and flank before milking. Twenty to 90 times as much dirt falls in the milk from the unbrushed, unwashed udder as from the washed one.* Milk with dry hands. Don’t allow the milk to stand in the barn. Don’t use a so-called dilution separator; set a can of milk into cold water, but don’t mix water and milk. An eighth to a third of the butter fat is often lost by diluting the milk with water.** Don’t mix sweet and sour cream less than 12 hours before churning. Own and use a dairy thermometer — cost 25 to 50 cents — it will save many times its cost, if it is used and the cream is churned at the right temperature. They may be had from any dairy supply house and very often from the local druggist. They should be all glass. The cheaper ones are not always accurate and should there- fore be compared with a reliable one. Salt by weight or measure — not by guess. Wash the butter milk out. Don’t overwork the butter; it injures the texture. Have a butter worker ; it saves laber and helps quality. Put butter in rectangular prints, (they are more attractive and pack better.) Use parchment paper, not wax paper. Use dairy salt ; not table or cheap barrel salt. Encourage some young member of the family to take charge of the butter making, and make a business of it. A Hendricks county girl who learned to make good butter, makes a business of it, has increased her trade from the product of three cows to that of 15, and could sell more butter if she had it. *Illinois Bulletin No. 84. **Cornell New York Bulletin No. 151. 7 Be prompt and regular with delivery. There is a reasonable profit in good cows well cared for. There is a good market for more first class butter, milk, cream and cheese than is produced. Indiana is nearer the great markets than many of the leading dairy states. Much land in the state is better adapted to dairying than to grain farming. Much land needs the manure that can be produced by keeping more good milch cows upon it. CARE OF MILK FOR CREAMERY, CHEESE FACTORY OR SHIPPING. • The Cow. — The first essential for good milk is to prevent the dirt getting into the milk. It takes but a moment to brush the udder and nearby parts just before milking. It is even better to wipe them off with a damp cloth, as the dust will then adhere to the damp hair rather than fall into the pail. The milk should be removed from the stable as soon as possi- ble, as it absorbs stable odors very quickly. Strainers. — With the best of care there will be some foreign matter fall into the milk, which a strainer will remove. A fine wire strainer is better than none, but two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth, if properly cleaned each time after using, is one of the best strainers available. The strainer cloth should be rinsed in cold water, washed clean in warm water, scalded and hung in the sun if possible. Strain, and cool by placing the can in cold water and stir a few times within the first hour. Use a thermometer enough to know whether it gets cold or not. If necessary, change the water. It should be down to 50° F. at least, and the nearer 40° the better. It is the getting the milk cold which counts, not the putting it in the water. A can of milk will cool faster in water at 45° than in the air at 35°. Keep tight covers off the cans while cooling, to allow escape of animal gases and heat. No objection to light cloth cover to keep out dust and flies. Be sure the air is pure where the milk is exposed. Do not mix warm milk with cold, as it will sour both very soon. HANDLING SEPARATOR CREAM. Tlie same care and general plan should be used in handling separator cream, either for shipping or for the creamery. The 8 No. I. Cut No. I.* A source of Human Food. Clean, even in Mid-Winter. *Bulletin No. 84 Illinois. 9 mm ' No. 2. Cut No. 2.* After a Run of Three Weeks on Pasture. Imagine the Filthy Condition During Winter. 10 separating should be done as soon as the milking is finished, as the milk is then usually warm enough to separate most thoroughly. Cool and stir the cream immediately after separating. Do not mix warm and cold cream. Cool the warm cream first. Keep the cream in cold water if possible. Wash the separator thoroughly after every using, scalding with boiling water the last thing. WASHING MILK UTENSILS. First rinse with cold or luke warm water; wash thoroughly with water as warm as the hands will stand, using some good alkali washing powder, such as sal soda, Gold Dust, etc. Rinse thor- oughly with boiling water and if possible place in the sun shine. If wiped dry with a clean towel the tin will be brighter, but if made thoroughly hot by the rinsing, it will dry without wiping, will not rust and be cleaner than if wiped with a towel which is damp and as unsanitary as is frequently used. Use a brush, not a cloth, for washing tinware. CREAM SEPARATION. ^lilk is ‘‘an emulsion of fats in a watery solution of Alkaline salts, casein and sugar.”* The average composition of milk is as follows :* water 87-17% fat 3-69% casein 3 - 02 % albumen 53 % sugar 4.88% ash 71% 'total 100.00% “Cream is that portion of the milk into which most of the fat has been gathered.”* Fat being lighter than the water or the solids not fat (sugar, casein, etc.) raises to the top when allowed to stand in a vessel, and in so doing carries with it a little of the other solids not fat, and constitutes what we commonly call cream. The heavier portion (i. e. skim milk) settles to the bottom by reason of the force of gravity. *Wing — Milk and its Products. METHODS OF SECURING CREAM. Shallow Pans. — The objection to this method is the large loss of butter fat in the skim milk, the exposure of the cream to unde- sirable odors and the labor of caring for a large number of vessels. The best results with pans will be secured when the milk is set at rest immediately after mjlking, in a room where the temperature is 6o° or below. A loss of .6 to .7 per cent of fat in the skim milk is to be expected, while it often runs much higher. Cold Deep Setting. — The milk is set in deep, narrow vessels, surrounded by cold water. It may be only a common shot gun can (about eight inches in diameter and 22 to 24 inches deep) set in water, in a barrel sawed off the right height, and protected from dust and bad odors ; or it may be a high priced cabinet creamer, handsomely painted and trimmed with nickle-plated faucets, knobs, etc. The essential features for best results, are narrow, deep cans, set in water at a temperature of 45° F. or below, for at least 12 hours. The cream may be skimmed off the top with a cup, or better, a cone skimmer, or the skim milk may be drawn off from the bottom by a faucet, stopping so as to leave the cream in the can. The loss may be only .2 to .4% under favorable conditions, while warm water and carelessness in removing the cream will cause much larger losses. The Michigan Experiment Station reports the following per cents of fat left in skim milk from milk set at various temperatures.* Temperature Average percent of fat degrees F. in the skim milk. 32—36 . 19 40 .36 50 .84 58 — 60 . 84 58 — 60 . 84 62 1.40 These figures emphasize the necessity of having the water cold which surrounds the cans of milk, otherwise the amount of butter fat in the skim milk will be very large. The cans of milk should be placed in the water as soon after milking as possible. Milk set in water at running water open air at Dilution Separators, so called “water separators” are merely deep cans in which the milk is mixed with water ; usually as much water as milk, and allowed to stand two to 24 hours. They usually have a faucet at the bottom for drawing off the skim milk and water, and a strip of glass by means of which the cream line my be seen. *Michigan bulletin, 167. 12 There have been many variations and adaptations of the principle of dilution, but all are equally inefficient, and these miscalled “sep- arators” have commonly been sold at exhorbitant prices compared with their cost and merit. The loss of butter fat will be from . 7 to 1% under favorable conditions, and usually much more, especially if allowed to stand only three or four hours before skimming. THE HAND SEPARATOR. In the commercial world the word “separator” as applied to the dairy business is used to mean a machine with which cream is secured by substituting centrifugal force for the force of gravit} . In the mechanical separator a small steel bowl is made to revolve very rapidly, developing centrifugal force, which is spoken of as the tendency to fly away from the center around which it is moving. Swinging a bucket of water over one’s head fast enough so the water does not come out even though the bucket be upside down, is an illustration in which the centrifugal force, being greater than the force of gravity, the contents stay in the bucket. The old game of crack-the-whip is another illustration. The faster the speed the greater the centrifugal force. In the mechanical separator the bowl revolves so fast that there is sufficient force to bring the heavy por- tion of the milk, that is the skim milk, next to the wall of the bowl immediately, forcing the cream toward the center. By a suitable ar- rangement of outlets the skim milk is pushed out at one and the cream another as more milk is let into the bowl. The process is a continuous one. The advantages of the hand separator are, i — The gathering of practically all of the fat into the cream, thus reducing the loss in the skim milk to the minimum ; 2 — The milk may be separated im- mediately after milking, so the skim milk may be fed while it is still warm with the animal heat, (which adds considerably to its feeding value as compared with cold skim milk warmed up). 3 — Only the cream, which is about one sixth of the milk, needs to be cooled. Often a suitable place for the separator may be found at or near the barn, in wdiich case only the cream and the parts of the machine to be washed have to be carried to the house, which is a considerable saving of labor over carrying all the milk to the house and the skim milk "back to the barn. 4 — The thickness of the cream may be con- trolled. 5. — There is undoubtedly a saving of labor as compared w'ith handling much milk in either pans, crocks or deep setting. 6. — Much of the dirt getting into the milk during milking, which is not dissolv'd by the warm milk, is left in the bowl or thrown into the 13 skim milk, so under certain conditions the quality of the cream for butter making is improved. But the separator won’t take out the aith that has been dissolved. The chief objection to the separator is its first cost, which is from $60.00 to $125.00 for farm size machines, depending on the amount of milk they will skim per hour. In buying, it is well not to get a very small machine, as it takes too long to run the milk through; if later two or three more cows are added the time required for turning the small separator is con- siderable, while the difference in first cost of the larger machine will soon be made up by saving in time required to skim each day’s milk with the larger size. Some desirable features of a separator are — 1. — Clean skimming under a wide range of conditions, such as warm and cold milk and thick or thin cream. The skim milk from a good separator properly run should not contain to exceed .05 of one per cent of fat, and under ordinarily favorable conditions should show even less than that in the double neck test bottle. 2. — Ease of washing ; all parts should be so arranged as to be easily gotten at for washing, few corners and tubes. 3. — Easy running. All machines of the same manufacture are not equally easy running. 4. — Durable construction, few parts, well made. We have in our dairy department several makes of separators which do satis- factory work. Each has its admirers among the many students who have used them all, while no one has a monopoly of all the good points. OPERATION OF SEPARATOR. The thoroughness with which the separator does its work de- pends very much on the speed of the bowl, the temperature of the milk and the flow of milk into the bowl. Speed. — The handle should be turned steadily, care being taken to keep a constant even pressure upon it, all the way around, not pushing down hard and pulling up hard, while for a moment when the crank is down and again at the top there is no pressure upon it. Turn at the speed the directions call for, or if it is found by testing the skim milk that it is not skimming clean, an increased speed of from three to five turns per minute will usually help matters. The importance of keeping up the speed is shown by the following two experiements.* *Michigan bulletin 167. 14 “In the first the power was removed from a machine running at full speed and full capacity separating 600 pounds of milk per hour, and the skim milk caught in small lots and tested separately. The following is the record of the test of the first seven quarts of skim milk coming from the machine after the power was removed. per cent fat in skim milk. 1st 03 2nd 03 3 i"d 045 4th 05 5 th 10 6th 7th 16 In the second case a hand separator was turned at different rates of speed, 42 turns of the crank being recommended by the manu- facturers. The following are the results. Per cent fat in skim milk. 45 turns per minute 02 42 “ “ “ 04 39 “ " “ 047 36 “ “ “ 05 Temperature of Milk. — When milk is separted at milking time, unless allowed to stand for some time, it will be at the best temper- ature for separation and it should be separated then if possible. Cold milk should be warmed up to 80° to 90°. While a can of milk may be set on or near the stove to warm it up, it is better to place it in warm water. WTen the milk is cold the cream is thicker and if too cold may clog the separator. If necessary to skim cold milk, it will often help matters to adjust the cream screw so as to in- crease the proportion of cream. As there is usually a large loss in skimming milk too cold, it should be avoided. Flow of Milk, on most hand separators is fix^^d by the manu- facturers and needs no attention except to see that the faucet does not jar partially shut and that the supply of milk is kept up to the last. Care. — The separator does not need much oil at a time, but every bearing requiring oil should have some each time the machine is used. Occassionally the bearings should be liberally oiled with kerosene ; this will cut out any gum and dirt and help much to keep the machine in an easy running condition. 15 The relative loss of butter fat in the skim milk from the different methods of securing the cream is as follows : Dilution method 7 to I per cent Shallow pans 5 to •7 a a. Deep setting 2 to •5 a u Centrifugal sepaator 03 to •05 a u There will be at least 3,000 pounds of skim milk from a good cow in one year. With the above per cents as a safe basis, one may easily figure the amount of butter fat being lost by the methods he is using. The above figures are for ordinarly good conditions. The losses will be greater when the operator is careless. And on many farms they are greater. The Michigan Experiment Station secured skim milk from a number of farms and found it contained as high as 1.5% of fat. With average whole milk only testing about 4%, that proportion of loss is very great. CREAM RIPENING. Speaking generally the ripening of cream is all of the treatment it receives from the time the milk it drawn until it is churned, while specifically and commonly it is the particular treatment given the cream after separation to prepare it for churning. The general market wants a butter with a flavor that can only be secured by ripening the cream properly. Ripening is a souring of the cream. When cream or milk sours the milk sugar is changed to lactic acid, by lactic acid producing germs. The bacteriologist finds that there are several forms of lac- tic acid producing bacteria ; also that some forms or bacteria pro- duce acid without thickening or curdling; others produce the re- verse; again some produce gas; while slimy or ropy milk, red, 01 sometimes called bloody milk are other products of bacterial growth in milk and cream. In general, the changes which occur in milk are due to some form of bacterial life. Bacteria are minute forms of plant life ; they grow rapidly at a temperature of from 60° to 90° ; they require food ?uid moisture like higher forms of plant life ; they are prevented from growing by cold ; are killed by moist heat, most of them by a temjn-atnre of boiling water; they may remain inactive for a long time, then grow rapidly when conditions again become favorable ; they grow or mul- tiply usually by division, which may happen every twenty minutes, or may require several hours; in the process of their growth they i6 cause some change in the material in which they are growing. It may be a useful or a harmful one for the dairyman. The character of the change will be largely determined by the kind of bacteria present, whether from the dust of the air, dusty hay, the flanks of the animal, the seams of imperfectly washed uten- sils, from a good home made starter or a commercial starter from. a pure culture. The change may be retarded by excluding bac- teria, by stopping their growth with cold, or by killing with heat. The change may be hastened by introducing bactena, or by a fav- orable temperature. The rapidity of the change will depend on numbers of bacteria present and whether the temperature is favor- able to their rapid growth or not. In the farm dairy the ripening of the cream is usually brought about by the bacteria which acciden- tally gain access to the milk and cream, and fortunately for the dairymen the lactic acid germs usually predomniate, esepcially in the clean, well kept dairy. An understanding of these principles should materially assist in the handling of dairy products to bring about desired or prevent un- desirable changes. The cream should be kept cold, below 50° if possible, until enough is secured for a churning. It should then be warmed up to from 65° to 70° and held until it becomes sour and has a pleasant acid taste ; occasionally a little higher temperature may be needed. If the cream was sweet it will usually require i8to 24 hours to sour it. Xo cream should be added to that to be churned for at least 12 to 18 hours previous to churning; during this period it should be stirred several times to insure uniform ripeness. When cream of unequal degrees of ripeness is churned, it requires a longer time to churn and there is a much larger loss of butter fat in the butter milk. AMien a layer of cream is seen on the butter milk that has stood, it is usually due to churning cream too sweet, or part sweei and part ripe cream. At least two hours before the cream is churned it should be cooled to 50° — 56°. If not too ripe it may be held at this low tem- perature for 12 hours. This cooling will do much to make a firm butter. When it is difficult to secure the desired flavor or when undesirable flavors due to the kind of bacteria which predominate are troublesome, or when under cleanly conditions in very cold weather the cream does not ripen sufficiently or even enough, a starter may be used to advantage. Starter. — A starter may be sour skim milk or butter milk put in the cream to hasten or control the character of the ripening. Butter milk may be used when the butter made was of particu- larly good quality, especially if churnnig every day or every other dav. A skim milk or home made starter is usuallv more desirable. I? A home made starter is prepared as follows : Keep separate the milk from one cow, preferably one that has not been in milk long, (the factory butter maker must select the milk of some patron who takes more than ordinaryily good care of his milk) ; run it through the separator or set in a vessel by itself. Fill one or two fruit jars that have been thoroughly cleansed and scalded, with this skim milk ; place these in a pail or other convenient vessel of water at a tem- perature of 90°. In cold weather it may be necessary to warm the water up once or twice by adding hot water or otherwise. In from 18 to 24 hours, the milk should become nicely loppered, like a soft gelatin, when it is ready to use. If allowed to stand until the curd becomes firm, it will cause particles of curd to appear in the but- ter. When ready for use it should have a pleasant acid taste, free from objectionable taints and flavors. In preparing a starter of this kind it is assumed that lactic acid bacteria have gained access to the milk in sufficient numbers that by holding at a favorable temperature for their development they will predominate over the less desirable forms, especially those which thrive at low temperatures. Experience shows this to be true. A skim milk starter cannot be depended on always. It is wise to prepare two jars and use the best one, or if not right, neither should be used. Commercial Starters. — Several firms are putting on the market pure cultures of bacteria, known as commercial starters, which have been found to give very satisfactory results in the creamery where large quantities of butter are made and even a slightly increased price for the butter will more than pay for the time and labor re- quired for preparing starters. Under ordinary conditions about 10 to 12 per cent of starter is sufficient, i. e., one quart of starter to two and a half gallons of cream. If the cream gets ripe too quickly use less starter, if too slowly a little more next time. Rules and sug- gestions for ripening cream are but helps. Conditions vary so from day to day and month to month that only the person who uses judg- ment and close observation can be sure of the best quality of butter from day to day. It is uniformity of quality and product that holds the trade and commands the higher price. THE CHURN. The Kind of churn which has no inside fixture, but dashes the cream from one side or end to the other by tlie motion of the churn has proved most satisfactory. i8 The paddles, dashers, etc., of whatever pattern, are apt to hurt more or less the texture of the butter; also cause a loss of butter in the cream, which adheres to them and to the cornf^rs of the churn, especially when the cream is a little thick. When the churning is done in such a short time as is claimed by admirers of many so called improved churns, it is usually at a sacrifice of butter fat left in the butter milk, even though it may not be apparent to the eye. Wooden churns are to be preferred to metal ; because of their getting loose in dry weather if not used frequently or properly taken care of, a steel barrel churn, tinned inside and painted outside, has been put on the market. The objections to it are that the cream warms up more easily when the room is warm and more butter will adhere to it than to the wood. Care must be exei'cised to wipe it dry or it will rust. On the other hand the cream might be kept in it till enough is secured for a churning, making one less vessel to care for. The Size of the churn should be such that it wdl never be filled over half full, and better if only one third full. Where the ordinary churning amounts to from two to five gallons of cream a fifteen gallon churn is a desirable size. The Speed of a barrel or box churn which revolves should be sufficient to carry the cream to the highest point allowing it to fall the length of the churn. If it is turned too fast the cream will remain in the ends ; if too slow it will slip around and churn slowly. The agitation which results from concussion is more de- sirable than that from friction. The Time required for churning depends on the ripeness of the cream, the temperature, the fullness of the churn, the amount of agitation and the richness of the cream, and to a lesser extent, period of lactation, and feed. Quick churning usually means large loss of butter in the butter milk. Under ordinary conditions, 20 to 40 minutes is. a reasonable length of time for churning and no ob- jection to an hour if firm butter and thorough work are desired, especially if the churning is done with other than hand power. Temperature. — The only rule which can be given is “churn at as low a temperature as posible and have the butter come in a rea- sonable time.” A high temperature makes quick churning, large loss of butter in the butter milk and soft butter ; a low temperature requires a longer time, makes a firmer butter and reduces the loss in the butter milk. While most cream can be satisfactorily churned in 20 to 40 minutes at some temperature between 50 and 60 degrees F., some unusual condition may require a little higher telnperature or longer time. In the Experiment Station dairy, 54° to 56° is the usual churning temperature. When gluten meal or feed is fed the 19 churning temperature may be lowered two to four degrees, while if much cottonseed meal is fed it may be raised a little if the butter is slow in coming. The variations in the churnability of cream from different cows, and herds, from the same cows at different seasons of the year, and varying stages of lactation require some variation in the churning temperature. Use a thermometer ; then if the butter comes quick and soft lower the temperature of the cream next time. It is ver> desirable that the cream be held at the churning temperature for at least two hours previous to churning. The butter will be firmer if this is done. No objection to its standing longer if the cream is not over ripe. Difficult Churning. — In the winter when the cows are on dry feed and have been milking for nearly a year or more and give only a small amount of milk, it is frequently difficult to make the butter gather. Skim as thick a cream as possible; ripen the cream as de- scribed elsewhere till there is a pronounced acid flavor; do not All a barrel over one third full and churn at a little higher temperature. Color. — If selling butter to the general market, use color if necessary to make the butter about the color of June butter. Foi private trade, color or not, as suits the customers. The standard butter colors are harmless and tasteless in the quantity needed. The amount required is small and can only be determined by trial. As the color combines only with the fat, a rich cream will require moic color per gallon of cream than a thin cream. The color should be added to the cream just before starting the churning. Stopping. — Stop the churning when the granules of butter are about the size of wheat grains, float freely, standing partly out of the butter milk and separate readily from it. If the butter comes very soft, cold water may be added when the butter begins to break. When the granules form small and refuse to “gather’' and separate from the butter milk, a little strong brine made by dissolving dairy salt in cold water will usually help the separation of the butter from the butter milk. A little salt may be thrown into the churning, but it is better to use the brine. Of course much of it will spoil the buttermilk for drinking or cooking. Straining. — In drawing the butter milk from the churn it is well to strain it through a cheese cloth or hair strainer, which will catch the crumbs of butter that may otherwise be lost. Washing Butter. — By washing the butter while still in the churn with about as much cold water as there was butter milk or a little more, the buttermilk may be very thoroughly removed. The washing removes the casein, curd, of ilie butter milk. 20 The casein which may be left in the butter, spoils very quickly, hence it is desirable to have as little of it in the butter as possible. A second washing may be required. Excessive washing should be avoided as it may injure the flavor of the butter. The temper- ature of the wash water should be a little, three or four degrees, be- low the churning temperature. If wash water is very cold, the outside of the butter granules are hardened while the inside re- mains soft, so that when salt is added it will not be evenly mixed through the hard and soft butter by the working. This uneven dis- tribution of salt will cause mottled or streaked color in the flnished butter. Salting — Only the best grades of dairy salt should be used for butter. It may be added as a brine after washing the butter. This method wastes a good deal of salt and is only desirable where a very mildly salted butter is wanted. The salt may be sprinkled on the butter while it is yet in the churn, then revolve the churn a few times till the butter is partailiy gathered, and allow it to stand if convenient, for an hour or two, so the salt may become thoroughly dissolved, and finish working either bv revolving in the churn or taking it out. The butter may be removed from the churn while in the gran- ular form; spread on the worker, and the salt sprinkled over it. Work a little to incorporate the salt and possibly allow it to stand a little while till the salt dissolves ; then finish the working. The amount of salt used must be determined by the demands of the market. For the general market one ounce of salt for each pound of unworked butter is about right. The main tiling is to learn what the market wants and then adopt a method which will give uniform results. If it is not convenient to weigh butter and salt, use a small measure of salt for a certain number of gallons of cream. For hand separator cream this method will give quite uniform results. Working. — The butter is worked to expel the surplus moisture, to incorporate the salt and to give the butter a compact body. Over- working injures the texture and makes the butter appear greasy. \\’hen possible, it is desirable to work the butter a little and then al- low it to stand for a couple of hours or until next day ; then finish. If there is not a suitable place to keep the butter in between work- ings, it is better to finish it right up. The working should be stopped when the butter breaks, with a slight tendency to hold together or string out in short pin points. As soon as it passes the stage where it breaks with a clean break, stop working. More butter is in- jured by overworking than by insufficient working. Package. — The package should suit the market. Pound prints 21 (standard size 234x2^x4^ inches) are gaining in public favor very rapidly and are a convenient form for packing, for handling and for table use. Wrapped in first class parchment paper and placed in a manilla wrapper, called cartons, good butter will com- mand a fair price and in most markets, a cent or more above that which is equally good packed in jars or irregular packages. If prints are to be packed in boxes immediately it will usually be better to wrap them in dry paper, while if they are to be handled or allowed to stand, the paper will stay in shape better if dipped in cold water before wrapping. Do not use wax paper for butter. A strong dairy parchment paper is the best for the purpose. Marketing. — Private customers who will contract for a regular supply at a fixed price are usually the highest price market avail- able to the maker of first class dairy butter, as the express charges, commission etc., on comparatively small lots are too high to warrant shipping. While private customers pay the highest price for good butter regularly supplied, the time required in delivery and collec- tions is considerable. Frequently a grocer who has the best class of trade will contract for all of the butter at a fair price. Uniform quality from week to week and regularity of delivery are essential if fancy prices are secured. WEIGHING AND TESTING MILK. One of the most important things which may be done to in- crease the profit from the milch cows kept on the farm is to know accurately how much milk and butter they are producing annually. Each one must be fed a year no matter whether it is grain or pasture, and she should produce enough over and above cost of care and feed to make a reasonable profit. While it may pay to weigh the milk of each cow at each milk- ing, especially with pure bred dairy cows, it is often impracticable to do this, but it will pay every farmer to weigh the milk one morn- ing and one night each month throughout the year and multiply this by the number of days in the month, and use this as a basis for estimating the year’s production. Careful experiments show that this method will give reasonably close results. It has been repeat- edly shown that even the person who is milking the cows cannot determine the relative amount of milk or butter produced by the several cows in a herd without the aid of the scales and tester. When the milk is made into butter or sold on the basis of the butter fat, a Babcock test should be u.sed and an estimate of the 22 yearly lat production secured. This may be done as follows : At the milkings, when the weighing is done, have a pint fruit jar or other convenient vessel for each cow that is to be tested. After weighing the milk, pour from one pail to another at least twice. The first milk drawn from the cow is very poor in butter fat, often testing as low as i-5%> while the last is very rich ; the last pint or two may test as high as eight or nine per cent. In order to get a fair test it must be thoroughly mixed as described. A sample taken during the milk- ing will not be a fair one. After thoroughly mixing, place a little in the jar, say three or four tablespoonfuls, at the second milking, add about as much more. From this mixed sample the small amount required for testing may be taken. Directions for operating the test usually accompany the ma- chine, only some suggestions are here given which may be useful. Any bright boy or girl, 14 or 15 years old, can learn to operate the test accurately with a little practice. Mixing Samples. — Samples should be mixed by pouring from one vessel to another, immediately before they are measured with the pipette. Shaking the sample will some times churn parts of the butter, especially if the sample has been warmed up. Pouring is the best way. When lumps of cream are not broken up by pouring and the milk is not curdled, it will often help matters to warm the sample by placing the jar of milk in warm water a few minutes. Composite Samples may be taken when it is desired to test all of the milk produced in a week or tw’o, but do not want to test each milking separately. They should be used at the creamery for de- termining the amount of fat brought by each patron. Taken as follows: Into a jar which has a tight cover, put a corrosive sub- limate tablet, or small quantity of bichromate of potasium, and each day add a small amount of milk. Care should be taken to see that the new milk and any cream adhering to the sides of the vessel are thoroughly mixed by rotating rather than by shaking the jar. At the end of the desired period test this composite sample in the usual way, with the pounds milk given during the period cov- ered by the sample, and the per cent, of fat given by the test, the pounds of fat produced are easily determined. In creamery practice, if the composite sample has not kept properly it can often be dissolved by putting a very little common lye into the sample when ready to test, and allow it to stand a short time, shaking it occasionally. Test not Clear, may be due to too strong acid, in which case use less of it, or allowing the milk and acid to stand before mixing. Particles of cork in the acid may do it. If acid is weak there will 23 be a iighl deposit below the fat column ; it may be avoided by using m^ore acid. Reading should be done from the lowest part of the bottom curve of the fat column to the point where the upper curve of the fat touches the glass. A pair of dividers may be used in reading. Spread the points as far apart as the length of the fat columns ;theii place the lower one on the zero mark, and the upper point shows the reading. The following causes and effects are met with in the dairy : SEPARATING. Effects. Large loss Increased flow . . Insufficient speed Small cream exit Increased speed Reduced inflow . . Uniform speed . Sufficient speed /■ Small loss Proper temperature ) Thick cream Thin cream Causes. Irregular inflow . . Vibration of bowl Irregular speed . . . Cold milk Sour milk Too rich cream Cold milk Skims cleanest Smallest bowl Slowest speed Fewest parts Skim at lowest temperature Best workmanship Easiest adjusted Lightest running Easiest cleaned Clogging 'Best separator j 24 CHURNING. Causes. Effects. Gluten feeds Oil meal High temperature \ Cream of unequal ripeness.. "j High temperature Thin nrpam Large loss in the butter milk Sweet cream Ix)w temperature '| Ripe cream Evenly ripe j Rich cream Small loss Low temperature Very thin cream Very thick cream Sweet cream Churn too full Slow agitation Cream from stripper cows. . Cream of unequal ripeness.. Cream exposed to odors Over ripe cream Decaying feed Moldy feed Impure drinking water Stable odors Sick cows Over ripe cream Dried cream Foreign matter Uneven temperature Uneven salting Insufficient working Sudden chilling Change of temperature Over working Over heating Over churning * Slipping of tools in working Thin cream Sweet cream Churn too full Cold cream Advanced period of lactation 1 I J 1 1 - I I 1 I ! i" I j Slow churning Impaired flavor Specks in butter Mottles and streaks Texture injured Difficult churning 25 Causes. Effects. Succulent feeds . Summer feeds . . Cotton seed meal Bran Legumes . Higher colored butter colored butter . Hard butter butter * TESTING. Too warm milk ) Too strong acid I" Chars fat Insufficient mixing ) Foreign matter \ Dark sediment Cold milk Cold acid Weak acid ( White fat ( White sediment and light colored fat. Insufficient speed (tester) Too cold Delay in reading Broken pipette Too hot Unclean bottle Unclean pipette !- J Low reading High reading Sample by weight . Cream More acid 'I Higher speed j For Skim Milk More heat ] For Butter Milk Double neck bottle J Maintains uniform temperature ] Maintains uniform speed j Easiest controlled j Breaks fewest bottles Best tester Does not tremble Easiest balanced Has top and bottom bearing ) 26 MISCELLANEOUS DATA. Temperatures : Milk when drawn 98° for shallow setting 60° deep setting 40° to 45° seperating 85° to 95° ripening cream 65° to 75° Churning 50° to 60° Milk for city delivery 45° to 50° Milk for calf feeding 95° to 100° Reading test bottles 120° to 140° Skim milk starter set at 90° Keep above 75° ; if necessary warm up after 6 to 10 hours. Time : For cream to rise in shallow pans 24 to 36 hours in deep setting 12 to 24 hours cream to ripen 18 to 24 hours churning ripe cream 20 to 40 minutes First whirling of test bottles 5 minutes at full speed Second and third whirling of test bottles i to 2 minutes Per cent, of fat. Average milk 3 * 7 % Guernsey 5-0% Jersey 5 - 0 % Shorthorn 4-i% Ayshire 3 - 7 % Holstein 3-0% First milk drawn 0.8 to 2% Last milk drawn 5.0 to 12% Rich cream : .35.0 to 50% Commercial cream 20.0 to 25% Butter 83.0 to 88% Loss of fat should not be over In dilution skim milk 7 to i.% Shallow pan skim milk 5 to .7 % Deep setting skim milk 2 to .5 % Separator skim milk 03 to. 05 % Butter milk i to .2 % 27 FERTILIZING MATERIAL REMOVED IN FARM PRODUCTS. The following figures are presented to emphasize the reason why it is desirabble to feed on the farm the crops that are grown upon it, and sell only live stock and dairy products, thus removing from the farm the rnininr.mi amount of valuable fertilizer elements and eventually returning to the land the major portion of the manure, sohl and liquid, if properly take care of. The purchase concentrated feeds, bran, linseed, cottonseed and gluten meals, brings onto the farm from $10.00 to $12 . .jo worth vU' these same valuable elements per ton of feed, abr. ut three-fouTths of which goes into the manure. An understanding of these facts suggests wliv rlairying is one of the surest and quickest means of building up and maintaining the soils which have been depleted by continuous cropping. To estimate the value of commercial fertilizers, the State Chem- ist values nitrogen at 15c per lb., phosphoric acid 3l^c., and potash 6c. per lb. These prices with tabic III in “Feeds and Feeding” as a basis for the fertilizer elements in the common farm products show that $100 worth of the various farm products will contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash worth as follows : Value of fertilizing ma Product.. Market price. terial in $100 worth of products. Roughness Oat straw M $3,50 per ton $99,65 Corn stover’ at * 4.00 per ton 9747 Wheat stravv at 3.00 per ton 82.20 Ti-iSiothy hay at 8.00 per ton 65-39 Grains Corn at •35 per bu. 64.30 Oats at .20 per bu. 59-98 Wheat at .60 per bu. 41.16 Barley at .40 per bu. 33-95 Live Stock Sheep at 3.00 per 100 lb. 11.44 Cattle at 4.00 per 100 lb. 10.41 -unwashed at at Wool ^ Hogs Dairy Products Milk Cheese Cl earn Butter If tlie market price is hi less of the jiroduct to make $ of fertility will be less in each the loss will be greater. .20 per lb. 4.50 per 100 lb. at at at at 6.69 6.59 .90 per 100 lb. 10.72 .10 per lb. 6.82 .48 per gallon i .05 .20 per lb. .Ti gher than given above it will take 100.00 worth, consequently the loss $100.00 worth. If prices are lower 28 GENERAL INFORMATION. The following helps are available for the person who wants to learn more about the production, care and handling of cows and dairy products : Books. Most any Agricultural paper will send the following on re- ceipt of price : Milk and Its Products, Wing $i.oo Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology, Russel i.oo Testing Milk and Its Products, Farrington and Woll i.oo Creamery Patrons Handbook i.oo Feeds and Feeding, Henry 2.00 Feeding Farm Animals, Jordan 1.50 Dairy Papers. Hoard’s Dairyman, Ft. Atkinson, Wis., Weekly $1.00 Dairy and Creamery, Chicago, Semi-Monthly 50 Kimball's Dairy Farmer, Waterloo, Iowa, Semi-Monthly... i.oo Creamery Papers. Chicago Dairy Produce, Chicago, 111 ., Weekly 1.50 New York Produce Review, New York, Weekly i.oo Creamery Journal, Waterloo, Iowa, Monthly i.oo Institutions. Purdue University, School of Agriculture, LaFayette, Ind. Four years’ course in Agriculture. Ten weeks’ course in Farm Dairying. Ten weeks’ course in Creamery Butter Making. Ten days’ course in Commercial Starters and Cream ripening. Purdue University, Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind. Conducts experiments. Publishes bulletins and reports. Sent free for the asking. Answers inquiries on agricultural topics. Indiana State Dairy Association, LaFayette, Ind. Organized by dairymen and creamerymen to promote the dairy interests of the stale. 29 Holds annual convention at which instructive papers are de- livered, followed by full discussion. Publishes report of convention containing all papers and dis- cussions. Holds butter and cheese exhibition in connection with annual convention. Membership open to any one interested on payment of one dollar. Secretary-Treasurer, H. E. Van Norman, Lafayette, Ind. State Fair, Indianapolis, Ind., Sept. 14-18., 1903. Dairy breeds of cattle on exhibition. Exhibits of butter and cheese on which premiums are award- ed. Displays of newest machinery and apparatus. Working dairy display — butter made each day. A good place to get new ideas. DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. Cut 3 — A useful strainer which can be made by any tinner. Diameter of top 10 inches, of bottom 5 inches, total height 7 inches. The rings are slipped on after the cheese cloth is in place, and are removed for washing. The left figure shows the strainer complete, the other with the cloth removed for washing. There is no wire strainer in it, only cloth top and bottom. The top cloth should be large and sag down to prevent spilling when pouring into it. New cheese cloth should be secured occasionally. After using the cloth should be rinsed in cold water, washed clean in warm water, scalded and hung in the sunshine. Cut 4 — A swing churn — a barrel churn and a lever butter worker. Either churn is very satisfactory, will do thorough work in a reasonable length of time, if not filled too full and the cream is right. More depends on the condition of the cream than on the churn. A butter worker is a great labor saver for the farm butter maker, and is less apt to injure the texture than working in a bowl with a ladle. Cut 5 — Butter wrapped in parchment paper after being print- ed with a printer like the one in the left center. The printer may be carved so as to show a figure or initials on the butter. At the right is shown a cheap printer. In the right center a Gem paper package into which butter may be packed as into a jar. At the extreme left are a closed and an open butter carton, made of a special para- fined card board for wrapping prints in. 30 Cut 6. — Two s^vles of Babcock testers, with glasswaie com- plete ; also two small balances for weighing cream when testing. In front of the tray in which the bottles are resting is a com- mon tin cup with a small spout for filling the bottles with hot water. Cut 7 — Shows the different bottles used in testing skim milk and cream. The left hand bottle is a “doubble neck skim milk bottle.'' The graduations on the small neck represent five one- hundredths of one per cent. (.05%) of butter fat. The bottle shown contained only one space of fat. The second, third and fourth bottles are whole milk bottles, the graduations being o to 10 per cent., subdivided into two-tenths spaces. The third bottle shows a fat column extending from 3.4 to 9.2 or 5.8 per cent, of fat, while the fourth shows 3.7 to 7.7 01 four per cent, of fat. The right hand two are cream bottles, grad- uated in per cent., subdivided into half per cent., the first showing a fat column, extending from 3.5 to 25. or 21.5 per cent, of f^it. while the last shows very indistinctly 19 per cent. Chart eight shows the variation in the amount of milk, the per cent, and the pounds of fat from day to day, for two cows in the college herd, during the first four weeks in May, 1903. Some lessons to be drawn from it are : ISL — That there are great variations not only in the amount of milk given and the amount of fat contained in it in, one day, but in the proportion, or per cent, of fat in the milk. ‘ For in- stance, (see “Purdue’s Primrose”) on the i8th there was a marked falling off in yield of milk from nearly 16 to less than 14 pounds, while the per cent, of fat and the actual amount of fat increased. On the 22nd, the reverse was true, the milk going up and the test and the amount of fat for the day falling off. On the 8th there was an increase in all three, while on the 17th there was a de- crease. 2nd — That there is a very noticeable difference in the amount of variation with different cows, even though kept under similar conditions. A comparison of the line used to indicate the yields and per cents, for the two cows will show this. “Purdue’s Prim- rose” has for several years shown marked variations from day to day and milking to milking, while “Purdue’s Golden Primrose’s record is very much more uniform from day to day. 3rd — The most marked changes did not occur on the same day, as a rule, with both cows, suggesting that the causes were in- dividual. However, the evidence submitted here is meant to be suggestive rather than conclusive, as an argument for more rec- ords and accurate knowledge on the part of the owner of what his cows are actually doing, and suggesting why it is necessary to test frequently and regularly if accurate information is desired. 31 No. 3 32 No. 4. 33 No. 5, 34 No. 6. 35 No. 7. Purdue University Ag ricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 97/ VOL. XII. OCTOBER, 1903. On the Value of Distillery Dried Grains As a Food for WorR Horses. Published by the Station: LAFAYETTE, INDIANA. U. S. A. BOARD OF CONTROL. William V. Stuart, President LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. William A. Banks LaPorte, LaPorte Co. Sylvester Johnson Irvington, Marion Co. David E. Beam Spencer, Owen Co. Job H. VanNatta LaFayette, Tippecanoe Co. James M. Barrett Fort Wayne, Allen Co. Charles Downing Greenfield, Hancock Co- Charles B. Stemen Fort Wayne, Allen Co. Charles Major Shelbyville, Shelby Co. Edward A. Ellsworth, Secretary. James M. Fowler, Treasurer. STATION STAFF. Winthrop E. Stone, A. M., Ph. D. . . .President of the University Arthur Goss, M. S., A. C Director and Chemist William C. Latta, M. S Agriculturist James Troop, M. S. Horticulturist and Entomologist Joseph C. Arthur, D. Sc Botanist Arvill W. Bitting, D. V. M., M. D Veterinarian Hubert E. VanNorman, B. S Dairyman- John H. Skinner, B. S Live Stock. Alfred T. Wiancko, B. S. A Associate Agriculturist. William J. Jones, Jr., M. S., A. C. Assistant Chemist M. L. Fisher, B. S Assistant Agriculturist R. M. Hamer Stockman. Nellie Tracy Clerk and Librarian. On the Value of Distillery Dried Grains as a Food for Work Horses. BY C. S. PLUMB.* In a very general way, the grain foods fed horses in the Eastern and Central Western States consist of oats or corn and oats. To be sure bran mashes or dry bran are often used, but these are fed usually as correctives, to promote an active condi- tion of the digestive organs. The value of oats as a feed for horses has long been recognized. They not only contain a fairly large per cent of protein or muscle making food, but they are generally recognized as possessing a characteristic which promotes energy and vivacity in the horse as in no other farm animal. A study of the rations fed horses in the large stables, both of America and Europe, where thousands of animals are concerned, will show oats more frequently in evidence than any other grain. Corn is an extremely palatable grain for all farm animals, but its greatest value lies in its fattening quality. It is the principal grain made use of by men who make a special business in fattening draft horses to be sold on the market. In the leading horse markets of the Middle West, weight counts much in selling value, and nothing will produce this better than corn. In these markets it is considered that each additional pound of live weight laid on, is worth 25 cents in selling on the draft horse market. Corn fed animals are smoother than oat fed ones, but they are also softer in flesh and lack the staying qualities required, where corn only is used. In a consideration of a wider range of concentrated feed stuffs for the horse, the writer’s attention was directed to the use of distillery dried grains as a source of feeding material of high muscle making power, these containing 25 or more per cent, of digestible protein. In the past it has served as an ex- *Uirector of this Agricultural Experiment station until .July 1, 1903, wden he resigned to accept another situation elsewhere. - 38 - ample, also, of a food rich in protein selling at a low price on the market. Ihis was due mainly to tlie slight extent to which it was known by the purchasing public. In the report on the following feeding experiments with horses, Mr. H. E. Van Norman, who was in 1900 Farm Super- intendent and Station Assistant, personally attended tlie feed- ing of the mares that year, while in 1902 Mr. R. C. Obrecht, Farm Superintendent and Assistant, gave similar attention to the feeding. These gentlemen gave careful attention to the feeding, and made numerous notes from time to time on the relationship of the food to appetite, digestion, animal condition and work. In the year 1900 a quantity of what are known as “Biles P'ourex” distillery dried grains with a guaranteed manufacturers 33 per cent, protein, were secured by this Station. They were rather strong in flavor, and when offered to cattle were not generally relished by them. In order to note their suitability and economy as a food for horses, four medium weight mares on the Station farm were placed in a feeding experiment, with these grains as a part of the ration. There were two teams, and in making up the lots for feeding, two mares in one team re- ceived dried grains and the other team did not. After feeding Polly and Maud dried grains four weeks, the feeding was revers- ed, and Clara and Topsy were given oats and distillery grains, and Polly and Maud fed oats. During the last three weeks of the experiment the grains were again fed Polly and Maud, and only oats fed Clara and Topsy. This experiment continued from June 27 to Sept. 12, and involved the usual run of farm work, including haying, harvesting, cultivating corn, plowing and fltting wheat land and doing miscellaneous work. The mares were weighed from week’ to week, and a careful record was kept of the amount of food fed at each feeding time to each horse, with notes as to the effect of the distillery grains on the appetite, on the digestion, on bodily condition and on capacity to work. Table I shows the amount of food of each kind that was fed each horse per week during the experiment. — 39 — It will be noticed that this table shows a great difference in the amount of distillery grains eaten by each mare. Polly and Maud never ate their grain with relish so long as the dis- tillery grains formed a part of it. On several days they would eat none at all. Polly had more of an aversion for it than Maud, especially when its use was commenced. Clara and Topsy however, ate it with more freedom and less aversion, eating it in fairly large amounts. Neither Polly nor Maud ate TABLE I. Total Feed Eaten Per Horse Per Week, — Lbs. DATE POLEV MAUD CLARA tdfsy - - X o a X ' O C 0 D X C cn P 1 ^ Q m <52 1 p Q w' p IfiOU Cl m --l !2. : C M rr ' w 3 lit p X • ? ^ 1 : ; £3 ' 11-18 ; 84 9.15 92 . 88 84. 8.06 88..56j 84! 93. 84. 92 87 July 18-25.. 102 9.06 102. 84. 9.87 92.25 84. 95. 84. 95. July 25-Aug. 1. 105. 100. 84. 98. 84. ■i2!r)' 93. - 84. i2!.5 98. Aug. 1-8 . 105. 104. 84 90.75 59.25 24.25 '.9. : .58.75 24.75 91.75 Aa„. 8-15 105. 104. 84 87. ! 52.5 42 91. ' 52 5 44.87 89. Aag. 15-22 100. 112. 84. 96. I .52.5 42. 96. 50. .50. 91. Aug 22-29.. 94 5 .5.75 108. 78.5 6.25 98. ! 84. 108. 84. 93. Aug. 29-Sept 0 105. 6.5 101. 84. 7.25 91.5 ;io4. 101. 84. 90. Sept 5-11 95. 4.75 80. 76. 4.75 79.5 95. 92.5 76. 75. Total 1086 42.09 1088.88 878.5 .50 97 979.56 876. 120.75 1045., 5 834.25 132.12 989.12 Average .. 94 4 98 58 79.86 .. . 89.05; 79.68 95.04' 75.84 89.91 Average | 6.01 7.28 30.18 ;83.03 ^ - a full ten pounds in a week, while Clara ate as high as 42 pounds and Topsy up to 50 pounds. With each mare however, it was necessary to teach them to eat the grains, adding them in in- creasing amounts to their oats, as they would consume them. One is naturally interested in learning the influence of this food on live weight during the continuance of the experiment, 'fable II gives the weight of each mare from week to week. The dark figured type is for the weeks the mares received the distillery dried grains. — 40 - TABLE II. Weights of Mares. LOT I LOT II DATE Distillery G rains and Oats Oats Only 1900 POLLY MAUD CLARA TOPSY June 27 1217 lbs. 1096 lbs. 1258 lbs. 1095 lbs. July 4 1150 lbs. 1164 lbs. 1239 lbs. 1054 lbs. July 11 1162 lbs. 1155 lbs. 1236 lbs. 1050 lbs. July 18 1146 lbs. 1182 lbs. 1248 lbs. 1050 lbs. July 25 1183 IbS. 1183 lbs. 1245 lbs. 1060 lbs. Aug. 1 1184 lbs. 1185 lbs. 1246 lbs. 1075 lbs. Aug. 8 1154 lbs. 1173 lbs. 1230 lbs. 1045 lbs. Aug. 15 1175 lbs. 1142 lbs. 1200 lbs. 1027 lbs. Aug. 22 1183 lbs. 1143 lbs. 1230 lbs. 1065 lbs. Aug. 29 1168 lbs. 1121 lbs. 1 1228 lbs. 1055 lbs. Sept. 5 1202 lbs. 1133 lbs. 1236 lbs. 1040 lbs. Sept. 12 1175 lbs. 1122 lbs. 1240 lbs. 1015 lbs. This table would on reasonable examination impress one witli the fact that feed played but little part in weight variations. In fact there are no variations which show great losses in weight, for some allowance must be made for the influence of contents of stomach and intestines on weekly variations in weight. As a matter of comparison, however, the following table has been prepared, which shows the average weight of each mare for the periods fed distillery grains and for those where only oats were fed. TABLE III. Average Weights of Mares When Fed. Distillery dried grains. Oats only. Polly 1169.4 lbs. 1174. lbs. Maud 1151.4 lbs. 1160.7 lbs.‘ Clara 1226.5 lbs. 1238.8 lbs. Topsy 1053. lbs. 1046.2 lbs. In this table, each mare shows a slightly greater average weight during oat feeding than when distillery grains were used, excepting Polly, which weighed an average of 6.8 lbs. more while fed the grains. * In 1902, when feeding materials were especially high in price, another experiment was inaugurated to see if the dried — 41 — distillery grains could not be used satisfactorily in the feeding rations of horses. As in the 1900 experiment, four mares were used, of which tw’O, Topsy and Polly were in the former test. Belle and Fancy were five-year old high grade Clydesdale mares, while Topsy and Polly were of unknown breeding, and of common farm type. Differing from the preceding experiment, this one in- cluded shelled corn in the ration. It began on March 21 and continued to May 6, thus including some of the harder plowing work of the year, and involved much labor in fitting land for summer crops. Table IV which follows, shows the amount in pounds of corn, oats, distillery grains and hay fed each mare per week. TABLE IV. Foods Fed Mares Per Week In Pounds. LOT I LOT 11 1902 TOPSY BELLE FANCY POLLY WEEK O o 3 O p w e O oo‘ C P_ S 5 ' rt CO . V! W p vj O o I-! 3 O p r-r W 0 O CO P S a' n a p <rd at different times during the season, in order to work over all the conditions. Without going into details, it may be said that none of them fulfilled their claims. Some were positively injurious. Many of them seemingly did good upon some herds, and if a hurried conclusion 149 had been reached, it would have been favorable. This is an error too often made ana no test can be considered satisfactory that is not used upon a large number of hogs in different herds, in different localities and at different times during the season. The good effects often reported are freguently due to the better care and better hygienic conditions in following the directions. Some manufacturers accompany their goods with carefully compiled directions upon care and management, and as they cost considerable, it insures their being carried out. It must be confessed, howiever, that directions come high at fifty cents per pound. Very few remedies find a place upon the market for more than five years. The great majority of them run their course in two years, and the writer is cognizant of but three that have been sold for a period of more thnn ten years. This is the test of their efficiency. In every in- stance in which an attempt has been made to take infected hogs from the stockyards, treat them and fatten them for the market, the result has been a failure. In 1897, Mr. John Cowie, of Iowa, tested a number of the more widely advertised remedies and the results were unfavorable. Dr. Reynolds, State Veterinarian for Minnesota, after examining the matter carefully, issued a circular advising the farmers not to purchase the remedies. In mild outbreaks and in very many cases much good can be accom- plished by such remedies as will keep the bowels clear and act as an alterative and tonic. For this purpose we have a prescription generally known as the government formula, and is as follows: V^ood charcoal, 1 pound. Sulphur, 2 pounds. Soaium chloride (salt), 2 pounds. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda,) 2 pounds. Sodium hyposulphite, 2 pounds. Sodium sulphate (Glauber salts), 1 pound. Antimony sulphide, 1 pound. The dose is a tablespoonful for each 200 pounds once or twice a day. It is best given in slop. This costs about ten cents per pound and is the one 30 much imitated and sold under different names at from twenty to fifty cents per pound. 0 150 Our best results in the treatment of mild cases were obtained by using the following: Chlorate of potash, 1 pound. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 pound. Nitrate of potash, 2 pounds. Th^‘ dose is the same as in the former prescription. In the early stages and when constipation is present, five grains of calomel are admin- tered once a day to each 200 pounds of weight, or oil meal is added to the slop. Another treatment which found considerable favor was a tablespoon- ful of a saturated solution of chlorate of potash and a like quantity of tincture of muriate of iron once or twice a day for each 300 pounds. A half gallon of kerosene to a barrel of slop mixed thoroughly gave better results Lhan three-fourths of the remedies tried. Quinine and salol were also of service. Carbolic acid and like preparations are disinfectants and not cures. The treatment of inoculating worn-out horses with cholera germs, 6;illing the horse and feeding it to the hogs was not a success. The feed- ing of the carcasses of hogs that had died of the disease and then buried is to be condemned. The boiling of the carcasses of cholera hogs and feeding them has likewise disappointed those who have tried it. A final methc-.l of prying open the hog’s mouth and cutting off the papillae inside of the :’aw only abstracts blood. Recently it has been found that sulphate of copper in very dilute solutions is effective in sterilizing contaminated water. Acting upon this basis, experiments have been made using one to two ounces of copper sulphate to the barrel of water. The results have been above the aver- age to date. The time has been too short to promise anything definite. PREVENTION BY VACCINATION. Tlie attempt ‘to prevent hog cholera by vaccination is dependent upon the rwi that one attack confers immunity against subsequent attacks. Vaccination has been used against smallpox in the human subject with the most marked success. In this case the pox germ is obtained from the 151 cow and when vaccination takes place it induces a very mild disease. Vaccination is also used against anthrax in sheep and cattle flere the disease germs have had their vitality reduced by artificial means and only a mild attack follows. The results are highly satisfactory and sheep and cattle are now raised where it was impossible to do so before. The attempts to vaccinate against cholera have not been successful, in the first place, we know of no animal having a similar disease, the germs of which when inoculated into the hog will confer immunity, and no method of attenuating the germs so that they can be inoculated with safety has yet been discovered. Some years ago Billings and Detmers each thought they had discovered successful means of vaccination and the work was carried on on a large scale. The results were unsatis- factory and had to be given up, as it had the effect at times of starting the d.^ease where it did not previously exist. The work was revived at the Kansas Experiment Station but without great success. THE ANTI-HOGCHOLERA SERUM. The serum treatment of hog cholera was probably first demonstrated by Dr. Peters in 1896, and the same work undertaken at almost the same time by the Bureau of Animal Industry. The serum treatment is based upon the same principles as are involved in the anti-toxin for diphtheria. It is a well established fact that in some bacterial diseases a strong resistance to the growth of bacteria is developed by the formation in the blood of a substance known as anti-toxin. The germs form a toxin or poison and the body forms the anti-toxin to counteract the growth of the germs. If the formation of the anti-toxin is in excess the patient recovers, and it has been found that blood from such a patient can be drawn, the anti-toxin separated, and if added to the blood of a patient that is exposed or affected it will prevent the disease or bring about a recovery. In order to secure anti-toxin in medicinal quantities, it is usual to inoculate animals that do not have the particular disease and produce a slight attack, and after recovery, reinoculate and repeat until the animal can stand an enormous quantity at one time. A quantity of blood is drawn and the serum separated and this is ready for use. The government has experimented upon a large scale with this treat- 152 ment and in the main the reports have been very favorable, A number of private firms have attempted the same thing, but up to the present they have not been very successful. This treatment does not promise nearly so much, in the estimation of the writer, as the public has been led to suppose. The serum can not be produced at low cost and its admin- istration requires the service of a veterinarian, two conditions which militate against its general usage. PREVENTION.- As we have no specific for the disease nor any line of medication that is fairiy successful, we must rely upon prevention. This can not be done to the same extent as in many other diseases, and this is especially true of swine plague. To enumerate all of the steps would necessitate repe- tition of points already made, so that only the more prominent will be considered. First, the water supply should be from deep tubular wells. Water from a tubular well must come in from the bottom, which means that it has been filtered through the soil and the possibilities of pathogenic or- ganisms being present is reduced to the minimum. Treat all surface water, whether pond, creek, spring or river, as unfit for man or beast. The feeo should be pure and wholesome. Slops that have stood and fermented are not better suited to the stomach of the hog than that of some other animal. The dishwater contains so little nutrition that it would be more economical to throw it away than to feed it. Corn is un- doubtedly our cheapest fattening food, but should not be given alone to sowc and pigs. The addition of a little oil meal or other material rich in protein will be most advantageous. Pasture should be used in season. Hogs are fond of charcoal, ashes and salt, and these seem to furnish something to the body that is decidedly beneficial. The cobs from the feed fioor should be raked into a shallow pit and burned to a char and salt added at least once a week. Nearly all prominent breeders follow the practice of supplying charcoal, salt and ashes in some form and many attribute to it the power of preventing disease. A feeding floor should be provided. The bedding for hogs should be like that for other stock — a littl *- at a time and removed often. There is no better reason for com- 153 pelling a fine sow to lie in her own filth, than there would be in the case of a good horse. The bedding of both will become foul and should be re- moved. It can not be kept pure by disinfectants. Hogs should have no bedding during the warm season, only a dry place in which to sleep. In case of an outbreak of disease upon the premises, separate the well hogs from the sick and confine all in small lots upon one part of the farm. Separate the well hogs from the sick, as the contagion is spread by the droppings and excreta and the well hogs would be subject to the contagion if kept upon the ground where the sick had been. Formerly the recommendation was made to give the hogs the benefit of a large pasture and keep constantly dividing the herd. Experience has shown ihat this has the disadvantage of getting the germs scattered all over the farm, prolonging the outbreak, and has no advantage over placing them in two or three small lots. By the latter method the business of hog-raif ing can again be started as soon as the outbreak is over, using some other part of the farm. Use plenty of disinfectants about the place. Air slaked lime, whitewash, chloride of lime, carbolic acid, etc., are all good. If possible have one man to feed the diseased and another to feed the well hogs. Take advantage of all the sunlight that it is possible to get, as that is the cheapest disinfector. No rule can be laid down for guidance as to the time when pens, etc., may be used after an outbreak of disease. We have observed instances in which this was done immediately and disease did not follow, and in other cases weeks and months have elapsed and a fresh outbreak would be started. If the place is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected and is well lighted a few weeks will be sufficient, but when it is feasible it is better not to attempt it again during the same season. Experience has shown that a wise precaution is not to permit the hogs to graze or be in pens alongside a public highway. Hogs having the disease and driven to market will leave droppings that become mixed with dust and blown upon the premises. It is the observation of the writer that this is a pre- caution not sufficiently emphasized. Hogs may be disposed of in two ways, by burial and burning. If by burial it should be well done, upon a dry place at least three feet deep and in a woods or field to which hogs will not have access for a long time, ft it be true th^-u the disease germs live for a long time in the soil then burial only favors the development of some subsequent and unexplained outbreak. Where burial is practiced, the addition of a quantity of quick- lime will be effectual in destroying the germs. Burning is not difficult when properly done. The essential point is to get at least a foot of wood under the carcass. A very much smaller amount of wood will be required where the fire is under rather than at the side. All carcasses should be disposed of at once and it is far more economical to kill badly infected hogs than to have them linger around for a week or two. STATE CONTROL. The argument is often made that the state should exercise some con- trol over hog cholera and swine plague. The precedent is cited that the government stamped out pleuro-pneumonia in cattle and has saved mil- lions of dollars to the cattle interests. The different states take cogni- zance of glanders and practically have that malady under control. South- ern cattle fever is now confined to restricted areas, and sheep are being dipped for scab. The diseases which have been stamped out or brought under control have been of such character as to require close contact to spread them. Hog cholera is a disease of different character and there- fore is not amenable to the same methods. Typhoid fever in people some- times assumes an epidemic character in cities, but by condemning wells and compelling the use of wholesome water the disease can be stamped out. Hog cholera is a water-borne disease and can be prevented in part by securing pure water, but there are other means of spreading the in- fection. We have little to guide us in what may be accomplished by state control. England has tried to stamp out the disease by preventing the shipment of pigs unless inspected, no hogs to be shipped from a sw'ine fever district, and none to be moved within sixty days from the time of an outbreak. In the shipment of pigs all cars must be disinfected and it becomes the duty of the owner to report every case of the disease as soon as it appears and the animal is slaughtered. Prior to 1896, the regulations were not so rigid and the effect of the attempt at control may be seen from the following table: 155 Year. Outbreaks. 1894 5,682 ... 1895 6,305 ... 1896 5,166 .. 1897 2,155 ... 1898 2,514 ... 1899 2,243 ... 1900 1,940 1901 ^ 3,140 1902 1,688 1903 1,478 Hogs Slaughtered. , . . . 56,296 .... 69,931 . ... 79,286 .... 40,764 , 43,756 .... 30,386 The effect has been to greatly reduce the number of outbreaks and also the number of animals slaughtered. For a time the reduction in the number of outbreaks and also of pigs slaughtered was so marked that much hope was entertained that it might be possible to completely control the disease. The very serious restriction to trade and the heavy expense has brought many protests from the producers. The recent report of the government veterinarian admits disappoiiitment in not being able to stamp out the trouble. In 1897 the government undertook an experiment in Page County, Iowa, to determine what might be accomplished by county police meas- ures. The plan was to canvass a part of the county and determine the number of pigs raised the year before, the number that died and the numb*"'’’ now on hand. Upon receipt of notice of an outbreak the veteri- narian called and killed all the sick and paid the owner at market rates. Disinfection and general cleaning of the premises followed. It is be- lieved by some that the saving more th.in paid the expenses. Several of the States have laws upon hog cholera, but they usually define