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 'Report. 
 
V" INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 1 st QUESTION 
 
 CONSOLIDATION 
 
 OF CANAL BANKS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 * M. SCHLICHTING 
 
 Ordcnllichcr Professor fur Wasserbau at the Koniglichen Technischen Jlochscliule, in Berlin 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMP KIM ERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9, RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
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CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. SCHLICHTING 
 
 Ordentlicher Professor fur Wasserbau at the Koniglichen Technischen Hochschule, in Berlin. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Compared with natural waterways, navigable canals labour under a disad- 
 vantage, their banks suffer much greater damage; the currents and waves 
 being stronger in consequence of the narrow breadth, the banks are attacked 
 much more than is the case with natural waterways. Whilst in canals 
 the immersed cross section of boats occupies about 1/3 to 1/6 part of 
 the cross section of the waterway, and causes a considerable upheaval 
 of water in front of the boat, in broad natural waterways this disturbing 
 influence is relatively slight. The flowing off of the upheaved water in 
 canals must therefore produce a far more considerable current than in 
 broad natural waterways. 
 
 No less different is the dashing of the waves caused by paddle or screw 
 of steamers. In canals the waves which advance with the boat touch the 
 banks almost at full strength, whereas in natural water-courses, owing to 
 the longer distance between the boat and the banks, the waves lose some 
 of their force, the longer the distance the more they lose. 
 
 These disadvantages are felt more and more, on account of the increased 
 requirements of traffic which urgently demand the introduction of steam 
 navigation on canals, and also an acceleration of speed. Towage prepon- 
 derates on inland canals because most of them have only been made for 
 that object at a time when traffic requirements were small. Owing to the 
 slowness of towage, the attacks on the canal banks are so slight, that rela- 
 tively simple and cheap means suffice for their protection. These means 
 however no longer suffice for present times, the aim is to develop water 
 traffic in the same way as railways, and by the introduction of steam 
 navigation to considerably increase the celerity of canal boats compared to 
 
 1 G. 
 
 SCHLICHTING. 
 
2 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL DANKS. 
 
 towage. Steam navigation is already in general nse on large canals, espe- 
 cially on sea canals, it is also already introduced since a long time on 
 many inland canals. The following canals for instance belong to this 
 class; the canal joining the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, traversing 
 Sweden, the Trolhatta-Gota-Sodertelge and Stockholm lock canal; further 
 the Belgian Ghent-Terneuzcn canal, and the Prussian canals : the Finow- 
 Oranienburg-Ruppin canal and the newly made Oder-Spree canal. 
 On the Swedish canals, steamers are allowed to travel at a rate of 
 9 kilom. 5; on the Belgian, with boats of 2 metres draft 12 kilometres, 
 and with 2 m. 75 draft at 8 kilom. 7 ; on the Prussian, at 7 kilom. 5 
 per hour. This speed is superior to passenger steamers ; for ordinary 
 traction-steamers the speed as a rule may be reckoned at 5 kilometres per 
 hour, and for this even, canal banks of a more resisting character are 
 requisite, than those serving for towage on the inland canals. In many 
 canals on which steamers go to and fro, and especially in sea canals, diffe- 
 rent constructions for the consolidation of the banks have been carried 
 out. greater speed being required" on them for steam traction. The con- 
 structions already employed have in the course of time shown the neces- 
 sity for their amelioration. 
 
 The discussion of the question of the consolidation of canal banks has 
 in consequence of this been placed on the order of the day of the fifth Inter- 
 national Congress for Inland-Navigation in Paris. The object of this report 
 is to provide a contribution for discussion of this question; its contents are 
 restricted to : I, The formation of the cross section of canals. — II, Investiga- 
 tions of realised consolidation of canal-banks. 
 
 I. — THE FORMATION OF THE CROSS SECTION OF CANALS. 
 
 If one wishes to ascertain the requirements of the cross section of the 
 canal destined for great speed, with regard to the consolidation of its banks, 
 one must undertake a closer investigation of the reasons which cause da- 
 mage to the banks through steam navigation, and from the results 
 obtained, the means of combating the harm done may be deduced. 
 
 The causes of the damage to the banks are currents and shock of the 
 waves produced by the movements of boats travelling at great speed, and 
 the therefrom resulting strong and irregular motion of the water. The cur- 
 rents are chiefly produced by the upheaval of the water before the moving 
 boat, the flowing-off ensues between the banks and the broadside of the 
 boat, as well as underneath it, and in the direction of stem to stern, a 
 diversion of the currents towards the banks also sets in. Besides this 
 currents are produced in the wake of the boat, through the water flowing 
 into the space left free by the advancing stern of the boat. These currents 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 5 
 
 coine into contact with the other currents, and cause also a diversion 
 towards the banks. 
 
 These irregular movements of the water are also considerably increased 
 by the paddles or screw of the steamer, each turn of which produce fresh 
 waves, which in their transmission very soon almost with full force strike 
 the banks, and, if the slopes are suitable, rise up Ihem, and thereby 
 increase in height; after spending their force they return coming into col- 
 lision with other rising waves. The waves, running along the banks with 
 the moving boat, meet the current produced in front of the boat by the 
 stemming of the water, this is also a cause for the increase of their height. 
 From this it is clear that only well consolidated banks can resist the attacks 
 produced by such irregular motion of the water, the disturbing effects ol 
 which are self-evident. Experience teaches us that even well consolidated 
 hanks are liable to frequent damage from the continual attacks, and 
 demand considerable cost of maintenance. If these conditions are to he 
 improved, the problem for hydrostats is, the damage caused by attacks 
 ou canal banks, and consequently the reduction of the strength of the cur- 
 rent and the dashing of the waves. 
 
 Two ways are at our disposal to enable us to come to a solution of this 
 problem. 
 
 1. In reference to a reduction of the current : Increase of the cross sec- 
 tion of the canal , by enlargement of the canal breadth and depth. 
 
 ‘2. In reference to a mitigation of the dashing of the waves : Setting up 
 of vertical or nearly vertical banks, in place of the more or less sloping 
 banks in use until now. 
 
 Unfortunately in practise the turning to account of these remedies meets 
 with obstacles; above all the question of cost forms a barrier which only 
 partly permits of the use of them. But neverlheless a considerable impro- 
 vement may be obtained over hitherto existing conditions. 
 
 As for the question of the breadth of the canal, the writer begs to refer 
 to the report rendered by him to the second International Inland-Navi- 
 gation Congress held in Vienna, in 1886, on the « Normal cross section of 
 inland navigable canals ». 
 
 The Vienna Congress demanded a breadth for inland canals, which, 
 between the submersed cross section of a boat and the cross section of the 
 waterway gives at least a proportion of n = 1 : 4. The resistance of the 
 boat is relatively slight, according to the resistance curves represented 
 in the above named contribution, whenever the speed is also small. The 
 resistance is in proportion to the square of the speed, and increases con- 
 siderably with the latter. On this ground, a certain limit should be 
 placed on the standard of speed, and one must be contented with a speed 
 of 5 to 6 kilometres per hour lor goods traffic on inland canals, and with 
 about 8 to 10 kilometres on sea canals, supposing that here the above 
 given proportion n is equal to at least 1:6. To confirm this, the fol- 
 
4 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 lowing results of trials on the Erie canal, may he given, they were, it 
 is true, undertaken with a relatively small boat of 29,5 m. length, 
 5,57 m. breadth, and 1,85 m. depth, and the results, though not gene- 
 ral everywhere, can however all the same be employed as an approxi- 
 mate standard for resistance. If according to this one reckons the boat 
 resistance per square metre submersed upper surface of the boat, the 
 same will, for n = 1/4, to : 
 
 At a speed of 5 kilometres per hour 1,12 kilogs. 
 
 — 4 — — 1,99 — 
 
 5 — — 3,11 — 
 
 — 6 — — 4,49 — 
 
 — 7 — — 6,11 — 
 
 — 8 — — 8,00 — 
 
 — 9 — — 10,10 — 
 
 — 10 — — 12,46 — 
 
 If n = 1/6, the resistance is less and amounts to for instance with a 
 speed of 5 kilometres only 1 kilog. 96 and attains only : 
 
 At a speed of 6,5 kilometres the value of 3,11 kilogs. 
 
 — 7,6 — — 4,49 — 
 
 8,8 — — 6,11 — 
 
 _ io,0 — — 7,85 — 
 
 On account of the cost the canal should not be made broader than traffic 
 and safety require, notwithstanding that with the increase of the canal 
 breadth I he boat resistance is reduced. It is the same also with the mea- 
 suring of the canal-depth, so that only a part of the remedies given in 
 number 1, as an improvement, can be employed, and then even no suffi- 
 cient alteration of the present conditions can be expected. 
 
 The second remedy, setting up of vertical banks, can be employed on a 
 smaller scale, and gives better results, as it can more often be made use of 
 than has been I he case until now, it has two essential advantages, viz. : 
 avoidance of the rise and fall of the waves against the sloping banks, and 
 diminution of bank surface requiring consolidation. 
 
 Vertical banks weaken considerably the waves, as when they dash against 
 the banks a part of their force is destroyed, they rise vertically and in fal- 
 ling do not hit the banks but other rising waves, and through this again 
 lose a part of their wave-force. If the vertical bank is capable of resis- 
 tance, the w r aves will no longer or only to a very slight extent attack the 
 upper incline, and in receding from the banks will move in a more regular 
 manner than is the case with inclined canal banks. It follows therefore that 
 it is necessary to consolidate the upper incline to a greater extent. The 
 installation of a vertical bank capable of resistance, in Holland this has 
 been done many times, may be somewhat dearer than the consolidation of 
 the inclined bank. 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 5 
 
 In this case the extra cost is approximately counterbalanced by the 
 cheaper maintenance of the vertical bank, the latter requires to be only 
 about half the surface of the inclined wall, as with an incline of 
 \ : 1 1/2 the inclined surface is 1, 8 limes and with 1 : 2 nearly 2 1/4 times 
 larger than the surface of the vertical bank. 
 
 Notwithstanding these advantages, vertical or nearly vertical banks 
 from the bed of the canal to above the water-level can only exceptionally 
 be made, on account of the cost, and even then, only canals of 2 to 
 2 m. 5 depth can he taken into consideration; this arrangement has 
 already been carried out on some canals, for instance, the Prussian Finow 
 canal. For canals of great depth and also in most of the inland canals, 
 the vertical wall can generally only be used for the upper part of the hank 
 which is so forcibly attacked by the waves, it requires however in this case 
 a solid backing. At the first International Inland Navigation Congress held 
 at Brussels, Mr Gioia, commander and engineer of Rome and who officiated 
 as a member of the International Commission called together for the im- 
 provement of the Suez canal, drew attention to the usefulness of vertical 
 banks (compare : Procds-verbaux des stances du Congres international 
 de navigation inttrieure, tenu a Bruxelles, du 24 mai au 2 juin 1885, 
 page 9) in the following words : 
 
 « In our experiments about the movements of waves, we have convinced 
 ourselves, that the movements are felt 2 metres under the water-level, 
 and that they do not rise more than I metre above the water-level, 
 According to this the banks must be principally protected for a vertical 
 height of 3 metres. Besides this we have noticed that the more the banks 
 approach the vertical , the less violent are the water movements. » 
 
 With 5 metres height, the inclination to be protected at 1 : 1/2 is 5 m. 4 
 and 1 : 2 is 6 m. 63 space, with a vertical wall it is only about 3 metres. 
 
 With vertical hanks, the waves rise above the water-level according to 
 their strength, the walls must therefore be made so high, that the upper 
 incline remains untouched. This height must be fixed in each canal by 
 experiment, as it depends on the breadth of the canal, the speed and also the 
 motive power of the boats. The smaller the waves produced by the motive 
 power, the less power of resistance required for the banks. 
 
 In the construction of vertical banks, the set-off near the water-level and 
 the artificial consolidation of the upper incline is to a great extent super- 
 fluous, thus giving a reduction of the cost of the canal. The set-off 
 however exists already in many canals, and serves for several purposes. 
 It partly reduces the water-movement near the water-level by increasing the 
 cross section, it partly protects that part of the incline which lies under 
 the attack of the water and the damage done by it, it reduces the shock 
 of the waves through the planting of bulrushes, willow, and quickset, it 
 partly supplies also a layer of water which absorbs the shock of the waves, 
 these thus flowing to it with diminished force. Notwithstanding this the set- 
 
6 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 off is considerably attacked, as the executed consolidation by paving and 
 covering with stones prove. 
 
 For the foregoing reasons, the writer recommends as a useful means of 
 solving the problem of the consolidation of canal hanks: 
 
 1. Model the cross section of the canal in such a way that the ratio of 
 the immersed cross section of the boat to the cross section of the waterway 
 is equal to at least for inland canals of 2 to 2,5 m. depth of water 
 1 : 4 and tor sea-canals = 1:6. 
 
 2. Installation of resisting, solid based vertical or nearly vertical hanks, 
 which descend below the water-level as far as the influence of the waves 
 is felt, and so high above the water-level that the waves cannot reach the 
 upper incline of the hanks or the set-off if there should he one. 
 
 II. — INVESTIGATION OF REALISED CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 As long as the canals were only used for towage and navigation by 
 sailing-boats, and only relatively small boats passed through them, a simple 
 consolidation near the water-line was sufficient, such as the placing of 
 set-offs, the planting of bulrushes or willows, ora slight covering of stone. 
 These even, if at present they are considered as a help, are not capable of 
 resisting the attacks made by the strong dash of the waves produced by 
 steamers, so that now stronger and stronger constructions have come into 
 use, which, according to the very different conditions of locality, have led 
 to numerous experiences, because of the great number of influencing 
 factors. These factors arc especially the nature of the soil of the bed of 
 the canal, the dimensions of the cross section, the size and number of 
 boats, the kind of navigation, the motive-power, and the utilization of 
 the hanks, besides this and above all the building material and the 
 amount of money to he disposed of. For instance, in the case of a consoli- 
 dation of the incline with a sandy soil, other questions have to he taken into 
 consideration than with a clayey soil. In canals of moderate dimension 
 of the cross section, the conditions are not the same with only a small as 
 with a large traffic. A construction which may be sufficient for a small 
 traffic may he quite unsuitable to a large one. If the navigation is only 
 carried on by boats of one kind, for instance by traction with a fixed 
 motive-power, circumstances have to he considered which vary with 
 canals with a mixed navigation, this applies also to the banks. A 
 bank on which boats load and discharge, or which is used as a street, 
 requires a different construction to the bank in a free part of the 
 canal. Finally, in most cases, speaking of the cost, only those building 
 materials can be employed, which are near to the canal and which can 
 be obtained without any particular difficulty or expenditure. Before investi- 
 gating the different executed constructions for consolidation of canal banks 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 7 
 
 and the experience thus gained, as far as this has been possible, it is 
 useful to communicate the results obtained on investigation of the 
 question : « What are the best means of consolidating the incline for traffic 
 at great speed », at the first International Inland Traffic Congress held 
 at Brussels in 1885. 
 
 The Brussels Congress had named a special committee for the investi- 
 gation of this question, Chief engineer Alfred Pasqueau of Bordeaux 
 was president of this Commission and the following answers to the question 
 were determined upon : 
 
 « When small steamers proceed at great speed, the laying down of set- 
 offs, which lie 30 to 50 centimetres under the usual water-level and are 
 planted with bulrushes, willows, etc., is useful. The change of water- 
 level must however in this case not he loo great. If it is a question of 
 large boats going at great speed, the only means of protecting the banks 
 appears to be a facing of natural or artificial stone. The set-offs must 
 then lie about 1 metre below the water-level and the facing rest on a 
 row of piles or planks. The facing of the set-off may be omitted, if it is 
 placed at least 2 metres under wader, and if the facing of the incline has 
 been very carefully carried out. » 
 
 This kind of construction permits of rather a steep incline, for 
 instance 1:1. 
 
 It appears to be useful in sea canals where great speed is' employed to 
 cover as far as this is practicable the incline down to a certain depth with 
 plants. 
 
 Besides this another committee nominated at the Brussels Congress 
 under the presidentship ofchiefengincerBouffet of Carcassonne investigated 
 this question, and came to the conclusion to draw the attention of the 
 Congress to a report of chief-engineer Brevet of Middleburgh, as follows : 
 
 « Consolidation of the banks : for 50 centimetres above and 1 metre to 
 1 m. 50 below water-level, for the purpose of protecting the banks from 
 the waves produced by steamers going at great speed. 
 
 « In canals where the water-level does not vary very much the consoli- 
 dation is not required above the low-water-level if the set-off over which 
 the water flows is planted with bulrushes. 
 
 « This consolidation can he constructed as a faced wall where there is 
 but little incline and as dry-wall-work with inclines of 1 : 1, 1/2 to 3. » 
 
 In general the Congress pronounced that the inclines should be faced 
 with stone. This has been employed in many inland and sea canals, there 
 exist however many other constructions, it would be useful to investigate 
 them closer and to mention all hitherto existing, as far as they differ in 
 principle, where they have been carried out, and at what price, — calcu- 
 lated per metre along the course of the bank. — The estimate of costs 
 have been derived partly from lilterary sources, and partly from the com- 
 munications of specialists having experience of the subject. 
 
8 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 If one classifies the different ways of consolidating according to the buil- 
 ding material used, they may be divided as follows : Constructions 1 st of 
 wood, 2 nd masonry and 3 rd various building materials. 
 
 1. Constructions of wood. 
 
 a. PILE-WORK. 
 
 Apart from the walling timber which lines the canal from the bottom 
 to the crown of the hank, and is only employed where boats lie alongside 
 to load and discharge, or where from want of room the bank is used as a 
 road, only those pilings for the consolidation of canal banks, when dealing 
 with an open stretch come into consideration which nearly vertically line 
 the bank in the neighbourhood of the water-level and which are more or 
 less deeply built into the under incline. Generally these pilings do not 
 extend much above the water-level. The piling carried out in the follow- 
 ing canals shows in detail many differences, although it agrees in the 
 main point and serves for the same purpose, that is to say the installation 
 of a nearly vertical wooden wall. 
 
 Plank piling has principally been used in Holland. Their construction 
 is given by hydrostatic engineer van Kerckoff in his excellent treatise der 
 Tijschrifdt van hel Koninklijk Instilut van Ingenieurs 1888-1889. All 
 the statements given in this contribution about the consolidation of canal 
 banks in Holland are based on the above mentioned treatise, and first of 
 all with the following canals : 
 
 Noord-Hollandsche canal. 
 
 The piles of 5 in. 75 length, 0,10/0,11 metres thickness are driven 
 nearly vertically at distances of 75 centimetres into the under incline, and 
 behind them is placed for a height of 2 metres to 10 centimetres above 
 water-level a backing of plank-piling 4 centimetres thick, the joints of 
 which are united and thickened with boards, underneath the planks sink 
 into the incline and each rests against a timber above of 5 centimetres 
 thickness and 28 centimetres breadth which is joined to the piles by bolts. 
 Cost 1 5.60 marks. By the use of somewhat thicker wood and piles of 
 5 metres as well as planks 2 m. 75 long the cost rises to. 8.32 marks. 
 
 If the piles are fastened with iron cramps and pins the cost amounts 
 to 12.48 marks. 
 
 t. The costs are always per metre along canal bank. 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 9 
 
 Amsterdam-Merwede canal. 
 
 With a like construction as above, there is placed behind the pile-work 
 at a height of 34 centimetres above water-level a 80 centimetres broad 
 set-off cased with planks. Cost 10.50 marks. 
 
 Willemsvaart. 
 
 Piles of 5 metres length and 0,15/0,15 thickness, placed at distances 
 of 1 m. 20. The 7 metres broad and 2 metres long plank -piling is 
 driven in about a depth of 1 metre and rises to the water-level. 
 
 Cost 9.08 marks. 
 
 b. FASCINE-WORK. 
 
 Van Terneuzen canal. 
 
 From the water-level to a set-off 2 metres broad lying 1 m. 60 under 
 the water-level the bank is faced with a nearly vertical fascine-work 
 2 metres thick. On the crowning of the fascine-work the upper earth incline 
 slopes, so as to give a set-off of 50 centimetres breadth. Cost. 6.48 marks. 
 
 Finow canal (Germany). 
 
 The canal is protected either by strong or light fascine work. 
 
 Strong fascine- work. 
 
 The fascine-work is right on the bed of the canal and overtops the 
 water-level by 30-50 centimetres. The fascines have the stems lying 
 towards the water. The diameter in the middle is 1 m. 75, the slope 
 of the front incline 1 : 1/4 to 1 : 1/2. A willow fence is applied at the 
 water-level and stones are placed behind. The 1 m. 5 broad summit 
 of the packing is covered with fresh green willow, which very soon 
 shows a luxuriant vegetation and considerably reduces the shock of the 
 
 waves. Cost 14.50 marks 
 
 After many years experience, it is found that packing lasts under water 
 for 15-18 years, above water only 6-8 jears so that the replanting of willow 
 herb then becomes necessary. At the time of constructing the facing it 
 is advantageous to plant rows of green willow in the upper layers, as this 
 improves the vegetation. 
 
 2 G. 
 
 SCUUCUTING. 
 
10 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 On account of the traffic in the canal, the laying down of the fascine 
 from the hed of l he canal cannot in many cases he carried out, although 
 it is the most suitable. In this case the fascine rests on a set-off 2 metres 
 broad, which has to he constructed 20 centimetres below the water-level. 
 The cost then only attains 4.80 marks. 
 
 Light fascine-work. 
 
 This consists of a thickness of only 30 centimetres, and covers the slope 
 of the bank from the bed to 50-50 centimetres above the water-level. The 
 consolidation of I he facing is effected by fascines and piles lying parallel to 
 the axis of the canal. Under water the ordinary wood fascines and above 
 water fascines of green willow arc employed. A willow hurdle-work with 
 a backing of stone is also used at I he water-level. In this manner where 
 the canal is broad and has steep inclines, the fascine-work is very well 
 preserved and lasts for a long time, as suspended matter accumulates 
 and thickens it. Cost 2-3 marks. 
 
 Oder-Spree canal (Germany). 
 
 In the newly made canal thick and light fascine-work constructed as 
 above with inclines of 1 : 2 has been laid down to such an extent, that 
 altogether 75 000 cubic metres of facing were required. The light 
 fascine-work is faced near the water-level with a 15 centimetres thick fas- 
 cine of green osier sprinkled with lime-stone the rolling down of which is 
 prevented by 5 hurdleworks. Cost 4 marks. 
 
 Older canals in Prussian March. 
 
 These have also received for the protection of their hanks thick and 
 light fascines in threatened places. 
 
 2. Constructions of masonry. 
 
 To these belong first of all revetments which rest on concrete or pile- 
 work, and rise from the bed of the canal to the summit of the bank. 
 It is however with these canals only exceptionally employed, in places 
 where space is wanting, or where boats lie alongside, load and discharge 
 cargo, or where the traffic requires it. For this reason, only consoli- 
 dation of the banks with stone revetments of broken or paving stone or 
 brick-work will be taken into consideration. 
 
 The stone facing is sometimes placed in inland canals on the whole of 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 11 
 
 the incline from the bed of the canal to above the water-level, it is however 
 in most cases confined to that part of the incline which is situated near 
 the water-level. 
 
 TrollhMta-GOta canal (Sweden). 
 
 The lower incline from the bed of the canal is faced with broken 
 stones, the upper incline with paving stones up to 0 m. 50 above the 
 water-level; this has been executed partly with mortar and partly a-dry. 
 The latter mode of construction gives rise to frequent repairs, as here 
 the steamers travel with great speed. Bulrushes only thrive in the neigh- 
 bourhood of bridges and locks where I he boats must travel at slackened 
 speed. The hanks are plentifully planted with osier in order to reduce 
 the shock of the waves. 
 
 Saint Quentin canal (France) 
 
 In some places revetments are to be found, but for the most part, the 
 lining is of cemented masonry from the bed to above the water-level 
 (compare : Handbuch der Ingenieur Wissrnschaften, Band III, Abthei- 
 lungll, cap X, Leipsic, 1882). 
 
 Rhine Marne canal (France). 
 
 Where the canal banks are too close, the inclines of the banks as well 
 as the bed of the canal are faced with concrete. 
 
 Erie canal (America). 
 
 The first executed consolidation with sloping inclines of 1 : l 1/2 con- 
 sisted of brick, which however covered only small surfaces near the water- 
 line. As this kind of construction did not last long, the incline has subse- 
 quently been faced with bricks as hard as stone from the bed to 0 m. 50 
 above the water-level, a construction which is recommended on many 
 sides. 
 
 Cost 7,5 to 12 marks. 
 
 Forth and Clyde canal (Great Britain). 
 
 Linings of cemented masonry, partly vertical, partly sloping, supported 
 by the soil and rising 0,60-1 metre above the water-level and very often 
 to the fowpath. 
 
12 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS- 
 
 North-Ba'.tic-sea canal (Germany). 
 
 This canal now being made, has a breadth of bottom of 22 metres, at 
 the water-level 58 metres, and a depth of 8 m. 50 (eventually 9 metres): 
 experiments for the consolidation of its banks have been taken in hand 
 in order to gain experience, the results of which Mr Baensch, Wirklischer 
 Geheimer Ober-Baurath of the Berlin Public Works Office reports as follows 
 in the Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 1891 (see the two appended 
 drawings fig. 1 to 4). 
 
 « The cross section of the canal is provided in its upper parts about 
 2 metres under the normal water-level with a set-olf of 2,5 to 9 metres 
 breadth, according to the nature of the sub-soil, this has to serve as the 
 base of a slope of masonry for protection of the banks against the waves, 
 and at the same time to act as a safe-guard that the breaking waves do not 
 directly attack the banks hut transfer their shock to a cushion of water. 
 
 These facings were at first designed with simple slopes, so as not to 
 increase the work to he done to the soil. Soon however after the commen- 
 cement of the work it was found that it was impossible to cover the earth- 
 slope quick enough with stones to avoid the effects of the weather. Here 
 and there slight land-slips happened; these slopes were therefore made 
 sesquialteral, so that they could remain longer intact without any stone 
 covering. 
 
 The facings have been undertaken in different methods and construc- 
 tions, according to whether the work had to he carried out in the dry 
 over or above water and whether the stone was available or had to be 
 procured elsewhere. The earth-work contractors when cutting through 
 land are obliged against a penalty to select all suitable loose stone found, 
 for further use; they are also obtained from a distance. 
 
 In case they are not present in the sub-soil and quarry-stone is too 
 expensive, clinkers are employed, and in order to limit their use, concrete 
 facings under water. This resulted in four different forms of facing, 
 varying according to the region. 
 
 Fig. 1. Under water a 0 in. 50 deep loose layer of broken brick or 
 stone is cast upon the*slope, first the small and then to serve as a cove- 
 ring the large rough pieces (fig. 1). If any of the loose stones are at 
 hand and are suitable, they can also be employed, but under the express 
 reservation that they are uneven and not round, so that they cannot so 
 easily he rolled by the waves flowing over them. This dam lies on a 
 2 m. 50 broad brick base. Whenever the deepening of the cross section 
 of the canal can be accomplished a-dry at least to the base of the slope, 
 the stone lining is made in a solid form. 
 
 Fig. 2. When using broken or loose stones, after a fitting fixing of 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 13 
 
 a 0 m. 04 broad base, a 0 m. 20 deep layer of sand or lime-stone is laid 
 on tbe slope as a bed for the 0 m. 30 deep layer of these stones. This 
 reaches to the upper turf slope with a radius of over 3 metres. 
 
 Fig. 3. If the bank material naturally or through the percolating of the 
 sand-dams consists of fine sand, then it is covered with a 0 m. 20 thick 
 layer of clay (fig. 3) and thereupon is placed with a base of 0 m. 50 broad, 
 a paving of bricks laid on edge of 0 m. 25 thick, which with 1 metre 
 radius overtops the upper slope by 1 : 5. 
 
 Fig. 4. Whenever the broken stones or bricks are expensive and sand 
 and cement are to be obtained cheaper, the slopes are built in three diffe- 
 rent forms (fig. 4), after a base 0 m. 75 broad and 25 metres high of broken 
 stone has been laid down. The lowest slope 1 m. 75 high, and lying 
 under average low-water is covered with a 0 m. 20 thick layer of sand 
 concrete in single slabs, and mixed at a proportion of 1 : 0, this is 
 placed on a platform of sand 0 m. 05 thick. This concrete is so hard 
 that it can scarcely be broken with tbe crow-bar. From average low- 
 water to average high-water where the movement of the waves is stron- 
 gest, a 0 m. 25 thick paving of clinkers placed edgeways is made use of, 
 resting on a layer of sand of 0 m. 01. From average high water up to the 
 upper slope of 1 : 5 follows a paving of bricks laid on edge, resting on 
 a platform of sand of 0 m. 25 thick, this overtops with a 2 metres radius 
 the upper sesquialteral slope. Any leakage in the slope would be attended 
 to according to circumstances. » 
 
 Subsequently the constructions given in figures 5 to 9, the cross section 
 and estimate of cost of which were kindly placed at the disposal of the 
 writer of this contribution by the Kaiserliche Kanal commission, were 
 taken in hand in the following manner : 
 
 Fig. 5. Paving of 0 m. 30 thick on a platform 0 m. 10 to 0 m. 40 
 thick of rubble. 
 
 Fig. 6. Facing for the lower part of the slope of a 0 in. 20 thick layer 
 of concrete and for the upper part a 0 m. 25 thick paving on a platform 
 of gravel and broken bricks. 
 
 Fig. 7. Facing from tbe lower set-off to mean water of broken stones, and 
 from there to high water of paving. 
 
 Fig. 8. Facing up to mean water of rubble, and above of stone-pitching. 
 
 Fig. 9. The same construction as figure 8, only the lower set-off is 
 covered with a layer 1 m. 20 broad and 0 m. 50 high of rubble. 
 
 Owing to the high price of stone the building expenses are considerable, 
 and amount per metre calculated along the course of the canal : 
 
14 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 According to tig. t 
 — 2 
 
 — 3 
 
 — 4 
 
 — 5 
 
 — 6 
 
 - 7 
 
 — 8 
 
 — 9 
 
 44,90 to 49,80 marks. 
 51,80 — 
 
 55.00 — 
 
 53,75 to 58,55 — 
 
 40 — 
 
 42,50 to 50 — 
 
 55,60 — 
 
 44,90 — 
 
 43.00 to 49,80 — 
 
 In all the revetments of masonry steps are placed at a distance of every 
 200 metres. 
 
 3, Constructions of various materials. 
 
 For these constructions wood and stone are generally employed, the 
 former under water and for supporting the stone upper-structure. 
 
 There are two different kinds of banks : a vertical or nearly vertical, 
 and b flat sloping banks. 
 
 a. VERTICAL OR NEARLY VERTICAL BANKS. 
 
 Constructed of wood and generally as a wall of fascine-work driven into 
 the slope, it rises but little and very often only 0 m. 10 over the water- 
 level. At this height is often placed a 0 m. 50 to 1 m. 50 broad set-off 
 partly consolidated, partly covered with stones. If the set-off is wanting, 
 then the slope above water is consolidated by a brick wall of 0 m. 40 
 to 0 m. 75 high at an inclination of 1 : 1/2. Canal hanks are very often 
 protected in this way especially in Holland. 
 
 Noord-Hollandsche canal. 
 
 The pile-work at an inclination of 1 : 1/20 is 1 m. 50 high from the 
 earth-slope, of the canal to 0 m. 10 above water-level (piles 5 metres 
 long, 0 m. 13 to 0 m. 14 thick, plank-piles 2 m. 75 long, 4 metres thick) 
 and the space between the piling and old earth-slope is packed with brick 
 rubbish. The 1 m. 30 set-off resulting from this is covered with large 
 stones. Cost: 10,88 marks. If the set-off is paved, and the piles stayed, 
 the cost increases to 12,48 marks. 
 
 Zuid-Willemsvaart. 
 
 The wooden wall is made of round piles 1 m. 80 long, 0 m. 12 thick 
 driven 1 metre deep into the slope, it rises vertically 0 m. 15 above 
 the water-level, here there is a 0 m. 60 broad set-off consolidated with 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 15 
 
 gravel and hurdleworks. Cost : 2,54 marks. If the vertical wall rises 
 to 0 m. 50 above the water-level, and if the 1 metre broad set-off is con- 
 solidated at both edges with round piles and between with rubble, the 
 cost increases to 5,20 marks. 
 
 Damsterdlep. 
 
 The bank to water-level is composed of plank-piles, 2 metres long, 7 cen- 
 timetres thick, with an inclination of 1 : 1/2, and covered with head-beams, 
 on which rests at the same inclination a construction of hard brick 
 0 m. 35 metre high. Cost 6,84 marks. 
 
 If the plank-piling is replaced by 13 centimetres thick round piles, the 
 cost amounts to 7,16 marks, there is no set-off in both cases, and the slope 
 is not consolidated. 
 
 Blnnen-Aa. 
 
 Capped plank-wall with 5 m. 25 long, 15 centimetres thick piles 
 driven in at distances of 2 metres, and 3 m. 50 long, 7 centimetres 
 thick plank-piling at an inclination of 1 : 1/2, it bears a 1 m. 80 high 
 construction of hard brick rising at an inclination of 1 : 1/2 to high- 
 water and is backed partly with broken bricks. Cost 25,55 marks. 
 
 Finow canal (Germany). 
 
 A similar construction has been employed on this canal where it passes 
 through townships; the brick wall commences at water-level and rises to 
 the tow-path. This construction has lasted very well. 
 
 b. FLAT SLOriNG BANKS. 
 
 Rubble and bricks are principally used for the consolidation of the slopes 
 over and under the water-level. Of completed constructions, the following 
 may be mentioned here : 
 
 French canals. 
 
 (Compare Guillemain, Navigation intirieure. Rivieres et canaux, volume II, p. 581. Paris, 1885.) 
 
 The protection of the 1 : 1 inclined slope, consists of a 50 centimetres 
 thick rubble or brick facing which rests on a wooden substructure. The 
 latter is composed of 14 centimetres thick piles driven in at distances of 
 0 m. 80 and united with capping or planks. The stone covering is 0 m. 10 
 metre high and lies only 0,10 metre beneath the water-level. Cost 7 m. 20 
 to 9,60 marks. 
 
16 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 Noord-Hollandsche canal. 
 
 A hard brick constrnclion rising 0 m. 80 above the water-level and 
 built at an incline of 1 : 1 1/2, it rests on a nearly vertical piling composed 
 of piles 5 metres long and plank-piling 3 m. 5 thick and 3 metres long. 
 Cost 10,48 marks. 
 
 Canal door Walcheren (Holland). 
 
 The 1 : 2 inclined slope is protected by a paving of 18 centimetres thick 
 resting on a platform of gravel, it is also provided with a set-off 1 m. 10 
 broad. The gravel rests on a layer of clay 0 m. 50 thick covered with 
 hoards. The paving is supported at its base by slabs of stone 0 m. 40 
 long and 0 m. 30 broad, it begins 0m.80 under and ends 0 m. 70 over 
 the water-level. Cost 11,60 marks. 
 
 Van Terneuzen canal. 
 
 The 1 : 2 inclined slope is only paved under water with paving-stones to 
 a depth of 2 m. 25, they rest on 2 layers of planks; and arc protected at 
 the base with piles as well as 13 rows of plank-piling driven into the slope 
 itself parallel to the axis of the canal. At the water-level is a 1 metre 
 broad set-off planted with vegetation, the upper slope is turfed. Cost 
 10,80 marks. 
 
 Haneken canal (Germany). 
 
 The consolidation of the banks carried out experimentally on this canal 
 by Regierungs and Baurath Oppermann, as shown in figures 10 to 17, were 
 undertaken with the object of deciding which of these constructions was 
 most suitable for the Dortmund-Ems canal now being built. The above 
 named gentleman was kind enough to supply the writer with the cross sec- 
 tion and drawings for the present contribution. Different constructions on 
 long stretches of the canal have been executed with this object in view, all 
 of them however, with a 1 : 1,5 inclined canal slope and a stone facing 
 commencing 0 m. 50 to 0 m. GO below and ending 0 m. GO above the 
 water-level, and resting on driven piles with an upper protection of planks. 
 The following cost prices would probably come out considerably lower if 
 these constructions were executed to any extent. 
 
 According to figure 10 the slope is faced with a 0 m. 10 thick layer of 
 sand cement, mixed in a proportion of 1 part of cement to 5 parts of sand, 
 for the upper, and in 1 : 10 for the lower layer. A vertical hard brick 
 wall rests on this substructure. Cost 13,89 marks. 
 
CONSOLIDATION OF CANAL BANKS. 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 11. The lower stone facing is built as above, the upper one however 
 of 0 m. 20 thick concrete (1 part cement, 2 1/2 parts sand, 5 parts 
 broken stone). The concrete lies on a 10 centimetres layer of gravel. 
 
 Cost : 14,87 marks. 
 
 Fig. 12 to 14. Bricks and sand cement are used instead of concrete. 
 
 Cost for fig. 12 15,11 marks. 
 
 _ 15,81 — 
 
 _ 14 17,75 — 
 
 Fig. 15. Paving of 20-25 centimetres thick broken stone on a bed of 
 gravel. Cost : 17,28 marks. 
 
 Fig. 16 and 17. The slope is faced on its upper part with 9 centimetres 
 thick slabs of cement. Cost : 9,15 marks. 
 
 If the cement slabs hold good, they are preferable to other stone 
 facings on account of their slight cost. 
 
 Respecting these investigations, and especially with reference to number 1 : 
 « Researches as to the formation of the canal cross section », the author 
 takes the liberty lo submit to his colleagues the projects exhibited fig. 18 
 and 19 for the consolidation of canal banks by^means of nearly vertical 
 slopes, with the remark that the cost for inland canals according to those 
 who have built similar constructions in Holland, can be assumed to be 
 for inland canals about 9 to 12 marks, according to the price of material, 
 and for sea canals at about 18 to 20 marks per current metre, and that 
 these constructions can be undertaken even in existing canals without any 
 special difficulty. 
 
 Berlin (Charlottenburg), February, 15 ,h , 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris.) 
 

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V" INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 1“ QUESTION 
 
 CONSOLIDATION 
 
 OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 M. PESLIN 
 
 Chief Engineer of Fonts et Chaussees, at Douai 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
/ 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. PESLIN 
 
 Chief Engineer of Fonts et Chaussfies at Douai. 
 
 The system of canals existing in the North of France can be traced, at 
 least with respect to the principal arteries, to a very remote period. It 
 served an extensive traffic during the thirteenth century and even long 
 before that time. The configuration of the country as also its hydraulic 
 regime whilst having been the cause of imperative demands on the part 
 of the inhabitants has also rendered great facility for the establishing of 
 this system. On those parts in proximity to the sea, the farmer has been 
 obliged, even since the most remote times, and in order to make good 
 use of the ground, both as regards farming and the harvesting of the 
 crops, to intersect the land with numerous canals for the fioating and 
 circulating of small boats. 
 
 Up to the nineteenth century, I might even say up to the second half of 
 the nineteenth century, the engineers in charge of this system had not 
 been struck with the necessity of protecting the banks of these canals by 
 works offering good guarantees of duration and consequently of an expen- 
 sive nature. 
 
 Whilst the ground offered in general very little consistency (the fine 
 sand, more or less clayey dominating nearly everywhere), it was only- 
 necessary and more often so, in order to maintain the solidity of the 
 banks, to plant or allow to grow, at the water’s edge, certain aquatic 
 plants and particularly a certain kind of reed which has had a natural 
 existence, from time immemorial, on several canals of the country. 
 
 Even at the present time, on rather long stretches of our water- 
 ways, and on certain parts of the Lys, the Scarpe, the Lawe, the 
 Hazebrouck-Calais , and the Coltne Canals, etc., the plants suffice or 
 nearabouts, to protect the hanks against the ravages made by boats and 
 
 1 G. 
 
 PESLIN. 
 
2 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 boatmen. These reeds even grow to such an extent that they become 
 troublesome. They encroach on the bed, causing considerable (alls of 
 soil and diminishing the open canal in a regrettable manner. 
 
 It is then necessary to restore the regulation with crossways by the 
 operation of dredging away a mixture of earth and roots, an operation 
 which is always tedious and expensive. 
 
 Notwithstanding this inconvenience, I am of opinion that the pro- 
 tection of t lie banks of navigable ways, by living plants, is by far the most 
 practicable and most economical system when circumstances allow of 
 them being efficaciously employed. 
 
 The second system, employed also for some time back, for protecting 
 the banks of the canals and navigable rivers in the North of France, 
 consists in laying down fence-work essentially composed of small piles 
 laid in slrcight lines on (lie slopes and surrounding the floating line and 
 being joined together on the top by one or several sets of fence-work or 
 planks placed horizontally. 
 
 The drawings n r * I, 2, 5 and 4 serve to indicate the principal types ot 
 fence-work at present in use in our service. We will now describe them 
 in order. 
 
 Tunage n' 1. 
 
 This fence-work, called also « fascinage », is composed of a line of oak 
 piles placed at U m. 80 from center to center. The specification anticipates 
 three kinds of piles. The first kind arc 4 m. 50 in length, and 0 m. 20 in 
 diameter. Their average price is Ofr. 50, put in place. 
 
 The second kind are 5 m. 50 in length and 0 m. 17 in diameter. They 
 cost 4fr. 50 driving included. The third kind are 2 m. 50 in length and 
 Om.14 in diameter, costing only 2 fr. 25. All these piles are of oak, 
 but sometimes smaller ones, of an inferior quality of wood, are used, the 
 cost of these latter being only 1 fr. 50. 
 
 In cacti particular case and according to the nature of the ground, the 
 engineers decide upon the kind of piles to be utilised. In the majority of 
 cases, piles of the third kind are employed. In the first place they cost 
 less, and again, they can lie very often hammered down, whereas for driving- 
 down the others it is necessary to use a steam pile driver. 
 
 As may be seen from I lie cross section, these piles are driven down to 
 the water line and cut off at 0 m. 15 over the usual navigation level. 
 Behind the head of the piles, fencework of from 25 to 30 centimetres in 
 diameter and as long as possible, is laid down. For economical reasons, 
 this fencework is, as much as possible, made from branches which are 
 lapped from the trees bordering the water-way. 
 
 Under the most favourable conditions we are able to make this fence- 
 
IN THE NORTH OK FRANCE. 5 
 
 work for 2 francs per current metre. This is the minimum cost, the prin- 
 cipal outlay being 1 fr. 50 for the piles. 
 
 When the work is well executed, the piles properly lined, the fence- 
 work well framed, the ground well rammed and the slopes quite regular, 
 the general aspect is very satisfactory. The deal fence-work however decays 
 rapidly and has to be renewed every 4 or 5 years. The lops of the piles 
 also decay very quickly on account of the alternate changes from dampness 
 to dryness caused by the slight but continual variations in the level of 
 the water. In short, these protections last but a very short time and the 
 cost of keeping them in order is very considerable at the end of a short 
 period. 
 
 When the piles are made of young oak of 2 m. 50 in length and 0 m. 14 
 in diameter, they last much longer, but the cost is then immediately- 
 increased by 50 0/0 (5 fr. per current metre instead of 2 fr.). The cost 
 would be still greater if piles of the second or especially of the first 
 category were utilised. 
 
 Tunage n" 2 and 3. 
 
 A second type of fence-work is that shewn in figures 2 and 5. 
 
 In type n r 2 the piles are identical to those already described and arc 
 hammered in the same way. The fence-work however is replaced by 
 planks which are laid down horizontally and edgeways behind the piles 
 and fixed solidely on each of these latter by two nails 0m. 12 in diameter 
 with strong heads. 
 
 In times gone by, old oaken planks supplied by the breaking up of boats 
 no longer in service were used for this purpose. 
 
 They cost, delivered on the ground, erection not included, about 
 0m.75 per current metre and were from 2 to 5 centimetres thick by 
 0 m. 20 to 0 m. 25 wide. Since however the protection of the banks of our 
 canals has increased, a sufficient quantity of these planks is no longer to 
 be found and we are obliged to use deal joists from the North, which are 
 3 centimetres thick and Om.23 wide; they are a little more expensive and 
 do not last by far so long. 
 
 When once the piles and planks are in place, the slopes at the back 
 require to be remade and filled up. In those parts near to the sea, where 
 the reeds grow quickly, the type n r 2 is employed. The filling in is done 
 with earth taken from the slope, and a layer of cut reeds of about 0 m. 25 
 in length is laid down, overhanging by 0 m. 05 the line of planks and 
 inclined a little to the back. 
 
 On other canals, in regions where the reeds do not grow so well, the 
 filling in is effected behind the planks with what is called in the North of 
 France « briquaiilons », meaning a kind of brick debris. 
 
4 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 They consist of « scrap » from the brick works, kilns, etc., roughly 
 broken in such a way as the pieces do not measure more than from G to 
 8 centimetres. 
 
 For some three or four years back, I have prescribed a slight change in 
 the preceding fence-work. 
 
 Instead of levelling the piles and consequently the planks to Cm. 15 
 above the usual water level, which, as heretofore indicated, is the prin- 
 cipal cause of the rotting of the wood, and of the small length of time the 
 work lasts, I have had the piles and planks driven down to the said level 
 and used the coaling of « briquaillon » as shewn on drawing n r 4. The 
 increase in cost is insignificant, and the wood being constantly under 
 water, I expect it will last much longer. 
 
 On the other hand the foot of the slope is not so well protected against 
 the action of the water and the waves caused by the passing of high speed 
 boats; I therefore expect to have, from time to time, a small outlay for 
 the repairing of the « briquaillon » bed forming the foot of the slope. 
 
 The cost price for these three kinds of fence-work varies from 3fr. 50 to 
 4 fr. 50 or say an average of 4 francs per current metre. In these prices 
 are included the piles, for about 2 fr. 25 (oak piles of the 5 r<l class), the 
 planks \ franc and the briquaillons or brick debris 0 fr. 50 (they cost 
 about 4 francs per cubic metre delivered on the ground). 
 
 Instead of the « briquaillons » we have very often utilised scraps from 
 the building yards, such as pieces of sand-stone, ordinary stones, old 
 bricks, etc. 
 
 The result was just as good. What is required is that the largest pieces 
 be placed above or in front of the others and well rammed in so as to 
 withstand the action of the water in the best possible way. 
 
 Dry walls of water line. 
 
 The fence-work of which we have just described the principal types in 
 use on the navigable ways of the North and Pas-de-Calais have perforce 
 hut a limited duration, especially that part situated above the low water 
 mark as it is well known to all navigating engineers that the wood 
 workings very soon decay through the alternate changes of dampness 
 and dryness which they have to undergo. 
 
 x\.gain these fence-works only protect the slopes on a small height 
 say Om.15 to 0 m. 20. This may suffice for those water-ways which 
 have but a moderate traffic (4 to 500 000 tons per year) and the banks 
 of which, but slightly damaged by the hooks of the boatmen, may become 
 covered over with grass, and which also receive but a few steam-boats. 
 But on those navigable ways, and they are numerous in our region, the 
 traffic of which is over half a million of tons (we have some where the 
 
IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE. 
 
 5 
 
 traffic varies from one to three millions) and on those which are subject 
 to rapid risings of the water, or which are frequented by numerous 
 steam-boats, the fence-works are quite insufficient and it has, for some 
 lime past, been necessary to think of making stronger protections for the 
 banks, bigger in height and of a more durable nature. 
 
 On these water-ways we make coatings or walls either in masonry or 
 in drjstone. There are two kinds of these walls: the bottom walls and 
 the water line walls. 
 
 The first, which are very costly per current metre, are only employed 
 in (lie vicinity of the first class constructions or works of art and very 
 rarely in the full water course. The water line walls on the other hand 
 are in general use and at the present time we have them nearly from one 
 end to the other and on both sides of all our big traffic canal lines. 
 
 These walls are generally built on the bank which is formed naturally 
 at 15 or 20 centimetres below the low water mark on account of the 
 constant rubbing action of the bottoms of empty boats on the slope. To 
 commence with a line of piles is driven on the water line; these piles, 
 consisting of the 1 st 2 nd and 3 rd category (more often this latter), are 
 placed 0 in. 80 apart exactly the same as for a fence-work, with the 
 exception that they are cut down to the level of the bank referred to ; 
 in this way they are constantly under water and therefore last a long 
 time. 
 
 The tops ot these piles are then cut to an angle of 45° and afterwards 
 covered by a piece of deal wood called « battens » 18 centimetres wide 
 by 6 1/2 thick. Norwegian deal wood, made up into pieces of these 
 dimensions, are brought into the ports of Calais and Dunkerque. 
 
 A plank 23 X 3, as used for fence-work, is nailed vertically behind the 
 piles and under the «. battens » having for object the keeping in good 
 order of the foot of the slope. When once this is done, a good coating of 
 brick debris is rammed on to a thickness of from 15 to 20 centimetres; the 
 coating proper is then made up of masonry, either with dry stones or 
 layers of mortar. 
 
 Our region is very poor in the way of good building stones. The under- 
 ground consists almost everywhere of a bed of soft chalk entirely split by 
 frost and unfit for building purposes. The good stone quarries, nearest 
 to our canals, arcs situated in Belgium. In the suburbs of Tournai in 
 particular are to be found hard limestones not liable to get split by the 
 frost and which can be made up either into rough blocks or seating blocks 
 and which can be had at reasonable prices. Outside of these materials 
 there is only the local brick which is employed in a general way for all 
 building purposes. 
 
 This brick, 22 x 11 X 6, moulded by hand and baked in the open air, is 
 sold currently at from 15 to 18 francs per thousand. The question of 
 carriage is not important as these bricks can be found practically every- 
 
 2 G. 
 
 PESIIN. 
 
6 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THC CANAL BANKS 
 
 where and a cubic metre of good hydraulic lime masonry does not, under 
 these conditions, cost more than from 20 to 22 francs. 
 
 M. Bertin, ex-inspector general of « Ponts ct Chaussecs », who was for 
 many years ordinary engineer and afterwards chief engineer of navigation 
 at Douai, was very partial to walls made of seating blocks from Tournai laid 
 without cement. Walls of this type and of very great lengths were laid down 
 under his management, both by himself and by his successors; they have 
 given excellent results up to the present time. The section of these walls 
 is shewn by n r o on the drawing annexed to the present pamphlet. The 
 blocks are only roughed up, but the facing stones require to be very streight 
 as the solidity of the works depends entirely thereon. They are 14 cen- 
 timetres thick and have an inner joint of 50 centimetres. Their length 
 varies, but as it is necessary that each block should have a certain weight 
 or mass in order to withstand the blows from the boatmen’s hooks, it is 
 advisable that they should not be less than 0 m. 60 in length; they are 
 however generally Ora. 75 long. The cost of these blocks, delivered 
 on the spot, is about 20 francs per cubic metre, and the cost of the wall 
 entirely finished (0 m. 50 thick) is 7 francs per square metre. 
 
 On those navigable canals, the water level of which varies but little as is 
 generally the case in our service, only 4 seatings of blocks are laid down, 
 the first of which is under the water line and the three others above. 
 Experience has shewn that this was sufficient. 
 
 The current metre of walls built in this way costs on an average 
 10 francs. 
 
 The expense of keeping them in older is insignificant for the first 
 5 or 6 years and their aspect is very satisfactory ; the grass grows between 
 the joints of the blocks and is never removed as it has been recognised 
 that the roots strengthen the wall and do not weaken it as has generally been 
 supposed. 
 
 At the end of 5 or 6 and especially 10 or 12 years, a certain number 
 of blocks having been broken by the frost or by blows from hooks, require 
 to be replaced every year, but the number is very small, certainly less 
 Ilian 1 0/0. 
 
 Some blocks get pulled away and are found at the bottom of the canal 
 (or are not found at all). 
 
 Others, more numerous, have simply been moved from their place and 
 only require to be put back again. 
 
 Upon the whole, the expense of keeping in order are moderate enough 
 and are limited to labour alone. 
 
 When the work is well executed and the materials employed (both wood 
 and stone) of good quality, this kind of water-line dry wall gives excellent 
 results and we can recommend it without hesitation. 
 
 When it is necessary to protect the slope at a greater height either on 
 account of floods or for any other reason, the height of the wall is increased 
 
in tiip: north of France. 
 
 7 
 
 by adding Ihc extra number of seating blocks necessary. For example 
 the first « reaches » on the lower Scarpe leaving Douai arc 4 sealing 
 blocks high, the next at 6 scatings, and the remainder, approaching the 
 junction of the Escaut, at 8 seatings. Each of these extra seatings being 
 0 m. 14 in height according lo the regulated slope of 45° or 0 m. 10 ver- 
 tical in height increase the total price by about 1 franc per current metre. 
 
 At a certain number of points we have endeavoured to build water line 
 dry walls having the same details as those heretofore described, but in 
 place of laying the seating blocks without mortar, we have employed 
 a mortar masonry made up of coarse Tournai stones or with a good 
 quality of local bricks. The mortar is composed of one third of powdered 
 hydraulic lime, one third of sand, one third of coal ashes finely riddled or 
 sifted (it is mortar which we make a general use of in our works). The 
 cost price of the coatings has been practically the same and the results so 
 far, quite satisfactory. 
 
 1 would even go so far as to say that the cost of keeping in order is 
 still less for this type than for the preceding one, and the aspect is 
 neater. The grass, it is true, cannot grow in the joints and the constituting 
 parts of the wall (coarse stones or bricks) cannot separate from one 
 another. It was feared at first that the blows from the boatmen’s hooks 
 would, at the end of a short lime, break up the softer bricks. Such has 
 not been the case for the following reason. The hookes slip on the 
 smooth surface of the masonry walls and the boatmen prefer to bite or 
 strike the earthen slopes either above or below. In the case of walls 
 made of dry stones, the hooks on the contrary take a firm hold in the joints 
 and frequent movings of the stones or blocks lake place. 
 
 In 1880, for a distance of a few kilometres on the haute Deulc, we 
 constructed a kind of water line walls of bricks 22 centimetres wide only 
 (instead of 30). They cost 9 francs per current metre and have kept very 
 well since this period; the cost of keeping in order was nil, although the 
 traffic is considerable, i. e. about two million tons. 
 
 About ten years ago, on the Bourbourg canal, which ends at the port of 
 Dunkerque and upon which the traffic is a little over one million of tons, 
 the water line walls were built of coarse Cherbourg stones (these stones 
 arrive at Dunkerque by sea in large numbers and are utilised for the port 
 works). 
 
 The incline of these walls was 3 in height for 1 at the base, making 
 them into regular dwarf walls. Their average thickness was 30 centimetres 
 and the foundation identical to the one indicated above, with the exception 
 that the coating of brick debris was replaced by a coating of soft marl clay 
 called « caplein » in the locality. The height was 0 m. 80 and the cost 
 price 11 fr. 30. 
 
 The general aspect was very satisfactory and the expense of keeping in 
 order has been practically nil up to the present. 
 
8 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 The water line walls which we have described are all built at a certain 
 depth below the low water line and it might be asked how these founda- 
 tions are established under water. 
 
 On new canals we build the walls at the same time as the other parts 
 of the canal and previous to filling in the water. There are therefore no 
 special expenses to take into account. 
 
 On existing canals we take advantage of the stoppages necessary for 
 other work. The lowering of the water by from 0m.30 to Om. 40 is 
 quite sufficient for building a wafer line wall with all case and without 
 any expense. 
 
 When, as is generally the case in our service, there arc no stoppages, it 
 is necessary to build a small dam parallel with the center of the canal 
 resting precisely on the earthen bank which we have previously mentioned. 
 Our statements of the cost of keeping in order shew 1 fr. 30 per current 
 metre for this small dam. 
 
 As a general rule it does not cost any more as all that is necessary to 
 keep a little packing of clay in place by means of one or two planks placed 
 on edge and held together by a few pegs. 
 
 M. Reybaud, a contractor of Dunkerque, is the inventor of a transportable 
 or moveable dam made up of pieces of sheet iron held in place by iron pegs 
 to which they are joined by a tight caoutchouc joint. This is a very 
 convenient and economical system and has been very successfully 
 employed by us for great lengths of water line walls and its cost price, 
 amortisement included, is hardly more than 1 franc. 
 
 Stones with boat-hook holes. 
 
 On the big traffic sections of navigable canals, it sometimes occurs that 
 that part of the bank not protected by walls, and so much cut up by the 
 continual boat-hook blows it receives, is constantly falling into the water. 
 This trouble is more especially to be met with on those sections where the 
 towage is effected by rowing or by convoys of boats drawn by steam tugs, 
 and it is particularly accentuated at convex curves. 
 
 It will be easily understood that a boat 38 m. 50 long, loaded with 
 300 tons of goods, and forming part of a convoy several hundred metres 
 long, shews great difficulty in bending to the often very pronounced curves 
 of a canal, and that, in order to avoid a very dangerous approach to the 
 banks, the boatman is obliged to bear or support himself on the bank with 
 an enormous hook, making a hole sometimes nearly one metre in diameter 
 and 0 rn. 50 deep. 
 
 In order to avoid this, we have tried for two or three years past the 
 placing of what we call boat-hook hole stones. These stones are placed 
 on the slopes above the water line walls. 
 
IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE. 
 
 9 
 
 They are blocks ofTournai stone grossly roughed out and measuring 
 about 0 m. 50 in all directions; their facing, which is placed in a line with 
 the normal slope of the bank, forms an hemispherical cavity roughly cut 
 out, the diameter of which is about 0 m. 20; this makes an excellent leve- 
 rage for the boatmen’s hooks. 
 
 These stones, all laid down, cost us 10 francs each. Up to the present 
 lime we have only used them where the damage has been continual and 
 deep. We place them about 10 metres apart from center to center and 
 immediately over the water line walls. 
 
 This work has given good results so far and would appear to be very 
 well appreciated by the boating people. 
 
 Caplein or small marl clay. 
 
 In concluding this short essay on the means employed in our service 
 for protecting the banks, we think it will be advisable to say a few words 
 on the use of caplein or small marl clay, the use of which is becoming- 
 more and more general, and which, in several cases, has been the means 
 of affording us the most practicable and economical solution of great diffi- 
 culties. 
 
 In the region of the north and particularly in these parts near to the sea, 
 « caplein » is known as the small pieces of soft chalk, varying in size from 
 the size of a grain of wheal to the size of an apple. This substance is also 
 called soft chalk or small soft chalk. It has practically no commercial 
 value at the places where it is found and its only cost consists of the 
 loading, carriage and manipulation of it. It is simply the waste of those 
 chalk quarries which are worked for the preparation of white lime and for 
 sugar refining purposes. If one of these quarries is not close at band it is 
 only necessary to make a bole in any hill and the marl clay or caplein is 
 almost sure to be found at a slight depth. This substance has been em- 
 ployed for many years back for agricultural purposes to improve and 
 lighten any lands which might be too compact, too clayey and too cold. 
 
 Caplein is very liable to take the frost, and if exposed to the air during 
 winter will turn into a while mass, but when used for filling up under 
 water along with the tine sand produced by the erosion of the banks, and 
 along with mud, it soon becomes a very hard agglomeratory and compact 
 substance, able to withstand the current and keeping itself up under the 
 incline of 2 at the base for 1 in height, which is that of the slopes in all 
 our canals. 
 
 It is on account of these qualities lhat caplein is a very serviceable sub- 
 stance to us for repairing landslips underwater, a thing which is very fre- 
 quent in our regions and especially in those parts where the sands known 
 as « quick sands » predominate. 
 
10 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE CANAL BANKS 
 
 Nothing is more difficult than to keep up the depth of au open trenched 
 canal in these grounds. After heavy rains and thaws or when by impru- 
 dence the level of water is notably lowered for stoppages, general movings 
 of the ground take place and the most solid hank protections get discon- 
 nected; the piles fall down towards the center of the canal, and when a 
 dredge is brought forward to clear the canal and give it its usual section, 
 the said movings continue and even increase. The best remedy for these 
 disorders consists in replacing the soft earth as soon as it is taken away by 
 a good bed of caplein. This is what we are daily doing for rebuilding the 
 small landslips of slopes under water which are the cause of the discon- 
 necting of the bank protection piles and which gravely jeopardise the soli- 
 dity of the water line dry walls. 
 
 Resume. 
 
 The bank protections in use on the canals of the North of France can 
 he classified in the following category ; 
 
 l 6t . Living plants : reeds, etc., applicable in certain parts only and on 
 light traffic canals. 
 
 2 nd . Fence-work (fascinage). Small piles placed 0 m. 80 apart, hammer 
 driven and following the water line, being covered behind with one or 
 several fence-works made up as much as possible with the pruning of the 
 canal trees. 
 
 Cost price 2 to 3 francs per current metre. Of limited duration and 
 little strength. 
 
 5"’. Fence-work (tunage). Analogous to the preceding system, the fence- 
 work being replaced by planks s / ss nailed on the piles on the ground side. 
 On the back of these planks, brick debris is rammed. 
 
 Cost price : 4 francs per metre. 
 
 By cutting down the piles to the low water level and increasing the 
 coating of brick debris a fence-work can be had which will last longer but 
 which will require a little more looking after. 
 
 4 lh . Dry walls of the water line, 0 m. 50 thick made of Tournai seating 
 blocks. Employed in general on navigable ways with a by traffic. 
 
 Cost price for the square stone block wall coating, about 10 francs. 
 
 The keeping in order is an unimportant item, especially during the few 
 first years. Of good strength and long duration, being the type most in use. 
 
 5 th . Water line walls made a masonry compound of brick or rough 
 stone (0 m. 30 thick). Is a little more expensive than the proceding, the 
 cost being about 11 fr. 50. No expense for keeping in order up to the 
 present time. Of a very good appearance. 
 
 Their incline can be increased and a kind of buttress made of them, 
 thus gaining a little ground. 
 
IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE. 
 
 1 I 
 
 If made of brick 0 in. 22 thick only, they cost 9 francs per metre and 
 appear to be sufficiently strong. 
 
 6"'. Foundation of water line ivalls. Expense nil in case of the lowering 
 of the water lewcl. Dam or dike made of clay (1 fr. 50 per metre). Iron 
 dam 1 franc per metre. 
 
 7 lh . Coarse Tournai stones used with boat-hook holes in the convex 
 curves of canals with an extra large traffic. 
 
 8 th . Caplein or soft marl cly used for repairing landslips and restoring 
 the slopes under water in sandy ground. 
 
 Douai, 12 lh February 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris.) 
 
 24 587. — Imprimerie generate A. Laliure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 
PER RES DE 
 
 
 FLOTTAI SON 
 
 Echelle de 0,05 pour 'lM 
 0 L 025 0,50 i metre 
 
TUNAGES 
 
 PERRES DE FLOTTAI SON 
 
 N°7 
 
 
V ,h INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 3 rd QUESTION 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 THE COMM. C. BOMPIANI 
 
 Civil Engineering Inspector, President of the Board of Public Works, at Koine 
 
 WITH THE COOPERATION OF 
 
 THE CAV. L. LUIGGI 
 
 Civil Engineering Inspector , at Genva 
 
 ■oOo- 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9, RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
u ? ?, 
 
 T !/ 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 FOR 
 
 RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 The Comm. G. BOMPIANI 
 
 Civil F.ngineering Inspector, 
 
 President of the Board of Public Works, at Home 
 
 WITH THE COOPERATION OF 
 
 The Cav. L. LUI6GI 
 
 Civil Engineering Inspector, at Genva. 
 
 1. General remarks on the navigable canals of Italy. 
 
 Two-fold use of the navigable canals in Italy. — Almost all the naviga- 
 ble Italian canals serve a double purpose navigation and irrigation, or 
 navigation and drainage. This two-fold use alone suffices to explain cer- 
 tain peculiarities in their construction, 
 
 Amongst the navigable canals which serve for irrigation and also some- 
 times for the production of hydraulic power may be cited the Lombardy 
 canals originating in the Tesino or the Adda and those which run through 
 the high plains of Venetian Lombardy and Emilia. 
 
 Amongst the navigable canals wich are also utilized for draining the 
 marshy plains or to carry certain streams to the sea, we may mention the 
 lower canals of the valley of the Po, the canals which run through the ter- 
 ritories of Ferrara and Ravenna, and the important system of canals in 
 the provinces ot Rovigo, Padua, Venice, Friuli, Trevigiano and lastly the 
 Pisano and Pontine Marshes canals, little used for navigation, but of the 
 utmost importance for the hydraulic regime of the country they tra- 
 verse. 
 
 The navigable canals differ greatly with respect to their supply and draft 
 
 1 G. 
 
 BOMPIANI. 
 
2 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 of water according to whether their second purpose consists in irrigating 
 the surrounding country, or in draining it. Hence two distinct groups of 
 canals. 
 
 Canals liable to heavy loss of water. — The canals of the first group, 
 in general run through disaggregated, alluvial soil, or soil of glaciary 
 origin, formed of pebbles, gravel, and sand more or less fine. The 
 position of the ground plan of the canals, above the subterraneous level 
 varies between the wide limit of 5 to 45 metres. They would the- 
 refore he naturally subject to great waste of water if care was not taken 
 to guard against this eventuality by coatings of impervious material. II 
 is on the canals of this group that the important works of stanching, 
 which form the chief subject of this memoir are to be seen. 
 
 Canals seldom liable to loss of water. — The canals of the second group 
 are. on the contrary, almost always ciit injmore or less compact soil, 
 where clay predominates. Their ground plan is, moreover, most fre- 
 quently on the same level as the subterraneous level or even below it, 
 and far from being exposed to loss of water by filtration, they afford in 
 general an outlet for surrounding water and are also subject to floods. 
 
 Certain canals of this group have, it is true, especially in the down- 
 stream direction, parts that project in the surrounding soil. Sundry 
 examples of this arc to be found in Venetian Lombardy and Polcsina but 
 here again the waters run in a fairly water-tight clayey basin and besides, 
 owing to the ready and abundant supply [of water, a slight loss is of little 
 consequence. 
 
 It is therefore seldom found necessary to make use of this coating ol 
 impervious material for the unique object of keeping the second group of 
 canals water-tight. Some precautions arc merely taken against the ero- 
 sion of the banks, in the parts which overlook the country through, which 
 the canals run; and even that much less from fear of seeing the dralt 
 of water, necessary for navigation diminish, than for the purpose of pre- 
 venting the adjacent lands being converted into a marsh. 
 
 Methods employed to prevent loss of water. — Navigation canals in 
 Italy almost always serve two purposes, and the few canals reserved 
 exclusively for irrigation or drainage being on account of their great 
 size and heavy discharge almost similar to the above named ones, it would 
 be useless to make any distinction between these sundry kinds of work, 
 in the survey we are about to make of the right methods of rendering them 
 water-tight. 
 
 Amongst these methods, the chief' object of some, which are indirect, is 
 to prevent the erosion of the bed of the canals. In addition they assure 
 the stanchness. They are chiefly employed in the second group of canals. 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 3 
 
 The others methods, some direct, consist in preventing the loss of water 
 by a complete impervious coating applied to the bed and sides of the 
 canal ; these are employed chiefly in the first group canals. 
 
 2. Indirect methods employed to prevent loss of water in the canals. 
 
 Sundry kinds of work. — The methods of indirect stanching may be 
 generally comprised in the following. 
 
 a. Way of constructing the dams in the parts higher than the surround- 
 ing country. 
 
 b. Formation of banks and banquets at the foot of t he dams; 
 
 c. Facing the slopes with fascinework, mattresses, and sundry plants, 
 turf, etc ; 
 
 d. Protection of the banks with masonry or dry walls. 
 
 These sundry kinds of work are well known and a merely enumeration 
 of them would have sufficed were these notes not specially destined for 
 foreign engineers who will perhaps find that a few brief indications on 
 the proceedings of construction employed in Italy and on the technology 
 peculiar to the work in question, are not devoid of interest. 
 
 Method of constructing the darns. — When the level of the canal is 
 higher than that of the country through which it runs, the sides of the 
 basin are sometimes built of brick walls or ashlar and of hydraulic lime 
 mortar. Specimens are to be found on the navigable canals of Bologna, 
 Modena, Padovano, Martesana and others. But most frequently the walls 
 are replaced by dams of argillaceous earth, well puddled, such as can be 
 seen in t the second group of canals, notably in those which run through 
 the lower valley of the Po. 
 
 The rules observed for the building of these dams are somewhat similar 
 to those adopted with success for the Villoresi canal, with irrigates a 
 large part of Upper Lombardy. 
 
 The earth forming the dams of this canal is either taken from the canal 
 excavations or from diggins borrowed from its sides and brought there 
 in wheelbarrows and carts. 
 
 Before commencing the embankments the following work was done 
 over all or part of the land in its natural state, upon which they were to 
 be erected : 
 
 1. — The shovelling away of the grown soil. 
 
 2. — The digging and weeding of the ground to a depth of 15 centi- 
 metres below the surface of the soil removed. 
 
4 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 5. — The cutting of the sloping ground into banks in the side o( the 
 hill. 
 
 The dams were then built according to the following rules : 
 
 1. — The grown soil, thrown up over the entire space of the cutting, 
 was reserved for the exterior parts of the dams. 
 
 2. — All the earths for the embankments were crushed and freed from 
 roots, weeds, and other matter unsuitable for building purposes. 
 
 3. — This earths were then laid down in regular layers not exceeding 
 0 m. 40 in thickness. A leveller at each atelier on the enbankments 
 superintended the good execution of this work and prevented, specially 
 the heaping up of the stones which have a tendency to collect at the foot 
 of some what sleep slopes; these heaps constitute veritable drains well 
 calculated to produce crevices. 
 
 4. — In certain cases moreover the precaution was taken to ram each 
 layer of the embankment before putting down the next. 
 
 Strengthning of the dams. — When the preceding rules, as well as 
 certains others peculiar to each specific case, arc not sufficient to prevent 
 filtration, the width of the dams should be increased, or else they should 
 be flanked with heavy ground-work laid down in banquets or in double 
 banquets, which not infrequently stops the filtration or else reduces it 
 considerably. 
 
 '> Protection of the slopes by means of fascine work and plantations . — 
 The filtrations are sometimes the consequence of erosion produced on the 
 banks either by the loo rapid flow of the current or the breakages of 
 water resulting from strong winds. These effects may be seen in the 
 low'er reaches of a great number of the navigable canals of Romagna, 
 Polesina and the province of Ravenna. 
 
 The banks can in this case be protected by means of fascine work (fasci- 
 naggi, valparoni), mattresses (piani di rosta) or by branches laid down flat; 
 recourse may also be had to plantations of willow trees, alder bushes, or 
 other vegetation chosen from amongst those which flourish in damp soil. 
 When the waters arc briny, as in the navigable canal of Ravenna, which 
 is filled with sea-water plantations of tamarind trees give good results. 
 
 Dry revetments in masonry or moellons. — The protection of which we 
 have just been speaking is not always fortunate in its results in the 
 navigable canals and one is led to prefer strengthening with stone work 
 or dry walls. 
 
 Dry masonry is used on sundry canals of Piedmont and Lombardy* in 
 the parts where pebbles generally of diluvial origin are to be found in 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 5 
 
 abundance. It is in this way that in certain cutlings of the Cavour canal 
 the bed and hanks are covered with rubble on a layer of sand, which 
 work is done for 50 centimes per square metre. 
 
 The same work in the Villoresi canal cost 80 centimes. 
 
 This masonry reduced lo 15 or 20 centimetres in thickness has very 
 little cohesion and abrades rapidly. 
 
 It is for this reason that when stone it abundant, it is preferable to pro- 
 tect the banks by means of complete coatings of ashlar sometimes laid 
 flat on the banks and sometimes raised in the form of supporting walls. 
 The first design, sometimes called « mantle of stone » (mantellatura di 
 sano) has been adopted in the Eastern branches of the Po (Po di levante) 
 to protect the banks from erosion which would not fail to take place at 
 certain seasons when the water is rendered rough by the extreme violence 
 of the wind. 
 
 This stone revetment is 25 centimetres thick and extends over about 
 2 metres and 25 centimetres above the level where the chopping of the 
 water would produce its greatest erosive action. It is built of blocks oftra- 
 chytes brought from the Euganean Alps. These blocks'wcigh at least 50 ki- 
 logrammes. They are cut on the lacings and their other sides are rough 
 hewn so as to form with the corresponding sides jointures as narrow as 
 possible. The revetment buried in the slope, presents, when finished, the 
 aspect of a wall of mosaic work. 
 
 This revetment which has been applied to the banks of the Eastern part 
 of the Po extends over a length of 9 kilometres or more and an area of 
 almost 24 000 metres. The cost of construction was 5 francs 10 per 
 square metre of which 75 to 80 centimes for construction work alone. 
 The results obtained have been most satisfactory, for in spite of the rough- 
 ness of the water during high tides and notwithstanding the currents 
 which strike the banks at ebb-tide, annual repairs are only required on a 
 twentieth part of the surface covered. The impossibility of finding all the 
 stones which have given way makes the annual cost amount to about 
 2 300 francs or in round figures 250 francs per kilometre of banks thus 
 revetted. 
 
 Supporting walls have been built up on sundry navigable canals of Lom- 
 bardy and the Pisa plains and have usually a thickness 'of 40 centimetres 
 at the top with an outer slope of one third. The cost varies from 2 francs 50 
 to 3 francs per square metre and the results obtained are very indiffe- 
 rent. 
 
 The essential object of these sundry kinds of work being to protect the 
 basins and the dams they only contribute in an indifferent manner to 
 prevent the filtration of water and consequently we think it useless to 
 speak about them at greater length. 
 
6 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 5. Methods employed to render the bed of the canals water-tight. 
 
 Various kinds of revetment in use. — It is necessary on the contrary 
 to dwell at some length on the study of the best means of preventing loss 
 of water. 
 
 The are three ways : 
 
 a. The use of turbid or muddy water, which deposits its slime in the 
 interstices of the soil through which it lends to filter. 
 
 b. Reveling the slopes cither with puddle-clay or with turf, or by build- 
 ing clay diaphragms in the interior of the dams. 
 
 c. Coating the basin with stonework on mortar, concrete or masonry. 
 
 Water Ugliness by means of muddy water. — The most ancient process 
 as also the simplest cheapest and most efficient, but the least prompt to 
 act, consists in utilizing the ooze which is mixed with the water running 
 in the canal itself. This was done a long time ago in the canals of Pied- 
 mont, Emelia and Yenelia, and the practice is still carried out when the 
 waters which feed the canals being thick and plentiful, can to a certain 
 extent be wasted with impunity by filtration during the first years that the 
 canal is opened to navigation. 
 
 The deposit of ooze gives excellent results in this case. Two or three 
 years sufficed to stop any loss of water in the canals originating from the 
 Bora Riparia. — This method of stanching has sometimes, however, its 
 inconveniences in the canals recently opened. It is in this way that t he 
 Canal Deprelis, originating from the Bora Baltea, when barely finished 
 leaked considerably through the dam on tbc right hand side. The waters 
 filtering through the gravelly sub-soil, invaded the houses of the neigh- 
 bouring villages of Brianza and Saulhia which had to be protected by means 
 of a deep circular trench. But after a few years, the slime with which the 
 waters were thick filled up the interstices of the sandy soil, with the result 
 that no trace of infiltration was observed when in 1858 the canal was 
 widened, and the discharge increased from 15 to 55 cubic metres per 
 second. 
 
 The same thing was noticed in the Bisatlo canal and a great many of 
 the canals in the provinces of Verona, Trevigiano, Padovano et Vicenza, fed 
 by the waters of the Adige and by the muddy waters of the Brenta and the 
 Piava. Although these canal were cut in very permeable ground, for- 
 med of shingles or gravel, the calcareous clayey slime deposited by the 
 water on the bottom and sides has after a few years made the basin either 
 absolutely Water-tight or caused a notable decrease in the infiltration. 
 
 When, at certain points either of the enbankment or of the cutting, the 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 7 
 
 impermeable crust is destroyed by erosion, a mixture of earth and clods 
 of grass arc rammed down behind a line of walling timber and the slimy 
 deposit prevents the passage of the water through the new shield thus put 
 down. 
 
 This method is rather slow in its results, and when the waters do not 
 contain much slime, requires from two to five years, and sometimes a 
 longer period before being efficient in results. 
 
 The Cavour canal which extends over 82 kilometres of alluvial soil mixed 
 with coarse gravel, extremely permeable, is slill liable to loss of water, 
 although it was opened as far back as 1866. It is true that this loss of 
 water is constantly on the decrease and is considerably reduced at the 
 present time. 
 
 To hasten the formation of these deposits in the points where the leakage 
 was greatest the bed was first rendered less permeable by means of a thin * 
 layer of clay and some slimy water was afterwards allowed to stand in the 
 basin of the canal, the filtration of which contributed to the slanohagc of 
 the neighbouring land. When this water had deposited the greater part of 
 its slime it was run off and replaced by a fresh quantity of slimy water. 
 This was continued on different parts of the Cavour canal, specially in the 
 neighbourhood of the construction works, and has given excellent results. 
 
 The process of stanching by means of slimy water docs not necessitate 
 any direct cost; indeed all that can be reckoned is the value of the water 
 lost by filtration during the first years. The process has also the advan- 
 tage of producing its effect over a wide stretch of land and has therefore 
 been put into practice in a great number of Italian canals. 
 
 Stanching by means of revetments or clayey diaphragms. — Imper- 
 meable material for revetment purposes is bad recourse to when slimy 
 water is not obtainable, which is the case in a great number of the Lom- 
 bardy canals fed by the clear waters of the Tesino and the Adda, or also 
 when the quantity of feeding water obtainable is too small to permit of its 
 being wasted. 
 
 i. The simplest process in this case consists in coating the bed and sides 
 with a layer of clay or clayey earth or with turf. 
 
 The steep gravelly banks of the Gira torrent, which runs through the 
 province of Vicentino, have been made water-tight by means of a revetment 
 of alluvial soil 6 centimetres in thickness and are protected in the watered 
 parts, by a second revetment of pebbles of 50 centimetres and in the parts 
 which are usually dry by layers of turf up to 15 centimetres in thickness 
 near the water-level and reduced to a single layer near the ridges. 
 
 In the provinces of Trevigiano and Verona it is the custom to cover the 
 banks with turf or beaten earth. 
 
 In reaches with enbankments or which extend by the hill slope, timber 
 planks nailed to piles are often fixed in front of the inner banks. 
 
8 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 Behind the planks a cushion, 20 to 50 centimetres thick, is placed or- 
 med of layers of turf, and the space between this cushion and the hanks is 
 then tilled np with earth. 
 
 The shield of timber work propping up the turf is sometimes replaced 
 by a small wall of large dry pebbles. 
 
 These very simple works have the double advantage of retaining the 
 water and of consolidating the banks and last a long time. How long, 
 however, we cannot say. As regards the necessary expense, both of con- 
 struction and maintenance this naturally varies in accordance with the 
 wages paid in the different localities and the abundance of the materials 
 of suitable quantity found there. It is consequently difficult to name a 
 figure sufficiently approximative to be worth giving. We may mention, 
 simply as an average indication, the price of 5 francs per square metres 
 for the protecting parts with timber shields and G francs for those with 
 small walls of dry stone. 
 
 The revetment in clayey earth, or grass, arc found to be too liable to 
 waste at the periodical cleaning times. Consequently the revetments on 
 the slopes are frequently replaced especially those on the embankment, by 
 clay diaphragms or by clayey earth embedded in the dams. The period 
 at which the canals are drained of water, is turned to account to cut tren- 
 ches 2 to 4 metres in width on the axis of these dams, right through the 
 permeable soil, until, the water-tight layer arc reached. These trenches 
 arc then filled with picked clayey earth, or failing this with soil found 
 in the vicinity. 
 
 This system is successfully employed in a great number of the Venetian 
 Lombardy canals and of the province of Ravenna. Good clayey earth being 
 often scarce in the last named places, it is replaced by a mixture of ordi- 
 nary earth and rice-straw carefully laid and rammed down. 
 
 Revetments in masonry. — Masonry is adopted for revetments in coun- 
 tries where shingles abound and where clayey earths are scarce. Such is 
 the case in the upper parts of Lombardy and of the province of Verona. 
 
 This masonry is sometimes laid down in sand simply sprinkled with 
 mortar and sometimes in a bath of lime. 
 
 In the dry masonry, sprinkled with mortar the pebbles, which are 
 roughly spread about, barely touch the ground and the empty spaces left 
 between them are filled neither with sand nor with any other material. 
 The work thus prepared is first watered, and then sprinkled over with liquid 
 mortar, the penetration of which, between the pebbles is facilitated by an 
 energetic beating down, care being taken to refill with mortar the empty 
 spaces caused by the ramming process. Masonry of this description may 
 be found in various canals in Lombardy and notably in the Villoresi canal 
 which has its source in the Tesino. — The average thickness of the ma- 
 sonry in this latter case is 1 8 centimetres and the filling up of the empty 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 9 
 
 spaces absorbs 0 m. 45 of mortar per superficial metre. Tlie cost per 
 metre is 40 cenlimes. 
 
 This masonry sometimes gives very unsatisfactory results especially 
 when the ground it lies upon is not completely set. The coating in this 
 case finishes by breaking up and no longer affords an efficient protection 
 against loss of water. The remedy for this damage, which is applied to 
 the Villoresi canal consists in a general replastering of mortar. After the 
 space which has to be repaired, is carefully cleaned and then washed with 
 plenty of water, hydraulic mortar in an almost liquid slate, is projected 
 into it with great force which penetrates into the empty spaces between 
 the pebbles and fills them completely. The consumption of mortar 
 is 0 m. 03 and the cost one franc per superficial metre thus refilled, 
 
 Although these revetments with mortared interstices may give satisfac- 
 tory results enough, under certain favourable conditions, it is to be noted 
 that the leakage in the Villoresi canal after a period of five years, has been 
 admitted to be sufficiently great to lead to the system being abandonned 
 and to the adoption of masonry with lime. 
 
 The last named method of revetment is extensively employed in upper 
 Italy. In Lombardy the sides of the Naviglio Grande are faced with it for 
 a length of about 80 kilometres; those of the Bereguardo canal for 
 20 kilometres. 
 
 It has been adopted in the same manner on the navigable Pavia canal, 
 on the Martesana canal and on the Villoresi canal. It has also been greatly 
 used in the province of Verona and in the Agro Pisano. It is therefore 
 worth while to dwell the subject at greater length. 
 
 On the Villoresi canal and on a great number of the Lombardy canals the 
 lime masonry is effected with oblong stones of uniform shape, of a length vary- 
 ing between 15 to 20 centimetres is laid on the ground being first cut in such 
 a way as to form the regular shape prescribed after the work of revetment. 
 The pavings are entirely embedded in the mortar which leaves no empty 
 spaces between them and which also forms, underneath them, an uninter- 
 rupted bed of at least 3 centimetres. The surface is carefully levelled and 
 smoothed with the trowel, following freely the outline of each stone. The 
 total thickness of the revetment, including the layer of mortar, must not 
 be less than 20 centimetres at any point. 
 
 In the masonry executed before the opening of the Villoresi canal, mortar 
 usually containing 200 kilogrammes of chalk of Casale in clods to one 
 cubic metre of sand, was generally used. Since then a richer mortar, con- 
 taining 400 kilogrammes of hydraulic chalk of Palazzolo to one cubic 
 metre of sand, has been adopted. The superficial metre of masonry, 
 20 centimetres thick, built in Ibis manner, has taken an average of 0 m. 075 
 of mortar and cost 1 fr. 90 with chalk of Casale and 2 fr. 30 with the Lime 
 of Palazzolo. The sand and pebbles were taken sometimes from the cana. 
 excavations, sometimes from quarries opened in the neighbourhood. In 
 
 2 G. 
 
 BOMPIANI. 
 
10 
 
 MI^'IODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 substituting the lime masonry made with lime of Palazzolo, for a simple 
 drained masonry of the first named system, the cost per superficial meter 
 was reduced to 1 fr. 55, as the pebbles which had already been used in 
 the first works were again employed. 
 
 In the alterations made in the spring of 1891, a mortar mixed with 
 lime of Palazzolo and cement of casalc (styled Portland cement) was tried. 
 The cost per square metre was, in this case, 1 fr. 87, with three parts of 
 lime, one of cement and 1 fr. 96 with two parts lime to one of cement. 
 
 These figures incude the work of digging and banking, the sinking of 
 wells, the fitting up of pumps and the furnishing of materials for all the 
 additional operations required for the proper execution of the work; they 
 also comprise the cost of superintendence and direction. 
 
 The cost of revetments executed after the opening of the canal includes 
 the expense of opening the sand quarries, or carting the pebbles and the 
 cost of the cement added to I he lime. These revetments applied over a 
 distance of about 16 kilometres gave very satisfactory results. The trials 
 made in July 1891 prove the loss of water which at first attained the high 
 figure of 20 per ccnl of the original intake of the canal, to have been re- 
 duced, after the revetment of mortar, to 7,57 per cent i e. 2 m. 70 per 
 second for a length of 16 552 metres of canal. The quantity of water 
 contained in this section was 514,273 m. 15, the loss per 1000 cubic metres 
 of this quantity, was, after the revetment 5 lit. 1/4 per second. This 
 figure is much smaller than noticed in a great number of other canals cut 
 through ground of the same conditions of permeability, but the revetment 
 of which was not done so carefully. 
 
 Revetments in lime masonry have also been extensively laid down in the 
 canals which pass through the upper Veronese. The soil through which 
 this canal runs is sometimes of polygenic alluvia originating from old 
 moraines, sometimes post glacial alluvial residue with fluvial conglome- 
 rates. The level of the subterraneous water is always less at the bottom 
 and at depths varying from 4 to 40 metres which is the maximum limit 
 known at certain points of the principal canal. The loss of water, very 
 great over the whole stretch, was such as even to absorb all the water in 
 the canal. This has been guarded against by revetting the bottom and 
 sides with lime masonry. The revetment of beaten clay would have been 
 too costly, on account of the difficulty in procuring it The same remark 
 applies to a layer of concrete, which would, in any case, have suffered from 
 the action of frost'during the drying of it in the winter. 
 
 In the case we allude to, the stones, 15 centimetres in length, were laid 
 down without intersticies of earth or sand; the empty spaces were then 
 filled with hydraulic mortar, in a very liquid state, composed of one part 
 lime and two parts of fine sand ; after which the surface was covered with a 
 puddle of hydraulic lime, less liquid. This coating, applied to over two 
 hundred thousand square metres, gave excellent results in the cuttings. 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 11 
 
 The results were also satisfactory on the embankments; in this sense that 
 the loss of water was prevented; but the work of applying if was more 
 difficult, on account of Hie crevices, caused by the banks frequently giving 
 way. The first cost was 80 centimes per square metre and after 5 years 
 experience, the cost of keeping the work in good condition, which merely 
 consists of a few layers of hydraulic lime, may be reckoned at 2 centimes, 
 on an average. 
 
 The same kind of revetment has been adopted in several navigable canals 
 of the Agro Pisano. The cost was about 2 francs per square metre for an 
 average thickness of 25 centimetres. 
 
 On the industrial canal of Verona, which is derived from the Adige, the 
 revetments reduced to a thickness of 1 5 centimeters cost 1 fr. 50. 
 
 The satisfactory results obtained in the various eases cited have decided 
 the application of the system to an important section of the navigable 
 canal of Martesana. The breadth of Ibis canal is li to 15 metres; Ihe 
 depth of water 1 m. 50. The soil through which it runs is mixed with 
 gravel; the subterraneous water is, on an average, 1 m. 50 below the bed. 
 No leaks of any importance had been remarked, but there was a slow and 
 almost general filtration from the bed of the canal, over a distance of seven 
 kilometres. It was decided to remedy this by means of a stone revetment, 
 20 centimetres thick, whose interstices were tilled in with hydraulic mortar 
 on their vertical sides, and a further layer added of the same mortar, in a 
 more liquid state. The work is now completed over a distance of 4 kilom. 1/2 
 and cost 2 fr. 10 per square metre. 
 
 The effect is such, that the discharge is increased I m. 50 per second, 
 and this is evidently only a part of Ihe result to be reckoned upon when the 
 revetment is extended over the total distance of 7 kilometres. 
 
 Although this work was commenced six years ago, no damage has been 
 observed and no repairs have been required. 
 
 Revetment in concrete. — The stone revetment ceases to be economical, 
 in the places where stones are not to be found in sufficient quantities, in the 
 vicinity. This is the case in the central parts of Piedmont, Lombardy and 
 Venetian, where sand and gravel are, on the contrary, found in abundance. 
 Facings of concrete have therefore been employed to advantage in the 
 canals which run through these parts and this method has been largely 
 employed in Italy. One of the most recent that may be ■ cited was em- 
 ployed in the Veronese industrial canal, where the soil, which is very 
 permeable, was the cause of a great loss of water. The bed of this canal, 
 and the part of the slope normally watered as high as the first banquet i. e. 
 as high as 2 m. 40 above the bed has been faced with a layer of concrete 
 50 centimetres thick. The upper part of the slope has been faced with 
 masonry composed of small pebbles laid on a bed of hydraulic mortar and 
 covered with the same mortar. 
 
12 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 The preference given to concrete, in the watered parts of the basin was 
 first judged necessary by the finding of a plentiful supply of sand and small 
 gravel throughout the length of the parts which required revetting, and 
 also because of the conviction that concrete, well made, constitutes the 
 most solid and least permeable facing. 
 
 The masonry above the water-level was adopted from economical 
 motives. 
 
 The concrete just referred to was composed of 0 m. 90 gravel and 
 45 centimetres mortar containing 400 kilos of hydraulic time of Bergamo 
 per cubic metre of sand. The gravel and sand were taken from the best 
 beds all heterogenous stuff taken out of them. The concrete was made on 
 the spot and laid down in small sections 1 to 5 metres in length. It was 
 laid on virgin soil in the cutting of the canals, on the embankments in gra- 
 velly soil well rammed down. The concrete itself, laid on in layers, was 
 evenly rammed down until the liquid lime oozed out on the surface, by 
 means of a flat or rounded earth rammer accordingly as the surface was 
 flat or rounded. 
 
 The coating of concrete applied to the bed and sides, cost 10 francs per 
 cubic metres i. e. about 5 fr. superficial metre, including a coating of 
 hydraulic mortar made with choice material. 
 
 The result obtained was most satisfactory, from the triple standpoint ot 
 water-tightness, resistance and durability. 
 
 The cost of repairs required are insignificant. They merely consist of 
 stopping up and coating the few parts that may be damaged by frost. The 
 severe winter of 1890-91 left no traces, except on some parts alternately 
 wet and exposed. Repairs are effected once a year in the spring. The 
 annual cost varies from 2 to 5 centimes per square metre. 
 
 Facings of concrete, at times of the banks only at other times of both 
 banks and bed, have been applied with advantage to the Quintino Salla 
 canal, province of Novara. 
 
 In the case of the banks only, of the canals, the facing is 25 centimetres 
 thick at the base, and 13 centimetres at the upper part, the bottom of which 
 rests upon a pedestal 55 centimetres in width and 40 centimetres in heigh. 
 
 The consumption of concrete was 0 m. 41 per running metre of canal, 
 and the cost 2 fr. 50 per square metre of facing, including that used for 
 the pedestal. In the parts where the bed is also covered with a layer of 
 30 centimetres, over a width of 5 m. 1/2, the average cost per square 
 metre, for both bed and banks, was 2 fr. 90. 
 
 Tbe annual cost of repairs is 0 fr. 08 per square metre. 
 
 To reduce this cost still more and assure a longer duration to tbe work, 
 tbe concrete on the banks lias been recently covered with a layer of cement 
 mortar which cost 0 fr. 00 per facing. 
 
 Floorings of concrete have also been built, 0 m. 25 to 0 m. 30 in thick- 
 ness, in various parts of a certain number of thcAgro Pisano canals. The 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 9 
 
 mortar is with hydraulic lime of San Guiliano. The cost is 2 fr. 30 pei 
 square metre. 
 
 But the most extensive use of this system has been made recently, on the 
 Villoresi canal, between kilometres 16 and 61, i e. on a section of about 
 48 kilometres, where sand and gravel predominate. Special precautions 
 have been taken in this case to protect the concrete from the effects of 
 frost. 
 
 For this purpose a thickness of half a metre of the bed and bank was 
 cut away beyond the definite side. 
 
 On the sides of the excavation thus made a facing of concrete was laid 
 20 centimetres thick which was afterwards covered with a layer of earth 
 30 centimetres thick and banked up according to the perimetre of the 
 basin, i. e. on one of the slopes and on the half part contiguous to the 
 bed. The rubbish out of this part of the bed was thrown up opposite on 
 the side of the second part. The bottom of the half circle was carefully 
 laid out, levelled and raked free of pebbles, the diametre of which exceeded 
 5 centimetres and then covered with a coating of concrete. The earth, pre- 
 viously thrown up on the second half was laid down again on the con- 
 crete facing of the first half as well as the rubbish taken out of the latter. 
 The facing of ^concrete was then completed and the earth extracted from 
 the formation was, after sorting the large pebble, levelled with the spade 
 and beaten down on the concrete in following the side of the basin. 
 
 The spreading of the concrete on the bed was governed by a system ot 
 three lines joined together, one of which was placed on the axis of the 
 canal at the bottom of the digging, the dwo others flush with the first, 
 starting from the axis of the bank. The vertical facings of these lines 
 were of a height equal to the thickness of the layer of concrete. A fourth 
 moveable line served as balance to the instrument, the two extreme sides 
 being salient, moving freely on the upper side of the two parallel lines, 
 and falling vertically to the ledges of these. Thus it should be exactly 
 level with the ground if the bottom of the shape is well prepared. 
 
 It was after having verified this thus a layer of concrete was thrown 
 down in the fixed frame, razed off a little above the upper sides. On the 
 banks, the formation was considered complete when a rule of width equal 
 to the thickness of the concrete, vertically displaced according to the line 
 of the greater slope of the bank had its upper parts constantly situated on 
 a determined level, by two fixed reglets serving as rallys. 
 
 The concrete was laid down regularly with the spade and the layer was 
 raised, in the limit necessary, to obtain the thickness prescribed after 
 the damming. The following work was them proceeded with 
 
 a. Light ramming, rapidly effected with a wooden ram; 
 
 b. Two vigorous rammings with an iron-shod leather bat 15 millimetres 
 in thickness, continued until the levelling out of a layer of 10 mil- 
 limetres of liquid mortar. 
 
u 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 c. The smoothing down with a trowel with the additional quantity oi 
 liquid mortar necessary to level the surface and to sift the cement slowly. 
 
 The concrete was composed of 5 cubic metres 70 of gravel, 8 cu- 
 bic metres 80 of sand and 5 cubic metres 20 of Casale lime in paste, 
 equivalent to 125 kilogrammes of lime in lumps. 
 
 Later on the Casale lime was replaced by that of Palazzola, at the rate of 
 200 kilogrammes for the same quantities of sand and gravel. 
 
 The slacking of the lime had not to exceed more than 5 days. The 
 gravel was washed with plenty of water on screens. The sand, well granied 
 came trom the best beds in the quarry. 
 
 The revetments executed in the sections, on the reverse side of the hill 
 before the opening of the canal, cost as follows per square metre 
 
 THICKNESS 
 
 OF REVETEMENT 
 
 WITH 
 
 LIME 
 
 OF CASALE 
 
 OF PALAZZOLO 
 
 m. 
 
 lr. 
 
 fr. 
 
 0.10 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.88 
 
 0.15 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.50 
 
 0.20 
 
 2.52 
 
 5.12 
 
 In the flat parts of the same canal facings of concrete are at present 
 being executed, for which Casale lime and by exception Palazzolo lime, is 
 regularly used. These revetments are 13 centimetres in thickness and 
 cost 1 fr. 79 between kilometres 16 and 45; they are 10 centimetres 
 in thickness and cost 1 fr. 57 between kilometres 45 and 64. 
 
 The pebbles and gravel come, for the most part, from the excavations 
 of the canal; the sand is extracted close beside the canal, from quarries 
 distant 2 to 5 kilometres apart, and comprise a preliminary depth of 
 at least 5 metres. 
 
 The Yilloresi canal Company, made experiments in 1891, with thcobject 
 of finding out the results produced by this method of revetment. The expe- 
 riments were made upon the section comprised between the kilometric 
 points 16352 and 45 120. The bed was then completely lined the banks 
 only over a length of 5918 metres. The loss of water which canal from 
 this section 35 per cent with the basin without facings was, during 
 the experiments the 6 cubic metres 94 per second for a draft of water 
 of 52 cubic metres 95, taken at point 16 kilom. 352; they are conse- 
 quently reduced to 21, 10 per cent. The volume of water contained in 
 the section surveyed was 785 531 cubic metres and the loss per 1000 cu- 
 
 bic metres of this volume per second is 
 
 6,95 X 1000 
 
 say 8 litres 87 
 
 785.554 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 IS 
 
 per second. These conditions will be still more improved by the com- 
 plete revetment of the banks. 
 
 Comparaison between revetment of stone or concrete. — The preference 
 given, according to requirement to the dry wall with mortar bath, or 
 concrete masonry, depends entirely on the nature of the materials (pebbles 
 or sand and gravel) which are found in abundance on the spot. The 
 Engineers agree however that other things being equal, the stone work 
 with mortar bath is to be preferred, being less subect to the action of 
 frost in the canals that it is customary to dry in winter. The repair to 
 this stone work consist only in re-jointing the surface; the concrete, on 
 the contrary, can be damaged to a considerable depth and the repair 
 them become costly. 
 
 On the other hand the concrete is incomparably less permeable by water 
 than the stone work, it can in any case be secured from the effect of frost 
 and accidental damage, by means of the earth revetment adopted in the 
 Yilloresi canal. 
 
 It is also necessary to be careful in the choice of systems, according to 
 the nature of the water coming into the canal. If it is really true as 
 certain recent observations appear to prove that very pure water, or water 
 slightly alkaline, attacks the mortar in the long run, even the most hy- 
 draulic, and finishes by making it lose all cohesion, the preference should 
 be given to stone work when the canals are fed with water of this 
 quality. 
 
 Masonry revetments. — Now remains for us to speak of dry walls 
 jointed by mortar, or of masonry with mortar. One may cite important 
 applications in the navigable canals of Lombardy and in various other 
 canals of rapid flow, of relatively old construction. 
 
 It is thus that the grand navigable Milan canal is lined over 40 kilo- 
 metres and the Bcreguardo navigable canal over a distance of 14 kilome- 
 tres sometimes with walls of pebbles, with slabs of granit interposed, 
 and sometimes with walls of quarry stones. The banks of the Pavia 
 navigable canal are bordered over 49 kilometres with brick and mortar 
 walls, sometimes vertical, sometimes with a slight slope. The revetments 
 over the other parts of the tracing are dry walls of pebbles and blocks of 
 pudding-stone cut square, and joined. The navigable canal of Padovano 
 and the Martesana canal, are bordered by walls of stone and mortar with 
 vertical facings, the first over 3718 kilometres and the second over about 
 25 kilometres. 
 
 Revetment walls are also found on several navigable canals in the 
 province of Padovano, on certain branches of the navigable canals of Mo- 
 dena and Bologna, and on a great number of the Piedmont canals originat- 
 ing from the Dora Baltea, the Riparia and the Sangone. The sections thus 
 
1(5 METHODS EMPLOYED IN ITALY 
 
 faced measure 20 kilometres for the Ivree canal alone and 25 kilometres 
 for the rest of the Piedmont canals. 
 
 All these works are already old and data wanting to form an estimate 
 of them. 
 
 The cost of the more recent works is, on the contrary, accurately 
 known. 
 
 On the Depretis canal, originating from the Cavour canal revetments of 
 brick masonry with hydraulic mortar have been executed in the upper 
 portion, over a length of 2 800 metres. The cost was 22 francs per cubic 
 metre for the banks and 25 francs for the bed on which the herring-bone 
 work masonry is built. On the Ivr6c canal sundry parts of the side- 
 walls are [being rebuilt. The new walls are of blocks of masonry with 
 hydraulic mortar. Their thickness is 60 centimetres. The cost is 
 9 fr. 10 per cubic metre, say 5 fr. 40 per square metre. On the 
 other Piedmont canals the masonry revetments cost 9 to 10 francs per 
 cubic metre, say about 4 to 5 francs per square metre accordingly as the 
 thickness is 40 or 50 centimetres. 
 
 The maintenance of these revetments arc almost always without im- 
 portance and merely consist in filling the joints with mortar. The 
 annual cost docs not exceed 8 to 10 centimes per square metre. 
 
 On certain navigable canals of the Agro Pisano, the banks arc protec- 
 ted either by layers of dry stone, joined with mortar on the facing or by 
 walls of ashlar masonry. 
 
 The first named are 40 centimetres thick, and rest against the slopes 
 on an incline of one at basis to two on top. 
 
 The outer joints are carefully filled with mortar thrown in, then stop- 
 ped. The cost in about 2 fr. 50 per square metre. 
 
 The w alls in which mortar is used are commonly 50 centimetres thick at 
 the top, with vertical facing on the land-side and with a pitch of 1 /6 th on 
 the outer facing. 
 
 The cost price varies from 4 fr. 50 to 5 francs per square metre. Their 
 maintenance consist in a superficial rejoinling every 5 or 6 years at the 
 most. This work costs 50 centimes per square metre. Then the rejoint- 
 ing has to be preceded by a filling of the joints with mortar, the cost 
 amounts to one franc. 
 
 These revetments by means of dry walls, or masonry, have the merit 
 of thoroughly defining the section of the canal of avoiding the frequent 
 delimitations of banks the encroachments of riparian landowners, and of 
 furnishing a good site for the tow-paths. But owing to the heavy expense 
 which the building of these walls entails they should only be used in pla- 
 ces where the materials employed and also labour are cheap. 
 
FOR RENDERING CANALS WATER-TIGHT. 
 
 17 
 
 4. Conclusions. 
 
 On the whole, and neglecting the systems of small importance, or not 
 very rccommendable, it may be said that four principal systems are at 
 present employed with success in Italy to render the beds of open canal, 
 water-tight. 
 
 1. Stanching with slimy water. — The slime which is held in suspension 
 in this water, slowly deposits on the bottom and sides, and stops up the 
 interstices of the soil through which the filtrations at first take place. 
 This process is effective when the water which supplies the canal is abun- 
 dant in and thick with earthy materials. It produces its entire effect only 
 after 3 or 4 years. But this effect is certain and durable, and is obtained 
 at small cost. It has been much employed in Italy. 
 
 2. Revetments in masonry with mortar baths. — To be recommended one 
 when the basins, emptied in winter, are exposed to frost. It is frequently 
 employed and with success. The cost varies from 80 centimetres to 
 2 fr. 30 per square metre. 
 
 3 .Concrete revetment. — Most appropriate for canals which are supplied 
 with waters during the winter. Besides, it can be protected from frost by 
 the superposition of a layer of soil. It is more water-tight than masonry. 
 Its cost, relatively high, varies between 1 fr. 60 and 3 francs per square 
 metre for a thickness of concrete, of 10 to 50 centimetres; but the cost 
 for repairs is unimportant. This method is much used nowadays. 
 
 Revetment Walls. — A system adopted in canals now old fed with clear 
 water, having a rapid flow, which is the case with the most important 
 navigable canals of Lombardy and Emclia. The results are excellent; but 
 the cost in very heavy , varying between 4 fr. 50 and 5 fr. 50 per square 
 metre. This method of protection can only be recommended to-day in 
 certain specific cases when the masonry revetment, or a concrete facing 
 cannot be applied, or again when it is intended both to strengthen and 
 render water-tight banks liable to crumble. 
 
 Rome, January 1892. 
 
 (Translated by M. Bingham, Paris.) 
 
24 83G. — Impi’imei’ie g6n6rale A. Laliure, 0, rue de Flenrus, 
 
 Paris. 
 

V 1 ' INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 5 th QUESTION 
 
 STOPPAGES 
 
 ON 
 
 CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. DEROME 
 
 Chief Engineer of « Ponts ct Chaussees », al Compi&gne 
 
 ~oCX> 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENfiRALE LAHURE 
 
 9, RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
/ 
 
 i 
 
 
 o / 
 
 / > ( 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. DEROME 
 
 Chief Engineer of « Ponts et Chauss6es », at Compiegne. 
 
 We propose to consider in this report, the question of stoppages on 
 canals and canalized rivers, and specially with regard to the system ol 
 waterways in the Northern and Eastern regions of France. 
 
 We shall first of all, briefly give the history of the question ; then dis- 
 cuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different systems employed 
 up to date; and finally inquire into what measures are to be taken, to 
 reduce the frequency and duration of the stoppages. 
 
 I. — HISTORY OF THE STOPPAGES. 
 
 Canalized rivers and canals of this region, have from the very first been 
 subject to periodical stoppages for the object of facilitating maintenance 
 and repairs to the works. Notwithstanding the development and impro- 
 vement of the system, this practise has been continued up to the present, 
 but with important modifications as to time, duration and coordination 
 of the stoppages. 
 
 Epoch of stoppages. 
 
 The time chosen originally was of course that when the water was low, 
 navigation being generally interrupted during the dry season from want 
 of sufficient water supply. 
 
 A progressive advance has been made in this date, corresponding with 
 the increased supplies of the canals, and the improvement in the rivers. 
 Thus the Saint-Quentin canals has ceased working usually, as follows : 
 
 Until 1836 from 1 st of September to 51 sl of October; 
 
 From 1837 to 1840 from 15 lh of August to 15 th of October ; 
 
 1 G. 
 
 DEROMB. 
 
2 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 From 1841 to 1848 from 1 st of August to 50“‘ of September ; 
 
 From 1849 to 1885 the interruptions have commenced in July and 
 ended in August. 
 
 Since 1884, they have uniformly taken place from the 15 th of June to 
 15"' of July, excepting in 1891, when, inconsequence of exceptional com- 
 mercial requirements following after an extremely rigorous winter, the 
 canal was closed only from 16 th of July. 
 
 The stoppages on the other waterways of the northern system have 
 nearly followed the same course as on the Saint-Quentin canal. These 
 stoppages have in fact for a long time been regulated by international 
 conventions, at least as far as concerns canals and rivers which connect 
 France with Belgium. 
 
 According to a first convention dated 9 th December 1841, the waterways 
 could not he interrupted before the 1 st August or after the 1 st October. 
 This regulation was however only applied until the year 1848; the two 
 governments came to an agreement to try another system the year follow- 
 ing, which they have consecrated 20 years later by a second convention 
 dated 4 th March 1868. 
 
 According to the terms of this convention, the stoppages on the lines of 
 navigation which respectively join Charleroi, Monsand Paris, were to begin 
 at the frontier of the two countries from the 1 st to the 15 th July, as near as 
 possible to the first of these two dates. 
 
 A third convention concluded the 8 lh October 1887 between France, 
 Germany and Belgium, finally fixed the 15 th June as the initial date for 
 stoppages on canals and canalized rivers, which place these three coun- 
 tries in communication, « except in the case of variations made necessary 
 by special situations or exceptional requirements ». 
 
 The 15 th June had besides been adopted on trial for the commencement 
 of the stoppages from 1884 to 1887. 
 
 This new convention does not refer, like the precceding, only to a part 
 of the waterways of the northern system ; it applies to all those of the re- 
 gion which lead to the frontier, and involves in fact the adoption of a date 
 sensibly uniform for the commencement of stoppages for the whole of the 
 system. 
 
 Excepting a few unimportant variations, it has been possible to realize 
 this concordance every year since 1884. 
 
 The eastern canals, like those in the North, were generally interrupted 
 before this time at different dates during the months of July and August. 
 An exception should be made however for the canal going from the Marne 
 to the Rhine, on which for a number of years stoppages took place in 
 winter, at a date coinciding with the natural interruption of traffic due 
 to ice. 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 5 
 
 Duration of the stoppages. 
 
 Formerly the duration of stoppages varied between greatly extended 
 limits. If it were a question of the execution of some important work it 
 often exceeded three months. Thus the Saint-Quentin canal was interrup- 
 ted for 100 days every year from 1828 to 1851. 
 
 From then until 1849, the stoppages on this canal were uniformly 
 2 months, the duration has been reduced to 1 month from 1850 to 1800. 
 
 On the other hand, during the period from 1801 to 1880 there were 
 1 1 years without stoppages, and during the other 9 years navigation was 
 only interrupted on an average 20 days annually. 
 
 Since 1881, the canal has been normally interrupted for one month each 
 year, in order to permit of the execution of numerous works which have 
 doubled the capacity for traffic on this waterway. 
 
 The stoppages on the other sections of the line from Belgium towards 
 Pai is have been progressively shortened in the same proportion as those 
 of the Saint-Quentin canal, they have in a like manner only been interrup- 
 ted for 9 years ont of 20 during the period of 1861 to 1880. 
 
 On the totality of the lines from Mons and Charleroi to Paris, there have 
 consequently been during the whole of this period hut biennial interrup- 
 tions of an average duration of about 20 days. 
 
 The reports concerning the other waterways of the region do not un- 
 fortunately give such striking results. They establish nevertheless a pro- 
 gressive diminution in the duration of stoppages from 1840 to 1880. 
 
 Since 1870, the most important waterways of the local systems of the 
 Nord and Pas-de-Calais have even only been interrupted every two years. 
 
 The winter stoppages on the canal from the Marne to the Rhine gene- 
 rally lasted 50 to 60 days, in two successive periods, separated by a re- 
 sumption of traffic of 6 days when the cold was not too intense to permit 
 of reopening navigation. 
 
 Since 1881, various canals have exceptionally been interrupted for 
 from 45 to 75 days; hut in general it has been possible to execute the 
 improvement works on the system without stoppages of more than 50 to 
 55 days a year. 
 
 Coordination of the stoppages. 
 
 The stoppages primitively took place at different epochs distributed over 
 the season when the water was low, according to the convenience of each 
 service. 
 
 The prefects fixed the initial date and duration for their respective de- 
 partments, without any regard to uniformity. 
 
 This manner often resulted in a prolonged interruption of the traffic to 
 the detriment of shipping and commerce. 
 
i STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED KIVERS 
 
 A ministerial circular of the 15 th August 1840, has from that time urged 
 the prefects of the departments traversed hy one same line of navigation, 
 to concert together for a coordination of the stoppages on the different sec- 
 tions of that line, with the object of diminishing as much as possible the 
 duration of obstruction to the circulation of the boats. 
 
 In order to attain this aim with greater certainty, the competent autho- 
 rity has from 1844 reserved to itself the care of fixing annually the begin- 
 ning and ending of the stoppages on the different sections of the system. 
 
 Since then, the dates thus fixed are grouped in a general table, which 
 is posted over the whole of the region, advantageously replacing the local 
 notices the prefects formerly caused to be published. 
 
 From 1844 to 1848, according to the clauses of the international con- 
 vention of the 9 th December 1841, stoppages commenced on the 1 st to the 
 15 lh August and finished at the latest on the l sl October; the initial dates 
 were fixed so as to suit the special convenience of industry and commerce. 
 
 From 1849, the administration undertook the coordination of these ini- 
 tial dates , in order to favour the principal lines of transport then 
 existing. 
 
 The system it adopted with this object has been employed from 1849 
 to 1885 and is determined as follows in the international convention of 
 4 ,u March 1 8(38 which sanctioned its application after a trial of 20 years : 
 
 « The stoppages on the lines of navigation which unite respectively 
 Charleroi, Mons and Paris, shall successively commence on the different 
 sections composing each line, in such a manner, that boats leaving Bel- 
 gium at the beginning of the interruption shall not be stayed on their way 
 by the diminution of the water. » 
 
 The stoppages were therefore graduated from the frontier towards the 
 Seine : they commenced, on each section, immediately after the passage of 
 the last laden boat going towards Paris. 
 
 The delays provided for the successive passages of this last boat have 
 varied somewhat during the above period of 1849 to 1883. We give 
 hereafter the initial dates of stoppage for the year 1880 on the line from 
 Mons to the Seine. 
 
 Canal from Mons to Cond6. — From the frontier to Conde. . . 1“ of July. 
 
 The Scheldt. — From Conde to Valenciennes S'* — 
 
 — From Valenciennes to Bassin-Rond 5" 1 — 
 
 — From Bassin-Rond to Cambrai 7 ,h — 
 
 St-Quentin canal. — From Cambrai to the summit level pond 10 th — 
 
 — Summit level pond 15' h — 
 
 — From this reach to St-Quentin 15 ,h — 
 
 — From St-Quentin to Pont-Tugny .... 17 ,h — 
 
 — From Pont-Tugny to the Y point of la F6re 19 ,h — 
 
 — From this point to Chauny 21" — 
 
 Canal lateral to the Oise. — From Chauny to Janville 23 rl — 
 
 The river Oise. — From Janville to Boran 25"' — 
 
 — From Boran to the Seine. ........ 27 ,h — 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 5 
 
 Stoppages of an average duration dit not commence at that time on the 
 Oise, until they were already terminated on the canal fromMons to Conde. 
 The gradual system has never been employed outside the lines from Mons 
 and Charleroi to Paris. 
 
 These two lines were in fact the only ones having to transport goods to 
 a long distance at the time of the first graduated stoppages. At this time, 
 the canal from the Marne to the Rhine had not yet been handed over to 
 navigation ; the Marne was not canalized, the Moselle and the Meuse 
 either; and in fact no communication by water existed between the North 
 and the East of France. 
 
 On the other hand, when the canal from the Marne to the Rhine was 
 opened, and united in 1861 to the northern system by the canal from the 
 Aisne to the Marne, thus forming a great line of navigation from Stras- 
 burg and Nancy to Lille and Dunkirk, french coal was not yet in a situa- 
 tion to compete on the eastern markets with coal from the Sarre, on 
 account of the diverse conditions of navigation on the different sections 
 of this line. 
 
 This state of things only came to an end during the course of works 
 undertaken in 1880 for rendering the system uniform. 
 
 The administration, wishing also a uniformity of the stoppages, aban- 
 doned from 1884 the gradual system, and instituted new trials. 
 
 These trials have resulted in the convention of the 8"‘ October 1887, by 
 virtue of which the canals and canalized rivers which place France, Ger- 
 many and Belgium in communication, must for the future, after prelimi- 
 nary agreement, be interrupted according to the simultaneous system, and 
 having for initial date the 15 th June. 
 
 This latter system will be employed this year for the ninth time on the 
 waterways of the Northern and Eastern regions. 
 
 II. — EXAMINATION OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF STOPPAGES. 
 
 This examination like the preceeding history will successively take into 
 consideration the time, duration and coordination of the stoppages. 
 
 Epoch of the stoppages. 
 
 Theoretically, stoppages can take place at any time of the year ; but in 
 practice, each season offers special advantages and disadvantages, either 
 from a technical point of view, or with respect to the interests of com- 
 merce. 
 
 The months of January and February are generally the most suitable to 
 commerce. Navigation is usually but little active at this time; it is be- 
 
6 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 sides frequently interrupted by ice on the canals and by the rising of the 
 rivers. 
 
 These two months are however absolutely inadmissible, owing to the 
 requirements of the technical service, excepting in certain exceptional 
 cases. 
 
 The work in course of execution, on account of the severity of the wea- 
 ther and the shortness of the days, is then in fact as difficult as it is un- 
 productive; frost generally prevents the undertaking of any masonry 
 work, and the intense cold offers serious disadvantages to the emptying of 
 the reaches. 
 
 The months of March and April are less suitable to commerce than 
 January and February, without being much more favourable from a tech- 
 nical point of view. The frost, especially in the Eastern region, nearly 
 always lasts until the end of March and even into April; the risings are 
 moreover too frequent during this period to render it possible to execute 
 any work on the rivers. Workmen are besides very scarce at this time on 
 account of the requirements of agriculture. 
 
 The months of May and June are very favourable for stoppages on canals; 
 they are less suitable for rivers on account of the habitual height of the 
 water. The days are long, and workmen arc usually plentiful until hay- 
 making in the second half of June. Everything considered, numerous 
 engineers from a technical point of view pronounce in favour of one or the 
 other of these two months. 
 
 But commerce is in general quite opposed to their adoption. After the 
 inclement weather, the necessary time is required to till up the gaps in 
 the warehouses resulting from winter, and to secure in good time supplies 
 for the summer. The month of May is indispensable for this object, and 
 sometimes even June, if navigation lias been impeded by frost or risings 
 during the month of April. 
 
 The months of July and August are ordinarily the most favourable for 
 the execution of work on rivers, on account of the lowness of the water ; 
 they are equally suitable to canals, when the emptying of the reaches du- 
 ring the dry season does not present any inconvenience to public health. 
 Workmen are habitually scarce at haymaking as well as during the har- 
 vest; they are however often plentiful in the days which separate these 
 two periods. Everything considered, the engineers charged with the 
 maintenance of the rivers are in general favourable to an adoption of the 
 months of July and August; but the services of the canals having a sum- 
 mit-level are on the contrary absolutely unfavourable to them, on account 
 of the difficulty of filling the upper reaches of these canals during the pe- 
 riod when the water is low. 
 
 In dry years, this filling is always very long, and it has sometimes hap- 
 pened after lengthy summer stoppages, that navigation could not be resu- 
 med at the summit levels before the autums rains. 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 7 
 
 On the other hand, commerce nearly always pronounces in favour of 
 stoppages in July and August, which enables it to conveniently obtain its 
 summer supplies, and to provide for the requirements of the winter cam- 
 paign before the bad season sets in. 
 
 The months of September and October offer in general advantages, but 
 also the disadvantages itiherent lo the season when water is low. The 
 days are notably shorter and rain is more frequent than in the preceeding 
 months, workmen are exceptionnally scarce in all the Northern region, as 
 soon as the uprooting of beetroot and making of sugar commence. On 
 the other hand, after these two months commerce has not the necessary 
 time at its disposal to secure its winter supplies. 
 
 The administration could not besides interrupt navigation in September 
 and October, without causing a considerable prejudice to the interests of 
 the sugar industry, and consequently to the agricultural populations of 
 the Northern region. 
 
 The same interests require that navigation should remain open in 
 November, the transport of beetroot being very active until the end of this 
 month, and often even for a considerable part of December. 
 
 These two months are besides but little suited to the carrying out of the 
 stoppage-works, considering the shortness of the days and the scarcity of 
 workmen, as well as the inclemency of the season and the risings which 
 ordinarily follow the melting of the first snows. 
 
 The proceeding observations permit of rejecting without hesitation the 
 months of January to April and September to December. 
 
 The month of May must also be rejected on account of the requirements 
 of commerce, and the necessity of filling in due time the upper reaches of 
 canals with summit levels, does not allow of the month of August being 
 adopted. There remain the months of June and July. 
 
 The first is more favourable lo canals, the second to canalized rivers. 
 The interests of public health are in favour of June, those of commerce in 
 favour of July. 
 
 Workmen are alternatively plentiful and scarce in these two months, on 
 the one hand before and during haymaking, on the other before and 
 during harvesting. 
 
 The time to be chosen for stoppages is consequently a very delicate 
 question ; it has also given rise to long discussions at the sittings of the 
 competent committees in the years 1882 to 1884. 
 
 The administration decided the question in conformity with the opinion 
 of these committees, by the adoption of the 15 lh of June as the initial date, 
 thus allowing to stoppages of one month the mean period of 15 lh of June to 
 15 th of July. 
 
 This decision, confirmed by the international convention of the 8 th of Octo- 
 ber 1887, appears to us to conciliate all interests at stake in ordinary 
 years. 
 
8 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 It would be expedient besides, in our opinion : 
 
 1. To delay until July the commencement of stoppages, after exception- 
 nally long and severe winters, as was done in 1891. 
 
 2. To advance the initial date to the 1 st of June in years of great drought, 
 as in these cases, there would he doubts of being able to fill easily in July 
 the upper reaches of canals with summit levels. 
 
 Duration of stoppages. 
 
 Since a long time commerce claims a total suppression of periodical 
 stoppages, which yearly become more prejudicial to its interests on account 
 of the rapid development of transport by water. 
 
 This suppression evidently cannot be realized as a principle on canals 
 which have passages consisting of single tracks, and which are not pro- 
 vided with double locks. 
 
 But it is possible to attenuate to a great extent the inconveniencies resul- 
 ting from this state of things, by rendering the stoppages as short as the 
 necessities of the technical service will permit. 
 
 It appears to us, that the normal duration ought to be fixed at thirty days, 
 if it is a question of the execution of important improvement w'orks, dis- 
 tributed over some distance. In fact, the emptying and refilling of the 
 reaches, the organization of the works, the loss of time caused by rain, 
 local holidays and the exigencies of the workmen, generally take no 
 fewer than ten days; and the engineer is frequently obliged to postpone 
 the completion of the works to the stoppage in the following year, if he is 
 not able to dispose of at least twenty effective working days. 
 
 On the other hand, we consider on the grounds of experience, that the 
 normal maintenance of the canals and canalized rivers of the region can 
 only be assured under present conditions, with annual stoppages of ten to 
 twelve days or biennial stoppages of about twenty days. 
 
 The first system is in our opinion the more advantageous from a tech- 
 nical point of view, as it permits of more frequently verifying the state of 
 preservation of the works, and of repairing any damages before they have 
 notably augmented; this evidently increases the probability of regular 
 navigation for the remainder of the year. 
 
 This system appears to us to be more lavourable also to shipping and 
 commerce. It distributes in fact the burdens which the stoppages impose 
 on watermen in an equal manner, and only suspends commercial inter- 
 course for a few days. 
 
 Coordination of stoppages. 
 
 According to the prececding history, stoppages can be coordinated either 
 according to the gradual or the simultaneous system. 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 9 
 
 In order to compare these two systems, we will take into consideration 
 a navigable line uniting the point A with the point B, and we will suppose 
 that the natural or conventional direction of the descent corresponds to 
 the direction AB. 
 
 In order to simplify the problem, we will allow that the length AB be 
 divided into a large number of equal sections, and that the duration of the 
 journey over each section can be overlooked. 
 
 We will finally indicate : 
 
 By C the duration of stoppage, which we will suppose constant from 
 one end of the line to the other; 
 
 By T the duration of the journey AB for the gradual system ; 
 
 By t this duration for the simultaneous system; 
 
 By n the number of equidistant sidings from A to B, constructed for 
 the reception of loaded boats; 
 
 By M the descending and M' the ascending traffic during one same 
 period before and after the stoppage. 
 
 Under these conditions, the duration of the journey corresponding to the 
 interspace between the sidings will be expressed by : 
 
 for the gradual system . 
 
 T 
 
 n -hi 
 
 and for the simultaneous system. r 
 
 J n-h 1 
 
 The arrivals of merchandise will be interrupted as follows : 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 GRADUAL SISTEM 
 
 of stoppages when 
 descending 
 
 SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM 
 
 of stoppages 
 
 At point B (in descending) during 
 one period 
 
 C 
 
 G + 
 
 » + 1 
 
 At point A (in ascending) during 
 one period 
 
 C + 
 
 n + 1 
 
 The loss suffered by commerce 
 can be considered therefore as 
 proportional to the expression. 
 
10 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 And the balance will incline in favour of the simultaneous system if one 
 has : 
 
 (M + M') G + 2M' — — — r > (M -+- M') (c-h -L-] 
 
 ' n+1 ' ' \ n 4- 1/ 
 
 or : 
 
 2M T > (M-+-M') t 
 or : 
 
 T 
 
 2 7 >1 + 
 
 M 
 
 M' 
 
 This condition will be necessarily realized if the difference ^ varies but 
 
 j M 
 
 little from the unit, experience having duly established that t is always 
 notably inferior to T. * 
 
 The simultaneous is therefore more advantageous than the gradual 
 system, when the traffic is very nearly the same in both directions. 
 
 This is precisely the case on all the important lines of the region, except- 
 ing the Sensee canal and the two lines from Belgium towards Paris. 
 
 M 
 
 For these last lines, the difference remains for a long time included 
 
 between 4 and 5, if one supposes the stoppages graduated in the direction 
 of the greatest traffic. 
 
 One will therefore necessarily have. 
 
 » T r<*-4 
 
 T 
 
 The difference - being sensibly inferior to 2,5. 
 
 The gradual system would in consequence be more favourable than the 
 simultaneous system on the three lines in question. 
 
 But this result is purely theoretical, in practise transport does not take 
 place with the regularity admitted of by the preceding algebraic formulas. 
 
 The observations made on the line from Mons to Paris have in fact 
 demonstrated, that with the gradual system on the approach of the time 
 for stoppages, a number of descending boats notably superior to the 
 normal quantity passing through the locks started from point A; these 
 boats consequently accumulated in the reaches, and to enable them to pass 
 in good time, one was obliged to stop the ascending boats at least a week 
 before the commencement of the stoppage, thus encumbering the channel 
 and causing further delay to those down-stream. 
 
 The least delay in' the reopening of one of the sections caused a conside- 
 rable agglomeration of boats at its approaches, often lasting three to four 
 weeks. 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 11 
 
 On the other hand, boats which had availed themselves of the gradual 
 system to gain point B before the stoppage, could not return to the lading 
 ports for more than two months after the resumption of navigation at 
 point A‘. 
 
 During this period, an absolutely insufficient number of empty boats 
 were at the disposal of shippers, and the rates of freightage commonly 
 increased 20 to 25 per 100 in consequence of the gradual stoppages. 
 
 After eight years experimentation, it is found, everything being equal, 
 that the simultaneous system does not give rise to the same inconveniences. 
 Descending or ascending loaded boats are usually stopped but one or two 
 days before the commencement of the stoppage ; obstruction is less frequent 
 and is more rapidly cleared. 
 
 Empty boats arrive in good time at the lading ports, and freight no 
 longer undergoes an exaggerated rise on the resumption of navigation. 
 The whole of these facts radically reverse in our opinion the theoretical 
 deductions to be inferred from the preceding algebraic formulas. 
 
 The principle of solidarity which must necessarily exist between all the 
 navigable lines of this region for the organization of long distance trans- 
 port, does not moreover permit of the adoption at the same time of the 
 simultaneous system on one part, and the gradual system on another part 
 of the network. 
 
 Finally a material impossibility opposes the application of this last 
 system over the whole of the region. The stoppages on the great lines 
 could in no way be coordinated to those on the branches which unite them, 
 and which in themselves constitute important lines joined one to the other. 
 To account for this impossibility, it suffices to consider the three lines 
 from Mons to Paris, from Paris to Strasburg and from Belgium to the Saone 
 with the annexes placing these lines in communication, as follows : the 
 Aisne and the canal running laterally with this river, the canal from the 
 Oise to the Aisne, the canal from the Aisne to the Marne and the Ardennes 
 canal. 
 
 From the preceding, we do not hesitate to conclude in favour of the 
 definite adoption of the simultaneous system for the whole of the region, 
 under the one reservation, that a sufficient number of sidings shall be 
 made for the stationing of the boats at distances not exceeding two to three 
 days journey. 
 
 III. — MEASURES TO BE TAKEN FOR REDUCING THE FREQUENCY 
 AND DURATION OF STOPPAGES. 
 
 The measures in question are divided into two distinct categories. 
 
 1. Their return ought not theoretically to take place until the end of a time 2 T equal 
 to 54 days; under the most favourable conditions they were generally delayed at least 
 10 to 12 days. 
 
12 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 Some tend to diminish the importance of the works to he executed for 
 the maintenance of the waterway and the necessary repairs. The others 
 must permit of the execution of these works without any interruption 
 of navigation, or at most by the help of local stoppages of slight 
 duration. 
 
 The first measures comprise the putting of the bed and the works in 
 perfect repair, the consolidation of the banks along the water-line at all 
 points where it is not solidly protected, and the consolidation of the slopes 
 wherever a subsidence is to be feared. 
 
 We specially mention the following measures among those of the second 
 category. 
 
 Passages of one single track ought to he suppressed and the locks dou- 
 bled on canals and rivers which have sufficient traffic to justify this 
 measure. 
 
 The lock-gates should be brought hack on each line to one uniform pat- 
 tern, at least as far as collars, trunnions, etc., and other pieces which 
 wear out the most rapidly are concerned. These pieces should be arranged 
 in such a manner that their replacement can be effectuated without stop- 
 page. One should always have in warehouse the necessary supplies and 
 lifting plant for guarding against all requirements. 
 
 Each service should be supplied with a sufficient number of dredgers, 
 specially arranged for restoring the bed of the canals to its normal profile, 
 even in the reaches made water-tight by means of facings of masonry or 
 concrete. 
 
 Diving apparatus should be deposited at the principal locks, and the 
 navigation staff should use them for inspecting the works, and for slight 
 repairs to be executed under water. 
 
 Diving-bells appropriate to the requirements of the canal service should 
 be placed at the disposal of the engineers for heavy repairs, which could 
 be executed at little expense by the help of these apparatus. 
 
 Sluice-gates and iron-lipped piles of suitable weight and dimensions 
 with small hand pile-drivers hand should be stored in the warehouses, to 
 permit of rapidly establishing dams wherever they may be required, and 
 afterwards of taking them to pieces in a few hours. 
 
 Dams should be constructed along the course of the reaches of a suffi- 
 cient length, for it to be of interest to keep them partially filled during the 
 stoppages. 
 
 Some outlets should be established in sufficient number, to permit of 
 rapidly emptying the water from each reach or part of a reach to be inter- 
 rupted. 
 
 Finally special apparatus such as submarine glasses and electric lamps, 
 should in case of need be made use of to seek for any growing damages, 
 as well as for any obtacles likely to injure the boats. 
 
 The application of these measures would without doubt result, if not 
 
IN THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN REGIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 13 
 
 in an entire suppression of the stoppages, at least a notable reduction in 
 their frequency and duration. 
 
 But the advantages which this reduction would obtain for the boats and 
 commerce, would without doubt be far from compensating the charges 
 imposed on the Treasury, considering that the normal maintenance of the 
 canals and canalized rivers can be assured under existing conditions, by 
 stoppages of ten to twelve days a year. 
 
 Compiegne, 1“ May, 1892. 
 
 /Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris.) 
 
• •; 
 
 7\ 
 
IN FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M GUSTAVE CAPTIEB 
 
 Mem lire Sccri'lnii’c tic In Clinmliiv sywlicak* <l« la Marino (navigation inlerienrc), Paris. 
 
 In presenting li is report on t lie fifth question figuring in the programme 
 of the Fifth Congress on inland navigation, and relating to « stoppages on 
 canals and canalised rivers)), the author has sought to confine his treatment 
 of the subject within Hie narrow limits which the large number of works 
 submitted to the Congress imposes on all. 
 
 He had neither the intention nor the pretension, therefore, to treat the 
 question exhaustively. Ilis sole object was to establish a platform for 
 discussion, convinced that a final examination of all the views submitted 
 will alone yield a complete solution of the problems under consideration. 
 
 Indusfrial stoppages are indeniably a shortcoming both technical and 
 economical. They were frequent in the beginnings ot the various indus- 
 tries, and the efforts of each and all have constantly tended to a reduction 
 and the final suppression of them. That object has in general been reach- 
 ed, at least in a technical point of view. A factory nowadays never stops 
 working. Where even an industry receives its habitual motive power lrom 
 running water, a steam-engine is usually at hand, by way of precaution, in 
 case the first means should at any time give out. 
 
 Inconveniencies of Stoppages. 
 
 In general stoppages no longer result but from economical causes, over- 
 production, crushing competition, or workmen’s strikes. In this connec- 
 tion, by an effect of the law of compensations, and most logically, in pro- 
 portion as the mechanical tool improves, the human tool becomes less 
 tractable and the industrial condition more difficult. 
 
 I G 
 
 CAPTIEK. 
 
2 
 
 STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALISED RIVERS 
 
 / 
 
 There arc, however, certain industries which, up to the present time, 
 remain more liable than olhers to enforced stoppages. I allude to Ihoso 
 which are more immediately subjected to the un avoidable inclemencies 
 of nature. Transports, in particular, are of the number. But, for cer- 
 tain olhers — specially those by railroad — science and the free play of 
 interests have been able to suppress them all. 
 
 The same cannot be said of transports by water and barge traffic. 
 
 The element which bears them, places them at the mercy of all the 
 extreme variations of the temperature; drought in summer, ice in winter, 
 fogs and floods for the two intermediary seasons. They arc impeded by 
 these various natural causes during a month or a month and a half each 
 year. 
 
 It is easy to see what losses are entailed on them and what difficulties 
 such conditions create in the competition which they have to sustain. 
 
 But it is precisely because the obstacles to inland navigation, arising 
 from these three causes, are unfortunately too frequent and prolonged that 
 science and capital should have been found willing to help to attenuate as 
 far as may be those natural impediments. Now, it has not always been so. 
 
 The expansion of industry and commerce within the last half century 
 having coincided with the apparition of railroads, which had the advan- 
 tage ot speed and regularity, all effort and favour were lavished in that di- 
 rection. While the working of railroads was every way perfected in the 
 most remarkable and, we may add, productive manner, that of our rivers 
 and canals remained well-nigh rudimentary, especially as regards vehicles 
 and machinery. 
 
 For this reason again it was necessary that the trammels and hinderances 
 borne by navigation in its circulation should be reduced as much as pos- 
 sible. This has been attempted, but without obtaining as yet sufficient 
 results. 
 
 The conditions, it is time, arc more difficult. While on railroads and 
 ordinary routes circulation may be ensured by means of certain precau- 
 tionary measures, and while executing the works of maintenance and even 
 new works, the case is otherwise on an important part of our navigable 
 ways, our canals and canalised Tivers. If sometimes, at additional expense, 
 it is possible to prevent their running dry, one is more often obliged to 
 have recourse to drainage for repairs or the construction of dams, locks, 
 the restoration of troughs, etc. This process render the works less .expen- 
 sive, more rapid and safer. Recourse to it therefore is usual, and the 
 facilities it affords are such that it is applied not only to works where it is 
 indispensable, but the same occasion is turned to account for executing 
 those also which might be done without stoppage. Thus every year barge- 
 traffic incurs stoppages in circulation varying from fifteen days to two months 
 on the greater number of its lines. These stoppages, added to those which 
 arise from natural inclemencies, entail definitively a loss of work of about 
 
IN FRANCE. 
 
 6 
 
 llircc months every year. Scarcely any other industry may be found to 
 be so sorely tried, and one readily understands how heavily such a state 
 of things must weigh on barge traffic. In the North, for instance, where 
 obslruclions of the kind are the most numerous, that period largely repre- 
 sents the duration of a full addilionnal voyage, which would singularly 
 ameliorate its situation. One understands therefore thal it should always 
 have complained, and while admitting the necessity of stoppages, that it 
 should have protested against t heir exaggerated duration. 
 
 Commerce also suffers thereby, on account of the burden imposed by 
 the supplies which it is obliged to make in view of the stoppage in the 
 arrival of victuals and the losses it incurs by the delays in its expeditions. 
 
 One might be led to suppose that the great plan for rendering uniform 
 the conditions of navigation on our system of waterways, draught at two 
 metres and locks at 38 m. 50 and 5 m. 20, would have brought about 
 longer stoppages. If we go back forty years and mark what took place in 
 1850, we find indeed 35 days of stoppage on the lateral canal of the Oise, 
 51 on that of the Ardennes, 68 on that of the Centre and 92 on that of the 
 Berry. In 1855 we have 57 days on the canal de Briare. In 1860 we 
 note 50 days on the canal of the Cenlre and lateral canal of the Loire, 
 30 days on those of St. Quentin, the lateral canal of the Aisne and the late- 
 ral canal of the Oise. Nothing of the sort, however, has taken place. 
 The cause of stoppages has changed, that is all. Nowadays it is on account 
 of the works; formerly it was more particularly attributable to the diffi- 
 culty in the water-supply. 
 
 Since 1880, whether the science of the engineer has improved, or whether 
 he disposes of a personnel of contractors better posted and furnished with 
 better tools, whether again the more recent interference of the public in its 
 own affairs have given greater activity to administrative routine, or that 
 the extension of transports by water induced the feeling that it was neces- 
 sary to proceed less slowly in order not to leave in sufferance interests more 
 and more important and active, whatever the cause there is no denying 
 that stoppages tend to be seriously reduced, and the general idea of their 
 attenuation as far as possible spreads more and more. 
 
 Epoch of Stoppages. 
 
 The epoch of stoppages is determined in its extreme limits by various 
 technical and economical conditions. Among the former the two principal 
 arc, for rivers, the lesser height of the waters and, for canals, the most 
 advantageous moment for filling the reaches. Among the latter, in the 
 first place the necessity ot a period of activity sufficiently prolonged after 
 the interruptions of winter to renew the exhausted supplies, and next in 
 view of winter certain commercial necessities and habits. 
 
STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALISKl) 1UVE1IS 
 
 ■ 4 
 
 These conditions, which as a whole musl he taken into account and, as 
 far as may he, rendered accordant, have contributed to fix after the spring, 
 between the month of June and the close of September, as the proper lime 
 for stoppages. 
 
 A certain difference of dales w hich arises precisely from variance in the 
 economical and commercial conditions lias always subsisted between stop- 
 pages in the North and bast and those of the Centre. The former com- 
 mence earlier Ilian the latter. 
 
 Nevertheless, a marked tendency has been manifested within the last 
 few years to advance the date of beginning stoppages in the North. Instead 
 of commencing in August, as was the case forty years ago, they nowadays 
 set in six weeks earlier. The date of June 15 seems to have been adopted. 
 
 Stoppages in the North are established by common consent with Belgium 
 and in accordance with those of the Belgian lines, in order to facilitate the 
 relations by water which are continual between the two countries, the 
 French coal production being insufficient for the consumption and certain 
 Belgian qualities not being found on our soil. The necessities of our 
 neighbours lias no doubt therefore played a part in this modification of 
 date. The same bolds good for a few large interests, specially those of 
 our French coal-mines, and those of the port of Dunkirk in its timber trade 
 with Norway. 
 
 Beyond these reasons, it does not appear that the advance given to the 
 date for commencing stoppages in the North can be explained otherwise 
 than by considerations that hand-labour is easier, the temperature less 
 severe, and above all that the reaches may be more readily filled, conside- 
 rations which formerly would have been neglected. 
 
 In the Centre, no modifications have been made in Ibis respect. Stop- 
 pages to-day begin as they did forty years ago at the clo-c of July and the 
 commencement of August, a period which has always given satisfaction in 
 that region and to which it adheres. 
 
 Successive and simultaneous Stoppages. 
 
 In these latter times another question has also arisen, that of the suc- 
 cessiveness or the simullaneousncss of stoppages. 
 
 The old system was that of consecutive stoppages. It consisted in fixing 
 the dates at which successive stoppages commenced, so that a boat, start- 
 ing from a shore in the North, from the environs of Douai, for instance, 
 a short while before stoppage began on the Scarpe, might, by gradually 
 anticipating the dates at which navigation closed on the canal of Saint- 
 Quentin and the lateral canal of the Oise, reach Conflans, in the river 
 Seine, without impediment. 
 
 Theoretically, the successive dates at which stoppages of the lines giving 
 
IN FRANCK. 
 
 iulo each other commenced were lo have intervals equal to the num- 
 ber of days required to navigate those lines. So that in order fully to 
 avail itself of this arrangement, a boat had to start early enough to x^each 
 the cxti'cmily of the first portion of its route on the very day this section 
 was closed to circulation. Such was the fundamental principle of conse- 
 cutive stoppages. 
 
 There was evidently here ascertain complication, an estimate and a fore- 
 sight on the part of the mariner or his employers. Still, the difficulty was 
 not great, journeys were localised into regions and not of loo great an 
 extent, the diversity in the conditions of navigability not allowing boats 
 of a certain draught lo ply everywhere. 
 
 Obstructions by this system were pretty frequent, all the boats desirous 
 to profit of the advantages offered crowding together for that purpose at 
 the same lime and at the same points. 
 
 Some engineers opened an inquiry within the last few years to as cer- 
 tain whether it would not prove of advantage to substitute, in lieu of this 
 somewhat complicated arrangement, another process which has been cal- 
 led simultaneous and which would consist in fixing a uniform date for 
 stoppages along the whole navigable system of waterways. 
 
 By this new plan all boats navigating would cease plying the same day, at 
 the same hour. 
 
 The idea seems to be gaining recognition at the present moment, at least 
 in the North. Within the last four or five years, stoppages in general 
 commence in that region on the 15"' of June. 
 
 This view appears to procce I above all from a desire to simplify. It 
 docs not seem to spring from the hope that boats may, in the near future, 
 undertake more lengthy journeys which would extend , into different 
 regions ; such a possibility cannot be attributed lo them. 
 
 Simullaneousness in stoppages is undeniably more simple, at once for 
 the Administration and for barge-traffic. But as regards obstruction, there 
 will be no great difference, the same cause subsisting. It is evident that 
 boats under way, as soon as warned that stoppage is impending, will all 
 crowd forward as much as they can either to reach the open parts along 
 theis course or a point as far advanced as possible whence they may 
 without delay resume their journey at the close of the stoppage. 
 
 Apart from the advantage of a possible voyage during the successive 
 delays at which stoppages commence along the different parts of a same 
 line, an advantage perhaps somewhat theoretical and which few mariners 
 could turn lo account, the difference, practicably, between the two methods 
 is not very striking. So that barge-traffic, while in the first instance some- 
 what surprised at the idea of simullaneousness and mistrustful as at eve- 
 rything tending to modify its habits, has now come round to a saner view 
 of the question. 
 
 But if it admits the principle, it discusses its application and does not 
 
STOPPAGES ON CANALS AND CANALISED RIVERS 
 
 6 
 
 Ihink that it should be generalised, in other words that the same date 
 should without great inconvenience serve for the whole length and breadth 
 of the territory. Both as regards the weighty question of filling the reaches, 
 as well as that of commercial habits and necessities, it is of opinion that 
 simultaneous dates should be fixed for large regions : the North and East 
 together, for instance; the Centre apart, as also the canals in the West and 
 South, whose waterways form local systems without continuous communi- 
 cations with the rest. 
 
 The question of the intermediate parts may be raised in this connection. 
 Two portions of the same course, with different dates at which stoppage 
 commences, may be separated by a free expanse like the Seine between 
 Conflans and Montereau. Or, it may be that they have between them only 
 one portion liable to stoppage, thus the South branch of the canal of the 
 East between the North branch of the Saone. 
 
 The desideratum would be that the boats reaching the extremity of the 
 North branch might usefully enter the Saone before stoppage in the circu- 
 lation on that river. But account should be taken ot the duration of the 
 intermediary journeys, of the nature of the most considerable commercial 
 interests which those parts serve. It is therefore difficult to appreciate 
 in principle at what dates their stoppages should be fixed, whether the 
 date of the one or the date of the other of the regions they connect or an 
 intermediary dale. 
 
 Besides, the discussions which may take place on the epochs of stop- 
 pages, on successiveness or simullaneousness, appear destined, we trust 
 at no distant dale, to have no very great practical result- 
 
 The great works underlaken on our navigable ways arc drawing to their 
 close and they would be even much more advanced if the necessities of the 
 budget had not considerably reduced the credits set apart fort them. 
 
 The constructive works will afterwards require nothing more than to be 
 maintained or repaired. Under those conditions, and except in the event 
 of exceptional circumstances, stoppages of 15 days may be sufficient; and 
 it will be easy to keep open the circulation between two extremities which 
 a double navigable line connects, such as Paris Lyons by the Burgundy and 
 Bourbonnais canals. 
 
 The efforts of the Administration should perserveringly tend towards 
 that definitive result. 
 
 It may be asked, however, what might be the technical or organic mea- 
 sures applicable until then to reduce as much as possible, during those 
 years of waiting, the duration of stoppages. 
 
 It is not our business to examine in detail the technical proceedings. 
 But the proceedings of organisation arc susceptible of improvement. Thus, 
 the placing of duplicates for machines, dams and locks within easy reach 
 of the various points of the system of waterways might be more extensively 
 generalised. Some details of the system of public lenders might also be 
 
IN FRANCE. 
 
 7 
 
 modified. No sorl of work requires so special an experience as works in 
 rivers; and it is the more needful for works to be executed during stop- 
 pages that the duration of these is more limited. There is no time for 
 groping, making disciples or experiments. Now, our system of public 
 lenders allows of any contractor furnished with certificates relating to any 
 sort of works to come forward and compete. Thus it only loo often happens 
 that men who have never done anything else than shovel roads, or earth- 
 works for railway lines, without particular technical knowledge, without 
 special material, or experienced foremen obtain contracts for constructing 
 bridges or locks which they undertake for the first lime and which they 
 carry out in a manner altogether insufficient. Such works would gain by 
 being given only to contractors who have furnished proofs of their ability 
 that way, or, in many cases, by being executed by the Stale. 
 
 Finally, the dates of contract should be fixed earlier, to allow of mate- 
 rials being brought and all the preliminaries got through earlier likewise, 
 so that effective work may commence exactly on the day stoppage com- 
 mences. 
 
 Such arc the considerations and views which an examination of the 
 question of stoppages suggested to us. 
 
 As was said at the outset, we hope they may suffice to provoke contra- 
 dictions, rectifications and additions, whose result will be to complete this 
 succinct and limited inquiry. 
 
 P 
 
 aris, March 10, 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn-Translalor, Paris.) 
 
 24 624. — Imprimerie generate A. Lahure, 9, rue de FIcurus, a Paris. 
 
PARIS 1892 
 
 6 th QUESTION 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 ON THE ERIE CANAL 
 
 WITH NOTES ON THE TRANSPORTATION OP COIL ON THE OHIO RIVER 
 
 REPORT 
 
 . BY 
 
 IDT." JOHN BOGART 
 
 Consulting Engineer, recently Stale Engineer of the State of New York. 
 
 PARIS 
 
 1MPRIMERIE GENERALE LA MURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE ELEURUS, 9 
 
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METHODS OE TRACTION 
 
 ON THE EIIIE CANAL 
 
 WITH NOTES ON THE TRANSPORTATION OF COAL ON THE OHIO RIVER 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. JOHN BOGART 
 
 Consulting Engineer, recently State Engineer of the Slate of New York. 
 
 The canal system of the Slate of New York has a length of 628 6/10 miles 
 (1011.6 kilometres). Connected with the system arc 44 aqueducts, 
 280 locks with an aggregate lift of 2 566 feet, 85 dams, 1108 bridges and 
 642 other structures, such as culverts, waste weirs, etc , making a total of 
 2 159 structures. 
 
 This whole canal system is the property of the State of New York and it 
 is maintained and administered by that Stale. The Slate has, from time to 
 time, enlarged its canals both in width and depth and has enlarged and 
 lengthened the locks, and the work of improvement still continues. 
 
 The navigation of the canale is entirely in private hands. All the boats 
 are owned and operated by private Companies. 
 
 THE ERIE CANAL 
 
 Tbe Eric Canal, the most important of the State canals, extends from 
 tide water of the Hudson river at Albany to Lake Erie at Buffalo, a distance 
 by tbe canal of 550 6/10 miles (561.2 kilometres). The elevation of the 
 water of Lake Erie at Buffalo above the tide water of the Hudson river at 
 Albany is 572 25/100 feet. The water from Lake Erie, however, does not 
 descend to the Hudson river, because there are two elevated, or summit, 
 levels on the canal, fed from storage reservoirs. The total lift of tlr„ 
 
 I G. 
 
 BOGAKT. 
 
2 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 7t2 locks of (he Erie canal is 651 65/100 feel. The heavy traffic on IheEric 
 canal goes eastward from Buffalo, the boats going west being generally 
 not more than half loaded. The heavy traffic has a favour able current for 
 295 miles and an unfavourable current for only 55 6/10 miles. The current 
 varies greatly at different points from a scarcely perceptible movement to 
 a velocity of 1 mile per hour, this latter, however, only occurring for a 
 short distance on the western division of the canal and in the direction of 
 the heavy traffic. The construction of the Erie canal was begun in 1817 
 and finished in 1825. 
 
 OTHER CANALS OF THE STATE 
 
 The other canals of the State are : the Champlain canal from tide water 
 on the Hudson river northerly to Lake Champlain, 65 5/4 miles, with 21 
 locks with lift of 175 feet, and its feeder lrom the upper Hudson, 12 miles, 
 with 15 locks with lift of 152 feet; the Oswego canal from the Erie canal 
 at Syracuse northerly to Lake Ontario, 58 miles, with 18 locks and liftol 
 155 feet; the Black River canal from the Erie canal at Rome northerly 
 to Black River, 55 miles, with 109 locks and lift of 1082 feet; the 
 Cayuga and Seneca canal from the Erie canal southerly to the lakes of Cen- 
 tral New York, 25 miles, with 1 1 locks and lift of 85 feet. Other short canals 
 make the total of 628 6/J0 miles. 
 
 Features of the Erie canal. 
 
 The Erie canal receives at Buffalo, its western terminus, grain and other 
 merchandise brought there by the Lake vessels from all points on the lakes 
 and carries this freight 550 6/10 miles to Albany whence it is taken on 
 the same canal boats on I he Hudson river 150 miles to the harbor of New 
 York, these boats running 500 miles without change of cargo. 
 
 This canal, giving economical facilities for transporting the products of 
 the great western country to the seaboard, has been ore of the most' 
 important elements in the development of the commercial prosperity of 
 the United Stales of America. It has for many years regulated the rate for 
 conveying grain from all parts of the West to the Atlantic ocean. In con- 
 nection with vos els on Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior it has 
 afforded a water route over which freight could be carried at rates which 
 prevented extortionate railroad charges, and it still continues to exercise 
 the same function and is a vital factor in the transportation of the neces- 
 saries of life and in the business of the world. The Stale of New York, by 
 maintaining the efficiency of this canal, has aided in securing and conti- 
 nuing the commercial supremacy of the city and harbor of New York as 
 compared with the other Atlantic ports of the United Slates. 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 Previous to January 1st, 1885, moderate tolls were imposed by the State, 
 but since that dale all tolls have been abolished and traffic on the canals 
 is entirely free. 
 
 A statement of the way freight is carried on this great canal, •‘350 6/10 
 miles in length, and of the changes and improvements in the methods of 
 such transportation since 1825 may be of interest. 
 
 The Erie canal of 1825 had a width at bottom of 28 feet; width at water 
 surface 40 feet; depth of water 4 feet; extreme length of locks 15 feet. 
 The maximum dimensions ofboats on that canal were : length 78 8/12 feet; 
 width 14 5/12 feel; draft of water 3 5/12 feet; capacity 80 tons. 
 
 In 1862 the enlargement ol the Erie canal was completed with its pre- 
 sent dimensions, namely : width at bottom 52 1/2 feet; width at water sur- 
 face 70 feel; depth of water 7 feet; extreme length of locks 1 10 feet; width 
 of locks 18 feel; all locks are twin locks, that is to say at eacli point of 
 lockage there arc two locks side by side. 
 
 This provision of two locks side by side substantially doubles the effec- 
 tive capacity of the canal and prevents the delay which would occur by 
 boats wailing for their turn at single locks. 
 
 A recent and most important improvement lias been the lengthening of 
 one of each of these twin locks so that two boats, one in front of the other, 
 can be passed at one operation of the lock. This lengthening has been 
 completed for 58 locks and will doubtless be continued and applied to most 
 of the other locks. 
 
 The Erie canal with its present dimensions carries boats with a length 
 of 98 feet, width of 17 1/2 feet, draft of water of 6 feet and capacity of 
 250 tons. 
 
 Methods of traction. 
 
 Previous to the year 1871 the whole traffic of the canals of the State of 
 Ney York was moved by animal power, the boats being towed by horses or 
 mules. These boats were, until about the year 1877, run singly, each 
 boat being towed by two horses or mules, alternating with two others in 
 regular reliefs. The single boat requires a crew of four men. 
 
 Single boats are still used for way traffic but all horse boats carrying 
 through freight are now run in pairs, one boat being directly behind the 
 other, the bow and stern being in actual contact. The boats are connec- 
 ted by ropes running from the stern of the forward boat through blocks on 
 each side of the rear boat and returning to a steering wheel on the forward 
 boat. (See plate 1.) These ropes arc not connected with the rudder of 
 the rear boat, which is left to swing freely, and the boats are steered by 
 using the whole rear boat as a rudder. The boats thus connected are 
 steered with ease. This method of running boats in pairs results in con- 
 siderable economy as compared with single boats. The latter require for 
 
4 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 continuous running o crew of at least four men and four horses or mules. 
 The coupled boats can he worked with the same number of men, or 
 with at most one more man and with six horses or mules, three towing at 
 a time. A double cargo is thus carried at much less than double expense. 
 The lengthening of the locks above referred to enables these coupled boats 
 to pass through without separation. Each boat carries from 250 to 
 250 tons. They consume from 9 to 10 days in going from Buffalo to 
 Albany, 550 miles, including the passage of the 72 Erie canal locks and 
 ordinary delays. At Albany they are, with other similar boats, joined in 
 
 a fleet and towed by steam 150 miles to New York, which consumes about 
 three days. Here they discharge cargo, take on such westward freight as 
 may be secured and return to Buffalo, the westward trip taking about the 
 same time as the eastward one. The Current is adverse going west but the 
 average westward cargo is oidy about 42 per cent, of the full eastward 
 freight. With five days allowance at Buffalo and New York there is one 
 month consumed in a round trip and as the Erie canal season is usually 
 seven months, May 1st, to December 1st only seven trips of these horse-boats 
 can be made under favorable circumslances, while any delays, such as 
 may frequently occur, reduce the number of trips to six during a season. 
 
 These boats cost about $5500 each. Their model is about the same as 
 that of the boats propelled by steam, described hereafter. 
 
 The speed of the boat towed by horse-power is about 1,44 miles per 
 hour for eastward bound boats which have the benefit of the eastward 
 current perhaps on an average one-quarter of a mile per hour, giving an 
 average speed over the canal of about 1 3/5 miles per hour. 
 
 Steam propulsion. 
 
 In the year 1871 the Legislature of the Slate of New York enacted a law- 
 inviting the introduction upon the canals of the State of some better 
 methods for the propulsion of boats than animal power. This law created 
 a commission to practically test and examine inventions or devices which 
 might be submitted and providing for awards amounting to $100000.00 
 to be paid to the owners of such inventions or devices as should be ccrli- 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 5 
 
 fied by this Commission as entitled thereto under the provisions of the 
 law. The requirements were that the inventions or devices should he 
 tided at the cost of the owners, that the boats should carry in addition to 
 machinery and fuel at least 200 tons of cargo, that the speed should not 
 he less than an average of three miles an hour without injury to the 
 canals or their structures; that the boats should be readily stopped and 
 backed by their own machinery; that simplicity, economy and durability 
 should be elements of consideration ; that the devices should be readily 
 adapted to existing canal boats and that they should lessen the cost and 
 increase the facility of transportation on the canals. 
 
 The first models and devices presented to the Commission were designed 
 to overcome the wave which it was supposed speed of three miles an 
 hour would cause to an extent to create damage to the banks. The Com- 
 mission however found that this difficulty did not exist to any injurious 
 extent, at that speed, and that a wave of sufficient height to be detrimental 
 was caused rather by a higher speed than by any form of machinery for 
 propulsion. Boats now carrying freight on the canal and running more 
 than three miles an hour do not injure the banks. Boats carrying passen- 
 gers and light freight which occasionally run at speeds of from six to ten 
 miles an hour do cause injurious waves. The Commission found it 
 necessary to irdorm those who were interested of these facts. 
 
 During the first season of the Commission’s work only one steamer, 
 the Dawson, was officially considered, this having a screw' in the bow 
 forcing the water backward through a passage underneath the boat. This 
 boat did not comply with the requirements. During the second season, 
 1872, there were 12 steamers presented for the consideration of the Com- 
 mission, only three of which made the three trips from New York to 
 Buffalo and return which were required as a test by the Commission. All 
 of these were propelled by steam. One, the William Newman, had a sin- 
 gle four-bladed screw moved by an upright engine witli cylinder 12 inches 
 diameter and 12 inches stroke. Another, the William Baxter, had two 
 third-bladed screws moved by a compound condensing engine with cylin- 
 ders seven and 12 inches in diameter and 12 inches stroke. The third, 
 the Port Byron, had a concave bow below the water line with a rectangu- 
 lar passage along the bottom of the boat, terminating in a recess at the 
 stern where was placed a feathering paddle wheel 10 inches in diameter, 
 moved by a double non-condensing engine, cylinders 12 inches in diameter 
 and 24 inches stroke. The other nine boats offered had various peculia- 
 rities. None ol the trials were entirely satisfactory, but the Commission 
 recommended a continuance of them the succeeding year, which was 
 authorized by the Legislature. 
 
 In 1873 five new boats were presented, none with any special pecu- 
 liarities except one which was propelled by a compound rotary engine 
 and had the screw located in the bow with a passageway under the boat, 
 
6 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 running to the stern. It was found howewer that this boat went much 
 hotter backwards than forwards, and she was run in that manner during 
 the season. Another boat, the Stale of New York, was similar to the 
 Baxter of the previous season but somewhat larger and having two high 
 pressure cylinders and one low pressure cylinder actuating a single four- 
 bladed screw. A public trial of these boats was made, with the result that 
 the Commission recommended a payment by the Stale to the owner of 
 the Stale of New York of the sum of $ 5b 000, on condition that he 
 place upon the canals of the Slate during the next season seven steamboats 
 fully equipped and equal to the State of New York; also to the owner of 
 the William Newman a payment of $ 15 000 on condition that he place 
 upon the canals during the next season three steamboats, fully equipped 
 and equal to the boat William Newman ; and to the owner of the boat 
 Central City, on condition that boat was put in service the next season, 
 the sum of S 5 000. These conditions were all complied with and the 
 amounts named were paid by the Stale, upon the certificate of the Slate 
 Engineer. 
 
 The changes since that time in method of propulsion on the canals 
 have been in the improvement of some of the details of these steamboats, 
 resulting in the present steam canal boat which will be directly described, 
 and also in the use of these steamboats to convey through the canal one, 
 three or five ordinary, fully loaded canal boats, moved by the one boat. 
 The plan which has been generally adopted is that in which the steamer 
 pushes in front of it one ordinary boat. The boat and steamer are kept 
 together by two connextions, shown in figure 2, one on each side of the 
 
 boats. A powerful spring C keeps the arm D constantly in tension as 
 long as the lever E is below a horizontal line, the spring also by its force 
 at B preventing the lever rising. To uncouple the connection the arm E 
 is raised about its center A, thus relieving the tension. Lines from each 
 side hold the bow of the steamer in line with the stern-post of the boat in 
 front. The two are thus rigidly connected and are steered as one boat by 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 7 
 
 the rudder of the steamer. The steamer also tows behind it, by a cable 5 
 inches diameter and from 350 to 400 feet long, two ordinary canal boats, 
 these two being kept together by ropes, as in the coupled horseboats des- 
 cribed above. The majority of the steamers now in service on the canal 
 are run in this way, but some of larger power add also two additional 
 boats, coupled together in the same way. The steamer carries, in addi- 
 tion to its fuel, a cargo of 180 tons, and each of the three other boats carry 
 a cargo of 250 tons. 
 
 The trip of these Heels from Buffalo to the Hudson river at Albany is 
 now made with less detention than necessarily occurred before the leng- 
 thening of the locks. The long distances which boats now travel without 
 separating the two coupled boats are 52 miles, 97 miles, 135 miles and 
 57 miles. The authorities of the Stale contemplate the lengthening ot 
 additional locks so that a division of the boats need only occur at a very- 
 few points, one of these being at Lockport, 52 miles from Buffalo, where 
 there are five combined locks, with a total lift of 57 1/2 feet and another 
 point at Cohoes, 7 miles from Albany, where I here are 16 locks very close 
 together, with a total lift of 163 3/4 feet. On arriving at Hie Hudson 
 river the four boats are joined together, one of the ordinary boats in front, 
 two flanking it at the sides and the steamer in the rear with its how be- 
 tween these two. The four boats are propelled by the steamer and steered 
 as though one boat, the fleet being about 215 feel long and over 50 feel 
 wide. 
 
 The steam canal boat. 
 
 The present standard steam canal boat is 18 feet width and 90 feet length. 
 The hulls are built with either oak or pine. The oak hulls have 5 to 4 
 inch ribs, spaced about 15 inches center to center and planked with oak 
 two inches thick in long strips. The pine hulls have oak frames at the 
 bow and stern, but the midship portion is made of 5 inch pine bolted 
 together by long vertical bolts, thus securely clamping the whole side. 
 
 The forward cabin is used by the Captain and his family and may be 
 divided by folding doors into three compartments. The middle cabin 
 forward of the coal box has the bunks for the crew. The upper portion 
 of the pilot house is in sections for removal when running without 
 cargo. 
 
 The engine was designed by Gordon W. Hall and is commonly known 
 as the Hall engine. ^Another engine desined hv the Pound Manufacturing- 
 Company has been placed upon a number of boats. 
 
 Both these engines are simple condensing engines with cylinders of 12 
 to 14 inches diameter and 16 inches stroke. They have adjustible cut-off 
 gear, feed water heaters and surface condensers. The feed and air 
 pumps are worked by a single beam, usually connected by eccentric 
 
8 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 to the shaft, but sometimes to the crosshead. The arrangement for 
 securing circulation of water for l he condenser is peculiar. The circula- 
 tion is accomplished by flic motion of the boat and of the screw, the water 
 being forced up, without pumping, through the opening in the bottom of 
 through the condenser and out at the stern. The method is successful 
 and gives a vacuum of 24 inches. 
 
 A number of boats have been built with a steeple compound engine, 
 designed by Henry G. Trout, called the Trout engine. In these engines 
 the high pressure cylinder is ten inches in diameter, the low pressure 
 cylinder eighteen (18) inches in diameter and the common stroke fourteen 
 (14) inches. The valves are rotary, three in number, the upper one being 
 adj ust i hie by a sliding bar. The feed water heater, condenser and pumps 
 are similar to those in the llall and Pound engines. 
 
 Two kinds of boilers are in use. The horizontal boilers are about 
 eight feet long, five feet eight inches in diameter and have about 
 120 direct tubes 2 1/2 inches in diameter and forty return lubes 3 inches 
 in diameter. 
 
 The vertical boilers also used have an interior cylindrical magazine for 
 coal, which is supplied at the top from roof of the boiler room. The 
 grates have an attachment for shaking them from the ousidc. The boilers 
 are from 0 1/2 feet to 11 1/2 feet in height and from 4 1/2 to 5 1/2 feel in 
 diameter and have about 100 direct tubes 2 1/2 inches in diameter and 
 about 55 return tubes three 2 1/2 inches in diameter. With these boilers 
 a small blower 12 to 15 inches in diameter is used, running about 
 5 600 revolutions a minute. 
 
 The smokestacks of all boats are hinged at the top of boiler and 
 counter weighted so as to be easily dropped when required. They fre- 
 quently also have an extra length of about six feet to he used when in 
 the river. 
 
 The coal burned is generally anthracite, although a few boats burn soft 
 coal. 
 
 Some boats have iron water tanks, hut most boats carry fresh water in 
 large casks while on the Hudson river, the water being more or less salt 
 for a distance of about 70 miles from New York ; these casks are stored at 
 Albany during the trip through the canal. The screws of these boats are 
 about six feet in diameter, with a pilch varying from G to 7 1/2 feet. 
 
 Actual performance of fleets propelled by steam on the Erie canal. 
 
 Observations of the actual performance of a number of the boats in ser- 
 vice on the canal show that the steamers of the types above described 
 (pushing one freight boat and towing two other freight boats and carrying- 
 cargoes of 180 tons on the steamer and 250 tons on each of the three other 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 9 
 
 boats, conveying in all 930 tons or 31 000 bushels of wheat), pass through 
 the canal at an average speed of 2 5/10 miles per hour through the water, 
 with a consumption of 20 1/2 pounds of coal per mile through the water. 
 These fleets require a crew of ten men, including the captain. The 
 average time spent in passing through the 550 miles of canal is 7 1/4 
 days and through the 145 miles of Hudson river 1 5/4 days or 9 run- 
 ning time. 
 
 These fleets actually make, during a season, seven round trips between 
 Buffalo and New York, the season being from May 1 st to December I s *. 
 The running time for these seven trips is 126 days; the remaining 
 98 days of the season being occupied in one or the other port, or in 
 waiting on account of delays from various causes, such as repairs to 
 breaks in the canal hanks, etc. No such length of time as 7 days is re- 
 quired loading and discharging cargo for on the average, either in New 
 York or Buffalo. 
 
 The steamers in service on the Erie canal during the season of naviga- 
 tion are not necessarily idle during the rest of the year. For example, 
 one steamer during the season of 1891, from March 12th to Deccmbre 3d, 
 made following trips : 
 
 Towing 
 
 5 oilier boats 2 trips, Buffalo to New York 
 
 Total miles 
 of steamer 
 travel. 
 
 , 990 
 
 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 1 
 
 — New' York to Buffalo 
 
 495 
 
 — 
 
 3 — 
 
 4 
 
 — Buffalo to New York 
 
 1,980 
 
 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 5 
 
 — New York to Buffalo 
 
 2,475 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 2 
 
 — New York to Philadelphia . . . 
 
 180 
 
 — - 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 — Philadelphia to New Haven. 
 
 1G3 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 — Philadelphia to New York . . . 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 — New Haven to New York. . . . 
 
 73 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 — New York to Baltimore .... 
 
 185 
 
 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 — Baltimore to New York .... 
 
 185 
 
 The steamer alone, 
 
 2 
 
 — New York to Bridgeport. . . . 
 
 112 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 — Bridgeport to New York. . . . 
 
 112 
 
 Tolal mileage of steamer, 2GG days, including delays in ports 
 
 7,040 
 
 The trips to New Haven and Bridgeport are through Long Island Sound ; 
 those to Philadelphia and Baltimore on the Bays of New York, Delaware 
 and Chesapeake and their connecting canals. 
 
10 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 Cost of transportation on Erie canal. 
 
 a. By Horse propulsion-two boats coupled, six horses. 
 
 Investment : 
 
 Boat $ 7,000.00 
 
 6 horses and harness 972.00 
 
 $ 7,072.00 
 
 Annual expenses : 
 
 Interest $ 478.00 
 
 Reserve to renew boat in 15 years. 284 '00 
 
 — horses in 6 — . 122.00 
 
 Repairs 354.00 
 
 Insurance on boat 150.00 
 
 Feed of animals 750.00 
 
 Wharfage in winter 28.00 
 
 $ 2,106.00 
 
 Wages 0 trips. $ 1,250.00 
 
 Incidental expenses. ... — . 100.00 
 
 Towing on river — . 540.00 
 
 Commissions — . 200.00 
 
 Insurance on cargo. ... — . 240.00 
 
 Warfage — . 30.00 
 
 $ 2,300.00 
 
 Total expenses one year. ... $ 4,520.00 
 
 These two coupled boats have a capacity of 250 tons each and if full loads 
 could be secured in each direction would carry, on each round trip, 
 1 000 tons; and in that case, if six trips were made during the season, they 
 would carry 6000 tons at a cost of $ 4526, or a cost of $ 0.754 per ton 
 carried 495 miles, or $ 0.00154 (154/100 mills) per ton mile. But full 
 loads are only had on the trip going east. A fair estimate for westward 
 freight is probably 100 tons for each horse boat or 200 tons for the two 
 boats each westward trip. The horse-boats in fact make only six round 
 trips in the season of canal navigation, May 1st to December 1st. The ton- 
 nage carried in these six trips would be, on the average : 
 
 Eastward 3,000 tons. 
 
 Westward 1,200 — 
 
 Total yearly 4,200 tons. 
 
 The cost, as stated above, being for the year S 4526, gives as the cost per 
 ton transported between Buffalo and New York, 495 miles, Si 077 and the 
 cost per ton mile $ 0.00218. 
 
 The eastward freight is generally wheat 3000 tons of which equal 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 11 
 
 100000 bushels. The average rate paid for wheat transported by canal 
 from Buffalo to New York during the season of 1891 was $ 0.055 
 (3 1/2 cents) per bushel. 
 
 The cost to the boatman upon the data above given is 5.231 cents per 
 bushel. He has to pay also certain charges in loading and unloading which 
 add about 0.275 cents per bushel, making the cost really 3.500 cents per 
 bushel, showing that unless larger return freights are secured the owner 
 of these two horse-boats cannot put asidb a proper amount annually for 
 renewal and repair. 
 
 If seven trips could he made in a season there would he a net profit of 
 about $360 in addition to the amount set aside for renewals and repairs. 
 
 b. Cost of Transportation by steam , one steamer and three other 
 boats : 
 
 Investment : 
 
 Steamer $ 7,200.00 
 
 3 boats 10,500.00 
 
 Fitting's. . . 800.00 
 
 $ 18,500.00 
 
 Annual expenses : 
 
 Interest $ 1,110.00 
 
 Reserve to renew boat in 15 years. 750.00 
 
 Repairs. 925.00 
 
 Insurance 575.00 
 
 Wharfage for winter 56.00 
 
 $ 3,216.00 
 
 Wages 7 trips. $ 2,982.00 
 
 Coal, oil, etc — . 1,120.00 
 
 Insurance on cargoes. . . — . 560.00 
 
 Commissions — . 434.00 
 
 Wharfage, etc — . 214.00 
 
 $ 5,310.00 
 
 Total expenses one year. ... $ 8,526.00 
 
 This fleet carries 180 tons on the steamer and 250 tons on each of the 
 other boats, 950 tons in all. If fully loaded each way it would carry 
 1 860 tons each round trip and in seven trips 13 020 tons at a cost of 
 $ 8 526.00, or per ton carried 495 miles $ 0,655, or per ton mile 
 $0.00132 (1.52/100 mills). 
 
 But full loads are not secured going west. The average loads secured 
 by steamer fleet in seven trips would he : 
 
 Eastward 6,500 tons. 
 
 Westward 3,962 — 
 
 Total for 7 (rips 40,472 tons. 
 
12 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 This at a yearly cost of S 8 526 gives cost per ton carried 
 
 495 milles S 0.8142 
 
 cost per ton mile $0.0164 
 
 and cost per bushel of wheat, Buffalo to New York, 2.445 cents and with 
 charges in loading and unloading 0.275 cents, the cosl per bushel will he 
 2.718 cents which at rates secured and mentioned above shows a fair profit 
 on the investment. 
 
 Work of horse-boats and of steam-fleets. 
 
 Horse-boats, two coupled together carrying 500 tons, actually transport 
 freight through the canals at a speed of about 1 5/5 miles per hour through 
 the water and when fully loaded both ways at a cost of I 54/100 mills per 
 ton mile. With the small loads carried westward the cost for the season 
 is 2 18/100 mills per ton mile. 
 
 Steamers pushing one freight boat and towing two freight boats, car- 
 rying in all 950 tons, actually transport freight through the canals at a 
 speed of 2 5/10 miles per hour through the water and when fully loaded 
 both ways at a cost of 1 52/100 mills per ton mile. With the small loads 
 carried westward the cost for the season is 1 64/100 per ton mile. 
 
 The improvements that can certainly he made in steam towage on these 
 canals are : 
 
 An improvement in the motive power by changes in the detail ol the 
 engines. Such changes can doubtless he effected so as to decidedly increase 
 the speed of the steam-fleets which could run up to at least three per hour 
 without injury to the canal. 
 
 A slight extension of the season of navigation by opening the canals ear- 
 lier than May 1st. 
 
 Constant care to preserve the full depth of seven feet at every point and 
 more vigilant inspection, if that is possible, to prevent leaks and breaks and 
 consequent delay. 
 
 With these provisions one more trip could be made each season, with 
 very great benefit to the interests of commerce. 
 
 Improvements which have been suggested for the State canals. 
 
 The Erie canal, with its present depth ol water of 7 feet, is probably as 
 efficient as such a canal could he made with the exception, perhaps, of a 
 few curves which arc more abrupt than is desirable for the navigation of 
 fleets of coupled boats. The worst of these curves have been rectified 
 however and if it shall be determined to maintain the canal at its present 
 depth, the others will probably be improved before long. A constant 
 expenditure is necessary in maintaining the canal in good condition. 
 
ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 13 
 
 Small streams entering deposit silt which must he removed, either hy 
 dredges during the season of navigation or hy excavation while Ihe canals 
 are closed. The banks require constant attention. As has been stated 
 above, the width at bottom is 52 1/2 feet and at Ihe water line 70 feet; 
 the slopes therefore on each side are 1 1/4 horizontal to 1 vertical. All 
 the banks are paved with what is called a slope wall built either of boulder 
 stones of moderate size, or of quarry stones, as may be found in Ihe adja- 
 cent country, and these walls are continued to the top and rounded over 
 the edge of the bank, the normal height of the bank being 2 feet above the 
 water surface. The low path is generally 18 feel in width and slopes 
 6 inches away from the canal in this width. The berme bank is 12 feet 
 in width, with a similar slope. Where the canal passes through towns and 
 at some other points, the slope wall is replaced hy a wall nearly vertical, 
 giving an opportunity for boats to receive and discharge cargoes. There 
 are also some parts of the canal where a timber and plank protection, 
 nearly vertical, has been used and has given very good results, of course 
 requiring occasional repair and renewal, but being more economical in 
 this country than a vertical wall of stone. There are many points along 
 the canals where the width greatly exceeds the standard dimensions, these 
 areas of wider water being used as storage basins to maintain the elevations 
 and prevent fluctuations of depth. If the locks should be lengthened, as 
 indicated above, the present canal will probably give all that can be deman- 
 ded from one of 7 feet depth of water. 
 
 Two radical improvements have been discussed, the first to secure one 
 additional fool in the depth of the water. This would best be secured by 
 raising Ihe banks. Careful experiments have shown that the resistance to 
 the boats now navigating the canal would be 15 per cent less than at 
 present and that, with the same tractive power, horse-boats would have 
 an increased speed such as to give 7 trips where now they accomplish six 
 and the same improvement would follow for the sleam-flects. The esti- 
 mated cost of this increased depth of one foot of water is $150 000. 
 
 The other suggested and still more radical improvement is to construct 
 a canal from Lake Eric to the Hudson river of sufficient depth and capacity 
 to enable the lake boats to go directly to New York. A careful study of the 
 engineering and commercial questions involved in this project is found in 
 a paper by Elnathan Sweet, then State Engineer of the State of New York 1 
 and the extended discussion printed with that paper. The canal proposed 
 was to he at least 18 feet deep and 100 feet wide at the bottom, with locks 
 450 feet long and 60 feel wide. The project is entirely practicable and 
 the cost would be between $ 125000 000.00 and $150 000 000.00. This 
 project is of the greatest interest but can only here be alluded to as one of 
 the possibilities of the future. 
 
 1. Tmnsacliuns , American Society of civil Engineers, 1885. 
 
14 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION 
 
 Cable towing on the Erie canal. 
 
 In 1872 a wire cable one inch in diameter was laid upon the bottom of 
 the Erie canal from buffalo to Lockport, 51 miles, and Ibis was continued 
 afterwards eastward and in 1879 there were over 80 miles of cable. Boats 
 fitted with arrangements for lowing by means of tliis cable were pul in 
 operation and considerable freight was transported in this way. Very 
 serious complaints, however, were made by the owners ol other boats, 
 both horse and steam, to the effect that the operation of towing by cable 
 resulted in constant serious delays to navigation and injury to other boats. 
 The subject was investigated by the authorities of the Stale and it was 
 found that the banks of the canal had suffered much injury at the location 
 of the frequent curves in alignment. This injury was not only from 
 abrasion of the cable but from the fact of its being left close to the bank 
 and often upon the bank of the canal, sometimes on lop of the towpalh, 
 the succeeding cable steamer had great difficulty in picking it up and was 
 often thrown against the bank, causing injury both to the structure and to 
 the boat, with great delay in passing these bends; Ibis delay being not 
 only to the cable tug and its low but to all other vessels navigating that 
 part of the canal. The principal difficulty, however, seems to have been 
 the delay and annoyance to the other boats. It was also found that the 
 cable method did not secure such an increase in speed as would warrant 
 its retention when opposed by those interested in all other methods of 
 transportation. The result was the abandonment of the system alter ten 
 years of trial. The cable has been removed and the system will probably 
 not again be attempted. 
 
 Notes on the transportation of coal on the Ohio river. 
 
 There is brought to Pittsburgh a very large amount of coal from the 
 mines on the upper rivers and a large portion of this is sent from Pitts- 
 burg down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to Cincinnati, Louisville, 
 St. Louis, New Orleans and intermediate points. The upper part of the 
 river through which this traffic passes has very swift currents and the 
 method of conducting the fleets of coal vessels is peculiar. 
 
 These vessels are of four kinds; first, coal boats which are simply large 
 boxes, built of hemlock planks 1 1/2 inches thick; they are about 170 feel 
 long, 26 feet wide and 10 feet deep. When loaded they draw 7 1/2 feet 
 of water and bold about 1 000 tons of coal; they cost about S 650,00. 
 These are sent from Pittsburgh to points below Louisville and are sold 
 with the coal, being generally broken up and used for other purposes 
 by the purchaser; occasionally they are brought back to Pittsburgh but 
 
15 
 
 ON TI1E ERIE CANAL. 
 
 arc never used for more Ilian three trips. Aboul 1 500 are sent down t lie 
 river each year and not more than 250 return. 
 
 The coal barge is more substantially built, of 6 inch pine in a durable 
 manner and ol a model similar to the canal boats of the Erie canal, here- 
 tofore described. They are 155 feet Jong, 20 feet wide and draw 7 1/2 feet 
 of water. I hey hold Irom 500 to 550 tons. They are used for the upper 
 cities, Cincinnati, Louisville and, at times, St. Louis and are in service 
 about 12 years ; they cost about S 1 500.00. 
 
 Ihe third style is the fuel boat, similar to but smaller than the coal 
 barge; they are about 90 feel long, 20 feet wide and draw, loaded, 4 feet 
 of water; they hold 250 tons. They cost about $050.00, are in service 
 about 10 years and carry Ihe fuel for the steamer which manages the tow. 
 
 The fourth style is called the « flat », somewhat smaller than the last, 
 about 90 feet long, 16 feet wide and hold about 150 tons. 
 
 From Pittsburgh to Louisville the boats arc run in fleets of about 10 to 
 15 boats; they are placed three abreast and at the stern there are two 
 boats with the steamer behind, its bow projecting between the two stern 
 boats about 20 feet. The whole tow is managed by ihe steamer from the 
 rear, as one boat. The current varies greatly in the river. The distance 
 lrom Pittsburgh to Louisville, 600 miles, is run in abonl 4 days. At Louis- 
 ville the boats are made up into larger fleets in the form indicated by 
 fig. 5, the steamer still in the rear, and the run in the Ohio river from 
 Louisville to Cairo, 400 miles, is made in 5 days, and in the Mississippi 
 from to Cairo to New Orleans, 970 miles, in about 16 days, including de 
 lays and stops. 
 
 Fig. 5. — Fleet of coal boa's and steamer, Ohio river. 
 
 The larger steamers used for this purpose are from 175 feel to 200 feet 
 in length, about 55 feet width, with a draft of 6 to 7 feet. They all have 
 stern wheels, paddle wheels not screw propellers. The smaller steamers 
 are about 150 to 150 feet long, 25 feet wide, and draw tip about 4 feet of 
 water. The engines arc double, high pressure, the larger ones having 
 cylinders of 24 inches diameter and 8 to 9 feet stroke and run about 
 15 revolutions per minute going down the river and about 20 going up. 
 The boilers arc about 26 feel in length, 40 inches in diameter and with 
 only two flues of a large size, running the full length. The ordinary 
 tubular boilers arc not used because the water of the river is full of silt 
 and these large Hues fre|ucntly burn out. Extra sheets arc always kept 
 on board, cut and drilled for the ri vetting, so that they can be put on 
 without delay. The pressure is generally about 170 pounds per square 
 
16 
 
 METHODS OF TRACTION ON THE ERIE CANAL. 
 
 inch. Slack coal is used and one large steamer will burn about 50 tons 
 per day descending the river with a tow, and 40 to 50 ascending against 
 the current at a speed of 4 to 5 miles per hour. The stern wheels of the 
 large steamers are 21 feet in diameter; they are steered with triple rud- 
 ders. The cost of transportation of coal from Pittsbuigh to New Orleans is 
 about one dollar per ton, or $ 0.000 51 per ton mile, or 51/100 mill per 
 ton mile. 
 
 Steam towage on the Illinois and Michigan canal. 
 
 The method of transportation on this canal, running southerly from 
 Lake Michigan at Chicago, is so similar in general to the methods employed 
 on the Erie canal that no description in detail will be here given, the cau- 
 tion of the authorities of the Congress requesting brevity in these papers 
 being remembered. 
 
 New York, July 1 81)2. 
 
 25191 — Impriinerie generale A. Laliure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 
V th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 6 th QUESTION 
 
 TRACTION 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. MUTZE 
 
 Inspector of Hydraulic Works, at Goblcntz 
 
 PARIS 
 
 1MPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 189 2 
 

 i , 
 
 \ 5 
 
 \ . 
 
 t- \ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALS 
 
 CANALISED RIVERS 
 
 AND FREE RIVERS OF THE RHINE BASIN 
 
 RE POUT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. MUTZE 
 
 nspccto Hydraulic Works, at Coblcntz 
 
 The Rhine and its tributaries offer great facilities to navigation. Their 
 natural navigability has been very much increased by works of regulation 
 and canalisation due to t he care of riparian Stales. Junction canals con- 
 necting fluvial ways and different centres of traffic have also been con- 
 structed. 
 
 The following is a synoptical table of the canals and natural water-courses, 
 canalised or not, at present to be found in the Rhine basin. 
 
 The foregoing (able shows that the present system of navigable ways in 
 the Rhine basin measures 3 209 kilometres, to wit : 
 
 16 per cent, in canals 
 
 15 — — canalised rivers. 
 
 71 — — regulated — 
 
 Regulated rivers offer by far the most important factor, on account ol 
 their length and the value of their traffic. This characteristic feature is due 
 to the fact that the transports on regulated waterways are effected by 
 steam and by boats of more than 10 000 cwt. burden, as steam navigation 
 amounts to : 
 
 4 per cent of the canals and canalised rivers, 
 
 70 — — regulated rivers. 
 
 Ships exceeding 10 000 cwt. burden sail on : 
 
 t Or 
 
 MUTZE. 
 
 4 per cent of the canals and canalised rivers, 
 56 — — regulated rivers. 
 
9 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 es 
 
 e 
 
 is 
 
 y. 
 
 NAME 
 
 O F W A T F. R W A Y 
 
 NAVI- 
 
 GABLE 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 in 
 
 kiloin. 
 
 DISTANCE 
 
 COVERED 
 
 by 
 
 stea- 
 
 mers 
 
 MAXIMUM TONNAGE OF BOATS 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 under 
 
 5,000 
 
 cwt 
 
 5.000 
 to 
 
 10.000 
 cwt 
 
 10,000 
 
 to 
 
 20,000 
 
 cwt 
 
 20,000 
 
 to 
 
 30,000 
 
 cwt 
 
 
 Idiom. 
 
 kilom. 
 
 kilom. 
 
 kilom. 
 
 kilom 
 
 
 1. 
 
 — Canals. 
 
 
 i 
 
 The canals of Alsacc-Lor- 
 
 
 mine 
 
 
 » 
 
 313.5 
 
 » 
 
 2.5- 
 
 » 
 
 * Canal from the III to 
 
 2 
 
 The Saar coal-mine canal. 
 
 67.5 
 
 » 
 
 67 5 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 the Rhine. 
 
 3 
 
 The Ludwig canal .... 
 
 104.2 
 
 » 
 
 101.2 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 4 
 
 The Frankenthaler canal. 
 
 4.4 
 
 » 
 
 4.4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 5 
 
 The Erst canal 
 
 3.4 
 
 3.4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 5.4 
 
 
 (1 
 
 The Rheinberger canal. . 
 
 3.4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 5.4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 7 
 
 The Spoy canal 
 
 10.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 10.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 508.9 
 
 3.4 
 
 489.6 
 
 13.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.4 
 
 
 11. — Canalised rivers. 
 
 
 i 
 
 Lower III 
 
 6.4 
 
 n 
 
 6.4 
 
 
 „ 
 
 » 
 
 ' Main as far as Frank- 
 
 2 
 
 Lower Main and Regnitz . 
 
 39.2 
 
 36.0‘ 
 
 5.2 
 
 » 
 
 36.0 
 
 » 
 
 fort. 
 
 3 
 
 The Lahn 
 
 142.0 
 
 » 
 
 142.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 •i 
 
 I'pper Moselle and middle 
 
 
 Saar 
 
 65.0 
 
 » 
 
 65.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 5 
 
 The Ruhr 
 
 75.0 
 
 » 
 
 75.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 
 r> 
 
 The Lippe 
 
 99.0 
 
 » 
 
 99.0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 426.6 
 
 36.0 
 
 590.6 
 
 » 
 
 36.0 
 
 » 
 
 
 III. - 
 
 - Free and regulated rivers. 
 
 
 l 
 
 Lake of Constance with the 
 
 
 Rhine as far as SchafT- 
 
 
 hausen 
 
 230.4 
 
 230 4 
 
 166,4 
 
 64.0* 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 * Lindau-Constance and 
 
 2 
 
 The Rhine from Basle lo 
 
 
 Fried richshafen. 
 
 
 Rotterdam, Leek inclu- 
 
 
 2 Strasburg-Rotterdam . 
 
 
 ded 
 
 946.0 
 
 819. 0 2 
 
 127.0 
 
 » 
 
 131.0 
 
 688.0 5 
 
 3 Mannheim-Rotterd". 
 
 J 
 
 Middle 111 
 
 81.5 
 
 » 
 
 81.5 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 4 
 
 Neck a r 
 
 189.0 
 
 127.0* 
 
 62.0 
 
 127.0* 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 1 Heilbronn-Mannheim. 
 
 5 
 
 Main and Regnitz 
 
 561.0 
 
 215. 0 6 
 
 5.6 
 
 35. 4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 “ Wiirzburg-Frankfort. 
 
 6 
 
 Moselle and Lower Saar . 
 
 582.3 
 
 189.5“ 
 
 276.5 
 
 106 0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 8 Treves-Coblentz. 
 
 7 
 
 Lower Lippe 
 
 83 0 
 
 “ 
 
 83 0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 2,275.2 
 
 1,580.7 
 
 801.8 
 
 652.4 
 
 131.0 
 
 688.0 
 
 
 Aggregate totals. . . 
 
 3,208.7 
 
 1,620.1 
 
 1,688.2 
 
 665.8 
 
 169.5 
 
 691.4 
 
 
 In order thoroughly lo investigate the various modes of navigation in 
 use as well as the technical conditions required, the existing movement of 
 vessels and the administrative rules applied, it is necessary to class into 
 groups, according to their geographical position, the water-courses herein 
 examined, as follow : 
 
 1 . The Lake of Constance and the connecting section of the Rhine as far 
 as Schaffhausen. 
 
RHINE BASIN 
 
 o 
 
 2. The Alsace-Lorraine canals comprising the Saar coal-mine canal and 
 the canalised Saar. 
 
 5. The Neckar. 
 
 4. The Main, with the Regnitz and the Ludwig Canal. 
 
 5. The Moselle and the free flowing Saar. 
 
 6. The Lalin, Ruhr and Lippe. 
 
 7. The Rhine below Rasle, with the Frankenthal, Erlt, Rheinbcrg and 
 
 Spoy canals. 
 
 1. The Lake of Constance and the Rhine as far has Schaffhausen. 
 
 The Lake of Constance, comprising the Ucberling Lake and the Lower 
 Lake, and the connecting section of the Rhine down to Schaffhausen, form 
 the upper navigable portion of the Rhine basin, which may he classed 
 separately. 
 
 Here the following lines of traffic are to be found. 
 
 NAME 
 
 OF 
 
 WATERWAY 
 
 COURSE 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 of 
 
 BOATS 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 on the 
 
 USUAL MODE 
 
 of 
 
 locomotion 
 
 of boats 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 low 
 water 
 mark 
 2.65 
 at V 
 at Con 
 
 t 
 
 average 
 water- 
 level 
 3.80 
 r. M. 
 stance 
 
 KIND OF 
 
 LENGTH \ 
 
 M A A 
 
 H 
 
 Q 
 
 I M U 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 W 
 
 O 
 
 f. 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Cwt 
 
 
 1. Lake of Cons- 
 
 45.0 
 
 Bregcnz 
 
 Constance 
 
 
 Passenger- 
 
 55.4 
 
 6.5 
 
 1 45 
 
 800 
 
 Steamship navi- 
 
 tance. 
 
 40.0 
 
 Lindau 
 
 » 
 
 
 steamers 
 
 
 gation for pas- 
 
 
 24.0 
 
 Fried richshaf" 
 
 » 
 
 
 Ferry-boats. . 
 
 73.1 
 
 lt.O 
 
 1.60 
 
 6,500 
 
 sengers and goods 
 
 
 14 0 
 
 Immenstaad 
 
 » 
 
 
 (steam) 
 
 
 by means of : 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 Meersburg 
 
 » 
 
 
 paddle and 
 
 
 screw steamers, 
 
 
 Iron Boats. 
 
 
 towing, sailing 
 
 2. Lake of Ue- 
 
 5.0 
 
 Immenstaad 
 
 Uagenau 
 
 
 Ferry-boats. . 
 
 42.0 
 
 9.3 
 
 1.65 
 
 6,000 
 
 boats. 
 
 berlingen. 
 
 4.0 
 
 Uagenau 
 
 Meersburg 
 
 
 Tugs 
 
 52.8 
 
 6 7 
 
 1.65 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 Meersburg 
 
 Staad 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 Slaad 
 
 Mainau 
 
 
 Wooden 
 
 Boats. 
 
 
 3. Lower Lake 
 
 3.0 
 
 Mainau 
 
 Unteruhldinge 
 
 
 Sailers. . . . 
 
 21.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.20 
 
 1,500 
 
 
 and Lake of 
 
 G.O 
 
 Meersburg 
 
 » 
 
 
 Half-sailers. . 
 
 18.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.00 
 
 800 
 
 
 Zell. 
 
 6 0 
 
 Unteruhldinge 
 
 Diegelsdorf 
 
 
 3.0 
 
 Diegelsdorf 
 
 Ueberlingen 
 
 
 10 0 
 
 Ueberlingcn 
 
 Bodmann 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 Bodmann 
 
 Ludwigshafcn 
 
 
 7.8 
 
 Constance 
 
 Reichenau 
 
 
 Passenger- 
 
 59.5 
 
 9.3 
 
 1.20 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 Reichenau 
 
 Rudolfzell 
 
 
 steamers 
 
 
 12.7 
 
 » 
 
 Wangen 
 
 
 3.1 
 
 Wangen 
 
 Oberstad 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 Tow-boats 
 
 28.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.20 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 2.7 
 
 Oherstad 
 
 Stein 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 4. Swiss Rhine. 
 
 12 6 
 
 Stein 
 
 Busingen 
 
 
 sailing-boats 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 Busingen 
 
 Schaffhausen 
 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 250.4 
 
 
4 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 Lake traffic between the railway termini at Bregenz, Lindau, Rorschach, 
 Romanshorn, Friedrischshafen, Constance and Rudolfzell, is secured hy 
 steamboats, which, either like the Baden paddle-steamer « Zahringen » 
 have a half-saloon for passengers and carry express goods, or like the 
 Bavarian ferry-boats convey a freight equal to 16 loaded railway vans. On 
 the broad surface of the lakes the carrying- trade is mostly effected hy 
 means of sailing boats or tugs. Sailing boats arc classed, according to 
 their size, as sailers or half-sailers. 
 
 Steamboats ply regularly along the Rhine from Stein to SchalThauscn. 
 The upper portion of the lake (theObersee) is seldom frozen, so that navi- 
 gation there is rarely interrupted. On the other hand, the lower portion 
 (Untersee) is more frequently blocked up by ice. The stoppage in naviga- 
 tion, due to the presence of ice or to Hoods exceeding 4 in. 80 at the 
 Constance water-mark, lasts for about eight weeks every year on the lower 
 portion of the lake (Untersee) and on the Rhine. On the upper portion, or 
 Obersee, navigation is possible provided the water does not rise above 
 5 m. 80 at the Constance water-mark. The highest rise hitherto recorded 
 was 6 metres at that mark. 
 
 The railroad companies interested in the traffic own about 55 steam 
 paddle-boats, ten of which are provided with half-saloons; they have also 
 a certain number of tugs and ferry-boats for carrying passengers and 
 merchandise. The use of steam ferry-boats has yielded less favourable 
 returns than steam tugs. That is why the railway company of the State 
 of Wurtemberg sold its former steam ferry-boat. 
 
 Communications between Schaffhausen and Constance are secured by 
 means of three paddle-steamers and a screw-steamer for passengers and 
 goods, belonging to a joint-stock company established at the former place. 
 
 The sailing boats are all private property. 
 
 The physical configuration of the lake requires numerous works of 
 defence for the protection of the ports. Such works, on the German 
 shore, are found at Lindau, Langenargcn, Friedrichshafen, Meersburg, 
 Constance, Uhldingen, Ueberlingen and Ludwigshafen, and on the Austrian 
 shore at Bregenz. Rorsehach and Romanshorn may be quoted as among 
 the Swiss ports. There are, besides, numerous wharves and quays at 
 most of the more important localities along the shores. 
 
 An international agreement which took the form of a treaty was signed 
 in 1867 between Bavaria, Wurtemberg, the grand duchy of Baden and 
 Switzerland, for the ports and navigation of the Lake of Constance (Obersee 
 and Ueberlingen See). 
 
 Two of the shore States, viz, the grand duchy of Baden and Switzerland, 
 passed a reciprocity treaty July 27 lb , 1852, for the traffic hy water below 
 Constance. The common agreement as regards ports and navigation 
 for the lower portion of the lake (Untersee) and the Rhine between Con- 
 stance and Schaffhausen, dated September 28 th 1867, stipulates the reci- 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 5 
 
 procal obligation for the States interested (clause 2) to point out, by means 
 of buoys, the passes where the depth of water is variable. 
 
 Navigation is very active, but independent, however, of that of other 
 waterways in the region of the Rhine. 
 
 2 The canals of Alsace-Lorraine, the canal of the coal-mines of the Saar 
 and the canalised Sarre. 
 
 Thtf network of canals in Alsace-Lorraine communicates with the upper 
 Rhine by the canals of the 111 to the Rhine and of Strasburg, with the Saar 
 and the Moselle, by the canal of the coal-mines of the Sarre and with the 
 French water-courses by the canals from the Rhine to the Rhone and from 
 the Rhine to the Marne. The different existing navigable waterways on 
 German territory are divided as follows : 
 
6 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 
 COURSE 
 
 
 LARGEST SIZE 
 
 DURATION 
 
 
 NAME 
 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 es 
 
 
 A L L O W E D 
 
 and 
 
 Oil 
 
 C3 
 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 
 SHIPS 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 F 
 
 X 
 
 
 STOPPAGE 
 
 THE MODE 
 
 J'l 
 
 
 o 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 
 of 
 
 OF LOCOMOTION 
 
 
 W ATER W A Y 
 
 " 
 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 h. 
 
 o> 
 
 bi 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 w 
 
 es 
 
 < 
 
 X 
 
 TONNAG1 
 
 tN A V I G A T I O N 
 
 of boats 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Cwts 
 
 Days 
 
 
 1 
 
 Canal from the Rhine 
 
 132.3 
 
 Frontier at 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 30.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.40 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 to the Rhone. 
 
 
 Altmunsterol. 
 
 
 Course 
 
 
 from Altmunsterol 
 
 
 to Muhlhauscn. 
 
 
 34.5 
 
 5 1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 Course 
 
 
 with the : 
 
 
 from Muhlhausen 
 
 37 on account 
 
 Towage 
 
 
 to Strasburg. 
 
 of ice ; 
 
 by horses and 
 
 
 a. Branch canal to 
 
 1.9 
 
 Canal of the 
 
 New port at 
 
 10.1 
 
 1 4.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 14 on account 
 
 mules, 
 
 
 the new port at 
 
 
 Rhine 
 
 Muhlhauscn. 
 
 
 of repairs : 
 
 two iii number. 
 
 
 Muhlhauscn. 
 
 
 to the Rhone. 
 
 
 together, 
 
 Empty boats 
 
 
 b. Branch canal to 
 
 28.2 
 
 Muhlhauscn. 
 
 Huningen. 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 51 days. 
 
 and rafts 
 
 
 Huningen. 
 
 
 are drawn 
 
 
 c. Branch canal to 
 
 (>.5 
 
 Breisach 
 
 Kunhcim 
 
 7.0 
 
 11.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.10 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 by men. 
 
 
 Breisach. 
 
 
 (Rhine). 
 
 (Rhine to the 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 Rhone canal). 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 
 (1. Branch canal to 
 
 13.3 
 
 Kutilieim. 
 
 Colmar. 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 Colmar. 
 
 
 2 
 
 The canalised 111 1 . . 
 
 6.4 
 
 Breusch-Canal 
 
 Canal of the 111 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 Towage 
 
 
 above 
 
 to the Rhine, 
 
 
 by horses and 
 
 
 with the : 
 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 near 
 
 
 by men. 
 
 
 Ruprechtsau. 
 
 
 Stadtgi ahen-Canal. . 
 
 2 0 
 
 At Strasburg. 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 3 
 
 Breusch-Canal . . . 
 
 19.8 
 
 Wolxheim. 
 
 Above 
 
 8.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 4.25 
 
 1.10 
 
 1,600 
 
 37 on account 
 
 D” and 
 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 
 of ice ; 
 
 also by mules. 
 
 i 
 
 Canal of the 111 to 
 
 2.5 
 
 The III, near 
 
 Rhine. 
 
 22.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 84.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 1.80 
 
 2,000 
 
 20 on account 
 
 
 Rhine. 
 
 
 Ruprechtsau. 
 
 
 of repairs : 
 
 
 5 
 
 Junction-Canal near 
 
 5.0 
 
 Ill-Canal above 
 
 Ill-lthinc canal 
 
 12.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 58.5 
 
 5. 1 
 
 1.80 
 
 4,000 
 
 together, 
 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 below 
 
 
 57 days. 
 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 
 47 on account 
 
 Towage 
 
 6 
 
 Canal of the Rhine to 
 
 104.5 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 Frontier 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 of ice ; 
 
 by horses. 
 
 
 the Marne. 
 
 
 near Lagarde. 
 
 
 20 on account 
 
 7 
 
 Canal of the Coal- 
 
 53 . 1 
 
 Canal of the 
 
 Prussian 
 
 10.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 of repairs : 
 
 
 mine of the Saar 
 
 
 Rhine to the 
 
 frontier. 
 
 
 together, 
 
 
 with the : 
 
 
 Marne, near 
 Gonderexange. 
 
 
 67 days. 
 
 
 Lauterfinger- Canal . 
 
 4.1 
 
 Saar-coalmines 
 
 Lauterfingen. 
 
 7.1 
 
 11.9 
 
 54.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 canal, near 
 Mittersheim. 
 
 
 8 
 
 The canalised Saar 
 
 43.7 
 
 Prussian 
 
 frontier. 
 
 Ensdorf. 
 
 10.0 
 
 15.4 
 
 54.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.40 
 
 4,000 
 
 49 days. 
 
 Towage by horses 
 (navigation by 
 steam transit). 
 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 433.6 
 
 kilometres of water-courses. 
 
 
 1. Moreover on a distance of 81.5 kilometres the 111 is navigable on its natural course as far as Ladliof for boats of 0.6 metres 
 draught and 320 ewt-tonnage. 
 
 On the canals of Alsace-Lorraine, it will be seen that the boats are 
 mostly moved by means of the tow-line and tracked by men, mules or 
 horses. Engineer Paul Jacquel, of Strasburg, sought for same time to 
 utilise a steam-tug known as « Jacquel’s steam-propeller » ; but the inno- 
 vation failed to yield remunerative results. 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 7 
 
 In general Ihe canals examined offer : 
 
 A width at bottom of 10 m. 
 
 — — surface of 15 m. 
 
 The boats of largest size measure : 
 
 34 m. 5 
 5 m. 1 
 1 m. 4 
 
 Length , 
 Breadth. 
 Draught 
 
 With a maximum tonnage of 4 00(1 cwt. 
 
 The hanks arc either stone faced or turfed. 
 
 The stoppage in navigation lasts about eight or nine weeks every year : 
 six weeks in winter, owing to the presence of ice; and from two to five 
 weeks in summer, on account of repairing Ihe locks. 
 
 Flat-bottomed boats with slightly bulging, perpendicular sides, called 
 canalschilfe, which when the rudder is unshipped entirely fill the locks, are 
 met with on the net-work of canals examined, 'flic boats commonly used 
 arc divided, according to their form, into : 
 
 N° 
 
 DENOMINATION 
 
 LOAD 
 
 I’lioroitTio.N 
 
 MAXIMD M 
 
 M E A N 
 
 I*E It CENT 
 
 
 Cwts 
 
 
 Cwts 
 
 
 1 
 
 Flemish 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 3,600 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 Champagne 
 
 3,400 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Alsacian 
 
 3,200 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Prussian 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 1,700 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Of the Saone 
 
 5,500 
 
 
 5,400 
 
 5 
 
 For some time past iron boats have been used, which carry a maximum 
 weight of 4 000 cwt., the mean cargo of which averages 5 GOO cwt. 
 
 The Vosges wood rafts or floats , on the canalised courses, measure 
 55 m. 6 in length by 5 metres in width, with a maximum weight of 
 1 400 cwt. 
 
 But a small proportion of the water of the canals is used for irrigation 
 and industrial purposes. An important drain is impossible, owing to the 
 insufficiency of the water-supply. 
 
 All these canals belong to the State. The boats are private property; 
 they mostly belong to freight contractors, while some are owned by manu- 
 facturers. The traction plant (horses and mules) is for the greater part in 
 the hands of shipowners ; a small proportion is the property of contractors. 
 
 The following plant is found in the ports : 
 
8 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 1. Muhlhausen 
 
 2. Colmar 
 
 5. Strasburg 
 
 •4. Lutzelburg ....... 
 
 5. Saaralben 
 
 6. Sanrgeimiml 
 
 7. Saarbruckon-Saiiit-Johaiin 
 
 8. Burbach 
 
 9. Louisenllial 
 
 10. Geislautern 
 
 M. Holtenbach 
 
 12. Ensdorf 
 
 7 cranes 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4 limber slides 
 I — 
 
 59 coal-shools 
 
 0 stockades for 
 loading coal 
 
 2 
 
 2 — 
 
 2 — 
 
 Muhlhausen, the mosl important port of the canal system, receives espe- 
 cially pit-coal. The boats arrive laden from the coal-mines of the Saar 
 and return for the greater part empty. Their stay, including lime neces- 
 sary for unloading, is : 
 
 Al least. . . 
 On an average 
 At most. . . 
 
 1 day; 
 
 from 4 to 5 days; 
 1 1 days. 
 
 In other ports the boats are usually unloaded within a time not exceeding 
 the maximum delay above specified. 
 
 At Muhlhausen, as well as at Colmar, lluningen, Strasburg, Lutzelburg, 
 Moussey, Wolferdingcn, Saarbruckcn, Malstall, Burbach, Louisenllial, Gcis- 
 lautcrn, Yoelklingcn, Hostenback and Ensdorf, the port is connected by 
 metal ways with the railroad. 
 
 Navigation on canals is regulated by : 
 
 1. A police regulation for Ibc navigable canals of Alsace-Lorraine, 
 dated March I, 1 <S 7 < i ; 
 
 2. A police regulation concerning the navigation on the canalised river 
 Saar, dated April 22, 1870, and an addition to that ordinance dated October 
 29, 1878. 
 
 These regulations specially prescribe : 
 
 a. That boats used in the service of the Slate take precedence when pas-' 
 sing locks and movable bridges; 
 
 b. That smaller craft, like Hie Kiesnaclien, or sand-boats, and others, 
 with a tonnage of about 200 cwt., shall be passed through a lock only by 
 groups and with a larger boat. 
 
 These same regulations further stipulate certain restrictions concerning 
 the Arzweilen and Niederweilcn tunnels, through which only one boat may 
 pass at a time, and in respect of circulation on the Laulerfingcn canal. 
 
 No dues are payable for navigation on the canals. The average freight 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 9 
 
 charges per ton (20 cwt.), as applied from 1880 to 1890, are given in the 
 following table : 
 
 COURSE 
 
 EH 
 
 FREIGHT 
 
 DESCRIP- 
 
 KATE 
 
 PER TON-KILOMETRE 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 W 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 O 
 
 ►J 
 
 U 
 
 a 
 
 HIGHEST 
 
 TION 
 
 OF FREIGHT 
 
 LOWEST 
 
 l 
 
 r. 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 HIGHEST 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 Marks 
 
 Marks 
 
 Marks 
 
 
 Pf. 
 
 pc 
 
 Pf. 
 
 
 Saarbrucken. 
 
 Slrasburg. 
 
 171 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.76 
 
 .2 3 
 
 » 
 
 Colmar 
 
 211 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.90 
 
 3. GO | 
 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.21 
 
 1 49 
 
 o <y 
 
 » 
 
 Muhlhausen. 
 
 273 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.00 
 
 Pit-coal. 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.47 
 
 __ o 
 
 » 
 
 Huningen. 
 
 29G 
 
 3.70 
 
 4.10 
 
 4.80 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.62 
 
 — c 
 
 » 
 
 Nancy. 
 
 Ilf, 
 
 1.93 
 
 2.55 
 
 2.80 
 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.92 
 
 e -* 
 
 'f> D 
 
 Messein. 
 
 Saarbrucken. 
 
 1(10 
 
 
 ^ fcD ,j 
 
 Maxeville. 
 
 
 to 
 
 1.15 
 
 1.30 
 
 1 . 40 
 
 Ore. 
 
 0.70 
 
 0.79 
 
 0.83 
 
 S -* '.if 
 
 Liverdun. 
 
 Volkingen. 
 
 170 
 
 1 
 
 
 = S, i 
 
 Zabern. 
 
 Strasburg. 
 
 
 0 90 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.70 
 
 Stones. 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.80- 
 
 3.80 
 
 
 In above rales the cosls of loading and unloading are 
 
 not included. 
 
 
 5. The Neckar. 
 
 The Neckar is navigable from Kannstadt. Its course may he d hided as 
 follows, according to its various degrees of navigability : 
 
 COURSE 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 OF gAIRWAY 
 
 MAXIMUM SIZE 
 
 OF BOATS 
 
 MODES 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 LENGTH i 
 
 us 
 
 cc 
 
 £ < 
 o z 
 
 *J a: 
 
 h g 
 
 £ 
 
 y. 
 
 1 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 P 
 
 b3 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 OF LOCOMOTION 
 
 OF BOAT 
 
 Kannstadt. 
 
 Lauffen. 
 
 Heilbronn. 
 
 Lauffen. 
 
 Heilbronn. 
 
 Mannheim. 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Km. 
 
 62 
 
 12 
 
 113 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 0 10 
 0.50 
 0.60 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.50 
 
 Mtr 
 
 30.0 
 
 43.0 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 4 .5 
 
 6.0 
 
 Mtr 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 1 
 
 Cwts 
 
 1 .50 i 
 
 5,100 
 
 Towage by horses. 
 
 Towage by etiain up- 
 stream. No trac- 
 tion down-stream. 
 
 189 
 
 The upper Neckar from Kannstadt to Lauffen is navigable only under 
 certain conditions, as the locks on the way do not give passage to large 
 boats, and as no means of traction, except horses, are to be found in the 
 region. The circulation is therefore small, and most of the boats found 
 there serve only for I he transport of coarse sand. On the other hand, 
 boats 45 metres in length and 6 m. 5 in width can go up as far as Lauffen 
 through the Heilbronn lock. 
 
 On the course from Lauffen to Heilbronn, a distance of 12 kilometres, 
 recourse is had to towage by a metallic chain. The navigation, however, 
 is of secondary importance. 
 
 2 G 
 
 MUTZE. 
 
10 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 On the principal section from Heilbronn to Mannheim, a distance of 
 1 15 kilometres, the towage by metallic chain is on a large scale; the boats, 
 forming a train, are hauled up the stream by means of steam tugs. 
 These same boats come down again without extraneous help. 
 
 The normal breadth of the Ncckar varies between 70 and 120 metres. 
 The sharpest curve along the river, which is to he found near Boettingcn, 
 has a radius of about 150 metres. The mean slopes from Heilbronn to 
 the Rhine is 1 in 1870; the steepest gradient is 1 in 440. The depth of 
 water in the fairway seldom falls below 0 m. 50, when navigation is 
 impeded; its average depth is 1 m. 20. 
 
 THE SIZE 
 
 OK THE BOATS ARE AS FOLLOWS 
 
 CHAIN TUBS 
 
 FREIGII 
 
 LARGEST 
 
 T BOATS 
 
 MEAN SIZE 
 
 
 Metres 
 
 Metres 
 
 Metres 
 
 Length 
 
 45.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 Breadth 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Draught 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 )) 
 
 5,100 cwt 
 
 5,800 cwt 
 
 The draught of the chain tugs, when lightened, may be reduced from 
 0 m. 00 to 0 m. 45. The new Heilbronn lock may he taken as a standard 
 whereby to determine the size of the boats, as it is able to accommodate a 
 chain lug. 
 
 Rafts must not exceed 4 metres in breadth above Heilbronn, but they 
 may reach 8 m. 50 in breadth and 500 metres in length below that place. 
 
 Wherever navigation takes place by towage with a metallic chain, the 
 banks have been made regular below the water by rock works and above 
 the water by a stone-facing. Where rapids are found, the arrangement 
 adopted is that known by the name of Zeilenbaulen. 
 
 The floods, which are frequent in winter, often reach as high as 6 metres 
 above the mean water-level (1 m. 51 at the Diedesheim mark) ; the lowest 
 level is attained at the close of the summer and in autumn. Navigation is 
 stopped by floods and ice on an average during 41 days every year. Raft- 
 ing is suspended from December I till the end of February. 
 
 This metallic chain service is assured by a joint-stock company called : 
 « The Neckar Towage Society ». It owns 7 iron steamers furnished with 
 engines of a register of 110 horse-power; each steamer has a crew of 
 seven men and is valued at 80 000 marks. The company has no freight 
 boats of its own. 
 
 There are 510 boats at work on this portion of the Neckar, with an 
 aggregate tonnage of 008 000 cwt. The respective tonnage of these boats 
 varies between 800 and 5 100 cwt. They are the property of 248 contrac- 
 
BIIINE BASIN. 
 
 H 
 
 tors, into whose hands the ladings are ordinarily committed hy freight 
 commissioners at Mannheim and Ileilbronn. The boats in question are 
 towed up stream only, as the towage down stream would yield them no 
 profit, and they are able, with the help of the current alone, to cover in 
 two days the distance from Ileilbronn to Mannheim free of charge and with- 
 out incurring any risk. A train of boats towed up stream ordinarily 
 consist of 5 loaded and from G to 10 empty boats. 
 
 A fairly important plant is found at the ports of Ileilbronn (4 steam 
 cranes and 5 hand ones) and Mannheim (the latter connected with the 
 large part of the Rhine of the same town), as well as wharves at 
 Kannsladt, on the canal of the salt-works of Friedrichsthal to Jagsfcld, 
 at Ebcrbach, Neckarsulm, Ofenau, Gundelsheim, Wimpfen, Hirschorn, Nec- 
 karsteinach and Heidelberg. 
 
 The chief traffic is carried on between Ileilbronn and Mannheim 
 (259 541 tons in 1890) : salt, stones and goods down the river; charcoal 
 and colonial produce up stream. At Ileilbronn, Neckarsulm and Mann- 
 heim, the ports are connected by metal ways with the railroad. 
 
 Navigation and wood rafting are regulated by the police rules concern- 
 ing navigation and timber rafting on the Neckar. This regulation, which 
 came into vigour in May, 1884, specially stipulates : 
 
 a. That boats descending the river must allow at least 200 metres to 
 intervene between each other; 
 
 b. That trains of boats towed by chain must he separated by a distance 
 of 6 kilometres. 
 
 c. That the draught of the boats must be at least 6 centimetres inferior 
 to the depth of water in the fairway along the shallowest parts of the 
 river. 
 
 The concession granted for towage by chain dates from 1877. The 
 State of Wurtemberg guarantees an interest of five per cent on the social 
 capital, which amounts to 1 800 000 marks; but hitherto no demand has 
 been made on the score of guaranteed interest, for the dividend paid has 
 never been less than five per cent; it has averaged 5,9 per cent and even 
 reached 6 per cent in 1890. 
 
 The rates of freight for goods between Mannheim and Ileilbronn, in 1891 , 
 amounted to : 
 
12 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 
 FOR 100 KILOGRAMMES 
 
 PER 
 
 DESCRIPTION' OF GOODS 
 
 RATE 
 
 UP THE RIVER 
 
 RATE 
 
 DOWN THE RIVER 
 
 TON- KILOMETRE 
 
 1. Goods transhipped : 
 
 Pfg. 
 
 i“fg. 
 
 pig. 
 
 Under 200 cwt 
 
 42 
 
 » 
 
 5. 65 
 
 Over 200 cwt 
 
 40 
 
 » 
 
 5.49 
 
 2. Local goods : 
 
 51 to 200 cwt 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 5.59 
 
 Over 200 cwt 
 
 58 
 
 55 
 
 5.17 
 
 For transit parcels goods from Hcilbronn or to that port, t lie following 
 sums were paid in 1891 : 
 
 PORT OF 
 
 9 
 
 FOR 100 KI 
 
 UP THE RIVER 
 
 LOGRAMMES 
 
 DOWN TIIE RIVER 
 
 PER 
 
 TON- KILOMETRE 
 
 
 rtg. 
 
 Pfg. 
 
 Pfg. 
 
 1. Worms 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 7.07 
 
 2. Mayence 
 
 too 
 
 98 
 
 5.27 
 
 3. Coblenz 
 
 105 
 
 105 
 
 5. 75 
 
 4. Cologne 
 
 115 
 
 105 
 
 2.91 
 
 5. Ruhrort 
 
 120 
 
 108 
 
 2.45 
 
 6. Rotterdam 
 
 125 
 
 » 
 
 1.81 
 
 Towage by metallic chain, .which commenced on the Neckar in 1878, 
 has rendered every other mode of traction up the river superfluous. It 
 amply provides for transports hy water : experience has shown that, while 
 yielding profitable returns, it is fully able to compete with the railway. 
 
 4. The Main. 
 
 The Main is connected with the Danube by the Ludwig Canal. From the 
 watershed separating the basins of the Rhine and the Danube, in the Upper 
 Palatinate, near Neumarkt, the navigable net-work of the Main is subdi- 
 vided as follows : 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 13 
 
 
 COURSE 
 
 OF WATER-COURSE 
 
 LARGEST SIZE 
 
 
 NAME 
 
 
 OF 
 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 
 on 
 
 « 
 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 OF 
 
 
 SHIPS 
 
 
 a 
 
 OF 
 
 a 
 
 
 FAIRWAY 
 
 
 THE MODE 
 
 
 WATER-COURSE 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 w 
 
 F R O 51 
 
 TO 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 l 
 
 rl 
 
 < fa 
 ^ C3 
 
 <D 
 
 to 
 
 a __ 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 e- 
 
 fa 
 
 O 
 
 OF LOCOMOTION 
 
 
 fa 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 fa 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 2 
 O i 
 
 o 
 
 Z 
 
 3 
 
 ◄ 
 
 fa 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 < 
 
 25 
 
 Z 
 
 of boats 
 
 
 a 
 
 it 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Cwts 
 
 
 i 
 
 Ludwig Canal. . 
 
 101.2 
 
 Near Ncumark. 
 
 Bughof. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 1.16 
 
 » 
 
 32.1 
 
 4.49 
 
 1.29 
 
 2,550 
 
 Towage by horses. 
 
 2 
 
 Canalis d Regnitz. 
 
 3.2 
 
 Bughof. 
 
 Bamberg. 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 >» 
 
 3 
 
 Regnitz non ca- 
 
 
 nalised. . . . 
 
 5 6 
 
 Bamberg. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 0.60 
 
 0.90 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 110.1 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 Wurzburg. 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 0.60 
 
 
 D° and navigation 
 
 
 by sail. 
 
 1 
 
 Main non cana- 
 lised 
 
 10.0 
 
 Wurzburg. 
 
 Mouth of the 
 Saale. 
 
 21 
 
 d° 
 
 0.75, 
 
 1.50 
 
 14.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.50 
 
 5,500 
 
 Navigat" by steam 
 
 
 175.0 
 
 Mouth of the 
 
 Franefort. 
 
 26 
 
 105 
 
 0.90 
 
 
 and sail. Boats 
 down stream ply 
 
 
 Saale. 
 
 
 without assist". 
 
 3 
 
 Main canalised . 
 
 36.0 
 
 Franefort. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 40 
 
 105 
 
 2.10 
 
 » 
 
 76.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 now 
 
 20000 
 
 Steam tug; up- 
 
 
 d red- 
 
 Nor- 
 
 
 1.90 
 
 
 stream besides 
 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 501.1 
 
 
 ged 
 
 mal 
 
 
 later 
 
 
 tug, towage by 
 
 
 fair- 
 
 breadth 
 
 
 on 
 
 
 horses ; down- 
 
 
 way. 
 
 
 2.30 
 
 
 stream, boats 
 navigate in part 
 without extra- 
 neous help. 
 
 The manner in which boats navigate the Main varies considerably, as 
 will appear. While, on the Ludwig Canal and the Upper Main, towage by 
 horses is the rule, and while towage by steam-tugs on the middle portion 
 of that river takes place only in isolated cases, the latter mode of traction 
 is the rule on the Main canalised. Towing by chain exists as far as 
 Aschaffenburg, and the intention now is to extend the chain as far as 
 Wurzburg. The towage service is assured by the Mainkette (chain of the 
 Main) Joint-Stock Company, of Mayence, by means ot three steam-tugs, 
 Chain of the Main , numbered 1 to 5, of 0 m. 53 draught. 
 
 The region of the Upper Main being thickly wooded, wood rafting is 
 important, partly with the use of steam as motive force. It commences 
 at Mainlens, SGkilom. 6 above the mouth of the Regnitz. Near the weirs 
 of the canalised section is a passage 12 metres in width for the reception 
 of rafts. The lengths of these latter may reach : 
 
 Above Wurzburg 58 m. 0 for Dutch rafts, 10‘2m. 0 for ordinary rafts (Weiss flosse). 
 
 Below — 87 m. 5 — 160 m. 5 — — 
 
 with an allowable width of 8 m. 75 on the Upper Main and of 11 m. 20 
 on the Lower Main. 
 
 The breadth of the Main, where that river is not canalised, is from 
 44 to 105 metres at the surface. The depth of the fairway, which it is 
 sought to carry from 0 m. 6 to 0 m. 91 (the latter level corresponding to 
 
14 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 the Frankfort mark at low water-level), has not yet been realised every- 
 where, so that big barges with a full load can circulate only at seasons 
 when the water is at average level. 
 
 The banks are partly protected by a stone lacing on the canalised 
 sections; they are turfed on the parts non-canalized and below the 
 water-level rock works protect them. The line of rectification, espe- 
 cially above Frankfort, has been almost everywhere obtained by means 
 of stone quays. As for the parts derived from the river, they are planted 
 with willows. The highest water-level permitting navigation at the Frank- 
 fort mark is 5 m. 46 lor the Main non-canalised, and 4 m. 25 for the Main 
 where it is canalised. 
 
 Navigation is interrupted each year on an average during : 
 
 1 . On account of ice 28 days 
 
 2. — of Hoods. . 8 — 
 
 3. — of low water 34 — 
 
 Together. ... 70 days 
 
 On the Ludwig Canal and the Upper Main circulate the wooden boats 
 said to be « of the Main », with bulging prows, sterns and stern-posts. 
 According to their size and form, they assume the following names : 
 
 1. Canal boats 
 
 
 2,550 cwt. tonnage 
 
 2. « Mainzillen » 
 
 . — 2,000 — 
 
 2,400 — — 
 
 5. « Doppelschelche » . . 
 
 . . — 1,000 — 
 
 2,200 — — 
 
 4. « Streichschelche » . . 
 
 500 — 
 
 1,000 — — 
 
 5. « Humpelschelche ». . 
 
 . _ 300 — 
 
 500 — — 
 
 6. « llampelnachen » . . 
 
 . _ 200 — 
 
 300 — — 
 
 All sorts of boats from the Rhine are met with on the canalised Main, 
 and especially iron boats carrying as high a lading as 20 000 cwt. All 
 these freight carriers are exclusively the property of ship-owners or pri- 
 vate enterprises. 
 
 The tugs on the Main are 45 m. 2 long, 7 m. 5 wide, and 0 m. 55 
 draught. Their engines have a registered horse-power of 150. They 
 have each six men on board and cost 90 000 marks. 
 
 The following ports are furnished with a plant : 
 
 1. On the Ludwig canal, Neumarkt, Nuremberg, Furth, Erlangen, 
 Forchheim, and Bamberg; 
 
 2. On the Main Ascbaffenburg, [Frankfort, and Iloechst. They have 
 full means of communication with the network of railways. There are 
 also numerous wharves and quays, specially at Schweinfurth, Kitzingen, 
 Marktbreit, Oschsenfurt, Wurtzburg, Gemunden, Wertheim, Miltenberg, 
 Aschaffenburg, Hanau, Offenbach, and Fechenheim. 
 
 The improvement of the navigation of the Main has given rise on diffe- 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 15 
 
 rent occasions, between the riparian States, to negotiations which have 
 resulted in : 
 
 1. An understanding for correcting the bed of the Main, dated Fe- 
 bruary, 6, 1816, concluded between Bavaria, Hesse, Nassau and Frank- 
 fort ; 
 
 2. An arrangement, dated 1849, between Bavaria and the grand duchy 
 of Baden, concerning the rectification of the Main; and 
 
 5. A State treaty, concerning the canalisation of the Main below Frank- 
 fort, passed February 1, 1883, between Prussia, Bavaria, the grand duchy 
 of Bade and Hesse. 
 
 This latter treaty gave to Prussia the faculty of canalising the Main so as 
 to obtain a depth of water sufficient to enable the boats from the Rhine to 
 reach Frankfort. The Prussian government has moreover engaged itself 
 to keep in good order the fairway along the canalised section, even beyond 
 the limits wherein it exerts sovereign rights. 
 
 In addition to this treaty, a police ordinance, regulating navigation and 
 rafting on the Main below I lie old bridge between Frankfort and Sachsen- 
 hausen, was published December 15, 1886. This ordinance especially 
 prescribes that, in passing through the locks, priority belongs : 
 
 a. To steamboats and boats annexed to them over all other boats; 
 
 b. To steamboats with passengers having a fixed course over all other 
 steamers. 
 
 c. To freight steamers over trains of towed boats. 
 
 On the Upper Rhine navigation is subjected to the navigation rules 
 of 1843 and rafting rules of Nov. 9, 1865; on the Ludwig Canal to the 
 ordinance of June 9, 1842, and the clauses which have since been added. 
 
 The Ludwig Canal is now the only one on which navigation dues are 
 collected ; 
 
 The concession for chain towage on the Hessian and Baden waters of the 
 Main was granted for a period of 34 years to the Joint-Stock Company 
 « Chain of the Main », of Mayence, by decisions of the interested govern- 
 ments respectively dated Jan. 5, 1884, and Feb. 14, 1884. The Hessian 
 government guarantees an interest of 3 per cent, for a term of ten years 
 on the capital engaged in the Mayence-Aschaffenburg section. The social 
 capital amounts to one million of marks. Working on the lower section 
 as far down as Frankfort was begun August 7, 1886. It has not been pos- 
 sible to extend the service of towage further, the Bavarian government 
 having granted no concession. It is probable however that a concession 
 will be shortly allowed, by way of trial, for the course extending to Mil- 
 tenberg up the river. The service of towage by chain has hitherto been 
 profitable only by means of a State subsidy. This may be partly explained 
 
16 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 by the fact that, on the lower canalised course, the advantages of the 
 chain are of little importance, while the course from Frankfort to Aschaf- 
 fenburg, which measures only 48 kilom. 5, is too short to ensure remu- 
 nerative returns. The extension of the chain to the Upper Main w ill, it is 
 hoped, yield better results. 
 
 The following figures show how far traffic has increased on the Lower 
 Main in consequence of canalisation. 
 
 The freight traffic to and from the Rhine in the port of Frankfort was : 
 
 IN THE YEAR 
 
 UP THE RIVER 
 
 DOWN THE RIVER 
 
 TOTAL TRAFFIC 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 1880 
 
 6, 364.1 
 
 2,437.2 
 
 8,801.5 
 
 1885 
 
 10,466.7 
 
 1,249.3 
 
 11,715.7 
 
 1890 
 
 468,218.1 
 
 94,856,7 
 
 565,675.5 
 
 5. The Moselle and the non canalized portion of the Saar. 
 
 In its upper portion, from the mouth of the Meurlhe to Metz, the Mo- 
 selle is canalised and placed in communication with the canal from the 
 Rhine to I lie Marne by means of a coupled lock. 
 
 From the frontier, near Noveant, the following navigable ways are to 
 be found : 
 
 
 .NAME 
 
 OF 
 
 
 COURSE 
 
 NAVIGABLE WAY 
 
 GREATEST SIZE 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 PS 
 
 u 
 
 ea 
 
 T. 
 
 B 
 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 or 
 
 FAIR-WAY 
 
 
 OF 
 
 DO ATS 
 
 
 on 
 
 THE MODE 
 
 z 
 
 WATER-COURSE 
 
 O 
 
 T. 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 3? 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 » 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 u. 
 
 g 
 
 at. water- i 
 mark f 
 
 at mean t 
 wat'-level ] 
 
 LENGTH ^ 
 
 BREADTH j 
 
 G 
 
 OS 
 
 W 
 
 O 
 
 6 
 
 t- 
 
 OF LOCOMOTION 
 
 of boats 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Cwts 
 
 
 i 
 
 Canalised Moselle, 
 with Ars and Metz 
 branch canal. 
 
 21.3 
 
 Noveant. 
 
 Metz. 
 
 12.0 
 
 20. 9 ( 
 
 18.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 * 
 
 ” 
 
 35.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.80 
 
 4,400 
 
 Line towage by 
 horses. 
 
 2 
 
 Portion of Saar non 
 canalised. 
 
 77.3 
 
 Easdorf. 
 
 Conzcrbriick. 
 
 » 
 
 * 
 
 33.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.80 
 
 4,100 
 
 D”. 
 
 3 
 
 Portion of the Mo- 
 selle non canalis' 1 . 
 
 116.0 
 
 Metz. 
 
 Treves. 
 
 » 
 
 ” 
 
 0.45 
 
 1.26 
 
 35.0 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.25 
 
 3,200 
 
 D° (navigation 
 limited). 
 
 
 83.0 
 
 Treves. 
 
 Trarbach. 
 
 
 0.70 
 
 1.50 
 
 57.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.50 
 
 4,500 
 
 Navigation by 
 steam and horse 
 towage up the 
 river; boats 
 return without 
 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 106.0 
 
 103.6 
 
 Trarbach. 
 
 Coblenlz. 
 
 32.0 
 to 
 
 40.0 
 
 45.0 
 to 
 
 94.0 
 
 0.94 
 
 2 00 
 
 43.3 
 
 6.9 
 
 2.00 
 
 7,000 
 
 assistance. 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 17 
 
 Boats are exclusively moved on the canalised Moselle and the non- 
 canalised portion of the Saar by tow-line and horses. On the non-canal- 
 ised Moselle tracking by means of horses prevails up the river; passengers 
 and freight, however, are carried by steamers or towed by tugs as far as 
 Treves. Boats navigate without foreign assistance down the river. 
 
 Rafting is little resorted to, as timber from the forests of the Vosges 
 is not sent by way of Saarbruck and Merzig. Rafts on the Upper Moselle 
 may measure 129 metres in length by 6 metres in width; on the Lower 
 Moselle their maximum width may be 7 m. 8, but in that region only 
 small rafts called stummel are generally met with. 
 
 The breadth of the Moselle where rectified, at lowest water, is from 45 to 
 75 metres in the fords and from 75 to 94 metres in the shallow portions, 
 with a depth of 52 to 40 metres. The radius of the sharpest curves is 
 500 metres near Bremm and 260 metres above the mouth of the Sure. 
 
 The fall along the whole course is : 
 
 From Metz to Treves. 1 in 2,690 
 
 — Treves to Coblentz 1 in 2,910 
 
 The steepest gradient, at the small ford (Gaensefurchten) above Coblentz 
 was formerly 1 in 554, even 1 in 100 on a course of 100 metres; but it has 
 been reduced to about 1 in 670. By the erection of stone quays and 
 parallels, it has been possible to obtain on the Moselle depths of 0 m. 7 
 in the fairway for the water-level of 0 m. 51 at the Treves mark above 
 Trarbach ; and of 0 m. 94 below Trarbach for the water-level of 0 m. 47 
 at the Cochem mark. 
 
 The banks are provided with a stone facing or turfed. The sanded 
 
 tow-path is from 4 metres to 4 m. 5 at the Cochem mark; the summer 
 
 tow-path, from 2 metres to 5 metres, Cochem mark. 
 
 Floods occur on an average : 
 
 Above 3 m. Cochem mark, during 54 days a year 
 
 — 4 m.‘5 — — 9 — — 
 
 — 6 m. — — 1 day 1/2 — 
 
 The highest flood within the last 50 years reached 8 m. 65 at the Cochem 
 mark. 
 
 The highest flood ever known at Treves, in October 1824, was 8 m. 08. 
 
 Navigation is interrupted on an average each year during : 
 
 50 days on account of ice 
 9 — — floods 
 
 28 — — shallow water 0 m. 5 below Cochem mark. 
 
 Total. . . 67 days. 
 
 Steam navigation is assured by the Joint-Stock Company of Steam Navi- 
 
 5 G. 
 
 MUTZE. 
 
18 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 gation on the Moselle, of Coblentz, which has four vessels for passengers 
 plying between Coblentz and Treves, called : the Ilohenzollern , the Empress 
 Augusta, the Moselle , and the Ewald Berninghaus ; and the contractor 
 Scheid de Merl, who has two steamers, the Stadt Cochem and the 
 Moselthal, which respectively assure the service between Coblentz and 
 Cochem, Neuwagen and Treves. The first four steamers above-mentioned 
 are fitted up to serve equally for the transport of passengers and, occa- 
 sionally, for towing. The largest is the saloon-boat the Ilohenzollern, 
 60 metres in length, 5 m. 1 at beam, with a draught of 1 m. 55, a 
 tonnage of 1 280 cwt. and a 90 horse-power engine. They are paddle- 
 steamers and well suited for navigating the Moselle on account of their 
 light draught. At present moment of writing the firm of Disch, esta 
 blished at Mayence, proposes, by way of trial, to open up a regular towing 
 service on the Moselle with his screw lugs Abeille XI and XII. No metallic 
 chain towage exists along the Moselle. 
 
 The sailing-hoats are nearly all wooden and for the most part belong to 
 freight contractors. They chiefly convey stone lime and wine down the 
 river, and bring cargoes of colonial produce and petroleum back up-stream. 
 Small boats, of 5 000 to 4 000 cwt. burthen, also navigate the Upper Moselle 
 and on the Saar. 
 
 On the non-canalised portion of the Saar numerous wharves in part pro- 
 tected by stone faced talus are to be found, but the special plant necessary 
 for loading are wanting. 
 
 Wharves provided with metal ways to Noveant, Ars and Metz, arc found 
 on the canalised Moselle. 
 
 When the training works of were undertaken on the non-canalised 
 portion of the Moselle, a number of refuges were established in view of 
 sheltering the boats in winter, for instance, at Alf, Senheim and Cochem. 
 As for ports properly so called, there are but two, at Treves and Coblentz, 
 which arc not connected with the railroad. 
 
 Navigation on the non-canalised portion of the Saar is subjected to the 
 regulation of June 28, 1857, which chiefly determines the places where 
 boats must keep in shore. 
 
 The establishment of steam navigation entailed, for the Moselle, the 
 promulgation of a regulation dated April 7, 1841. 
 
 These regulations, already old, have since been completed and in part 
 modified by later ordinances. 
 
 Since the building of the Moselle railway line, the freight business has 
 been much reduced along this fluvial way. The centres interested mili- 
 tate in favour of canalising the Moselle as far as Melz, by showing the 
 importance of such a work for placing the Minette mines of Luxemburg 
 in communication with the coal-mines of the Lower Rhine. The outlay 
 which a complete canalisation would entail is estimated in round numbers 
 at 40 million marks. 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 19 
 
 6. The Lahn, the Ruhr and the Lippe. 
 
 The Lalm is navigable up the river as far as Giessen and the Ruhr as 
 far as Witten, owing to the works of canalisation which have been done. 
 The Lippe is only in part canalised on its upper course, between Dahl and 
 Lippstadt. 
 
 
 COURSE 
 
 WIDTH 
 
 5 g 
 
 MAXIMUM SIZE 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 
 NAME 
 
 
 cc 
 
 
 CC 1 
 — CS 
 
 
 Oil 
 
 u 
 
 
 ■< u 
 
 U, H 
 
 
 BOATS 
 
 
 55 
 
 OF 
 
 x 
 
 
 THE MODE 
 
 
 ir, 
 
 
 'r. 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 f- 
 
 H 
 
 uJ 
 
 a 
 
 
 X 
 
 f- 
 
 
 OF LOCOMOTION 
 
 
 WATER-COURSE 
 
 W 
 
 -i 
 
 
 a 
 
 * 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 of boats 
 
 
 < 
 
 b3 
 
 _3 
 
 g 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Km. 
 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Cwts 
 
 
 i 
 
 Lahn 
 
 142 
 
 Giessen. 
 
 Niederlahnstein. 
 
 20.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 1.40 
 
 31.4 
 
 5 00 
 
 1.40 
 
 3,000 
 
 Iloises with relays at 
 
 
 steepest gradients. 
 
 2 
 
 Ruhr 
 
 75 
 
 Witten. 
 
 Ruhrort. 
 
 38.3 
 
 36.0 
 
 1.10 
 
 38 0 
 
 5.4'i 
 
 1.10 
 
 4,000 
 
 Towage by horses. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Canalised Lippe. 
 Non - canalised 
 
 99 
 
 83 
 
 Lippstadt. 
 
 Dahl. 
 
 Dahl. 
 
 Wesel. 
 
 U.O 
 
 30.0 
 
 22.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.05 
 
 38.0 
 
 6.40 
 
 1.00 
 
 2,800 
 
 D” 
 
 
 Lippe. 
 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 399 
 
 
 All boats going up the river are hauled by horses and relays are added 
 at the steepest slopes of the Lahn. Boats usually navigate down the 
 river as they can. Two small steamers exclusively set apart for the local 
 service of passengers ply on the Lahn. 
 
 Wood rafting is met with on the Lahn and the Lippe, and there only 
 on a small scale. Rafts on the Lippe may have a length of 22 m. 5 and a 
 width of 5 m. 6. 
 
 The breadth of the river at the surface of the water is from 56 to 
 40 metres, and 22 metres only on the upper Lippe. The radius of the 
 sharpest curve on the Lahn, near Stockhausen, is about 100 metres. The 
 gradient of the Lippe, where not canalised, is, in round numbers, 1 in 
 3 500. The banks, on the side along which runs the tow-path and on 
 sections where a wash is raised, are protected by stone-packing. At steep 
 slopes training walls have been built as a means of rectification. 
 
 Floods, varying between 4 and 5 m. in height above mean water-level, 
 are often sudden ; but they subside rapidly. 
 
 Navigation is interrupted each year : 
 
20 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 
 OiN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF ICE AND FLOODS 
 
 ON ACCOUNT 
 
 OF LOCK REPAIRS 
 
 AND LOW WATER 
 
 TOGETHER 
 
 
 AVeeks 
 
 Weeks 
 
 Weeks 
 
 Lahn about. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 Ruhr — 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 IT 
 
 Lippe — 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 11 
 
 Large hoots can only ply with full cargoes at times of mean water- 
 level. 
 
 The boats are all built of wood, provided with soils and without decks 
 for the most part. They ordinarily serve to carry limber, quarrystone 
 and coarse sand on the Lalm and the Lippe, and coal on the Ruhr. They 
 are all private property, and mostly belong to shipowners ; the track 
 horses belong to people along the river. 
 
 The following ports have a special plant : On the Lahn at Stock- 
 hausen (the property of the Krupp firm) and at Oberlahnstein ; 
 
 On the Ruhr at lloltey, Ncukirchen, and Muclheim (ports of refuge), as 
 also at Duisburg and Ruhrort; 
 
 On the Lippe at Crudenherg and Wesel. 
 
 Numerous small wharves should also he noted. Junction with the 
 railroads is only found in large ports at the confluence of the Rhine. 
 
 Navigation and wood rafting are subject to the following restrictions : 
 
 Lahn : 1. Regulation of Feb. 20, 1863, concerning the navigation and 
 rafting on the Lahn; 
 
 2. Police ordinance concerning the protection of constructive works and 
 the hanks along the Lahn, dated Jan. 26, 1865. 
 
 Ruhr : 1. Imperial decree concerning the superintendance of the waters 
 and hanks of the Ruhr, dated May 10, 1881 ; 
 
 2. Police ordinance concerning the navigable portion of the Ruhr, dated 
 Jan. 4, 1862. 
 
 Lippe : 1. Ordinance concerning the rafting of wood on the Lippe, 
 dated June 12, 1811 ; 
 
 2. Police ordinance for navigation on the Lippe, dated Nov. 21, 1857. 
 
 No navigation dues are collected. 
 
 Since the construction of the system of railroads, the movement of 
 freight on the Lahn, Ruhr and Lippe has steadily diminished, the old 
 canalisation now existing being such as to prevent navigation from sustain- 
 ing competition. 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 21 
 
 The traffic by boats is set down as follows : 
 
 
 IN 
 
 THE YEAR 
 
 TRAFFIC 
 
 UP THE RIVER 
 
 TRAFFIC 
 
 DOWN THE RIVER 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 From the Latin to the Rhine. 
 
 1880 
 
 6,328.5 
 
 82,816.3 
 
 89,144.8 
 
 1890 
 
 488.9 
 
 42 , 1 02 . 1 
 
 42,591.0 
 
 From the Ruhr to the Rhine.' 
 
 1 ' 1 
 
 1880 
 
 1,966 8 
 
 30,326 . 6 
 
 32,293.4 
 
 1800 
 
 25.0 
 
 1,140 6 
 
 1,165.6 
 
 It thus appears that traffic at the mouth of the Lahn has decreased by 
 more than one half during the last ten years; at the mouth of the Ruhr it 
 has now but a local importance. 
 
 Interested parties demand a complete canalisation of the three water- 
 ways, and general projects in view of that operation have already been in 
 part drawn up. This canalisation would entail for the Ruhr an outlay of 
 about 10 500 000 mar. and for the Lippe a round sum of 10 000 000 mar. 
 
 7. The Rhine and Frankenthal, Erft, Rheinberg and Spoy canals. 
 
 Relow Schaffhausen the Rhine again becomes navigable only beyond 
 Rasle. Its navigability is continuously restricted as far as Strasburg, and 
 periodically as far as Mannheim. At this latter place only navigation 
 assumes a large scope. 
 
22 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 .■£ rC « 
 
 ■5 <D £ 
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 bo cs ~ > 
 
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 02 
 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 23 
 
 The means adopted for the boats varies considerably ; moving on the 
 section of the Rhine above Strasburg boats descend the current without 
 traction, while up the river they for the most part avoid the steep 
 grade by having recourse to the canal of the Rhine to the Rhone ; from 
 Mannheim, down the stream, it will be seen that steam navigation has 
 taken a development equal in its commercial importance to that of Euro- 
 pean rivers. Independently of the large saloon-boats belonging to companies 
 for the transport of passengers, steam-tugs may be seen towing four and 
 five barges with loads varying between 70 000 and 80 000 cwt. On the 
 section from Bonn to Bingen, chain towage renders important service, espe- 
 cially during low water seasons. Sea-going ships steam up the Rhine, 
 ensuring communications between Cologne and London, and for some 
 time past with Bremen and the Baltic. 
 
 Navigation by sail, moreover, plays an important part, especially from 
 Ruhrort. 
 
 Rafting is insignificant above Mannheim. The rafts, between Basle and 
 Kelil, may be 6 m. wide and 27 m. long; between Kehl and Steinmauern, 
 17 m. wide and 90 m. long; and finally, between Steinmauern and Mann- 
 heim, from 27 to 56 m. in length. At Mannheim the small rafts from 
 the Neckar are lashed together, the river allowing from that town widths 
 reaching to 65 m. and which may even be extented to 72 in. below Coblentz. 
 wood rafting takes place principally between Mannheim and Duisburg. 
 For some time past steam is more and more used for towing wood rafts, 
 in which case small screw tugs of 25 to 45 horse-power are employed. 
 
 The four canals, numbered 2, 5, 4 and 5 in the above table, serve to 
 connect the towns of Frankenthal, Neuss, Rheinberg and Cleve with the 
 Rhine. 
 
 Frankenthal has a port connected by a metal way with the railroad. The 
 canal of that name, which is fed by the Isenach, shows a freight traffic of 
 48 528 tons for 1890. The Bavarian Landtag has at present under consi- 
 deration a scheme for the reconstruction of the canal. 
 
 Neuss has relations particularly active with the Rhine. Its port, which 
 connects with the railroad, showed in 1890 a freight traffic of 146 665 
 tons. The canal, which is led by the Erst, rarely freezes, on account of 
 the relatively high temperature of the lateral waters. 
 
 The Rheinberg canal is an old arm of the Rhine transformed into a na- 
 vigable way. Its traffic is unimportant : about 1 200 tons a year. 
 
 The Spoy canal is formed by the upper canal from Cleve to Brienncn, in 
 which the waters are retained to a height of 2 m. 55 in the fairway and 
 then by the Old Rhine as far as Recken. On this latter section, the fair- 
 way, which has a depth of 2 in. 07 at average water-level, is traced out by 
 guide-marks in the shape of arcs. Commercial traffic on this way is set 
 down at 25 718 tons for 1890. Cleve has a small port not connected with 
 the railroad. 
 
24 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 The normal width of the Rhine is nowhere less than 200 m. ; it is 300 m. 
 between Coblentz and Emmerich, and in that portion of the river common 
 to Switzerland and the Netherlands it is 340 m. The breadth at surface, 
 which is 120 m. above Coblentz, reaches 150 m. below that town. 
 
 The banks of the Rhine are almost everywhere protected by a stone 
 facing. The rectified parts have stone-quays and parallels. 
 
 The necessary depth of fairway, which is l m. 5 at mean water-level on 
 the Cologne mark, measures : 
 
 Between Strasburg and Mannheim I m. 5 
 
 — Mannheim — St-Goar 2 m. 0 
 
 — St-Goar — Cologne 2 m. 5 
 
 — Cologne — Rotterdam 3 m. 0 
 
 This depth has been almost reached from Mannheim to Bingen and from 
 St. -Goar to the Dutch frontier and kept up by active dredging. In the 
 rocky portion, between Bingen and St. -Goar, the long and laborious ope- 
 rations of blasting necessary to obtain such a depth have recently been 
 much accelerated by digging, plunging wells and by pneumatic borers. 
 
 The steepest gradients and sharpest curves are to he found along this 
 latter section. Thus the local gradient is : 
 
 At the « Bingerloch », below Bingerbruck 1 in 551 
 
 — « Wildes Gefahr », above Caub 1 in 609 
 
 whilst the radius of curve measures : 
 
 At the « Belt », below Oberwesel 400 m. 
 
 — « Loreley », above St-Goar 550 m. 
 
 The water-level is very variable along the Rhine. At the Cologne mark 
 the difference between the average level (2 m. 9) and that of high floods 
 (9 m. 52) is equal to fi m. 02. But the ordinary floods of 0 in. at the Co- 
 logne mark and above usually take place only once a year. Moreover, the 
 rise in the volume of water is gradual, as it seldom happens that the floods 
 of the tributary streams all reach the river at the same time. Thus, for in- 
 stance, the rise in the Moselle reaches the Rhine one or two days earlier 
 than that of the Neckar and the Main. 
 
 Navigation is arrested on an average each year during about : 
 
 17 days on account of floating ice, freezing and the breaking up of the ice; 
 
 1 — floods exceeding 7 m. 8 at the Cologne mark; 
 
 10 — shallow water, 1 m. 5 below Cologne mark. 
 
 In all 37 days. 
 
 From statistics furnished by the Union of Insurances for the Navigation 
 of the Rhine, the following vessels traded or plied along the river in 1890 : 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 25 
 
 107 paddle steamers of an effective horse-power of 10,905, 
 
 49-4 screw-steamers — — 15,708, 
 
 1,558 iron-built transports of a tonnage of 15,058,179 tons, 
 
 4,485 wood-built sailing boats — 12,520,772 — 
 
 Total. . 6,502 
 
 Tin; 661 steamers with screws and paddles were used as follows : 
 
 18 per cent, in the transport of passengers 
 10 — — goods 
 
 06 — towing. 
 
 While 88 percent, of the wooden sailing boats have a tonnage inferior 
 to 500 cwt, the tonnage of 46 per cent, of the iron transports exceeds 
 10 000 cwt. For some time past iron vessels of this class are seen with a 
 tonnage of 50 000 cwt. The data collected by Schnell, among others, and 
 published in the Review of Constructions for 1889, on the conditions of 
 inertia offered by boats under tow, shows how little the resistance increa- 
 ses in proportion with the size of the boats and their tonnage capacity. 
 This explains why large iron vessels have latterly been built for the trans- 
 port of goods in bulk. 
 
 The following may be cited as types of the newly-built iron cargo-boats : 
 
 NAME 
 
 OF II O A T 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 LENGT 11 
 
 W I D T H 
 
 DRAUGTH 
 
 OWNERS 
 
 BETWEEN 
 
 the 
 
 slernposts 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 the 
 
 bowsprit 
 and helm 
 
 AMIDSHIPS 
 
 WITH 
 
 LEE-BOARD 
 
 LADEN J 
 
 H 
 
 Cm 
 
 Id 
 
 
 Cwt 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mir. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 Mtr. 
 
 
 Rurhort 2/17. . . . 
 
 15,300 
 
 65.0 
 
 72.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 9.2 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.46 
 
 Central Joint-stock 
 
 Rurhort 23/28 . . . 
 
 20,000 
 
 71.5 
 
 79.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.7 
 
 2.30 
 
 0.48 
 
 Towing Society. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine . . 
 
 21,000 
 
 73.0 
 
 81.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.40 
 
 „ . , - 
 
 Karlsruhe and Stutt- 
 
 
 gait 
 
 29,000 
 
 75.5 
 
 building 
 
 10.5 
 
 building 
 
 2.67 
 
 0.48 
 
 of Rurhort. 
 
 The fast service of travellers and goods is assured : between Mannheim 
 and Rotterdam, by the United Steam Navigation Companies of Cologne and 
 Dusseldorf, which own 51 paddle-steamers of a total effective register 
 of 5 545. In this flotilla figure large saloon-boats, having two decks, pro- 
 vided with every modern comfort, and assuring the service between 
 Mayence and Cologne. In 1890, 1 172 555 passengers and 68 125 tons 
 of freight were taken on board. The steamers of the Dutch Association of 
 ship-owners, Rotterdam, should also be mentioned. This Association dis- 
 poses of 9 paddle-steamers of a total effective register of 805 horse-power; 
 it also carries passengers, but especially attends to the fast conveyance of 
 goods. Resides these, there is a local service of steamers for the carriage 
 
26 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 ol passengers in most of the larger towns of the Rhine, such as Mayence, 
 Coblentz, Cologne, Dusseldorf, AVesel and Rotterdam. 
 
 Most of the important companies undertake the transport of packed 
 goods by means of special steamers. Among others should he mentioned : 
 
 1. The Mannheim Docks Society, at Mannheim; 
 
 2. The bavarian and Palatinate Steam Navigation Society, at Ludwigs- 
 
 hafen ; 
 
 5. The Rhenish and Maritime Steam Navigation Society, at Cologne; 
 
 4. The Society of Steam Navigation on the Rhine, at Amsterdam. 
 
 Of the enterprises above mentioned, those numbered 2 and 5 also un- 
 dertake towage. The direct service between Cologne and London, establi 
 shed since 1885 by the Cologne Society, deserves a special mention. The 
 vessels belonging to this line have on the Rhine a draught of 2 m. 51 will) 
 a loading capacity of 10 000 cwt; they are 61 m. long and 8 m. 7 broad. 
 
 As regards goods in bulk quite a number of large firms and associations 
 of shipo wners assure the conveyance of that class of goods by trains of 
 boats towed by tug. The following may he cited : 
 
 4 . The Mannheim Steam Towage Society ; 
 
 2. The Mayence Joint-Stock Society, II. A. Disch’s old enterprise; 
 
 5. The Joint-Stock Society of Frankfort for the navigation of the Rhine 
 
 and the Main ; 
 
 4. The Cologne Steam Towage Society; 
 
 5. The Steam Towage Society on the Lower Rhine, at Dusseldorf; 
 
 6. The Central Joint-Stock Society for Towage by steam and horses, 
 
 at Ruhrort ; 
 
 7. The enterprise ol'Frantz Ilaniel and Co., shipowners, at Ruhrort; 
 
 8. The enterprise of Mathias Stinnes, shipowner, at Muelheim-on-the- 
 
 Ruhr; 
 
 9. The enterprise of Johann Faber, shipowner, at Duishurg. 
 
 Independently of their tugs, these firms own a large number of boats for 
 carrying freight on their own account. They are thus enabled to utilise 
 their own plant without having to depend on freight contractors. 
 
 Certain firms attend exclusively to the service of towage, such as : 
 
 The Association of Shipowners at Muelheim, with five steam-tugs; 
 
 The firm of W. Rottengalter of Hamburg, with three steam-lugs; 
 
 Finally, certain contractors undertake solely the business of carriers, 
 such as : F. Becker, of Muelheim-on-the-Ruhr, with 55 boats ; 
 
 Stachelhaus and Ruchloh, of Muelheim-on-the-Ruhr; 
 
 Ferdinand Faber, of Duisburg; and others. 
 
RHINE BASIN. 
 
 27 
 
 On the Lower Rhine towage is still successfully carried on by small 
 screw steamers of which their owners are captain. 
 
 Concessions have repeatedly been solicited for chain towage, especially 
 by the Central Joint-Stock Society of Cologne in 1 87*2 for towage on the 
 German portion of the Rhine up the river as far as Strasburg; then again 
 in 1878 by the Rotterdam Chain Towage Company for that section of the 
 Rhine between Rotterdam andRuhrort. But on courses with an easy gra- 
 dient, this service of towage did not yield profitable returns; it was there- 
 fore abandoned. 
 
 As a set-off, on that portion of the Rhine separating Bonn from Bingen, 
 where the average gradient is 1 in 3 900, the Cologne Central Joint-Stock 
 Society, amalgamated with the Society of Steam Navigation from Muelheim 
 to Ruhrort under the style of « The Central Joint-Stock Society for Towage 
 by Steam and Horses », carries on the towage service with good returns. 
 Rs concession was granted for 34 years; the deed which relates to it, 
 independently of the conditions set down for protecting the other modes 
 of navigation, stales that the temporary removal of the chain necessitated 
 by the execution of works shall lake place without giving rise to the pay- 
 ment of an indemnity to the grantee. 
 
 Of the trading ports on the Rhine, those of Mannheim, Ruhrort and 
 Rotterdam are the most important. The freight traffic is set down in 
 1890 at : 
 
 Mannheim. . . 2,083,151 tons, of which. . . 2 , 1 65, G55 Ions entries 
 
 Ruhrort. . . . 9,446,413 — ... 2,771,005 tons exports 
 
 Rotterdam. . . 2,582,792 — ... 2,086,988 — 
 
 Next come the ports of Ludwigshafen, Cologne, Ilochfeld and Duisburg 
 with a trade movement of upwards of 500 000 tons. 
 
 The ports of Worms, Oppenheim, Gustavsburg, Mayence, Kastel, Ober- 
 lahnstein, Deutz, Neuss, Dusseldorf, Dordrecht and Amsterdam show a 
 traffic varying between 500 000 and 100000 tons. 
 
 The following ports should also be mentioned : Kelil, Laulerburg, Maxan, 
 Maximiliansau, Leopoldshafen, Gernsheim, Biebrich, Scbierstein, Buden- 
 heim, Bingerbruck, Coblentz, Bonn, Uerdingen, Wesel, Arnheim, Nimen- 
 gen, Tiel and Gorluim. 
 
 The large ports of the Rhine are nearly all connected with the railway. 
 
 The ways and customs of commerce in Prussian ports, in matters of 
 loading and warehousing, were drawn up in a code by D r Ulmann (Berlin, 
 1888) from documents obtained at official sources. 
 
 Tbe charge for towage, on the Rhine, may be set down at 0.21 to 0.24 
 pfennigs per ton and kilometre. There is only a fixed tariff, that which 
 concerns goods carried on fast passenger steamboats. The other tariffs 
 vary according to the water-level, seasons, the greater or lesser abun- 
 
28 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 dance of freight traffic. For different articles, the following charge for 
 transport may he fixed per ton and kilometre : 
 
 IN* 
 
 COURSE 
 
 TARIFF 
 
 REMARKS 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 LOWEST 
 
 MEDIUM 
 
 HIGHEST 
 
 
 rrg. 
 
 l'fg. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 — Loose Goods. 
 
 
 Mannheim. . 
 
 )) 
 
 0.9 
 
 
 1 
 
 Rotterdam . . 
 
 Francfort. . 
 Cohlentz . . 
 
 » 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 » 
 
 1.1 
 
 Coal. 
 
 
 Rotterdam. . 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 Mannheim. . 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 2 
 
 Ruhrort . . . 
 
 Cohlentz . . 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 Corn. 
 
 
 Ruhrort. . . 
 
 0.8 
 
 1 .2 
 
 T.8 
 
 
 5 
 
 Mannheim . . 
 
 Rotterdam. . 
 
 )) 
 
 0 7 
 
 » 
 
 Building timber. 
 
 4 
 
 Oberlahnstein. 
 
 Ruhrort. . . 
 
 0.4 
 
 0 4 
 
 0.5 
 
 Minette. 
 
 
 II. 
 
 — Parcel Goods. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Mannheim . . 
 
 Rotterdam. . 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 Mannheim. . 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 
 2 
 
 Dusseldorf . . 
 
 Move nee . . 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 Rotterdam. . 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 3 
 
 Coblentz . . . 
 
 Rotterdam. . 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 With boats not towed. 
 
 4 
 
 Rotterdam . . 
 
 Cohlentz . . 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 With boats not towed. 
 
 The ports of the Rhine are in direct communication, not only with 
 Rotterdam, but also with the Amsterdam sea-ports by the Empire canal, 
 those of Antwerp by the Dutch Uicp and the Eastern Scheldt, and finally 
 with the Zuiderzee by the Dutch Yssel and the canals of the latter, hi 
 view of extending communications with Holland and Relgium on the one 
 hand, and with the North Sea on the other, projects for connecting the 
 canal from the Rhine to the Meuse and the canal between Ruhrort and 
 Ilenrichenburg with the canal from Dortmund to Ems have been put 
 forward. 
 
 The international treaties exchanged for the navigation of the Rhine 
 are based on clause XII of the 16 th addendum to the Act of the Congress 
 of Vienna, dated Jan. 9, 1815. According to that clause, the riparian 
 States take the engagement to « keep the tow-paths in good condition and 
 to execute in the bed of the river such necessary works as will prevent 
 navigation from being obstructed. » 
 
 The negotiations afterwards carried on between the interested States led 
 
RHINE BASIN. 29 
 
 to the signature of the Act for navigation on the Rhine, or « Arrangement 
 between the riparian States of Use Rhine and of the regulation concerning 
 the navigation of lhal river », dated March 31, 1851. This arrangement 
 orders, in clause I, that navigation on the Rhine, in Ihe whole of ils navi- 
 gable portion to the sea, shall be entirely free; it determines, in clauses 
 89 to 108, Ihe powers and attributions of the central commission and 
 inspectors for the navigation of the Rhine commissioned to make applica- 
 tion of the intervening regulation. In course of lime it was found neces- 
 sary to modify in parts and to complete in other parts the provisions of 
 said Act. The needful revision took place in 1868 and since then the 
 « Revised Act for navigation on the Rhine », dated Oct. 17, 1868, has 
 been in vigour. 
 
 According to clause 52 of this latter document, the riparian States have 
 in common promulgated the « Police ordinance for navigation and 
 rafting on the Rhine » the last revisal of which is applicable since 
 Feb. 1, 1888. 
 
 It stipulates in particular : 
 
 (a) . At clause 16 : The restrictions imposed on steam navigation and 
 rafting at periods oflloods. Steamboats cease to ply when the Cologne 
 water-mark shows a water-level of 7 m. 8. Wood-rafting is stopped 
 as soon as the Cologne water-mark reads 1 m. 4 when the river is rising 
 and 4 m. 7 when it is falling. 
 
 ( b ) . At clause 29 : 'flic number of boats which may form a train, towed 
 along the course from Ringen to St-Goar, is : 
 
 Up the river 5 boats 
 
 Down the river 4 — 
 
 A complete collection of the laws and other regulations for navigating 
 the Rhine was drawn up by Ihe central commission in 1888 and printed 
 in 1889. 
 
 Navigation on the canals of the Rhine has given rise to special police 
 regulations, to wit : 
 
 1. Police regulation concerning the Frankenthal Canal for the circula- 
 tion along that waterway and Ihe utilisation of the fixtures it includes, 
 dated Nov. 5, 1881 ; 
 
 2. Police regulation for navigating the Erst Canal, dated Dec. 16, 1854; 
 
 5. Pol ice regulation for the Rheinberg Canal, dated Dec. 1, 1846; and 
 
 4. Police regulation for the Spoy Canal, dated April 25, 1847. 
 
 fhe extension taken by freight traffic on the Rhine is evident by the 
 following figures, obtained from official sources and which render all 
 commentary superfluous : 
 
50 
 
 TRACTION OF ROATS 
 
 YEARS 
 
 TOTAL TRAFFIC 
 in the 
 
 CHIEF POUTS 
 
 of the Rhine 
 
 TRAFFIC 
 on the 
 
 GEII MAN-DUTCH 
 
 frontier 
 
 
 Tons 
 
 Tons 
 
 1870 
 
 4,448,528 
 
 1 ,962,910 
 
 1880 . 
 
 9,276,009 
 
 3,674,110 
 
 1890 
 
 19,554,148 
 
 5,883,254 
 
 This extraordinary development is to be attributed, in the first place, to 
 the care taken by the riparian States in establishing and maintaining the 
 navigable way. Prussia alone spent during 1880 and 1890, for the regula- 
 tion of the Rhine from Bingen : 
 
 To the Dutch frontier 11,596,000 marks 
 
 And for port works on the Rhine 1,759,000 — 
 
 Total 13,355,600 marks. 
 
 This increase in traffic is moreover due to the spirit of commerce and 
 enterprise of I he Rhenish provinces, which has transformed navigation in 
 every sense by giving it every requisite improvement. 
 
 Towage by men and horses is no longer met with anywhere, save in 
 certain localities for navigating boats mostly empty up-stream and which 
 are used to carry building materials, stones and course sand, as also 
 produce intended for local markets An exception exists, however, for that 
 section of the river between Assmannshauscn and Bingerloch, where steam 
 traction is supplemented by horse-towage, partly by way of rendering 
 additional assistance, partly also for greater security, in case one of the 
 towing lines should happen to snap. 
 
 Navigation by sail is still very prosperous in Holland : the Dutch boats 
 bringing coal to Ruhrort prefer the use of sails, even in Prussian waters. 
 
 We have already alluded to the progress obtained in the service of 
 passengers, which brought about the adoption of the saloon-boats belong- 
 ing to the Cologne and Dusseldorf Society, and of the improvements 
 introduced in the transport of goods due to an arrangement by which the 
 vessels of the Cologne Society are now able to go to sea. 
 
 Towage on the Lower Rhine is especially effected by means of steam 
 tugs provided with screws, and on the Upper Rhine by paddle-steamers. 
 The following table shows the entire slock of the largest transport societies 
 and of the more important associations of shipowners : 
 
RHINE BASIN, 
 
 31 
 
32 
 
 TRACTION OF ROATS 
 
 Most of the large companies, as will appear, own at the same time 
 paddle and screw-steamers, so as to make the best possible use of their 
 stock. Raddles-teamers offer this advantage that they have a’weak draught, 
 which allows of their plying even at periods* of low water and ensuring the 
 service especially up-stream hevoud Sainl-Goar ; on the other hand, they 
 entail a greater outlay in building and working. The steam-screw is about 
 20 per cent, cheaper as regards construction and requires a smaller 
 crew, its tow-lines being lighter and more easily handled; whilst the 
 cables used by paddle-steamers are heavier and unwieldy on account of 
 the traction being stronger. As the commercial importance of the crew 
 need not vary in proportion with the force of the engine and the size of 
 the vessel, there is advantage in giving a large size and a powerful engine 
 to paddle steam-tugs. 
 
 As appears from the foregoing table, paddle-steamers are all provided 
 with more powerful engines than those of screw-steamers. This circum- 
 stance renders them more precious in sections of steep gradient, which 
 arc those generally of lowest water-levels. 
 
 On courses of easy gradient, large paddle-steamers would not yield all 
 that might he expected from them, as it would he necessary to make the 
 trains too long and moreover I lie formation of the trains would take up 
 too much time. That is why steam-screws are preferably used as lugs 
 on the Lower Rhine. At periods oflow water the steam-screw sails up the 
 river as far as Sainl-Goar or Oberwesel, and is hence replaced by the llat- 
 bottom paddle-steamer in the journey to the Upper Rhine. 
 
 Tugs with only a draught ol I m. 35 and engines of 160 to 180 
 registered horse-power, on account of their relatively important force, 
 are particularly used on sections with steep gradients during periods of 
 low water; their working yields profitable returns, as they allow of navi- 
 gating the river continuously and completely. One unfavourable cir- 
 cumstance however must be mentioned, it is that the different sections of 
 the Rhine offering steep gradients are very far apart from each other. On 
 the stretch of 551 kilometres separating Ruhrort from Mannheim, the 
 section from Bonn to Bingen, where traction by chain takes place, only 
 measures 124 kilometres, or a third, and that third half-way of the dis- 
 tance covered. The result is that, below Bonn and above Bingen, towage 
 must take place by means of other steamers. Hence a complication in the 
 service and a loss of time which it is not always possible to avoid. Never- 
 theless, in 1884 for instance, the towage business gave a dividend of 
 4 1/2 per cent. It should also he noted that the rafting material properly 
 so called which was formerly insufficient, has been perceptibly augmen- 
 ted within the last few years. 
 
 By summarising what has been said, it will be seen that the 3 208 ki- 
 
RHINE HASIN. 
 
 35 
 
 lom. 7 of navigable ways in (lie basin of Ihe Rhine may be divided 
 inl.o : 
 
 508 kiloin. 9 or 1G per cent of canals, 
 
 42G kiloin. G or 13 — canalised watercourses, 
 
 2,273 kiloin. 2 or 71 — regulated or free watercourses. 
 
 On the canals, towage takes place entirely by means of horses, except 
 on the Erst Canal, 34 kilometres long, which is navigated by steamboats. 
 
 On the canilised rivers, horse-towage is also preferred. Alone the canal- 
 ised Main, on a length of 56 kilometres, admits steamboats with steam 
 towage by chain. 
 
 The regulated or free rivers, save the 111, the Sarre and the Lippe, 
 arc navigated by steamboats. These latter 1 ply over 70 per cent, of 
 the total length of all the llnvial ways of the basin. 'I bis allows of an 
 ample margin for the local service of towage by horses and an impor- 
 tant navigation by sail, as also for the development of the towage busi- 
 ness by horses and chain. 
 
 Chain navigation is at present being organised on the canalised Main, 
 hut only for a distance of 48 kilom. 5; as an off-set to this, it may he 
 stated that this mode of locomotion is in full prosperity along 127 kilo- 
 metres on the Neckar. Towage is profitable on the Rhine, in spile of the 
 isolated situation of the section on which it is needed, in the middle of 
 the course from Ruhrort to Mannheim. 
 
 Steam towage fully responds to the requirements of the free portion of 
 the Rhine, where the river has its entire breadth, owing to the use of 
 paddle-steamers on the section below Saint-Goar and of screw-steamers on 
 the whole of the Lower Rhine. 
 
 The general conclusions to he drawn from the foregoing examination 
 of the navigable ways in the Rhine basin arc the following: 
 
 1. Regulated watercourses allow the industry of navigation freely to 
 reach its most complete development. 
 
 2. As to free rivers with a steep slope, there is reason to preler : 
 
 a. Chain navigation in the shallower parts af the fairway; 
 
 b. Chain towage along the greater depths of fairway, wherever Ihe 
 course to be navigated offers a sufficient distance. 
 
 3. Along free watercourses which offer a fair width of fairway, towing 
 has been found to prove of especial advantage : 
 
TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 U 
 
 a. By means of paddle-steamers on courses of average depth and steep 
 fall; 
 
 b. By means of screw-steamers on courses offering good depths and 
 easy falls. 
 
 Coblentz, February, 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere. Sworn Translator, Paris). 
 
24 COO. — Imprimerie generalc A. Lahure, 0, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 
( A / A 
 
 ■■O > [ff / 
 
 
 rth i\t m 
 
 CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 6 th QUESTION 
 
 THE 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU 
 
 REPORT 
 
 1SY 
 
 M. THIEM 
 
 Engineer of the Prussian Government, at Eberswald 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FI. EURUS. 9 
 
 18 92 
 
THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 ON THE LINE FROM IIOIIENSAATEN TO SPANDAU 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. THIEM 
 
 Engineer of the Prussian Government, at Eberswald. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE WATERWAY AND ITS RELATIONS WITH OTHER 
 
 NAVIGABLE WAYS. 
 
 The navigable way from Ilohensaaten to Spandau, 102 kilometres in 
 length, is one of the most important of the March. Its course, which is 
 sufficiently unequal, formerly bore different names; in the first place, from 
 Ilohensaaten to Liebenwald, over a distance of 57 kilom. 17, it was known 
 as the canal of Finow; then, from Liebenwald to a point below Malz, over 
 1 1 kilom. 93, it was called the canal de Malz; and beyond, to a point below 
 Pinnow, over 14 kilom. 5, it was known as the canal of Oranienburg ; 
 finally, it took the name of the canalised Havel over 9 kilometres of its 
 length and came to an end at Spandau by the Lake of Spandau. 
 
 This navigable way connects the Oder with the Havel and consequently 
 with the Spree. It is in turn connected with the Vistula and the water- 
 courses of Russia by the Warthe, which flows into the Oder at Custrin and 
 the Netze which has its outlet in the Warthe above Landsberg. The situa- 
 tion of Berlin between the Elbe and the Oder ensures, by its extensive com- 
 munications, a considerable influence to the German capital over the com- 
 merce of Northern Germany. 
 
 If an imaginary line is drawn from the north-west to the south-west, 
 from the Baltic sea to the Riesengebirge, passing through Berlin, such a 
 line leaves on the east three great commercial currents : 
 
 To the south-east, the Silesian traffic of Gleiwitz, Cosel, Oppeln, towards 
 the capital by Breslau, the Oder and the canal from the Oder to the Spree ; 
 to the east, the Russian traffic which penetrates German territory to the 
 
 1 6 . 
 
 THIEM. 
 
2 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 cast of Thorn, follows I lie Vistula, the canal of Bromberg, the Nclze, the 
 Warlhc and enters the Oder at Custrin; there it divides, a part ascends 
 Hie river with the Silesian traffic as far as the canal from the Oder to the 
 Spree, the other on the contrary descends the Oder towards Stettin and 
 merges into the third and chief commercial current, that of Steltin. 
 
 Of all the ports in the Baltic, Stettin is hy for the most important. The 
 commerce of the Baltic, in fact, not only finds at that place easy commu- 
 nications hy water with Berlin, hut also means of transport for the whole 
 of Northern Germany by the numerous railroad lines which converge there. 
 
 The waterway which especially serves the traffic of Stettin is precisely 
 that between Hohensaaten and Spandau of the direction of which the 
 undersigned has the honour to he charged. Between Stettin and Berlin, 
 Magdeburg and Hamburg, barge-traffic utilises in the first instance the 
 course of the Oder over nearly 75 kilometres of its length as far as the 
 Ilohensaaten lock, starting-point of the Hohensaaten-Spandau navigable 
 way, this latter following for 15 kilom. 00 the ancient course of the Oder 
 and the course of Oderherg and Liepe, then the course of the Finow as far 
 as a point above the lock of Grafenbuek, over 25 met. 54. From this lock 
 to the Liehenwald, over 16 kilom. 52, the navigable way has been esta- 
 blished hy the hand of man; hut beyond, over 5 kilom. 04, it again turns 
 to account an old branch of the Havel ; then, alter a course of 8 kilometres 
 along an artificial canal (as far as the lock at Malz), it runs along the Havel 
 as far as the lock of Oranicnburg, over 5 kilom. 59; finally, a last portion 
 of artificial canal is found extending over 10 kilom. 90 as far as a point 
 above the lock at Pinnow and lastly at 18 kilom. 4 from Spandau the 
 waterway once more uses the Havel and its lakes. It is at Saatwinkel, 
 not far from Spandau, that the canal from Spandau to Berlin detaches itself. 
 
 LOCKS. 
 
 From IheOder to the Havel, the canal ascends; beyond, towards Spandau, 
 it descends. The reach of supply extends over a length of 11 kilom. 8 
 between the locks of Zerpen and Liehenwald. 
 
 The canal counts 18 locks including the head lock at Hohensaaten, hut 
 not including the lock at Spandau ; 14 of these locks are on the ascending 
 portion and 4 on the descending. 
 
 The first of these equalises a slope of 57 met. 70, the latter a slope of 
 7 met. 91. The lift of each of the locks situated on the ascending branch 
 varies between 1 met. 82 and 4 met. 15; and the interval between these 
 works is from 0 kilom. 995 metres to 15 kilom. 6. For the locks of the 
 descending branch, the lifts vary between 0 met. 94 and 2 met. 55. All 
 the locks are coupled, that is I hey have two chambers one beside the 
 other; each — except the old lock at Liepe — being able to receive two 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 3 
 
 boats ; at the old lock of Hohensaaten, Ihey are able to receive three. The 
 available length of' the chambers is 41 met. 07 and their available width 
 9 met. GO, except in the two old locks above mentioned. 
 
 LOW -WATER. 
 
 The navigable way at the narrowest points measures 16 metres at bottom 
 and affords, at low-water mark, a depth of 1 met. 75, so that it can still 
 receive boats draughting 1 met. 45. At certain spots of the Hohensaaten- 
 Liepe reach, that is along the ancient course of the Oder, the width at 
 surface-level sometimes attains 400 metres. 
 
 The waterway from Hohensaaten to Spandau receives the following navi- 
 gable affluents : 
 
 1. The old Oder, 24 kilom. 9 in length ; 
 
 2. The Handgraben, 11 kilom. 5 in length; 
 
 3. The Werbellin canal and the Wcrbellin lake (the canal has two locks), 
 21 kilometres in length ; 
 
 4. The canal of Noss with the canalised Havel, which ensures the junction 
 with the Mecklenburg and includes 9 locks as far as Furstenberg, of a total 
 length of 61 kilom. 2 ; 
 
 5. The canal of Ruppin, 40 kilometres in length ; 
 
 6. The Havel of Oranienburg, 11 met. 75 in length; and 
 
 7. The Nieder-Neucndorf canal, 10 kilometres in length. 
 
 EMBANKMENTS. 
 
 Throughout the entire course of the navigable way from Hohensaaten to 
 Spandau — except for the lakes — the banks are provided with a suitable 
 revetment in fascine-work. Wherever the proximity of buildings has not 
 allowed the establishment of a slope of sufficient importance, the banks 
 have been protected either with retaining walls or by stakes driven in and 
 notched together, or with plank revetments. 
 
 WATER-LEVEL. 
 
 The difference of level between low-water mark and high waters varies 
 on the seel ion which extends between the lock of Liepe and that of Pinnow 
 between 0 met. 24 and 0 met. 80. For the lower section, between Liepe 
 and Hohensaaten, where the influence of the floods of the Oder is felt, this 
 
THH TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 difference attains 2 met. 25; below the lock of Pinnow, it is still as 
 high as 1 met. 88. Finally, on the Oder, at the Ilohensaaten lock, the 
 difference between the highest and the lowest water-levels is 5 met. 90. 
 
 OUTLET-SLUICES. 
 
 The navigable way of Ilohensaaten does not furnish water for irrigation 
 purposes. It more often happens that the neighbouring grounds arc below 
 the level and would rather need draining. In the canal, the water some- 
 times rises between the dams to a notable height above the neighbouring 
 soil. 
 
 But below the lock at Grafenbruck, as far as the Eberswald lock, arc 
 some large mills, foundries and paper-mills which, by several special 
 canals, receive directly from the canal the water they need and return it 
 down-stream. These adductions, however, arc tolerated only in so far as 
 they do not entail the lowering of the surface-level below low-water mark, 
 that is to say as long as the depth of the water remains at 1 met. 75. 
 
 The waters brought by the Havel, the Finow and a few other secondary 
 affluents are in fact important. All the factories are in the hands of pri- 
 vate parties; they employ sometimes upwards of 200 workmen; the pur- 
 chase of the lifts they own would cost the Stale one and a half million of 
 marks. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ESTABLISHMENTS ALONG THE WATERWAY. 
 
 The localities through which extends the Ilohensaatcn-Spandau navigable 
 way, as also those watered by the tributaries it receives, arc for the most 
 part highly industrious. 
 
 The wide section that spreads between the locks of Ilohensaaten and 
 Liepe and uses the lakes of Liepe and Oderberg, the lower portion of the 
 old Oder over 11 kilometres in length and the lower portion of the Land- 
 graben over 1 kilom. 5, affords excellent sites for the deposit of floated 
 rafts which arrive from the province of Posen and from Russia. Indeed, 
 the whole of this part of Hie waterway constitutes the most important dock 
 in Germany for floated timber. Numbers of large saw-mills worked by 
 sleam have been set up on the banks, as also brick-works. Over and 
 above the mills, foundries and paper-mills above alluded to, the Hohcn- 
 saaten-Spandau waterway is bordered from the lock at Liepe and a long 
 distance up-stream towards Grafenbruck with a great many brick-works, 
 sleam saw-mills and the largest class of factories for the manufacture 
 of horse-shoe nails ; these factories are in fact established on a footing 
 for the daily production of 25 000 to 50 000 kilogrammes of these nails 
 and occupy 100 workmen. Above Zelulenick, and consequently on the 
 
ON TIIE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 5 
 
 canalised Havel, a large number of important brick-works are also found, 
 and from Oranienburg down-stream as far as Spandau the brick-works and 
 steam saw-mills alternate along tbc whole way. 
 
 BOATS AND TRAFFIC. 
 
 Il is on tbc Ilohensaaten-Spandau waterway that, until the canal is 
 achieved from the Oder to I lie Spree, tbc commercial lines of the Silesian 
 traffic and the Russian traffic brought through tbc provinces of Posen and 
 Prussia and the traffic from Stettin converge; this navigable way therefore 
 has considerable traffic, which increases still more towards the level reach 
 on account of the canal of Werbcllin and Noss and of the upper canalised 
 Havel. From 1880 to 1890, a yearly average (from the beginning of 
 March to December 15) of 30 260 laden or empty boats passed the lock at 
 Liebenwald, besides 2 150 rafts of tloated timber, each of which represents 
 a lock-full or two boats. 
 
 The boats which circulate along the Ilohensaaten-Spandau waterway 
 may have 40 met. 20 in length and 4 met. 60 in breadth ; for many years 
 past they have been built without a keel, with sides as vertical as possible 
 and fore and aft slim ; their mean tonnage is 175 tons. The timber rafts 
 circulating along the same way may be composed of 8 tafeln each 3 metres 
 wide and 120 metres long, so that each train requires a complete lock-full 
 like two boats. Four tafeln represent a half-train entailing the same con- 
 sumption of water as a boat. They include on an average 35 cubic metres 
 of timber, which represents, taking 0.6 as density of wet pine wood, a 
 weight of 21 000 kilogrammes = 21 tons. 
 
 If the lock at Eberswald is taken as an average lock for traffic, we find 
 that during the three years 1888, 1889 and 1890 the following numbers 
 of boats and rafts have on an average gone by per year at this point : 
 
 Towards Berlin : 
 
 12,950 laden Boats. 
 
 147 empty boats. 
 
 4,270 half-trains of timber. 
 
 From Berlin : 
 
 5.150 laden boats. 
 
 8.150 empty boats. 
 
 250 half-trains of timber. 
 
 which, in tons, corresponds to a traflic of : 
 
6 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 Towards Berlin : 
 
 Laden boats 2,266,250 tons. 
 
 Rafted timber 89,670 — 
 
 From Berlin : 
 
 Laden boats 545,750 — 
 
 Rafted timber 5,250 — 
 
 Together 2,908,920 tons. 
 
 The length of the navigable way being 102 kilometres, the kilomctric 
 tonnage would therefore amount to : 
 
 Towards Berlin : 
 
 Boats 251,157,500 k. t. 
 
 Timber rafts 9,146,540 — 
 
 From Berlin : 
 
 Laden boats, 55,870,500 — 
 
 Timber rafts 555,500 — 
 
 Together 296,709,840 k. t. 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS. 
 
 a. On the Oder. 
 
 The traction of boats on the Oder from Stettin to the lock at Hohensaaten 
 is effected up-stream almost exclusively by means of independent steam 
 screw tugs, of a draught between 1 m. 30 and 1 m. 60 and of a force 
 ranging from 50 to 150 borse-power. At present, 17 of these tugs are 
 employed, 15 of them belonging to private parties and two to the 
 united boat-owners of fluvial and inland navigation. The number of boats 
 towed by each lug varies between 2 and 8 on the Steltin-Hohensaaten 
 portion; the towage price is debated between the two parlies; it is about 
 32 centimes per ton on an average, whatever may be the nature of the 
 boat. 
 
 The journey up-stream between Stettin and Hohensaaten demands from 
 sixleen to seventeen hours ; the return empty only takes five hours, boat- 
 owners only quite exceptionally have recourse to tugs down-stream, in 
 times of low water or unfavourable wind. From economy, I hey prefer to 
 navigate with sails. 
 
 Towage by men or horses is never practised on the river. The 17 tugs 
 are more than sufficient for present wants, they make little over 3 to 
 4 journeys a week. 
 
ON Till? LINE FROM IIOIIENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 7 
 
 Between Stettin and Breslau, on account of Hie small depth of the water, 
 tow-boats with paddle-wheels are alone found ; t hey are of fairly consider- 
 able power, however, and are able to tow from 12 to 14 laden boats. 
 These paddle-wheelers, 54 in number, belong partly to private persons, 
 partly to joint-slock companies. 
 
 Towage by chain or cable has not been introduced on the Oder on 
 account of (he mobility of the river-bed formed of fine sand and of the 
 unsettled state of the fairway which arises from it, even when only a 
 small increase takes place in the discharge. 
 
 b. On the Hohensaaten-Spandau waterway. 
 
 Three methods of traction for boats, corresponding with different widths 
 of the waterway, are found on the navigable line from Ilohcnsaaten to 
 Spandau. 
 
 This line includes in fact 1 
 
 1. A portion widened out in the shape of a lake, between the locks at 
 Ilohensaaten and Liepe, over 15 kil. 6 in length; 
 
 2. A portion where the width is that of an ordinary canal, between 
 the lock at Liepe and the lake of Spandau below the lock at Pinnow, over 
 70 kilometres in length; and 
 
 5. The lake of Spandau, over a distance of 18 kil. 4. 
 
 Boats navigating along this line and which, as we have already said, 
 may be 40 m. 20 long by 4 m. 60 wide, are divided according to 
 their mode of construction into barges or praams (Zillen). The barges 
 are stoutly built of oak and red pine, while the praams are of deal and 
 much less solidly put together, so that they scarcely last over six 
 years. 
 
 Until within the last few years the few steamboats met with along the 
 Hohensaaten-Spandau waterway were transport boats and could not be 
 used for towage purposes. Tin; traction of boats look place by sail and 
 oar in the broader portions, with narrow branches. It is only on the 
 reach of 11 kilometres 8 included between the locks of Zerpen and 
 Licbenwald that, within some twenty years, a service of towage by horses 
 was established, and even then it was only utilised when a flat calm or 
 the wind did not allow of using the sail. 
 
 This slow and peaceful mode of traction was due to the inconveniencies 
 which the waterway formerly presented : exiguous profile, narrow bridges, 
 numerous inflexions, depth sometimes insufficient. The absence of 
 coupled locks especially superinduced delays : it was not rare to see 
 60 boats and more waiting whole days their turn to pass the locks. 
 
8 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 The construction of coupled locks, the rectification of the banks, the 
 widening and deepening of I he canal, I he broadening of the bridges have 
 completely modified this unwholesome slate of things. A towage-service 
 for boats by means of steamers was recently established between the locks 
 of Hohensaaten and Liepe. These steamers are able to tow six boats; 
 the charge for towage, which is debated between the parties, amounts 
 on an average to 5 marks per boat, say 0 m. 021 per ton-kilometre. But 
 when the wind is favourable, boat-owners still prefer navigation by sail, 
 which they practise by means of a short canal mast and special sail 
 (8 blatts in width). Wherever the breadth of the canal allows of it, even 
 towage by human agency is still practised. Steam towage is by no means 
 compulsory. 
 
 Besides boats, the waterway also receives, from the lock at Hohensaaten 
 to the locks at Oderbergcr and Liepe, or as far as the old Oder, a consider- 
 able quantity of timber trains, which pass through at Custrin from the 
 Warthe into the Oder. During the period from 1888 to 1890 an average 
 of 10,014 lock-fulls per year was computed at the Hohensaaten lock for 
 rafted limber. This timber comes cither from the Netze or from the 
 Warthe. The rafts from the former have a width of 4 m 50 and are 
 usually made up of 4 or 5 tafeln which together measure a width of 
 80 metres. The rafts from the second are somewhat less wide (70 metres) ; 
 they are the more often composed of 2 tafeln each 7 metres wide. 
 
 We may further state to complete our information on the commerce of 
 rafted timber that, in the basin of the waterway of Hohensaaten, Spandau 
 and the Havel (Spandau, Berlin, Potsdam, Brandenburg, Rathenow, as 
 also on the Elbe (Hamburg, Magdeburg, Dessau, Halle) and on its different 
 affluents, this branch of trade utilises as places of deposit the stretches 
 which broaden out like lakes along the way and which arc found at 
 Oderberg-in-the-March and Liepe. The timber is either at once retailed 
 on the spot among the large steam saw-mills established in those parts, 
 in which case most of the retailed wood is re-forwarded by boat; or else 
 the native timber is again formed into rafts 5 metres wide and 120 metres 
 long, made up of several parts which take the name of Tafeln or Pldtze. 
 
 The transport of limber from the basins of the Netze and the Warthe is 
 effected by the Netze, the Warthe and the Oder as far as the lock at 
 Hohensaaten. The traction of the rafts takes place according to local con- 
 ditions, in case of slow current by hand-towing or by means of boat- 
 books. When the current is fairly strong, the raft is left to itself; it is 
 merely guided by a species of narrow rudder from 8 to 10 metres Ion 
 placed in the direction of the current and called Palschen. After passin 
 the lock at Hohensaaten, the rafts are brought by a steam tow-boat as far 
 as the lakes of Oderberg and Liepe. 
 
 crp OQ 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 9 
 
 STEAM-TOWAGE. 
 
 The tow-boat is provided outwardly orv the side with a drum which is 
 furnished with Fowler valves. The timber rafts which it tows may extend 
 400 metres in length and 16 m. 50 in width until within 5 kiloinelres of 
 Hohensaaten ; beyond that point, until the lakes are reached, the recent 
 width of the water-surface requires that a breadth of 9 meties shall not 
 be exceeded. 
 
 Towage by manual labour is little practised, nor is the sail or boat-hook 
 much used in this part of the canal for timber rafts. 
 
 EXPLORATION OF THE CANAL. 
 
 The canal properly speaking commences from the lock at Liepc and 
 extends as far as that at Spandau. In that part boats and rafts have 
 hitherto but very rarely been towed by free steamers. Hauling is pretty 
 generally the rule ; it is practised as well by horses as by men. The boats 
 are almost exclusively towed by human agency; should the wind be 
 favourable, the sail is still used. 
 
 But towage by horses should be regarded as the chief method of traction; 
 it has been developed by free competition; but unfortunately its organi- 
 sation is still imperfect. 
 
 It comprises the following journeys, at the end of each of which the 
 
 horses are relayed. 
 
 kil. 
 
 Liepe-Eberswald . 10,93 
 
 Eberswald-Schopfurtb. . ■ 10,40 
 
 Schopfurlh, lock at Zerpen 10,40 
 
 Lock at Zerpen-Liebenwald 10,10 
 
 Liebenwald-Malz 12,00 
 
 Malz until beyond Pinnow 16,20 
 
 From 350 to 590 horses are distributed over these 70 kilometres of 
 tolal distance. A. stout horse is accounted sufficient for hauling a laden 
 boat; the horses less strong, which are preferably used for towing timber 
 rafts, are coupled. Hauling by human agency recuires, according to cir- 
 cumstances, from two to four men. 
 
 The speed reached by the horses is from 65 to 70 centimetres per second ; 
 that by the men does not exceed 40 to 55 centimetres. The mean prices 
 paid for this kind of towage varies, according to the greater or lesser lading 
 of the boats, between the following figures : 
 
 THIfiM. 
 
 2 G. 
 
10 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 Per journey. 
 
 For hauling. 
 
 For 1 horse, 
 and conductor. 
 
 Liepe-Eberswald 
 
 3 
 
 marks, 
 men 9,00 
 
 marks. 
 
 5,50 to 6,00 
 
 Eberswald-Schopfurlh 
 
 3 
 
 — 9,00 
 
 5,50 — 6,25 
 
 Schopfurth, lock at Zerpen .... 
 
 3 
 
 — 9,00 
 
 5,50 — 5,75 
 
 Lock at Zerpen-Liebenwald .... 
 
 2 
 
 — 4,00 
 
 4,25 — 4,75 
 
 Liebenwald-Malz 
 
 2 
 
 — 4,00 
 
 5,75 — 4,00 
 
 Malz, below Pinnow 
 
 2 
 
 — 6,00 
 
 5,00 — 5,25 
 
 In ordinary times, a horse makes but one journey a day, sometimes 
 two in the longer days of summer. 
 
 At present the timber rafts measuring 120 metres in length are towed 
 by horses only on that portion which extends between the lock at Liepe 
 and that at Kupferhammer ; beyond, in the up-stream direction, traction 
 is mostly performed by human agency. On the Liepe-Kupferhammer 
 section, a service of traction by horses has been organised; parties inte- 
 rested pay 14 marks per raft to the contractor who is bound to effect the 
 towage and to furnish the necessary equipment for the train. This con- 
 tractor has deposited a securily of 2 000 marks and must tow 10 rafts a 
 day. 
 
 Only one sixth of the limber rafts is towed by horses beyond Kupfer- 
 hammer. The charge for traction until beyond Pin now, staff included, is 
 24 marks. The tracker returns in a small vehicle which he places on the 
 raft during the up-stream journey. 
 
 On the lake of Spandau boats are still most of the time navigated by sail 
 or by means of the boat-hook. It is only quite recently that a partial 
 service of steam-towage has been established. The tugs are able to haul 
 6 boats at a time. 
 
 STEAM-BOATS. 
 
 Besides the sailing boats, 21 steamboats ply along the Hohensaaten- 
 Spandau waterway throughout its whole length and 3 on a portion only of 
 its course. The steamboats belong to private parties and take in freight; 
 they are moreover able to tow 6 boats between Hohensaaten and Liepe as 
 well as on the lake of Spandau, and 2 only on the rest of the navigable 
 way. 
 
 Twelve of these steamers ply between Stettin and Berlin, 9 between 
 Magdeburg and Stettin, 2 between Wriezen and Stettin and 1 between 
 Ruppin and Stettin. They are able to circulate along the canal at a speed 
 of 7 kil. 5 per hour. A higher rate of speed would disturb notably the 
 operations of loading and unloading in course along the canal. 
 
 As will be seen there is no uniform service of traction on the Hohen- 
 saaten-Spandau waterway, which is nevertheless much frequented. Steam 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 11 
 
 towage is practised thereon side by side with towage by horses and men 
 and locomotion by sail. The introduction of compulsory towage by 
 horses would he desirable, but the resistance of the boatmen has hitherto 
 frustrated every attempt made in that direction. 
 
 Associations for (owage by horses have however been formed at certain 
 points along the canal. These associations place at the lock, where the 
 hiring of the horses occurs, a man who dehates the price with the 
 boat-owners and receives from the association a small indemnity for each 
 horse thus hired through him. But the members of the association are 
 by no means held to furnish horses at determinate times and hours, and 
 each of them remains free to come or not as he may think lit with his horses. 
 The upshot is that at certain moments there are too many horses at the 
 locks, while at other moments there are none at all. The want of horses 
 is especially the case when night sets in. When the trackers have got 
 through their day’s work, they willingly remain at home for the night, 
 and it often happens that the reaches near the starting-points for horses at 
 the locks are encumbered with boats during the night. So that towage 
 by hand is still frequently adopted. Besides, on the home journey down- 
 stream, most of the boats dispense with horses, so that most of the teams 
 return unemployed. 
 
 The Ilohensaaten-Spandau waterway is connected directly with the 
 railroad (Berlin-Frankfort*on-the-Oder) only at the village of Niederfinow, 
 above the lock at Liepe. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE CONDITIONS. 
 
 As already stated, the boats may measure as much as 40 m. 20 in 
 length and 4 m. 60 in width. Steamers of larger size may exceptionally 
 be admitted, but in that case they require a lock-full each, while a lock- 
 full suffices for 2 regulation boats or for a timber raft; the latter may he 
 120 metres long by 3 metres wide. 
 
 Each boat with a sail must have 2 men on board ; each steamer, 1 man 
 besides the engineer and fireman. The crew of each raft must consist of 
 3 men in case of traction by hand, and of 2 men in case of traction by 
 horses. 
 
 The maximum height admitted for lading above the water-level is 
 3 metres. 
 
 Boats may suspend their progress at all points not expressly forbidden, 
 on condition however that their stationing shall not impede navigation; 
 boats and rafts must keep in close along the shore. They can neither 
 stop at the quay nor in the narrow parts of the canal, nor at the passages 
 of bridges, nor at a boat’s length above or below these, nor at 100 metres 
 above or below ferries. For wintering, they must gain the reaches spe- 
 
12 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 cified for the purpose. The operations ofloading and unloading can only 
 take place on special sites which must be furnished wilh plank revetments 
 for the protection of the hanks. The coupling ol boats is forbidden. The 
 ordinary passage of boats at the lock takes place in the order of arrival; 
 boats, however, that are hauled by horses have the right of way over sailing 
 boats, and those actuated by steam pass before the latter. 
 
 The working of the locks takes place from May to September inclusively 
 from 5 a. m. until 10 o'clock p. m.; the rest of the year from 5 a. m. 
 until 10 p. m. Steamboats and boats carrying live fish may pass the locks 
 all night. 
 
 The working of the locks is suspended on Good-Ki iday as also at Easter, 
 Whitsuntide and Christmas. Exception is made, however, for steamers 
 with passengers which ply regularly in accordance with a regularly 
 approved fare or which may have announced their arrival the previous 
 evening. On other holidays and on Sundays the locks are only worked 
 from 8 a. m. until noon, except again for the steamers above mentioned 
 as also for boats laden with explosive matters, carrying live fish or fresh 
 fruit, or those belonging to the administration of works. 
 
 A head lock-keeper appointed by the Stale superintends the working of 
 the locks and watches the regularity of the exploitation. He is assisted by 
 4 keepers (2 for each lock), who fill and empty the locks and help the boats 
 and rafts to enter and depart. 
 
 The wages of the latter is not fixed ; they receive from boat or raft 
 owners a fee which is on an average per keeper of : 
 
 For one boat alone 0,15 mark. 
 
 For two boats 0,24 — 
 
 For timber rafts 0,24 — 
 
 LOCKAGE. 
 
 The dues collected for lockage on boats laden with grain, spirits, wines, 
 colonial produce, are 2 marks for the whole length of the navigable way 
 to Berlin, inclusively; for boats laden with fuel, rushes, boughs, materials 
 for masonry, earth, manure, salts, empty cases or casks, 14 marks are 
 paid. 
 
 Empty boats pay for utilising the navigable w r ay as far as Berlin a due of 
 0 mark 04 per ton of capacity, without however said capacity being able 
 to be charged for above 120 tons. 
 
 The police of the navigation, rafting and ports is confided to the local 
 functionaries of the works, assisted by the head lock-keepers, superin- 
 tendanls of navigation and rafting and sub-superintendants. 
 
ON THE LINE FROM 1 1011 ENSA ATEN TO SPAM)AU. 
 
 STOPPAGE. 
 
 There is no stoppage during the summer season; navigation is only 
 suspended in winter — usually from December 15 to March 15 — to 
 attend to the losses and profits and to the repairs which the very nume- 
 rous works necessitate. 
 
 DIFFERENT SYSTEMS PROPOSED BUT NOT HITHERTO EMPLOYED. 
 
 Among the methods of locomotive so far in use, it is the traction by 
 horses which — considering that the profit is limited to what is strictly 
 necessary for the canal — offers the greatest advantages. But it cannot 
 suffice for the requirements of the future, even with a better system of 
 organisation, because the speed of traction thus obtained is necessarily 
 limited by the speed of the horse. Now we know that the horse is able 
 to cover : 
 
 Walking 
 
 0,9 
 
 to 
 
 1 , 1 metres. 
 
 Trotling ..... 
 
 
 to 
 
 2,2 — 
 
 Galloping 
 
 
 to 
 
 5,0 — 
 
 per second; one metre (walking) may therefore be regarded as the limit 
 beyond which towage by horses cannot be exceeded. Living motors pre- 
 sent moreover this disavantage that they do not always lend themselves to 
 present requirements : there is either excess or lack of force, and punc- 
 tuality consequently suffers thereby. 
 
 The useful application of inanimate motors for navigation along canals 
 may be attempted in two several ways : 
 
 a. The use of a special boat as motive power for towing; or 
 
 b. The substitution of a machine in lieu of horses. 
 
 Navigation on canals, and especially on old canals encumbered with 
 locks and much crowded, is not in a tit condition to make so advantageous 
 a use of towage as is fluvial navigation, because the force of the lug 
 cannot be wholly utilised. The restricted dimensions of canals, the diver- 
 sity of profiles offered under the bridges and always reduced to what is 
 strictly necessary, on the one hand; the presence of locks preventing the 
 formation of strings of boats sufficiently long, on the other hand, bring 
 trammels to the normal working of a system of that kind. 
 
 These considerations lead quite naturally to the idea of substituting 
 small lugs in lieu of the more powerful ones; but this division of the force 
 at once deprives the system of one of its advantages : cheapness. Even 
 the most novel inventions, as well the motive boat with endless chain of 
 
 TIIIEM. 5 G. 
 
 / 
 
14 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 Dupuy de Lome and Zede as Hunter’s electric boat or Huel’s canal steam- 
 engine, do not hold out great hopes of an advantageous exploitation. 
 Wernigh’s hydraulic steam-engine and Barlowe’s hydraulic wheel should 
 in fact beset aside a priori, since those two machines ulilise for the loco- 
 motion of boats the current of the water-course, which is wanting in 
 canals. As more especially concerns llucl’s canal steam-engine, the 
 object sought — to establish on canals a boat with very high speed, — is 
 open to discussion. The speed of the boat would he that of a railroad 
 train. Fancy a lightning-boat of the kind on a canal of relatively-narrow 
 and densely-crowded section! It is clear that such a steam-engine has no 
 prospect of being adopted. 
 
 CONDITIONS WHICH MECHANICAL TRACTION AND CANALS MUST FULFIL. 
 
 For navigation on canals the division of force is necessary. The con- 
 ditions which an installation having the mechanical traction of boats and 
 rafts for its object must fulfil may he summed up as follows : 
 
 1. The service must he regulated in such a way that circulation incurs 
 no interruption beyond that imposed by the locks. 
 
 Each boat or timber raft, therefore, must he able to use mechanical 
 traction at any time without having to wait the formation of a special train 
 for towing. 
 
 2. Every boat or timber raft must he able to regulate, according to 
 circumstances, its own forward progress so as to be able to advance 
 slowly, or at a medium or rapid speed, within admissible limits however. 
 It must be able to interrupt its journey at any point it may need; in fact, 
 locomotion must offer no danger. 
 
 5. The cost of traction must be lower than that charged for traction by 
 horses, human agency or steam tugs. 
 
 Any arrangement which fails to meet these numerous requirements 
 cannot be regarded as likely to respond to the wants of navigation on 
 canals with numerous locks. 
 
 The essays of mechanical traction based on the use of the steam-engine 
 or a continuously circulating cable are by far the most interesting. These 
 two solutions have something highly alluring and appear at the first blush 
 quite possible, especially funicular traction; but practice lias brought to 
 light numerous inconveniencies which seem to discountenance their use 
 and above all that of the steam-engine on old canals cut up by numerous 
 bridges, with inflexions and very much reduced profile. 
 
ON THE LINE FROM IIOIIENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 15 
 
 TRACTION BY STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Traction by steam-engine, wliich is highly to be recommended when the 
 power of the machine is utilised in a complete manner, ceases to be so as 
 soon as circumstances require only a partial utilisation of that force. 
 This method of traction then becomes costly. 
 
 On canals, traction by steam-engine requires moreover the establishment 
 on each bank of a solid trackway; it necessitates a sufficient opening of 
 the bridges that span the canal and a suitable solidity of those which may 
 be found along the trackway; it excludes besides gradients too steep along 
 the way. 
 
 With a speed of about 1 m. 50 per second — below which the steam- 
 engine can scarcely run without losing ils advantages — the boat-owner, 
 on account of the obliquity of the traction, is obliged to keep to the middle 
 of the canal, especially in its curved parts. On much crowded canals, 
 such a course would give rise to serious danger on account of the chances 
 of collision between boats following different directions. Moreover, the 
 steam-engine would not be utilised for towing a single boat; evidently 
 strings of boats would be formed and the chances — as also the impor- 
 tance — of damages would be still more increased. The obligation ol 
 limiting the number of boats which should scarcely exceed four would 
 result from these circumstances, especially on canals with curves. 
 
 On another hand, the formation of trains, even when reduced to four 
 boats, entails loss of time; one must notably wait at each lock until all 
 the trains have passed through it, and one of the advantages which mecha- 
 nical traction procures is thus lost : the independent locomotion of each 
 boat. 
 
 Another inconvenience of trains is the necessity of keeping account in 
 their formation of the respective destination of ea'ch of the boats, in order 
 that it shall always be the last which is to leave the train. Here again 
 losses of time occur especially when the first boats passing through the 
 lock happen to be those which are among the first to leave the train. 
 
 Finally the towing cable deteriorates the banks by reason of the friction 
 it exerts along the edge of the trackway. These damages may of course 
 be avoided by causing the cable to pass on a barrier placed over the 
 edge of the slope; but this would not prevent the willow plantations 
 from suffering as, in order to prosper, they should be protected by high 
 slopes. 
 
 May traction by steam-engine allow of a reduction in the expenses of 
 transport? Such is in short the essential point for 1 he merchant. I must 
 admit that I think not, according to my estimations, the expenses are 
 exceedingly high. Steam-engines of less than 12 to 15 horse-power can 
 scarcely be built, which, for a stout engine, will entail a first outlay of 
 
16 
 
 Till'] TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 not less Ilian 9 DOG marks and to this must he added a sum of 2 000 marks 
 for tlie traction wagon. It is moreover well to have in reserve a dupli- 
 cate for each steam-engine at work. As besides it is difficult without 
 danger, at least on canals offering curves, to low more than i boats on 
 account of the necessity of seeing them all, one reaches for the traction of 
 a boat a capital of first establishment in machines and traction wagons of 
 
 9 000 + 2 000 9 000 
 
 ■ — — — : 1 t -. — — oooO marks. 
 
 4 10 
 
 To this figure must he added the expenses, which are considerable, for 
 the establishment of the way : rails, sleepers, turn-tables, switches, 
 the cranes of supply, the construction of depots for the steam-engines, 
 workshops for repairs, abodes for the engineers and stokers, as also the 
 important costs of maintenance for t lie machines and way which would 
 rise to not less than 6 ft / 0 lor the former and 8 °/ 0 for the latter, without 
 taking into account any sum for amortisation. If, further, it is reckoned 
 that the engineers and stokers, not being able to furnish over 10 to J 2 hours 
 service when, at least on (lie way we have in view, navigation lasts from 
 5 a. m. until 10 p. m., a double stall’ will be required for each steam- 
 engine; that the steam-engines are heated even when they remain inactive 
 as for instance during the passage of locks or when the trains of boats are 
 being formed, and that a useless consumption of fuel takes place which is 
 far from inconsiderable; that the expenses of lubricating and cleaning are 
 high; that each steam-engine must draw along its own weight and that of 
 the tender, in other words a dead weight of 13000 kilogrammes or there- 
 abouts; that, on canals of some importance, the adoption of traction by 
 the steam-engine would entail the creation of a whole corps of new engi- 
 neers who would remain idle or nearly so in case of interruption in navi- 
 gation and during the winter; it will readily be seen that a simple 
 steamboat merely towing 2 boats will, on a canal with numerous locks, 
 furnish a service at once more economical and rapid than that to be 
 expected from traction by a steam-engine. This method of towage 
 requires in fact canals with a broad profile and does not appear to lend 
 itself to the navigation of boats on canals whose profile is reduced to just 
 the needful dimensions for the passage of boats which ply thereon. 
 
 In short, traction by steam-engine does not. full'll the conditions 1 and 
 2 to which as we stated mechanical traction must respond, and it 
 answers but in a very problematical manner to condition 3. 
 
 FUNICULAR TRACTION. 
 
 The use of cables for the transmission of force at short distances gives 
 a very good result, but this result decreases rapidly in proportion as the 
 distance of transmission augments; thus 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOIIENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 17 
 
 For 5 kilometres, it reaches but 60 per cent. 
 
 — 10 — — 35 — 
 
 — 20 — — 13 — 
 
 of the initial force. 
 
 As, in the case of navigation along canals, distances far more consider- 
 able have to be accomplished, traction by cable requires relays every 6 to 
 10 kilometres; this multiplicity of works along the canal is already little 
 calculated to recommend the system; but other inconveniencies are added 
 to the former. 
 
 Traction by cable must allow of any boat connecting with the cable at 
 whatever distance it may be from the motive works; this cable therefore 
 must be constantly maintained in service even when not utilised. This 
 useless locomotion of the dead weight of the cable increases the expense 
 of installation. 
 
 The speed of translation of the cable must be uniform and cannot 
 exceed a certain limit, about 1 metre per second, because, beyond that 
 limit, it would be difficult if not impossible for the boats to hook on to it, 
 unless themselves animated at a rate of speed almost the same. This 
 would entail chances of damage as well for the cable as for the boats. 
 
 The speed of 1 metre can scarcely be exceeded although a greater rate 
 of speed seems desirable. 
 
 A peculiarly serious inconvenience of the system is the movement of 
 rotation about itself that the cable assumes in the forward march. This 
 movement, which may be explained by phenomena of tension produced in 
 the suspended portion of the cable and above all during its passage on the 
 guiding pulleys, takes place in quite a severe manner when utilisation 
 suddenly ceases or when total tension of the cable is modified. If the 
 junction of the boat’s hawser with the motive cable is not established in a 
 way to allow of this movement of rotation, a coiling takes place which 
 throws the boat ashore unless the boatman promptly slips his moorings. 
 
 This method of locomotion would however be preferable to traction by 
 steam-engine if the rotation of the cable could be avoided, which might 
 perhaps be accomplished by the use of a flat cable. 
 
 ELECTRICAL TRACTION. 
 
 Mr. Busser, of Oderberg-in-the-March, proposes the establishment of a 
 special system of funicular traction with a flat instead of the round cable 
 hitherto employed, and the motive force being provided in the form of 
 electric current by a central station to secondary works established at 
 intervals of 6 to 10 kilometres. 
 
 Mr. Busser proposes also to convert at will each boat into a tow-car by 
 
THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 18 
 
 placing inside of each of them small special motors worked by petroleum 
 or an electrical current furnished by the central station. No trial has yet 
 been made of this new system, but it is desirable that such a trial 
 should take place. 
 
 Eberswald, February 29, 1892. 
 
ANNEX 
 
 ELECTRIC TOWAGE 
 
 PROJECT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. O. BUSSER 
 
 of Oder-in-the-March. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 My system has for object to insure the realisation of one of the primor- 
 dial conditions of navigation on canals : the independent propulsion of 
 each boat. For this purpose each boat receives, on entering the canal, a 
 special motor which it abandons on leaving the waterway. 
 
 This machine should naturally offer a certain mobility : it is composed 
 of an electromolor or of a petroleum motor actuating a pulley on which is 
 wound the towing chain that ensures in the ordinary manner the propulsion 
 of the boat. 
 
 I have given to this system the appellation of « navigation on chain » 
 (Kettenschiffahrt) and I beg to call attention to the fact that it differs 
 especially from ordinary towage (Ketten-Schleppschiffahrt) in this, that 
 it does not require the formation of a train of boats as in the latter system. 
 Although the fundamental principle remains the same, the two systems 
 should be considered at altogether different points of view. Thus, expe- 
 rience has shown that towage on chain was not remunerative on navigable 
 ways with gentle slope and that it must notably give way to towage in 
 train by means of isolated steamboats ; but the same does not hold good 
 with navigation on chain which allows of isolated journeys. This system 
 of propulsion intervenes as soon as towage shows itself insufficient, and 
 can only therefore be compared to the usual methods of traction : hauling 
 by horses, funicular traction and traction by steam engines. 
 
 I will attempt in what ensues rapidly to describe an application ol navi- 
 
20 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 gation on chain. The space allotted me being limited, I shall strictly 
 remain within the bounds of what is needful, but 1 shall be happy to fur- 
 nish engineers with whatever further details they may require who are 
 interested in the question. 
 
 For the production of the motive force I give the preference to electri- 
 city, because it allows of separating from the motor the necessary adapta- 
 tions for the production of the power; a separation which affords the 
 double avantage : (a) of allowing the global production of all the needful 
 power in conditions of economy consequently more favourable, and ( b ) ol 
 reducing to a minimum of volume and weight the motor to be placed on 
 the boat. 
 
 Petroleum motors might also be employed in certain circumstances, but 
 machines worked by gas, hot air or steam must be set aside from the 
 outset. Moreover, the choice of the motor and the construction of the 
 machine has no bearing on the method of propulsion itself. 
 
 The great advantages hereafter enumerated militate in favour of the 
 submerged chain as a means of utilising the motive force for the propulsion 
 of boats. 
 
 a. Effective power greater than that obtained by wheel, screw or reaction 
 propellers. 
 
 b. Use on the boats of lighter machines than in the case where a cable 
 is employed. 
 
 c. Greater fixity. By reason of its own more considerable weight the 
 chain is lifted on a much smaller length than would be a cable and conse- 
 quently swerves aside much less easily than the latter Irom its normal 
 position at the bottom of the canal. 
 
 d. Simplicity of the machine which may be placed on the boat and 
 withdrawn without great difficulty and which remains independent of the 
 shape and build of the boat. 
 
 The complete establishment of the system requires : 
 
 a. Warehouses to lodge the motive machines which are to be placed 
 on the boats and their accessories. 
 
 b. These motive machines and their accessories (contact truck and 
 conducting wire). 
 
 c. A chain with its anchor fixtures. 
 
 d. A central station for the production of the electric power. 
 
 e. A conductor for the transmission of the current to the different 
 stations furnished with transformers. 
 
 The use of petroleum motors dispenses with the central station, the 
 conductor and accessory pieces of the machines on the boat (contact truck 
 and wire). 
 
21 
 
 ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 The details of establishment offer no peculiarities ; 1 shall therefore 
 merely describe an electrical installation in view of a canal say 100 kilo- 
 metres in length, with a width of 16 metres at bottom and a depth of water 
 of 1 m. 75. We further admit that the maximum traffic is such that it 
 is necessary to tow every 500 metres a boat of 150 tons; that the size of 
 these boats is 40 metres by 4 m. 60, with a draught of 1 m. 50 and that 
 the speed of ordinary locomotion is 0 m. 90 per second, say 3 km. 24 
 per hour. 
 
 Figures 5 and 6 represent the general arrangements of the system : the 
 boat F is provided at the bow with the machine M on which passes the 
 chain K. This motor M is connected with the conductor L by the wire Z 
 and the contact truck C which the boat carries away in its forward march. 
 
 THE WAREHOUSES. 
 
 For canals whose traffic is exclusively one of transit and which conse- 
 quently do not receive boats along their course, it will be sufficient to 
 establish a warehouse at each extremity. These warehouses, the dimen- 
 sions of which will depend on the number of machines they are to receive, 
 will be connected with the bank by a metallic way whereon a special 
 carriage for the transport of the machines may circulate. 
 
 A travelling crane will allow of loading and unloading in the warehouse 
 and another crane will be placed near the bank for the loading and unload- 
 ing of the boats. Both of these cranes will be worked by electricity. 
 
 The arrangement of the warehouses is too simple to need a drawing ; 
 I will only add that — under the circumstances we have supposed — each 
 warehouse would receive 200 machines during the period of interruption 
 in navigation in winter. 
 
 In the event of the canal receiving by the way boats not furnished with 
 machines, it will be necessary to establish a warehouse at the place of 
 entry as soon as the importance of the traffic may warrant it. 
 
 A workshop for repairs and a small office will also have to be set up in 
 each warehouse. 
 
 THE MOTORS. 
 
 As the motors which are to be placed on the boats constitute the inte- 
 resting part of the system, we shall dwell a little more at length on the 
 subject. 
 
 About the only place free for the disposal of these motors is the fore part 
 of the boat ; in the middle the pulleys appointed to receive the chain 
 would project and thus necessitate a reduction of the available width in 
 order not to exceed the maximum dimension admitted ; let alone the fact 
 
THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 22 
 
 that, with covered boats or whose lading projects, the disposition would 
 become impossible ; at the stern, the friction of the chain all along the 
 bottom ot the boat would prove an obstacle. The inconvenience arising 
 from the presence of the motor in working the anchor at the bow does not 
 constitute a serious impediment, since this anchor is rarely resorted to 
 on canals. 
 
 Figures 1 and 2 (plate 2) represent the motor in question. As may be 
 seen, its frame — conveniently hollowed to avoid all useless weight, the 
 resistance being assured by the ribs — rests on the boats by means of two 
 cross-pieces fixed to the side and so disposed as to readily lend themselves 
 to the variations of width that is met with between one boat and another. 
 The anterior cross-piece fixed at its two extremities to the side of the boat 
 is formed of two parts (cylindrical or of any other convenient section), 
 able to slide one inside the other, the frame resting simply on this cross- 
 piece by the appendage d. The posterior cross-piece is partly open- 
 worked and engages itself by sliding into the rings y and g of the frame ; 
 the support is completed by the part f which is fixed to the side like the 
 extremities of the cross-pieces by a special arrangement which will he 
 readily understood by reference to figures 3 and 4. 
 
 It is a sort of tightening tool l which a thumb-screw m allows of fixing 
 at any point required along the side and which bears a stout ring K with 
 shoulder piece i into which the cross-pieces engage. 
 
 The frame thus fixed at the how of the boat carries a dynamo s which, 
 by a series of worm wheels n, n, n, n, sets in motion the main shaft p on 
 which is wedged the chain wheel o. Rollers are moreover placed in front 
 and below of this wheel to guide the chain. On arriving, this latter passes 
 in the first place on the horizontal roller iv then between the two vertical 
 rollers u and v. Roller w rests with its axis on brackets x and x, which 
 is connected with the frame a of the machine and the rollers u and v turn 
 around axes supported by appendages u and v, also of cast-iron like the 
 frame. The upper part of roller u is rounded and the nut which fixes 
 this roller on the axis is bedded, so as not to impede the passage of the 
 chain (other arrangements adopted for the same object have been left 
 aside so as not to do away with the clearness of the drawing). 
 
 After its passage over wheel o, the chain returns on roller y whose axis 
 y is also fixed to the frame by means of an appendage z of cast-iron with 
 the latter. Figure 5 reproduces at a scale of 1/10 the arrangement of 
 the upper and lower rollers. 
 
 The electromotor chosen is machine S 5 of the « Rerliner Maschincn- 
 ban-Aktien-Gesellschaft », which works at the rate of 000 revolutions per 
 minute and weighs 255 kilogrammes. Its normal dynamic produce is 
 5 horse-power with 05 per cent, of useful effect ; it absorbs therefore 
 2940 volts. 
 
 The main shaft bearing the pulley which receives the chain revolves 
 
ON THE LINE FROM IIOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 23 
 
 50 times a minute; as this pulley has- a radius of 155 millimetres, the 
 length of chain developed per second is 974 centimetres. 
 
 The motor is completed hy a commutator for putting the machine in 
 and out of circuit and a strength of extension such that use allows of 
 regulating at will, within certain limits, the speed of propagation of the 
 boat. All the electrical apparatuses are surrounded hy a solid envelope 
 yielding passage only lo the lubrifying oil and allowing of working the 
 lever of commutation and regulation. This envelope does not figure in 
 the drawing. 
 
 Finally, a contact truck captures the current on the conductor of 
 distribution and brings it by wire Z lo the motor placed on the boat. 
 This capture is effected absolutely in the same manner as for the old 
 electrical railroads ; the old arrangement now adopted for these railroads 
 of a wheel of contact placed below and resting against the conductor has 
 been done away with, because it was not possible to preserve for the boat 
 the regularity of march which such an arrangement requires. 
 
 The inconveniencies which result from the use of a contact truck rolling- 
 on the conductor lose moreover somewhat of their seriousness since the 
 question is one of boats whose speed is never very considerable and remains 
 fairly regular, so that all danger of the truck running off the rails is almost 
 entirely set aside. 1 have moreover adopted for this truck a new arrange- 
 ment which allows of utilising two or three wires and for greater security 
 I have added a machine of surely by means of which the running off the 
 rails is well-nigh impossible. I shall moreover revert lo the arrangement 
 of the contact truck. 
 
 THE CHAIN. 
 
 The strength of the links is 10 millimetres, which affords a resistance 
 of 975 kilogrammes, admitting a coefficient of security of one filth. The 
 chain weighs 2 kilogr. 2 per linear metre ; it is raised from 25 to 50 metres 
 in front of the boat using it. 
 
 In order not to oblige the boats to stop and give passage to those coming in 
 an opposite direction, the chain is double at the locks; the two chains are 
 interrupted and they are united transversally so as to have an endless chain . 
 In that way the progression of the chain due to the difference of length 
 between the chain placed at the foot of the canal and the chain in service 
 on the boat does not necessitate its being brought back from lime to time, 
 but on the contrary affords the advantage of successively subjecting the 
 different parts of the latter chain to the efforts resulting from the traction 
 of boats. The joint working of the two chains moreover prevents their 
 entanglement. 
 
 In the parts in straight line the chain rests freely without anchors ; in 
 the curves and at the extremities of reaches, anchors are on the contrary 
 
24 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 necessary to ensure its normal posilion It is well to distinguish the 
 anchors used for concave curves, those for convex curves and those for the 
 extremities. 
 
 The anchoring in convex curves is obtained by means of a cable fixed 
 aground in front of that part of the chain to be anchored and bearing at 
 the other end a ring in which the chain may pass with a certain amount 
 of freedom. 
 
 In concave curves, I use what I call a « cable catcher », which acts quite 
 differently from the anchors. The « cable catcher » consists in a thick 
 plank placed obliquely and fixed to the slope of the canal; its upper sur- 
 face is furnished with claws. The working is as follows : When a boat 
 approaches, the chain is taut and seeks to take the rectilinear direction ; 
 a lateral sliding on the bottom at once is produced, but the sliding is 
 stopped by the claws of the « cable catcher », whose profile moreover 
 offers a sleight inclination forward, so that the chain escapes only after a 
 certain time. This arrangement procures therefore the same advantage 
 which would be obtained by using stronger links in the curves, it reduces 
 the length of chain raised from the bottom by the boat. 
 
 As for the anchors at the extremities, they are simply formed of a ring 
 solidly fixed, in which the chain engages itself to pass from one place to 
 another. The friction of the transversal chain on the bottom and in the 
 ring suffices to compensate the traction exerted by the boat. 
 
 THE CENTRAL STATION AND THE CONDUCTOR OF DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Electric towage requires in every case the transmission of energy to 
 great distances; it is of advantage, therefore, to use currents at high 
 tension. 
 
 Fora canal of 100 kilometres in length, a central station about half 
 way of the distance is sufficient. This station will include the necessary 
 buildings (house for the boilers, room for the machines, coal closet, 
 lodgings) for the steam-engines required to set the dynamos in motion. 
 
 When the hydrographical conditions will allow, it is recommended to 
 utilise the hydraulic forces at one’s disposal, instead of the steam motors. 
 
 Transformers will be used for converting the current furnished by the 
 dynamos into a tension current as high as possible, perhaps 12 000 volts. 
 
 The installation offers nothing particular; its description would take up 
 too much space ; I shall therefore pass on and merely make the following 
 general remarks : 
 
 The importance of the installation will be determined by taking for 
 basis the ensuing considerations : A boat displacing itself with a speed 
 v— 0 m. 90 in a canal of watered section K =55 square metres with a 
 maximum section of draught S= 7 square metres and a specific coefficient 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOHENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 25 
 
 k = 0,525, offers, according to Bellingrath, a total resistance 
 
 , r 2 K 2 
 
 k flr 
 
 ‘V (k — s y 
 
 150 kil. 
 
 T representing the weight of the unit of volume of water = 1000 kilo- 
 grammclres ; g, the acceleration of the weights = 9 m. 31. 
 
 Propulsion will therefore require an effort 
 
 Wxt» = 150 X 0,9 = 135 kilogrammetres, 
 
 say 1.87 horse-power, so that by admitting a loss of 70 per cent, the 
 central station should he able to furnish 2390 waits. 
 
 By taking the figure 400 as the maximum number of boats lo be towed 
 simultaneously, it would therefore he a power of 400 x 2390 , say 
 950 000 watts or 1300 horse-power which the central station would have 
 lo produce, if it is taken that the boats towed are fully freighted; hut there 
 is reason to take into account the empty boats which will also he lowed, 
 so that the figure above indicated may he reduced by a third, which would 
 finally place the necessary produce at 900 horse-power. This power 
 would allow of towing each day over 50 kilometres 270 laden boats of 
 150 tons and would consequently suffice, if we set down 270 working 
 days in the year for an annual traffic of 546 750 000 lons-kilometres, that 
 is to say for a traffic about double that of the Rhine. 
 
 It will be seen that, although we indicated the eventual utilisation of 
 the waterfalls, falls of sufficient height will he rarely met with. To pro- 
 duce the 900 horse-power necessary (say 900 x 75 =675 000 kilogram- 
 metres), it would need, supposing the turbines yielded 80 per cent., a 
 hydraulic fall of 84 000 kilogrammetres, which corresponds with a 
 discharge of 16.8 cubic metres per second with a fall of 5 metres, a 
 discharge which, in a canal of 35 square metres in section, would give rise 
 to a speed of 0 m. 48 per second. One cannot hope, therefore, to find a 
 waterfall allowing of the establishment of a single station and recourse 
 would have to be had to several of them. 
 
 Nor shall I tarry lo describe in detail the installation of the conductor 
 which is intended to transmit the current along the canal. It is known 
 that the use of currents at high tension allows of reducing the diameter of 
 the conductor and thus procures a notable economy; hut these currents 
 at high tension cannot he admitted in the motors and they must he brought 
 down to tensions less high, 500 volts for instance. The transmission will 
 therefore include : 
 
 a. The conductors for the primary current at high tension. 
 
 b. The stations of the transformers. 
 
 c. The conductor for the secondary current intended lo actuate the 
 motors. 
 
26 
 
 THE TRACTION OF ROATS 
 
 When short distances are contemplated, as will be the case for instance 
 if a waterfall is utilised to actuate the dynamos, recourse may he had to 
 high tensions and the current sent directly into the circuit at the tension 
 of about 500 volts, thus doing away with the stations of the transformers. 
 
 FINANCIAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 The considerable influence exerted by local conditions on an installation 
 for electric towage renders it necessary to make a detailed examination of 
 flic pressure and the calculation of its produce in each particular case. 
 The following indications cannot therefore he regarded otherwise than as 
 very approximative, and have no further object than to give an example 
 of this kind of calculation; they arc moreover based on data in a high 
 degree infavourable to an electric installation. 
 
 Expenses of establishment. 
 
 Steam motors of about 900 horse-power .... 400,000 marks. 
 
 Dynamos 400,000 — 
 
 Conductor tor 100 kilometres 700,000 — 
 
 Chain for 200 kilometres 500,000 — 
 
 Motors on boats, 400 at 2000 marks 800,000 — 
 
 Together 2,800,000 marks. 
 
 Expenses of maintenance. 
 
 Interest on capital and installation, 16 percent, of 
 
 the capital of establishment 448,000 marks. 
 
 Consumption of coal : 270 days of 16 hours, for 
 900 horse-power at 1 k , 8 per horse-hour; per 
 
 year 6,998,400 k at 2 m. the 100 kil 140,000 
 
 Lubricating 30,000 
 
 Wages 60,000 — 
 
 Together 678,000 marks. 
 
 If inslead of reckoning on the maximum of canal traffic, say 546 750 000 
 tons kilometres (the expenses of maintenance being counted for the total 
 of the traffic), only half is admitted, say 275 000 000 tons-kilometres. 
 
 As mean annual effective produce, the expenses of traction per ton- 
 kilotnelre amount lo 0 pf. 25, when with traction by horses they would 
 reach 0 pf. 20. The economy realised by electric towage would therefore, 
 for the whole of the traffic, amount lo 141000 marks a year. 
 
ON THE LINE FROM HOIIENSAATEN TO SPANDAU. 
 
 27 
 
 From what precedes it readily appears Hud electric towage will not be 
 more costly than towage by horses. Moreover, even at parity of expense, 
 electric towage has this decided advantage that it is far more rapid and 
 regular and that it allows of giving to transports by water an organisation 
 analogous to that of transports by rail. And it is only when this result 
 shall iiave been attained that inland navigation may he placed on a level 
 with the means of transport responding to all the requirements of commerce 
 and industry and sustain comparison with the railroads. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Pans.) 
 
 24942. — Iinprimerie generate A. Lahure, 9, rue dc Fleurus, a Paris. 
 
PLAN CHE I. 
 
 Thiem . 
 
Lacs /lave/ 
 
 Fig- 1 
 
 PLANCHE 1 
 
 Rg 2. 
 
 Thiem . 
 
V th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 6 th QUESTION 
 
 TRACTION 
 
 ON CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 (the lower-seine) 
 
 REPORT 
 
 n v 
 
 M. CAIYIERE 
 
 lngoniour on chof dcs Ponts ot chnussecs, ;il Paris. 
 
 r<o> 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 18 92 
 
TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 (THE LOWER-SEINE) 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 m. cam£r£ 
 
 lngf'-nieur en chef dcs Pouts ot Chausst'es, at Paris. 
 
 I _ (OXDITIOX OF THE LOWER-SEINE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW 
 OF ITS NiVIUIBILlTV, ITS COMMERCIAL TRAFFIC AND ITS BARGE 
 ANO BOAT SERVICE. 
 
 Natural regime of the Lower-Seine. 
 
 When considered in its natural stale, that par t of the Seine, comprised 
 between Paris and Rouen and designated by the name of « Lower Seine »’, 
 presents the following characteristic features : 
 
 Its average fall does not exceed 115 millimetres per kilometre, at the 
 time of low water as well as at periods of floods; its discharge, which, at 
 limes of extraordinary risings, is about 2 000 cubic metres per second, 
 never falls below 65 cubic metres, and remains at about 150 cubic metres 
 during the epochs of ordinary low water; its waters do not attain a super- 
 ficial speed of more than 1 m. 50 at Rood-times, except under certain 
 bridges, where the rale has been observed to be as much as 2 m. 50; its 
 wid’h is from 150 to 170 metres between Paris and the Oise, and from 
 170 to 500 metres belween Ibis latter river and Rouen; in a general way 
 its banks rise from 4 m. 50 to 5 metres, above low-water-mark; its bed 
 is hollowed out of the stratum of old alluvion (gravel, sand and clayey, 
 sandy earth), forming the foundation of the valley, it is very stable and 
 nowhere offers any rocky excrescences; finally ils channel has remarkable 
 fixedness and is only obstructed after Roods by deposits of little impor- 
 tance; deposits which are always at the same spots. 
 
 With regard to ils regime, the Lower-Seine must however be divided into 
 
 1. The distame between the « Toui nelle » bridge in Paiisand the « Corneille > bridge 
 at Rouen is 245 kilometres. 
 
 cam6re. 1 . 
 
-2 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 two distinct parts; viz : that extending from Paris to Poses (203 kilometres), 
 the character of which is purely fluvial, and that going from Poses to 
 Rouen (40 kilometres), which is under the influence of the tide. 
 
 The tides, whose extreme amplitudes at Rouen 1 are ot 2 m. 13, in times 
 of low-water, and 0 m. 77 centimetres at time of extraordinary risings, 
 only cause insignificent variations at Poses. 
 
 Canalization of the Lower-Seine. 
 
 The lower Seine, including the portion which runs through Paris, has, in 
 virtue of the law of the 6 th April 1878, been the object of important works 
 intended to give it a minimum depth of 3 m. 20 at low-water so as to 
 insure a draught of 5 metres tor all boats 2 . 
 
 These works consisted in the remodeling of the old weir-locks executed 
 from 1 80 S to 1868, for giving this portion of the river first a depth of 
 1 m. 60; afterwards of 2 metres; in the construction of a certain number 
 of fresh dams with locks; and lastly in the dredging of all the existing 
 sills in the channel, and deepened for the reach at Rouen to 5 m. 20 
 below the level of the highest tide known at neap tide (1 m. 44 at Saint- 
 Aubin and 1 m. 25 at Rouen), and, for the others, to 3 m. 20 below 
 the height of the ridge of the dams commanding them. 
 
 In all portions lately dredged, the width of the channel at the bottom has 
 been adopted at 50 metres for the parts in a straight line and 60 metres 
 for the curved portions; the radii of the latter not being of less than 
 900 metres. But practice tends to show that these widths arc insufficient 
 for the meetings of trains of barges, from 500 to 600 metres long, plying 
 on the river. 
 
 Regime of the canalized river. 
 
 In its actual state, the Lower-Seine which, including the portion running 
 through Paris, is 250 kilometres long, is divided into ten reaches. 
 
 1 
 
 TIDES OBSERVED AT ROUEN. 
 
 HEIGHTS 
 
 AT LOW- WATER 
 
 AT FLOOD 
 
 
 metres 
 
 metres 
 
 High water, at spring tide 
 
 2.595 
 
 5.655 
 
 Low-water, — 
 
 1 075 
 
 5.545 
 
 High-water, at neap tide 
 
 1.565 
 
 4.925 
 
 Low-w’ater, — 
 
 0.465 
 
 4.885 
 
 Height of lowest level recorded 
 
 0.225 
 
 » 
 
 2. The works were handed over for public service as they were finished; hut it was 
 only after the 15 September 1886, that the whole water-way was delivered over, with a 
 minimum depth of water of 3 m. 20. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 3 
 
 The following table shows the lengths and the hydrostatical fall, without 
 taking into account any eddy-water, of these different reaches. 
 
 NAMES OF THE REACHES 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 OF THE REACUES 
 
 HYDROSTATICAL 
 
 FALL 
 
 Suresnes 
 
 kilometres 
 
 25 
 
 m. c. 
 
 3.27 
 
 Bougival -Bezons 
 
 31 
 
 5.20 
 
 Carrieres-sous-Poissy- Andresy 
 
 28 
 
 2.84 
 
 Les Mureaux-Mezy (Meulan) 
 
 19 
 
 1.70 
 
 Mericourt-Saudraucourt 
 
 26 
 
 2.50 
 
 Port-Villez - Villez 
 
 24 
 
 2.33 
 
 N.-D.-de-la-Garenne-Port-Mort 
 
 16 
 
 2.65 
 
 Amfreville-sous-les-Monts-Poses 
 
 41 
 
 4.18 
 
 Saint-Aubin-Martot 
 
 15 
 
 2.85 
 
 Rouen 
 
 25 
 
 0.19 
 
 Totals 
 
 250 
 
 25.75 
 
 Fig. 1 in plate n° 1 gives the profde in schematic length of the river in 
 this part of its course. 
 
 The works commanding each reach are, in a general manner, composed 
 of one or several dams, supplied with one large, and one small lock, 
 without counting those which, among the old ones, could not he utilized 
 for the depth of 3 m. 20, hut are still good for the service of empty or 
 lightly-laden boats. 
 
 The large lock, intended more especially for the use of trains of barges, 
 gives passages, at one and the same time, to 6 boats 45 metres long and 
 8 metres wide, or 9 barges of 38 m. 50 by 5 metres. 
 
 The small lock, annexed to the former and reserved specially for 
 single boats, can give passage to boats 50 metres long by 8 metres wide. 
 
 The principal dimensions of these new locks are summed up in the fol- 
 lowing table. 
 
 PARTS CONSIDERED 
 
 LARGE LOCK 
 
 SMALL LOCK 
 
 Length between head-facings 
 
 m. c. 
 
 180.00 
 
 m. c. 
 
 78.00 
 
 Length — the mitre-points 
 
 160.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 Useful length of chamber 
 
 141.00 
 
 41.60 
 
 Width of entrances 
 
 12.00 
 
 8.20 
 
 Widtli between protecting posts 
 
 11 94 
 
 8.14 
 
 Width of chamber at bottom 
 
 17.00 
 
 8.70 
 
 At Bougival, however, owing to the desirability of insuring the passage, 
 at one time, of the long trains towed from Paris to the Oise and of sup- 
 
4 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 plying the double traffic of l he navigable lines from Paris to Rouen and 
 fioni la Yillette to the Belgian frontier, the useful length of the chamber 
 has been extended to 220 metres; under these circumstances it can take 
 in, including the tow-boat, lb barges 58 in. 50 long by 5 metres broad, 
 corresponding to 500 tons, and even 18 rather shorter barges. 
 
 All the weirs which constitute the reserve-water with the exception of 
 ccilain accessory by-washes are movable dams, insuring, at other times 
 than those of the Hoods, the regulation level of reserve water, whatever 
 may be the river-discharge, and giving to the latter its full outlet during 
 times of inundation. 
 
 These weirs are of the following types : 
 
 Dams with shutters and switches; 
 
 Dams with shutters and mill-sluices. 
 
 Dams with shutters and movable screens. 
 
 Dams with upper bridge with hanging frames and moveable screens. 
 
 The fall which they redeem is shown on the table, page 4. 
 
 These weirs may be worked at night as well as by day for the mainte- 
 nance of the level of the reserve-water, having regard to the variations in 
 the discharge of the river, but all in all, they only require opening to 
 their fullest extending a few times during, the year, to allow of the pas- 
 sage of the flood-water and the ice. 
 
 Taking the experience of the last five soars, we may estimate, that on 
 an average, the weirs are open for navigation for fifty days a year, and 
 that the number of workings for tbe complete opening do not exceed two. 
 
 The canalized Lower-Seine, under the conditions wluch we have just 
 explained, is far from affording navigation the same facilities throughout 
 tbe whole course of the year. 
 
 During the low-water mouths, that is to say, usually from July to No- 
 vember, the weirs, being for tbe most part closed, the current of the 
 water in tbe reaches becomes so weak, that there is no very great difference 
 for traction either up-stream or down-stream. 
 
 It may be estimated that during that period, the velocity of the cur- 
 rent does not exceed 50 centimetres per second. 
 
 During the months from February to July and from November to the 
 middle of December, when the weirs are more or less opened to insure the 
 regular running off of the waters, the rate of the current in the various 
 reaches is very different, but in any case much slower to what it would be 
 if tbe river were restored to its natural course, considering the dimi- 
 nution in the fall which the weirs produce io the reaches which they 
 command. 
 
 During this period the currents attain rates of speed varying between 
 50 centimetres and 1 metre. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 5 
 
 Finally, when once the weirs are open, the duration of which is on 
 an average fifty days a year, navigation disposes of a depth of water of 
 more than 5 m. 20; hut lias to combat, going up-stream, against the 
 current, the rate of which reaches 1 m. 50 per second. 
 
 This velocity would not however he on obstacle to boats going up-stream, 
 if there did not exist, on the river, numerous bridges, among which there 
 are several very old ones which, during this period, not only cause cur- 
 rents whose rate of speed attains 2 m. 30 per second tin 'er the arches 
 used by boats and are only cleared with difficulty by the boats going up- 
 stream, but which no longer allow a sufficient free passage for the latter 
 above water. 
 
 For this twofold reason, navigation has to reckon on stoppages during 
 exaggerated risings. It may however be estimated that, including the 
 interruptions caused by the ice, it is not stopped for more than 12 days a 
 year, on an average. 
 
 The special regime of the waters of the Lower-Seine is, for that matter, 
 shown in a very clear manner in the two tables (Plate 2, fig. 2), which 
 represent, for the year 1889, which may be taken as an average year, the 
 variations in the levels of the water up-stream and down-stream of the 
 Meulan-weir, whose fall is the slightest, and of the Poses-wcir, the fall of 
 which is the highest. 
 
 Commercial traffic on the Lower-Seine. 
 
 From the commercial point of view, the Lower-Seine, while only consi- 
 dering its principal divisions, serves, on the one hand, a current of 
 navigation, having Paris and Havre for its principal object; and on the 
 other hand, that coming from the north, issuing into the Seine by the 
 Oise at Conflans Sainte-Honorine, and having Paris especially as its desti- 
 nation. 
 
 This superposition of these two currents between Paris and Conflans, 
 places this portion of the Seine among the busiest water-ways in France. 
 
 The figures in the following table bring out in strong relief, for these 
 two sections of the Lower-Seine, the important increase of its traffic since 
 the year 1878, which corresponds with the commencement of the works 
 relating to the 5 in. 20 depth of water. 
 
6 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 7 
 
 The distribution of the merchandise conveyed over the Lower-Seine for 
 the year 1890 is as follows : 
 
 UP-STREAM 
 
 D0WS-8TREAM 
 
 IN BOTH 
 
 DIRECTIONS 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 12, 449 
 2,459 
 
 23,682 
 
 190 
 
 
 14,908 
 
 23 , 872 
 
 38,780 
 
 55,340 
 
 49,275 
 
 
 17,696 
 
 6,512 
 
 
 35,036 
 
 3,989 
 
 
 242,206 
 
 296,803 
 
 207,845 
 
 85.649 
 
 70.649 
 50,674 
 
 
 855,026 
 
 266,748 
 
 1,121,774 
 
 7,966 
 
 2,096 
 
 
 7,745 
 
 3,796 
 
 
 79,227 
 
 29,252 
 
 163 
 
 1,898 
 
 22,868 
 
 12,701 
 
 
 124,353 
 
 13,359 
 
 167,712 
 
 9,876 
 
 2,246 
 
 
 17,563 
 
 8,899 
 
 12,595 
 
 1,071 
 
 5,694 
 
 26,718 
 
 
 48,993 
 
 55,721) 
 
 81,662 
 
 ! 25,672 
 
 192,750 
 
 218,422 
 
 36,710 
 
 
 11,942 
 
 63,073 
 
 92,451 
 
 
 3,852 
 
 
 60,658 
 
 
 18,234 
 
 
 48,652 
 
 238,268 
 
 286,920 
 
 86,942 
 
 
 92,415 
 
 
 253,297. 
 
 1 , 104,071 
 177,812 
 
 85,367 
 
 49,865 
 
 
 1,714,537 
 
 135,232 
 
 1,849,769 
 
 
 3,768,039 
 
 Traffic on the Lower-Seine nut including that special lo I he Oise. 
 
 / Between Rouen and the mouth of the Oise and vice versa (not 
 
 . , . . fr \ including Itouen) 
 
 Local trattic. . < Between the mouth of tlic Oise and La Ih'iche and vice versa . 
 
 ( Between La Briche and Paris (below) and vice versa 
 
 Between Bouen and the mouth 
 of the Oise 
 
 and La Briche. 
 
 (below) 
 
 On the Saint-Denis canal and 
 
 at La Villctte 
 
 Passing through Paris . 
 
 Above Paris 
 
 and La Briche 
 
 (below) 
 
 at La Villette 
 
 Running through Paris . 
 Above Paris 
 
 Forwardings. . 
 
 Coming up from Rouen and 
 beyond, and going to ports si- 
 tuated at parts of the river in- 
 dicated in the next column, or 
 going down from these ports 
 to llouen and beyond. . . . 
 
 Coming up from ports situated 
 between Rouen and the mouth 
 of the Oise, and going to ports 
 situated in the sections of the 
 river indicated in the annexed 
 column, or going down from 
 these ports to those situated 
 between the mouth of the 
 Oise and Rouen 
 
 Coming up from ports situated 
 between the mouth of the Oise 
 and La Briche and going to 
 ports situated in the sections 
 of the river indicated in the 
 annexed column, or going 
 down from those ports to those 
 situated between La Briche 
 and the mouth of the Oise. . . 
 
 Coming up from ports situated 
 between La Briche and Paris 
 (below) and going to ports si- 
 tuated in the sections of the 
 river indicated in the annexed 
 column, or going down from 
 these ports to those situated 
 between Paris (below) and La 
 \ Briche 
 
 Traffic on the Lower-Seine, going to or coming from the Oise. 
 
 From Rouen and beyond 
 
 Between Rouen and the mouth 
 
 of the Oise 
 
 Above Paris 
 
 Passing through Paris 
 
 Between Paris (below) and La 
 
 Briche 
 
 On the Sai t-Denis canal and La 
 
 Villette 
 
 Between La Briche and the 
 mouth of the Oise 
 
 (below). . 
 
 La Villette 
 
 Pas-ing through Paris 
 Above Paris 
 
 Passing through Paris 
 Above Paris 
 
 Forwardings. 
 
 From ports 
 situated : 
 
 For the North 
 and East 
 by the Oise. 
 
 to ports situated : 
 
 Arrivals.'. . 
 
 Between the mouth of the Oise 
 
 and La Briche . 
 
 Between La Briche and Paris 
 
 (below) 
 
 From the North and East I On the Saint-Denis canal and 
 
 at La Villette 
 
 Passing through Paris .... 
 
 Above Paris 
 
 To the ports situated between 
 the mouth of the Oise and 
 
 Bouen 
 
 From the North and East to Rouen and beyond 
 
 Total traffic. 
 
8 
 
 TRACTION’ ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 Floating-plant (boats and barges). 
 
 By reason of this two-fold commerciel traffic, the barges and boats plying 
 on the Lower-Seine present a great variety of types. 
 
 Besides boats hailing from, or going to other navigable water-ways of 
 the country (rivers and canals) and whose draught of waler must not 
 exceed 2 metres, the Lower-Seine possesses a special plant not only for 
 the navigation between Paris and Bouen, as well as between Paris and 
 Havre through the hay of the Seine or the Tancarville canal, hut even 
 for maritime navigation. 
 
 The table at foot contains the names and dimensions of the different 
 types of boats, not fitted with motive-power, which are to be met with on 
 the Lower-Seine. 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 BUEtDTH 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 Dli AUGHT 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 
 EXTREME 
 
 AMIDSHIPS 
 
 
 WITH 
 
 OBSE OVATIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE BOATS 
 
 from stem 
 
 to stern 
 
 above 
 
 board 
 
 AMIDSHIPS 
 
 WITH 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 IMPTY 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. C. 
 
 III. C. 
 
 tons 
 
 
 Old types. 
 
 
 Flats for propellors (chalands). 
 
 32.10 
 
 4.91 
 
 2 15 
 
 1.60 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 
 Decked 1 
 flats . . | 
 
 Large 
 
 50.90 
 
 6 42 
 
 2.90 
 
 2.15 
 
 0.65 
 
 526 
 
 
 Medium 
 
 40.15 
 
 6.20 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.51 
 
 0.46 
 
 419 , 
 
 Note. — The lonnagp, here 
 annexed , represents an 
 
 Small 
 
 33.60 
 
 4.92 
 
 2.30 
 
 2.20 
 
 0.42 
 
 218 f 
 
 Open ' 
 flats . . | 
 
 Large 
 
 49.00 
 
 7.95. 
 
 2.09 
 
 1 .99 
 
 0.26 
 
 625 ) 
 
 average for the different 
 
 Medium 
 
 40.20 
 
 7.74 
 
 2.09 
 
 1.99 
 
 0.33 
 
 470 l 
 
 types of boats. 
 
 Small 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.20 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.28 
 
 0.22 
 
 151 
 
 
 38.40 
 
 5.00 
 
 2.45 
 
 2.35 
 
 0.27 
 
 592 
 
 
 Barges (peniches) 
 
 34 40 
 
 4.96 
 
 2.15 
 
 2.05 
 
 0.30 
 
 293 
 
 
 New types. 
 
 
 Corbeil 
 
 62.70 
 
 8.10 
 
 2.64 
 
 2.54 
 
 0.37 
 
 977 
 
 
 Victor Esselin . . . 
 
 62.50 
 
 8.00 
 
 » 
 
 2.34 
 
 » 
 
 971 
 
 Fri nch transport C°. 
 
 
 Buisson 
 
 52 60 
 
 8.12 
 
 3.32 
 
 3.22 
 
 0 47 
 
 1026 
 
 
 Rouennais n° 6 . . 
 
 46.60 
 
 6.63 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.77 
 
 0.42 
 
 529 
 
 
 1 Rouennais n n 10. . 
 
 50.44 
 
 7.22 
 
 3.20 
 
 5.05 
 
 0.50 
 
 762 
 
 Havre-Paris Lyon C°. 
 
 Flats. . 
 
 1 Panama 
 
 40.13 
 
 5.50 
 
 2.42 
 
 2.32 
 
 0.41 
 
 558 
 
 
 Flat n° 5 
 
 54.92 
 
 8.05 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.00 
 
 0.37 
 
 942 
 
 Messagerics nationales C°. 
 
 
 Flat n° 10 
 
 41.94 
 
 6.80 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.75 
 
 0.48 
 
 488 
 
 
 Juliette 
 
 40.65 
 
 7.88 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.63 
 
 0.42 
 
 735 
 
 MM. Freligny and Sons. 
 
 
 Nathalie 
 
 55.00 
 
 6.82 
 
 2.87 
 
 2.77 
 
 U. iG 
 
 780 
 
 
 Alexandre 
 
 45.45 
 
 7.78 
 
 2.18 
 
 2 08 
 
 0.48 
 
 531 
 
 MM. Deulscli. 
 
 
 Pierre et Maxime. . 
 
 40.50 
 
 7.75 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.75 
 
 0.53 
 
 619- 
 
 MM. FcnnailleandDespeaux. 
 
 Barges. . 
 
 f De Freycinet. . . . 
 
 40.00 
 
 7.80 
 
 3.30 
 
 3.20 
 
 » 
 
 791 
 
 MM. Drapier-Montagne. 
 
 \ Eiffel 
 
 39.00 
 
 5.01 
 
 2.50 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.00 
 
 0.30 
 
 404 
 
 92 
 
 MM. Vaudeville. 
 
 MSI. Deutsch. — This type 
 
 
 ( 25.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 1.10 
 
 » 
 
 is not new in itself but 
 
 Flutes . 
 
 
 s 20.00 
 
 3.20 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.95 
 
 J> 
 
 82 
 
 on account of ils em- 
 
 
 ( 18 00 
 
 1 
 
 3.00 
 
 0.90 
 
 0 90 
 
 * 
 
 71 
 
 ployment for the carriage 
 of petroleum. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 9 
 
 In a general way all carriage on (he Lower-Seine is at the present time 
 done by steam-power 1 . 
 
 Two towing-companies perform the service : one, I he portion between 
 « La Monnaie » lock and Conflans and the other from Conflans to the sea. 
 
 Several navigation-companies, possessing logs, propellors, and carriers- 
 tugs, besides, perform traction, cither by boats belonging to their own fleets 
 or by whatever others may present themselves. The tariffs of the towing- 
 compariics are not free, except those below the maximum fixed by the con- 
 ditions of their concessions ; those of the other companies are entirely so. 
 
 The characteristic information about these different types of steam-boats 
 is shown below : 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 OF THE BOATS 
 
 EXTREME 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 from stem 
 to stern 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 AMIDSHIPS 
 
 above board 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 amidships 
 
 DRAG 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 G 11 T 
 
 EMPTY 
 
 MOTIVE IC 
 
 NATURE 
 
 ) W E R 
 
 N MINAL 
 
 HORSE-POW 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 WITH 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 m. c. 
 
 
 tons 
 
 
 Old types. 
 
 
 Tow-boats 
 
 i0.30 
 
 6.20 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.85 
 
 Chain drums 
 
 120 
 
 
 Propellors 
 
 8.80 
 
 4.80 
 
 2.55 
 
 1.60 
 
 
 Screw 
 
 55 to 60 
 
 
 Note. 
 
 ( Large 
 
 36.90 
 
 6.10 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.40 
 
 0.90 
 
 
 200 
 
 Only carry 
 
 1 The tonnage 
 
 Tugs. , Medium. . . . 
 
 27.30 
 
 4.90 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.65 
 
 0 45 
 
 Paddle anil screw 
 
 140 to 2001 
 
 their coal. j 
 
 annexed 
 
 ( Small 
 
 17.00 
 
 4 30 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.70 
 
 0 80 
 
 Paddle 
 
 75 
 
 
 average 
 
 Steam r Large 
 
 39.90 
 
 6.10 
 
 3.30 
 
 2 40 
 
 0.98 
 
 Screw 
 
 200 
 
 283 
 
 ifor the different 
 
 barges ) Medium. . . . 
 
 TO. 00 
 
 4.95 
 
 1.90 
 
 1 80 
 
 0 48 
 
 Paddle and screw 
 
 50 to 80 
 
 212 
 
 ] types of boats. 
 
 (Porteurs) ( Small 
 
 34 40 
 
 4.38 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.55 
 
 0 44 
 
 ■ ‘ ‘ 4 • - 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 131 
 
 
 New types. 
 
 
 1 Tratailleur. . 
 
 31.00 
 
 5.25 
 
 » 
 
 2.60 
 
 2.40 
 
 Screw 
 
 180 
 
 
 I 
 
 i Coureur . . . 
 
 24.00 
 
 5. 10 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.70 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 175 
 
 » 
 
 | Barbd. 
 
 Steam- J hard 
 
 38.00 
 
 4.20 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 400 
 
 » 
 
 | H. P. L. Navi- 
 
 tugs, j President. . . 
 
 30.00 
 
 5.40 
 
 2.1-0 
 
 2 00 
 
 1.65 
 
 
 500 
 
 » 
 
 i gation C”. 
 
 I Guepe n‘ 3. . 
 
 21.60 
 
 5.60 
 
 2.70 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.80 
 
 
 90 
 
 t» 
 
 | Williams andC". 
 
 Guepe n° I t 
 
 23.00 
 
 5.25 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.82 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 1 Messagei ies na- 
 
 Carrier l Sully 
 
 40.78 
 
 7.30 
 
 3.51 
 
 2.49 
 
 0.82 
 
 
 250 
 
 337 
 
 ( tionales C“. 
 
 tugs. ( Paquebotti’fy) 
 
 36.57 
 
 5 05 
 
 2.30 
 
 2.10 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 200 
 
 193 
 
 1 H. P. L. Irrigation CV 
 
 l Parisien . . . 
 
 56.72 
 
 8.50 
 
 » 
 
 5.00 
 
 1 60 
 
 
 450 
 
 750 
 
 J Parisian C° 
 
 { Bercy 
 
 58.22 
 
 8 50 
 
 5.17 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.60 
 
 
 450 
 
 750 
 
 \ ( Spanish serriee ) . 
 
 S ' ( Mabel . . 
 
 50.95 
 
 7.50 
 
 4 50 
 
 3.30 
 
 1.42 
 
 
 250 
 
 558 
 
 \ English steamer 
 
 
 ( ( Barnett and Iocs ) 
 
 The navigation companies whose working concerns more especially the 
 Lower-Seine are twenty-seven in number and possess an important plant. 
 
 They began transformation of this plant with the view of utilizing, as 
 completely as possible, the 3 m. 20 depth of water which is at their dis- 
 posal, but with the exception of a few special types, this transformation is 
 only just started. This can be understood by the following indications : 
 
 1. Towing by horses or by men is almost nil and is only employed for very short 
 distances; in 1890 it was only employed by 40 out of 1 4 000 loaded boats, whose passage 
 was recorded at the Bougival lock. 
 
 CAMERE. 2 G 
 
10 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 
 NUMBER OF BOATS IN THE SERVICE 
 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 DATE 
 
 
 WITH 
 
 MOTI VB-rOWER 
 
 WITHOUT MOTIVE- 
 
 POWER 
 
 
 of the 
 
 of 
 
 t£ 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 a, 
 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 
 3 
 
 U1 
 
 
 73 £ 
 c 2 
 
 t/j 
 
 t/> 
 
 O 
 
 « o 
 o ££ 
 
 
 COMPANIES 
 
 AUTHORISATION 
 
 ° o 
 
 b 2 
 
 a> 
 
 
 ro 
 
 fcJD 
 
 •7 e-o 
 
 J. c 
 
 9 
 
 
 > o 
 Jo. 
 
 o 
 
 
 o un 
 z o 
 
 
 SQ 
 
 
 U. 
 
 
 o * 
 
 V) 
 
 
 "3 
 
 •Ti 
 
 
 “ c 
 cc 
 
 
 Towing C* of the Lower- 
 •Seine and Oise . . . 
 
 1 
 
 6“ april 1851. 
 (Decree.) 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 50 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 29 
 
 » 
 
 »» 
 
 
 1 
 
 Towing C“ from Con-j 
 llans to the sea . . i 
 
 2..' k july I860. 1 
 
 (Decree.) j 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 120 
 
 » 
 
 • 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 » 
 
 ,, 
 
 » 
 
 100 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 » 
 
 55 to 00 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 ” 
 
 9 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 40 to 200 
 
 ” 
 
 ” 
 
 “ 
 
 » 
 
 283 max. 
 
 Boat employed in the 
 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 * 
 
 » 
 
 service from Rouen 
 to Havre. 
 
 French 0* of fluvial 
 transport 
 
 27“ july 1880. ( 
 Minister, decree.) 1 
 
 
 " 
 
 “ 
 
 10 
 
 20 to 50 
 
 " 
 
 » 
 
 “ 
 
 ” 
 
 130 lo 226 
 
 Passenger service 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 ” 
 
 * 
 
 » 
 
 
 123 
 
 between Rouen and 
 Eltieuf. 
 
 
 One of these Oats 
 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 * 
 
 70 
 
 » 
 
 “ 
 
 ” 
 
 220 to 1 ,000 
 
 lias a tonnage of 
 
 1 026 tons. 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 14 
 
 » 
 
 220 to 320 
 
 
 12 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 80 to 400 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 » 
 
 30’ 
 
 
 40 to 200 
 
 » 
 
 
 0 
 
 120 to 270 
 
 t. This figure inclu- 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 Havre -Paris-Lyon Na- 
 
 6'“ august 1885. 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 des a certain mini- 
 
 vigation C° 
 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 i „ 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 200to780 
 
 her of simple car- 
 
 
 riers. 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 85 
 
 » 
 
 120 to 330 
 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 „ 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 100 to 230 
 
 
 Messrs FrtHigny and 
 
 1“ January 1884. 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 250 to 300 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 
 Sons 
 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 470 to 7 70 
 
 
 The steamers of this 
 
 Messrs Burnett and 
 Sons 
 
 22 nd January 1885. 
 14 lb October 1889 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 !■ 
 
 ! 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 150 to 200 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 175 to 558 
 
 company ply be- 
 1 tween Paris and 
 London. 
 
 Messrs Deutsch and 
 Sons 
 
 t” august 1887. 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 1 
 
 \ * 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 f> 
 
 0 
 
 70(o 90 
 
 53 1 
 
 Specially affected to 
 j the carriage of pe- 
 troleum. 
 
 
 The boats of this C° 
 
 
 750 redu- 
 ced to 500 
 
 built for coasting 
 l service between 
 
 Parisian NavigaiionC' 
 
 7 february 1889. 
 (Minister, decree 
 
 , ” 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 400 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 1 Paris and Pasages 
 ) (Spain) actnallyper- 
 
 
 | lorm a coasting ser- 
 vice between Paris, 
 
 \ Nantesand Bayonne. 
 
 
 / This C° pos^ess8 more 
 
 Carriers « Porteurs dt 
 
 ( 15 ,h May 1889 
 
 C ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 V « Porteurs » that 
 have nut plied on 
 
 la Marne » . . . . 
 
 ((Minister. Decree. 
 
 i 
 
 
 / the 7“ and 8‘ sec- 
 
 
 1 " 
 
 » 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 2 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
 
 n 
 
 tions. 
 
 Commartin 
 
 ( 12 july 1889. 
 
 ((Minister, decree. 
 
 ■ 
 
 | 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 • 
 
 » 
 
 • 
 
 i Passenger service 
 ) between Paris and 
 ( Saint-Germain. 
 
 Mssrs Fenaiile and 
 
 | 8 april 1890. 
 
 l 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 280 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 619 
 
 1 
 
 ) Carriage of petto- 
 
 Bespeaux 
 
 1 
 
 ) » 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 2 
 
 » 
 
 ” 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 i leum oil. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 11 
 
 
 NUMBER OF BOATS IN THE SERVICE 
 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 DATE 
 
 
 WITH 
 
 MOTIVE-POWLR 
 
 WITHOUT MOTIVE- 
 
 POWER 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 bp 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 
 '/i 
 
 U 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 
 C/5 
 
 « 9, 
 
 
 COMPANIES 
 
 AUTHORISATION 
 
 
 3 
 
 % 
 c 4 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 Q.- 
 
 1 h 
 
 Flab 
 
 bo 
 
 , C3 
 
 is £ 
 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 CD j- 
 
 3 « 
 
 n 
 
 a, 
 
 O 
 
 26 o 
 
 
 Mcssageries fluviales 
 de Fiance 
 
 23 april 1890. 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 10 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 Did not ply on the 
 
 8 b section in 1891 
 and 1891. 
 
 Coinpagm'e Ardennaise 
 des I’orteurs de la 
 Meuse 
 
 8' 1 april 1890. 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 > 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 not 
 
 gauged 
 
 Have not yet any 
 boats tor the ser- 
 vice on the 8“ sec- 
 tion. 
 
 
 30‘" junc 1890. 
 (Minister, decree.) 
 
 
 Cistern-barge for the 
 
 Desinarais Brothers. . 
 
 ” 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 ” 
 
 » 
 
 
 carriage of petro- 
 leum oil. 
 
 Soeiete anonyme de 
 
 
 touage et de remor- 
 quage de l'Oise (Wil- 
 
 
 10 
 
 » 
 
 * 
 
 » 
 
 00 to 200 
 
 • 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 Hams et Cie) . . . . 
 
 Barbe 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 120 to 130 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 370 to 500 
 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 •200 to 300 
 
 O 
 
 » 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 Messagerics nationalcs 
 
 c* 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 220 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 20 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 1) 
 
 500 to 950 
 
 
 Docks and Entrepot t> 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 o 
 
 400 U 650 
 
 
 Drapier 
 
 
 » 
 
 ,) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 » 
 
 
 » 
 
 390 to 420 
 
 
 . 
 
 1) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 12 
 
 . 
 
 0 
 
 
 Rousseau. . ... . 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 5 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 490 to 660 
 
 
 - Dehier and Masy . . . 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 200 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 Dehier 
 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 i 
 
 » 
 
 0 
 
 590 to iOO 
 
 
 BrioIIe 
 
 
 1 
 
 1) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 200 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 
 Delval 
 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 460 to 500 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 8 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 380 to 400 
 
 
 Rapid Transport C” . 
 
 
 1 
 
 D 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 150 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 . 
 
 
 Bouchd 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 » 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 D 
 
 
 Considered as a whole, the traffic on the Lower-Seine gives rise to a very 
 important movement of boats and barges, as may be judged from the 
 figures in the table on page 6 referring to the last twelve years, and from 
 the tables of plates n us II and III, which represent this movement for the 
 year 1890, and for a day chosen during each of the three characteristic 
 periods of the river; that is to say, at low water, at mean water and at high 
 water. 
 
 These columns allow one to judge of the travelling of the different 
 boats and trains of barges plying on the Lower-Seine on those days, both up 
 and down-stream ; of their rate of speed in the different reaches; of the 
 nature of the trains towed or tugged; finally of the weight of merchandise 
 carried and the passings through the locks. 
 
 From an examination of these columns, the following indications rela- 
 
12 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 ling to the power of traction of the principal types pf steam-boats plying on 
 Hie Lower-Seine may be deduced. 
 
 Tow-boats. — The tow-boats belonging to the towage-company of the 
 Lower-Seine and the Oise, of 50 horse-power (nominal), and which ply 
 between Paris and the Oise, travel up-stream at about the same pace, 
 whatever may be the state of the water ; viz. at the rate of 3 to 4 kilometres 
 an hour, according to the amount of their cargoes; however, considering 
 only the highest figures, the tonnage carried during the days in question 
 were : 
 
 During low-water 2,506 tons 8 boats. 
 
 During mean-water 2,122 — 8 barges. 
 
 During high-water 1,428 — 5 — 
 
 The tow-boats belonging to the towage company from Confians to the sea, 
 of 120 horse-power (nominal), and which ply between the Oise and Rouen 
 supplied, up-stream during the time of high-water, a season during which 
 their service is busiest, an average rate of speed of 2 kil. 64 with trains ol 
 4 loaded boats of 1240 tons. 
 
 During the times of low and mean water, the low-boats going up-stream 
 attain speeds of from 4 to 4 kil. 50 an hour, but then they do not usually 
 work with full loads. One can, however, pick out from the columns of low 
 water and up-stream, runs of a speed of 4 kil. 07 per hour, by 9 barges 
 loaded with 1907 tons. 
 
 Tugs. — The columns that we are examining show with regard to tugs 
 and what concerns the results from llmir traction, and taking into account 
 state of the waters, the following facts affecting the up-stream traffic : 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE 
 
 13 
 
1 1 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS 
 
 Propellors. — According lo the statements, the propellors of 55 to 
 60 horse-power, which ply on the Lower-Seine, are able, except during the 
 times of high water, not only to take up-stream the special boat to which 
 they are adapted, but at the same time tow another boat. 
 
 Under these conditions they transport, on an average : at low-water 
 5i0 tons at a speed of 4 m. 54 an hour; at mean-water 450 tons at a 
 speed af 4 m. 28 an hour. 
 
 Tucj-carriers. — The observations relatingto the tug-carriers lead to the 
 following results for the up-stream journey. 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 a. 
 
 w 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 cu 
 
 s s 
 
 os 
 
 td 
 
 
 SPEED 
 
 
 TONS CARRIED 
 
 IN KIL. TEH HOUR 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 OF BOATS TOWED 
 
 NATURE 
 
 OF BOATS TOWED 
 
 OF THE BOATS 
 
 H 1 
 
 S 
 
 h 
 
 U. 
 
 w 
 
 CC 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 LOW-WATER 
 
 j 
 
 MEAN-WATER ^ 
 
 t- 
 
 fc 
 
 ts 
 
 > 
 
 LOW-WATER 
 
 i 
 
 as 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 Y. 
 
 } 
 
 HIGH-WATER 
 
 LOW-WATER 
 
 i 
 
 (C 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 if 
 
 Y 
 
 W 
 
 HIGH-WATER 
 
 o : 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 — 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 Y. 
 
 < 
 
 U 
 
 a. 
 
 u 
 
 t- 
 
 < 
 
 if 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 fiord 
 
 Screw 
 
 200 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 4 260 
 
 kil. 
 
 4 370 
 
 tons 
 
 9 
 
 tons 
 
 1 157 
 
 tons 
 
 919 
 
 » 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 * 
 
 2 flats 
 
 1 tow-boat 
 
 Hats 
 
 Rouennais n* 1 . . . 
 
 » 
 
 200 
 
 » 
 
 9 
 
 4 160 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 456 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 Oats 
 
 Vauban 
 
 » 
 
 120 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 3 580 
 
 » 
 
 
 847 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 flats 
 
 Gironde 
 
 Paddle 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 4 860 
 
 3 970 
 
 • 
 
 386 
 
 341 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oats 
 
 Carriers (Porteurs). — The journeys of the carriers, appeal ing on the 
 graphic tables, give rise to the following observations. 
 
 DESIGNATION 
 
 NATURE 
 
 of 
 
 HORSE- 
 
 RATE OF SPEED 
 
 IN KIL. PER HOUR 
 
 TONS CARRIED 
 
 
 OF THE BOATS 
 
 MOTIVE - 
 
 POWER 
 
 POWER 
 
 LOW- 
 
 WATER 
 
 MEAN- 
 
 WATER 
 
 HIGH- 
 
 WATER 
 
 LOW- 
 
 WATER 
 
 MEAN- 
 
 WATER 
 
 HIGH- 
 
 WATER 
 
 OBSERVA I IONS 
 
 Ville de Lille 
 
 Screw 
 
 60 
 
 kil. 
 
 5.460 
 
 kii. 
 
 8.790 
 
 kil. 
 
 tons 
 
 176 
 
 tons 
 
 150 
 
 tons 
 
 
 Oise n° 3 
 
 » 
 
 70 
 
 6.500 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 170 
 
 9 
 
 » 
 
 
 Meuse 
 
 » 
 
 60 
 
 » 
 
 7.800 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 195 
 
 9 
 
 
 Type Pnquebot 
 
 
 50 
 
 8.590 
 
 » 
 
 5 . 750 
 
 172 
 
 » 
 
 174 
 
 
 Type Porleur 
 
 Paddle 
 
 50 
 
 6.550 
 
 8.250 
 
 4.610 
 
 85 
 
 91 
 
 67 
 
 Averages. 
 
 Ville de Mantes 
 
 » 
 
 45 
 
 8.080 
 
 » 
 
 5.070 
 
 125 
 
 » 
 
 140 
 
 Averages. 
 
 Marne. . . 
 
 » 
 
 40 
 
 » 
 
 6.790 
 
 5.100 
 
 » 
 
 127 
 
 97 
 
 
 Porteur n° 1 
 
 » 
 
 25 
 
 6.230 
 
 » 
 
 6.020 
 
 108 
 
 » 
 
 96 
 
 
 Porteur n° 3 
 
 P 
 
 20 
 
 6.960 
 
 » 
 
 6.140 
 
 106 
 
 " 
 
 98 
 
 
 Coasters. — Finally, according to the graphic tables considered, 
 the coaster « Mabel » has carried at low-water-time 125 tons at a speed 
 8 kilom. 84 an hour. 
 
 The foregoing information can only supply an approximate idea of the 
 
THE LOWER-SEIISE. 
 
 15 
 
 influence of 1 he state of the water on the loads which the various types of 
 steam-boats employed on the Lower-Seine can in fact carry up-stream, 
 considering that these loads often depend, not on the strength ot the motive 
 power, but on the composition of the train, and that the rales of speed, 
 for a similar load and for an identical stale of the water, vary with the 
 reaches in the river. 
 
 It has consequently appeared to us useful, in order to complete this 
 information, to point out, in the form of a graphic table, plate n° III, fig. 2, 
 according to the observations made for a whole twelve months, and in 
 accordance with the state ol the water, the maximum loads compatible 
 with each type of steam-boat, going up-stream. 
 
 This table shows : 
 
 1. That the traction-power of the steam-tugs decreases rapidly with the 
 height of the water and principally in the strongest types. 
 
 2. That it is the same with regard to the tow-boats, but in a lesser pro- 
 portion. 
 
 5. That wilh the tug-carriers and propellors, the decrease ol traction- 
 power is much less rapid. 
 
 4. Finally that wilh the carriers (bateaux porteurs) this decrease is re- 
 latively slight. 
 
 The facts are explained, as will be seen in the third part of this report, 
 by the influence which the quantity of the resistance exercises on the 
 transport by trains of boats, compared with that of an isolated boat. 
 
 As lo the explanations to be drawn from the graphic tables with regard 
 to the down-stream traffic, they are of no great interest; considering that 
 it is only 25 per cent of the up-stream traffic; the steam-boats only going 
 down empty or slightly loaded, so that their normal power cannot be usefully 
 compared with the loads they carry. 
 
 The only interesting information to deduce is that concerning the maxi- 
 mum rates of speed that certain steam-boats attain, when empty, or wilh 
 slight loads. 
 
 Low water. 
 
 kil. 
 
 Tow-boat 
 
 . Le Solferino. . . 
 
 speed per hour 
 
 3,92 
 
 Steam-tug 
 
 . Guepe, N° 10 . . 
 
 — 
 
 8 , 53 
 
 Propellor 
 
 . Propulseur , N° 9. 
 
 — 
 
 4,77 
 
 Tug-carrier .... 
 
 Gironde 
 
 — 
 
 8,51 
 
 Carrier ( Porlcur ) . . 
 
 Eclair 
 
 — 
 
 10,50 
 
 Coaster 
 
 Emily 
 
 — 
 
 12,00 
 
 
 Mean water. 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 7,59 
 
 Tow-boat 
 
 . Tourasse . . . . 
 
 
 Steam-tug 
 
 Guepe. N° 1 . . . 
 
 — 
 
 10,28 
 
1,5 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 Propollor 
 
 Tug-carrier .... 
 Carrier [Portent) . . 
 Coaster 
 
 • Propulseur, N° 9 . 
 
 . Ville de Douai. . 
 
 . Portenr, N° 1 
 
 . Mabel . 
 
 — 10, to 
 9,64 
 
 — 15,20 
 
 — 10,70 
 
 
 High water. 
 
 
 Steam-tug 
 
 . Rap 'ule .... 
 
 — 18,07 
 
 The rates of speed that we have just pointed out for steam-boats, whether 
 carriers or towing trains of barges, lake into account neither the passing 
 through the locks nor the night-stoppages which are the rule, although the 
 navigation is free night and day on the Lower-Seine, and the lock service 
 undergoes no interruption. 
 
 Beside these rates of speed, it is therefore right, in order to give an 
 exact idea ol the conditions under which navigation is carried on, on the 
 Lower-Seine, to point out the time required in the different cases for 
 accomplishing the whole distance between Bouen and Paris. 
 
 By only taking into consideration the up-stream traffic, about which the 
 information is most concording and interesting, it may be said that the 
 duration of the journey : 
 
 1. Between Rouen and Suresnes, the first lock below Paris (226 kilom.) 
 is : 
 
 From 55 to 50 hours for the carriers (porteurs). 
 
 2 1/2 days to 5 days for the steam-tugs; 
 
 4 to 5 days for the tow-boats ; 
 
 2. Between Rouen and la Villette (220 kilom.), including the time for 
 going through the Saint-Denis canal, is on an average : 
 
 48 hours for isolated carriers (porteurs) ; 
 
 3 to 4 days for the tug-carriers; 
 
 4 days for the steam-tugs. 
 
 6 days for barges, towed as far as La Bridie, and then hauled into 
 the canal. 
 
 However, it is right to quote, separately, a service of carriers (porteurs), 
 called the « service rapide », organized by the II. P. L. C° and the C ie Fran- 
 chise, between Bouen and La Villette, whose boats do the distmcc, without 
 stopping at night, in 36 hours. These boats take 30 hours between Bouen 
 and La Briche (the mouth of the Saint-Denis canal), for a distance of 
 215 kilometres; from this it results that their mean rale of speed on the 
 Lower-Seine, not including the passage through the locks, estimated at 
 4 hours tor 8 locks, is 7 kilom. 88 an hour and that their mean reduced 
 rate of speed, by taking into account the time in these passings, is 
 6 kilom. 86 per hour. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 17 
 
 We shall conclude by some information concerning the coasting vessels 
 which ply on the Lower-Seine. 
 
 A coasting service between Paris and London is performed by the two 
 screw steamers, the « Mabel » and the « Emily », belonging to an English 
 company. 
 
 The « Mabel » is the more powerful of the two, being of 250 horse-power 
 and carrying a maximum cargo of 558 tons; it effects about two voyages 
 a month. According to the records of 1891, her maximum load, coming 
 up-stream, was 224 tons, and 510 tons going down. This steamer covers 
 the distance up-stream between Rouen and port Saint-Nicolas, in Paris 
 (240 kilom.) in 51 h. 25. on an average, including two night halts of 
 12 hours each, and the time necessary for passing through 9 locks, which 
 corresponds to a reduced rate of speed of 4 kilom. 700 an hour; although 
 the effective rate of speed is, on an average, 10 kilometres, and attains 
 even 14 kilometres in certain reaches. 
 
 Two screw-steamers belonging to a French company 1 , and built, in the 
 first instance, for a special service for the transport of wine between the 
 port of Passages (Spain) and Paris, actually perform a coasting service be- 
 tween Paris, Brest, Nantes and Bayonne : they are the « Parisien » and 
 the « Berry ». 
 
 These boats, of 450 horse-power and carrying a maximum of 750 tons, 
 can cary about 500 tons in the rivers, with a draught of water of 3 metres. 
 They perform 8 voyages a year. 
 
 According to the statements for 1891 , their maximum up-stream load was 
 490 tons and 470 down-stream. These boats cover the distance up-stream 
 between Rouen and port Saint-Nicolas in Paris (240 kilom.) in 54 h. 50, 
 on an average, including two night-halts of 10 h. 50 each, and the time 
 necessary for passing through 9 locks, which corresponds to a reduced 
 rate of speed of 4 kilom. 400 an hour; although the effective rate is on 
 an average of 8 kilom. 350 and attains 15 kilometres in certain reaches. 
 
 Freights. 
 
 Considering that the carriage on the Lower-Seine is performed, either by 
 companies working on their own account, or at prices settled with the 
 steam-tug or tow boat companies, according to the state of the water in the 
 river and the quantity of goods, it is, for that reason, impossible to give, 
 with anything like precision, to point out the rates of freight charged, 
 all the more so, because these rales, not always including the same ele- 
 ments, are, on that account, difficult to compare with one another. 
 
 Since the year 1827 to the end of 1886, the year corresponding to the 
 
 1. In 1892 this company put on another coaster, the « Louvre », of 800 horse-power 
 and carrying, from 800 to 900 tons. 
 
 cameuG. 5 e. 
 
18 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 handing over for service, in Iheir entirely, of the works for the 5 m. 20 
 depth of water, the first of which works was handed over in 1880, 1 ho rale 
 of freights between Paris and Rouen (245 kilom.) has varied as follows : 
 
 fr. fr. per kilometric ton. 
 
 From 1827 to 1847 it fell from 14,75 to 11,14 or from 0,0607 to 0,0458 
 
 — 1847 to 1857 — ll,14lo 8,84 — 0,0458 to 0,0568 
 
 — 1857 to 1867 — 8,84 to 7,40 — 0,0568 to 0,0504 
 
 — 1867 to 1886 — 7,40 to 6,50 - 0,0504 to 0,0259 
 
 According to an investigation made with regard to 400 000 tons of mer- 
 chandise, the freights between Paris and Rouen varied in 1887, not includ- 
 ing loading and unloading, but including insurance of the goods, from 4 lo 
 5 francs per ton, with an average of 4 fr. 00 for the up-journey (0 fr. 0189 
 per kilometric ton), and from 2 fr. 75 lo 5 fr. 50 with an average of 5 fr. 20 
 for the down-trip (0 fr. 0152 per kilometric ton). A similar investigalion 
 made for 1890 with regard to 500 000 tons of merchandise (wine, corn, 
 coal, wood and wood-paste) shows that Ihc rates fell, during that year, on 
 an average, lo 5 fr. 00 per ton, for goods carried from Rouen lo Paris up- 
 stream (0 fr. 0148 per kilometric ton), and lo 2 fr. 00, on an average, for 
 down-stream (0 fr. 0107 per kilometric ton). 
 
 It is to be presumed that these prices will slill undergo further reduc- 
 tions, in proportion with the transformation of the plant navigating on the 
 Lower-Seine, from the point of view of the best possible utilization of the 
 5 m. 20 depth of water, and that we are not far from the time when they 
 will touch the rate of 5 francs per ton up-stream (0 fr. 0125 per kilometric 
 ton), and of 2 francs down-stream (0 fr. 0082 per kilometric Ion), leaving 
 on one side of course, goods sent by « accelerated-speed » forwarding 
 companies, which only represent a very small portion of the traffic. 
 
 II. — EXPERIMENTAL STEDY FOR THE DISCOVERY OF THE DEFECTIVE 
 POINTS IN THE CHANNELS, THEIR IMPROVEMENT AND THE REDEC- 
 I ION IN THE RATES OF FREIGHT. 
 
 Aim to be pursued. 
 
 The cost of carriage on t he navigable water-ways' depends not only 
 on the perfection of motive-power and the vehicles, hut on that of t he 
 water-way itself. 
 
 If questions which concern motive-power and vehicles he, in a general 
 way 1 , essentially within the range of private industry, it cannot he so with 
 
 1. M. de Mas, Engineer in chief of the « Ponts et Chaussees », was instructed ac- 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 19 
 
 whal regards the improvement of the water-way, at least in France, where 
 the Stale is alone charged whilli its construction and maintenance. 
 
 As to whal effects the Lower-Seine in particular, the government has, as 
 we have already seen, sine 1858, been constantly improving its state of 
 navigability and, by important works, the expense of which has not been 
 less than GO 700 000 francs, has just endowed it with a minimum depth of 
 water of 5 m. 20, which lias already produced, as we have seen above, a 
 considerable increase in its traffic and a great reduction in the rates of 
 freight. 
 
 Without entertaining a further transformation of the conditions of navi- 
 gability of this water-way, which one cannot think of pursuing without a 
 waste of the public money, as long as it does not threaten to become insuf- 
 ficient to satisfy the commercial requirements it is called upon to serve 
 and to develop, one may however enquire if, by a few improvements of 
 detail, and only demanding, after all, but a slight outlay, a greater ad- 
 vantage might not be derived from the works already executed. 
 
 It is certain that, in the condition in which they happen to be actually, 
 all sections ot the Lower-Seine do not offer identical conditions of naviga- 
 tion; at certain points, the resistance to overcome, going up-stream, with 
 a similar state of the water, are stronger than at others, and that these 
 augmentations of resistance are due to local reductions in the width and 
 depth of the channel, to the existence of sharp curves, to the vicious direc- 
 tions of the current, and finally to the narrow-arched, and sometimes 
 badly situated, bridges. 
 
 All these obstacles may evidently be compared, from the point of view of 
 navigation, to the gradients of railways. Like the latter, by limiting the 
 load of the trains over the whole line and by requiring a greater motive- 
 power to what is necessary over the remainder of the distance, these obsta- 
 cles burden traction and working with expenses which have their effect on 
 the rates of freight. 
 
 Watermen, by practice, are able to recognize the most defective parts 
 of the rivers, but it is very difficult, ex'cept in well defined cases, to draw 
 from their observations information which would allow of rendering an 
 account, with anything like precision, of the influence which these parts 
 may have on the increase of the effort of traction, and of the slackening 
 of the speed which they entail in the ordinary rate of single boats or 
 of trains. Now these increasings in the effort of traction and in the 
 slackening of speed are not inconsiderable on the Lower-Seine. 
 
 As will be seen further on, the effort of traction may indeed, in certain 
 
 cording to a decision of the Minister of Publics Works under date 19 November 1889, to 
 make experimental inquiries with regard to the barge and boat-plant. 
 
 These researches have already appeared in a very interesting work published by the 
 National Printing-Oflice (Paris, 1891). 
 
20 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 places, show an augmentation of 22 per 100 over the effort sufficient for 
 the rest of the way, even with a notable slackening. 
 
 By this indication of the pernicious influence which these bad portions 
 of the river must have on the traction and working expenses, it may easily 
 he judged what action their improvement might have on the rates of 
 freight, considering that on account ot their small number and short 
 lengths, there is an a priori reason to suppose that the expenses to he 
 incurred -would be neither very high norout of proportion with the inte- 
 rests at stake. 
 
 Nature of the experiments being made'. 
 
 The trials being made on rivers and canals for the discovery of the rela- 
 tions existing between the efforts of traction and the rate of speed forcer- 
 lain types of boats or of trains of barges, arc, as far as we know, very few 
 in number, and their results exhibit very considerable divergences among 
 them. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the experimental method has appeared to us 
 the only one capable of leading to any precise information for the study 
 of the matter in question. 
 
 Consequently, about the end of the year 1891, we, with the assistance ol 
 M. Clerc, Ingenieur des Pouts ct Chaussees, our inline iate collaborator, 
 and of M. Jacob « Conductor », commenced a series of experiments on 
 the Lower-Seine intended to expose the defective points which the channel 
 presents from the navigation point of view. 
 
 We had hoped that they would have been sufficiently advanced by the 
 date fixed for the sending in of the present report, to allow of our inserting 
 a complete work on the subject; unfortunately, hardly were our arrange- 
 ments ready, when we found the impossibility of pursuing them on a suf- 
 ficiently large scale. 
 
 On the one hand, the navigation companies, whose assistance we 
 required, wanted all their plant to satisfy an increase of traffic, which the 
 augmentation in importations, caused by the bad cereal harvest in France, 
 in 1891 had given them, as well as by the denunciations of the treaties of 
 commerce, and, on the other hand, the government-steamer placed at our 
 disposal, was not powerful enough to tow heavily laden boats or trains 
 during the extremely long period of high-water that we have just been 
 passing through. 
 
 Nevertheless, a certain amount of general information results already 
 
 I . The experiments made comprise : 
 
 The down-stream journey oftovv-boal « Cote-d’Or », from Poses fo Saint-Aubin, over 
 15 kilometres ; — the journey up-stream of the tow-boat « (lie Gazelle » from Saint- 
 Aubin to Andelys, over 44 kilometres; — the up-journey of the barge « Ilortense » from 
 Saint-Aubin to Vernon, over G7 kilometres ; — the up-journey of the barge « Paquebot 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 21 
 
 from the experiments, reported *, and as the method of investigation in 
 which we are engaged, may be utilized on other water-courses; w'c have 
 considered that it would not be without interest to give a report here in a 
 summary manner. 
 
 We had a plate dynamometre, having a hand-register, which the 
 manager of the Eastern-Railway Company was kind enough to place at our 
 disposal, fitted to a frame, which allowed of this instrument being easily 
 arranged in the stern of the steam-boats, steam-tugs or tow-boats which 
 ply on the Lower-Seine; it was then utilized for registering the effoits of 
 traction required hy boats, either towed singly or in trains, for the whole 
 or a part of their journey. 
 
 These efforts and the rates of speed being then investigated over a 
 distance along the course of the river, accompanied by indications re- 
 lating to its width, to its depth, to I lie curves in the channel, to the 
 incline of the reaches, to the bridges, etc., it is easy to comprehend that 
 after a sufficient number ot experiments made with trains variously 
 composed and at seasons of the year corresponding to different slates of 
 the water, the discussion and the comparison of these elements lead to 
 the recognition of which passages constantly, or at certain determined 
 epochs, affect the rate of speed in boats. 
 
 Thanks to this information, one is able to decide, in a precise way, at 
 what points on the river studies for its improvement should be brought to 
 bear, and to recognize by them, which would be justified by reason of 
 their cost. 
 
 Discussion of the experiments. 
 
 Without, for the time being, a moment pretending to draw rigorous 
 deductions from the experiments reported, owing to their very small 
 number, we can. however, already mention a few interesting facts. 
 
 As can be seen by the tw'o tables in Plates n os IV and V, relating to the 
 towing up-stream in the same reach, that of Notre-Dame-de-la-Garenne, at 
 only a few days interval and in an analogous state of water of the two 
 barges, the « Horlense » and the « Paquebot n° 19 », one can aver that 
 in their entirety, the curves representing the efforts of traction bear a 
 marked likeness as much among themselves as to the relief of the bottom 
 of the channel. 
 
 Leaving aside secondary details, the information from these figures 
 permits the drawing up of the following comparative table : 
 
 n* 19 » from Saint-Aubin to Vernon, over 07 kilometres. The up-journey of the 
 barge « Rhone » from Rouen to Poses, over AO kilometres. 
 
2 2 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 
 WITH THE BARGE « HORTENSE » 
 
 Points corresponding 
 kilometrically 
 
 «) .C, 
 
 P. L. 
 
 to the 
 decrease 
 in the efforts 
 of traction 
 
 kilom. 
 
 148,800 
 
 , 
 
 149,800 
 
 L. 
 
 150,500 
 
 1 
 
 L. 
 
 151,500 
 
 P. L. 
 
 152,200 
 
 » 
 
 154,200 
 
 P. 
 
 156,800 
 
 P. 
 
 158,700 
 
 )) 
 
 160,000 
 
 I 
 
 to the 
 increase 
 in the efforts 
 of traction 
 
 kilom. 
 
 149,450 
 
 150,080 
 
 150,050 
 
 151,700 
 
 153,200 
 
 155,900 
 
 157,900 
 
 158,200 
 
 161,000 
 
 t, 9 
 
 <D £ 
 O 
 
 Pt. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. E. 
 
 S. E. 
 
 S. E. 
 
 E. 
 
 S. E. 
 
 T. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 
 WITH THE BARGE <( PAQUEBOT N° 19 » 
 
 Points corresponding 
 kilometrically 
 
 to the 
 decrease 
 in the efforts 
 of traction 
 
 P. L. 
 
 kilom. 
 
 148,800 
 
 » 
 
 149,700 
 
 L. 
 
 150,700 
 
 L. 
 
 151,600 
 
 P. L. 
 
 152,150 
 
 P. 
 
 155,000 
 
 P. 
 
 156,900 
 
 P. 
 
 158,700 
 
 P. 
 
 161,000 
 
 to the 
 increase 
 in the efforts 
 of traction 
 
 kilom. 
 
 r* a 
 « J3 
 -C •" 
 
 149,500 
 
 S. 
 
 150,080 
 
 Pt. 
 
 150,950 
 
 S. Pt. 
 
 152,000 
 
 E. 
 
 153,800 
 
 S. E. 
 
 155,800 
 
 S. 
 
 157,750 
 
 S. E. 
 
 158,200 
 
 S. E. 
 
 100,200 
 
 T. 
 
 Observations. — Signification of the abbreviations : L, river wide ; — E, river narrow ; — P, river 
 deep; — S, sill; — Pt, bridge; — T, Draught of wator due to the action of the N.-D. de la 
 Garenne weir. 
 
 As may be seen by the figures in ibis table, the principal summits of 
 the curves of the efiorts of traction correspond, in the two experiments, 
 very perceptibly, at the same points on the Seine; all the upper and lower 
 summits having respectively, as correlatives, either the sills and the 
 narrow parts of the river, or else, the deep and wide parts of the latter. 
 
 These indications already show that the experiments in which we are 
 engaged are really of a nature to bring out, with some precision, the 
 relations which exist between the effort of traction and the conditions 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 23 
 
 of navigability which the channel presents; however they would not be 
 sufticient to deduce from them, in an absolute manner, which are the 
 detective parts, for, in order to resolve Ibis problem, it is necessary to 
 introduce tbe rate of speed. 
 
 By referring to the two tables in plate n° VI, tig. 1 and 2, which repre- 
 sent the connections furnished by Ihc experiments in question between 
 the different efforts of ti action and the rales of speed really' ascertained, 
 it is easy to see that the points in these columns may be divided into 
 three groupcs : the first comprised within a central radius, and the other 
 two situated, the one below and the other above this radius. 
 
 The central group includes the greatest number of points and may be 
 considered as relating to the normal conditions of navigability on the 
 river. 
 
 The spots in the upper group, since the efforts of traction are not high 
 compared to the speed, correspond, for that reason, to easy passages 
 whereas those of the lower group, for the contrary reason, must forcibly 
 be supplied for Ihc defective places. 
 
 It is now necessary to enquire whether the improvement of all these 
 latter would offer an equal amount of interest. 
 
 From the point of view of speed, this operation would, of course, entail 
 an increase in the rale of the mean speed, but which would in brief 
 be without importance considering the shortness of the defective passages. 
 
 From the point of view of the effort of traction, the problem is presented 
 in a very much clearer manner, for it would be sufficient to improve the 
 passages mentioned below in order to obtain the reductions ot 5 per 100 
 and 11 per 100 respectively on tbe maximum effort which the traction of 
 the barges the « Ilortcnse » and the « Paquebot n" 19 » demanded, 
 leaving out the unmoorings, which are not lobe taken into consideration, 
 since it suffices to execute them rather slowly in order to reduce the cor- 
 responding efforts. 
 
 1. These rates of speed have been drawn up according to guiding marks, chosen on 
 the banks, and those of the water, by means of buoys. Our intention for the future is 
 to have recourse to the employment of, continuous registering apparatus for ascertain- 
 ing them so as to push further the determination of the different influences which act 
 on the value of the efforts of traction and rates of speed. 
 
24 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 of 
 
 TRIALS 
 
 KILO METRIC 
 
 TOINTS 
 
 SPEED 
 
 per 
 
 SECOND 
 
 RESISTANCE 
 
 DESIGNATION OF THE I'ASSAGES. 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 mot. 
 
 kilog. 
 
 
 Barge llie « Horlcnse ». 
 
 8 
 
 150,060 
 
 0,50 
 
 850 
 
 Passage of Vernon bridge. 
 
 26 
 
 158,200 
 
 0,80 
 
 820 
 
 Deep and narrow passage. 
 
 54 
 
 161,000 
 
 1,10 
 
 825 
 
 Neighbourhood of the N.-l). -de-la- 
 
 
 Garenne weir. 
 
 
 Barge « Paquebot n° 
 
 19 «. 
 
 8 
 
 150,060 
 
 1,20 
 
 910 
 
 Passage of Vernon bridge. 
 
 15-16 
 
 158,200 
 
 1,80 
 
 950 
 
 Deep and narrow passage. 
 
 17 
 
 161,000 
 
 1,40 
 
 1 065 
 
 Neighbourhood of N.-D.-de-la- 
 
 
 Garenne weir. 
 
 Now, the passage of the Vernon bridge, dangerous, besides, during high- 
 water, could be improved by a rectification of the channel and of the left 
 bank up-stream over a length of about 200 metres; that of the kilometre 
 (stone) 158 kil. 200. by a dredging over about 500 metres, and the 
 passage at the kilometre (stone) 161 kilometres, by the adoption of a few 
 special measures for the working of the dam of the Notre-Dame de-la- 
 Garcnne branch, the draught of which produces an increase in the effort 
 of traction, or of some works of a nature to protect boats from that 
 draught. 
 
 They are in short, as may be seen, works of little importance but which 
 could evidently not he commenced until after it was assured that there 
 were no bad passages of a more defective character, which could not be 
 remedied, in the other reaches. This is what the continuation of our 
 experiments will permit us to ascertain. 
 
 Besides the information to be derived from the point of view of im- 
 proving the navigable channel, these experiments furnish, in addition, 
 precise information with regard to the efforts of traction required by the 
 different types of boats and trains according to the slate of the water in 
 the Lower-Seine, with reference to their composition and coupling together. 
 Navigation will be able therefore to find in them likewise interesting data 
 for the construction and utilization of its plant. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 25 
 
 III — DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTS OF TRACTION. 
 
 Experiments of traction executed by the towing Company of the Lower-Seine 
 
 and Oise. 
 
 The abnormal increase which the going through defective passages in 
 the channel entails on the effort of traction, strong enough when it is only 
 a question of one boat, as we have just shown in the case ol the barges 
 « llortense » and « Paquebot n° 19 », becomes much more intense when it 
 is a question of a train of them. 
 
 This was very clearly shown by the details of the experiments made 
 in 1890 by the Towing Company of the Lower-Seine and Oise and which 
 that Company kindly placed at our disposal. 
 
 By applying to these experiments the graphic method which we have 
 explained above, with reference to those concerning the « llortense » and 
 « Paquebot n° 19 », tbe following deductions are arrived at : 
 
 1. The experiment relating to the towing up stream, between Saint- 
 Denis and Suresnes, of a barge, loaded with 289 tons, whose average 
 speed was 2 m. 377 per second and mean effort 1805 kilogs, shows 
 that it would suffice to improve the passages of the Asnieres and of the 
 Saint-Quen bridges, in order to reduce the maximum effort of traction 
 observed of 1900 kilogs, by 50 kilogs, or 2. GO per 100. 
 
 2. The experiment relating to the towing up-stream between Conflans 
 and Bougival, of 4 loaded boats of 126G tons together, whose mean speed 
 was 1 m. 925 par second and mean effort 2 754 kilogs, shows that it would 
 be sufficient to improve tbe passages of the Pecq bridge and those at the 
 Maisons bridge, as well as the narrow passage near the kilometre- 
 stone 50, in order to reduce the maximum effort observed of 5 300 kilogs, 
 by 600 kilogs, or 18 per 100. 
 
 3. The experiment relating to the up-stream towing between Bougival 
 and Saint-Denis of 4 loaded barges of 9 1 G tons together, whose average 
 speed was 2 m. 082 per second and mean effort 2 710 kilogs, indicates that 
 it would be sufficient to improve the passages of the Chatou bridges and 
 two other narrow, shallow passages, in order to reduce the maximum 
 effort observed of 2 800 kilogs, by 500 kilogs, or 11 per 100. 
 
 4. Finally the experiment relating to the towing down-stream between 
 Javel and Chatou of 5 barges laden with 560 tons together and an empty 
 barge, whose average speed was 2 m. 597 per second and mean effort 
 2559 kilogs, shows, less clearly however, that the improvement of the 
 passing under certain bridges and through certain passages would be 
 able to reduce the maximum effort observed of 2 700 kilogs, by 100 kilogs, 
 or 5 per 100. 
 
26 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 These experiments, besides the manifest influence which the had pas- 
 sage in the channel exercises on the trains of boats going up-stream, 
 show, in addition, as was to be expected, th.it this influence has not so 
 much importance when going down-stream. 
 
 The Lower-Seine and Oise Towing-Company having likewise kindly com- 
 municated to us the results of some traction-experiments made by them in 
 1875 on the Lower-Seine, we have considered that they might complete, in 
 a useful manner, the preceding data relative to river traction, and we 
 reproduce them below. 
 
 
 BOATS TOWED 
 
 
 AVERAGE SPEED 
 
 a 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 cc sZ 
 
 
 DATE 
 
 of 
 
 EXPERIMENT 
 
 NAME 
 
 and 
 
 NATO 11 E 
 
 D 
 
 sz 
 
 cx 
 
 C 
 
 — J 
 
 MENSIO 
 
 s 
 
 ca 
 
 NS 
 
 sz 
 
 t£> 
 
 a 
 
 C3 
 
 ea 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 of the water 
 
 i 
 
 of the bo.it f 
 
 with relation \ 
 
 to the banks ( 
 
 Totals of t lie boat I 
 with relation 
 to the water / 
 
 MEAN EFFORT 
 
 OF TRACTION RECf 
 
 by the dynamorm 
 
 PLACES 
 
 of the 
 
 EXPERIMENTS 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 
 m. 
 
 ITl 
 
 m. 
 
 ton. 
 
 m. 
 
 m. 
 
 m. 
 
 kilog. 
 
 
 3 May 1873. 
 
 Mathilde 
 
 (barge). 
 
 55.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 1 85 
 
 250 
 
 0.98 
 
 l.n 
 
 2.09 
 
 647 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 25 k. (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1050 kilog. 
 
 11 May 1873. 
 
 The Edouard 
 (Chauny flat) 
 
 37.00 
 
 6.30 
 
 1.70 
 
 357 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.97 
 
 669 
 
 Between stones 28 k. 6 
 and 26 k. (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1250 kilog. 
 
 29 May 1873. 
 
 France 
 
 (Marne barge). 
 
 U .08 
 
 7.60 
 
 1.67 
 
 350 
 
 0.83 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.94 
 
 737 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 26 k. (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1250 kilog. 
 
 20 June 1873. 
 
 I'd re £ ernel 
 (tlal). 
 
 10.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 1.94 
 
 436 
 
 0.86 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.86 
 
 701 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 26 k. (up-stream) 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1185 kilog. 
 
 15 July 1873. 
 
 Celia 
 
 (flat). 
 
 39.60 
 
 6 95 
 
 1.80 
 
 252 
 
 0.73 
 
 1.06 
 
 1.79 
 
 259 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 25 It. 6 (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1000 kilog. 
 
 12 Aug. 1873. 
 
 Sl-Germain 
 
 (Oat). 
 
 10.80 
 
 7.70 
 
 1.90 
 
 450 
 
 0.466 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.506 
 
 501 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 26 k. (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 15u0 kilog. 
 
 25 Aug. 1873. 
 
 llarie-Abel 
 
 (barge). 
 
 33.00 
 
 5.1X1 
 
 1.40 
 
 187 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.98 
 
 1.48 
 
 258 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 750 kilog. 
 
 2 Sept. 1875. 
 
 Angele 
 
 (barge). 
 
 55.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 1.85 
 
 255 
 
 0.53 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.53 
 
 342 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ellort on unmooring 
 1050 kilog. 
 
 8 Oct. 1873. 
 
 Pauline 
 
 (flat). 
 
 39.60 
 
 6.95 
 
 1.70 
 
 233 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.03 
 
 1.78 
 
 216 
 
 Between stones 29 k. 
 and 25 k. 6 (up-stream). 
 
 Effort on unmooring 
 1000 kilog. 
 
 [Experiments of traction made on the Burgundy-canal. 
 
 The dynamometre, now being employed for the experiments we are 
 making on the Lower-Seine, had already served us in the month of Fe- 
 bruary 1875, for different trials of boat-traction on the « Burgundy » canal. 
 
 These trials belonging, in a direct manner, to the subject of the pre-ent 
 report, we have considered that, in consequence of the paucity of existing 
 information concerning the traction of boats in limited waters, it would be 
 not uninteresting to recapitulale them here. 
 
 The trials were carried on by means of three barges, having almost 
 identical dimensions, but presenting very different conditions of loading. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 ‘27 
 
 The « Flute » Marguerite had no cargo. 
 
 The « Flute » Pori cl Appoicjny had a cargo of 27 tons. 
 
 Lastly the tow-boat Fanny had a load of 130 tons. 
 
 For the empty boat « la Marguerite », the trials were only made over a 
 distance of 2 kilo n. 380, between the kilometric points, 600 metres and 
 2 kilom. 570 ; but for the other two, they were continued, for each one of 
 them, over the whole length of tin* canal comprised between La Roche and 
 Tonnerre; that is to say, over a length of 43 kilometres. 
 
 The towing of these boats having been performed, during the trials, by 
 means., either of a road locomotive or horses, and the dynamo metre having 
 been placed on board the boats themselves, it results therefrom, that the 
 efforts of traction recorded are really those solely due to their progress 
 in the canal and were not disturbed by the action of any motive-power. 
 
 Let us add that they were not influenced by the presence of the solitary 
 wave, studied by John Russel in 1 85 4, seeing that the rates of speed realized 
 during these trials were far from attaining that by at least 3 m. 961, 
 
 2 y x — ^ per second, comparable with the depth of 1 m. 60, 
 
 which the Burgundy-canal presented in 1873. 
 
 The investigation of the results of these experiments has permitted us to 
 show the relation existing between the rates of speed and the efforts of 
 traction by the three curves* on Plate n° VI, fig. 5. 
 
 These curves are, for that matter, represented in a very satisfactory man- 
 ner, and within the limits of the experiments by the expressions at foot, 
 according a , the surface of friction or the section at the main timbers of the 
 part immersed be considered. 
 
 1 « La Marguerite ». . . 
 
 2. (i Le Pori d'Appoigny » 
 
 3. « La Fanny )).... 
 
 R = S 1 2 u* (0,191 -f 0,053 v) 
 R = B^ 2 (25,6*2 + 7,08 v) 
 
 R = 2 2 v- (0,382 + 0,058 v) 
 R = B 2 i> 2 (34,15 + 5, 18 r) 
 R = 2 2 « 2 (0,61 + 0,864 r) 
 R = B 2 u 2 (22,84 -f 32,36 v) 
 
 In these formulas, arc designated by : 
 
 R, the effort of traction, expressed in kilogs : 
 
 E 2 the surface of friction at rest expressed in square metres of the im- 
 merged part, L (Z-+-2f) : 
 
 L, being the length of the boat, / its width at main timbers, and t its 
 draught, B 2 the surface at rest expressed in square metres of the immersed 
 section at the main timbers ( Ixt ). 
 
 v, the rate of speed per second expressed in metres. 
 
 1. The curves occupy the middle of the radius, containing all (he results of the expe- 
 riments made under ordinary conditions, and pass by the points resulting from the 
 average of all the trials. 
 
28 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 
 The table underneath includes the principal data of these expressions, 
 
 
 NAMES 
 
 OF THE BOATS 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 LENGTH (L) 
 
 U3 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 t- 
 
 o 
 
 •c 
 
 cc 
 
 Q 
 
 W 
 
 CJ C 
 
 ■< >1 
 
 C/3 — ^ 
 
 H H 
 
 “ W 
 
 SECTION, B * 1 2 = It 
 
 RATE OF SPEED 
 
 DURING TRIALS 
 
 IN METRES PER SECOND 
 
 VALUES of K = -dT- 
 
 E»V« 
 
 FOR THE RATES 
 
 of speed of 
 
 
 T 
 
 Minimum 
 
 _ i 
 
 Mean ( 
 
 1 
 
 Maximum 
 
 1 
 
 1 metre 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 JO 
 
 s’ 
 
 2 metres 
 
 1 
 
 
 m. 
 
 m. 
 
 m. 
 
 
 Marguerite (flute). . . . 
 
 28 
 
 30. AO 
 
 5.0G 
 
 0.25 
 
 109.02 
 
 1.205 
 
 1.68 
 
 1.860 
 
 2.050 
 
 0.244 
 
 0.270 
 
 0.297 
 
 
 Port d'Appoigny (flute). 
 
 55 
 
 30.40 
 
 5.00 
 
 0.45 
 
 181.18 
 
 2.277 
 
 0.82 
 
 1.515 
 
 1.770 
 
 0 i ll) 
 
 0.469 
 
 0.4'»8 
 
 
 Fanny (tow-boat). . . . 
 
 157 
 
 30.30 
 
 5.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 224 22 
 
 6.000 
 
 0.683 
 
 1.017 
 
 1.313 
 
 1.474 
 
 1.906 
 
 2.338 
 
 
 1. The values of R for V = 1 metre per second, per square metre, of wet section at the main timbers, in the above table 
 researches, about the plant of the boat and barge-services; this is accounted for by the difference in the localities, the 
 assimilated to any undefined spot. 
 
 from the figures in this Ldde may he taken the following deductions as 
 to what concerns the Burgundy canal : 
 
 1. Resistance to traction for one and the same boat increases in a much 
 more rapid proportion than the square of the rate of speed. 
 
 The algebraic formulas given above show that this resistance is a 
 function, not only of the square of the rate of speed, but of the cube of 
 the latter, at least within the limits of the trials made. 
 
 This result, for that matter, agrees with what has been as certaincd 
 by different observers, and in particular, at the time of the experiments 
 made in 1775 and 1778 by a commitee of the Academy of Sciences, com- 
 posed of Bossut, d'Alembert and Condorcct, on the resistance which the 
 progress of floating bodies encounter in the water of a basin. 
 
 One of the conclusions of that commission was, in fact, that for one and 
 the same floating body at different rates of speed, the difference is imper- 
 fectly represented by the formula K S 2 V 2 and that it is necessary either to 
 make the coefficient increase with the «peed, or increase the exponent of 
 the speed V, S 2 being the area of the immersed transversal section. 
 
 2. For boats of the same breadth and for a similar rate of speed, the 
 resistance increases rapidly with their submerged depth, and more than 
 proportionately either to their submerged section at the main timbers, 
 or to their wetted surface. 
 
 By considering, for instance, what happens with a rale of speed of 
 1 metre per second, the reshtancc, per square metre of wet surface (Z 2 ), 
 obviously proportional to the draught of water when it is shallow, 
 becomes proportional to the square of this draught when the latter repre- 
 sents a considerable fraction of the depth of the canal. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 29 
 
 as we 1 as the most interesting information to be drawn therefrom. 
 
 o. i lie relation of llie immersed scelion at (he main timbers, at the 
 
 section of the canal <'xercices a great influence on the value of the 
 
 resistance, in .proportion as the rate of speed increases. 
 
 for a speed ol 1 metre per second, the resistance increases almost pro- 
 proporlionatcly to the augmentation of this relation ; but for a speed of 
 2 metres only, the coefficient of proportion should be raised from 1 to 3. 
 
 Traction-experiments on the Saint-Martin canal. 
 
 
 1 lie results supplied by the experiments on the Burgundy canal arc 
 besides in agreeme l with certain results obtained from traction experi- 
 ments made on the Saint-Martin-ca: a! in March i860, a summary of which 
 is given in the following table. 
 
50 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 NUMBERS 
 
 BOATS TOWED 
 
 SECTION 
 
 OF CANA L 
 
 
 AND DATES 
 
 of (he 
 
 experiments 
 
 NAMES 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 BREADTH 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 EMPTY ) g 
 
 UGTH 
 
 ►J 
 
 E - 
 O 
 
 SECTION IMMERSED 
 
 at main - timbers 
 
 in the 
 
 narrow reaches / 
 
 in the l 
 
 widened reaches ] 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 B* 
 
 P* 
 
 P* 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 March 1866. 
 
 La Jenny 
 
 Margo tab 
 
 17.50 
 
 1.12 
 
 » 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.28 
 
 1.151 
 
 mg. 
 
 19.65 
 
 mg. 
 
 11.00 
 
 
 2 
 
 28 March — . 
 
 La Notre-Dqine. . . . 
 
 Barge. 
 
 39.80 
 
 4.88 
 
 » 
 
 0.32 
 
 0.92 
 
 1 561 
 
 d“ 
 
 d» 
 
 
 3 
 
 28 March — . 
 
 Le C6sar 
 
 Tow-boat. 
 
 30 70 
 
 5.00 
 
 121 
 
 0.22 
 
 1.13 
 
 5.650 
 
 d° 
 
 d“ 
 
 
 4 
 
 21 March — . 
 
 Le Colbert 
 
 Barge. 
 
 31 80 
 
 1.77 
 
 212 
 
 0.32 
 
 2.12 
 
 10.112 
 
 d- 
 
 d“ 
 
 
 7 
 
 21 April — . 
 
 La Marne 
 
 Marne flute. 
 
 31 80 
 
 5.00 
 
 170 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.28 
 
 6.100 
 
 d» 
 
 d° 
 
 
 8 
 
 10 April — . 
 
 Kldber 
 
 Burgundy tow-boat. 
 
 30.30 
 
 5 02 
 
 203 
 
 0 20 
 
 1.28 
 
 6.126 
 
 d" 
 
 d” 
 
 
 II in fact, we compare the figures in the corresponding table with the 
 isolated boals and with the experiments made in the narrow parts of the 
 Sai n 1-Martin canal, the section of which is 19 m. 63, approaching to that 
 ol 20 m. 72 in the Burgundy Canal, we find that, for these boats, the co- 
 efficients K = — differ little for the rates of speed of about 1 metre per 
 second and for similar draughts of water. 
 
 NAMES OF BOATS 
 
 DRAUGHT 
 
 SPEED 
 
 per 
 
 SECOND 
 
 „ R 
 
 K 11- V 2 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 OF THE DOAT 
 
 B a 
 
 La Jenny 
 
 La Nolre-Dame 
 
 La Marne 
 
 Saint-M 
 
 0,28 
 
 0,32 
 
 1,28 
 
 artin Canal 
 
 1 ,049 
 0,988 
 7,950 
 
 56,61 
 
 51,71 
 
 56,65 
 
 Margotat 
 
 Rarge 
 
 Flute 
 
 1,154 
 
 1,561 
 
 6,40 
 
 La Marguerite 
 
 Le Port d'Appoigny .... 
 La Fanny 
 
 Bourgo 
 
 0,25 
 
 0,45 
 
 1,20 
 
 gne Canal. 
 
 1,049 
 
 0,988 
 
 0,950 
 
 52,70 
 
 59,33 
 
 55,20 
 
 Flute 
 
 Flute 
 
 Tow-boat 
 
 1,260 
 
 2,277 
 
 6,000 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 51 
 
 NARROW REACH 
 
 LENGTH 150 METRES 
 
 WIDENED REACHES 
 
 
 •O « 
 
 £ 2 
 
 XJ 
 
 <V 
 
 X} 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 LENGTH 1,350 METRES 
 
 LENGTH 400 METRES 
 
 LENGTH 550 METRES 
 
 - 
 
 ^ Total sp< 
 
 of the t 
 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 (§ 
 
 w 
 
 R 
 
 <u 
 
 o 
 
 CJ 
 
 R 
 
 bn* 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 O) 
 
 o 
 
 R 
 
 1 V 2 
 
 Total speed 
 of the boat 
 
 T3 
 
 <D 
 
 U -c 
 
 & g 
 
 R 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 OJ 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 B- V* 
 
 ^ so Coefficient 
 
 Total speed 
 
 of the boat 
 
 Eiroi-t i 
 
 recorded [ 
 
 Crl 
 
 ^ rc Coefficient 
 
 .5 
 
 g 
 
 <D 
 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 T V s 
 
 Total speed 1 
 
 of the boat i 
 
 X3 
 
 -p 
 
 £ p 
 
 R 
 
 o 
 
 CJ 
 
 a> 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 B 2 V s 
 
 S3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 R 
 
 TV 2 
 
 
 1.019 
 
 46.60 
 
 36.61 
 
 „ 
 
 1.929 
 
 83.6 
 
 19.47 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 )) 
 
 
 0.988 
 
 67.60 
 
 44.56 
 
 » 
 
 1.086 
 
 66.8 
 
 39.64 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 » 
 
 , 
 
 
 1.090 
 
 215 00 
 
 31. "1 
 
 1 41 
 
 1.406 
 
 529.2 
 
 •29.72 
 
 1 35 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 1.701 
 
 405.40 
 
 13.87 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.767 
 
 174.8 
 
 29.82 
 
 1.24 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 0.930 
 
 313.60 
 
 56.65 
 
 2.15 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0.890 
 
 155.2 
 
 50.69 
 
 1.16 
 
 1 110 
 
 209.6 
 
 25.19 
 
 0.95 
 
 
 0.600 
 
 219.00 
 
 90. SX 
 
 2.85 
 
 “ 
 
 
 » 
 
 n 
 
 0.625 
 
 177.6 
 
 70.75 
 
 2.2 1 
 
 0 661 
 
 161.2 
 
 57.16 
 
 1.81 
 
 
 Leaving aside the trials relating to the « 
 
 Colbert », 
 
 the results of which 
 
 w O ’ 1IU1GM 
 
 hil ( onti ailictory, the experiments on the Saint- .Martin canal likewise show 
 the rapid increase of the effort of traction with the augmentation of the 
 draught of water, and with that of the relation between the surface ot the 
 • 1)2 
 section of the submerged main timbers, and that of the canal - 
 
 P 1 
 
 It is thus that for the « Jenny » the « Notre-Dame a, and the « Cesar » 
 the co-eflicient K = -^-^is notably inferior for tbe trials made in the por- 
 tions of the canal with a large section than for those with a narrow section, 
 although the rales ot speed, corresponding to the experiments concerning 
 those latter, are the slower. 
 
 The experiments ol traction on the Saint-Marlin canal have been made 
 likewise with trains of barges, and lurnished the following results : 
 
32 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 NUMBERS 
 
 AND DATES 
 
 of the 
 
 experiments 
 
 - 
 
 BOATS 
 
 TOWED 
 
 
 SECTION 
 
 OF CANAL 
 
 NAMES 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 BREADTH f 
 
 ■< 
 
 £ a 
 
 w 2 
 
 2 5 
 
 s ^ 
 u o 
 
 C. H 
 
 X 
 
 Ed 
 
 T 
 
 DBAl 
 
 ►* 
 
 H 
 
 0. 
 
 W 
 
 GUT 
 
 hJ 
 
 < 
 
 It* 
 
 O 
 
 Eh 
 
 SUBMERGED 
 
 SEC 1 ION 
 
 a the 
 
 main- Umbers 
 for all the boats 
 in each train 
 
 B 2 
 
 in Ihe 1 
 
 “ narrow reaches / 
 
 C3 in lhe \ 
 
 “ widened reaches 
 
 5 
 
 Vengeur. . . . 
 
 Barge. 
 
 34.10 
 
 5.00 
 
 265 ) 
 
 0.21 
 
 1.82 
 
 9.100 
 
 
 24 March MS 
 
 Fille-de-l'Air. 
 
 Burgundy flille. 
 
 30.20 
 
 5 05 
 
 ... ? *>60 
 
 9 o ) 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.97 
 
 1.898 
 
 15.998 
 
 19.63 
 
 41.00 
 
 
 flclipse .... 
 
 Barge. 
 
 33.00 
 
 1.76 
 
 217 \ 
 
 0.25 
 
 1.62 
 
 7.711 
 
 
 Laurier .... 
 
 Barge. 
 
 32 70 
 
 4.68 
 
 201 1 
 
 0 25 
 
 1.5 5 
 
 7.160 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 Mutitebc lo. . . 
 
 Ba rge. 
 
 32.80 
 
 0.22 
 
 385 ( 
 
 0 31 
 
 2.21 
 
 1 5 . 955 
 
 
 \ 1278 
 
 
 49.347 
 
 19 63 
 
 41.00 
 
 24 March 
 
 I Pharaon. . . . 
 
 Burgundy tow-boa! . 
 
 29.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 117 
 
 0.22 
 
 1.17 
 
 5.850 
 
 
 Bacchus. . . . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 30.03 
 
 5.06 
 
 163 ) 
 
 0.18 
 
 1.52 
 
 6.679 
 
 
 £li$ e-Marie . . 
 
 Burgundy flute. 
 
 31.00 
 
 5.17 
 
 195 / 
 
 0.20 
 
 1 55 
 
 5.011 
 
 
 Louise 
 
 Ourcq fldte. 
 
 28.50 
 
 5.05 
 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.834 
 
 
 9 
 
 Marie . . 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 28.30 
 
 5.05 
 
 » ( 203 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.854 
 
 8.131 
 
 19.63 
 
 41.00 
 
 10 April / , 
 
 ' A liber 
 
 Burgundy tow-boat. 
 
 30.30 
 
 5.02 
 
 203 ; 
 
 0 20 
 
 1.28 
 
 6.426 
 
 
 10 
 
 Charlotte . . . 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 30.66 
 
 5.07 
 
 129 ) 
 
 0.18 
 
 1.09 
 
 5.526 
 
 
 ) DOZ 
 
 
 11.952 
 
 19 63 
 
 41 .00 
 
 10 April 
 
 hither 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 50.30 
 
 5.02 
 
 203 \ 
 
 0.20 
 
 1.28 
 
 6.426 
 
 
 A la sea 
 
 Barge. 
 
 53 00 
 
 5.00 
 
 250 j 
 
 0.50 
 
 1.83 
 
 9.150 
 
 
 11 
 
 Louise 
 
 Klii le. 
 
 28.30 
 
 3.05 
 
 55 i 359 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.98 
 
 2.980 
 
 15.037 
 
 19.63 
 
 41 00 
 
 21 April 
 
 
 Marie 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 28.30 
 
 5.05 
 
 54 ) 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.96 
 
 2 928' 
 
 
 From what is given in this table, it appears particularly : 
 
 1“. That even by introducing as a denominator in the value of K, the 
 sum of the areas submerged at the main timbers of all the boats forming 
 a train, this co-efficient is by a great deal superior to that relating to iso 
 lated boats, which shows that, taking into consideration only the effort of 
 traction to develop, traction of one single boat would he more economical 
 than a train; 
 
 ‘2 s1 . That the resistance decreases very rapidly with the increase of the 
 section of the canal. It is thus particularly, for experiment n° (5 com- 
 prising 6 boats, the coefficient ol resistance K= , which is equal to 
 157,20 in the narrow section, falls to 52,51 in the wide section. 
 
THE LOWER-SEINE. 
 
 L 
 
 NARROW REACH 
 
 SNGTII 150 METRES 
 
 
 WIDENED 
 
 REACHES 
 
 
 >50 METRES 
 
 ^ Total speed 
 
 of the train 
 
 33 Effort recorded 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 R- V* 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <d 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 ! V 2 
 
 LENGTH I 
 
 350 MET ! 
 
 tES 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 too METRES 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 Total speed 
 of the train 
 
 *-> 
 
 2 £ 
 •zz o 
 -tj w 
 £ 
 
 R 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 "o 
 
 "2 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 R 2 V 2 
 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 *-a 
 
 a> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 R 
 
 TV 2 
 
 Total speed 
 
 of the train 
 
 _ Effort j 
 
 recorded 1 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 <v 
 
 o 
 
 R 
 
 b 2 V 2 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 TV 2 
 
 Total speed 
 
 of the train 
 
 ,o ^ 
 
 = o 
 
 £-. 
 
 R 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 R 2 V 2 
 
 e: 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 R 
 
 TV* 
 
 0.041 
 
 619.6 
 
 105.70 
 
 4.51 
 
 0.837 
 
 362.2 
 
 35.41 
 
 1.41 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0.439 
 
 1286.4 
 
 137.20 j 
 
 5.29 
 
 0.619 
 
 981 8 
 
 52.51 
 
 2 03 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 0.1G0 
 
 1.8.6 
 
 73.20 
 
 3 1)2 
 
 
 " 
 
 1.588 
 
 147.8 
 
 28.98 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.175 
 
 401.4 
 
 36.03 
 
 1.44 
 
 0 G66 
 
 557 . 0 
 
 67.89 
 
 2 ll 
 
 
 (> 
 
 0.9' 6 
 
 501.8 
 
 28.01 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.014 
 
 352.4 
 
 28.98 
 
 1.04 
 
 0.800 | 
 
 617.6 
 
 67.18 
 
 2 STj 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 )) 
 
 ” 
 
 0.995 
 
 506.2 
 
 33.97 
 
 1.42 
 
 1 100 
 
 639.6 
 
 35.08 
 
 1.47 
 
 — 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 As r„ ay be seen by the cxplan aliens in the prescnl report, the question 
 
 ' ,1 " T'? nvwsslil1 much that is unknown, espe- 
 
 , y ‘ ls " 8 alds lhe tnttuence it may exercise on Hie reduction in the cost 
 
 c I lOj^G. 
 
 e have endeavour, d to show that, in order to solve this problem it 
 was not sufficient to cling solely to the motive-power and to the boat but 
 
 . 1C ,® ™ 800,1 reason 10 stlld J the details of the navigable water- 
 ' J-I r ’ w " ,le supposing its general adaptation to a determined mode of 
 navigation aheady resolved upon. 
 
 The experiments which we have begun on this subject, and those which 
 7 7 bc 7 ablc 10 collcct > show that these improvements of details are 
 ? n , ature t0 P roc UCC ’ eilllcr an augmentation in the ,ates of speed, or a 
 ic< action in the efforts of traction, which, on the Lower-Seine, may be as 
 much as 18 per cent of the maximum efforts, and of a nature for this 
 reason, to exercise a notable influence on the rates of freight. 
 
 The utility of these experiments, which have been made, as we have 
 
34 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALIZED RIVERS. 
 
 pointed out at page 25, from a totally different point of view from that 
 pursued by M. de Mas, engineer in cliicf, appears therefore to us demon- 
 strated, and we should be happy if our communication might induce a few 
 observers to undertake similar ones on oilier rivers. 
 
 Paris, 2" 4 April, 1892. 
 
 (Translated by Mr Sharp, Paris.) 
 
V PARIS 
 
 Came re 
 
 Echelles -longueurs - 0,0055pour lOXilom — Hauteurs- 0,003 jpour 1^00 
 
 ‘Tant dey.BvawJiY ROUEN 
 
 Altitudes au 
 
 dessus du 
 
 Fig 2 
 
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Inurne* shi Z,Q.Q1 
 
tJournee du <3/ Janvier /S91 
 
 1 W/ntf’ 
 
 phiaus de m a rche 
 
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 \elui de Poses, etar t ouve 
 
 : Voucher 
 
 Solftil 
 
 *2(midi) 
 
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 Nota. Voir pour la figl la legende de la planche 77 
 
 Fig 2 
 
 Fig 1 
 
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 ies_ bateaux 
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 en haute 3 
 
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 252 * 
 
 <5* 
 
 S* 
 
 S' 
 
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 r 
 
 
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 Camere 
 

Vuesses *n metres a. la seconds \ fit esses en metres a la secnnde 
 
 Fhj 1 Riviere de Seine 
 
 Experiences de traction a la remonte du Chaland "Fagaebol 19 ’’executees les JO et 11 Decembre 1891 
 en Ire les ccluses de 8’D‘dela Garcnne cL Vernon 
 
 Camere 
 
 Fnj.3. Canal de Bourgogne. 
 
 Experiences execute'es en Fevner J873 entve Laroche et Tonnerre 
 
 Relation entre les efforts de traction etles vitesscs de marchc constates 
 
 Planchl VI 
 
 
25016. — Imprimcric generale A. Lahure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 

^ i 
 
 / 
 
V lb INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 6 th QUESTION 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. DEROME 
 
 Chief Engineer of Fonts et Chnussces. at Compiegne 
 
 oOo 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GfiNERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
, . 
 
 ! ! 
 
 Mi 
 
 ! : 
 
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 '■ ' 
 
 
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 i s ■(. . 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 : .;C, /y.M> 
 
 i - , . > / 
 
 : ■ . ' ■ , . 
 
 P\ ■ ■' I". , 
 
 ' 
 
TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE 
 
 I 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M DEROME 
 
 Chief Engineer of Fonts et Chaussees, at Compi£gne. 
 
 In this report we propose to study the question of the traction of boats 
 on the canals in the region of the north and east of France, as well as on 
 the canalized rivers of this region which may he assimilated to the canals. 
 
 We shall first of all point out in a summary manner the technical con- 
 ditions which these navigable waterway present as well as the boats which 
 ply on them. 
 
 We shall then expose the different systems of traction employed up to 
 this day. 
 
 Finally we shall discuss the advantages and inconveniences of each ol 
 them. 
 
 Navigable conditions of the canals. 
 
 The canals in the regions of the north and east present in general the 
 following dimensions : 
 
 Width 
 
 Depth of water 
 
 Width of the locks 
 
 Useful length of the locks. . . 
 Clear height under the bridges 
 
 10“, 00 to 12“, 00 
 2“ , 00 to 2“,20 
 5“,20 to 6 m ,50 
 50 m , 50 to 40 m ,00 
 3“, 50 to 3“, 70 
 
 The normal section of the basin is generally enlarged in the curves so 
 as to allow of two loaded boats to pass each other. 
 
 1. This length is reduced to 37“, 90’“ on the Sambre and Oise canal. 
 
 DEROME. f <5. 
 
2 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 This section is on the contrary much narrowed in the tunnels and deep 
 cuttings as well as at the crossings of certain works, such as canal-bridges, 
 road -bridges fixed or moveable, military dams, etc. 
 
 The width of the narrow passages usually varies from 5 m. 50 to 6 m. 50 
 and sometimes reaches 7 or 8 metres. 
 
 The banks of the canals are rarely protected below the embankments 
 which descend a little below the water-line. Above this embankment they 
 are generally protected against the beating of the water and the rubbing of 
 empty boats by reeds, wattle-work, stone-work or masonry. 
 
 Almost everywhere the canals have tow-paths running along their sides 
 which are macadamized over a width of from 2 m. 50 to 3 metres. 
 
 Most frequently they only receive their supply of water from the feeding 
 canals and the produce of the locks. 
 
 Some of them however give passage to superabundant water, either for 
 some private purpose, such as for turning mills or other industrial pur- 
 poses, or else for some object of public utility, such as the draining of 
 marshy land, the cleansing of a populous city, the raising of the water 
 supply for a town by hydraulic machinery, or for the upper reaches of a 
 canal, etc. At ordinary times, navigation on the canals is carried on 
 freely day and night. 
 
 It is usually stopped from 10 to 30 days every year, at a time fixed by 
 the authorities, in order to facilitate the works for maintenance or impro- 
 vement. 
 
 The traffic is also suspended every winter by the ice over the whole or 
 a part of the system. 
 
 This stoppage generally lasts from 1 to 3 months on the canals in the 
 east; it is much shorter on those in the north. 
 
 They are even able to avoid all suspension of traffic on several of the 
 latter canals in winters of ordinary severity, by stopping the freeying of 
 the reaches having a rather strong current and by breaking the ice as soon 
 as it forms. 
 
 Navigable conditions of canalized rivers. 
 
 The canalized rivers in question are, properly speaking, nothing but 
 veritable canals which occupy the beds of old water-courses conveniently 
 widened and rectified. 
 
 These rivers may be assimilated to the canals of the region as- far as 
 what concerns the normal section and the minimum depth of water of the 
 reaches, the width and useful length of the lock-chambers, as well as the 
 clear height under the bridges. The locks are generally constructed 
 leeward, straight in front of the discharge-branch which is closed by 
 moveable weirs. 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 3 
 
 The bridges sometimes afford narrow passages, but the width of these 
 passages is rarely less than 7 to 8 metres. 
 
 The banks are generally protected at the water-line and nearly every- 
 where there is a hard low-path on one of the banks. 
 
 The reaches have, of course, to discharge the superabundant waters, 
 the volume of which varies considerably according to the season, instead 
 of remaining almost the same as in canals. This volume may become 
 sufficiently great to interrupt navigation. 
 
 Interruptions of this nature are usually rare enough and of short dura- 
 tion; certain rivers, however, suffer from long and frequent suspensions 
 of traffic on account of floods. Suspensions occasioned by the ice are 
 generally less frequent and of shorter duration on the rivers than on the 
 canals. 
 
 The annual cessations are of long or short duration according to the 
 importance of the works to be executed. 
 
 Shapes and dimensions of the boats. 
 
 The boats which ply on the navigable water-ways of the region are 
 nearly all flat-bottomed, and of rectangular section over the greater part 
 of their length, and they generally only differ in shape with regard to their 
 extremities which are more or less pointed. 
 
 Four fifths of these boats belong to the same group which comprises 
 Flemish barges, lighters and canal boats. These three types are combined 
 so as to utilize the capacity of the locks as much as possible, and are cha- 
 racterized by a coefficient of displacement quite equal to 99 centi- 
 metres*. 
 
 The boats of this category generally present the following dimensions : 
 
 Uniform width over more than the 95 centimetres of the total length 
 5 metres. 
 
 Total length rudder not included 54“, 50 to 38“, 50 
 
 Height amidships 2“,10to 2“,30 
 
 These boats when empty draw 20 to 30 centimetres of water and dis- 
 place, in round numbers, 505 to 345 tuns at an ordinary draught of 
 1 m. 80; their load-capacity varies, for this draught, from 255 to 305 tons 
 according to experiments by M. de Mas, Engineer in Chief, they offer as 
 regard traction, in still water, wide and deep, the following resistance, 
 given in round numbers per tun of displacement : 
 
 1. This coefficient expresses the relation of the boats width the volume of the right- 
 angled paralleped circumscribed to the part submerged. 
 
4 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 At the rate of 0",f>0 per second 0 kil ,350 
 
 — l m , 00 — l kil ,000 
 
 l m ,50 — 2 W1 ,300 
 
 Most of the other boats which ply on the navigable water-ways of the 
 regions are divided into three groups that comprise respectively : 
 
 1. The« Champagne », the « Flutes », lhe« Guinois » and the « Arras » 
 boats. 
 
 2. The « Ardennes », the « Meuse » and the « Saint-Dizier » boats. 
 
 5. The Alsacians and the Prussians. 
 
 The dimensions and tonnage of these boats differ very widely. 
 
 Their coefficient of displacement is 95 centimetres at the outside, and 
 usually falls considerably below this figure. In some types the bows pre- 
 sent a relatively fine cut, to which corresponds a much slighter resistance 
 to the traction than in the Flemish barges. 
 
 DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF TRACTION. 
 
 The different systems employed for the locomotion of the boats in the 
 regions are of two sorts : 
 
 Hauling by men or by draught-animals; Propulsion or traction by steam- 
 machinery. Sailing up the stream or drifting; rowing or punting are 
 hardly any longer resorted to except for very short distances, or are only 
 accidentally performed as an auxiliary at the hauling. 
 
 1° Hauling by men. 
 
 The police regulation of the canals and of the rivers which are assimi- 
 lated to them prohibit the hauling by hand of loaded boats. 
 
 Empty boats may be hauled by the men of the crew; but watermen 
 rarely have recourse to this method for large boats, on account of the 
 slow pace which this mode of towing entails. 
 
 The canal authorities generally tolerate the employment of special hau- 
 lers for small empty or loaded boats, employed for local service. 
 
 The boats are drawn by one or two men, according to their effective 
 tonnage, and usually get over 1200 to 1500 metres per hour. Under 
 these circumstances the price for hauling often exceeds 1 centime per 
 kilometric ton. 
 
 2“ Hauling by draught-animals. 
 
 Oxen, mules and donkeys are only employed exceptionnally for the trac- 
 tion of boats on the navigable water-ways in these regions. 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 5 
 
 Hauling by horses is on the contrary employed in a general way, except 
 in certain places where it is necessary to have recourse to steam towing for 
 exceptional reasons. 
 
 The loaded boats are generally hauled singly ; two empty boats are fre- 
 quently coupled one behind the other. 
 
 The horses arc generally distributed by « courbes », that is to say, har- 
 nessed two by two under the direction of a carter. 
 
 One pair generally suffices for drawing one loaded, or two empty boats 
 coupled. In this way boats travel over from 15 to 30 kilometres a day, 
 according to their draught of water and the time lost at the locks. 
 
 Ilorse towing is divided into three categories. 
 
 Some belong to the watermen and are put up on board. 
 
 Others belong to « the longday » haulers, and make a certain number 
 of stages with the same boat. 
 
 Finally, others are grouped into relays, organized either by Government 
 or those appointed by it, or else by transport contractors. 
 
 a. Horses stabled on board. 
 
 The barges having stabling on board and doning the lowing with their 
 own horses are few in number relatively; they ply on the eastern canals 
 principally and avoid the northern navigable water-ways provided with 
 obligatory traction service. 
 
 This mode of hauling is rarely advantageous, on account of the stop- 
 pages, more or less prolonged, which the boats undergo on account of the 
 annual suspensions of traffic, the floods and the ice, as well as from the 
 number of lay-days that trade imposes on bargemen for the loading of 
 merchandise. 
 
 b. Hauling without relays called (( longday )) hauling. 
 
 Longday-haulcrs arc, for the most part, farmers living near the banks 
 of navigable water-ways, who utilize their horses in drawing boats at sea- 
 sons when they cannot employ them in the labours ot the field ; they for- 
 sake the hauling business when the times for ploughing, sowing or har- 
 vesting come round. 
 
 The boatmen arc then at the mercy of the professional haulers who, 
 generally, possess but an insufficient number of horses. 
 
 The prices of hauling, by the « longday », therefore, undergo consider- 
 able variations, according to the season and the amount of traffic. 
 
 They usually vary between 50 centimes and 1 fr 50 per team and amourit, 
 on an average, to 1 fr. 25 or 0 fr. 005 per kilometric ton for a boat with a 
 load of 250 tons. 
 
6 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 C. Hauling by relays. 
 
 There are relays for hauling by horses on the lateral canal of the Oise, 
 the canalized Sambre, the Sensee, the medium Scarpe and that part of the 
 Deule canal near Douai. 
 
 a. RELAYS ON THE CANAL OF THE OISE. 
 
 The relay-service on the lateral canal of the Oise extends from Chauny to 
 Janville and is continued on the Oise from Janville to Conflans-Sainte- 
 Honorine, over a total length of 138 kilometres : it was started in 1875 
 by Messrs Pavot Brothers. 
 
 The relays, to be number of thirteen, are fixed at the vicinity of the locks 
 as will as at the extreme ends. 
 
 Messrs Pavot have assured regular customers for themselves, in spite of 
 the competition by the longday-haulers, by contracts by which the barge- 
 men undertake to make use of their horses exclusively, according to a cer- 
 tain tariff. These contracts arc generally entered into for periods of from 
 three to five years, they do not impose on the relayers any specified time 
 for the supply of the horses. 
 
 The prices on the canal arc generally reckoned by the team and per kilo- 
 metre : 
 
 Coming clown 
 Going up . 
 
 according to the draught of the boats. 
 
 These prices correspond to a toll of 0 fr. 0030 to 0 fr. 0056 per kilo- 
 metric ton for a load of 250 tons. 
 
 The contracts, actually in vigour, apply to about two-lhirds of the bar- 
 ges plying on the canal 1 
 
 p. RELAYS ON THE CANALIZED SAMBRE. 
 
 The service of relays established on the canalized Sambre works between 
 the Belgian frontier and Landrecies over a distance of 54 kilometres, it is 
 in the hands of a company having the concession for the Sambre and Oise 
 canal. 
 
 The relays are to the number of 12 : the average length of the stages is 
 therefore 4 kilom. 5. 
 
 The loaded boats only require one team for going up, in ordinary water; 
 hut at flood-time they take 2, 3 and sometimes 4 teams. 
 
 t. In 1891 there passed through the Chauny-lock 5939 empty boats and 14,149 loaded 
 "ith 5,185,013 tons of merchandise. 
 
 . . . 75 centimes. 
 
 80 to 90 — 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 7 
 
 The charges, by way of subscription, are regulated as follows : 
 
 Going up. . . 
 Coming down. 
 
 For a boat loaded. 
 
 — empty . 
 For a boat loaded. 
 
 — empty . 
 
 0,0065 per kilometric ton. 
 0,20 per kilometre. 
 
 0,0030 per kilometric ton. 
 0,10 per kilometre. 
 
 This tariff is likewise applied to non-subscribing bargemen; but the lat- 
 ter pay in addition for the extra teams at the rate of 1 franc per team per 
 kilometre. 
 
 The relays on the Sambre in 1891 hauled : 
 
 tons of merchandise. 
 
 Going up . . 33 empty and 2,309 loaded boats, carrying 570,302 
 
 Coming down 1,695 — 659 — barges — 164,212 
 
 The statement of the receipts and expenses of the business for the year 
 1891 shows a considerable gain on the full boats, and a sensible loss on 
 the empty ones but balances by about 15 per cent profit. 
 
 It is but right ; however, to remark that the water in the Sambre is main- 
 tained in an exceptionally good condition for navigation during the latter 
 part of the Season. 
 
 y. RELAYS ON THE SAMBRE CANAL TO THE OISE. 
 
 The relay-service organized on the canal from the Sambre to the Oise 
 extends from Landrecies to La Fere, over a distance of 67 kilometres. 
 
 It is continuation of that of the Sambre and is worked, like the latter, by 
 a concessionary company of the canal. 
 
 The hauling is confided to jobbers from Landrecies to Longchamps, over 
 53 kilometres ; it is in the hands of the company from Longchamps to La 
 Fere, over 34 kilometres. 
 
 The barges are hauled gratuitously, in consideration of a toll which the 
 Company levy, by virtue of a clause in the concession. 
 
 The expenses which fall on them, under this head, are the following, 
 according to the average of the last five years : 
 
 
 RELAYS 
 
 BY TIIE JOB 
 
 RELAYS 
 
 BY THE COMPANY 
 
 AVERAGE 
 
 Cost of drawing an empty boat per kilo- 
 metre 
 
 0.349 
 
 0.269 
 
 0.509 
 
 Cost of drawing a full boat per kilome- 
 tric-lon 
 
 0.0047 
 
 0.0037 
 
 0.0042 
 
 These figures apply to an average traffic of 1682 empty and 2787 full 
 barges, carrying 579325 tons of merchandise. 
 
8 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 8. THE ESCADT AND ST-QUENTIN CANAL. HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE HAULING. 
 
 The relays on the Escant, the Saint-Quentin canal and the other navigable 
 water-ways in the North are attached to a regular service established by 
 Government, in virtue of a decree of the 19“' June 1875. 
 
 The first attempts made in the region for the organization of towage took 
 place about 1810 on the Saint-Quentin canal. 
 
 Relays were started between Cambrai and Chauny, over a distance of 
 93 kilometres, in virtue of a prefectorial decree dated February 25 th 1842. 
 
 These relays were worked by local towers, enlisted for this purpose, at 
 prices and under conditions contained in a tariff drawn up by the prefect. 
 
 They worked regularly for six years and then disappeared during the 
 revolution of 1 848. 
 
 They were reestablished, seven years later, after the reiterated requests 
 of the « Conseils generaux » and the Chambers of Commerce. 
 
 The same system was afterwards extended to the Escaul to the canalized 
 Oise and to the canal lateral to that river. 
 
 According to a regulation of the 1 st June 1855, the tariffs were prepared 
 each year by the engineers, they were submitted to an enquiry for ten days 
 in each arrondissement, then drawn up by the prefect and published in 
 the second fortnight in October. 
 
 Tenders were received during (lie second fortnight in November. 
 
 The engineers drew up the list of the approved lowers and set them to 
 work on the l bt of January, after having made them elect head-relay-men 
 charged with the overseeing of the service. 
 
 The approved towers undertook to supply horses to the boatmen on 
 every requisition, according to a roster, either by day or by night; they 
 had also to draw the boats at a speed settled by the regulation. 
 
 The service, thus organized, was optional for empty barges and obliga- 
 tory for all loaded boats with the exception of steam barges and of those 
 able to justify, for one year at least, the disposal of private relays along 
 the whole extent of the line. 
 
 This new organization worked in a satisfactory way for four years, but 
 not without provoking vehement and noisy objections on the part of the 
 carters excluded from the relays lor misconduct and the paid barges, the 
 sworn enemy of any tariff which could permit their masters to control their 
 expenses. 
 
 The authorities put an end to this by proclaiming the unlimited liberty 
 of towing from on and after the 1 st September 1860, notwithstanding the 
 opinion of all the Chambers of Commerce in the region. 
 
 They counted on the initiative of those interested to improve the means 
 of traction, and to regulate the movement of the boats. 
 
 But the few attempts, made with this aim, remained barren and the 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 9 
 
 boatmen soon found themselves at the mercy of the towers who took advan 
 lage of it in order to hinder the movement of the barges and to impose 
 exorbitant charges, being favoured by blocks of long duration. 
 
 This situation of affairs became intolerable after the war of 1870, and 
 the directors at last acknowledged, after numerous enquiries, that the un 
 limited liberty of towing must certainly and fatally bring about the ruin ot 
 navigation on the line from Belgium towards Paris. 
 
 Since then, they have organized a new traction-service on the Es :aut, 
 the Saint-Qucntin canal and diverse other navigable water-ways in the 
 North, according to the conditions of the before-mentioned edict of the 
 19'" June 1875'. 
 
 The service on the Escaut and the Saint-Qucntin canal extends from 
 Conde to Chauny, over a distance of 122 kilometres, not including the 
 branch-reach of the canal, where a steam-towing service has been working 
 since 1868, 
 
 This distance is di vised into 9 lots, of from 12 to 18 kilometres in 
 length. 
 
 The working of each lot is conceded for six years to a contractor by 
 public adjudication. 
 
 The towage, thus organized, is obligatory on all loaded barges, both 
 going up and coming down, with the exception of steam barges or thine 
 tow’ed by steam-tugs; it is optional for empty boats. 
 
 The directors preserve the right of conceding any other method af 
 towage, which does not admit of horses, as a means of traction; but o 
 attempt of the sort has been made up to this day. 
 
 On the other hand, the watermen only make use of the right, which 
 they possess, of towing their empty boats by their crews, exceptionally and 
 for very short distances. 
 
 The towing contractors therefore enjoy, in fact, the absolute monopoly 
 of the traction of the boats, with the exception of the steam-barges. 
 
 These contractors are obliged to tow the barges, without any delay, at a 
 speed of so many kilometres per hour. 
 
 They are likewise under an obligation, at the entrance and exit of the 
 locks, to add extra horses, in sufficient numbers, in order to accelerate 
 this double operation as much as possible. 
 
 The charges for towing are regulated per ton and per kilometre, accord- 
 ing to the scale in the tariff, settled by adjudication. 
 
 Empty boats pay at the rate of their possible gauge at a draught of 
 1 m. 80. 
 
 Loaded boats pay an extra charge in proportion to their effective load. 
 
 1. This service has not been extended to the canal lateral to the Oise, because a 
 sunken chain-towage has just been conceded, by decree of the t2Ci April 1875, by public 
 adjudication. 
 
 derome. 2 o. 
 
10 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 The charges for towage at present levied are the following : 
 
 
 UP 
 
 
 DOWN 
 
 
 NAVIGABLE WATER-WAYS 
 
 CHARGES I 
 
 \NI) PI 
 
 Possible 
 
 gauge 
 
 ER K 1 1. 051. 
 
 ;r TON 
 
 Effective 
 
 load 
 
 e 
 
 a fly <u 
 
 w j" -a 
 
 “ - b « 
 
 < U " o 
 
 CHARGES 
 
 AN1) P 
 
 Possible 
 
 gauge 
 
 ER KILOS!. 
 
 :r TON 
 
 Effective 
 
 load 
 
 ACCl'MCLATED ' 
 
 CHARGES 
 
 applicable 
 
 to fully-laden 
 
 boats 1 
 
 Middle Escaut, from Conde to 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 Etrun (56 kilom. divided into 
 3 lots) 
 
 0.00219 
 
 0 . 00365 
 
 0.0938 t 
 
 O.OOUG 
 
 0.00219 
 
 0.00363 
 
 t'pper Escaut, from Etrun to Cam- 
 brai (IS kilom. in one lot only). 
 
 0.00144 
 
 0.00240 
 
 0.00584 
 
 0.00096 
 
 0.00144 
 
 0.00240 
 
 St-Quentin canal*, from Cambrai 
 to Chauny, less the separating 
 race (71 kil. divided into 5 lots). 
 
 0.00112 
 
 0.00203 
 
 0.00315 
 
 0.00113 
 
 0.00193 
 
 0.09511 
 
 1. The conventional sense of « down » corresponds to the direction from Belgium lovvards Paris. 
 
 These charges applied to a barge gauging 270 tons, give as price of 
 towage per kilometre the following prices : 
 
 NAVIGABLE WATER-WAYS 
 
 UP 
 
 DOWN 
 
 EMPTY 
 
 WITH 
 COMPLETE 
 LOAD # 
 
 EMPTY 
 
 with 
 
 COMPLETE 
 
 LOAD 
 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 Middle Escaut, from Conde to Etrun 
 
 0.591 
 
 1.577 
 
 0.591 
 
 0.985 
 
 Upper Escaut, from Etrun to Cambrai 
 
 0.589 
 
 1.057 
 
 0.259 
 
 0.618 
 
 St-Quentin canal*, from Cambrai to Chauny, 
 
 
 less separating race. 
 
 0.502 
 
 0.830 
 
 0.511 
 
 0.840 
 
 1. The conventional sense of « down » corresponds to the direction from Belgium towards Paris. 
 
 The above charges concern the day-service ; they are increased by one 
 third for the night-service, when this is not levied on the boatmen in 
 virtue of the police regulations. 
 
 The relays, organized according to the foregoing basis, served fora con- 
 siderable traffic of boats and goods, very satisfactorily, in 1891. 
 
 There passed especially, viz : 
 
 At Valenciennes 
 At Cambrai . . 
 At St-Quentin . 
 At Chauny. . . 
 
 2,605 empty barges and 5,679 loated boats carrying 
 7,285 — 15,955 — 
 
 6,700 — 15,247 — 
 
 5,959 — 14,149 
 
 864,254 tons. 
 5,424,049 — 
 5,287,702 — 
 5,585,015 — 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 11 
 
 £. THE SENSEE CANAL. MIDDLE SCARPE. DEIILE CANAL. 
 
 The towage service established on the Sensee canal, on the middle Scarpe 
 and on the upper part of the Defile canal is performed under the same 
 conditions as that on the Escaut and on the Saint-Quentin canal. 
 
 The charges levied are the following : 
 
 
 UP 
 
 
 DOWN 
 
 NAVIGABLE WATER-WAYS 
 
 CHARGES PER KILOM. 
 
 AND PER TON 
 
 fail L 
 
 CHARGES PER KILOM. 
 
 AND PER TON 
 
 3 <ul 
 
 3g|-?S 
 
 
 Possible 
 
 Effective 
 
 5 
 
 u o Ck.iT: 
 
 Possible 
 
 Effective 
 
 IS !!- 2 
 
 
 gauge 
 
 load 
 
 < o 
 
 gauge 
 
 load 
 
 c o 
 
 The Sensde canal 1 and middle 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 Scarpe, from Etrun to the Lam- 
 bres lock (27 kilomel. divided 
 
 
 into 2 lots) 
 
 Deule canal from Scarpe-fort to 
 
 0.00087 
 
 0.00243 
 
 0.00330 
 
 0.00087 
 
 0.00233 
 
 0,00322 
 
 the limit n° 3 (3 kilom. in a single 
 lot) 
 
 0.00121 
 
 0.00372 
 
 0.00496 
 
 0.00124 
 
 0.00186 
 
 0.00310 
 
 1. The conventional sense of « up » corresponds to the direction of the Scarpe towards the Escaut. 
 
 The charges give, for the towage of a barge gauging 270 tons, the prices 
 per kilometre as follow. 
 
 
 UP 
 
 DOWN 
 
 NAVIGABLE WATER-WAYS 
 
 EMPTY 
 
 WITH 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 EMPTY 
 
 WITH 
 
 FULL LOAD 
 
 Scnsde canal 1 and middle Scarpe 
 
 francs 
 
 0.253 
 
 francs 
 
 0.89. 
 
 francs 
 
 0.255 
 
 francs 
 
 0.869 
 
 Defile canal 
 
 0.533 
 
 1.339 
 
 0.335 
 
 0.837 
 
 1. Tire conventional sense of « up » corresponds to the direction of the Scarpe towards the Escaut. 
 
 The relays on the Sensee canal in 1890 served an average traffic of 
 2 518 874 tons of merchandise. 
 
 3° Steam propelling. — Carrier boats. 
 
 The navigable water-ways in the region are usually frequented by about 
 thirty steam-carriers that perform a more or less regular service over the 
 following distances : 
 
la TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 From Paris to Lille and to Valenciennes; 
 
 From Paris and from Rouen to Reims, by the Oise; 
 
 From Paris to Saint-Dizier and to Nancy, by the Marne. 
 
 These barges occasionally go and load or unload merchandise on the 
 affluents of the lines on which they ply, so that, in fact, these lines extend : 
 
 Towards the north as far as Dunkerque, and Conde on the Escaut; 
 
 Towards the north-east as far as Vouziers and Charleville; 
 
 Towards the south as far as Epinal. 
 
 The « carriers », actually employed, generally measure 54 to 58 metres 
 in length by 5 metres in breadth, with a height of 2 m. 10 to 2 m. 50 at 
 the mid-ship-beam. They are rather line fore and aft, and this usually 
 reduces I lie coefficient of displacement by at least 80 centimetres. 
 
 Most of these barges are screw-boats : the power of their engines varies 
 between 50 and 60 horse-power and their useful tonnage is from 160 to 
 220 tons at a draught of 1 m. 80. 
 
 The number of « carriers », dispatched weekly in either direction, is on 
 an average : 
 
 From 5 to 4 on the line to Lille; and from 2 to 5 on the Reims as well 
 as on the Nancy lines. 
 
 The cargo of each boat going over the whole distance of the line, on 
 which it plies, does not usually attain to hall its useful tonnage. 
 
 The good carried consist, al ove all, in groceries, provisions, wine, oil 
 and industrial products. 
 
 The mean tonnage of these goods amounted 1891 lo 11 765 tons on the 
 Saint-Quenlin canal, and to 40 850 tons on the canal lateral to the Oise; 
 it was considerably less on the other canals in the region. 
 
 The maximum speed of the « carriers » is 6 kilometres an hour outside 
 of the Seine, the Marne, the Oise and the Aisne; this speed is reduced lo 
 2 kilometres while passing under bridges as well as when meeting other 
 boats : it varies, in round numbers, from 5 kilom. 6 to 4 kilometres lor 
 the whole distance, except on I he before-mentioned rivers. 
 
 The cost of carriage by steam-barges differs according lo the distance 
 and the nature of the goods : usually it does not exceed 5/4 of what is 
 charged by the railway companies. 
 
 4° Steam-traction. — Towage. 
 
 On the navigable water-ways of tbe region there are four services of 
 towing on the submerged chain, which ply respectively, as follows : 
 
 That separating reach of the Saint-Quentin canal ; 
 
 That of the canal from the Marne to the Rhine; 
 
 The Ham tunnel, on a canalized portion of the Meuse ; 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 13 
 
 The middle Scarpe and the Deule canal, while running through, and in 
 the neighbourhood of Douai. 
 
 U. Separating reach of the Saint-Quentin canal. 
 
 The separating reach of the Saint-Quentin canal is 20 400 metres 
 long, and comprises two tunnels, one of 5670 metres and the other of 
 1 098 metres. 
 
 From one end to the other of these tunnels a seri-'s of narrow passages 
 arc arranged, at equal distances, and separated by sections with double 
 lines, the total length of which amounts to 4 570 metres. 
 
 The canal is rather tortuous; the radii of the curves generally vary from 
 200 to 500 metres and in some places are as short as 175 metres. 
 
 Both tunnels have a channel of 6 m. 00 in width, and a foot path of 
 
 1 m. 40. 
 
 The open air sections have a normal width of 6 metres in the cuttings 
 and 10 metres in the open. 
 
 At both extremities, as well as in the middle of the reach, there are 
 basins from 1 000 to 1 500 metres in extent. 
 
 The draught of water is everywhere 2 m. 60. 
 
 The towage-service is in the hands of the State and is performed by 
 three tow-boats (one in reserve). These tow-boats arc tilted with grooved 
 drums and arc of about 30 horse-power. 
 
 The diameter of the chain varies from 20 to 28 millimetres, and its 
 weight from 8 to 18 kilograms per running metre. 
 
 The reach is divided into two relays of 10 kilometres each, and each 
 one served by a tow-boat. 
 
 The barges are formed into trains at the end-basins and pass each oilier 
 in the central basin ; they usually do the two relays in twelve hours, which 
 allows of two trains of boats being passed, in either direction, daily. 
 
 The trains usually comprise fiom 15 to 25 barges and make up a length 
 of from 800 to 1 300 metres; their tonnage generally varies from 3600 to 
 6 000 in the direction of Paris, and from 1 200 to 2 000 tons in the direc- 
 tion of Belgium. 
 
 They pass round the stiffest curves without any difficulty, thanks to 
 stockades driven into the convex bank which act as guide blocks, perpen- 
 dicularly to the bank, at the level of the water. 
 
 These trains of barges usually get over the following distances per 
 second, viz : 
 
 Towards Paris. Towards Belgium. 
 
 metres. 
 
 metres. 
 
 0,35 
 
 0,40 
 
 0,50 
 
 0,50 
 
 0,55 
 
 0,60 
 
 In the long tunnel. 
 In the short tunnel 
 In the cuttings . . 
 
14 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 The tow-boats usually burn patent fuel, from the Anzin Mining Com- 
 pany, except during the passage of the long tunnel where they use coke 
 only. 
 
 The ventilation of Ibis tunnel is assured by 9 shafts, at from 500 to 
 700 metres a part, surmounted by chimneys from 5 to 4 metres high. 
 
 The cost for the first starting of the service and for what depends the- 
 reon, amounted to the sum of 545 000 francs, which is to-day entirel 
 redeemed. 
 
 The working expenses amount to 75 000 francs a year, including the 
 maintenance and gross repairs of the plant. 
 
 Loaded boats are charged 0 fr. 0025 per kilomelric ton; empty boats arc 
 towed gratis. 
 
 The traffic in 1891 comprised G83G empty, and 15 520 loaded barges 
 with 5 551 854 tons of merchandise, the traction of which came toOfr.001 1 
 per kilomelric ton. 
 
 The receipts amounted to 155970 francs, after deduction of taxes; they 
 therefore exceeded the amount of expenditure by nearly 81 000 francs. 
 
 b. Canal from the r!r.rne to the Rhine. — Mauvage's tunnel. 
 
 The Mauvage reach, which forms the point of separation of the canal 
 from the Marne to the Rhine, has a length of 9 215 metres with a tunnel 
 of 4 877 metres long. 
 
 The towage-service of this reach extends over a distance of 7 500 metres 
 including the tunnel and the cuttings in its vicinity. It is worked for the 
 Government account, and performed by two tow-boats employed alter- 
 nately. 
 
 These tow-boats, of 18 horse-power nominal, are fitted with engines en 
 the « Francq » principle, by which all emission of smoke is avoided while 
 passing through the tunnel. 
 
 The trains arc made up of 10 to 12 barges, on an average ; this number 
 rises to 20 under exceptional circumstances. 
 
 The speed is about 1 kilom. 400 an hour. 
 
 Loaded boats and floats pay a charge of 0 fr. 005 per ton per kilometre; 
 empty barges are exempt from all charge. The establishment of the ser- 
 vice cost 400 000 francs. 
 
 The working expenses in 1891 amounted 25 425 francs, not including 
 the redemption of the plant. 
 
 During that season the tow-boats towed 4 644 loaded boats and 59 floats, 
 forming together a tonnage of 1 054434 tons plus 491 empty boats. 
 
 The cost of lowing at that time amounted to 0 fr. 0055, after deduction 
 from the capital, for first establishment. 1 
 
 The receipts reached the sum of 58 090 francs, taxation deducted. 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 15 
 
 C. The Eastern canal. — Ham tunnel. 
 
 The towage service on the canalized Meuse comprises a length of 
 900 metres, 500 of which, is tunnel. 
 
 The trains, formed of four barges, are towed at an ordinary speed of 
 0 m. 50 per second by a low-boat fitted with engines of 18 horse-power 
 nominal . 
 
 The expenses for the original establishment of the service and its depen- 
 dencies amounted to the sum of 58200 francs. 
 
 The working expenses in 1891 amounted to 0505 francs. 
 
 The traffic performed during that season comprised 5 050 loaded boats 
 with 675 673 tons of merchandise plus 571 empty barges. 
 
 The cost of traction was then 0 fr. 0107 per kilometric ton, nolincluding 
 the redemption of the plant. 
 
 The loll levied is 0 fr. 015 per ton of cargo plus 0 fr. 25 per boat empty 
 or full. 
 
 The produce of this in 1891 amounted to 1 1 402 francs. 
 
 d. The Middle Scarpe and the Deule canal. 
 
 The towage service established, in going through and in the neighbour- 
 hood of Douai, forms three distinct enterprises which extend respectively, 
 viz : 
 
 On the middle Scarpe. j 
 On the Rente Canal . . 
 
 From the Lambres-lock to the Augustins lock (1 kilom. 8) ; 
 From the Augustins-lock to the Scarpe-Fort (5 kilom. 2). 
 
 1 From limit N° o near Douai to Courrieres 
 ( (15 kilometres). 
 
 The first section is served by a licensed individual, who only possesses 
 one tow-boat, and usually levies Ofr. 02 per ton, towed from one lock to 
 another. 
 
 The second section is worked by concession, with two tow-boats, one 
 of which belongs to the Government, the maximum toll is fixed at 0 fr. 04 
 per ton for the whole distance travelled over. 
 
 The third section is provided with a free service to which are attached 
 there tow-boats of 55 horse-power. These boats tow up towards Douai, 
 trains of from 4 to 8 barges at a mean speed of 1 kilom. 2 an hour; they 
 generally come down empty. The price for lowing varies between 
 0 fr. 0045 and 0 fr. 0055 on account of the competition between the 
 « long day » haulers and the towing service. 
 
 The traffic served by tow-boats during the last season amounted in round 
 numbers to 2 millions tons on the Middle Scarpe, and to 600,000 tons on 
 the Deide canal. 
 
1C 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 5° Towing by steam-tugs. 
 
 Towing by steam-tugs is not actually praclised on l lie canals any more 
 Ilian on the canalized rivers of t lie region which may lie assimilated to 
 these canals. 
 
 But a regular traction-service was established in 1882 on I lie canal 
 lateral lo the Oise, with four lug-hoals of from 60 to 70 horse-power, and 
 which usually drew trains of 5 or G loaded barges. It was necessary lo 
 interrupt Ibis service at the end of six months, on account of the great 
 sacrifices which the contraction underwent owing to the competition of 
 Messrs Pavot’s relays. 
 
 6° Traction by locomotives. 
 
 There is to-day no traction service by locomotives on the navigable 
 water-ways of the region ; hut a service of this description has been 
 working for several years on the Neufosse, Aire and Defile canals between 
 Les Fontinettes and the neighbourhood of Douai, over a distance of 77 kilo- 
 metres with one single lock. 
 
 The railroad was ballasted over a length of 2 metres, at a thickness of 
 0 m.30, the rails of the weight of 15 kilogrammes per running metre, 
 being laid at I metre apart over the wooden cross-sleepers 1 m. 70 long. 
 The engines in use were locomotives with tenders having four wheels 
 coupled; they each weighed 1 1 tons empty and If tons charged. 
 
 The traction is scarcely used except for going up stream; each train 
 towed, generally consisted of two or three fully-laden barges; the speed 
 was 1 500 metres an hour. 
 
 This service had as competitors, on the one hand, the « long day » 
 haulers, and on the other the towing-service of the Deulc canal. 
 
 The prices for traction in 1885 were 0 fr. 0034 per kilometric ton, they 
 went down lo 0 fr. 0027 on the section over the section served by the 
 towage. No doubt these prices were insufficient; for the Steam-hauling 
 Company was wound up, and ceased working on and after the l 5 ” 1 Fe- 
 bruary 1886. 
 
 7° The « Bouquie system ». 
 
 Others systems have been tried ad different times with the view of 
 applying steam lo the traction of barges, notably the « Bouquie » system 
 which was intended to suit towage to navigation by separate boats. 
 
 The apparatus for supplying the motive power consisted essentially in an 
 impressed wheel set in action by a portable engine. 
 
REGIONS OF THE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 17 
 
 This apparatus was set up on a transversal frame in the bows of the boat 
 and arranged so as to be easily taken off by a crane. 
 
 A special mechanism permitted boats going up and boats going down- 
 stream on the same chain, to pass each other. The « Bouquie » system 
 was tried on the Saint-Denis canal in 1861 as well as on the Oise and on 
 the Saint-Quentin canal, in presence of a commission composed of French 
 and Belgian engineers. 
 
 This commission reported favourably on it, and a decree of the 
 31 st July 1865 authorized its application at the inventor’s risk and peril, 
 on the line from Belgium to Paris, between Conde and Confians-Sainte- 
 llonorine. 
 
 But this decree has remained a dead letter, M. Bouquie not having been 
 able to get together the funds necessary for the realisation of his projects. 
 
 8° Grip-traction. 
 
 The problem of the traction of isolated barges has since then been 
 resolved by an endless cable worked by a fixed motor. 
 
 The two portions of the cable run, one to the right, the oilier to the left 
 of the navigable water-ways, over blocks lixed on trestles, set up outside 
 of the tow-paths. 
 
 The boats make fast, individually, to one or other of these portions, 
 according to the direction they arc going; the cable therefore performes 
 simultaneously the traction down and up-stream. 
 
 This system, very simple in theory, presented very serious difficulties in 
 its application. 
 
 In 1870 and 1888 it gave rise to different trials, which only ended in 
 bringing these difficulties to light without solving them in a satisfactory 
 manner. 
 
 But M. Maurice Levy, chief engineer, was able, in the month of 
 October 1888, to tow barges of 250 tons and to make them get round the 
 sudden curves which connect the Saint-Maur and Saint-Maurice canals 
 without any slipping off of the cable. 
 
 He then established a service of grip-traction over the entire distance of 
 these two canals, which measure about 5 kilometres, and where are to be 
 found collected all the annoyances that are likely to be met with in 
 practice. 
 
 This service was placed at the disposal of the watermen in the month 
 of November 1889 and has been working daily for two years, from mid- 
 day to 6 o’clock in the evening. 
 
 During all this period, the working of the apparatus has left nothing to 
 be desired, from the technical point of view, and the traction of the boats 
 has been performed without accident or any serious damage. Mr. Maurice 
 
18 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 Levy has, in addition, profited by the experience acquired, to symplify and 
 improve differents parts of his system. 
 
 He has especially improved the method of fastening boats to the cable, to 
 that a single bargeman can now, with a little practise, drive a 500 tons 
 barge all by himself and perform, while under way, all the manoeuvring 
 that the traction of such a barges require, without landing. 
 
 The grip-system of the Saint-Maur and Sainl-Maurice canals is explained 
 in detail in an interesting report presented to the Manchester congress. 
 In it Maurice Levy gives a detailed estimate of the arrangement and work- 
 ing of this system on a navigable water-way similar to the canal from 
 the Marne to the Rhine, where the curves are numerous, with the hypo- 
 thesis of an annual traffic of 2 millions of tons. 
 
 The cable is of steel wire, of weight of 3 kilog. 65 per metre; it stands 
 a strain of upwards of 50 tons and undergoes a permanent tension of 
 5 tons on each portion. 
 
 The running supports are placed at intervals of 70 to 80 metres; the 
 angle-blocks are distributed as required by the track. 
 
 The stationary machines are at distances of 24 kilometres; they each 
 work two circuits corresponding to a length of canal of 12 kilometres, 
 and of 50 horse-power. 
 
 The first outlay amounted to 468,000 francs for a section of 24 kilo- 
 metres, or 19,500 francs per kilometre. 
 
 The annual working expenses, for daily work of twelve hours, is esti- 
 mated at 4,600 francs per kilometre, including interest and the redemption 
 of the plant. 
 
 Under these conditions the price of grip-traction comes to Ofr. 0025 per 
 kilometric ton. 
 
 According to M. Maurice Levy, this price would vary with the annual 
 tonnage of follows : 
 
 ANNUAL 
 
 TRAFFIC 
 
 WORKING 
 
 EXPENSES 
 
 PER K1LOM. 
 
 PRICE 
 
 OF TRACTION 
 
 per kilom -ton 
 
 ANNUAL 
 
 TRAFFIC 
 
 WORKING 
 
 EXPENSES 
 
 PER KILOM. 
 
 PRICE 
 
 OF TRACTION 
 
 per kilom. -ton 
 
 tons 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 tons 
 
 francs 
 
 francs 
 
 400,000 
 
 4,280 
 
 0.0107 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 0.0030 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,320 
 
 0.0072 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 4,600 
 
 0.0023 
 
 800,000 
 
 4, 360 
 
 0.0035 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 4,700 
 
 0.0019 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 4,400 
 
 0.0044 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 4,800 
 
 0.0016 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 4,440 
 
 0.0037 
 
 3,200,000 
 
 4,840 
 
 0.0015 
 
REGIONS OF TUE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 19 
 
 COMPARATIVE EXAMINATION OF THE DIVERSE METHODS OF TRA'TION. 
 
 a. Hand towing. 
 
 Towing by men is by no means advantageous for the barges of heavy 
 tonnage which ply on the canals and the canalized rivers in the cana- 
 lized rivers in the region, even when these boats are empty. A barge 
 and the barger in charge cannot be estimated at less- than from 8 to 
 9 francs a day at the very least. 
 
 And the speed of such barge, towed by two men, is for from attaining 
 half of what it is possible to obtain with a couple of horses. 
 
 Under these circumstances towing by hand is necessarily more onerous 
 for the boatmen than traction by draught-animals, even when the days 
 wages are very low. 
 
 b. Towage by horses. 
 
 The employment of tow-horses stabled on board is generally unecono- 
 mical except under particular circumstances, on account of the numerous 
 stoppages to which the boats are subject on the navigable water-ways in the 
 region. 
 
 It is rare indeed for a barge to travel more than two days out of three, 
 on a average; most of them are stationary three days a week. 
 
 The « long day » towing offers grave inconveniences for the watermen 
 and for trade. 
 
 The great variety in the prices of traction renders it impossible for 
 watermen to calculate the expenses they will have to incur in advance, 
 which keeps the freight usually at too high a rate. It obliges them to 
 stop at different spots to discuss the demands of the carters and causes 
 them thus to lose precious time. 
 
 Finally it gives rise to frequent disputes between the barge-owners and 
 the paid watermen. 
 
 On the other hand, the insufficient number of the horses destined for 
 towage during the ploughing, sowing and harvesting seasons causes a 
 general notable rise in the prices for traction, and occasions blocks of 
 long duration on much frequented canals. 
 
 The establishment of private relays, such as Messrs Pavot’s, remedies in 
 a certain measure, these inconveniences, and admits of lowering the price 
 
20 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 of towage, on account of the economy realized on the expenses for feeding 
 (lie horses and the carters 1 . 
 
 But the boatmen generally lose several hours before girting any horses. 
 Thus they take two days, at least, in getting over 54 kilometres, and the 
 4 locks on the lateral canal of the Oise, whereas they travel over the 
 41 kilometres of the section of Saint-Quentin to Cliauny, easily, in a day 
 and a half, although that section includes 12 locks. 
 
 The towage-service by horses, organized on the canals of the North, in 
 virtue of the decree of the 19 th . lune 1875, on the contrary, work in the 
 most satisfactory manner from the point of view of the rapidity of naviga- 
 tion, and contribute largely to increase the amount of barge-traffic on 
 these navigable waterways. 
 
 It is very much less expensive than the « long day towage » and even 
 than Messrs Pavot’s relays, on equal terms otherwise. 
 
 Their organization, it is true, is an attack against the liberty of hauling; 
 but this attack is justified by the necessities of a higher order, when it is 
 a question of such important high ways of transport as the Escaul and the 
 Saint-Quentin canal. 
 
 For less frequented canals, it would seem possible to conciliate the inte- 
 rests of the watermen with those of the waterside populations, by organiz- 
 ing horse-towage on a basis similar to that of the regulation of the 
 1 st June 1855, which was applied until 1860, between Conde on the Escaut 
 and Conflans-Sainte-IIonorine. 
 
 c. Propulsion and traction by steam. 
 
 The steam « carriers » (porteurs a vapour) are generally built to travel 
 at a high rate of speed along rivers and canalized rivers. 
 
 They are not allowed to ply on the canals, except at a reduced speed, in 
 order to preserve the banks and to avoid all accidents from collision with 
 other boats. 
 
 That constraint permits them only to be employed advantageous by for 
 the carriage of valuable goods which may be burdened with a relatively 
 high rate of freight, without inconvenience. 
 
 However, we are of opinion that « carriers », specially built with a view 
 to navigating on canals, with shapes less fine and with less powerful 
 engines, might carry coal and similar cargoes at a low price on them, 
 with the express proviso of only losing a very lew days, each voyage, for 
 loading and unloading. 
 
 Towage renders precious services in narrow passages, where navigation 
 presents exceptional difficulties. 
 
 1. Towers usually pay 15 fr. 50 to 14 francs per day and per pair of horses in the 
 inns along the valleys of the Oise and the Aisne. 
 
REGIONS OF TIJE NORTH AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 ‘21 
 
 On these grounds it secures great advantages to the watermen and 
 exonerates them from heavy burdens, while assuring them regular and 
 sufficiently rapid going. 
 
 The towage-service on the middle Scarpe has considerably thrown back 
 the limit of the traffic capacity on that river, which one thought had been 
 reached. 
 
 That on the Saint-Quentin canal gives results of the highest interest in 
 every sense. It carries out, with perfect regularity, the normal movement 
 of more than 20 000 barges and of nearly 3 500000 tons of merchandise; 
 it allows, if necessary, 60 boats to ply in both directions, at a mean speed 
 of about 1 700 metres an hour, in a reach where, one may say, all the 
 obstacles that can be met with, while navigating on a canal, are to be 
 found accumulated. 
 
 But besides the exceptional passages, such as those in question, towage 
 may only by advantageously applied on the most frequented canals of the 
 region, and only in a certain number of reaches of great length. 
 
 Indeed, there must be a rather considerable amount of traffic to pro- 
 perly remunerate a towage service, with lolls some what inferior to those 
 of towing by horses. 
 
 And the reaches ought to be long enough for the trains to regain the 
 lime lost at the locks. 
 
 Now the locking of a train of 4 barges, for instance, requires not less 
 than two hours : whereas a barge by itself generally gels through a lock 
 in thirty minutes, at the outside. 
 
 The police regulations, indeed recommend that as much advantage as 
 possible should be taken of the same locking, _ to make boats, [going in 
 opposite directions pass in; and this prescription is rigorously observe 
 on much frequented canals so as to economise the feeding ressources of 
 the reaches and to accelerate the locking of the boats. 
 
 A train of four boats loses, thus, an hour and a half at each lock. 
 
 Experience shows, besides, that the average rate of speed of such a train 
 cannot exceed 5 kilom. 600 an hour on a much frequented canal ; where- 
 as that of a boat drawn by horses usually attains 2 kilometres. 
 
 According to these data, a train of barges ought to get over 6 kilom. 750 
 in order to regain one hour and thirty minutes*. 
 
 The towage by trains of 4 boats cannot then be performed without disad- 
 vantage, from the point of view ol speed, except in a series of reaches of 
 ot least 6 kilom. 750 each, or in one single reach of 13 kilom. 500 in 
 extent. 
 
 The corresponding lengths, calculated for trains of 5 barges, would be 
 4 kilom. 500 and 9 kilometres respectively. 
 
 1. One has in fact l h ,7- 
 
 u‘,750 6 k ,750 
 
 5 k ,600 2 k ,0U0 
 
22 
 
 TRACTION ON CANALS 
 
 Now, it results from an examination of the plans and profiles of the 
 canals in the region, that few reaches are of sufficient extent to allow of 
 forming 4 barges or even 5 into a single train. 
 
 Besides trains of 2 barges could not be generally adopted without increas- 
 ing the tolls to be levied, beyond measure. 
 
 Therefore in general towage cannot furnish a practical solution of the 
 problem of the application of steam to the traction of boats on the navi- 
 gable waterways of the region. 
 
 It is the same, a fortiori , with regard to steam-tugs and locomotive- 
 traction : the two systems do indeed equally admit of the uniting of boats 
 into a train, and are usually much more expensive than towage, at least 
 as regards canals. 
 
 There remain the « Bouquie » system and that of Mr. Maurice Levy, 
 which both permit of the traction of boats separately. 
 
 The former has not been tried on a sufficiently large scale for it to be 
 possible to appreciate it on its merits. 
 
 Besides it offers certain very disadvantageous drawbacks, notably the 
 meeting, on the same chain, of boats going up and others coming down; 
 the obligatory presence of an engineer or at least of a stoker on board 
 each barge; the distribution of motive pow'er among a great number of 
 little portable steam-engines; the more or less defective arrangements of 
 this machinery on board boats already heavily laden, etc. 
 
 Mr. Maurice Levy’s system, on the contrary, is to-day proved by an expe- 
 rience of two years ; under similar circumstances, it only requires a small 
 number of stationary engines which can be fitted up under the best con- 
 ditions. 
 
 This system by no means overloads the boats and does not cause them 
 any abnormal strain ; finally it appears to be considerably more econo- 
 mical than the « Bouquie » system, and even than any other system of 
 towage, save and except certain exceptions caused by special circumstances. 
 
 The grip-system of towage appears therefore to us as the most advanta- 
 geous method of traction from every point of view, on canals and canalized 
 rivers capable of being assimilated to the canals, which carry on a 
 traffic sufficient to render this system more economical those the towing 
 by horses. According to Mr. Maurice Levy, the grip traction should be 
 adopted for, and above an average traffic of 900000 tons. We estimate 
 that horse-towage properly organized would be able to compete up to about 
 1 500 000 tons, but that it would certainly succomb to a greater amount 
 of tonnage. 
 
 The cost-prices given by Mr. Maurice Levy have, in fact, been calculated 
 on the hypothesis of a daily working of twelve hours. 
 
 Now, in principle, the navigation on canals goes on freely at night as 
 well as by day: and indeed boats often travel for seventeen to eighteen 
 hours out of the twenty-four during a great part of the year. 
 
REGIONS OF TIIE NORTII AND EAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 23 
 
 Traction-apparatus ought, therefore, in our opinion, to work eighteen 
 hours a day, which would entail a much greater number of employes and 
 would, in a certain degree, increase the working expenses. 
 
 On the other hand, we estimate, that grip-towage, once set up on a 
 canal, should be rendered obligatory on it for all boats without any dis- 
 tinction, with the exception of the steam « carriers ». 
 
 General interest demands, in fact, that in each reach there should he 
 employed that method of traction which is the best adapted to the tech- 
 nical conditions and the traffic of such reach, to the exclusion ol any other 
 system. 
 
 This measure appears to us the necessary consequence of the sacrifices 
 imposed on the Treasury, to render uniform the navigable waterways in 
 the region, and to cause to disappear obstacles of every kind which 
 oppose the regularity, to rapidity and the cheapness of carriage by water. 
 
 Canals and canalized rivers constitute artificial high-ways created at the 
 expense of the entire country, with a view to general utility. The State 
 has the right, and it is its duty, to derive the most possible from them, 
 by working them in the best interests of trade and industry. 
 
 Compiegne, May 16‘ h , 1892. 
 
 (Translated by Mr. Sharp at Paris.) 
 
 24963. — Imprimerie g6n6rale A. Lahure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris 
 

 ■'* 
 
 I 
 
V" INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 3 th QUESTION 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 IN FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. LASMOLLES 
 
 Director of the Towage Company of the Uaute- Seine, Paris 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9 , RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 18 9 2 
 
THE TRACTION OF 
 
 BOATS 
 
 IN FRANCE 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. LASMOLLES 
 
 Director of the Towage Company of the Haute-Seine, Paris. 
 
 The study of the means of traction placed in France at the disposal of 
 barge-traffic is one of the most interesting which the examination of the 
 industry of transports by water raises, and it includes very important 
 technical developments that cannot find their place in the succinct report 
 here presented by us. 
 
 These special questions are, moreover, the object of reports furnished 
 by distinguished engineers and of annual publications of considerable 
 interest emanating from the Board of Public Works. 
 
 We will therefore confine ourselves to a summary of the conditions 
 under which the towing of boats actually takes place on some of our 
 water-courses. 
 
 One might be led to think that the extension taken, within the last few 
 years, by large companies of transports by water, disposing of numerous 
 steam-carriers, has rendered the circulation of boats hauled, towed or 
 tugged less active; this, however, is by no means the case and the amount 
 of freight transported by boats which have their own means of propulsion 
 may be considered as a quantity not worth heeding. Thus, during the 
 year 1890, and although the steam-carriers visited about one third of our 
 navigable ways, they took on board no more than 665,000 tons of goods, 
 or about two and a half per cent of the total amount of freight shipped 
 during that same year, and it is doubtful whether this proportion has been 
 perceptibly modified in 1891. 
 
 Nearly all goods sent by water are therefore transported by boats that 
 dispose of no motive power. A few attempts have been made, it is true, 
 to give to isolated freight traffic means of propulsion proper to itself ; but 
 
 l G. 
 
 LASMOLLES. 
 
2 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 these essays have so far proved of little avail, and nothing justifies the 
 hope that a practical solution of I he problem is soon to he found. 
 
 We know that these studies are still prosecuted and that a young engi- 
 neer of great merit, bringing to bear the resources of a very inventive 
 mind, seeks to realise a new mode of traction more specially adapted to 
 navigation in the North and which would afford bargemen a freedom of 
 action well-nigh complete. 
 
 Nevertheless, even under these conditions, the boat, we think, would 
 still have to borrow from a fixed object on or along the banks that pur- 
 chase which is to ensure its progress through the water. 
 
 The barge-owner must therefore have recourse to towage or to a lug 
 contractor or contractors in order to effect the transport he has undertaken 
 and even, in most cases, that he will have to haul along his empty boat. 
 
 There are, however, two categories of barge-men who avoid almost com- 
 pletely this obligation; the first, who are owners of large boats, have on 
 board a stable which is sufficient to shelter two horses and who thus 
 dispose of an economical means of traction: these barge-owners the more 
 often visit the East of France. 
 
 The second, w ho are owners of small boats called berrichons , also fur- 
 nished with a stable, work the canals of the Centre and are content to 
 obtain their motive force from an ass to which they often lend the co-ope- 
 ration of their own shoulders and, if needs be, the shoulders of their 
 wife and children. 
 
 It cannot, in fact, be noted without some degree of astonishment that 
 towage by human agency still prevails to a considerable extent on all 
 canals which put the centre of France into communication with the Seine 
 and the Sabnc and that no other system ot traction has, in a general 
 manner, replaced, on those much frequented ways, this cheap but essen- 
 tially primitive method. 
 
 We will now, as first stated, rapidly examine (lie conditions in which, 
 as regards traction, some of our principal navigation lines are situated, 
 
 I. — NORTHERN LINE 
 
 From Paris (at Conflans Sainte-Honorine) to the Belgian frontier, by Fargniers 
 towards Mons and by Conde towards Tournai to Antwerp. 
 
 A. On the river Oise and the lateral canal of the Oise, traction is 
 assured by means of horses belonging to a private enterprise, that ot 
 MM. Pavot Brothers. 
 
 Towage is effected by relays and the fare is reckoned by courbe or 
 yoke of two horses. 
 
 The traction of a loaded boat requires a number of horses that varies 
 
Waterways in France. 
 
 up the river between two and four yokes according to the state of I lie 
 waters. 
 
 Down-stream, and on the canal in both directions, one yoke generally 
 suffices as well for loaded as for empty boats, and, as regards the latter, 
 a single yoke is often sufiicient on the canal for the management of two 
 boats. 
 
 The speed reached by the relay horses are, on an average, the following, 
 for loaded boats : 
 
 On the Oise . 
 
 ( Up-stream 
 ( Down-stream 
 
 ."> kilometres per hour. 
 4 kilom. 500 — 
 
 On t he canal. 
 
 \ Up-stream 
 I Down-stream 
 
 2 kilometres 
 2 kilom. 100 
 
 The charge made for traction on these distances is lived according to 
 the following rates : 
 
 On the Oise 
 
 ^ Up-stream 
 / Down-stream 
 
 On the canal. 
 
 t Up-stream 
 ( Down-stream 
 
 0 fr. 70 per kilometre and per voice. 
 0 fr. G5 — — 
 
 0 fr. 00 — — 
 
 0 fr. 75 — — 
 
 Or, for a boat loaded with 280,000 kilogrammes. 
 
 On the Oise : distance 104 kilometres. 
 
 Up-stream . 
 
 \ With two yokes, 0 fr. 005 per Ion and per kilometre 
 ( =145 fr. 00. 
 
 Down-stream. 
 
 With one yoke, 0 fr. 00225 per ton and per kilometre 
 = 07 fr. 00. 
 
 On the canal : distance 54 kilometres. 
 
 Up-stream . 
 
 \ With one yoke, 0 fr. 0052141 per ton and per kilo- 
 ( metre = 50 fr. 00. 
 
 Down-stream. 
 
 \ With one yoke, 0 fr. 002079 per ton and per kdo- 
 ( metre = 25 fr. 50. 
 
 Traction is also undertaken for long distances by trackers who take 
 charge ot the boats for a whole journey, with the same horses, and by 
 tugs called « Gufipes » (Waps). 
 
 Nevertheless, the service of MM. Pavot Brothers, by reason of its excel- 
 lent organisation and regularity, monopolises the towage of more than 
 two-thirds of the boats navigating the Oise and the lateral canal. 
 
 B. On the canal from the Sambre to the Oise, and on the canalised 
 river Sambre, traction is operated with relays of horses by contract or by 
 the job. 
 
 C. On the canal of Saint-Ouentin and on the Scheldt, traction by relays 
 ot horses is organised by the care of the Administration: towage, winch is 
 
4 
 
 TUE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 optional for empty boats, is compulsory for loaded ones. The navigable 
 line is divided info lots, adjudicated by way of public tender at conditions 
 stipulated beforehand in writing [collier dcs charges ), and if the system 
 constitute a sort ot monopoly in favour of those whose tenders are 
 accepted, it offers to barge-owners, by way of compensation, the security 
 of a regular service and a tariff which never fluctuates, as it often other- 
 wise does where competition prevails. 
 
 The speed reached by the relays of horses averages about too kilometres 
 per hour. 
 
 The taxes paid by the barge-owners give the following averages, for 
 loaded boats : 
 
 On I lie canal. 
 
 Up-stream. . 
 Down-stream 
 
 0 fr. 003 j 
 0 fr. 005 
 
 On the Scheldt. 
 
 ^ Up-stream. . 
 ( Down stream 
 
 0 fr. 005 
 0 fr. 003 
 
 The taxes arc increased a third for night journeys, which are optional. 
 
 'fraction in the watershed pond of the canal of Saint-Quentin does not 
 lake place by means of horses. It is worked by contract for account of 
 l he Stale by means of I lu ce tugs with a developed horse-power of 50 each, 
 taking their leverage on a sunken chain. 
 
 Two of these tugs are in active service; the third is held in reserve. 
 
 The speed of a towed boat does not exceed 2 kilometres per hour. 
 
 The tax for the State towage service is fixed at 0 fr. 0025 per ton-kilo- 
 metre of effective load. 
 
 As for empty boats, they pay no dues. 
 
 From what precedes it will be seen that traction on our most frequented 
 line is almost exclusively effected by means of horses operations in relays. 
 
 This organisation suffices for a traffic ol about 5,000,000 tons. 
 
 II. - EASTERN LINES. 
 
 From the Oise, near Compiegne, to the Meuse at Pont-a-Bar. 
 
 A. On the canalised river Aisne towage lakes place by means of horses 
 and tugs, but the latter do not attract more than a tenth part of the 
 business; their charges are subject to very appreciable fluctuations, and, 
 according to tbe state of the waters, give rise to averages reaching from 
 0 fr. 004 to 0 fr. 017 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 Nearly the whole of the traction is, therefore, performed by towing 
 horses. A yoke of horses is counted per boat navigating down-stream and 
 as many as eight horses for hauling it up-stream, according to the season 
 and the state of the river, without exceeding a speed ol about 2 kilometres 
 
WATERWAYS IN FRANCE. 
 
 5 
 
 per hour. The prices charged by the towers are subject to as much fluc- 
 tuation as those demanded by the lugs. 
 
 They are set down as follows : 
 
 Up-stream : from 0 fr. 005 to 0 fr. 02 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream : from 0 fr. 002 to 0 fr. 04 — 
 
 B. On the lateral canal of the Aisne, the long-distance horses (chevaux 
 « aux loiujs jours ») operate the traction of all the boats at a speed which 
 is often inferior to 2 kilometres per hour. 
 
 The trackers receive on an average 1 fr. It) per kilometre for 2 horses, 
 which brings the price of traction to about 0 fr. 005 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 C. On the canal of the Ardennes, traction of boats takes place on 
 much the same terms as on the lateral canal of the Aisne. Towage is 
 effected by 2 liorses for which from 1 franc to 1 fr. 20 per kilometre is 
 paid, or an average ol 0 fr. 004 to 0 fr. 005 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 From Paris (at Charenton) to Hures, frontier of Alsace-Lorraine. 
 
 On this extensive line which places Paris in direct communication with 
 Alsace-Lorraine and Germany nothing is organised for the traction ol 
 boats, except on the watershed pond of the canal from the Marne to the 
 Rhine, over a distance of 7 kilom. 300. 
 
 A. On the canalised river Marne, and on the lateral canal, most of the 
 boats are towed by horses that belong to the boatmen. The rest of the 
 carriers negotiate with dealers who rent out, at variable prices, the 
 horses, carter and tackle they may need lor the voyage they have 
 undertaken. 
 
 The speed obtained on these two lines may be estimated per hour at 
 5 kilometres down-stream and at 2 kilometres up-stream. 
 
 B. On the canal from the Marne to the Rhine, traction takes place under 
 the same conditions and often the empty boats are hauled by human 
 agency. At Mauvages, where the watershed pond is situated, a tug with 
 sunken chain, the use of which is compulsory, tows the boats over a 
 distance of 7,300 metres on payment of a tax of 0 fr. 005 per ton-kilo- 
 metre. Its speed scarcely attains 2 kilometres per hour. 
 
 Ill - WESTERN LINE. 
 
 Towage by men or horses no longer exists on the Western line. 
 
 A. From Paris (at La Briche) to Rouen, traction takes place between 
 Conllans Sainte-IIonorine, by tugs belonging to the “ Towing Company of 
 
6 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 the Lower Seine ami the Oise ”, and between Conflans and Rouen by the 
 “ Towing of Transport Company of the Seine from Conflans to the sea 
 These two companies are in competition with the “ Towing and Tugging 
 Company of k thc Oise ”, whose independent tugs, known be the name of 
 “ Guepes ” (Wasps), forming an important tlotlila, ply between Paris and 
 Rouen and the month of the Oise. Finally, I lie larger transport com- 
 panies whose steamers arc to be seen constantly navigating the Seine 
 afford means of irregular traction to all barge-owners at very variable 
 prices. 
 
 The speed of traction on the Seine is high. It may be established as 
 follows : 
 
 4 kilometres per hour. 
 
 7 — — 
 
 4 kilom. COO — 
 
 8 kilometres — 
 
 The taxes received by the towage companies of the Seine, between Paris 
 and Rouen, are fixed by the conditions of grant ( cahier ties charges) imposed 
 on each of these companies. These conditions, which apply equally and 
 without favour to all carriers alike, are as follow’. 
 
 Between Paris (at the lock of La Monnaie) and Sl-Denis, 29 kilometres. 
 
 For a boat half-laden at least : 
 
 Up-stream 0 fr. 01 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream. ' 0 fr. 004 — 
 
 For a boat carrying less than half its full load : 
 
 i 0 fr. 01 per effective ton and per kilometre, 
 
 p s ream j q j- r qq^ per non-effective ton and per kilometre. 
 
 „ t 0 fr. 004 per effective ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream. A nna ... ... . . .. .. 
 
 ( 0 fr. 002 per non-effective ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Without said boat, however, having to pay more than a boat half-laden 
 nor less than an empty one. 
 
 For an empty boat, up-stream or down : 
 
 0 fr. 20 per kilometre, for a tonnage below 150 tons. 
 
 0 fr. 35 — — of 130 to 250 tons 
 
 0 fr. 50 — — above 250 tons. 
 
 Between St-Denis and Conflans-Ste-Honorine, 43 kilometres. 
 
 lT t 0 fr. 01 per ton and kilometre to 220 tons. 
 
 Up-stream, j Q f[ , 0Q5 _ _ above 220 , 0 „s. 
 
 For a boat half-laden at least. 
 
 For the other articles of the tariff, as between Paris and Saint-Denis. 
 
 Tiles 
 
 ^ up-siream 
 ( Down-strerm 
 
 ^ Up-stream 
 I Down-stream 
 
WATERWAYS IN FRANCE. 
 
 7 
 
 These companies arc earnestly entreating the Administration to modify 
 in a measure the conditions of their grants, whose stringent clauses no 
 longer admit of the grantees. deriving the least profit from their industry. 
 
 The Towing and Tugging Company of the Oise, which operates only on 
 the Seine by means of lugs, and which has full liberty of action, bases the 
 price of its services on the tariffs of the towing companies; but it raises or 
 lowers ils charges, according to the season, the state of the waters and the 
 necessities of compet ition in very variable proportions, so I hat a same boat 
 of 300 tons which in summer pays for the 243 kilometres between Paris 
 and Rouen a sum of 340 francs, or 0 fr. 004677 per ton and kilometre, 
 sees that sum for the same voyage raised in winter to 700 francs, or about 
 0 fr. 01 per ton-kilometre. 
 
 As for the transport companies, the naturally have no other guide than 
 their own convenience in fixing the prices they ask of the barge-ownei“6. 
 
 B. On the Seine between Rouen and Havre by Tancarvillc there is no 
 traction enterprise nor organisation of any sort. 
 
 The towing of boats is operated by a few steamers owned by private 
 persons or by steam-tugs belonging to the transport companies. 
 
 IV - LINE FROM LYONS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 A. On the Seine between Paris and Montereau , traction is jointly 
 assured by tow-ships with sunken chain and the steamers of the Towing 
 Company of the Upper Seine, by independent tugs and by those belonging 
 to the Navigation Company from Havre to Paris and Lyons. 
 
 The prices paid by mariners to the owners of steamboats arc based on 
 no regular tariff and are stipulated by mutual consent. As for the Towing 
 Company ot the Upper Seine, it is bound, like similar companies of the 
 Lower Seine, by the clauses of a written grant and a tariff whose maximum 
 prices are fixed as follows. 
 
 1. From the lock of la Monnaie to Port-a-l'Anglais. 
 
 (Distance 8 000 metres divided into three journeys.) 
 
 1st journey, 1,557 metres, from the lock at La Monnaie to the canal 
 Saint-Martin ; 
 
 2d journey, 5,430 metres, from the bridge of La Tournelle, Port Saint- 
 Bernard, Port of the lie Louviers or I he canal Saint-Martin to the bridge 
 at Bercy ; 
 
 3d journey, 3,420 metres, from the bridge at Bercy to Port-a-l’Anglais 
 or to any one of the intermediary points. 
 
8 
 
 TUE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 For the distance of any one journey : 
 
 Per ton of possible burden 0 fr. 028 
 
 — effective — 0 fr. 05G 
 
 For the distance of two consecutive journeys : 
 
 Per Ion of possible burden 0 fr. 040 
 
 — effective — 0 fr. 080 
 
 For the distance of three journeys : 
 
 Per ton of possible burden 0 fr. 05(5 
 
 — effective — . 0 fr. 112 
 
 2. From Port-a-l’Anglais to Montereau. 
 
 (Distance 97 kilometres.) 
 
 For an empty or laden boat, up-stream : 
 
 Per ton of possible burden and per kilometre 0 fr. 0028 
 
 — effective — — 0 fr. 0120 
 
 For on empty or a laden boat down-stream in both sections, a quarter 
 of the above prices will be paid. 
 
 The speed attained on the Upper Seine is about 5 kilometres per hour. 
 
 B. On the river Yonnc, between Montereau and Laroche, boats are 
 towed either by horses or by low-ships with sunken chain belonging to the 
 Towage Company of the Yonnc. The working of this company is regu- 
 lated by the written conditions of their grant, and a fixed tariff is imposed 
 as follows . 
 
 Between Montereau and Laroche. 
 
 Up-stream . 
 
 t Per ton of possible burden and per kilometre. 
 ( — effective — — 
 
 Down-stream. 
 
 Per ton of possible burden and per kilometre. 
 — effective — — 
 
 0 fr. 00556 
 0 fr. 015 
 0 fr. 00084 
 0 fr. 005G 
 
 The speed is high, reaching 5 kilometres per hour up-stream and 6 kilo- 
 metres down-stream. 
 
 C. On the Burgundy canal, between Laroche and Saint-Jean-de-Losne, 
 towing takes place in a general manner by means of horses, except on the 
 declivity of the Saone where traction by human agency is still practised. 
 
 The price of towage by horses may be set down at 0 fr. 005 per ton and 
 per kilometre for two horses, say 242 francs or 1 franc per kilometre for a 
 boat with a lading of 200 tons. 
 
 In the watershed pond, at the tunnel of Pouiily, boats make use of the 
 
WATERWAYS IN FRANCE. 
 
 9 
 
 compulsory traclion afforded by a low-ship and the tariff charge ist esta- 
 blished on the basis of 1 fr. 50 per hull and 0 fr. 05 per ton of lading. 
 
 By night the price per hull is increased to 10 francs and the ton of goods 
 pays 0 fr. 10. 
 
 D. On the Saone, from Saint-Jean-dc-Losne to Lyons, traction is effected 
 by tugs belonging to the Company of the Mines of Blanzy and the General 
 Navigation Company. 
 
 The two companies impose on barge-owners who seek their services 
 whatever prices and especially whatever conditions they deem proper to 
 make. 
 
 For a boat of 200 tons the ordinary charge is : 
 
 0 fr. 009 per ton and per kilometre, say 400 fr. down-stream, 
 
 0 fr. 017142 — — — 720 fr. up-stream, 
 
 on 2 francs per ton in the first case and 3 fr. 60 in the second, for a distance 
 
 of 210 kilometres. 
 
 The average speed reached on that distance is as follows : 
 
 f Up-stream 4 kilometres per hour. 
 
 * * ( Down-stream 5 — — 
 
 \ Up-stream 3 — 
 
 oises. . ^ p own _ strearn 5 kilom. 500 — 
 
 In the passage to Lyons, towage is prohibited ; the boats use tugs or lake 
 to their oars with a relief crew. 
 
 E. On the Blione, from Lyons to Arles, boatmen descend the stream 
 with the oar and navigate up-stream in low of steam-carriers or the grap- 
 pling-irons of the General Navigation Company, when that society is willing 
 to furnish the traclion ; the prices it charges vary between 0 fr. 5 and 
 0 fr. 06 per ton and per kilometre. 
 
 The speed is about 5 kilometres per hour, whith boats mostly at half- 
 lading. 
 
 There is, in reality, no organised service of traction. 
 
 F. On the Blione, from Arles to the Mediterranean sea, navigation is 
 rather maritime than otherwise and receives only the irregular assistance 
 of steamboats. 
 
 V. — LINE OF THE CENTRE. 
 
 On the line of the Centre which extends from the Seine to Saint-Mammes, 
 by the canals of the Loing, of Briare and of the Centre as far as the Saone 
 to Chalon, say over a distance of more than 400 kilometres, no regularly 
 organised service of traction is to be found. 
 
10 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 Towage is operated by horses and asses and specially by human 
 shoulders. 
 
 The speed of the boats is often no higher than 1 kilometre or 1 kilom. 500 
 per hour and does not exceed 3 kilometres. 
 
 With the exception of the bargemen of the Berry who own an ass and 
 thus insure their traction, carriers generally contract by the job with the 
 trackers for the whole distance of a journey; the prices paid under these 
 conditions may be set down for a boat with a lading of 150 tons a 
 0 fr. 0041314 per ton and per kilometre, say francs for the distance 
 of 555 kilometres which separates Roannc from Saint Mammes. 
 
 The wages of the trackers are reduced 55 to 40 per cent, for the towage 
 of an empty boat. 
 
 It appears from the somewhat monotonous study we have just made 
 that traction on our navigable ways is operated by four different methods : 
 
 By human agency; 
 
 By relay horses or by horses for long-distance journeys; 
 
 By low-ships; 
 
 By special tugs or by steam tugs or carriers belonging to transport com- 
 panies. 
 
 The prices paid, according to the mode of traction used, afford the fol- 
 lowing indications : 
 
 By human agency. 
 
 !>’ 1,1 ( 0 fr. 00 i to 0 fr. 0045 per Ion ami per kilometre. 
 
 buvii.drnDrn > 14 
 
 By horses on rivers. 
 
 Up-stream 0 fr. 005 per ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream , 0 fr. 0025 — — 
 
 By horses on canals. 
 
 slll,ml | 0 fr. 0045 per ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream ) 
 
 By loiv-sliips. 
 
 Up-stream 0 fr. 01250 per ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream 0 fr. 004 — — 
 
 By luys. 
 
 Up-stream 0 fr. 01500 per ton and per kilometre. 
 
 Down-stream 0 fr. 0005 — — 
 
 These several modes of traction give the following rates of speed : 
 
 By human agency. 
 
 Up-stream. . 
 Down-stream 
 
 kilometres per hour. 
 
WATERWAYS IN FRANCE. 
 
 It 
 
 Bij horses on rivers. 
 
 Up stream 5 kilometres per hour. 
 
 Down-stream 4 — — 
 
 Bij horses on canals. 
 
 2 kilometres per hour. 
 
 1 kilom. 500 per hour. 
 5 — 500 — 
 
 Bij lugs. 
 
 Up-stream . 4 kilom. 500 per hour. 
 
 Down-stream 6 — 250 — 
 
 To sum up, the rale of speed afforded to the boats of our water-courses 
 may be set down at about 4 kilometres per hour and at 0 thousandths the 
 price per kilometre of the ton towed. 
 
 If we take by way of example a boat with a lading of 280 tons of coal 
 taken on the banks at Anzin whose destination is Paris (bridge ofLaTour- 
 nelle) — 341 kilometres, at a freight charge of 5 francs, say 0 fr. 01466 per 
 ton-kilometre, — we find that the expense of traction paid by the barge- 
 owner, on a basis of 0 fr. 006, is equivalent to 41 per cent, of the price of 
 his freight. 
 
 This proportion between the price of freight and the charge made for 
 traction will not appear excessive if it is considered that the expense lor 
 towage constitutes the barge-owner’s highest outlay and if the calculation 
 is made on an average, as we have done. But, in practice, specially on 
 the Seine, our principal line of navigation, things are ordered differently. 
 
 Traction is effected in two ways : by enterprises specially established for 
 towage by horses and lugs or “ professionnals ”, and by those we may 
 call “ accidentals ”, that is the transport companies owning steam tugs 
 and carriers. 
 
 The first, who live by their industry of trackers, have every interest to 
 get up a connection of faithful and regular customers and consent to make 
 certain sacrifices in order to insure the traction of a number of boats suf- 
 ficient to keep a running business; they might thus give barge-owners the 
 precious advantage of a moderate and, above all. of an invariable tariff, 
 since they know how to compass in the fair season a profit sufficient to 
 remunerate their labour and to make good the losses occasioned by trac- 
 tion during the winter. 
 
 The “ accidentals ” abstain from lowing during the bad season when 
 traction is onerous; in summer, however, they take at any price, and for 
 a sum often derisive, boats that navigate along their line; it is, in fact, 
 
 Up-stream 
 
 Down-stream 
 
 Bij tow-ships. 
 
 Up-stream 
 
 Down-stream 
 
12 
 
 THE TRACTION OF BOATS 
 
 indifferent to a transport company that tows down from Paris to Rouen 
 with ils steam tug two lighters belonging to its service whether it brings 
 along a third boat, and Hie proceeds, however small, which it pockcls from 
 the assistance rendered is altogether a profit. 
 
 The upshot from this situation is that the professionals have to insure 
 traction during the period when it is operated with loss, and that they sec 
 it disappear as soon as it becomes profitable. 
 
 1 he owners of tugs, in order to struggle against such a competition, 
 have found no other means — and no other, in fact, is to be found, — 
 than to lower their charges to a level with those demanded by the “ acci- 
 dentals ” and to go on working while incurring a considerable loss, since 
 they have not, like the transport companies, to carry ladings whose freight 
 largely covers the expenses ol the journey. 
 
 On the other hand, as soon as circumstances turn the transport com- 
 panies away from towage, the tug-owners at once seek to raise their tariffs 
 as high as possible in order to recuperate their losses and the expense of 
 traction suddenly mounts to double or more in price. 
 
 ith such odds to contend against, the days of the towage companies are 
 numbered. They cannot act as do the contractors who undertake towing 
 with steam-lugs; compelled to apply invariable tariffs established on 
 averages, they have to effect nearly the whole of the traction during the 
 winter, when receipts do not cover the expenses, and, when summer 
 comes round, they are abandoned by the barge-owners whom the low 
 rates of competition attracted. 
 
 Boatmen do not seem to understand that an industry cannot live when 
 it is compelled to seek ils aliment at times when it works at a loss. 
 
 They do not seem to discern the very visible consequences of the dis- 
 appearance of towages: the impossibility of getting their boats tracked 
 when floods prevail and the possibility of perhaps finding no means of 
 traction in ordinary times, if the large transport companies refused to 
 take them in tow as they are legitimately entitled to do if they so choose. 
 
 The situation ol barge-tratfic on the Seine would have promptly become 
 what it is on the Saone, where barge-owners are at the mercy of two 
 transport societies which alone are aide to furnish traction for their boats. 
 
 The Administration foresaw the dangers of this state of things; it has, 
 in public inquests, enlightened the boatmen as to their own interests and 
 by means of prudent but effective modifications introduced in the condi- 
 tions of the written grants of the towage companies, it enables those 
 societies to carry on their industry and insures to barge-traffic fairly 
 settled traction prices. 
 
 The efforts of those who take interest in barge-traffic should, in our 
 opinion, tend towards obtaining stability in the prices for traction. 
 Regularity in tariffs for towing by men, horses or steam can alone enable 
 our barge-owners to negotiate their transports with security, to proportion 
 
WATERWAYS FN FRANCE. 
 
 13 
 
 exactly the freight to be received with the expenses incurred and the legi- 
 timate profit expected, and to charge merchants the lowest prices for the 
 expedition of their goods. 
 
 This result can only be obtained, we think, by the concession or tempo- 
 rary adjudication of the mode or one of the modes of traction best suited 
 to each of the lines it is intended to serve. 
 
 It is also by this means that we may look for the improvement of the 
 different systems of traction used on our different water-courses and the 
 complete disappearance of tracking by human shoulders which is still 
 practised. 
 
 We would even add that the intellectual development of the bargeman 
 is not without correlation with the mode of traction which he uses for his 
 boat, if such a subject were not beyond the scope of the present inquiry; 
 but it may tempt a pen belter qualified than our own for such a task 
 and would prove of interest if treated by the economist who brings the 
 « Barge-owner’s Monography » before the Congress. 
 
 Paris, April 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris.) 
 

24037. — Jmprimerie generate A. Lahure, 9, rue do 1'lcui-us, a Paris. 
 

r INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 6 U ‘ QUESTION 
 
 TRACTION 
 
 BOATS ON CANALISED BIVE1IS 
 
 TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY' STEAM-TUGS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. MOLINOS 
 
 Civil Engineer, at Paris 
 
 AND 
 
 M. DE BOVET 
 
 Managing I'ircclor of « the Lower Seine and Oise Towage Company », at Paris 
 
 PA HIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERA LE LAHORE 
 
 9 , hue t ) e latuitus, 9 
 
 1 <S 9 2 
 
TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS 
 
 TOWAGE BY CHAIN 01! BY STEAM-TUGS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 ItY 
 
 M. MOLINOS 
 
 Civil Engineer, at Paris 
 
 AND 
 
 M. DE BOVET 
 
 Managing-Director of « the Lower Seine and Oise Towage Company », at Paris. 
 
 Towage on canalised rivers is effected h) means of tow-boals hauling 
 on a submerged chain, and by s!eam-tugs with paddle-wheels or 
 screws . 
 
 The comparative advantages of the two systems depend upon the regime 
 of t he river. Itccourse to chain-towage is the more warrantable that the 
 current is more rapid. Now, the canalisation of rivers has often for effect 
 to reduce the current in a very appreciable manner and for sufficiently 
 long periods during the year. Under these circumstances, towage by 
 steam-tugs is rendered more easy, the struggle between the two methods 
 of traction increases, and the question arises whether both can possibly 
 co-exist or whether, sooner or later, one of the two is not bound to 
 disappear. 
 
 This, then, is the question we now propose to examine. In so doing, 
 our first, and sole object will be to set forth the conclusions we have 
 reached alter a very close survey of what takes place on rivers where, at 
 the present time, chain-towage and towage by steam-tugs work together, 
 and to insist more especially on the example furnished by the Lower 
 Seine, where, as regards the struggle at issue between the two systems of 
 traction, the question in the more interesting that a slate of things bor- 
 dering on what might be termed critical is the outcome of a very perfect 
 canalisation. 
 
 l r. 
 
 MOLINOS. 
 
2 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 After having shown, in this first portion of onr survey, how evidently 
 insufficient is the working-stock at present in use for lowing purposes, we 
 shall open out broader views and describe new mechanical appliances, 
 which, in onr opinion, seem likely to do away with most of these 
 drawbacks. 
 
 As, in our view also, these new appliances appear of a description such 
 as possibly to offer a satisfactory solution to the most important question 
 of mechanical traction on canals, we shall take leave to open on the 
 subject a short digression, outside of the programme we had at tirst laid 
 down. 
 
 We shall not dwell at any length on the question of deciding where 
 towage first took its rise or on the tentative essays which preceded its 
 industrial application. 
 
 Some have been pleased to ascribe the original idea to Marshal Saxe, 
 who, it is alleged, first suggested the towage of boats by means of a line, 
 one end of which was taken on shore. X windlass, fixed on hoard the 
 boat and worked by horses wound the rope round a drum ; it was then 
 unwound and its extremity carried to a further point along the bank ; 
 and so on. But it must be admitted that this manoeuvre singularly recalls 
 the work of the capstan on board vessels throughout all time. 
 
 In our opinion, towage really dates from the moment a sunken chain of 
 the length of the journey to he made was first employed for the purpose, 
 the notion of which reverts, we believe, to MM. Tourass and Mcllet who, 
 in 1852, conceived the project of applying their system to the Seine, 
 between Paris and Itouen. The experiment failed, however, as it was 
 made before the proper lime. 
 
 In 1855, an unimportant system of towage was established in Paris by 
 means of a sunken-chain, which extended from the lock at La Monnaie to 
 
 ) 
 
 « Port a l’Anglais », a distance of six kilometres, and the object of which 
 was to clear the landing-places along the Seine of their unladen boats. 
 
 From this incipient application of the system arose the first important 
 towage Company, that of the Lower Seine and the Oise, which plies over a 
 distance of 72 kilometres offering considerable traffic, between the lock at 
 « La Monnaie » and Conflans, at the mouth of the Oise. At the time the 
 company was formed (1856), the canalisation of the Seine was exceedingly 
 imperfect, the regime of the river irregular, the current often very strong, 
 and the depth of the water, which was variable, falling in summer below 
 1 m. 50. 
 
 In the absence of a lock at Suresncs, full-laden boats, on fetching the 
 Seine from the North, were compelled to lighten at great cost, in order to 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 o 
 
 reach I lie Paris landing-places and the docks of the canal of Sainl-Denis. 
 
 Towage, the settled purpose of which is to realise great efforts ol 
 traction at small outlay, during the whole of that period rendered 
 unparalleled services. 
 
 Superseding traction by horses and a few rare and inadequate tugs, it 
 swallowed up from the outset, nearly the whole of the traffic (let alone 
 what it gleaned on the return journey, which was mostly effected by 
 drifting down-slream), and saw its share in that traffic rise to 97 per cent. 
 
 It lowered the cost of traction for a dumb barge from 3 centimes to about 
 1 centime per ton-kilometre 1 , and although during the last few years its 
 share in I he total traffic may have in a great measure diminished, the 
 amount of towage business done by the company within thirty years from 
 Conflans to St-Denis or Paris is set down at upwards of 1 800 millions of 
 tons-kilometres ; Parisian trade and industry have therefore benefitted by a 
 saving of something like thirty millions (of francs), since the diminution 
 in prices is due solely to its influence. And, we may add this useful work 
 has been accomplished without subsidy of any sort and with no further 
 assistance from the Stale than the authorisation to lay down a chain at 
 the bottom of the river. 
 
 But, since the company was established, the conditions of navigability 
 along the Lower Seine ha\e been profoundly modified. The construction 
 of new weirs with locks has increased at all seasons the draught of water 
 to a minimum of three metres. The area of the waterway has naturally 
 been augmente I, and the speed of the current, except in times of flood, by 
 so much reduced. These alterations, although very advantageous to 
 barge-traffic lessened the relative superiority of towage, since the necessity 
 for it diminishes in proportion as the velocity of the current decreases. 
 On the other hand the increase in the river-depth allowed the improve- 
 ment of tugs, avantage moreover being taken of all improvements in 
 steam machinery during the last twenty years, as regards economy in 
 fuel, whilst the chain-tow-boats still in use are those employed at the 
 outset. 
 
 The result is that during the 5, 4, or 5 months of high water which 
 renders back to towage by chain its advantage, steam-tugs are to-day able 
 to compete with it, and traffic by it has fallen. In the last, few years its 
 share as decreased from 97 per cent to about 50 per cent, of the total 
 traffic. 
 
 In addition, the slackening of the current has rendered traction down- 
 stream more and more necessary. Thereupon steam-tugs made their 
 appearance, which, being better adapted for this sort of work than chain- 
 tow-boats, were sure offinding employment; and when once established, 
 
 1. In 1856, the cost of traction for a dumb barge of 250 tons, from Conflans to Crenelle 
 (Paris), was about 515 francs in winter and 273 francs in summer; the maximum at 
 present is about 175 francs, all included. 
 
4 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 they naturally sought, not to ascend without a load, and were therefore 
 gradually led to increase their power so as to render their use more effec- 
 tive in going up-stream. Hence the development of the service of tugs on 
 the Lower-Seine where on to-day may he counted, either for regular or 
 temporary duly, about 74 screw lu.s or working as lugs and lighters at 
 the same time. Out of this number, and in addition to those belonging 
 to the Water Transport Companies, 19 arc in all seasons employed in 
 towing dumb barges, but in summer 28 at least must be reckoned of a 
 total force of about 4 450 horses. 
 
 Is this situation likely to last? 
 
 Is chain-towage fated to disappear from the Seine? On the contrary, is 
 it possible to improve chain-towage appliances and the conditions of its 
 service so as to give to it a decisive advantage over other systems of 
 towing ? 
 
 This is the question that the Lower Seine and Oise Towage Company has 
 perseveringly been studying for the last six years. It is of the greatest 
 interest from a general point of view with regard to he best solution of 
 the question to he adopted for traction on canalised rivers. The character 
 common to these water-ways is that they are under a necessarily variable 
 regime. In summer the weirs being extended t he current is almost nil, 
 while in winter during Hie rainy season the dams must be partially opened, 
 the speed of the current increases, and during the floods the same being- 
 down, the natural regime of the river is completely re-established. Now, 
 the useful effect of tugs diminishes considerably with the increase of the 
 rate of the current. For example, a tug of the « Guepes » type can low 
 7 dumb barges in summer while, during the season of high-water, it 
 can only draw 1 1/2 (3 for 2 « Guepes » coupled) and only 1 by very high 
 waters. The proportion is about the same for the powerful tugs of 
 500 horse power. 
 
 In summer they can tow r 12 barges and they can only draw 3 during 
 the high water season; sometimes only 2 and even then at reduced 
 speed. 
 
 It will thus he seen that, in order to meet the requirements of traffic 
 which is perceptibly regular, it would be necessary to have 4 or 5 times 
 as many tugs in winter as are used in summer, and these boats not being- 
 able to find employment during the greater part of the year, it is difficult 
 to make out how the service can be organized for the use of tugs alone 
 while allowing free competition. What would naturally happen is this, 
 either in winter a dearth of the means for towing, an accumulation of 
 barges, and an excessive rise in the prices, or else in summer a super- 
 abundance of tugs (we have already reported this a few lines above) and 
 abnormal reductions : wheme, in short, a great variation in the scale of 
 freights'. 
 
 1. For that matter, from what is actually taking place on the Seine, one may infer 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIM OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 5 
 
 Chain towage, on I he contrary, on account of its mode of traction, is 
 infinitely less affected hy the variations in the strength of the current. In 
 practice, the weight of the siring of boats in limes of high w'aier is scarcely 
 reduced in the proportion of 5 to 10 (very exceptionally from 4 to 10) ; 
 also it must he added that, whilst every variation in the current is of 
 importance to the tug, the chain tow-boat is hardly affected except hy very 
 great variations. With suitable plant, therefore, it can assure service far 
 more regular and at the same time prevent such high differences in the 
 scale of charges. 
 
 It is evident that a system of traction which^ possess so crushing an 
 advantage over all others during 3 to 5 months of the year, according to 
 the state of the waters, ought really to heat all its competitors, provided 
 that during the rest of the year it he equal to them with regard to price, 
 safety, and regularity in the service. 
 
 Now, chain-towage does not at the present day fulfil this last condition, 
 and in order, to explain the causes correctly, it will be necessary, to point 
 out as briefly as possible now chain-towage works and the inconveniences 
 inherent to the arrangement of its plant. The method of dragging on the 
 chain, originally adopted by the Lower Seine and Oise Company was an 
 imitation of the arrangements of the small low-boat at « Port a 1’Anglais » ; 
 and it has been universally adopted in Franco and abroad. No other was 
 known and in spile of its evident defects no French or foreign engineer has 
 hitherto been able to propose a betier conlrivance. It consists of two 
 drums having five grooves, their axes being parallel and three metres 
 apart, round which the chain winds a sufficient number of limes (gene- 
 rally four half-turns on each drum), so that the adherence to be equal to 
 the necessary effort of traction. 
 
 With regard to the preservation of the chain this sys'em is very defective. 
 If the grooves in the windlasses am not absolutely identical, the rolling 
 from one groove to an other becoming different, the chain cannot help 
 slipping and abnormal strains occur to the intermediary portions, which 
 often exceed the effort of trac tion on the part str etched at I he bows of the 
 
 what would become of the traction-service if towage by chain were no longer to exist. 
 
 A large number of steam-lugs belong to transport companies plying regularly between 
 Rouen and Havre. In winter when the waters are high and the days short, these com- 
 panies hardly possess the means of traction sufficient for their requirements and all 
 their lugs are taken up for their own service. In summer on the contrary, a certain 
 number of these tugs are free; they come and compete with those attending to the 
 traction of barges all the year round. They often accept ridiculously low prices, as 
 provided their receipts be a little over i heir expenses for coal, they have an interest in 
 so doing. So that by a strange anomaly the number of tugs in the service of barge- 
 traffic on the Oise is greater in summer than in winter; whereas the contrary should be 
 the case. Their intervention which it is true gives barge-traffic the advantage of 
 abnormal prices for a short time, is in reality however ruinous for all free towing-under- 
 takings; it prevents their development and renders the dearth of the means of traction 
 in winter inevitable to a great degree. We do not indeed see how this can be remedied 
 otherwise than by concessions for towing with determinate and privileged tariffs. 
 
6 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 tow-boat. Besides this, the chain is bent and straightened again eight 
 times while stretched, during its passage over the windlasses, bendings 
 and straightenings which when t lie chain carries a small quantity of sand 
 on it ends by wearing it out. This apparatus therefore is in itself a cause 
 of rupture of the chain : these breakings occurring in deed most frequently 
 on the windlasses. 
 
 From the point of view of the general working, the inconveniences 
 arising from this arrangement are not less serious. The length of chain 
 rolled over these windlasses is almost 57 metres. It does not permit the 
 employment of tow-boats provided with screws which might cast the chain 
 at the end of the distance, since at each voyage the tow-boat would take 
 up 57 metres, and alter a certain time, the whole chain would he accumu- 
 lated at the upstream end of the distance. They have tried, on the Lower 
 Seine, from Conllans to Rouen, and on the Danube, cutting it into lengths 
 of 100 metres which the tow-boat brings down again to refasten down- 
 stream. But this expedient, unsatisfactory for many reasons, presents 
 the grave inconvenience of successively displacing the chain over the whole 
 distance to he run ; consequently it does not allow of its being replaced 
 methodically by fresh fractions, which should always he deposited in the 
 most dangerous or hardest parts of the distance such as bridges, etc., etc., 
 so that this arrangement results in an increased burden with regard to 
 the maintenance of the chain : an already very heavy charge. 
 
 The consequence is that the towage-service is done by relays, each tow- 
 boat remaining on the chain going down as well as going up ; going back- 
 wards and forwards with those which follow an i which precede it. If the 
 traftic increases, if, on that account, one or several additional tow-boats 
 are pressed into the service, there is nothing loll to he done hut to shorten 
 the distance of the stages ; hut at each stage the tow-boat has to exchange 
 his string of barges with the following one this is an operation which causes 
 great loss of lime, because it cannot be performed at every point on the 
 river. It is only practicable, safely, at certain mooring-places, to that the 
 tow-boats often wait for one another ; an absolute regularity being incom- 
 patible with any service of navigation. The importance of these losses of 
 time is so great, that, in winter, when the days are short, when traffic is 
 most active, there is hardly any benefit to he derived by putting on a fifth 
 tow-boat between Conllans and Saint-Denis ; the loss of time occasioned 
 In these changes counterbalancing the advantage to be gained by the 
 sending of on additional train. Another and still more serious inconve- 
 nience, in that this system which is excellent for going up-stream is, on 
 the contrary, inferior to that of tugs for going down-stream. 
 
 First of all, especially when the waters are high, if the (chain) tow-boat 
 is towing a string of barges down-stream, its speed, limited by the appa- 
 ratus for dragging on the chain, is insufficient to allow of the barges being 
 steered : the operation of changing tow-boats becomes more complicated, 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OB BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 7 
 
 longer and more dangerous. Besides, if the chain should happen to 
 break, the tow-boat is stopped, held by the chain wound on the wind- 
 lasses ; the train of barges astern may run into it and more or less 
 serious damage may he the consequence. For these reasons there is a 
 certain repugnance among bargemen with regard to the use of chain-tow- 
 boats for going down-stream. On equal terms, they give the preference to 
 the steam-tugs. All the chain-lowing companies established in the same 
 way as the Lower Seine and Oise C°, such as the Upper Seine C u , the German 
 Companies on the Elite, the Maine, the Neckar, and the Russian company 
 on the Tcheksna, are subjected to the same difficulties. 
 
 The Lower Seine C° from Confians to Rouen, and the Danube C°, who 
 have adopted the system of dividing the chain into section, gain or may 
 gain the advantage of making use of two ways (the chain serving for going 
 up and the descent being effected by a propeller), but they do not avoid 
 the inconvenience of an abnormal wear and tear of the chain owing to the 
 system of double windlasses, any more than the additional very heavy 
 charges for maintenance which result from the displacement of the chain. 
 
 We do not speak here of towing on the rope. At the time this process 
 appeared we exposed the errors on which it reposed, and predicted the 
 disappointments to which it would give rise. An engineer, whose autho- 
 rity on such matters is great, Mr. Bel I ingrat h , pronounced the same 
 opinion, and his predictions have been completely enough justified by the 
 various experiments made in Germany, Russia and the United-Slates, and 
 especially by the working of towage on the rope on the Rhine, for it to be 
 useless to return to it again. 
 
 We may now draw up the conditions which towing arrangements should 
 fulfil i:i order to admit of the service being performed as perfectly as 
 possible. Instead of the present chain-tow-boats, a combination of the 
 tug and low boat should be employed, that is to say, first-class screw, or 
 paddle-steam-tugs titled with a chain-towing apparatus which they should 
 only make use of while going up-stream. This apparatus ought to be 
 simple, should not damage the chain, and should allow of its being able 
 to he through into the water easily, at any point of the course. 
 
 The relay-service would he suppressed. 
 
 The low-boats going up-stream would take their trains of barges to their 
 destination without changing. Going down-stream they would act as 
 ordinary tug-boats. 
 
 Thus the service would he effected in two ways and would conse- 
 quently improve in regularity, speed, and in traffic-power as well as 
 economy. 
 
 All depends therefore on the discovery of a system of drawing upon the 
 chain which shall fulfil these conditions. 
 
 It is to the solving of this question that the « Lower Seine and Oise 
 Towing G° » have devoted their attention now for several years, with the 
 
8 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 assistance of eminent engineers, so that it may doubtless be interesting to 
 relate, in a few words, in what diverse directions their studies have been 
 directed before arriving at the solution of it, which it is to be hoped may 
 be definite and altogether satisfactory. 
 
 11 
 
 In order to carry out the programme which we have just given, any 
 system based upon any double gear (working into each other) for the chain 
 must be put aside; for even should l he calibre of the latter be exactly 
 equal and regular at the time of its being laid, after a short time the wear 
 and tear and stretching would change the pace, so that such systems are 
 especially inapplicable when the force of traction attains to, from 4 500 to 
 5 000 kilogs. 
 
 A rather natural idea was to try and seize the chain by a process similar 
 to the hauling on a cable with the hand. We may imagine projections 
 like bolls, or iron tags of convenient form, passing through the links or 
 between two links, at equal distances, and claws, moved by long connect- 
 ing rods, seizing these projections by an alternative movement. Besides 
 the inconvenience of these projections, it would not do to set the connect- 
 ing rods in motion by steam power, the a lion of which is too rough. 
 
 It would be necessary to employ compressed water ; but an examination 
 of this system shows that the mechanical result from it would be 
 very bad. 
 
 Mr. Bassere, Engineer of the Eivcs-Lille C°, has proposed the employment 
 of compressed water in a much more rational way. The chain passes 
 over a grooved drum filled with claws which arc able to press the iron of 
 the shackle laterally against the groove. These claws derive their power of 
 pressing from little pistons set in motion by compressed water. . One of 
 these claws squeezing the chain on its arrival at the drum, accompanies 
 it over a certain part of the circumference; then, it meets a toppet acting 
 upon the distributor which evacuates the compressed water, releasing the 
 piston and the claw just when another claw has caught hold of the chain 
 at its arrival on the drum. 
 
 This system has been tried in the work-shops of the Eivcs-Lille C° and 
 has given satisfactoiy results. 
 
 This is therefore a very ingenious combination which would already 
 furnish a very acceptable solution of the question if it did not offer several 
 inconveniences. Compressed water is very much employed in our days, 
 and the working of the little pistons may be considered very sure. 
 Nevertheless, the number of strokes which t hey have to give in a given 
 time must betaken into consideration, so that evidently it is advantageous 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 9 
 
 to employ a drum of tolerably large diameter, so that each piston, when 
 pressing on the chain, should accompany it over the greatest arc 
 possible. 
 
 Besides this the expenditure of labour is proportional to I be number of 
 the strokes of the piston, and consequently inversly proportional for a 
 given advance by the tow-boat to the diameter of the drum. In order to 
 attain a good working of the system in practise, it would be necessary to 
 employ drums, of from 2 to 3 metres in diameter. 
 
 Now, this great size of the drum for winding the chain presents an 
 inconvenience. The engines of the « tug-tow-boat » ought to drive the 
 screw at the rate of about 150 turns. These engines should govern the 
 chain towing apparatus at will by means of a coupling. As the speed of 
 the chain-tow-boat ought to be 5 kilometres per hour. The arrangement 
 of the gear would increase in complication and importance with the dia- 
 meter of the drum, with reference to the rate of speed to be obtained. 
 Besides this, all parts of the machinery should be all the stronger as the 
 pace is slower for the same amount of work. Doubtless this is but a 
 question of weight of transmission and expenditure, but it must be taken 
 into account. For this reason it is advisable that the diameter of the 
 drum should not be far from 1 metre; therefore instead of stopping at 
 this system we have directed our researches into another order of ideas. 
 We have endeavoured to obtain adherence (of the chain) by pressure, not, 
 let is be understood by a pressure on the links themselves which might 
 put them out of shape and unsolder them, but on the iron plate in the 
 links. 
 
 In order to obtain a traction-power of 5 000 kilogrammes it was neces- 
 sary to give a pressure of 50000 kilogrammes on the chain which we 
 endeavoured to obtain by means of a series of friction rollers tightened by 
 compressed water. 
 
 But in order to give so great a pressure without destroying the shape of 
 the chain, we were obliged to use a great number of rollers which necessi- 
 tated great complications. 
 
 It was then that Mr. de Bovet thought of magnetizing the groove in the 
 block. It was possible that the magnetizing might be useful but to what 
 extent ! 
 
 In presence of contradictory opinions it was impossible to know, a 
 priori, if the effect would be insignificant, or sufficient to allow of a con- 
 siderable diminution in the pressure required from the rollers of which 
 we have just spoken, or indeed complete enough to permit the suppression 
 of these rollers. Experience would have therefore to decide. 
 
 A first trial made with a little cast-iron block of 40 centimetres in dia- 
 meter, with a chain weighing 2 kilogs. 5 per metre gave results, which 
 without being entirely convincing, were at least satisfactory enough to 
 demonstrate that a much greater adhesion should be expected from a well 
 
 2 G 
 
 MOLINOS. 
 
10 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 applied magnetizing than was generally supposed; and that fresh expe- 
 riments should he made, this time with a block of the same size as what 
 would he required for service in case of success. 
 
 The programme consisted in placing I he chain in contact with two 
 magnetic poles very close lo each-other, so that it could (being made of 
 soft iron) close, in a short circuit, the magnetic surface developed by the 
 passage of an electric current. In order to obtain the maximum effect 
 with the minimum of current it was necessary to form an « electro 
 magnet », that is to say the block of soft steel, and lo have no hesitation 
 in employing a considerable mass of metal for it, the weight of the 
 apparatus being of no inconvenience, the moment it was a question of its 
 being placed on board-ship. 
 
 AVe give (plate I, fig. II) a drawing of the block made for these trials by 
 Mrs. Sautter Marie and 0°. The groove is absolutely smooth, having been 
 turned, made so that the links of the chain arriving successively one verti- 
 cally and the other horizontally should fit into it with the least possible 
 play, so as lo reduce to a minimum the distance between the iron of the 
 chain and the lips of the block constituting the two magnetic poles. The 
 dimensions were arranged lo suit those of the biggest chain in use on the 
 different distances gone over by tow-boats, and consequently there was to 
 he expected a much slighter adhesion when the chain, old and worn, pre- 
 sented a lighter weight per metre of length, at the same lime as a rather 
 noticible play in the groove. But as the oldest and most worn chain is 
 always sunk in places where the strength of the current, and consequently 
 the efforts of traction are the least, it is allowable that a sufficient adhesion 
 would still remain there. The greatest effort that has been registered 
 with a heavy siring of boats and at a rapide pace, having been about 
 4500 kilogrammes (to which must be added what is necessary for the 
 dragging on the chain by the tow-boat); as a precaution it was desirable 
 lo make use of an adhesion of 0000 kilogrammes; this figure of course 
 applying to the hardest parts of the distance. 
 
 On the other hand, for reasons which we have already pointed out, it 
 was not desirable to give the block a diameter much exceeding 1 metre. 
 A diameter of 1 metre 25 was therefore admitted for the middle groove 
 of the block to be made. All these dimensions are, for that matter, indi- 
 cated in the drawing. It shows the place for the reel of wire intended lo 
 produce the magnetism ; the current is brought through the centre of the 
 axle from two rings on which two brushes rub. The groove is closed by 
 a bronze ring with indice rubber joints to preserve the wire; the latter, it 
 is true, might be enclosed in a soldered copper box which would prevent 
 its being wetted; the bronze ring would nevertheless he necessary so as to 
 prevent dirt of all sorts from falling into the block at a part where 
 cleaning would he very difficult. 
 
 The bolts of the exterior ‘crown are of bronze; if made of iron they 
 
J-'Ja.ncAe d. 
 
 . Eohelle 
 
 6 O.iO l***” lK 
 
 I l I , I 
 
 Figc?. POULIE MAGNET iQUE d* M r de BOVET. 
 
 ^ JSa\ d 
 
 A Pfafeau a doud/e. 
 b — oi’— sans diouitie. 
 C Cerc/e dPmo/dfdJe . 
 1) _ </' «/*. 
 
 E — deJemreAuv. 
 EEorddifs e n caouAdour. 
 
 G Baden s af ('i'reus. 
 
 H Vi<f e fe/e /Paisee 
 I C/a/vtte . 
 
 K 3oitne 77icicf//e/fSsuiA 
 2/ Jkssatfe dtrs/d dans Is 
 Jf cL c . lint ! arW 
 
 Fig-1 - 
 
 POULIE TOUEUSE 
 
 obi C&rtctl f&lerwl a I’OlSC' . 
 
 _ A2S __ __ J 
 
 Ecliolle 
 
 So 
 
 cent = : 
 
 Molinos et de Bovet 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 II 
 
 would allow a part of' the magnetic current to Escape and consequently be 
 a cause of a considerable loss. 
 
 This trial block was simply made of two cast-steel plates fitted to one 
 another : the apparatus, as may he seen, is very strong, only the lips are 
 liable to wear. 
 
 Therefore for blocks for general use. it will he necessary to make these 
 lips in the form of two bands which can he easily changed ; so that, when 
 once the block is fixed on its axle, the only attention it will require will 
 be reduced to the replacing of these hands. We give (pi. I, tig. 1) a 
 drawing of a block made in this way for a small tow-boat intended for 
 the lateral canal of the Oise. The block shown (pi. I, fig. 2) was experi- 
 mented upon in Mrs. Sautter, Ilarle and C°’s workshops and with 
 necessarily stationary appliances. It was mounted on a high trcssel and 
 fixed so that it could not turn (fig. A and B further on). The chain placed 
 above ended in a hook, with weights attached, fastened to a swing bridge. 
 The other end hung loosely at AB. The rolling of the chain having been 
 fixed before hand at three quarter-turns, for one trial, the chain was 
 brought into position C. D. by hand, then, applying the current to the 
 reel, it was left to itself. Then the bridge, which up till now had been 
 bearing the weight P, was moved so as to throw the whole weight on to the 
 chain. 
 
 We shall point out, in a summary manner, the principal results 
 observed. 
 
 At first endeavours were made to ascertain the limit of the current 
 which if would be advisable not to exceed. This attempt was made with 
 a new chain (the old chain necessarily requiring to be saturated for a 
 lesser current) composed of two links arranged as in the accompanying sketch 
 and placed in the lower part of the groove. The current was gradually 
 increased until, on a further augmentation of it, the increase in the weight 
 necessary to detach it no longer corresponded. 
 
 It was found that the limit was reached at about 57 000 amperes-tu ns 
 which, given the wire placed in the block (29 rows of 27 coils of a 5 milli- 
 metre wire viz, 785 turns) corresponds to 48 amperes; and, for a necessary 
 electric motive power of 70 volts, to 4-5 horse-power. 
 
 Under these conditions of the current the old unserviceable chain, 
 elongated, out of shape, reduced to a weight per metre which is certainly 
 the half of flic weight of a metre of a new 26 1/2 millimetres chain, bears 
 from 6 000 to 6 500 kilogrammes. 
 
 But this weight may be attained for this same old chain with a much 
 feebler current; it has been obtained with only 18 amperes. 
 
 Whence one may conclude that (lie new 6 1/2 millimetres chain, which 
 weight twice as much and which has a much slighter play in the groove, 
 ought to bear from about 10 to 12 tons. 
 
 We dared not push the experiments to that extent for fear the tressel 
 
12 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 might not have stood it, and also that the want of sufficient height might 
 have rendered the placing of a weight of 12 000 kilogrammes of iron under 
 the block very difficult. For that matter this had but a theoretical interest, 
 since the limit we had fixed upon had been greatly exceeded. The disco- 
 very of the extreme limit will always he easy to make later on with a 
 tow-boat. 
 
 D 
 
 B 
 
 The adhesion is good ; 'when the current it sufficient it is maintained in 
 spite of shocks. 
 
 This was self-verified. These chains are in fact heavy and difficult to 
 handle; and it frequently happened that the chain A. C, placed by hand 
 and not being able to be stretched, because the links got placed slightly 
 cross-wise, rectified its position itself, under the influence of the weight 
 P by a succession of shocks until quite straight without any slipping of the 
 whole being produced. 
 
 When, for a given current, the limited weight is exceeded, there is a 
 slipping: this slipping is more or less rapid according as the weight is 
 exceeded by a greater or smaller quantity. On service, the chain will be 
 always wet: on the Seine it brings up a varying quantity of little leeches 
 which, on being crushed, lubricate the adjacent surfaces. It would he 
 possible, it is true, to wash the chain with a jet of water, or if necessary, 
 pass it between brushes ; hut it would be as well that such precautions 
 should not be absolutely and always indispensable. We have therefore 
 tried what effect is produced by ordinary water, as well as by soapy water 
 which we suppose would have about the same effect as the leech-water. 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 13 
 
 From several experiments it seems that the loss of adhesion is in the two 
 later cases about 10 per cent. 
 
 There is nothing inadmissible in this result, a priori, the cause at stake 
 not having apparently any influence except on the mechanical and not on 
 the magnetic effect. 
 
 The effects of giving a twist to the chain were also lo be feared, which it 
 seemed would be very difficult to completely avoid. 
 
 We have therefore given a twist lo the chain : a new chain has been 
 made, two quarters of a turn round its axis over a length corresponding 
 to half the upper circumference of the block, viz, two metres. This is all 
 that it is possible to realize by way of giving a twist: thus twisted the 
 chain naturally does not enter at all into the little groove, it gets badly 
 placed in the middle sized one, and portions of the links absolutely over- 
 lap the block. The part A. C. has been left straight from the impossibility 
 of twisting it and of placing it by hand at the same time. In this stale 
 the chain bore a weight of 6 700 kilogrammes : p rfeelly ; this is the heaviest 
 weight which was made u^e of, we are therefore ignorant of by how much 
 it might how been exceeded. The chain being always twisted, as has 
 just been said, was finally freely oiled, as will as the groove, taking care 
 that the oil should penetrate will everywhere; and it was able to bear, 
 under these conditions (which in practise never happen), a weight of up- 
 wards of 4 000 kilogrammes. 
 
 To wind up, let us report on interesting observation. We have, as we 
 have said, measured the detaching force of a link. Let us call this detach- 
 ing force brought up to 1 centimetre long from the groove, for the same 
 current, 18 amperes, which gives with old dry chain an adhesion, at a 
 tangent, of 6 000 kilogrammes, and which for new chain hardly attains 
 4 000 kilogrammes. 
 
 All these experiments were made with stationery plant ; but on set vice 
 the rate looked for on the circumference of a towing block of the same 
 diameter as the experimental one is about 1 metre and every one knows 
 that at such rates of speed the coefficients of friction are the same as 
 when stationary. At the utmost, a loss is to be feared equivalent to 
 missing a few degress of rolling, arising from the delay which the various 
 parts of the chain when in motion may create before arriving at their 
 maximum slate of magnetism. It has not appeared that there is anything 
 to be afraid of in this fact, considering that the results obtained greatly 
 surpassed the requirements ; and at the close of the experiments the Lower 
 Seine and Oise C° decided to build a low-boat on board which to fit up a 
 magnetic block; the very one that had served for the trials. Let us 
 remark, by the way, that it would be possible to construct the block in 
 another manner, provided that the short-circuit closing by means of the 
 chain or by magnetic circuits to be created, be preserved for it. It is 
 thus that cores of electromagnets may be arranged according to the radii 
 
14 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 of the block, as in an armature or ring of a Gramme’s machine with 
 alterning currents : or along the rime normally in Ihe plane of the block, 
 as in an armature of a Siemens’s machine with alternating currents. 
 With Ihe addition of a collecior, these latter arrangements would allow 
 of the suppression of Ihe current at the spot where Ihe chain ought lo leave 
 the block, and so bring about Ihe separation without trouble. But all Ibis 
 would lead to apparatus of more complicated construction and especially 
 needing more delicate care, so it has appeared preferable, if only on 
 account of its great simplicity, to slick lo the arrangement here before 
 described, being satisfied with separating the chain by force and only 
 wasting a little energy in so doing; very little indeed, if we refer to the 
 figures given above, for the separating force brought up to a centimetre 
 long of groove ; and if it be admitted that after a separation of 2 centi- 
 metres, for instance, there is no more work required, it is easy to reckon 
 that the rate foreseen, Ihe work lo he expended is only about half one 
 horse-power. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The construction of the new tow-boat, intended to work with the new 
 chain-towage apparatus, was entrusted to Mr. II. SatreofLyon. It is 
 represented on Plate II. 
 
 Its length is 53 metres, its breadth at midships is 5 metres, depth of 
 hold 2 m. 70, the average draft of water under-way as a tow-boat is 
 1 m. 00. Advantage has naturally been taken of the existence of a great 
 depth of water in the Seine to adopt a rather large screw. 
 
 Its engines arc of t he compound overhead cylinder type ; they are pla- 
 ced in the centre of the boat, and by means of two couplings can, at will, 
 drive the screw (by a direct driving-wheel) or the towage apparatus (by 
 angular wheels). They are intended to develope 150 horse-power with 
 150 revolutions per minute with the screw and 60 to 80 horse-power with 
 90 revolutions while travelling on the chain. 
 
 Towards the stern there are two boilers of 50 m*. of heating surface 
 each. 
 
 Towards the hows is the chain-towage apparatus the working of which 
 is clearly explained in the drawing. 
 
 When under way on the chain the boat it about on a level; her bows 
 are raised when acting as a tug : two water ballast compartments are 
 arranged in the bows and astern, and the water can be sent from one into 
 the other, in older to raise the bows, by means of a centrifugal pump 
 worked by a dynamo. The hull is shaped for a tug intended for traction 
 going down stream at a moderate pace ; near the water line it suddenly 
 
✓ 
 
 ft* 
 
Planche II 
 
 li !! 
 
 Ll.JJ— 
 
 Legende 
 
 Longueur sur U panto 
 Lanjrur /tors membrures 
 Creux 
 
 t !h amctrr riu, G' 1 Cylinder — 
 Machine- ! Duwietrr da 1‘' CyUndjf. 
 
 ydiurse, drs pistons 
 fi/issn/ur- drudoppre. sur / letter, 
 Nombre. dr- tours 
 
 I'u is sun re dear lop pec sur /e lounge ■ 
 Mombir dr lours 
 
 [ Surface, de Chaufjc lot ale. 
 ChaucUax . > l „ y , J 
 
 \ Timbre 
 
 32 POO 
 S m ooo 
 Z, yoo 
 0. cso 
 
 0,300 
 
 0 ooo 
 ISO chin* 
 /SO tours 
 90 chad. 
 90 tours 
 
 TOUEUR - REMORQUEUR A H E LICE DE 1 50 CHEVAUX 
 
 dela C ie Anonyme de Touage de la Basse Seine et de l'Oise 
 
 Echclle '/so 
 
 T-'uj 1 Coupe njptudinalc 
 
 ‘/so 
 
TOWAGE DY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 15 
 
 widens towards I he bows so as to give a tolerable width in order to insure 
 greater steadiness while travelling on the chain. 
 
 The two rudders have been preserved ; the one forward is arranged so 
 that when it is fixed at steady (when the boat is being propelled by the 
 screw), there may be no tendency to turn. The two wheels arc close 
 together beside the captains post. 
 
 The general form of the deck and the switches has also been preserved 
 such as they are actually one board the tow-boats of I lie Company where 
 they give satisfaction. 
 
 The drawing shows clearly how the rolling of the chain over I lie towage 
 block is done. A symetrical arrangement has been adopted; if the tow- 
 boat has only to go up stream on the chain (she is turned round it it is 
 necessary to go a long distance down stream upon the chain) she is never- 
 theless expected to go sometimes stern-formost if it should only be tor 
 manoeuvring. The two guide-rollers for the entry and exit of the chain 
 are mounted on cradles; they can be moved away to facilitate the placing 
 or the removal of the chain. 
 
 In order to help the unsticking of the chain, the exit roller is made ot 
 magnetic metal ; it is brought into contact with the large block. 
 
 The magnetic field is therefore modified at this spot, the roller becomes 
 magnitized and the chain has no longer a tendency to stick to the moving 
 block alone. A noil-magnetic hard metal-claw entering the groove serves 
 to complete, if necessary, the detaching of it. 
 
 Towards the bows there is, on the contrary, every advantage in not 
 modifying the field ; with this view, the entrance roller is made of non- 
 magnetic metal. When going stern formost, in manoeuvring, it is the 
 claw that insures the detaching of the chain. 
 
 With regard to the revolving block, it is mounted in a slauting position, 
 and it is sufficient if the fore-plate be everywhere kept at a distance of 2 
 or 5 decimetres from the iron parts of the deck and the machinery tor 
 avoiding loss of power. 
 
 Towards the stern a well is reserved, large enough to take in about 
 20 metres of chain. This well should allow of a certain quantity of chain 
 being slowed in it, when some supple portion is found to exchange for 
 parts that are too stiff, and thus aid the manoeuvres, especially when going- 
 round curves. In other words the tow-boat ought to be able to discharge 
 astern a rather different amount of chain to what she takes in over the 
 rollers in the bows. For this purpose a brake has been fitted at the exit 
 of the well ; this brake is composed of a block made like the towage block, 
 but of smaller dimensions; the chain makes a quarter turn on it; and 
 facing the chain an iron shoe is placed, having very little play. By pas- 
 sing some of the current along it, the chain is made to adhere to the 
 block, and the latter to stick on the shoe, so that it can turn no more. 
 The effect may he graduated by varying the current, and the discharge 
 
1C 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 takes place by the combined action of l be weight of chain falling astern 
 and the resistance of the brake which can be altered at will. For manoeu- 
 vring only a commutator and a rheostat are necessary and these may be 
 placed on the captains post. If this brake does not act, the chain ought 
 to run out astern without great difficulty. When the brake is on, its 
 descend into the well should be insured, and for that, it will be necessary 
 to set the roller placed at the entrance in motion ; by roughing the groove 
 of Ibis roller the friction will be sufficient to produce a movement of the 
 chain. The turning of this roller may be effected by a little receiving 
 dynamo placed in its immediate vicinity; whenever there has been any 
 current disposable, Ibis mode of coupling lias appeared by far the sim- 
 plest. The commutator may also be placed on the captains bench. 
 
 The current necessary for the large block and for the different accessory 
 apparatus ought to be supplied by a distinct machine, so as to be inde- 
 pendent of the working of the tow-boat. One of the little (dynamo and 
 motor) precision-machines made by Mrs. Sautter, Uarle and C°, which are 
 not cumbersom may be used for this purpose. 
 
 It may be placed alongside the engines handy for the engineer. Its 
 escapement can go into the funnel or condenser at will. 
 
 The quarter for the captain and crew are arranged in the stern and 
 forward. The deck is perfectly clear on one side, in order to permit of 
 the easy manipulation of the chain; the only obstacle it meets with being 
 the mooring stanchions (made of cast-iron) which are placed at a short 
 distance aft of the towing apparatus on the port and the starboard sides of 
 the boat. 
 
 On either side of the large block, hooks are used for hanging up the 
 chain tackle. 
 
 In principle, this boat should only make use of the chain when going up 
 stream, which can be thrown ovei board at any spot of the distance, as 
 soon as the last barge going up has been cast off in port : in reality there 
 are only 3 metres of it on the block, and there is no difficulty in heaving 
 it over board without any dangerous softening. 
 
 Going down-stream it is propelled by the^screw, as a tug-boat, forwbicb 
 its borse-power must certainly suffice. In the present stale of the towage- 
 plant on the Seine it is absolutely necessary that the tow-boat should 
 redescend the riv r on the chain so as to replace it properly in the channel, 
 for after two or three consecutive trips up-stream it gets much drawn 
 towards the inner curves with a tendency to get near the banks. Practise 
 will tell if the arrangements made on board the new boat for managing 
 the chain, while under way will work well, and whether with more power- 
 ful helms, up-tow-boats will be able to keep the chain in its proper place 
 or whether it will he necessary to correct its place again after a certain 
 number of consecutive passages. That may be done by a tow-boat going- 
 up alone; if it should be necessary to employ a down-tow-boat tor it ; the 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OB BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 17 
 
 manoeuvres to be performed at a crossing would be very easy. The prin- 
 cipal apparatus is simple in the extreme; it is difficult to see how it can 
 be rendered more so by any oilier combination. 
 
 The labour required for insuring the adhesion of the chain is very trifling. 
 The one turning block docs away with all the difficullies which weroncces- 
 sitaled by the preservation of an equality in diamelcr of I lie windlass 
 grooves, it puts an end to all cause of jerkings and seems to us to insure 
 a means of preserving the chain hitherto unknown. 
 
 Finally, let us add that the apparatus itself constitutes a « limiter » of 
 power since according to the strength of the current introduced into the 
 block, the slipping is produced as soon as the effort called forth by the 
 onward movement of the boat exceeds the limit which may have been fixed 
 upon and which may besides be modified at will. 
 
 If experience justifies the correctness of these expectations, towage thus 
 improved will certainly be the best solution of the question of traction on open 
 or canalized rivers. In conclusion we will thus sum up the advantages of it. 
 
 1. With regard to the system of towage commonly employed : a consi- 
 derable diminution in the wear and tear of the chain, suppression of the 
 principal causes of its breaking, the going away with the service of relays, 
 a belter utilisation of plant, increase of traffic-power and decrease of work- 
 ing expenses. The possibility of effecting down stream traction under 
 the same conditions as ordinary tug-boats. 
 
 2. Compared with tug-boats : equality in low-water. Undoubted supe- 
 riority in high water. 
 
 These improvements altogether so important from various points of 
 view, leads to a regular transformation in towage from what has been 
 performed until now. 
 
 The magnetic block will be able to supply fresh and interesting solutions 
 of the problems which arc still being studied; for example, mechanical 
 traction on canals. This is the last point that we arc desirous of 
 examining. 
 
 / iv 
 
 Every one knows the special difficulties attending the application of a 
 mechanical system to the traction of vessels on canals. 
 
 Putting aside particular cases, such as going through tunnels where 
 navigation by trains of barges and consequently chain-towage is applicable, 
 these difficulties are of a double nature. The first arises from the shortness 
 of the reaches and the frequent passing through locks. Each boat having 
 to be « locked » separately can only wait until a certain number of other 
 boats which are following it have passed, so as to make up a train, and 
 has therefore to be drawn individually. The second difficulty consequent 
 
18 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 upon this first condition, is to apply a very feeble mechanical force econo- 
 mically which may be more advantageous Ilian drawing by horses, etc., 
 this extreme division of mechanical motive labour is hardly compatible 
 with economy. We must therefore consider well all that may be demanded 
 of an excellent arrangement for tbe mechanical traction of vessels on 
 canals. If any considerable economy in the employment of horses is 
 sought after we doubt if such can he attained, but if it he sufficient to 
 obtain other advantages of certain importance, such as regularity, superior 
 traffic-power, and a slight increase in effective speed, then the end may 
 perhaps be attained. 
 
 Different trials have been made, which arc to well known for us to dwell 
 upon them otherwise than by briefly recalling them. 
 
 The employment of locomotives on lines laid along the towing path, a 
 system evidently possessing the same inconveniences as chain-towage and 
 requiring an infinitely more expensive arrangement. 
 
 The « Bouquie » system which consisted in fitting a little moveable 
 towage-apparatus on board each boat, the first attempt at the necessary 
 division of motive labour, but which by necessitating the employment of a 
 steam engine and consequently an engineer could not be economical. 
 The moving ropes first tried by Mr. Oriolle, and afterwards by Mr. Maurice 
 Levy whose experiments had given some interesting results, but which still 
 leave much uncertainty, with regard to tbe maintenance of the cable and 
 the blocks in working order, and consequently of the cost price. 
 
 After all. it seems to us undeniable that, in principle, it must be pre- 
 ferable to haul the boat over a fixed cable or belter still a chain than to 
 draw it by means of a moving rope. And this is what might be realized 
 up an arrangement similar to that proposed by Mr. Bouquie but by alto- 
 gether different and infinitely more simple means. We know that the 
 apparatus to be placed on board a barge according to the system proposed 
 by Mr. Bouquie is composed of: 
 
 1. A block with impressions acting on the chain and proper transmis- 
 sions, the whole fitted on a frame to be fixed by claws or screws in the 
 bow of the boat ; 
 
 2. A portable engine likewise fixed on board the barge and communi- 
 cating with the block by means of a leather band lor the transmission of 
 motion. 
 
 Everything fitted on board at the entrance of a canal should be returned 
 on coming out of it and utilized for the return-journey by another barge 
 going in the opposilc direction. There is no difficulty in that, the number 
 of boats travelling up and down being about equal. 
 
 In the same way we propose the employment of an apparatus which can 
 be placed on board and taken off again in the same state, but this apparatus, 
 fitted also into a frame and fastened to the barge in a manner similar to 
 that invented by Mr. Bouquie, consists altogether in only the towage block, 
 
TOWAGE BY CHAIN OR BY STEAM-TUGS. 
 
 19 
 
 a little dynamo and of an apparatus for the transmission of motion from one 
 to the other, the current being supplied to t he dynamo by a fixed wire. 
 
 The block is a magnetic one similar to that just described : with a dia- 
 meter of only 40 centimetres and with a half turn of a chain weighing 
 3 kilogs. 5, there is sufficient adhesion for drawing a barge (pinnace) at 
 the rate of 3 kilometres an hour. 
 
 The system permitting slippings for efforts exceeding the desired limit, 
 there is every certainty of being able to manoeuvre without risk of damage 
 even in cases where traction is difficult, as in passing through locks. 
 
 The dynamo would be able to give a 3 horse-power on its axle, which, 
 if we admit a rotatory speed of 1 000 turns per minute, allows of its being 
 of rather small dimensions. Between the block and the motor any sys- 
 tem of transmission allowing of a diminution of from 1 000 to 40 turns 
 will do. We arc able, for that matter, to arrange these means of trans- 
 mission so as to always insure a slipping in case of extraordinary efforts, 
 and consequently never to fix the dynamo. 
 
 The whole contrivance is of slight weight and not voluminous. A model 
 which we have studied, suitable for a canal with plenty of traffic, might 
 all be put into a box (only leaving the hand lever of the commutator out), 
 the dimensions of which would be about 1 m. 25 by 1 m. 25 by 80 centi- 
 metres, and the weight of which would not exceed I 500 kilogrammes. 
 There is nothing simpler than its working ; it is never necessary to go 
 astern nor consequently touch the vital parts of the dynamo; all that is 
 necessary being to pul the hand-lever in contact with either one or the 
 other of the two buttons, one corresponding to « stop » and the other to 
 « full steam ahead » the bargeman himself can work it without requireing 
 the assistance of a special hand. The current should be taken along a 
 cable placed alongside the canal by means of a cradle and a flexible wire, 
 having one end at the cradle and the other at the dynamo, and being held up 
 by a block attached to mast so as to be kept above the tow-path. In short this 
 is the arrangement frequently employed for electric tramways, there can 
 therefore be no doubt as to its practicability. In places where two lines 
 are necessary for up-boats and down- boats there would be a conductor on 
 either side of the canal these two conductors being but the two halves of 
 one sole conductor, connected here and there either above or below the 
 canal. The return of the current would be made through the chain and 
 the water without necessitating a special cable. 
 
 Workshops for producing electricity should be set up along the canal 
 in the vicinity of the locks, with either steam-power (in junction-canals 
 where water has to be economized), or hydraulic power where water is 
 abundant. 
 
 A chain of 3 kilogs. 5 would surely be sufficient ; we however propose, by 
 preference, a chain of 4 kilogrammes which, being heavier, would be less 
 likely to get out of place in the curses. We must admit that in a canal 
 
20 
 
 TRACTION OF BOATS ON CANALISED RIVERS. 
 
 with a great traffic there would be two chains. The apparatus being 
 placed on the side of I lie barge nearest, the bank, the chains would be on 
 either side of the canal and would not be liable to get mixed. At the locks 
 they would pass at least where water has to be economized above the 
 sluices, as was formerly done on the Upper Seine. The retention in their 
 places of flic chains might be facilitated by alloting them alternately to 
 up-boats and down-boats. 
 
 From a study which we made, assisted by Mr. Picou for the electric part, 
 with a view to the application of this system on a certain canal of no great 
 length and with a rather considerable amount of traffic, it resulted that it 
 is possible to arrive at a sensible increase of speed and at a slight reduc- 
 tion in the present prices, and that, while remaining, as regards the 
 distribution of electricity, within the limits of tension which absolutely 
 removes all possibility of danger whatever; while leaving to the bargemen 
 the most complete independence, since they can slop or go on at will (it 
 being only necessary to turn a little band-lever), take up or let go the 
 chain as they please. Indeed, with the slight-weight provided, the 
 shallowness of the canals, the facility in placing the chain and the raising 
 it for a half turn over a small block, the necessary workings are as easy 
 as possible. In short, as there are no vital parts in motion except those 
 which are under immediate control, there is no necessity to employ extra 
 or special bands. As to the employment of electricity in the way we pro- 
 pose, the example of numerous lines of tramways is there to show that it 
 is both possible and practical and even easier along a canal where abso- 
 lutely nothing but barges pass, than along a road open to a much more 
 complicated traffic. 
 
 To sum up we believe that this system would be the most economical of 
 all the mechanical processes proposed, and that it would show great 
 advantages over horse-traction with regard to speed, regularity and traffic 
 power. 
 
 Paris, April 1892. 
 
 (Translated by M. Sharp.) 
 
 24 839. — Imprimerie generate A. Lahure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 

V" INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 7“ QUESTION 
 
 DUES 
 
 ON 
 
 INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 REPORT 
 
 ~\ 
 
 BY 
 
 IYI. BEAURIN-GRESSIER 
 
 Chef de la Division de la Navigation au Ministere des Travaux publics, a Paris 
 
 0O0-- 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALE LAHURE 
 
 9, RUE DE FLEURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. BEAURIN-GRESSIER 
 
 Chef dc la Division <le la Navigation au Ministbre dos Travaux publics, 5 Paris. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 I. — Introduction. 
 
 II. — Nature of dues on inland navigation. 
 
 III. — Classification of charges on inland navigation. 
 
 IV. — Tolls. 
 
 § 1. Ways and means applied to the execution of works. 
 
 § 2. Differences between tolls and llietax. Speciality of tolls. 
 § 3. Assessment and toll— tariffs. 
 
 V. — Charges made for the use of public plant. 
 
 VI. — Charges made for the use of private plant. 
 
 VII. — Institution and management of toll and plant charges. 
 
 VIII. — Conclusions to be discussed. 
 
 I. — INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The subject with which we have to deal could be approached in two 
 ways. 
 
 The first would consist in giving as complete a description as possible 
 of the regime applied in France in affairs of inland navigation charges, — 
 to present the history of the successive transformations through which 
 this regime has passed, in order to arrive at its actual state, — to appre- 
 ciate the motives of those transformations, — to convey an idea of the 
 advantages and inconveniences of the present regime and the improvements 
 to which it is subject. 
 
 The second would consist in abandoning the objective of a nation or of 
 a given regime and in looking at the question from a more general point 
 ol view confine ourselves to investigating what are, theoretically, the condi- 
 tions which a system of taxation applied to inland navigation must fulfil 
 in order to produce the maximum profitable returns, while causing the 
 least hinderance possible to navigation. 
 
 1 G. 
 
 REAUKIN— GRESSIER. 
 
2 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 We have adopted the second of those propositions. 
 
 We have all the more thought ourselves justified in doing so in as much 
 as the same subject had been attributed for France to two different parties, 
 and that our colleague to whom the question of inland navigation fell at 
 the same time as to ourselves, was quite inclined to treat it under its first 
 aspect. 
 
 Let us add that our pretentions for undertaking a theoretic study of the 
 charges on inland navigation will appear less daring if, firstly, it be con- 
 sidered that the question is laid before us in France in somewhat the same 
 form as we give it and, secondly, that for two years it has been the object 
 of a very deep investigation on the part of users of water-ways, of Cham- 
 bers of Commerce and boat-owners, and that it has been embodied in a 
 bill, at present submitted to the deliberations of Parliament. This bill, 
 distributed to the two Chambers, is preceded by a statement of the motives 
 justifying its presentation. 
 
 The works just mentioned have enabled us to give a solid basis to the 
 study we have undertaken, and allhough it is no part of our intention to 
 present an analysis of those works here, we have no hesitation in declaring 
 that we have drawn from them the elements of the developments which 
 will follow and the principal motives for the conclusions presented by us 
 to the Congress. 
 
 |i. _ NATURE OF DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 Their distinctive characters. 
 
 In a general way, the name of « charge » is given in opposition to that 
 of « price », for the remuneration of a service which is not submitted to 
 the action of competition. The rate of the remuneration is then fixed 
 beforehand by the person who is able to render the service, i. e. the 
 « offerer, » the « demander » not being allowed to discuss the question. 
 
 Such is also the case when circumstances place a person capable of 
 rendering a given order of services in possession of a unique article or of 
 a monopoly granted by a positive law, thus according him the exclusive 
 faculty of rendering the said services. 
 
 In ordinary language the word « charge » is generally reserved for the 
 case in which there is a question of services rendered by the care or 
 simply under the control of a public authority and where the rate ot 
 remuneration to which they are liable is fixed by this authority, acting 
 in virtue of powers conferred on it by law. 
 
 Services rendered under the care of public powers or their delegates are 
 qualified « public services ». 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 5 
 
 If they give rise lo retribution on the part of the concessionary, these 
 services are necessarily rated. 
 
 It is worthy of remark here that public services are chiefly distinguished 
 from private services in as much as they correspond to interests having a 
 common character and are subordinated to the possession of landed pro- 
 perties, which, by their destination in the social centre, could in no wise 
 be abandoned to the regime of private appropriation. 
 
 It is chiefly in this sense that we shall have to make use of the word. 
 
 We shall not dwell on these general statements respecting the distinc- 
 tive characters of the two natures of services, their characters will appear 
 very clearly in the analysis we shall have to make of the constitutive ele- 
 ments of the branch of transports belonging to inland navigation; we shall 
 endeavour to distinguish in the operations attached to this branch those 
 having a private character from those which must be given up lo private 
 industry ; — those whose remuneration is left to the free contentions ol 
 interested parlies, from those which must become the subject of taxation. 
 
 In all countries rivers are looked upon as the common properly of the 
 nation, when, in addition to the numerous useful qualities they possess, 
 and which are due to their influence on the preservation and development 
 of life in the territories they water, rivers also combine the quality ot 
 being navigable, they are placed in a special category of public property, 
 called the public domaine. 
 
 The public fluvial domaine lias this in particular that, in order to 
 reserve its use to the members of the community, it is not only necessary 
 to keep it exempt from all private appropriation, it must besides become 
 the object of special action, in order to be appropriated to its destination. 
 Once more, in order that a water-way may answer the purpose of its 
 destination as a navigable way ; in order that circulation may find all the 
 facilities it demands, it is not sufficient, — for the most part at least, 
 — that police laws regulate and distribute its qualities between the 
 various interested parties. This water-way must besides become the 
 object of certain modifications, of works of adaptation, of improvements ; 
 it must give rise to the establishment of works whose execution and main- 
 tenance cannot be left to the good will of those who would be inclined, to 
 have recourse to them. — The execution of the works, the maintenance 
 of performances of this kind, constitute services rendered to transports 
 and are classed in the category of public services. These services can only 
 be performed when set on foot by public powers, by their, direct agents, 
 by contractors working under their authority, or by delegates to whom a 
 part of the higher powers of public authorities has been transferred by 
 way of concession. The remuneration of such services is necessarily fixed 
 by law, or by authorities invested with the power of fixing the same, or of 
 exacting its payment. 
 
 The situation of domanial property acquired to navigable ways, the 
 
4 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 character of public services which il is admitted is embodied in works for 
 adapting them to the requirements of water transports, exert an inevitable 
 repercussion on the nature of the surplus of the operations which these 
 transports bear with them. 
 
 Whatever be the mode of transport which is under consideration, — 
 this is applied indeed to every system of* transport as well as to inland 
 navigation, — three principal orders of factors characterised by the three 
 terms : way, vehicle, and motor are recognized as necessary. Every 
 transport gives rise, besides, to a certain number of operations or 
 accessory manipulations to be effected at the shipping and landing stations 
 and bearing on the elements of traffic, namely, the persons or tilings to be 
 carried. With respect to inland navigation, it is admitted, as a general rule 
 that, if the operations regarding the establishment, the maintenance and 
 the working of the way and its accessories be within the province of public 
 services, all that concerns the supply and the putting in motion of the 
 vehicle and motor enter more naturally into the sphere of action of pri- 
 vate industry. Such is the case with the managing operations of shipping 
 and discharging at the points of departure and arrival. It will be seen 
 however that such a distribution cannot be absolutely carried out. 
 
 We must be excused for touching in this respect on a rather dry 
 subject. 
 
 If attention be first directed to the three principal factors of transport : 
 way, vehicle, and motor, it will be remarked that there is a very narrow 
 correlation between them. It is at once seen, indeed, that the con- 
 struction and dimensions of the vehicles determinate the dimensions ol 
 the way, and that the latter, on account of its curves, incline, discharge 
 and section, calls for a remarkably variable display of active power on the 
 part of the motors. 
 
 The latter must at the same time adapt their nature and dimensions to 
 the forms and nature of the banks of the way, — as also to the forms and 
 dimensions of the vehicles whose circulation must be ensured. 
 
 The reciprocal of these propositions is equally true. 
 
 The vehiculcs can be adapted to the motors, in the same manner as 
 the way can, to a considerable extent, be laid out to suit the suggestions 
 of more improved vehicles or motors. 
 
 But in every imaginable hypothesis, we are led to acknowledge that the 
 prevailing action is exerted by the way, which remains as the key-stone 
 to all transport operations. 
 
 In this manner we are brought to investigate how and in what measure 
 this prevailing influence of the way will exert itself and will be regulated 
 with respect to the two other factors and in what measure it will be able 
 to give to the operations concerning them the character of public services 
 by which it is itself influenced. 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 5 
 
 In order to have a good idea of the influence of the way, it is well to 
 remember that the common interest whose requirements justify the domi- 
 nation of the way and the character of public services attributed to the 
 works executed thereon, may make its action felt in two very different 
 manners. In the first case, the State as representative of the public 
 interest may, if it thinks this interest pledged, reserve to its direct agents 
 or to delegates the attribution of rendering particular services. In the 
 second case, it may content itself with making certain suggestions to pri- 
 vate contractors who come forward to render these same services. 
 
 Applying this alternative to inland navigation, it is found that the pre- 
 vailing influence of the way would have the means of exerting itself on the 
 operations with reference to vehicles and motors, as well as to manipu- 
 lations effected at the points of departure and arrival : 
 
 1. Either in including these operations in the category of public ser- 
 vices, as happens in railway affairs, for which the State or its conces- 
 sionaires, holders of the way, rule with supreme power the services of the 
 material and traction. 
 
 2. Or in confining itself to make regulations for these operations in 
 making them subject to certain subjections for the benefit of the entire 
 correlation, exactly as that happens in almost all countries with regard to 
 roads and navigable ways. 
 
 If the second solution he adopted, as generally takes place in affairs of 
 inland navigation, the prescribed subjections interpreted at the very first, 
 when circulation is yet in an undeveloped slate, by the application of 
 fairly simple police regulations, tending to ensure good order and the pre- 
 servation of the works, arc developed and extended in proportion as circu- 
 lation becomes more active, as the conciliation of actual interests becomes 
 more complicated, as the contentions between users engender abuses and 
 afford to contractors of certain particular services the means of forming 
 obvious personal monopolies respecting these services and at certain 
 places, and to levy a real ransom on the whole or a portion of the number 
 of users, on account of the little room left for competition. 
 
 The prescribed subjections which we refer to, may consist, with regard 
 to contractors of various services connected with vehicles, traction and ac- 
 cessory manipulations previously described, in the obligation of only em- 
 ploying boats or motors of particular types, of providing themselves with 
 certain engines or appliances and in the obligation to submit to the rate of 
 prices which they are authorised to demand from the users or customers. 
 
 It can he seen that the scale of means in which the preponderance ol 
 the way exerts itself is very wide, as it finally terminates in absorbing 
 certains categories of enterprises in the very regime of the domaniality 
 and public services. 
 
 In the majority of countries the State, or what amounts to the same 
 thing, the concessionaries of navigable ways are seen, in fact, including 
 
/ 
 
 6 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 in their management a certain number of operations which were not 
 directly attached to the way-service and for which, at the outset, they had 
 simply to make regulations and then to rate. 
 
 These operations comprise the traction service in certain difficult pas- 
 sages: tunnels, works intended to enable boats to get over important falls, 
 locks, elevators and inclined planes. They also comprise the establish- 
 ment of harbours, the construction of quays and the laying out of accom- 
 modation ground for the operations and accessory manipulations at depar- 
 ture and arrival. 
 
 In the preceding explanations we have directed our attention to deter- 
 mine the nature of the taxes to which the transports of inland navigation 
 give rise, to classify the operations of which they admit, and to define the 
 circumstances according to which these operations inter into the category 
 of public services, or are attached to it in a greater or less degree. 
 
 We should not like it to he thought however that while admitting the 
 progressive extension of the field of action of public services, we have any 
 false notions as to the inferiority that, in a general way, this category ol 
 services presents with regard to public services. On the contrary, we 
 firmly believe that as long as there is room for competition, as long as 
 an order of enterprises has not been pul into the form of an unquestio- 
 nable monopoly, it is of the utmost importance not to include such 
 enterprises in the red-lapism action of administrations necessarily de- 
 prived of the stimulus that is given by private enterprise and the perspec- 
 tive of profits to he realized. The incentive of competition, when put into 
 action, will always remain the surest guarantee that services will be eco- 
 nomically rendered with the greatest care for the conveniences of a user 
 who might take away his traffic elsewhere. The private character ot 
 services bestows upon those who receive them the inappreciable faculty 
 ol discussing their interests with the contractors on a fooling of perfect 
 equality. In short it is had for administrations themselves whose task is 
 necessarily very heavy to he overburdened with the cares of details for 
 which, on account of their constitution, they have no aptitude. These 
 arc, in the majority of cases, the considerations which until now have led 
 the French administration to reject with energy the adoption of any system 
 consisting in concentrating in the same hands, as in railway affairs, the 
 ensemble of operations connected with the working of one or more navi- 
 gable ways. 
 
 Whatever unwillingness there may be however to attribute the name of 
 public services to certain operations ol transport, the nature of things has 
 the sway over them. We think we have shown that the intervention of 
 public action cannot be avoided whenever the portion of soil on which a 
 given operation lakes its necessary basis is limited in such a manner that, 
 when pul into the hands of a contractor, it assures to the latter the means 
 of oppressing those who are obliged to have recourse to his services. 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 7 
 
 Finally, it may be affirmed that in affairs of inland navigation, the 
 intervention of the administration to lay down rules, to tax and even to 
 include in its sphere of action a given order of enterprise is justified and 
 necessary when the slate of affairs demands it, and this intervention must 
 have for consequence, not to create hinderances to the liberty of the users, 
 hut to protect this liberty against an oppression which would facilitate the 
 constitution of real monopolies. 
 
 The real interest at stake, here as everywhere else, is that of the users, 
 not that of the contractors. 
 
 III. — CLASSIFICATION OF CHARGES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 From the explanations given in the preceding chapter, it may he inferred 
 that charges applicable to inland navigation are divided into three classes 
 corresponding to the nature of the services they are intended to remune- 
 rate. 
 
 They are classed in the following manner. 
 
 1 st . Charges having for object the remuneration of services rendered for 
 the laying out, the extension, the improvement and the administration of a 
 way, a line or a system of navigable ways and their necessary adjuncts. 
 
 The services to which this first category of charges is applied are ren- 
 dered by the Stale or in its name, and they present the characteristic par- 
 ticularity of interesting all the users of the way or of the improved part of 
 the way at the same time. Services of this order have a general character. 
 Each user benefits by them although it may he indirectly. The charges 
 intended for their remuneration are classed under the denomination of 
 toll-charges or simply tolls. 
 
 2 nd . Charges having for object the remuneration of services affecting 
 vehicles or articles carried, either at the points of departure and arrival, 
 or in the course of the route, when these services are rendered by the 
 State or in its name. Services of this order have not the same character of 
 generality as the preceding ones and although the staff or the instruments, 
 tools and apparatus under whose care or by means of which they are exe- 
 cuted, are used consecutively by all the users requiring to have recourse 
 to them, it is nevertheless remarked that the service is rendered specially 
 and in a distinct manner to each of the users. Charges intended for the 
 remuneration of these services are classed under the denomination of 
 plant charges. 
 
 3 rd . Charges having for object the remuneration of services siihilar to 
 those included in the preceding category, when these services are rendered 
 by a private contractor hut only when this contractor is subject to certain 
 prescribed suggestions and particularly to a tariff. Unfortunately ordinary 
 language has no special terms to mark out this third category ot charges 
 
8 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 and include it with the preceding ones under the designation of plant 
 charges. 
 
 We shall devote a special chapter to the examination of each of these 
 categories of charges. 
 
 iv. — TOLLS. 
 
 1. Ways and means applied to the execution of works. 
 
 AMien the Stale, after classing a water-way in the public domain, thinks 
 it proper to undertake works intended for its hotter adaptation to its des- 
 tination as a navigable way, to direct and lengthen its course by deriva- 
 tions or canals, to annex to it by way of dependencies certain portions of 
 ground necessary for the accessory operations of transports, it falls under 
 the same obligation as private contractors, namely that of obtaining 
 resources necessary for the realization of its projects. 
 
 It may make a call for these resources : (a) on the national budget, 
 i. c on the general lax; (b) on the budget of districts or towns passed 
 through, namely, on the local lax; (c) on the users themselves by means 
 ol tolls, viz. in taxing the ensemble of the users of the navigable way. 
 
 The practice ot having recourse exclusively to general or local budgets 
 and to which the name of « gratuitous system » has been improperly 
 given, is liable to very serious criticism. The consequence of this prac- 
 tice is that it makes the ensemble of the rate payers of a nation, of a 
 province or of a parish pay for works and services from which they 
 derive no direct advantage and for expenses which very often cause them 
 prejudice in their particular professions, by favoring competition res- 
 pecting the services or productions they are accustomed to supply. 
 
 These practices which had the sway in France during the last half-cen- 
 tury can only he justified, according to our opinion, in exceptional cir- 
 cumstances. We may mention, in the first place, the case in which the 
 annoyance to toll-users caused by the imposition or rather complications 
 of collection, would be notoriously out of proportion with the proceeds of 
 the tax. 
 
 Such is really the motive which has almost every where brought about 
 the abolition of tolls on high ways and roads. This motive seems to us to 
 he equally and very forcibly applicable to cases respecting expenses of 
 maintenance on navigable ways. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, in the second place that, if a navigable way is 
 used for other interests than those of private transports, it would betaking 
 an undue advantage of navigation-users to make them pay for a portion of 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 9 
 
 expenses corresponding to the satisfaction of interests which do not 
 concern them. 
 
 Such is the case with expenses laid out on a navigable way, whether in 
 agricultural interests, with a view to encourage the use of motive power, 
 to increase the number of fish, or in all other objects of the same kind. 
 Such is the case, with still greater reason, when an important part of 
 the expenses has for motive the obligation of providing for interests of an 
 administrative order, for necessities of certain public services, or finally 
 for the pressing demands of national defense. These last considerations 
 indubitably justify the financial intervention of the State. 
 
 Certain regional interests may also give rise, on the part of provinces, 
 parishes, and even private parties, to a special financial concurrence exclu- 
 sive of their participation as users in the navigable way. We are expressly 
 of opinion that, when tolls have been abolished on a way, whether the 
 expenses may be considered as paid olf or that, for any motive whatever 
 it has been thought proper to pass it from profit to loss the users who took 
 this position into consideration in calculating their net-cost, have a right 
 to reject the re-establishment of a charge which would cause very great 
 confusion in business transactions. 
 
 2. Differences between tolls and the tax. — Speciality of tolls. 
 
 The circumstances which we have just menlioned for justifying, in cer- 
 tain cases, the financial intervention of the State, of districts or towns 
 passed through, and even of private parties, when they have a special 
 interest in using the way, are of an exceptional order. 
 
 The share acquired by them could in no way invalidate the principle of 
 the toll-system. In support of the so-called « gratuitous system » con- 
 sisting in putting the expenses of laying out grounds, of extension and 
 improvements ^!' navigable ways to the charge of local budgets, the fact is 
 often argued that the users of these ways were already contributing to the 
 maintenance of the budgets by the payment of taxes taken directly or 
 indirectly off the transports. For a considerable time circulation on navi- 
 gable ways, in France, for example, was subject to a tax specially distin- 
 guished under the name of « Navigation dues ». This tax was abolished 
 in 1879. 
 
 The competitors of carriers by water still protest with energy against 
 this exemption and demand the re-establishment of a charge whose sup- 
 pression has caused the breaking up of the balance in the struggle with 
 respect to the different modes of transport. There is an evident confusion 
 on the part of those who, while supporting the « gratuitous-system », call 
 for paid taxes, as on the part of those who, from personal motives, demand 
 the re-establishment of abolished taxes. This confusion is caused by a 
 
 2 G. 
 
 BEAGK1N- GRESSIEK. 
 
II) 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 false assimilation between tax and tolls. Let us recall here the principal 
 characters of both. 
 
 The tax does not in any way aim at a special kind of service. The 
 object it has in view is not to he in proportion with the services rendered 
 by the State. Its purpose is simply to obtain resources for the nation, by 
 having recourse to all manifestations of wealth in whatever form they may 
 present themselves, sometimes where the existence of capitals or incomes 
 is evident, at other times in seizing the opportunity that is made of the 
 use or consummation of services or products. The Treasury does not 
 direct its attention specially to the producers of these services or products. 
 It employs them simply as collectors charged with throwing the burden of 
 the tax on the consumers or on the users, without troubling itself as to the 
 difficulties they will meet in changing hands. 
 
 That is exactly how navigation dues were collected. Their assessment 
 was applied to any use whatever made of a navigable way, whether or not 
 it had given rise to works for laying out grounds whether it presented 
 great or small advantages to circulation and whether the expenses effected 
 for improving it were or not covered. The proceeds of the collection went 
 into the general mass of the Treasury resources in the same way as all 
 other taxes. Although they were the direct proceeds of navigation, the 
 latter derived no benefit from them. With respect to navigable ways, 
 these taxes acted solely as a kind of factitious provocation of the conditions 
 offered by I lie way to navigation, as a kind of supplementary obstacle in 
 addition to the obstacles of distance, and to all the material obstructions 
 left behind by the works carried out. The conditions of application of 
 these taxes, by their severe strictness, still more intensified the disastrous 
 effect which they exercised on water transports, an industry in which a cer- 
 tain amount of pliancy is particularly necessary with regard to the style 
 of remuneration, as we shall presently explain in speaking of assessment 
 and toll-tariffs. 
 
 The characters of a toll are quite different, at least when the way to 
 which it is applied has not been made the object of a concession, and when 
 it is collected through the instrumentality of a public administration. It 
 is already known that in navigation affairs a toll is determined by given 
 expenses, with a view to adapting a natural or artificial water-way lo its 
 destination as a navigable way and with a view to clearing away or reducing 
 one or more obstacles which impede navigation and increase the cost of 
 water-transports. 
 
 The normal rate of charges that a toll hears must be calculated so as lo 
 meet the expenses effected. 
 
 It tends to divide the charge impartially among those who derive an ad- 
 vantage from it. Its sphere must not he limited to a small number of cases, 
 such as the size of the vehicle or the distance gone over, but extended to 
 the series of circumstances composing the origin of advantages for the user 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 11 
 
 and to which we shall refer further on. In short the principal characte- 
 ristic of a loll, the one that distinguishes it more clearly from a lax is its 
 speciality. The loll must affect not only those who are called upon to 
 benefit by a work already executed, or by expenses incurred, but its pro- 
 ceeds must be exclusively applied to cover the whole expenses, if the latter 
 be annual, or to pay them off if it concerns construction expenses. 
 
 The result of the principle of speciality is that all collections operated 
 beyond the sum necessary for covering the expenses determining the toll, 
 are abusive. It is then equal to a tax. The working of a toll must not 
 give rise to any benefit on the part of the State or public establishment 
 administering in its name. In fact it is only on this express condi I ion 
 that we can justify the act of supreme power admitting works for the 
 laying out of the public fluvial domain into the category of public services, 
 thus removing them from the influence of private enterprises lest inde- 
 pendent contractors may dispose of a monopoly and be put in a position to 
 levy excessive contributions on the users. As a natural consequence all 
 tolls are temporary and their collection must cease as soon as the proceeds 
 have attained the sum necessary to cover the expenses they had in view. 
 
 5. Assessment and toll-tariffs. 
 
 If they must provide for annual expenses, all lolls are subject to periodic 
 revision. All works of amelioration must, as far as possible, give rise to 
 equally distinct tolls. 
 
 We have already remarked that one of the essential conditions to which 
 a toll ought to answer, w'as to divide the remuneration collected as exaclly 
 as possible in proportion with the advantages derived by each user, or if 
 we be allowed to signal out material objects, with the savings made by 
 each element of traffic respecting the works determining the existence of 
 the toll. 
 
 What then are these advantages and these economics? All modifications 
 in the conditions of establishment of a way having for intent the shortening 
 ofthe distance, the reducing of friction or resistance to traction, the lessening 
 of risks on the way, and the suppression of some of the precautions or mani- 
 pulations they require, bear with them a certain number of the advantages 
 to which we refer. Such is the case in all circumstances affording room 
 for increasing the dimension of vehicles so as to spread the expenses over 
 a greater number of unities of traffic, admitting of the use of cheaper 
 motors, and a better utilization of motors and vehicles. These advantages 
 and economies must be kept in view in determining the share of remune- 
 ration to be expected from each of the unities of traffic. 
 
 It still remains to be found out wliat the unities of traffic will be. The 
 determination of a unity, or term of comparison is a rather arbitrary thing 
 
12 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 
 and depends in all cases on the order of phenomenon under consideration. 
 In transport affairs, the volume, the weight, the density and the distance 
 may he simultaneously adopted as Ihe basis of unity; — each of these 
 unities may, besides, he distinguished by means of a coefficient taken 
 from the nature of the article carried. This article may be liquid or solid, 
 subject to greater or less alterability, its bulk, its forms and its divisibility 
 vary in conditions susceptible of greatly modyfiing the difficulties of trans- 
 port. A still more variable coefficient exists for the unity chosen, one 
 which less than any other give itself out to a common measure. That is 
 the aptitude of each clement of traffic to bear an increase in price with 
 respect to transport. 
 
 Considering the very different conditions in' which the elements of traffic 
 present themselves, it is evident that it would be useless to look for a 
 common measure unique as regards the advantages which they derive from 
 the improvements of the way. Hence the necessity for a graduated tariff 
 enabling us to keep in view', if not all, at least the greatest possible number 
 of Ihe particularities of the elements of traffic, in determining the contri- 
 butive share which will be expected from them. It is only on condition of 
 observing the rules whose basis and character we have just pointed out, 
 that a way and its accessories will be enabled to furnish the maximum of 
 the advantages which they possess. 
 
 Users and administrators must he made to understand that, until a way 
 has attained the utmost pitch of traffic it can hear, the cost of each new 
 element of traffic is imperceptible and for that reason it would be preju- 
 dicial to put it aside and thus lose Ihe money it would have brought in. 
 Equity in these matters does not consist in Ihe equality of treatment applied 
 to two unities of different orders, but in a just moderation of the tax, 
 according to the importance of Ihe service received by each unity. 
 
 both sides must understand that all receipts lost respecting an element 
 of traffic unwarrantably turned aside correspond to an actual additional 
 burden for the general enterprise which will have to spread the amount of 
 the lost receipts over the existing elements of traffic whose net-cost will be 
 increased in a corresponding degree. Correctively all must understand 
 that in fixing the tariffs, it is unreasonable, unfair, and fatal to neglect the 
 respective importance of services received, in order to adhere to a small 
 number of average taxes. The reduction in tax for some parties can only 
 be obtained by an increase inflicted on others. The reduction of those 
 who derive great profit in making use of the improvement effected, dimi- 
 nishes in all cases the productiveness of the toll and prevents its early 
 abolition. 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 15 
 
 4. Conditions of application. 
 
 We shall only say a few words regarding the conditions of applying 
 toll charges, and confine ourselves to remark that the inconvenience inse- 
 parable from tolls, as in all kinds of taxes, is not due solely to the pecu- 
 niary charge embodying itself, somehow, in the price of the elements of 
 traffic. The conditions in which the collection of navigation charges is 
 made, the annoyances, the loss of lime it inflicts on the various contractors 
 called upon to interfere, the stopping of the motors, the had utilization of 
 naval material and harbour plant, the suggestions of all kinds due to the 
 drawing out of rules, often weigh more heavily on the cost of transports 
 than the toll itself. The result of the conditions of defective application 
 may be to drive away the users, just as exagerated taxes or their bad appli- 
 cation might do. This class of considerations must then occupy an 
 important place in the minds of those intrusted with the administration 
 of the way. 
 
 V. — CHARGES MADE FOR THE USE OF PUBLIC PLANT. 
 
 Several of the observations already presented respecting tolls are equally 
 applicable in affairs of plant charges. We may then say little on this 
 subject. 
 
 Whenever the legislator finds it expedient to get the agents of the State 
 or a public establishment to carry out certain mechanical works on a navi- 
 gable way, whether it concern the traction of boats, their loading or 
 unloading, or the laying out of harbours, the State must be put in a posi- 
 tion to provide for the expenses which these works incur. It must also be 
 enabled to provide for the working charges of this plant. 
 
 In the majority of cases the special users of public plant will have to be 
 called upon to provide the whole or greater part of such plant. 
 
 Circumstances will seldom occur in which the nation or towns will have 
 to contribute to the expenses. On the contrary it will often happen that 
 a tender may be asked from public establishments, whether these esta- 
 blishments be already intrusted with the financial management of the way 
 itselt, or whether they dispense with other plant belonging to its working. 
 This demands a few explanations. In the tirst part of this essay we 
 directed our attention to bring prominently forward the narrow con- 
 nection existing between the two factors interposing in the execution of 
 water transports. The conditions of establishment of the way influence 
 the forms and dimensions of thejboats as] well as the nature and force of 
 motors. 
 
 Inversely, we have seen that the pressing demands of circulation fre- 
 
14 
 
 DUCS ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 quently call for modifications in the conditions of establishment of the way. 
 This second alternative is produced specially when the way or certains 
 parts are subject to encumbrance. It is then said that the way or portion 
 of the way under consideration has attained the utmost pitch of traffic it 
 can bear; all its users have then an interest in seeing that this obstruction 
 be removed. These new necessities may be guarded against in two ways : 
 either in altering the works of the way in order to improve their arrange 
 ment, to lessen their number, to enlarge their dimensions; or in increasing 
 the speed of the movements of the vehicles and accelerating the manipula- 
 tions of the elements of traffic encumbering the too limited platforms 
 ( terre-pleins ). 
 
 7. This result may often be obtained more economically by installing 
 apparatus simplifying and accelerating the traction, by using harbour- 
 engines increasing the speed and conveniences of manipulations on I he har- 
 bours, than by works applied directly to the improvement of the way and 
 its accessories. It is rational and fair, in this case, that the users of the 
 way take, to a certain extent, a share in the expenses for the installation of 
 works, of apparatus or harbour engines enabling such a result to be rea- 
 lized. Their share can only be obtained by recourse to a toll bearing on 
 the improved portion of the way. 
 
 A correlation similar to the one whose existence we have just stated 
 between the two factors competing for water-transports, may also be met 
 with between the different appliances constituting the plant of a river-har- 
 bour. These different appliances may be compared to the work-shops of a 
 factory destined to help one another conjointly. There may then be reason 
 for strengthening this unity of interests by means of a common fund sup- 
 ported by the plant charges attached to each of them. 
 
 It being admitted that a share of the expenses for establishing an appa- 
 ratus may be put to the charge of a toll or to that of a common fund sup- 
 ported by the plant charges attached to other working-appliances, it must 
 then be expressly understood that not only the surplus expenses for esta- 
 blishing this apparatus, but also the whole cost required for its working, 
 will have to be paid by the direct users. 
 
 The rules we have pointed out concerning the assessment, the tariffs 
 and the conditions of application of tolls are very much the same for plant- 
 charges, except that the basis for drawing out rules as regards the latter 
 will necessarily be much simpler, as the services whose remuneration they 
 secure, will be infinitely less complicated. We do not think it necessary 
 to dwell here upon these rules. For plant charges as well as for tolls and 
 under condition that a common fund be constituted, the speciality becomes 
 necessary as regard the use of the proceeds. 
 
 The rate of charges must be revised from time to time in order to keep 
 them on a level with the expenses they have to meet. It is also understood 
 that the State or public establishment administering them must make the 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 15 
 
 users profit by anv economy secured in the management and must never 
 derive a benefit for themselves out of the proceeds of the charges. 
 
 VI. — CHARGES MADE FOR THE USE OF PRIVATE PLANT. 
 
 The establishing and working, on given points of a navigable way, of 
 equipment-engines intending to tender services for water-transports carried 
 out thereon, may retain the character of private enterprises when the 
 services rendered by these engines are appropriated by a single user of 
 the way, or an association of users ; they may, as we have already remarked, 
 even conserve this character when the equipment engines in question 
 entail a privative occupation on a part of the way included in the public 
 domain and must be put at the disposition of the public. 
 
 The State has no motive for interfering, and must not interfere as long 
 as it is affirmed that the services rendered by an equipment engine can be 
 efficiently competed for by other means, appliances or similar processes. 
 The Slate would no more be entitled to draw out rules for this material 
 than it would he with regard to appliances, machines, engines, boats, wagons 
 or vehicles employed by private industry. The intervention of the State 
 is only lawful and can only be justified when the freedom of tariffs and 
 conditions of application intrusted to the possessor of plant, whose exis- 
 tence and working are subordinated to a privative occupation on the public 
 fluvial domain, would have for consequence the putting of a monopoly 
 into the hands of the said possessor and affording him the means of 
 oppressing and levying excessive charges on the users of the way who would 
 be obliged to have recourse to its services. Without wholly engrossing 
 this entreprise, the State may then confine itself to prescribing rules for 
 the public use of the same. 
 
 It is easy to understand that the considerations which guide the Slate in 
 fixing such a tariff differ greatly from those we mentioned with reference 
 to fixing the rate of remuneration applicable to public services. The ques- 
 tion of obliging a private contractor to give up all idea of profits cannot 
 be (bought of. All that can be done is to oblige him to submit to a special 
 permission and to interdict him from exagerating his prices. The tariff 
 to which he will be subject will only comprise maximum charges below 
 which he can suit himself according to the conveniences of his undertaking. 
 Within the limits of these maximum charges the private contractor will be 
 free to fix the remuneration according to the services rendered. These 
 charges will also be subject to periodic revision. The length of time between 
 each revision will be great enough to enable the contractor to make up for 
 his advances. But the charges may be lowered at each revision, if it be 
 proved that the profits go beyond a certain figure. Finally the duration of 
 this permission will have to be fixed beforehand. 
 
16 
 
 DUES UN INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 VII. — INSTITUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TOLL AND PLANT CHARGES. 
 
 We have said before that, in the majority of countries, navigable ways 
 were classed in the public domain. To superintend their execution, that 
 is to say to use them so that they may answer their destination, t he State may 
 have recourse to its own departments assisted by direct agents or function- 
 aries; it has also the faculty of granting to public or private parties of 
 good standing, the whole or a part of the powers of which it disposes, on 
 condition that the concessionaries have particular regard for the destination 
 of the public navigable domaine, and that they submit to all the conditions 
 judged necessary for protecting the interests of the public. 
 
 Besides, it is not lawful for the State to have recourse to a concessionary 
 unless it be authorized to do so by a law. A law is also necessary in order 
 to fix the rate and the conditions of application of charges imposed on 
 users to cover the expenses of establishment, of maintenance or of admi- 
 nistration of each navigable way. An organic law may however bestow on 
 the executive power of the State, on the government, the faculty of asssign- 
 ing by way of concession, certain parts of its attributions, in given cir- 
 cumstances and under given conditions. After fixing the general rules to 
 which inland navigation charges arc subject and determining notably the 
 maximum limits which the scale of tariffs may attain, an onganiclaw may 
 also confer on the government the power of applying these general rules 
 to given kinds and of drawing out the particulars of the tariffs respecting 
 them. 
 
 The State is forced to have recourse to concessions when the compo- 
 sition of the government is, in itself, deprived of I lie means of action 
 enabling it to fulfil one or more of the functions imparted to it. It 
 sometimes happens, indeed, that the Slate does not dispose of the 
 administrative means capable of fulfilling certain functions. 
 
 At other times, financial resources are wanting and it is not in a posi- 
 tion to provide for the advances required for works of maintenance and 
 operations on the way, and especially for the advances which the impro- 
 vement and extension of actual navigable ways and their accessories 
 demand. 
 
 In France, for example, the two motives to which we have just referred 
 acted simultaneously in the xvi' h , xvn th and xvni" 1 centuries, when, thanks 
 to the invention of locks with falls, people were enabled to improve and to 
 lengthen the system of navigable ways which had until then remained in 
 almost their natural state. 
 
 Royalty, who at that lime impersonated the general interests of the 
 nation, disposed neither of an administration fit for this kind of enterpri- 
 ses, nor of the financial resources necessary to meet the expenses required 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 17 
 
 by them. On the other hand, Royalty would have had great difficulty at 
 this period to find means for forming a corporation powerful and rich 
 enough to run the risks of so new an enterprise, and which would have 
 enabled them to test its results. It took up the offers presented to it 
 by private contractors. 
 
 At that epoch people had very confused ideas of the differences exist- 
 ing between private and public services, and acts of concession mixed 
 up the two orders of services For example, navigable ways passing through 
 large states were given up lo concessionnaires although the slate of 
 affairs and social necessities forbade their removal from the common 
 patrimony of the nation. The stipulations most required for defending the 
 interests and rights of the public formed no part of the majority of those 
 acts. 
 
 Toll-tariffs, when there were any, were insufficiently determined, and 
 charges were sometimes mixed up with the price of transports. No clause 
 for the revision of charges was stipulated, and no limit was imposed on 
 the profits which concessionnaires might realize. 
 
 As soon as circulation attained a certain activity in France, the vices ol 
 those first concessions were forcibly felt, and when the Revolution broke 
 out at the end of the xvin t[ ' century, it was thought at the very first to 
 interdict the system of concessions, and to impose on the State itself and 
 on its own means the obligation of providing for the administration of 
 navigation ways, free to recover its expenses by taxing users. 
 
 The measure vas too radical, especially at a time when the administra- 
 tive and financial organization was far from having the power it has since 
 acquired and its realization had only been partially effected. 
 
 Great difficulties became manifest when the question of assuring money 
 for the enterprises presented itself, as also for regulating the manner and 
 rate of remuneration of services rendered by administrations intrusted 
 with the improvement and management of the ways. 
 
 By way of a new start, it was resolved to replace the toll-charges by 
 resources taken from the general tax, and collected on the ensemble of 
 ratepayers. 
 
 In order to get out of a practical difficulty, they had recourse to an 
 irregularity of principle and worse still, to an injustice. 
 
 Deprived of the only criterion of usefulness which an undertaking can 
 supply, that of the productiveness of charges, works of extension and 
 improvement were set on foot but which were not always due to public 
 interest alone, at the same time putting aside works which would have 
 been really fruitful but which they were unable to discern or for whose 
 execution no funds remained in hand. 
 
 The defect in the solutions we have just mentioned arose from the fact 
 that two essential principles were considered and treated apart although it 
 is always important to ensure their conciliation in the question under 
 
18 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 consideration. In the first place, justice demands that the charge of 
 any service be supported by those who benefit by it and in as equal a 
 proportion as possible with the advantages they derive from it. In the 
 second place, public services, that is to say those which cannot be given 
 up to private initiative and industry, ought not, as far as possible, to 
 give rise to profits on the part of the nation or public administrations 
 intrusted with ensuring their execution; all profits realized in these con- 
 ditions are equal to a tax. 
 
 As we have already said, we are among the first to acknowledge that 
 the State is not in a good position for administering directly, that is to 
 say by means of its normal constitution, interests as complicated as those 
 belonging to the working of transports, and the correlation which must 
 be established between tbe different factors whose setting-to-work they 
 require. If il belongs exclusively to the State to get works for the esta- 
 blishment, improvement and maintenance of navigable ways carried out, 
 and if it be able to accomplish this task by means of its own administra- 
 tive organization, it should hand it over to an administration better suited 
 for this purpose whenever the question of settling the financial and com- 
 mercial relations of those general appliances with their uses comes 
 forward. 
 
 In order to answer the two essential conditions we have formulated, 
 the new administration must be a public establishment, and in imitation 
 of the State, it ought to possess the distinctive characteristic of sound 
 reputation. It would represent the special interests of a whole class for- 
 med of all those destined to derive an advantage from the existence of a 
 way or system of navigable ways on which it would make its action felt. 
 
 Senders, addressees and transporters of elements of traffic likely to use 
 the way or system of ways would take part, in proportion with their res- 
 pective interests, in the constitution of this establishment An election 
 would take place in vhich the State also would have a share on account 
 of the numerous services got by it from navigable ways. 
 
 Doubtless, the proportionality of interests could not be rigorously 
 obtained, but it would be easy to arrive at a sufficient approximation in 
 order to ensure on the part of the administration thus constituted, care 
 and respect for the roll it would have to fulfil. 
 
 The compass of this essay is too limited to enable us to enter into the 
 details of the constitution of such an administration, but we think we 
 may refer those who should like to find an elaborate and very complete 
 example of it to the bill on inland navigation presented by the government 
 to the French Parliament on the 15"' of July 1890. 
 
 The State might grant to an establishment of this kind, under condi- 
 tions and within limits fixed by an organic law, the faculty of collecting 
 toll-charges, of concentrating their proceeds, and of drawing from them, 
 if necessary, the security-loan which it vould be empowered to contract. 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 19 
 
 This public establishment would thus be enabled to contribute to works 
 whose usefulness it would itself have proved and have made the compe- 
 tent authority acknowledge. 
 
 A public establishment of this kind would also be very suitable for 
 receiving concessions of public appliances in conditions determined by law 
 for collecting corresponding plant-charges and for administering its 
 proceeds. Its aptitude in this respect would especially be manifest whenever 
 the appliances under consideration would be of such a nature as to concern 
 the working of the ensemble of the way or system placed within its 
 sphere of action. 
 
 When on the contrary it would concern interests clearly local or pecu- 
 liar to a limited number of users, we would be led into a confined zone 
 where it is difficult to distinguish whether the services have a public or 
 private character For mi r own part, we think that, in case of doubt, the 
 solution ought to go in preference to the side of the character of private 
 service, free to protect the fraction of public interest at stake by the obli- 
 gation imposed on contractors to submit to the regime of an administra- 
 tive authority and the suggestions it embraces. 
 
 Not including exceptional cases, the considerations developed in the 
 course of this essay tend to put aside private initiative for the establish- 
 ment, improvement and maintenance of navigable ways; they also con- 
 demn the system of concessions applied to these kinds of enterprises stri- 
 kingly public. So much for the works themselves. 
 
 As regards toll charges corresponding to the way itself, and plant 
 charges corresponding to public appliances there is an advantage in in- 
 trusting their management to special administrations, having the cha- 
 racter of public establishments rather than to public administrations 
 necessary very concentrated and possessing little aptitude for the manage- 
 ment of interests as complicated and precise as those of a commercial 
 undertaking. 
 
 11 is nevertheless advisable, as we have already said, not to lose sight 
 of the fact that the privilege conferred on a public establishment such as 
 we have just referred to, of carefully managing public appliances and 
 administering toll charges can only, in each case, he the result of a con- 
 cession, granted by a special law, or in virtue of an organic law. 
 
 We cannot too often repeat the fact, that an organic law will also have 
 to determine in a limiting manner the subjections which may be imposed 
 ou users, and the nature and maximum rate of charges which may be 
 demanded from them. 
 
20 
 
 DUES ON INLAND NAVIGATION. 
 
 VIII. — CONCLUSIONS TO BE DISCUSSED.. 
 
 a. The remuneration of public services in affairs of inland navigation 
 takes place by means of taxation. 
 
 b. All works intended for establishing, improving and maintaining a 
 navigable way, enter into the- category of public services. 
 
 c. Enter also into the category of public services works intended for 
 adapting to their destination the dependencies of a navigable way classed 
 as such in tbe public domainc. 
 
 d. If tbe utilization of the way be exclusively considered, it is ascertai- 
 ned that all transports demand the intervention of three factors : the way, 
 the vehicle, tbe motor. These three factors are bound together by a nar- 
 row correlation. While submitting to the influence of the two other fac- 
 tors the way necessarily predominates. 
 
 e. A similar correlation exists between the various actions which may 
 be carried on the dependencies of the way. The preeminence belongs to 
 tbe administration of properly classed in the public domain. 
 
 f. . Are considered as public appliances all apparatus, instruments, or 
 engines whose working is subordinated to an exclusive occupation on an 
 essential part of the navigable way or on its dependencies. 
 
 fj. A toll-charge differs fundamentally from a lax. 
 
 k. Tbe characteristic of a loll lies in the special destination of the 
 resources it is intended to furnish These resources arc, in combination 
 with those from tbe various bodies concerned, applied to putting one or 
 more navigable ways in working order. 
 
 i. For tbe very reason of the generality of the services whose remune- 
 ration it represents a loll admits of different basis. 
 
 /. Tbe tariffs of a loll should present great pliancy. 
 
 k. The collection of toll-charges should impose on users the least res- 
 traints possible. 
 
 /. Charges applied to public plant are used to cover the expenses 
 respecting the establishment of this plant. A part of tbe payment of 
 tbe original establishment of same plant may, in certain cases, be taken 
 from the proceeds of a toll. 
 
 m. The character of charges as regards the use of a private appliance is 
 very different from that of charges regarding the use of a public 
 appliance. Properly speaking, it is no longer a question of charges, but 
 of maxima and special subjections imposed on the rate and conditions of 
 
GENERAL STUDY. 
 
 21 
 
 remuneration for services rendered by the appliance under consideration. 
 
 n. The administration of navigable ways falls to the State. As a gene- 
 ral rule, it can hardly be granted that the State will delegate all or a part 
 of this function to a concessionaire. 
 
 o. There is on the contrary an advantage for the State not to charge 
 itself with the management of tolls and charges whose application pre- 
 sents a commercial and financial character. It may give up this function 
 to public establishments constituted ad hoc. 
 
 p. Such a concession can ordy he granted by a special law or in virtue 
 of an organic law. 
 
 q. Organic or special laws should also regulate the destination, the 
 maximum rate and conditions of application of toll, and plant charges. 
 
 Paris, February, 15 th , 1892. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris). 
 
24715. — Imprimerie generate A Laliure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Faris. 
 

V ,h INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON INLAND NAVIGATION 
 
 PARIS 1892 
 
 9 th QUESTION 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES 
 
 01 WATERWAYS 11 RAILROADS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 M. FLEURY 
 
 Civil Engineer, at Paris 
 
 PARIS 
 
 IMPRIMERIE GENERALR LAHURE 
 
 9, RUE DE FL KURUS, 9 
 
 1892 
 
RESPECTIVE USES 
 
 OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 REPORT 
 
 BY 
 
 M. FLEURY 
 
 Civil Engineer, at Paris. 
 
 I 
 
 As was very properly observed by the Organizing Committee of the Con- 
 gress in the programme which they published, the question of competition 
 or co-operation between waterways and railways, was discussed in each of 
 the previous congresses. 
 
 In Vienna particularly, it was the object of interesting discussions and 
 our German and Austrian colleagues produced statements as to the cost 
 price of each of these means of transport, the said statements being drawn 
 up with great care. Mr. Dufourny, in the work which he laid before the 
 Manchester Congress introduced some instructive considerations relative to 
 Belgium. 
 
 It is to be hoped that our foreign colleagues will bring to the Paris Con- 
 gress, a new supply of information on a subject which has sometimes di- 
 vided and passionated public opinion. 
 
 In limiting myself as to what might be observed in France, I would end- 
 eavour to keep to the judicial indications inserted in the programme of 
 the duties of the Congress, by producing a few figures and examples to 
 justify the light under which the question of competition or co-operation 
 of navigable ways and railways, would appear to show itself in our 
 country. 
 
 When, after a certain amount of experiments, fumblings and doubts 
 the people of the middle of this century were enabled to see the results — 
 rightly judged to be marvellous — shown by the railways, over the slowness 
 
 1 G. 
 
 FLEURY. 
 
2 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 and high prices of cart transport, and over the irregularity and insuffi- 
 ciency of inland navigation of that period, these old means of transport 
 fell into great discredit. 
 
 In 1844, Philip Dupin, an eminently scientific man, being hacked up 
 by a great public opinion, was able to obtain the construction of the canal 
 from the Marne to the Rhine, and to utilize a part of what was already 
 made, by laying down thereon the railway lines from Paris to Strasbourg. 
 Three years afterwards several applicants for the concession of the railway 
 from Bordeaux to Cette succeeded in getting 55 Members of Parliament and 
 400 Town Councillors of the Midi departments to back up their proposal 
 for doing away with the lateral canal to the Garonne, and to lay down 
 thereon the proposed line. 
 
 In a pamphlet entitled Competition of canals and railivays, an engineer 
 who was destined, later on to have a brilliant career on railways pre- 
 vented the consequences of an exagered infatuation of public opinion. 
 Thanks to the zealous and convinced pleadings of Mr. Collignon, the canal 
 from the Marne to the Rhine was continued and the government of that 
 period were wise enough not to be led astray by the unthoughtful sug- 
 gestions of the central or meridional populations. 
 
 Since then the waterway cause has been publicly taken up by a number 
 of engineers and economists, amongst others the late and regretted 
 Mr. Cezanne, Mr. Krantz, etc. 
 
 As well as the influence of these great men, time, and a more considerate 
 appreciation of the facts which were evident every day, have brought hack 
 to inland navigation a part of public favour. If there are in our country 
 many people who think that any scheme for creating a new canal, should 
 be examined with great caution, there is no person whatever who will 
 declare in a general way at the present time, that navigable ways arc 
 superfluous in the presence of railways or that they constitute a double 
 office, detrimental to these latter. 
 
 For a long time past the general opinion as to the respective relations 
 of the two means of transport, has not greatly varied. At the present time, 
 as stated even in 1878 1 by the Minister of Public Works, people are 
 disposed to set forth that navigable ways and railways are destined, 
 not to supplant but to complete each other and so, between one 
 and the other effect a natural division of attributions. The railways 
 receive that traffic of a less spacious nature which requires speed and 
 regularity and which can better support carriage expense. As to water-ways, 
 they receive the heaviest class of goods of small value which can only be 
 removed at small expense and which, taken by the railways, affords but 
 slight remuneration blocking them up rather than being a source of 
 revenue to them. 
 
 1. Report to the President of the Republic, by M. de Freycinet, Minister of Public Works. 
 
 (, Journal officiel of the 16 lb of January 1878.) 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 Taken from another point of view it is seen that navigable ways, by their 
 actual existence are a means of moderating the charges for those goods 
 sent by rail; they constitute a kind of warning to the railway contractor 
 not to pass the limit beyond which commerce would not hesitate to sacrifice 
 regularity to economy’. 
 
 In truth, is this really so? Is there nothing to modify in this for- 
 mular or comparison, and are the facts not in accordance with the concilia- 
 tory sentiment it would appear to have inspired? This is what 1 would 
 endeavour to examine in these few lines. 
 
 In the first place it will be advisable to limit as it were, the field in which 
 the relative influence of the two means of transport is likely to be felt. 
 
 Now this influcence will only shew itself, and in reality can only shew 
 itself, between those navigable ways and railways presenting comparable 
 conditions with respect to traffic, that is to say carrying the same class of 
 goods in the same directions. 
 
 Let us, to begin with, find out in what way, and in what measure the 
 first of these two conditions is realised. 
 
 In the first place it is evident that, apart from a few very particular cases 
 of practically no importance, the transport of passengers, parcel post, parcel 
 goods and in general everything which, in railway language is included 
 under the heading of « Grande Vitesse » (fast train) is naturally and exclu- 
 sively procured by railways, it not being possible for navigation to have any 
 pretentions whatever thereto. 
 
 But that is not all; river navigation is badly adapted to the transport of 
 cattle, horses, and carts. In fact the inland navigation statistics do not 
 mention these items and the railways are again the holders of this other 
 category of transport. 
 
 Another still more important element in « petite vitesse » (slow trains) 
 of railways almost completely escapes water-ways, and, in the official 
 statistics this is entitled « Divers Goods ». It represents almost the entire 
 products of industry and agriculture. Most of the time, these divers 
 goods travel by fractions only, very often less than one ton, and rarely the 
 amount of a wagon-load. 
 
 They demand a relative promptness, and certainty of arrival at their 
 destination in a given time. 
 
 In 1887 (the year in which statistics were last put at the public’s dis- 
 posal) there were 12 144 216 tons of these divers goods carried to all 
 distances, this being equal to 15 °/ 0 of the total tonnage. It is true that 
 the navigation statistics show, under a similar title (9 th divers group) a 
 
 t. In his report to the National Assembly on the railway project from Calais to Mar- 
 seilles, Cezanne has developped this latter consideration in a most convincing manner. 
 (Journal officiel of the 20, 21, 22 February 1873.) Quoted and summarised in the 3 rd vol., 
 p. 98 and following of the work on Cheminsde fer fraiicais, by A. Ricard. 
 
4 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 loading of 554 000 loos. But il is not certain that the same class of goods 
 is referred to. In any case the small quantity which would have been 
 therefore carried by boat represents hardly 2,75 °/ 0 of the same species of 
 tonnage as that mentioned on the railways. It can therefore be said 
 without any great mistake that the transport of divers goods again belongs 
 entirely to railways. Let us totalize in receipts (as approximately as pos- 
 sible when we have only at hand those details given to the public) the 
 several elements which we have enumerated. 
 
 We will have : 
 
 Passengers . 
 
 Parcel goods 
 
 Cattle, etc. . 
 
 Divers goods' 
 
 Total 698 703 000 — 
 
 327 484 000 francs 
 
 86 989 000 — 
 
 26 630 000 — 
 
 257 600 000 — 
 
 As the total railway receipts amount to frcs 1 018 521 659, it is seen 
 that nearly 70 % of these receipts are entirely drawn away from the 
 influence of navigable ways. 
 
 The only traffic elements which are apparently susceptible to be divided 
 — and that most unequally — between rail and waterways are gross and 
 agricultural products, which as a rule can only support very light carriage 
 expenses, but often travel in big masses and to long distances. 
 
 In the following table, I have endeavoured to establish a comparison 
 between water-way transports and the same kind of transports effected on 
 railways. In a column, taking as basis the details given by the statistics 
 of inland navigation, I have grouped the waterway transports into two 
 different categories, according to their importance; in another column 
 I present the details supplied by the railway statistics ; the last column 
 shews the results of this comparison. 
 
 It will he seen that out of 101548000 tons of encumbersome products 
 which have circulated in France, only 24 168 000 tons, or 25,84 °/ 0 — less 
 than one quarter — have utilised fluvial navigation. The three other 
 quarters (exactly 76,16 %) or 79180 000 tons were confided to railways 
 obtaining for these latter a gross receipt which, according to what we 
 stated a short time ago can be estimated at a maximum of 519619000 francs, 
 50 °/ 0 of their total receipt, or an average price of 4 fr. 056 per ton. The 
 same price applied to the tonnage of navigation gives a product of 
 97 542 000 francs. If therefore those exclusive partisans of railways, who 
 
 1. The figures showing the receipts given by the divers goods are only approximate, 
 t give them with all reserve as I have been obliged to take as a basis, hypothesis whicti 
 appear to me to he admissible, but of which I had no means of verifying. When railway 
 statistics are made out with more detail, they will he more edifying than they are at the 
 present time. By supplying us with exact figures, it will he unnecessary for us to make 
 hypothesis. 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 5 
 
 in 1845 wanted to block up the canals, were to return at the present time, 
 they would see that the traffic taken by navigation from the railways, 
 takes away from this latter a supplementary gross receipt, which is 
 
 only equal to 
 
 9,62 
 1 00 
 
 of their total receipt. 
 
 In conclusion let us observe that railways, in order to keep up this 
 traffic of eneumbersome product are obliged to apply relatively very low 
 tariffs which allow but a small margin of profit. If therefore it were pos- 
 sible to know the exact figure which this kind of transport shews in the 
 net receipts of railways, it would be seen that the gain which the present 
 competilion of navigation takes from them is nearly insignificant. 
 
 
 NUMBER OF TONS CARRIED AT ALL DISTANCES 
 
 
 ON NAVIGABLE WAYS IN 1890 
 
 ON RAILWAYS 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 of trans- 
 
 PERCENTAGE 
 
 OF TOTAL BY 
 
 CATE- 
 
 GORIES 
 
 NATURE OF GOODS 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 per 
 
 1000 
 
 tons 
 
 NATURE OF GOODS 
 
 TONNAGE 
 
 per 
 
 1000 
 
 tons 
 
 ports 
 effected 
 by the 
 two 
 
 “ ways " 
 
 NAVIGABLE 
 
 ways 
 
 RAILWAYS 
 
 l" 
 
 Category' 
 
 Manure and soil im- 
 proving substances. 
 Metalurgical products 
 
 Machines 
 
 1 Mineral fuel. . . 
 Wood fuel and build- 
 ing timber .... 
 Ore and building ma- 
 terial 
 
 Agricultural and ali- 
 mentary products. . 
 
 1,315 
 
 1,715 
 
 25 
 
 6,945 
 
 1,913 
 
 7,688 
 
 3,515 
 
 Manure and soil im- 
 proving substances. 
 Iron, cast-iron, metal, 
 Coal, coke and other 
 combustible. . . . 
 Building material . . . 
 Wines, vinegars, and 
 
 spirits 
 
 Cereals, grain, etc. . 
 
 2,470 
 
 5,187 
 
 24,467 
 
 10,214 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,809 
 
 
 Total of the category which 
 shows itself to be important 
 to water transport 
 
 23,141 
 
 
 53,147 
 
 76,291 
 
 30.34 
 
 69.66 
 
 2 .d 1 
 
 Category' 
 
 Industrial products. . 
 
 Divers 
 
 678 
 
 346 
 
 Raw material and ma- 
 nufactured products 
 Groceries, colonial, 
 and alimentary pro- 
 ducts 
 
 Divers 
 
 7,603 
 
 4,316 
 
 12,114 
 
 
 Total of the 2” d category which 
 shows itself to be of no impor- 
 tance to water transport. . . . 
 
 1.024 
 
 
 24,033 
 
 25,057 
 
 4 08 
 
 95.92 
 
 General total 
 
 24,168 
 
 
 79,180 
 
 101,548 
 
 23.84 
 
 76.16 
 
6 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 II 
 
 The question of the distances covered still greatly reduces the figure 
 with which the possible influence of navigable ways over railways might 
 be represented. 
 
 These latter go everywhere; they require above all to go everywhere. 
 There is a social and political as much as an economical role. It is 
 only in certain directions of commercial activity, the most important it is 
 true, where they meet the waterways in a more or less parallel line and 
 serve the same centres. The lines which leave these large directions and 
 above all those which are perpendicular to the said directions, have, it 
 can be said, nothing whatever to do with inland navigation. 
 
 What is then the traction of the railway system which can be consi- 
 dered as in parallelism with navigable ways? The length of these latter 
 is 10 735 kilometres. Cut numerous reductions must be taken into 
 account in this figure. 
 
 Parts exclusively frequented by maritime navigation. . 580 kilom. 
 
 Those which, either through their uncommercial surroun- 
 dings, or by the want of outlets or the unfavorable con- 
 ditions of their navigability are commercially abandoned. 3556 — 
 
 Lastly those which, although simply floating canals, 
 nevertheless appear under the title of navigable ways . . 1012 — 
 
 Total. . . . 4948 kilom. 
 
 There remain therefore only 11 785 kilometres which are susceptible to 
 a certain commercial activity. But out of these 11 785 kilometres, less 
 than 4 000 kilometres fulfil completely the triple condition recognized at 
 the present time to be indispensable, minimum length 2 metres, lock 
 58 m. 50 long by 5 metres wide, height 3 m. 70 under the bridges con- 
 ditions laid down by our law of 1879. 
 
 But in point of fact it is only necessary to study the parallel in- 
 fluence in so far as the directions or the activity of one or the other 
 means of transport possesses a comparative importance, all proportions 
 being observed. 
 
 Now these directions are few in number. By the aid of the very exact, 
 numerous, and judicially grouped details of the inland navigation statistics, 
 I have drawn up the following table. In the latter columns, 1 have indi- 
 cated those railways which might be considered as being in parallelism. 
 
 The following figures show that 5629 kilometres of navigable ways or 
 33 °/o °f the total classified length can be considered as being in paral- 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 7 
 
 Ielism with 4 956 kilometres of railways, a figure equal to only 15 °/ 0 
 of the French system. 
 
 Again out of these 5629 kilometres there are 2353 kilometres or 41, 
 44 °/o the conditions of navigability of which are imperfect 1 , there are 
 included certain water-courses which receive but a small traffic. 
 
 Such is the RhOne which will only become a commercial waterway, 
 utilising the splendid improvements of which it has been the object, when 
 the difficulties attended by the rising of so rapid a flow will have been 
 overcome by some ingenious inventor; such again is the great waterway 
 from Bordeaux to Narbonne, which in the hands of its competitor is reduced 
 to a kind of afflictive unemployment. 
 
 « En resume » then, in the present situation, navigable ways only 
 compete in a notable proportion with railroads on 1/7 of the kilometric 
 development of these latter and this competition is limited to a traffic 
 representing less than 1/10 of the gross receipts of railways. 
 
 1. It is my duty and desire to reassure the readers by saying that these 2533 kilo- 
 metres of which I mention the present unfavourable state, might be grouped in the 
 following way : 
 
 kiloin. 
 
 I' 1 Ways or parts of ways which are undergoing transformations. (The work is 
 well advanced on most of these ways and notably on the Ardennes, Briare, 
 
 Somme and Rhone-Rhine canals) G76 
 
 2 nd Ways (not included in what the administration calls general system) and 
 which, on account of their present small importance in transformation is post- 
 poned sine die 790 
 
 3 rd Ways hired out to private companies (principally the « Midi » canals and which 
 cannot be transformed until after the expiration ot the leases, and this is still a 
 long way off 380 
 
 4"“ Lastly the Rhone between Lyons and Arles, which, as I state in the course of 
 my notice the future improvement depends chiefly on the means of « working » 
 (haulage, towage, remorquage, etc.) 287 
 
 Total. . 
 
 2555 
 
8 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATERWAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 LINES 
 
 WATER-COURSES 
 
 OR SECTIONS OF WATER-COl'RSES 
 
 composing the lines 
 
 of t 
 
 SECT 
 
 fulfil 
 the con 
 of the 
 of 1 
 
 >. 
 
 3 
 
 u. 
 
 LENG 
 
 le 
 
 OKS 
 
 mg 
 
 itions 
 
 law 
 
 889 
 
 • ►» 
 u ZZ 
 <£.2 
 
 1 S 
 
 OF THE LINES 1 3 
 
 r 
 
 OF TIIE TOTAL 
 
 in the same system / 
 
 PRRCBN 
 
 il 
 
 THE T 
 
 u 
 
 «G 
 
 J 
 
 CS 
 
 M 
 
 0. 
 
 TAGS 
 
 AFFIC 
 
 s 
 
 J o 
 < 
 
 o >? 
 
 H 1/3 
 
 e» 
 
 o 
 
 RAILWAYS 
 
 in 
 
 FARALLELISM 
 
 LENGTH PER SECTION 
 
 LENGTH PER SYSTEM 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 kit. 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 
 From Paris (Tournelle to 
 
 
 I. - 
 
 Seine. . . . 5 
 
 Rouen) 
 
 245 
 
 » 
 
 
 Front Rouen to Havre . . . 
 
 129 
 
 ” 1 
 
 o /2 
 
 o /2 
 
 13.2 
 
 13.2 
 
 Paris to Havre 
 
 226 
 
 226 
 
 
 c *d / 
 
 Seine (note) 
 
 
 » \ 
 
 
 «! « « 
 
 Oise canalised 
 
 101 
 
 » , 
 
 
 ~ £ ! 
 
 Lateral canal to the Oise 
 
 
 «*> e 2 g 
 
 and canal Manicamp . . . 
 
 34 
 
 » ' 
 
 
 £ 2 t s 
 
 Saint-Quenlin canal (Chauny- 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 21.5 
 
 
 Camhray) 
 
 95 
 
 » 1 
 
 
 u. c f 
 
 Scheldt (Cambrai-Condd). . 
 
 18 
 
 » 
 
 
 Mons-Condd canal 
 
 5 
 
 » 
 
 
 Branch 
 
 Sambre-Oise canal 
 
 71 
 
 » ] 
 
 
 lo Charleroi, i 
 
 Sambre canalised 
 
 51 
 
 » 1 
 
 125 
 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 | Junction of 
 
 Aisne canalised 
 
 57 
 
 » 
 
 
 the Oise with 
 
 Lateral canal to the Aisne. 
 
 51 
 
 » 
 
 208 
 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 Paris, Amiens, Arras, Douai, 
 
 
 the Meuse. 
 
 Ardennes canal 
 
 
 100) 
 
 
 Lille, 1 omening, frontier, 
 
 
 Somain, Valenciennes and 
 
 
 Sensie canal 
 
 25 
 
 
 frontier 
 
 310 
 
 
 I ~o 
 
 Scarpe (parting way at Foil 
 
 
 Lille to Dunkirk and Calais, 
 
 
 / C 4) C ?, 
 
 do Scarpe) 
 
 7 
 
 " 
 
 
 Cieil, Chauny, lergnier, 
 
 
 \ .2 -g 5 8 
 
 | Deule canal 
 
 70 
 
 " 1 
 
 l 
 
 
 Aulnaye 
 
 150. 
 
 
 1 C/3 r+ ^4 
 
 Aire canal 
 
 41 
 
 » v 
 
 2 5 
 
 
 10.5' 
 
 
 Bourmont frontier 
 
 189’ 
 
 
 5 S 
 
 J Neulfosse canal 
 
 18 
 
 
 j 
 
 1,210 
 
 
 37.8 
 
 Tergnier to Laon 
 
 50( 
 
 
 ^ — £ _o 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 Douai via Orchies 
 
 23 
 
 
 Calais canal 
 
 41 
 
 
 Frontier line and collieries 
 
 
 Bourbourg canal 
 
 21 
 
 
 of Pas-de-Calais 
 
 86 
 
 
 Amiens to Noyelles 
 
 59 
 
 
 Furnes canal 
 
 » 
 
 13 
 
 
 B | 
 
 Bergues canal 
 
 » 
 
 8 
 
 
 . 
 
 1 Coline canal 
 
 » 
 
 38 
 
 
 « A 
 
 1 Lys canalised 
 
 72 
 
 » 
 
 
 1 Deule canal (note) 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 182 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 pa ^ a 
 
 j Scarpe (Fort de Scarpc-Mor- 
 
 
 "■* ‘5 
 
 
 06 
 
 » 
 
 
 2 § 
 
 Scheldt (Condo to the fron- 
 
 
 c 
 
 tier) 
 
 15 
 
 )> 
 
 
 Branch of 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 the Somme. 
 
 Somme canal 
 
 156 
 
 » 
 
 156 
 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 ( 0 
 
 Seine (front Tournelle bridge 
 
 
 Paris to the frontier and 
 
 
 ^ “ C j. 
 
 1 to Charenton) 
 
 5 
 
 )) 
 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 410 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 1 3 £ 'n 
 
 1 Marne (Charenton to Dizy). 
 
 179 
 
 » 
 
 
 Branch to Reims 
 
 30 
 
 
 1 Wi S 
 
 1 n 0 
 
 t Lateral canal to Maine.. . 
 
 63 
 
 » 
 
 ( 491 
 
 491 
 
 “8.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 Extreme part of the Mul- 
 
 
 >410 
 
 / -5 U £ 
 
 ' Marne-Rhine canal. . . . 
 
 21 ( 
 
 » 
 
 
 houselline (note) 
 
 » 
 
 \ 
 
 \ ^ 
 
 Mosel e canalized 
 
 31 
 
 
 1 Eastern canal (N 11 branch). 
 
 272 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 a {> 0 r 
 
 j Marne-Rhine canal (note). 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 452 
 
 
 5.3 
 
 
 Givet lo Sedan 
 
 85 
 
 
 ■= \ 3 u 
 
 f Eastern canal (S"‘ branch). 
 
 16 C 
 
 » 
 
 
 Sedan to Lerouville - Tou - 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 louse-Nancy.Nancy-Epinal, 
 
 
 7 Q“) 
 
 
 Saone (from Corre to Saint- 
 
 
 } 8 i 8 
 
 
 Lure-Vesoul 
 
 348 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 Jean de Losne) 
 
 163 
 
 >, 
 
 J 
 
 
 Ilirson to Mezieres 
 
 56 
 
 
 «S [ 
 
 Haute-Marne canal 
 
 » 
 
 77 
 
 426 > 
 
 1 .8 
 
 
 Vesoul-Besanfon-Lyons. . . 
 
 300 
 
 
 w \ 
 
 Rhone-Rhine canal 
 
 * 
 
 186 
 
 1 
 
 
 Carried over 
 
 \ 
 
 1 ,349 
 
 422 
 
 1,582 
 
 1,582 
 
 66.6 
 
 66.6 
 
 | 
 
 2,335 
 
 2,33 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT, 
 
 9 
 
 
 LENGTHS 
 
 PERCBAT4GB 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 WATER-COURSES 
 
 of the 
 
 
 £ 
 
 in 
 
 RAILWAYS 
 
 o 
 
 Cd 
 
 P- 
 
 C/3 
 
 
 SECTIONS 
 
 
 THE TRAFFIC 
 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 fulfilling 
 
 C/5 
 
 
 C/3 
 
 C/2 
 
 LINES 
 
 Oil SECTIONS OF WATER-COURSES 
 
 the conditions 
 of the law 
 
 vJ 
 
 I % 
 
 
 5 
 
 in 
 
 a 
 
 Cd 
 
 Cm 
 
 a 
 
 Cd 
 
 Gm 
 
 
 of 18 9 
 
 U 
 
 u £ 
 
 u 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 composing the lines 
 
 
 — 
 
 H 
 
 b» 
 
 
 s 
 
 c ^ 
 
 PARALLELISM 
 
 E— 
 
 o 
 
 b* 
 
 CJJ 
 
 
 >* 
 
 J 
 
 
 O £ 
 
 a 
 
 
 Cd 
 
 w 
 
 
 _ 
 
 o. 
 
 
 p—3 
 
 -3 
 
 
 Li* 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil 
 
 kil. 
 
 
 kil. 
 
 kil. 
 
 
 Brought over . . . 
 
 1,319 
 
 422 
 
 1,582 
 
 1,582 
 
 66.6 
 
 66.6 
 
 
 2,535 
 
 2 , 335 
 
 1 Seine 
 
 1 to the Loire. 
 
 Loing canal 
 
 Briare canal 
 
 Orleans canal 
 
 50 
 
 "s8 
 
 74* 
 
 182 1 
 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 Paris-Orleans-Montargis-Ne- 
 
 332 
 
 175/ 
 
 v l Lateral 
 
 Digoin-Roarme canal 
 
 Lateral canal to Loire . . . 
 
 » 
 
 56 
 
 206 
 
 262^ 
 
 883 
 
 4.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 vers 
 
 Nevers-Montlufon 
 
 
 ' \ line to the 
 
 
 Nevers-Roanne 
 
 104) 
 
 881 
 
 1 Loire. 
 
 Loire) 
 
 116 
 
 
 116 
 
 
 Ncvers-Bourges-Tours. . . . 
 
 2031 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Chalon-sur-Saone-Digoin . . 
 
 67J 
 
 
 \ Berry line. 
 
 Berry canal 
 
 Cher canalised 
 
 » 
 
 261 
 
 62 
 
 323 
 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 / c 
 
 Seine (Paris stream) .... 
 
 98 
 
 
 n 
 
 Yonne 
 
 » 
 
 85 
 
 
 \ u, 2 = 
 
 Burgundy canal 
 
 212 
 
 » 
 
 ) 636 
 
 
 9.9 
 
 
 Paris-I.yons 
 
 511 
 
 19 
 
 ! 
 
 VI J s = i 
 
 Saone (Saint-Jean de Losne- 
 
 211 
 
 
 971 
 
 
 12.3 
 
 Branch to Auxerre 
 
 881 
 
 J a. o 2 
 
 • Lyons) . . . . 
 
 
 Lyons to Marseilles 
 
 351 
 
 I 'O 
 
 Ulione (Lyons to Arles)! . . 
 
 » 
 
 335 
 
 335 
 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 Arles to the Mediterranean. 
 
 
 / o 
 
 Garonne (from Bordeaux to 
 
 
 1 o •- S 
 
 Castels) 
 
 Lateral canal to the Garonne. 
 
 Si 
 
 )) 
 
 213 
 
 
 Bordeaux lo Toulouse and 
 
 480 
 
 
 Vll \ a J S 
 
 J Midi canal 
 
 » 
 
 212 
 
 > 625 
 
 625 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.9 
 
 Cette 
 
 640 
 
 
 Rhone-Cette canal 
 
 )> 
 
 98 
 
 
 Cette to Marseilles 
 
 160 
 
 f o 2d 
 
 Thau Pond 
 
 18 
 
 
 viii ^ South - 
 vm, { West. 
 
 . Charente 
 
 
 113 
 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 Angouleme lo Rochefort. . 
 
 122 
 
 30 
 
 ) 
 
 j Sevre-Niorlaise 
 
 )) 
 
 51 221 
 
 221 
 
 0.2 
 
 Rochefort to La Rochelle. . 
 
 219 
 
 Marans-Rochelle canal . . . 
 
 * 
 
 21 
 
 ) 
 
 
 La Rochelle to Niort 
 
 67 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 3,288 
 
 2,335 
 
 5,621 
 
 5,721 
 
 91.0 
 
 91.0 
 
 
 4,956 
 
 4,956 
 
 III 
 
 I said competition and I insist on the word. The relations between 
 railways and navigable ways are at the present day those of two competing 
 concerns. The two systems of transport really fight hard for that traffic 
 which is limited, as stated above, to certain directions, and to heavy goods 
 of little value, travelling in bulk, in large masses, and at long distances. 
 For a long time this category of transport appeared to be the natural mono- 
 poly of lluvial navigation. 
 
 2 G. 
 
 FLEURY, 
 
10 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATERWAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 Not undeservedly has honour been paid to the river navigation for the 
 industrial development of certain centres, chiefly in Ihe East of France 
 where raw material and combustible was brought by boat at low prices, 
 and, being afterwards converted into manufactured goods constituted 
 elements of a paying traffic for railways. 
 
 The examples of the Frouard canal and the large soda works of Dombasle 
 have, in this respect, become classical. 
 
 It was on account of the support given by the nature of the services 
 rendered to these important and numerous industries that the minister of 
 public works in 1878, in a report of which 1 gave a quotation in com- 
 mencing, could speak of the dividing of attributions between two means of 
 transport destined it appeared, not to supplant, but on the contrary to 
 complete each other. 
 
 True when Ihe railway tariffs for the most part strictly kilometric were 
 kept between 4 and 7 centimes per kilometric ton (will these statements be 
 verified at the present day when most of the heavy goods tariffs, especially 
 in those directions where lluvial navigation shows itself, have been rend- 
 ered more favorable commercially, as much by the reduction in price as 
 the simplifying of certain formalities and belter combinations in detail?) 
 on more than one point, the effect of these tariffs is to day apparent and it 
 is a positive fact that they have taken up a part of the inland navigation 
 custom or clientele. Allow me to mention a few facts in support of this : 
 
 In the East of France, that region where some time ago navigation 
 precisely facilitated the creation and development of metallurgical, 
 chemical, and manufacturing industries, the part taken by railways in the 
 carrying of large quantities of heavy goods, became more and more 
 great. The following statement of traffic and arrivals of mineral fuel at 
 Nancy either by one or the other is very clear in this respect. 
 
 
 ARRIVALS OF COALS AND 
 
 COKE OF 
 
 
 - — 
 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 
 YEARS 
 
 FRENCH 
 
 ORIGIN 
 
 BELGIAN 
 
 ORIGIN 
 
 GERMAN 
 
 ORIGIN 
 
 
 TOTALS 
 
 
 2 o 
 
 j5 O 
 
 c* c 
 
 2 § 
 
 £ o 
 
 2 1 
 
 m 
 
 cs G 
 
 ? o 
 
 2 § 
 
 <n 
 
 rt c 
 £ 2 
 
 ( tOOO tons) 
 
 
 £ O 
 
 'w o 
 
 i © 
 
 ca o 
 
 i © 
 
 2 § 
 
 £ O 
 
 2 g 
 
 
 «§ 
 
 >>© 
 ca ^ 
 
 >-> o 
 ca 
 
 >» © 
 
 ca 3 
 
 ca* — 
 
 ^ © 
 ca ^ 
 
 ©2 
 
 ^ ° 
 
 
 1886 
 
 108 
 
 41 
 
 102 
 
 62 
 
 251 
 
 191 
 
 461 
 
 294 
 
 755 
 
 1887 
 
 110 
 
 152 
 
 101 
 
 52 
 
 248 
 
 188 
 
 459 
 
 572 
 
 851 
 
 1888 
 
 115 
 
 228 
 
 57 
 
 69 
 
 212 
 
 189 
 
 584 
 
 486 
 
 870 
 
 1889 
 
 155 
 
 255 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 191 
 
 164 
 
 407 
 
 475 
 
 882 
 
 1890 
 
 151 
 
 512 
 
 87 
 
 128 
 
 189 
 
 214 
 
 427 
 
 654 
 
 1081 
 
 Average 
 
 128 
 
 189 
 
 82 
 
 78 
 
 218 
 
 189 
 
 428 
 
 456 
 
 884 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 1 1 
 
 The transport of fuel to Nancy by water is therefore on the decrease, 
 whereas the railway transports are notably increasing. On French coals 
 in particular, the quantity carried by water in comparison to that carried 
 over rail was, in 1886, as 2,63 is to I. In 1889 it fell below the unit and 
 it is now only 0,50. Iron ore going in the direction of Belgium and the 
 North also disappeared from canals for a certain time, from 1887 to 1889. 
 They would appear however to be coming back. In the same way sodas 
 and salts shew a tendency for railroads. 
 
 In conclusion and in order not to mention loo many, one of the traffics, 
 which has been lost and which is the most greatly deplored by water navi- 
 gation is the cotton hale traffic from Havre to several manufacturing towns 
 in the Vosges such as Epinal, Thaon, Chateau-Nomcny and Nancy. 
 
 It is stated that on this account alone water navigation lost in the year 
 1890 more than 4000 tons of a specially remunerative kind of freight. 
 
 The same is said of the combed wools sent from the North, and princi- 
 pally from Roubaix, into Alsace and Switzerland. 
 
 In the central region it is noted that that modest merchandise, charcoal, 
 which from time immemorial came by boat from Morvan to Paris is com- 
 mencing to take to railroads. On the « Canal du Centre » the transport 
 of coals from Decizc to Creuzot has disappeared since 1889. This means, 
 it is assured, that 70 600 tons abandon fluvial navigation for railroads. 
 
 The enumeration of this kind of facts would take a long time. On all 
 sides, with the exception of a few privileged directions, such as the Seine 
 and a few lines in the North, navigation has had to undergo defeats and 
 be overtaken by its great rival. 
 
 General opinion recognises that the cause is to be found in the new and 
 reduced tariffs put in force about four years back by the railway com- 
 panies. 
 
 It has been noticed with what zeal the railway companies sought to 
 obtain certain freights which traditionally belonged to fluvial navigation. 
 
 It is known that the railways have very attentively watched the progress 
 of inland navigation; they regulate their tariffs accordingly and those 
 tariffs which are specially applicable to heavy goods are known in railway 
 language as two centime tariffs. But we must explain : there are almost 
 no two centime tariffs on railways. The tables applied to the latter series 
 of goods are calculated on a decreasing basis and most of them allow two 
 cenlimes only for that part of the journey over and above a certain dis- 
 tance. Previous lo obtaining this rate of the minimum kilomctric price, 
 the said goods were charged more than two cenlimes; the average will 
 therefore shew a higher figure. 
 
 The tables of the last series of the North and P.-L.-M. railways are as 
 follows : 
 
12 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATERWAYS AND RAILROAD -S’ 
 
 NORTHERN. — TABLE VI 
 
 
 fr. 
 
 c. 
 
 
 Up 
 
 to 
 
 25 kilometres. 
 
 0 
 
 04 
 
 From 
 
 26 
 
 to 
 
 75 — 
 
 0 
 
 05 
 
 From 
 
 76 
 
 to 
 
 200 — 
 
 0 
 
 025 
 
 From 
 
 201 
 
 to 
 
 250 — 
 
 0 
 
 02 
 
 From 
 
 261 
 
 to 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 015 
 
 P.-L.-M. — F CLASS 
 
 
 fr c. 
 
 Up to 25 kilometres. . 
 
 0.08 
 
 From 26 to 50 — 
 
 0.04 
 
 Upwards of 51 — 
 
 0.02 
 
 Similar tables are in existence on other railway lines. It results that 
 the longest distances which can be directed on each one of them, are made 
 at Hie following prices : 
 
 LINES 
 
 MAXIMUM 
 
 DISTANCE 
 
 on 
 
 EACH LINE 
 
 PRICE 
 
 SHOWN DY THE APPLICATION 
 
 of the lowest table 
 
 AVERAGE PRICE 
 
 PER KILOMETRE 
 
 without 
 ex Ira charges 
 
 with 
 
 extra charges 
 
 without 
 extra charges 
 
 with 
 
 extra charges 
 
 
 kilom. 
 
 fr. c. 
 
 fr. c. 
 
 c. m. 
 
 c. m. 
 
 Northern 
 
 500 
 
 7.575 
 
 8.575 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.79 
 
 P.-L.-M 
 
 1000 
 
 22. » 
 
 25 . » 
 
 2.21) 
 
 2.50 
 
 Eastern 
 
 500 
 
 18. » 
 
 19. » 
 
 5.60 
 
 5.80 
 
 Orleans 
 
 1200 
 
 25.75 
 
 26.75 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.25 
 
 State 
 
 620 
 
 12.40 
 
 15.40 
 
 2 . 00 
 
 2.16 
 
 Midi 
 
 1000 
 
 51 . » 
 
 52. » 
 
 5. 10 
 
 5.20 
 
 Western 
 
 800 
 
 26. » 
 
 27. » 
 
 5.25 
 
 5 58 
 
 These prices are applicable to goods of the last series travelling under 
 the conditions of the general tariff and also to certain oilier higher series 
 favoured by special larilfs. Amongst these latter are to be found those 
 which have been confirmed in the course of these last few years and which 
 offer in point of fact very reduced conditions to heavy goods of little value, 
 travelling in bulk in large quantities and to long distances. 
 
 I give below a few examples taken in preference from those which appear 
 to me to have most particularly favoured the taking over to railways of 
 certain transports which were effected up to then by river navigation. 
 
 In this table, one of the last columns contains the kilometric lengths 
 which inland navigation is obliged to cover in order to meet the same 
 transports as railways. There is always lengthening and the effect of this 
 lengthening is to notably reduce the kilometric price of water navigation, 
 as is shown by the two last columns. 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 13 
 
 Prices of divers Transports 
 
 BY RAIL 
 
 BY WATER 
 
 LINES 
 
 N°* 
 
 GOODS 
 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 w 
 
 CJ 
 
 25 
 
 -ft 
 
 PR 
 
 PER 
 
 g 
 
 ICE 
 
 TON 
 
 G 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 25 
 
 < 
 
 PR 
 
 PER KIL 
 
 o o 
 
 JS 
 
 - 'C « 
 
 ICE 
 
 OM.-TON 
 
 - G> 
 
 O .2 
 
 of 
 
 TARIFFS 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 H 
 
 c /2 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 a, 
 
 rz 
 
 O 
 
 •H 
 
 Per kilom.-t 
 
 E-« 
 
 C/2 
 
 Q 
 
 According to 
 
 same total p 
 
 as railway 
 
 With rcduct 
 
 of 25 °/o 
 
 on the said p 
 
 Northern 
 
 10 
 
 Plaster 
 
 Per consignment of 100 tons 
 from Paris to the north. 
 Maximum price G fr. 60 
 (station expenses not in- 
 cluded). 
 
 Paris 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 kilom. 
 
 267 
 
 fr. 
 
 7.00 
 
 cent. 
 
 2.62 
 
 kilom. 
 
 476 
 
 cent. 
 
 1.47 
 
 cent. 
 
 1.10 
 
 Northern | 22 | Manure | Same conditions as above. | I’aris | Dunkirk | 201 | 7 .00 1 2.62| 416 ] 1.47 1 1.10 
 
 Northern 
 
 Special 
 
 book 
 
 N* 2 
 
 Coal 
 
 Per consignment of 100 tons 
 with divers destinations 
 (accessory expenses inclu- 
 ded). 
 
 100 kilom. . . . 4''30 
 
 130 — ... 5.80 
 
 200 — ... 6.65 
 
 250 — ... 6.90 
 
 280 — ... 7.05 
 
 Examples 
 
 Lens 
 
 Paiis 
 
 (its 
 
 250) 
 
 210 
 
 6.90 
 
 3.86 
 
 3.33 
 
 2.76 
 
 2.51 
 
 3.30 
 
 372 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.39 
 
 Northern 
 
 Special 
 
 book 
 
 N" 5 
 
 Coal 
 
 From the frontier and from 
 all coal dislincts to Rouen. 
 Per consignin' of 250 tons 
 (access, expenses includ.). 
 
 From these 
 divers ports 
 of 
 
 departure 
 
 Rouen 
 
 310 
 
 (maiiro. 
 
 distance) 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 456 
 
 (maiim. 
 
 distance) 
 
 1.31 
 
 0.98 
 
 Northern 
 
 aiul 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 12 
 
 Slates 
 
 Per consignment of 5 tons 
 (accessory expenses not 
 included). 
 
 Civet 
 
 [via Reims) 
 
 Paris 
 
 312 
 
 10.97 
 
 3.51 
 
 460 
 
 2.58 
 
 1.77 
 
 Eastern 
 
 ami 
 
 Northern 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 218 
 
 Soda 
 
 Per consignment of 10 tons 
 (accessory expenses inclu- 
 ded). 
 
 Varangeville 
 
 (St-Nicolas) 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 476 
 
 10.30 
 
 2.16 
 
 619 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.25 
 
 Eastern 
 
 and 
 
 Northern 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 113 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 Per consignment of 300 tons 
 (accessory expenses inclu- 
 ded). 
 
 Pont- 
 
 St-Vincent 
 
 Valenciennes 
 
 318 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.72 
 
 512 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.87 
 
 Northern 
 
 and 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 107 
 
 Coal 
 
 Price according to distance 
 (accessory expenses inclu- 
 ded). Per consignment of 
 100 tons. 
 
 Example 
 
 Lens 
 
 Nancy 
 
 392 
 
 8.65 
 
 2.21 
 
 505 
 
 1.71 
 
 1.29 
 
 Eastern 
 
 13 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 Per 10 tons (not including 
 accessory expenses). On all 
 the system. 
 
 25 kilogr. 0"04 
 
 26 to 50 — 0.05 
 
 51 to 100 — 0 025 
 
 Ileyond this. . . 0.02 
 
 Example 
 
 Frouard 
 
 Civet 
 
 257 
 
 6.54 
 
 2.55 
 
 295 
 
 2.22 
 
 1.67 
 
 Eastern 
 
 18 
 
 Rough 
 
 Soda 
 
 Per 10 tons (not including 
 accessory expenses). On all 
 the system). 
 
 25 kilogr. 0 ,r 08 
 26 to 50 — 0.05 
 
 50 to 200 — 0.04 
 
 200 to 400 — 0.025 
 
 Beyond this. . . 0.02 
 Example 
 
 Varangeville 
 
 Givet 
 
 278 
 
 11.60 
 
 4.17 
 
 337 
 
 5.34 
 
 1.51 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Western 
 
 Grande 
 
 Ceinture 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 120 
 
 Bales 
 of cotton 
 
 Per 10 tons (not including 
 accessory expenses). Tem- 
 porary tariff. 
 
 Havre 
 
 Chat. Nomexy 
 Epinal 
 Nancy 
 Thaon 
 
 642 
 
 630 
 
 585 
 
 634 
 
 32.50 
 
 5.06 
 
 5.15 
 5.56 
 
 5.16 
 
 828 
 
 845 
 
 786 
 
 854 
 
 3.92 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.13 
 
 3.89 
 
 2.94 
 
 2.89 
 
 3.10 
 
 2.92 
 
14 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATERWAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 Prices of divers Transports 
 
 BY RAIL 
 
 BY 
 
 WATER 
 
 
 N” 
 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 
 PRICE 
 
 PER TON 
 
 
 PRICE 
 
 PER KILOM. -TON 
 
 LINES 
 
 of 
 
 TARIFFS 
 
 GOODS 
 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 g 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 X 
 
 ■g o 
 
 - O 
 
 c o 
 
 O T 
 
 FROM 
 
 TO 
 
 Eh 
 
 C/3 
 
 5 
 
 c_ 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 o 
 
 Eh 
 
 g 
 
 _o 
 
 15 
 
 u 
 
 O) 
 
 a. 
 
 H 
 
 C/3 
 
 (=) 
 
 According to 
 
 same total pi 
 
 as railway 
 
 o - ® C “ 
 30 T3 
 
 .£ o j~ 
 
 £ e 
 o 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Belgian 
 
 stale 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 5 
 
 Bales 
 of cotton 
 
 Per 5 or 10 tons ( accessory 
 expenses included). From 
 Belgian ports to divers sta- 
 tions in the Vosges. 
 
 Example 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Spinal 
 
 kilom. 
 
 465 
 
 fr. 
 
 26.80 
 
 cent. 
 
 5.76 
 
 kilom. 
 
 647 
 
 cent. 
 
 4.14 
 
 cent. 
 
 5.11 
 
 Western 
 
 Q 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Per consignment of 5000 ki- 
 logr. (accessory expenses 
 included). 
 
 Le Havre 
 Bouen 
 
 Paris 
 
 226 
 
 151 
 
 7.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 3.09 
 
 3.07 
 
 575 
 
 246 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.03 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.53 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 2 
 
 Same conditions as above 
 ( for the sake of compa- 
 rison). 
 
 Le Havre 
 Rouen 
 
 Versailles 
 
 210 
 
 148 
 
 9.50 
 
 7.50 
 
 5.95 
 
 5.06 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 )) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 2 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Per consignment of 5000 ki- 
 logr. ( accessory expenses 
 included). 
 
 Cette 
 
 (same price 
 as Marseille 
 850 kilom.) 
 
 Paris 
 
 776 
 
 28.00 
 
 3.61 
 
 1025 
 
 2.73 
 
 2.05 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 4 
 
 Salt 
 
 Per consignment of 5000 ki- 
 logr ( accessory expenses 
 1 franc). 
 
 Aigues- 
 
 Mortes 
 
 Lyons 
 
 321 
 
 11.00 
 
 3.42 
 
 321 
 
 3.42 
 
 2.57 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 7 
 
 Coal 
 
 Divers set prices per 5000 ki- 
 logrammes). 
 
 Examples 
 
 Hives de G'er 
 Decize 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 Le Creusot 
 (Bois-Bretoux) 
 
 382 
 
 8S 
 
 10.00 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.41 
 
 129 
 
 » 
 
 232 
 
 1 55 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 8 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Divers sot prices per consi- 
 gnment of 5000 kilogr. 
 Example 
 
 Decize 
 
 Bercy 
 
 290 
 
 15.00 
 
 5.01 
 
 323 
 
 4.48 
 
 5.56 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 Northern 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 107 
 
 Coal 
 
 Per 5000 kilogr. Divers set 
 prices at starting point 
 and coal districts of the 
 North, Pas-de-Calais and 
 Belgian frontier. 
 
 Example 
 
 Valenciennes 
 
 Nevers 
 
 518 
 
 18.20 
 
 3.30 
 
 629 
 
 2.89 
 
 2.17 
 
 P.-L.-M. 
 
 Midi 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 107 
 
 Coal 
 
 Set prices per consignment 
 of 5000 kilogrammes. 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 640 
 
 20.00 
 
 3.12| » 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 Midi 
 
 4 
 
 § 2 
 
 Salt 
 
 (for uses 
 without 
 taxes) 
 
 Special price applied by 
 means of drawback. Per 
 sealed sack weighing 50 ki- 
 logr., or sealed wagon of 
 5000 kilogr. load. 
 
 Example 
 
 Cette 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 473 
 
 10.60 
 
 2.24 
 
 505 
 
 2.10 
 
 1.58 
 
 Midi 
 
 7 
 
 § 1 
 
 Coal 
 
 Special price on leaving Bor- 
 deaux ( per consignment 
 of 1000 kilogrammes). 
 
 Example 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Agen 
 
 136 
 
 5.00 
 
 3.67 
 
 140 
 
 3.57 
 
 2.68 
 
 Midi 
 
 Orleans 
 
 107/10 
 
 Coal 
 
 Divers set prices per consi- 
 gnment of 5000 kilogr. 
 
 Example 
 
 Bodez 
 
 Irun 
 
 573 
 
 18.70 
 
 3.26 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 P 
 
 Midi 
 
 Maritime 
 
 Company 
 
 206 
 
 § 1 
 
 Wines 
 in barrels 
 
 By the port of Cette only, 
 from Algeria to Bordeaux 
 and Bayonne. Per 1000 ki- 
 logrammes. 
 
 Alger 
 
 Oran, Bone 
 Philippeville 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Bayonne 
 
 » 
 
 32.50 
 
 42.50 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 15 
 
 These few tariffs are the lowest which exist and which appear to he more 
 specially made with a view of competing with navigation. Apart the 
 Northern (book n° 3) for coals from the region of the North to Rouen, 
 which is fixed at two centimes, and the ordinary North-East T15 tariff for 
 the ore from the region of the East going Northwards which latter amounts 
 to 1 centime 72, all the other tariffs are higher than two centimes per 
 kilometric ton A rather remarkable thing to be said is that the two tariffs 
 
 1 have just mentioned are not those which bring forth the most complaints 
 from navigation. The tonnage of coals arriving by the Oise into the 
 Lower Seine which was 141995 tons in 1889 was, it is true only 108577 
 tons in 1890. But it is not certain that the 33418 tons which were missing 
 were taken by railways. It is more than probable that this reduction was 
 due to the imports of English coals which came up the Seine and which 
 in one year went from 68000 tons (o 181000 tons or an increase of 116 000 
 tons, fluvial navigation in point of fact benefiting by the said increase. 
 As to the ordinary North-Easi 113 tariff for iron ore, it would appear to 
 have been made up by the companies in view of utilizing the return of 
 the wagons which took into Eastern districts, the combustible from the 
 North. 
 
 This has not caused any reduction in the transports of ores by water, as 
 the four neighbouring ports, Pont-Saint-Yincent, Sexy, Neuves-Maisons, 
 and Fontaines-des-Roches, took up 265000 tons in 1889 and 276 000 tons 
 in 1890. 
 
 Those tariffs which have effectively taken away a part of the inland na- 
 vigation traffic are all more (and a few) notably so than two centimes, such 
 as the Est-Grande-Ceinture-Ouest 120 tariff which is more than 5 centimes 
 per ton, and which has taken from navigation the cotton bale traffic 
 from Havre to the Vosges. Nevertheless, this tariff price of fres 32-50, 
 calculated according to the distances by water would be equal to a full 
 kilometric price of nearly 4 centimes, and a reduction of 25 per 100 
 which would certainly have caused a great competition to railways would 
 still have left fluvial navigation with kilometric prices varying from 
 
 2 cent. 89 to 3 cent. 10. In this case however, as in several others, in- 
 land navigation gave up the fight. Why is it necessary even nowadays 
 that the prices of river navigation freight should be so near to railway 
 rates? 
 
 IY 
 
 Navigation people — and this statement does not take away any of the 
 sympathy which is due to their interesting industry — would appear, too 
 often alas, to ignore that there is on unsparing law called progress: those 
 who do not submit themselves thereto must disappear. For a loo long 
 
1(3 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 time past, inland navigation has remained just about what it is at the 
 present time. 
 
 The traditional shape of the barge might no doubt he improved upon 
 in view of a less resistance to the pulling motion. Are not the hauling 
 systems also susceptible to certain improvements which, in giving a more 
 regular motion would also render it less costly. But it is above all 
 through want of commercial organization, which is causing great losses 
 of time, and a very insufficient utilization of material that river navigation 
 establishes in some ways its inferiority towards railways. 
 
 These latter it must be admitted have improved themselves, and very 
 much so, whilst water navigation has remained stationary. Locomotives 
 draw at the present lime 400 tons of net weight without requining more 
 combustible or more bands than was previously required for 200 tons. 
 The lines are stronger and better, the wagons better built, and better 
 lubricated, hence a great reduction in resistance. It is all very fine to 
 say that at 4 000 francs per wagon, the transport of 500 tons on railways 
 demands a rolling stock of 120 000 francs whereas a barge of the same 
 capacity costs six times less. What does that matter if the wagons do 
 six times more effective work than the boat. That is what takes place, 
 from the year 1880 the railways annually utilized 37 times over the 
 capacity of their goods rolling stock, whilst navigation utilised 8 times its 
 capacity. The disproportion has since further increased, although the 
 utilisable coefficient of the barge lias been increased by 11 percent'. 
 Comparisons of the same kind would, in spite of all scientific reasons to 
 shew that it is quite otherwise, also lead to the conclusion that the 
 travelling of goods on railways is not very much higher than by haulage 
 or towage. But as I have just stated, it is in violation of the natural 
 laws laid down by science, that Ibe faulty organisation of boating, and, 
 
 I will have the courage to say, its routine, its mistrust of new systems, 
 its repugnance to the changing of habits, have been the cause and 
 the remaining of this most unpleasant anomaly. In order to maintain 
 itself navigation is under the obligation of being modified; let the boat 
 be improved, the drawing power bettered, this will be already a great 
 deal; but above all let time be better utilised on the journey, and, during 
 those sojourns in ports (which are at times so long) groping about for a 
 freight, let help be given by reducing to a minimum the duration of 
 lockings and stoppages, as has been already asked at Frankfort by an 
 eminent member of the present Congress. 
 
 By thus better utilizing its time, navigation will be more sure to 
 maintain and increase its business. The price of 1 cent. 25 will be no 
 longer alarming and before long railways will cease to follow up so far. 
 
 1. See remark relating to the law project on inland navigation by F. P. Volant. 
 (A Roanne, Loire.) Imp. P. Mouillot, 1891. 
 
IN INDUSTRIAL TRANSPORT. 
 
 17 
 
 It will remain master of that part of transport which tradition continues 
 to attribute to it and it will have served general interest as well as its 
 own. 
 
 This will be better perhaps than to express from time to time, to public 
 power, the wish, which Bastiat would have called anti-social, viz. to see 
 an important competition quashed by the suppression of the reduced rail- 
 way tariffs. 
 
 Lastly and in conclusion, should I say that of the three elements of trans- 
 port : the cart, the machine and the water, the last at least will escape any 
 criticism from me? Cerlainly the work of canal construction and impro- 
 vement in rivers is one of the most beautiful which has been executed in 
 France. Without referring to the large works of the past, without even 
 stopping to point out that which everyone knows, I will not allow this new 
 opportunity to pass by without rendering justice to the law of 1879 and to 
 the way it has been put in force up to the present time. How is it however 
 that in the best laid out lines for an active navigation, sections not im- 
 proved arc to be still found which have the same effect on the economical 
 utilization of the water flows as the insertion of 1 metre line between 
 Montereau and Laroche would have on the railway traffic from Paris to 
 Lyons. 
 
 There are 2 533 kilometres of this kind or 41.44 per cent, of the total 
 length of the followed itineraries, it will not be found excessive when 
 I state that this is one of the principal causes of the inferiority of inland 
 navigation and a serious obstacle to its improvement. In hastening to com- 
 plete the work so well conducted up lo the present time, the administra- 
 tion will render a real service to the country, as not only with its improved 
 line will navigation be able to effect more numerous transports at more 
 reduced prices but it will oblige railways to find out means of further 
 reducing their tariffs and this is the greatest influence navigation will 
 have. 
 
 A glance at the table in which I have brought together, as examples, the 
 conditions of certain reduced tariffs will at once show that they are all the 
 more decreased on account of their having to meet a greater competition. 
 The consequences of this are so evident that it is not necessary to lay 
 stress thereon. 
 
 The few considerations which I have indicated are too specially appli- 
 cable to our own country to allow of me proposing that the international 
 Congress make a resolution thereon. 
 
 In summing up therefore I think that 1 have established that thanks to 
 the improvements in their machines, on their lines, and in their commer- 
 
18 
 
 RESPECTIVE USES OF WATER-WAYS AND RAILROADS 
 
 cial practicability, railways have proved themselves capable of widening 
 the line which separated their legitime action from that of navigation, up 
 to a few years back. But I have also established that to keep up the 
 struggle for the benefit of general interest, when once its lines have been 
 put into good state, river navigation would only have to effect a few im- 
 provements more especially in an economical and commercial order than 
 in a technical one. — It only requires to « will » that this be done. 
 
 Paris, February 15 lh , 1882. 
 
 (Flaissiere, Sworn Translator, Paris.) 
 
24 810. — Impriinerie generate A. Lahure, 9, rue de Fleurus, a Paris. 
 
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