i 1 K|^4^S|C THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS library From the collection of James Collins, Drumcondra, Ireland. Purchased, 1918. 050 B39t BATTLEMENT. BREECH-LOADER. BAY-WINDOW- BATTERING RAM. BUTTRESS. BEETON’S DIOTIOMEY OF LITERATURE FINE ARTS AND AMUSEMENTS. INCLUDING ARCHITECTURE, BOOKS OF ALL NATIONS, HERALDRY, JOURNALISM, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, PAINTING, SCULPTURE, AND MANY OTHER SUBJECTS PERTAINING TO CULTURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION. ILLUSTRATED WITH SEPARATE FULL-PAGE PLATES OH TINTED PAPER, WARD, LOCK, AND GO. LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. NEW YORK: BOND STREET. \AU rights reserved.'] 2 S’, PEEFACE. The present age has witnessed an unparalleled advance in general education and culture. The extraordinary multiplication of cheap books, the widespread establish, ment of public libraries, the universal enforcement of school attendance, the vast growth and great influence of the newspaper press, the bestowal of a share in the country’s government on the masses, all are signs of one marked phenomenon, the increased intelligence of the public. This has its effect upon every person, whether it is perceived or not. It is impossible to go through life successfully without far more knowledge than was sufficient for our ancestors. In view of this spread of knowledge, every man must struggle to keep up with his fellows, and not fall be- hind them in those refinements of knowledge and cultivation, those graces of art, those pleasures, in fact, which make life so much more worth living to us than to those who have gone before. Without books of reference, a man of intelligence lacks his most essential requisite. Every one now acknowledges that it is impossible to get on without comprehensive books from which the most condensed information on any subject of inquiry can be gathered. In no department is this more essential than in that of literature and the fine arts, wherein our present possessions are the result of many ages of accumulated thought and effort by many and widely separated nations. It is next to impossible to retain in the memory with accuracy all the multifarious details pertaining to literature and art, which yet it is desirable to have accessible at any moment, and in a form easy and convenient for reference. One great ' essential, in order that information may be readily and promptly utilised, is to have it conveniently arranged ; and no form has hitherto been discovered comparable in this respect to that of the Dictionary. It is one of the numerous and great services rendered to us by the alphabet that it supplies a simple and easy mode of reference for Dictionary purposes j and the work which follows this Preface presents in this form a copious store of information on literature and languages, books and journals, drawing and painting, architecture, music, musical instruments, sculpture, and many other fine arts and literary subjects. Aided by such a book as this, it will be found comparatively easy to gain a general knowledge of the history of English, French, German, Greek, and Latin IV PIIEFACE. Literature, and to learn the characteristics of the several masterpieces by which they have been rendered famous. Moreover, the forms of literary composition and the technical terms connected with them are explained. The immense growth of modern journalism and printing is signalised by the large space devoted to subjects connected with them. A large amount of information is given on various languages, especially in their relation to literature. In the Fine Arts, architecture, as the oldest of the great forms of art, occupies an appropriate position of importance. Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic, and many other forms of architecture will be found as fully treated as space permits. The sister art of sculpture, the ancient arts of drawing and painting, the more modern one of music are largely dealt with. The curious in heraldry will find here a solution of most of the difficult terms with which that science is beset. Archery receives due recognition both in its mediaeval and its modern aspect. Cricket and football, our great national games, are clearly explained, together with other pastimes and recreations too numerous to mention. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy of information and a useful selection of subjects. It is confidently believed tliat very few, if any, topics of general or widespread interest in the subjects treated of, will be-iound to be omitted. But the proof of the utility of such a Dictionary lies in using it. Those who refer to it for any topic on which they desire information will find out for themselves the manifold uses to which it may be put, and the manifold interest which may be inspired in reading it for instruction recreation, or information. BEETON’S DICTIONARY OF LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, AND AMUSEMENTS. A A, the first letter of the alphabet in almost every known language (the only exceptions, pro- bably, being the Ethiopic and the Eunic ; in the former of which it occupies the thirteenth and in the latter the tenth place). This, doubtless, is owing to the great simplicity of its sound, being most easily uttered. In the Phoenician and other Semitic alphabets, it represented a breathing rather than a clear vowel sound. The ancient form of the letter roughly represented the head of an ox, and it was named aleph, an ox. When the Greeks adopted the Plioenician alphabet the name changed into alpha. In the Continental and Oriental languages it varies less than in En- glish, where it has at least four distinct sounds, known as the long or slender, the broad, the short or oi)en, and the middle ; as in name, call, man, father. In Grammar, A is styled the indefinite article, and denotes one or any ; as, a man. In Music, A is the major sixth of the scale of C major. In Logic, A de- notes an universal affirmative proposition ; and in Algebra, a, b, c, are used to represent known quantities, while the last letters, x, y, z, are generally taken to de- note unknown quantities. As a numeral, among the Greeks, it denoted i ; and, with a mark under it, i,ooo. With the Komans, A was 500 ; and, with a short hori- zontal line over it, 5,000. In trials of criminal causes among the Romans. A signified absolve, I acquit ; and was hence called litera salutaris, the saving letter. Ai, is a symbol by which first-class vessels — that is to say, vessels whose hull and equipments are in an effi- cient condition — are known and registered at Lloyd’s. A indicates that the vessel is built in the best manner ; I, that the stores, anchors, cable, &c., are of the first quality. AAA, in Chemistry, signifies amalgama, to mix ; and in Pharmacy, a, or aa, denotes that the pro- portions of the ingredients to which it refers are to be equal. A is frequently used as an abbreviation {see Abbreviation), and is the first of the Dominical Letters. ABAD, a-had', a dwelling or city, from the same root as the English “abode.” An affix to some names of Persian origin, as Hyderabad, Jellalabad, &c. ABASED, OR AB AISSE, a-&a.?'ied'(low ered), in Heraldry, a term borrowed from the Prench, and aijplied to an armorial figure placed below the centre of the shield, and to the wings of eagles, &c., when the tip inclines downwards to the point of the shield, or when the wings are shut. ABATEMENT, a-hate' -ment, in Heraldry, an accidental figure added to a coat of arms, to les- sen its true dignity, and to indicate some stain in the character of the bearer. ABBREYIATION ABBOTSFOED CLUB, a printing club founded in 1834, for the purpose of reprinting rare works throwing light on the ancient history or literature of any country referred to by Sir Walter Scott. The club consisted of fifty-four members, and published thirty-four quarto volumes between 1835 and 1864. ABBREVIATION, the contracting of a word or sentence, by omitting some of the letters or words, employing initial letters only, or sub- stituting for words certain marks or characters. Abbreviations were much used by the earlier writers. The Greeks and Eomans largely em- ployed them, and, most of all, the Jewish rab- bins. Eoman numerals are really contractions, as 0 for centum, a hundred. At the present time they are chiefly confined to Christian names, titles, dates, and a few phrases. The following is a list of the more important abbreviations in common use : — A. Associate. A. A. Associate of Arts. A.B, Able-bodied Seamen. Abp. Archbishop. A.C. {Ante Christum). Before Christ. A.D. {Anno Domini). In the year of our Lord. Mt, or Mt&t, Altatis [anno]. In the year of his age. A.E.R.A. Associated Engraver of the Royal Acadciry. A.H. {Anno Hegirce). In the year of the Hegira. A.M. {Ante meridiem). Before noon. A.M. {Anno mundi). In the year of the world. A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy. A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A. U.C. {Ab Urbe condita). From the building of the city, i.e. Rome. B. A., or A.B. {Artium Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Arts. B.C. Before Christ. B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. B.M. Bachelor of Medicine. Bp. Bishop. B. Sc. Bachelor of Science. Bt., or Bart. Baronet. C. Chancellor. C.A. Chartered accountant. Cap. in legal language Chapt». C.B. Companion of the Bath. C.E. Civil Engineer. Cf. {confer). Compare. C. J. Chief Justice. C.M.G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. Co. Company, used by Commercial firms. C. P.S. {Gustos Privati Sigilli). Keeper of the Privy Seal. Cr. (in book-keeping) Creditor. Cwt. Hundredweight, the C a contraction of the Latin centum, wt. of the English “ weight." D. C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. A ABBREVIATION 2 ABBREVIATION D.D, Doctor of Divinity. D.G. (Dei gratid). By the grace of God. Do. Ditto. The same. Dr. Doctor ; debtor (in book-keeping). i 2 mo, Duodecimo; the size of a book, each shojt of which when folded consists of twelve leaves. D. V. (Deo volente). God wiUing. Dwt. Pennyweight — Latin, denarius^ a penny. E. East. e.g. ex. gr. (Exempli gratid). For example. Etc. (Et ccetera). And the rest ; and so on. Ex. Example. Fahr. Fahrenheit’s thermometer. F. A.S. Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F.B.S. Fellow of the Botanical Society. F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. F.D. (Fidei Defensor). Defender of the Faith, F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnsean Society. F.M. Field-marshal. Fo. Folio ; the size of a book, each sheet of which has two leaves. F.K. A.S. Fellow of the Koyal Astronomical Society. ,, Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society. F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F.R.S. Fellow of che Royal Society (L. London, E. Edinburgh). F.R.S. A. Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts. F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. F. S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. G. C.B. (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath. G.C.H. (Knight) Grand Cross of Hanover. G.C.M.G. (Knight) Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George. G. P.O. General Post Office. Gr. Greek. H. I.M. His or Her Imperial Majesty. H.M.S. Her or His Majesty’s service or ship. H. R.H. His or Her Royal Highness. Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem). In the same place. Id. (Idem). The same. i.e. (Id est). That is. I. H.S. (Jesus Hominum Salvator). Jesus the Saviour of men. The original form of this contraction was IH2, the first three letters of the Greek name for Jesus ; but that was lost sight of and the characters were modified into the initials of Latin words. I. H.S. (with a cross over the H) (In hdc [Cmce] Salus). In this (Cross) salvation. Incog. (Incognito). Unknown. I N.R.I. lesus Nazarenus Rex ludceorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. The initials of the in- scription placed on the Cross by Pontius Pilate. Inst. (Instante). Instant, of the present month. J. P. Justice of the Peace. J. V.D. (Juris utriusque Doctor). Doctor of Civil and Canon Law. K. B. Knight of the Bath. K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. K.C.H. Knight Commander of the Order of Hanover. K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. K.G. Knight of the Garter. K.H. Knight of Hanover. K.M. Knight of Malta. K.P. Knight of St. Patrick. K.S.I. Knight of the Star of India. K. T. Knight of the Thistle. Lat. Latitude. Lb. (Libra). Pound. LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Laws. LL.D. (Legum Doctor). Doctor of Laws. Loco. In the place cited. Log. Logarithm. Long. Longitude. L. R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L.S. (Locum sigilli). The place of the seal. L.S.A. Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. L. S.D. (lAbrce, Solidi, Denarii). Pounds, shillings, pence. M. A. or A.M. (Artium Magister). Master of Arts. M.D. (Medicinoe Doctor) Doctor of Medicine. Messrs. (Messieurs): Gentlemen. M.P. Member of Parliament. M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M.R.I.A Member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS. Manuscript. — MSS. Manuscripts. Mus.D. (Musicce Doctor). Doctor of Music. Mus. B. Bachelor of Music. M. W.S. Member of the Wernerian Society. N. North. N.B. (Nota bene). Mark well ; observe ; North Britain (Scotland). Nem. con. (Nemine contradicente). Nobody contradict- ing; unanimously. Nem. Diss. (Nemine dissidente). Nobody dissenting. No. (Numero). Number. N.P. Notary public. N.S. New style. N. T. New Testament. 8vo. Octavo. The size of a book, having eight leaves to a sheet. O. H.M.S. On Her Majesty’s Service. O.S. Old Style. O. T. Old Testament. Oxon. (Oxoniensis). Of Oxford, oz. Ounce. p. Page.— pp. Pages. P. C. Privy Councillor. Per ann. (Per annum). By the year. Per cent. (Per centum). By the hundred. Ph. D. (Philosophice Doctor). Doctor of Philosophy. Pinx. (Pinxit). He painted it. P.M. (Post meridiem). After noon. P.0.0. Post Office order. P.P. Parish priest. P.P.C. (Pour prendre congi). To take leave. P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy. Pro tern. (Pro tempore). For the time. Prox. (Proximo). In the next (month). P.S. (Post scriptum). Written after; postscript. P. T.O. Please turn over. 4 to. Quarto. The size of a book, having four leaves to a sheet. Q. Query, or Question. Q.C. Queen’s Counsel. q. d. (Quasi dictum). As if it were said. Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum). Which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum). Which was to be done. Qr. Quarter. Q. S. (Quantum suficit). Enough, q.v. (Quod vide). Which see. R. (Rex or Regina). King or Queen. R.A. Royal Academician. Royal Artillery. R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music. R.E. Royal Engineers. Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. Rev. Reverend. R.I.P. (Requiescat in pace). May he rest in peace used by Roman Catholics, when announcing a death. R.M. Royal Marines. R.N. Royal Navy. Rp. or R (Recipe). Take. R.S.A. Royal Scottish Academician. R. S. V.P. (R4pondez s'il vous plait). Reply, if you please. Rt. Hon. Right Honourable. R. W.M. Right Worshipful Master. S. South. The High Church party use this contraction for Saint, as S. Peter. Sc. (Scilicet). Namely. Sculp, or Sc. (Sculpit). He engraved it. S.P.Q.R. (Senatus Populusque Romanus). The Senate and people of Rome. S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sq. (Sequens). The following ; plural, Sqq. St. Saint, S. T.P. (Sanctce Theologice Professor). Professor of Theology. T. C.D. Trinity College, Dublin, Ult. (Ultimo). In the last (month). U. P. United Presbyterian. U. S.United States, United Service. V. (Versus). Against. V.C. Victoria Cross. Viz. (Videlicet), to wit ; namely. V. R. (Victoria Regina). Victoria the Queen. W. West. W.S. Writer to the signet (Scotland). Xmas. Christmas. The X is a Greek letter correspond- ing to Ch, and indicates the name of Christ. Xtian. Christian. ABBREVIATORS 3 ACADEMY Ye, Yt. The, that. The Anglo-Saxon character equiva- lent to the modern th slightly resembled the black letter y in form, and in course of time that letter was substituted for it. The use of it now is mere affec- tation. & (et). And. &c. (et ccetera). And so forth. Scientific Abbreviations. — Most of the sciences have signs and abbreviations peculiar to themselves, initials being generally employed. Thus, in chemistry H stands for hydrogen and 0 for oxygen ; and in botany and zoology, when the generic name has once been given, the initial only is prefixed to the name of the particular species— ;as, for instance, “ There are three species of Diomedia (albatross), the D, txulans" &c. Episcopal Abbreviations, — An archbishop, or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes for his surname, the Latin name of his see, in an abbreviated form, as A. €. Cantuar (Canterbury), W. Ebor(York), &c. Postal Abbreviations.— London is divided into postal districts, designated by initials : — N. North, to South, E.C. East Central, W. West, E. East, W.S. West Central, S.E. South-East, S.W. South-West, N.W. North-West. American Abbreviations. — The names of the States of the American Union are in some instances abbrevi- ated by using only the initial and final letter, as Va. for Virginia, Me. for Maine, Ga. for Georgia, Vt. for Vermont, and Pa. for Pennsylvania. In other in- stances the initials are given, as N. Y. for New York, and N.J. for New Jersey. The first syllable is also em- ployed, as Miss, for Mississippi, Mass, for Massachusetts, Flo. for Florida, Ark. for Arkansas, and Car. for Caro- lina. Mo. for Missouri, is an exceptional abbreviation. ABBB/E VIATORS, a body of seventy -two writers, of whom twelve must be of episcopal rank, employed in the Papal Chancery to draught the Pope’s bulls, consistorial degrees, and other important doctrines. There are three grades, and in the lower rank laymen are employed. ABC CLUB, the punning name (founded on the French word abaissi, depressed) of a club established in 1832, in Paris, professing to relieve the victims of oppression. An outbreak encouraged by the Club took place in June, and was repressed with bloodshed. ABD, in Arabic, “ a servant,” forms part of many proper names, in connection with the Divine name, or Abd-Allah (commonly printed in one word) “servant of (lod,” and Abd-el- Kader, “ servant of the Great God.” ABER, a' -her, a Celtic word, meaning the place where a river discharges into the sea or into another river, and is a common prefix to names of towns in Scotland and Wales, as Aberdeen and Aberystwith, ABLATIVE, ah'-la-tiv (Lat., ahlatus, taken away), the name given to the sixth case of nouns in Latin; so called from its implying “taking irom,” or “carrying away.” It answers the question, “By whom?” or “By what?” The ablative absolute is applied to a noun occurring with a participle, independent of any other part of the sentence, and hence put in the ablative. ABORIGINES, ab'-o-rig'-i-nees, from the 'L2ii\n aborigine, “from the beginning, ’’the earliest known inhabitants of a country ; the name was given, as a proper name, to the inhabitants of the ancient Latium, the country now known as the Campagna di Koma, in Italy. ABRACADABRA, ab-ra-Tca-dab' -ra, one of the names given to the Persian sun-god Mithra. The word was formerly believed to have the power of curing diseases, especially slow and intermittent fevers. To accomj)lish this, the word was to be written many times in the form of a magical tri- angle, in one or other of the following ways : — ABRACADABRA ABRACAD ABR ABRACAD AB ABRACADA ABRACAD ABRACA ABRAC ABRA ABR AB A ABRACADABRA BRACADABR RACADAB ACADA CAD A It was to be worn on the bosom for nine days, and then thrown into a stream fiowing eastward. In modern times the term is for the most part used only in jest, without any particular meaning, like hocus-pocus. ABRAHAM ERA. {See Eras.) ABRAHAM MEN, a name given in the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries, in England, to sturdy beggars, who wandered about the cormtry, pretending to be lunatics, and, either from terror or pity, obtaining money. In modern slang, the memory of these mendicants survives in the phrase, “Abram cove,” or “shamming Abra- ham,” applied to beggars who feign sickness. ABSORBENT GROUND, a term given in Painting to a water-colour mixture, which is laid upon the canvas or wood, and which, upon the oil-colours being applied, at once imbibes the oil, leaving the colours in which the design is made dry and brilliant. ABSTRACT, aV -struct, a small draft or epitome of any greater work ; a short draft of an original writing, deed, book, &c. ACADEMY, a-kad' -e-me, was the name of a place in the northern suburbs of Athens, about a mile from the Dypilum gate, and said to have been so called after Academus or Ecademus, an ancient hero. It was laid out with walks and groves and fountains by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and by him bequeathed as a pleasure- ground for the Athenian citizens. It became a favourite resort of the lovers of meditation and philosophy, and hither Socrates was wont occa- sionally to repair to converse with his disciples. But it is chiefiy in connection with Plato (who possessed a small estate in the neighbourhood) and his philosophy that the place has become famous. He taught here for about fifty years, till his death, 348 B.C., and his pupils were termed Academics. In modern times, the term ‘ ‘ academy ” has come to have a somewhat different signification from that which it bore in ancient times. It is generally applied to a society of learned men, formed for the cultivation of science, literature, or the arts, or to a school for the study of special subjects, instruction in which is afforded by eminent professors appointed for the purpose. Such schools are generally established by charter, and have special privileges, in that respect differ- ing from private scholastic establishments which assume the name. In the literary and scientific academies of the highest class, as the French Academy and the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, new members are elected, and a membership is considered to be a guarantee of great attainments and a high honour. The Koyal Academy of Arts in this country consists of forty full members, all artists of eminence, and a num- ber of associates, both classes being elected by the votes of members ; and it adds a school for the education of art pupils, conducted by specially A CAPELLA 4 ACCPOCHE appointed professors, who deliver public lectures and confer scholarships and rewards. The Koyal Academy of Music is a specimen of the second order of academies, being a teaching institute only. A CAPELLA, ka-pel'la, in Music, means “ the Church style,” and is equivalent to alia breva, a time signature which frequently appears in Church music. It also denotes that the instru- ments are to play in unison with the voices, or that one part is to be played by a number of instru- ments. ACATALECTIC, a-kat-a-lek' -tik, a term applied in ancient poetry to such verses as have all their feet and syllables without any defect at the end ; those which are not so, being called catalectic. ACATHISTUS, a-ka-this'-tus, a hymn in honour of the Virgin, sung in the ancient Greek Church. ACCALIA, ak-kai'-le-a, festivals held among the Romans in honour of Acca Laurentia, the nurse of Romulus. ACCENT, ak'-sent (Lat., ad, to, and cano, I sing), is the stress of the voice in pronouncing cer- tain syllables of words. There are three kinds of accents — viz., the acute, the grave, and the cir- cumflex. The accute accent, marked thus ('), shows that the voice is to dwell on the syllables over which it is placed. The grave accent is marked thus ('), and points out when the voice ought to be lowered. The cu’cumflex accent is com- poimded of the other two, and marked thus ('), it denotes a quavering of the voice between high and low. Accents were first introduced in the Greek language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, about 265 b.C., and were first used by the French early in the 17th century. Accent and Quantity.— Accent is not identical with quantity, that is the length or shortness of vowelsouads or syllables, but in metrical composition it sometimes modifies it. Accent and Emphasis. - These are not identical ; the former being fixed, the latter depending on the value of the words in their relation to others. (See Emphasis.) Accented Syllables.— On many words of three or more syllables, there is a double accent, one being less marked than the other, as in “epi'cur"ean,” in which the doubled accent-mark shows the syllable on which greater stress is to be laid. Grammatical Accent.— Many words change their grammatical value, without any variation of spelling, when the accent is shifted. A noun becomes a verb, as “ torment” and “ torment,” “per'fume” and “per- fume • an adjective is changed into a verb, as “ fre- quent ” and ‘‘ frequent,” or into a noun as “compdct” and “ com pact and in some instances the meaning of the word is changed— “to conju're ” is one thing, “ to con'jure” quite another. In Music, accent consists of a stress laid upon cer- tain notes— not a lengthening. As a rule, the first note of every bar is accented ; and accent is also employed as a means of expression. ACCIDENT, akf-se-dent {'L&i.,accidens, fall- ing), denotes, in a general sense, any casual event, or, in more philosophical language, an attribute of a thing, or class of things, which neither belong to, nor is in any way deducible from, the essence of that thing or class. In Logic, it signifies— i. Whatever does not essen- tially belong to a thing ; 2. Such properties in any subject as are not essential to it ; 3. In opposition to substance, all qualities whatever are called accidents ; as sweetness, softness, hardness, &c. In Grammar, accident implies a property attached to a word without entering into its essential definition. In Heraldry, it is in coat-armour an additional mark. which may be omitted without effecting any change iu the dignity. In Music, occasional sharps, flats, and naturals, placed before notes for the sake of expression. In Optics, Accidental colours are those which de- pend on the affections of the eye. The term is applied; to the ocular spectrum, which is generally perceived after the eye has been for some time steadily fixed upon a coloured object. Thus, if we look for some time upon a yellow piece of cloth, and suddenly turn the eye from it, we will see the colour of indigo ; red will give a bluish green, and so on. These colours are also called complementary colours, because, when taken in conjunction with those of the spectrum, they make up- all the colours of a white light. In Design, the Accidental point, in perspective, is that point in the horizontal line where the projections of parallel lines meet the perspective plane. ACCLAMATION, ak-la-mai'-shun{L&t., ac- clamatio), among the ancient Romans, a shouting in concert, expressive of their public approbation of the conduct of their princes or generals. The acclamations of the theatres, at first rude and tumultuous shouts, became, in process of time, a species of regular concert. When Nero played in the theatre, a signal was given, upon which 5,000 soldiers began to chant his praises, which the spectators were obliged to repeat. In Archseology, the term is applied to those medals on which the people are represented as expressing their joy. Vote by Acclamation. — In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is common. The question is usually put in the form. Placet? or Non placet? ACCOMMODATION, in Biblical criticism, denotes the presentation of a truth not absolutely as it is in itself, but relatively or under some modification, with the view of adapting it to some other truth or to the person addressed. Formal Accommodation refers to the method of teach- ing by parables, by the application of prophecy to secondary fulfilments, &c. Material Accommodation includes speaking in accord- ance with contemporary ideas rather than with absolute truth. ACCOMPANIMENT, ak-kum' -pan-e-ment (Fr., accompagner), in Music, denotes the instru- ments which, in the subordinate part or parts, accompany the voice, either to give it fulness or relief, and to heighten the general effect. The piano and guitar are suitable instruments for the acompaniment of a song. In a concerto, the instrument for which the principal part is com- posed is accompanied by the whole of the band. In Heraldry, it denotes anything added to a shield by way of ornament, as the belt, mantling, supporters, &c. Accompaniment is also used for several bearings about a principal one, as a saltier, bend, fess, &c. ACCORDION, ak-kor'-de-an, a musical in- strument manufactured principally in Germany and in France, and introduced into England from Germany in 1828. It consists of an oblong box, of from eight to twenty inches in length, with an inside row of small elastic springs, or laminse, fixed in a metallic plate at one end, in such a manner as to allow them to vibrate freely. A bellows, or folding apparatus, unites the upper and lower parts, and supplies the springs with the necessary air to put them in motion. To these the air is admitted by valves, which, in the same manner as in an organ, are acted on by the keys. A base note, or drone, is also added. Previous to the introduction of the principle of this instru- ment to Europe, it was well known to the Chinese. ACCROCHE, ak-ro'-shai, in Heraldry, de- notes a thing being hooked into another. ACCUSATIVE CASE 5 ACTA DIURNA ACCUSATIVE CASE, dk-Tcu' -sa-tiv, in ‘Grammar, the case, governed by an active^ verb or preposition ; as in, I love him ; where him is the accusative of the pronoun he, and is governed by the verb love. It more peculiarly belongs to the Latin language, but has been introduced to the English. It comes after all prepositions, and is usually termed the obj ective case. {See Grammae. ) ACE, aise (Lat., as, a unit), in games, signifies that side of the dice whereon one is marked. In playing cards, it denotes those which bear only •one figure ; as, for example, the “ ace of hearts,” which displays but one heart. In some card games, it counts as one ; in whist, it is the high- est of the “honours.” ACHIEVEMENT, a-tsheev' -merit (Fr., ache- ver, to accomplish), in Heraldry, is a term applic- able to the shield of armorial bearings generally, as the heraldic symbols or badges depicted on it were originally the marks of some great achieve- ment of the bearer. The term, however, is now •commonly applied to the funeral achievement (or “hatchment”) of a deceased person, aflSxed against the dwelling-house. It is in the form of a lozenge, with the arms of the deceased, single or quartered, in the centre. {See Hatchment. ) ACME, ok' -me (Gr., dkme, a point), the top or highest point of anything. Physicians use it to express the utmost violence or crisis of a -disease ; and in Rhet. , it denotes the highest point of pathos, to which the mind is conducted by a series of impressions gradually rising in intensity. ACOLOGY,or AKOLOGY, a-koV-o-je{Qv., akos, a remedy, and logos, a discourse), a term signifjdng the doctrine of remedies, or of the materia medica. ACROBAT, ak' -ro-hat (Gr., akron, an ex- tremity, and haino, I go, meaning literally, I walk on my toes), a name given by the ancients to rope-dancers, vaulters, &c. Acrobats perform both upon the tight and slack rope, or upon ropes placed horizontally, perpendicularly, or obliquely, and the performance of their feats requires great strength, agility, and fearlessness. The term is commonly extended to somersault-throwers and performers on the trapeze. ACROLITHS, ak'-ro-liths (Gr., akron, ex- tremity, and lithos, stone), in ancient Greek Sculpture, signified those statues the heads, arms, and feet of which were of stone, the trunk of the figure being of wood. The wood was concealed by gilding, or more commonly drapery. Accord- ing to Trebellius Pollio, Oalpurnia caused an acrolithan statue of V enus to be executed. There was also an acrolithan statue of Mars in the temple of that god at Helicarnassus ; and the Minerva Areia of the Plateeans was a famous statue of this kind. ACROSTIC, a-kros'-tic{Gv., ailTOsand stichos, a verse), a poetical composition, disposed in such a manner that the initial letters of each line, taken in order, form a person’s name or other complete word or words. By some authorities it is held to have been invented in the 4th century. This kind of poetical trifling was very popular with the French poets from the time of Francis I. until Louis XIY. Among other English writers, Sir John Davies, who lived in the i6th century, amused himself in this way. He produced twenty- six pieces, called “Hymns to Astrea,” each of them forming an acrostic upon the words Eliza- betha Regina. In the Old Testament there are twelve Psalms which, in the original, were written according to this principle. Of these, the 119th Psalm is the most remarkable : it consists of twenty -two stanzas, each of which commences with a Hebrew letter, and is called by its name. Hymns composed on the same principle, and known as Abecedarian, or alphabetical hymns, were at one time used for the purpose of aiding the memory. Double and Triple Acrostics. — ^In the more elaborate forms of acrostic, the initials, finals, and even in some cases the central letters of each line form words. In these instances the lines usually consist of a single word, and rhymes are not required. The difficulty of constructing a verse, with rhymes, so as to form a double or a triple acrostic is very great, but the achievement scarcely rewards the labour bestowed. Puzzle Acrostics. — These have been very much in vogue of late years, and in many of the popular periodi- cals prizes have been offered for correct solutions. In these, words are enigmatically indicated, the first and last letters of which form other words that are also to be guessed. The puzzle generally assumes a versified form, and each indication of a particular word is known as a “ light.” The first couplet or stanza gives a clue to the two words formed of the initials and finals ; the “lights,” to each word required. A short specimen will suffice to show the form of the puzzle : — “ A puzzle is this of a very slight kind. As expressed by the words which in answer you find. I. This way to-day — which to-morrow, who knows? Ever changing, but constant to each wind that blows. II. Closely packed with all knowledge — a wonderful book, If you seek for its title, not far need you look. III. He was asked, Shakspeare tells us, if Scotland had moved A very odd question, and painful it proved. IV. A time of the past, which, though ages have rolled. Is as near to us now as to people of old.” The four words required are Vane, Encyclopaedia, Ross, and Yesterday, the initials and finals of which form the words, “ very easy.” ACT, in dramatic literature, the division or part of a play. With the ancient writers, it was held that a play should be divided into five parts or acts, neither more nor less, and that each act should mark some definite step in the develop- ment of the plot. Shakspeare invariably followed this rule, and, after the Elizabethan iieriod, writers for the stage, until modern times, paid imjflicit obedience to it. Few pieces, either of a serious or humorous character, are now con- structed on this model, which frequently involved tediousness ; and many Of the most effective pro- ductions of modern days have had no more than three acts. As in the Greek drama, the stage was never left empty from the beginning to the end of a performance, there were no acts. The chorus, during the absence of other actors, kept the stage, and continued the drama by their songs, which mostly formed an essential part of it, and carried on the action in the same way as the dialogue did. {See Drama.) ACTA CONSISTORII, con-sis-to' -re-i, the edicts of the Consistory, or Council of State of the Roman emperors. ACTA DIURNA or SENATES, ak'-ta di-ur'-na (Lat., daily proceedings), the title of a kind of public journal which Julius Caesar ordered to be drawn up and published. It contained a record of the proceedings of the senate and the ACTA MARTYRUM 6 ADDITION people, and therefore formed a species of Eoman newspaper. The Acta continued to be published until the reign of the emperor Julian. ACTA MARTYRUM, mar' -tyr-uin, “Acts of the Martyrs,” a collection of the lives of Chris- tian martyrs. The most noted edition is that of Reimart (Paris, 1689), commemorating the mar- tyrs of the first four centuries. ACTA ERUDITORUM, e-ru-di-to'-rum, “Acts of the Learned,” the name of a literary journal founded at Leipsic in 1682 by Otto Mencke, and others, and written in Latin. It had a high reputation, and was continued until 1782. The whole collection is contained in 117 quarto volumes. ACTA SANCTORUM, sanc-to' -rum^ the “ Acts of the Saints,” a title given to a collection of legends and biographies began in the seven- teenth century, by Heribert Eosweyd, a Jesuit of Antwerp, and continued to our own times by other members of the order. The lives are arranged in the order of the calendar. ACTIAN GAMES, ak'-ti-an^ instituted by the Roman emperor Augustus, in commemoration of his victory over Marc Antony, at Actium, B.C. 31 1, by which he secured the possession of the Roman empire. They were celebrated every fifth year. ACTION, ah' -shun (Lat., ago, I act), a term used in Mech. and Phys. to imply the pressure or percussion of bodies against each other. Action and reaction are equal; i.e., the resistance of the body put in motion is equal to the force com- municated to it. Action, in Oratory, is the outward deportment of the speaker, or the accommodation of his countenance, voice, and gestures to the subject of which he is treating. In Physiology, it is applied to the functions of the human body, whether vital, animal, or natural ; in Painting and Sculpture, the attitude or position of the several parts of the body, as indicative of passion, &c. ; in the Military Art, an engagement between op- posing forces : hence, the terms partial action, general action, &c. ACTIVE, ak'-tiv, denotes something which communicates action or motion to another, in opposition to passive, which receives action. Active verbs in grammar not only signify doing or acting, but are followed by nouns, to which their action passes. {See Verb.) ACTOR, ak'-tor, one who performs a part or character in a play. Among the ancient Creeks, actors were so highly esteemed as sometimes to be sent on embassies, and authors frequently per- formed in their own plays; but at Rome, if a person became an actor, he forfeited his right of voting as a Roman citizen. In England, actors were at first the servants of the higher nobility ; and, when regular theatrical companies came to be formed, they placed themselves under the pro- tection of some distinguished person. To this day, the players at the Drury Lane Theatre con- tinue to style themselves “her Majesty’s ser- vants.” Until after the Restoration, the female parts in each drama were performed by men. The first Englishwoman who appeared on the regular stage was Mrs. Coleman, who in 1656 performed the character of lanthe in Sir William Davenant’s Sierfe of Rhodes. Previous to that time, royal and court ladies had frequently taken part in masques and pageants performed at the palaces. Two great authors were also actors — viz., Shak- speare and Moliere. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, aUs, the fifth in order of the books of the New Testament, and the last of those properly of an historical character. It gives a narrative of events that happened to the early Church during the thirty years immediately succeeding the death of Christ. It does not, however, narrate the “acts of the apostles ” generally, being almost exclusively con- fined to those of Peter and Paul. The author of this book was Luke, and its authenticity is un- doubted. It is probable that the Acts were written in Rome, about two years after Paul’a arrival there, but the date is uncertain. The chronology of the book is involved in much ob- scurity, and has given rise to a great amount of discussion among scholars. The title was given, not by the original writer, but by a transcriber. The “Theophilus” to whom this book is in- scribed, and to whom also reference is made in the opening verses of St. Luke’s Gospel, is no- where else mentioned. He was probably a convert of high rank. ACUTE, a-Tcewt' (Lat., acutus, sharp), the op- posite of obtuse, is a term applied to various things to denote sharpness. In Music, a tone is acute when it is sharp or high, in respect to another tone, and as opposed to the grave. In Elocution, an acute accent indicates elevation of the voice. Acute angle, in Geometry, signifies an angle which is less than a right angle. Acute diseases, in Medicine, are those which are attended by violent symptoms. ADAGIO, a-dai'-je-o (It., acfap'io, leisurely), in Music, a term signifying the slowest of all time, the grave only excepted. Sometimes it is re- peated, thus — adagio, adagio — to denote a still slower time. ADDITION, ad-dish' -un, in Music, is the term applied to a dot placed on the right side of a note, to signify that it is to be sounded half as long again. ADDITION (Lat., addo, IgivQ to), in Arith., signifies the putting two or more quantities to- gether so as to form one total. It is the first of the four fundamental rules, and the operation consists in adding together first the units, then the tens, then the hundreds, and so on; thus substituting for the original operation of adding the entire number, several simpler and easier operations. When the quantities to be added consist of several denominations which divide themselves into each other, as in the case of shillings, pence, and farthings ; hundredweights, pounds, and oimces ; or yards, feet, and inches, the smaller denominations are first added toge- ther, and, should their product equal or exceed the quantity of a superior denomination, the sur- plus of the inferior denomination is retained in that column and the number of the superior de- nomination carried or added into the next column. Then, supposing, in adding up several sums of money, the total of the pence column is 20, then, as 20 pence amount to is. 8d., 8 is put down in the total of the pence column, and i added to the shillings’ column. In additions of fractions, the various fractions must be first reduced to the same denominator, in order that they may repre- sent quantities of equal value ; then add together all the numerators of the fractions so reduced, and give to their product the common denomina- tor. The sign of addition is +, thus 2-1-4 means 2 added to 4. ADDOESED 7 ADDRESSES ADDOESED, ad-d6rsd (Lat., S^ee Music.) AFFIRMATION, in Grammar, a term ap- plied to such particles as affirm or assert, in oppo- sition to such as deny a statement. AFFIX, af-fix (Lat., af, for ad, to, and^^^o, I fix), a term applied to a syllable added to the end of a word, by which its form and signification are altered; as wealth, wealth-y; odd, odd-ly. AFFRONTE, af-fron'-te (Lat., af, for ad, to, and /rows, face), in Heraldry, a term applied to animals facing each other on an escutcheon. AGE, a'ij, a term denoting generally any fixed period of time, but used definitely iji various senses. The old Greek poet Hesiod divided the history of the world into five successive ages or periods, during each of which it was peopled by an entirely distinct race. They were — the names de- noting gradual changes in the conditions of good- ness and happiness — tbe golden, silver, brazen, heroic, and iron. Ovid in his “ Metamorphoses,” follows Hesiod, excei^t that he omits the heroic age. Modern philosophers have suggested other “ages,” or great divisions of history. Fichte recognised ages in which instinct, external autho- rity, and reason have predominated. Comte dis- AGONISTARCH 13 ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT tinguished three ages, according to the state of knowledge in each : in the first, knowledge as supernatural or fictitious ; in the second, meta- physical or abstract ; in the third (on which he believed the world is now entering), positive or scientific. Ethnologists speak of the flint age and the bronze age. Historians describe the period between the overthrow of the Western Roman empire, 476 A.D., and the Reformation in the middle of the i6th century, as the Middle Ages intervening between the times of classical anti- quity and modern times. AGONISTAROH, ag'-o-nis!-tark (Gr., ago- nistes, a combatant, and archos, the chief), the superintendent or president of the sacred games, who exercised authority over the athletae, in- spected their discipline, and awarded the prizes to the victors. In the Olympic, Pythian, and other great public games, these presidents repre- sented different states, or were chosen by and from the people in whose country the games were celebrated. AIGUISCE, ai'-gis-sai (Fr.), in Heraldry, a term employed to denote a cross which has the two angles at the ends cut off, so as to terminate in two points, in opposition to the cross fitche, which tapers to a point. AISLE, He (Fr., aUe, wing), in Arch., de- notes that lateral division of a church which forms the side of the edifice. Thus, when a church is divided into three compartments, the middle or principal compartment is called the nave, and the two outlying compartments form the aisles. English churches have seldom more than two aisles, and some have only one side aisle; but Chichester cathedral has five aisles. In foreign ecclesiastical edifices there are often as many as four aisles, two on each side of the nave ; and Milan, Amiens, and some other cathedrals have five aisles, and Antwerp and Paris seven aisles, while the cathedral of Cordova, in Spain, has as many as nineteen aisles. Sometimes the term aisle is given to all the compartments of a church, the nave or body of the building forming the middle aisle, and the side compartments the side-aisles. {See Church, Transept, Nave.) ALARM, a-larmJ, a sudden surprise occasion- ing fear or terror ; an outcry intimating the ap- proach of danger. In military language, it de- notes either the apprehension of being attacked, or the notice given of a sudden attack, as by firing a rifle, or beating a drum. The old form of the word is “ alarum,” and in the stage directions of Shakspeare’s plays, in the battle scenes, it is so spelled. ALBUM, aV-bum {Lsbt.,albus, white), among the Romans, was a white board or register, on which the names of persons or public transactions were inscribed. The term is now usually applied to a book for receiving autographs or other manu- script contributions of friends or celebrated in- dividuals; and photographic albums, for the reception of portraits, are now very familiar table ornaments. ALCAIC, al-kai'-ik, a name given to a kind of verse said to have been invented by the Greek poet Alcaeus. It is formed of four feet, with a caesura in the middle. The first foot is a spondee, rarely an iambus ; the second an iambus ; then the caesura, followed by two dactyls ; as — Dulce et | dSco 1 rum est | pro patrl | a mbri. “ It is sweet and glorious to die for one’s country.” Horace introduced this measure into the Latin language. ALCOVE, aV-kove (Arab, el-kauf, a tent), a term applied to a recess in a chamber where a bed is or can be placed. It is also used to- describe any recess in any sort of apartment. ALDINE EDITIONS, al'-dine, in Biblio- graphy, a term applied to those editions of cele- brated authors which, in the 15th century, "came from the press of the family of Aldus Manutius. A number of classical works, in both the Greek and Latin tongues, were produced in a duodecimo form, and printed. These are what is generally understood as the Aldine Editions, and are much prized for their correctness and typographical beauty. For a short time a branch of the Aldine Press was established in Rome. The distinguising mark is an anchor entwined by a dolphin, gen- erally with the motto, sudavit et alsit. In the early part of the i6th century, many counterfeit Aldines were produced at Lyons and Florence. ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This was, probably, the largest library that had existed before the invention of i^rinting. It was founded at Alexandria, about 284 B.C., by Ptolemy Soter, at the suggestion of Demetrius Phalerius, who had seen the public libraries at Athens. Agents were employed in different parts of Asia and Greece to seek out and purchase the rarest and most valuable works ; so that, at length, the Alexandrian library is said to have comprised 700.000 volumes. At first, the books were con- tained in the museum in the Brucheion quarter of the city ; but, when they amounted to 400,000 volumes, a new library was formed, within the Serapeion, or temple of Serapis, where, at length, 300.000 were collected. During the plunder of the city, after its capture by Julius Caesar, the old library was accidentally destroyed by fire. That in the Serapeion, however, still remained, and was subsequently largely augmented, parti- cularly by the Pergamean collection, amounting, to 200,000 volumes, presented by Mark Antony to Cleopatra, till it at length surpassed the former in the number and value of its contents. When the temple of Serapis was destroyed, in A.D. 390, by Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, under Theodosius the Great, a great part of the library was destroyed or lost. ALEXANDRIAN MANUSCRIPT, Co- dex Alexandrinus, the name of a Greek manu- script of the Old and New Testaments, now in the British Museum. It is written in capital letters, with the words undivided. It was sent as a present to Charles I, , from Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to the Porte. Cyrillus probably obtained the manuscript in Alexandria. It is contained in four volumes quarto, of which the New Testament occupies the last, and is written on vellum, in double columns. The New Testament is, however, less perfect than the Old. It contains all the canonical and most of the apocryphal books, with several others. It was transferred from the King’s private library to the British Museum in 1757. Critics are much divided as to the date of this work ; but it seems most probable that it was written about the sth century. A fac-simile of the New Testament was published by Dr. Woide, in 1786, and one of the Old Testament by the Rev. H. Baber, in 1816. In 1864, the text was published at Oxford, under ALEXANDRINE VERSE 14 ALLITERATION the editorship of Mr. Hansell, along with that of three other ancient Codices. ALEXANDRINE VERSE, a species of verse, so called from its being first used in an old French poem on Alexander the Great, belonging to about the 12th century. It is now the regular heroic verse of the French, and consists of twelve syllables, broken into two regular hemistichs, i.e. every sixth syllable terminating a word. In English, the Alexandrine verse is rarely used throughout a whole poem, and the rule of dividing into hemistichs is occasionally violated. The second of the following lines (from Pope’s “Essay on Criticism,” in which he illustrated the pecu- liarities he noted) is an Alexandrine : — “ A needless Alexandrine ends the song. Which, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.” The Spenserian stanza — emjfioyed in the “ Faerie Queen” and Byron’s “ Childe Harold” — ends with an Alexandrine. The longest English poem in Alexandrine is Drayton’s “ Polyolbion.” ALHAMBRAIC, al-hami -brai-ik, a term given to a particular style of ornamental art, which is founded upon the decoration of the cele- brated Moorish palace of the Alhambra, at Granada, Geogkaphical Division. ) In this style all imitations of men and animals are omitted, while the floral and vegetable forms em- ])loyed bear only a distant resemblance to nature. Rich metallic elaboration and gorgeous colouring are the chief characteristics of the Alhambraic style ; but, so exquisite was the taste of the INIoorish artists who invented it, that it was always harmonious. ALLA, aV-la (Ital., in the manner of), a term used adverbially in Music, in various ways ; as, Alla breve, “ quick time,” wherein the notes take but half their general length; Alla C'apella, “in the church style,” etc. ALLECRET ARMOUR, aV-le-cret (Ger., all-strength), a convenient armour, much worn in the i 6 th century. It consisted of a casque, breast- plate, and gussets, which sometimes reached to the middle of the thigh, and sometimes below the knees. In the paintings and prints of the period the Swiss soldiers are commonly depicted in this armour. ALLEGORY, aV-le-gor-e (Gr., allegoria, a parable), is the description of a subject, or the re- presentation of a train of thought by means of sensible images having some resemblance to the thoughts. Thus Menenius Agrippa made use of an allegory when, in addressing his fellow-citizens at Rome, he described their rebellion under the figure of a conspiracy of the several members of the body against the stomach. Allegory has been a favourite mode of expression in all ages and countries, particularly among the Orientals ; and it is sometimes the fittest or most available means of giving a lively or intelligible repre- sentation of certain subjects or notions. It is employed in the Old and New Testaments ; but not always in the sense of a parable or fiction from which a moral applicable to other things may be drawn ; but sometimes one implying that histori- cal facts may have a secondary or typical illus- tration, as St. Paul’s reference to the story of Abra- ham and Hagar — “ these things are an allegory,” Some commentators are disposed to consider the Song of Solomon as an allegory; and parables -or short allegories are conspicuous vehicles of instruction in the New Testament. Dante’s “Divina Oommedia” may be considered as an allegory ; but the greatest modern master of allegory is unquestionably Bunyan. The poem of Phineas Fletcher, “ The Purple Island,” is an allegorical representation of the physical and moral constitution of man. The “ Spectator” abounds in allegories. ALLEGRETTO, al-lai-gret' -to, the diminu- tive of allegro, a term used in music to denote that the time is not so quick as that of allegro. ALLEGRO, al-lai'-gro (Ital., merrily, sport- ively), in Music, a term denoting the third degree of quickness. It is also used in combination with other terms ; for example, allegro agitato, quick and agitated ; allegro furioso, vehemently quick ; allegro assai, more quickly ; allegro di molto, very quickly ; allegro non molto, not very quick ; allegro ma non presto, quick, but not extremely so. Milton adopted the word as a title to his admir- ably living and graceful poem “L’ Allegro.” ALLEMANDE, dl-le-mand' (Fr., German), a term applied to a dance which originated in Alsace, and was therefore known as the “ German dance,” as implied by the name. It was intro- duced into France at the Court of Louis XIV., soon after the annexation by France of the German provinces. The dance consists of three sliding steps made backwards and forwards, and the movement of the arms is very graceful. Formerly it was a slow dance ; but at the present time it is imderstood to be moderately quick. By Handel and others of his contemporaries it was composed in four-crotchet time. ALL-FOURS, a game of cards, played usually by two persons, but sometimes by four, with a complete pack, and so named from the four chances therein, for each of which a point is scored, and which, joined in the hands of either of the party, are said to make all fours. The chances are — high, the best trump out; low, the smallest trump dealt ; Jack, the knave of trumps ; game, the majority of pips reckoned from such of the following cards as the respective players may have in their tricks — every ace count- ing 4, king 3, queen 2, knave i, and ten 10. ALLITERATION, al-lit'-e-rai'-shun (Lat., ad, to, litera, a letter), the frequent repetition of the same letter in a phrase or in a line of poetry. Churchill speaks in an amusingly illustrative line of, “Apt alliteration’s artful aid.” Very effective when employed by a master of phrase- ology or verse, alliteration may easily degen- erate into affectation. There is an exquisite melody in Shakspeare’s “Full fathom five thy father lies ; ” a graceful movement in Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s “And the lovely London ladies trod the floor with gliding feet;” and a lively wit in Pope’s “Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux.” Swinbourne has a very characteristic line, which hangs in the memory, “ The lilies and languors of virtue, the roses and raptures of vice;” and Gray is powerful with “Weave the warp and weave the woof.” But some instances of alliterative verse frequently quoted are only ingenious, and by no means poetical. Some phrases are fixed in the memory by aid of alliteration, as Lord Derby’s famous “meddle and muddle,” “fact and fiction,” and “fair and foul.” Alliterative titles are fre- quently effective for books ; and alliteration sometimes helps to preserve the name of the ALLUSION 15 ALPHA AND OMEGA author, as in the case of “ Cruden's Concord- ance.” Authors of fiction have frequently adopted alliterative names for their heroes, as in the in- stances of Smollett’s “Roderick Random” and “Peregrine Pickle,” and Dickens’ “Nicholas Nickleby.” In Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian, and old German poetry, alliteration served a purpose similar to that of rhyme in modern verse. ALLUSION, al-lu'-shun (Lat., allusio, a Inlaying or sporting with), in rhetoric, a figure by which is denoted something as applied to, or understood of another, on account of some simili- tude between them. ALMACK’S, al'-max, a suite of assembly rooms (now Willis’s Rooms) in King Street, St. James’s, frequently alluded to in the fashionable and social literature of the later part of the last century, and the first quarter of the present. The rooms were built in 1765 by a Scotchman named M‘Call, who, thinking his name might be preju- dicial (his countrymen at that time being unpo- pular in London), transposed the syllables. ALMAGEST, aV-ma-jest, the name given by Arab writers to a celebrated book composed by Ptolemy {see Biographical Division), being a collection of a great number of the observations and problems of the ancients, relating to geometry and astronomy, but especially the latter. It is the first work of this kind which has come down to us, and contains a catalogue of the fixed stars, with their places, besides numerous records and observations of eclipses and the motions of the planets. ALMA MATER, aV-ma mai'-ter (Lat., a nourishing mother), a term applied to a university by those who have studied at it. ALMANAC, orALMANACK, aV-ma-nak (Arab., al, the, and manah, to count; or, as some suggest, from the Teutonic al-Tnaen-achte, an ob- servation of all the moons), is an annual publica- tion, giving the civil divisions of the year, the movable and other feasts, the times of the various astronomical phenomena, and other useful infor- mation. Almanacs existed among the Alexan- drian Greeks in or after the time of Ptolemaeus. The time of their first appearance in Europe is not known, but manuscript almanacs of the 14th cen- tury are preserved in the British Museum, and in the library of Corpus Ghristi College, Cambridge. The first of any note was that by Pm-bach, 1450- 61. The first printed almanac was that of Regio- montanus, which appeared from 1475 to -A-t a very early period, wooden or “ clogg” almanacs were in use, consisting of blocks of wood about eight inches in length, on which notches and symbols indicated the days of the week and saints’ days. The Anglo-Saxons also used pieces of wood, on which the increase of the moon was marked, and to such a calendar they gave the name of All -moon -heed, which suggests another etymology for the word now i n use. In England, the univer- sities and the Stationers’ Company possessed a monopoly of the trade in almanacs from the time of James I. to 1775, when a decision' of the Court of Common Pleas in favour of one Carnan, abook- seller, abolished it. The Stationers’ Company, however, maintained a monopoly by buying up rivals, and “ Moore’s Almanac,” in which a farrago of astrological absurdity was mingled with more practical matter, maintained an extraordinary popularity for many years. In 1828, “The British Almanac,” a very valuable publication, appeared, and was followed by others, and the practical • monopoly of the company was broken down. In our own time, “Hannay’s” and “Whitaker’s” almanacs have attained a deservedly high reputa- tion for accuracy and copiousness of information. The latter, indeed, includes the features of an official directory and political and statistical hand- book ; and “ Thom’s Irish Almanac,” and “Oliver k Boyd’s New Edinburgh Almanac,” are works of even larger scope. The “ Gotha Almanac” (hav- ing German and French editions) is a great autho- rity on all matters connected with the personnel of royal families and the political condition of the world. George Cruikshank hit upon the idea of uniting an almanac with humorous literature and sketches; and for many years the “Comic Al- manac ” was one of the most welcome of annuals. adopted the plan; and now almost every professedly comic publication issues an almanac. The “ Nautical Almanac,” published by the Ad- miralty for the use of astronomers and seamen, is brought out three years in advance. The stamp duty, of fifteenpence per copy, to which almanacs were long subjected, was abolished in 1834. {See Calendar.) ALONSINE, OR ALPHONSINE, TABLES, a-lon'-sin, an astronomical work which appeared in the year 1252, mider the patronage of Alonso X., reputed by some to be constructed by Isaac Ben Said, a Jew ; by others, by Al Cabit and Aben Ragel, the preceptors of Alonso. An ofl&cial reprint of the work was begun in 1863. ALPHABET, al'-fa-bet (from alpha and beta, the names of the two first letters of the Greek alphabet), is a term applied to the letters of which a language is composed, in their natural or accustomed order. In spite of the extreme diversity of languages, most alphabets present, in the number, order, and even form of their letters, decided evidences of a common origin. It has been disputed whether to the Egyptians, Chal- deans, or Phoenicians belongs the honour of hav- ing invented the written characters. The common opinion, however, is, that we are indebted for them to the Phoenicians. Cadmus is said to have brought the Phoenician alphabet, consisting of 16 letters, into Greece, about 1493 ^.c. This was subsequently altered and added to, and be- came the ground of the Roman alphabet, which is now in use over Europe. The English lan- guage comprises 26 letters ; French, 25 ; Italian, 20 ; Spanish, 27 ; German, 26 ; Russian, 41 ; Latin, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, 22 ; Greek, 24 ; Ai’abic, 28 ; Persian, 32 ; Turkish, 33 ; and San- skrit, 50. The Chinese have, properly speaking, no alphabet; but they have 214 radical or ele- mentary characters. The form of letters, there can be little doubt, originated in attempts to pourtray forms, which degenerated into hiero- glyphs, and in the lai)se of time only very faint resemblances remained, (^ce Hieroglyphs.) The phonetic alphabets, in which letters represented sounds, grew out of the hieroglyphic system. In the oldest Greek manuscripts no “small” letters are employed. They were only faint cursive forms or varieties of the capitals, and perhaps arose from rapid tracing of the letters in a soft material. There is some confusion in our mo- dern English alphabet, some letters having two or more sounds, and two characters having the same sound. ALPHA AND OMEGA, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, frequently em- ployed to symbolize the idea of completeness or ALT 16 AMPHITHEATRE infinity. Three times in the book of Revelations, the Divine speaker says, “I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end.” ALT, alt (Lat., altus, high), in Music, a term applied to that part of the scale which commences vvith F, the fifth line in the treble clef, and ends at E, the third ledger line above the same clef. ALTERNATE, al-ter’ -nait, in Heraldry, a term used in respect to the situation of the quarterings. Thus, the first and fourth quarters, and the second and third, being generally the same, are called alternate quarters. ALTO, aV-to, the deepest species of musical voice of boys and females, ranging between the treble (or soprano) and the tenor. Fine voices of this kind are exquisitely beautiful, and capable of powers of expression, which is rarely possessed by any other voice, combining sweetness of tone with power. Some of Handel’s most pathetic airs, as “ He shall feed the sheep,” were written for the alto voice. Italian musicians give it the name contralto. The range is from F or G between the middle 0 to A or B above the octave 0 . {See Voice.) ALTO RILIEVO. ( in Music, a term used, to imply a time somewhat slow, and a performance distinct and exact. It forms the third of the five divisions of musical movement, and may be said to be the medium between the extremes of quick and slow. It is likewise used substantively, thus an “Andante of Haydn,” kc. Andante affettuoso, slow and with feeling ; andante cantabile, slow, but in a singing style ; andante con moto, a little faster than andante ; andante grazioso, slow but gracefully ; andante largo or largo andante — ^by this expression is understood that the performance of the move- ment to which it is prefixed is to be slow, distinct, and exact ; andante maestoso, slow with majesty ; andante non troppo, slow, but not too much so andante pastorale, slow and with pastoral sim- plicity. ANECDOTE, a/l'-eA:-do^e (Gr., a, not, ekdotos, given out or published), signifies literally a thing not given out or published; and hence it is a term sometimes applied to secret histories. Procopius gives this title to his secret history of the emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora. It is also applied to works of the ancients that have not before been published, as the Anecdota Grceca of Muratori. Li common language, an anecdote is a detached incident or fact of an interesting nature, usually connected with the life of a distinguished individual. Many collections of anecdotes have been published. ANNALS, an'-nals (Lat., annus, a year), a term usually employed to denote a plain nar- rative of historical facts, arranged under the par- ticular years in which they happened. It differs from history, inasmuch as the events are strictly arranged in the order in which they occurred, those of the one year being completed before those of another are begun. It differs also in being usually a bare narrative of events, without, as in history, the author’s opinions and remarks being interspersed. Annals require brevity ; history demands ornament. Annals may be said to furnish the elements or materials out of which history is composed. ANNO DOMINI, anno domini (Lat., in the year of our Lord), a term used in chronology to denote a year since the incarnation of our Saviour. It was first adopted in the middle of the 6th century, and is usually contracted A.D. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added, “ in the year of our Lord ” to the date of his reign, in 879. The period from the birth of Christ is termed the Christian era. {See Era.) ANNODATED, an-no-dai' -ted, is a term used in Heraldry to denote anything bent some- what in the form of an S. The serpents in the caduceus of Mercury are said to be annodated or entwined about the mace or staff. ANNOTATION, an-no-tai' -shun (Lat., an- notatio, from ad, to, and notatio, a marking), a term commonly used in the plural, and applied to remarks, notes, or commentaries on certain pas- sages of a book, designed to illustrate their mean- ing. An annotated edition of a work is an edition having such annotations. ANNUAL REGrlSTER is the name of a well-known annual publication, which first ap- peared in 1759, and which is still carried on. Various works of a similar nature had previously been published, as Boyer’s “Political State of Europe,” from 1711 to 1739 ; and the “Historica- Register,” from 1716 to 1738. The “Annual Re- gister” v/as projected by Robert Dodsley, the bookseller, assisted by Edmund Burke, who for some years wrote the historical narrative ; and it is said that much of it was written from his dic- tation for about thirty years. In 1781 was published the first volume of the “ New Annual Register,” projected and edited by Dr. Kippis; but it never attained the reputation of its rival, and came to a close in 1825. The “Edinburgh Annual Register ” was commenced in 1808 and terminated in 1827. The historical narrative was for some years written by Sir Walter Scott, and afterwards by Southey. A French work, in imitation of the “ Annual Register,” appeared at Paris in 1825, for the year 1818, under the title of “Annuaire Historique Universel,” and the first volume of the “Annuaire des Deux Mondes,” in connection with the well-known review of that name, appeared in 1851. ANNUALS, the name of a class of books that were for some years very popular in this country. They were usually of a light literary nature, tastefully got up, and illustrated with finely-engraved prints, and appeared about Christ- mas. The first of them “Forget-me-not,” was begun in London in 1822 ; and the following year two others “Friendship’s Offering” and “The Graces,” made their appearance. The “ Literary Souvenir ” was commenced in 1824 by Alaric A. Watts, and was a great improvement upon its predecessors. The “ Keepsake ” was commenced in 1827, under the editorship of W. H. Ainsworth. The “Gem,” edited by Thomas Hood, and to which Sir Walter Scott contributed, ajqDeared in 1828. In 1829 no fewer than seventeen different annuals were published ; in 1840 the number had dwindled to nine. One of the most poj)ular, “The Book of Beauty” begun in 1833, had for its earliest editors. Miss Landon (L.E.L.), and the Countess of Blessington. Enormous sums were expended on the literary contributions and illustrations of these annuals, the place of which may be said to be now occupied by the illustrated editions of popular works, which many of the publishers bring out about Christmas ; but they have formidable rivals in the Christmas numbers of “ All the Year Round,” the Christmas double numbers of the “Illustrated London News” and “Graphic,” and “Beeton’s Christ- mas Annual.” A large number of these publica- tions are now issued, generally in a cheap form, and illustrated with woodcuts. ANNULET, an'-nu-let, a term in architec- ture for a small fillet or band surrounding a column. ANOMALY, a-nom'-a-le {(jtX.,anomalos, irre- gular, unequal), in grammar, signifies an irregu- larity, an exception or deviation from rule. Anomalous verbs are such as are not conjugated comfortably to the rules of their conjugation, as, lego in Latin, to give in English. ANONYMOUS, a-non' -i-mus, a term derived from the Greek, aud signifying literally without a name, or nameless. It is applied to books which do not bear the name of the author. When an assumed name is given, the term pseudony- mous is used. It is frequently a matter of im- portance in literature to know the author of an anonymous work ; and hence several excellent works have appeared in Germany aud France on this subject ; as, Placcius “ De Scriptis et Scrip- ANT^ 20 ANTHOLOGY toribus Aiionymis et Pseudoiiymis Syntagma,” Hamburg, 1674 ; and “ Thesaurus Anonymorum et Pseudonymorum,” Hamburg, 1708 ; and the excellent work of Barbier, “ Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes,” second edition, 4 vols., Paris, 1822-25, giving the names of about 24,000 works, 'with their known or as- sumed authors. In this country, political articles, as well as most of those that appear in periodicals, are anonymous, a system which, while it secures greater freedom to the writer, occasionally leads to abuse. The sending of anonymous letters de- manding money or denouncing persons was made felony by 9 Geo. L, the “Black Act” (1722), 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827), and i Viet. c. 87 (1838). ANT^, an'-te, pilasters, or door-posts, sup- porting the lintels attached to a wall ; also the pier-formed ends of the side walls of temples, wlien prolonged beyond tlie face of the walls. ANTAGONIST MUSCLES, an-ta(f-o-nist {Gr.f anti, against; agonistes, a combatant), are those muscles which act in opposition to each other ; as flexors and extensors, abductors and adductors. In the arm, for example, the flexor muscles bend the limb inward at the elbow, while the extensor muscles draw the limb back or extend it in a direct line. The flexor and ex- tensor muscles act antagonistically towards each other, not in efforts at simultaneous and contrary action, but in consecutive action of an opposite direction. There is, however, a sort of passive action in the different muscles of the body, consti- tuting what is termed the natural tone of the system; and when this is lost or partially en- feebled in one set of muscles, their natural antagonists have an undue action on the parts, and cause disfigurement by destruction of the natural balance. ANTANACLASIS, ant' -an-a-Tdai' -sis (Gr., antanaklao, I drive back), in Rhetoric, is a term denoting the repetition of a word in a different sense, or as a different part of speech, from that in which it has already been employed, in order to attract attention or give expressiveness to the phrase; as, “Whilst we live, let us live.'" It is also the returning to a subject after a long paren- thesis, by repeating, in the same words, part of what went before. ANTECEDENT, an-te-s^ -dent (Lat., an'^e, before, and cedo, I go), is the noun which precedes the relative, and to which it refers, as for instance, in the sentence “His son, who followed him;” the word “ son ” is the antecedent, and “ who ” the relative. In Logic, it is the i)roposition or principle on which another proposition, which is called the consequent, depends. In the relation of cause and effect, the cause is the antecedent, the effect the consequent. In the plural number the word has a particular signification, thus — “His antecedents are bad” means that the pre- vious character, conduct, and position of the individual referred to are bad. ANTECHAMBER, an'-te-chaim-ler (Lat., ante, before; Fr., chamhre, room, apartment), the room which leads to the principal apart- ment. ANTEPENULT, an' -te-pe-nult' (Lat., ante, before, pene, almost, and ultimus, the last), de- notes the last syllable of a word except two — the one before the penult. ANTHEM, an' -them (Gr., anti, against, and humnos, a hymn), properly signifies a hymn sung in alternate j)arts, and was anciently sung alter- nately by the two sides of the choir. At present the name is applied to a species of musical com- position, introduced into the service of the English church in the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the words being taken from the Psalms or other suitable portion of the Scriptures or Liturgy. When sung, it follows the third col- lect. There are three kinds of anthem — solo, verse, and full anthem. The solo anthem has only one voice to a part ; the verse consists chiefly of chorus, but there are also verse parts for single voices ; the full anthem is wholly chorus, and sung by all the voices. The anthem can only be heard to perfection in cathedral ser- vice. Although in its origin and construction it is somewhat analogous to the motet of the Romish Church, and, moreover, both being really written for a trained choir and not for congregational singing, yet in its treatment and development it is entirely English, and scarcely any English composer of note can be mentioned who has not written many good anthems. ANTHOLOGY, an-tkol'-o-je (Gr., anthos, a flower, and logia, a collection), literally means, a collection of flowers, but is usually applied to any collection of choice passages from various authors,, either in prose or verse, but generally in the latter. It is more especially applied to certain collections of Greek epigrammatic poems, com- prising about 4,500 fugitive pieces by about 300 writers, which is commonly called the Greek Anthology. Meleager, the poet and sophist, who lived at Gadara, in Syria, probably about the middle of the ist century before Christ, is regarded as the first producer of a work of this kind. He collected the best effusions of his pre- decessors from Sappho downwards, and included numerous productions of his own. He entitled his volume “ The Garland,” and wrote an intro- ductory poem comparing each poet to the flowers which he fancifully deemed applicable to his- genius. Subsequently, Philip of Thessalonica (who was the &st to use the term Anthology), added compositions of thirteen writers who lived after Meleager, and subsequently other supple- ments were formed by the sophists Diogenianus of Heraclea, Strato of Sardis, and Agathias ; but all these ancient works are lost. Many of the pieces, however, had been preserved by Con- stantine Cephalas, who lived in the loth century, and Maximus Planudes, who flourished in the- 14th. Of the latter, the first printed edition is that of Lascaris, at Florence, 1494. The last edition, with a Latin metrical translation by Grotius, is that commenced by Bosch, and finished by Lennep, in 5 vols., Utrecht, 1795—1822. In 1606 a manuscript copy of the earlier collection of Cephalas was discovered by Salmasius in the Heidelberg library. It was taken to Rome during the Thirty Years’ War, and subsequently to Paris ; but was restored to Heidelberg in 1816. It is much the richer and better of the two, and has been frequently edited. In imitation of the Greek anthologies, several Latin anthologies have been made by Scaliger, Pitthous, Burmann, and others, the largest collection being Burmann’s, Avhich was issued at Amsterdam (1759-1773). A well-arranged edition of Burmann’s selection was issued by Meyer in 1835. A still better and more critical edition was issued by Alexander Riese in 1869. Orientalliterature, particularly the Arabian, is very rich in anthologies. A selection from ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETIES 21 ANTONIES, WALL OF the old Arabic songs jjrevious to Mahomet was arranged and published in ten books by Abu- Temam, and Abu’l Faraj of Ispahan, who died in 966, also published a collection of all the ancient Arabian songs he could find. This was republished by Kosegarten in 1840. There are various other Arabian anthologies, but the best and most complete is that compiled by Taalebi, and entitled by him “ The Pearl of the World.” It has been enlarged and continued since his death. Persia, Tartary, Turkey, India, and China, all possess many ancient anthologies. The Shi King (Book of Songs), compiled by Con- fucius, is the oldest anthology in the world, and is one of the canonical books of the Chinese. The Sanscrit language and literature do not possess so many of these collections as do the other oriental nations. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETIES, an-thro-jpo-lo' -gi-kal. The Anthropological So- ciety was established in London in 1863, and the Anthropological Review appeared in the same year. In 1874, the Anthropological and Ethno- logical Societies were united, and styled the Anthropological Institute. ANTICLIMAX, an-ti-kU' -max (Gr., anti, and kilmax, gradation), in Rhetoric, denotes a sentence which is an abrupt but complete declen- sion from the dignity or grandeur of the one which preceded it, and which is spoken of as the climax, as it rises from the level of ordinary lan- guage to a height of feeling or thought. ANTIPHONY, an-tif'-o-ne (Gr. anti, and phone, a voice), in Church music a mode of sing- ing in which one j^ortion of the choir responds to the other. In the cathedral service of the Church of England, the Psalms are generally chanted in this manner. The method was adopted by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, and was introduced into the Greek Church by Ignatius in the 2nd century, and into the Western Church by Ambrosius in the 4th century. ANTIPHRASIS, an-tif-ra-sis[QY. anii,and phrasis, a form of speech), is applied to an ex- pression used in a contrary sense to that which it las in appearance ; or to a kind of irony wherein we say a thing by denying what we ought rather to afl&rm it to be ; as, “ It did not displease me,” meaning, “I was pleased with it.” ANTIQUARIES, SOCIETY OF.— The Society of Antiquaries was first established in 1572, when Archbishop Parker, Sir Robert Cotton, and some others, united their efforts for the preservation of the ancient monuments of their country. James I. regarding the meetings of the society with apprehension, thought fit to dissolve it in 1604, and the society remained in abeyance till the beginning of the i8th century. In 1707 its operations were resumed, and in 1751 it obtained a charter of incorporation from George II. There are a Scottish Society of Antiquarians, and French Societies of a similar character. {See Archeology.) ANTIQUARY, an' -ti-qua-re (Lat., anti- quarius, from antiquus, ancient), is one who studies and searches after monuments and re- mains of antiquity, as old medals, books, statues, sculptures, and inscriptions, and, in general, all curious pieces that may afford any insight into antiquity. In a wider sense it is one who makes the manners and customs of earlier times a special subject of inquiry, or who deduces his- tory from the relics of the past. The word “anti- quarian” is frequently used, but erroneously, for antiquary — it is properly the adjective. Anti- quarii was also a name given in the Middle Ages to copies of old books, especially in convents. The keeper of an antiquarium, or cabinet of antiqui- ties was also styled an antiquary. In Italy, the ciceroni who point out the antiquities of a place are termed antiquaries, as are also, in Germany, those booksellers who deal in old or second-hand books. ANTIQUITIES. {See Archeology.) ANTISTROPHE, an-ti-stro' -fe (Gr., anti, against, and strophe, a turning), was a term ap- plied by the ancients to that part of a song or dance before the altar, which was performed by turning from west to east, in opposition to the strophe, which was performed by moving from east to west. Hence strophe and antistrophe came to be applied to certain stanzas of an ode, toge- ther with epode, which was applied to that part which was sung when the chorus stood still. In Grammar, antistrophe is applied to the changing of things mutually dependant upon each other ; as, “ The master of the servant,” and “ The ser vant of the master.” ANTITHESIS, an-tith' -e-sis (Gr., opposi- tion), is the bringing together or contrasting things that are opposed to each other ; as in that passage from Cicero, “ On the one side stands modesty, on the other impudence ; on the one fidelity, on the other deceit ; here piety, there sacrilege; here continency, there lust.” In the same way, it was said of a book that it contained much, both new and true, but that the new it contained was not true, and the true was not new. "When judiciously introduced, this figure gives vigour and liveliness to style ; but its fre- quent introduction becomes tedious. ANTITYPE, an'-ti-tipe, is a Greek word, literally signifying a figure formed after or cor- responding to some other type or figure. A type is a pattern according to which a thing is to be made ; antitype is a thing formed according to a model or pattern. In a theological sense, the antitype is that in which a type is fulfilled ; as the paschal lamb is the typo of which Christ is the antitype. By the early fathers, the bread and wine in the Eucharist are styled the anti- types of the body and blood of our Lord. ANTONIUS, Itinerary of, an-to'-ni-us, an ancient and valuable work, giving the names of all places, stations, and roads in the Roman Empire, with their distances from each other in Roman miles. The work is generally supposed to have been the work of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antonius, hence its name. Other authorities, however, assert that it was com- menced in the time of Julius Caesar, and ammended in the time of Antonius. An excel- lent edition was published by Parthey in Berlin, in 1848. ANTONIUS, Wall of, one of the Roman barriers built in Britain to repel the incursions of the Piets and Scots. It extended across the country from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde, and was executed in the reign of Antonius Pius — hence its name. It consisted of a deep and wide ditch, or rampart of earth, 20 feet high by 24 broad at the base, surmounted by a para- pet, within which was a pathway for the de- fenders. Again, behind the wall was fixed ANTONOMASIA 22 APOSTLE8 Aiilitary road. There was also a chain of 19 forts, with watch towers between. Fragments still remain. ANTOISTOMASIA, an-to-no-mai'-si-a (Gr.> a 7 iti, and onomu, a name), a term to denote the substitution of an appellative for a proper name ; as when Moses is called the Lawgiver, Aristotle the Stagyrite, or Shakspeare the Bard of Avon. AORTST, ai'-o-rist (Gr., a, not, and onos a limit), the tense of a Greek verb, by which an action is expressed as taking jplace in an indefinite time. It usually expresses the past time, but sometimes the present or future. AlPAUME, oe, APPAUMEE, a-pome' (Fr., a, and paume, palm of the hand), in Heraldry, means a hand, showing the i^alm extended, with the thumb and fingers at full length. APEX, ai'-pex (Lat.), the vertex or summit of anything. Among the Eomans it was also the name of a kind of conical cap, worn by the l)riests, or, more properly, of a small stick, with a tuft of white wool attached, which was fastened to the top of it. The crest of a helmet was also called apex. It is also applied to a mark placed over a syllable to denote that it is to be pro- nounced long ; especially used when a word has a different meaning, according as it is pronounced long or short ; as, in Latin, malus signifies ill ; malm, an apple-tree. APH^RESIS, a-feer' -e-sis (Gr., aphaiaeo, I take away), is a term used to denote the taking away of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word ; as, ifs for it is ; Against, for against. A like retrenchment at the end of a word is called apocope. APHORISM, af-o-rism (Gr., aphorizo, I separate), a maxim, or a short and significant sentence, containing a moral precept or rule of practice, forcibly expressed in a few words ; as, “It is always safe to learn from our enemies; seldom safe to instruct even our friends.” It is also applied in Medicine and Law to certain truths laid down, but not treated argumenta- tively ; as the aphorisms of Hippocrates, Sanc- torius, or Boerhaave ; aphorisms of the civil law, &c. It is likewise applied to a figure in rhetoric, whereby something that has been said is limited or corrected. APOCO, a-po'-co, a term in music signifying by degrees, by little and little. APOELO BELVIDERE, a-poV-lo heV-vi- deer, the name commonly borne by a beautiful statue of the heathen divinity Apollo or Phoebus, which, in 1503, was found in the ruins of the ancient Antium. Pope Julius H. bought it and had it placed in the Belvidere of the Vatican at Rome, whence the name. It is generally admitted to be the most magnificent work of art in exist- ecne. It is now believed not to be an original work, but a copy from another statue which has not been discovered. The divinity is seen in a standing position, almost nude : over his right shoulder is suspended a quiver, upon his extended left arm he carries his pallium, and in his hand, according to some critics and antiquaries, is seen the remnant of a bow, from which an arrow is supposed to have been discharged at the serpent Python. Others, however, on the authority of a bronze statuette, now in St. Petersburg, suppose that the god held in his hand the aegis, and ap- pears in the act of spreading consternation among enemies. It is supposed that the occasion for the production of the statue was the invasion of the Gauls, whom, in 278 B.C., the god drove in alarm from his sanctuary. The whole statue is charac- terised by a combination of grace, beauty, and symmetry of proportion. By some critics it is held that Pliny makes allusion to this beautiful figure; but the more generally received opinion is that the sculptor is entirely unknown. For a time the statue was kept in Paris, whither it had been conveyed by the emperor Napoleon I., in 1797 ; but at his downfall this marvel of antique art was restored to the Vatican. The left hand and the right forearm, wanting in the statue as discovered, were supplied by Montorsoli, a pupil of Michael Angelo. APOLOGETIC, a-pol-o-jet' -ik (Gr., apologeo- mai, I speak in defence of), is a term applied to designate something said or written by way of excuse or apology for any action or person, as an apologetic essay. APOLOGUE, ap'-o-log (Gr., apologos, a fable), is a fable, parable, or short fictitious story, designed to convey some moral truth. The fables of jBsop are of this class. APOLOGY, a-poV-o-je (Gr., apologia, a de- fence, apology), originally denoted a defence made in a court of justice in favour of one ^accused. As these were frequently carefully written out, and afterwards made public, it came to be applied to works written in defence of any particular person or doctrines. Of this nature are the apologies of Socrates, attributed to Plato and Xenophon. Dr. Newman’s “ Apologia pro Sua Vitd,” an explanation of his reason for adopting certain opinions, is a modern work of this class. The word was adopted by the Christian fathers, and applied by them to works in defence of cer- tain doctrines of Christianity. [See Apologetics. ) In ordinary language the word is used at present in the sense of asking pardon or excuse for some offence. APOPHTHEGM, ap'-o-them (Gr., apoph- thegma, an utterance), a short pithy saying or maxim, conveying a great moral truth in few words. The wise men of antiquity, and the oracles of the gods, frequently expressed themselves in this way. Among the best-known collections of apophthegms are those made in ancient times by Plutarch, and those in modern times by Bacon. APORIA, a-por'- i-a (Gr., aporeo, I doubt), is the name of a figure in Rhetoric, by which the speaker seems to be in doubt whether to say any- thing or not, or where to begin in a multitude of arguments ; as, “ Of what shall I first complain ? ” “Where shall I seek for help?” This figure is sometimes used with great effect. APOSIOPESIS, a-po' -si-op' -e-sis (Gr., aposi- opao, I am silent), is a figure in Rhetoric, in which the speaker breaks off abruptly in the middle of a sentence, leaving his hearers to supply what he was going to say. APOSTLES, PICTORIAL REPRE- SENTATION OF. — The representative badges or attributes with which the several apostles are usually represented are, St. Peter with the keys ; St. Paul with a sword ; St. Andrew with a cross ; St. James the Less with a fuUer’s pole ; St. John with a cup and a winged serpent flying out of it ; St. Bartholomew with a knife ; St. Philip with a long staff, whose upper end is formed into a APOSTROPHE 23 AQUARIUM cross ; St. Thomas with a lance ; St. Matthew with a hatchet ; St. Matthias with a battle-axe ; St. James the Greater with a pilgrim’s staff and a gonrd bottle ; St. Simon with a saw ; and St. ’ Jude with a club. APOSTROPHE, a-pos'-tro-fe (Gr., apos trophe, a turning away, or breaking off), is the name given to a figure in Rhetoric, when a speaker breaks of suddenly in the course of his speech, and addresses directly a person absent or dead, or an inanimate object, as if present and listening to him. It is also frequently used by the poets ; and when well managed it has a very striking effect. It denotes strong passion, or emotion. In Granunax, it is used to denote the omission of a letter or letters in a word ; as boro’ for borough. The comma (’) employed to mark such omission, or which is used to mark the possessive case, is termed an apos- trophe. APPELLATIVE, ap-peV -la-tiv (Lat., appel- latio, a naming), a common, as distinguished from a proper name. An appellative is applied to a whole class, a proper name only to an individual ; thus, “city” is an appellative, and London, Paris, and Vienna proper names. APPENDIX, ap-pen'-dix (Lat., ad, to, and pendeo, I hang), is something appended or at- tached to another. It is applied to a supplement, notes, or remarks placed at the end of a book. In Anatomy, it denotes a part attached to, yet in some measure distinct from another. APPIAN WAY, OR VIA APPIA, ap'-pd- an, the oldest and most celebrated of the Roman roads, was commenced by Appius Claudius Csecus, whilst censor, 313 B.O. It formed the great line of communication between Rome and Capua, and was 125 miles in length. It was at a later period extended to Beneventum and Brundusium, mak- ing its total length about 350 miles. In the con- struction of this great highway, hills and solid rock were pierced, hollows filled up, ravines spanned by bridges, swamps covered with em- bankments, and so stupendous was the whole design, so vast the sums expended upon it, that it became known as the “ queen of roads.” The pavement was formed of large hexagonal blocks of basaltic lava, jointed together with great nicety. _ Large portions of the Appian Way may still be’ seen at Terracina, and other places, and all those travellers that have described it, concur in prais- ing its excellent workmanship. APPLAUSE, ap-plawz' (Lat., ad, to, and plaudo, I clap my hands), properly signifies an approbation of something, expressed by clapping the hands. The ancients distinguished it from acclamation, which was expressed by the voice. Among the Romans persons were instructed in the art of giving applause, and there were masters for teaching it. Proficients let themselves out for hire to actors and others, and were disposed among the audience, so as to give it with effect. They were divided into chori, and placed opposite to each other, like the choristers in a cathedral. In Paris the professional applauders, claqueurs, are well known at the theatres. APPOGIATURA, ap-poj' -a-too' -ra (Ital., appogiare, to lean upon), in Music, a small note which precedes a larger one of greater duration, and which is touched lightly before sounding the principal note. The small note borrows one half. and sometimes only one quarter, of the duration of the note preceding it. APPOSITION, ap-po-zish' -on (Lat., ad, to, and pono, I place), denotes literally the act of putting or applying one thing to another. In Grammar, two or more substantives are said to be in apposition when they are in the same case, without any copulative conjunction between them, as “ My lord the King.” APRIL, ai'-pril (Lat., Aprilis, from aperio, I open), is the fourth month of our year, and was so called from the earth beginning at this time to open her bosom for the production of fruits. The Anglo-Saxons named it Oster, or Easter-month, and the Dutch Grass-month. It contains thirty days. April Fool. The first day of April is known as “ All F ools’ Day. ” From time immemorial a practice of hoax- ing, or sending a person on a bootless errand, on that day has prevailed. In France, the victim of a trick of this kind is called poisson d’Avril, an April fish. The Hindoos indulge in similar pranks on the last day of March, when they celebrate what is known as the “ Hull Festival.” APSE (Lat., apsis), a semi-arch recess fre- quently placed at the east end, or choir, or chancel of the church built in the Anglo-Saxon or Anglo- Norman style. This form is no doubt derived from the early Christian basilica. {See Basilica. ) There are instances of three or four or even more apses. Large semi-circular or polygonal apses generally have radiating chapels within, as at Westminster Abbey. APTERAL, ap'-te-ral (Gr., a, without; pteron, a wing), in Architecture, a term used parti- cularly with reference to the temples of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is applied to buildings which have no lateral columns, but may have por- ticos of columns projecting from their ends. The Greek temples were, for the most part, peripteral, as the parallelogrammic temples of the Romans were generally apteral prostyles. The latter style has been most frequently adopted in modern edifices. AQUARIUM, ai-quair' -i-um, a vessel, or collection of vessels, containing water, either salt or fresh, in which living specimens of aquatic animals and plants are kept in a healthy state, by reason of their reciprocal action, and the plants absorbing the poisonous carbonic-acid gas given off by the animals, and in turn setting free the oxygen upon which animal life depends. The words vivarium and aquavivarium have been employed by certain writers to denote the same thing. More than two centuries ago marine animals were kept in confinement, and there is a drawing extant, bearing date, 1742, which pictures an aquarium containing zoophytes. The distinguished entomologist Esper, also kept aqua- tic insects, &c., in water, for the purpose of study, and Sir John Graham Daly ell, author of several works on Natural History, constructed aquaria for the purpose of studying the habits of marine animals. Some of these animals lived a very long time, and it is on record that one anemone, having been taken from the sea in 1828 was alive and well in 1873. Sir John’s aquarium, however, never contained any plants, and the water must have been constantly changed. Abont 1839 aquaria of a more elaborate description were constructed, and agencies were established for the sui)ply of animals and. sea-water. The diffi- culty of procuring the latter was so great that AQUARIUM 24 AQUARIUM an artificial compound was resorted to for lack of the genuine article. Several attempts were now made by naturalists to preserve fresh-water and marine organisms. Mr. Ward, whose in- genious discovery, in 1841, of the method of growing ferns and other delicate plants in closed cases (see Wakdian Case) had already earned for him a world-wide reputation, stated, at a meeting of the British Association, that he had succeeded not only in growing sea-weeds in sea- water, but in sea-water artificially made ; and, in 1842, Dr. George Johnston, of Berwick-on-Tweed, in the course of experimenting for another pur- pose, discovered that the animal and plant life of the sea could also maintain each other’s health. He succeeded in preserving the delicate pink coralline in a living state for eight weeks, in unchanged sea-water. In 1847, Mrs. Anne Thynne, a lady living in London, who frequently surprised the scientific societies by exhibiting alive beautiful specimens of marine animals, wrote, “ I wished to try whether I could adjust the balance between animal and vegetable life, and sent for shells and small pieces of rock, to which living sea-weed was attached.” Previous to this she had aerated the water, by causing it to be daily poured backwards and forwards from one vessel to another several times in the open air. In 1849 Mr. Warrington conducted successfully experiments having a similar object, and in 1850 this gentleman communicated to the Chemical Society the result of a year’s experi- ments — “ On the adjustment of the relations between the animal and vegetable kingdoms by which the vital functions of both are perman- ently maintained.” To illustrate this adjust- ment, Mr. Warrington kept for many months, in a vase of unchanged water, two small gold- fish and a plant of Valisneria spiralis ; and after- wards he made a similar experiment with sea- water, weeds, and anemones, which was equally success- ful. Before Mr. Warrington published his paper. Dr. Lankester had kei^t stickle-backs, gold-fish, and other fresh-water animals, in jars containing growing sprigs of Valisneria. Mr. Gosse, the well-known marine zoologist, also laboured in the same field, although unacquainted with the ex- periments of ]VIr. Warrington, and his efforts to domesticate his favourite sea -anemones were tolerably successful. Mr. Price and Mr. Bower- tante also made experiments, and in 1853 an aquarium of considerable size was constructed in the Zoological Gardens by Mr. D. Mitchell. The aquaria now became so extremely popular as to be almost a mania, and BIr. Gosse and Mr. Warrington published formulae for the manu- facture of artificial sea-water. Since the con- struction of the aquarium in the Zoological Gardens, many large ones have been erected in many of the great European cities. Under the direction of BIr. W. Alford Lloyd, an immense aquarium was set up in the Jardin d’Acclimita- tion, Paris, in i860 ; he also constructed one at Hamburg. There is a very large one at Brighton (opened 1872), at the Crystal Palace (1872), at Manchester, Southport, Scarborough, and other large towns. The Royal Aquarium and Winter Gardens, Westminster, was opened 1874. The aquarium at Brighton is perhaps the finest in the world. It is 715 feet in length by 100 feet in breadth, and contains numerous tanks, many of which are of great capacity. The largest (No. 6) contains 110,000 gallons of water, and has a plate glass front 130 feet long. This aquarium is con- structed on a totally different principle from that at the Crystal Palace. The tanks at Brighton are aerated by having fresh air constantly pumped into them, and there is no circulation from one tank to another, though each can be, when necessary, renewed with fresh sea- water. This is pumped by steam-power direct from the sea, and stored in underground reservoirs capable of holding 500,000 gallons. At the Crystal Palace aquarium, aeration is accomplished by carrying a main of water over the entire length of the tank, from which main a small tap carries a jet of water with great force into each tank, break- ing the surface of the water contained in it and penetrating to the bottom, communicating small bubbles of air, which render it bright and spark- ling. Constant circulation between each tank is maintained, and the storage in the reservoirs is five times the quantity in the show tanks. Mr. Hughes, of Birmingham, recommends the growth of the sea -lettuce (Ulva latissima) as suitable for aerating the tanks, and as affor^ng food for the fishes. Small Fresh Water Aquaria.— In stocking and keep- ing an aquarium at home, the great principle to be considered is the constant interchange of elements between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. (See Animal Kingdom.) The leaves of plants absorb carbon. Animals, on the other hand, require oxygen. The vegetable world is therefore continually absorbing carbon ; from the carbonic acid given off the animals, and setting free oxygen, which the animals breathe, giving it back again in the form of carbonic acid gas, a balance is thus preserved between the two great divisions of organized beings. The other elements which enter into the composition of animal and vege- table structures circulate in a more obscure manner, but with equal regularity. To form an aquarium, we have merely to imitate nature. A good supply of plants must be introduced, to decompose the poisonous carbonic acid gas, and keep up a continuous supply of the vivifying oxygen, while particular care must be taken not to overcrowd the tank with animals. The vessels used for aquaria are constructed, either wholly or partly, of glass : a common propagating-glass, such as used by gardeners, is often employed. These glasses can now be obtained, fitted with proper stands, and manufactured from a clearer kind of glass than formerly. Glass tanks, of a rectangular form, are, however, preferable to vases, as they do not distort the objects seen through their sides, and are less liable to breakage. They should be wide and shallow, for water has the property of absorbing oxygen from the air if sufficiently exposed to its action. The most perfect form of tank is that invented by Mr. W. Alford Lloyd and known as the “ slope-back tank.” One side of this tank is formed of glass, the other three being composed of slate. This is a great advantage, as the marine animals are not, as a rule, lovers of light. The back slopes downwards, from the source of illumina- tion to the lower edge of the glass front, an arrange- ment which enables objects to be seen in a slanting light, which exhibits their form and colour to the greatest advantage. Whatever kind of tank is used, it should be provided with a cover of sheet-glass, to keep out dust, and to prevent the more adventurous creatures making their escape. A layer of well-w'ashed shingle or sand is laid at the bottom of the aquarium, and in this the roots of such plants as are provided with those organs are imbedded. A few irregular blocks of stone, placed upon the shingle, look much better than any fantastic minarets of sham rockwork formed of cement, and afford sufficient shelter for all animals of a retiring disposition. The fresh-water aquarium is filled with ordinary river or spring water, and serves to exhibit the animals and plants found in ponds and ditches. The best and most lasting plant is the spiral Valisneria (Valisneria spiralis), which is a fine grassy-looking weed, having perennial foots. Its long green leaves rapidly decompose the carbonic acid in the water, and con- sequently make it a capital purifier. The American water-weed (Anacharis alsinastrum) is another good aquarium plant, but it must be frequently thinned, as it grows extremely fast. The different species of Duck- AQUATINTA 25 ARABIAN LANGUAGE weed (Lemna) and Pondweed (Potomageton) are all applicable to the purposes of the aquarium naturalist. No animals should be introduced into the tank until the plants have been established sufficiently long (say three or four days) to properly aerate the water. Contents of the Aquarium. — Of the animals suited for the fresh-water tank, fishes rank first. All the different kinds of carp, including the gold-fish, are easily domesticated. The tench, the miller’s-thumb, the minnow, the stickleback, and the grig eel, are also suitable fish. The interesting class of Batrachia are generally represented by the common frog, the smooth newt, and the crested triton. Small water-tortoises and salamanders have lately been imported for aquaria. Some members of the class Mollusca are absolutely indispensable in a fresh-water aquarium, as they act as scavengers, and carefully remove the green film which forms upon the glass, and which, in their absence, would soon obscure the contents of the tank. The best molluscs are the pretty coil-shells (Planorbis corneus and carinatus), the marsh-shell (Paludina vivipard), and the eared mud-shell (Limnea auri- cvlaris). It is doubtful whether insects ought to be admitted into aquaria which are intended merely for parlour ornaments ; but the naturalist ought not to consider his tank complete unless the important class of insects is properly represented. Considerable care, however, must be bestowed on the selection, as some of the members of the beetle tribe are so bloodthirsty that they will even venture to attack the smaller fish. Some writers on the aquarium recommend artificial aeration; but when the balance of vegetable and animal life is properly adjusted, there is no necessity for resorting to any extraordinary means to insure a copious supply of oxygen. The Marine Aquarium affords us the means of ob- serving some of the most curious forms of animal life. The tank is filled with sea-water, which should be con- veyed to its destination in clean stone jars, or in casks perfectly seasoned. When real sea-water cannot be obtained (though this emergency must now be a very rare one), artificial sea-water may be used, after having been prepared for the reception of animals by growing marine plants in it. Mr. Gosse has given the following simple formula for the preparation of this artificial water: — Common table salt, 35 ounces; Epsom salts, J ounce ; Chloride of magnesium, 200 grains troy ; Chloride of potassium, 40 grains troy. These materials are to be added to a little less than four quarts of water. The green and red alga — particularly the “ Green Laver ” (Ulva latissima) — are the plants used, the dark-coloured weeds being inapplicable for aquarium purposes. (See Alg^.) The animals which form the glory of the marine tank are the sea-anemones (see Anemones) and madrepores. Besides these, the star-fishes, the sea-urchins, the barnacles, and the beautiful plumed worms called serpulse and sabellae, generally gain admission. The crab family furnish the humorous element in the aquarium ; and it is im- possible to observe the clumsy antics of some of them, particularly the hermits, with a serious countenance. The free swimmers are shrimps, prawns, and certain small fishes ; but, as few of these can be preserved for long in the aquarium, they are generally omitted alto- gether. The scavengers of the marine tank are the periwinkles, cockles, whelks, limpets, and tops. In the marine aquarium it is particularly necessary to guard against overcrowding. Every animal requires a certain amount of room, a certain amount of air, and a certain amount of solid nourishment ; therefore we cannot exceed these natural limits without injury to our whole stock. Artificial aeration may be resorted to by blowing air into our tank, or allowing a quantity of water to drip into it from a considerable height ; but it is far better to keep the number of our animals within moderate limits, and to trust to the algwe for a proper amount of oxygen. Sometimes the water in an aquarium will suddenly become turbid from no easily explained cause ; and it will be found necessary to re- move the animals to a temporary vessel, and to filter the water through sponge or powdered charcoal. Mr. Lloyd discovered that the opacity of the water could be destroyed by placing it in a dark closet. AQUATINTA, ai'-qua-tin'-ta (Lat., aqua, water, tinctus, stained or dyed), a peculiar style of etching on copper or steel, in imitation of drawings in sepia or Indian ink. It was invented by a German named Le Prince. The plate is covered with a ground of black resin and spirits of wine, to which the design is transferred from the paper on which it has been traced. The high lights are then stopped out, and the various shades and gradations of tint are procured by the action of nitric acid and water. The art is now rarely practised. ARABESQUE, ar-a-hesid (Fr., after the manner of the Arabians), is a term synonymous with Saracenic or Mauresque, and is applied to any fanciful style of decoration combining scroll-work interlaced with flowers, fruit, leaves, and tendrils, and occasionally figures of men and animals. This style of ornamentation is sup- loosed to have originated in the hieroglyphic em- blems and figures used by the Egyptians to decorate their public buildings, dwellings, and utensils. It was borrowed from them by the Arabians, who, under the name of Saracens and Moors, overran Asia Minor and the north of Africa and Spain. The Moors have left beauti- ful specimens of this decorative style in the Alhambra in Spain, faithful copies of which may be seen in the Alhambra court at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. They were obliged by the tenets of the Koran to confine themselves to the representation of the productions of the vege- table kingdom. The term arabesque is also ap- plied to the grotesque decorations derived from Roman remains of the early time of the empire. The Etruscans ornamented their pottery and dwellings in this manner, introducing figures of men and animals ; and the walls of the baths of Titus, discovered in the time of Leo X., were adorned with arabesque work, from which it is said that Raphael derived his idea of decorating the famous gallery of the palace of the Vatican in a similar manner. The Renaissance style of architectural adornment, in vogue about the time of Louis XV. of France, furnishes elaborate ex- amples of enrichment, sometimes described as cinquecento arabesque. ARABIAN, ouMOORISH ARCHITEC- TURE, a-rai' -hi-an, the style of architecture introduced into Europe by the Moors, the chief features of which are the peculiar horseshoe arch, and the elaborate system of ornamentation with which the walls of their buildings are adorned. The Arabs had no buildings of any architectural pretensions before the time of Mahomet ; but after this period they had mosques built for public worship, which were designed by architects from Constantinople, who would natur- ally follow the leading features of Byzantine architecture. {See Byzantine Akchitecture. ) These features were gradually altered and amal- gamated with the various styles already adopted in the public buildings of northern Africa and Spain, with the addition of ornament and bril- liant colouring, until Arabian architecture reached its perfection in the Alhambra. Many attribute the introduction of modern Gothic architecture to the Moors, specimens of the light and elegant shafts and pointed arches of that style being found in the mosques and palaces of Fez, and cathedrals in Spain built before the adoption of the pointed arch in central Europe. ARABIAN LANGUAGE and LITE- RATURE. The Arabic language forms, with the Ethiopic, the southern branch of that great stock of languages commonly known as the ARABIAN LANGUAGE 26 ARABIAN LANGUAGE Semitic. It is divided into two principal dialects — the southern and the northern. The former, called also the Himyarite, though probably the source of the Ethiopic, is now all but extinct, and chiefly known by a few inscriptions ; the latter is the language of the Koran, and is the spoken and Avritten langiiage throughout the whole of the Arabian dominions. The Arabic language is noted for the abundance of its roots, the ^eat variety of its formations, and the syn- tactical delicacy of its construction. It has dif- ferent dialects in different parts ; as in Syria, Egypt, the Barbary states, &c. The best Arabic is spoken by the upper classes in Yemen. Its grammar was little cultivated until a century or two after the time of Mahomet. By war and con- quest the Arabic was make the spoken and Avxitten language of the whole of 'Western Asia, of Eastern and Northern Africa, of Spain, and of some of the islands of the Mediterranean, in all which iflaces it has left traces of its former occupancy. It is still the language of religion throughout Persia, the Turkish Empire, and all countries in which the Mahometan religion prevails. Of the early literary culture of Arabia we know little. That poetry flourished there at an early period, may readily be inferred from the natural cha- racter of the people. They are described as bold, valiant, fond of adventure, proud, and desirous of glory. The nomadic tribes, who, under their sheiks, wandered through the territories of Arabia Felix, had everything to favour the growth of poetry — quick feelings and a warm fancy, fostered and strengthened by their mode of life and the circumstances by Avhich they were surrounded. Even before the time of Mahomet, the Arabs had their poets, who sang of the feuds of the tribes, and deeds of their heroes, and the beauty of their women. During the great fairs held at Mecca and Okadh, in the 5th century after Christ, poetical contests took place. The poems to which the prize Avas awarded were Avritten in letters of gold, and hung up in the kaaba at Mecca. They were called modsahabdt, i.e., gUt ; or moallakat, i.e.j suspended. Of these, seven i^oems have come down to us, and are characterized by deep feeling, high flights of fancy, richness of imagery and sentiment, a spirit of freedom, and an ardent feeling of revenge and love. The brUliant period of Arabic literature, however, commences from the time of Mahomet, whose doctrines of faith and life were collected and subsequently published, and constitute the Koran. This fixed the character of their language, and gave a new stimulus to their literature. In eighty years after his death, his followers had extended their power from Egypt to the Indies, and from Lisbon to Samarcand. Contact Avith more cmlized nations tended to soften their rude character ; but it was not till about 750, when the family of the Abassides be- came caliphs, that the arts and sciences began to progress. These were fostered at the splendid court of Almansar, at Bagdad (754-75) ; but it was Haroun-al-Raschid (786-808) that infused into his people an enduring love for them. He invited learned men from all parts to his kingdom, and munificently rewarded them. He caused translations to be made of the most celebrated Avorks in Greek, Syriac, and other languages, and circulated them by numerous copies. The caliph Al-Mamun (813-33) offered to the Greek emperor five tons of gold and a perpetual treaty of peace if he would send the philosopher Leo for a time to instruct him. Under his reign, excellent schools and large libraries, at Bagdad, Alexandria, and other places, were established. But while the dynasty of the Abassides were fostering learning at Bagdad, that of the Ommaiades were similarly engaged at Cordova, in Spain, which, particularly in the loth century, Avas the chief seat of learning in Europe. Students came from France and other parts of Europe to study, especially mathematics and medicine, at Cordova. Besides the educational institutions at Cordova, the Arabs had Established fourteen academies and numerous elementary and middle schools throughout the country. At a time when learn- ing found scarcely any support or encouragement anywhere else, the Arabs were collecting and diffusing it to all parts of the Avorld ; indeed, the progress of the Arabs in learning is scarcely less remarkable than their success in conquest. In geograj)hy, history, mathematics, medicine, and physics, they have rendered important services, and many of their words are still to be found in the physical and mathematical sciences ; as, algebra, alcohol, almanac, azimuth, zenith, nadir, &c. Geography is not a little indebted to the labours of the Arabs. They considerably extended the boundaries of the then known world by their expeditions of discovery; while the geo- graphical treatises of Abulfeda, Edrisi, and others, are still interesting and valuable. After the 8th century, history came to be a favourite subject of study with them. Among their works of this class are the universal histories of Masudi, Tabari, Eutychius, the Christians Abulfaraj and Elmakin, and Abulfeda, Nuvairi, Soyuti, &c. Upon the history of the Arabs in Spain there are numerous works in the Arabic language. Theology and law, which is nearly related to it, were de- rived chiefly from the Koran, and formed the chief part of public instruction. They began to speculate on the contents of the Koran during the Ommaiade dynasty, which, with the intro- duction of the works of Aristotle, led to the formation of various sects of believers. The most celebrated exegeses of the Koran are by Samakhshari and BaidhaAvi. Their philosophy was related to the Koran in the same way that the scholasticism of the Middle Ages was to the Scriptures. It was of Greek orgin, and was drawn chiefly from the works of Aristotle. Among their most distinguished philosophers were AAdcenna and Averroes, both of whom have Avritten commentaries upon Aristotle. Many of the Arabian philosophers were also physicians, and they made considerable advances in chemis- try, botany, and the knowledge of diseases. Anatomy, however, made no progress Avith them, as dissections were prohibited by the Koran. Schools of philosophy and medicine were estab- lished, and flourished in various parts ; as, Bagdad, Alexandria, Ispahan, Cordova, &c. The philo- sophers Avicenna and Averroes have both Avritten able works upon medicine. On natural history Avrote Damiri, Ibn-Baitar, and KazAvini. In mathematics the Arabs made great advances. In arithmetic they introduced the numerals now in use and decimals; and in trigonometry they adopted sines instead of chords. They simplified the trigonometrical operations of the Greeks, and extended the application of algebra. Astronomy was eagerly studied, for which they had famous schools and observ^atories, at Bagdad and Cor- dova. But with their progress in the sciences the Arabs did not neglect to cultivate poetry. Their verse gradually allied itself to the prevailing culture, and in their most advanced period or ARABIAN NIGHTS 27 ARCADE civilization it took a highly artistic form. Except the dramatic, there is no kind of poetry which they have left unattempted ; and they doubtless exerted a powerful influence upon_ modern European poetry. A recent critical writer says, “We And undeniable specimens at least two full centuries before Mahomet of poems which in vigour and polish yield to few ever composed in the Arabic or other language. Even at this early date, we find the metrical and rhythmical laws simple yet susceptible of the highest art, which have ever since regulated Arab poetry, already laid down in their completeness, and exemplified the former by a scansion of almost Horatian elegance and variety, the latter by a severe nicety that Pope himself might have admired, but could hardly have imitated.” Arabic Writing. — This is read from right to left, like all Semitic writings. The old form, known as Kufic (from the town of Kufa, on the Euphrates), was of Syriac origin, and was in use for about 300 years, but was superseded in the loth century by another style, the Neshki, the characters of which are still in use. The consonants which resemble each other are dis- tinguished by points, and the vowels by shape only. Arabic Numerals. — The characters or figures o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, which should properly be termed Hindoo or Indian numerals ; for they were borrowed, as well as the system of decimal notation, by the Arabs from the Hindoos. It is said that Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., learned their use from the Moors in Spain in the loth century. According to another account, Leonardo of Pisa introduced them into Italy in 1202. (See Algebra.) Their employment was not general before the invention of printing, and consider- able time elapsed before they came into general use. Accounts were kept in Eoman numerals up to the i6th century. (See Numerals and Numeration.) ^'ARABIAN NIGHTS’ ENTERTAIN- MENTS,” a well-known and very popular collec- tion of Eastern tales, first made known to Europe by Antony Galland, a French orientalist, under the title of “ Les Mille et Une Nuits ” (The Thousand and One Nights), 12 vols., Paris, 1704-17. The work speedily became popular, and was translated into all the European tongues. Improved and more complete editions have since appeared. The best English translation is that by Edward William Lane, which was published in 1839, but which, though highly appreciated by scholars and orientalists, has failed to supersede the older version in popularity. These tales had long existed in the East before they became known to Europeans. Several manuscript copies of the original Arabic text are known to exist, and four editions of it have been published. It is supposed they are of varied origin — the most beautiful and fanciful being Indian ; the tender and sentimental love tales, Persian ; and the witty and humorous stories, Arabian ; but aU have been altered and adopted to suit the tastes of th& town populations of Arabia, to whom the stories were told. The story that forms the union of the tales is, that the Sultan Schahriar, exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At length, Sheherazade, the daughter of the grand vizier, by the charm of her stories induced the sultan to defer her execution from day to day, till a thousand and one nights had passed away. By this time, Sheherazade was the mother of three children, whom she led before the throne of her husband, and so induced him to spare her life. ARABICI, a-rah'-i-si, a sect which sprang up in Arabia about the year 207, who held that the soul died with the body, and also rose again with it. Origen is said to have refuted their error, and prevailed upon them to abandon it. It originated in an opinion then held by many in the early church, that the soul of man was ma- terial. There were some revivals of this doctrine in the Middle Ages. AR^OSTYEE, ai'-re-o-stile (Gr., araios, wide, and stulos, a column), a term used by Virtruvius to indicate one of his five species of Grecian and Roman temples. It refers to the distance at which the columns of a portico or colonnade should be placed apart, which should be from four to five times the diameter of the columns. Areeosystple, applied to the propor- tioning of the space between columns arranged in pairs. The columns at the western entrance to St. Paul’s Cathedral are arranged in this manner. ARAM^AN, OR ARAMAIC LAN- GUAGE, ar-a-me' -ally the language of the coun- try of Aram, a name literally signifying “ high land,” as distinguished from Canaan, or “low land,” and applied to that district of country which comprised Syria, Babylonia, and Meso- potamia. The Aramaic belongs to the Semitic class of languages, and is divided into two prin- cipal dialects — ^the Western Aramaic or Syriac, and the Eastern Aramaic or Babylonian. There are also, as minor dialects, the Samaritan and Palmyrene. The Aramaean language is peculiarly interesting, as having been generally spoken by the inhabitants of Palestine, from the Babylonian captivity to the final dispersion of the Jews, and was consequently the language spoken almost universally in the time of Christ. It was to the Aramaic version of the Old Testament that Christ referred and from which he quoted. (See Bible.) As a spoken language, it now exists only in some remote valleys of the mountains of Kurdistan. The Aramaic is generally thn harshest, poorest, and least cultivated of the Semitic languages. ARBALEST, ar'-ha-lest (Lat., arcuhalista, a crossbow), a weapon of war, the precise date of whose first introduction is unknown ; but, accord- ing to some, it was in use in the Roman armies as early as the time of Constantine. It is sup- posed to have been introduced into England by the Normans. It was disused in England as a weapon of war, in the 14th century. The arrows used with the crossbow were short and thick, and were called carrials or quarrels, from the French carreaux. In defending a besieged town or castle, the crossbowmen shot through a small window or wicket, known as the arbalestina. ARCADE, ar-Tcaid' (Fr.), a term applied to a series of arches of any form supported on pillars either inclosing a space before a wall or any building which is covered in and paved, or, when used as an architectural feature, for ornamenting the towers and walls of churches entirely closed up with masonry. The cloisters of the old mon- asteries and religious houses were, strictly speak- ing, arcades ; and the covered walk round Covent Garden Market is an arcade, wrongly called a piazza. The term is also applied to a covered passage, with shojis on either side, as the Lowther and Burlington arcades in London, or the more elegant arcades in Paris. The finest specimen in Europe is the arcade which runs round three ARCHITECT 28 ARCHERY Bides of St. Mark’s Square, Venice, Beautiful Bpecimens of the ornamental arcade may be found in many of our cathedrals and churches, as -well as in many ruins ; among which may be mentioned that of the old refectory at West- minster Abbey, and the striking and magnificent remains of Glastonbury Abbey, Somersetshire. In some mediaeval buildings there are internal as well as external arcades. The cathedrals of Pisa and Lucca, and the English cathedrals of Wells and Lincoln, have arcaded fronts. ARCHITECT, ar'-ke-tect (Gr. architekton^ the chief fabricator), a person skilled in architec- ture, or the art of building, who forms plans and designs for edifices, and under whom the work is conducted to completion. A good knowledge of geometry is an indispensable qualification in an architect ; he should also be expert in perspective drawing. He is generally paid by a commission — ^5 per cent, ordinarily — on the amount of money expended. ARCH, TRIUIMPHAL, was a structure raised by the Romans to celebrate a victory, some grand historical event, or to add a greater lustre to the commemoration of the military deeds of a victorious general. These monuments had their origin in the custom of adorning with the spoils of war the gate by which a successful military leader entered Rome on his return from the battle-field. In time, these temporary monu- ments gave place to others of an enduring nature, such as stone or bronze. The arcus triumphalis, as this kind of structure was termed by the Romans, was generally erected in some main thoroughfare. The design was commonly either one large arch, or one large central arch, with one or two smaller ones at each side. In every case the fronts and sides of the structure were ornamented with trophies, the entablature being surmounted with some piece of sculptural alle- gory, beneath which was an inscription narrating the deeds of the hero in whose honour the arch was er ected, hlany of these celebrated structures are still in existence, the most remarkable being — the arch of Augustus at Rimini ; the arch of Trajan at Beneventum, and another at Ancona ; at Rome, those of Constantine, Septimius Severus, Drusus, Gallienus, and Titus ; the most beauti- fully-proportioned, and, at the same time, the oldest, being that of Titus, whose conquest of Judaea it was built to celebrate. The triumphal arch which is in the most perfect state of preser- vation is that of Constantine. Many similar monuments of departed Roman greatness are in existence in various irarts of France, Greece, Spain, and Egypt. In modern days France has the greater number of these structures. Paris possesses the triumphal arches of the Porte St. Denis and St. Martin, built respectively in 1673 and 1674, to celebrate the victories of Louis XIV. The fine Arc du Carrousel, forming the western entrance of the Tuileries, erected to the honour of the French armies, was commenced in 1806, and finished in 1809, its height being 47 feet, its breath 55. Surmounting the structure is a grand equestrian group, formed of a chariot, to which four horses are yoked, the steeds being guided by the allegorical statues of Peace and Victory. But the grandest and most colossal triumphal arch erected by the moderns is that standing at the end of the Avenue des Champs Elysees, at Paris, It was erected in commemoration of the victories of Napoleon I. and his armies, and, al- though commenced in 1806, was not completed till after the revolution of 1830. It has three arches, the height of the central one being 95 feet. In the interior are graven the names of the most celebrated French generals, with that of their leader. The English capital possesses only two structures of this kind — the arch at Hyde Park, upon which the equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington is placed, and the Marble Arch, at the north-eastern angle of Hyde Park, whither it was removed from the front of Buck- ingham Palace in 1851. The original cost of the erection was £80,000. AROH.ZEOLOGY, ar-ke-oV -o-je (Gr., from archaios, old, ancient, and logos, a discourse), the name of the science which causes us to become acquainted with the antiquities of nations that have risen and fallen, and the remains of various kinds which throw a light upon the history of those that exist at the present time. The term is capable of a very widely-extended signification, including everything that is connected with the rise and progress of any nation, its history, laws, religious observances, public and private build- ings, manners, and customs of all classes of the people, the arts in use among them, and the extent of their acquirements in science and scientific discoveries. The archaeologist seeks to study and preserve any materials which tend to elucidate the subjects already mentioned, and these materials naturally resolve themselves into three great classes each capable of further sub- division. The first class may be considered to consist of all records, written or printed, legal documents, old chronicles, diaries of a public or private nature. State papers, letters, ^c. The second may be termed oral, or traditional, in contradistinction to the first, which may be broadly called written archaeology, and consists of the ballads, legends, and folk-lore of a people, their sports, superstitions, and the rise and origin of local customs, proverbs, and expressions. The third, termed monumental archaeology, consists of works of art, jiaintings, sculptures, coins, medals, glass, pottery, utensils of wood, metal, and other materials ; tools of every description, armour, weapons, carriages, boats, roads, canals, walls, encampments, burial - places, earthen mounds for purposes of defence or sepulture, and even human remains and those of animals becoming allied with geology, and embracing the entire range of human progress from the infantile stage of primeval arts to the earliest period of written records. Every country possesses, in a greater or less degree, relics of antiquity of the greatest interest to the archae- ologist, and the study of archaeology has been largely promoted by the publication, at the expense of the State, in various countries, of national chronicles and other documents. {See Antiquities.) ARCHAISM, ar'-kai-ism (Gr., archaios, ancient), is a term employed to denote the use of an absolete word or phrase, in order to give an air of antiquity to the passage in which it occurs. ARCHER. {See Aechery.) ARCHERY, ar'-che-re, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow, so called from the Latin word arcus, a bow. It must have been practised at a very early period ; for we are told that Hagar, in order not to see her son die, set herself down a good way off, as it were a bow-shot ; and ARCHERY 29 ARCHITECTURE soon after it is said that Islimael dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer. The bow and arrow are frequently mentioned in Scripture, more particularly in the accounts of the wars of the Jewish people. King David commanded the use of the bow to be taught. The Greeks and Eomans employed archers, and the ancient Egyptians were expert bowmen. The Assyrian sculptures recently discovered represent archers in chariots, in warlike and hunting expeditions. Indeed, down to the introduction of gunpowder, the bow-and-arrow was an implement of warfare among all nations in all states of civilization. Great dependance was usually placed upon the archers in war ; and frequently the success of a battle has been attributed to their means, as at Cressy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. It is believed that the long-bow was common in England long before the Saxon invasion. The Saxons were expert archers, both in battle and in field sports. The Normans brought with them the arbalest, or cross-bow; but, from the reign of Edward II., the long-bow, the favourite national weapon, seems tohavebeen fully established. Its popularity is shown by the importance given to the skill in archery of the hero of the ballad-singers, Eobin Hood and his associates. Edward III. directed the sheriffs of shires to see that the people exer- cised themselves on Sundays and holidays in archery, in place of following useless or unlawful games or amusements ; and to provide bows and arrows for use in the French wars. He also em- bodied a company of soldiers known as “Archers of the Guard.” In 1392, an Act of Parliament was passed, making it compulsory on all persons employed as servants to practise archery ; and a few years afterwards, the battles of Homildon and Shrewsbury were won by the archers. A body of French archers was organized by Charles VII. in 1448 ; but they never attained the skill of the English bowmen, and, to make up for the deficiency, Scotch archers were employed. Under Edward IV. a precept was issued, commanding that every Englishman and Irishman in England hould have a bow of his own height ; and butts were ordered to be set up in every township for the inhabitants to shoot at ; and, if any one neglected the use of his bow, he was subject to a fine. In the reign of Henry VHI. it was or- dained, that every man under sixty, except spiritual men, justices, &c., should use shooting with the long-bow, and have a bow and arrows con- tinually in his house ; that every father shall pro- vide a bow and two arrows for his son when he shall be seven years old ; and that every servant above seventeen and under sixty years of age shall pay 6s. 8d. if he be without a bow and arrows for one month ; and that butts should be set up in every township. After the destruction of the Spanish Armada, fears being entertained lest the King of Spain should send an emissary to attempt the life of Queen Elizabeth, a number of noblemen of the court formed themselves into a body- guard, for the protection of her person, and, under the denomination of the “ Companie of Liege Bowmen of the Queene,” had many privileges conferred upon them. Upon the accession of James I. this company was dis- banded, although those who composed it re- tained the privileges, which had been conferred upon them by Elizabeth. Ui)on the breaking out of the civil war, Charles I. re-organised this body-guard, which attended him against the parliamentary forces, and afterwards emigrated with Charles II. At the Eestoration this com- pany was maintained, and, under the title of the “ Eoyal Company of Archers,” received a new charter ; it afterwards merged into the Artillery Company of London. Eecently, archery has come to be revived as an amusement, and societies have been formed for the practise of it. One of the largest and most fiourishing of these societies is the “ Eoyal Company of Archers of Scotland.” It owes its origin to the com- missioners appointed by James I. of Scotland to superintend and regulate the practice of archery throughout the country ; and in 1676, a number of the most expert archers were selected to form a body-guard for the king, and received the official title they now bear. They claim the honour of acting in this capacity on the occasion of Eoyal visits to Edinburgh, and they now con- stitute part of the royal household in Scotland. Practice of Archery. — The principal instruments of archery are the bow, string, arrows, glove, and brace. Bows are of two kinds, called self-bows and back-bows. Self-bows are those that are made of only one piece of wood, the best being foreign yew. Back-bows are composed of two kinds of wood, being strengthened by a piece of ash or other tough wood, firmly glued to the back. An arrow is furnished with three feathers, one of which, of a different colour from the others, is placed uppermost on the string, and is called the cock- feather. The piles or heads are made either blunt or sharp ; the advantage of the former kind being, that they are more easily extracted than the latter. The weight of an arrow should be proportioned to the strength of the bow. For bows of 5 feet, arrows of 24 inches are commonly used ; and for those of 5 feet 9 inches, arrows of 28 or 29 inches. The nock of tlie arrow is usually cased with horn, and should be made so as to exactly fit the string. The shooting-glove is used to protect the fingers from being injured by the string, and consists of three finger-stalls, back-slips, and a cross-strap buttoned round the wrist. The brace is a piece of stout polished leather, buckled round the bow arm, to protect it from the string, as well as to allow the string to glide sharply and quickly over it. Besides these, there are the quiver, a tin case for hold- ing the arrows not immediately in use, and the belt, worn round the waist, from which are suspended the tassel for wiping the arrows, and the grease-box, con- taining a composition with which the fingers and brace are occasionally anointed, and which has also a pouch for holding arrows intended for present use. To be a good archer demands long and continuous practice. The muscles of the body must be brought into a certain degree of strength and firmness, the mind must be calm and collected, and the eye steadily fixed upon the mark. The principal points to be attended to in practice are standing, nocking, drawing, holding, and loosing, on each of which much useful information will be found in the “Toxophilus, the School of Shooting,” of Eoger Ascham. The distance to which an arrow can be sent by a good archer is generally from 200 to 250 yards. Royal Toxopholite Society, a society for the practice of archery, founded in 1781 by Sir Ashton Lever, and. representing the two older bodies — the Finsburj' Archers and the Archers’ Company of the Honourabhi Artillery Company. The practice-ground was originally the garden at Leicester House ; but, in 1832, they re- moved to the inner circle of the Regent Park, where an Archers’ Hall has been erected. The title “ Royal ” was conferred when the Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) became patron in 1787. There are many local Toxopholite or Archery Societies. Archery Competition, — The circular target is marked by concentric rings of red, white, and black, the centre, or “bull’s eye,” being gilt. In reckoning the scores, different values are attached to the hits. The number of those in the gilt being multiplied by nine ; in the red, by three; in the inner white, by two; those in the black having one fourth added ; and those in the outter white have simply the numerical value. ARCHITECTURE, ar-H-telc' -Hire (Lat., architectural art of building ; Gr. , archos, chief, and tekton, a builder or workman), the science of ARCHITECTURE 30 ARCHITECTURE building or construction, consisting of three prin- cipal divisions — civil, naval, and military archi- tecture. Civil architecture, is that branch of the science which instructs us in the art of erecting buildings of a public and private character. The construction of buildings, such as churches, theatres, and houses of all kinds, belonging to architecture, properly so called ; while that of bridges, docks, harbours, tunnels, breakwaters, &c., is the especial province of the civil engi- neer. Naval architecture, in which the English particularly excel, treats of the different methods ■of building ships and vessels of all kinds {see Shipbuilding) ; and military architecture is the art of constructing works of defence {see Fokti- FICATION.) There are numerous styles of this important art, notices of which wiU be found under their respective headings. {See Arabian, Assyrian, Byzantine, Celtic, Egyptian, Gothic, Greek, Hindoo, Norman, Orders of Architecture, Renaissance, Roman Archi- tecture, &c.) The science generally may be broadly considered under three grand divisions — ancient, mediaeval, and modern ; in the first of which it may be traced from its origin to its im- provement under the Greeks and Romans j in the second, its state and style under the Goths, Saxons, and Normans ; and in the third, the pre- sent practice of the art, and its adaptation to the requirements of our own times. Architecture in its early stages seems to have advanced hand-in- hand with civilization. The necessities of man would at first induce him to seek for some means of shelter and protection from the heat of the sun, the cold >vind, and drenching rain, in the construction of the simple cone-shaped hut of poles, interlaced with osiers and twigs, covered with bark, and plastered with mud, or the adap tation of the rude cave, which chance had thrown in his way, as a temporary retreat from the in- clemency of the weather. After a while, when the first germs of society and social life appeared, and small communities were formed by families living in close proximity to each other, for mutual ])rotection, attention was naturally directed to the construction of edifices, presenting, at first, greater durability and convenience, and after- wards some rude attempts at decoration, that the dwelling of the chief of the associated families, or the building in which any ceremonies of a l eligious or public nature were performed, might be distinguished from the huts of the community at large. The nature of the materials employed chiefly depended on local circumstances. Where timber are plentiful, posts and cross-pieces were the original type of the column and architrave of later times ; while abundance of stone gave rise to another style. In China and Tartary, the primitive tent may be traced in the existing forms of buildings. The dwellings of the pre-historic ages in Europe, so far as can be judged from the remains found, were sometimes underground, like the “ Piets’ houses” of the Orkney Islands, and in lake districts wooden huts erected on piles, relics of which have been discovered in Switzer- land, Sweden, Italy, and Ireland, and similar huts once erected in the marshes of our own country as late as the Saxon times. The most simple structures in stone that can be mentioned are the circular and oblong inclosures made by the Druids and priests of the Celtic nations, of rough, unhewn, upright blocks, surmounted by similar pieces laid transversely from top to top of these rude columns. {See Cromlech.) The next step would be the construction of rough irregular walls, exemplification of which may be found in the Cyclopean walls of Tiryns, built by the Pelasgi, and the defensive works round Mycenae. These Grecian structures, and the tomb of Atreus, near Mycenae, adorned with rude figures supposed to represent lions, with similar remains in Italy, such as the Etruscan walls at Fiesole, represent the Second stage in the constructive art of build- ing, which would rapidly advance from this point. The Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians, the rulers of the known world in early ages, soon dis- covered the convenience and comfort of dwellings made of brick and stone, and in a short time car- ried their architectural works to an incredible extent. At this period, ornament began to be combined with mere building in stone ; and from this combination architecture may be considered to have been produced ; for ornament is essential to architecture, and without the appliance of deco- rative features no building can be said to possess any architectural design. The pyramids ; the ruins of Andera in Upper Egypt ; the remains of Persepolis, so vast and grand 1,300 years after its destruction by Alexander the Great, that the Arabs of that date imagined the city to have been built by the agency of evil spirits ; the discoveries at Nimroudand Khorsabad ; the sculptured relics of ])ast ages that still exist throughout the land of Egypt, all these bear silent testimony to the constructive powers, and wonderful mechanical contrivances, of men whose buildings, for extent and grandeur and sublimity of conception, far surpass any structures of our own times, though they are unequal to them for harmony of propor- tion and symmetrical beauty. That architecture was brought to great perfection by the Jews, the temple and palaces built by Solomon furnish abundant proof, and the gates and fortifications of the sacred city ; and after this period Babylon- ian architecture reached its culminating point under Nebuchadnezzar, the most magnificent buildings of that empire having been raised by him after models and ideas probably suggested by the grand and gorgeous works at Jerusalem. From Egypt and Assyria, the Greeks, in all pro- bability, derived their knowledge of architecture; the rows of columns in a Grecian temple, sur- mounted by the flat and massive architrave, bear- ing a strong resemblance to the heavy square roofing of the Egyptian palaces and banqueting- halls, raised on sculptured supports of massive size and cumbrous appearance. But the gloomy magnificence of the buildings of Egypt was not copied by the Greeks, who substituted forms of beauty and symmetry, and were influenced by a due regard for proper proportion of length, breadth, and height, in making designs for their temples and public buildings. They also changed the stiff imitations of the human figure, as it ap- pears in specimens of Egyptian sculpture, into copies of men and animals, faultless in outline, for the adornment of frieze and portico ; and for the colossal images that were hewn by the Egyp- tians out of the living rock with infinite labour and toil, they produced exquisitely chiselled statues. Grecian architecture may be considered to have reached its height about 440 B.C., when the sculptor Phidias flourished, and Pericles, one of the first of Grecian statesmen, lived. In an ancient province of Italy, then called Etruria, now named Tuscany, there lived a peoiffe who had attained, some 350 years prior to this i^eriod, a high degree of civilization, proofs of which are given in the figures, vases, cups, sarcoj)hagi, and other articles made by tliem, which still exist ARCHITRAVE 31 ARISTOPHANES From tliis nation the Romans doubtless derived the greater part of their customs and ceremonies ; the Etruscans were well skilled in building, and their architects designed, built, and adorned the temples of the gods and great public works of ancient Rome under her seven kings. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the arched sewer (the Cloaca Maxima), as well as the aqueducts that were first built to supply Rome with water, show that they well understood the science and practice of building, and made practical application of the utility of the arch, which the Egyptians and Greeks neglected, although evidence exists to show that the former nation at least were well acquainted with, though they rarely used, the principles of its construction. The ancient inha- bitants of Mexico and Peru, the predecessors of the l)eo 2 )le dwelling there at the time of the invasion by the Spaniards, erected buildings in which the column and a rude approach to the arch appear, and their pyramids were nearly as colossal and even more numerous than those of the Egyptians. When Greece was conquered by the Romans, the knowledge that they had acquired of the science of building was extended by their intercommuni- cation with the Greeks, who had improved the art to the utmost extent of their powers by blend- ing utility with elegance. {See Ordees of Archi- tecture, and separate articles on Arabian, As- syrian, British [Early], Byzantine, Chinese, Egyptian, Early English, Etruscan, Gothic, Greek, Indian, Jewish, Lycian, Mexican, Persian, and Roman Architecture.) Architectural Societies, An Architectural Club was established in London in 1791, and shortly afterwards an Architectural Society was formed. The Royal Insti- tute of British Architects was founded in 1834, and a second Architectural Society (established in 1831) was united to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural Association began about 1846. The Architectural Museum was opened at Westminster in 1869. ARCHITRAVE, ark^-i-traiv (Gr., arckos, ■chief; Lat. ,* ^ra6s, a beam), in architecture, the beam, or portion of the entablature that rests immediately on the columns, and is surrounded by the frieze. It is also known as the epistylium, or epistyle. The architrave of a door is the moulding and woodwork surrounding the opening, the head being called the lintel, and the sides the Jarnbs. ARCHIVES, ar' -hives (Gr., archeia, public registries), strictly, the record office in which pub- lic papers and documents are kept ; but, by a common figure, the term is also applied to the papers or documents themselves. The archives of ancient Rome were in the temiJle of Saturn. {See Records.) ARCHIVOLT, arh'-i-volt, the ornamented band of moulding round the arch stone of an arch terminating horizontally on the impost. ARCH-LUTE. (>566 Lute.) ARENA, a-r^-na (Lat., arena, sand), that part of the amphitheatre where the combats of gladiators and wild beasts took place, from its bemg usually covered with sand. It is now frequently used in a general sense to denote a jfiace where any contest or dis^ilay of power takes place. ARETINIAN SYLLABLES, the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, used by Guido d’Arezzo for his system of hexachords. {See Hexachord.) I ARGENT, ar’-jent (Fr., argent, silver), in Heraldry, a term to express the metal silver in armorial bearings. It is generally left white in coats of arms, wh'ether coloured or engraved. ARGUMENT. — The argument prefixed to a book, as to one of the divisions of Milton’s Paradise Lost, is that which shows the purport or contents of it. ARIA, air’-e-a, in English, air, a rhythmical song, as distinct from a recitative ; almost invari- ably a song for one voice, supported by instru- ments. Arietta is a short melody. ARIOSTO’S POEMS. {See Orlando Furioso and Orlando Innamorata.) ARISTOPHANES, Comedies and Satires op, a-ris-tof -a-nees. The plays of Aristophanes are the most considerable remains we iDossess of the Athenian literature of the fourth century before the Christian era. For about forty years he was the most prominent author of his time, the most severe satirist, the greatest wit and humorist, and occasionally gave evidence of poetical powers of a very high order, especially in lyrical effusions. Fifty-four comedies have been attributed to him, and modern criticism has arrived at the conclusion that forty-three of these were genuine i^roduc- tions of his pen. Eleven are now extant, and some fragments of others have been preserved. He is the representative of what is known to scholars as the “ old comedy ” of Athens, wliich covered the period of about eighty years, from the banishment of Themistocles to the establish- ment of the academy by Plato. That memorable lieriod, the most brilliant, perhaps, in Athenian history, included the supremacy of Pericles, the career of Alcibiades, the i^rominence in public affairs of the demagogue Cleon, and the teaching and death of Socrates. The drama then occupied the position which in modern times it has divided with a free press, as the satirical censor of public and private morals and manners, laughed at the affectations of the wealthy and extravagant, un mercifully “chafced” the acts and speeches of official personages, even the highest, and with a comical and daring irreverence included in its scope of ridicule the greatest thinkers of the time, even Socrates himself. Political notorieties were brought upon the stage in the persons of actors, “made up ” by masks and costumes into ludicrous imitations of the originals. The citizens of Athens roared with laughter when they saw the burlesque double of the long-winded orator, whose speeches had a few days before been listened to with something like ap^irehension, mingled with admiration. If, in our times, we were to see the cartoons of Punch and the sketches of Vanity Fair, embodied by living actors — the gross caricatures of Rowlandson and Gilray vivified — in connection with the most unsparing ridicule of jjhilosophic speculations and political and social habits, reckless personalities and scurrility lightened u^i by brilliant wit, over- flowing humour and mimicry exhibited in the most unexi)ected manner, and very often inter- ludes of exquisite poetry and the most perfect command of elegant and musical language, we might obtain some definite notion of the old comedy of Athens of which Aristophanes was the most consjiicuous illustrator. The Athenian drama, tragedy, and comedy alike, had its origin in the festivals of Dionysius ; but tragedy, which ARISTOPHANES 32 ARMENIAN LITERATURE had achieved its highest successes in the works of ^schylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, gave way to comedy, as the sterner and more heroic times which produced the heroes of Marathon and Aristides the Just were superseded by the more brilliant if more luxurious age of Pericles, and the prevalence of the democratic element. In the art of satirical banter — ^banter with the pur- pose of exjiosing imposture and pretence and patriotically vindicating right — Aristophanes had no superior or equal among the dramatists of the period ; and in copiousness and elegance of diction, in the mastery of the purest Attic language, he probably had no rival. A recent critical writer says, “His juirest and highest faculty is revealed by those wonderful bits of lyric writing in which he soars above everything that can move laughter or tears, and makes the clear air thrill with the notes of a song as free, as musical, and as wild as that of the nightin- gale invoked by his own chorus in the Birds. They are the strains, not of an artist, but of one who warbles from pure gladness of heart in some place made light by the presence of a god. Nothing else in Greek poetry has quite this wild sweetness of the woods. Of modern poets, Shakspeare alone, perhaps, has it in com- bination with a like richness and fertility of fancy. ” This is high, but deserved commendation ; and it is no marvel that for more than two thousand years Aristophanes has been the favourite alike of the scholar and the poet. The fact that some of his plays were recited at the great Dionysian festivals may account for the grossness which occasionally disfigures them. He had no scruples about pleasing his audience, and the majority of the audience looked for and delighted in coarseness. We have to refer to the most brilliant period of our own dramatic poetry, the Elizabethan age — to the obscenity W'.ich, even so fine a spirit as Llassinger per- mitted to be introduced into the exquisite Virgin MoA'tyr, to please “the "roundlings,” and Shakspeare stooped too in Measure for Measure — to understand why the popular demand for grossness was ministered to by so easy-going a dramatist as Aristophanes. He never troubled himself about an ideal morality, was very well content to take religion and ethics as he found them, in truth, like Gallio, “cared for none of those things ; ” and openly laughed at Socrates and others for insinuating doubts as to the old beliefs, which practically influenced nobody, at any rate, practical men of the world, as Aristo- phanes himself was, and were a great deal less troublesome than new-fangled notions. What he intensely disliked was pretence, insincerity, self-seeking, and mob-rule ; and he was patriotic enough to reverence the traditional glories of his native land, which inspired his imagination to the ignoble realities of political and social life which surrormded him. He satirized un- mercifully and caricatured with reckless vivacity. It is very possible, indeed, that his genius has in many instances influenced the verdict of history, and that Creon and others have suffered in the opinion of posterity as a result of his burlesque representations of their personalities and acts. The philosophical school of Sophists was at- tacked by him in the Clouds ; but in the attack he included Socrates, who had little indeed in common with the school, and who, it may well be supposed, Aristophanes never took the trouble to understand. He makes the philosopher appear in the character of a systematic corruoter of youth. Cleon, the demagogue, was so scarified in one of his plays, that none of the actors dared to represent the character, and Aristophanes himself, who feared nobody, played the part. The satire in the play of the Knights, and in a previous one, the Babylonians, in which Cleon also figures, is very severe, imputations of profligacy and dishonesty being scattered broad- cast. On the stage he produced striking effects by the most unusual means — the beautiful chorus of the birds, the comical croaking of the famous frogs, and the grunting of pigs. Sometimes he invented words of prodigious length, one being composed of 170 letters. In his long career he enjoyed a strange immunity, and even some of those whom he attacked and their friends ex- pressed their admiration of his genius. Plato even overlooked the attacks on Socrates, and recommended the study of the play of Aristo- phanes as the best mode of acquiring the purity of the Attic dialect. The earliest modern edition of the plays (including, however, only nine) was printed at the Aldine press in Venice, in 1498 ; a Latin version by Bekker appeared in London in 1829 ; and in 1837, a translation in blank verse, by Wheelwright, was published in London. Mr. J. H. Frere, Mr. Kennedy, and others have translated some of the comedies. Critics now classify the plays into three groups : — In the first, the author displayed an unrestrained free- dom of political satire; in the second, he ex- hibited more reticence and caution ; and in the third, he approached the more refined style of what is known as the Middle Comedy. {See Greek Literature.) The Extant Plays. — The eleven surviving comedies, and the dates of their appearance, are — the Achar- nians (425 b.c.), in which the peace party at Athens are supported. The Knights (424 b.o.), in which Cleon is attacked. The Clouds (423 b.c.), essentially an attack on the new spirit of enquiry and intellectual culture. The TFasps (422 b.o.I, a satire on the Athenian love of litigation. The Peace (42 1 b. c.), performed at the Great Dionysia shortly before the conclusion of the treaty of peace with Sparta, an advocacy of a peaceful policy. The Birds (414 b.o.), in which the birds build a city in mid air, so as to cut off the gods from men. The Lysistrata (411 B.o.), another plea for “ peace at any price,” in which the women appear as overruling the men. The Thesmophoriazusce{4ii b.c.), a satire on women and Euripides, the tragic poet. The Frogs (405 B.O.), one of the most famous of all the plays, chiefly a literary criticism on the comparative merits of Alschylus and Euripides, and in which the famous croakery chorus occurs. The Ecclesiazusce (3^3 b.c.), which represents women as obtaining political power and decreeing a new constitution. The Plutus, an allegory, in which good men are made rich and bad men poor. ARMED AT ALL POINTS, a term which, in the military language of the feudal age, was given to a knight, baron, or other warrior, who was clothed from head to foot (Fr., cap-d-pie) in armour, and was also provided with every weapon necessary for attack. Shakspeare de- scribes the Ghost in Hamlet as being “ armed at all points, completely cap-d-pie.’’^ ARMENIAN LITERATURE dates from the introduction of Christianity into the country, and its most flourishing period was from the 4th to the 14th centuries. Their writings are chiefly theological works and chronicles, and a great part of them are translations of Greek and Syrian authors, some of which are now only preserved to us through the Armenian ; as the Chronicle of Eusebius ; some of the writings of Philo ; homilies by Chrysostom, Severianus, and Basil capital of coLTri.i:s. MOBESQUE SCBSE2r. — STTLB ALUAMBklC ARCHITECTURE, m ARMLET 33 ARMS the Great, &c. The Bible was translated by Miesrob and his scholars, a.d. 411. {See Bible.) The best edition is that published at Venice, 1805. Of Armenian historical and geographical works, several have been preserved to us. The most important theological and philosophical authors are David, the translator and commen- tator of Aristotle, and Esnik, both of whom flourished in the 5th century ; Joannes Ozniensis, in the 8th ; Nerses Klajensis, in the 12th ; and Nerses Lampronensis. In poetry, the literature is very poor. With the 14th century, Armenian literature begins to sink, and only a few important works have since appeared at distant intervals. The Armenian language belongs to the Indo- Germanic stock. No traces remain of the ori- ginal alphabet. The present alphabet was intro- duced about the beginning of the 5th century. The old Armenian, the language of literature, is no longer a living tongue, but the version of the Bible in that language is still publicly read in the churches, while the new, or vulgar Armenian, is split up into four dialects, and is much corrupted by Turkish. ARMLET, a/rm'-let (Lat., armilla), a brace- let or large ornamental ring worn by the ancients upon the wrist or arm. With the Medes and Persians, it was worn by both the male and female sex ; but, with the Greeks, it appears to have been adopted by the women only. The wearing of the armilla, or armlet, is of high anti- quity ; and we read in 2 Sam. i. 10, that the Amalekite who slew Saul “ took the crown that was upon his head, and the bracelet that was upon his arm.” It was a custom with the Koman generals to bestow armillae upon soldiers, as a mark of respect for extraordinary deeds of valour. The Danes, Norsemen, and Amglo-Saxons also wore the armlet. Armlets of gold have been dug out of the bogs of Ireland, and several have been found in England. ARMORIAL BEARINGS, Coats of Akms, ok Arms, ar-mor' -i-al, terms applied, col- lectively, to the shield and its charges, the crest, helmet, and motto belonging to any gentleman entitled to bear arms. The supporters, belong- ing, with very few exceptions, solely to- peers of the realm, are also included in this expression. It is, however, strictly applied to the devices on the shield only. Heraldry.) The assessed taxes on armorial bearings are £2 2s. annually ; but if not used on carriages, £i is. More than 65,000 British families are known to possess armorial bearings. ARMOUR, ar'-mor (Lat., armor)^ the name for all such habiliments as were used to protect the person of the wearer from the weapons of an enemy. From the earliest dawn of the historic era, we find mention of this defensive covering. Those ancient nations who were the most civilized employed leather, brass, iron, and even gold, in the fabrication of their defensive clothing. The greatpt skill and care were lavished upon the de- coration of the armour of the Greek military leaders. Nor was the war-dress less complete, in a defensive sense, than its elaborate orna- mentation. In proof of this, we have only to give a minute description of the attire of a heavy- armed Greek soldier. Having his tunic already upon his body, he put on, i, his greaves, or leg- guards ; 2, his cuirass, or thorax, which, being composed of a back and breast plate, formed a defence for his chest, back, and abdomen ; 3, his sword, which was suspended upon his left side by a belt passing over his right shoulder ; 4, his massive round shield ; 5, his helmet ; 6, he took up his siiear. (For further inf ormation as to these articles, see their respective headings.) With the Egyptians, metal armour appears to have been worn only by the monarchs and nobility, the soldiery being defended by helmets of quilted linen, their shields being usually of wood. Among the Romans, the lorica, or cuirass, was originally of leather; but subsequently it was made of brass, like the rest of the Roman body- armour. The attire of a Roman soldier was sub- stantially the same as that of the Greek warrior, already described. With respect to the armour worn in England, it is supposed that the early Britons had scarcely any other defensive armour than a shield. The Anglo-Saxons, however, possessed a more complete equipment. When the Danes first arrived in Britain, their defensive covering appears to have consisted of a broad leather collar, encircling their neck and chest, and shin-pieces ; but during the reign of Canute, they borrowed from their kinsfolk, the Norsemen, a tunic with long sleeves, and a hood and chausses, or pantaloons, all of which were strengthened by a network of perforated steel lozenges, called macles or mascles. On their head they also wore a conical skull-cap, probably of leather, from which pieces could be let down, and thereby afforded a perfect protection for the whole of the face. This helmet was surmounted by an apex or circular knob, from which, as a centre, a painted circle of star-rays radiated. For offensive arms, they had battle-axes, swords, and spears. In the Norman period, an entire suit of armour, frequently termed harness, con- sisted of a casque or helmet, a gorget, cuirass, gauntlets, tasses, brassets, cuisses, and leg- coverings {see these words). This was the usual wear of feudal lords, knights, and cavaliers, whether in battle or in the tournament, and was called armour cap-di-pie. It underwent various changes during the reigns of Rufus, John, Henry III., and Edward HI. Until the time of the last- mentioned monarch, armour was generally of chain-mail; but, in the 14th century, plate- armour came into use, and, becoming more and more elaborate and richly-ornamented, reached its climax of splendour during the reign of Richard HI., when it was often beautifully daniascened and inlaid with gold. Fluted and engraved armour was much in fashion in the days of Henry VII. and VIII. ; but, in the reign of James I. , the general use of armour fell into disrepute, and the steel coverings for the lower limbs were almost wholly laid aside. Charles I. endeavoured to revive the fashion of wearing a complete suit of armour ; and we may learn how much attached he was to iron habiliments, from his being so often represented in them in paintings. The only armour worn in the days of the Protectorate was the helmet and cuirass, both of which are still retained in several Mte corps of the European armies, such, for instance, as the English life and horse-guards, the cent-gardes of France, the im- perial guard of the Czar of Russia, &c. There are extensive collections of armour of great value at Paris, Vienna, Turin, Madrid, and other cities on the continent ; and in the Tower of London is a fine collection of about 6,000 examples. ARMS, arms (Lat., arma), or weapons of offence, maybe divided into two principal classes — those that act by explosion, and those that do not. C ARMS 34 ARTHURIAN LEGENDS To speak first of the earliest of these arms, those used without the assistance of gunj^owder, the simplest and most natural perhaps of all arms is the club ; but the earliest offensive weapons, pro- perly so called, were the bowand arrow. The sling was, in all lirobability, its successor in military operations. After the bow and arrow, the pike, lance, spear, dart, javelin dagger, mace, axe, chariot-scythe, dirk, bayonet, sword, &c., came to be employed. {See various headings.) The balista, catapulta, and battering-ram, may be said to be the precursors of the modern artillery. The invention of gunpowder led to the introduc- tion of an immense variety of weaj)ons of offence, acting by the agency of this destructive com- pound. As most of these arms will be severally described at length under their own headings, it will not be necessary to furnish more than a brief enumeration of them in the present article. The hand-cannon, probably the earliest in date, was a simple tube fixed on a straight stock of wood, and furnished with a touch-hole and trunnions, like the large cannon of the present time. The hand-gun was cast in brass, and was used in Eng- land as far back as the year 1446, and rendered important service at the siege of Constantinople in 1453. The arquebus, or harquebus, is men- tioned as early as 1476. The harquebut, hakebut, or hagbut, differed from the arquebus in having a bent stock, an improvement which enabled it to be brought nearer to the level of the eye. The demi-haque was a long pistol with a butt curved almost into a semi-circle. The musquet was in- vented by the Spaniards, and was first used at the battle of Pavia. The Italians invented the rose- lock, or wheel-lock, and introduced it into war- fare about the time of Henry VIII. , as an im- provement upon the matchlock. The snaphann^e superseded the wheel-lock, and was commonly used in the reign of Elizabeth, but was in turn supplanted by the caliver, carabine, esclopetta, and fusil. This latter — from which the term fusiliers, applied to certain of our English in- fantry regiments, was derived — was invented by the Frenchi n 1630. During the reign of Charles II. the blunderbuss, so called from the Dutch donderhus (thundering gun), seems to have been imported from Holland. Somewhat resembling this latter weapon was the dragon, so called from having the muzzle ornamented with a dragon’s head. The conjecture is, that the modern term dragoons was derived from this weapon. The musket, a better form of firelock, continued to be used until quite a recent date in military opera- tions ; but, at the present time, the rifle, the most complete portable weapon of offence acting by explosion, has become general throughout the armies of England, France, &c. The rifle is not, however, a newly-invented weapon, although it has lately been so wonderfully improved. {See various headings.) For an account of non-port- able exjffosive weapons, see Aetilleky. ARMS, in Heraldry. {See Akmoeial Beak- INGS.) ARMS, BELLS OF, conical-shaped tents, pitched in the field, to contain the whole of the arms of a company of infantry. They are also called “bell-tents,” and are usually painted with the colours of the regiment and with the royal arms. ARMS, STAND OF, denotes a complete set of arms for a single soldier, whether of in- fantry or cavalry; as, rifle, bayonet, cartridge- box, belts, kc. ARPEGGIO, ar-pedj'-e-o (Ital., from arpa, harp), in Music, signifies a chord, the notes of \yhich are given in rapid succession, not contem- poraneously. Several varieties may be formed from any chord. ARQUEBUS, OR HARQUEBUS, ar'-kive-bus (Ital., arehibuso, iron bow), was a kind of hand-gun used before the invention of the musket. The earliest hand-guns were fired by applying a match with the hand to the touch- hole. Afterwards a contrivance, suggested by the trigger of the cross-bow, was introduced, by means of which the burning match could be in- stantaneously applied. This was called an ar- quebus, and is first mentioned by Philip de Comines, in his account of the battle of Morat, in 1476. On the formation of the Yeomen of the Guard, in 1485, many of them were armed with arquebuses. ARROW. {See Archery.) ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. {See Cuneiform Inscriptions.) ART, art (Lat., ars), as distinguished from Science, consists of the truths disclosed by that species of knowledge disposed in the most con- venient order for iDractice, instead of the best order for thought. Science investigates and ex- plains the nature of existing principles ; art applies them to production. The manufacturing and mechanical arts adapt the laws discovered by physical science to the necessities and tastes of man. The fine arts, which embody the con- ception of beauty of which the human mind is susceptible, are a similar adaptation of abstrac- tions to practice, but the abstractions are less clearly defined than the natural laws with which physical science deals. {See Arts, Manufactur- ing, AND Fine Arts.) ART EXHIBITIONS, ART UNIONS. {See Fine Arts. ) ARTHURIAN LEGENDS and RO- MANCES. Poems and romances based on the life and exploits of Arthur, the semi-mythical king of Britain, Merlin the wizard, and the knights of his court, especially Launcelot of the Lake, to whom is given an importance second only to that awarded to the king. It cannot be doubtedthat Arthur was a real personage, the most prominent of the princes of the British race who fought against the Scandinavian and Teutonic invaders, and maintained a supremacy in the western part of the island, and northward as far as the Firth of Forth. In course of time he came to be considered as the typical hero of the great struggle, invested with almost supernatural attri- butes, and it was believed he would again appear, at some indefinite time, as the leader and liberator of the British people. The legends which have clustered round his memory had their origin in the dim twilight of British history, in the iieriod which intervened between the departure of the Romans and the establishment of the Saxon kingdom. The Celtic people of Brittany had a national affinity with the tribes of the south and west of Britain, and adopted the legends respect- ing Arthur, transferring some of them to their own country, and shaping them into ballads, of which Arthur and the enchanter Merlin (the bard Myrdhinn of the British) were the heroes. About 1147, the chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his Historia Britonum^ otherwise known as tha ARTHURIAI^ LEGENDS 35 AHUNDEUAN “History of British Kings,” in which he united the Breton with the older British traditions. He afterwards wrote a Latin poem, Vita Merlini, embodying the legends relating to Merlin. Wal- ter Mapes, or Map, the chaplain to Henry II., collected the Arthurian legends into a re- gular form, and in the words of a modern writer, “ put a soul into what had been a shape- less mass of incidents of combat and armour.” He gave a religious tone to the narratives, by adding, “ The Quest of the Graal,” or the adventures of the knights in search of the sacred cup from which the Saviour drank at the Last Supper. He also introduced the story of “Launcelot of the Lake,” and Mort Artis, or “ Death of Arthur,” and to him is due the inven- tion of the pine Knight, Sir Galahad. Robert de Borron assisted Mapes in translating the Breton stories ; and, about thirty years after- wards, Layamon, a West of England priest, wrote the legends in Anglo-Saxon, adding some inci- dents — for example, the taking of King Arthur after death to Avalon; and Robert Wace, the Anglo-Norman poet, author of Le Roman du Ron, made a poetical version of Geoffrey’s Chronicle, adding some new legends. After- wards, Lucas de Gast and Helie de Borron (pro- bably a relative of the Robert de Borron already mentioned) produced the story of “ Tristram,” in two parts, which had not appeared in previous collections. About the middle of the fifteenth century, John de Waurin, Lord of Forestel, a French gentleman who had fought at Agincourt, prepared Recueil des Ckroniques et Anchiennes Istories de la Grand Bretaigne, a present nomne Engleterre, founded partly on tlie book of Geoffrey of Monmouth, but with many additions. In this collection the Arthurian legends are very promi- nent. In the form they have assumed, the legends were the growth of several centuries in Brittany and England. The rude, warlike tales handed down by oral tradition from the days of the Welsh bards had been amplified into popular ballads, and when they reached France were transformed into knightly romances ; the un- courtly Celtic warriors becoming Paladins, of the pattern of those who kept state with Charle- magne, or fought with Roland at Roncesvalles. Arthur’s knights were models of courtesy and of brilliant valour in the tournament (an institution, it may be safely said, quite unknown to the Celts of the historic Arthur), and Queen Guinevere and the ladies of her train were lovely dames such as those who adorned the Court of France. The loves of the Queen and Launcelot of the Lake have the air of French romance ; and the bard Myrdheinn, who in the old Welsh stories went mad on beholding the unhappy con- test between the Northern and Southern Celts at the battle of Arderidd, near Bath, in the 6th century, is transformed by the French romancist into Merlin, who, sage and ma^cian as he was, allowed himself to be “ lost to life and use and name and fame,” by the arts of the ^worthless Vivien. Soon after the invention of printing, a collection of the Arthurian romances was produced in France ; and about ^470 j Sir Thomas Malory (or Maleor) compiled a book from these legends, and it was printed by Caxton in 1485, with the title La Mort Darthur. Only one comiffete copy of this edition is known to exist, one other being in an imperfect con- dition. Caxton’s successor, Wynkyn de Worde, produced editions in 1498 and 1529, but collectors know of only one copy of each. In the present century, several editions have appeared of Sir Thomas Malory’s book, and that collection and the Welsh legends, existing iu an ancient manu- script, and gathered in the “ Mabinogian ” by Lady Charlotte Guest, contain nearly all that is likely to be obtainable of the traditions respecting Arthur, his beautiful, faithless, and repentant queen, and his indomitable knights. The stories, especially those relating to the illicit love of the queen and Launcelot, had a great attraction for the Italian poets and romancers, and Dante re- presents Francesca di Rimini and her lover read- ing it together until — “that day we read no more.” The legend of MerMii and Vivien, very slightly sketched in Malory’s book, is founded on a Breton poem, and has been rendered into modern French by Hersart de Villemarque. How Tennyson has availed himself of the old legends in his exquisite and tenderly pathetic “Idylls of the King” we all know. Arthur appears as the ideal of noble manhood, “ The spotless King,” and Guinevere, Launcelot, Elaine, and Enid have taken a place in English poetic literature, second only to that occupied by the Shaksperian galaxy. ARTICLE, ar'-ti-kl, is a part of speech pre- fixed to substantives in order to render their mean- ing more or less definite. It is derived from the Latin articulus, or Greek arthron, signifying a joint, a term applied by the Greek grammarians to the definite j)article, as well as the relative pronoun, as connecting together the parts of a sentence; as in “I gave you that (or the) book that you asked for ; ” the former they call the prepositive article, the latter the postpositive. In English, there are two articles, the definite the, and the indefinite a or an. The former is a weakened form of that; the latter of “ane” (one). There is no article in Latin. ARTICULATE SOUNDS, (^ee Letters.) ARTICULATION, ar-tik-u-lai' -shon, is a term applied to a consonant, or that portion of a word which can be pronounced by a single move- ment of the organs of speech. Hence a good ar- ticulation consists in giving every letter and syl- lable of a word its due pronunciation. An indis- tinct articulation usually arises from too great precipitancy of speech, or from an improper use of the vocal organs. {See Elocution.) ARTS, DEGREES IN. {See Degrees and Universities.) ARTS, FINE, (^ee Fine Arts.) ART-UNIONS. (>S'ee Fine Arts.) ARUNDELIAN, or OXFORD MARBLES, ar-un-de' li-an, a collection of speci- mens of Greek and Roman sculpture, made between the years 1607 and 1614, by Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel andNorfolk. His grand- son Henry Howard, who subsequently became duke of Norfolk, presented part of this valuable gathering of the relics of antiquity to the univer- sity of Oxford, in 1667, at the suggestion of the celebrated John Evelyn, who, with Mr. (after- wards Sir William) Petty, was engaged by the earl to render assistance in the laborious under- taking. The collection in its entire state numbered 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 pieces of marble bearing inscriptions ; besides altars, sarcophagi, and fragments of various kinds, and a cabinet of gems, medals, and intaglios, acquired at Venice for the sum of £10,000. After the death oJE ARYAN LANGUAGES 36 ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE Lord Arundel, however, in the troublous time of the Parliamentary war, it was unfortunately dis- persed and many of its choicest treasures were for ever lost sight of, and the gems de- scended to the Marlborough family, only a small part of the original collection being handed over to the university of Oxford. One of the choicest treasures, the Parian Chronicle, or Marmon Chronicon, was acquired by purchase at Smyrna, by Sir AVilliam Petty. It contained in its perfect state a chronological table of the leading events in Grecian history, from 1582 B.o. to 264 B.o. A part is lost, and the remainder is much injured and defaced in many places. It is supposed to have been cut in the isle of Paros, about 263 b.o., the period of time at which the record ends. ARYAN LANGUAGES, a'-re-an. Scien- tific philologists are agreed that seven recognized groups of languages are clearly branches of the old Aryan stock, many of the words being very identical, and the general grammatical peculi- arities having great aflSnity. These grouiJs of languages are the Sanskrit, the Teutonic, the Slave -Lithuanic, the Celtic, the Italian (including Latin), the Greek, and the Iranian or Persian. The oldest existing records in a language derived from an Aryan stock are the sacred books of the Hindoos, the Veds and the Laws of Menu, written in Sanskrit. It has been observed by Mr. Max Muller that most of the terms connected with chase and warfare differ in each of the Aryan dialects, while words connected with more peace- ful occupations are common to all the languages of Aryan origin, indicating that the Aryan na- tions had led a long life of peace before they separated. We are led to look to the Aryan people for the origin of the legends of gods, heroes, and monsters, all having a family like- ness, which formed the mythology of the nations sprung from the parent stock. ASCLEPIAD, as-kle' - pi - ad, in Ancient Poetry, is the name of a species of verse, so called after Asclepiades of Tragilos, in Thrace, a scholar of Isocrates. He wrote some tragedies, fragments of which still remain. The verse consists of four feet, of which the first is a spondee, the second a choriambus, and the third and fourth dactyls, as in the following line from Horace : — Meece | nas a,ta,vTs | edite | regibiis. ASIATIC SOCIETIES, ai-sM-at'-ik, are certain societies that have been formed for in- vestigating the languages, literature, history, an- tiquities, &c., of Asia. Some of these exist in Asia, others in Europe. The oldest society of this kind was founded in Batava in 1781. It was speedily followed by the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded at Calcutta by Sir William Jones, for the purpose “ of inquiring into the history, civil and natural, the antiquities, arts, sciences and literature of Asia.” The first volume of its proceedings was published in 1788, under the title of the Asiatic Researches, and the series was continued up to vol. XX., published in 1836. In 1832 the society issued vol. i. of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, a work which is continued down to the present time. In 1804 the Literary Society of Bombay, was instituted, under the president- ship of Sir James Mackintosh, and was followed by the Literary Society of Madras in 1845. In 1823 the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was foimded, and in 1824 received a royal charter ; since 1834 it has regularly issued a Journal of Transactions. The Asiatic Society of Ceylon was instituted in 1845. Most of these societies, besides their journals, publish, from time to time, translations or editions of Oriental works. ASPIRATE, as'-pi-rait (Lat., asper, breath- ing), the breath sound given to certain vowels, and generally indicated in English by the letter “h.” Some consonants are also aspirated, as “f,” and the combination “th.” In speaking the English language, the proper use of the aspi- rate is a mark of refinement, but to use it exces- sively is a mark of vulgarity — the line is easily overstepped. If the vowel is formed at the back of the mouth, the amount of breathing is quite sufficient. ASSONANCE, as'-so-nance (Lat., ad, to, and sono, I sound), is a term used in Poetry and Rhetoric to denote that the words of a phrase or verse have the same sound or termination, yet without making proper rhyme. Assonant Rhymes, as'-so-nant (Lat., ad, to, sono, I sound), is a term applied to a kind of verse common among the Spaniards and Portuguese, where the vowels only are required to rhyme. ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE, as-sir'- i-an. By the discoveries of the remains of Assyrian edifices and of sculptured representations, made during the last thirty-five years, we are enabled to form some idea of the general features that characterized the buildings. It appears that when a site for any structure of great size and importance had been determined on, the first thing that was done was to raise an enormous mound, several acres in superficial extent, and from twenty to forty feet in height : they did this to obtain an imposing elevation for their buildings. The country through which the Tigris and the Euphrates take their course is perfectly flat, and their palaces, which seem to have been low in proportion to their length and the extent of ground they covered, would have appeared dwarfed in height, and comparatively insignifi- cant, if they had been raised on the level of the soil itself. These artificial platforms were not merely heaps of earth, but were systematically constructed of sun-dried bricks, with an outer facing of hard calcareous stone, brought from the distant mountains, and cut in regular blocks. It is supposed that great flights of steps led to the buildings. The palaces consist of a series of chambers and halls, the latter mostly oblong in form. The large hall in Sennacherib’s palace at Kouyunjik is 200 feet long by 45 feet wide. The great thickness of the walls of the buildings is remarkable. Those of the Kouyunjik^palace are 15 feet, and those of the great hall at Nimroud, 26 feet. The buildings raised on these mounds were quadrangular in form, with portals in each facade, flanked with sculptured winged bulls of great size. The walls were of brick faced with panels or slabs of gypsum, adorned with figures in bas-relief larger than life. The pavement of the apartments consisted of sun-dried or kiln- baked bricks, or of alabaster slabs of great size laid in bitumen, and frequently sculptured, but the principal passages were floored with broad flags of stone. The walls of Assyrian cities were, like those of the palaces, of enormous thickness, being, in some cases, 45 feet in width ; they were lofty, and were surmounted by square towers at intervals, with battlements for the protection of ASTERISK 37 ATHLETES the archers who were engaged in defending any beleagured town. The entrances are great arched gateways. There are no windows in any of the palaces that have yet been discovered, and it is conjectured that they must have been lighted by apertures in the roof, which must have been flat, and formed of horizontal beams supported on rows of columns placed at intervals in the rooms below ; a flooring, or rather ceiling, ^ of wood was afterwards added, and covered with layers of sun-dried bricks. Rich colouring was introduced into the decorations, and the brick walls above the carved slabs were faced with enamelled tiles of the richest hues. The alabaster panels were set in a brilliant bordering of figures and arabesque patterns common to Eastern archi- tecture. Some of the sculptured slabs represent private houses as being several stories in height. Assyrian Sculpture,— Although the architecture of the Assyrians was simple enough, yet this people reached a high pitch in the excessive richness of their sculpture. They seldom made statues or representa- tions of the human form or animals in a complete and perfect state, but confined themselves to sculpture in bas-relief, embossing figures on the surface of the slabs of marmoriform gypsum, with which the sides of their rooms and passages were coated. These bas-reliefs were intended to be pictorial representations of the manners and customs of the people, and, more particu- larly, of the history of the nation, giving an account of the remarkable events in the reign of any monarch, very much in the style of the Bayeux tapestry, allow- ance being made for the difference of material. Some of these gypsum panels, which are about nine feet high and from three to nine feet broad, were carefully joined to present a continuous surface round the walls of any room or passage ; and royal ceremonies, military ex- peditions, and hunting exploits are represented. A remarkable series of bas-reliefs, small in size, and in bronze, were found at Balawat, nailed on huge gates, and representing the warlike progresses of Assar- nazi-pal, and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the gth century B.c. A recent writer says, “ The clear- ness with which the history is related by these sculp- tures, the abundance and variety of illustration, render them as valuable to the student of Assyrian history as would be the discovery of a long-lost history by some Chaldean Thucydides or Macaulay of the old world, describing the career of conquering monarchs whose very names had been almost unknown previously. There is remarkable freedom in the attitude of the figures and altogether more artistic power than in the larger specimens of Assyrian art.” The jambs of the portals of their palaces and chambers were usually carved into the figures of winged bulls and lions with human heads ; the head, fore-legs and fore part of the body as far as the shoulders being entirely finished, and the remainder in high relief on the side of the block which formed the jamb. One great peculiarity about these figures is, that they are represented with five legs, that they may appear complete, whether viewed in front or at the side. All the specimens of Assyrian sculpture that have been found show that they were faithful observers of nature, although they were not sufficiently good draughtsmen to accomplish correct reproductions of all they saw around them. Some of the winged lions and bulls are twelve feet high, and the figures of monarchs and deities are frequently of proportionate dimensions. The Assyrian sculptures are far superior to those of Egypt in respect of grace, spirit, and delicacy of execution ; and there is no doubt that Greek art was to some degree indebted to the Assyrian. In the bas-reliefs there is no attempt at perspective. ASTERISK, as'-ter-isk (Gr., aster ^ a star), is a mark in the form of a small star (*), placed at the end of a word or sentence to refer the reader to the margin, or elsewhere, for an explanation, quotation, or the like. ASTOR LIBRARY, an institution founded in New York, under the provisions of the will of John Jacob Astor, a wealthy merchant. The building was opened January 9, 1854, with a collec- tion of 70,000 volumes, since increased to 150,000. A second building was erected in 1859. In 1866, Mr. William B. Astor, eldest son of the founder, made a donation of 50,000 dollars for the purpose of extending the library and defraying expenses. ASTRAGAL, as'-tra-gal (Gr., astragalos, a heel-bone), in Architecture, a moulding, the section of which is a complete semicircle, pro- jecting from a perpendicular diameter, so called from its resemblance to the projection of the heel of the human foot. The term is generally applied to small mouldings, the name torus being given to large mouldings of the same form. ATCHEVEMENT, in Heraldry. {See Hatchment.) A TEMPO, OB, A TEMP, a-tem'-po, in Music, a term signifying “in time.” When there has been some short relaxation in the time, a temp or a tempo denotes that the performer must return to the original degree of movement. A tempo giusto signifies “ in equal and just time ; ” an expression generally applied to the manner of performing a steady sound movement — a move- ment less directed to the feelings than to the judgment, more scientific than impassioned. ATHEK^UM, ai^-g-ne'-wm [GtV.^athenaion)y a public place frequented by professors of the liberal arts, and where rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets read aloud their works. At Athens, these assemblies first took place in the temjjle of Minerva (in Gr., Athene) — whence the name. The Athenaeum at Rome was founded upon the Capitoline hill, by the emperor Hadrian. It was a school or college, furnished with a complete staff of professors for the several branches of study. Like its Athenian prototype, this estab- lishment was frequented by the Roman orators, poets, ond other learned men, who there de- claimed their compositions, the emperors them- selves frequently honouring the assembly by their presence. At a subsequent period, other celebrated Athenaeums were erected at Lyons and Marseilles. These institutions, generally, appear to have retained their high reputation until the 5th century. At the present time, the term has been revived as a name for literary institutions, clubs, and libraries. The Liverpool Athenaeum was opened in 1799 ; and similar in- stitutions have since been established at Man- chester and other large towns. Athenaeum Club. — This famous club for the association of persons of literary and scientific attainments was established in 1823. Sir Walter Scott, Sir Humphrey Davey, Sir Thomas Lawrence, the Earls of Liverpool and Aberdeen, the Marquis of Lansdowne, Sir Francis Chaukney, Wilson Croker, Thomas Moore, and many other literary and political celebrities were among the earlier members. The club-house, erected at a cost of more than £350,000, is a superb edifice in Pall Mall. There are about 1,200 members, chosen by ballot as vacancies occur. The library is extensive and valuable. Athenaeum, The, a well-known literary and critical publication, was established in London by Mr. Silk Buckingham, the traveller and journalist, in 1828. The title was given to the German critical journal founded by the brothers Schlegel, and was borne also by a French publication. ATHLETES, ath-leets' (Gr., athletai), were those persons who, among the Greeks and Romans, contended for prizes {athla) at the public games, in boxing, wrestling, running, leaping, and throw- ing the disc. Unlike the agonistes, who only ATLANTES 38 ATRIUM pursued gymnastic exercises as a means of im- proving their health and bodily vigour, the athletse devoted their whole lives to preparing for the contests at the public games. For these they were trained with the irtmost care. They were constantly undergoing a course of the most severe exercise, in a gymnasium set apart for the purpose, under the superintendence of the gymnasiarch. An officer named the aleiptes directed their diet, which, although regular in its nature, was enormous in quantity. They usually slept for a very long time. At first, the athletes, when struggling for the prize, wore a girdle round their lions ; but afterwards they contended in a nude state. Before commencing wrestling encounters, their bodies were covered with sand, that they might grasj) each other the more firmly. In other games they were anointed with oil by the aleiptes. An athlete who gained the prize at either of the four great public games — ^viz., the Olympian, Isthmian, Nemean, or Pythian, was received by the state to which he belonged with the greatest honours. A breach was made in the city walls specially to allow of his entrance in a chariot drawn by four white horses. On entering within the city, he was conducted to the temple of the presiding deity, where hymns were chanted in his praise. A successful athlete was absolved from the pay- ment of taxes ; often his statue was set up in a public spot ; in battle he fought in a dis- tinguished place ; and he was allowed a public funeral. The most eminent men did not think it beneath them to compete for prizes. Plato wrestled in the Isthmian and Pythian games, and Pythagoras gained a prize at Elis, and gave in- structions for athletic training. Athletes were, it is stated, introduced from Greece into Rome by M. Fulvius, at the close of the iEtolian war, i86 B.C. They speedily became highly popular ; and, under the emperors, their contests were admired by the nation to a degree bordering upon passion. Under Nero an enormous number of athletes lived in Rome, where, however, they were hirelings and lived separately, forming, by themselves, a distinct corporation. The athletse were an en- tirely different class from the gladiators. [See Gladiators.) Among the Greeks there were no gladiators. There has been a great revival of athleticism among the more cultured classes in England within the last half-century, and many clubs and associations have been formed. Row- ing, running, walking, and leaping are the chief pursuits indulged in by amateurs ; and many valuable prizes are competed for. ATLANTES, or ATLANTIDES, at-lan' -tees (Gr., Atlas), a name given by the Greeks to male figures used instead of columns or pilasters to support entablatures. The name was derived from the idea of Atlas bearing the heavens on his shoulders. "iVhen female figures are made use of for the like purpose, they are termed Caryatides. [See Caryatides.) In Astronomy, the name Atlantides is applied to the Pleiades, seven stars representing the daughters of Atlas, supposed to have been turned into a constella- tion after death. ATLANTIS, OR ATALANTIS, at-lan' -Us, according to a tradition of great antiquity, re- ferred to by old Greek writers, a very large island in the ocean now known as the Atlantic. Plato relates that his grandfather was told by Solon, that, nine thousand years before his time the Athenians had conquered a mighty nation whose home was on this island, and who had made themselves a terror to all people dwelling on the shores of the Mediterranean, their armies having passed the pillars of Hercules (the strait of Gib- raltar). Then, said Solon, “ did Athens bravely, and won renown over the whole earth.” Shortly afterwards the island was swallowed up by a great earthquake. Solon admitted that he de- rived the legend from Egyptian priests. Plato gives a delightful description of this island, and is even ready with an imaginary history. It is, of course, quite possible that a vast tract of land may have been submerged, or even that the Canary Islands may be portions of it, for similar phenomena are known to have occurred, and physical geographers entertain little doubt that the Indian Ocean covers a submerged continental mass, extending from Madagascar to Ceylon, to which they give the name Lemuria ; and it has been suggested that some Phoenician or Carthaginian merchant ships may have even drifted to the coast of America, and that Plato’s island of Atlantis, as well as the great unnamed island spoken of by Pliny and others, may have been the New World. Probably Plato made the vague tradition a medium for illustrating his views on political and ethical matters, which it might not be convenient to expound in a more precise manner ; that, in fact, his description of Atlantis is of the nature of “ Gulliver’s Travels,” only far more refined and intellectually sugges- tive. One of the most remarkable and interest- ing of the works of our own Francis Bacon is a philosophical romance — “The New Atlantis,” suggested by Plato’s fictitious history. It is a. description of an ideal state in which the princi- ples of the new philosophy are carried out by political machinery and under state guidance, and where many of the results contemplated by Bacon, but which he knew to be impracticable of realization in his own time are in imagination attained. It is a brilliant examjfie of a class of works of which More’s “Utopia” is a notable instance, and which have inspired many imitators since. ATLAS, at' -las, a name given to a number of maps collected in the form of a volume, originat- ing with a collection made in the i6th century, by Mercator, the eminent geographer, which had a figure of Atlas bearing the world on his shoulders engraved on the title page. In Anatomy, is the name of the first cervical verte- bra. It differs from the other vertebrae in having its body small and thin, and its foramen very large, being in form somewhat like a ring. It is connected above with the condyles of the occipital bone, and receives the tooth-like process of the second cervical vertebra from below, the former admitting of moving the head up and down, the latter from side to side. ATRIUM, ai'-tri-um (Gr., aithrios, exposed to the air), the entrance-hall and most splendid apartment of a Roman house. It consisted of a large covered court, with an opening in the centre of the roof, termed the compluvium, through which the rain-water descended into a cistern let into the floor beneath. It was the most highly-decorated apartment in the whole house. Upon the walls were drawings represent- ing incidents from the ancient mythology, sur- rounded by borders formed of elegant arabesques. Even the floors were frequently enriched with pictures executed in mosaic. The owner of the house here received his morning visitors; here the mistress superintended the labours of hei ATTACK 39 AUTHENTIC female slaves, whilst engaged in weaving or other occupations. The temples, also, had atria, where the senators and others sometimes held meetings. In Ecclesiastical Antiquities. — An open place, or court, before a church, surrounded with a portico or cloister. There was a fountain in the centre, in which worshippers washed their hands before entering the church. Penitents, and others not allowed to enter the church, stood in the atrium, to solicit the prayers of the faithful. The open space was also used as a burying-ground. ATTACK, at-tak\ in military language, de- notes an advance upon an enemy, with a view of driving him from his position. It may be made either upon an adverse army in the field, or upon a fortress. ATTENTION, a cautionary word used in the British military service as preparatory to any particular exercise or manoeuvre. Upon receiv- ing this command, the infantry soldier assumes the following position : — Shoulders square to the front ; heels kept together ; toes turned outward ; feet forming an angle of sixty degrees ; arms de- pending straight from the shoulders ; palms of the hands falling fiat upon the thighs ; body straight, but with a trifling inclination forward, in order that its weight may principally fall upon the fore part of the foot ; head kept erect, but without being thrown back ; eyes looking straight to the front ; the whole position being perfectly easy and unconstrained, without any rigidity or awkwardness. ATTIC, at' -tilt, (Gr., attikos, belonging to Attica), a term in Architecture, applied to a low storey above an entablature or cornice which limits the height of the main part of an elevation. In Building, the term is applied to rooms made in the roof of a house. Although the derivation of this word is established there is nothing exactly answering to the attic in Greek architec- ture. ATTIC DIALECT, THE, is that dialect of the Greek language which was spoken in Attica. It was the most refined and polished of aU the dialects of ancient Greece ; ahd in it wrote Solon the lawgiver, Thucydides and Xeno- phon the historians, Aristophanes the comic poet, Plato and Aristotle the philosophers, and De- mosthenes the orator. When, after the Mace- donian conquest, Greek became the language of literature and diplomacy in most parts of the civilized world, the Attic came to be that dialect of the Greek which was generally adopted. ATTRIBUTES, at'-tri-butes, in the Fine Arts, certain symbols which accompany, distin- guish, and characterize certain figures and alle- gories. Thus the eagle and thunderbolt are the attributes of Jupiter ; the caduceus is the attri- bute of Mercury ; the trident of Neptune. AUDITORY {Jjdit.y auditorium, an audience), an assemblage of persons gathered together for the purpose of hearing a preacher, lecturer, &c. In the ancient churches, the term auditory, or auditorium, was applied to that part of the building where the people stood to be instructed, and hear the gospel : it is now called the nave. The word is sometimes applied to the part of a theatre occupied by the audience. AUGUST, aw' -gust, the name given to the eighth month of our year. It was named by the Homan emperor Augustus, after himself, as he regarded it as a fortunate month for him, being that in which he had gained several important victories. Before this time it was called Sextilis, or the sixth month, the year beginning with March. The name of July had, in like manner, been Quintilis, before it was changed by Julius Caesar ; and as it contained thirty-one days, the senate, in order that Augustus might not be behind Caesar, decreed that August also should have thirty-one days, and that^, for that pur- pose, a day should be taken away from Feb- ruary. AUGUSTAN AGE, aw-gus'-tan, the reign of the Emperor Augustus (31 B.c. to 14 A.D.), was distinguished by splendid achievements in arts and arms, and especially for literary productions of the highest excellence. It is generally re- garded as the most memorable period of Roman history. The Emperor, nephew of Julius Csesar, whose proper name was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, had the title Augustus bestowed 031 him, hitherto applied only to the most sacred and venerable things, and expressing the most profound veneration. Virgil, Horace, and Ovid wrote during this period, and Livy achieved un- dying fame as a historian, the architecture of Rome was so greatly improved, and so many splendid buildings erected that it is said, “Au- gustus found the city built of bricks, and left it of marble.” The epithet “ Augustan Age ” has been applied to the reign of Louis XIV. in France, and to that of. Anne in England, both distin- guished for brilliant displays of literary ability. Augustan Era began Feb. 14, 27 b.o. {See Era.) Augustan History, the name given to a collection of the biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus (117 A.D. to 283 a.d.). These annals were completed in the reign of Diocletian and Constantine, about the close of the 3rd century, and are supposed to have been the work of four, or at most six writers. They have little pretention to literary merit, but are valuable for the amount of information contained. The first edition of the History was printed at Milan in 1475. In 1603 the great scholar Casaubon produced an edition with elaborate notes ; and in 1620 Salmasius published a revised text, with critical notes. Several German editions have been published, but there is no English translation. AUREOLA, aw-re-o-la (Lat., Aureus, of the colour of gold), the glory with which ancient painters encircled the heads of the Holy Family, saints, martyrs, and confessors, in their pictures. When there is only a luminous disc around the heads of the figures, it is known as a nimbus, AURIFLAMME. {See Okiflamme.) AUTHENTIC, aw-then’-tik (Gr. , authentikos, authentic, warranted), is a term applied to some- thing of established authority, something which is what it appears or professes to be. It is usually applied to a writing or document written by the person, at the time, or under the circumstances, that it asserts or implies. Sometimes a distinc- tion is made, especially by Biblical critics, be- tween authentic and genuine ; the former refer- ring to the statement made by an author, the latter to the authorship itself ; but this distinc- tion is not very generally observed. To deter- mine the authenticity of a document is often of the utmost importance, and it belongs to the highest kind of criticism. The proof is of two kinds — internal, from the form and contents of the document itself, and external, from the evi dence of others. AUTHORIZED YERSION 40 BACHELOR Authentics, a translation of the Novellce of Justinian, so called by the early writers from its being a literal translation of the original. The term was afterwards applied to extracts of decisions from the Novellce. The German emperors Fredericks TI. and III., issued “au- thentics ” and ordered the civilians of Bologna to inter- calate them in the code of Justinian. AUTHORIZED YERSION. {See Bible.) AUTO, aw' -to, is a prefix which enters into the composition of many English words, derived from the Greek pronoun autos, self ; as, autocrat, autobiography. In some cases it is applied to the subject, as autocrat, automaton', in others to the object, as autobiography, autocritic; and sometimes it denotes a mere reference to the sub- ject, as autochthon. These differences of meaning sometimes lead to ambiguity ; as in autograph, which means either a machine that writes of itself, or a writing done by one’s own hand. AUTOBIOGtRAPHY , aw'-to-bi-og'-ra fc (Gr. autos, self ; bios, life ; and grapho, I write), is a biography or life of a person, written by himself ; and the term is also aiDplied to a work in which the writer does not so much relate the events of his own life as that of the period in which he lived, or the persons with whom he came in contact. AUTOGRAPH, aw' -to-graf {Q^v., autos, and grayho, I write), is a term applied to what is written by a person’s own hand — an original manuscript as opposed to an apograph or copy. Autographs, particularly of celebrated persons, have in recent times become objects of eager pur- suit, and form a branch of literary trade. The autograph of Shakspere, now in the British Museum, cost £ioo; that in the library of the City of London, £158. In general, the value of an autograph depends upon the eminence of the in- dividual, the scarcity of specimens of his hand- writing, and the contents of the writing. Litho- graphy has been very useful in affording the means of making fac-similes of autographs. The first English work in which a series of fac-simile autographs appeared, was Sir John Fenn’s “ Ori- ginal Letters from the Archives of the Paston Family,” 1787. Among the best works of this class is, “Autographs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Personages, conspicuous in Eng- lish History, from the Reign of Richard II. to that of Charles II.,” by John Gough Nichols, folio, 1829. There are valuable German works of this class, and recently collections of the auto- graphs of modern celebrities have been published in this country, among them the “ Autographic Mirror,” “Autographic Album,” “Handbook of Autographs,” “ Autographic Souvenir,” and “ Autographic Miscellany.” AUXILIARY YERBS, aux-iV -ya-re (Lat., auxiliari, to help or assist), are those helping verbs by which other verbs are principally con- jugated. (/See Verb.) AYELLANE, av-cl-lain (Fr., avelline; Lat., avellana, a filbert-nut). In Heraldry, the name given to a peculiar form of cross composed of four hazel nuts or filberts inclosed in their perispermium or shell. AYEXUE, av'-e-nu (Lat., ad, to, venio, I come), an opening, entrance, or passage by which anything may be introduced. The term is also used in landscape-gardening, in order to distin- guish the path leading from some other road, and forming the direct approach to a house. Any broad walk or road, bordered on either side with trees, is also called an avenue. The trees mostly used in England for avenues are the English elm, the lime, the horse-chestnut, the common chest- nut, and the beech. A wide straight street is also called an avenue, as in Washington, New York, and other large towns of the United States. AZURE, a'-zhure (Fr., light blue), in Paint- ing, a sky-coloured blue produced by ultramarine. In Heraldry, a term used to denote the blue colour in armorial bearings. In heraldic engrav- ing it is always represented by horizontal lines. The old heralds considered it the symbol of truth and constancy. B. B, the second letter in the Hebrew or Phoeni- cian alphabets, and of all European and most other alphabets. It belongs to the order of labials ; so called because the lips are the prin- cipal organs employed in its prommciation, and is the medial letter of the order. It is closely allied to the other labial letters, p and v, with which it readily interchanges. In modern Greece, Spain, and some parts of France, b is pronounced like v ; and hence the sarcastic remark, that in Gascony vivcre (to live) and bibere (to drink) are the same thing. As a numeral, B was used by the Greeks and Hebrews to denote 2 ; but among the Romans it denoted 300, and with a dash over it, 3,000. B, in Music, is the seventh degree of the diatonic scale of 0, and the twelfth degree of the diatonic chromatic scale. BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE. The characteristics of Babylonian Architecture agree with those of Assyria, except that brick was more generally used, stone being of rare occurrence in Babylonia, while brick earth was abundant. Under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar, the most extensive and splendid buildings were erected, among them, Saggal, the great temple of Babylon; the temples of Birbur and Ziru, the temple of Neba, in Borsij)pa, and the principal temples in the great cities of the empire. These edifices were adorned with cedars from Lebanon, in some cases inlaid and ornamented with gold. BACHELOR, batch' -c-lor (Fr., bachelier ; Lat., baccalaurcus),^ one of those words of doubt- ful etymology which have given rise to many absurd conjectures. It seems to have been ap- plied indiscriminately to any one, or any thing, which was passing from one stage of his career to another. Among the various meanings of this word, it denoted — i, those who had not attained to full feudal recognition, but who cultivated certain church lands, called baccalaria; 2, monks who were still in their novitiate; 3, probationary knights, who, from want of age, poverty, or other cause, had not yet raised their banner in BACKGAMMON 41 BAGPIPE the field ; 4, an academical degree, and as such it was first introduced in the theological faculty of the University of Paris in the 13th century, being applied to a candidate who, having passed his examination, was entitled to lecture, without being of the rank of an independent docent or master. Afterwardsthe word was used intheother faculties as the lowest kind of academical honour; 5, from being thus used to denote a candidate or probationer, it came to be popularly applied to an unmarried man, who was thus held to be a candidate or probationer for matrimony. ^ In many countries laws have been enacted against bachelors or unmarried persons. In Greece, by the laws of Lycurgus, and also by those of Solon, celibacy was regarded as an offence against the state, and in Sparta unmarried men were com- pelled to march naked round the market-place, in winter, and sing a song admitting the justice of their punishment. In Koine, unmarried per- sons were placed under certain disabilities. In this country taxes have been imposed upon bachelors and widowers, and married persons with children in some measure relieved; but more apparently with the view of raising money than for any other object. In 1695, an Act was passed, whereby certain rates and duties were levied “upon marriages, births, and burials, and upon bachelors and widowers, for the term of five years, for carrying on the war against France with vigour.” Bachelors above the age of 25, and widowers without children, paid from is. to £12 los. yearly, according to their rank. In the tax on servants, first imposed by Mr. Pitt in 1785, a higher rate is charged for the servants of bachelors; and, in the income-tax of 1798 cer- tain deductions were allowed to those who had children. Bachelor, Degree of. (See Degrees and Universi- ties.) Bachelor, Knight, a term applied to the lowest grade of knighthood, and originally, like knight, a military distinction. It is usually conferred by the sovereign in person, but, in exceptional instances, individuals have been created Knights Bachelor by royal letters patent. BACKGAMMON, hak-gam' -mon (Sax., hac, back, and gamen, a game), a game of chance, played by two persons with fifteen black and the same number of white pieces, on tables divided into twenty-four points. The performance con- sists in the two players bringing their men back from their antagonists’ tables into their own ; or because the pieces are sometimes taken up and obliged to go back — that is to re-enter at the table they came from. BACTRIAN COINS, hdk' -tri-an, certain pieces of money found in the topes or burial-places of Afghanistan. The accidental discovery of some of these coins led to a further search, when several thousands were discovered. Bactria is the ancient name of a province now called Balkh, situated Airectly north of Afghanistan, and separated from it by the western part of the Hindoo-Koosh Mountains. It was a powerful country in the early ages of the world ; but nothing certain is known of its history. The coins are divided by numismatists into two classes — ^pure Greek, bear- ing legends in Greek letters only, including the coins of the first five kings given in the above list ; and bilingual, or coins with inscriptions in Greek and Prakrit, a dialect of the Sanskrit language. Many of the bilingual coins are square in form ; and the introduction of the elephant and elephant’s head, and manv re«^al emblems peculiar to India, show the evident decline of the Greek power, and the introduction of foreign in- fiuence into state affairs. There are only two gold coins of the Greek kings of Bactria known to be in existence — one of Theodotus I. , in the Imperial Cabinet of Paris ; the other of Euthy- demus. All the other pieces of money that have been found are in silver and copper, or billon, a mixture of these two metals. BADMINTON, lad' -min-ton, a modern game, somewhat similar to lawn-tennis, but played with shuttlecocks instead of balls. There are four courts, divided by a net, and the game consists in striking the shuttlecock with a racquet over the net, forwards and backwards, until one of the players fails to return it. It can be played by any number of persons from two to eight. The name is taken from Badminton, one of the residences of the Duke of Beaufort. BAGATELLE, hag' -a-telle, a word origin- ally taken from the French, signifying a trifle. Also now used as the name of a game somewhat resembling billiards, but less difficult. BAGNIO, han'-yo (Ital., hagno), a bath or bathing -house. It is applied to the prisons in Constantinople where the slaves or convicts who are employed on the public works are confined at night. The term hagnes is derived from the same root. By older English writers, hagnio is used for a house of bad fame. BAGPIPE, hag' -pipe, a wind instrument of great antiquity, in use among the Hebrews and Greeks, and a favourite with the people of Europe during the Middle Ages ; but, its notes being limited in range, it has gradually fallen into disuse, except in the Highlands of Scotland where it may be heard in as great perfection as anywhere. It is said to have been introduced in Scotland by the Danes and Norwegians, and it may be called the national instrument of the Scotch. Under various forms, it is still played by the natives of Ireland, the South of France, Italy, Poland, &c. The Scottish bagpipe consists of a leathern bag, which is inflated by means of a tube fitted into it ; four pipes, three called drones, and one the chanter, which latter has finger-holes, and upon which the melody is played. The three first-mentioned pipes, all of which are tuned into a chord, are fastened together in a fan-shape by cords or ribbons, and are so inserted into a socket as, when inflated, to lie up against the left shoulder and arm : from these pipes the wind passes out at the top. The third portion of the instrument consists of a sort of wooden nave or socket, into which the (fixed) ends of the pipes are inserted, and to which the lower end of the bag is firmly attached by wrapping. There is a great difference between the Scottish and the Irish bagpipe. The former is supplied with wind from the lungs of the player ; the latter from a small bellows fastened with straps underneath, and worked by one arm, a tube passing from it in front of the breast to the bag, which is under the other arm. All the pipes in an Irish bagpipe point (slantingly) downwards, one of these having one or more keys upon it, worked by the wrist of the performer, so that the chord may be varied. The tone of the Irish bagpipe is low and sweet. In the Highland regiments of the British service, the bagpipe is played by pipers attired in their national costume. There are, also, certain Highland societies for promoting the skilful play- BAHR 42 BALL ing of the instrument. The Italian bagpipe, not unfamiliar in this country, where it is played on by street mendicants in Italian dress, resembles the Irish in some respects, but is supplied with wind by the mouth. The players are known as pifferari. BAHR, har', a word derived from the Arabic, signifying a large body of water, or place where such has been. Thus, Bahr-el-Ahiad, the White River, and Bahr-bela-Ma, the sea without water, a long deep valley in the desert, having the ap- pearance of once having been a large river. BAILEY, hai'-le (Lat., hallium, probably a corruption of vallum, a rampart), originally meant an outer bulwark, but came afterwards to be applied to the area or courtyard within one. It denoted the space inclosed within the walls of a castle. Where there were double walls, the area between the two was called the outer, the area within the inner wall, the inner bailey. BAIlSTBERGS, hain'-hergs (Ger., hein, leg, hergen, to conceal), the greaves worn over chain- mail armour as an additional protection to the leg. They seem to have been first adopted in the 13th century, as they do not appear in monu- mental effigies before that time. Their adoption led ultimately to the use of entire plate-armour. BAITING, bait' -ing contention), the act of smaller or weaker animals attacking and harassing greater and stronger ones ; as the baiting of bulls or bears by mastiffs or bulldogs. Bull-baiting was once a very favourite pastime in England ; but the barbarity of the sport has led to its being given up in almost all civilized coun- tries. The chief aim of the dog was to seize the bull by the nose, and to avoid being tossed by it. For this purpose, when properly trained, the dog crept on his belly ; while the bull endeavoured to defend his nose by keeping it close to the ground, and attempted to toss the dog with its horns. BAJABERES, or BAYADERES, 6a-ya- deers', a name given by the Portuguese to the singing and dancing-girls of Hindostan. They are of two kinds — those who are employed as priestesses in the temples, and those who go about the country. The former celebrate with song and dance the festivities of the gods ; the latter are employed by the grandees of India to amuse them at their feasts. BAKERIAN LECTURES, lectures deli- vered annually by a Fellow of the Royal Society, originating in a bequest of £100 by Henry Baker, F.R.S. The first lecture was given in 1765. BALALAIKA., hal-al-i' -Tea, a musical instru- ment with two or three strings, played with the fingers like a guitar, very popular in Russia for accompaniments, and found in many cottages of the peasantry. Russian ballads have been col- lected under the title of this national instru- ment. BALCONY, haV-Tco-ne (Ital., halco or palco, the box of a theatre), a projection in front of a window, or windows of a house, supported on brackets of wood or stone. The floor of the bal- cony is generally level with that of the room, and the windows reach to it, and open like fold- ing doors to afford easy access to it. Balconies are generally finished in front with balustrades or cast-iron railings, and sometimes covered with a light ornamental roof. The derivation of the name shows it to be an Italian invention. The name is also sometimes applied to a row of seats in the best position in a theatre. BALDACHIN, hal-da-cUn' (Ital., halda- chino, from Baldach, the Eastern name for Bag- dad), a tent-like covering or canopy, of wood, stone, or metal, either supported on columns or suspended from above, and placed over doorways, statues, altars, thrones, &c. They were formerly very common over fire-places, and many elabo- rate specimens still exist. The largest and most celebrated baldachin is that over the bodies of St. Peter and St. Paul in St. Peter’s at Rome ; it is made of bronze, and is the work of Bernini. The baldachin is of Eastern origin, and the term was first applied to the square canopy, or um- brella, supported by four poles, and carried over the heads of Oriental magnates, partly as a pro- tection from the heat of the sun, and partly as a symbol of their power. During the early part of the Middle ages, baldachins of brocaded silk, or some other costly material, were often sent as presents by the princes of the East to those of the West. Charlemagne received a rich gift of this kind from Haroun-al-Raschid. At the present day, the baldachin is principally used in Europe, in the processions of the Roman Catholic Church. It is generally held over the head of the priest who carries the Host. BALE-FIRE. {See Beacon.) BALISTA, OR BALLISTA, ha-lis'-ta (Gr., hallein, to throw), one of the larger kinds of artillery weapons, used for throwing heavy projectiles before the invention of gunpowder. It was a cumbersome instrument, something like a large arbalast (q.v.), and required three or four men to manage it properly. The projectile power was obtained by the reaction of a tightly twisted rope, fastened to either end of stout rods. Early chroniclers tell of balistas which could throw stones weighing 360 lbs. Its par- ticular construction is not exactly understood, and, indeed, it seems to have been made in various ways. One sort was constructed with levers and bars, and another with pulleys, another with a crane, and others with a toothed wheel, and numerous other weapons of a similar kind were also known to the ancients. The catapulta, for throwing darts ; the balista, stones ; the scor- pion, the onager, and, later on, the mangorel, the robinet, the ribandequin, &c., &c. BALISTRARIA, ha-lis-tra' -re-a, one of the terms applied to the narrow cruciform apertures in the walls and turrets of old castles through which the defenders discharged their missiles by means of balistas, cross-bows, &c. It is also applied to a projecting turret such as is often seen on old castles. BALL, bawl, a term applied to a small sphere. In Military language it denotes the missiles fired from pistols, rifles, and cannon. For small arms,, as pistols and muskets, the balls are made of lead ; for the artillery, of iron. {See also Bullet, Shot, Shell, &c.) The projectiles bearing the names fire-balls, light-balls, smoke-balls, stink- balls, are used either for giving light, or for har- assing the enemy, by giving out a dense smoke or suffocating fumes. Although the term ball is applied to all missiles of this description, many of them are not spherical in shape, and they are generally fired out of mortars, and seldom out of guns. Light-balls, which are use in order to dis- BALL 43 BALLAD close the position or movements of the enemy at night, are composed of painted canvas stretched over a framework. They are filled with a com- pact mixture of saltpetre, sulphur, resin, and linseed-oil, and are furnished with time fuses. They give out a brilliant light, which lasts for a considerable period. Smoke-halls are composed of successive layers of strong paper, and are filled with gun-powder, saltpetre, powdered coal, tal- low, and pitch. After ignition they give out dense fumes of blinding smoke for more than half-an-hour. Stink-halls are filled with a chemi- cal composition which, when burning, diffuses a noxious suffocating odour around. BALL, a gathering of people to amuse them- selves by dancing, such as county balls, when the gentry resident in the county attend; military balls, when the entertainment is given by officers of the army; court balls, when the host or hostess is the sovereign; subscription balls, &c., &c. These entertainments are characterised by great decorum, and conducted according to established usage. When the assembly is not called together by any host or hostess — who thus make them- selves responsible for the respectability of the guests invited — it is customary for a number of lady -patronesses to take the management, and tickets are only issued under their auspices. Fancy halls are similar entertainments, in which the persons attending dress themselves in histo- rical or fancy costumes, masked halls when they conceal their identity by means of masks, dominos, &c. These have fallen into great disrepute. BALL, GAME OF, a gymnastic exercise of great antiquity. In the “ Odyssey,” we find Phaeacian damsels playing ball to the sound of music. It was the principal exercise of the Spar- tans; and so highly was it esteemed by the Athenians, but they set up a statue to Aristonicus for his skill in it. The Komans of all ages and degrees played it, and Pliny describes old Spur- inna as warding off decrepitude by practising the game. The Greeks and Romans had four kinds of balls ; two of leather inflated with air, and ifiayed upon the earth, by many running after it at once — consequently similar to our football; one a small ball, played like our shuttlecock ; and one stuffed with feathers, and played by three persons in a triangle. In the Middle Ages, ball- playing was a regular amusement with the students of France, Germany, and Italy ; and, at the pre- sent time, there are public places for ball-playing in Italy and Germany. The American Indians are especially fond of playing with the ball. In England, ball-playing has been a favourite exer- cise from an early date, one variety of game at ball giving its name to a celebrated west-end street of the metropolis — ^Pall-Mall. {See Cro- quet, Base-Ball, Cricket, Golf, Tennis.) BALLAD, haV-lad (Fr., halier, to dance), the name usually applied to a simple versified narra- tive, whether tragic or comic, often rude in style, adapted to be sung or accompanied by an instru- ment. It IS thus properly a species of epic poetry, and from its i)eculiar style of rhythmical hand- ling, it belongs to the lyrical class of compositions. Epic and Lyric.) It is sometimes used as synonymous with song; but the latter word, when properly employed, is always applied to a lyrical composition, while the ballad has always some- thing of the historical or epical in it. The word is considerably deflected from its original signifi- cation. At first the name, which is of Italian origin, was applied to a dance-song ; and, indeed, the word has been used in nearly all ages in a very loose and vague way. At one timm it was applied to what were properly known as romances both in Italy and Spain ; again it was used to designate epic narratives, and again lyrico-epic, which is taken here to be its proper application. The term “ ballad ” and “song” are often used indiscriminately, and we have announcements of “ ballad ” concerts, the staple of which are senti- mental songs. It may be said broadly that a song is the musical expression of a sentiment or an emotion ; and a ballad relates incidents musi- cally, with sentiment and emotion added. To take familiar instances from Scotch verse. Burns’ “ Auld Lang Syne,” and Scott’s “ March, march, Ettrick and Teviotdale,” are songs ; but Scott’s “Young Lochinvar,” and Lady Anne Barnard’s “Aidd Robin Gray,” are ballads. Similarly, in English poetry, Shakspeare’s “ Come unto these Yellow Sands,” is a song; and Gay’s “Sweet William’s Farewell,”‘a ballad ; and from Moore’s “ Irish Melodies” we may select “ The Last Rose of Summer,” and “By the Lake whose Gloomy Shore,” as examples respectively of the song and the ballad. There can be no doubt that ballads have formed the first rude attempts at verse among all nations. Some Homeric critics main- tain that the “Iliad” and the “Ody.ssey” are- collections of popular ballads, the authors of which are unknown ; and it is very probable that the earlier heroic poems, or even epics, such as those of the Spanish Cid, and the Nibelungen Lied of Germany, grew out of some such simple beginnings. Old Fletcher of Saltcun said if he were permitted to make the ballads of a nation, he cared not v/ho should make its laws (Political Works, 1749), so strong a belief had he in the revolutionizing tendency of an heroic ballad or song. The northern Scalds, tlie Scottish and Eng- lish minstrels, and the Continental troubadours, all composed heroic ballads, or chanted lays of love. The word lay itself (Ger. , leich) was long applied to such compositions in Germany, before the Italian word hallad came into use among them. It is generally allowed that the best specimens known of the old popular ballad are to be found in Scotland, or more properly, perhaps, along the Scottish border, or the territory lying between England and Scotland. No doubt, in numerous instances, these old ballads had their integrity tampered with, and they were not transmitted from one generation to another without innumer- able transformations. A large proportion of them have doubtless been preserved by oral tra- dition, and during every successive stage which the race made in advancement, one could trace this progress in the very ballads which they had transmitted, by the linguistic changes which their speech had undergone. Sir Walter Scott learned many old ballads from the singing or recitation of old people, who had learned them in childhood, and, doubtless, made many verbal alterations. Very likely most of the old popular ballads have passed through many versions. The English Robin Hood ballads are an instance in point. Nobody at the present day can say when or where, or by whom, they were transmuted ; and yet there can be no doubt that they have been so. They were sung in the villages, and by t’le road- side, to hearers who could not read nor write, bjr minstrels who were themselves innocent of those accomplishments. Memory, therefore, was trusted to, and memory, as we all know, produces numerous variations. “ Chevy Chase” and the BALLET 44 BAND Battle of Otterburne ” are epic narratives on a much larger scale than usual. “Adam Bell,” and “dim o’ the Cleugh,” and “AYilliam o’ Cloudesley,” stand between the latter poems and such simple ballads as those of “Johnny Arm- strong” and “ Edom o’ Gordon.” The earliest English ballad now remaining, according to Eit- son, an excellent authority, is a “ Cuckoo Song” of the latter part of the reign of Henry III., be- ginning, “ Sumer is icumen in, Ihude sing cuccu.” The earliest sjDecimen of the Scottish ballad, after that nation became English-speaking, is given in the “ Ehyming Chronicle” of Andrew Wyntoun, prior of Lochleven, about the year 1420, in which he relates the song that was made on Alexander III. of Scotland, who was killed by a fall from his horse in 1286. No modern nation has culti- vated the composition of ballad poetry so assidu- ously as the Germans. The ‘ ‘ Lenore ” of Burger brought in a new era of ballad-writing in Ger- many. He confined the name “ballad,” as Cole- ridge has also done in imitation of him, to an epic narrative, with something fabulous and super- natural in the background, but still i^ossessing enough of earth to interest the mass of humanity. Schiller, Goethe, and Uhland have followed in his wake ; and the latter has done much in modern times to familiarise the German mind with this species of composition. The Germans found many imitators in this country, among them Scott, Coleridge, AYords worth, and Matthew Lewis, whose “ Alonzo the Brave and the Fair Imogen,” thrilled many imaginative but simj)le folk. The ballad poetry of the northern nations, particularly those of Iceland, of the Faroe Isles, of Denmark and Norway and Sweden, retain their ancient character to the present day. There is a pecu- liarly close aflBnity between many of these Scan- dinavian ballads and those of Scotland and Eng- land, which has been noticed by various writers, both in this country and on the Continent. The Spanish alone of all the Latin nations possess a ballad poetry of great antiquity and beauty, espe- oially the ballads relating to the Cid Eodrigo, dating about the 12th century. BALLET, haV-lai (Ital., hallare^ to dance), an entertainment on the stage, in which a story is represented by dancing and pantomimic gestures, accompanied by appropriate music. Among the Greeks, the art of expressing passion and sentiment by dancing was brought to a great degree of perfection. The modern ballet was originated in Italy, by Count Aglio, of Savoy. Baltagerini, a musician, introduced it at the court of France, in the time of Catherine de Medici. Since that time the ballet has retained possession of the stage. Noverre, a Frenchman, brought the ballet to its greatest degree of perfection about 1750. BALL-FLOWER, a Gothic architectural ornament, supposed by some to be an imitation of a hawk’s bell, or a pomegranate. It is so named because it appears like a ball enclosed by a flow'er. BALLIOL COLLEGE, haiV-li-ol, Oxford, was founded by John Balliol, of Bernard Castle, Durham, and Dervorguilla, his wife (parents of John Balliol, king of Scotland), between 1263 and 1268. Its revenues at first provided for 16 scholars at 8d. per week each, but its resources were augmented in 1340, by the munificence of succeeding benefactors, particularly Sir William Fenton and Sir Philip Somervyle. John Wy cliff e was master of this college in 1361, and among its scholars have been Evelyn, Bradley the astro- nomer, and Sir W. Hamilton. BALLISTA. (>Sfee Balista.) BALLIUM, haV -yum, the courtyard or open space of a fortified castle. {See Bailey.) BALUSTER, haV -us-ter, a term used to in- dicate the little columns which are placed in the openings in parapet-walls on the tops of houses, or which, when surmounted by a rail, form a balustrade to any long passage or gallery open on one side, and thus partially inclose it, for the sake of ornament or protection. The upright rails of a stair-case supporting the hand-rail are called balusters, and sometimes balisters or ban- nisters. BALUSTRADE. Baluster.) BAMBOCCLA.DES, ham- botch' - e-a - deez, grotesque inctures of common or low life. The term is derived from Peter van Laar, who was surnamed the Bamboccio, or cripple, on account of his personal deformity, and who, although by no means the first painter of such scenes, became celebrated as. BAMPTON LECTURES, The, hamp’- ton, are named after their founder, the Kev. John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, who left certain estates, originally worth £120 per annum, to the University of Oxford, for the endowment of eight divinity lecture-sermons, to be preached annually at St. Mary’s, Oxford, and afterwards published at the expense of the foundation. The preacher must be at least M.A. of Oxford or Cambridge, and the same person can never preach them twice. The lectures are to be on one of the fol- lowing subjects : — To confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics and schismatics ; upon the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures ; upon the authority of the writ- ings of the primitive fathers ; as to the faith and practice of the primitive church ; upon the divin- ity of Jesus Christ ; upon the divinity of the Holy Ghost ; upon the articles of the Christian faith as comprehended in the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds. The first course was delivered in 1780 by James Bandinel, D.D. ; and among the more distinguished persons who have held this office are Mant (1812), Heber (1815), Whately {1822), Milman (1827), Burton (1829), Hampden (1832), Mansel {1858), and Liddon (1866). BAND, hand (Sax., hand), in Architecture, a broad flat moulding projecting a little beyond the surface of the building or column to which it is applied. It is sometimes placed along the front, or completely round buildings, and serves to indicate the different floors ; but it is princi- pally used in the basements of large edifices. The band of a column is sometimes moulded in various forms, and is then called a shaft ring. BAND, a body of musicians attached to a regiment or battalion, and distinguished by a particular uniform. The term is now applied to any body of musicians who play together. BAND OR BANDS, two small lappels of muslin attached to the collar ; a part of clerical scholastic dress, the representation of the linen vestment which was used in the ancient church to cover the shoulders of the priest. The use of bands by clergymen, however, is now nearly obsolete. It is also used by barristers when in BANDALEER 45 BAR professional dress, and at the universities, also at "Winchester and Christ’s Hospital Schools, by the boys themselves. BANDALEER, or BANDOLEER, han- do-leer' (Span., landolera), was a large leathern belt thrown over the right shoulder, and hanging down under the left arm. It was worn by the ancient musketeers, for sustaining their firearms and for the carriage of their musket-charges, which, in small tin or wooden cases, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each bandaleer. BANDED, han'-ded, in Heraldry, any charge, such as a wheatsheaf or bundle of arrows, is said to be banded when it is tied together with a band of a different colour from the charge it- self. Thus a golden wheatsheaf tied with a red band would be thus expressed in heraldic terms : A garb or banded gules. BANDEROLE, han'-drol, in Heraldry, a little streamer or ribbon attached to the shaft of a crosier, and folding over it like a label. In the architecture of the Renaissance period, the term is applied to the ribbon-moulding used to receive names or inscriptions. In military lan- guage, it means any little flag or pennon attached to a spear, and the fringed flag hanging from the straight trumpet used by cavalry, or sounded be- fore the heralds when making any proclamation. It is sometimes written handrol and lannerol. BANDORE, ban* -dor (Span., bandurria), a stringed musical instrument, bearing a strong re- semblance to a lute. It was invented by John Rose, in the fourth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. BANE, bain (Sax., bana, a murderer), de- notes poison, or any cause of destruction or over- throw; as, “My bane and antidote are both before me.” BANJO, ban' -jo (Sp., bandore, a kind of guitar), a musical stringed instrument greatly in favour with the negroes of the Southern United States. It has five strings, and is played with the fingers. The banjo is now very well known in this country, as one of the chief instruments of the so-called “ nigger minstrels.” BANNATYNE CLUB, ban'-a-tine, a lite- rary club instituted at Edinburgh, in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott, who was its first president. It takes its name from George Bannatyne (1543- 1607), compiler of the celebrated MS. in the Advocates’ library, entitled Corpus Poeticum Scotorum. Its object was the printing of rare works illustrative of the history and antiquities of Scotland, for distribution among the members, and it has published upwards of 100 quarto vol- umes of rare and interesting works. The club was dissolved in 1861. BANNER, ban'-ner, is a piece of cloth at- tached to the upper end of a pole or staff, and usually bearing some device or emblem. Banners or standards have been in use from the earliest times. ^ The chief use of the standard or banner m all times must have been to serve as a rallying- point to soldiers in battle. Hence they have always been regarded as an emblem of national honour, which the warrior was ever ready to defend at the risk of his life ; and hence, banners taken from an enemy have always been regarded as special trophies of victory. BANQUETTE, ban-Jcet', is a step or small terrace of earth constructed along the inner sid of a parapet for the musketeers to stand upon when the parapet is too high to fire over. It is usually made about four feet wide, and raised, to within 4j feet of the crest of the parapet. It is reached from the bottom of the rampart by a sloping path. BAPTISTERY, bap-tis' -ter-e (Gr., baptis- ierion, a large basin or bath), the name given to the building in which the sacrament of baptism was administered in the early ages of the Christian church. Sometimes the term was applied to that portion of a church in which baptism was per- formed, in which case it meant the railed off space enclosing the font, which is to be seen in many English churches at the present day. In the early days of the Christian Church, baptis- teries were separate from the churches to which they belonged, as they were required to accom- modate a number of adult persons desirous of receiving the rite, and who were subjected to total immersion. They were circular in form, but at first were constructed in an hexagonal or actagonal shape, paved with marble, with large basins of the same material, generally three feet deep, either raised above the surface of the pave- ment and entered by steps, or sunk below its level. Some were of most elaborate architectural de- sign ; such as the circular baptistery of Pisa, 116 feet in diameter, three stories in height, and surmounted by a dome ; and the baptistery of Florence, built of black and white marble, 100 feet in diameter, and magnificently adorned with mosaics by Andrea Tafi, and bronze doors of beautiful workmanship, executed by Andrea of Pisa and Lorenzo Ghiberti. The largest ever built is the one attached to the church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople ; which was so spacious that on one occasion it served as a residence for the Emperor Basilicus. Other baptisteries of note are those of S. Giovanni in Fonte, and S. Giovanni Laterano, at Rome ; and those at Ra- venna, Asti, and the principal cities of Tuscany. It is supposed that the polygonal chapter -houses attached to English cathedrals were once bap- tisteries, and it is probable that the stone edifice at Glastonbury, known as the Abbot’s Kitchen, served for a similar purpose. The places provided in Baptist chapels for the total immersion of adult members of that body are called baptisteries. BAR, bar (Ang.-Sax., bairgan, beorgan, birgan, byrgan), literally, to prevent, keep out or obstruct, to guard, to secure, to fortify, to prohibit. Is also applied to any elongated piece of wood or metal. In Music, a perpendicular stroke drawn across the lines of a piece of music, to divide it into equal por- tions or measures of time, each of which portions is also called a bar. According to Sir John Hawkins, the use of bars is not to be traced further back than 1574- In Heraldry, one of the nine honourable charges or figures placed upon the field or escutcheon, called ordinaries, and consists of two lines drawn across the field. It differs from the /ess in this : the fess occupies a third part of the field, and is confined to the centre ; whereas the bar contains only a fifth, is not limited to any part, and is never borne singly. It has two diminutives — the closet, which is half the width of the bar, and the barrule or barrulet, which is half the width of the closet. Of the closet, there may be five in one field, but the barrulet can be borne only in couples. Barsqemelles are so called when they stand in couples. When the shield contains a number of bars of metal and colour, alternate of even number, that is called barry of so many pieces ; as, harry of six argent and gules BARBACAN 46 BARB BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, har'-ha- kan (Fr., barbacane), a watch-tower placed before or over the outer gate of a castle-yard, forming an advance work to protect the castle, or, with regard to cities, a tower or outwork placed at any important point of the surrounding walls. Also, an aperture made in the wall of a fortress to fire through upon an enemy. Also, a fort at the entrance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a double wall with towers. The barbacan of the castle was a point from which the draw- bridge affording the imincipal way of egress and ngress across the surrounding moat could be readily defended by the guard constantly kept there to prevent surprise or a night attack from hostile troops. The origin of the word is doubt- ful ; but the Norman-French are considered to have derived its use from an Arabic word, and to have introduced it into England at the time of the Conquest. The street in London called Barbican is the site of such an outwork to the old Aldersgate. BARBARIAN, bar-bair’-i-an, a term de- rived from the Greek, and applied by that people to all who were not Greeks. The Greeks being at that time superior in civihzation to their neighbours, the term implied a sense of inferior- ity. "When the Eomans first adopted the term, they applied it to themselves, but afterwards to all who were neither Greeks nor Romans. After the fall of the Western empire, it was applied to the Teutonic races, and subsequently to the Moors : hence the name Barbary, given to a district of North Africa. At present, the word is used in the sense of savage, rude, uncivilized. BARBED AND CRESTED, terms used iu Heraldry, to denote the comb and gills of a cock when it is necessary to speak of them as being of a different colour from the body. The more l)opular expression is Wattled and Combed. BARBETTE, bar-bet' (Fr.), a terrace inside a rampart on which heavy guns may be placed and fired over the rampart, instead of through embrasures. In this way, a wider range can be obtained, as the guns can be swivelled round so as to point in different directions. When placed in this way, guns are said to be en barbette. BARBICAN. (/See Barbacan.) BARBITOS, OR BARBITON, bar' -bi-tos, a stringed instrument resembling the lyre, but exceeding it in the number of its strings, the in- vention of which has been ascribed to Anacreon BARCAROLLE, bar'-ca-roal (Ital., bar- caruolo, a boatman), certain songs composed by the Venetian gondoliers, and sung by them in their boats. The style of these aus is simifie and natural, and they possess a kind of artless beauty which not only strikes common ears, but delights even the virtuosi. The Venetian gondoliers have the liberty of visiting all the theatres gratis, which gives them an opportunity of cultivating their ear and taste without expense. The gon- dolier songs are many of them so graceful and pleasing, that the musicians of Italy pride them- selves on knowing and singing them. The term is now applied to musical compositions of a siirdlar character. BARD, ba/rd (Brit., bardd, a poet), a word of uncertain derivation, but known to the Romans 200 B.C., and most commonly applied by the Celtic nations to their minstrels and poets. Tacitus mentions that the ancient Germans sought to infuse military ardom’ into their warriors by the songs of bards ; and Strabo and Ammianus Marcellinus say that the songs and hymns of the bards were famous in their day among the Celtic peoples. They seem to have belonged originally to all the warlike nations of Western Europe, and like the Scojds of the Anglo-Saxons and the Skalds of Scandinavia, they sang of the deeds of gods and heroes, accompany- ing their song with the music of the harp. It was only as civilization advanced that they were comijelled to retire to the mountain retreats ; and, accordingly, we find them strongest in Wales and Ireland. Warton (in his History of English Poetry) tells us the British bards were originally an appendage of the Druidical hier- archy ; but it is now established, that long after the Druids were extinct, the bards, who had at- tained a sort of civil capacity, continued to flourish for a long period among the Celts. . They formed a hereditary order, • and exercised con- siderable influence. It is related of Edward I. , that the more thoroughly to aid his conquest of the ancient Welsh, he gave orders to have all their bards destroyed. By the laws of Hoel Dha, given about the year 940, among the Welsh, it was enacted that the court bard was to be a domestic officer of the prince, and to occupy the eighth place in his court. The bard was, besides, to hold his lands free. The prince was to allow him a horse and a woollen robe, and the queen a linen garment. When invested with office, he received from his prince a harp of rare workman- ship, and from his queen a ring of gold, neither of which he was to part with on any account. He was to lodge with the prefect of the palace ; and on the three annual festivals he had the privilege of sitting next this functionary, who was enjoined to deliver the harp into his hand. Any person who injured this royal bard had to pay a fine of six cows and 120 pence ; and any one who murdered him had to pay 126 cows. These bards had enormous memories, were first-rate genealogists, and not unfrequently flattered the vanity of the courtiers to a great degree by their highly-coloured narratives of the public and private transactions of the nation to which they belonged. They were consequently reverenced almost as much by the Welsh heroes as if they had possessed powers of divine inspiration. They were reformed and regulated by Gryffyth ap Conon, king of Wales, in 1078 A.D. Periodical eisteddfods, or sessions, of the bards, and their successors the minstrels, have continued in Wales down to our own time. The Irish bardic history begins with the Milesian invasion. There were three classes of them in Ireland — those who turned the tenets of religion into verse, and who in battle raised the war-song ; those who sat in the open air and chanted the laws of the nation ; and those who sang history and the exploits of heroes. Their profession was hereditary. Their songs are strongly marked by traces of Scaldic imagination, which they infused into the Welsh' poetry when Gryffyth brought them over, early in the nth century, for the purpose of improving the Welsh songs. In Ireland, the bards were associated in a hereditary guild, divided into three classes : the Filedha, who sang in the ser- vice of religion and war, and were also the advisers and heralds of princes ; the Braitheam- hain, who chanted the laws ; and the Sean- achaidhe, who sang of doughty deeds and genea- logies to princes and nobles. So j)roficient grew BARGE-BOARD 47 BARTHOLOMEW FAIR the Irish hards on the harp that their skiU has been universally acknowledged. It is said that Queen Elizabeth ordered all the Irish bards to be captured and hung, even as Edward I. ordered the Welsh bards, and for the same reason. Turlough O’Carolan, who died in 1737, is held to be the last Irish bard. In Scotland, the practice of 'bardism was very similar to that of Ireland, and there were bards in the Highlands down to the 17th century. BARGE-BOARD (Ger., herge-loard). In Gothic Architecture, the slate or tile projection over the gables of a building is called the barge- course ; and, by way of ornament, or to protect the plaster, which is applied under the barge- course between the roofing and the wall, boards, sometimes richly carved and ornamented, tech- nically called barge-boards, are fastened to the ends of the rafters that lie on the gable end. Good specimens of these decorative boards may be seen in Coventry, Oxford, and many old English towns. The terms barge-board and barge- course seem to be a corruption of parge-board and parge-course, taking their names from the parget or plaster of the latter. BARITONE. {See Baeytone.) BARLEY-BREAK, bar'-le-breek, the name of a popular pastime very common in the time of James I., and which is frequently referred to by older writers. It was played by six persons, three of each sex, who were formed into couples. A piece of ground was then divided into three parts, the centre one being called hell. One of the couples was stationed in this hell, and their effort was to catch either of the other couples in crossing from the one side to the other, when the couple caught had to take up their place in the centre. The couple in the centre were bound to keep together ; but the others, when hard pressed, might sever. When all had been taken, the game was ended ; and the last couple taken was said to he in hell, their punishment appearing to have consisted in kissing each other, not, how- ever, generally considered to be a very terrible fate to encounter. Games of a similar kind, more or less modified, are still practised by young persons both in England and Scotland. BARMECIDES’ FEAST, bar' -me-sides, a phrase originating in a story in the “Arabian Nights’ Entertainments,” relating how the sixth brother of the barber was invited to a feast by one of the great historical family of the Barmecides of Khorassan, but had nothing set before him, although his host kept ordering him imaginary dishes of great delicacy, and asking how he liked them. The poor fellow, at first humouring the cruel joke, at last got angry, and boxed his host’s ears, being afterwards rewarded by a really good dinner. BARNACLES, bar' -na-kls, an old name for spectacles, derived from bernicula (a diminutive of beryllus), a transparent stone. In one of the S^ee Relievo.) BASS VIOL, ViOLiNCELLO.) BASTION, bast' -yon (Fr.), a large mass of earth, usually faced with brickwork, or stones, and forming a tower which stands out from the ramparts surrounding a town or place to be de- fended. It corresponds with the bulwark of the ancients. It is formed of two faces, two flanks, and two demigorges. The junction of the two faces forms the salient angle of the bastion ; and D BAT 50 BATH AND BATHING the faces, together with the flanks, form the 4paules or shoulders. Bastions are now made of various kinds — solid, hollow, regular, &c. Solid bastions are entirely filled up with earth up to the level of the platform of the guns, while hollow bastions have the interior level with the ordinary ground. Kegular bastions are those which have their faces, flanks, &c., in due proportion. A demi-bastion, or epaulement, has only one face and one flank. A double bastion is when one bastion is raised within and upon the plane of another bastion. A flat jjastion is one built in the middle of the curtain or wall connecting the two angles of a rampart. A composed bastion is one in which the sides of the interior polygon are unequal ; thus making the gorges also unequal. A bastion is called deformed or irregular when the faces, flanks, &c. , are not in symmetrical pro- portion ; and a cut bastion, or bastion with a tenaille, is one whose salient angle has been cut off, and has, instead, an angle opening inwards, with two points outward. If the angle of a bas- tion is less than 6o®, it is found to be too small for the use of guns ; besides, being so acute, it is easily battered down by the enemy. BAT. {See Okicket.) Bat (Fr., bdt), originally meant a kind of pack-saddle, and was extended to baggage generally. In the Army, the servant of an officer is known as a bat -man, and horses and mules employed to carry the baggage and equipage of officers are bat-animals. BATH AND BATHING, hahth. Bathing, in its most general acceptation, denotes the application to the surface of the body, or a part of it, of a medium different, or of a different temperature, from that by which it is usually surrounded. The substance which constitutes this medium is termed a bath. Baths are of various kinds, and are distinguished according to the substances of which they are composed, as water, vapour, air, sand ; according to their temperature, as cold, tepid, hot; according to the mode of their application, as plunge, shower, douche ; according as they are general or partial, natural or artificial. We find the warm bath mentioned as early as the time of Homer. After- wards both public and private baths came to be common among the Greeks ; but we know little of their construction and arrangements. The public baths were mostly in connection with the ^mnasia, and were taken immediately after their athletic exercises. It was not until the reign of Augustus that the public baths at Eome came to assume that magnificence and siDlendour which afterwards characterized them. They were termed thermce, or hot baths ; but they also contained cold baths. In the latter period of the empire, Eome contained an immense number of baths, in various parts of the city. Different authors reckon upwards of 800 of them ; but the most celebrated were those of Agrippa, Antonius, •Caracalla, Diocletian, Domitian, Nero, and Titus. Those of Diocletian are said to have been capable of accommodating 1,800 bathers. The vestiges of these buildings that are still to be seen indicate the great magnificence of the original structures. The usual time of bathing with the Eomans was about two o’clock in summer, and three in winter. Their mode of bathing was as follows : — After undressing, the body of the bather was anointed with a cheap, coarse oil ; on which he proceeded into the sphoeristerium, a very large apartment, devoted to exercises of various kind s, the most com- mon of which was the ball. After taking a sufficient amount of exercise, he went into the adjoining warm bath, where he washed, and scraped the surface of his body with instruments called st't'igiles, usually of horn or bronze. His body was then anointed with perfumed oils. He then passed into the tepidarium, and thence into the frigidarium, in order to soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to the open air. Wherever the Eomans settled, they built public baths, took advantage of hot-springs, as in the west of England where the city of Bath , preserves the memory of the Eoman baths. After the decline of the Eoman empire, the most conspicuous baths were those erected by the Arabians and Egyptians, and as bathing was obligatory on all Islamites, bath-houses were established in every town where there was a mosque, and wealthy people had splendid private baths. The method of bathing in these Oriental baths is imitated in the modern Turkish bath, and consisted in inducing extreme perspiration by the action of hot air, then submitting to kneading and stretching of the limbs by an attendant, and at last, repose and gradual cool- ing in another room. In the modern Turkish bath the atmosphere of the “ sweating ” room — in which steam is produced by throwing water on hot pebbles, the temperature is sometimes as high as 140*^ Fahrenheit. The vapour bath is extensively resorted to in Germany and Eussia^ Medicated baths are those in which some sub- stance, intended to act medicinally, is mixed with the liquid in which the body is immersed. Sand baths, in using which the bather covers his body with the sand of the sea-shore, or the heated sand near a hot-spring, are very ancient. Peat and mud baths are occasionally used in Germany. There are also electro, or galvanic, and compressed air baths, but they are but rarely used. Douche baths, those in which the bather is exposed to the action of a strong jet of hot or cold water, are well known, especially in connec- tion with hydropathic treatment. {See Hydko- PATHY.) The most common medium employed in bathing is water, at different degrees of tempera- ture, from 33° up to 1 12® Fahr. Baths are divided into different kinds, according to their tempera- ture. The simplest division is into cold and hot ; including in the former all that communicate a sensation of cold, and in the latter a sensation of heat to the body. This test, however, is very variable, differing in different individuals at the same time, and in the same individual at different times ; but, in most cases, it will be found to be between 84® and 88° Fahr. On entering a cold bath, a healthy person feels a sensation of cold, accompanied with a slight shuddering, and, if the change is considerable, a shock ; the skin becomes pale and contracted, and the respiration hurried and irregular. In a few seconds the colour and warmth return to the skin, and a glow is diffused over the whole body. If the person remains more than ten or twelve minutes, the glow disappears, and is succeeded by a general feeling of chilliness. As the great object of cold- bathing is to produce this glow, the bather should always leave the water before it goes off. Hence cold-bathing always does harm when the powers of the body are too languid to bring on a re- action, and the chilling effects remain unopposed. In the same way, it is not proper to bathe while the body is in a chilled state, or exhausted by bodily or mental exertion ; as in these cases a reaction is doubtful. When one is strong and in health, the morning, before breakfast, is the best BATHOS 51 BATTUA time for bathing ; but for weak and delicate persons the best time is about noon. If one feels cold, languid, and drowsy after bathing, it is an indication that it does not agree with him ; and it would l?e well for him to resort to the tepid bath for some time, until the vigour of his con- stitution is in some measure restored. Delicate persons should make a shorter stay in the bath than others. No one should bathe immediately after a full meal. Cold-bathing is particularly valuable in all cases of great nervous irritability and sensibility, accompanied with general debil- ity. In cases of weakness of the limbs, torpor, and loss of power, it is also of much service. The tepid bath, which is intermediate between the cold and hot, and may be said to include the highest degrees of the one and the lowest degrees of the other, ranges from about 85° to 94°. The difference between it and the general temperature of the body is so small, that it can exercise but a slight effect upon the circulation. Its influence is chiefly confined to the skin, which it softens and cleanses, and promotes insensible X^erspiration. It is very soothing and salutary when the skin is dry or imrched, and is some- times had recourse to in cases of fever. It is also used as ipreparatory to the cold bath in Iver- sons of delicate constitution. The warm or hot hath ranges from 94° uj) to 112°, but generally not above 98° or 100° ; or, more ivroperly, the warm bath ranges from 94° to 98°, and the hot bath from 98° to 112°. The primary effect of a warm bath is to stimulate and enliven ; the circulation and respiration are quickened, and the surface of the body exjvands. Gradually, however, the ivulse becomes fuller and slower, the energy of the muscles disappears, and a tendency to sleep succeeds. It is of great use in alleviating local or general irritation, and is much resorted to in spasmodic and convulsive diseases. It is had recourse to in the case of weak and irritable constitutions, which could not sup- port the shock of cold immersion. It ought, however, to be employed as a remedial agent only as it is too errervating for ordinary use. It may be prolonged so as to produce fainting, which is sometimes done, in order to relax the tension of muscles and sinews, for the reduction of dislocations, opening of constricted passages, and such-like. In all forms of bathing, caution is necessary ; aivd especially in the use of medicated or Turkish baths, medical advice should be taken as to the probability of benefit. Some lament- able results have accrued from too precipitate a resort to these baths. BATHOS, bai'-thos (Gr., depth), is a term emivloyed in literature to denote an unconscious descent from the sublime to the ridiculous, from a lofty idea to a mean one ; as in the well-known lines — “ And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war Lieutenant-general to the earl of Mar.” BATON, la-tawn {g) (Fr., a staff), is a staff or club emivloyed to denote dignity or power. It is the name given to the short staff presented by the French sovereign to each field-marshal on his axvpointment, as an indication of his power. It IS also the name of the long staff carried by the drum major of an infantry regiment, and of the small light staff used by the conductor of an orchestra. BATTERING-RAM, hat'-ter-ing, a mili- tary engine of high antiquity, which was used for beating down the walls of besieged fortresses. It consisted of a massive beam of timber, with an iron or bronze mass upon one end, generally of the shape of a ram’s head. In its earliest and rudest form it was worked by soldiers, who sujv- ivorted it in their hands. More generally, how- ever, it was slung from a cross-beam, with an alternate motion communicated to it by means of ropes. It was in many cases covered by a rude form of shed, which served as a protection to those working the ram. Justus Lipsius speaks of one battering-ram as 180 feet in length, with a diameter of nearly 2 feet, while the iron head weighed a ton and a half. Supposing this engine to be worked by 100 soldiers, it would acquire a momentum equal to that of a 36-pounder. This very ancient weapon of destruction is mentioned by Ezekiel. Thucydides s^veaks of it as being used in the Peloponnesian war, B.c. 429; and Dionysius the Elder certainly employed it a hundred years later at the siege of Motya. The Romans, Avho derived it from the Greeks, used it constantly and with great effect. It was some- times, but not very frequently, used in the Middle Ages BATTLE-AXE, hat' -tel -ax, an ancient military wea]von of offence. This weapon, which appears to have been used from the most remote periods in warfare, was made in two forms. The first had a single edge only, and was similar to the modern hatchet ; the second had two edges, and was sometimes called the Amazonian axe, from a supposition that weapons of this kind were used by the female warriors. Axes were much em^vloyed as offensive weapons by the Celtic and Scandinavian nations. In the Bayeux tapestry the English are represented as using the battle-axe. The pole-axe was introduced by the Normans ; it had an edge on one side and a sharp point on the other. The battle-axe fell into dis- use towards the close of the 16th century. BATTLEMENT, hat' -tel-ment, a wall 01 parapet on the top of a building, with notches oi indentures, in the form of embrasures, to look through or to discharge missiles from, for the annoyance of an enemy. The rising parts of the parapet are called merlons or copes, and the open s^vaces are called crenels, loops, or embrasures. The purpose of the contrivance is, that a soldier may shelter himself behind the merlon while he shoots or observes the enemy through the crenels. Battlements were largely given to ecclesiastical and civil buildings in the Middle Ages by way of ornament, where they are often richly panelled or ivierced with circles, trefoils, quatrefoils, &c. On fortifications, the battlements are generally quite plain, or pierced only with a very narrow cruciform or upright opening, the ends of which sometimes terminate in circles called ceillets, through which archers could take aim. Some- times the coping on the top of the merlons is carried over the embrasure, producing the appear- ance of a pierced parapet. The use of this orna- ment is almost entirely confined to the English styles of Gothic architecture. BATTUE, hat' -too (Fr., hattre, to beat), an expression used to denote an unsportsmanlike method, adopted by owners of large estates in the autumn and winter months, of killing a great quantity of game which has been preserved for the purpose. A party of so-called sports- men, each with two guns, which are loaded for them by attendant keepers, surround a copse or BAYADERES 52 BAYLE’S DICTIONARY plantation in which a great number of pheasants, hares, and rabbits are known to harbour. Men armed with long sticks are then sent in, who beat the bushes in all directions, which causes the game to quit their retreat and make for other covers. As they come out into the open space, they are shot down in all directions as fast as the guns can be discharged. This is not sport, for there is neither excitement nor danger, and little skill is required. It is simply butchery for amusement. BAYADERES. Bajadekes.) BAYEUX TAPESTRY, hai'-yu{r) (Fr., tapis, carpet), a long piece of cloth, or rather canvas, 214 feet in length and 20 inches broad, preserved in the public library at Bayeux. It is embroidered in coloured yarns, with figures of men, animals, houses, ships, &c., with a border above and below the central portion, formed of emblematic devices ; and forms a pictorial history of the events which i^receded and brought about the conquest of England by ^yilliam I. It is divided into seventy-two compartments, each bearing an inscription in Latin explaining its sub- ject ; and many of the figures have the names of the persons they are intended to represent at- tached, in the same language. It contains 1,512 figures in all ; namely, 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 37 houses, churches, and castles, 41 ships and boats, 49 trees, and 505 smaller animals, birds, and sphinxes, principally in the borders. It is supposed to have been worked for the cathe- dral of Bayeux, under the superintendence of Matilda, the queen of William the Conqueror, and presented to his brother Odo, the bishop of that place, as an acknowledgment of the services he had rendered in the conquest of England. It went exactly round the nave of the building, where the ecclesiastical authorities, according to Ducarel, in his “Anglo-Norman Antiquities,” 1767, were accustomed to hang it up on St. John’s day in every year, and allow it to remain there for the eight days immediately following ; but, from the inventory of the various things belonging to the cathedral taken in 1476, it seems probable that it was originally suspended round the nave on October, 1500, the day on which AYilliam won the battle of Hastings. It narrowly escaped de- struction at the hands of the mob during the French revolution, and shortly after was brought to Paris, and exhibited there by order of Napo- leon. In 1816, careful drawings of it were made by Mr. Stothard for the Society of Antiquaries. It has been a matter of discussion whether it was worked by Matilda, queen of William the Oon- (pieror, or Matilda, empress of Germany, the daughter of his son Henry I. ; but there is much evidence in the tapestry itself to show that it was embroidered shortly after the occurrence of the events it is intended to commemorate. BAY-LEAVES. — From remote antiquity bay-leaves have been used in the customs and ceremonies of various nations. An honorary crown or wreath composed of these leaves was bestowed as a prize on men who were distin- guislied for any literary or military merit. Thus Spenser — “ So him they led through all their streetes along. Crown’d with garlands of immortal bales; And all the vulgar did around them throng To see the man whose everlasting praise They all were bound to all posteritie to raise.” There was a superstition that bay -leaves were able to protect the wearer in a thunderstorm. And in an old play, called The White Devil, there are the following lines : — “ Eeach the bays; I’ll tie a garland here about his head — 'Twill keep my boy from lightning.” The fading of bay -leaves was looked iqDon formerly as an omen of death. At the present day, they are used along with other evergreens in decorat- ing houses and churches at Christmas. They are also used for flavouring in cookery. BAYLES HISTORICAL AND CRI- TICAL DICTIONARY, the principal work of Pierre Bayle, one of the most eminent of French authors of the latter part of the 17th century. The first edition, forming two folio volumes, was published at Kotterdam in 1696, and a second and enlarged edition about five years afterwards. His first intention was to comijose a Dictionary, the object of which was to correct the errors of other Dictionaries, and he issued a specimen, which, however, did not please the public and he altered his plan. The work, when it appeared, proved te be a Dictionary of subjects, historical, religious, political, literary, and scientific, arranged in alphabetical order, and treated in a critical and frequently sceptical spirit. The orthodox public were alarmed at the free manner in which certain subjects were handled, and the book incurred a public censure from the Consistory of Rotterdam. Four prominent objections were adduced : — The indecency of some passages ; the tendency of the article on David ; the support covertly given te the Manichean doctrine of evil, and the sceptical tenets of the philosopher Pyrrhon ; the commen- dation of Epicureans and Atheists, by which a tacit support was supposed to be given to these tenets. Bayle, who professed a vague sort of Protestantism (that is, he had in early life ab- jured Catholicism) partially submitted to the authority of the Consistory, and in the second edition omitted the article on David, but defended himself against the other objections. The pur- chasers of the second edition, however, were so angry at the omission of the article, that ‘ ‘ David ” was reprinted in a separate form, and in later editions appeared as an api^endix. The Dictionary is highly valued by literary critics for its charm of style, even when the writer’s opinions are not accepted. One modern writer says, “ The Dic- tionary is Bayle’s masterpiece, and in it appears- to perfection his various qualities — extensive and curious information, fluency of style, and that light sceptical spirit which has become closely associated with his name. His scepticism is that of the literary man of the world, who in his read- ing has encountered so many opposing and well- supported arguments on all subjects that he feels inclined to hold that no certainty can ever bo attained.” The articles on the Greek sceptical philosophers are especially characteristic of the author. In dealing with the doctrines advocated with so much acrimony by the contending churches of his time he expressed his firm conviction that morality and religion may be independent of particular religious opinions. In most of the articles, the writer wanders widely from the- matter in hand, but is generally interesting, even when most diffuse. The Dictionary has been de- scribed as the dawn of the scepticism of the- eighteenth century. His erudition is consider- able, and his reading various and extensive. Isaac Disraeli says, “ The taste for literary history we owe to Bayle, and the great interest he com- BAYONET 53 BEARD municated to these researches spread in the na- tional tastes of Europe. With Bayle, indeed, his minor works were the seed-plots, but his great Dictionary opened the forest. He exhibits a perfect model of the great literary character. Throughout a voluminous work, he experiences the enjoyment of perpetual acquisition and de- light ; he obtained glory, and he endured perse- cution.” Warburton describes Bayle as “ a writer whose strength and clearness of reasoning can be equalled only by the gaiety, easiness and delicacy of his wit, who, pervading human nature with a glance, struck into the province of paradox, as an exercise for the restless vigour of his mind.” BAYONET, hai'-o-net (supposed to be de- rived from Bayonne, the town where it was first made), a steel dagger, or short spear, attached to the muzzle of a rifle or similar weapon. The first bayonets were used in France in 1671, and were called hayonets-a-manche : they had handles which fitted into the muzzles of the guns. Bayonets-di-douille, or socket-bayonets, were a later invention. It seems very probable that the first bayonets consisted of short daggers, which the infantry were in the habit of sticking into the muzzles of their muskets when attacked by cavalry. The use of pikes went out as the value of the bayonet began to be appreciated. The bayonet, as an offensive weapon, has been of great importance in modern warfare, and the bayonet -charge, in which every nation thinks that it excels, is one of the most terrible manoe- uvres of infantry soldiers. The sword-bayonet is a more modern invention, and, when detached from the gun, can be used as a weapon by itself. BAY-WINDOW, a window which forms a bay or recess in a room. It may project out- wards from the wall either in a rectangular, polygonal, or semi-circular form, which latter has often been incorrectly termed a bow-window. Windows of this kind are very common in the Perpendicular style. Examples of them may be seen in the halls of the colleges at Cambridge and Oxford, as well as in the old halls of the English nobility and gentry. Bay-windows generally reach to the ground, and are frequently supplied with a seat, known as the bay-stall. BEAD, hede,^ a small moulding whose vertical section is semi-circular, sometimes cut into pearls and other ornaments in Grecian and Eoman architecture, in which it is more frequently used than in the Gothic. It is also called an astragal. {See Astragal.) BEAKED, BECQUE, leeTcd'^ leh-]cai\ in heraldry, when the beak of a fowl is of a different tincture from the body, it is said to be beaked to such a tincture. BEAN-KING, in the early customs of this country, was the title of the person who was chosen as king of the social festivals on the even- ing of the Twelfth -day The mode of election is thus described : — A cake is baked with a bean and a i)ea concealed in it, and is divided among the company present, when he that receives the bean is king of the ceremonies, and she that has the pea is queen. [See Twelfth-Dat.) A like custom prevails in other countries. BEAR-BAITING. — Bears, like bulls and other animals, were formerly made objects of cruel sport by being baited with dogs. There appears to be an innate cowardly brutality in un- cultured human nature which delights in inflict- ing pain. A powerful animal, a bear or a bull, was secured to a post by a strong chain, and then fierce dogs were set at it. Of course, the dogs sometimes got the worst of the fight, and their sufferings added to the enjoyment of the specta- tors. In this country, the amusement was not limited to the lowest classes of society, but the nobility and even royalty shared in it. Fitz- Stephen speaks of it as a popular pastime in the time of Henry H. Sunday, after Church service, was a favourite time for engaging in it. In Queen Elizabeth’s time, there was a bear-garden, or enclosed place, where bears were baited, at South- wark, and the Queen and the ladies and gallants of the time took pleasure in witnessing the fight between the chained bear and the dogs. In Shakesjieare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, Master Slender, when in his shyness he is at a loss for some fitting talk to “ sweet Ann Page,” asks her — “ Be there bears i’ the town ? ” and then goes on to brag that to see the bear loose is meat and drink to him, and that he has “ seen Sackerson loose twenty times, and has taken him by the chain,” from which it would seem that the same bear was frequently baited, and that the animals kept for the i^uri^ose were known by particular names. The Sovereign and many of the principal nobles paid wages to keepers of bears, known as “bear-wards.” Edward Alleyn, the player, contemporary of Shakespeare, and founder of Dulwich College, held the office of keeper of the royal bear-garden. Bear-baiting, which had long been obsolete, was formally prohibited by Parlia- ment in 1835, by the Act against Cruelty to Animals. {See Baiting.) Bear-Leader. — Formerly at fairs and country fes- tivities, and frequently in the public street, one of the great attractions was a dancing bear, which was muzzled and led about by a man who was called the bear- leader. The practice is now abolished on account of its dangers. The term of bear-leader, however, is still applied in a facetious sense to a tutor or guardian who takes charge of a young man of wealth or title when on his travels. BEARD, heerd (Ang. -Sax.), the hair growing upon the chin, and other adjoining parts of the face, in men ; and very rarely, in women. It is thicker than the hair of the head and is usually of the same colour, but always the same as the eye- brows. The beard is most abundant among those of the Caucasian race ; and many persons, natives of Africa, America, and Australia, have little or no beard. The earliest notice on record regarding this manly ornament is in the Bible (Levit. xix. 27), where the lawgiver of the Jews warns them not to “mar the corners” of their beards. Jews continue to the jiresent day to let the^ entire beard grow, when mourning, for the period of thirty days. The beard was held in great estimation among the J ews, as it is until the present day among the Arabians. “ By the beard of Aaron,” or “ By the beard of the Pro- phet,” is looked on as the most solemn oath of a Jew or a Mahometan. Nearly all the Eastern peoples prided themselves upon the fashion and form of their beards ; and we have it expressly on record, that the Assyrians and Persians in- dulged in very long beards ; and that often, and particularly their kings, they interwove the hair, the lower lip, and chin, with matted gold. With the ancient Jews and the modern Turks, the prac- tice of anointing the beard with perfumes was adopted. Many of the ancient Egyptians, and particularly their kings, are often figured in the delineations of them which have come down to us, as entirely without beards. Beard-cases were BEARD 54 BEAT OF DRUM often, as in the Memnon’s head in the British Museum, employed to conceal all the hair that was permitted to grow on the faces of this people. Among the Greeks, and especially by the Greek philosophers, the beard was held in estimation. Athenceus, the grammarian, tells us that the Greeks wore the beard until the time of Alexander the Great, who ordered his Macedonian soldiery to shave it off, lest the growth of it might give a ready handle to their enemies in battle. Philo- sophers have nearly always affected the beard as a mark of gravity, and even venerableness ; and Strabo tells us that the Gymnosophists of India wore it long. Socrates and Plato were honoured with the distinction of “bearded master ” by their pupils ; and the origin of the proverb, ek pogon oi sophoi (wise men, from their beards), arose from this class of wise men among the Greeks indulging always in this ornament. The Romans wore the beard until the 5th cen- tury A.U.C., when Publius Ticinus Mena brought over a colony of barbers from Sicily to exercise their profession on the Roman chins. Augustus, and the Roman emperors till Hadrian, shaved their beards ; and Plutarch says that Hadrian allowed his to grow to hide the scars on his face. All the imperial personages after Hadrian grew their beards. It was customary, on the assump- tion of the toga virilis among the Roman youth, to consecrate the first-fruits of their beards to some deity. Homer and Virgil, Chrysippus and Pliny the younger, Plutarch and Strabo, Dio- dorus and Juvenal, Perseus and Prudentius, all celebrate this ornament on the faces of persons distinguished for the length or whiteness of their beards. The Lombards (or Longbeards), the early French, the ancient Britons, and the Anglo- Saxons after they conquered Britain, all nourished the growth of their beards with peculiar care. The English clergy by-and-by, probably in imita- tion of those of Western Europe, began to shave the beard, and until the time of William the Norman, the whole of whose army shaved the beard, there prevailed a bearded class and a shaven class, otherwise a laity and a clergy, in England. When Duke William conquered England, he in- sisted rigorously upon carrying out the Norman custom of shaving ; and he thus constrained many of the high-sjurited Britons rather to abandon their country than their whiskers. At a later period, the higher classes indulged in the moustache, or the entire beard, from the reign of Edward HI. down to the time of Charles II. Beards of particular cut were often characteristic of a profession. Thus, there is the steeletto beard, and the spade beard, and the “beard of the general’s cut,” of Shakespeare. In the reign of Charles II. the entire face was often shaven ; sometimes a slight moustache was tolerated, and sometimes the whiskers or hair on the cheeks was grown. In France it went out of fashion in the reign of Louis XIII., to be inaugurated again by Napoleon’s soldiers. In Russia it nvas highly fashionable until Peter the Great ordered all to shave. “But such veneration,” remarks Dr. Giles Fletcher, “had this people for these ensigns of gravity, that many of them carefully preserved their beards in their cabinets, to be buried with them, imagining, perhaps, that they should make but an odd figure in their graves with their naked chins.” During the last fifty years, growing the whole beard has become very common in most European nations. First the practice began in Bonaparte’s army, then it extended to Italy, then to Germany, then to Spain and Russia, and, lastly, to England, where now the wearing of a moustache, or beard, is the general rule, and a clean-shaved face the exception. BEARING, hair'-ing, a word employed with different meanings in various departments of art. In Heraldry, bearing is that which fills an escut- cheon ; the same as “ charge.” In Music. — In the tuning of keyed instruments, harps, &c., bearing notes signify those notes between which the most erroneous or highly-tempered fifth is situate, on which, also, the ^mlf is said to be thrown. Many tuners begin at C and tune upwards, through the pro- gression of fifths, C, G, D, A, E, B, G fiat, D flat, and A flat, and then stop, and begin again at C, the octave above the former note, and tune downwards through the fifths F, B flat, and £ flat ; and thus the resulting fifths A flat E flat produces hearing nofes, owing to each fifth having been made more or less flat than the system of twelve notes will bear, the least sum of all their errors or temperaments being the diascMsma. Some tuners are in the habit of throwing their tvolf into the fifth A flat, D flat, and others into that of D flat, G flat. Bearing the Bell, an expression conveying the idea of excelling in any art or pursuit. He that takes the lead in anything, or gains the prize in any contest, is said to bear away the bell from the rest of the com- petitors. The phrase originated from a custom in vogue in the 17th century, of giving a little belief gold or silver to the winner of a horse race. BEASTS OF PARK, ob, CHASE, are, properly, buck, doe, fox, marten, and roe ; but in common and legal sense extend likewise to all the beasts of the forest, which, besides the others, are reckoned to be hart, hind, hare, boar, and wolf, and, in a word, all beasts of venery or hunting. Beasts of warren are hares, conies, and roes. BEAT, OR BATTEMENT, beet (Fr.), in Music, a transient grace or ornament in the per- formance of a note, denoting that a kind of shake is to be made, by beginning with the half-tone below the given note, and quickly rejjeating the given note and that : on the contrary, the shake marked tr is effected by beginning on the note above the given one (whether a half or whole tone distant), and repeating the given note and it alternately. BEATING TIME, in Music, that motion of the hand or foot used by performers themselves, or some person presiding over the concert, to specify, mark, and regulate the measure of the movements. If the time be common or equal, the beating is also equal ; as, down, left, right, up, or one down and one up ; if the time be triple or unequal, the beating is also unequal ; as, down, left, up, &c. BEATINGS. Those regular pulsative heav- ings or swellings of sound produced in an organ, by pipes of the same key, when they are not exactly in unison, i.e. when their vibrations are not perfectly equal in velocity, not simultaneous and coincident. BEAT OF DRUM. Many of the move- ments and manoeuvres of soldiers are indicated by a particular method of drum-beating. There is a great variety of beats of which the principal are as follows : — ^the general, giving notice to^ troops that they are to march ; the assembly, ordering troops to a rendezvous, or to join their colours; the march is the command to move, always with the left foot first ; the tattoo, or tap- too, is the order to retire to quarters. The reveille is always beaten at dawn, and gives notice to the soldiers to rise, to the sentinels to BEAU 55 BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER desist from challenging, and that leave is given to come out of quarters. To arms beats when soldiers are dispersed, in order to bring them to- gether ; and the retreat is a signal to retire from before the enemy ; the retreat is also beaten in camp and garrison a little before sunset, and orders the soldiers to retire to their quarters. The alarm gives notice of sudden danger ; and the parley demands a conference with the enemy. There are several other beats; such as the chamade, the long roll, the rogue’s march, the poineer’s call, the call to church, &c. The calls are also frequently given by the bugle. BEAU, ho (Fr., fine), is .’applied to one who pays too much attention to his dress and personal appearance : satirically he has been described as being “a woman in everything but the sex — ^a man in nothing except the sex.” The word has frequently been applied as a sort of social title to jjersons prominent in the fashionable world, as Beau Nash and Beau Brummell. BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER’S PLAYS. — Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, friends and literary associates, in the early part of the seventeenth century {see Biographical Division), united in the production of a great number of plays, a masque, and a poem ; but it is almost impossible to decide satisfactorily their respective shares in the authorship. They lived together in the closest friendship for several years, and although, during the lifetime of the survivor, only three of the fifty-two plays, included in the collected edition of their works, were published with their joint names, there is strong internal evidence of the collaboration of Beaumont (ten years younger than his friend, and dying nine years earlier) in at least seventeen. Of the two, he seems to have possessed the more imaginative and tender spirit, and there are passages, evidently by him, in some of the plays which make a nearer approach to the pathos and beauty of the supreme master, Shakespeare, than any other contemporary poet in that great age of dramatic literature could achieve. Mr. Swin- burne, a congenial poet and subtle critic, says, “the general style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and severe in its purity of note and regularity of outline as that of Fletcher’s is, by comparison, lax and effusive. ... In those tragic poems, of which the dominant note is the note of Beaumont’s genius, a subtle chord of thought is sounded, a deeper key of emotion is touched than was ever struck by Fletcher, the higher genius is palpably subordinate to the stronger, and loyally submits itself to the impression of a loftier spirit. It is true that this distinction is never grave enough to produce a discord: it is also true that the plays in which the predomin- ance of Beaumont’s mind and style is generally perceptible, make up altogether but a small section of the work that bears their names con- jointly ; but it is no less true that within this section the most precious part of that work is comprised . . . To Beaumont his stars had given, as birthright, the gifts of tragic pathos and pas- sion, of tender power and broad strong humour ; to Fletcher had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of invention, a more aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more various realness and. fulness of light, exuberant speech. The genius of Beaumont was deeper, sweeter, nobler, than his elder’s ; the genius of Fletcher more brilliant, more prodigal, and more valuable than his friend’s.” We have quoted this passage from the new edition of the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, because it would be scarcely possible to define with equal sympathy and critical per- ception the distinction between the characteristics, of the two writers. It is greatly to be regretted that two men capable of producing so much that is light and beautiful, sharers in the intellectual light and moral sensitiveness which distinguished the glorious literary period in which they la- boured, should have descended so low as they sometimes did, not only in some licentious scenes and lewd dialogues, but in the general plan and conduct of many of their comedies. To deinct the conflict of passions, the strength and Aveak- ness, the fierce rage and the masterful sensuous- ness which disturb and often wreck the human soul, may be, indeed is, the province of the tragic writer, and the lighter phases of character, the wit and humour, the diversities of personal character are fit matter for comedy ; but there is a depth to which the self-respect of a man of intellect, who possesses the higher gift of genius, should not permit him to descend. Abnormal instincts, the degradation of men and women by gross habits and diseased impulses, is no subject for either the comic or tragic muse. It may be a palliative, but it is no excuse for the gifted writers we are noticing, that they lived in a time when literature was greatly influenced by the baser spirit of antique authors, and that OAdd and other writers, now only partially read, or indeed accessible to the general public, were the favourites of the literary-minded men and women of fashion of the time. Shakespeare was as powerful in delineating the animal impulses as in exhibiting every other phase of human nature, but he was as natural as powerful. There is passion sometimes in his broadly comic charac- ters, great grossness of expression, but morbid- ness and mere nastiness, never. Jonson was outrageously coarse, but only in depicting coarse characters ; and Dekker’s own comedies, and the scenes he interpolated in Massinger’s finest play, are abominably foul in language. But Beaumont and Fletcher occasionally exhibited a foulness of mind in their conception of character and the conduct of the incidents of the play, which is peculiarly repulsive, because it appears to take pleasure in a morbid perversion of natural in- stincts. The wit and grace of style exhibited make the indecency more repulsive. It suggests Apollo mimicking the abominations of the satyrs. One modern Avriter says, “ Some of the impurest of the plays are almost beyond conception, yet there is always an air of good breeding about them, and the filth is handled in the most gentle- manly manner.” Professor Shaw, in his “ Out- lines of English Literature,” points out a strange mental peculiarity of the writers; — “The most singular thing is that many of the most indelicate scenes and much of the coarsest language in Beaumont and Fletcher Avill be found to have been composed with the express purpose of ex- hibiting the virtue and purity of their heroines.” The masterpieces of the associated writers are generally considered the PMlaster and The MaiTs Tragedy, plays exhibiting power of the highest kind, vigorous dramatic conception, and admir- able diction. Joint Productions. — Critics generally agree that Beau- mont and Fletcher were associated in the authorship of the following plays : — The Knight of the Burning Pestle, Philaster, The Maid's Tragedy, Four Plays in One, King or no King, The Honest Man’s Fortune, The Coxcomb, Cupid’s Revenge, The Scornful Lady, Wit without Honey, BEAUTY 56 BEEHIVE-HOUSE Wit at Several Weapons, The Little French Lawyer, The Custom of the Country, Bonduca, The Laws of Candy, The KnUjht of Malta, The Faithful Friends. From in- ternal evidence it is assumed that Beaumont had the greater share in the authorship of these plays. By Fletcher Alone.— 2’he Loyal Subject, The Island Frincess, The Pilgrim, The Wildgoose Chase, The Beg- gar’s Back, The Woman’s Prize, The Mad Lover, Love’s Pilgrimage, The Night Walker, The Faithful Shep- herdess, The Prophetess, The Sea Voyage, The Spanish Curate, A Wife for a Month, Rule a Wife and have a Wife, The Fair Maid of the Inn, The Noble Gentleman, It is supposed tl.at in one play, The Maid of the Mill, Fletcher had the assistance of Rowley, and some criti- cal writers are certain that they can discern the hand of Shakespeare in The Two Noble Kinsmen. Publication of the Plays. — The first collected edition of the comedies and tragedies was edited by John Shirley, and published with a dedication (signed by ten players) to 1 hilip, Earl of Pembroke and Mont- gomery, in 1647 . It contained thirty-six plays, pub- lished for the first time. There have been many modern editions, that edited by the Rev. Mr. Dyce, and issued, in eleven volumes, being probably the best. BEAUTlf, hu'-te[Vv., heaute ). — The beauti- ful, the sublime, and the picturesque go to form a portion of every theory of taste. No exact de- finition of beauty has ever been given, and we may be satisfied with a sentence descriptive of it. Beauty, then, is that which gratifies the taste of all. It springs most subtly from our capacity of enjoyment, or from our sense of the pleasurable ; and hence the unparalleled diversity of opinion which has alway existed regarding it. {See AIsthetics.) BEAVER, he^-ver, that part of the complete helmet forming the lower part of the front-piece, which, with the avantaille, completed the visor. When the avantaille was raised and the beaver lowered, the whole face was uncovered ; when arranged in the contrary manner, the face was completely guarded. The avantaille covered the face from the brows downward to the nose ; the beaver from the chin upwards till it met the avantaille. Either could be opened independ- ently of the other. "When it was desirable to obtain a freer circulation of air, to eat or drink, while preserving the incognito, the beaver was lowered. When a knight wished, by disclosing his features, to make himself known, he raised the avantaille of his helmet. With alterations in the shape of the helmet, the word beaver was applied to that portion which could be let down over the face, equivalent to the avantaille ; and writers of the Elizabethan age use the word in different senses. Spenser says of one of the characters in his great poem, “His dreadful, hideous head close couched on the beaver,” which implies that the beaver covered the lower part of the face ; but Shakespeare uses the phrase, “ faintly through a rusty beaver peeps,” mean- ing evidently the bars of the visor covering the eyes, and in Hamlet, Horatio informs the Prince that he recognized the features of the ghost because “ he wore his beaver up.” BECK, hek (Ang.-Sax.), denotes a brook or small stream of water issuing from some spring or rill. It enters into the composition of the names of many English places ; as, Welbeck, Bournbeck, &c. The German word hack has the same signification, and in like manner forms part of the names of various places ; as, Griesbach. BED, hed (Ang.-Sax.), an article of furniture upon which to rechne for repose or sleep. In the early ages it was the practice of mankind to stretch themselves upon the skins of animals. which was the custom of the Greeks, the Romans, and of the ancient Britons before the Roman invasion ; after which event the skins spread for this purpose on the fioor of the apartments were changed for heath and rushes ; and, in the course of time, the introduction of agriculture supplied the central Britons with the greater convenience of straw beds. The beds at the inns of this period were filled with the soft down of reeds, and those of the Roman patricians with feathers. For many ages the beds of the Italians had been composed of straw ; and from them it is probable our countrymen learnt its application. In Wales the beds of the humbler classes were stuffed with rushes as late as the end of the 12th century, and straw was used in the royal chambers of England at the close of the 13th. Beds appear to have been the chief household possession in England during the 14th century, and were considered of suffi- cient importance to be named in the mils of our sovereigns and the chief nobility. Anne, countess of Pembroke, for instance, in 1367, gave to her daughter a bed, “ mth the furniture of her father’s arms.” In 1368, Lord Ferrers left to his son his ‘ ‘ green bed with his arms thereon ; ” and to his daughter his “white bed, and all the furniture, with the arms of Ferrers and Ufford thereon.” Edward the Black Prince bequeathed to his confessor, Sir Robert de Walsham, a large bed of red camora, with his arms embroidered at each corner ; while to another friend he left an- other bed of camora, enriched and powered with blue eagles; and, in 1385, his widow gave “to my dear son, the king, my new bed of red velvet, embroidered with ostrich feathers of silver, and heads of leopards of gold.” Shakespeare be- queathed to his wife his “ second best bed.” In many parts of the country agricultural labourers now sleep on chaff beds ; and in the Highlands heath is very commonly employed. In Italy and France, straw beds are still in general use. The modern bed is a case or sack of ticking, usually filled with feathers, and placed upon a raised wooden or iron framework, which is called the bedstead. The massive four-post bedstead, hung with heavy curtains, is now rare. BEEF-EATERS, heef'-e-ters, a name popu- larly given to the Yeomen of the Guard. {See Yeomen.) The name is a corruption of the French huffetier, from their waiting at the royal table on great occasions. BEEFSTEAK CLUB, a club established in the reign of Queen Anne, and frequently alluded to in contemporary literature. The “Sublime Society of Beefsteaks ” was established in 1735, by Rich, an actor of Covent Garden Theatre, and met in the painting-room of that theatre, for the purpose of dining on beefsteaks. This con- vivial club became very attractive, and Royal personages, and political, literary, and scientific men were proud of belonging to it. At each meet- ing one of the members, with no reservation as to rank, acted as cook. From this club grew an- other Beefsteak Club, which met in a room at the Lyceum Theatre, until 1867, when it became extinct and the portraits and other effects were sold. BEEHIVE-HOUSE, a name given to small, round, stone huts which are found in Ireland. They are very rudely built, and are supposed to be the relics of the most ancient architecture of the island. The doors have fiat tops, and are wider down below than above, as in the buildings of BEFFROI 57 BEND Egypt. When a beehive-house is found alone, it is mostly near the site of an ancient oratory. This favours the notion that they were the dwell- ings of the priests. When two or three beehive - houses are clustered together, they are usually connected by a passage, and are often under- ground, resembling the Piets’ houses or earth huts found on the north-east coast of Britain. Euins of beehive-houses exist in the western islands of Scotland. BEFFROI, OR BELFRY, bef-frwaw, a movable tower used in ancient and mediaeval sieges. It was as high as the walls of the fortress to be besieged, and was composed of various stages, the highest one being provided with a drawbridge, which could be let down upon the ramparts of the place attacked. Similar towers, but lower in height, were used for covering the approach of troops. They all moved on wheels, and were either pushed forward or drawn with ropes. They were used by Julius Caesar in Gaul ; and at the siege of Jerusalem the Crusaders made a beffroi, put it together at a short distance from the walls, and then pushed it up to the ramparts. A beffroi was also made by the royalists in the time of Charles I., when attacking a fortress in Herefordshire, held by the Parliamentarians. It was, however, captured, before the king’s party could make use of it. In more ancient times, these movable towers were often covered with raw hides, to protect the inclosed soldiers from the boiling oil, &c. They were often provided with a battering-ram. BEGGAR MY NEIGHBOUR, a simple and easy game at cards, mostly played by children, as no skill is required. The whole pack is dealt out to two iffayers, and the cards are held with the backs upward ; each player then turns up a single card in turn. When you play an ace, your adversary must give you four cards ; three for a king, two for a queen, and one for a knave ; and when the requisite number are laid down, you win the trick, and place the cards so won at the bottom of those in your hand. If, however, your opponent turns up an honour while paying for that which you have previously paid, you must pay for it in a similar manner, according to its value, and so on until a complete payment is made on either side. The player who first ex- hausts his adversary’s hand, and gets all the cards into his own, is said to beggar his neighbour. BELFRY, bel-fre (Fr., beffroi), a tower or turret in which bells are hung. It usually forms a portion of the fabric of a church, but is some- times detached from it, especially in Italy. {See Campanile.) In English churches, the bell- tower (or turret, where there is no tower) is ordinarily at the western end. In many of the old towns of the Continent, there are municipal belfries, erected for the purpose of calling the burghers together for the discharge of their civic or mihtary functions. These belfries, in many cases, were attached to the town-hall, but there are numerous instances of isolated structures. The renowned belfry of Bruges is a fine specimen of the municipal belfry. Bell-Ringing. Ringing changes upon peals of bells has been from very early times a favourite amusement in England. Many of the larger churches, old and new, have fine peals of bells, and societies of bell- ringers have been formed for the purpose of ringing peals, and very beautiful effects are produced by skil- ful ringers. Bequests of money have been made to provide for the ringing of peals at certain times. The first regular peal of bells in this country were sent in 1456 by Pope Calextus III. to King’.s College, Cam- bridge ; and this peal was for three centuries the finest in England. The number of changes which can be rung on a peal of bells is amazing to persons who have not given much attention to arithmetical calculation. A writer in the Encyclopa'dia Britannica says, “ Three bells can ring six changes ; four bells ring four times as many as three, i.e., twenty-four; five bells ring five times as many as four, or one hundred and twenty ; and it may then be shown that it would take ninety- one years to ring all the changes upon twelve bells at two strokes to a second ; whilst twenty-four bells would occupy more than 117 billions of years.” These changes are technically known by many odd names, of which plain-bob, bob-trifie, bob-major, and grandsire bob-cator are specimens. The ringers, one for each bell, assemble in a chamber in the belfry below the bell-loft, from which the ropes attached to the bells descend through holes. Great skill is necessary in handling the ropes, and serious accidents have been known to occur to incompetent ringers. Hand-bell ringing is a favourite amusement, especially in rural districts. A series of properly tuned small bells are suspended lium a frame and struck by small hammers held one in each hand of the performer. In some cases, the ringers hold a bell in each hand, and so ring the tune. {See Carillon and Chimes.) BELLES-LETTRES (Fr.), is a vague, in- definite term, adopted from the French, and may be said to correspond to the Latin literce humaniores, or the English polite literature. Generally speaking, the term applies to those branches of knowledge with which the imagina- tion and taste are chiefly concerned — those that relate to beauty, harmony, grandeur, and elegance, that tend to soothe the mind, gratify the fancy, or move the affections. Poetry, rhetoric, history, and philology, are generally understood to come within the sphere of belles-lettres; logical and ethical studies belong to a higher sphere. BELT, belt (Lat., balteus, a baldrick or girdle), a term applied by astronomers to some dark stripes or zones that appear on the surface of the planet Jupiter jiarallel to its equator. (^See Jupiter.) Orion’s Belt is figured by three stars in a direct line with each other, situated horizontally in the centre of the constellation. BELVIDERE, or BELVEDERE, bel- ve-deer' (Ital., beta, fair, beautiful; Lat., videre, to see), a name given to a place erected on the top of any building, from which a good prospect of the country around can be obtained. The structure is of Italian origin, and is commonly found in houses at Rome. The Belvidere at the Vatican is one of the most remarkable in exist- ence, being built in the foim of a horseshoe, having a gallery, inclosed at the back, running rolind the semi-circular part, and a balustrade in front. It commands a magnificent view of the country about Rome, extending as far as the Apennines. In France and England, the term is applied to summer-houses or buildings erected in gardens and parks, from some of w^hich a good view of the surrounding scenery can be obtained. BEN, ben (Heb., son), is a Hebrew word that enters into the formation of many proper names ; as, Benhadad, the son of Hadad ; Benjamin, the son of the right hand. In names of places in Scotland, the Gaelic beann, beinn, beinne, a hill, mountain, summit, pinnacle ; Irish, beann ; Welsh bann and pen are used in a similar manner. BEND, bend (Sax., bendan), in Heraldry, one of the nine jirincipal ordinaries, occupying a fifth part of the field when uncharged, but a third nart when it has any device or charge upon it. BENEDICTINE FATHERS 58 BEZIQUE It is formed by parallel diagonal lines, drawn from left to right, or from the dexter chief to the sinister base. When the term bend is mentioned without any addition, the bend dexter is always meant. The bend has four diminutives — the bendlet, half the width of the bend ; the garter ; the ribbon ; and the cost, or cotice, a narrow stripe generally borne on either side of the bend. Charges are said to be in bend, or 'per bend, when they are jdaced in the direction of the bend from the dexter chief to the sinister base. Bend Sinister (Lat., sinister, the left), one of the nine principal ordinaries, being exactly the reverse of the bend, similarly formed, but by lines drawn from the sinister chief to the dexter base, or from right to left. It has two diminutives ; the scarp, half the width of the bend, and the baton, used as an abatement to denote the illegitimacy of the bearer of the coat. [See Bastard.) BENEDICTINE FATHERS is the name given to celebrated editions of the works of the Fathers, from their having been edited by some of the most eminent of the Benedictine monks in France. BENGALEE LANGUAGE. [See Hindo- STAN, Languages of.) “ BEOWULF,” be'-o-wulf, a remarkable and very interesting Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describ- ing events relating to the Teutonic race, which occxrrred probably about the middle of the 5th century ; and it is supposed, by critical writers, to have been brought to England by the Anglo- Saxons. Only one MS. of the poem is known to exist. It is in the Cottonian Library, in the British Museum, and seems to have been written in the early part of the 8th century, from an older version of the poem. The action of the epic turns mainly upon the adventures of Beowulf, a mythical hero, or demi-god, who determined to destroy a monster, Grendel. Sceaf, one of the ancestors of Woden, and the common father of all the Scandinavian gods and heroes, also ap- j)ears conspicuously. Mr. Kemble, the eminent Anglo-Saxon scholar, published, in 1837, a prose translation of the poem, with notes of great historical and philological interest. BERLIN PORCELAIN, ber-lin'. A peculiarly hard white porcelain manufactured at Berlin, and much prized by chemists for its valu- able properties. Tubes, capsules, crucibles, and other vessels used for chemical purposes, are made of a thin and white variety. They do not crack when heated, and remain intact under the action of the most powerful chemical agents. They replace platinum 'when required for the ignition of precipitates, containing easily -reduced metals which would destroy a platinum crucible. They are also of great value in testing, where the resulting precipitate is small, but coloured. BERLIN-WOOL-WORK. [See Em- broidery.) BERME, OR BERM, berrn (Fr., berme), a piece of ground projecting horizontally from the foot of a rampart on the outside, forming a sort of pathway between the rampart itself and the scarp of the ditch surrounding the fortifica- tion. It is generally about three feet in width. Sometimes the berme has a low wall on the edge of the ditch, or a row of palisades sloping out- wards. BERSERKER, her' -ser-lcer (Scand., her, bare, and serlcer, short of mail), a pirate chief among the old Norsemen, so named from a mythological hero who went into battle without helmet or other defensive armour, trusting to his fierce courage. BESTIARES, hais-te-air' , written books, with descriptions and drawings of animals, much in fashion, in the nth, 12th, and 13th centuries in France. Some were in prose and some in poetry ; some in Latin and some in the vernacu- lar. Tliey served to some extent the same pur- pose as the “ Natural Histories ” of later times ; but fabulous animals, and romantic legends, were included, and symbolism was strangely mixed with actual description. One of the best known works of the kind is Le Bestiaire Divin de Guil- laume, Clerc de Norvfiandie, Trouvere du Xllle. Siecle. We may find in these Bestiaires explana- tions of the meaning of the grotesque creatures found sculptured on the churches and public buildings of the middle ages. BESTIARH, bes-ti-air'-i-i, men who fought with wild beasts in the Roman amphitheatre, or who were exposed to them by a decree of law. They were different from the gladiators, who only fought with each other. The bestiarii were regularly trained and paid for their services, and greatly increased during the Empire. BETTING. {See Gaming.) BEZ.lB codex, be'-ze ko'-dex (Beza’s Codex), a celebrated manuscript of certain books of the New Testament, jiresented in 1581, by Theodore Beza, to the university of Cambridge ; whence it is sometimes called Codex Cantabrigiensis. {See Bible and Codex.) BEZANT, OR BESANT, he-zant', a gold coin struck by the emperors of Constantinople, deriving its appellation from Byzantium, the former name of that city. They were the only kind of gold coin current in Europe for a long period of time. It appears that there were vari- ous kinds of bezants, differing in size, weight, and the quantity of alloy that was added. The com- mon bezant of Constantinople was worth about nine shillings : it is often found in the form of a flat dish, with the head of our Saviour upon it. The name was afterwards given to gold coins struck in many European countries, and in Eng- land up to the time of Edward III. Silver bezants were also coined at Constantinople, similar in size to those of gold ; and silver coins so called are mentioned in old records to have been current in this country in the reigns of Stephen and John. The only silver coins in the collections of numismatists known by this name are pieces of money struck at Constantinople, about 1100, and at later periods. In Heraldry, one of the nine roundlets ; a circular charge representing a piece of gold, taking its name from the old Byzantine coin so called. In blazoning armorial bearings in which these charges are found, the metal is not described, as the bezant is always or, or gold, and the name itself is therefore sufficient. A hezanty^ crosses a cross composed of bezants ; and when the shield or any particular charge is strewed with bezants, it is described as hezantde. BEZIQUE, hai-zeek' (probably for Spanish besico, a little kiss), a card game which, has re- cently become very popular. It resembles in some degree the old fashioned games, marriage, brisque and cinque-cents. It is played with two packs of cards, from which the twos, threes, fours, fives, and sixes have been rejected, and shuffled together and used as one pack. The rules of the “ BHAGAVAD GITA ” 59 BIBLE game are very complex. In grand hezique, four packs of cards are used, and nine cards are dealt to each player. BHAGAVAD-GITA,” ha'-ga-vad ge-to! (Revelations of the Deity), is the name of a very celebrated religio-philosophical didactic poem, dating from about the ist century of the Christian era, and which is interwoven as an episode in the great Indian epic poem of the Mahabharata. It comprises a complete system of the religious philo- sophy of India. The best edition of the text, with a Latin translation, is that of A. W. von Schlegel (Bonn. 1846). There is an English trans- lation of the work by Wilkins (London, 1785), and one by Thomson (1855) ; and a German translation by Peiper (Leipsic, 1834). W. von. Humboldt, published an exposition of the philosophy of the poem (Berlin, 1827). BI, U (Lat., 6fs, twice), a syllable signifying twice or double, and used as a prefix in certain compound names ; as biceps, two-headed; bicuspis two-pointed ; bi-carbonate, a carbonate with two equivalents of carbonic acid to one of base ; and also in the familiar compound words bi-ennial, hi-partite, &c., and in such compounds as bi- weekly. BIBLE, bi'-bel (Gr., ta bihlia, the books), is the name first applied by Chrysostom, in the 4th century, to that collection of sacred writings which is regarded by Christians as the revealed word of God. These writings are divided into two parts — the Old and the New Testament, the former containing 39 books, the latter 27. The Old Testament only is regarded as sacred by the Jews ; but both the Old and New Testaments are held as sacred by Christians. The term Testa- ment is a translation of the Latin testamentum of the Vulgate, which, in turn, is a translation of the Greek word diatheke, a covenant. In the New Testament, the Old Testament writings are designated as the Scripture, the Scriptures, or the Holy Scriptures. About A.u. 180, the term Holy Scriptures was used to include the Gospels ; and Irenseus called the whole collection of the books of the Old and New Testament the divine Scriptures and the Lord’s Scriptures. The Old Testament was a name used by St. Paul (2 Cor. iii. 14), being a translation of the Greek expres- sion paZaia diatheke, “old covenant.” It would be more correct, therefore, to describe the two collections of books as the Old and the New Cove- nants — more correct etymologically, and certainly more correct doctrinally ; but the familiar names are the heritage of the ages, and, whatever Dic- tionary makers might prefer, will remain fixed in the memory of Christians. The volume, as we now possess it — containing both the Old and New Testaments — is not only by far the most remark- able literary production of the world, viewed only in its literary aspects, but contains the most re-, markable collection of historical records ; the most complete code of ancient laws; the most intense utterances of joy, sorrow, aspiration, of which the human mind is capable ; the most amazing prophecies, extending to the utmost limits _ of time; national and patriotic efforts; worship in which all the powers of the intellect and imagination and of the soul are united ; of descriptions of tranquil pastoral life as back- grounds to unequalled pictures of which tender- ness, love, domestic affections, are the leading features ; of passionate expressions of repentance or passionate outbursts of despair, subdued to calm and adoration by the power of the Divine love ; of glimpses of the majesty and wonderful beauty of an unknown world ; of strife and con- quest ; of triumph followed by humiliation ; of the recognition of a Divine Being, infinitely above human nature in power and beauty, but infinitely sympathizing with it — a conception unknown to any other ancient system of theology and philo- sophy. After the history, theology, prophecy, and poetry of the Old Testament, comes the Gos- pel of the New Testament, the history of the Divine mingling with the human, the pathetic and grand story of the life and death of Jesus; the record of the devotion, zeal, and sufferings of the apostles ; the epistles which gave spiritual food to the early churches, and the closing vision of de- struction and reconstruction, of the awful con- flicts between evil and good, of the heavenly Jerusalem, of the great white throne, and of the end of death, sorrow, crying, and pain. The Jews divided the books of the Old Testament differently from the j)resent method, so as to make only 22, and thereby to correspond with the number of letters in their alphabet. They divided them into the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, or holy writings. The Law comprised the five books of Moses. The Prophets were divided into the earlier prophets, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and the later pro- phets, which were again subdivided into thegreater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and the twelve lesser prophets. The Hagiographa, or holy writings, contained the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Eccle- siastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles. The first three of these books were called the poetical books, or truth ; the rest, the five rolls, from being read, on certain festivals in their synagogues, from manuscript rolls. As to the arrangement of the different books, the Jews not only differed from the Christians, but are not even agreed among themselves. Little is known of the history of the sacred books previous to the time of the Jewish captivity. According to the command of Moses, “the book of the law” was “ put in the side of the ark.” It is probable that to the same sanctuary were consigned, as they were produced, the other sacred books. After the completion of the temple, Solomon directed that these books should be removed into it, and, also, that the future compositions of inspired men should be secured in the same place. On the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the consequent destruction of the temple, the autographs of the sacred books are supposed to have perished ; but, doubtless, numerous copies of them existed at that time, some of which were carried by the Jews to Babylon; for we find Daniel (Dan. ix. 2, ii — 13), when in captivity, referring to the law, and also expressly mention- ing the predictions of Jeremiah, which he could not have done if he had not seen them. After their return from captivity, we are told that the people requested Ezra to bring forth “ the book of the law of Moses, which the Lord had com- manded to Israel” (Neh. viii. i). Accordingly, Ezra is said to have collected as many copies of the sacred writings as he could, and from them to have prepared a correct edition. From the time of Ezra, the Hebrew canon is generally con- sidered to have been completed, and Josephus affirms that from the time of Artaxerxes down to his own day, no one had dared either to add to, or to take from, or to alter, anything in the sacred books. Great care was taken by the Jews BIBLE 60 BIBLE to preserve the accuracy of the sacred text, and from an early period they were in the habit of numbering the words and even letters of each book. In the Talmud, a digest of Jewish laws compiled between the 2nd and 6th centuries, an enumeration of the various readings in different INISS., as well as the words and letters in the Bible, is given. When the Talmud was com- pleted, the Masoritesof Tiberias commenced their labours. They were named from masora, tradi- tion, as their annotations were the oral traditions which had been handed down from previous cen- turies. They are said to have first divided the different books and sections into verses, and to have invented the vowel-points and accents. They marked the number of verses in each book, and the number of words and letters in each verse. They noted the verses where they thought something was forgotten, the words which they believed to be changed, the letters which they thought superfluous, the repetitions of the same verses, the different readings, the words which are redundant or defective, the number of times that the same word is found in the beginning, middle, or end of a verse, the different significa- tions of the same word : such were some of the labours of the Masorites to insure the accuracy of the text. As to the value of the labours of the IMasorites, Biblical critics are much divided in opinion. Some maintain that we are greatly indebted to them for preserving the purity of the sacred text, while others are of opinion that they corrupted the text by substituting for the ancient and true reading of their forefathers another more favourable to their prejudices, and more opposed to Christianity. The general opinion, however, is that they discharged their duties in a fair and conscientious manner. The oldest versions of the Hebrew Scriptures are the Sa- maritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint, or Greek translation. The former of these is supposed to date from about the time of the Babylonish cap- tivity ; for it is not likely that, after that time, on account of the enmity that existed between the two peoples, they would have translated and adojited the books of the Jews. The Samaritan Pentateuch now extant is said to be a version from the earlier Hebrew Samaritan, into the more modern Samaritan, and was made before the time of Origen. Much difference of opinion has existed as to the value of the Samaritan Pentateuch ; but it is now generally agreed that it is, on the whole, much inferior to the Hebrew MSS. The Septuagint (or version of the Seventy) is said by some to have been so called from hav- ing been approved by the Sanhedrim, or great council of the Jews, who were seventy in number. According to another account, Ptolemy Phila- delphus, when founding his library at Alexandria, ■wished to have a coj^y of the J e-wish laws, and applied to Eleazar, the Jewish high-priest at Jerusalem, for proper j)ersons to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Eleazar accord- ingly sent six elders from each of the twelve tribes, seventy-two in all — Avhence the work was termed Septuagint, seventy being a round num- ber. There is no doubt that the version of the Septuagint was written at different times, and by different hands. The Pentateuch was first translated probably in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, or of his son Philadelphus, and it is allowed to have been done with great fidelity and accuracy. Next in point of excellence is the version of the Proverbs. The Psalms and the Prophets have been very indifferently executed. The Septuag r.i version was in great esteem among the Jews in the time of Christ ; and very many of the quota- tions in the New Testament are made from it. Josej)hus, too, makes more use of the Septuagint than of the Hebrew text ; but at a later period, when the Christians employed the Septuagint, the Jews rejected it. Fragments of three Greek translations of the Old Testament, all of, or near, the 2nd century of the Christian era, are pre- served in the Hexapla of Origen, known as those of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus, of which the first is the most valuable. The j^rincipal of the other early translations are the Syriac or Peshito (literal), from the Hebrew, made about the end of the ist century, and embracing both the Old and New Testaments ; the Coptic, from the Septuagint, probably about the 3rd century, and including the New Testament ; the Ethiopic, from the Septuagint, probably in the 4th century, including also the New Testament ; the Armenian, by Miesrob, from the Septuagint, in the beginning of the 5th century ; the Italic, from the Septua- gint, in the ist or 2nd century, embraced also the New Testament — but only fragments of it now exist; the Vulgate (see below.) The Gothic version of Ulphilas, was made in the 4th century, but only a part has come down to us. The books of the New Testament were composed at different times, and for different purposes. They must have for some time circulated singly, but when or by whom they were collected into one book is uncertain ; it seems, however, to have been done by degrees, and that some books were much longer in being received into the canon than others. The first evidence that we have of the existence of the collected books is in the Muratorian canon of the West, evidently written about A.D. 170. It is only a fragment, mutilated both at the beginning and the end ; but it com- mences with a clear reference to St. Mark’s gos- pel, and then passes on to St. Luke as the third, then St. John, the Acts, and the thirteen epistles of St. Paul. The eifistle of Jude, the two epistles of John, and the Apocalyi^se of St. John, are mentioned in the text. The canon of the Peshito forms a remarkable complement to this catalogue. It includes the four gospels and the Acts, fourteen epistles of St. Paul, i John, i Peter, and James, omitting Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and the Apocalypse. Up to this point, therefore, 2 Peter is the only book that is not recognized as an aposto- lical and authoritative writing. The testimony of Eusebius as to the received books of the New Testament in his day is of value. He divides them into two classes, the acknowledged books and the disputed books. In the former class are the fom: gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the fourteen epistles of St. Paul, i John, and i Peter. The disputed books he divides into classes — those which are generally recognized as authentic, and those which are considered spurious ; the former comprising the epistles of James, Jude, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John ; the latter the Acts of Paul the Shepherd, the Apocalypse of Peter, and the Apocalypse of John (if not a work of the apostle). The arrangement of the books of the Bible now generally accepted by Protestants is that adopted by Martin Luther in the isth century. In the Old Testament we have first the Pentateuch (or five books), which describe the creation of the world, the Abrahamic covenant, the emigration of the descendants of Abraliam to Egypt, the exodus or departure from that country under the Divine protection, the wanderings in the Siniatic wilderness, the conquest and settlement of BIBLE 61 BIBLE Canaan, and tlie laws given by Moses for the regulation of the religious life of the nation. The books of Joshua and Judges, which carry on the history of the Jewish people in the period preceding the establishment of the kingdom of Israel. Then comes the pastoral story of Ruth, an introduction to the personal history of David, to be subsequently related in detail. This is fol- lowed by the two books of Samuel, in which, framed as it were in the historical narrative of a time of transition from the rule of judges, or chief magistrates, to the formation of a kingdom, appear three prominent figures — Samuel, the prophet ; Saul, the first king of Israel ; and David, whose personality as warrior, monarch. Psalmist, “egregious sinner and magnificent saint,” is the most striking in the Hebrew Scriptures, apart from the religious interest excited by his typical character. The two books of Kings and the tAvo books of Chronicles carry on the history of the Jewish peojile, and the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, from the accession of Solomon to the captivity and dispersion of the JeAVS after the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. The suc- ceeding books of Ezra and Nehemiah describe the return from captmty and the re-establishment of the Jewish nation, with Jerusalem as the chief city. Then comes the interesting story of Esther, an episode of the captivity; followed by the book of Job, which some critics suppose to have been written by Moses, and estimated to be one of the very oldest books in the world, as it is certainly one of the most interesting and pro- foundly religious. Then follow the Psalms, partly written by David, partly collected by him and later authors and compilers — some indeed as late as the j^eriod of the captiAuty. They were adopted to be chanted with musical accom- paniments in the magnificent service of worship in the Temple; but they make a yet higher appeal to our admiration and sympathy. In them are the jubilant outbursts of religious en- thusiasm, the most piteous Availings of the soul conscious of separation from God, the most pas- sionate self -accusation, the most rapturous joy at regained communion with the Divine nature; prayers, prophecies, and exhortations ; the tears of captives by the waters of Babylon, the sublime AUelujahs of the priests as the Ark was borne triumphantly up the steps of the Temple. Then come the Proverbs, the aphorisms uttered or col- lected by the intellectual and meditative Solomon ; Ecclesiastes, that saddening declaration that ‘ ‘ all is vanity,” where shadows darken the soul ; and the Canticles, or Song of Solomon, in which the excess of gorgeous and sensuous images are held to be a type and a prediction of spiritual joy in the union of the soul with the church of the redeemed. After these are the books of the four greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; and of the twelve “ minor ” prophets, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zecha- riah, and Malachi. These close the Old Testament volume, which includes in all 39 books. The New Testament contains the Gk)spels of the four Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John ; the Acts of the Apostles, describing the work and labour of the Apostles among the Jews and Gentiles, and the establishment of Christian Churches ; fourteen epistles by Paul, one by James, two by Peter, three by John, one by Jude, and the Revelation of John (the Apocalypse), in all 27 books. Original Language of the Bible— Th.Q investi- gations of the most accomplished Hebrew scholars and comparative philologists lead to the conclu- sion that the Old Testament exhibits three stages of development in the HebreAv language. The Pentateuch and Joshua were written in Hebrew as spoken in the time of Moses. The second stage represents a period when the language had reached its highest point of purity and refine- ment, represented in the books of Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Psalms, Proverbs, and other writings of Solomon, and the books of the pro- phets Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, and Habakkuk. TheAvritings of the other prophets (parts of Daniel excepted), the books of Esther, portions of Ezra and Nehemiah, belong to the third period, when foreign words,, phrases, and idioms, derived from Babylon and other places during the captivity, had become in- corporated with the Hebrew. Parts of Daniel and Ezra were written in Chaldee, or eastern Aramaean, a language cognate to the Hebrew. The New Testament Avas written in Hellenistic Greek, “so called because it is not the classic Greek, in its different dialects, as written by Greek authors before the time of Alexander the Great, but the common Greek into which the various classic dialects Avere merged after the different Greek tribes had been rolled into one nation under the sway of Philip of Macedon. The- Greek language, as thus modified, Avas carried into all parts of Egypt and the East, and it be- came the spoken language of the JeAvs who resided in the Greek colonies of Alexandria and else- where. The Jews who thus acquired and spoke the Greek language introduced forms and idioms of their own language, and words borrowed from the languages of neighbouring nations to the east- ward ; and the Greek, thus modified, became the Hellenistic, or Hebraised Greek, which Avas in use in Palestine in the time of our Saviour, and in which the books of the New Testament were Avritten.” Manuscripts of the Old Testament . — From a be- lief in the absolute integrity of the Hebrew text, in consequence of its supposed preservation from error by the Masora, it was not until the 17th century that any extensive collation was made of the various Hebrew MSS. Among the first to- call attention to this subject was Louis Capell, who, in his “ Critica Sacra,” published at Pari s- in 1650, called attention to the differences that existed between the Hebrew and Samaritan Pen- tateuch, and between the Hebrew text and the Septuagint version. At length the necessity of a collation of Hebrew MSS. began to be generally acknowledged ; and some attempts to that pur- pose were made by several subsequent editors of the Hebrew Bible. The first great effort made in that direction, however, was that of Dr. Ken- nicott, commenced about 1760. The first volume was published in 1766, the second in 1780. The total number of Codices collated by or for Dr. Kennicott was 694, of which 634 were MSS., 43 printed editions, and the remaining 17 were copies of the Talmud, rabbinical works, and collections of various readings. Of these, about 250 MSS. were collected by Dr. Kennicott himself, and nearly 400 by his coadjutor M. Bruns, of the university of Helmstadt. Of these, some were collated throughout ; others only in a feAV select passages, from being written in conformity with the same standard. In the opinion of Dr. Kenni- cott, 51 of these MSS. were from 600 to 800 years old, and 174 from 480 to 580. Soon after this. Professor De Rossi, of Parma, published hia BIBLE 62 BIBLE various readings of the Old Testament, in 4 vols. 4to, entitled, “Vari® Lectiones Veteris Testa- ment! ex immensa Manuscriptorum editorumque Codicum congerie haustse et examinatse” (Parma, 1784-88), to which a supplement was added in 1798. He re-examined many of the MSS. collated for Dr. Kennicott, and verified the extracts from them, besides examining numerous additional MSS. and printed editions; so that the total number of MSS. and editions examined by him amounts to about 1,200. Of the immense mass of various readings which these collations exhibit, multitudes are insignificant, consisting frequently of the omission or addition of a single letter in a word. They serve, however, to show the authen- ticity and integrity of the sacred text in all that constitutes the proper essence and substance of divine revelation — its doctrines, moral precepts, and historical relations. Manuscripts of the New Testament. — Down to the time of the invention of printing, the books of the New Testament were preserved in manu- script ; but the vigilance produced by the con- stant controversies between the Catholics and heretics has served to maintain its general purity. The existing MSS. are written on tanned or dyed skins, parchment, papyrus, and paper of linen or cotton. They are distinguished as uncial and cursive — the former being written in capital letters, and the latter having small letters and a greater resemblance to later styles of writing. MSS. of a later date than the loth century are cursive. Upwards of 1,400 MSS. are known to scholars, and have been collated without any essential differences being found between them ; numerous errors, however, had crept in, from the commutation of letters, transposition of words, seeing and hearing incorrectly, abbreviations, attempts at correcting the text or making it clearer. Modern critics reckon no fewer than 80.000 discrepancies in the various MSS. The oldest MSS. belong to about the 4th century. The most important MSS. are the Codex Sinaiticus, discovered in 1859 by a Russian scholar, M. Tischendorf, in the monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai ; the Codex Alexandrinus, in the British Museum ; the Codex Vaticanus, in the Vatican, at Rome ; the Codex Regius Parisiensis, in the imperial library at Paris ; and the Codex Bezce, or Cantahrigiensis, in the library of Cam- bridge university. Early Printed Versions. — The first complete Hebrew Bible was printed by Soncino, in 1488. The first printed edition of the entire New Testa- ment was that of the Complutensian Polyglott, published at the cost of the celebrated Cardinal Ximenes. It was commenced in 1502, and the printing of the book was finished in 1514, but the publication was delayed till 1522. Meanwhile, Erasmus, in 1516, published his first edition of the New Testament. Editions by Simon de Colines and the Stephens (father and son) appeared in Paris between 1543 and 1569. The first attempt at a critical edition was made by Beza ; and the first edition was published in 1565. The first truly critical edition is that of Dr. John Mill ■(Oxford, 1707), in which are gathered together 30.000 various readings. Bengel, Wetstein, Gries- bach, and Scholz followed in the same field. Scholz’s first volume appeared in 1830, and the second in 1836 ; he describes no less than 674 different MSS., of which 331 were, for the first time, collated by himself. Rinck, Lachmann, and other German scholars have also produced critical editions of great value. The Vulgate, or authorised version of the Roman Catholic Church, is a translation into Latin, sup- posed to have been begun by Jerome about 385 A.D., and partially founded on an old version, known as the Italic, said to have been made in the beginning of the 2nd century. The Gospels were completed about 387, and the Old Testa- ment twenty years later. The earliest printed edition was produced by Gutenburg and Fust, without date, but probably about 1455 ; and in 1462 Fust and Schoeffer printed another edition. In 1546 the Council of Trent declared the Vulgate authentic ; and in 1590 Pope Sextus authorised the production of a critical edition, but that being considered inaccurate, was superseded two years afterwards by the edition of Pope Clement VIII., and this is the version now used by the Roman Catholic Church. The Douai BiUe is the only English translation sanctioned by that Chiurch. The Old Testament was translated by the stu- dents of the Roman Catholic College at Douai, in France, and j)ublished there in 1609. The New Testament, translated at the English College at Rheims, had apjDeared in 1582. English Bible.— is probable that soon after the introduction of Christianity into this country, portions of the Scriptures were translated into the language of the people. The earliest version of which we have any account is a translation of the Psalms into the Saxon language, by Ald- helme, or Adhelm, first bishop of Sherborne, about the year 706. A Saxon version of the four Gospels was made by Egbert, bishop of Lindis- fern, who died 721. By some writers, Bede is said to have made a complete translation of the whole Bible ; but this seems doubtful, though he certainly did translate portions of it. King Alfred executed a translation of the Psalms, and Elfric, archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have executed a translation of the Pentateuch and cer- tain other portions of Scripture, about 995. The first English translation of the whole Scriptiires is supposed to have been made in the 13th cen- tury ; and towards the end of the 14th century, one John de Trevisa, a native of Cornwall, is said to have made a translation of the entire Bible. This was, at any rate, done by his celebrated con- temporary John Wyclif, or Wickliffe, rector of Loughborough, in Leicestershire. With the aid of various assistants, he, about the year 1380, translated the entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English. He was probably assisted by pupils and learned friends, and by the help of trans- cribers he multiplied copies, which were distributed among his friends. There are 170 copies extant. After the introduction of the art of printing, portions of the Bible occasionally were published ; but the authorities of the English church did all they could to discountenance the circulation of the Scriptures in the language of the people : so that it was not till 1526 that a Bible or Testament was printed in English, and then only at a foreign press. William Tyndale resolved to accomplish this object, and, witii this view, he went over to the Continent. In 1526 he comifieted an English translation of the New Testament, which was printed in two editions, one in quarto, the other in duodecimo. Copies of these were secretly con- veyed into England, where they were immediately bought up and burned ; but this only stimulated Tyndale to greater exertions, and enabled him to carry on his operations. He next proceeded to prepare a version of the Old Testament, and pub- lished a translation of the Pentateuch and the book of Jonah. He did not, however, issue a BIBLE 63 BIBLE complete translation of the Bible.^ The first Eng- lish version of the whole Bible is that by Miles Coverdale, a friend of Tyndale, and which was printed at Zurich in 1535, and dedicated to Henry VIII. It was favourably received by the court, and it was enjoined that a copy of this translation should be laid in the choir of every parish church in England, for every one to read at his pleasure. The next English Bible, also printed abroad, is known as Matthew’s Bible, from Thomas Matthew, the assumed name of the editor (John Rogers), also a friend of Tyndale. It was published in 1537, and the text is that .of Tyndale and Cover- dale, slightly altered. The Great Bible, or Cran- mer’s, so called from the preface being written by that prelate, was published in 1539 : the text is Coverdale’s revised. In the same year appeared Traverner’s Bible, by Richard Traverner, the text of which is based upon that of Matthew’s Bible. The next important translation was the famous Geneva Bible, which appeared in 1557. During the reign of Mary, several of the more prominent Reformers took refuge in Geneva; among whom were Coverdale, Gilby, and Whit- tingham. They employed themselves in prepar- ing a new edition of the Bible, accompanied with notes. From the strong leaning which it showed to the views of Calvin and Beza, it was long the favourite Bible of the English Puritans and the Scotch Presbyterians. This edition is frequently called the Breeches Bible, on account of the rendering of Genesis iii. 7, “and they sewed fig- tree leaves together, and made themselves breeches.” The Bishops’, or Parker’s Bible, so called from Matthew Parker, archbishop of Can- terbury, who, with eight bishops, and several other scholars of reputation, revised the previous translations, and compared them with the origi- nals, appeared in 1568. King James’s Bible, the one still in universal use in this country, and known as the Authorized Version, was prepared in the reign of James I. At a conference of divines at Hampton Court, in the beginning of 1604, for settling the peace of the Church, the importance of a new translation of the Scriptures was brought prominently forward, especially by Dr. Rainolds, an eminent Puritan. It met with the approval of the king, and arrangements were at once made for carrying out the project. Fifty- four scholars, most distinguished for that kind of learning which this duty required, were selected for the work, and finally forty-seven of them undertook it. These were divided into six com- ]ianies, to each of which a certain portion of Scripture was assigned. Each person of a com- pany was to prepare a translation of the whole portion committed to that company, and these several translations were then revised at a general meeting of the comiiany. When a company had in this way agreed upon their version, it was to be transmitted to each of the other companies, so that no part was to be without the sanction of the whole body. Two of the companies sat at Westminster, two at Oxford, and two at Cam- bridge. ^ The final revision of the whole was con- ducted in London by two delegates from each of the six companies. These twelve scholars, who met daily in the hall of the Stationers’ Company, were occupied for nine months in the discharge of their critical duties. The work of translation and revision occupied from 1607 to 1610, and it came forth from the press of Robert Barker in 1611. This version has been adopted by all sects of Protestant Dissenters as well as by the Church of England. In a chapter of “ Curiosities of Literature ” Isaac Disraeli gives some particulars respecting various English versions of the Bible. The great desire to possess Bibles led to the i)ro- duction of mutilated editions, crowded with gross errors, and published at a very low price to supply the demand. One of these versions is said to have contained six thousand errors ; and G. Gar- rard, the writer of a letter to the Earl of Stafford, still preserved, says, “Sterne, a solid scholar, was the first who summed uj) the three thousand and six hundred faults that were in our printed Bibles of London.” Disraeli says, “These errata unquestionably were a great part voluntary com- missions, passages interpolated, and meanings forged for certain purposes ; sometimes to sanc- tion the new creed of a half -hatched sect, and sometimes with an intention to destroy all Scrip- tural authority by a confusion or an omission of texts — the whole was left open to the option or the malignity of the editors.” Printing of Eng- lish Bibles was an open trade, comj)eting printers issued them at the lowest possible prices ; and, in order to be able to produce a low-j)riced article, made no scruple of condensing or omitting, and “ they proceeded till it nearly ended with having no Bible at all.” The University of Cambridge endeavoured to produce correct editions, and there was a great contest between the University and the London printers — the latter underselling the former, even at a loss to themselves, and im- orting Bibles from Holland, where they could e printed at a very low cost. An anecdote is preserved to the effect that the learned Arch- bishop Usher, the Biblical chronologist, one day hastening to preach at St. Paul’s Cross, entered the shoj) of one of the booksellers and liurchased a Bible for use in the pulpit ; but when he came to look for his text, to his astonishment and horror, he discovered that the verse was omitted in the Bible he had purchased. He complained to the King, and so caused the Royal attention to be directed to the negligence and incapacity of the London press. During the war between the King and the Parliament, smuggled Bibles were introduced from Holland, but large numbers were confiscated and burned by order of the Assembly of Divines, on account of the errors contained in them, which were not credited to the carelessness or incompetency of the printers ; but to malice prepense. At length the privilege of printing Bibles was conceded to one William Bentley, but he appears to have been unable to defend his monopoly. A printer named Field published in 1653 a “Pearl Bible,” in a small form, remarkable even then for gross errors, made, it was asserted, for the purpose of falsify- ing the text. Field having received considerable sums of money for doing so. Butler, in “ Hudi- bras, ” speaks of ‘ ‘ the maggots of corrupted texts ; ” and, says Disraeli, “ In other Bibles, by Hill s and Field we may find abundant errata, re- ducing the text to nonsense or to blasphemy, making the Scriptures contemptible to the mul- titude.” In the course of a few years, however, the value of the authorized version was so gene- rally recognized that it effectually superseded all others. Revised Version . — In February, 1870, the Bishops of the j)rovince of Canterbury in convocation re- commended a revision of the authorized version, rendered advisable by the great advance of scholarship since the 17th century, and the accumulation of additional materials, the result of modern discovery. Two companies of eminent scholars of various denominations were formed, BIBLIA PAUPERUM 64 BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION one for the Old and one for the New Testament. The former have not yet completed their labours ; but the revised New Testament was published in May, 1 88 1, and has been almost universally accepted as a noble monument of erudition and patient labour, and a most valuable revision of the hitherto accepted text. The co-operation of American scholars was invited, and two com- mittees were formed in America, for the purpose of acting with the two English companies. The first step, obviously, was to revise the original texts, the next to give a faithful translation into English. The assistance of divines, scholars, and literary men, at home and abroad, was asked when rmusual difficulties occurred. The whole time devoted to that work extended over ten years and a half ; the first revision occupying about six years, the second about two years and a half, the remaining time being spent in the consideration of the suggestions from America, and reserved questions arising out of the labour of the English company. The result of the revision is that a few passages, being regarded as of doubtful authenticity, have been expunged, and in some instances a more exact rendering of the original has been arrived at ; but, it must be admitted that, in the desire for literary accuracy, the familiar beauty of the old version has, in a few instances, been impaired without any com- mensurate advantage to the meaning. Chapters, Verses, and Punctuation . — The pre- sent division of the Bible into chapters, is gene- rally believed to have been first made by Cardinal Hugo, of St. Carus (the first compiler of a con- cordance) in the 13th century, although some writers attribute it to Stephen Langton, Arch- bishop of Canterbury ; but as early as the 3rd century, the Gospels had been so divided by the Alexanclrians. The first numbering of verses appeared in the edition printed by Robert Steiihens in 1551 ; and the first English Bible divided into verses was the Geneva Edition of 1560. In the 39 books of the Old Testament, there are 929 chapters, and 23,214 verses ; in the 27 books of the New Testament, 260 chapters, and 7,959 verses. In the Revised Version the old chapters and verses are marked in the margin for convenience of reference and comparison ; and divisions into paragraphs, or sections, without regard to the old method, are adopted. In the old manuscripts there is very little attempt at punctuation, and scarcely any attention was given to the subject until the appearance of the printed books. Printing Bibles . — The Crown claims the ex- clusive right to print the authorized version, and, in the exercise of this prerogative, permits the Universities of Oxford, and Cambridge, and the Queen’s printers to issue editions. But Bibles with notes may be published by any person. In Scotland, a Bible Board has power to grant licences to i^rint the authorized version. BIBLIA PAUPERUM, paw' (Lat.) Bible of the poor). — Before the invention of printing, a copy of the Bible being rare and ex pensive, the principal subjects of the Old and New Testament were represented in some forty or fifty pictures, with a short explanation, or texts of Scripture, imderneath each. This was called the “ Biblia Pauperum.” It was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260, and printed early in the isth century. It and a similar, but more extended work, called “ Speculum Humanae Salvationis ” (the Mirror of Human Salvation), in a great measure took the place of the Bible in the Middle Ages, and were the chief text-books used by the clergy in ad- dressing the people. Many copies of these works still exist, BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES, or BIBLI- CAL ARCHAEOLOGY, ar-ke-oV -o-je, is the name given to that science which treats of the anti- quities, the political constitution, customs, man- ners, &c., of that people with whom the Holy Scriptures originated, or those to whom it refers. A knowledge of biblical archaeology is indispen- sably necessary to a right understanding of many parts of Scripture. Though this study primarily regards the Jewish people, yet the manners, customs, &c., of the neighbouring Semitic nations necessarily form part of it. The principal source's of this knowledge are the Old and New Testa- ments, the books of Josephus on Jewish antiqui- ties and the wars of the Jews, the writings of Philo, the Talmud and the Rabbinical works, the Greek, Roman, and Arabian writers, ancient monuments, and the works of modern travellers. For the first work on Hebrew archaeology we are indebted to Dr. Thomas Godwyn, whose book, “ Moses and Aaron, or Civil and Ecclesiastical Rites used by the Ancient Hebrews,” appeared at Oxford in 1616. The Germans have particularly distinguished themselves in this department, and in this coxmtry a large number of books and pub- lications have been issued. Society for Biblical Archaeology was established by Dr. Samuel Birch and others in 1871, and besides pub- lishing a “ Journal” has issued several very important works. BIBLICAL CRITICISM is that science which concerns itself with the origin, history, and present state of the original text of Scrip- ture. It comj)rises a critical knowledge of the languages in which the Scriptures were originally written ; the composition, collection, and pre- servation of the different books; the age, cha- racter, and relationships of the various MSS. ; the various readings ; and the different philo- logical and historical means to be employed in order to determine what the text was as it pro- ceeded from the different penmen. Its tendency is not, as is said by some, to weaken or destroy the foundations of Christianity, but, on the con- trary, to strengthen and increase them, by prov- ing the authenticity and genuineness of the Holy Scriptures. It is divided into two kinds, a lower and a higher — the former merely concerning itself with the words as they stand in the various MSS. or printed texts ; the latter implying the exercise of the reason in judging of the texts from the context, from the circumstances of the writers, &c. Of these two, the former is the more im- portant and reliable ; the latter, as being more open to conjecture, is liable to be abused. Bib- lical criticism is of comparatively recent origin. It arose, partly at least, in consequence of the controversies in which men became involved on religious subjects, and the necessity of having a correct standard to which to refer. BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION, or SACRED HERMENEUTICS, is the science of teaching or exj^ounding the meaning of the Sacred Scriptures. When the interpreter has. obtained a pure text by the results of criticism, he enters upon another and a more important field — that of its interpretation. He has now a twofold duty to perform : first, to associate in his own mind, with the terms, the exact idea W- - ■ ' \ ':i BIBLIOGRAPHY 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY which the Spirit intended they should symbolize ; and, secondly, to excite the same idea in others by means of spoken or written signs. He has to apprehend the meaning of Scripture, and to ex- hibit it when apprehended, so as to be intelligible. Biblical interpretation is either grammatical or historical — grammatical, when the meaning of the words, i^hrases, and sentences is made out from the urns loquendi and the context ; histori- cal, when the meaning is illustrated and con- firmed by historical arguments, which serve to evince that no other sense can be put upon the passage, whether regard be had to the nature of the subject or to the genius and manner of the writer. {/Sec Hermeneutics.) BIBLIOGRAPHY, Uh-li-og' -ra-fe (Gr., bibliorii a book, graphe, a writing), may be defined to be the science of books. Anciently, the term bibliographia denoted the writing or transcription of books, and a writer or copyist was termed bibliographos. When the transcrib- ing of books ceased, after the introduction of printing, bibliography came to signify an ac- quaintance with the ancient manuscripts, and a skill in the deciphering of them. The term was not used in its present signification till about the middle of the i8th century, and it was first intro- duced in France. Bibliography (for which bibli- ology or bihliognosy would be more appropriate) denotes a knowledge of books, with reference to their constituent parts, their different editions and degrees of rareness, their subjects, authors, classes, &c. There are some who would include under bibliography many other branches of know- ledge, indeed, so many as to render it impossible to lay down any limits for the science at all. The sphere and duties of the bibliographer are well and clearly laid down by a recent writer ; “It is the business of the bibliographer, then, to trace the history of books in regard to their forms and other constituents, and consequently to trace the beginnings and progress of typography. It belongs to him in a particular manner to mark the differences of editions, and to point out that edition of every book which is esteemed the most correct and valuable. In the case of books pub- lished anonymously, or under feigned names, it is his business to indicate the names of their real authors, in as far as the discoveries of literary history may furnish the means of doing so. AU remarkable facts attaching to the history of books, such as the number of their editions, their rareness, their having been condemned to the flames, or suppressed, belong to the province of bibliographical inquiry. Further, every one who engages in any i^articular line of study must, of course, wish to know the books that have been published in regard to it, or in regard to any particular point that interests his curiosity ; and it is the business of the bibliographer to furnish this most useful species of information ; in other words, the compilation of catalogues of those books which have appeared in the various branches of knowledge, constitutes another de- partment of bibliography. It is by means of such catalogues that the student comes to know what has been written on every part of learning ; that he avoids the hazards of encountering diffi- culties which have already been cleared ; of dis- cussing questions which have already been decided; and of digging in mines of literature which have already been exhausted.” The number of bib- liographical works that have appeared in our own and other countries are so numerous that we can only afford to notice a few of the princi- pal of them. One of the earliest attempts to present a complete survey of printed literature was made by Conrad Gesner, whose Bibliotheca Universalis, in i vol. folio, appeared in 1545. The works are arranged according to the names of their authors ; but it is limited to works iu Greek, Latin, and Hebrew ; so that even in his day it could not be said to be universal. Essai de Bibliographie, appended by Cailleau to his Dictionary, was published in 1790, and Boulard’s Traite Elementaire de Bihliographie (Paris, i8c6), and Peignot’s Manuel Bihliographie and Diction- naire Baisonne de Bibliologie (1801 and 1802), and Cours Elementaire de Bihliographie, by Achard, are valuable works by French authors. The Bibliotheca Britannica of Dr. Kobert Watt of Glasgow is, with all its imperfections, a most meritorious and useful work. It was published in 4 vols. 4to (Edinburgh, 1824), in two of which the works are arranged alphabetically, according to their titles, and in the other two according to their authors. It professes to be “a universal catalogue of all the authors with which this country is acquainted ; embracing every descrip- tion of authors, and every branch of knowledge and literature ; ” and it also gives a large numbei of works in other languages. The other labourers in this field of literature, however, have generally confined themselves within narrower limits. Some confine themselves to books written upon one particular department of knowledge, to works belonging to a particular period, or issuing from a particular press ; to anonymous or pseudony- mous works, or to rare or curious books. Of these we may mention Lownde’s Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature, giving an account of rare, curious, and useful books, 4 vols. 8vo (London, 1834) ; Darling’s Cyclopaedia Bibliogra- phica, a library manual of theological and general literature and guide to books (London, 1857-8) • A Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors, by S. A. Allibone, 3 vols. 8vo (Philadelphia, 1859-71) ; T. Hartwell Horne’s Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, described on high authority as “perhaps the most useful book of this kind in the English language ” (1814) ; Dibdin’s Library Companion (1824) ; Brunet’s Manuel duLibraire et deV Amateur des Livres, 4th edition, 5 vols. 8vo (Paris, 1842-44) (a new and enlarged edition of this most valuable and useful work is now in course of publication) ; Querard’s La France Litteraire, 10 vols. (Paris, 1827-42) ; De Bure’s Bihliographie Instructive, on, TraiU de la Connoissance des Livres rares et singuliers, contenant un Catalogue raisonne de la plus grande partie de ces livres prdcieux qui ont paru successivement dans la Repuhlique des Lettres depuis Vinvention de Vimprimerie, 7 vols. 8vo (Paris, 1763-8) ; M. Barbier’s Dictionnaire des Anonymes et Pseudonymes, (1806-9); Ebert’s Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexikon, 2 vols. (Leipsic, 1821-30) (an English translation of this work has appeared in 4 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1837); Heinsius’ Allgemeines Bucherlexikon, with supple- ments, II vols. (Leipsic, 1812-52); Ersch’s Hand- buch der deutschen Literatur, 2nd edition, 4 vols. (Leipsic, 1822-40) (3rd edition, by Geissler, 1845); Yater’s Literatur der Grammatiken Lexika, und Wortersammlungen alter Sprachen der Erde, 2nd edition (Berlin, 1847). Many bibliographical works are limited to books printed within a given period, or relating to a special subject. Others describe works issued by certain eminent printers, and others enumerate anonymous works, and reveal the real authors. BIBLIOMANCY 66 BILLIARDS BIBLIOMANCY, Ub-li^o -man'-se (Gr., hib- liofty a book, and manteia, divination), an attempt to gain an insight into futurity by opening the Bible and taking the passage which first offers itself as a means from which guidance or advice may be derived with regard to any worldly matter about which the diviner may be in doubt. Some practised it by going into a place of wor- ship, and taking the first verse of Scripture that might be read after their entrance. The practice of this art was prohibited by some of the councils of the Church in the 5th and 6th centuries. It was introduced into England about 1070, and was much in vogue with the enthusiasts that were found among the troopers of Cromwell. Another method of divining by selecting pass- ages at random from a book, was the Sortes VirgiliancBy in which a copy of the works of the Latin poet Virgil was used instead of the Bible. BIBLIOMANIA, hib-li-o-mai' -ni-a (Gr., hiblion, and maniay madness), is a word denoting a passion for the possession of rare and curious books. The true bibliomaniac is not guided in his selection of books by their mere utility or the value of their contents, but rather by some ac- cidental circumstances connected with them. ■\Vith him, rarity is what gives its chief value to a book ; so that he is ever searching after books of which only a few copies have been printed, or are known to exist — early editions, works that have issued from a particular press, printed in a particular manner, on vellum or on large paper — books bound in a particular way by a particular binder. Uncut volumes are much prized by some — “Do you think I want to read my books?” asked one collector. The editions of the classics by the Elzevirs and the Foulises are much prized ; of the Italian classics, by the Academy della Crusca ; the books printed by the Elzevirs and Aldus ; those bound by Derome, Bozerian, IThe property of Mr Brown. A threshing-machine, ) The brace was also formerly used to connect three lines of poetry forming a triplet. In Music, the brace is placed at the beginning of the stave of any composition, and used to bind the har- monizing parts together, in order to guide the eye with greater facility from one set of staves to another. When more than two staves are joined together, either for part-singing or playing in concert, it is usual to draw a smaller brace within the large one, in order to distinguish each part. This union of braces is called a score. In Heraldry, when three chevronels are drawn inter- lacing each other, they are said to be braced. BRACELET, hraiss'-let (Lat., hrachium, an arm ; also Fr., brasielet, an armlet), an ornament generally worn encircling the wrist, but some- times on the arm above the elbow. {See Akmlet. ) From the earliest days bracelets and armlets have been worn by all nations, both savage and civilised. In the Bible, three different words are translated “bracelet” in the authorized version. The first probably means armlets worn by men, with a special reference to royal ornaments ; the second, bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men ; and the third, a peculiar bracelet of chain- work worn only by women. The barbarians of early Europe wore them ; the Sabines, before the foundation of Kome, adorned themselves with massive golden armlets ; and the Gauls and the Samians indulged in the same ornaments. In the East, the Medes and Persians especially delighted to wear these and similar adornments, which were usually very richly jewelled. In former days bracelets were used to indicate rank, and in some parts of the East this use has been continued to the present time. They frequently consisted of strings of pearls enriched with other jewels, but also of massive circles of silver or gold. The twisted spiral shape seems to have been introduced by the Greeks. In the eighteenth book of the “ Iliad,” Vulcan says (Newman’s translation) : “I for nine years forged many an artful trinket, bell-cups, and ‘ wi’eathing, screwing rings,’ and necklaces and brooches.” To the same people we are indebted for the famous snake pattern ; indeed, many of the best designs of our present goldsmiths are more or less accurate copies of ancient originals. Among the Greeks, men do not seen to have worn bracelets ; but among the Komans, armlets were frequently conferred, as marks of di.stinction, rewards for valour, &c. The Romans also often wore bracelets containing amulets to keep them from harm. Bracelets of gold or bronze were very common in Europe in the pre-historic times. BRACES, hra'-ces, shoulder straps to hold up trousers, and, onboard ship, ropes attached to the yard-arms to shift the sails to catch the wind more favourably, hence the phrase ‘ ‘ to brace the yards,” “to brace about,” &c. BRACHE, Irak (Fr., braque, diminutive bracket), a term believed to be either of Celtic derivation from brae a spot, and hence, originally meaning a spotted hound, or else derived from the Latin braccare to track, and meaning a dog used in hunting for tracking game. It is frequently used by the older English writers to denote some kind of dog, nearly always a dog for hunting. BRACHYLOGUS, brak'-e-ld-gus, a system- atic exposition of the Roman law, ascribed by some writers to the Emperor Justinian, but it is more probably a compilation of the i6th century. The earliest known edition of the work was pub- lished at Lyons, in 1549, and four years after- wards, another edition was issued at the same place, with the title Brachylogus Julis Civilis. An edition by Professor Bocking, was published at Berlin, in 1829. BRACKET, hrali^-et (Lat., hrachium, an arm), a term applied to any projection, either of wood or of stone, plain or ornamental, suspended against, or fastened to a wall, for the support of a clock, statue, lamp, &c. The pieces of wood that are often used to support shelves are so called. The term is also applied to gaslights that project from the wall. On shipboard, the knees which support the stern galleries are called brackets ; and in gunnery, the expression is used to denote the cheeks of the carriage of a mortar. In Typography, marks used by printers for inclosing words or sentences ; thus [ ]. They show that the words so enclosed are an interpolation, and not a parenthe- tical clause. BRADSHAW’S RAILWAY GUIDE, brad'-shaw, a well known monthly periodical, projected by the late Mr. George Bradshaw, of Manchester, and which made its first appearance in December, 1841. Subsequently, information re- specting steam navigation was added, and then Mr. Bradshaw attempted to do for the Continen- tal railways what he had already done for the British, and in 1847 issued the first number of “Bradshaw’s Continental Guide,” a work still carried on. BRAG, (Welsh, bragiaw, to brag), a game at cards, deriving its name from the efforts of the players to impose upon the judgment of their opponents by boasting of better cards than they possess. As many persons may play as the cards will supply, the dealer giving to each player three cards, turning up the last card all round. Three stakes also are put down by each player. The first stake is taken by the best card turned up in the dealing round. The peculiarity which gives the game its denomination occurs chiefly in winning the second stake. Here the knaves and nines are called “ braggers,” and all cards falling into the hands of the players assimilate to these. For example, one knave and two aces, two knaves and one ace, and two aces and one knave, all count three aces. The nines oj^erate in the same way. The third stake is won by the person who first makes up the cards in his hand to thirty- one, with the privilege to draw, or not to draw, as he pleases, from the pack. BRASENOSE COLLEGE, -nose, the name of one of the colleges of Oxford, founded in 1509, by the joint benefaction of William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton, of Prestbury, in Cheshire. It was originally estab- lished for a principal and twelve fellows, natives of the old diocese of Lichfield and Coventry, fail- ing whom natives of the diocese of Lincoln ; and if none of these be eligible, then the most fit and learned that can be found in the university of Ox- ford. Eight fellowships were afterwards added, by various benefactors, between 1522 and 1586, subject to various restrictions ; but, by an ordi- nance of the commissioners, under 17 and 18 Viet. c. 81, five of the fellowships were sup- pressed, and the rest thrown open. The scholar- ships and exhibitions of this college are numerous. Some of the open scholarships are of the value of BRASSARTS 85 BREADTH ^8o per annum, and are tenable for five years. There are twenty-two Somerset scholarships, ten- able for five years, and varying in value from £36 8s to £52. The Hulme exhibitions, seventeen in number, to which undergraduates of three years’ standing are capable of being nominated, are each worth £35 per annum, besides £20 to be spent in books, to be selected by the principal. The origin of the name of the college is uncertain. There is a tradition that it was originally Brewing-house, which in course of time was cor- rupted to the present appellation ; but Anthony Wood says that the building occupied the site of several hostels or inns, one of which had the sign of the Brazen Nose. A large nose, in brass, is placed over the gateway of the college. BRASSARTS, bras' -sarts (Fr., bras, the arm), pieces of defensive armour which protected the arm from the shoulder to the elbow : when the front part, or outside only, of the arm was protected, the single piece that covered it was called a demi-brassart. The term brassart has also been applied to any ornament or badge worn upon the arm. BRASSES, MONUMENTAL, bras'-ses, plates of brass of different forms, but for the most part consisting of representations of the human figure, or highly-ornamented crosses, let into slabs of stone or marble to serve as sepulchral records of the dead. The slab on which the brass was placed, formed in some cases, part of the pavement of the church or chapel, and in others, the upper part of an altar-tomb, or the back of the recess in which the altar-tomb itself was sometimes placed under a richly-carved canopy of stone, was carefully hollowed in accordance with the outline of the brass with which it was to be inlaid, to admit of the insertion of the metal suflSciently deep to bring its upper surface on a level with that of the slab. The brass was then bedded in pitch, and fastened to the stone with rivets. The forms in which the monumental brasses were designed were various, and differed greatly in point of decoration and elaborate exe- cution. The figure of the person commemorated by the monument was generally placed in the centre of the slab, the features, armour, folds of the dress, &c. , being marked by lines deeply cut into the metal, and filled with some black sub- stance ; sometimes a canopy supported by pillars surrounded the figure, adorned with armorial bearings, which were occasionally shown in their proper colours, the metal being cut away, and the field or charges being filled with coloured enamels, a white metal being inserted to repre- sent argent. Inscriptions were added, either on labels of brass let into the stone outside the canopy, or on that part of the brass immediately below the feet of the figure. These brasses were often gilt or highly polished, and when first put down they must have presented a beautiful ap- pearance, the burnished metal contrasting with the stone in which it was inlaid, which was generally of grey marble, or stone of a dark colour. On the Continent the whole surface of the stone is covered with a plate of brass, and the figures are shown in outline on it ; and in this respect the Continental brasses differ from those found in this country. The most beautiful to be found abroad are in the churches of Belgium and the north of France, formerly known as Flanders, from which country the art is supposed to have been introduced into England by Flemish artists subsequently to the Norman conquest. The oldest brasses known at present in this country are those of Sir John d’Abernoun, at Stoke d’Abernon, 1277 ; Sir Roger de Trumping- ton, at Trumpington, near Cambridge, 1289 ; and Sir Richard de Buslingthorpe, at Buslingthorpe, Lincolnshire, 1290. This form of sepulchral memorial was much in vogue until the close of the i6th century, particularly in the eastern counties ; but after this time brasses were less frequently used. Of the thousands of brasses that formerly existed in England little more than two thousand now remain ; many were rii)ped from the slabs to which they were fastened, and destroyed at the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII. , and many more during the civil war, when the Puritan soldiers of the Parlia- ment wantonly destroyed numberless ecclesiasti- cal memorials of bygone times. The following is the process used in taking facsimiles of brasses, or rubbings, as they are called : — White paper, tolerably thick and soft, which is made for the urpose, or cartridge-paper, is laid uidou the rass, and rubbed over with heelball, a composi- tion of beeswax, tallow, and lampblack. The incisions in the brass appear in white relief on a black ground, the heelball covering the paper with a dark coating in every part, except where the hollows in the brass offer no resistance to the rubber. Sometimes a paper of a dark colour is used, and the rubbing taken with an adhesive composition coloured with a yellow powder ; and, by these means, a far better representation of the brass is obtained, as the yellow substance used imparts a metallic appearance to the paper, excepting where the incisions api^ear, which, from the dark colour of the paper used, resemble in colour, as well as form, the incisions in the brass itself. The earliest collection of impres- sions from monumental brasses was made by Sir John Cullum, the Rev. T. Cole, and Mr. Craven Ord. It was purchased by Sir Francis Douce, and given by him to the British Museum, where it may now be seen in the i)rint-room. BRAVI, bra' -vi (Ital., bravo, brave), is a name given in Italy to a certain class of indivi- duals who engage themselves fcr money to i)er- form the most hazardous enterprizes, frequently murder. BRAVO ! bra' -VO, a term of exclamation, adopted from the Italian, and signifying excel- lent, or well done. It is used in English without regard to gender or number, but the Italians use brava for the feminine, and bravi for the plural. The superlative is bravissimo. BRAVURA, bra-voo' -ra (Ital.), a term gene- rally applied to a song containing difficult pas- sages and divisions, and requiring to be sung with great volubility and spirit. BREACH, breech (Fr., brhche; Sax., brecani Ger., brechen, to break), a term used to denote an opening made in any part of the rampart of a citadel or fortress by a continuous cannonade directed against that particular part by the be- sieging force, in order to obtain an entrance over the ruins and debris of the shattered wall. As soon as the breach is effected, and the stones as well as the rubbish and earth behind the wallaie brought by the firing into the form of a rough inclined plane, a storming party is told off, and the works are carried by assault. BREADTH, bredth (Sax., brad), a term in Painting, used to denote a method of treatment BREASTPLATE 86 BRITANNIA by which harmony of effect, and a judicious and proper blending of distant light and shadow, are obtained in the background of a picture, without entirely neglecting detail and throwing it into a hazy, confused, undefined mass, as was the cus- tom of the early landscape-painters, in the back- ground of whose pictures nothing could be distinguished. BREASTPLATE, hrest' -plait (Saxon, hreost, breast ; Dutch, plaat, plate), a piece of defensive armour, made of steel or iron, formerly used to protect the chest. Breastplates, termed cuirasses, are still worn by the Life-Guards and Horse- Guards in this country. They are ornamental, but expensive, and far from useful, as they are not ball-proof. The breastplate was first adopted instead of chain-mail by the Florentines in the early part of the 14th century, and before 1400 its use had become general throughout Europe. BREASTWORK, hrest' -werk^ a mound of earth, with a dry ditch in front, formed by the excavation from which the earth that makes the mound is taken, hastily thrown up for the pro- tection of troops on out-post duty or in any ex- posed situation. A row of gabions filled with earth or of felled trees, with sods and earth in the intestices of the branches, is also a breast- work. Epaulement, Pakapet.) BREATH-FIGrURES. if a clean surface of glass or any other polished substance be written on with a blunt-pointed instrument, and the sur- face be afterwards breathed upon, the characters written will become visible ; or if the surface be first breathed upon, and the characters then marked upon it, they can be again made percep- tible by breathing again upon the surface. These form what are called hreath-figures. BREECHES BIBLE. Bible.) BREVE, hreev (Ital., from Lat., hrevis, short). — This note (much used in ancient music) was, according to the notation of Guido d’Arezzo, equal in duration to two whole bars ; its present value, however, is equivalent to two semibreves, four minims, or eight crotchets. It was formerly written of a square figure, but at the present time is the same shape as a semibreve, with the addition of two lines on each side. It is seldom or ever used now, except in cathedral music. BREVIER, bre-veer', a small kind of print- ing type, so called, probably, from its having been first used in piinting breviaries ; or perhajjs it may have been derived from the Latin hrevis, short, on account of its comparative smallness. (See Printing.) BRIC-A-BRAC (Fr., odds and ends), old or ornamental curiosities collected for the adornment of drawing-rooms and boudoirs, the fashion for making collections of this character set in about the time of Queen Anne in this country, and is still in full operation. Many collections have sold for immense amounts. BRIDE AND BRIDEGROOM, bride, hridd -groom. Various derivations have been ^ven of these words. According to Tooke, bride is the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb hredan, to nourish or cherish, and groom the past participle of gyman, to take care of, guard, or attend ; so that the bride is a woman nour- ished and cherished, and the bridegroom is one by whom she is attended, served, and protected. They denote respectively a newly-married woman and man — married persons on the first day of their wedded life. The enjoyment of these titles being necessarily brief, they have always been associated with numerous ceremonies. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. Francis Henry Egerton, the last Earl of Bridge- water, by his will, dated February 25th, 1825, directed certain trustees therein named to invest in the public funds the sum of £8,000 ; said sum to be at the disposal of the president for the time being of the Royal Society of London, to be paid to the person or persons nominated by him, who shall be appointed to write, print, and publish 1,000 copies of a work “ On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God as manifested in the Creation.” It was judged preferable, in place of giving the whole sum to one man for one essay, to divide it into eight equal parts, to be given to eight different persons for as many distinct treatises on subjects connected with the original theme. The several subjects, with the distin- guished authors selected to write upon them, were as follows : — i. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitu- tion of man, by T. Chalmers, D.D. ; 2, Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Functions of Digestion, con- sidered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D. ; 3, On the History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals, by the Rev. William Kirby ; 4, On Geology and Mineralogy, by the Rev. William Buckland, D.D. ; 5, The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments, as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell ; 6, The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M.D. ; 7, Astronomy and General Physics, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by the Rev. William Whewell ; 8, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by P. M. Roget, M.D. BRIDLE , bride' -1. (See Horse. ) The word is used in the Scrqffures in a figurative sense, to imply the restraints of God’s providence, and of religion and humanity. BRIGAND. ( by Doge Sebastiano Ziani over the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The Pope presented Ziani, with a gold ring as a sign that on that day the Adriatic had been subjugated to Venice, “as a spouse to her husband.” Annually, on Ascension- day, the doge, with great pomp and ceremony, and with a numerous attendance, proceeded in the Bucentaur, and dropped a gold ring into the Adriatic, with these words, “ We wed thee with this ring, in token of our true and perpetual sovereignty.” When the French took Venice, what is said to have been the ancient Bucentaur was burnt. It was a gorgeously fitted galley, about 100 feet long, and 21 broad, and manned by 168 rowers. BUCKLER, huTd-ler (French, bouclier)^ a shield or weapon of defence worn on the left arm. It was of different sizes, and made of different materials. It was attached to the arm by two straps, one of which passed over the fleshy part of the fore-arm below the elbow, and the other was grasped in the hand. The Roman spearmen wore bucklers about four feet long by two in breadth, slightly curved in form, behind which they crouched before or after hurling the javelin ; it was made of wood, strengthened with leather and metal plates and bosses. In mediaeval times the birckler was generally roimd or oval. The Scotch target was a buckler of bull’s-hide, ornamented with a rim, boss, and studs of metal ; it was used to catch and turn away the blow of a sword or lance, and always formed part of the equipment of a Highlander. BUCOLICS, hew-kol'-ik!s{(j:r., boukolika), pro- perly means pastoral, pertaining to cattle, and is the name given to a species of poetry which was common among the ancient Greeks, but has been little cultivated by the moderns. It represented rural affairs, and the life and manners of shep- herds. The poems of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, and the Eclogues of Virgil, are of this class. The metre employed is the hexameter, or heroic ; but the lines flow more easily here than in epic poetry. BUFFER, buf-fer, a rod with an enlarged end attached to a spiral spring of great strength, fixed to the striking parts of locomotives and railway carriages, in order to diminish the shocks arising from any sudden movement or stoppage. BUFFET, boof-fai (Fr.), anciently denoted a small apartment separated from the re.st of a room, and used for containing china, glass-ware, &c. The name was afterwards applied to a cup- board or set of shelves, which was used for a like purpose, but which has now been superseded by the modern sideboard. The term is now applied to the refreshment counter at a railway or other restaurant. BUFFO, BUFF A, boof-fo (buffa, a slap on the cheek), a term apiplied by the Italians to an actor and singer who takes the humorous and ludicrous parts in their operas. The epithet is also applied to the pieces themselves ; as opera buffo, a comic opera. BUFFONT, buf-font', a projecting covering of gauze or linen for a lady’s breast, in fashion in and after the year 1750, a period when English ladies’s costume was very ungraceful. The buf- font entirely concealed the neck and bosom, and stuck out from beneath the chin like the breast of a pigeon. The buffont was worn in Paris as late as 1788. BUFFOON, buf-foon' (Fr., bouffon), a low jester, a man who amuses others by rough tricks, antic gestures, broad jokes, and such -like. In Italy the term is not always used in a contemptu- ous sense ; there there are two sorts of buffoons, — the buffo cantante, who has frequently an important part to play, requiring considerable musical talent, and the buffo comico, whose part consists more in acting. In England the name was sometimes applied to those persons who were employed as fools at court or at the tables of great men. BUGLE, bu'-gl (Ang.-Nor.), formerly a brass instrument without any keys, used only by hunters and for military purposes ; within the last few years, however, it has been so much improved by the addition of six keys, that it now is of the greatest service both in solo and concerted music, and is very commonly found in orchestral and military bands. BULBUL, booV-bool, an Eastern name for the nightingale, much in favour with poets. In India the name is given to a little bird {Pyconotous hcemorrhous) of brilliant plumage, and remark- able for its pugnacity. It is nearly allied to the thrush. BULGARIAN LANGUAGE, bul-gai'- ri-an, is a branch of the Sclavonic, and is divided into two dialects — the old and new Bulgarian. The old Bulgarian is the richest in inflections, and its literature is the oldest of any of the Sclavonic tongues. The new Bulgarian has arisen since the destruction of the kingdom in 1392, when the language came to be mixed with those of neighbouring nations, particularly of Wallachia and Albania. The new Bulgarian can scarcely be said to possess any literature ; but it has a large collection of popular songs. BULL ON THE STOCK EXCHANGE, the name bull is applied to a class of speculators, i^See Bear.) BULL, IRISH, a blunder in speaking, aris- ing generally from too great haste and a comical confusion of ideas. As an illustration, an Irish- man stopped a stranger in the street, supposing him to be an acquaintance. On discovering his mistake, he exclaimed, “When I first saw you, I thought it was you, then I thought it was your brother, and now I find it’s neither one nor the other.” BULLA (Lat., bulla, a round boss or stud), a small round ornament made of gold or silver, worn by the children of the ancient Roman nobility. BULL-BAITING 92 BURKING The bulla was worn until they arrived at the age of fourteen, and was placed upon the neck or breast. It was a distinctive mark of free birth. BULL-BAITING, hull-hait' -ing, (Du., hulle, bull; Goth, heitan, to bait), is the barbarous sport of baiting bulls with dogs. The animal was usually tied to a stake, with the points of his horns muffled, and then attacked by the dogs, who tore him to death for the amusement of the spectators. It is said to have been introduced as an amusement into England about the year 1209. BULLETIN, huV -let-in, is a term derived from the French, where it originally signified a ballot used in elections ; and hence a small piece of paper on which one gave his vote. Afte wards it came to signify an official report, giving an account of the actual condition of some impor- tant affair intended for the information of the public. When persons of high rank are danger- ously ill, daily bulletins are issued by the physicians respecting the state of the patient, and to such notices the term is now almost limited. BULL-FIGHTS, or combats between men and bulls, are a very ancient kind of amusement, and were common in Greece several centuries before the Christian era. In Rome, under the emperors, they were also common, and after- wards they became popular in many of the other countries of Europe. At present, Spain is the only country in Europe where they are held, but in Mexico they are also popular. They were abolished in Spain, in 1784, “ except for pious and patriotic purposes,” but revived by Joseph Bonaparte for the sake of pleasing the people. In all the larger towns of Spain bull-fights are frequent. In Madrid the season lasts from April to November, during which time bull-fights take place at least once a week. The combats are held in a large amphitheatre called the Plaza de toros, open at the toj), and with seats rising one above another round the circle, and capable of accommodating from 10,000 to 12,000 spectators. The area is divided into an outer and inner circle, separated from each other by a strong fence, the latter being the place where the combats take place, the former affording shelter to the men on foot when hard pressed by the bull, in order to which there are a series of openings in the fence just large enough to allow a man to pass through. The actors on the arena are the bull, usually of the fierce Andalusian or Castilian breed ; the picadores or combatants on horseback, who wear fancy dresses in imitation of the costume of ancient knights ; the bander illeros, who are armed with sharp goads with coloured streamers ; the chulos, who wear very bright-coloured cloaks ; and the inatador who dispatches the bull. The contest begins with t\\e picadores, who are each armed with a lance, and mounted usually on a very worthless horse. Their object is to wound the bull with the lance, and then to avoid his onset. The horse is frequently gored in the encounter, and when a picador is closely pressed, the banderilleros and chulos rush in and withdraw the bull’s attention by pricking him with their darts and waiving their cloaks. When the bull begins to flag, the picadores withdraw, and are succeeded by the banderilleros, who are armed with banderillas, or darts, about two feet long, ornamented with a coloured flag. These the banderillero sticks into the bull behind the horns when it is preparing to toss him. After a time the third act of the play commences, and the matador enters upon the stage, attended by some chulos as assistants. Over his left arm he has a red mantle, behind which is concealed a sword which he has in his right haird. He waits the charge of the bull, and, if well skilled, dexterously plunges the sword between the shoulder and the blade, and the animal drops dead at his feet. The matador is loudly cheered, so also is the bull, if he hap- pens to get the best of the contest, and kill the matador. Twenty minutes is the time usually taken to terminate the contest, and eight or ten bulls are often dispatched in a single day. BULL’S EYE, the black or gold mark in the centre of a target. {See Takget.) BULWARK, buV-wark, in a man-of war, the boarding above the upper deck fastened to the outside of the timber-heads and stanchions. Bul- warks protect the men in action from the fire of the enemy. In ordinary vessels they are simply a protection from the waves, and prevent articles from being washed overboard. The name of bul- wark was formerly applied in military art to ramparts and bastions. BUNGALOW, hun'-ga-lo, an East-Indian term for a sort of house or villa, with a thatched roof. Bungalows are occupied by Europeans, and vary in size and accommodation according to the fancy or requirements of their owner. They gene- rally consist of a ground-floor, surrounded by a verandah ; but some are of two stories. Military bungalows are for the accommodation of soldiers in cantonments, and are on the same extensive scale as barracks. BUNKUM, hunk' -um, is an Americanism, applied to a speech delivered merely for the pur- pose of conciliating popular favour, or gaining popular applause ; a species of oratory more com- monly to be met with in America than in most other countries. The term is said to have origi- nated in the name of a county in North Carolina, the representative of which said in Congress after a long bragging speech, that he was only “ speak- ing for Buncombe.” BURDEN, her' -den, is that portion of a song which is repeated at the close of every verse or stanza. It is derived from the French bourdon, a drone bass. The adojjtion of a burden in vocal music is very ancient, and it is still occasionally introduced with very pleasing effects. BURGONET, bur' -go-net, a helmet which formed part of the armour worn at the close of the 17th century. It was invented by the Bur- gundians, and from them received its name. The Burgonet took the form of the head more closely than the helmets in previous use, and frequently had overlapping plates of steel that protected the neck. A serrated ridge usually ran from the summit, and a plume of feathers either stood up from the apex of the helmet, or one long flowing plume was inserted in the pipe at the back. This plume streamed behind the wearer, frequently descending lower than the waist. BURKING, burk! -ing,^ murdering a person with the intention of selling the body for dis- section. Before the passing of the Anatomy Act in 1832 there were not sufficient legal means by which bodies could be procured for anatomical purposes. Previous to that time the prices for subjects became very high, and tempted men to commit some horrible crimes. Among these were two men named Burke and Hare, who, as asso- BURLESQUE 93 BUTLER’S ‘^ANALOGY dates, are belie v'ed to have murdered no less than sixteen persons solely for the purpose of handing their bodies over to the surgeons. Burke was tried in 1828, at Edinburgh, Hare being received as king’s evidence against him. To hurke a project or a speech comes from this word, and means bringing to a sudden end. BURLESQUE, hur-lesk' {lioX.fiurlare, to jest, mock), denotes a style of composition in which the humour consists in a ludicrous mixture of things high and low, of high thoughts clothed in low ex- pressions, or vice versa, of ordinary or base topics invested in artificial dignity. The burlesque style may exist in conversation as well as written composition, and in acting and drawing. It is, however, most common in poetry. Burlesque appears to have been unknown among the ancients ; but specimens of it are found in most modern languages, particularly the Italian. Butler’s “Hudibras” is a well-known example in English of literary burlesque, and “Bombastes Fvuioso ” of dramatic burlesque. Blanche was a very successful writer of burlesque, depending chiefiy on witty dialogue, clever parodies, and good music. More modern authors of burlesque rely upon violent puns, comical dancing, female attractions, outre dresses, and brilliant scenery. Messrs. H. J. Byron, Burnand, Farnie, and Reece, are the most successful of these authors ; and a more refined and subtle form of humour has been employed by Mr. W. S. Gilbert. BURNETT PRIZES, THE, hur'-net, were founded by Mr. Burnett, a merchant in Aberdeen, who, dying in 1785, left a part of his fortune to found these prizes. The interest was to accumu- late for forty years at a time, and was then to be divided and given, as two prizes (of not less than £1,200 and £400), to the authors of the best two essays on “ The evidence that there is a Being, all-powerful, wise, and good, by whom every- thing exists ; and particularly to obviate dif- ficulties regarding the wisdom and goodness of the Deity ; and this, in the first place, from con- siderations indei^endent of written revelation ; and, in the second place, from the revelation of the Lord Jesus ; and from the whole to point out the inferences most necessary and useful to man- kind.” On the first competition, in 1815, the first prize, of £1,200, was awarded to Dr. W. Laurence Brown, principal of Marischal College, and the second, of £400, to the Rev. J. Bird Sumner, afterwards arch- bishop of Canterbury. On the second competition, in 1855, 208 essays were given in, the judges being the Rev. Baden Powell, Henry Rogers, and Isaac Taylor. The first prize, of £1,800 was adjudged to the Rev. Robert Anchor Thompson, master of the hospital of St. Mary the Virgin at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the second, of £600, to Dr. John Tulloch, principal of St. Mary’s College, St. Andrew’s. BURNT STONES, antique cornelians ' found in ruins, and seeming to have been acted on by fire, having a dull appearance externally, but exhibiting a beautifully red colour when held up to the light. They are highly prized. BURSARY, her'-sa-re (Fr., bourse; Lat., bursa, a purse), is a sum of money allowed to a student at a university to enable him to prosecute his studies, or to devote himself to literary pur- suits afterwards. The money is usually the annual proceeds of a bequest left by some private individual for that purpose. BUSH-RANGERS. Australian highway- men, mostly escaped convicts, or ruflSans, who robbed gold-diggers and travellers. BUSKIN, bus'-kin (Ang.-Sax.), the English translation of the Latin word cothurnus, which was a kind of boot, covering the foot, and rising above the calf of the leg, sometimes even reaching as high as the knee. The sole of the buskin was generally of an ordinary thickness, but sometimes it was made thicker than usual by the insertion of slices of cork. The object here was to add to the stature of the wearer ; for which reason it was worn by the Greek and Roman tragedians, in order to give them a more heroic appearance, as the soccus, or low-heeled shoe, was worn by the comedians. Hence, in English, the buskin and sock [soccus, a flat-soled shoe), have come to be synonymous with tragedy and comedy. It was also worn by ladies for ornament. The Mel- pomene in the Villa Borghese is represented with the buskin, and it forms part of the recognized hunting costume of Diana. BUST, bust (Ital., busto), a term in Sculpture by which is meant a representation of the head, neck, shoulders, and breast, with, most fre- quently, the arms cut off midway above the elbow. The derivation of the word is uncertain. By the aid of the plaster cast the sculptor is en- abled to produce a very accurate portrait of the original, and in this branch of art English sculp- tors have attained a high degree of excellence. The term is also applied to the bosom of a woman. BUTLER’S “ANALOGY.” in 1736, Dr. Joseph Butler (afterwards Bishop of Bristol, Dean of St. Paul’s, and Bishop of Durham), clerk of the closet to Queen Caroline, published “ The Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature,” which has taken its place as a classic in the religious litera- ture of England. Bishop Wilson, who contributed a preface to a modern edition, says: “Bishop Butler is one of those creative geniuses who give a character to the times. His great work has fixed the admiration of all competent judges for nearly a century, and will continue to be studied so long as the language in which he wrote endures. The mind of a master pervades it. There are in his writings a vastness of idea, a reach and a generalization of reasoning, a native simplicity and grandeur of thought which command and fill the mind.” The arguments employed in the book tend to prove that there is a general analogy between the principles exhibited in the course of nature, and those of the Divine government as revealed in the Scriptures, and that analogy leads to the conclusion that the author is the same. Butler himself quotes a pregnant sentence from Origen, which might be taken as the text of his great work: — “He who believes the Scriptures to have proceeded from Him who is the author of nature, may well expect to find the same sort of difficulties in it as are found in the constitution of nature. ” In the introductory chapter, Butler says : — “ The analogy here proposed to be consid- ered is of pretty large extent, and consists of several parts, in some more, in others less, exact. In some few instances, perhaps, it may amount to a real practical proof, in others not so ; yet in these, it is a conformation of what is proved other ways. It will undeniably show, what too many want to have shown them, that the system of religion, both natural and revealed, considered only as a system, and prior to the proof of it, is not a subject of ridicule, unless that of nature be BUTTRESS 94 BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE so to.” A more comijrehensive or better estimate of Butler than that contained in the epitaph on his monument in Bristol Cathedral could hardly be quoted: — “Others had established the historical and prophetical grounds of the Christian religion, and that sure testimony of its truth which is found in its perfect adaptation to the heart of man : it was reserved for him to develop its analogy to the constitution and course of nature ; and, laying his strong foundations in the depth of that great argument, there to construct another and irrefragable proof, thus rendering philosophy subservient to faith, and finding in outward and visible things the type and evidence of them within the veil.” Butler’s literary style is un- worthy of his great intellectual power. Main- waring, the author of a “ Dissertation on the Comi^osition of Sermons,” says of Butler : — “ He had neither the gift of eloquence nor the art of expressing himself with grace or ease ; ” and Sir James Mackintosh, while speaking of the “ Analogy ” as the most original and profound work extant in any language on the philosophy of religion,” adds, “ No thinker so great was ever so bad a writer.” There have been many editions of the great work, and some of the most eminent divines have employed their talents in commen- taries and expositions. Recently a very cheap and carefully edited edition, with introduction, analyses, and notes by the Rev. F. A. Malleson, has been issued by Messrs. Ward, Lock, & Co. BUTTRESS, hut’ -tress (Fr., hutUe, from ahoutir, to abut), a i^iece of masonry or brickwork projecting from the face of a wall, and giving it support and increased strength and solidity. In Grecian and Roman architecture, the buttress was not used, but its place was occupied by a pilaster, or some slight projection in that form. The buttress was introduced with Gothic archi- tecture in the Mediaeval period, and, by depees, it was formed into a very ornamental addition to the building to which it was attached. The Norman buttress was a flat projection, finished with a slanting coping, jutting slightly over the face only, and not over the sides. Sometimes the Norman buttress is found in a semi-circular form. The chief characteristic of the early English buttress is, that it projects from the face of the wall to a much greater extent than the Norman buttress, its depth being equal to, and sometimes more than its breadth. It generally consists of two or three divisions or stages, each division being less in depth than the one imme- diately below it, and finished with a water-table, or stone bevelled to present a single inclined surface, or a series of surfaces, like shallow steps, finished in a triangular or pointed form, re- sembling the gable-end of a house, and the roof projecting over it. The buttresses of the Deco- rated English style are similar, in general form, to those of the Early English period, but are always divided into stages, ornamented with jianels and niches, which are some times filled with figures and finished with crocketed cano- pies ; the top is often finished with an elaborately- carved finial or pinnacle. Examples of Decorated English buttresses will be found at Exeter Cathe- dral, York Minster, and Waltham Cross. The Perpendicular English buttress differs from the buttresses already mentioned in being divided into a great number of stages, with panels in front and at the sides, filled with rich tracery. They are higher, and have small pieces, in the form of a bracket or capital of a column, rising from the wall-plate at the top of each stage, which serve as pedestals for small statues. Fly- ing butresses are buttresses built against the wall of the side -aisles of cathedrals and large churches, and connected witli others immediately in their rear, projecting from the walls of the nave, with stone-work in the form of a semi-arch, which is sometimes plain and sometimes elabo- rately carved and perforated with tracery of rich design. Flying buttresses were introduced at the close of the Early English period. BUTTS RIFLE, huts (Fr., hut, a mark), a term applied to mounds of earth, against which targets are placed. In the old days of archery localities where archers resorted for practice, took a name from the butts erected there, as Newing- ton Butts, in the south of London. The term is now also applied to a screen, generally made of earth- work and masonry, for protecting the mark- ers during rifle-practice at a target. It is placed about fifteen yards in front of and to one side of the target, and in such a position that the markers can easily see the face of the target from it. BJJXOM, huk’ -swm(Ang.-Sax., hucsuvi, easily bended to the will of another), originally signified obedient or obsequious ; and in an old form of marriage, the bride promised to be obedient and buxom to her husband. At present it is used in the sense of gay, lively, brisk, associated with plumpness. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, hi- zan'-tine. — New styles of architecture were gra- dually produced in Rome and Byzantium, after the division of the old empire, to suit special re- quirements. In the eastern empire was developed the Byzantine style, the parent stock of Arabian architecture, from which all public buildings of ancient date in northern Africa and Spain derive their principal characteristic features, the pointed arch excepted, which influenced the architecture of the East, and even spread westwards, as may be seen in many a noble structure in Venice, Italy, and southern France. In our own times, Byzantine architecture is the ecclesiastical style of architecture in Russia, the prevailing style of the Greek church, as Gothic architecture is peculiar to the cathedrals and churches of Roman Catholic and Protestant countries in Western and central Europe. Byzantine architecture may be con- sidered to have been originated by Constantine the Great, who commenced rebuilding Byzantium in the year 324, and gave the city the name, Con- stantinople, which it now bears. Constantine spared no expense to make his new city the most magnificent in the world ; public works of all kinds were erected with marvellous rapidity, from the designs of architects who had followed the Emperor from Rome, and adorned with sculpture gathered from the fallen cities of Greece and Asia Minor. At first, the palaces, temples, churches, baths, and basilicas, which were erected, were based on the plans, and em- braced all the characteristic features of similar buildings at Rome ; but, to carry out his grand designs, Constantine caused schools to be estab- lished for the study of architecture, in which men were trained for the profession, who gradu- ally mingled new and original features with those of the style that had been introduced from the West, and formed a style of architecture peculiar in itself, and eminently adapted to the require- ments of the ritual of the Greek church, although bearing evident traces of the source from whict BYZANTINE ART 95 BYZANTINE HISTORIANS it: originally sprung. There are four periods of Byzantine architecture, including that of its de- cline, from the conquest of Constantinople by the Venetians in 1204, to the overthrow of the Eastern Empire by the Turks in 1453. The first, or transition period, in which it gradually lost its similarity to the architecture of Eome, then known as Eomanesque, ranges from 325 to 525. The churches were then built in the form of the Roman basilica {see Basilica), with a central nave and long side-aisles, a portico at the western end, and an apse at the east end. The second period, when it had assumed an entirely distinc- tive character, extends from 525, shortly after which Jastinian assumed the purple, to the close of the 8th century ; and the third from this epoch to 1204 when Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and his Venetian allies, attacked the Greeks, and gained temporary possession of Constan- tinople. The prevalant form of the churches:, of the second period, or period of pure Byzantine architecture, is that of the Greek cross : the central square, formed by the intersection of the arms of the cross, is covered by a dome or cupola, and the spaces which represent the arms, are also covered by semi-cupolas, or, in many cases entire ones. This form, however, was not in- variably adopted in the smaller churches. The constant use of the apse [see Apse) is a very marked feature of the ecclesiastical edifices. The cathedral of St. Sophia, now the principal mosque at Constantinople, built by Justinian in 532, is considered to be one of the finest existing speci- mens of Byzantine architecture : good examples of the style of the second period are also to be seen in the churches of St. Sergius, and St. Irene, at Constantinople. The best examples of the third period are the churches of St. Mark at Venice, and St. Pantocrator at Constantinople : in this period greater attention was paid to ex- ternal decoration, but the churches were much smaller in every respect. The church of St. Anthony at Padua, the cathedral at Aix-la- Chapelle, the churches of Ravenna and Pisa, and that of St. Frant at Perigeaux, in France, are also Byzantine in character. BYZANTINE ART. — When Constantine removed the seat of empire from Rome to Con- stantinople, many artists who had gained repute in Rome sought to acquire an extension of renown in the new imperial city. There they founded a Byzantine school of art, to which the painters and sculptors of the W^est resorted when the savage hordes of the North poured over the sunny plains of Southern Euro^je, and gave the coup de grace to the waning power of the Western empire. In Byzantium, this school preserved the character- istics of ancient art during the sombre dawn of the Mediaeval period, when the culture of the fine arts languished and almost died out in other parts of Europe, or became debased and devoid of spirit and beauty. It also struck out a new and original path in idealizing and representing with artistic force and excellence, both with the pencil and the chisel, the graces and virtues of the Christian faith, in opposition to the efforts of the artists of ancient Greece and Rome, who skilfully expressed the attributes of heathenism by portrajdng the perfection of the human form, animated indeed by human passions and desires. but uncontrolled and unsoftened by the elevating influence of that faith which they knew not, but the spirit and expression of which the Byzantine artists so thoroughly felt and compreliended. In both painting and sculpture, their works were executed in a careful and painstaking manner ; and mechanical perfection was attained in the manipulation of their subjects and the way in which the separate details were laboriously worked out. Their figures are full of dignity ; their form, attitude, and expression, betoken them as being conceived in a spirit truly Chris- tian, while the accompanying details were marked by a symbolism pregnant with meaning ; as when the garments of our Saviour, resisting the Spirit of Evil in the hour of his temptation, are painted black, as typical of error and evil, and the Virgin Mary is represented with a black complexion, to signify the bitter woe that wrung that loving mother’s heart. In Mosaic-work the Byzantines excelled ; the domes of their churches, as well as the pavements and the walls in parts, being beautifully inlaid in elaborate and exquisite tracery, often grotesque in form, glowing with brilliant colours. They possessed goldsmiths and jewellers of no mean order, who were animated by tastes and feelings truly artistic, as may be seen in the magnificent chalices, candelabra, and crosses of the Byzantine period, encrusted in many cases with jewels of great value, that have remained to our own times ; they were also ex- ceedingly skilful in carving in ivory, and in the illumination of copies of the Holy Scriptures. Byzantine art retained its pre-eminence until the close of the 12th century, when it gradually de- clined, until the conquest of the Eastern empire by the Turks ended the existence of the school that had flourished so long and so ^successfully. The influence of Byzantine art may be plainly traced in the various schools of Italy, particularly in those of Sienna and Florence, as exempKfied in the painting of St. Peter and St. John, by Pierrolino (noo), in the Academy of Fine Arts of Sienne, and that of the Virgin and Child, by Guido di Ghezzo (1221), in the church of San Domenico, in the same city, and in many of the works of Cimabue, Giotto, and Leonardo da Vinci, who flourished at Florence at a later period. BYZANTINE HISTORIANS, is a name given to certain Greek writers who have written on the history of the Byzantine empire. They are divided into three classes : — i, Those whose works refer exclusively to Byzantine history ; 2, those who write on general history, treating also at some length on Byzantine history; and 3, those who have writen on Byzantine architec- ture, antiquities, customs, &c. The works of the Byzantine historians were collected and published by Dabbe, Fabrotti, Dufresne, and others, in 42 vols., Paris (1647 — 1811). Anew edition of the Byzantine historians, entitled “ Corpus Scrip- torum, Historiae Byzantiae,” was commenced at Rome, 1828, by Nieubhr, with the assistance of Bekker, Dindorf, Schopen, Meinecke, and others, and many volumes of it have since been published. BYZANTINE RECENSION, is the name given to the text of the Greek New Testament as propagated within the limits of the patriarchate of Constantinople. CAB 96 CADUCEUS c C, the third letter and second consonant of our alphabet, has two sounds, being pronounced like h before the vowels a, o, and u, and like s before e, i, and y. This letter is first met with in the Latin alphabet, where it occupies the same place as the gamma or g in the Greek ; and, indeed, originally it had the same sound ; legione, with the early Romans, being written leciones. Sub- sequently the g sound became hardened to that of k, and that was the only pronunciation that it afterwards had with the Romans, as we know from the circumstance that whenever the Greeks had occasion to adopt Latin words with c into their language, they always represented it by k', as Cicero, Kikero ; Caesar, Kaisar. As regards sound, C is a superfluous letter in English, as its place could always be supplied either by k or s. As a numeral, C stands for loo, CC, for 200 ; and so on. In Music, it is the name of one of the notes of the gamut. Placed after the clef, it intimates that the music is in common time, which is either quick or slow as it is joined with allegro or adagio ; but if alone, it is usually adagio. If the C be crossed or turned, the first requires the air to be played quick, the last very quick. C major is the first of the twelve major keys in modern music ; being the natural scale, it has no sig- nature. C minor, the tonic minor of C major, has three flats for its signature— B, E, and A. CAB, kdb (Fr), an abbreviation of the word cabriolet. It is a small light carriage for one horse, which generally plies for hire. The Han- som cab holds two i)assengers, and the driver is seated behind ; the Clarence cab holds four pas- sengers with the driver on the box in front. CABINET, kab'-i-net, a case containing draw- ers and slides for the preservation of objects of natiu-al history, coins, and other rare and valu- able objects. The name is sometimes applied to large collections of such matters occupying rooms or even galleries. Cabinet Picture, a highly finished picture of small size, to be kept in a cabinet, or hung in a small room, as being suited for close inspection. The term ‘ ‘ cabinet size ” is given to photographic portraits larger than the ordinary carte de visite, CABLE-MOULDING, an architectural term for a moulding cut in form of a rope, the twisting being shewn very prominently. It was greatly used in the later-Norman period. CABLING, a moulding oftenused to partially fill the hollows in the flutes of columns and pil- asters in classical architecture. CABOCHED, OR CABOSSED, ka-botch'- ed, a heraldic term signifying the exhibition of the head of an animal full in face on a shield or escutcheon without any part of the neck being shown. CACHE, kash (Fr., a lurking-hole), holes, or places of concealment dug by travellers in the ground to hide some of their goods. The con- struction of a cache is a work of great ingenuity and labour. A hole six or eight feet deep, and several feet broad, is first dug ; the articles to be concealed are then jiut in, and the hole is filled up, the surface being carefully replaced, so as to show no sign. Landmarks are, however, noted, and the locality of the cache is easily found when the travellers return. Caches are made prin- cipally in the Far West by travellers or settlers who, when crossing the Rocky Mountains, wish to take as little luggage with them as possible. CACOETHES, kak-o-e-thes (Gr., kakos, bad, ethos, disposition), a bad custom, disposition, or habit ; as the cacoethes scribendi, the de.sire for scribbling. An incurable cancer is also called a cacoethes in medicine. CACOGBAPHY, ka-cog-ra-fy curious spelling by which the correct sound is preserved, but the letters are ludicrously incorrect, as “ i phansy,” for “I fancy.” One of the most notable instances is Thackeray’s “ Yellowplush Papers.” CACOPHONY, kakof-o-ne (Gr., kakos, bad, phone, voice, sound), in Grammar, is a fault of style, consisting in the bringing together of two letters or syllables which produce a harsh or dis- agreeable sound, or in the too frequent repetition of the same letters or syllables. CADENCE, kai' -dense (Fr., cadence; Lat., cadens, from cado, I fall), signifying the end of a phrase or the conclusion of the composition. In vocal or instrumental music, cadences are used for the same purpose as stops in writing ; that is, to indicate the terminations, either of the part into which a composition is divided, or the conclusions of entire pieces ; as in writing, stops mark the divisions, or completion of a sentence. There are three kinds of cadences — viz., the whole or perfect or final cadence, which consists of three chords and finishes the harmony of the tonic, and is always used at the end of a composition ; the half-cadence, also called the imperfect cadence, used to terminate an idea or phrase, like the semicolon or colon in writing, and showing that though a division is necessary, yet a continuation will follow ; and thirdly, the in- terrupted cadence, in which the preparation is made for a full or final cadence, but another harmony is suddenly introduced. There are said to be 130 ways of making an interrupted cadence. CADENCY, ka-den' -sy (from the Lat., cado, I fall), a term in heraldry signifying the marks by which the shields of the younger sons of a family are distinguished from those of the elder and of one another, thus, in the family of the “ First House,” or first son, the shield of the eldest son bears a mark called a “label;” the second son, a “crescent;” the third son, a star, known as a “ mullet ; ” the fourth son, a “ martlet ; ” and so forth. In the family of the second son, the eldest has a crescent, with a “label” upon it; the second son, a crescent with a crescent upon it ; the third son, a crescent with a star or mullet upon it, &c. In the third house, or family of the third son, the first has a mullet with a label on it, the second, a mullet with a crescent on it, and so forth throughout the entire family. CADMEAN LETTERS, kad'-me-an, the name given to the sixteen letters that originally composed the Greek alphabet, and which, ac- cording to tradition, were brought by Cadmus from Phoenicia, whence they were called gram- mata Kadmeia, Cadmean letters. In reality, they are found to agree, in form and order, with the Samaritan or Phoenician letters. CADUCEUS, ka-du' -se-us, the winged staff or sceptre of Mercury, said to have been pre- sented to him by Apollo in return for the seven- CESAREAN OPERATION 97 CALDERONS DRAMAS stringed harp which Mercury had given to him. Amongst the ancient Greeks and Komans, the caduceus was the staff of office borne by ambas- sadors and heralds. It was from this circum- stance, doubtless, that it became a symbol of Mercury, the messenger of the gods. Originally, it was a simple olive-branch; then a white or gilded staff, round which was added in a later age the representation of two twisted snakes, with two out-stretched wings above them. Mer- cury was considered to be the patron of commerce, and the rod of the caduceus signified power, the serpents prudence, and the wings diligence. It is still used in modern times as the symbol or representative of commerce. C.^ESAREAN OPERATION, se-zai' -re-an (Lat., CCBSUS, from ccedo, I cut), is the extraction of a child from the womb by an incision through the parietes of the abdomen and the uterus. It is also called from hustera, the womb, and tome, a section. This operation has been practised from very ancient times. There are three cases in which this operation may be neces- sary : — I, "V^en the foetus is alive and the mother dead, either in labour or in the last two months of pregnancy ; 2, when the foetus is dead, but cannot be delivered in the usual way, on account of the deformity of the mother, or the dispro- portionate size of the child ; 3, when both mother and child are alive, but delivery cannot take place, from any of the above causes. The opera- tion is one of great danger, but there are many instances of both mother and child have lived after its performance ; indeed, there is a case on record of one woman having submitted to the operation seven times. Shakespeare’s reference to the subject in connection with the character of Macduff is well known. C.^STUS, sees' -tus (Lat.), a rough gaimtlet made of raw hide, and stren^hened with lead or plates of iron. It was used by the wrestlers both to protect their hands and wrists and to give force to their blows. The csestus was also a kind of girdle made of wool, which the husband untied for his bride the first evening after marriage. C-^SURA, se-zu'-ra (Latin, ccedo, I cut), in Greek and Latin poetry denotes the cutting off of the last syllable of a word from those that precede it, and carrying it forward into another foot. It always renders the syllable on which it falls long, though it may properly be short. In modern poetry it denotes the pause which is introduced into a verse or line to render the versification more melodious, and to aid the recital. [See Blank Veese.) C.^TERIS PARIBUS, se'-te-ris par'-i~bus (Lat., other things being alike or equal), is a term frequently employed by mathematicians and philosophers to denote the equality of all other points or circumstances except those at issue ; as when it is said that the velocity and quantity of blood circulating in a given time through any section of an artery will, cceteris paribus, be ac- cording to its diameter and its nearness to, or distance from, the heart. CAHIER, Jca-heer', (Fr., a paper book, or a number of sheets of paper loosely tied together), in French history denotes the reports and pro- ceedings of certain assemblies; as those of the clergy, the states-general, &c. ^A IRA, sa f!-ra (Fr., it will go on), the re- frain of a well-known song, by which, during the first French Kevolution, the lower classes were in- flamed and incited to deeds of cruelty. The famous Marseillaise was directed against foreigners, and the fa ira against the aristocrats, the domestic enemies of the revolution. “ Ah, ca ira, ca ira, ca ira ! Les aristocrates a la lanterne ! ” The melody is older than the words, having been a favourite air with queen Marie Antoinette. CAIRN, OR CARN, kairn, a word of Celtic origin, denoting a heap or pile. The term is commonly applied to the artificial piles of stones, usually of a conical form, that are to be met with in various districts. They appear to have been raised for various purposes, as to distinguish marches or boundaries, to commemorate battles ; but, most commonly, they were intended to mark the burial-places of distinguished in- div dua’s. The bones found in cairns are gei.erally half-burned, and are inclosed in cists, or stone chests, or in urns of earthenware. Various articles in common use, as flint arrow- heads, stone hammers, &c., or ornaments, are frequently found along with the bones. The size of these cairns is believed to have been, in general, in proportion to the rank or popularity of the deceased ; for not only would the people of the district assemble to testify their respect to him, but, so long as the memory of him existed, not a passenger went by without adding a stone to the heap. Some of the larger cairns are chambered — i.e., have internal galleries or cham- bers. The most remarkable of this class is at New Grange, near Drogheda, in Ireland. It is about 400 paces in circumference, and 80 feet high, and is -supposed to contain 180,000 tons of stones. Cairns belong chiefly to stony countries ; where stones are scarce, earthen tumuli taka their place. They are to be found throughout the British islands, in France (especially Brittany), and Norway. CAIUS COLLEGE [keys), Cambridge, [See Gonville and Caius College.) CALANDO, ka-lan'-do, an Italian musical term implying a diminution by degrees from forte to piano. CALANDRONE, kal-an-dro'-ne, a small wind-instrument, or pipe, in favour with the peasants of Italy, for the production of simple melodies. CALDARIUM. [See Bath.) CALDERON’S DRAMAS.— Pedro Calderon de la Barca, the most eminent dramatic author of Spain (1600-1681), produced 122 dramas, and 72 religious pieces, known as Autos Sacra- mentates. Of the religious dramas, 16 are classed as religious, and display the author’s highest powers. Shelley has translated The Wonder- Working Magician, which in some respects resem- bles Goethe’s Faust. Nineteen dramas are his- torical ; 24 mythological and romantic ; 16 melo- dramas, or tragic comedies ; and 25 are comedies of intrigue, e.xhibiting amazing ingenuity in the plots. A recent critic, Mr. E. Garnett, says, “ After Shakespeare and Aristophanes, no dra matist has rmderstood so well how to transport his reader or spectator to an ideal world. . . . The art of Calderon is the most perfect embodi- ment conceivable of all the romantic and chival- rous elements of Spanish national life ; there is CALEMBOUE, CALENDS not, perhaps, such another example in literature of the wonderful power of poetry to eliminate all baser matter and present the innermost idea of a society in untarnished brightness. Cal- deron is also the most perfect representative of the state of feeling induced by unconditional allegiance to the Catholic Church at the critical moment, when the scales of faith and knowledge are yet in equilibrium.” About twenty of Cal- deron’s dramas have been translated into English, chiefly by Mr. Fitzgerald and Mr. M'Carthy. CALEMBOUE, or CALEMBOUEG, kaV -em-hoor, a French expression for a pun, said to have been taken from a certain Westphalian, Count Calemberg, who visited Paris in the reign of Louis XV., and became notorious for his blunders in the language. CALENDAE, or KALENDAE, kaV-en- dar (Gr., kalein, to call), a written catalo^e or table of all the days of the year, arranged in the order of days and weeks, to which are generally added certain astronomical indications, such as the hours of the rising and setting of the sun, the entrance of that star into each sign of the zodiac, the commencement of the seasons, the phases of the moon, as well as the particular epochs of reli^ous and civil acts. The calendar being in reality but the chronological table of the year, has necessarily varied with different peoples, according to the divers forms of their year. These different forms will be found explained in the articles. Day, Week, Month, Year. The most remarkable calendars are ; — Assyrian and Babylonian. —The year was approxi- mately made to consist of 360 days, divided into twelve months of 30 days each ; an intercalary month was inserted every six years, and the others were counted in by the priests when necessary. Hebrew.— The year of the Jews was a lunar one, being composed of 354 days divided into twelve months, which had alternately twenty-nine and thirty days. In order to make this lunar year accord with the solar year, the Hebrews supplied, seven times in nineteen years, an intercala^ month of twenty-nine days. Each month was divided into periods of seven days, or weeks, the Saturday being celebrated under the name of Sabbath. Egryptian.— The year was divided into 363 days, divided into twelve months of 30 days each, with five supplementary days at the end of the year. Greek. — The calendar of the Greeks, whose year was likewise lunar, and composed of twelve months con- taining alternately twenty-nine and thirty days. To accommodate this year to the solar one, the Greeks added every two years a supplementary month. Each month was divided into three decades. Roman or Julian Calendar.— The Roman year under Romulus, contained only ten months, or 304 days. Under Numa, however, the year was extended to twelvemonths, or 355 days; but, although nominally thus defined, the calendar did not in reality fix any- thing more precise than the commencement of the months and seasons ; and through the ignorance or negligence of the priests, the utmost derangement sub- sequently arose. To obviate this confusion, Julius Ctesar, in 46 b.c., effectedareform, by the introduction of the Julian Calendar, in which the length of the solar year was fixed at 365 days, to which was added, every four years, a day called bissextile. {See Bissex- tile, or Leap Year.) This calendar was adopted not only by the Romans but also by all the modern nations, and remained in use until the introduction of the calendar of Gregory XIII. The Roman year had twelve months, each being divided into unequal parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides {see these words). Gregorian. — This mode of distributing time was the result of the reform inaugurated by Gregory XIII., and first came into operation in October, 1582. This calendar principally differed from the preceding in de- ducting 10 days of that year in which it first came into operation, it having been ascertained that the error of II minutes of the Julian year had amounted, in 1582 years, to 10 whole days. In order to prevent a re- currence of this error, it was ordered that every year ending a century should not be counted as a leap-year, excepting the 400th year, and the multiples of 400. Thus, 1200 and 1600 were leap-years, 1800 was not, nor will be 1900 ; 2000, as being a multiple of 400, will be a leap year, as well as every 400th year afterwards, in addition to every fourth year when it does not end a century. The Christian peoples, while they preserved the names and the order of the months of the Romans, rejected their manner of dividing the months and counting the days ; adopting, instead, the Hebrew sys- tem of dividing the month into weeks. The Greeks and Russians have refused to adopt the Gregorian calendar, retaining the Julian, or what is called in this country the “old style.” {See Style.) Hence it is necessary to deduct 12 days from the new style, in order to make it agree with the old. The reason for there being at the present time a difference of 12 instead of 10 days between the old and new modes of reckon- ing, is due, as has already been explained, to the fact that, in the Gregorian calendar, the years 1700 and 1800 were not counted as leap-years, while, according to the old, or Julian mode, they were so estimated. French Republican. — This was adopted by a decree of the National Convention of October, 1793. The year was therein divided into 12 months, of 30 days each, 5 complementary, or “ Fete ” days being added at the end of each year. The commencement of the year was fixed at midnight of the 22nd of Septem- ber (the atumnal equinox), and, retrospectively, the new year, or Year I. of the Republic, began on the 22nd of September, 1792. Fresh names were given to the months and the days ; the titles of the months being — for the autumn season, Vendemiaire, Brumaire, and Frimaire ; for the winter season, Nivdse, Pluvidse, and Ventose; for the spring season, Germinal, Flor^al, and Prairial; and for the summer season, Messidor, Thermidor, and Fructidor. Each month was divided into a period of three decades (10 days each), each day bearing, instead of the name of a saint, that of an agricultural product, implement, or animal useful in cultivating the earth. This calendar remained in force during thirteen years, and was abolished by a decree of the emperor Napoleon I., on the ist Januaiy, 1806. Positive.— Comte drew up for the use of his foUowers {see Positivism) a calendar of thirteen months, naming them— Moses, Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Caesar, Paul, Charlemagne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes, Frederic, and Bichet ; and on every day of the year an eminent person was com- memorated. CALENDS, OR KALENDS, kaV-ends (Lat., calendce), in Eoman chronology denoted the first days of every month, being so named from calo, I call or proclaim, because then the priests proclaimed the number of fasts or sacred days to be observed in the month. The Eomans divided their month into three periods — ^the Calends, Nones, and Ides. The calends always fell on the ist of the month, the nones on the sth, and the ides on the 13th, except in the months of March, May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the 7th, and the ides on the 15th. The days of the month were then reckoned backwards ; thus the 30th of April was the day before the calends of May, or the second day of the calends, the 29th the second day before the calends, and so on to the 13th, when the ides commenced, the 12th being the day before the ides, and the 4th the day before the nones. As the Greeks did not reckon their days in this way, and, therefore, had no calends, the Eomans had a proverbial exiires- sion, ad Groecas calendas (on the Greek calends), meaning never. The calends were usually the time for settling accounts, interests, &c. ; hence they were sometimes called tristes calendoe. The CALEPIN 99 CAMAYEU book in. wbich. an account of tbe interest was kept was termed calendarium. CALEPlISr, Jcal-e-pan{gY , a French term, denoting a collection of literary or scientific notes or information, a pocketbook in which one in- scribes his observations or refiections, or a ] exicon. The word is derived from Calepino, a learned lexicographer of the isth century, who took his name from his native place, Calepio, in Italy, and was the author of a famous polyglot dic- tionary. CALIG-i®j, kal'-e-je (Latin, caliga, a kind of shoe worn by the Roman soldier), in the early ages of the Church, the term was applied to a half -boot, which formed part of the insignia of a bishop, and was emblematical of the spiritual warfare upon which he had entered. CALIGPAPHY, kal-ig'-raf-e (Gr., halos, beautiful, graphe, writing), is the art of beautiful writing. Previous to the invention of printing, this art was greatly fostered, and many admir- able specimens of it still exist. CALIPPIO PERIOD, OR CYCLE, hal- ip'-ik, receives its name from an Athenian as- tronomer, Calippus, by whom it was first ob- served, about B.c. 330. About a century before, it had been discovered by Meton that in nineteen years there are 235 lunations, when the new and full moons return to nearly the same day and hour. Calippus observed that this would be more nearly the case by taking four Metonic cycles or periods of nineteen years, and then sub- tracting one day. The Calippic period was thus 76 years, less one day. CALISTHENICS , kal-is-then’ -iks (Gr. , halos, beautiful sthenos, strength) , tlie science or practice of exercising the limbs and body for the purpose of strengthening the muscles and acquiring a more graceful carriage. [See Gymnastics. ) CALIVER, kaV-i-ver, a hand -gun in common use about 1600, that could be discharged from the shoulder without a rest. It was fired by means of a matchlock. The barrel was shorter than that of the old musket, and much lighter, and the diameter of its bore was made according to a fixed standard; hence the name of the weapon, corrupted from calibre. [See Oalibkb.) CALI YUGA, kaV-le yu’-ga, a Hindoo era, taken by the Brahmins as the commencement of the present age of the world, called by them the “ iron age.” It dates from 3102 b.c., the period of the Deluge. To bring any date of the Cali Yuga era to its corresponding date according to the Christian era, we must subtract 3102 from it. The year, according to this era, commences in April. ^ CALL, a whistle used by the boatswain and his mates to summon the sailors to their posts, and to direct them about the various employ- ments of the ship. _ A gold call was formerly the insignia of an admiral. In the military service a call is a signal on the bugle, or trumpet. CALOTTISTES, or LE REGIMENT DE LA CALOTTE, ka-lot' -eestes, the name of a society of wits and satirists in France during the reign of Louis XIV., at the head of which were Torsac and Aimon, ofiScers of the royal guard. They took their name from calotte, a little cap, such as was worn by the monks to cover the ton- •sure. If any public character committed a ludi- crous or stupid blimder, the society would send him a patent to wear the calotte as a protection for the weak part of his head. The arms of the society consisted of various insignia of folly, and it had for its motto, G’est regner que de savoir rire (to make laughter is to reign). As it numbered among its members many persons of high rank, it was possessed of considerable power, and, at length, became so audacious as to attack even royalty itself. It was dissolved by the minister Flemy. In 1725, an amusing book, “Memoires pour servir S, I’Histoire de la Calotte,” was pub- lished at Basel. At the time of the Reformation, the term Regime de la Calotte was applied to priestly rule. CALTROP, kaV-trop (Sax., coZ^rcejope), a piece of iron consisting of four sharp spikes projecting from a common centre in such a manner that three of the ijoints will rest on the ground and the fourth stand upright in whatever way it may be thrown from the hand. Caltrops are some- times thrown down before infantry or artillery, to check a charge of cavalry, or in a breach to impede the advance of the storming party ; they are, however, far more injurious to cavalrj’^ than infantry. Caltrops are sometimes called crow’s- feet. The name is derived from that of a thistle, of the genus Tribulus, growing in the south of Europe, the burs of which are armed with strong spines, which infiict wounds upon the feet of man and beast. CALUMET, OR PIPE OF PEACE, kaV- u-met, is the name given by the North American Indians to a tobacco-pipe ofa particular construc- tion. The bowl is of polished marble, and the stem is of strong reed, 2^ feet long, and adorned with locks of women’s hair and feathers. When used in treaties and embassies, the Indians fill the calumet with the best tobacco, and present it to those with whom they have concluded any im- portant business, smoking out of it themselves after them. To present it to strangers is a mark of hospitality, and to refuse it woiRd be consid- ered an insult. CALYDONIAN BOAR, kal-e-don' -i-an, in Greek legend, an immense and ferocious boar, sent by Diana to ravage the dominions of (Eneus, King of Calydon, the ancient capital of Altolia, who had omitted to make a sacrifice to the god- dess. Meleagus, the son of (Eneus, with the aid of Theseus, Jason, and other heroes, and (accord- ing to some versions) of his mistress Atalanta, killed the monster. CAMARILLA, kam-a-riV -la (Spanish, a little chamber), a word borrowed from Spain, and employed in modern political language to signify the influence of secret and unaccredited councillors in matters of state or government. Under Ferdinand VII. of Spain, the name was api)lied to those flatterers by whom that monarch was mostly influenced, and who were generally men without talent, and opposed to every kind of reform. The word was also much used in France during the reign of Charles X. CAMAYEU, W- a -yu. — A painting executed in different shades of one colour is said to be en camayeu. This term may be applied to drawings in sepia and Indian ink, and even to those in chalk and pencil. It is synonymous with the expression “ monochrome ; ” but it was also originally applied to paintings in which more than CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT 100 CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF one colour appeared, although one particular tint prevailed, and almost concealed the others. CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT. {See ^^CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF, kaim'-brij, one of the two highest educational institutions of England, is situated in the town of Cambridge, from which it takes its name. Its early history is involved in much obscurity, and many untrustworthy stories are related. It may, however, be taken as authentic that a regular system of education was introduced in mo, when Joffrid, abbot of Croyland, having sent some learned monks, well versed in philo- sophy and the other sciences, to his manor of Cottenham, near Cambridge, they went daily into that town, where, in a hired barn, they gave lectures in the sciences, which were attended by a large concourse of students. The earliest charter known to have been granted to the Uni- versity is that of 15 Henry III. (1229). At this time, the students lodged in the houses of the citizens, and the extravagant demands for rent gave rise to numerous disputes between the scholars and townsmen ; and hence the king ordained that taxors be appointed — namely, two masters and two respectable and lawful men of the town, to fix the rent to be paid by the students for lodgings at a reasonable rate. After- wards, hostels or halls began to be established, where the students lived at their own charges, under the superintendence of principals, who were responsible to the chancellor for the conduct of their pupils. The first endowed college was that of St. Peter, founded in 1257 ; and, as the colleges began to increase, the hostels disappeared. A list of the colleges and halls, with dates of foundation, &c. , is given below. The university obtained its first formal charter of privileges from Edward I. in 1291, and subsequent charters, with various privileges, were granted by Edward II., Edward III., Kichard II., and Henry IV. Addi- tional privileges were conferred upon it by Henry V. , EdwardI V. , Henry VII. , Henry YIII. , and Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of lier reign. By Act of Parliament, 13 Eliz. c. 29 (1570), all preceding grants, from Henry III. downwards, were confirmed, and the University was declared to be incorporated by the name of “ the , chancellor, masters, and scholars of the University of Cambridge.” In 1614, James I. conferred upon it the right of sending two mem- bers to the House of Commons. The uni- versity “is a union of colleges or societies, de- voted to the study of learning and knowledge, and for the better service of the Church and State.” Each college is a body corporate, bound by its own statutes, but is likewise controlled by the paramount laws of the university. Each of the colleges or departments in this literary re- public furnishes members both for the executive and legislative branch of its government. All persons who are masters of art or law, or doctors in one or other of the three faculties — viz., divinity, law, and phjrsic — shaving their names upon the university register, have votes in this assembly or senate, T^eir meetings are held in the senate-house. The present university statutes were confirmed by the Queen, by order in coun- cil, of the 31st July, 1858. All university laws are approved by an elected body, called the council, which consists of r the chancellor, vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors of the uni- versity, and eight other members of the senate. chosen from the electoral roll published by tho vice-chancellor. Two of the heads of colleges,, two of the professors, and four other members of the senate, are elected by the persons whose names are on the electoral roll, and they all hold office for four years. The principal officers in- trusted with the executive are the chancellor, high steward, vice-chancellor, commissary, and assessor. The chancellor (generally some person of high rank and social distinction) is the head of the whole university, and presides over all cases relating to that body. In him is vested the soffi executive authority within the precincts, except in matters of maiming and felony. The office is tenable for two years, or for such longer period as the tacit consent of the university may choose to- allow. The high steward has special power to take the trial of scholars impeached of felony witliin the limits of the university, and to hold and keep a list according to the established charter and custom. The vice-chancellor (prac- tically the most important person in the univer- sity) is elected annually on the 4th November by the senate, and his office embraces, in the- absence of the chancellor, the execution of his powers, and the government of the university, according to her statutes. The commissary is an officer under the chancellor, and appointed by him, who holds a court of record for all privileged persons and scholars under the degree of M.A. The assessor is an officer specially appointed to assist the vice-chancellor in his court. The public orator is the voice of the senate upon all public occasions. The two proctors, who must be masters- of art or law of at least three years’ standing, or bachelors of divinity, are elected annually, and their especial duty is to attend to the discipline and behaviour of all persons in statu pupillari, and to search houses of ill fame. The registrary sees to the due form of the “ graces,” and registers them in the university records. The two mode- rators superintend the examinations of the cai^di- dates for honours in the mathematical tripos. The two pro-proctors are appointed to aid the proctors. The three esquire bedells attend the vice-chancellor, whom they precede with their silver maces upon all public occasions and solem- nities, and summon to the chancellor’s court all members of the senate. The annual income of the university is derived from various sources, the principal of which are the following : — The rectory of Burwell and a farm at Barton, pro- ducing about £1,000 per annum ; the fees at matriculation and for degrees, and the profits of the university press, in all probability amounting to between £6,000 and £7,000. The funds are managed by the vice-chancellor, or by specific trustees, and the accounts are examined annually by three auditors, appointed by the senate. Functions of the University. — The university, as a body, discharges four important duties : i, affords instruction, by means of a staff of professors, who deliver lectures ; 2, holds examinations ; 3, confers degrees, prizes, and scholarships ; 4, maintains dis- cipline. University Professors. — Divinity, Regius, Lady Margaret’s, Non-isian and Hulsean Professors. Mor- thematics, Lucasian (mathematics), Plumian (astro- nomy and experimental philosophy), Loundean (astro- nomy and geometry), Sadlerian (pure mathematics). Moral Science, Moral Theology or Casuistry, Modern History, Political Economy. Natural Science, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, Chemistry, Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy ; Experi- mental Physics. Laws, Regius Professor of Laws, Downing Professor of the Laws of England, Whewell Professor of International Law. Medicine, Regius- CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF 101 CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF Professor of Physic. Anatomy, Zoology and Compara- tive Anatomy, Downing Professor of Medicine. Languages and Literature, Begins Professor of Greek, Latin, Regius Professor of Hebrew, Sanskrit, Adams’ Professor of Arabic, Lord Almoner’s Professor of Arabic. Archceology, Disney Professor. Fine Art, Slade Pro- fessor. University Examinations.— The college examinations are preparatory and subordinate to those of the uni- versity. Besides a constant attendance on lectures, undergraduates are examined in their respective col- leges yearly, or half-yearly, in those subjects which have engaged their studies ; and according to the man- ner in which they acquit themselves in those examina- tions, their names are arranged in classes, and those w'ho obtain the honour of the first places receive prizes of different value. The university “ previous examina- tion” (the “little go”) must be passed by aU students before they can be admitted to degrees. It is held in June and December of each year. At the end of the second year of residence there are special examinations. Many students are not candidates for honours, but are known as pollmen, that is, candidates for the ordinary degrees only. The honour examinations held annually for the degree in arts are of a much severer character. The mathematical examination is widely celebrated, and it is claimed “ has given to this university its char- acter of the mathematical university par excellence.” Commencing on the Monday next after the 29th of December, it continues for four days, then stops for an interval of ten days, and then occupies five days more. On the last Friday in January the list of the successful competitors is published, the names being distributed into three classes, known as wranglers, senior optimes, and junior optimes ; the highest wrangler being commonly known as the senior wrangler and ranking as the first university man of the year. The three classes constitute what is known as the mathematical tripos ; and there are, besides, examinations for other triposes — classical, moral and natural science, theo- logical law and modern history, Semitic languages and Indian languages. By success in these examina- tions degrees in arts are obtained. Prizes and Scholarships. — There are 49 university scholarships and exhibitions, varying in value from £15 to £100 per annum, conferred on students who have been successful in passing examinations for them ; and a great number of prizes and medals, some of con- siderable value. Degrees. — The university confers the degrees of Bachelor and Master of Arts. To take an ordinary B.A. (Bachelor of Arts) degree, a student must reside ^ine terms or three years, the M.A. (Master of Arts) degree follows three years after. Degrees in divinity, law, laws and literature, and medicine and music are also conferred. Degrees may be conferred without residence or examinations on persons of certain rank or dignity, as bishops, privy councillors, noblemen, &c. All persons proceeding to the degree of M.D. are required to produce certificates of having been engaged in medical study during five years. Public Institutions of the University. — AU members of the university have the privilege of admission to the Library, the Fitzwilliam Museum (also open, under special regulations, to the general public), the Observa- tory, the Geological Museum, the Museum of Com- parative Anatomy, the Museum of Zoology, the Mineralogical Museum, and some smaller collections. Parliamentary Representation.— The university re- turns two members to Parliament, the constituency being members of the senate (see above). University Terms. — The period of residence in the University is measured by terms ; that is, the divisions of the year during which the business of the University is carried on. There are three in each year: the Michael- mas, or October term, beginning on the ist of October and ending on the 16 th of December; the Lent term, beginning on the 13th of January and ending on the Friday before Palm Sunday ; the Easter, or May term beginning on the Friday after Easter day and ening on the Friday after Commencement day, which is the last Tuesday but one in June. Colleges.— There are seventeen colleges— foundations established and endowed at different times, by private munificence. For a considerable time it was im- possible to be a student of the university, without being a member of some college ; but this restriction has been removed, first by a statute permitting the establishment of “hostels,” and, later, by a statute regulating the admission of non-collegiate students. Every college has a head who is generally styled master, but in some cases provost or president. Then come the fellows, the majority of whom are in holy orders, and who, with the master, constitute the governing body in most colleges, though in some the government is in the hands of a section of this body, known as the Seniors. The value of a fellowship is between £200 and £300 a year, and vacancies are filled up by election. Every college has tutors and lecturers who superintend the work of education. The follow- ing is a list of colleges (more particularly treated under the various headings), with the dates of foundation : — Jesus 1496 Christ’s 1505 St.John’s 1511 Magdalen 1519 Trinity 1546 Emmanuel 1584 Sidney Sussex 1598 Downing 1800 St. Peter’s 1257 Clare .- 1326 Pembroke 1347 Gonville and Caius . . 1348 Trinity Hall 1350 Corpus Christi 1351 King’s 1441 Queen’s 1448 St. Catherine’s 1473 Students. — There are four classes of students — fellow-commoners and noblemen, pensioners, sizars, and the more distinguished students who are elected scholars on the foundation of their colleges. The first class dine at the Fellows’ table, wear embroidered gowns and pay heavier fees ; the pensioners are the great body of students who pay for their own dinners, and for their chambers ; the sizars are poor students, who are admitted at lower charges ; the scholars are elected by examination from the pensioners and sizars, are placed on the founda- tions of the colleges, have rooms and commons free, and other emoluments. A student is admitted on the boards of a college, either by a personal examination, or through a recommendatory certificate signed by a master of arts of the university. If the certificate be deemed satisfactory, the name is at once entered on the college boards, and the student usually comes into residence at the October term following, when the academical year begins. During the first year of his course the undergraduate is a “freshman,” during the second a “junior soph,” and during the third a “senior soph.” Non-CoUegiate Students. — Youths can be entered as students without being attached to any particular college. They are under the superintendence of a board elected by the senate of the university, repre- sented by a censor, to whom the student is required to apply for direction as to studies, residence, and other matters. The non-collegiate student is not required to pass any examination on entrance, but he must be sufficiently prepared to have a reasonable prospect of being ready to pass the university examinations in which he intends to be a candidate. He is subject to the usual discipline of the university as to hours at night, and the wearing of academical dress, and is under the supervision of the proctors as well as of the censor of the body to which he belongs; and he is moreover required to call at the censor’s office and sign his name in a book kept for that purpose on five days in each week. Some of the colleges open their lectures to non-collegiate students on payment of very moderate fees. An establishment known as Cavendish College has been formed, and nearly 50 non-collegiate students reside there. Female Students. — Two colleges have been recently established for female students, who may pass volun- tary examinations, but cannot compete for honours. Girton College, about two miles distant from Cam- bridge, originated in a college opened at Hitchim in October, 1869. In 1869, a new building at Girton was opened, and since then additions have been made, and accommodation is afforded for 60 students, with lecture rooms and residence for the mistress. Newnham Hall, nearer Cambridge, has accommodation for 33 students, the principal and a resident lecturer. At Girton, the fees for education, bo^rd and lodging, amount to 100 guineas for the three terms which comprise the academical year. At Newnham, the annual charge is about 75 guineas, and some students of scanty means receive assistance. (See Girton and Newnham Colleges.) CAMDEN SOCIETY 102 CAMP Local Examinations. — In 1858, the University of Cambridge, following the example of Oxford, adopted a scheme by which annual examinations of persons, not members of the University could be held at various central places, in the United Kingdom ; and in 1865 girls were admitted to the examinations. Higher ex- aminations for women above eighteen years of age were instituted in 1869, and made permanent in 1871 ; and were thrown open to men in 1873. University lecturers are sent to deliver lectures and conduct .•classes in populous places. (See Local. Examina- tions.) CAMDEN SOCIETY, kam'-den, an associ- ation formed in London, in 1838, for the purpose of publishing historical and other manuscripts of antiquarian or literary interest. The name was given in honour of William Camden, the his- torian. CAMEO, Jcam’-e-o (Ital., camei ). — ^When gems are cut in relief, they are called cameos ; but the term is generally given to small sculp- tures executed on those precious stones which have two layers of different colours. The ex- terior of these layers forms the relief, and the interior the background. Imitation cameos are also made from shells, some of which are ex- quisite works of art. The shells generally em- ployed are the buH’s-mouth, which give a pinkish- white relief, with an underlayer of red, resembl- ing the sardonyx. The black-helmet gives a dark onyx ground, and the queen’s-conch a deep pink. As these shells have three layers of colour, the tints required for the different figures and representations can be toned and modified. Cameos are also made of artificial substances, and glass was employed for this purpose by the ancients. The origin, however, of cutting cameos in precious stones is very remote. The art is supposed to have had its arise in Asia : it was practised in Babylon, and was transferred thence into Egypt by the Phoenicians. It was then carried on by the Greeks and Komans, who brought it to great perfection. After the age of Praxiteles, the art of cameo-cutting became very popular in Greece. They were not only used for ornaments of dress, but were set in goblets, vases, lamps, &c. Antiquaries have not decided as to whether the gems commonly called Etruscan are Greek. Some drinking-cups at that time were made out of a single stone, the outer surface forming one cameo. The Gonzaga cameo, now in St. Petersburg, is said to be the finest specimen of the antique cameo in existence. It represents two heads, supposed to be those of Ptolemy and Eurydice. A cameo, representing Cupid and Psyche, in the Marlborough collection, is said to be the finest in England. The Barber- ine, or Portland vase in the British Museum is one of the most beautiful specimens of the ancient glass cameo. The manufacture of shell cameos is very recent. It originated in Eome in 1805, and, up to the year 1840, was almost entirely confined to Italy. A large number of cameos are now made in Paris : they are set as brooches, pins, &c. , and much worn as ornaments. CAMOUFLET, kam-oo'-flai, when sappers and miners have driven a gallery close to any part of the works of a besieged town, a countermine is sometimes made by the besieged, charged with a composition so called, the explosion of which de- stroys the works of the attacking party, and kills or injures the men employed in the trenches with its intolerable and suffocating odour. CAMP, kamp (Lat., campus, & level plain). the name applied to any collection of tents or huts in which soldiers are temporarily lodged in time of war, or to buildings of more lasting cha- racter; as the camps at Aldershot and the Curragh. The Romans paid great attention to the formation of their camps. Wherever the army remained, if only for a single night, a trench was dug, and a rampart thrown up round it for its protection. They were accustomed to make two different kinds of camps — one for the summer season, when troops were on the march, and the other for soldiers in winter quarters. They were alike in principle of construction, but, while the summer camps were larger in size, being intended for the accommodation of an entire consular army, the winter camps were more strongly forti- fied. The ground chosen was generally as level as possible, and on elevated ground, from which the whole of the surrounding country could be seen. If it could be obtained, a slightly rising ground in the centre was taken for the position of the Praetorium, or head-quarters of the general or consul commanding, and the camp was laid out round this spot. It was in the form of a square, and the length of each side was about 2,080 English feet, when it was intended to accommodate an entire consular army, which consisted, of two Roman legions, each of 4,200 foot-soldiers and 300 cavalry, and 10,500 infantry and 1,800 cavalry of allied or auxiliary troops, of which 2,100 infantry and 600 cavalry formed what were termed the extraordinary or picked troops of the allies, who acted as part of the general’s body-guard ; making the total force under arms about 25,000 men, including officers. There was a gate in each side of the square. Be- tween the inner square occupied by the encamp- ment and the rampart, an open siiace, 200 feet in width, intervened. The vallum, or rampart, was made of turf and earth taken out of the fossa, or ditch, surmounted and strengthened by a row of stakes or palisades. The ditch itself was gene- rally from twelve to fifteen feet wide and nine or ten feet deep. There are many remains of Roman camps in Great Britain ; and all towns the names of which end in “ Chester,” a corruption of the Latin castra, a camp, such as Manchester, Col- chester, Winchester, &c., have been built on the sites of Roman encampments or military towns, from which they have derived their names. The remains of the Danish camps in this country, or those which are considered to be Danish, indicate that they were circular in form, and sometimes constructed with more than one line of defence. The temporary encampments of the Saxons and Danes were fortified with barricades composed of trees, with the branches cut, to present the Wm of projecting stakes, and sometimes with a ram- part of earth and stones. The Britons protected their villages in a similar manner. The Gauls and ancient Germans surrounded themselves with their waggons and chariots, disposed in the form of a circle, and strengthened by barricades of trees and branches. In the campaign in South Africa, a similar plan of forming camps, by mak- ing barricades of waggons, was adopted by the British troops. The name camp is given to per- manent military quarters at Aldershot, Hamp- shire, and the Curragh, Ireland, where troops are trained in military science, and for operations in the field ; but these places are now really military towns. Camp Equipage. — The tents, furniture, fittings, and utensils carried with an array for the use of the soldiers. CAMPAIGN 103 CANNIBALS Camp Followers. — The sutlers and dealers in small- wares who accompany an army on its march. In India, the camp followers commonly greatly out- number the regular troops. CAMPAIGN, Team-pain' (Fr., campagne; Ital., campagna, an open plain), a term applied in the present day to a series of operations in warfare, by which any important end is achieved. It was formerly taken to mean that which was done by an army between the time that it left its winter quarters for active operations in the field during the summer months, until it entered them again. During this time the soldiers were under canvas or without shelter in the open field ; and hence the name. CAMPANILE, Icam'-pa-nile (Ital., campana, a bell), the Italian name for a belfry or Ijell-tower, and thence applied to any part of a building that rises above the rest in the form of a square tower. The tallest campanile is at Cremona, rising to a height of 396 feet. The grandest and richest is that designed in 1334, by Giotto, for the cathedral at Florence. The campanile differs from the Eng- lish bell-tower in being detached from the building to which it belongs. There are some good examples in modern English church architecture, the best of which will be found at Wilton, in Wiltshire, appended to the Byzantine church built by Lord Herbert of Lea. In domestic architecture the campanile usually rises over the entrance, ter- minating in a room of small size at the top, which often answers the purpose of a belvidere. {See Belvideee.) The chimney-shafts of engine- houses are often built in this style. It is a dis- tinctive feature of Italian architecture, and is found in Byzantine architecture of the third period {see Byzantine Aechitectuee), as exempli- fied in that attached to the church of St. Mark at Venice. They are generally square in form, with- out buttresses, and of the same dimensions from top to bottom. The leaning tower of Pisa is, however, an exami)le of the circular campanile. CAMPO SANTO, Team '-po san' -to (Italian, holy field), a cemetery or burying-ground, especi- ally an enclosed place of interment, surrounded by an internal arcade, and in which persons of eminence are interred. The most famous is that of Pis^, founded at the end of the 12th century, and consecrated to the memory of men who had deserved well of the republic. CANAILLE, Tcan-ileT (Lat., canis, a dog), is a French term signifying the lowest class of the people — the rabble. Before the revolu- tion in France, this word was applied by the nobility to all who were not of their own rank ; and afterwards the peoifie themselves adopted it in contempt of the aristocracy, when it came to lose its offensive signification. At present, the French apply the term only to such as have been guilty of some base act. Of one who has de- graded himself, whatever his rank, they say, “ O’est une canaille.” CANARD, Jea-nard' (Fr., a duck), a slang term applied to an absurdly exaggerated state- ment, or unfounded rumour. This use of the word originated in a burlesque story respecting a fiock of ducks, who ate one another until at last there was only one left. CANARIES, Tcan-ai'-rees, a lively dance- tune, in three-eight time, said to have been in- troduced into this country from the Canary Islands. It is, however, more probable that it was carried over from Normandy to these islands by John de Bethencourt, who invaded them about the close of the 14th century. The Canaries is introduced by Purcell in his “ Dio- cletian ; ” the tune is in two strains of eight bars each, in three-eight time. CANARY WINE, also known by the name of Teneriffe, is a product of the Canary Islands. In taste it resembles Madeira ; it is made from grapes which have been gathered before they are ripe, and, when new, has a sour and unpleasant taste. After being kept carefully for two or three years, its mildness increases greatly, and,, like Madeira, it is greatly improved by a journey to the tropics. More of it is produced on the island of Teneriffe than on the other Canary Islands. The name of canary is only applied to the Bidogne wine, and never to the malvoisie or malmsey of the Canaries. CANDELABRUM, Jean' -de-lai' -brum (Lat., candela, a candle), a term properly signifying simply a candlestick, but also generally applied to the support of a lamp. The candelabra formerly used in public edifices were mostly of large size, with a cup or flat dish at the top, to receive a lamp or some substance capable of illuminating. Candelabra were amongst the most richly-orna- mented articles, and were made of bronze, iron, marble, terracotta, and wood. Some, however, were made or covered with gold and silver. Sometimes, instead of a shaft, a figure was intro- duced, holding, in one hand, the cup or receptacle for the oil. A small candelabrum was used as an altar. CANDYS, Tcan'-diz, a loose gown made of brilliantly-coloured woollen cloth, with wide sleeves, and worn by the Medes and Persians over their other garments. A similar gown is still worn by Orientals. CANEPHORI, lea nef'-o-re, the name given at Athens to girls of noble families, selected to walk in the annual Panthenaic, and other festi- vals, capying on their heads or shoulders baskets containing the implements and apparatus neces- sary for a sacrifice. Very graceful figures of the Canephori may be seen in the frieze of the Pan thenon in the British Museum. CANICULAR DAYS, lean-ile' -u-la/r (Lat., dies caniculares). {See Dog Days.) CANICULAR YEAR (Lat. , canis, a dog), the name of the year as observed by the Egyp- tians and Ethiopians, so called because reckoned from one heliacal rising of Canicula, or the Dog- star (Sirius), to the next. The reason of the choice of Canicula seems to have been not so much its superior brightness, as that its heliacal rising then coincided with the greatest swelling of the Nile ; and hence the first rising of this star was annually observed with great attention. The Canicular year ordinarily consisted of 365 days, and every fourth year of 366. CANNIBALS, lean' -ni-hals, is supposed to be a corruption of Caribs, the original inhabitants of the West-India islands (some tribes of whom called themselves Canibs), who were reputed to be man-eaters ; and hence the term has come to denote anthropophagi, or persons who devour human flesh. The ancient Greek writers, and I later travellers, Marco Polo and others, refer to people who practised cannibalism. When 1 America was discovered, this practice was found CANON 104 “ CANTERBUEY TALES to prevail to a very great extent. According to Prescott, the Mexicans did not eat human flesh merely to gratify a brutish appetite, but in obedience to their religion. Their repasts were made of the victims whose blood had been poured out on the altar of sacrifice. In New Zealand and many parts of Africa cannibalism was systema- tically practised ; with some, human flesh being regarded as a delicacy. M. du Chaillu states that the Fans, a people of western equatorial Africa, not only devour the bodies of captives but even the bodies of those who have died of disease, purchasing for that purpose the corpses of neighbouring tribes and disj^osing in the same way those of their own. The Fiji islanders were until very recently cannibals. North American Indians would sometimes eat the flesh of a brave enemy killed in battle, especially the heart, be- lieving that the courage of the dead warrior would be imparted to them. CANON, lean' -on. In Music, a composition consisting of two, three, or four parts, in which the several voices begin at fixed intervals consecu- tively ; sometimes each voice commences with the same, sometimes with different notes. Can- ons may be finite or infinite ; the former end, like other compositions, with a cadence, while in infinite canons the theme is begun again before the parts which follow are concluded. They are so constructed as to form a perpetual fugue {see Fugue), but differ from ordinary fugues; for in the latter it is sufficient for the subject to be repeated occasionally according to the laws of counterpoint, while in the former it must be strictly repeated by all the succeeding parts. The canon is described as “the highest degree of mechanical musical contrivance.” In ancient music canons were rules for determining the intervals of notes. Amongst the ancient Greeks this term signified what we now call a monochord. CANOPIC VASES, kan-o '-pic, vases used by the Egyptians to contain the viscera of an embalmed body. Four vases were used, each io contain a particular portion, and having on its lid a representation of the head of the god who was supposed to have especial care of the contents. CANOPY, kan'-o-pe (Gr., kanopeion, from konops, a gnat), a word meaning in its original sense a covering similar to the mosquito curtains of India, to protect the sleeper from those in- sects. Subsequently the term canopy was ap- plied to any ornamental covering above the head, for the purpose of distinction, honour, or adorn- ment. In this sense the word is synonymous with the term baldachin. {See Baldachin.) In Architecture, it is applied to the coverings that project from the surface of the wall above the heads of statues placed in niches and over altar-tombs, and to the dripstones over windows when elaborately carved. Magnificent specimens of canopies are to be found over the tombs of some of our kings, and over the bishop’s throne in many of our cathedrals. The canopy is a peculiar feature of Gothic architecture, belonging principally to the Decorated English and Perpendicular English styles. CANT, kant, is a term denoting a quaint affected manner of speaking or writing, or the speaking in a whining, affected tone of voice. It is more particularly applied to a peculiar manner of preaching, praying, or begging. It also de- notes the frequent use of phrases not well under- stood ; or the use of terms of a particular pro- fession or class of individuals ; as, gipsy cant. CANTABILE, kant-a' -heel, indicates an easy and flowing style of singing or playing particular passages. CANTALIVER, kant' -a-U-ver, a^lAvge orna- mental bracket used for supporting balconies, cornices, and sometimes stairs. CANTATA, kan ta'-ta (Ital., from cantare, to sing), an elegant species of vocal composition, of which there are several kinds, supposed by some to have been invented by Barbara Strozza, a Venetian lady, about the middle of the 17th century, while others attribute its invention to Giacomo Oarissimi, pontifical chapel-master. It consists of an intermixture of air and recitative, and was at one time extended to such a length as to form a sort of small opera, but is now, how- ever, ordinarily written for only one voice with a thorough base, though sometimes for several, accompanied by one or more instruments. In Italy, cantatas of great length, accompanied by a numerous band, are performed on great occa- sions of festivity. But these differ essentially from what is usually understood by a cantata, or monologue, consisting of short recitatives and two or three airs at most, as they are occasion- ally poems in which several singers are employed. The term is now given to compositions of a dra- matic character, involving a simple story, inter- spersed with descriptive passages, of which modern musicians, Bennett, Macfarren, Bene- dict, and others have produced fine examples. According to Du Cange, the word cantata was used in the Church as early as the year 1314 to express what is at present understood by anthem, with which word it is still synonymous in Ger- many, cantatas being chiefly confined, in the Lutheran Church, to sacred music. CANTER, kan' -ter, the movement of a horse going at a moderate gallop, when the fore feet are raised nearly together, with a leap or spring. The name is derived from the easy pace and gentle gallop with which the pilgrims were in the habit of traversing the roads to the shrine at Canterbury. “ CANTERBURY TALES.” _ Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400), if not fully entitled to the distinction generally awarded him of being the father of English poetry, may without question be ranked as the first of those delineators of cha- racter and manners, in verse or prose, who have conferred such a special distinction on English literature — the forerunner of Shakespeare, Addi- son, Defoe, Fielding, Smollett, Scott, Dickens, and Thackeray. No previous writer had attempted more than a few metrical tales ; but Chaucer produced at least fifteen poetical compositions of very high merit, be-siides “The Canterbury Tales,” which are the best known of his writings, and on which his fame rests. These tales appear to have been arranged in the form now known to us in the later years of the poet’s life — some of them probably written at various periods, and, it may be, published as separate poems ; and it appears also to be evident that the work was not com- pleted at his death. The idea of joining together a number of stories by means of a connecting narrative is of great antiquity, and appears to have originated in the East. Before Chaucer’s time the plan had been adopted in Europe by Peter Alfonsi, in his “ Disciplina Clericales ” and the popular romance of the “ Seven Sages.” The devices for introducing the stories were often very CANTO 105 CAP ingenious. Boccacio had written, when Chaucer was a boy, the famous “Decameron,” a collection of a hundred tales supposed to be related by a party of three gentlemen and seven ladies of Florence, who had fled from the city to avoid the plague. In our own day, we are familiar with the devices of Dickens and his imitators, by which a number of persons, associated in some ingenious manner, become tellers _ of stories. Chaucer made his company meet in the most probable manner. Pilgrimages to the shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury were very frequent, and the pilgrims travelled in company for mutual protection. They were by no means all devout persons ; but the pilgrimage was considered as a set off against a multitude of sins. Such a com- any Chaucer tells us met at the Tabard Inn, in outhwark, whence they set out, under the guid- ance of the host, one of thejolliest and shrewdest of tapsters. With a keen and subtle appreciation of character, with broad humour, and a marvellous artistic power, the poet describes the personages ; and his vigorous sketches are as lifelike, and no doubt as true to the features of the time, as those of the most illustrious of his successors. There are a knight, a squire, a yeoman, a prioress (“ full symple and coy”), a stalwart monk, a friar (“ wanton and merye ”), a merchant, a shipman, a sergeant of law, a franklin (a country gentle- man), a cook, a doctor of physic, a wife of Bath (a coarse, jolly creature, who had outlived many husbands, and whose tongue was the freest of all the company), a reeve (farm manager), a sumptner, a vendor of pardons, and others. The host proposes that by way of enlivening the journey, the pilgrims shall “tell tales.” This is agreed to, and then come the stories, generally with a prologue. The narratives are varied in character ; some, partly borrowed from Boccacio and others, and adapted to English manners and localities, outrageously coarse ; others, tender and romantic, and some marked by a strong religious feeling. The knight, as becomes him, tells a story of love and chivalry ; the cook relates the tale of Gamelyn, in which Shakespeare perhaps found a basis for As You Like It. Another of the pilgrims shapes the legend of “Patient Griselda.” The young squire is quite at home with “the Story of Cambuscon bold ” ; the doctor of physic relates the story of the Koman Virginius and his daughter ; and the gentle prioress tells us how the Jews murdered “ Young Hugh of Lincoln.” All the stories cannot be enumerated. Some are far too coarse for modern ears ; and if Chaucer sketched voraciously the manners of his time — and there is abundant evidence that he did — it would seem that even gentle prioresses and “ nim-priests ” had no scruple about listening to stories which certainly nobody would dare to relate in public now. Chaucer painted society as he found it, and the cheerful heartiness of his style, his many delicate touches, his sympathy with beauty and tenderness which no coarseness of diction can obscure, and his vigorous humour place him in the very foremost rank of English writers. The first edition of the Canterbury Tales was printed by Caxton about seventy- five years after Chaucer’s death. Of this edition, only two perfect copies are known, one in the King’s Library at the British Museum, and one in Merton College, Oxford. CANTO, kan'-io (Ital., canto, a song), a part or division of a poem, answering to “book” in prose. In IVIusic. {See Soprano.) In church music, canto means plain song, or choral song in unison and in notes all of equal length. CANTON, kan-ton. In Heraldry, one of the nine honourable charges or ordinaries, occupying a third part of the chief, or exactly one-tenth part of the field. It is square in form, and is borne on the dexter or sinister side of the shield. CANTONMENTS, kan-ton' -ments{Fr., can- tonnement). Troops are said to go into canton- ments when, either on account of the inclement state of the weather, difficulty of obtaining sup- plies, an armistice, temporary suspension of operations in the field, or other causes, the general commanding determines to quarter his troops in the towns and villages of any particular district, instead of putting them under canvas. The term cantonments is applied in India to barracks built near any large town or city for the reception of troops. They correspond very nearly to our own barracks and permanent camps, with this particular difference, that the quarters of the various troops are not contiguous, but are spread over an area of considerable extent. The canton- ments are sometimes called “the lines.” They are generally situated at some little distance from any town to which they are attached. CANTONNEE, kan' -ton-nai, in Heraldry, when a cross is placed between four other objects it is said to be cantonnee. CANTOR LECTURES, kan'-tor, courses of lectures on manufacturing processes given annually at the Society of Arts, in conformity with the will of Dr. T. E. Cantor, of the Indian Civil Service. The first lecture was given Decem- ber 7, 1863. C ANUN , kai-nun, a musical stringed instru- ment, played by the fingers, on which are thimbles of tortoise-shell pointed with pieces of cocoa-nut. Turkish ladies play on this instrument. CANZONE, kan-zo'-ne, is the name given to one of the oldest forms of the Italian lyric. The word is, indeed, derived from the cansds or chansos of the Provencals ; but the Italians were the first to give it a definite form. It received its classic stamp principally from Dante and Petrarch. With them the canzone was any con- siderable lyric poem divided, like the Greek strophic ode, into stanzas exactly corresponding to one another in number of lines, metre, and position of rhymes; the last stanza being com- monly shorter than the others, and usually con- sisting of a valedictory address by the poet himself to the poem. After Petrarch, Tasso and other poets deviated from the strict form of the canzone. Canzonetta is an abridged canzone written in short lines and verses. CAP, kap (Lat., caput, the head) a covering for the head. Caps were not worn by the Romans for many ages. When the rain or sun was troublesome, the lappet of the gown was thrown over the head. The same usage prevailed among the Greeks, where, at least during the heroic age, no caps were known. The general use of caps and hats in Euroi)e is referred to the year 1449, when they were used at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen. From that time they began to take the place of chaperons or hoods. When the cap was of velvet, it was called mortier ; when of wool, simply bonnet. None but kings, princes, and knights were allowed to use the mortier. CAPARISONED 106 CARAYANSARAI The cap was the head-dress of the clergy and graduates. Pasquier says that the giving of the cap to students in the universities denoted that they had acquired full liberty, and were no longer subject to the rod of their superiors — in imitation of the ancient Eomans, who gave a pileus or cap to their slaves in the ceremony of making them free ; and hence on medals Liberty was represented as holding out a cap in her right hand. Churchmen, members of universities, students, and others, wear square caps. The French clergy wear a shallow kind of cap called a calotte, which covers only the top of the head. The cap was also sometimes used as a mark of infamy. In France those who had been bank- rupt were obliged to wear ever after a green cap, to prevent people from placing confidence in them in any future transaction ; and if they should at any time be found without this cap, their protection was to be null. CAPARISONED, ka-par'-e-zoned (Fr.), in Heraldry, a war-horse fully equipped for the field. CAPE, in Geogi’aphy, the extremity of a por- tion of land projecting into the sea beyond the general line of the shore. On rocky coasts they are sometimes called points or promontories. CAPITAL, kap’-it-al (Lat., the head), a term in Architectiu'e, applied to that part of the column which surmounts the shaft, includ- ing the bell— a part swelling outwards between the shaft and abacus, and the abacus itself. When the lower part of the capital assumes the appearance of being a continuation of the shaft, separated from it by an astragal, or moulding, it is called the neck of the capital. In the five classic orders of architecture {see Akchitecture) the capitals form striking marks of distinction, and there is considerable difference in the treat- ment of the capital of the same order in Greek and Roman architecture. A description of the various forms of capitals used in Architecture of different epochs, styles, and countries, will be fotmd in the several articles devoted to this subject. {See Arabian, Byzantine, Egyptian, Hindoo, Gothic Architecture, &c.) CAPITAL LETTERS are those large letters of the alphabet that are employed in writing and printing, in place of small letters, at the begin- ning of proper names, sentences, lines in poetry, &c. Formerly, it was the custom to begin every noun with a capital letter, and this is still the case in German ; but in English the capitals are now more sparingly employed. The principal occasions in which they are used are at the com- mencement of proper names of persons, places, specific titles, and designations of offices ; of adjectives derived from proper names (although that rule is subjected to many modifications) ; the opening of quotations ; beginning of a sen- tence, and of each line in poetry ; the pronoun I ; and every principal word in the titles of books. CAPITOLINE GAMES, lea-pit' -o-line, an nual games instituted by Camillus, and held by the Romans in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus. They commemorated the preservation of the Capitol from the attacks of the Gauls. The name was also given to certain games which were celebrated every five years. Nero endeavoured to introduce a new method of computation of time from this quinquennial celebration. CAPONNIERE, kap-on-yaird (Fr.), in Fortification, a passage made across the ditch of a fortress to any of the out-works, such as the ravelin in front of the curtain connecting any two bastions. Sometimes the caponniere takes the form of a covered gallery of masonry, with the sides loop-holed for musketry. In field- works they are formed of palisades, or consist of trenches with a bomb-proof covering. CAPOTE, ka-pote' (Fr.), a long cloak made of muslin or black silk bordered with lace, worn by ladies. The name is also given to a large horizontal hat with a heavy fringe of lace ; and overcoats worn by the French soldiers are called capotes. CAPRTCCIO, ka-prit' -tcho {J-idl.), an irregu- lar species of composition, in which the com- poser, without any other restraint than the boundary of his imagination, continually di- gresses from his subject and runs wild amidst the fervour of his fancy. CAPULETS AND MONTAGUES, kap'-u-lets, mon' -ta-gues, the English mode of spelling the names of the Cappalletto aud Mon- tecchi, two noble families of Northern Italy, be- longing to fche Ghibelline party, whose private quarreL furnished the groundwork of the pathetic story on which Shakespeare founded his Romeo and Juliet. CARABINIERS, kar-a-hin-eers' (Fr.), a name formerly applied to light cavalry employed in the French service, and among the Spaniards, Italians, and Arabs, for skirmishing and outpost duty. Many regiments of English cavalry were once known by this title, but it is now the dis- tinctive appellation of the 6th Dragoon Guards. CARACOLE, kar'-a-kol (Fr., a wheeling about), a term applied, in the art of horseman- ship, to the half -turn or semi-round taken by the rider either to the left or right. In the army, after each discharge, the cavalry make a caracole, in order to pass to the rear. CARAYAN, kar'-a-van (Persian karwan, a trader), is a name given to a company of mer- chants, travellers, or pilgrims, who associate to- gether for safety and convenience, and at stated times traverse the deserts or other dangerous parts of Asia or Africa. A caravan has sometimes several thousand camels, which follow each other in single file, so that it may be several miles in length. Camels are almost uniformly used in Ijreference to the horse or any other animal, on account of their great patience of fatigue, and their wonderful adaptation for travelling in the desert. Merchants and travellers proceeding in the same direction usually wait upon each other until they can form a caravan for mutual pro- tection, when one of their number is generally appointed to direct their movements. CARAYANSARAI, kar-a -van'-sa-re (Per- sian karwan, a trader, and serai, a large house, named also a khan), in Eastern countries is a place appointed for receiving and loading cara- vans ; or a kind of inn where caravans rest at night, except that it presents little but shelter, the traveller being obliged to carry all his pro- visions and necessaries along with him. They are usually erected by the munificence of princes or other great men, and are situated sometimes in the towns and villages, and sometimes at convenient distances along the road. They are CARBINE 107 CARILLONS usually large square buildings, with a spacious court in the middle ; and under the arches or piazzas that surround them there runs a bank raised some feet above the ground, where the merchants and travellers take up their lodgings, the beasts of burden being fastened to the foot of the bank. The “ inns ” mentioned in the Old and New Testaments, were similar to the modern caravansarai. CARBINE, OR CARABINE, lai^-Une (Fr.), a light kind of musket, about three feet or more in length, used by light cavalry, the artillery, the yeomanry cavalry, and the Irish constabulary. The carabins, or light cavalry, enrolled by Henry II. of France, about 1560, and the carabineers of Louis XIV., in the latter part of the 17th century, were armed with these weapons ; and it is uncertain whether these troops derived their name from that of the gun with which they were armed, or whether the gun received its aj)pellation from that of the troops. CARDINAL, har'-di-nal (Latin, cardinalis, principal, from cardo, a hinge), is a term used in various connections to denote the chief, principal, or fundamental parts of a thing. It was also the name given, under the Emperor Theodosius, to the highest officers of the State. In Grammar, Cardinal Numbers are the numbers one, two, three, &c., as distinguished from first, second, third, &c., which are called ordinal numbers, as de- noting order. In Cosmography, Cardinal Points are the four points of intersection of the horizon with the meridian and the prime vertical circle, or north, south, east, and west. The cardinal winds are those which blow from the cardinal points. In Astrology, the cardinal points of the heavens, or of a nativity, are the rising and setting of the sun, the zenith, and nadir. In Astronomy, Cardinal Signs are — Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn. CARDS, PLAYING, Jcards. — Neither the country nor the date of the introduction of play- ing-cards is known. Possibly they came from the East ; for the Chinese and Hindoos have playing-cards that are clearly not of European origin. An Indian pack of cards believed to be a thousand years old is in existence. It has eight suits, and the kings are represented as rid- ing on elephants, and the viziers, the second honours, upon horses, tigers, and bulls. It is noticeable that, as in chess, the Oriental vizier, or general, has been changed by western nations to a queen. Chinese cards are said to have been invented about 1120 a . d ., for the amusement of the many wives of the Emperor Seun-ho. There were three suits of nine cards each, and three superiOT cards, _ making thirty in all. Playing- cards were not introduced into Europe till about 1380. Some of the old names for cards, as naypes^ in Spain, and naibi, in Italy, are of Arabic etymology, and signify fortune-telling. The names of the suits now generally used — diamonds, hearts, clubs, and spades — are of French origin. In an old German pack of cards, clubs are represented by acorns and hearts by heart-shaped leaves. At the time of the French Revolution the “Court” cards were changed, philosophers being substituted for the kings, and symbolized virtues for the queens. The manu- facture of these articles is a very important one in this country, and great taste and ingenuity are displayed in the manufacture and ornamen- tation of the backs. Cards were first taxed in England in 1710. In 1827 the duty was reduced from 2s. 6d. a pack to is. ; and in 1862 to 3d. Makers of cards pay £i annually for a licence ; and previous to 1870 sellers of cards had to take out a licence for which they paid 2s. 6d. annually. CARET, Tcaid-et (Lat., careo, I want), a mark thus (a), used to denote that something has been omitted, and that it is interlined. CARICATURE, Tcar-e-Tca-turd (Ital., cari- care, to load or overcharge), is a representation in which certain parts or peculiarities of an object are exaggerated, but in such a way that the general likeness is preserved, or even made more striking. Caricature in the pictorial arts occupies the same place that burlesque does in literature. The legitimate objects of the one and of the other are the vices and follies of individu^s or of classes, and all disagreeable peculiarities of manner and appearance which arise from these. The ancients employed caricature, as we find from their masks. Among Italian painters, Leonardo da Vinci is a master of this art, repre- senting the quarrelsome, braggart, peevish, glut- tonous, or clownish, with an exaggerated fidelity. Among the French, Callot, and among the Eng- lish, Hogarth, stand prominently out in this walk. The Italians have too strong a sense of the beautiful to have a great relish for carica- tures, and the Germans are too grave to excel in these sportive productions. The French carica- tures are rather exaggerated representations of life than satirical conceptions. The English ex- hibit a greater appreciation of, and skill in this sort of humour than any other people. The most famous modern English caricaturists are Gilray and Rowlandson (both powerful, but abominably coarse). Heath, George Cruikshank, John Doyle (“H. B.”), Richard Doyle (his son), Leech, Tenniel, and Du Maurier, the three last being remarkable for the humour and keenness, comWned with great artistic power, with which they satirize the political and social aspects of their time. CARILLONS, Tcar-iV-lons (Fr.), a name given to small instruments furnished with bells (properly tuned), they are acted upon by finger- keys, like those of a pianoforte, and used for ac- companying certain songs, where the ringing of church-bells is to be imitated, and where dampers are not used for preventing the continuance of the sound. The steeples of some of the churches in Holland and some parts of the Netherlands are furnished with a large series of bells, tuned accurately to the tones and half-tones of the scale. They are connected at one end by wires mth hammers, that strike the bells, and at the other with keys, and pedals for the lower notes of the scale. The persons who play these instru- ments (called Carilloneurs) find it rather hard work, as the carillons are played by striking the keys rather forcibly with the hands and feet. The keys of these instruments are projecting sticks placed far enough apart to enable the per- former to strike them with violence and velocity by the two hands edgeways, connected with the bells as those of an organ are with the pipes. The performers on these instruments wear thick leather coverings on the little fingers of each hand, to protect them from the violence of the stroke given. The first and second trebles are played with the hands, and the_ bass with the feet on the pedal keys. Carillon is also the name /?iven to small keyed instruments made to imitate CAEMAGNOLE 108 CARTE BLANCHE a peal of hand-bells, the tones of which are pro- duced by box hammers striking iron bars of dif- ferent lengths. CARMAGNOLE, -man-yole^ the name of a song and dance that originated and became very popular in the time of the first French revolution. It appeared first in the south of France, and is supposed to have received its name from a waistcoat worn by the Marseillas who took a conspicuous part in the insurrection of August lo, 1792 ; and this style of waistcoat is supposed to have been first worn in the town of Carmagnola, in Piedmont. It was commonly sung and danced at i^opular festivals, executions and outbreaks of popular fury. Louis XVI. and his queen Marie Antoinette were nicknamed in the song. Monsieur and Madame Veto. Every verse ended with the refrain, Damons la Carmagnole, vive la son da canon ! “ Let us dance the Car- magnole, hurrah for the sound of the canon ! ” Afterwards the name was applied to a kind of white jacket worn by the revolutionists, and by all who wished to show their patriotism. CARMEN, kar^-men, (Lat., came?i, a charm), a term used among the Latins to signify in a general sense a verse. In a more peculiar sense, they employed it to denote a spell, charm, form of expiation, &c., couched in few words, and placed in a mystic order, on which its efficacy de[)ended. These were generally in verse ; but it was also applied to laws, precepts, prayers, and all solemn formulae comprised in few words, and arranged in a certain order, though written in prose. CARNATION, (Lat., caro, fiesh). In painting, fiesh tints are known as carnations. CARNEIAN GAMES, i-ar'-ne-aw, games in honour of Apollo (one of whose names was Carneus) instituted in many Grecian cities, especially Sparta, about 675 b.c. CARNIVAL, kar'-ni-val {IsJi,,, caro fiesh; vale, farewell — i.e., farewell to fiesh), the name of a festival observed in Koman Catholic coimtries, particularly in Italy, immediately before the commencement of Lent. At first it began on the feast of the Epiphany, or Twelfth-day, and ending on Ash-Wednesday ; but it is now limited to a period of from three to eight days before the beginning of Lent. It doubtless arose from the Saturnalia of the ancient Koman s, which were celebrated annually, in the month of December, with all kinds of mirth and freedom, in honour of the golden age, when Saturn governed the world, and when liberty, equality, and happi- ness prevailed. The Christianized Romans were in this, as in other cases, loath to lose their pagan festivals, and the Church granted her sanction to what she could not very well prevent. The early Christians, it is said, on these days, gave themselves up to voluntary madness, put on masks, exchanged sexes, clothed themselves like spectres, and considered all kinds of pleasures allowable. Rome and Venice are now the cities where the carnival is celebrated with the greatest effect ; but even in them it is rapidly declining. In Rome the public festivities are confined to the Corso (which is about a mile long, but very nar- row) and the street adjoining, and extends over the eight days immediately preceding Ash- "Wednesday. The balconies of the houses are crowded with numerous gaily-dressed spectators, and hung with brilliantly-coloured pieces of cotton or silk; while innumerable streamers of the same hues flutter in the breeze. The street be- low is thronged with carriages filled with gay parties; while crowds of pedestrians mingle with the vehicles, masked, clad in every variety of costume that fancy can suggest, and playing every imaginable kind of prank. One and all, in the street or on the balconies, engage heartily in pelting each other with flowers, bonbons, and confetti {i.e. small pellets of lime about the size of a pea). The festivities do not last the entire day, but only from about 2 to 5 o’clock, and are each day succeeded by a race by horses without riders. In the evening the windows are illumina- ted, and the maskers go about with tapers in their hands, every one striving to preserve his own taper and extinguish those of others. In Paris, the carnival is marked by masked and fancy balls. On the Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday preceding Lent, and at mi-cartme, or Mid-Lent Thursday, masks are worn in the streets and im- mense crowds assemble. On the Sunday and Tuesday before Lent, the procession of the hoeuf gras (fat ox) takes place, the huge animal being led through the streets accompanied by a numerous train of butchers in fantastic dress. CAROL, kar'-ol (Ital., carola, a song of joy), denoted originally a song sung as an accompani- ment to dancing, and afterwards applied to a religious song used in celebration of Christmas. {See Chkistmas.) According to Tertullian, it was customary at feasts to place in the middle such as were able to sing, and call upon them to praise God in a hymn either out of the Scriptures, or of their own invention. CAROLITIC COLUMNS, columns, the shafts of which are decorated with foliage, flowers, and branches, winding round them in a spiral form, or assuming the shape of wreaths and garlands. The derivation or mean- ing of the term carolitic is uncertain. CARPET KNIGHTS, a term sometimes applied to civilians, who, on account of birth, meritorious service, or the like, are raised to the dignity of knighthood. They were so called be- cause they usually received their honours in the court, kneeling on a carpet, and were thus dis- tinguished from knights created in the camp or on the field of battle. The name is also given ironically to knights who have never seen military service. CARREL OR QUARREL BOLT, kar-rel, the arrow used in cross-bows : a cross- bow. CARROUSAL, kar-rovf -zal (Ital., carro- sello, diminutive of carro, a chariot), is, properly, a course or contest of chariots and horses, but generally applied to a magnificent entertainment given by princes or other great personages on occasions of public rejoicing, and consisting in a cavalcade of persons richly dressed and equij)ped, after the manner of ancient cavaliers, who met in some public place to practise jousts, tourna- ments, and the like. Carrousals took the place of the earlier tournaments, and were common in all the courts of Europe down to the i8th century. CARSE, karse, a Scottish term of uncertain origin, signifying low lands near rivers. CARTE BLANCHE, kart llaunsh (Fr., white card), is a paper containing nothing but the signature and it mav be, the seal of the party CARTE DE VISITE 109 CARVING who grants it, in order that the party receiving it may fill it up or insert such conditions in it as he pleases. Generally, the term is used to express unlimited authority delegated by one person to another to act as he may think best. CARTE DE VISITE, kart-de-vi-seeti a photographic full-length portrait of small size, rather less than a playing card. When first in- troduced at Nice, in 1857, the Duke of Parma had his portrait placed on his visiting cards. CARTOON, kar-toon' (Lat., cartay paper; Ital., cartone, pasteboard), a drawing on a large scale, generally of the full size, executed as a preliminary design for tapestry or any painting of considerable size in oil-colours or fresco, from which the work itself is afterwards copied. It serves in the latter case as a study in which the artist can more readily correct the composition of the design and the details of the drawing, before entering on the execution of his painting. After the paper is stretched, it is sometimes primed, particularly if the cartoon is to be executed in distemper colours ; but this process is dispensed wdth if it is to be merely a sketch in chalks, similar to the cartoons which were exhibited in 1843 as studies for the frescoes in different parts of the new palace at Westminster, some of which may now be seen at Hampton Court. The draw- ing is transferred to the canvas or plaster in fresco -painting {see Feesco -Painting) either by rubbing the back of the cartoon with black chalk or charcoal, and tracing the outline with a hard l)oint, or by puncturing the outline with holes, through which the surface of the material on which the work is to be executed may be marked with chalk. If, however, the painter desires to preserve the original cartoon, he stretches threads across his drawing, so as to divide the surface into a number of squares of the same size, and draws lines across the canvas at right angles to each other, to divide it into a similar number of corresponding squares. Cartoons are indis- pensable for paintings in fresco, as these can only be executed in small portions at a time, while the plaster on which the painting is made remains wet. Some cartoons by Annibale Carracci may beseenin the National Gallery Raffaelle's Cartoons in the world are those by Raffaelle, now in the Raffaelle Saloon of the South Kensington Museum. It is to be regretted that seven only remain out of the original set of twenty-five which were executed for Leo X. about 1516, as designs for tapestry. Two sets were made at the tapestry-works at Arras, one of which is now at Rome and the other in the Museum at Berlin, Raffaelle’s exquisite designs were thrown aside as soon as the tapestry was executed, and the greater part were lost or destroyed. The seven that remain were purchased by Rubens for Charles I., to be copied at the ta^jestry-works at Mortlake. After ^he death of this monarch, they were bought for the nation, by order of Cromwell. Charles II. afterwards sent them to Mortlake, where an attempt was made to pro- duce the designs in tapestry, and there the draw- ings were much injured and defaced. They were, however, restored and mounted on canvas by a painter of the name of Henry Cooke, by conimand of William HI., who built a gallery for their reception at Hampton Court, after a design by Sir Christopher Wren. They were removed to Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle in the reign of George HI. ; but were restored to the gallery at Hampton Court, in 1814. In 1865, they were removed to the South Kensing- ton Museum. The subjects of the seven cartoons, are, Paul preaching at Athens, the death of Ananias, Elymas the sorcerer struck with blind- ness, Christ delivering the keys to Peter, tlie sacrifice at Lyctus, the apostle healing the sick at the beautiful gate of the temple, and the miraculous draught of fishes. CARTOUCH, kar-toosh' (Fr., cartouche)^ the name sometimes given to the box or case in which soldiers carry their cartridges. Cartridges are now carried in a tin case, which fits into the outer one of leather. The name was also formerly given to a wooden box containing a number of bullets and balls which were used aa grape and canister are now, for firing into a close body of men on the deck of a vessel, or advancing to carry a breach by assault. In Architecture, a tablet intended to receive an in- scription which resembles a scroll of paper rolled up at the ends. It is also applied to the modillion that supports the corona of a cornice used in interior deco- ration. In Eg^yptian Archaeology, the oval or elliptical figures that are carved on columns and other parts of a temple to receive hieroglyphic inscriptions of different kinds. These figures are cut in what is called cavo-rilievo, that is to say, the surface of the ground of the cartouche is hollowed out below the surface of the stone, while that of the hieroglyphic figures that appear in relief on the ground of the cartouche is level with it, being, in fact, the surface of the column round which the sunkert part has been hollowed out. The term is also applied to describe the oval line, which in hieroglyphical in- scriptions encloses the name of a monarch. CARVING, karv'-ing (Saxon, cearfan, to carve), a term more particularly applied to the production of figures, fruit, flowers, and orna- mental work, from pieces of wood or ivory, by cutting the same into the desired shape by means of chisels, gouges, saws, and files of the necessary forms. The art of carving is called “ sculpture ” when stone is the material employed, and “ chasing ” when the work is executed in metal. The ancient sculptors of Greece, and those of Byzantium in later times, excelled in carving in ivory ; and magnificent cups, crucifixes, and other works of art, were produced in this material in Italy and the Low Countries between 1200 and 1600. The Hindoos and Chinese are famous for their delicate and elaborate carving in ivory to this day. Magnificent specimens of wood- carving are to be found in the majority of cathe- drals and churches in the Gothic style of archi- tecture erected during the middle ages in England and on the Continent ; while Windsor Castle, Hampton Court, St. Paul’s Cathedral, and many of the residences of the nobility, are enriched with work produced by the chisel of Grinling Gibbons, a carver of considerable repute, who ex- celled in the production of fruit and flowers, and flourished between 1670 and 1721. The art has been revived to a great extent in the present day; and some beautiful carving in wood has been executed. The Swiss are extremely ingenious in carving animals in soft wood, spirited figures- being produced by comparatively few strokes of the tools employed. In recent years the applica* tion of machinery to the carving of wood has been brought to some degree of perfection. A pattern of the work to be carved is, in the first instance, prepared by the artist, after which the machine makes several copies of it simultaneously. The work can only be executed by the machine up to a state of forwardness, after which it must be finished by hand. In 1846, Mr. Pratt invented a carving-machine a description of which he gave- CARYATIDES 110 CASTANETS to the Institute of British Architects. His ma- chine combined the principle of the lathe, the drill, and the pantograph. One of the most ex- tensively used carving-machines is that invented and patented by Mr. J or dan in 1 845. This machine is capable of copying any carved design which can be produced, so far as that is possible by re- volving tools ; the smoothness of surface and sharpness of finish is neither possible nor desirable, because a keen edge, guided by a practised hand, will not only produce a better finish, but it will accomplish this part of the work at less cost. The only object in using machinery is to lessen the cost of production, or to save time : and in approaching towards the finish of a piece of carving, there is a time when further progress of the work on the machine would be more ex- pensive than to finish it by hand. This arises from the necessity of using smaller tools to pene- trate into the sharp recesses of the work, and the necessarily slow rate at which these cut away the material. CARYATIDES, hir-e-at' -e-dees (Gr., plural of kai'uatis, a woman of Caryae), female figures clothed in long flowing robes, are used instead of columns, to support an entablature, like the male figures called Atlantes. {See Atlantes.) The use of male and female figm-es to support porticos or entablatures was doubtless derived from the Egyptians, and dates from a very early j)eriod ; but, according to Vitruvius, Caryatides received the name they still bear to commemorate the cowardice and want of patriotism shown by the people of Caryse, a town of Arcadia, when Xerxes invaded Greece. For this act they were punished by their fellow-countrymen, who sacked their town, and, after killing all the males, re- duced the women to a state of slavery ; and as the figures called Caryatides appear supporting a heavy burden, like slaves, this name was applied to them to keep the slavery of the women of Caryse in remembrance. CASA, kai'-za (Latin, a hut or cottage), was used in the Middle Ages for a convent or church : thus Bede calls Whitchurch Candida casa. CASCADE, kas-kaid' (Fr.), denotes properly a waterfall, in which the water does not, as in the cataract, fall uninterruptedly from a great height, but in which it is broken at several parts during its fall, or it is a waterfall less than a cataract. CASE, kaise (Lat,, casus, from cado, I fall), in Grammar, is that modification which is effected on a norm to denote its relation to the rest of the sentence. This is commonly denoted by changes in the termination of the noun. The number of cases in the declension of nouns varies much in different languages. In Sanscrit there are eight cases ; in Latin six ; in Greek five. In English there are only three cases — the nominative, pos- sessive, and objective — ^the last occurring only in pronouns, all the other relations of nouns are ex- pressed by prepositions. CASEMATE, kais'-mait (Fr.), a vaulted shell-proof chamber constructed in any work of defence, with embrasures, from which a fire can be kept up on the enemy, the artillerymen em- ployed being protected from the enemy’s shot and shell. Casemates are also used for the re- ception of troops and stores during a siege, or as hospitals. CASEMENT, kais'-ment (Ital., casamento, a large house), a window which opens on hinges fixed to the side of the window-frame. Case- ment windows are common in old houses, the frames which support the glazing, which is set in grooved bands of lead, being made of iron. They are much used in the domestic Gothic architecture. The name is also given to a broad and deep circular moulding in Gothic architec- ture, which is sometimes enriched with rosettes placed at intervals, or foliage. CASINO, ka- se'-no (Ital., a little house, dim. of casa, a house), is a club-house or place for social meetings. It is derived from the Italian, and was first applied to those small pleasure retreats which noblemen in Italy usually have at some distance from their palaces, to which they occasionally retire and enjoy themselyes. After- wards, the middle classes united in societies, and formed similar casinos or club-houses, for social enjoyment. The term is also applied to a build- ing where musical or dancing soirees are held, and where there are also conversation and billiard- rooms, refreshment rooms, and such-like. Casinos are now common in France, Germany, and other parts of the Continent, and in this country the name has been given to saloons for dancing, where the company is promiscuous and more lively than select. CASKET, kas'-ket (Fr., casse), a small box or chest for holding jewels or other small articles of value. The term is also applied by seamen to a small rope fastened to little rings upon the yards ; it is used in order to fasten the sail to the yard when it is to be furled. CASQUE, kask (Fr., casque), a term syno- nymous with helmet {see Helmet), applied to a defensive coveriug for the head, made of plates of steel or iron, and surmounted with a plume. CASSOCK, kas'-sok (Fr., casaque), a kind of surtout or long upper garment, now usually worn only by the clergy, but formerly by all classes. As worn by the English clergy, it is black, with a single upright collar ; but on certain state occasions bishops sometimes wear purjile cassocks. In the Church of Borne, cas- socks vary in colour with the dignity of the wearer ; those of the priests being black, bishops purple, cardinals scarlet, and popes white. CAST, kast (Dan., kaster). The term cast is generally employed to denote a statue, bust, or the resemblance of anything that may be formed by pouring plaster of Paris in a liquid state into a suitable mould. It is also applied to articles of cast-iron and other metals. Impressions or casts are taken from the human face % inserting paper funnels into the nostrils, and then pouring liquid plaster of Paris over the face, which has been previously greased, to prevent the adherence of the material employed. It rapidly hardens and becomes fit for removal. CASTANETS (Sp., castaneta, or castaneula, probably from castana, a chestnut), a small musical instrument much used by the Spaniards and Moors in their dances. It consists of two small round pieces of hard dried wood, or of ivory, hollowed out in the centre, and placed to- gether, with the concavities inwards, and fastened to the thumbs. The fingers being rapidly struck upon them, a tremulous sound is produced, which marks the measure of the dance. The use of this CASTLE in CATAPULTA instrument was probably brought by the Moors from the East into Spain. CASTLE, IcasV-t, in Heraldry, castles are often given as charges in the shields of persons who have distinguished themselves in assaults on strong castles. CASTRAMETATION,A:a5-fra-me-ifa'-s^on, the art of encamping. [See Camp, Encampment. ) CAT, OR CAT CASTLE, in the Middle Ages, was a movable tower employed to cover the sappers as they advanced to the walls of a be- sieged town. CATACOMBS, Tcat'-a-lcomes (Gr., Tcata, in the sense of “below,” and kumbos, a hole or hollow), vaults below the surface of the earth, used as burial-places for the dead. There are many of these subterranean excavations, in the form of long galleries and chambers, in many parts of Europe. They are to be found at Syra- cuse and Palermo, in Sicily, and in Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Greece : some have also been discovered in South America. The catacombs of Eome, Naples, and Paris are the most famous ; they are cut out of a soft calcare- ous rock that is easily quarried. The catacombs of Eome are on the Via Appia, or Appian Way, not far from the city ; they are said to extend for twenty miles underground ; but they cannot now be explored for more than one-fourth of that distance, and many parts have fallen in, which causes a visit to them to be attended with some danger. The passages are about eight feet in height and five in width ; the graves are hollowed out of the sides, forming three tiers one above another. When the body had been deposited in the cavity assigned to it, it was walled up, and an inscription, generally confined to D.M. [Deo Maximo), with a few brief particulars with refer- ence to the name, age, and calling of the occu- pant of the cell, was cut on the stones that formed the closure of the tomb. At intervals there are large vaulted chambers, which form a centre in which many of the passages meet, and which appear to have been used as places of wor- ship. They are furnished with altars, and are ornamented with fresco-paintings, inscriptions, sculptured crosses, and crucifixes. Some of these chambers, or chapels, are said to have been formed by order of some of the popes of Eome. The early Christians used the catacombs as places of worship and cemeteries for their dead ; but it is most probable that they were excavated and used for this purpose prior to the Christian era. The catacombs at Naples are similar in con- struction to those at Eome, and were used by the early Christians for the same purposes. They are adorned with fresco-paintings of great fresh- ness of appearance, among which the palm-tree is conspicuous as an emblem of Palestine. The galleries of the Neapolitan catacombs are wider than those of the catacombs at Eome. Those at Palermo and ■ Syracuse are characterised by greater regularity of construction, and are filled with the tornbs of heathens and Saracens as well as of Christians. The catacombs of Egypt are inferior to those of Italy in size ; many of them were explored by Belzoni, who brought from thence the sarcophagus of Psammetichus the Powerful, who fiourished about 650 B.C., made of alabaster, and most beautifully sculptured. Catacombs of considerable extent were discovered about a hundred years since in the hill of Tar- chino, about three miles from Corneto, in Italy, the site of Tarquinii, one of the twelve republics or representative cities of the ancient Etruria. They are remarkable for the beauty of the deco- rations, paintings, friezes, mosaics, vases, arms, and other archaeological remains that have been discovered in them. The catacombs of Paris ex- tend under the city for a considerable distance ; they were formerly quarries, from which the stone that was used in building the old city was excavated. They have acquired the name from having been made the receptacles of skulls and bones removed from the churchyards and ceme- teries within the confines of the city, which had become inconveniently crowded with human re- mains. The passages present a singular appear- ance, the bones having been arranged in the form of crosses and other patterns over the surface of the side-walls. The remainr of many of those who were so ruthlessly slaughtered in the revolu- tion of 1792 were thrown into the catacombs. CATAFALQUE, kat'-a-falk (Ital., cata- falco, a scaffold), an elevated tomb, usually a temporary structure of carpentry, decorated with painting or sculpture, and containing the coffin of a distinguished person, round which tapers, ornaments, inscriptions, armorial bearings, &c., are disiDosed. CATALECTIC, kat-a-lek' -tik (Gr., katalek- tikos, deficient), in Greek and Latin poetry, a verse wanting one syllable of its proper length. Acatalectic is applied to such as are complete, and hypercatalectic to such as have a syllable too many. CATALOGUE, kat'-a-log (Gr., katalogos, from katalogeo, I register), denotes generally a list or register of things one by one — ^an enume- ration of particulars. It is most commonly applied to a list of the articles (arranged in lots) to be sold by auction, and to a list or register of books in a library. A catalogue of some sort is absolutely necessary in every large library; but the plan on which it may best be constructed is a subject that has given rise to much dis- cussion, and on which much difference of opinion exists. They may all be divided into two great classes — the alphabetical and the classified ; in the former the books being arranged alphabetically, according to their authors or titles ; in the latter, classified in some way or other, according to their subjects. The alphabetical arrangement (which is that adopted in the library of the British Museum), possesses the advantage of being much more simple, and more easy of consultation ; but students frequently require to consult catalogues for books on particular subjects, of which they know neither the author nor title. To meet this difficulty various attempts at classification have been made. In Astronomy, a catalogue is a list of stars, in which their positions at a certain time are registered, accord- ing to their latitude and longitude, or right ascension and declination ; and means are also given whereby the effects of aberration, precession, and nutation may be computed, and the position of the star in the heavens may be determined at any time. Many such catalogues have been made, from the time of Ptolemy downwards. CATAPULTA, kat-a-pnl'-ta [Gx.,katapeltes), an engine of war of great power, used by the ancients for throwing large darts and arrows against the enemy. It resembled a strong short bow placed in a frame of wood, securely planted in the ground. The cord was attached to a flat piece of wood, which worked on a slide project- CATARACT 112 CEMETERY ing to the rear. The bow was bent by the action of a small windlass at the extremity of this pro- jection. When the cord was suddenly released from the extreme tension to which it had been subjected, the arrow was hurled forward with ^eat force. The catapulta is said to have been invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, in Sicily, about 400 B.c. CATARACT, Icat’ -a-rdkt (Gr., Uata^ down- wards ; rosse, I dash), a precipice in the channel of a river, caused by rocks or other obstacles stopping the course of the stream, whence the water falls with a greater noise and impetuosity. The falls of Niagara, in America, and the Victoria Falls, on the Zambesi, in South Africa, surpass, in size and grandeur, all others in the known world. CATASTROPHE, Tcat-as' -tro-fe (Gr., Tcatas- trophe, from kata and strephein^ to turn), a turn- ing about, a revolution, and generally applied to the final turn or change of events, the change which produces the final event. In ancient dramatic poetry it was applied to the fourth and last part of the play, or that immediately suc- ceeding the catatasis ; the whole drama being divided into protasis, epitasis, catatasis, and catastrophe. CATCH, katsh, a form of musical composi- tion, in the style of the canon, but generally allied to humorous words, sometimes forming violent puns. In one old fashioned catch, one singer begins, in a burlesque sentimental manner, “Ah ! how, Sophia !” and another follows with “ Go fetch the Indian’s borrowed plume : ” the effect being that one appears to say, “A house on fire,” and the other replies, “ Go fetch the engines.” CATHERINE WHEEL, kath’ -e-rine, a circular window, or portion of a window, fre- quently found in cathedrals and churches built in accordance with the Gothic style of architecture. When the entire Avindow is circular in form, it is generally found at the east end or in the gables of the transepts. In some of the cathedrals in France, windows of this description are found of great diameter, divided into compartments by stone tracery elaborately chiselled into a variety of forms, and sometimes by shafts radiating from a circular centre. The name is taken from the instrument on which St. Catherine of Alex- andria suffered torture and death, a.d. 307, for her persistent adherence to the Christian faith. In Fireworks, the Catherine wheel is a long tube filled with an explosive compound, and coiled into a circular form, revolving as it explodes. In Heraldry, the name is given to a toothed wheel, frequently used as a charge in coats of arms. CAUDLE, kaw'-dl (Fr., chaudeau, from Lat., calidus, warm), is a kind of warm broth, com- posed of gruel, wine or beer, sugar and spices, once very popular as a comforter to women when confined. CAVALIERS, kav-a -leers' (Fr.), in English history was the name given to those who adhered to the cause of Charles I., as distinguished from the Eoundheads, or friends of the Parliament. CAVALIER, a work of defence raised on the level of a bastion or curtain, about ten feet above the rampart of the work, with a rampart of its own about six feet in height. The height of the cavalier must depend on that of the eminence it is intended to command. CAVATINA, kav-at-teen' a short form of operatic air ; but the term is somewhat loosely applied by modern composers, including the aria proper, and sometimes being preceded by a re- citative. C A VO-RILIE VO, kai-vo-re-le-ai'-vo, a mode of carving in relief, in which the highest surface of the object represented is only on a level with the plane of the original stone, the relief being obtained by cutting into the material. It is common in Egyptian sculpture. CEILING, seeV -ing {Lat. t ccelumi Fr., cielt the heaven), an expression applied to the top or covering of a room, or any lofty building of great size as a church. It is derived from the vault of heaven. The ceiling of a room is formed by nailing laths to the under surface of the joists that support the floor of the story above or the beams of a roof, and covering them with two or three coats of plaster. The ceilings of churches are often semicircular in form, and divided into large squares by beams adorned with bosses at the points of intersection, and that of the chancel is sometimes coloured blue and studded with stars. Flat ceilings are sometimes divided in this way, and adorned with painting and gilding, and those of houses of the Tudor period are fre- quently enriched with mouldings. The oldest flat ceiling in existence is believed to be that of Peterborough Cathedral. CEIMELIA, si-md-li-a (Gr. ), a term anciently applied to treasures or other things stored up as valuables, and in the early Cliurch denoted the sacred vessels and utensils belonging to the church. Hence, Geimeliarcha, or Ceimeliophylax, was the officer, in ancient churches and monas- teries, who had the custody of these things ; and as rolls and archives were also under his charge, he was also frequently called Cartophylax, or Gustos archivorum. CELT, selt (Lat., celtis, a chisel), is the name given to certain instruments of stone or bronze, used by people in the earliest state of civilization, and found chiefly in tumuli and other early earth- works in Western Europe. The term has been somewhat loosely applied to various kinds of cutting instruments ; but it is now generally re- stricted to chisels or small instruments of a similar character. Some of the stone celts are extremely rude and inartificial, but others are beautif\dly shaped and highly polished. They vary con- siderably in size, but are commonly about six inches in length. Bronze celts belong to a some- what higher state of social progress, and present a greater diversity of form than the stone celt. There are numerous examples of both kinds in the British Museum. CELTIC ARCHITECTURE, this term is sometimes applied to the rude attempts at building in stone which were made by the Celts of Gaul and Britain. They consist chiefly of Druidical remains in the form of temples and cromlechs. The temples were huge blocks of stone set up in a circle, in a vertical position, which support others, placed horizontally upon them, as imposts or lintels. Some of these stones bear traces of the chisels, and the upright and transverse blocks were often fitted together with mortise and tenon joints. CEMETERY, sem!-e-ter-e (Gr., koimeterion^ from koimaoj I sleep), denotes, literally, a dor- CENOTAPH 113 CHAMBER mitory, or place for sleeping in, and was applied by the early Christians to a place of burial, as indicating their belief in a future resurrection. The name is now given to burying-grounds ; and in this country is limited to such idaces not being churchyards. Most large towns have now extra- mural cemeteries, the ground being laid out in an ornamental manner, with chapels in which funeral services are held, and generally divided into consecrated and unconsecrated portions. The principal cemeteries near London are at Kensal-Green, Highgate, Finchley, New South- gate, Norwood, Nunhead, and near Bow. Wok- ing Cemetery, in Surrey, may almost be con- sidered as a metropolitan cemetery. CENOTAPH, sen'-o-taf (Gr., kenos, empty, and taphos, a tomb), is an empty tomb, a monu- ment erected in memory of a deceased person, apart from the body, CENTILOQUIUM, sen-ti-lo' -kivi-um (Lat.), is a term apjjlied to collections of one hundred sentences or sayings ; as the Centiloquium of Hermes, containing one hundred aphorisms or astrological sentences falsely ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, and the Centiloquium of Ptolemy, a famous astrological work. CENTO, sen' -to (Gr., kentron, a thing of patches), is a literary composition formed of verses or passages from one or more authors, disposed in a different order, and arranged so as to bring out a different meaning. Considerable dexterity was frequently disj)layed in the com- bining of passages of different authors so as to form a regular and connecting whole. Thus there were in early times Homero-centones and Centones Virgiliani. Passages from Horace and Virgil were even so ingeniously combined as to form spiritual hymns. It was also a favourite amusement in the Middle Ages. CENTURY, sen-tu'-re. — The method of com- puting time by hundreds of years commenced with the Christian era, and was first adopted in chronological history in France. With the ancient Romans, a century was a company of one hundred men in the army, and also a civil divi- sion of the people formed for the purpose of voting. CERAMIC, se-ram'-ik{(j:v., keramos, potter’s clay), a term applied to artistic objects made of clay. CERCELEE, ser-sele'-e, in Heraldry, a cross- archery, or curling at the ends. The term recer- celee is sometimes used. CEREMENTS, ser^-ments (Lat. , cera, wax), were cloths dipped in melted wax, with which dead bodies were enfolded when they were em- balmed. CEREMONIES, MASTER OF THE, an officer of the court, instituted by James I. to attend to the proper presentation of ambassadors, and other persons of quality, to the sovereign. The gentleman filling this office is necessarily a person of good address and master of several languages. He attends at court on all occasions of state ceremonial, and has under him an assist- ant master, or deputy. CEROSTROTUM, or CESTROTUM, se-ros-tro' -turn, a species of encaustic painting upon hom or ivory. The lines of the design are burned in with a oestrum, or hot needle, and filled up with wax. OESTRUM, the style or spatula used by the ancients in encaustic painting. {See Encaustic.) CESTUS, ses'-tus (Gr., Z;estos, embroidered), a fine embroidered girdle worn by the Greek and Roman women close under the breasts. It was distinct from the zone, which was worn round the loins. Homer ascribes the power of charming and conciliating love to the cestus of Venus, wliich was covered with alluring representations. AVhen Juno wished to gain the love of Jupiter, she borrowed this girdle from Venus. CHAIN MAIL, a flexible kind of armour made of hammered iron links connected together. It was much worn in the 12th and 13th centuries, and was lighter and more convenient than armour composed of steel or brass plates. It was not, however, so comiffete a defence against the thrust of a lance or spear. CHAIR, tshair (Lat., cathedra, Fr., chair c, a pulpit), a movable seat or frame, made with a bottom of different materials, and used for per- sons to sit in. The term was originally applied to the pulpit from which the priest addressed the people. The place where professors and regents in universities deliver their lectures is still called the chair ; as the professor’s chair, the chair of natural philosophy, &c. The curule chair was an ivory seat placed upon. a car, in which the prime magistrates of ancient Rome sat, and also those to whom the honour of a triumph had been decreed. The sedan chair is a vehicle in which persons are carried. It is supported by two poles, and carried by two men. Though not much used at the present day, it was greatly in vogue a hundred years ago. In Hogarth’s works it is fre- quently represented. CHALDEE LANGUAGE, kal-dee', is the name given by some philologists, but not very correctly, to the eastern dialect of the Aramaic, of which the Syriac is the western, and which forms the northern branch of the Semitic tongues, the Hebrew, Arabic, and some other minor dialects forming the southern branch. As the language of Babylonia at the time of the Jewish captivity, it was much used by that people after their return to their own land, and, indeed, as a written language it is now known to us only through the Jews, every trace of its literature having dis- appeared, though it is still spoken by some of the tribes inhabiting the mountains of Kurdistan. In the Hebrew canon, several chapters in Daniel and Ezra are written in this language. {See Bible.) As a dialect, it is distinguished from the Syriac by its avoiding diphthongs and the vowel 0, for which it generally has a ; and the general accentuation of the last syllable. The mode of writing is also much less defective than in Syriac, and in forms it is poorer than both the Hebrew and Syriac. CHALICE, tshaV -is (Lat., calix, a cup). — This term was formerly applied to an ordinary drinking-cup ; but it is now only used to dis- tinguish the cup employed in administering the Holy Sacrament. Silver is the metal of which chalices are usually made ; but they are often of gold or gilt, and studded with jewels. They have been sometimes made of agate, crystal, or glass ; but, on account of their fragile nature, these sub- stances are seldom employed. CHALLENGE. (^ccDuel.) CHAMBER, tshaim'-her (Lat., camera), a CHAMFER 114 CHAPLET portion of a house or of an apartment. The term is ordinarily applied to a room intended for sleej)- ing in. In Artillery, a term applied to a part of the bore at the breech end of a piece of artillery or small-arm. It contains the powder, but is contracted, so as not to admit the shot or shell. Chambers are of different forms, some being splierical, some cylindrical, and others conical or pear-shaped. The loading and firing of chambered guns are slower than those without chambers. They are generally used when the weight of the shot or shell is great in comparison with the charge of powder. The chamber of a mine is the place, mostly of a cubical form, where the powder is con- fined. CHAMFER, OR CHAUMPFER, tcham'-fer^ in Architecture, the sloped or pared- off angle at the edge of work. It is sometimes made slightly concave, and is then known as a hiollow chamfer. A chamfer terminated by a trefoil or cinquefoil is very common in mediaeval architecture, and has a pleasing effect. CHANCEL, tshan'-sel (Lat., cancellus^ a screen), the name given to that jiart of the choir of a church in which the communion table stands, and which was formerly generally separated from the body of a church by a screen or lattice work. The term is now generally confined to parish churches which have no aisles round the choir, or chapels connected with it. Sometimes the chancel and the choir are synonymous. Before the Reformation, the service was always per- formed in the chancel, and at that time the clergy were held to have a special right to it. At the present day, its repairs generally fall upon the impropriator or rector, and not on the parish. The impropriator or rector has a right to the principal pew in the chancel, but he cannot erect a tablet there without the leave of the ordinary. The chancel corresponds with the hema, or semi- circular recess, of the ancient basilica. CHANGELING, tshainje' -ling (Ang.-Sax). It was at one time a common superstition that oung children were liable to be stolen or changed y fairies before being baptized ; and hence they were carefully watched till that ceremony was over. It was thought that the fairies were al- ways anxious to change their own starveling elves for the more robust children of men. The children so left were called changelings, and were known by their greater backwardness in growth or learn- ing ; hence stunted or idiotical children were re- garded as changelings. There are many allu- sions to this superstition by Shakespeare, Spenser, Scott, and other poets. In A Midsummer JVighfs Dream, Puck says of Titania, queen of the fairies, “ She, as her attendant, hath A lovely boy stol’n from an Indian king ; She never had so sweet a changeling.” CHANNEL, tshan'-nel (Fr., canal), a passage or place of flowing. The term is generally ap- plied to a water-course. The deeper part of a river, through which the principal current flows, is generally called the channel. The strait or narrow sea between two islands, or a continent and an island, is also called a channel ; as the British Channel, the Irish Channel, &c. CHANT, tshant (Fr., chanter, to sing), in its most extended sense, is applied to the musical performance in churches of all those parts of the liturgy which by the rubric are permitted to be sung. More particularly, and as distinguished from singing, it is applied to that plain tune to which the prayers, litany, &c., are set in choirs and places where they sing. The chanting of prayers has always been observed in the princqjal of our cathedrals. In church history we meet with different kinds of chants or songs ; as the Ambrosian, introduced by St. Ambrose ; the Gregorian, by Pope Gregory the Great. CHANTRY, tshan'-tre (Lat., cantaria), was a little chapel or particular altar in a cathedral church, built and endowed for the maintenance of a priest to say or sing masses for the soul of the founder, and such others as he might ap- point, and often very highly ornamented with sculpture, gilding, and i^ainting. There were many of these in England before the Reforma- tion ; but in the thirty-seventh year of Henry VIII., the chantries were given to the king, who had power at any time to issue commissions to seize their endowments, and take them into his possession ; and such as were not then seized were afterwards vested in his successor, Edward VI. CHAP-BOOKS, tshap'-books, is the name given to a kind of literature that was at one time very common in this country. The designation is probably derived from their forming part of the stock in trade of the chapman or travelling merchant. They were of inferior paper and typography, and the older of them, in the early part of the seventeenth century, are printed in black letter, in the form of small volumes. Their contents were of a very miscellaneous nature, comprising lives of heroes, martyrs, and other remarkable persons ; stories of ghosts, giants, witches ; dream-books, &c. The penny chap- hooks were a later and an inferior class of litera- ture. They consisted usually of a single sheet of paper, folded so as to form twenty-four pages. Their contents were chiefly narratives either in prose or verse, and were characterized by a con- siderable degree of broad humour, and frequently not without a goodly sprinkling of obscenity. It is said that nearly all these penny chap-books were the production of one man, Dougald Graham, who, previous to his death in 1789, was bell-man or town-crier of Glasgow. CHAPEL, tshap'-el, in a printing-office is an association of the workmen for the purpose of enforcing order and regularity in the office, and settling any disputes that may arise. The presi- dent is elected by the other workmen, and is termed the “ father of the chapel.” CHAPERON, shap'-e-ron (Fr.), a hood or cap worn by the knights of the Garter. It was formerly worn by men and women of every de- gree, and afterwards appropriated by the doctors and licentiates in colleges, &c. The name after- wards passed to certain little shields and other funeral devices placed on the heads of horses at pompous funerals. A person who acts as a guide or protection to a lady at a public place is called a chaperon, probably because the cap or hood was formerly worn by persons acting in a like capacity. CHAPLET, tshap'-let (Ital., ciapelletto), a string of beads made use of by Roman Catholics and others to count the number of their prayers. Its invention is by some attributed to Peter the Hermit, by others to St. Dominick, who is said to have received one out of heaven frOm the Virgin Mary. {See Rosary.) The term is also applied to a garland of flowers worn on the head. In Heraldry, a chaplet is always composed of four roses, the other parts being leaves. CHAPMAN 115 CHESS CHAPMAN, tshap'-man (Old Eng., cheap, a market), denotes generally a merchant ; but it is commonly limited to one who deals only in small articles — one who travels the country and attends markets. .CHAPTER, tshap' -ter a division of a book, generally containing a separate branch of the subject, or a fresh incident in fiction. CHARADE, sha-rad^ (Fr.), is a kind of riddle, in which a word of several syllables is taken, and an enigmatical description of each of its syllables given separately, and then a similar description of the whole word. The descriptions should be so contrived as to be in some way con- nected together. The following is a good ex- ample, from the French : — “ My first makes use of my second to eat my whole ; ” the first being chien, a dog ; the second dent, a tooth ; and the whole chiendent, dogs’-grass. Acting Charades is a popular drawing-room amuse- ment of a dramatic kind. A word of two or three syllables is selected, and then a little drama is extem- porized, each scene of which indicates one of the syllables, and another the entire word. The audience have to guess the solution from the action. CHAR.GE, tsharj, in Heraldry, the name given to figures of any kind represented on a shield, which is said to be charged with whatever figures may be depicted on it. The charges on a shield should be few and simple, and as appro- priate as possible to the character or achieve- ments of the original bearer of the coat. The simplicity of armorial bearings is a strong proof of their antiquity. In the Army, an expression used to denote the quantity of powder which is necessary to fire a ball, shell, or bullet from any kind of cannon or firearm. The charge for different kinds of artillery, and for different purposes, varies from one-twelfth to one- half the weight of the projectile. Rifled cannon re- quire a smaller charge than those with smooth bores ; and in firing against a vessel or a body of troops at a short range, a smaller charge is needed for the same gun than would be required for breaching the walls of a fortress. The term is also applied to the onset made by one body of troops on another with fixed bayonets. CHARIOT, tshar'-e-ut (Fr.), a kind of car- riage employed in ancient times in war or for jfieasure. We read of chariots as early as the time of Pharaoh ; and they are represented in Egyptain paintings. They were frequently armed with scythes, as we read of them to have been with the ancient Britons. The ancient chariots had only two wheels, which revolved upon the axle, and were usually drawn by two horses. Among the Romans, however, there were also three- and four-horse chariots. The triumphal chariots of the Romans were often most splendidly adorned. Chariot-racing was a conspicuous feature of the classical games. In modern coachmaking, a chariot is a carriage for two persons, now considered old fashioned. CHARTVARI, shar'-e-va'-re, is a French term, of uncertain etymolo^, but denoting pro- perly a loud, discordant noise, produced by the beating of kettles, pans, and other domestic utensils, mingled with shouts, groans, and hisses. The term came to be applied to political squibs and satires against public men ; and in this sense it was adopted as the title of a French periodical published in Paris, corresponding to our English Funch. It may be mentioned, that the name of the German periodical of the same kind, pub- lished in Berlin, Bladder adatsch, also implies a loud, discordant noise, such as is occasioned by the beating of kettles and pans. CHARLATAN, sharV -a-tan (Ital., ciarla- tano), denotes a mountebank, quack doctor, or empiric, and is hence applied to any one who makes loud pretensions to knowledge or skill which he does not possess. CHARM, tsharm (Lat., carmen, a verse), is a magical power or spell, by which witches and sorcerers, with the assistance of the devil, were supposed to do wonderful things beyond the powers of nature. (^S^ee Magic.) Even now, many persons who would strenuously disavow any de- sire to have dealings with the devil believe in the power of charms to cure warts and other ail- ments. Written charms worn about the person may be classed with amulets. {See Amulets.) CHARNEL-HOUSE, tshar'-nel-hows (Lat., caro, flesh), a place under a church, or in a church-yard, where the bones of the dead which were thrown up by the gravediggers were de- posited. CHART, tshart (Lat., charta), a hydrographi- cal or sea chart for the use of navigators, exhibit- ing some part of the sea, or other water, with the coasts, islands, rocks, sands, bearings, &c. Under the direction of the hydrographical department of the Admiralty, charts are engraved and sold at prices below their cost. Every available chart is supplied to men-of-war when proceeding to any particular district. CHARTULARY, tshar^ -tu-la-re (Lat., cAar- tularia), originally denoted a collection of char- ters, and was afterwards applied to the books in monasteries, &c., in which such charters were entered. These books were common even as early as the loth century, and they have been of great service in historical and genealogical re- searches. The officer who was intrusted with the care of the charters was also called chartulary. CHATEAU, s^ai-o' (Fr., chateau, a castle), a term formerly applied to the fortified residences of the French seigneurs. It is now generally applied to the large and more sumptuous country residences of the aristocracy. The word enters into the composition of the names of many towns and districts in France. CHAUSSES, shosse, in the armour of the Middle Ages, defences for the legs, made of chain- mail, steel plates, or quilted cloth. CHAUVINISM, tsho' -van-ism, national or individual bragging about strength or courage ; Chauvin is a character in French comedy repre- senting a bragging veteran of the empire. CHECKY, in Heraldry, a field or charge composed of small squares of different coloms, is cheeky. CHECKMATE. [See Chess.) CHEIROMANCY. {See Chiromancy.) CHESS, tshes (Fr., echecs), an ingenious and intellectual game, jfiayed by two persons, each having at command sixteen pieces, made of wood, bone, or ivory, upon a board divided into sixty- four squares, eight on each of the four sides. These squares are coloured red and white, or black and white, alternately, and the pieces of each player differ in colour from those of the other On either side there are eight superior CHESS 116 CHEYY CHASE pieces and eight inferior. The former consist of a king, a queen, two bishops, two knights, and two rooks or castles ; the latter consist of eight pawns, or foot-soldiers. On commencing a game, the king and queen occupy the centre squares of the first or royal line, and are supported in regular succession by- a bishop, a knight, and a rook, while before each piece stands a pawn. In placing the board, it is always the custom, in this country, to place a white square at the player’s right-hand corner ; and, in arranging the pieces, the queen is always placed on a square of her own colour ; consequently the combating kings and queens do not face each other. The king and queen occupy the central two squares of the first row, and on eitiier side of them are a bishop, knight, and rook. The pawns are placed on the eight squares in front of that line. The pieces on the king’s side are called the king’s — as king’s bishop, king’s knight ; while those on the queen’s side are similarly styled queen’s bishop, &c. The pawns take their names from the pieces before which they stand ; as, the king’s pawn, king’s rook’s pawn, queen’s pawn, &c. Every superior and inferior piece moves according to certain rules. The king can only move one square at a time ; the queen can move any distance, provided no other piece intervenes, either on straight lines or diagonally ; the bishop only on diagonal lines, but any distance ; the knight has a peculiar move over two squares, one square forward or back- ward and one diagonally, or one diagonally and one sideways or forward ; the rook, any distance, but only in straight lines. The queen is the most powerful piece on the board, while the king, from the nature of the game, which does not admit of his exchange or capture, is the most important piece: the game depends upon his safety. The cap- ture of anj' piece is effected when it is laid open to the attack of another inece, according to its peculiar move, nothing intervening, and is removed from the board, the attacking piece taking its position. The king cannot be captured, but when directly attacked by any piece or pawn, he is said to be in check. If he is unable to place himself out of check, to interpose a piece to parry the check, or to capture the checking iDiece, he is said to be checkmated, and the game is lost. "When neither player can give checkmate, the game is said to be dmtun. When one player has his king so situated, that not being then in check, he can- not play him without placing him in check, and at the same time has no other piece or pawn to move instead, he is said to be stale-mated, and the game is considered drawn. The game of chess is very ancient, and there is considerable dispute as to its origin. It seems to have been known immemorially in Hindostan by the name Chaturawja, or the four members of an army; namely, eleiffiants, horsemen, chariots, and foot-soldiers. Since that time the game has undergone many alterations. It passed into Persia from Hindostan, and then into Arabia, where it was called Shatrang, or the king’s dis- tress. In the 8th century the Arabs introduced the game into Spain, and from thence it passed into the rest of Europe. Chess was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Homans, but it was played in England before the Norman conquest. The Eastern game differs in several peculiar points from the game played in Europe, but resembles the game played by the Saxons. Many wonderful feats of “ blind-fold chess,” have recently been performed, that is, playing eight, ten, or even more games simultaneously without seeing the board and trusting entirely to memory for the position of the pieces. CHEVALIER, tshe-val-eer' , in Heraldry, a horseman armed at all points. CHEVAUX DE FRISE, shev'-o de freez (Fr., horses of Friesland), long beams of wood or iron, bristling with spikes, that are passed through the beam at regular intervals, in alternate direc- tions, at right angles to each other. They are used to defend the ditch of any fortification during an attack, and to impede the advance of a storming party when entering a breach. The origin of the name is uncertain; but it was probably first used by the Dutch during their protracted but successful struggle against Philip II. of Spain in the i6th century. CHEVRON, shev'-ron (Fr., chevron), in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordinaries, occupying a third part of the field. It represents the rafters of a house, and shows that the person to whom the coat of arms in which it occurs was first granted was the founder of his family, or had achieved some important and honourable undertaking. The diminutives of the chevron are the chevronel and the couple close. In Architecture, a zigzag moulding, a peculiar characteristic of Norman architecture. CHEVRONS, stripes worn on the arm to- distinguish the various grades of non-commis- sioned officers. The sergeant-major wears four stripes, sergeants three, corporals two, and lance- corporals one. Light infantry, the light and grenadier companies of all regiments, and the guards and fusiliers, wear the stripes on both arms. They are composed of gold lace or white braid in the regular army ; but in the volunteer service anything is allowed except gold lace. The stripes are worn with the point downwards, above the elbow, and are thus distinguishable from good-conduct stripes, which are worn with the point upwards, below the elbow. CHEVY CHASE, tshev’ -e-tshais, the name of one of the most famous of the old English ballads, narrating a hostile encounter that took place on the Scottish border between the two warlike families of Percy and Douglas. Percy, earl of Northumberland, had vowed to hunt for three days in the Scottish border without con- descending to ask leave from Earl Douglas. He had with him 1,500 men, and Douglas brought against them 2,000. In the middle of the contest the two earls met hand to hand. After fighting for some time, Douglas was pierced to the heart by an English arrow, and Percy immediately afterwards fell by a Scottish spear. Although the leaders were thus both slain, the battle still raged with great fury, till only 53 of the English and 55 of the Scottish remained. The event re- ferred to in the ballad, though apparently differ- ent from the battle of Otterbourn, which took place in 1388, is probably the same, or at least the tragical circumstances attending the latter have been incorporated in it. The beauties of this ballad have been criticised by Addison in the- “Spectator” (Nos. 70 and 74) ; and Sir Philip Sidney said of it, that he never heard the old song, of Percy and Douglas but his heart was more moved then by a trumpet. There are two ver- sions of this ballad, an ancient and a more modern (the latter probably dating from the early part of the 17th century), both of which are given in Percy’s “Reliques of Ancient English Poetry.” CHIAEO-OSCUEO 117 CBTENESE LANGUAGE CHIARO-OSOURO, or CHIARO- SCUKO, ke-ar'-o os'-ku-ro, ke-ar'-o-sku'-ro (Ital., chiaro, light; oscuro, dark), that branch of painting which has for its object the combination and arrangement of the light and dark parts of a picture to the best advantage. Relief and depth, and what is generally called the effect of a picture, are produced by chiaroscuro. Leonardo da Vinci was the first who reduced the art of chiaroscuro to a system. Correggio afterwards improved it practically ; and it is considered to have reached perfection under Titian. CHIEF, tsheef (Fr., chef, from Gr., keffhale, the head), denotes the highest in office or rank, the head or principal part of anything. CHIEF, in Heraldry, one of the nine honour- able ordinaries, occupying the upper part of the shield and a third part of the field. When any charge or charges are borne in the upper part of the field, they are said to be in chief . CHIEFTAIN, tsheef -tan (OldFr., chefetain, from chef, chief), is the leader, captain, or chief of a troop, army, or clan, but generally of the last. The chieftains of the Highland clans of Scotland were the i^atriarchal and feudal heads of their respective clans. {See Clans.) CHIGNON, sheen' -yon, the back hair of ladies, worn as a large mass hanging down on the neck. The fashion prevailed in England from 1866 to 1875. CHIMERE, ke-mair', the upper robe worn by a bishop, to which lawn sleeves are now gene- rally attached. It is now made of black satin, but in the early times of the English Church, was of a scarlet colour. CHIMES, tshimes (Dan., kimer, to tinkle), a peal of musical bells placed in a church-tower, and either rung by hand or by machinery con- trived for the purpose. In the ordinary art of bell-ringing, melody is never thought of ; mecha- nical order and succession are the only results aimed at. In Belgium and Holland there are some very perfect chimes. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE, tshi'-neze. The architecture of the Chinese is j)eculiar to China, differing entirely in form and ornamenta- tion from that of any other Eastern nation. The materials that are used in building consist chiefly of marble, stone, wood, brick, bamboo, and tiles of porcelain, which are glazed and coloured. The erection of all buildings in China, whether for public or private purposes, is carried on under the supervision of a surveyor ; and the rank of the person who is to inhabit it has much to do with the form and size of the private dwelling-house. These consist principally of a ground floor and first floor ; but houses of many floors have been sometimes built, reaching 200 feet in height. A great quantity of wood is used in building, and is richly coloured and relieved with gilding, so that the houses iiresent a gay and picturesqixe appearance. The walls of the apartments on the ground-floor are of tolerable solidity, generally pierced with square or long and narrow windows, which are often filled with elaborate tressil-work. On these walls wooden columns are erected to sup- port the roof, which is formed of bamboo, and for the most part turned up at the edges. The roof is sometimes made in two parts, resembling one roof rising out of another. The windows and doors are often circular in form. The walls are plastered and decorated with panels containing paintings and inscriptions in the Chinese symbolic characters. Balconies are generally formed in front of the apartments on the first floor, the front of which consists of trellis-work. The royal palaces are of great extent, consisting of a series of courts, with galleries and halls of audience beautifully painted. The last court in the series is set apart as the residence of the Emperor. The palace at Pekin is said to occupy an area about 1,080 yards in length by 840 yards in breadth. The Yuen-ming-yuen, or Summer Palace, near Pekin, which was plundered by the French and burned by the British in i860, was surrounded by iffeasure-grounds filled with beau- tiful buildings devoted to various purposes. The tall towers commonly known as pagodas, but named taas by the Chinese, are remarkable struc- tures ; not temples, as sometimes supposed, but memorials of great personages or events. They are composed of a number of stories, each re- duced in width, with a gallery around it, and a projecting roof turned up at the corners, at which bells are suspended. The pagodas are usually built of brick, and covered with glazed tiles. The famous porcelain tour at Nankin, destroyed by rebels in 1853, was about 200 feet high, and had nine stories and about 150 bells. Halls of ancestors and monumental memorials are spacious buildings found in most large towns. In building a house, the Chinese builders construct the roof first, supporting it on temporary pillars, which are removed as the permanent fabric is built. In palaces and temples, coloured and glazed bricks and tiles are freely used ; but yellow is pro- hibited under penalty of death to the builder for any edifice except a royal palace. CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERA- TURE, — The Chinese language belongs to that class of tongues of Eastern Asia that are com- monly termed monosyllabic, that is, in which each word is pronounced by a single movement of the organs of speech, and each expresses a com- plete idea or object. The words all terminate either in a vowel or diphthong, or a nasal sound. Of such words or roots there are about 450 in the language. Many of these words, however, are differently pronounced or accentuated — some of them in four or five different ways, and having as many different meanings. In this way the number of roots or words is increased to about 1,200. There are, besides, many words that, with the same pronunciation, express very different things. The words undergo no changes of form, and the want of conjugation or declension is made up by particles, or by the position of the words in a sentence. The construction of the sentence is thus an imj)ortant part of Chinese grammar, as upon it the meaning mainly depends ; indeed it has been said that Chinese grammar is wholly syntax. There are numerous dialects of the Chinese, which is said to be spoken most purely and correctly at Nankin ; but the same idiom, known as “ the language of the man- darins,” is spoken by the educated classes through- out the empire. This mandarin dialect is marked by the almost entire absence of consonantal ter- minations, n, ng, and hr being the only ones ad- mitted. The provincial dialects of the south, how- ever, have largely preserved the finals k, m, p, and t, and in one or other of them nearly all the five sounds of the letters of our alphabet are found. In Chinese, the alphabet is not composed of letters, but each word has a certain character CHINESE LANGUAGE 118 CHINESE LANGUAGE peculiar to itself ; and hence the number of characters corresponds with the number of words in the language. As the same words differ- ently pronounced express different objects, the number of written characters must necessarily correspond ; and hence it is said that the number of characters in the language exceeds 40,000. In its origin the Chinese language is hieroglyphic or pictorial, and to the original characters a number of symbolical and conventional signs have been added ; by the union of which hiero- glyphs and symbols, with an imperfect indication of the sound, the greater number of the Chinese characters are composed. Native grammarians divide their characters into six classes ; the first comprising simple representations of sensible objects ; as the sun, moon, mountain, tree, &c., and including 608 characters. The second class includes such as are formed by the union of two or more simple hieroglyphs, which give a more or less clear idea of the meaning intended to be con- veyed ; as the sun and moon combined give the idea of light ; mouth and bird, that of song. Of this class there are 740 characters. The third class is comijosed of such as indicate a certain re- lation of place ; as above, below, the numerals, &c., of which there are 107. The fourth class comprises such characters as, by being inverted, convey a contrary meaning ; as right, left, stand- ing, lying, and contains 372. The characters of the fifth class are termed borrowed characters, as expressing abstract ideas or mental acts by means of representations of sensible objects ; as a heart signifying the spirit, or a room, a woman ; of these there are 598. The sixth class comprises those that are composed of a hieroglyph and a mark representing the sound. Almost all the names of animals, trees, plants, and many other objects which it would be too difficult to rejiresent hiero- glyphically are indicated in this way ; their num- ber is given at 21,810. These, however, are merely repetitions of those of the other five classes ; so that the entire number of Chinese characters may be reduced to 2,425 ; and if one has learned these, he may be said to know all. Of the great number of characters that are to be found in Chinese dictionaries, amounting to about 40,000, not more than a tenth part are in common use. In the arrangement of their dictionaries, the Chinese select a certain number of characters, usually about 214, which serve as a sort of key, and answer the same purpose as the letters of our alphabet. The Chinese Literature is undoubtedly the richest, and, in a geographical, historical, and ethnographical point of view, it is the most im- portant of the whole of Asia. The printed cata- logue of the library of the Emperor Kein-long consists of 122 volumes ; and a selection of the Chinese classics, with commentaries and scholia, begun by command of the same monarch, is said to comprise 180,000 volumes, of which, in 1818, 78,731 volumes had appeared. In the five cano- nical or classical books called the “King” are contained the oldest specimens of Chinese poetry, history, philosophy, and jurisprudence, some por- tions of which are ijrobably among the oldest written monuments of the human race. They were collected from various sources by Confucius in the 6th century before Christ ; and in this collection they have been handed down to us with apparent fidelity. The five “ Kings ” are — I, The “Y-king,” or Book of Changes; 2, the “ Schu-king,” or Book of Annals, which is im- perfect, comprising fragments of the early history of the people ; 3, “ Schi-king,” the Book of Songs ; 4, “ Tschun-thsieu,” the History of certain King- doms, from 770 B.c. to the time of Confucius : 5,. “Li-ki,” or Book of Ceremonies, which contains- a series of laws and directions extending down even to the minutest details of life. The- “Tscheu-li,” which has been translated into- French by Biot is a kind of official handbook of the old Chinese empire. Next to the “ Kings ” in value and importance are the “ Sse-schu,” or the four books which were written by Confucius, and his disciples, and are to be regarded as the most certain sources for information regarding that important school of philosoj)hy which has in so marked a manner affected the whole intel- lectual and political condition of the Chinese. These four books are generally known as the works of Confucius, and have been translated into various languages — into English by Collie (Malacca, 1828), and the eminent missionary and Chinese scholar, Dr. Legge, has translated them and the five “ Kings,” with elaborate notes. To these books numerous scholia, commentaries, and paraphrases have been written. Almost con- temporary with Confucius was Lao-tse, also the foimder of a wide-spread school of philosophy. In mythology they have “The Book of the Mountains and Seas ” and the “ History of the Gods and Spirits.” In jurisprudence, worthy of special notice is the general collection of laws and the criminal code of the present ruling dynasty. The Chinese literature is also very rich in medical works, and works on natural history, astronomy, uranography, geometry, agriculture, war, music, and all branches of technology and mechanics. In philology, the first rank is due to their dictionaries, which have been prepared with great diligence, and examples collected out of the whole treasury of Chinese literature. The greatest work of this kind is the dictionary of the Emperor Kang-hi, which is noAv regarded as the highest authority for the form, j)ronuncia- tion, and signification of the characters. Equally rich and valuable is the encyclopaedic literature of the Chinese ; among which is the work of Ma- tuan-lin (a.D. 1300), entitled “ "Wen-hien-thong- khao” — i.e., an accurate examination of the ancient documents, with rich supplements — pre- senting an inexhaustible mine of the best ma- terials for a thorough knowledge of the Chinese and the neighbouring races, from the oldest te the most recent times, in every department of life. But the most valuable department of Chinese literature is undoubtedly the historical and geographical, which are absolutely indispens- able to a thorough knowledge of Upper Asia. Sse-ma-thsian (b.c. ioo) compiled his “Sse-ki,” or Historical Memorials, from every available- source, and gives the history of China from b.c. 2637 to the commencement of the dynasty of Han, in the second century before the Christian era. This work has been continued by the different dynasties, and forms a complete collection of the annals of the empire down to the end of the last dynasty of Ming, A.D., 1643. The entire collec- tion of the official annals from 2698 b.c. to A.D. 1645, a period of 4,343 years, and comprising 3,705 books, is to be found perfect in the library of Munich. Amongst their other labours, the- Chinese have by no means neglected poetry, of which there are voluminous collections that have yet to be made known to Europe. As lyric poets, the names of Tu-su and Li-thai-pe, who fiourished about the 8th century, are specially famous. The romances of the Chinese are not characterized by any great flights of the imagination, but are CHINESE WHITE 119 CHORD valuable as giving an insight into the domestic life, and the modes of thinking, feeling, and acting of the people. Their dramatic poetry follows peculiar rules, and approaches partly the romantic plays of the Germans, partly the com- medie delle arti of the Italians. They have also a kind of dialogue novels, which form a subordi- nate species of drama. The richest collections of Chinese books in Europe are at Paris, London, Berlin, Munich, and St. Petersburg. We possess as yet no satisfactory history of Chinese litera- ture. The Chinese themselves have numerous works of this class ; but they are very meagre, and are almost entirely confined to bibliographical and critical sketches. CHINESE WHITE, is a white oxide of zinc used in the arts as a pigment and substitute for preparations of white lead. CHINNOR, tchin' -nor, a musical instrument with thirty-two strings, in use among the ancient Hebrews. CHIRURGERY, ki-rur'-je (Gr., cheir, a hand, and ergon, a work), is a term sometimes used in place of surgery, from surgical operations being performed by the hand. CHIVALRY, tshiv'-al-re (Fr., chevalerie, from chevalier, a knight or horseman), is a term applied to the orders of knighthood established during the Middle Ages in almost all the king- doms of Europe, and whose laws, rules, and cus- toms are still to be found largely pervading the manners and customs throughout Europe. Though chivalry first assumed importance in the nth century, it was far from being, as many have supposed, an invention of that period, but sprang naturally and by degrees out of the feudal system that had long prevailed over a great part of Europe. Its origin is to be traced to the feudal mansions of the barons, where young men were trained to the occupation of the warrior, and instructed in the relations that subsisted be- tween the vassal and his lord. By degrees the influence cf the Church manifested itself, and re- ligious ceremonies were mingled with those by Avhich a young man was admitted to the rank of a warrior. To the influence of the clergy are to be attributed in great measure those high moral principles that characterized the spirit of chivalry, and were so far in advance of the then condition of lay society in general. The education of a knight was briefly as follows : — The young and noble stripling, generally about in his 12th year, was sent to the court of some baron or knight, where he spent his time in acquiring the use of arms and attending upon the ladies. The respect for female character, which was one of the marked features of chivalry, was one of the characteristics of the ancient German tribes, and is mentioned by Tacitus. When advancing age and experience in the use of arms had qualified the page for war, he became an escuyer, or esquire, so called from_ escu, or scudo, a shield, because it was part of his duty to carry the shield of the knight whom he served. The third and highest rank of chivalry, was that of knighthood, which was not conferred before the 21st year, except in the case of distinguished birth or great achieve- ments. The individual prepared himself by con- fessing, fasting, &c. ; religious rites were per- formed, and then, after promising to be faithful, to protect ladies and orphans, never to lie or utter slander, to live in harmony with his equals, he received the accolade, a slight blow on the neck with the flat of a sword, from the person who dubbed him a knight, and who, at the same time, pronounced a formula to this effect : — “ I dub thee knight, in the name of God and St. Michael (or in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost). Be faithful, bold, and fortunate.’^ A warlike spirit, an undefinable thirst for glory, and a lofty devotion to the fair sex (emblemati- cal in the philosophy of chivalry of the ideal of beauty and purity), were the great ideal character- istics of chivalry. The crusades gave a more religious turn to the spirit of chivalry, and made the knights of all Christian nations known to each other. It must be admitted, however, that the practice of the knights felt far short of the chival- rous ideal. Licentiousness and oj^pression of the peasantry and vassals were but little restrained by the romantic professions of the times. Chivalry was at its height between the nth and the 14th centuries. It decayed with the decline of feudal institutions, in the 15th century, and in the 16th it had almost ceased to exist. CHLAMYS, kla'-mis, an outer garment worn by the ancient Greeks and some Oriental races. It is made of fine wool, variegated in colour, and richly ornamented. It was twice as long as it is wide, and the corners of the shortest side were fastened to the chest by a clasp ; the chlamys worn by boys were usually yellow ; that by the military, scarlet ; and the chlamys worn by women was commonly ornamented with figures and rich borders. CHOIR, quire (Gr., choros ; Lat., chorus), is that part of a church or cathedral where the singers or choristers chant or sing divine service. It is also applied to those whose special duty it is to perform the service to music. Every choir is divided into two parts, stationed on each side of the choir, in order to sing alternately the verses of the psalms and hymns, one side answering to the other. Choir-Screen. — The screens often very richly orna- mented, which divide the choir from the side aisles. Choral Service. — The musical service of the Church of England, celebrated as in cathedrals, when all those parts of the service are sung as ordered by the rubrics. CHORINE, tcho'-pine, a high clog or slipper, introduced into England from Venice in the latter part of the i6th century. They were covered with leather of various colours, and frequently painted and gilded. The height was sometimeshalf a yard,, and to walk in them must have required as much training as walking on stilts ; but in Venice the height of the chopin distinguished the quality of the ladies. Hamlet says to one of the players, “ Your ladyship is nearer to heaven than when I saw you last by the altitude of a chopine.” CHORAGIC MONUMENTS, ko-ra'-jik. In Athens, a tripod was given to the choragus, or musical leader, who had exhibited the best per- formance. A whole street, known as the “street of the tripods,” was formed by these monuments. The monument of Lysocrates, popularly known as the “lantern of Demosthenes,” which has been frequently imitated in this country in memorial monuments, was of this character. CHORALE, ko-ra'-le, a musical term, adopted from the German, and applied to a melody to which psalms or sacred hymns are sung in public worship by the whole congrega- tion in unison. CHORD, in Music, the harmonious combina- tion of three or more musical sounds. Before the CHORUS 120 CHRIST’S COLLEGE introduction of simultaneous sounds, it was solely applicable to a distended sonorous string ; but after the discovery of counterpoint, and the formation and establishment of various combina- tions, a general term became necessary to express those combinations, and that which before ap- plied only to a single string was now borrowed, and its sense extended to a union of the sounds of several strings, pipes, or voices. In practical music there are several kinds of chords; i.e., the fundamental chord, consisting of the third, fifth, and eighth of the fundamental bass, or their in- versions : — the accidental chord, which may re- sult from either of two causes — viz., anticipation or retardation ; by anticipation when their con- struction assumes some note or notes of a suc- ceeding chord (a chord not yet struck) ; by re- tardation when one or more notes are, by suspen- sion, carried into the composition of the succeed- ing chord ; — the anomalous, or equivocal chord, in which some interval or intervals are greater or lesser than those of the fundamental chord ; — and the transient chord, in which some intermediate notes are introduced to smoothen the transition from one chord to another, which do not form any component parts of the fundamental, and cannot be justly called either anticipations or suspensions. CHORUS, l-or'-Ms(Lat.), among the ancients, denoted a number of singers and dancers em- ployed on festive occasions, and also in the perfor- mance of plays. During the most fiourishing period of Attic tragedy, the chorus consisted of a group of male and female personages, who remained on the stage as bystanders or spectators, and during the intervals of the acting, chanted songs re- lating to the subject of the play. They some- times even took part in the performance, by ad- vice, comfort, consolation, or dissuasion. In early times it consisted of a great number of per- sons, sometimes as many as fifty; but it was afterwards limited to fifteen. The leader of the chorus was called coryphoius, and somtimes the chorus was divided into two parts, which sang alternately. With the decline of ancient tragedy, the chorus also fell into disuse. In Music, the term is applied, in its general sense, either to a composition of two, three, four, or more parts, each of which is intended to be sung by a plu- rality of voices ; or to the performers who sing those parts, and form what is called a chorus, or choral part of a band. CHRIST, PICTURE OF.— In the Roman catacombs are many symbolical pictures of Christ, but only two (in the Calixtine and Pontine cata- combs) which profess to be actual likenesses. There are ecclesiastical traditions that Luke, the evangelist, painted a portrait, that a faithful resemblance was impressed on a handkerchief placed on the Saviour’s face, and that at the crucifixion, a holy woman, St. Veronica, obtained a likeness by some miraculous agency. An antique mosaic, probably of the third century, preserved in the Muses Christiana of the Vatican, presents a face in profile, marked by great ear- nestness of expression and regularity of features. The face of Christ generally depicted in Christian art is purely ideal. CHRIST-CHURCH COLLEGE, OX- I'ORD, krist' -tshurtsh, owes its first foundation to Cardinal Wolsey, who, in 1525, obtained from Clement VII, a bull for the suppression of twenty- two monasteries, the aggregate revenues of which were estimated at nearly £2,000, in order to found and endow a college at Oxford, on the site of the priory of St. Frideswide. It was to have consisted of a dean, sub-dean, 100 cannons, 10 public readers, 13 chaplains, an organist, 12 clerks, and 13 choristers, and was to have been called the “College of Secular Priests;” but afterwards the name was changed to “Cardinal College.” Before its comjiletion, the cardinal had fallen into disgrace ; and in 1532 the society was refoun- ded by the king, under the title of “ King Henry VIII. ’s College.” In 1545 this was again supjires- sed ; and in the year following it was re-estab- lished under the name of the “ Christ-Church Cathedral in Oxford,” for the maintenance of a dean, 8 canons, 8 chaplains, a schoolmaster, an organist, 8 clerks, and 8 choristers, together with 100 students. By ordinance of the commissioners, under 17 and 18 Viet. c. 81, the number of canons is reduced to 6, of students to 80 (of whom 28 are senior students with permanent tenure) and 52 junior students of whom 21 are to be elected from Westminster school, and hold their places for seven years ; the remaining 31 studentships being open to all candidates who have not ex- ceeded their eighth term from matriculation, and are tenable for five years. Every third junior studentship is to be given for proficiency in mathematics and for jiroficiency in physical sciences alternately. CHRIST-CROSS ROW, was the name given to the letters of the alphabet arranged in the form of a cross, and used in the instruction of children. CHRISTMAS-BOX, a small sum of money or other present given to servants and others on the day after Cliristmas, which is hence called Boxing-day. The practice was founded on the pagan custom of new-year’s gifts ; and, until recently, it had spread to such an extent as to have become almost a national grievance. In 1836, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs issued a circular to the different embassies, re- questing a discontinuance of the customary Christmas-boxes to the messengers of the foreign department and others ; and since that time the practice has somewhat decreased. Tradesmen now almost generally close their shops on Boxing- day, so as to avoid importunities. {See Boxing- day.) CHRISTMAS CARDS. — Within the last few years, a practice has sprung up of sending to relatives and friends ornamental cards, with de- signs and mottoes, texts or verses, expressive of affection. Millions of these cards now pass annu- ally through the Post Office ; and the greater number are very beautiful productions of chromo- lithography, these productions giving occupation to artists of high talent. They are produced cheaply and are yearly advancing in favour. Similar cards are also sent on birthdays, and at Easter. CHRISTMAS CAROLS. (^eeCAEOLs.) CHRIST’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, was founded in 1505, by Lady Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VH., for a master, twelve fellows, and forty-seven scholars. Edward VI. added one fellowship and' three scholarships, and several others were added by subsequent benefactors. By recent arrange- ments, the scholarships have been consolidated and greatly improved in value ; and at present the college consists of a master, fifteen fellows CHRIST’S HOSPITAL 121 CIPHER (of whom ten must be in priests’ orders), and twenty -nine scholars. The fellowships and scholarships are now open to all the Queen’s subjects, without restriction or appropriation. CHRIST’S HOSPITAL, LONDON, commonly called the Blue-coat School, from the dress worn by the boys, which consists of a blue coat or gown, yeUow petticoat and stock- ings, a red leather girdle round the waist, and a clergyman’s band round the neck. It was estab- lished on the site of the Grey Friars’ monastery, by a charter granted by Edward VI., 26th June, i553> as a hospital for poor fatherless children and orphans. In 1672, the mathematical school was founded by Charles II. for forty boys. The greater part of the income of the school is derived from legacies subsequent to the original charter. The governing body is composed of the mayor, aldermen, and twelve common councilmen of the city of London, and contributors of £400 each to the hospital funds, amounting in all to upwards of 500. Boys are admitted between the ages of seven and nine, and must leave at fifteen, unless they be “ King’s boys ” or Grecians, i.e., in the highest class. Eight Grecians are sent, on various scholarships, to Oxford and Cambridge. The right of presentation is vested in the governors. The lord mayor has two presentations annually ; each of the aldermen one ; and the . other governors one in every three years. The founda- tion-stone of the New Hall was laid in 1825, and it was publicly opened in 1829. A branch school was established at Hertford in 1683 for the educa- tion of younger children, girls as well as boys ; the latter being maintained and educated until they are capable of being received into the London school. As in some other public schools, the recipients of the benefits are of a class socially higher than those for whom the institution was originally intended. In 1881, the total ex- penditure for general purposes amounted to £575384 os. 8d. Within the same period the average number of children maintained and edu- cated in the Hertford and London establishments was 1,177, and the average expenditure per child £48 15s. id. CHROMATIC, Icro-TTiat' -ik, in Music, is a term applied to a series of notes at the distance of a semitone from each other. Ascending chro- matic passages are formed by the whole tones of the diatonic scale being raised by a sharp or natural, according to key, and descending pas- sages by their being lowered by a flat or a natural. CHROMATYPE. {See Photogkaphy.) CHRONIC, kron'-ik (Gr., chronos, time), a term applied in medicine to such diseases as are of long duration, as contradistinguished from acute^ complaints, which are those that soon terminate either in recovery or death. kron'-i-kl (Gr.), a history in which the events are narrated in the order of time. It is nearly synonymous with annals, the only distinction between the two being that chronicles are generally more full and connected. CHRONOGRAM, kro' -no-gram (Gr., chro- nos, and gramma, a letter), a verse or sentence, certain letters of which are in larger characters than the rest, to denote the date (in Roman numerals) of the event to which it relates. If in verse, it is known as chronostichon. CHRONOLOGY, ^:ro-noZ'-o-yc (Gr., chronos. time, and logos, discourse), the science which treats of the various divisions of time (whether re- lating to astronomical or other events) distinguish- ing its several parts — such as centuries or ages, years, months, weeks, days, hours, &c., and of the order of the succession of events. {See Cycle, Eea, &c.) CHRYSELEPHANTINE, kris-el-ef-an'- tine (Gr., chrysos, gold, and elephas, ivory), ap- plied to a style of statuary extensively practised among the Greeks, in which the figures were made of gold and ivory. The colossal statues of Pallas, of the Parthenon, and the Olympian Jupiter, both by Phidias, were executed in these materials. About 100 statues of this kind are mentioned by ancient writers. CIBORIUM , si-hor' -i-um, was a name origin- ally given to the husks of an Egyptian bean, and came afterwards to be applied to the canopy with which the altar was covered. The term is also applied to the pyx or box in which the host is preserved. CICERONE, tsUsh-e -ro'-ne, a name first given in Italy to those persons that act as guides to strangers in showing them the sights of Rome and other cities. The term is said to be derived from Cicero, and to have been given to them on account of their great garrulity. The word has now come into general use, and is applied to any one who points out the interesting objects of a town to strangers. CICISBEO, tshe-tshiz-hai' -0 {lisl., a gallant), a term applied to a class of persons in Italy who constantly attend upon married ladies. In the higher ranks of society it was formerly the custom for every married lady to have her cicisbeo, who escorted her in her walks, and accompanied her to private parties and public amusements. The practice has now almost entirely disapjieared. CID, sid (Arab., seid, lord), is the name of an epic poem of the Spaniards, celebrating the ex- ploits of their great national hero Roderigo Diaz, commonly called the Cid. The poem is supposed to have been written in the 12th or 13th century, but nothing is known of its author. Nearly 200 old ballads relating to the Cid are extant, pro- bably most of them written in the i6th century, but some evidently of much greater antiquity. Southey wrote a work, the “ Chronicle of the Cid,” founded on this poem ; and Lockhart’s “Ancient Spanish Ballads” have a relation to the same source. CINERARY URNS. {See Vases.) CINQUE CENTO, tchen-ke tchenif-o (Ital., five hundred), a technical term used to designate the style of art which arose in Italy after the year 1500. The subjects of paintings in this style are generally taken from heathen mytho- logy or history. CINQUE-FOIL, sank' -foil, in Architecture, an ornamental sinking or a perforation of five points or leaves, or in five compartments, fre- quently used in the tracing of windows and panel- lings. In Heraldry, a common bearing, usually depicted with the leaves issuing from a ball as a centre point. CIPHER, si'-fer (Arab., sifr, empty or desti- tute of), is a term applied to the figure o. It is sometimes also applied to arithmetical characters generally ; and hence the verb “ to cipher ” CIPHER-WRITING 122 CLARENCIEUX signifies to perform an arithmetical operation. ] A cipher is also a fanciful arrangement of the initials of a name, sometimes adopted by artists and others in order to distinguish their works, and very frequently as headings for notepaper, in place of a crest. CIPHER-'VSHIITING. {See Cryptography. ) OIRCENSIAN GAMES, sir-sen’ -se-an combats in the Koman circus, said to have been established at Rome 732 B.C., by Romulus. The celebration continued from the 4th to the 12th of September. The name Circensian was given by Tarquin. CIRCLE, MAGIC, the circle of space with- in which magicians were wont to work their enchantments, and which were believed to pro- tect them from the evil spirits which they were supiDosed to raise. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. {See Lib- rary.) CIRCUMFLEX, sir’-kum-flex (Lat. , circum, round, and flecto, 1 bend), an accent marked thus A, placed over a syllable to denote that its sound is intermediate between acute and grave. It is seldom used in Eglish in the present day except to show the omission of a letter, which makes the syllable long and open, as BMe for Basle. CIRCUMLOCUTION, sir - 7 cum-lo-ku' -shun (Lat., circum, and loquor, I speak), a circuitous mode of expression, used either when the proper term for expressing an idea does not naturally and immediately occur, or when a person wishes to avoid expressing in direct terms something disagreeable or inconvenient. CIRCUMNAVIGATION, a sailing round, generally applied to sailing round the world, the first who accomplished the feat was Magathaens, a Portuguese, in 1510. CIRCUMVALLATION, in Fortification, a series of works, generally a chain of redoubts, to protect a besieging army from an attack from ivithout. CIRCUS, ser'-kus (Lat.), a large enclosed space of oblong form, adapted for horse and chariot racing, sports to which the ancient Romans were much addicted. The circus was also used for athletic games and the contests of wild beasts. There were many buildings of the kind in Rome, of which the Circus Maximus and Circus Agonalis were probably the largest. According to different authorities, the former wascapable of holdingbetween 200, 000 and 400, 000 spectators. The circus of Nero was begun by Caligula ; part of its site is now occupied by the Basilica of St. Peter. All the circi which existed in ancient Rome are completely destroyed ; but near the tomb of Caecilia Metellus, not far from the Appian Way, about two miles from Rome, there is a circus, commonly called the Circus of Caracalla, in a high state of preservation ; it is small in size, but probably resembles closely the larger circi in general form. In length, the Circus of Caracalla is about 1,300 feet, and 300 feet wide. The long sides are not quite parallel ; one end is semi-circular, and the carceres, or covered stalls, furnished with gates, are there situated. In the carceres the chariots and horses remained tiU the starter gave the signal, when the gates were opened. Along the sides, and round the opposite end from the carceres, were ascending ranges of stone seats for the spectators. There is a bas-relief in the British Museum which gives a very tolerable notion of the appearance of an ancient circus. The modern circus does not resemble that of the ancients ; it is small in size, and is generally a temporary erection, consisting^ of a ring surrounded by raised seats for the spectators. The principal amusements are feats of horsemanship and acrobatic displays. CITADEL, sit'-a-del (Ital., citta-dillo, a little city), a strong fort in or near a tower. Its possession enables the garrison of a town to keep the inhabitants in subjection, and in case of a siege it affords a place of retreat for the de- fenders. CITHARA, sith'-a-ra, an ancient musical instrument, supposed to have resembled the lyre ; its precise construction, however, is now unknown. The cithara had at first only three strings ; but the number was increased at different times to eight, nine, and, lastly, to twenty-four. GLAIRY CYAN CE. {See Somnambulism. ) CLAM, in Heraldry, a clam signifies an escalop or cockle shell, which is supposed to represent that the wearer thereof has been on long voyages, or in the crusades. CLAN, klan (Gael., clann; Manx, cloan, chil- dren or descendants of a common ancestor), a body of men united together by common ancestry, or other tie. It is more particularly applied to those associations or tribes in the Scotch High- lands which are united together by one common name, and are supposed to be descended from a common ancestor, of whom the chief is the lineal representative. This system of clanship was essentially patriarchal, and similar to that which still exists among the nomadic tribes of the East. It was thus entirely different from the feudal system formerly prevailing in Europe, by which the vassals were bound to the soil ; and hence it sometimes hajjpened that the chiefship and the estates occupied by a clan were vested in different persons. The Highland clans formerly enjoyed a bad fame among the Lowland Scots for their predatory habits. There are 45 recognised clans. CLAQUE, klak (Fr., claquer, to clap the hands), is the name given to the means by which public performances are secured a favourable re- ception, by means of hired applauders. In Paris, one M. Santon established, in 1820, an office for the assurance of dramatic success, and was thus the originator of the so-called Parisian claque. CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, klair, was founded by Richard Badew, in 1326, under the name of University Hall. It was burned down in 1338, and rebuilt and endowed by Lady Elizabeth, sister and co-heir of Gilbert, earl of Clare. At present it consists of a master, eight senior and ten junior fellows, besides scho- lars, students, and foundation -servants (one-third must be in holy orders). There are eight scholar- ships of £60, eight of £40, and eight of £20 per annum at this college, and three minor scholar- ships of £60 a year are open, by examination, to persons who have not commenced residence. The number of undergraduates is about 80. The col- lege has the presentation to 17 livings. CLARENCIEUX, W -ren-seu, the principal of the two provincial Kings-of-arms in England ; CLARENDON PRESS 123 CLOG ALMANAC the second being Norroy (north-king), Clarencieux is named either after the Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III., or Thomas, son of Henry IV., crea- ted Duke of Clarence, 1411. His jurisdiction extends to all England south of the Trent, and his duty is to survey the arms of all persons bearing coat-armour within his province, to register descents and marriages, and perform other functions appertaining to the college of arms. CLARENDON PRESS, a printing and publishing establishment connected with Oxford University. It was founded in 1672, and took its name from the fact that the printing house, erected in 1711, was built from the profits arising from the sale of Clarendon’s “History of the Eebellion,” of which work the University has a perpetual copyright. CLARICHORD, or CLAVICHORD, klar'-e-kord (Lat., ctorits, clear ; chorda, a string), a keyed instrument, resembling in form a spinet, now almost extinct. The strings are supported by five bridges, and covered with pieces of cloth, which soften and, at the same time, so deaden the tone, as to prevent its being heard at any considerable distance. On this account, it was formerly much used by nuns, as they could practise it without disturbing the silence of the dormitory. CLARION, OR CLARIN, klar*-e -on (Fr., claivon, from Lat., clarus, clear), a kind of trum- pet whose tube is narrower, and tone more acute than the common trumpet. The term is also applied to an organ stop of four feet pitch. CLARIONET, or CLARINET, klar-e-o tiet' (Fr., clarinette), a musical wind instrument, invented about the close of the 17th century by a German named Denner, and first introduced into Great Britain about 1779. It ^as thirteen holes, five of which are stopped by keys. Al- though chiefly used in concerted music, in which its charming effects are too well known to need encomium, its fulness and sweetness of tone as a solo instrument is extremely pleasing. It is generally considered as the most perfect of wind instruments. CLASSIC, klas'-sik, a term derived from the Latin word classici the name given to the first, or highest class of Roman citizens. Hence it came to be applied figuratively to writers of the highest rank, and this is the sense in which it is commonly used in the present day. The highest and purest class of writers in any language are termed the classics ; but, in a more limited sense, the name is given to the best writers and the best literary productions of ancient Greece and Rome. C LAS S I FI CA T 1 0 N, Massif -e-kai' -shun (Lat,, classis, a class), in a general sense denotes the arrangement of a variety of objects into groups or classes, according to their resemblances or differences. It is from the power of abstraction in the human mind — the power of considering certain qualities or attributes of an object, ai)art from the rest, that classification is possible. No assortment or arrangement can be formed among things not perfectly alike but by losing sight of their individual or lesser peculiarities, and limit- ing the attention to those which they have in common. ^^-^Y^C)RE, the Gaelic name for a large sword, formerly much used by the Highlanders. It had a two edged blade, about 45 inches long, and 2 inches broad. The handle was frequently a foot long, and the weight of the whole weapon was about 8 lbs. CLEARNESS, kleer'-ness, freedom from ob- scurity, brightness, an effect or quality in paint- ing, which is obtained by an artistic arrangement of tints and tones of colour. A knowledge of chiaroscuro is indispensable to obtain clearness without sacrificing depth. CLEAR-STORY, (^ge Clerestory.) CLEF, kief {Et., clef; Lat., clavis, a key), a certain character placed at the commencement of the several staves of a musical composition to determine the local names of the notes, and the sounds which they represent. There are three kinds of clefs now in use, viz. — the F, or bass clef ; the C, or tenor clef ; and the G, or treble clef. These, by the different situations in which they are placed, furnish us with a means of ex- pressing all the notes within the usual compass of execution, either vocal or instrumental, with- out a confused addition of leger lines either above or below the staff. CLEPSYDRA, klep-si' -dra, a musical instru- ment in use among the ancient Greeks, having pipes which produced a soft sound by water forc- ing air into them — in fact, a kind of hydraulic organ. CLEPSYDRA, an ancient contrivance in- vented by the Egyptians for measuring time by the dropping of water ; called also a water clock. {See Horology.) CLERESTORY, kleer' stor-e, windows that are pierced in the upper part or the side-walls of the nave of a cathedral or church, that rise above the arches which separate the nave from the side- aisles. CLIMACTERIC YEAR, kli-mak' -ter-ik (Latin, climactericus annus, from climax, a ladder or steps), denotes a critical year or period in a man’s life, wherein, according to astrologers, there is some notable alteration to happen in the body, and the person will be exposed to great danger of death. The idea of climacterics is very ancient. According to some, every seventh year of a man’s life is a climacteric year, certain im- portant changes then taking place in the body. The age of 63 was regarded as the grand climac- teric, the changes being then greater, and the danger attending the period much increased, its influence being attributed to the fact that it is the multiple of the two mystical numbers 7 and 9. Others allow the term climacteric only to the product of 7 multiplied by odd numbers ; as 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. Some, again, consider every ninth year a climacteric. CLINIC, OR CLINICAL, kUn'-ik, klin'-ik-al (Gr., klinikos, from Mine, a bed), the observation and treatment of diseases at the bedside of the sick ; and hence clinical lectures are such as are given at the bedside of the patient, or from notes and observations made at the bedside. CLOACA MAXIMA, max' -i-ma, a large subterranean passage, answering the purpose of a sewer, in ancient Rome, connected with which were several smaller sewers called cloacce. The opening of it is still visible on the banks of the Tiber, into which it used to drain. CLOG ALMANAC, or RUNIC STAFF, klog, a kind of almanac or calendar formerly in CLOISTER 124 COAST use in England and Scandinavia, and was usually made of wood. Dr. Plot, in his History of Staffordshire (1686), describes one of these instru- ments. “ It is usually,” he says, “ a square piece of wood, containing three months on each of the four edges. The mimber of days in them are ex- pressed by notches : the first day by a notch with a patulos stroke turned from it, and every seventh by a large-sized notch. Over against many of the notches are placed, on the left hand, several marks or symbols denoting the golden number or cycle of the moon. The festivals are marked by symbols of the several saints issuing from the notches.” Those which he had seen in Staffordshire had only the prime and immovable feasts upon them ; whereas others of a more per- fect kind, preserved in the cabinets of the curious, had likewise the Dominical letters. Of the former there were two kinds — a larger for family use, which usually hung at one end of the mantel- tree of the chimney, and a smaller for carrying in the pocket. In Denmark, the staff was some- times six-sided, but in some cases one side was divided into six columns. CLOISTER, kloys'-ter (Lat., claustrum, an inclosed space), in a general sense, a monastery, either inhabited by monks or nuns, who are in- closed or shut up from the world. In a more re- stricted sense, the term is applied to a covered passage running round the walls of certain por- tions of monasteries. It usually is found extend- ing over three sides of a square or quadrangle, with the outer walls consisting of pillars and arches, and the roof frequently arched and orna- mented with tracery. In the ancient monasteries the cloisters were used for several purposes. The monks held their lecterns in the cloisters, and at certain hours of the day met there and conversed together while walking up and down, from which came the term ‘‘ambulatories.” CLOSE, klose^ a term in Heraldry signifying that the Avings of a bird are not spread as in the act of flying, but are close to the body. CLOSET, Idas' -et^ a term in Heraldry signify- ing the half of a bar. CLUB, Uub, is a term of doubtful deriva- tion. According to some, it comes from the Anglo-Saxon cleofan, or cleafan, to divide, be- cause the expenses are divided into shares or portions, and hence to club is to contribute a share or portion ; but other etymologists derive it from the German klehen, to adhere, so as to form one body. When a number of persons unite their funds to meet a common expence, they are said to “club” together. A club, ac- cording to Dr. Johnson, is “an assembly of good fellows meeting under certain conditions.” This, though perhaiDs a true definition of the old Eng- lish clubs, is too limited for the term as used in the present day. A club now may rather be said to be an association of persons meeting under certain conditions, or subjected to certain rules, it may be for purposes of conviviality, for uniting their separate efforts for one common object, for each contributing a share to one common fund, or for mutual benefit. There are clubs the members of which are generally of the same pro- fession, or of similar tastes — literary or artistic ; political clubs, the members of which hold similar opinions. The first club in this country of which we have any account was that famous one whicli met at the Mermaid tavern, of which Shakespeare, Ben J onson, Beaumont, Fletcher, Ealeigh, Selden, and others, were members. Ben Jonson after- wards founded another club, which met at the Devil tavern, in Fleet Street. It was, however, not till the early part of last century that clubs, literary, political, and otherwise, became a great institution. There then flourished the Brothers’ Club, Scriblerus Club, October Club, Hanoverian Club, the first Beefsteak Club, the Kit-Cat Club, &c., having Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot, Bolingbroke, Harley, and others among their members. The celebrated Literary Club, of which Johnson, Gold- smith, Eeynolds, Burke, and others were mem- bers, was a later institution, being established in 1764, at first in Ivy Lane, Newgate Street, and afterwards meeting once a week at the Turk’s Head, in Gerard Street, Soho. The Essex Street Club, which was founded by Johnson a few years before his death, met at the Essex head, in Essex Street, and was limited to twenty-four members. The old clubs have passed away; but modern associations have to some extent adopted the principle on which they were established — such as the Savage Club, the members of Avhich are mostly connected with the literary, dramatic, artistic, and musical professions ; and the Falstaff Club, a new society of a somewhat similar cha- racter. There are also several clubs, some very important, the members of which are interested in the amusement of yachting. Cricket clubs are scarcely clubs in the strict sense of the word, being merely associations for the purpose of rais- ing funds for the means of playing the game. As in the case of rowing and bicycling clubs, the mem- bers generally wear a distinctive dress at the meetings. Within the present century, clubs of a i)olitical, literary, and professional character have been established on a splendid scale. They are permanent establishments, their buildings frequently palatial, and they furnish their mem- bers with the conveniences of a home in the highest style of elegance and luxuriance at a very moderate rate. They include dining-room and news-room, drawing-room, library, and writing- room, card-room, billiard and smoking-rooms, committee-room, and other apartments, with frequently baths and dressing-rooms. Wines and provisions are supplied to the members at cost price, the expenses of the establishment being defrayed out of the fund arising from entrance- fees and the annual .suliscriptions. The members are admitted by ballot, and their numbers are visually restricted. The two great political clubs in London are the Carlton (Conservative) and the Keform (Liberal). Older clubs, more or less of a political or special character, are White’s, Brooke’s, Boothe’s, and Arthur’s. The Athenaeum Club is essentially literary ; and the military and naval services have each several clubs. The speciality of the Travellers’ Club is implied by its name ; and the Garrick Club is composed almost ex- clusively of actors and dramatic authors. (The chief clubs are noticed under separate headings.) There are political and other clubs in most of the principal towns of the kingdom. In France, at the time of the great revolution, political clubs were very inflaential. {See Jacobin Clubs.) CLUB LAW is the law of force; from club, signifying a thick heavy stick. COAST, lioast (Lat., costa ; Fr., cote), a sea- shore, or the country adjoining the edge of the sea. The depth of water is usually in irroportion to the height of the rocks on the coast ; so that a high coast indicates deep water, and a low coast shallow water. ' COAT OF ARMS 125 COFFEE-HOUSES COAT OF ARMS, Hekaldrt.) COAT OF MAIL. {See Mail, Coat of.) COADJUTOR, ko-ad-ju' -tor (Lat., con or cum, with, and adjutor, an assistant), a fellow- helper, or one engaged in the assistance of another. In ecclesiastical matters, a coadjutor is one ap- pointed to assist a bishop in his episcopal duties. COCK. The figure of a cock was placed on the summits of church steeples as an emblem of watchfulness, and to serve as a vane, and hence commonly spoken of as a weathercock. In ecclesiastical art, it is one of the emblems of our Lord’s passion, in allusion to the denial by Peter, and for the same reason is St. Peter’s own emblem. COCKA,DE, koh-aid' (Fr., cocarde, a corrup- tion of coquarde, a tuft of feathers), is applied to a mark of distinction worn on the hat, usually a riband or knot of ribands, jjroperly by officers of the army or navy, or their servants, but frequently assumed by others. It is also sometimes the badge of political party. In the War of Succes- sion, the allied French and Spanish armies wore cockades of white and red, the former being the colour of France, the latter of Spain. The Stuart badge being a white rose, a white cockade was worn by the adherents of the exiled family, and is often mentioned in the Jacobite songs. The right to put a cockade on a servant’s hat is, by custom, not by law, restricted to military and naval officers, holders of offices of dignity under the crown, privy councillors, officers of state, and judges of the superior courts. COCKATRICE, kok' -a-trice. Basilisk.) The name is used in the English version of the Old Testament, especially in the prophetical books; but, no doubt, ‘Wenomous serpent” would be a better translation. In Heraldry, an imaginary monster with the wings of a fowl and the tail of a serpent. COCK-FIGHTING is said to have been a common pastime in Athens and other parts of Greece, and it seems to have been afterwards adoj)ted from that country by the Romans. It is probable that cock-fighting was first introduced into this country by the Romans, though the bird itself was here before their arrival. In the reign of Henry II. it was a sport of the school- boys on Shrove-Tuesday, and called Carnilevaria; but we have no earlier account of it. The same practice prevailed in many schools in Scotland to within the last century. It became a great national sport ; and though more than once pro- hibited, it received encouragement and counten- ance from several of the crowned heads. The celebrated national cockpit at Westminster is said to have been erected by Henry VIII., and James I. and Charles H. were both encouragers of the sport. It was forbidden by one of the acts of Cromwell. Cock-fighting was prohibited by 12 and 13 Vic. c. 92, and a penalty of £5 may be levied on any person keeping fighting-cocks, let- ting a cock -pit, &c., for every day that he shall so act. It is a favourite amusement in eastern countries. COCK-LANE GHOST. Mysterious rap- pings, akin to those known in our times as spirit Tappings, were, in 1762, heard in the house of a Mr. Parsons, in Cock-lane, Smithfield, and pro- duced a great sensation. Dr. Johnson and many other eminent persons visited the house, and nearly all were believers in the ghostly character of the rapper. They were, however, traced to the daughter of Parsons, and her parents were prosecuted for imposture and defamation (the answer to questions made by raps having accused a Mr. Kemt of wife-murder) and condemned to stand on the j)illory. COCKNEY, kok' -ne, is a nickname, or term of contempt, applied to a Londoner, and has been long in use, occurring in verse as early as the reign of Henry II. Its origin is doubtful. Ac- cording to some, it is derived from coquina, a kitchen, and denoted the luxuriousness for which London was celebrated even in early times ; or from Cokeigne, or Coca^we (probably from the same root), the name of a Utopian country of luxury and ease. According to others, it denotes one coaxed or cockered, made a fool or nestle-cock of ; according to others, one utterly ignorant of rural affairs or husbandry. The King of the Cockneys was an important personage in the sports and shows formerly held in the Middle Temple on Childer mas-day, and had his marshal, butler, constable, and other officers, who were ordered to be entertained with due service in “ honest manner and good order.” Cockney School of Literature, was a term applied in the earlier numbers of “Blackwood’s Magazine,” to Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Keats, and other young authors. COCKPIT, kok'-pit, in a ship of war, is a cabin situated near the apartments of the surgeon and his assistants, where all the men wounded in action are conveyed to have their wounds dressed. COCKSWAIN, OE, COXSWAIN (gene- rally pronounced cox'-n), the steersman of a boat> and in the naval service the commander of the boat’s crew. CODA, ko'-da (Ital.), literally, a close or termination, an Italian word applied to a certain number of bars which form the final close of a musical composition. CODEX, ko'-dex (Lat.), originally denoted the trunk of a tree, and was afterwards applied to the wooden tablets covered with wax which were used by the ancients for writing. It after- wards came to be applied to a book or manuscript generally ; and under the emperors, and subse- quently, it designated collections of civil and ecclesiastical laws. (See Code.) In modern Latin it denotes a manuscript volume ; as. Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus, certain MS. copies of the sacred scriptures. Codex Eescriptus (a re- written codex), or palimpsestus, is an ancient parchment on which the original writing has been defaced, and a different composition copied. (See Palimpsest.) COEHORNS, ko-horns', small mortars that were formerly used for throwing grenades, a kind of shell on a small scale. They were named after their inventor, Coehom, a Dutch military en- gineer. COFFEE-HOUSES, kof-fe. In 1652, the first London coffee-house was opened in George Yard, Lombard Street, by a Greek named Pas- qua ; and twenty years after, the first in Francu was established at Marseilles. Since that time, both the culture and consumption of coffee have- continually extended. Coffee Palaces, the name given to places of resort for working men, where they could enjoy temperate re- freshment, and intended to be counter-attractions to COFFEE, 126 COLOPHON the public-house. The first was opened at Limehouse in 1873. COFFER, kof-fer (Fr., coffre, a box), a casket or chest, used for keeping money, jewels, and other valuable property. In Architecture, a deep panel in a ceiling. COGNIZANCE, kon[-i-sans, in Heraldry, a | crest, badge, or other distinguishing mark. COGNOSCENTI, kon-o-sen! -te (Ital., cog- nosco, to know), persons professing a critical know- ledge of art. COHESION, ko-he'-zhun (Lat. , con, together, hcereo, I stick), the force which holds together particles of a similar kind. Cohesion is the attraction exerted by homogeneous or like par- ticles, and differs from adhesion, which is the attraction exerted by heterogeneous or unlike particles. {See Adhesion.) Cohesion Figures, a remarkable class of very beautiful figures produced in liquids by the actions of their natural cohesive attraction for the surfaces of other liquids or solids on which they are deposited. COHORT. (See Legion.) COIF, koif (Fr., coiffe, a hood), a circular black patch on the wigs worn by sergeants-at- law, a reminiscence of the tonsure, or shaved crown of the head, once adopted by ecclesiastical lawyers. (See Tonsure). When a barrister was promoted to the rank of sergeant-at-law, he was said to “assume the coif.” (See Sergeant- at- Law.) The term “ coiffure,” of French origin, is applied by milliners and hairdressers to the head- dress or mode of arranging the hair. In Armour, coif was a defensive hood, surmounted by the helmet. COL, kol (French, neck), in Geography, a de- pression or pass in a mountain range. COLISEUM. (See Amphitheatre.) COLLAR, koV-lar (Lat., collum, the neck), the part of a garment which surrounds the neck, or something worn round the neck, as a chain or ring of metal. Among the ancients, collars were sometimes worn as badges of servitude. Several orders of knighthood are distinguished by the collars, or rather neck-chains, which they wear. These collars are made of gold, enamelled, and frequently set with ciphers or other designs : the badge of the order is attached to the collar, and lies on the breast when worn. COLLECTANEA, kol-lek-tai' -ne-a, is ap- plied to^ book containing a selection of passages from various authors, as the Collectanea Grceca. COLLEGE, koV-lej (Lat., collegium, a col- lection or assemblage), primarily denoted an association or body of men united together by the same laws or customs, or in the same office or employment. Hence, among the Romans, we find the word applied not only to corporations enjoying certain rights, as the priests, augurs, &c., but to men in the same office, as consuls, quaestors, tribunes — to any body of merchants or mechanics, or even to an assemblage of the meanest citizens or slaves. In a more limited sense it was applied to a corporation or associa- tion of persons of which there were many at Rome, and which required confirmation by special enactment. They possessed property as a cor- porate body, and had a common chest. In England a college is a society of persons existing as a corporate body, either by prescription or by grant of the king, and frequently possessing peculiar or exclusive privileges ; as the colleges of pliysicians and surgeons. A college is also an academical institution, endowed with revenues, and subject to a private code of laws. Its parti- cular form and constitution depend upon the terms of the foundation. The terms college and university are often confounded in modern times, and in Scotland and America the distinction has been very much lost sight of. A college is an in- stitution for the advancement of learning ; a university is for the conferring of degrees. (See University, &c.) The colleges of France are very different from those of this country, being educational institutions established throughout the country, and bearing some resemblance to the German gymnasia. There are about 320 in all, and they are under the control of the University of France. The term is sometimes applied to a charitable foundation. College of Arms. (See Hkbalds’ College.) COLON, in Punctuation, is a point or char- acter formed thus (:), and is used to mark a pause less than that of a period, and greater than that of a semicolon. It generally implies that a con- clusion is to be drawn from the facts stated, and is almost equivalent to the word, “therefore.” Its proper use is generally much misunderstood by authors and printers; and even among the best writers of the present day, the colon and semicolon are frequently confounded. Two great authors, Dickens and Carlyle, were much addicted to its use, but generally in an incorrect manner. In the Prayer-book version of the Psalms, the colon in the middle of a verse has no significa- tion as a mark of punctuation, but indicates the division for the purpose of chanting. COLONEL, kur' -net (lidl. , colonello, leader of a column), the designation of a field officer who has the command of a regiment or battalion. The colonelcy of a regiment is generally given to some meritorious general officer for distinguished services ; and the office is a sinecure, the actual command of the regiment devolving on the lieu- tenant-colonel, who is responsible for the drill and discipline of the corps. The term is not found in English military history prior to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when colonels were ap- pointed over regiments divided into ten com- panies, each commanded by a captain. COLONIAL CORPS, ko-lone'-i-al, certain regiments raised for the protection of the colonies, and forming part of the regular army of the British empire. A few years since there were fifteeen or sixteen such regiments ; but now there are only two (stationed in the West Coast of Africa), West India regiment and the Royal Malta Fencible Artillery. COLONNADE, kol' -on-aid (Lat., columna, a column), a row of columns which are generally placed in front of a large building, and support a roof projecting from the building itself ; thus forming a portico. When a colonnade is con- tinued round the whole of the exterior of a building, or the interior, if it be a quadrangle with a court in the centre, it is called a peristyle. COLOPHON, koV-o-fon (Gr.), a term applied to the conclusion on the last page of an early- printedbook, where the printer’s name, place, date, &c., were inserted before the introduction of title- pages. It is taken from the Greek proverb “ to put a colophon to it ; ” meaning to complete a COLOSSEUM 127 COLUMN thing, in allusion to the famous cavalry of Colo- phon, an Ionian city of Asia, whose charge usually decided a battle. COLOSSEUM, Jco-los-se' -um, a very large polygonal building, erected in the Kegent’s Park, in 1829, for the purpose of exhibiting on the in- terior of the dome the panorama of London, as seen from the dome of St. Paul’s, painted by Mr. Hornor, and afterwards repainted by Mr. Parris. Gardens and extensions of the building were afterwards added, and new attractions introduced, and for many years it was one of the most attrac- tive places of resort in London. It was pulled down about 1875, large mansions erected on the site. COLOSSUS, ko-los'-sus (Lat.), a word used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to designate a statue of gigantic size. The most remarkable work of this kind was the Colossus of Rhodes, a statue of Apollo, or the Sun, which was con- sidered one of the seven wonders of the world, and was the work of Chares, a pupil of Lysippus. It was 105 Grecian feet in height, and stood with extended legs on the two moles which formed the entrance into the harbour. This famous statue was thrown down and shattered by an earthquake in B.C. 224, about fifty-six years after its erection. For 923 years the fragments lay about the base, when they were sold by the Saracens to a Jew of Emesa, who loaded 900 camels with the metal. One of the most remarkable works of this kind in modern times is the colossal statue of Bavaria, at Munich. It represents a Titanic Virgin, of calm majestic beauty, with a lion by her side, and is 54 feet in height, standing on a granite pedestal 30 feet high. Another statue of colossal propor- tions was completed in 1875, near Detmold, to commemorate Hermann, the liberator of Germany from the Romans. A figure of Liberty, of im- mense proportions, is in course of erection in New York harboiu*. COLOURS, CONTRAST AND HAR- MONY OF — Contrast has been defined as the opposition of varied colours, which by such jux- taposition more vividly express each other’s pe- culiarities. Colours, when brought together, con- trast by the influence that one exerts on the hue of the other. Coloiurs, harmonize when they form an agreeable contrast, and the one improves the appearance of the other to the utmost. Per- fect harmony of colour is only attained when the three primary colours (red, blue, and yellow) are present in due relative proportions. Red is a warm colour ; blue, a cool colour ; yellow rather warm than cool, occupying an intermediate sta- tion between red and blue. Blue is associated with distance, yellow with near approach ; with red, distance is preserved. If a person stands at the centre of a circle, and looks successively at three objects similar in form, placed on the cir- cumference, and coloured blue, red, and yellow, the red will appear to be at just the distance of the radius of the circle, while the blue will seem to be at more, and the yellow at less than that distance. Combination of any two of the primary colours form secondary colours, which contrast the third primary. Thus the primaries red and blue, combine to form the secondary purple, which contrasts the primary yellow ; red and yellow form orange, which contrasts blue ; and blue and yellow form green, which contrasts red. The secondary colours, when combined in pairs, form new tertiary colours ; each new colour thus produced affording a contrast to the remain- ing secondary. Thus, purple and orange form russet, which contrasts green ; purple and green form olive, which contrasts orange ; and orange and green form citrine, which contrasts purple. In all these contrasts, however, perfect harmony is obtained only by the admixture of these colours in certain proportions ; for instance, blue, red, and yellow harmonize when used in the pro- portion of 8 blue, 5 red, and 3 yellow ; blue 8 is in harmony with orange 8, composed of red 5 and yellow 3 ; red 5 is in harmony with green ii, composed of blue 8 and yellow 3 ; yellow 3 is in harmony with purple 13, composed of blue 8 and red S. The secondaries also harmonize accord- ing to proportion ; thus, orange 8 is in harmony with olive 24, composed of purple 13,' and green II ; green ii is in harmony with russet 21, com- posed of purple 13 and orange 8 ; and purple 13 is in harmony with citrine 19, composed of green II and orange 8. To make the results of these proportions more apparent, stripes of blue and orange of equal width would be in harmony with the red and yellow that form the orange we mixed in the proportion of 5 parts of the former to 3 of the latter ; and thus we arrive at the balance of colours necessary to produce an agreeable effect. Mutual Influence of Colours. — Colours exert an in- fluence each on the hue of the other. If a dark and light colour, or a dark and light shade of the same colour, be placed in juxtaposition, the presence of the dark colour, or shade, will make the light colour or shade look lighter than it really is, and vice versd. When a red and a green are brought together, the intensity of each will be increased by the presence of the other. The presence of yellow or orange gives a “blueness,” or depth of colour, to black, with which it is associated ; while blue, on the contrary, detracts from the depth, or natural richness of the black. COLOURS, in Heraldry. — The Colours used are mostly red {gules), blue {azure), black {sable), green {vert or simple), and purple {purpure). Yellow and white are not colours in the heraldic sense, but are described as metals or and argent and are represented by gold and silver. {See Heraldry.) COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried with an army. Each battalion of a regiment has two colours, the royal or first colour, and the regimental or second. They are about six feet square with cords and tassels of crimson and gold, and are fixed to a staff about ten feet long. The royal colour has imperial emblems, and the num- ber of the regiment on a blue ground : the regi- mental colour is embroidered with the number of the regiment, its crest and motto, and the victories or campaigns in which it is has served. A subaltern officer carries each colour, and there is a guard of colour-sergeants who rank as the highest non-commissioned officers. Old and worn-out colours are preserved with veneration frequently in churches, and the presentation of new colours is a solemn ceremony, with religious observances. The use of colours in the French army has been recently abolished. COLUMBINE, koV -um-bine. In the Drama, the name of the heroine of a pantomine, imper- sonated by a graceful and active dancer. COLUMN, kol'-um (Lat., columna, a column), the name given to a pillar which is used to support a superincumbent weight in various ways. It consists of three parts — the base, the capital, which gives the distinctive character to the whole column in classic architecture, and the COMB 128 COMPARISON shaft, -which forms the central part of the column I between the capital and base. As the peculiar forms of the capitals of the five classic orders of architecture have been ah'eady noticed, it -will merely be necessary here to treat of the shafts only. These were circular in form ; but the external surface of columns of all orders ex- cept the Tuscan Avere fiuted or ornamented with longitudinal grooves running from top to bottom. They are generally about twenty in number ; and in Doric columns they are flat and shallow, and without fillets between the grooves, while columns of the remaining orders have fillets be- tween the grooves, and the grooves themselves are much deeper, having their horizontal section in the form of a semicircle or semi-ellipse. Sometimes the fluting is filled up to one-third the height from the base with catling, either i^lain or ornamented. The Greeks and Romans cut their columns in such a manner as to make them swell out slightly at about one-third of the entire height from the base. This was called the entasis of the column. The measurement and propor- tion of columns were regulated by the diameter of the lower end of the shaft, which was divided into two parts called modules, each module being sub-divided into thirty minutes. In Military Art, when a body of troops are disposed in such a manner as to present a narrow front, they are said to be in column. The term “ in column ” is dia- metrically opposed to that of “in line,” when troops present an extended fi'ont. When sections, Sub- divisions, companies, or regiments, forming a column, are at such a distance from each other that they can wheel into an unbroken line, they are said to be in open column ; when within one-fourth of tiie length of either of the divisions named, they are in quarter- distance column ; and when within a few paces of each other, in close column. COMB, kome. In Topography, a hollow or valley among hills, from the British Ceom. It occurs in the name of many places in the western counties, as Ilfracombe. COMEDIE FRANgATSE, ko-mai!-de fran' -saise. After the death of Lloliere, in 1673, his company of actors became the nucleus of the company of the French National Theatre, founded by a decree of Louis XIV. The first i^erformance took place, August 25, 1680. Ths theatre has always been considered the leading school of dramatic art in France. COMEDY, kom’-e-de (Gr.,Z:ome, a village, and ode, a song), is applied to one of the two kinds of dramatic j)oetry, and is so named because an- ciently sung at village festivals, by rustic actors. The object of comedy is to expose to censure and ridicule the follies and vices of mankind. It naturally divides itself into two kinds — comedy of character and comedy of intrigue. In the former the display of some peculiar character is chiefly aimed at ; and the action is contrived with a view to this end, and is treated as sub- ordinate to it. In the latter the plot or action of the play is made the principal object. The French comedies are chiefly comedies of character, the English mostly comedies of intrigue. In good comedy both characteristics should be properly mixed together. In comedy, the incidents and language approach nearly to those of ordinary life. The ancient comedy consisted in direct and avowed satire against particular known persons, who were brought upon the stage by name. {See Aristophanes, Drama.) COMMA, kom'-may in Punctuation, is a mark I thus (,) used to separate those parts of a sentence which, though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them. It represents the shortest pause in a sentence. The marks of quotation (“ ”) are commonly spoken of as “ turned commas.” [See Punctua- tion.) COMMEMORATION, kom-mem-o-ra' -shnuy the great festival of the Academic year at Oxford University. Orations and imize poems are deli- vered, and honorary degrees' are conferred in the Sheldonian Theatre. The commemoration, or Encaenia, is of very ancient date. COMMENTARY, kom' -men-tar-e (Lat., comminiscor, I call to mind), is a term used in literature in various significations. Originally it was aiDplied to remarks or memoranda made on events and occurrences as they happened ; as the Commentaries of Caesar. At present it is usually applied to a series of critical notes and observa- tions upon a book, either in the form of detached notes, or as a connected series of remarks, other- wise called a running commentary. There are many learned and elaborate “ Commentaries ” on the Bible. COMMISSIONAIRE, kom - mis - shun - air' (Fr., commissionaire, one who is appointed to exe- cute some office), the name given to the members of a corps who have been enrolled since the termin- ation of the Crimean war, to furnish the public with trustworthy messengers who will execute any commission on receipt of a certain sum fixed as a remuneration for their services. Most of them have served in the army, and are inca- pacitated for other employment by injuries received. They wear a military dress of dark green, with a black leather waist-belt, cross-belt, and pouch. They are extensively employed in London and Edinburgh in commercial establish- ments, and the instances in which they have failed to justify the confidence placed in them have been extremely rare. On the Continent, the name given to attendants and messengers at hotels, some of whom speak English fluently, and act as guides to public ifiaces. COMMONER, kom' -mo-ner, is a student of the second rank at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. COMMON-PLACE BOOK, is a book in which are recorded and arranged under general heads, and carefully indexed, such things as may occur in the course of reading or study, in such a way as that they may be easily found again. The advantage of such a book to the student or man of letters is very great. It not only trains him to read with accuracy and attention, but leads him insensibly to think for himself, and to watch over his own thoughts. COMMON TIME, in music, that measure which contains two minims or four crotchets in a bar. COMPARISON, kom-par'-e -son (Fr. , com- paraison), is the act of carrying the mind from one object to another, in order to discover some- relationship subsisting between them. The re- sult of comparison is a judgment. In Rhetoric, comparison is a figure of speech fre- quently employed for the ornament of composition ;; and, when properly introduced, it adds much to the beauty of style. It consists in viewing two things with regard to a third, which is common to them both. Comparisons are of various kinds; but they may be COMPASS 129 CONDUCTOR all arranged into one or other of two classes, according as they are addressed to the understanding, with a view to instruct ; or to the heart, with a view to please. In Grammar, comparison is the means by which is denoted the degree in which the quality expressed by an adjective is possessed by the substantive with which it is coupled. There are three degrees of comparison, —the positive, comparative, and superlative. The positive expresses the quality simply, without any com- parison ; as good, wise, prudent; and, hence, some do not consider this as a degree of comparison. The com- parative . expresses that the quality is possessed in a higher degree by that object than another; as, John is taUer than James. The superlative expresses the pos- session of the quality in the highest degree, or in a higher degree than it is possessed by a number of others ; as, Solomon was the wisest man. In English, there are two ways of expressing these degrees ; either by an inflection or change on the word itself, as wise, wiser, wisest ; or by the addition of a Avord, as prudent, more prudent, most prudent. In many cases, either form may be adopted ; but where the former would pro- duce a harsh word, or one difficult to be pronounced, the latter mode is adopted. A common error is to substitute the superlative degree for the comparative, when only tAvo things are compared, as “he is the ‘ tallest ’ of the two, instead of ‘ taller.’ ” Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives. COMPASS, kum'-iMS, in Music, the extent of notes or sounds comprehended by any voice or instrument. COMPLEMENT, Tcom/ -ple-mmt, in Music, the quantity required to be added to any interval to complete the octave. COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT, jfcom- plu-tensh' -yan, the name given to an edition of the Holy Scriptures published in 1522 at Alcala de Henares (the ancient Complutum) at the ex- pense of Cardinal Ximenes. {See Bible.) COMPONE, OR GOBONY, kom-po'-ne, go-bo' -ne, in Heraldry, a pale, band, or other ordinary, made up of tAvo rows of small squares, consisting of alternate metals and colours. COMPOSER, kom-po'-zer, literally, a prac- tical musical author, or, in other words, one Avho invents or composes new music according to the established rules of science, and who studies harmony and melody as connected with effect in composition, independently of the law of acous tics, or the philosophy of sound. COMPOSITE ORDER. {See Archi- tecture.) COMPOSITION, kom-po-zish' -zun (Lat., compositio), in a general sense, is the act of form- ing a whole or integral of various dissimilar parts, and is also applied to the body or compound thus formed. In Literature, it is the art of forming and combining ideas, and clothing them with language suitable to the nature of the subject. In Logic, it is a method of reasoning in which we proceed by gathering together a number of ideas, and combine them into one system, otherwise called synthesis. In Grammar, it is the joining of two words together, or prefixing a particle to a word, to augment, diminish, or change its signification. kon'-sert (Ital., concertare), a musical entertainment, in which a number of musicians, vocal and instrumental, unite in the exercise of their various talents. CONCERTINA, kon-ser-te' -na, a kind of musical wind instrument, patented by Professor Wheatstone in 1829. This instrument has a compass of three octaves and a half, and possesses not only a chromatic, but an enharmonic scale, it having two sej)arate tones. From this fact, as well as from the flexibility of the bellows, the chords are better in tune than in most other in- struments of a fixed sound. Its capabilities are such that the most complex harmonies, as well as the most difficult violin or flute music, can bo played upon it. CONCERTO, kon-sertf-o, a musical com- position for a solo instrument, usually a violin or piano, with orchestral accompaniments. It con- sists generally of three movements. CONCORD, kon'-kord {Ldit.y concordia ; Fr., Concorde), in Music, is the union of one or more musical sounds, which, by harmonizing and agree- ing together, produce an agreeable effect upon the ear. When any two single sounds bear so much relation to one another that, on being sounded together, they make a compound sound, that relation is called concord. Concords are of tAvo kinds — perfect and imperfect. Perfect con- cords consist of the fifth and eighth, and imper- fect concords of the third and sixth. These last have another distinction — that of the greater and lesser third and sixth. CONCORDANCE, kon-kor' -dans (Lat.), is a dictionary or index of all the important words in the Bible alphabetically arranged, for the pur- pose of finding passages, and of comparing the various significations of words. The importance of a work of this kind was early perceived ; and the first was that of Hugo de St. Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. By far the most complete and valuable concordance to the Eng- lish Bible is that by Alexander Cruden, the first edition of which was published in qto, 1737, and which has since passed through numerous editions. Perhaps the best concordance to the Hebrew text is that of J. Fiirst, entitled “ Concordantise Lib- rorum Sacrorum Veteris Testament! Hebraicae et Chaldaicse” (Leipsic, 1837-40). The most recent concordance to the Greek New Testament is that of 0 . H. Bruder, “ Omnium Yocum Novi Testa- ment! Graeci,” 4to (Leipsic, 1843). The term has also come to be applied to works of a similar nature of other books ; as the “ Concordance to Shakespeare,” by Mrs. Cowden Clarke. Concor- dances to Milton, Pope, and Tennyson have also been published. CONDOTTIERI, kon-doi-te-air'-e, an Italian word, signifying captains, chiefs, or leaders, but generally employed to designate soldiers of for- tune, who raised troops of cavalry and infantry at their own expense, and engaged their services as mercenaries with governments or princes, thinking far more of plunder than of military glory. They were numerous in the 14th and 15th centuries in the Italian wars. Although many condottieri obtained great honour and wealth, only one attained high rank — Francesco Sforza, originally a peasant, who, in 1451, constituted himself duke of Milan, and transmitted the sovereignty to his descendants. CONDUCTOR, kon-dukt'-or (Sp., conducir, to lead), one who superintends everything con- nected with a concert, and who also directs the performance of a band or orchestra. His duties are extremely onerous, as they do not consist only (as some people imagine) in the use of his baton, or in his performance, either as a soloist or accompanist. A conductor must be an excel- lent theoretical musician, and endowed vvdth a I CONFRONTS 130 CONSTITUTION sensitive temperament, and an exceedingly correct musical ear. CONFRONTS, kon-frunt-ai' , in Heraldry, facing or fronting one another. CONGRUITY, kong-gru' -e-te (Lat., congruo, 1 come together, correspond, or agree), denotes a suitableness or relation of agreement between different things. Congruity, wherever it is per- ceived, is agreeable, and is so nearly allied to beauty as to be commonly regarded as a species of it. Incongruity is an unsuitableness between different things, and is disagreeable. In Arithemetic, two numbers are congruous to a third when their difference is exactly divisible by it. Thus 27 and 12 are congruous to 5, as the difference between them is 15, which can be divided by 5. CONJUGATION, kon-ju-gai' -shun, in Grammar, is a regular distribution of the several inflections of verbs into their different voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. (See Grammar and Verb.) CONJUNCTION, kon-junk! -shun, in Gram- mar, a conjunction is an indeclinable word or particle which serves to unite words, sentences, or clauses of a sentence, and to show their rela- tionship or dependence upon one another. There are two principal kinds of conjunctions — the con- junctive and the disjunctive ; as, Peter awe? John, James or Robert. Grammarians make a farther distinction into co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions — the first uniting two simple sen- tences or assertions, the other uniting the state- ment of a fact with some other fact explaining or modifying it. CONJURATION, kon-ju-rai' -shun (Lat., con, and fwro, I swear), is the act of using certain words or ceremonies to obtain the aid of a superior being, more particularly ai^plied to the magical words, characters, or ceremonies by means of which evil spirits, tempests, &c., are said to be raised or driven away. The word is sometimes used by old writers to express a conspiracy or plot to do any public harm. The verb, to conjure, is also employed by some as equivalent to adjure, “to charge in God’s name, specially or earnestly.” Thus Shakespeare makes Mercutio say to Romeo, “I conjure thee by Rosaline’s bright eyes.” In common language, the name conjuror is often incorrectly applied to performers of tricks de- pending on sleight of hand, optical deceptions, or mechanical contrivances. CONNOISSEUR, kon-noy-sur' (Fr., con- noisseur, from Lat., cognoscere, to know), a person who is skilled in any subject, and particu- larly one who is well fitted to judge of the merits of paintings and sculpture, from possessing a critical knowledge of works of art. In Italian, such a person is termed cognoscente. CONQUEST, THE, kon'-kwest, a term specially apifiied in English history to the inva- sion of England by Wilh’am of Normandy in 1066. CONSECUTIVE, kon-seck' -u-tiv, in Music, a term applied to octaves and fifths, which are opposed to the rules of harmony. CONSERVATOIRE, kon-serv'-a-twor (Ital., conservatorio), a name given in France, Belgium, and Italy to schools instituted for the purpose of advancing the study of music, and in some instances, other arts. As early as the 5th or 6th centuries, schools of this character, chiefly for the education of orphans, foundlings and children of poor parents were attached to con- vents and hospitals or were supported by private benevolence. In 1818, several schools of this character were united in the Royal College of Music; a similar large institution having been established at Milan ten years previously. In 1784, a school for educating singers was founded in Paris, and that was the bases of the Conserva- toire de Musique, organized in 1795, and still flourishing. There are also conservatoires of high reputation at Warsaw, Prague, Brussels, Vienna, Leipsic, Cologne, Berlin, Munich, and other large German towns. CONSERVATORY, kon-ser' -va-tor-e {Lat., conservare, to preserve), a glass house for the re- ception of tender plants that require protection from the wind, frost, and rain. A distinction is sometimes made between a conservatory and a greenhouse, plants in the former growing in borders of earth, and in the latter in pots ; but these peculiarities are not uncommonly combined. A more definite distinction is that a greenhouse is commonly a detached building in the garden, and the conservatory attached to, and imme- diately accessible from, the reception room of the house. A conservatory requires a little artificial heat from a stove placed within it in winter only ; and this constitutes the chief point of differ- ence between the conservatory and hothouse, which is heated by pipes, and an apparatus for the transmission of hot air, throughout the year. Conservatories are often rendered an ornamental feature in a building when attached to it and connected with one of the principal apartments, or forming the entrance. CONSONANT, kon'-son-ant (Lat., con, and sono, I sound), is a letter which cannot be sounded by itself without the aid of a vowel placed either before or after it. CONSTELLATION, kon-stel-lai' -shun (Lat., con, together; Stella, a star), the name given to large clusters of stars which occupy a considerable space in the field of the heavens, and are distinguished by names and grouped within fanciful outlines of men, animals, and things, principally derived from persons and incidents mentioned in the mythology of the Greeks and Romans. Eudoxus and Ptolemy among the ancients, and Bayer, Helvetius, and Lacaille, in more modern times, are the principal astronomers who have grouped the stars into constellations. Tycho Brahe, Lemonnier, Bezobut, and Halley, have added five more, which are recognised. Many more have been named by these and other astronomers, which are not admitted into the list of acknowledged constellations. Bayer com- menced the notation of the stars in the various constellations by the Greek alphabet, marking the brightest star by the first letter, and so on ; and when there were more stars than Greek letters, he denoted the rest by small italics. The stars were numbered in each constellation by Flam- steed, in the order of their right ascension, and this is the plan usually adopted in the catalogues of Bradley, Lacaille, and others. The principal constellations are noticed under their respective titles. CONSTITUTION, kon-sti-tu' -shun, in Medicine, the term is used to denote the general condition of the body, as evinced by the peculi- arities in the performance of its functions ; as the peculiar predisjjosition to certain diseases, CONTINENT 131 COPE the liability of particular organs to disease, vari- eties in digestion, in muscular power and motion, in sleep, in the appetites, &c. CONTINENT, Icon' -tin-ent (Lat., con, tenons, holding), a large tract or division of land not separated by the sea from other lands, or a connected tract of land of great extent, whether an island or not. The surface of the earth is divided into five continents, which are generally recognised ; namely, Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. In the language of every day life, in this country, “ the Continent,” means Europe. CONTORNIATE, kon-tor'-ne-ate (Ital., contorm), a term applied to certain antique medals which have a deep cut round the edge. CONTOUR, kon-toor' (Fr., contour, from Lat., conterquero, to bend or twist), a name which is sometimes given to the outline by which any figure or form is defined or expressed. It is also applied to the coast-line of a country and the undulations of its surface, referring chiefly in the latter case to the outline of hill and dale ob- tained by making a section of it in any direction. We often speak of the contour of a figure and associate it with an outline consisting of beauti- fully rounded curves rather than with one which is full of abrupt turns and angular projections. CONTRA BASS, kon'-tra, the largest musical stringed instrument, commonly known as the double bass. The English instrument has only three strings ; but German makers add a fourth. In an organ the name is given to a slope of 15 feet pitch. CONTRACTION, kon-trak' -shun, in Gram- mar, is the shortening of a word by the omission of a letter or syllable. The Greek language abounds with contractions, which have been adopted chiefly to avoid a harshness in the pro- nunciation arising from the concurrence of two vowels in two successive syllables or words. Hence, two or more simple vowels coming to- gether are usually contracted into a diphthong. This is said to be proper when the vowels are con- tracted without change into a diphthong ; impro- per, when, in the contraction, a vowel or diph- thong of a different sound is substituted. Elision takes place when two vowels at the end of one and at the beginning of another word come to- gether, and the final vowel of the first word is rejected, its place being marked by an apostrophe placed over the consonant which is left. This takes place chiefly with the poets. Crasis is that kind of contraction in which two words coalesce into one, and are accented as one, without any elision. In synizesis, two vowels are contracted into one sound — not in writing, but in pronuncia- tion. In the Middle Ages, before the introduc- tion of printing, numerous contractions were re- sorted to for the purpose of abbreviating the labour of transcription ; and, from that practice, the labour of deciphering antique documents is frequently very considerable. In many of the arts and sciences contractions are still common. {See Abbreviations.) CONTRALTO, kon-traV-to (Ital.), is a term employed to designate the deepest kind of female voice, or that part in the score whose range of tones lies between that of the tenor and that of the soprano or treble, also called the alto or counter-tenor. CONUNDRUM, kon-un' -drum, a sort of riddle, in which some odd resemblance (generally depending on a pun, or the variation in the meaning of words almost similar in sound) is pro- posed for discovery between things perfectly un- like ; as, for instance. Why is a whisper like a forged bank-note ? — Because it is uttered but not allowed (aloud). CONVENTIONAL, in Art, expresses ac- cordance with authorities and precedents as to form and colour, instead of direct copying from nature. Conventional forms are not natural forms, but something which has been substituted for them — diagrams, as it were, founded on the principles of construction, without noticing varia- tions of detail in individual specimens ; and con- ventional expressions and attitudes are those which have been adopted as representing certain emotions. CONVERSATION , kon-ver-sai'-shun (Lat. , conversatio ; from con, and verto, I turn), denotes familiar discourse or easy talk between two or more persons, and is opposed to a formal confer- ence. The pleasure and advantages to be derived from conversation are very manifest. There is much in it to lead the superficial observer to view it as a natural gift ; and we find individuals, and even nations, that have peculiar talents for it ; but still it is an art, and may be learned like every other art, and from its value and impor- tance it is entitled to much more attention than is usually bestowed upon it, at least in this country. Let a man have read, thought, studied as much as he may, rarely, will he reach his possible advantage as a ready man, unless he has exercised his powers much in conversation. De Quincey goes farther, and not only regards con- versation as giving greater facilities to a person in expounding or diffusing the truth, but as giving a new insight into the truth itself. Rous- seau justly remarks that the tone of good con- versation is neither dull nor frivolous. It is fluent and natural; sensible, without being pedantic ; cheerful, without being boisterous ; elegant, without being affected ; polite, without being insipid ; and jocose, without being equi- vocal. The object of conversation is to afford entertainment or agreeable information ; and one of its first rules is to allow everybody to con- tribute his share, while every one at the same time ought to exert himself for the gratification of the company. Egotism, or any display of self-con- ceit, is the very bane of conversation, and care- fully to be avoided, as is also tediousness in narration. Conversation Pieces, in Art, are pictures representing a number of persons grouped in a natural manner and apparently engaged in conversation. These pictures are frequently the medium of introducing portraits of known personages. “CONVERSATIONS LEXIKON.” {See Encyclopaidias.) CONVEX. {See Concave.) COPE, koap (Sax., cceppe), an ecclesiastical vestment worn by the clergy of the Roman Catholic church during the celebration of mass, at processions, and other solemnities. It reaches from the neck nearly to the feet, and is open in front, except at the top, where_ it is united by a band or clasp, and is generally highly ornamented mth embroidery. The rubrics of Edward VI. prescribe a cope or vestment for the priest ad- COPSE 132 COPYRIGHT ministering the holy communion, and for the bishops when executing any public ministration in the church, for which a vestment may be sub- stituted either by priest or bishop. Embroidered copes are in great favour with clergymen of the High Clnu’ch and Ritualists. COPSE, OR COPPICE, hops, hop' -pis, a plantation of trees, or a natural wood, in which the trees are cut down so as to prevent them at- taining their full height, and so send up shoots from their roots. COPTIC CALENDAR. — The calendar in use among the Copts of Egypt. It descends from the ancient Egyptians, but with a difference, their vague year, which was neither solar nor lunar, and consisted of twelve equal months of thirty days each, with five final comifiementary days or cpagomanes. This was also the year of the era of Nabonassar, the astronomical jirince of Bab3don, which commenced B.C. 747. But a short time after Antony and Cleopatra were beaten at Actium the Egyptians adopted from their Roman conquerors the custom of approxi- mating to accuracy by adding a day to every fourth year, which thus has six complementary days. This was first done in the eighth year of the Actian era, reckoned from the date of the famous sea-fight. Later on, the Copts, although they preserved this same year as a unit to count by, abandoned the Actian era for that of Diocle- tian (also called the era of martyrs because of the persecutions in his reign), which commenced a. d. 284, when he was proclaimed Emperor at Chal- cedon. This they still continue to use. The Coptic New Year’s Day is equivalent to our loth of September. COPTIC LANGUAGE, kop'-tik, is the language of the ancient Copts, or that which was in use in Egypt after the introduction of Christi- anity. The written character is Greek, with an addition of eight other letters to express sounds eculiar to the Coptic, and many Greek words ave been introduced with Christianity. There are two principal dialects of the Coptic — the Sahidic, or Upper Egyptian, and the Memphetic, or Lower Egyptian. The former contains a great number of Greek expressions, but the latter appears to be the more polished. There is a third dialect — the Bashmuric, which was spoken in the Delta, but of which only a few fragments now exist. It is interesting from its supposed re- semblance in some points to the language of the hieroglyphics. The Coptic literature is' by no means rich or valuable, consisting for the most part of translations of the sacred Scriptures, lives of saints, homilies, and some Gnostic works. The translations of the Bible were probably made about the end of the 3rd or beginning of the 4th century, and follow, as far as the Old Testament is concerned, the Septuagint version. The Coptic language has not been spoken in Lower Egypt since the loth century, but it lingered for some centuries later in some parts of Upper Egypt. It is still, however, employed by the Copts in the religious worship ; but the lessons, after being read in Coptic, which scarcely one of the priests who read it can understand, are followed by a version in Arabic. COPYRIGHT, kop' -e-right, is that right which the law allows an author or his assigns of printing and reprinting his own original work. In the reign of Queen Anne this right became the subject of positive regulation, and subsequent enactments were applied to it. It is now mainly regulated by the 5 and 6 Vic. c. 45, which pro- vides that the copyright of every book (under which word is included, in the construction of the Act, every volume, part, or division of a volume, pamphlet, sheet of letterpress, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan separately published) which shall be published in the lifetime of its- author, shall endure for his natural life, and for seven years longer ; or, if the seven years shall expire before the end of forty-two years from the first publication, shall endure for such period of forty-two years ; and that, when the work is posthumous, the copyright shall endure for forty- two years from the first publication, and shall be- long to the proprietor of the author’s manuscript. If the work be unlawfully printed within the British dominions, an action for damages must be brought within twelve calendar months ; and, if unlawfully reprinted in any place out of the British dominions and imported into the United Kingdom, it may be seized as forfeited by any officer of the Customs or Excise, and the offenders are liable to penalties. Registration at Station- ers’ Hall is no longer obligatory ; but it is re- quisite as an evidence of copyright in case of a dispute. The Act empowers the Judicial Com- mittee of the Privy Council to license, under certain conditions, the publication of books of importance which the proprietor refuses to pub- lish after the death of the author. Besides the remedy by action, the Chancery division of the High Court of Justice will interfere by injunction to restrain an infringement of the right. Pro- tection does not extend to the work if it be im- moral, blasphemous, or seditious in its tendency, or if it be defamatory of private character, or if . (with a view to defraud the public) it is published as the work of one who is not in truth the author. Extracts from a book cannot strictly be made without permission from the owner of a copyright; but practically this permission is assumed, and such quotations are ordinarily valuable as introducing the book to the notice of the public. Unauthorized abridgments, in which the language of the author is retained, are pira- cies, and the sale may be stopped ; but there is no copyright in subject, information, or ideas, if they are conveyed in different language. Articles contributed to periodical works, as reviews and magazines, or to encyclopaedias, are copyright. Newspaper matter is also legally copyright ; but the claim is never enforced, so far as articles of general news are concerned, the borrowing of such matter being a mutual convenience. The unauthorized adoption of an existing title of a newspaper or a magazine is an infringement of copyright that is always promptly stopped. Sermons delivered by clergymen of the Church of England in endowed places of worship may be taken down and published without the consent of the preacher, because in the 5th section of the Act protection is not extended to lectures de- livered in any public foundation, or delivered by any individual in virtue of, or according to, any gift, endowment, or foundation, and endowed places of worship are considered to be public pro- perty. Sermons delivered in the chapels of Non- conformists, or addresses or lectures in other places than endowed churches, are the property of the person delivering them. Letters and every kind of epistolary correspondence are the pro- perty of the writer, and miast not be published or sold by the receiver. Dramatic pieces and musi- cal compositions, with right of representation CORACLE 133 CORNET-A-PISTON and performance, are subject to tbe same copy- right as books. A work of fiction may be drama- tised without the consent of the author, who has no power to prohibit the performance. The pro- prietor of the copyright of a song, or a musical composition, is entitled to forbid its being sung or played without his permission ; and verses must not be taken and set to music for sale without permission. Engravings and Pictures — The term of copyright in these productions (secured by the 17 Geo. III. and other statutes) is twenty-eight years from the date of publication, which, with the name of the publisher, must appear on engravings. An infringement of the copyright (and that extends to the sale of reproduc- tions by photography) involves the forfeiture of every copy, with a fine of five shillings for each. There is no copyright in subject, and pictures suggested by inci- dents in copyright books may be sold. The copyright of a portrait remains with the artist, although he may have been paid for painting it. Copyright of photo- graphs is also secured. Designs. — Designs for ornamenting articles of manu- facture are protected by several Acts, passed in the present reign. The copyright is for three years from the time when the design was registered. (See De- signs.) In the Colonies. — The copyright of books, &c., printed in the United Kingdom, is extended to all British colonies. By an Act passed by the legislature of the Dominion of Canada, and confirmed by the Im- perial Parliament in 1875, if there is copyright in the United Kingdom in a book, the author becomes en- titled to copyright also in Canada, and none but the owner can import into the United Kingdom any copies reprinted in Canada. Canadian authors have a copyright for Wenty-eight years, and if he or his wife or child is living at the end of that term, then for fourteen years longer. The English copyright law ex- tends to India ; but actions for piracy are barred after twelve months. In Foreign Countries.— In France the copyright exists for the lifetime of the author or his widow, and after the death of the survivor for twenty years in his children or ten years for his heirs or assignees. The law in Holland and Belgium is similar, except that, either in the case of children or other heirs or as- signees, the term of twenty years is allowed. In Germany, copyright extends to the lifetime of the author, and thirty years after his death. In Denmark, copyright exists for thirty years, but lapses if the work on which it exists be out of print during five years. In Sweden, the term for copyright is twenty years ; but should the author or his representative neglect to continue the publication, the copyright falls to the State. In Spain, copyright is for the author’s life, and for fifty years after his death. In Kussia, it is for the author’s life, and after his death to his heirs and assignees for twenty-five years, and for a further term of ten years, if they publish an edition within five years before the expiration of the first term. In Greece, copyright exists for fifteen years, from the date of publication. In the United States, the copyright exists for twenty-eight years, from the time of record- ing the title, and fourteen years more if the author, or his widow or child be living, provided that the title be recorded anew within six months before the expiration of the twenty-eight years. International Copyright.— Great Britain has made arrangements with Austria, Belgium, France, Prussia, Saxony, Hamburg, and Italy, by which their is mutual protection for copyrights, translations included. Great efforts have been made, but unsuccessfully, to procure a similar arrangement with the United States. CORACLE, kor'-a-kl (Celtic, curach),a, light boat or canoe, constructed with a framework of wood covered with skins. Coracles were used by the ancient Britons from the most remote times. Julius Caesar built some after the British model: the keel and gunwhales were of light wood, and the sides of wicker, covered with hides. The general size of a coracle was about four feet long and three wide, its shape being oval. It held only one person, who propelled it with a paddle, and on land it was carried with ease upon the shoulders from place to place. The coracle is still in use in some parts of Ireland, especially on the coasts of Donegal and Clare. It is also used on the Severn in England. CORANACH, ko'-ra-nak (probably Gaelic cornh-ranaich, a crying together), a funeral dirge, a cry of mourning, in use among the Irish and Scottish Celts. It consisted of a long and mourn- ful chant, in which the good deeds of the deceased, the mode of his death, and his pedigree were nar- rated, and frequently had the effect, in times when violent deaths were not unfrequent, of ex- citing feelings of revenge. CORBEL, kor'-hel (Fr., corheille, a basket), the name given to blocks of stone projecting from the surface of a wall to support the machicola- tions of towers (see Machicolation), or the ends of the beams of the floors in old castles. The beams which form what is called an open roof in churches and large halls are often supported on carved corbels. The stones which support the bartizans (see Bartizan) at the angles of towers, jutting out in layers one above another, are also called corbel-stones, and stones which project in this manner are spoken of as “ corbelKng out.” In Gothic architecture, the corbel frequently takes the form of a head or a recumbent animal. In the later periods, the corbel assumes the shape of foliage resembling the ornamentation of the capitals. CORBIE-STEPS, or CROW STEPS, kor'-be (French, corheau, a crow), the succession of steps with which, in Scotland, and some of the old German towns, the gables of old houses are commonly ornamented. There are many ex- amples in Edinburgh. CORDON, kor'-don, a line of sentries en- closing or guarding a particular space of ground, to prevent anybody not belonging to the army passing. CORINTHIAN ORDER. (;Sfeg Architec- ture.) CORN, koarn (Ang.-Sax., a round hard seed), a term generally applied to all seeds used in making bread, especially the seeds of the cerealia. The principal seeds of this kind in temperate climates are wheat, rye, oats, and barley ; while those of warm climates are maize, rice, and millet. In a more restricted sense the word corn is applied to that particular grain of a country which is most largely used in making bread. In England corn refers to wheat, in Scotland to oats, and in America to maize. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, founded at Ithaca, in the State of New York, in 1868, by Ezra Cornell, for the study of the ap- plied sciences, especially engineering and agri- culture. CORNET, kor'-net (Ital., cornetta, a small flag), formerly the designation of commissioned cavalry officers of the lowest grade. The cornet was so called from carrying the guidon, or small square regimental flag. The rank was abolished in 1871, and lieutenants are now the lowest rank of commissioned officers. CORNET- A-PISTON, kor^-net-a-pis'-ton, (See Cornopean.) CORNICE 134 COSMOPOLITAN CORNICE, kor'-nis (Fr., corniche), the name of the upper part of the entablature {see Archi- TECTURe) which comes immediately above the frieze. It is divided into two principal parts, the upper of which projects considerably beyond the lower, being supported by modillons or mutules. The fillet, which composes the lower part, with an echinus moulding and smaller fillet above it, from which the modillons project, and an ogee, or bed-mould below it, which separates it from the frieze, is generally enriched with dentils, especially in the Corinthian and Com- posite orders. The upper part is subdivided into two portions — the corona, which rests on the modillons, and the cynatium, which surmounts the corona. The term cornice is also applied to the ornamental moulding projecting from the upper part of the walls of a room immediately vmder the ceiling. CORNUCOPIA, kor-nu-ko' -pe-a (Lat., cornw, a horn, copia, plenty), in Sculpture, an emblem of abundance, placed in the hands of figures, repre- sented as growing from it corn, fruits, &c. It is used in heraldry, and frequently in architecture. CORONA, ko-ro'-na (Lat., a crown), the lower member of a classical cornice ; and the term is also applied to the ai)se or semi-circular termi- nation of the choir of a church. {See Apse.) CORONET, kor'-o-net (Lat., corona, a crown), an inferior kind of crown worn by princes and noblemen as distinctive tokens of their several degrees. {See Crown. ) CORPORAL, kor' -por-al (Fr., caporal ; Ital., capo, head), the designation of a non-commis- sioned officer who ranks next to a sergeant. It is the duty of the corporal to relieve and place sentries. When the regiment is on parade, he falls into the ranks with the privates. The corporal receives a somewhat higher pay than a private, and is distinguished by wearing two chevrons on his arm. {See Chevrons.) The lance-corporal is an assistant, who receives only private’s pay, but wears one chevron on the arm. In the navy, the ship’s corporal is a petty officer acting under the master-at-arms, and entrusted with certain duties in connection with the discip- line of the crew. CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, CAM- BRIDGE, was founded in 1352 by two societies, or guilds, in Cambridge, called the guild of Cor- pus Christ! and the guild of the Virgin Mary ; and at first the college bore both names. After- wards it acquired the name of Bene’t College (by which it is still often distinguished), from the adjoining church of St. Benedict. It has twelve fellowships — eight of whom are required to take holy orders within three years after their election, A fellowship is vacated by the possession of an income exceeding twice its value, by holding any ecclesiastical preferment of the annual value of a fellowship, by the possession of any college living beyond the precincts of the University, or by marriage, imless the fellow hold a University professorship not exceeding £500 per annum. There are thirty-one scholarships and six exhibi- tions connected with this college. CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OX- FORD, was founded in 1 516 by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, for a president, twenty fellows, and twenty scholars, the fellows to be elected from the scholars, and the scholars from natives of certain specified dioceses and counties. By the present statutes, which have been recently amended, it is provided that both fellows and scholars shall be elected without any restriction as to place of birth. There are fifteen fellowships, and two Professor fellowships. Six of the fellows must be in holy orders ; and all fellowships are vacated by marriage. There are twenty-four scholarships tenable for five years from matri- culation, and are of the annual value of £80, together with rooms rent free. There are also numerous exhibitions. CORPS, kor, the name given to any body of troops, without reference to the number of men of which it is composed. CORPUS DELICTI, de-Uk’-te, in Scotch criminal law, a term used to signify the body or substance of the charge. The fact of the specified crime having been committed, the corpus delicti must be proved before any person can be tried for the offence. CORRIDOR, kor' -re-dor (Ital., coridore), a passage or gallery in a mansion, or any large building, which affords access to a range of cham- bers that are independent, and have no other means of communication with each other. A cor- ridor may be closed, or open to the air on one side. CORSAIR, kor-saire' (Ital., corso, a race), a term applied generally to sea-robbers or pirates, but originally used to designate those pirates in the south of Europe who sailed from Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the ports of Morocco, and attacked merchant-vessels. CORSET, kor' -set (Fr.), a tight-fitting under- dress for the body, worn by females ; it is stiffened by whalebone or other means, and tightened by a lace. Stays are now generally termed corsets, and they are moulded to the shape of the body by the action of heat. CORSLET, kors'-let (Fr.), a light body armour, worn by the pikemen about the middle of the 17th century, and generally made of leather. Sometimes the term is employed to designate the entire suit under the title of a corslet, complete or furnished, which included the headpiece or gorget, as well as the tasses which covered the thighs. CORVETTE, kor-vet' (Fr.), a sloop of war an advice-boat, having only one tier of guns, and flush-decked. CORYMBUS, ko-rim'-bus, a particular and very graceful arrangement of the hair by the women of ancient Greece, adopted in many statues of Venus. Ornamental work was some- times worn over the hair. CORYPH.^US. {See Chorus.) COSMETIC, kos-met'-ik (Gr., kosmeo, 1 adorn), is a preparation used to whiten or soften the skin, or otherwise to beautify and improve it. Some of the cosmetics now in favour are com- paratively harmless, except so far as they obstruct the pours of the skin ; but some are metallic, and very dangerous. {See Bismuth). With the an- cient Romans, the term cosmetoe was applied to those slaves who were employed to dress and adorn their mistresses. COSMOPOLITAN, kos-mo-poV -i-tan (Gr., polites, citizen), a citizen of the world ; a person who makes himself at home wherever he goes. COSMORAMA 135 COUNTRY DANCE who has no fixed residence, and nowhere feels himself to be a stranger and an alien. COSMORAMA, kos-imo-ra' -ma, an exhibi- tion in which various scenes illustrative of re- markable events and different parts of the world are shown. The effect of the pictures is height- ened by throwing artificial light upon them ; and they are viewed through lenses of great mangify- ing power, which makes them appear to be won- derfully natural and life-like. {See Diokama.) COSTUME, kos' -tume (Fr.), the term ordinarily applied to the garments, robes, &c., of a people. The several peculiarities in the dresses of doctors, masters of arts, bachelors, and undergraduates, constitute what is generally called the costume of the university, or academical cos- tume. The old painters were generally very care- less respecting the historical correctness of cos- tume ; and on the stage, it was only about the end of the last century that attention was Erected to the subject. The theatrical costumier of the present day is an archaeologist and artist. COTERIO, ko-ter-e! (Fr.), a friendly or select party, a club or association limited to a small number of individuals. The word is of French origin, and is supposed to have been de- riv’ed from the Latin quot, how many ? In the 13th or 14th century, when merchants joined to- gether in an enterprise, they formed a coterie, and each subscribed his quota. It soon lost this signification, and now only refers to exclusive societies. COTHURNU S, ko-thur' -nus. {See Buskin. ) COTICE, ko'-tise, or cost, in Heraldry, the fourth part of bend {see Bend) and usually borne in couples, with a head between them. Anything that is accompanied by another heraldic object is said to be cotised ; and in French heraldry, an escutcheon is coticd when divided by bends into many equal parts. COTILLON, ko-til '-pun (French), an under petticoat, a brisk French dance executed by eight persons. It was very popular in France at the conclusion of the last century but was super- seded by the quadrille, which is itself a modified form of the cotillon. COTTAGtE, kotf-taj (Ang.-Sax.), a small habitation, detached from other buildings, and generally one storey high. The name was origin- aUy applied only to dwellings of a very humble kind, but it is now used to designate a great variety of buildings, from the ornamental cot- tages of the French to the Swiss chalets. COTTONIAN LIBRARY, a valuable col- lection of manuscripts, including many State papers of great historical value, now bound up in nearly 900 volumes. It was chiefiy formed by Sir Robert Cotton, who died in 1631, and aug- mented by his son and grandson, and, after their deaths, invested in trustees for the use of the public ; and in 1757, it was removed to the British Museum. {See British Museum.) COUNTENANCE, kown'-ten-ans (Fr., con- tenance), the whole form of the human face, or system of the features. COUNTER APPROACH. (&« Foeti- PICATION.) COUNTERMINE, kown' -ter-mine, {See Fortification COUNTERPOINT, kown' -ter-point, liter- ally, point against point ; so called from the points formerly employed in music instead of notes — an important branch of musical science, which con- sists in the art of composing music in several parts either for a variety of voices or instruments ; now synonymous with harmony, and nearly so with composition ; the only difference being, that composition implies more of invention and of imagination than counterpoint. The invention of the latter is involved in great obscurity : by some it is attributed to Guido (a native of Tus- cany, who was born about 900) ; but although he was the first to write on this subject, which had made little progress before his time, it is obvious that it was known to several of the earlier musi- cians. Its real origin appears to have been as follows : — ^When the organ was introduced into France, about 757, and used as an accompaniment to the voice, it gave a facility for producing several sounds simultaneously. This soon led to the discovery that there were some sounds among them, which, when struck together, caused agree- able effects ; the minor third appears to have been one of the first of these. Other harmonies were also used, which (without mentioning those em- ployed by several authors before Guido) show the origin of the art, and at the same time prove it to have been totally unknown to the ancients. The first regular contripointal composition was by Adam de la Hale, in the 12th century ; but it was so far in advance of the musical know ledge of the time that the Pope forbade its use in the church. Primitive counterpoint is now called plain or simple counterpoint, to distinguish it from the modern figured or fiorid counterpoint, in which the melody is beautified and the general effect enriched by the frequent introduction of many successive notes in one part against a single note in another. When the laws of counterpoint began to be understood, vocal music came to be divided into four parts, the lowest of which was denominated tenor, the next counter tenor, the third metotus, and the highest triplum and ireUe. About the middle of the 15th century these parts were increased to six, and were called hass, bari- tone, tenor, contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano. COUNTERSCARP. {See Fortification. COUNTERSIGN, kown' -ter-sine (Lat., contra, against ; signum, sign), the name given to a watchword selected by the officer in com- mand, and privately communicated to the guards and sentries posted about a camp, or at the entrance to a fortress, who have strict orders not to allow any one to pass into the citadel, or within the lines, unless he can give this word, and thereby show that he has the authority of the commanding officer to enter. The term is also applied to the signature of a minister or secretary to any writing signed by the Sovereign or superior, and is a guarantee for its authenticity. COUNTER-TENOR CLEF, kown’ -ter- ten' -or kief, the name given to the C clef when placed on the third line, in order to accommodate the counter-tenor voice — the highest natural male and the lowest female voice. It extends from E or F above G gamut to B or C above the treble clef note. COUNTRY DANCE, kun'-tre (Fr., contre danse), a lively dance of French origin, and at one time so popular as to be transplanted into almost every country in Europe. Any number COUP 136 CRANNOGES of couples can take part in it. There are no established rules for the composition of airs«to this dance, neither is it confined to any particu- lar measure, so that any common lively song- tune may be adapted to it. COUP, Tcoo (Fr., a blow), a term used in various ways to convey the idea of promptness and force. Coup d'etat is a violent and arbitrary political measure ; coup de tMdtre, a sudden and striking change in the action of the scene ; coup d'oeil, in military affairs, a rapid conception of the weakness and advantages of certain positions or arrangements of troops ; coup de main signifies a vigorous, prompt, and decisive military attack. COUPLET, kup'-let (Fr.), in poetical com- position, two lines which rhyme together, but the term is more generally applied to two lines which contain the complete expression of an idea, and are to some extent independent of the preceding or following lines. Some of the best examples are to be found in the writings of Pope, as, for example — “ What can ennoble sots, or fools, or cowards ? Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards.” COURANT, Icoo-ranH (Fr., courant, run- ning), in Heraldry, when any animal, such as a deer or a dog, is drawn running at full speed, it is described as courant. COURIER, koor'-e-er (French). — There are two classes of couriers — imblic and private. Public couriers are employed by the Government to carry despatches expeditiously and safely to and from the ambassadors at foreign courts. They are accustomed to travel, able to speak several languages, and always ready, at a mo- ment’s notice, to set out either on horseback, by hired carriage, or by rail, night or day. They are acquainted with all the regulations of pass- ports, &c. Private couriers are servants employed by the opulent, when travelling in foreign countries, to facilitate their route, by going be- fore to make preparations, and by looking after their lodgings and general accommodation. COURSING, koars'-ing (Lat., curro, I run), the sport of hunting hares with greyhounds, which follow the game by sight and not by scent. The breed of greyhounds has greatly improved in this country, and coursing has become very popu- lar. Coursing meetings are held in open parts of the country where hares are abimdant, and the owners of greyhounds enter their respective dogs for various stakes. A judge is appointed, whose duty it is to decide with respect to the merits of the dogs engaged. The sport then begins by two dogs being selected for a course. They are re- strained by the “ slipper,” a man who holds them by a long strong cord, with a sj^ring attached to their collars. The field is then beaten for a hare. When it is found, it is allowed 8o to loo yards start, or “law,” as it is called ; the judge then gives the word “go,” and the slipper frees the dogs by means of the spring. The judge follows the greyhounds through the whole course, and aAvards the victory to the dog which shows the finest qualities of speed, endurance, and sagacity, and not necessarily to the dog which kills the hare. Coursing is of great antiquity, and is treated of by Arrian, who flourished a.d. 150. It was first practised by the Gauls, and was a popular sport with the Ancient Greeks. COWL, OB, COUL, kowl (Lat., cucullus), is a sort of hood worn by the Bernardines and Bendictines. There are two kinds — the one white and very large, worn on ceremonial occa- sions and when assisting at the office ; the other black, and worn on ordinary occasions, in the streets, &c. CRACOVIENNE, krak -o'-vi-en the national dance of the Polish peasantry. The tune is of a rather melancholy character, and the dance is accompanied by singing couplets. CRANNOGES, kran-noags' , a term applied to the lake-dwellings and fortified islands of the ancient Celts in Ireland, Scotland, and other countries. Although dwellings of this kind on Lake Prasias, in Macedonia, were described by Herodotus (book v. chap. 16), the subject did not attract much attention until vestiges of similar erections were found in other parts of Europe. In 1839, the first crannoge was discovered by Mr. W. R. Wilde, one of the secretaries of the Koyal Irish Academy. After draining the small lake of Lagore, in the county of Meath, a circular mound, which had been an island, was discovered. It was thickly strewn with bones, and as these were being removed for manure, the island was found to be of artificial construction. Its dia- meter was about 140 feet, and it was formed by upright oak piles seven feet long, mortised into oak planks laid upon the sand and marl at the bottom of the water. The piles were united at the top by cross beams, and the space inclosed was divided into compartments filled with bones and black peaty earth. A second tier of piles was also observed rising from the lower tier. The bones were found to be those of horses, asses, oxen, sheep, dogs, &c. ; and amongst them were a large number of swords, knives, spears, cooking- utensils, and ornaments. Mr. Wilde’s discovery was followed by the discovery of several other crannoges in Ireland, some of them perfectly artificial, and others partly natural and partly artificial. Crannoges are mentioned in the an- nals of Ireland as early as the 9th century, and continued to make a figure in history till the 17th century. In the winter of 1853, on account of the continued drought, the Lake of Zurich was unusually low, and the inhabitants of the village of Meilen endeavoured to regain a piece of land from the lake. During the process, the remains of rows of deeply-driven piles were discovered. About them were found a large quantity of weapons, tools, and utensils of very primitive form and make. On close examination, it was found that the piles had supported a platform, and that the whole building resembled the cran- noges of Ireland. Since that time, many cran- noges have been found in the upper and lower lakes of Constance, thirty in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the lake of Neufch&,tel. The lake- dwellings of Switzerland resemble those described by Herodotus more closely than the Celtic cran- noges. There is no mention of them in history, but their remains prove that they are ancient. Since 1857, the traces of crannoges have been found in nearly every part of Scotland ; and re- mains of lake-dwellings have been discovered in Savoy, Upper Italy, Hanover, Prussia, and Den- mark. Traces of a not very certain kind of cran- noge were observed in draining a mere at Wret- ham Hall, near Thetford, in Norfolk. The lake- dwelling system must have arisen in the stone age, and endured through the bronze age, till, at least, the introduction of iron and the Roman sway in Helvetia. This fact is supported by the discovery of several iron swords, about three feet CUANTARA 137 CRIBBAGE long, with blades somewhat over two inches in width, and iron scabbards, by Colonel Schwab, in the lakes of Bienne and Neufch^tel, which are in- disputably of the same type as those recognised as Romano-British and Gallo-Roman— that is, of the late Roman period, when the influence of an alien taste becomes visible in Roman manu- factures. CRANTARA, or FIERY CROSS, hran’- tar-a (Gaelic, crean tarigh, the cross of shame), was a military signal employed in the Scottish highlands for collecting the distant and scattered clansmen to the standard of their chief. It was a firebrand, or wooden cross, which, after being dipped in the blood of a goat, was sent by a swift-footed messenger to the nearest hamlet, where he delivered it without uttering a word but the name of the place of rendezvous. The fleetest runner of the hamlet was immediately despatched with it to the next, and so on, till all had received notice. It was understood to de- nounce destruction by fire and sword against all who refused to obey the summons, and was called the Cross of Shame, because disobedience implied infamy. It was in use among the ancient Scandinavians, from whom the Highlanders ap- pear to have borrowed it. CRAYON, Jcaaif -on (Fr., crayon, a pencil; craie, chalk), the name of a pencil of any kind in France, but applied more particularly in this country to pieces of charcoal, and black, white, and red chalk, used for drawing on various kinds of tinted paper, and for sketching cartoons, or the outlines of paintings of considerable size on canvas. The best black crayons are made of a soft black earth found in Italy, and the best white ones of a fine kind of French chalk. Crayons are also made by mixing vegetable and mineral colouring matter with pipe-clay or chalk, and giving consistency and adhesiveness to the mass by the addition of a little milk, gum-water, wax, or soap. CRENEL, OR CRENELLE, icre-neV (Lat., crena, a notch). — The embrasures in battlements are so called because they resemble notches taken out of the parapet. A wall surmounted by a battlement is said to be crenellated. {See Bat- tlement.) In Heraldiy, is a term implying that the outline of an ordinary is like that of the battlements of a wall. CREOLE, Icre'-ole, is a corruption of the Spanish criollo, a name which was originally given to all the descendants of Spaniards born in America and the West Indies. It was after- wards applied to the descendants of other Euro- peans, who were hence distinguished as French Creoles, Danish Creoles, &c. As now used, it is applied to such as have been born within or near the tropics ; and it includes persons of all colours, which has led to the common idea that it implies an admixture more or less of African blood. In this country it is commonly applied to one born in South America or the West Indies, of European parents. CRESCENDO, Tcres-shen’-do, in Music, a term employed to signify that the notes in the passage over which it is placed are to be gradu- ally swelled. CRESCENT, kres'-sent, a representation of the half moon with the horns turned upwards. It is now the emblem of the Turkish empire, but was previously that of the Greek or Byzantine empire ; and on many churches in Russia are crescents, surmounted by a cross. Turkish Order of the Crescent — An order founded in i8oi by the Sultan Selim III. ; but as Mahometans are forbidden to wear such decorations, it is conferred only on Christians who have done service to the State. The order was suggested by a crescent adorned with dia- monds, which the Sultan presented to Lord Nelson in 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, being worn by that distinguished admiral on his coat. Duke Rene’s Order. — In 1464, Rene, Duke of Anjou, brother of the King of Naples, instituted an order of the crescent, for the honour of God, the defence of the Church, the encouragement of noble actions, and the glory of the founder. The badge was a crescent of gold, with the motto “Loz” (laus). The Duke of Anjou and the King of Sicily were sovereigns of the order, which did not survive its founder. In Heraldry, a crescent is employed as a bearing or charge, and as a difference designating the second son and his descendants. CRESSET, kres'-set (Fr., croisette, a small cross), a light set upon a beacon, lighthouse, or watchtower. It also signifies a torch or lamp, or a small grate containing fire, and used in old times for lighting streets. Cressets were origin- ally surmounted by a small cross, from which custom they derive their name. CREST, krest (Lat., crista, a tuft), a portion of the armorial bearings of a nobleman or gentle- man entitled to bear coat-armour, commonly used without the shield, being painted on the doors of carriages, and engraved on plate and signet- rings. In the days of chivalry, the crest or cog- nizance of the wearer was borne on the helmet. It was made of leather or light wood, gilded and painted, and a wreath of twisted silk was fastened round the lower part, where it was attached to the helmet. In modern times the crest is always drawn on a wreath composed of the principal metal and colour occurring in the bearer’s coat of arms, the coils being of metal and colour alter- nately. Sometimes the crest rests on a cap of maintenance. The custom of bearing a symboli- cal figure on the helmet is of very great antiquity. Orests are supposed to have been introduced into England in the 12th century ; they were then used as a means of recognising the bearer in a tournament. Richard I. assumed the crest of a lion, and with few exceptions it has been adopted as the crest of the royal family of England. They were generally assumed at the pleasure of the wearer ; but there are cases in which crests have been specially granted to families which bear them. CRESTE, OR CREST TILE, the name given to tiles running along the ridge of the roof of a building, and surmounted with trefoils, or any other ornament, as a finish. They are chiefly used in Gothic architecture. CRIBBAGE, krih'-haj (Ang.-Sax.), a, game of cards played by two persons. There are the five-card and the six-card games. The five-card is the original game, and affords the greatest scope for the exercise of skill. The points are scored upon a board, and sixty-one points consti- tute the game. All the kings, queens, knaves, and tens, count as ten each, and the rest of the cards according to their ordinary value. The points which reckon for the game are fifteens, thirty-ones, sequences, flashes (the cards in one hand being of the same suit), pairs, &c. After dealing, the players gather up their cards, and having taken out two each, place them, with their CRICKET 138 CROP faces down, on the table. Tliese four cards form the “ crib,” which becomes the property of the dealer, under certain conditions. Points are scored in two different ways in cribbage — first in play, and second in reckoning up the cards held. After the crib is put out, the pack is cut by the non-dealer, and a card turned up by the dealer. When this card is a knave, it is called “ two for his heels,” and counts two to the dealer ; and a knave held in hand, of the same suit as the turn- up card, entitles the player to score one ; it is called “one for his nob.” Six-card cribbage is played in a similar manner. When three parties play at the game, each plays on his own account, but in four-handed cribbage, there are partners, as in whist. CRICKET (Sax., cryce^ a stick), a well- known national English game, played upon a level piece of turf, generally about one or two acres in extent. In a full game of cricket, there are eleven players on each side, two umj)ires and two scorers. Although an ordinary game is usually played with eleven on each side, there is no restriction as to numbers ; the parties may stipulate for eleven against twenty-two, twelve against twenty, &c. ^\Tien a game is about to be played, the wickets, or stumps (three with movable cross pieces, or bails, on the top), are placed opposite to each other, three on either side, at a distance of twenty-two yards. Each wicket is twenty-seven inches in height above ground, and the three are connected at the top by two loose bails, four inches long each. Two lines are then drawn upon the grass at either end. The first is in a line with the stumps, and is called the “bowling-crease ; ” the other is jjarallel, four feet in front of the wicket, and is called the “ popping-crease.” Having chosen sides and tossed for innings, the players on the side which is out take their places. The bowler places him- self behind the wicket from which he intends to bowl, and the wicket-keeper directly behind the wicket opposite to him. The rest of the men on the outside are called fielders, and consist of the long-stop, point, cover-point, short-slip, long-slip, middle-wicket, long-field off, long-field on, and leg. Two batsmen take up their posts before the wickets, and the bowler delivers the ball towards the opposite batsman, his object being either to hit the wickets or to bowl it in such a way that the batsman may play a catch. In either of these cases the striker is out. But if the batsman can hit away the ball to such a distance that he is able to exchange places with the opposite bats- man, he scores one run to his side. Every time an exchange of places safely occurs, a run is scored to the side who has the innings. The de- livery of every four balls constitutes an “over,” when the bowling is transferred to the opposite wicket, and aU the fielders change their positions accordingly. When a batsman is put out, another of the players on his side takes his place, and so on, tiU all the players but one are put out, when those who have had their “ innings ” field out, and those who have been fielding out take their innings. Each side has two innings, and the party that makes the largest score wins the game. Though comparatively modern in its origin, cricket seems tohave taken the precedence of all other national games. Some counties, as Surrey, Sussex, Kent, Middlesex, Gloucester, Nottingham, and Lancashire have especial re- putation for cricket, and in their county clubs are included the finest amateur and professional 1 players. Nearly every town, village, and school possesses its^ cricket -ground ; and cricketers are to be found in all classes of the community, from peers to peasants. No game tends more to the development of muscular strength and activity than cricket. The Marylebone club is the recognised head and chief authority of the English clubs. Since 1859, English cricketers have visited Australia, New Zealand, and America ; and, in return, Australian elevens, of extraordinary proficiency in the game, have played in this country. CRIMP, a slang name for an agent who sup- plies ships with seamen, receiving so much per head for his trouble. Some of these persons have a bad reputation for entrapping sailors by false representations, or by the supply of drink to make engagements ; and their practices have been much restrained in recent years by the operation of the Mercantile Marine Act, and the establishment of registries and sailors’ homes. CRINOLINE, Tcrin' -o-leen (Lat., cnnis, hair), a stiff fabric formerly made of horse-hair, and used in order to distend female apparel. The term originated among the Parisian milliners, and at first was only applied to this particular kind of hair-cloth ; but it has been since ap- plied to every kind of hoop by which women’s dresses are expanded. Hoops formed an article of attire in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called fardingales. They went out of fashion in James I.’s reign ; but came in again in 1711, and remained in fashion till the reign of George IV. Crinolines of enormous size came into fashion about 1856, and lasted for nine or ten years. Leech’s caricatures of the time, in Punch, scarcely exaggerate the dimensions of this absurd, and frequently dangerous, article of costume. CROCHET, kroshe'-ai (French, a hook,) or- namental work made by looping cotton into floral and other patterns by means of a hooked needle. Elegant and elaborate designs are pro- duced, and squares of crochet work are in favour as loose covers for chairs and couches. CROCKET, krok’-et, an ornamental projec- tion on the edges of the sides of pinnacles, canopies, spires, &c., consisting chiefly of leaves and knots of foliage, and occasionally of animals. They were small and insigniflcant when they were first introduced ; but they became larger and bolder in the Decorated and Perpendicular Eng- lish styles. CROFT (Ang.-Sax.), a small piece of land rented for tillage or feeding of cattle. In some parts of Scotland, especially in some of the western islands, this kind of petty farming is adopted, and those who rent the land are known as crofters, a poor and hard-working class of men. CROMLECH, kroni'-lek (Celtic, crom, circle, and lech, a stone), a circle of erect stones erected in pre-historic times, of which Stonehenge in Wiltshire is a well-known example. The name is also commonly given to a rude structure of two or more unhewn stones, with a larger stone placed horizontally on the top. {See Dolmen.) Crom- lechs exist in England, Scotland, Ireland, the Channel Islands, France, and Germany, and similar erections have been found in India and America. CROP, krop (Ang.-Sax.), a term applied to CROQUET 139 CROWN the quantity of corn, roots, grass, &c., grown on a piece of land at one time. The order in which different crops are made to succeed each other was not made a subject of scientific research till the middle of last century. CROQUET, Icro'-lcai, a garden game, played by ladies and gentlemen, with wooden balls and mallets with long handles. It is played on a smooth lawn, and the aim of the players is to strike the balls so that they may pass through small hoops or arches of thick wire arranged in certain positions. The game may be played by any number of persons; but two sides of four each make the best game. The players, for dis- tinction sake, take balls and mallets of different colours, one side generally taking the darker colours, the other the lighter. Croquet has to a considerable extent been superseded, as a fashionable game, by lawn-tennis. CROSS, krawss, Crosses used as emblems areof various forms : in the Latin cross, the horizontal bar crosses theperpendicular near the top, while, in the Greek cross, which is similar to the cross of St. George, the horizontal crosses the perpendicu- lar in the centre. In the cross of St. Andrew, the two bars cross each other diagonally. After the union of Scotland with England, the cross of St. George and that of St. Andrew were blended, forming the union jack. The Maltese cross is merely the Greek cross, with an ornamental ex- pansion of the ends. Monumental and Memorial Crosses were often raised to mark either a boun- dary or the entrance to a sanctuary. The most ancient crosses of this character are the Runic crosses, supposed to be of Scandinavian origin ; and many striking remains of these crosses are to be found in Great Britain and Ireland. In the island of Iona, there were, it is said, formerly 360 crosses of this kind. Monumental crosses were erected by Edward I. on the places where the body of Queen Eleanor rested while being borne to burial at Westminster, and are known as Eleanor crosses. The crosses of Charing, Cheapside, and Waltham and Northampton, be- longed to these. The latter two still remain, and a reproduction of the cross at Charing has been erected in front of the Charing Cross Station in the Strand. The superb memorial of Prince Albert in Kensington Gardens, and the Scott memorial at Edinburgh, are fine develop- ments of the principle of the old Eleanor crosses. Market or town crosses were originally stands from which the ecclesiastics preached. St. Paul’s cross was one of the most famous of these. It was situated near the present site of St. Paul’s Cathedral, and was essentially a place of preach- ing for the town. It was, in its latter days, in the form of a plain pulpit, made of wood, and was surmounted by a Maltese cross. Round it were arpnged seats for the audience. It was displeasing to the Puritans, and was demolished by order of the Parliament. Nearly every old town in England has either a town cross or the remains of one. In Heraldry, a cross is esteemed the most honour- aWe charge on an escutcheon. As many as seventy distinct forms of the heraldic cross have been enume- rated by writers on the subject. CROSS, VICTORIA, a reward which may be granted to a soldier or sailor of any rank to mark any distinguished act of valour. It was first instituted in 1856, at the conclusion of the Crimean war. It is in the form of a Maltese cross, and is composed of metal taken from the Russian guns captured at Sebastopol. In the centre of the cross is the royal crown surmounted by a lion, and on a scroll below is the legend, “For Valour.” On the clasp two branches of laurel are represented, and the cross hangs from it supported by the letter V. The ribbon worn by soldiers is red, and that worn by sailors blue. Each recipient of the Victoria cross receives a pension of £10 per annum. CROSS BOW. {See Aebalest and Akch- EKT.) CROWN, Jcrovm (Lat., corona)^ an ornament placed upon the head, denoting regal or imperial dignity. Crowns were originally garlands formed of leaves, and in that form have been used by almost every nation. The regal crown first ori- ginated in the diadem, which was a fillet fastened round the head and tied behind. It is represented in the statues of Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and the kings of Syria. Kings were, however, generally distinguished by a fillet of a different colour from that usually worn. It was mostly in the form of a golden band, which, in time, began to form the basis of raised ornamental work, studded with costly jewels. The crown was used by the ancient Greeks as an emblem of office, as an ornament for victors at public games, and as a mark of dis- tinction for citizens who had specially served their country. Amongst the Romans the crown was still more generally used. The corona oh- sidionalis was the crown most highly prized.^ It was bestowed by an army or beleaguered garrison on the general who rescued them. It was made of leaves or wild fiowers gathered on the spot. The civic crown, composed of oak-leaves and acorns, was the crown next in esteem. It was bestowed upon any soldier who saved the life of a Roman citizen in battle. The man who gained it was entitled to many privileges. The mural crown, made of gold and surmounted with turrets or battlements, was bestowed upon the soldier who first scaled the ramparts of a besieged city. The corona vallaris was bestowed on the person who first mounted the rampart or entered the camp of an enemy ; and the corona navalis was bestowed on him who first boarded an enemy’s ship. Both the mural and civic crowns are used at the present time in heraldry. The triumphal crown was of three kinds, and was bestowed upon generals who had obtained a triumph. Several other crowns of different forms were worn by the Romans. Among these may be mentioned the sacerdotal crown, sometimes made of gold, some- times of ears of corn, and sometimes of olive- leaves. It was worn by the priest and bystanders during a sacrifice. The funeral or sepulchral crown was placed upon the head of the dead. In Greece these crowns were usually made of parsley. The convivial crown was a wreath of fiowers worn on festive occasions. The nuptial crown was a wreath of verbena plucked by the bride and worn by her. The natal crown was a chaplet hung over the door of a chamber where a child was born. The crown of Great Britain is a circlet of gold, surmounted alternately with four crosses and four fleur-de-lis. Four arch-diadems, en- riched with pearls, arise from these, and close under a mound ensigned with a cross pattee. The gold circle is also adorned with diamonds, , sapphires, rubies, pearls, &c. The crowns worn by princes and noblemen are called coronets ; that of the Prince of Wales is composed of a CROWN-WORK 140 CUIRASS circle or fillet of gold ; four crosses pattees are placed round the edge between the same number of fieurs-de-lis. From the two centre crosses a bent arch extends, surmounted by a mound and cross. The coronet of a duke is a circle of gold, richly chased, having on the edge eight straw- berry-leaves ; that of a marquis, a circle set round ■with four strawberry-leaves, and as many pearls interposed on pyramidal points. In an earl’s coronet there are eight pearls, set on pyramidal points, and eight strawberry-leaves, which are lower than the pearls ; that of a viscount is sur- rounded with pearls only, the number being un- limited ; a baron’s coronet has only six pearls, all at equal distances. All the coronets of the Bri- tish nobility, as at present worn, surround caps of crimson velvet, turned up with ermine. Vis- counts and barons had no coronets allowed them until after Queen Elizabeth’s reign. CROWN-W ORK, krown'-wurk. {See Foeti- FIOATION.) CRUSCA, ACCADEMIA DELLA, ka ak-ka-dai' -me-a del' -la (Ital. , the academy of the bran or chaff), was the name of one of the earliest, and one of the most celebrated of the societies of modern Europe. It was founded at Florence in 1582, chiefly through the exertions of the poet Antonio Francesco Grazzini, and was so called from its chief object being to sift or purify the national language. The great work of the academy was the “ Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca ” (or Dictionary of the Italian Lan- guage), which was first published at Venice in 1612, and is still regarded as the standard author- ity on the Italian language. This society has re- cently been incorporated mth two other societies, under the name of the Royal Florentine Academy. CRYPTOGRAPHY. {See Secket Weit- ING.) CRYSTAL PALACE. — After the closing of the Great Exhibition of 1851, a great desire was felt to retain in some permanent form, the remarkable edifice of iron and glass which had been erected in Hyde Park from the designs of Sir Joseph Paxton ; and in December, 1851, the materials were sold for £70,000 to a company, and a splended site, on the summit of a hill, partly in the Parish of Sydenham, Kent, and partly in Norwood, Surrey, having been obtained, a larger and more beautiful structure was erected, in which the materials of the Hyde Park Exhibi- tion building were utilized, an arched roof for the nave and two fine transepts being added. Very extensive grounds were laid out in the finest style of landscape gardening under the direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, and a number of fountains formed, far surpassing anything of the kind previously existing in this country, and more than rivalling the famous fountains of Versailles. Under the direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, Mr. Owen Jones, Mr. Digby Wyatt, and others, the interior of the nave of the building formed abeautiful conservatory and winter garden and a number of courts were formed, illustrating and reproducing by casts and reconstructions the plastic art and the architecture of many ages and countries. The first column of the building was raised on the 5th August, 1852, by Mr. S. Lang, M.P., and on the loth of June, 1854, the Crystal Palace was opened by the Queen. Fetes and re- ceptions of the most splendid character have since been given. The Emperor Napoleon and the Empress Eugenie, were received in great state in April 20, 1855 ; the Sultan of Turkey, and the Viceroy of Egypt in July, 1867; the Shah of Persia in 1873 ; the Czar of Russia in 1874 ; and the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1875, many com- memorations on a colossal scale have taken place. In Jvme, 1857, the first of the series of the Handel Festivals were held, the chief works of the great composer being performed by such a number of vocal and instrumental performers as hadnever before been unitedin an orchestra. The vocalists numbered 2,765, and the instrumenta- lists 393, conducted by Sir Michael Costa. On the third day, the King of the Belgians, the Prince Consort, and 26,827 persons were present. An orchestra of extraordinary size was con- structed especially for the occasion, and one of the finest organs in England erected. There were repetitions of the Festival, with an augmented number of the performers, in 1862, 1865, 1868, 1871, 1874, and 1877. The ordinary concerts at the Palace have attained great reputation. On the 30th of December, 1866, the north -wing was destroyed by fire, but was restored and re- opened in February, 1868. A very fine aquarium is now one of the most attractive features of the Palace. The Building and Grounds. — The structure is 1,600 feet long ; the width throughout the nave is 312 feet, and at the central transept 384 feet ; the height of the nave is no feet above the ground floor, 74 feet high in the transept. Two spacious galleries traverse the building ; and in the nave are marble basins with water lilies, glass and bronze fountains, flower beds of exquisite beauty, and innumerable pendant baskets filled with flowers. Groups of statues intermingle with the “greenery.” In the central transept is the grand orchestra, with room for four thousand per- formers, ana the great organ of 4,568 pipes, constructed by Gray and Davidson. Adjoining the transept are the opera theatre and the concert room ; and in the galleries are a picture gallery and reading-room. The chief courts are the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Alhambra, Byzantine, Middle Age, Renaissance, Italian, and Pompeian. There are also courts in which the results of modern art and technical skill are ex- hibited. From the Palace the descent is made by a succession of terraces, ornamented with statuary, to the grounds. The fountains are the largest in ex- istence, some of them throwing water to the height of nearly 250 feet. There are also water-towers and water-falls. The water is supplied from an artesian well 575 feet deep, and forced by steam power to the summit of one of the end towers, 284 feet high, from which it descends to feed the fountains. There are ten miles of water pipes beneath the grounds. In the lower part of the gardens is a large lake, with pleasure boats, and on an island are the extraordinary repro- ductions by Mr. Waterhouse of colossal antediluvian animals. A cricket ground and other accessions of popular amusement add to the attractions of the ex- tensive and beautiful grounds. The northern tower can be ascended, and the view over six counties ex- tends to the estuary of the Thames. CUCKING-STOOL. {See Ducking- stool.) CUE, ku, the last -words of a speech sj)oken on the stage which the actor who is to answer catches and regards as an intimation to begin. It is also applied to any hint given to an actor on the stage, as to what he has to do or say. {See also Billiaeds.) CUIRASS, kwe-ras' (Fr., cuir, leather), a protection for the breast and back of a soldier, originally made of thick leather, but now of metal and consisting of a back and breastplate buckled together. It is still worn by the Life- guards and the Horseguards. Cuirassiers was the name given in continental armies to heavy CUISSARTS 141 CURLING cavalry wearing cuirasses, or metal back and breastplates. CUISSARTS, kwes'-sarts (Fr., cuisse, the thigh), in old armour, strips of ironplate worn round the thighs and rivetted together. The better form of the word is “ cuisses.” In Shake- si)eare’s King Henry IV., Sir Richard Vernon says : “ I saw young Harry with his beaver on, his cuisses on his thighs, gallantly armed.” CULVERIN, kuV-ver-in (Fr., covlevrine), the name of a piece of ordnance, used in the i6th and 17th centuries, of great length, and formed to throw a ball to a considerable distance. It was si inches in the bore and threw a ball about 18 lbs. in weight. The bore of the demi-culverin was 4 inches, and the weight of the ball about 9 lbs. “Queen Elizabeth’s pocket pistol,” at Dover Castle, is a culverin. CUNEIFORM, ku-ne' -e-form (Lat., cuneus, a wedge, and forma, form), is the name given to an ancient species of written language found on the monuments of the ancient Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Persian empires. It is so called from the letters being composed of parts resembling a wedge, a nail, or an arrow-head. It is found carved in rocks and sculptures, or stamped on bricks and tiles ; and is met with on the ancient monuments of Persepolis, and other cities of the Persian empire, among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, and even in Egypt. It appears to have been first employed in Assyria and Media, and to have subsequently spread over the whole extent of the Persian empire. There are three distinct alphabets or kiiuls of cuneiform writing, and which are mostly found together in parallel columns, being translations of each other. The most ancient of these is the Assyrian, which consists of about 400 different characters. The second of these is called the Median, which is a modification of the first, and consists of about 100 characters. The most recent is the Persian, which consists of only 39 to 44 letters. It is much more refined than the others, and the forms are much less complicated. The letters here are all very distinctly formed, none being at all doubtful, and the words are separated from each other by an oblique stroke. This language is believed to be the original of the modern Persian, and to be nearly allied to the Sanscrit. In the Assyrian inscriptions, the different groups of wedge-shaped characters represent, first, ideas, but having been adopted from a foreign people speak- ing a different language, the words which origi- nally corresponded to these ideas were entirely different from the Assyrian words representing the same ideas ; second, syllables used in spelling words without any reference to the meaning of the characters are representatives of ideas. Thus, one of the great difficulties to be overcome in trans- lating any given passage is, to determine whether a group is iised as an ideograph or a phonograph; and to this is added the still greater difficulty that the same character as an ideograph often represents several different ideas, and as a phono- graph several different syllables. But assistance has been afforded by some of the clay tablets written in columns, the first containing the ideo- graph ; the second, their meaning in phonographs ; and in some tablets is a third column, giving the meaningof the ideograph in the Assyrian language. As far back as 1618, inscriptions in wedge-shaped, or “arrow-head” characters had been noticed among the ruins of Persepolis ; but there was no clue to the meaning. In 1674, M. Chardon copied at great length some of the inscriptions ; and in 1700, Thomas Hyde, a learned Orientalist, gave considerable attention to the subject, but came to the conclusion that the “so-called” inscriptions were merely fanciful designs, efforts to obtain an ornamental effect by variation of groups of wedge-shaped figures. Others supposed they were only accidental chippings made by masons, and one German investigator decided that the marks were made by worms. The elder Niebuhr was convinced that the marks were alphabetical in character, and other continental scholars agreed with him though unable to obtain any clue to the meaning. In 1802, Grotefend, an eminent philologist of Hanover, announced that he had been able to trace a complete alpha- bet. Little further progress was made rmtil 1835, when Sir Henry Rawlinson examined and copied the famous inscription of Behistun, in Persia, engraved on the perpendicular side of a lofty mountain, 300 feet above the level of the plain, and only reached with great difficulty. It was found that there were three inscriptions in different forms of the cunieform characters, varying in some respects, but partaking of the same general character, Rawlinson studied these inscriptions, and was at length rewarded by be- ing enabled to translate them, and ascertain, with the aid of his knowledge of the Persian language, the sound value of each character, and to gain an insight into the grammatical construction. The study was eagerly followed up by foreign and English scholars, and many translations have been made of the inscriptions on the monuments and fragments recently discovered. CUPOLA. {See Dome.) CUR, ker (British, cor, anything small), a term commonly applied to small dogs of little value and mongrel breed ; but more strictly ap- plied by some naturalists to dogs of small size, but active, intelligent, and easily domesticated. Of such dogs, the terrier is the type. CURFEW, kur'-few (Fr., couvre feu, cover- fire), the ringing of a bell as a signal to the inha- bitants to extinguish their fires. This practice originated in England through William the Con- queror, who ordained, under severe penalties, that, upon the ringing of a bell at eight o’clock in the evening, all lights and fires should be put out, and every one should go to bed. The custom of ringing the curfew-bell about eight o’clock is still kept up in many places, though its original significance is lost. The law by which it was ordered to be rung was repealed by Henry I. , in 1 100. The practice of ringing the curfew-bell existed on the Continent long before the Norman conquest. CURLING, kef -ling (Teut), a favourite sport played upon the ice in Scotland. The sport is regulated by certain rules issued by the Cale- donian Curling Club, and artificial shallow pieces of water are maintained for the purpose of play- ing it. The game is played with flat round stones about 9 inches in diameter, and from 30 to 45 lbs. in weight. Each stone, of which every player has a pair, has a handle. A piece of ice is chosen, about 35 yards long and 8 or 9 feet broad, which is called the rink. The players choose sides, and points with circles round them, called tees, are marked off at either end. The number or points required to make game is usually 31, and the sides play alternately. The CURTAIN 142 CYMRI principal object of the curler is to drive his stone towards the tee. Much depends upon throwing it with strength, as well as discretion ; for it is often necessary to drive away the stone of an ad- versary which has obtained a favourable place. The game is generally played with great keenness. It has of late years been introduced into England and Canada. CURTAIN, hurt'-n, a drapery covering a window, which can be drawn aside by means of rings running on a rod, and looped up in an orna- mental manner at the sides. Some very rich and expensive fabrics are used for this purpose in upholstery, generally harmonizing in colour and style with the furniture of the room. Curtains of white muslin or lace have a pleasing effect in summer from their lightness and coolness. Cur- tains form part of the drapery of old-fashioned beds ; and in hot climates muslin curtains are used to enclose the bed, as a protection against insects, while not obstructing the necessary access ■of air. In a theatre, a large curtain hangs in front of the stage, and is drawn up when the performance begins. In Fortification, curtain is the name given to that part of the rampart built between the batteries, and consequently connecting their flanks. (See Fortifica- tion.) CURSE OF SCOTLAND, kers, a popular term applied to the nine of diamonds in a pack of playing-cards. The probable explanation of the phrase refers to the hatred entertained by the Scotch against John Dalrymple, Earl of Stair, on account of his connection with the massacre of Glencoe, in which every man under seventy years of age was killed, and a large number of women and children died by cold and hunger. By some reports, the order for the massacre was signed on the back of a nine of diamonds card ; but the more probable origin of the phrase con- sists in the fact that the coat-of-arms borne by Dalrymple was “ or, on a ground saltire azure, nine lozenges of the field.” The resemblance which these nine lozenges bore to the nine of dia- monds probably gave the origin to this strange term. CUSP. — In Architecture, the term is applied to the points formed by the meeting of curves, in the interior of trefoils, quatre-foils, &c., and in the ornamental stone tracery of church windows these points are often adorned with foliage. The cusp was introduced towards the close of the first period of Gothic architecture, and became a marked feature, in the Decorated English and Perpendicular English styles. CUTLASS, hut! -las (Fr., coutelas), a broad heavy sword with a basket-hilt of iron, mostly used by sailors in boarding an enemy’s vessel. {^ee Broadswobd.) CYCLE, si'-kl (Gr., kuJclos, a circle), the name given to any period of time, or a certain number of years, in which certain events and phenomena recur at intervals, in the same re- gular order of succession, coming exactly to the same point again at the same time, or very nearly so, at the commencement of each cycle. An ex- planation of the most remarkable of these cycles, and those in common use, will be found under their respective names. {See Oalippic Period, Golden Number, Indiction, Julian Period, Metonic Cycle, Solar Cycle.) CYCLOP./EDIA. {See Encyclopaedia.) CYCLOPEAN ARCHITECTURE, si-klo' -pe-an (Gr., kuklops, round-eyed, from kuklos, a circle, and ops, an eye), an expression applied to any wall that is formed of large, irregular, unhewn stones, piled together without mortar or cement of any kind. Walls of this description are to be seen at Tiryus, Mycenae, and Epirus, in Greece, that were most probably built by the ancient Pelasgi ; and similar speci- mens of building, though not on the same gigantic scale, exist in Italy, Asia Minor, and Peru, as well as in some parts of the British Isles ; among which may be mentioned the Laws, near Dundee, in Scotland, and the Giant’s Sconce, near Cole- raine, in Ireland. The name was given to walls of this kind because they were supposed to have been built by the Cyclopes, one-eyed giants, who were the workmen of Vulcan. CYCLORAM A, si-klo-ra' -ma, a picture representing a landscape, wound round on slowly revolving cylinders, producing an effect on the spectator of motion. CYMBALS, sim/-bals (Lat., cymbalum), musical instruments of percussion, the origin of which is very ancient. Xenophon says they were invented by the goddess Cybele. When struck together, the cymbals produce a loud harsh tone of no fixed pitch. The best are obtained from China and Turkey ; and all the attempts of Europeans to discover the metals of which they are made have hitherto proved abortive. Although best adapted for military bands, modern composers often introduce them in the orchestra with very good effect. CYMBEL, sim'-bel, an organ stop, consisting of three ranks of pipes. In some old continental organs, the cymbel stop acted on small bells. CYMRI. {See Celts.) D. D is the fourth letter of our, as well as of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew alphabets. The Greek name is delta, the Hebrew daleth ; and our form of the letter, which is the same as the Latin, is evidently derived from the Greek A , by round- ing off the right-hand angle into a curve. The Hebrew daleth signifies a door, and in its earlier form it bore a manifest resemblance to the door or opening of a tent. D is the medial letter of the order of dentals or palato-dentals, and readily interchanges with those of the same order ; as German tie/, deep ; traum, dream ; du, thou ; dein, thine. It also readily interchanges with the letter I ; as, Greek dapsiles, Latin lapsUis ; Latin cauda, Spanish cola. {See L.) The Latin D is frequently changed into z, s, or ss in Ger- man ; as duo, zwei, two ; decern, zehn, ten. D also seems to manifest a kind of affinity for the letter n, and is drawn by it into a number of words to which it does not radically belong ; as Latin tener, English tender. Di followed by a vowel is sometimes changed into j ; as, diurnal. DA CAPO 143 DANCING journal. D, or as it was formerly written, lo, is the Koman numeral for 500. In Music, D is the second note of the diatonic scale, answering to the re of the Italians. DA CAPO, OR D.C., daka'-po (Ital.), in Music, an expression placed at the end of a piece to indicate that the performer is to return to the beginning of the movement and finish where the wording is marked. DACTYL, dak-til (Cr,, daktulos, a finger), in Greek and Latin poetry, is the name of a foot or measure consisting of a long and two short syllables — as in cdrmind omnibus. It is so called from its resemblance to a finger, which has a long and two short joints. Dactylic verses are hexa- meters which end in a dactyl instead of a sjiondee. DACTYLOLOGY, dak-til-oV -o-je (Gr., dak- tulos, a finger, and logos, discourse), denotes a mode of discoursing with the fingers, the art of communicating ideas by means of the fingers. {See Deaf and Dumb.) DADO, dai'-do (Ital., dado, a die or cube), the name of the square plinth or pedestal on which a column or statue is sometimes placed. It is in the form of a cube — whence its name. In the internal decoration of buildings, the term is often applied to the boarding or paneling which covers the lower part of the walls of a room, finished by the skirting-board below, and an impost, or small projecting cornice, called a chair-rail, above. The dado of a room, in- cluding its three parts, is about three feet in height. It is commonly found in houses of the 17th and i8th centuries ; and has been revived by sesthetic decorators of the present day. DAG, dag (Fr., dague), the name of a hand- gun or pistol, invented in the early part of the i6th century, resembling the pistol in form, but having the butt straight and flat, and terminating in a square surface instead of being curved and finished by a rounded knob like that of the pistol. DAGGER, dag'-ger (Fr., dague), a weapon consisting of a short blade, sometimes broad, two- edged, and tapering to a point, and sometimes triangular in form, like a bayonet, use4 for stab- bing at close quarters. DAGOBA. {See Tope.) DAIS, dais (Fr., dais). — In the common ac- ceptation of the word, the dais means the raised flooring at the upper end of a hall, on which the high table stands, and where the most dis- tinguished guests are seated, or the platform on which a throne, or chair of honour, is placed. This also seems to be the meaning of the term when it occurs in the works of old English poets and prose writers. In France, it means the canopy erected over a raised platform occupied by the sovereign at any reception or public cere- monial, as well as the platform itself ; and the canopy carried over the host or sacred wafer, when the priests are bearing it to the bedside of a dying man, is so called. Originally it most probably meant the canopy only, under which a throne, altar, font, or statue was placed ; and was next applied to the elevated platform on which such things were placed, and afterwards to any piece of flooring that was higher than the rest. DAME, daim (Lat., domina, a mistress), formerly a title of honour given to high-born ladies, in order to distinguish them from the wives of citizens and the ordinary commonality. The prefix ma was given to the word dame on ac- count of the great courtesy shown to ladies of high rank. Madame, “my lady,” was applied to a lady of title ; and in France, Notre Dame, our Lady, was applied to the Virgin Mary as a term of veneration and homage. The word dame, in England, is not much used, but in general signifies a married woman. The French word madame is shortened into madam, and is used in a similar sense. DANCE OF DEATH, danse, a term ap- plied to a certain class of allegorical representa- tions generally dating about the 14th century, and illustrative of the power of death over the human race. It was a drama performed in or near churches, and consisted of short dialogues between Death and twenty-four or more followers. It originated in Germany, but was afterwards greatly in vogue in France, where it was called la Danse Macabre, from St. Macarius, an Egyp- tian anchorite. Shortly after its introduction into France, pictorial representations of the dance began to be made, and remains of these are to be found not only in many places on the Continent, but also in Great Britain. The drama was altogether laid aside in the middle of the 15th century, and the pictures held the chief place of importance. Hitherto they had been placed only in the quiet cloisters of the convents, but now they were exhibited in public, and soon lost their original character. The grotesque idea of Death dancing with his victims was departed from by Holbein, who, availing himself of the subject, produced fifty-three distinct subjects for engraving, which he called “Imagines Mortis.” The originals are at St. Petersburg. The term “Dance of Death” was applied to the frenzied movements of the Flagellants about the end of the 14th century. {See Flagellants.) DANCETTE, dan-set', one of the eight pe- culiar forms of partition-lines recognised by Eng- lish heralds. It is a zig-zag line, the indentations of which are of a great size. DANCING, dans' -ing (Ger., tanzen), is the art of moving in measured steps, or adapting the movenients of the body to the sounds of music. There is no account of the origin of the practice of dancing among mankind. It is found to ex- ist among all nations, even the most rude and barbarous. Among the Jews, dancing seems to have formed part of the religious worship on some occasions, as may be seen from several passages in the Old Testament; as, “Let them praise His name in the dance,” Ps. cxlix. 4 ; and “ David danced before the Lord,” 2 Sam. vi. 14. The ancient Greeks made the art of dancing into a system, by which the different passions could be powerfully expressed. Homer mentions danc- ing at entertainments, and Aristotle ranks danc- ing with poetry. The Spartans compelled their children to practise dancing from the age of five ; they were led by men, and sang hymns and songs as they danced. The Phyrrhic dance was danced by the Spartan youths ; it was expressive of a sham fight. There were three kinds of dances among the ancients ; military dances, in- tended to make the body robust ; domestic dances, for amusement; and mediatorial dances, which were in use in expiations and sacrifices. The early Christians danced at their religious as- semblies, although there is no mention of the practice in the New Testament. In all parts of DANISH LANGUAGE 144 DATA India, dancing-girls, known as nautch -girls, or bayaderes, take part in festivals and solemnities. At the present day, dancing is a favourite amuse- ment as a social custom and healthful exer- cise. DANISH LANGUAGE AND LIT- ERATURE, dain'-ish . — The Danish language was originally a dialect of the so-called Old Norse, which, on account of the political superi- ority of the Danes over the other Scandinavians, was also called the “ Donsk Tunga,” — i.e., the Danish language. The Danish is the most changed of the languages derived from the Old Norse ; the Swedish and Norwegian being less so, and the Icelandic least of all. A considerable influence was exerted upon the language from contact with the Germans. The Reformation in- troduces another era in the history of the Danish language ; and the translation of the Bible into it gave it a flxed character, and raised it to the rank of a written tongue. As in Germany, so also in Denmark, a rage for everything French prevailed for a time, and many Gallic terms were then introduced. A re-action, however, took place in the latter half of the i8th century ; and, since the beginning of the 19th, much has been done to restore and maintain the purity of the Danish tongue, by the establishing of a taste for Old Norse studies, and by the writings of such men as Baggesen, Oehlenschlager, Grundtvig, and others. Since the union of Norway with Denmark, towards the end of the 14th century, the Danish has been the literary language of Norway ; and it is also the language of the educated classes, as well as that generally spoken in the towns. The modern Danish is one of the softest languages now spoken in Europe. When a foreigner hears it spoken for the flrst time, he hardly perceives any sounds in it except the vocalic, the consonants being so much softened in pronunciation that they scarcely appear. The vocalic system is hence very perfect ; and Dr. Rask has distinguished ten vowels, the sounds of which are all quite distinct. The inflections are few and simple, and the language is one that may be easily mastered. Although Denmark can scarcely be said to have possessed any national literature, properly so called, prior to the i8th century, yet its origin may be carried back to the time of the Reformation. The oldest remains of the Danish language do not ascend higher than the 12th century, and consist of laws of the early kings ; as the “ SkaanskeLov,”the“Sjellandske Lov,” &c. To the 12th century belong the works of the historians Saxo Grammaticus and Svend Aagesen, which, however, are in Latin. In the 13th century, we meet with what seems to be the oldest of the Danish heroic songs, or Kjampeviser, and which are still more numerous in the 14th. (Collected by Nyerup, Abrahamson, and Rabhek, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 1810-14; Supplemented by Rasmussen and Nyerup, 2 vols., 1821.) The subjects of the earlier of these poems are the deeds of giants and demi-gods, romantic tales and songs ; the later poems are more strictly historical. Many of these songs were fltted to ancient melo- dies, and are still sung. Like the German, the Danish owes its character as a written language to the Reformation. The greatest writer of this period in Denmark, and in a certain sense the founder of modern Danish literature, was Chris- tiern Pedersen (1480-1554), who, besides a num- ber of other works, had a principal hand in the translation of the Bible. The literature which thus received a stimulus from the Reformation at first specially took a direction towards history, as well as to investigations connected with northern antiquities. There appeared in the i6th and 17th centuries not only a number of works of the first importance on the history of the country, both in Danish and Latin, but there were begun, even in the i6th century, investiga- tions into the northern antiquities which have been so successfully followed up in recent times by Haldersen, Olavsen, Magnussen, Rask Rafor, Muller, Thomsen, Petersen, and others. The period of modern Danish poetry may be said to have commenced immediately after the Reforma- tion. At first the subjects were generally of a sacred nature, as we see in the works of Raach, E. Pontoppidan, and others. Arreboe, who was the first of their epic poets, describes, in his great work, the “ Hexameron,” the events of the first six days of creation. Danish poetry reached its first culmination during the time of the lyric poet Thomas Kingo (1634-1723) and his contem- porary Jorgen Sorterup. A new epoch com- menced with the genial and versatile Ludwig von Holberg, the creator of the Danish Stage. He, in the first half of the i8th century, and Ewald in the second, are considered to mark the golden age of Danish literature. The first truly national tragedy was Ewald’s “ Rolf Krage ; ” and beside him, as dramatists, stand Samsoe, Sander, and Thaarup. Among the other poets belonging to- this period, are Jens Baggesen, Tullin, Falster, Friman, Brunn, Zetlitz, the brothers Trojel, Pram, and others. A new impulse was given to poetic literature by Oehlenschlager (1779-1851), who had as contemporaries in the same field, Stoffeldt, Ingemann, Grundtvig, Heiberg, Over- skou, and others. Among the most recent poets are Herz, Blicher, Holst, Rosenhof, Winther Yon Hauch, P. L. Moller, Molbech, and Grundt- vig. As a poet and writer of short tales, Hans C. Andersen has acquired a European reputation, and Gjellerup, Schandorph, Skram, Drachmann, Havn, and Caril Etlar are successful writers of fiction. In the region of history and archseology are the names of P. E. Muller, N. M. Petersen, H. Engelstoft, J. Moller, Molbech, 'VYerlauff, Knudsen, Estrup, and Worsaae; while important historical works have hlso been produced by G. L. Bader, F. L. Jahn, L. C. Muller, R. Allen, Nathanson, Wegner, Ersley, Brun, Thorsoe, Nielsen, Boesen, and O. Muller. As publicists, are distinguished Dirckinck-Holmfeldt and Ost- wald ; as statisticians, A. Baggesen, Bergsoe, Nathanson, Ruf, and Ansehen. The services rendered by Schouw to physical geography, and by Oersted to physics and chemistry, are known and acknowledged far beyond the limits of their native country. Among theologians are Marten- sen, Mynster, Clausen, Nielsen, and Scharling ; and among jurists, A. S. Oersted, Algreen- Ussing, and Soren Kierkejaard occupy a first place. As a philologist and critic, Madvig has made himself a European reputation; while Westergaard, from his knowledge of the lan- guages of India and Persia, and Brondsted and Petersen, from their knowledge of classical anti- quity, have rendered good service to learning. DATA, dai'-ta (Lat., things given), in Geometry, are certain things or quantities which are given or determined by the conditions of a particular problem. In Philosophy, Medicine, &c., the facts from which an inference is drawn are called data. DATE 145 DEAF AND DUMB DATE, dait (Lat., datum, given), the time when an event happened, or when anything is to be done. The date of an event, or of a document, is often of great importance ; but it is frequently a matter of great difficulty to ascertain it cor- rectly. In all dates after 1582, it is necessary to ascertain whether the old or new style was used at the time and place specified. {See Calendar and Style.) Many old document, are dated from some particular service of the church on the day of writing ; and in some nations, for a great length of time, it was customary to date from the year of the monarch’s reign. DATIVE, dai'-tiv (Lat,, dativus, from do, I give), in the grammar of the Latin and some other languages is the name of the third case in the declension of nouns, and serves to denote participation by the noun in the action of the verb which accompanies it. DAVID’S DAY, ST,, dai'-vidz, is held on the ist of March, and was originally dedicated to St, David, archbishop of Menevia, now called St. David’s, in Pembrokeshire, where he died about 601. St. David is the patron saint of Wales, and is said, during the days of King Authur, to have won a victory over the Saxons. During the fight, the archbishop’s soldiers wore leeks in their caps, as distinctive marks. In memory of this conflict, the Welsh still wear the leek on St. David’s day. DAWK, OR DAK, dauTc, a mode of tra- velling adopted in India. The traveller is borne in a palanquin from station to station in his route, and his luggage or clothes are carried in boxes or baskets, called pettarahs, by separate bearers who accompany the palanquin. A tra- velling-carriage, with seats for four, is used upon the great trunk road from Calcutta to the Upper Provinces : it is called a horse-dawk ; but it is not generally in use in other parts of the country. DAWN, daun (Sax., dagian), the break of day, the twilight, or half-light that occurs between the first ai^pearance of light and the rising of the sun. DEAD LANGUAGES is a term employed to denote such languages as are now no longer spoken by any people or nation, in contradistinc- tion to such as are so spoken, which are known as living languages. DEAF AND DUMB, EDUCATION OF THE. — The education of the deaf and dumb has only recently begun to receive a due amount of attention. We are told by Bede that a deaf man was taught to repeat words and sentences by John, bishop of Hagulstad (Hexham), who flourished in the latter half of the yth century ; but eight centuries elapse before we read again of any attempt to instruct this unfortunate class of per- sons, when Rodolphus Agricola, a native of Groningen, mentions a deaf mute that he had known having been taught to note down his thoughts. Half a century later, the learned and versatile professor of Pavia university, Jerome Cardan, gave to the world the theoretical prin- ciples upon which the instruction of the deaf and dumb is founded. He says, “ Writing is associ- ated with speech, and speech with thought ; but written characters and ideas may be connected together without the intervention of sounds, as in hieroglyphic characters,” and asserts that on this principle the instruction of the deaf and dumb is possible though difficult. Soon after this time. Father Ponce (1520-84), a Benedictine monk, acquired a great reputation for teaching the deaf and dumb to speak and write. In 1620, Juan Paulo Bonet, a Spaniard like Ponce, and a monk of the same order, wrote a book on the instruction of deaf mutes, and invented a one- handed alphabet. From that time the subject came to receive more attention, a number of works were published, and various systems pro- posed. Among the persons who more particularly distinguished themselves by their labours in this field, were Dr. John Bulwer, Dr. John Wallis, Dr. William Holder, George Dalgarno, in Eng- land ; John Conard Amman in Holland ; Heenicke in Germany; and Rodrigue Pereire in France. The fiLrst schools established for the education of deaf mutes were those of the Abbe de I’Epee in Paris, and Mr. Braidwood in Edinburgh, both in 1760. The system of De I’Epee was much im- proved by Sicard, his pupil and successor in the Paris institution. In 1783, Mr. Braidwood, re- moved to Hackney, near London, where he taught for many years with great success. The late Dr. Watson, so long superintendent of the London Asylum, was instructed by him, and stood in the same relation to him that Sicard did to his master De I’Epee. In 1792, the London Asylum was founded, and it has been the means of doing much good among this unfortunate class. Since the beginning of the present century, a number of similar institutions have been founded in this country. Churches, in which the service is con- ducted by means of the finger alphabet, exist in the metropolis and other large towns. The ob- jects to be accomplished in the education of a deaf mute are to teach him an entire language, and to give him all that mass of moral, religious, and ordinary knowledge that is necessary for him as a social and immortal being. This has to be done by signs, and the meaning contained in the signs has also to be conveyed to him. The first and most important operation in instructing the child is that written words have a meaning, and suggest to all persons of education the same idea. The means employed in the instruction of the deaf and dumb are — i, the visible language of pictures, signs, and gestures ; 2, the finger alpha- bet or dactylology, and writing ; and 3, articula- tion and reading on the lips. The first is the earliest and most simple mode of communicating instruction. Dactylology, or the manual alpha- bet, is a mode of denoting the different letters of the alphabet by means of the fingers. There are two kinds in use ; in the one only one hand being employed, in the other both: the latter is the moT-e common. Writing is another important means in the education of deaf mutes, and is useful not only as enabling them to fix their lessons in their minds, but as being also the chief medium by which they can hold intercourse with strangers. Articulation is the teaching of the pupil to express his ideas in speech. In order to this, the sense of touch, as well as the eye, is employed. The pupil is made to notice the move- ments of the external organs of speech of the teacher, to feel with his own hand the vibrations which sound creates in the trachea, and also to feel those emissions of breath which are caused by the production of certain sounds. He is made to imitate such utterances, and, by means of patience and ingenuity on the part of the teacher, he will at length succeed in imitating what he observes and in expressing himself by speech. Reading on the lips, as it is called, is intended to K DEAN 146 DECEMBER enable the deaf-mute to understand what is said to him by others, from observing the motion of their lips. The difficulties that attend this mode of instruction are very great, and so far as it is intended to make him comprehend all that is said to him, are insuperable. The system, how- ever, has been attended with very considerable success. In 1867, the system of instruction was introduced into England by Mr. Van Praagh, and in 1871, an Association for the Oral Instruc- tion of the Deaf and Dumb was founded, and a day school opened in Fitzroy Square. An Inter- national Congress to discuss the subject was held in Milan in September, 1880. DEAN, deen (Lat., decanus).—ln the Uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge, the dean is the officer appointed to superintend the chapel services, and to exercise some control over the students. In the university and King’s Colleges, London, and in some of the Scotch universities, the dean is head or chief of a faculty, and is chosen for a limited period. DEBATE, de'-bait (Fr., d^at), is a formal exchange of opinions between two or more per- sons, with the view of arriving at some definite conclusion. The subject is usually treated in a definite manner, and the speakers succeed each other according to certain rules. There is gene- rally a chairmau or president, whose business it is to see that order is maintained, and that the debate is properly conducted. Debate is, even in a greater degree than conversation (which see), calculated, if properly conducted, to improve the mental powers. It does so in so far as the heat ■and vehemence of debate are calculated to excite the faculties to greater activity than is usually the case in conversation. The effort to be sus- tained is also greater ; the ideas have to be arranged systematically, the words well chosen, and the various forms of exposition, persuasion, and appeal have to be resorted to in order to gain •our object. The practice of debate should be preceded not only by general cultivation of the mind, but also by much practice in writing. At first, at least, the substance of what is to be •spoken on each occasion should, after reflection, be written down, not in the words designed to be uttered, but in brief heads, so that as little as possible may be left for the speaker to frame at the moment, except the expressions. In Parlia- ment, and in all i^ublic deliberative assemblies, ihe right of free debate is claimed ; and although possibly few members are much influenced in their voting by the speeches made, having mostly made up their minds beforehand, the freedom of debate permits an expression of opinions and the reasons for forming them which have a definite value. The great debating society of Oxford University, the Union, was founded in 1823, and many orators have been trained in it. Recently, •debating societies have assumed the name of “Parliaments,” the members imitating the styles and methods of procedure of the House of Commons. DEBOUCHING, de-hoosh' -ing (Fr., d6- houcher, from de, from, and houche, the mouth), troops are said to debouch when they emerge from any wood or narrow pass into a plain or open country. DEBRUISED, de-lroosd'. In English he- raldry, the representation of an animal, debarred of its natural freedom by having any of the ordinaries laid over it. DEBUT, dai-hu' , a French term which has been adopted as an English word. It properly means an opening or beginning, but it is more especially applied to the first appearance in pub- lic of an actor or actress. It is also applied to the first appearance at any particular theatre of an actor or actress. In either case the actor is called a d^utant, and the actress a debutante. DECADE, dek'-ade, a group of ten. During the French Revolutionary period, the new calen- dar adopted divided the year into twelve months of 30 days each, the remaining five days (or six in leap years) being considered as holidays and not numbered. Each month was divided into three decades, or weeks of ten days, each day being known by a Latin name, the tenth day, decade, being a day of rest. DECACHORD, dekS-a-kord, a kind of gui- tar, with ten strings. It is larger than the common guitar. DECADENCE, de-kai'-dens (Lat., de, from ; cadere, to fall), a term applied in the Fine Arts to the decline of any school of painting, or the literature or architecture of any country, from the point at which it may be considered to have reached its summit of iierfection. DECAMERON, - (Gr., deka, ten ; emera, day), the name given by the Italian poet Boccaccio to his well-known collection of tales. They are Supposed to be narrated by a party of guests during a ten days’ visit to a villa in the country, while the plague raged in Flo- rence in 1348. There are few works which have had an equal influence on literature with the Decameron. In England its effects were power- ful. Chaucer adopted the notion of the frame in which he inclosed his tales from it {see Can- TERBUKY Tales) ; and, according to Burton, in his “Anatomy of Melancholy,” one of the princi- pal amusements of our ancestors was the reading of Boccaccio aloud. The description of the plague at Florence which introduces the tales is generally considered a masterpiece. A himdred stories are related by the guests, some very charming and pathetic, some grossly coarse and licentious, in the bad fashion of the times — many of the worst in that respect being adopted from the French. Like Shakespeare and other great writers, Boccaccio found the suggestion of inci- dents in foreign literature, and expanded and shaped them by his own genius. Of his creations, for so they may be called, the character of “ the patient Griselda,” has taken a definite place in the choicest European literature. In a recent critical notice, Mr. Hueffer says, “There are few great poets who have not in some way be- come indebted to the inexhaustible treasure of Boccaccio’s creativeness.” The German poet, Lessing, included a story from the Decameron in his great work, “ Nathan the Wise,” and among the English poets who have been indebted for suggestions to Boccaccio, are Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden, Keats, and Tennyson. More than a hundred editions of the Decameron have been issued, and very high prices are given for the older copies. One edition was issued in 1573, under express Papal sanction, with the avowed purpose of removing the indecencies; but they were nearly all allowed to remain, only the naughty characters were changed from priests and monks into laymen. DECEMBER, de-sem'-ber {l&t., decern, ten), DECIMATION 147 DEDUCTION in the old Koman Calendar the year began with March, and what is now the twelfth month was the tenth, and hence received its name. DECIMATION, des-im-ai' -shun (Lat., de- cern, ten). — In former times, when an army, or any division of an army, had mutinied against its commanding ofldcer, and all had equally in- curred the penalty of death, punishment was inflicted on the revolting troops by killing every tenth man, selected by lot, or taken out in the order in which they stood in the ranks. This mode of punishment was sometimes resorted to when a body of men had shown cowardice before the enemy. The Prussian general, Bliicher, de- cimated a body of mutinous troops before the battle of Waterloo. DECLAMATION, dek-lam-ai' -shun (Lat., declamare, to speak aloud, to declaim), is a dis- course Of speech made in public in the tone and manner of an oration. Among the Greeks, de- clamation was the art of speaking indifferently on all subjects, and on all sides of a question — of making a thing that was unjust appear just, and of triumphing over the best and soundest reasons. Among the Romans, as among us, it was gene- rally restricted to certain exercises which scholars perform at school, to teach them to speak in public. In the colleges of the Jesuits declama- tions are little dramatic performances of few scenes, rehearsed by students, in order to train them for public speaking. DECLENSION, de-Uen'-shun (Lat., de- cUnatio, from declino, I decline, bend, or de- flect), in Grammar, denotes the various modifi- cations of number and case to which nouns, pro- nouns, and adjectives are subjected, in order to express the relation which one thing bears to other things. To decline a noun, therefore, is to go through its several cases, singular and plural. In some languages, separate words, prepositions, are used ; in others, the cases are expressed by changes in the termination of the noun. {See Inflection, Case, Numbee, Noun.) “DE CONSOLATIONE PHILO- SOPHIAi.” — ^The most famous work of Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (475 A.D.-525 A.D.), the Roman philosopher, consul, and political martyr of Rome. It was one of the most popular hooks of the Middle Ages. Alfred the Great translated it into Anglo-Saxon, and his instructor, Asser, and Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, wrote commentaries on it. Before the close of the 15th century, French, Italian, German, Spanish, and Greek versions had appeared. Chaucer’s trans- lation was one of the books printed by Caxton, and a later translation was made by John Lyd- gate. It has been stated that Queen Elizabeth ^Iso turned it into English. The original work is written in prose and verse alternately. The author describes the appearance to him of a ■dignified female whom he recognises as Philo- sophy, who offers him consolation for the sorrow he was labouring under. God, he is taught, is the highest good, and virtue is always ultimately rewarded. Free will and the fore-knowledge of God are also discussed. DECORATED ENGLISH, deh'-o-rai-ted (Lat., decoro, I adorn).— This style of Gothic architecture, also known as the Second, or Middle Pointed, prevailed in England during the 14th century, and was generally adopted in all eccle- siastical and public buildings erected in the reigns of Richard I. , Edward I. , Edward II. , and Edward III. ; whence the term Edwardian has been assigned to it by Messrs. Garbett and Fer- gusson. It is considered to be the most perfect of all the different styles of Gothic architecture. It possesses all the peculiar forms and ornamen- tation of that which immediately preceded it ; but there is a greater degree of elegance in the outlines of the former, and more richness in the latter, which is bold and natural in design and execution, without being too florid and elaborate, as in the succeeding period. Its chief character- istic features are the windows, the doorways, the capitals of the pillars, and the vaulting of the roofs. In the windows the lancet form assumes wider j)roportions, and, instead of consisting of one long narrow pointed light, or two or three of these at the utmost, grouped together and sepa- rated by piers, they are broader, and divided into five or more compartments by shafts or mullions. The head of the window is still pointed, the arcs forming it being described either from centres taken without the sides, or from centres taken in the sides themselves, with a radius equal to the span of the window. The tracery of the head consists of cusped circles combined with geome- trical curves, which are also foiled or ornamented with cusj)s. The piers and arches of the door- ways are richly ornamented, the former with light shafts surmounted with sculptured capitals, and the latter with deeply-cut mouldings. Both doors and windows have drip-stones above them, resting on corbels, which are frequently carved to resemble heads. Sometimes the moulding of the arch of a doorway is continued through the piers towards the ground, without any break at the impost from which the arch springs. Mould- ings of every description are enriched with ball- flowers and foliage, and -crockets are used to ornament the angular edges of pinnacles and canopies. The buttresses are bold and highly- finished, and flying buttresses are frequently used. The pillars are formed of groups of light and elegant shafts clustered together, and sur- mounted by capitals consisting of a bell swelling out in a convex form from the neck-moulding, and decorated with foliage and flowers closely copied from the natural forms. The vaulting of the roof is subdivided into patterns, by ribs in different directions interlacing each other, so as to form a kind of rectilineal tracery, and beauti- fully-carved bosses are fixed at the points of in- tersection. DECOY, de-Tcoi' (Ang.-Nor.), a plan by which ducks and other aquatic birds are enticed up a narrow channel from a river or lake. This chan- nel usually terminates in a cover of network several yards in length. On either side of the channel the turf is kept smooth and in good order ; this tempts the birds to leave the water, and they alight and begin to dress their plumage. While thus employed at some distance up the channel, the decoy-man and his dogs, who have been on the look-out, but carefully concealed, suddenly appear. The birds take to the water again, and are driven by the dogs into the net- work inclosure, where they are easily captured. DECREMENT, or DECRESCENT, dd -kre-ment, de-kres' -sant, in Heraldry, indicates the moon. A moon decrescent is a half -moon with the horns turned to the left. DEDUCTION, de-duk'-shun (Lat., deduco, I draw from or bring out of), a reasoning from DEER, HUNTING THE 148 DEGREE generals to particulars, the drawing of a par- ticular truth from a general principle already known. It is opposed to induction, which con- sists in rising from particular truths to the deter- mination of a general princiide. The principle of deduction is that things which agree with the same thing agree with one another; of induction, that in the same substances, in the same circumstances, from the same causes, the same effects will follow. The mathematical and metaphysical sciences are founded on deduction ; the physical sciences rest on induction. DEER, HUNTING THE. The ancient customs and laws of “ veneri,” that noble science which our ancestors looked upon as one of the first accomplishments of the high-bred noble, and a knowledge of which was essential to his educa- tion, were formal and technical to a most absurd degree. A few of the terms betokening the different ages of the stag and hind are still re- tained, though somewhat altered. The young of either sex is called a calf. After a few months the male becomes distinguished by the growth of the bossets, or frontal protuberances on which the horns are afterwards developed, which, during the first year, are merely rounded knobs ; from whence he takes the name of “ knobber.” In the second year they are longer and pointed, and are called dags, and the animal has now the name of ‘’brocket.” In the third year, the first, or hrov) antler, has made its appearance, and the deer becomes a “spayad.” In the fourth the hez antler is added, and he is then termed a “staggard.” He is a stag in the fifth year, when the third antler, or “ royal,” appears ; and in the sixth, the commencement of the sur royal, or crown, is formed, when he takes the name of hart, and retains it through his life. At this time he is called a hart or stag of ten, probably because the branches, including the sur royal, frequently amount to that number. After the seventh year he is said to be crocked, or palmed, or crowned, according to the number of branches, composing the sur royal. The female is a calf in the first year, a brocket’s sister in the second, and in the third, and afterwards, a hind. Deer-Stalking, staivTd-ing (Sax., stcdcan, to step slowly), a method of hunting the deer in such wild and precipitous countries as render the pursuit of them with dogs and horses impossible. It is a very favourite sport in Scotland, and it requires in the sportsman patience, perseverance, and exertion, being at the same time attended with no slight amount of danger, through the nature of the localities where the game is found. The localities of deer-stalking are principally confined to the highlands of Scotland. The stratagems of deer-stalkers to get within reach of their cautious prey are very varied. The extreme wariness of the red deer is such that it requires the utmost circumspection to advance towards them. When they are approached, it must always be done on the leeward side, as the quick scenting powers of the deer would soon apprise him of the presence of a sportsman who came on the windward side. A circuit of some miles is often ne- cessary, in order that the stalkers may approach the deer undetected. After having arrived at the given point, it is often found necessary to gain another more completely concealed from the wary sentinal of the herd, one being always especially on the look-out to guard the whole against surprise. It is necessary, therefore, that the stalking party in these cases should lie down until the herd have turned into another situa- tion. The best rifies are used in the sport, and the dogs employed are well bred and thoroughly trained to the work. Two or three couples are required, and they are mostly of the true, strong Grampian deer-dog breed, differing very slightly from the Scotch or Irish greyhound. DEFILADING, de-fi-lai'-ding. (/See Forti- fication.) DEFILE, de-filef {Ft.,- defiler, to march in file), the name given to any narrow passage, whether it be a deep valley between two hills, a road between hedges, or even a street, along which troops can only march in column with a narrow front. DEFINITION , def-e-nish' -un (Lat. ) , literally signifies the lajdng down a boundary, and is applied to the giving or explaining the meaning of a word by means of other words. A defini- tion serves to show what notions are to be in- cluded, and, by inference, what to be rejected, in each word ; and thus to afford, as far as possible, a precise understanding of its meaning. Definitions are usually distinguished into nominal and real ; the former merely explaining the meaning of terms, and thus belonging to gram- mars and dictionaries ; the latter explaining the nature of the thing itself, and coming within the province of logic. Real definitions are divided into essential and accidental ; the former stating the primary and essentially constituent parts of that which is to be defined ; the latter laying down what are regarded as circumstances or properties belonging to it. Essential definitions are again divided into physical and logical, the former enu- merating such parts as are actually separable, the latter the separate ideas in the mind that go to complete the abstract notion represented by the word : namely, the genus and the differ- ence. The conditions of a good definition are : — I, That it be adequate, neither too narrow, and thus only applicable to a part instead of a whole, nor too extensive, to include a whole instead of a part; 2, that it be clearer — i.e., consisting of ideas less complex, than the thing defined ; and 3, that it be expressed in a suitable number of words, in opposition to prolixity, or excessive brevity. DEGREE, de-gred (Lat. , de, of or concern- ing; gradus, a step ; Fr., degri), in universities, is a distinction conferred on the students or members of a university as a testimony of their proficiency in the arts or sciences, and entitling them to certain privileges. The origin of degrees, like many other points connected with the early history of universities, is involved in obscurity. That they existed at a very early period is un- questionable, but there is no reason to believe that they were coeval with the earliest univer- sities. The oldest degrees were those in arts ; and the term bachelor, which designates the lowest degree in each faculty, would seem to justify us in tracing the whole system of degrees to the university of Paris. The terms master and doctor were originally synonymous, and were commonly given to persons engaged in teaching, and not as titles conferred by authority after a prescribed course of study or a formal examination. Afterwards the term master was restricted to teachers of the liberal arts, and the title of doctor was assumed by the teachers of theology, law, and medicine. The masters and doctors afterwards adopted certain regula- tions, which were confirmed by public authority, to prevent unqualified persons from assuming their office ; and hence these titles came to in- dicate a certain rank, and convey certain powers Ui the body scholastic. When this took place, and more especially when an initiatory stage was marked by the name of bachelor, the several DEGREE 149 DEMONSTRATION designations were called steps, or degrees (Lat. , (jradus). Every graduate had an equal right of teaching publicly in the university the subjects competent to his faculty up to the rank pf his degree, and he even incurred an_ obligation to teach as a condition on which his degree was granted. Degrees are of two kinds : — i , Ordinary , or those which are conferred upon the members of a university after examination, and are thus certificates of attainment; and 2, Honorary, or those that are sometimes conferred upon persons of distinction without any examination. Degrees bear the same names, and, with some variation, the same relative academical rank, in most countries of Europe ; but the mode of granting them, and their value at different universities as tokens of proficiency, vary greatly. In the Eng- lish universities there are for arts the degrees of bachelor and master, and for the higher faculties bachelor and doctor. The degree of doctor in philosophy, granted by some of the foreign uni- versities, is of modern introduction. — {See Univeesities, and the several articles on special universities.) Lambeth Degrees.— In the reign of Henry VIII., sundry powers formerly belonging to the Pope were conferred upon the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was authorised to confer all the degrees taken in the uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge. DEGREE, in Music, a name given to each line and space contained in the staff. There are nine degrees — viz., five lines and four spaces ; when a greater number are required, short parallel lines, called ledger-lines, are added, either above or below the staff. A melody is said to proceed by degrees when it ascends or descends to the next line or space. Degree^ Theoretical^ the difference of position or elevation between any two notes. Theoretical degrees are of two kinds — viz,, conjunct and disjunct; they are called conjunct when two notes are so situated as to form the interval of a second, and disjunct when they make a third or any greater interval. DELIVERY, de-liv' -er-e (Fr., delivrer, to deliver), is the fifth and last of the several parts that go to make up the business and art of the orator, the others being invention, disposition, embellishment, and memory : invention, in order to find out what to say ; disposition, in order to arrange in a proper manner ; embellishment, to deck it in proper language ; memory, to retain it ; and delivery, to give it forth with dignity and grace. The ancient masters of oratory looked upon delivery as occupying a most im- portant place in the art. If the end of all pub- lic speaking is to persuade — to convey our own ideas and emotions to those whom we address, then our voice, looks, and gestures interpret our ideas and einotions not less than words do — nay, the impression they make upon otliers is fre- qiicntly much greater than any words can make. An expressive look, a passionate cry, often speak much more eloquently than any words ; but gestures and tones must be the natural results of emotion, or by consummate artistic skill must appear to be so ; for if they are evidently imi- tative and artificial, the whole effect is lost. Words are only arbitrary conventional symbols of our ideas ; but tone and gesture are the lan- guage of nature. {See Elocution.) DELLA ORUSOANS, deV-la kroos'-kam, a name, taken from a famous academy at Florence {see Ceusca), adopted by some English versifiers residing in that city, in the latter part of the last century, who published a collection of verses with the title “The Florence Miscellany,” The characteristics of the poems, songs, and sonnets were “ namby-pambyism,” affected senti- ment, silliness, and mutual admiration. Contri- butions in a similar style soon appeared in Eng- land in the columns of two daily newsi^apers. The World and The Oracle. One of the writers from Florence, Mr. Merry, came to England, and the mania for writing in this manner spread. Besides Merry, a writer who adopted the name “ Anna Matilda,” William Parsons, and Mrs. Piozzi (who ought to have known better), ap- peared as Della Cruscans of the first water. The slashing critic Gifford set himself to demolish the “school.” “The fever,” he said “turned to a frenzy ; Laura, Maud, Carlos, Orlando, Adelaide, and a thousand other nameless names, caught the infection; and from one end of the kingdom to another, all is nonsense and Della Crusca.” In 1794 Gifford published his poetical satire “ The Baviad,” an imitation of the first satire of Persius ; and in the following year appeared “The Maeviad,” an imitation of Horace. His flagellation of the literary offenders was terrific, even for him, the most merciless of critics — of whom Southey said, “ He had a heart full of kindness for aU living creatures except authors, them he regarded as a fishmonger regards eels, or asisaac Walton did slugs, worms, and frogs” — and Della Cruscan verses were no more. Sir Walter Scott says of Gifford, “ His satire of the Baviad and Maeviad squabashed at one blow a set of cox- combs who might have humbugged the world long enough.” _ DELPHIN CLASSICS, the name given to an edition of the Greek and Boman classics, prepared and commented upon by thirty - nine of the best scholars of the day, under the editorship of Bossuet and Huet, at the instigation of Louis XIV., for the benefit of his son the dauphin {in usum Serlanissime Delphi ni) ; whence their name. The first edition consisted of 64 volumes, all of which, with the exception of Ovid, issued at Lyons, were published at Paris. Many of the particular works were reiDrinted in this country by Yalpy, but are not highly esteemed by modern scholars. DEMI, dem'-e, is a term derived from the French, signifying literally “half,” and frequently used in the composition of English words ; as demigod, or half -god. In Heraldry, a term applied to the representation of only the upper or fore-half of an animal. DEMI-HAQUE, dem'-e-hah (Fr.), the name of a small firearm in general use about the end of the 15th century. It was like a large pistol in form ; but the butt was long and greatly curved. DEMI-LUNE, dem'-e-lune{^v., dmi, half; lune, the moon). {See Foetification.) DEMISEMIQUAYER, dem’ -i-sem' -i-qua’ - ver. In ?Iusic, half a semiquaver. DEMONSTRATION, dem - on-strai’-shun (Lat., demonstrare, to show or point out), was used by the old English writers to denote any manner of showing either the connection of a con- clusion with its premises or of a phenomenon and its asserted cause ; but in philosoijhical language it now only means that process by which a resrdt 1 is shown to be a necessary consequence of the DEMOTIC 150 DESIGN premises from which it is asserted to follow, these premises being admitted either as matter of fact, of intuitive evidence, or of previous demonstra- tion. In ordinary langiiage, the term is often used as synonymous with proof. Demonstration is either direct or indirect : it is direct when the truth of the proposition is proved at once and directly, and indirect when it is proved by show- ing that the contradiction is impossible and absurd, which is usually termed reductio ad absurdum. In Military Language, a display of troops in any par- ticular direction, the object of which is to lead the enemy to imagine that some attack or movement of importance is meditated in that quarter, and induce the officer commanding to detach a force to watch the troops so employed — a measure which will tend to weaken his means of defence at that point against which any attack or manoeuvre is really directed. DEMOTIC, ou EUCHORIAL CHAR- ACTERS, de-mot' -ik (Gr., demotikos, of the people), are terms applied by antiquaries to a certain kind of writing practised by the ancient Egyptians, and formed out of the ancient hiero- glyphic, being a kind of current hand employed by the people generally, and differing from the hieratic, or that used by the priests. It is some- times formd on public monuments along with the ordinary hieroglyphic writing, as on the famous Rosetta stone. {See Hieroglyphics.) DENOMINATOR, de-nom-e-nai' -tor (from Lat., denomino, I name), the number of parts into which a unit is divided in any fraction. It is distinguished from the numerator, which specifies the number of parts of a certain kind, which are to be taken ; thus, in the fraction |, 3 is the numerator, and 4 is the denominator. DENOUEMENT, da-noo'-mawn{g) (Fr.> denoueVy to untie or solve), is usually employed to denote the termination or catastrophe of a play or story, but more strictly it denotes the train of circumstances that bring about the catas- trophe. DENTILS, den'-tils (Latin dens, a tooth). Ornaments resembling teeth employed in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders of 7 »jchitecture. DEPLOY, de-ploy' (Fr., ddployer, to extend; Lat., deplieare, to unfold). "V^en troops have been marching in column, and change the forma- tion from column to line, they are said to deploy into line. DEPONENT, de-po'-nent (Lat., depono, I lay down), is a term applied in Latin Grammar to certain verbs which have a passive form, but an active or neuter signification. They are so called because they have laid down, as it were, the signification proper to their form. DERBY DAY, THE, dar^-be, the second day of the Epsom summer meeting, when the great race of the Derby stakes is run for. It is generally in the last week of May, and is always held on a Wednesday. The first Derby race was instituted by Lord Derby in 1780, and the stakes consist of fifty sovereigns each, with twenty-five forfeit. At the first Derby there were only 36 subscribers ; but the race has since grown rapidly in fame and popularity, and Derby day is the great holiday for nearly all the inhabitants of London ; the roads between the metropolis and Epsom are thronged from an early hour with every variety of vehicle, and the railway trains are constantly leaving the stations with fresh cargoes of passengers for the Downs. The horses that run in the Derby must be three years old, and the course is a mile and a half in length. An immense amount of money, besides the stakes, is won and lost annually on the result. DESCANT, des'-kant (Sp., discante), a term formerly used to express the art of comj)osing in parts. By Hubald, Odo, Guido, and others, it was employed to signify concord and harmony of sounds. Descant is of three kinds — viz.. Plain descant, which is synonymous with simple coun- terpoint; Figurative descant, which is less re- strained, and includes the relief of discords ; and double descant, which denotes that arrangement of the parts which will allow the treble or any high part to be converted into the bass, and vice versa. This term is also employed to imply a melodious display of notes extemporaneously ifiayed or sung to any given bass, as well as to denote the highest part in the score — viz., the soprano, or highest female voice. DESIDERATUM, de-zid-e-rai' -turn (Lat., wished for), denotes something that is wanted to the completeness of a thing, or to promote the advancement of any object. DESIGN, de-zine' (Lat., designo, I mark out), denotes, in a general sense, an intention, scheme, or plan of action, and in the Arts is applied to the idea or plan in the mind of the artist which he attempts to embody or represent in some visible form to the minds of others. In Architecture, the design is a set of geometrical draw- ings drawn to a certain scale, representing the different sides, interior, and extent of any building, in such a man- ner that it can be erected by a builder in exact conformity with the original idea or conception of the architect. When the building is small, these are taken as work- ing drawings, but if it be of great size and extent, work- ing drawings are made from them for the use of the builder on a larger scale. They are intended to show the proportions and outline of the required building, and in them the principles of perspective, and light and shade, are disregarded entirely as regards the former, and almost entirely with respect to the latter. The various parts of architectural design for any building are respectively termed “plan,” “elevation,” “section,” and “ details.” The plan shows the shape of the build- ing and the area which it is to cover ; it may be termed with propriety a horizontal section of the building ; it shows the position of the walls of the rooms, and their respective thickness ; the situation of rooms and pass- ages with regard to each other, and indicates the aper- tures required for doors, windows, fire-places, stair- cases, &c. The elevations show the outline of the front, back, and sides of the building, and the win- dows, doors, projections of chimneys, and all the orna- mentation that may be introduced. The sections are representations of the interior on a vertical plane, sup- posed to pass through the building from top to bottom, on any line indicated on the ground plan. They show the thickness of the floors, the height of rooms, the height and form of doors and fire-places, the profiles of cornices, domes, and skylights, as well as that of the roof ; the direction of staircases, &c. Details, or parts at large, are representations of the horizontal and vertical sections of different rooms and parts of the building on a larger scale than that which is used for the general plan : they are also drawings of any em- bellishment that may be introduced, and are neces- sary to make their intended form intelligible to the workmen. In the Fine Arts, design is the representation of any form or combination of objects, either in simple outline or in colour. It is applied indiscriminately to anything of this kind, from the sketch of any simple object or elementary form, that may be represented by a few strokes of the pencil, to the elaborate combinations re- quired for the intricate pattern of a shawl or any other DETACHMENT 151 DIALECTICS similar production of the loom, as well as to the com- position of a picture, or group of figures, or the form of any work of art, whether useful or ornamental. Design, Schools of.— The Government schoolsof design that are established in various parts of the country, in connection with the Central Training School at South Kensington, which was originally opened at Somerset House in 1837, are intended to impart a knowledge of drawing and a taste for the fine arts to the great bulk of the people, and more particu- larly to those who are employed as artisans and designers in manufacturing establishments of all kinds. The schools of design are under the control of the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, and the offices of the depart- ment, and the Central Training School for the United IHngdom, are in Cromwell Road, South Kensington. To this school both male and female students, that are duly qualified, are admitted, and partly maintained at the expense of the Government while passing through the prescribed course of study. When they are fully com- petent, they receive certificates, and are sent as teachers to local schools in connection with the central establish- ment. Teachers in these local schools receive grants from Government, in addition to their income, in pro- portion to the success of their pupils at the annual in- spection and examination, when medals and prizes are awarded to the most deserving and efficient. A school of art may be founded in any locality in con- nection with the central school, provided that suitable premises can be obtained, at the public expense, the Government, in some cases, bearing as much as one- fourth of the total cost when new buildings are erected for the purpose. It is also requisite that there be public schools for the poor, in which the master recommended by the department can give instruction, or 500 poor children in the district, who must be taught, if it be desired, free of expense. Successful students at the local schools send their drawings for competition to the central school, when queen’s prizes and medals are awarded to those who excel in any particular branch of art. Each school obtains drawings, works of art, or apparatus to the amount of £10 for every queen’s prize or medal obtained by the pupils who have studied there. Every school of art may borrow books, draw- ings, and works of art from the museum and library at South Kensington ; and any mechanics’ or working man’s institute can obtain assistance in the purchase of drawing models and casts for the purpose of in- struction. DETACHMENT, de-tatsh' -merit (Fr., de- tacher, to unfasten), the term applied to any body of troops, whether large or small, sent from an army, division, brigade, regiment, or company, for the performance of some special service. DETONATION, det-o-nai' -shun (Lat., de- tono, I thunder), excessive rapidity of combus- tion accompanied by sound and light, as in the case of gun powder, percussion caps, &c. DEUS EX MACHINA, de’ -us eJcs mai'- Tcin-a (Lat., a god from the machine), is an expres- sion borrowed from the ancient stage, it being usual among the ancient Greeks, when there was any difficulty in bringing the plot to a satis- factory conclusion, to have recourse to the assist- ance of a deity, who was let down in a machine for that purpose. In the modern drama, when a person or incident is arbitrarily introduced in order to bring about the denouement, this is called a deus ex machina. The expression is also by analogy sometimes applied to the mode in which some philosophers attempt to account for facts which they cannot explain by any known law — viz., by the intervention of supernatural agency. DEVICE, de-visd (Medisev. Lat., divisa, a design), the name given to any emblem selected by a person, family, or body of men, to serve as a mark of distinction. The device is often ac- companied by a motto, and is similar in purpose to the crest, or any charge in a coat-of-arms. Sometimes the term is applied to a motto only, as by Longfellow — “A banner with this strange device, ‘Excelsior.’ ” It differed, however, from the family crest of the bearer, in having some characteristic in allusion to his name, character, or some enterprise in which he was implicated or about to engage. DIADEM, dil-a-dem (Gr., diadema, a fillet), originally a band of silk or woollen, according to some authorities, invented by Bacchus, to relieve the headache produced by intoxication. It was probably imported into Greek costume frppa the East, and afterwards became the distinguishing ornament of royalty. The diadem of the Egyptian deities and kings bore the symbol of the sacred serpent. Among the Persians it was twined about the tiaras of the kings, and was purple and white. In the earliest times the diadem was very narrow ; but broad diadems were introduced by the Per- sians, and adopted by Alexander the Great. The early Koman emperors abstained from the use of this ornament, to avoid giving offence to the people by calling up the remembrance of the kings. Diocletian was the first to re-introduce it, and Constantine the Great added new ornaments. The diadem was superseded by the Crown. i^See Crown.) DI-i^RESIS, di-er^ -e-sis (Gr., diaireo, I divide), in the dividing of a diphthong or of a contracted syllable into two syllables, and is usually denoted by two dots thus (•• )> over the last vowel ; as avenged, beloved. Sometimes the mark of diaeresis is used to show that two vowels coming together do not form a diphthong ; as, • aerials ; but the mark is rarely used in English words. In German it is very common. DIAGRAM, di' -ag-ram (Gr., diagramma), a drawing delineated for the purpose of demon- strating the properties of any geometrical figure, such as a triangle, a cirele, a square, &c. DIALECT, di'-a-lelct (Gr., dialegesthai, to converse), a term applied to a language which re- sembles another in its general features, but differs from it in the varieties or peculiar forms which that language assumes among the various tribes, or other local divisions of the people. The term is somewhat uncertain in its limits. Strictly, nearly all known languages may be divided into very few groups having common origins ; but the variations are so considerable that they are prac- tically divided languages ; on the other hand, there are provincialisms, ox patois, which exhibit peculiarities, but not important distinctions. DIALECTICS, di-a-leh' -tiks [(^x.,dialektikos, from dialegomai, I discourse), is the old name for the art of reasoning and disputing justly. Accord- ing to Socrates, dialectics were so called from being an inquiry pursued by persons who take councils together, separating the subjects con- sidered according to their kinds. There were several systems of dialectics among the ancients. The dialectics of Plato are a kind of analysis to direct the human mind by dividing, defining, and bringing things to the first truth ; which having- reached, it applies itself to explain sensible things, but with a view to return to the first truth, where alone it can rest. The dialectics of Aristotle comprise the doctrine of simple words, delivered in his book of Predicaments ; the doctrine of propositions, contained in his book, ‘ ‘ De Interpretatione ; ” and that of the several DIALOGUE 152 DIAPER WORK kinds of syllogism, in liis books of Analytics, Topics, and Elencliuses. The dialectics of the Stoics appear to have been little more than a system of grammatical rules. {See Logic.) DIALOGUE, di'-al-og (Gr.), is a conversa- tion between two or more persons, usually upon a particular subject, and conducted with more formality than an ordinary conversation. The ancient philosophers were fond of conveying their instructions in this form, and some of their principal works that have come down to us are in dialogues. Plato is particularly distinguished for the beauty of his dialogues, which for rich- ness and power of imagination, are unrivalled. Cicero and Lucian are also distinguished as writ- ers of dialogues. In modern times we have the learned and elaborate dialogues of Erasmus, in Latin ; besides whom, there are, among the Ger- mans, Lessing, Mendelssohn, Herder, Jacobi, Schelling, &c. ; Petrarch and Machiavelli, among the Italians ; and Fenelon, Fontenelle, Male- branche, and Sarrassin, among the French. In England we have the “Divine Dialogues” of Henry Moor ; the “ Visions of Heaven and Hell,” said to be Bunyan’s ; the “ Philosophical Dia- logues” of Berkeley ; the dialogues on natural religion of Hume ; the moral and political dia- logues of Bishop Hurd ; Lyttleton’s “ Dialogues of the Dead ; ” and many others. Still more recently have appeared Southey’s “ Colloquies on Society; “Walter Savage Landor’s “Imagi- nary Conversations ; ” Help’s “ Friends in Coun- cil ; ” and Professor Wilson’s “Noctes Ambro- siange.” Many writers have adopted this form in order to maintain their peculiar opinions ; and it has the convenience that they are able to present the objections they intend to answer and demolish, and avoid contrary arguments which cannot be so treated, making the victory very easy. Writers of tracts and temperance publi- cations, are especially addicted to this form of controversy. DIAMONDS, di-a-monds. The most remarkable diamonds with which we are ac- quainted, are the diamond mentioned by Ta- vernier, as belonging to the Great Mogul, which is said to have weighed 900 carats in the rough state ; that belonging to the rajah of Mattan, weighing 367 carats ; the diamond amongst the Russian crown jewels, 195 carats ; the famous Pitt diamond, 136 carats. This diamond is, from its lustre and colour, considered the finest known. It was sold to the Duke of Orleans for £130,000, and afterwards decorated the hilt of the sword of state of Napoleon. It was taken by the Prus- sians at Waterloo, and now belongs to the Em- peror of Germany. The Sanci diamond, formerly the property of the French kings, and pmchased by a Russian nobleman in 1835 for £80,000, is one of the finest in Europe. The Kohinoor belonging to the queen, weighed 213 carats, but was badly cut. It was re-cut in 1852, and now weighs 123 carats ; but is greatly improved in brilliancy, although lessened in size. DIAMOND NECKLACE, THE, a famous piece of jewellery, made by a man named Boehmer, in Paris, about the years 1744-45. Ac- cording to Madame Campan, it was originally in- tended for Madame Du Barry, the favourite of Louis XV. On the death of the king, in 1744, Du Barry was compelled to leave the court, and Boehmer was left with the necklace on his hands. It was a wonderful and costly piece of work, consisting of 500 diamonds. Its value was said to be 1,800,000 livres, or £80,000 sterling, and it was too expensive for any one to buy it. A woman named De Lamotte, who waited about the court, having heard of these circumstances, contrived to persuade the Cardinal Prince Louis de Rohan, a vain profiigate man of great wealth, that Queen Marie Antoinette did not look upon him with disfavour. The vain Cardinal, readily believing this, was ready to do anything to re- tain the regard of the queen. He was persuaded by De Lamotte that Marie Antoinette was ex- tremely anxious to possess the diamond necklace ; but not having enough money then, she was willing to sign an agreement to purchase it, if the cardinal would become security. Rohan did consent, and signed the agreement, which was also apparently signed by the queen. On the first of February, 1786, the necklace was handed over to him and he took it to Versailles, the place where the queen had undertaken to send for it. All this time the cardinal had never seen the queen, although, by a stratagem of De Lamotte’s he imagined that he had met her for a few moments at midnight in the park of Ver- sailles, and all the messages, written and verbal, had come through the woman De Lamotte. On the day after he arrived at Versailles a man dressed in the uniform of the court valets came to his apartments, and took away the necklace, saying, as he did so, that it was “ in the name of the queen.” Almost immediately afterwards, De Lamotte, her husband and the sham valet, left Paris. The whole transaction had been a deception and a swindle. The verbal messages from the queen were all false, and the written ones forgeries by the sham valet, who was an adept at imitating handwriting; and the woman whom the cardinal had met in the park of Versailles was not the queen, but a hand- some courtesan of Paris, named Gay d’Oliva, who had been hired by De Lamotte for the purpose. The plot was discovered by Boehmer, who, when he found that he was not paid when the period for the first instalment arrived, inquired at the court if the queen had received the necklace. This aroused suspicion, and inquiries being in- stituted, the cardinal and the persons associated in the plot were arrested and sent to the Bastile. The trial lasted nine months, and sentence was given on the 31st of May, 1786, when all were acquitted except Lamotte, who was branded on the shoulder with the letter V, for voleuse, thief. When the cardinal got out of the Bastile, at ten o’clock at night, large mobs hurrahed round him out of spite to the court. It was the be- ginning of the Revolution. Seven years after- wards Marie Antoinette was led to execution, and the yelling and cursing mob taunted her with the scandal of the diamond necklace a few moments before she died. DIAPASON, cZi- a-pai'-zon{Gv . , dia, through ; pas, all), an ancient Greek musical term for the interval of thawctave. Modern musicians use the term to denote the range, or compass of the voice or of an instrument. It is also the name of a kind of rule by which certain instrument-makers determine the measures of the various parts of their instruments. Some of the stops in the organ are called by this appellation, because they extend through the entire instrument. DIAPER WORK, on DIAPERING, is a mode of decorating a surface by covering it with the constant repetition of a small flower, DIARY 153 DICHORD leaf, or other ornament, either carved or painted. If carved, the flowers are entirely sunk into the work below the general surface. They are gene- rally enclosed in a small square frame, and placed close to one another; but in some cases other arrangements are used, as in Canterbury cathe- dral. Diaper decoration was flrst introduced in the Early English style, in which it was some- times employed to cover large spaces, as in West- minster Abbey and Chichester cathedral. It was also extensively used in the Decorated style. Diaper-work was only used as a painted orna- ment in the Perpendicular style, and very few specimens of it remain. Some portions of a pattern of beautiful flowing foliage are to be seen in the Lady chapel in Gloucester cathedral. In Heraldry, fields and charges relieved by arabesque and geometrical patterns. DIARY, di'~a-re (Lat., diarium, from dies, a day), is strictly a daily register or record of oc- currences in which the writer has had a personal share, or which have at least in some way come under his own observation. To mercantile and professional men a diary is essential to record transactions and note engagements. The use of diaries has now become so common in this coun- try that the manufacture of them forms an im- j)ortant branch of trade. They are usually pre- pared with a blank sjmce for every day of the year, and vary in form and size according to the object they are more particularly intended to serve. Usually one book is intended to contain the events of a year. The imblication of such diaries as those of Evelyn and Pepys has thrown much light upon the state of society at the time when the writers lived. Evel3m’s Diary.— John Evelyn, born at Woottou, in Surrey, in 1620, was an accomplished, thoughtful and practical writer, who had exceptional opportunities of observation, and whose high personal character en- sured the friendship of the best men of his time. He wrote on politics, morals, the cultivation of trees, art, science, and commerce. In 1818, his Diary was first published under the editorial care of Mr. Bray. It extends over a long period, from 1641 to 1705 ; and is of high interest and value, as it refers to the times of Charles L, Cromwell, Charles II., James II., and Wil- liam III. It has been described as “ a necessary com- panion to the popular histories of our country— to Hume, Macaulay, and Lingard.” To Hume andLingard it was unknown ; but Macaulay found in it a mine of authentic material. Sir Walter Scott was delighted with the book ; and one of the high-class literary Eeviews says, “Few, if any, similar publications of our own days more strongly attracted public attention for their, flrst appearance, or are likely to retain a more permanent station in our national literature, than the Diary of Evelyn, a man the more highly honoured and valued as our acquaintance is permitted to become closer.” Pepys’ Diary.— Samuel Pepys was Secretary to the Admiralty in the reign of Charles II. and James II., retiring from his oflicial duties on the accession of William and Mary. He combined considerable scien- tific and artistic knowledge and literary and musical taste with a love of gossip and trivialities, which united to make him a most amusing companion ; and his high character and official abilities gave him oppor- tunities of acquaintance with royal and influential persons, and with the secret motives which actuated them. His attainments, and the estimation in which he was held, are proved by the fact that he held the office of President of the Boyal Society for ten years. From 1659 to 1669 he kept a diary, written in a peculiar system of short-hand, and after his death, in 1703, it was deposited in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, where it remained undeciphered for 150 years, when Sir John Smith, subsequently rector of Baldock, Hertfordshire, succeeded in reading it. Selections from the diary were edited by Lord Braybrooke in 1825, and a more copious and better prepared edition has been recently issued. Pepys appears to have exercised little reticence in committing to paper notices of the events of his daily life, and there is an amusing naiveU in his records of his domestic associations, his little vanities and amusements. It abounds with notices of the literature, drama, and social habits of the time ; but there is also much valuable information respecting public events and Court and official intrigues. Lord Jeffrey, writing VO. ih.& Edinburgh Review, saXd, “The author seems to have been possessed of the most extraordinary activity, and the most indiscriminating, insatiable, and mis- cellaneous curiosity that ever prompted the researches or supplied the pen of a daily chronicler.” A critic in the Athenceum speaks of the diary as “ the best book of its kind in the English language. Pepys is marvel- lously entertaining : the times and the man peep out in a thousand odd circumstances and amusing expres- sions. . . . The ablest picture of the age in whicn the writer lived, and a work of standard importance in English literature.” DIATONIC (Gr., dia,^ through, and tonos, a sound). — Of the three musical scales employed by the ancient Greeks, that which consisted, like the modern system, of intervals, of major tones and semitones. The diatonic has long been considered the most natural of these three scales. Accord- ing to Aristoxenus, it was the first ; and the other two — ^viz., the chromatic and enharmonic — were formed from the division of its intervals. Diatonic Scale. — The natural scale, consisting of eight sounds and seven intervals ; five of these inter- vals are called tones, and the remaining two semitones, which occur between the third and fourth and seventh and eighth. The diatonic scale is a gradual succession of sounds by tones and semitones, which may proceed either from acute to grave or vice versd, five whole tones and two semitones making a complete natural octave. DIATRIBE, di'-a-tribe (Gr., a disputation), is generally a continued discourse or disputation, more particularly a bitter and violent attack, either written or spoken, on any subject. DICE, dise, the plural of die. They are small cubes of ivory or bone, marked with black dots on their sides, marked from one to six uj)wards. Dice are placed in a small tubular box, shaken with the hand and then thrown out. When the dice are perfect in their form as cubes, there is no possibility of knowing what number may be thrown ; but amongst swindling gamblers loaded dice are often used, which are so constructed as to turn up a certain number when required. The principal game played with dice is hazard. They are also employed in other games of chance, and two are used in the game of backgammon. Lot- teries, raffles, and disputes, are also often settled by throwing a pair of dice. By the act 9 Geo. lY. c. 18, a duty of twenty shillings was imposed upon every pair of properly-made dice. This act was passed for the purpose of suppressing gambl- ing, and since that time all dice have been stamped ; and any person issuing dice without the Government stamp is liable to a penalty. DICHORD, di' -chord (Gr., dis, double, and chord), the name given to the two-stringed lyre, the invention of which is ascribed to Mercury by Apollodorus, who gives us the following account : — “Mercury,” says he, “walking on the banks of the Nile, happened to strike bis foot against the shell of a tortoise, the flesh of which had been dried away by the sun, and nothing left of its contents but nerves. He was so pleased with the sound it produced, that he thence conceived the idea of a lyre, which he afterwards construc- ted in the form of a tortoise, and strung it with the dried sinews of animals.” DICK BEQUEST 154 DIFFERENCES DICK BEQUEST, dik, is a fund left by- Mr. James Dick, of London, a native of Forres, in Morayshire, who amassed a considerable for- tune in the West Indies, and at his death, in 1828, bequeathed the bulk of it, amounting to upwards of £100,000 (since increased to about £123,000), as a fund to be applied for the benefit of the parochial schoolmasters of the counties of Moray, Banff, and Aberdeen. The sum which each teacher receives is made to depend upon his qualifications and efficiency in teaching, and at present varies from about £20 to £40, the average being about £30. The sum annually distributed is about £4,000. DICTIONARY, dik'-shun-ar-e (Lat., dic- tionarvum, from dictio, a saying), is a work which professes to give information on an entire subject, or an entire branch of a subject, under words or heads arranged in the order of the alphabet, of which the present work is an ex- ample. {See Encyclopedia.) In a more limi- ted sense a dictionary is a collection of the words in one or more languages, arranged in alphabetical order, with their significations ; as, an English dictionary, an English and French dictionary. A dictionary usually, also, gives an explanation of phrases ; for when it is confined to single words, it is properly only a vocabulary. The Greek term Lexicon is sometimes used as equivalent to dictionary. The term Thesaurus (treasury) is also sometimes used. A glossary (Lat., glossarium) is a dictionary of unusual terms. A writer in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, the Rev. P. A. Lyons, says, “Comparatively few languages possess dictionaries, and they are few in number compared to other books, probably much under 2 per cent. ; and 5,000, not counting different editions, might be considered a very large collection. More than half belong to European languages, of which five surpass the rest in the number and variety of their diction- aries, namely, Greek, Latin, French, English, and German. In Asia, those excelling in this respect are Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindu- stani, Malay, Chinese, and Japanese; in Africa, Egyptian, Ethiopic, and Kaffre ; in Armenia, Otomi, .^tec, Otomi, Guarani, Tapi, and Qui- chua.” DICTUM, dik'-tum (Lat., something said), is properly applied to the arbitrament or award of a judge, but is frequently also used to denote a positive assertion. DIDACTIC, di-dak' -tik (Gr., didasko, I teach), signifies speech or writing adapted to teach the nature of things. Hence didactic poetry has for its object the communicating of instruction in the form of poetry. In one sense, almost every kind of poetry may be said to be more or less didactic ; more particularly, how- ever, it is applied to those cases in which the chief object of the poem is to communicate in- struction on a particular subject ; as the “ Georgies” of Virgil, the “ De Rerum Natura” of Lucretius, and the “ Ars Poetica ” of Horace. Though didactic poetry may sometimes attain an elevated and animated character, yet it cannot be denied that the more it becomes didactic, the less, of necessity, is it i^oetical ; for the invention, freedom, and elevation of poetry must be in a great measure dropped. In didactic poems, generally, the information or instruction is accom- panied with reflections, illustrations, &c. DIDASCALIA, di-das-kai' -le-a (Gr., in- struction, information), a term in use among the Greeks, and also till recently among most of the nations of modern Europe. It wa.s sometimes applied to the representation of dramatic pieces, but more particffiarly to a written additioxi, in which information is given of the authors and contents of the plays, of the time, place, and success of the representation, &c. Many old authors have -written didascalia, containing not merely theatrical information, but also critical notices of the plays. DIES IR.^, di'-es i'-re (Lat., day of wrath), is the name commonly given, from the opening words, to a celebrated Latin hymn, describing the final judgment of the world. It is cha- racterized by remarkable force and beauty, com- bined with great smoothness of rhyme, and commences : — Dies irse, dies ilia Solvet sa3clum in favilla, Teste David cum Sibylla. Day of wrath ! on that dread day In ashes earth shall pass away. Attest the King’s, the Sybil’s, lay. The authorship of this beautiful hymn has been ascribed to various persons ; but it most probably proceeded from the pen of Thomas of Oelano, a Franciscan monk, who died about the year 1255. In the 14th century it was admitted into the service of the Church, and made a part of the Requiem, or mass for the souls of the dead. Several alterations were then made in the text ; but that is believed to be the original reading which is found engraved on a marble tablet in the church of St. Francis at Mantua. This hymn has been frequently translated into Ger- man, and English versions have been written by Richard Crashaw, Lord Macaulay, Lord Lindsay, and others. Sir "Walter Scott introduced a trans- lation of the opening verses into the “ Lay of the Last Minstrel.” DIFFERENCE, dif-fer-ens (Lat., differre^ to carry from each other), in Logic, is one of the predicables, and denotes that particular quality which distinguishes the subject under contem- plation from all others, when looked at from the point of view in which we are regarding it. Logically, it is said to express the formal or dis- tinguishing part of the essence of a species — that which distinguishes it from every other species contained under the same genus. The having only three sides is the difference or distinguishing feature which separates triangles from squares, polygons, and every other species of figure con- tained under the common genus rectilineal. DIFFERENCES. — in Heraldry, there are marks of differences of two classes ; the former of which is used to distinguish different branches of the same family from each other and from the chief of the family, when the original bearer of the coat is dead ; and the latter to distinguish the coat-armour of sons from the paternal coat, while the father is still alive. Marks of difference, properly so called, belonging to the first class, consist of the addition of a chief or border to the original coat. Differences of the second class, properly called marks of cadency, consist of the addition of a certain figure to the paternal coat for each of the sons. The princes of the blood royal bear the label only on the royal arms, and are distinguished by bearing various emblems on the points of the label. The Prince of Wales, DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE 155 DIORAMA however, bears a label argent simply, without any distinctive mark on the points. DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOW- LEDGE, SOCIETY FOR, was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. Charles Knight, and others, in 1827. It published many works of importance, but its proceedings were suspended in 1846. DIGAMMA, di-gam! -ma (Gr., dis, tvdce, gamma, the letter gamma), was the name given to an old letter of the Greek alphabet, now obso- lete, from its having the form of two gammas set one over the other, and resembling our F. It appears to have occupied the sixth place in that alphabet, and to have had the sound of v. DIGIT, dij'-it (Lat., digitus, finger), a finger ; a term employed in arithmetic to denote one of the ten symbols or figures, o, i, 2, 3, &c. Acord- ing to the original acceptation of the term, the first ten figures of any row were digits, but now, by common acceptation, the term is employed, to denote the first ten figures used in reckoning number ; thus, 20 is a number of two digits. By astronomers the term digit is used to signify the twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon ; thus, in speaking of eclipses, they say that it was of seven or eight digits. DIGRAPH, di' -graph (Gr., dis, twice; and grapho, I write), a union of two vowels of which only one is sounded ; as in head, hreath. It differs from a diphthong, which also consists of two vowels, in the sound produced in the latter case being different from that of either of the vowels taken separately. DIGRESSION, di-gres' -shun (Latin, di- gressio), denotes literally a stepping out of the way or road ; and hence, in Literature, a de- parture or wandering from the main subject under consideration. DILEMMA, dil-em'-ma (Gr., dis, twice, and lemma, an assumption — a twofold assumption), a species of argument in the form of a complex conditional syllogism. This argument was called by the Romans the Syllogismus cornutus; whence our phrase of “placing one on or between the horns of a dilemma.” It is used to prove the absurdity or falsehood of some assertion. A dilemma must be so framed that one of the alter- natives must be admitted ; and each alternative must exactly apply. It ought also to be incap- able of being retorted. When an affirmative is proved, the argument is said to be constructive ; when a negative, it is called destructive. Of the constructive dilemma there are two sorts — the simple, which concludes categorically, and the complex, which has a disjunctive conclusion. There is only one kind of destructive dilemma. The Greek dialecticians prided themselves on exhibiting dilemmas which they alleged to be insoluble. ^ Some of these examples were con- structed with great dexterity, and the discovery of the fallacy is by no means easy. One of the most famous of them, known as the “sophism of Euathlus,” is as follows : — Euathlus had received lessons from Protagoras the rhetorician, on con- dition that the fee should be paid when the pupil gained his first cause. Euathlus delaying to undertake any cause, Protagoras sues him, and argues in this way : “If I am successful, you must pay me in virtue of the sentence ; if, un- successful, you must j)ay me in terms of our agreement, as then you will have gained your first cause.” The pupil retorts: “If I am suc- cessful, I am free by the sentence ; if unsuccess- ful, I am free by the agreement.” DILETTANTE, dil-e-tan' -te (Ital., pi., di- lettanti), is an admirer or lover of the fine arts, and is sometimes applied, by way of reproach, ta one whose knowledge is mere affectation or pre- tence. Dilettanti Society, is a society of noblemen and gentlemen, formed in London in 1734, and which has done much to foster the study of antique art in Eng- land. The society published, or aided in publishing, Stuart’s “Athen’s,” Chandler’s “Travels” in Greece and in Asia Minor, and several other finely illustrated works. In 1764 it fitted out an expedition to Greece, for the purpose of collecting details and drawings of ancient monuments, the result of which was published under the title of “ Ionian Antiquities,” in 1769. They have since fitted out several other expeditions, and given their results to the world in the same way. They have also issued “Specimens of Ancient Sculpture— Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, and Roman,” selected from different collections in Great Britain, in 2 vols., Lon- don, 1809-35. The last work published by them is entitled, “ Portfolio of Greek Architecture, or Draw- ing-book of Dilettanti,” London, 1858. DILIGENCE (Fr.), a heavy French travel- ling-coach, drawn by four horses. Before the introduction of railways, the diligence was much used in all parts of France. It is divided into three compartments — the coupe, or front, holding, three travellers ; the interieur, holding six ; and the retonde, entered from behind, holding eight. The driver’s high seat in front is called the banquette; and the rest of the passengers are huddled indiscriminately among the luggage or under the tariJaulin which covers it. In general, a diligence weighs about five tons, and goes ai the rate of six miles an hour. DIMINISHED, (from Lat., di, and minuo, I make less). — In Music, when an in ■ terval, by the application of a sharp or natural to the lower tone, or of a flat or natural to the upper, becomes contracted within its natural space or compass, it is said to be diminished thus, by raising a minor seventh a minor semi- tone higher, a diminished seventh is produced. DIMINUENDO, di-min' -u-en-do, in Music, referring to the lessening the power of a sound, but not affecting its time. It is nearly of the same meaning as decrescendo. DIMINUTIVE, dim-in' -u-tiv (Lat., diminu- tivum, from diminuo, I lessen), is applied to a word the signification of which is lessened or diminished by some change effected upon its- form. Though diminutives are chiefly confined to substantives, yet we occasionally find them among adjectives, pronouns, and even verbs. The diminutive does not always express littleness or smallness, but sometimes, also, tenderness, affection, contempt, &c. They are usually formed by the addition of a syllable at the end of a word. There is, perhaps, no language with- out diminutives ; certainly, they are vei’y com- mon in most. DIORAMA, di-o- ram' -a (Gr., dia, through ; orao, I see), a method of painting and scenic ex- hibition invented by two French artists, Daguerre and Bouton. It does not possess all the advan- tages of a panorama, but produces a far greater degree of optical delusion. The peculiar effects of the diorama arise more particularly from the contrivances employed in exhibiting the iiainting. In the first place, the picture is viewed through a l)roscenium; the room in which the spectators are is almost in darkness ; and the light, wliich is- “ DIPAVASMA, THE 156 DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION admitted througli coloured glass, falls upon tlie l^icture alone. It is principally used to illustrate architectural and interior views. By means of slides and shutters the light can be increased or diminished at will, and hence very pleasant effects can be represented ; such as the ordinary change from daylight to sunshine, and from sun- shine to cloudy weather or twilight. The diorama was first exhibited in Paris in 1822, and in London in 1823. “ DIPAVASMA, THE,’’ dip-a-vas'-ma, a Buddhist historical record in the Pali language, the most ancient historical work of the Ceylonese. It contains an account of the ecclesiastical history of the Buddhists; of the conversion of the Ceylonese to the Buddhist faith, and of the ancient history of Ceylon. It has been edited, with an English translation, by Dr. H. Oldenburg. DIPHTHONG, dif -thong (Gr., diphthoggos, a double sound), is a double vowel, or two vowels pronounced together or in rapid succession, so as to make only one syllable. Many double vowels, however, are not real diphthongs, because the sound of only one of the vowels is heard ; as in bread, field. DIPLOMA, dip-lo'-ma (Gr., from diplos, doubled or folded), originally denoted any charter, letter, or other composition, written on parch- ment and folded. Afterwards it came to be applied to a letter or writing of a sovereign, con- ferring some title or dignity, or granting some privilege or immunity. The term is now com- monly applied to a letter or instrument duly signed and given by a university or other learned society, in proof of the holder having a certain degree, or licensing him to practise a certain art. The wholesale fraudulent sale of diplomas by a Dr. Buchanan, dean of the American University of Philadelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He attempted escape by a sham suicide, but was caiJtured, prosecuted, and imprisoned. DIPLOMATICS, dip-lo-mat' -tiks, thescience of diplomas — of deciphering ancient writings, and judging of their character, value, date, &c. The term is now nearly obsolete. {See Pal^ogkaphy. ) DIPTYCH, dip'-tik (Gr., diptuckon, folded together), properly signifies something folded, and was originally used in the same sense as diploma. Diptychs, however, were usually tab- lets of metal, ivory, or wood, of equal size, fastened together by a hinge or ring, and were frequently beautifully carved on the outside. They were early in use among the Greeks and Romans, and were also common in the early Christian Church, where they were used as registers. Portions of these were read during the celebration of the mass ; and it was also the custom in some churches for the deacon to re- hearse from these books the names of eminent bishops, saints, or martyrs, before they made ob- lation for the dead. ‘‘ DIRECTORY,” a book containing alpha- betical lists of persons resident in any particular town or other locality. It is generally divided into three principal sections — streets and roads, names, and professions or trades. The first London Directory v/as published in 1677, by Lee and Major, under the title of “A Collection of the Names of Merchants,” &c. The first bearing the name was published in 1734, with the title, “ Kent’s Directory ; or, a List of the Principal Traders in London.” The “Post OflSce Direc- ' tory ” first appeared iri 1800, and was so named because the letter-carriers assisted to obtain the informatiom It is now the property of a private firm, who issue also Directories for nearly every county and the most important towns in the United Kingdom. DIRGE, durj, an abbreviation of dirige, the first word of the antiphona “Dirige Domine Deus,” chanted in the funeral service of the Roman Catholic church. It is now used to ex- press a solemn and mournful composition per- formed at funerals. DIRK, durk (Scot., durk), the name of a short dagger or poniard, now applied to the little weapon worn by cadets in the royal navy. It appears to be derived from an old English verb, dirke, to stab, which is now obsolete. DISCIPLE, dis-i'-pl (Lat., discipulus, from disco, I learn), strictly means one who learns any- thing from another ; and hence the followers of any teacher, philosopher, or head of a sect, came to be called his disciples. In this sense it is some- times used in Scripture ; as when we read of the disciples of Moses, of John, of Christ. Generally, however, it is used with reference to the last of these — the followers of Jesus. Sometimes all who received the doctrines of Christ are called disciples ; but, in a more limited sense, it is ap- plied to the seventy or seventy-two persons that were his more immediate followers and atten- dants. Sometimes it is used as synonymous with apostles, and applied to the twelve. DISCORDS, dis'-kords (Fr., discorde, a dis- sonant or inharmonious combination of sounds, so called in contradistinction to concord. Discords are sometimes intentionally introduced into music, not for themselves alone, but to set off the concords by contrast and opposition. DISCOURSE, dis-korse* (Lat., discursus, from dis, and curro, I run), in Logic, is an opera- tion of the mind, whereby it passes or proceeds from one thing to another — from a thing known to one unknown, and is thus synonymous with reasoning (which see). In Rhetoric, it is used in the same sense as an oration. It is also some- times applied to the familiar talk or conversation of an individual. DISCUS, dis'-kus (Gr., diskos), a quoit used by the ancients. It was generally a heavy cir- cular piece of iron, sometimes perforated in the middle. The discus was not thrown at a mark, but the players endeavoured who could throw it the farthest. The practice of throwing the discus is mentioned by Homer as being one of the sports at the funeral of Patroclus. In the well- known statue of Discobolus throwing the discus, in the British Museum, one of the methods of using it may be seen. DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION. {See Conjunction.) DISJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION, dis-junk' -tiv (from Lat., dis, ^ndjungo, I join), in Logic, is a proposition compounded of two or more categorical propositions, so stated as to im- ply that one of them must be true. In such a case we proceed either by asserting the truth of one member of the division, and thence inferring the falsity of all the rest, which is called the modus ponens ; or else by asserting the falsity of all the members but one, and hence inferring the DISPATCHES 157 DITCH tiuth of that one, which is called the modus tollens. DISPATCHES, dis-'patshf - ez (from Fr., dep^cher^ to send away), a term applied to letters, or packets of letters, sent with expedition (or dispatched) by messengers express. It is mostly used when referring to a letter or letters on some affair of state or public concern. Papers containing information sent by public officers to the government on public business are always called dispatches. DISPENSARY, dis-pen' -sa-re (Lat., dispen- sarium, from dispendo, 1 distribute), denotes pro- perly the shop or place in which medicines are made up and distributed, but is now more com- monly applied to a charitable institution for sup- plying medical advice and medicines gratuitously to the poor. DISPONDEE, dis-pon’-de (Lat., di and spondee), in Greek and Latin poetry is a double spondee, or a foot consisting of four long syl- lables. DISPOSITION, dis-po-zish' -un (Lat., dis- positio), in Logic, is that operation of the mind whereby we put the ideas, propositions, or argu- ments which we have formed concerning a sub- ject, in the order fittest to gain a clear knowledge of it, to retain it in the memory, or to explain it to others. In Rhetoric, it is the due placing or ranging the several parts of a speech or discourse. The logician is tied down to a certain prescribed form in his mode of reasoning, the rhetorician adopts that mode that seems most convenient for him. DISPUTATION, dis-pu-tai' -shun (Lat., dis, and puto, I think), is a discussion or contest, either by word or writing, on some unsettled question. {See Debate.) In the Middle Ages, students used to travel from city to city, invit- ing the learned men to public disputation on theological or philosophical theses. DISQUISITION, dis-kwe-zish' -un {Jj&t., dis, and qucero, I seek), formal or systematic inquiry into the nature, kinds, or circumstances of any problem, question, or topic, by arguments, or by discussion of the facts and circumstances, in order to elucidate the truth, or to obtain clear notions regarding it. _ DISSOLVING VIEWS, diz-zoV-ving{L^t., dissolvo), pictures painted upon glass, and ex- hibited by means of magic lanterns of improved construction and great size. After one picture has been exhibited, by removing the focus, or lessening the light, the effect is rendered less distinct ; then by means of another magic lantern, or a lens, a fresh slide is gradually introduced, so that one picture blends with another almost un- consciously to the spectator. DISSONANCE, dis'-so-nans (Fr.), in Music, a term used to denote the effect produced from the rmison of two sounds not in accordance with each other. Thirds and sixths were anciently considered as dissonances ; in fact, every chord except the perfect concord is dissonant. Formerly there was an unlimited number of dissonances, but they are at present reduced to a compara- tively small number. {See Haemony.) DISSYLLARLE, dis'-sil-la-hl (Gr., dissul- labos), a word of two syllables; as, goodness, beauty. DISTAFF, dis'-taf. The distaff, as repre- sented in antique art, was made of a cane stick, the top of which was slit, and the portions bent downwards, forming a receptacle for the flax or wool. The distaff was dedicated to Pallas, and the Fates were represented as spinning the thread of life from a distaff. DISTANCE, dis' -tans (Lat., distare, in Painting, an expression used to denote the utmost extent to which the power of vision can reach, or the limit of view. Extreme distance is the visible horizon of the observer, in v/hich the land and sky appear to meet ; and middle distance is that part which lies midway between the distance of the picture and the foreground. In Horse-racing, a length of 240 yards from the winning-post. At this point is a post called the dis- tance-post. When a race is run, a man is stationed at the distance-post, and is provided with a small red flag, with which he can communicate with another man at the winning-post. When the winner passes, the man at the winning-post lowers his flag, and the man at the distance-post lowers his flag at the same time. If any horse has not then arrived at the distance- post, he is said to be “ distanced,” and incurs penalties accordingly. DISTEMPER, dis-tem! -per (Fr., detrempe), in Painting, the name given to the colouring matter used in scene-painting, and for printing and staining paper-hangings. A mixture is made of whitening and coarse size, in the proportion of ten parts of the former to one of the latter, to which the required colour is added when it has been diluted with a little water, and brought to a consistency resembling cream. Distemper colours dry very rapidly, and should be slightly warmed before they are used. This method is sometimes used in colouring the walls of houses externally, and the interior of rooms. DISTICH, dis'-tik (Gr., distichon, consisting of two rows), a couple of verses or poetic lines making complete sense. The term is principally applied to the hexameters and pentameters used among the Romans, especially by Ovid and Ca- tullus. Among the Greeks and Romans the distich was used as a vehicle for the expression of definite sentiments, and especially for epigram. Goethe and Schiller, together with other great poets of Germany, have shown a great predilec- tion for the distich. Disticha, a collection of moral maxims in Latin which were very popular in the Middle Ages. DISTORTION, dis-tor'-shun, in Photo- graphy, a term applied to the unnatural increase in size of certain parts of the picture. Distortion arises from several causes : such as using too small a lens ; not using a sufficiently large diaphragm or stop ; by approaching the object too closely ; or by the lens itself being improperly connected. DISTRIBUTION, dis-trib-u' -shun (Lat., distribuo, I distribute), is the placing particular things in the places or compartments which have been already prepared to receive them. In Logic, a term is said to be distributed when it is employed in its full extent, so as to comprehend everything to which it is applicable ; to bo spread, as it were, over the whole class, and ap- plied to each object individually, not to all col- lectively. When a common term denotes fewer than all the objects of a class, it Is said to be taken particularly, or to bo undistributed. DITCH, in Fortification, a broad and deep DITHYRAMBUS 158 DIVINA COMMEDIA” formed of earth taken out of the ditch. The sides are generally secured with revetments of masonry. The side immediately below the para- pet is called the scarp of the ditch, and the side opposite to the scarp is called the counter scarp. DITH YE, AMBUS, dith-e-ram! -bus (Gr.), a surname of Bacchus. In ancient verse, the term was used to designate a species of lyric poetry, more particularly cultivated at Athens. It was distinguished by its wildness and enthusiasm, but in later years it degenerated into bombast. Ori- ginally the dithyrambus was a hymn sung in honour of the deity after which it was named. It was generally sung by a chorus of fifty, who danced in a circle as they sang round the blazing altar of the god. The song was at first rudely accompanied by flate-music, but afterwards Arion invented a regular choral form for it. DITTO, dit'-to (Lat., dictus, said), a term in common use, signifying aforesaid, or the same thing. The derivation of the term is more dkectly from the Italian detto ; it is used to save repetition, and is often contracted to the form do. DITTY, dit'-te, a term derived from the Latin dictum. It was originally spelt dittie, and im- plied in its primitive sense, a saying or sentence. In modern times, however, it is applied to a lay or song. DIVAN, div-an\ a Persian word, originally signifying a register of names and accounts, but more generally employed to designate a court of justice or supreme judicial tribunal. The word, however, is very variously applied. Among the Persians, a collection of poems or songs by one and the same author is called a divan. The state or reception rooms in i^alaces and the private houses of the rich citizens of Constantinople are also called divans. Among Europeans the term is more generally applied to a kind of sofa, pro- bably from such being used in the divans of the Orientals. DIYEL-ON-THE-NECK, div'-el, an in- strument of torture, employed against the Lol- lards. Fox, in his “Acts and Monuments,” thus describes it : — “ Certain strait irons, called the divel-on-his-neck, being after an horrible sort de- vised, straitening and winching in the neck of a man with his legs together, in such sort as the more he stirreth in it the straiter it presseth him, so that within three or four hours it breaketh and crusheth a man’s back and body in pieces.” ^‘DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY,” a col- lection of grammatical essays by John Horne Tooke, a prominent person in the political history of the latter part of the 19th century. The book, which is of considerable value as an authority on etymology and grammar, was named from the place of residence of the author, Purley, near Wandsworth, Surrey. DIVERTIMENTO, di-ver-te men' -to (Ital.), a short, light, pleasing composition, vocal or in- strumental, written in a style calculated to engage the popular ear. The word is sometimes written divertissement, and applied to a ballei introduced between the acts of an opera. “DIVINA COMMEDIA,” or DIVINE COMEDY, de-vd-na kom-mai' -de-a, the great poem composed in the early part of the 13th cen- tury by Dante Alighieri, and one of the most re- markable productions of the human mind. It describes a vision in which the author visits in succession Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise ; and is divided into three books bearing those titles. The whole poem consists of 300 cantos. It is de- scribed by a recent writer as “a work which holds an eternal place in the heart, theintellect, and the conscience of the world, and which numbers now more students and admirers than in any preceding time.” In the vision, Dante is conducted through Hell and Purgatory by the poet Virgil (represent- ing human wisdom), who has been sent to his aid by Beatrice (representing heavenly wisdom), she herself having been despatched to Virgil with this commission by Lucia (enlightening grace), who had been sent by a gentle lady (Divine mercy) to the aid of Dante, lost in a dark wood in the middle of his life’s j’ourney, and terrified by the aspect of threatening wild beasts. Hell (L’Inf erno) is described as avast abyss, opening directly under Mount Zion. The sides are not smooth, but broken by terraces, each of which extends round the whole circle, and is separated from those above and below it, so that entrance and exit are impossible except to those who, like Dante, are divinely guarded. The first circle is the “ Limbo ” of the old writers, in which are the whole of the unbai)tised and those who lived before the birth of Christ. All the other circles exhibit the pun- ishment of sinners, the sins deepening in guilti- ness as the pit descends, and the punishment growing more horrible as the circles decrease in size. The description given by the poet of the condemned sinners, including a large number of historical characters, and of the tortures they endure, are appalling. There are rivers of blood, horrible odours, a lake of pitch, troops of wretched spirits wheeled about in the air, others plunged in ice, others imprisoned in trees. Wails of despair, cries of agony, strike upon the ear. Many of the condemned relate in brief but terrible sentences the story of their crimes ; and there are episodes of great pathos and power. At the bottom of the abyss is Satan, a mon- ster with three heads, chami)ing a sinner in each bloody mouth. It is not surprising that Judas Iscariot should be one of these, but certainly remarkable that the Eomans Brutus and Cassius should be the others. By climbing up the body of Satan, Dante and Virgil emerge at the antipodes of Mount Zion, the Mount of Purgatory, a lofty cone rising on an island in the Southern Ocean. Around this cone are another succession of terraces where are the souls of those who have been guilty of the seven mortal sins — pride, envy, anger, sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lust. On the summit of the mountain, the poet is met by Beatrice, who ascends to heaven, tak- ing Dante with her, and visiting in succession the moon, the planets Mercury and Venus, the sun, and then Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Hence they mount to the sphere of the fixed stars, and finally to heaven itself, where, after a vision of Christ and the Virgin, the poet has a glimpse of the Creator, and the poem closes. It is difficult even to indicate vaguely, the poetical power, the intense energy, the vast learning and knowledge of contemporary history exhibited in this wonder- ful poem. Commentators have laboured to illustrate it and explain the allusions ; and from it might almost be constructed a history of Southern Europe in the 13th century. It is written in the terza rima, a metre admirably adapted to the grave and dignified manner of the poet, and flexible enough to display the various DIVINATION 169 DOGGET’S COAT AND BADGE emotions excited. More than 300 editions have been printed, the earliest by Numeister, at Puligno, in 1472. A large number of manuscript copies exist. Dante himself styled the poem a Comedy, because he said, “ Comedy begins with the asperity of a subject, and ends prosperously,” and is written in the common, or “vulgar,” tongue, as the poem is. The prefix “Divine” was afterwards given, but not apparently by the author ; for the first printed edition so named is supposed to have been printed at Venice in 1516. The earliest of all the commentaries was that by Jacopo, Dante’s son, written in 1328. In 1373 the republic of Florence established a pro- fessorship of Dante, and Boccaccio, the author of the “Decameron,” was the first lecturer. The standard Englisli translation of the whole poem is Carey’s, and Wright’s is also good ; but others, especially Dr. J. A. Carlyle and Mr. W. M. Eossetti, have translated the first division “ L’Inferno.” The poet Longfellow published a full translation in America. In Germany, several excellent translations have been issued, one of the best, if not quite the best, being by the late King John of Saxony, who assumed the name “ Philalethes.” DIVINATION, div-in-ai' -shun (Lat., divi- natio), a term applied generally to the various arts used in all ages for the discovery of things, secret or future, in a supernatural way. The feeling among ancient nations was, that if gods really existed, they cared for men ; and if they cared for men, it was only natural that they should send them signs of their will. Among the ancient Greeks and Eomans, divination was prac- tised with great enthusiasm. In the most trivial matters of every-day life they saw something that had reference to the future, or destiny, while their auguries and oracles formed the higher class of divination. The different systems of divina- tion employed by the ancients are very numerous, and are described under various headings. i^See Augukies, Ordeal, Omen.) DIVINING-BOD, cZw-t'-mnc/{Lat., divino, I divine), a hazel twig cut in the form of a Y, by the aid of which certain persons, called dowsers, pretend to be able to discover water or mineral veins. The rod is held in a peculiar manner, and the dowser walks backwards and forwards over the ground to be tried. As soon as he crosses or approaches a metallic vein or aqueous spring, the twig runs towards it with a slow rotatory motion. The superstition has not yet quite died out in Devon and Cornwall. Eeaders of Scott’s novel “The Antiquary,” will remem- ber the use he made of the popular belief. DIVISION, di-vizh'-on, in Logic, is the separating a thing into several parts or ideas. Logicians distinguish three kinds of division : — i. When the genus or kind is divided by its species or differences ; 2, when a thing is divided into several classes by opposite accidents ; and 3, when the accidents themselves are divided according to the subjects in which they inhere. DO, do, the name of the first note of the natural major diatonic scale. It has been long since substituted for that of ut, which was em- ployed by Guido, the latter monosyllable being rejected as too hard and rough. DOCTOR, dok'-tor (Lat., doctor, ivom. doceo, I teach), properly signifies a teacher or instructor, one so skilled in his particular art or science as to be able to communicate it to others. It is gene- rally believed to have been first adopted as a distinctive title in the 12th century, and to have originated with the university of Bologna. The university of Paris followed immediately after, and, in 1145, conferred the degree of doctor in divinity on Peter Lombard. In England the degree of doctor was not introduced into the universities till the reign of John or Henry III. In modern times the title of doctor forms gene- rally the highest degree in the faculties of theo- logy, law, and medicine. In Germany, the title of doctor in philosophy has been substituted for the older title of master, which is still retained in this country. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge also confer the degree of doctor in music. As to the conditions and qualifications necessary to obtain this degree, see the accounts of the different universities in other parts of this work. Some of the American colleges confer the degree on almost anybody who will jpay certain fees, and the title so obtained is of course of little value. In common speech, every medical man is known as “ the doctor.” Doctor in Music, a musician upon whom the degree of doctor has been conferred by some university. By the qualifications formerly required of a candidate for either a doctor’s or a bachelor’s degree, it is clearly shown that music was considered a purely speculative science. No importance was attributed to skill in composition. By the more modern statutes, however, higher qualifications are rendered necessary ; the can- didate being required by them to submit for the in- spection of the musical professor a composition in eight vocal parts, with instrumental accompaniments. DOCTRINAIRE, dok-trin-aire' (Fr.), de- notes properly a man who is the supporter of a l^articular doctrine, or who is a man of doctrines. In general, it is applied to those who hold pedantic or unpractical views. In this sense it was applied in France, during the Restoration, by the reac- tionary court party, to a faction of the i^arlia- mentary opposition, who wished to carry out rational and scientific doctrines in politics against all arbitrary measures. This party went out from the salons of the Due de Broglie, and had, as its leader in the chamber, Royer Collard, being supported in the press and before the public by Guizot. Their watchword was a constitution on the basis of the charter of Louis XVIII. After the revolution of 1830, Guizot, Broglie, and others of this party, became ministers and supporters of the government. DOCTRINE, dok'-trin (Lat., doctrina, from doceo, I teach), denotes in general anything that is taught either as a matter of faith or practice ; and hence the term has come to be applied to a variety of opinions that have been adopted and inculcated in religion, philosophy, &c. DOG-DAY S . The rising or setting of Sirius , “ the dog-star,” with the sun was long erroneously supposed to be the cause of excessive heat. The so called “dog-days” begin on July 3 and end August II. DOGGEREL, dog'-ger-el (Ang.-Sax.),a term applied to mean, paltry, loose, and irregular rhymes, where the jingle at the end of each line is the only thing preserved in common with verse or poetry. DOGGET’S COAT AND BADGE, dog'- gets, a prize contended for at a rowing-match upon the Thames on the ist of August every year. Thomas Dogget, an actor at the theatre DOGMA 160 DOME in Drury Lane, desirous of commemorating the accession to the throne of George I. (August i, 1715), left a bequest of a waterman’s coat and badge to be rowed for annually. The com- petitors are six young watermen whose appren- ticeships have expired within the year. The locality chosen for the race is from London Bridge to the Old Swan at Chelsea. The um- pire is usually the barge-master of the Fish- mongers’ company, and the rowers are each placed singly in a boat provided with sculls. DOGMA, dog'-ma (Gr., an opinion or notion), originally meant an opinion given out as a posi- tive assertion, not requiring to be supported by any arguments ; and hence a settled opinion, a principle, maxim, or tenet, particularly in theo- logy or philosophy. In English, the term is fre- quently api)lied in a depreciatory manner to as- sertions advanced Avithout proof. In a theological sense, it is applied to the doctrines of Christianity advanced not for discussion but for belief ; hence dogmatic theology is that branch of divinity that systematically arranges and expounds the various doctrines of Christianity, as distinguished from scholastic theology, Avhich deals with the argu- ments by which tlie truth of these doctrines may be supported. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent system of Christian dog- mas was made by Origen in the 3rd century, in his work “De Principiis.” He was folloAved, in the 4th century, by Augustine, with his work, “De Doctrina Christiana.” The first, however, to treat this subject systematically was John Damascenus, who flourished in the 8th century. In the Middle Ages, ingenious examinations of the Christian doctrines were made by the school- men ; but agitating, as they did, subtle questions of little practical importance, they loaded the science with useless refinements. Among the Protestant reformers, Melancthon was the first who wrote a compendium of the Christian doc- trine, which is still justly esteemed. The spread of the critical philosophy of Kant gave a fresh stimulus to this branch of theology in Germany, and since that time it has been extensively culti- vated in that country. Among the most import- ant Avorks on this subject are that of J. Peter Lange, “ Philosophische Dogmatik” (Heidel, 1849-51), and Neander’s “History of Dogmas” (1856). Several Roman Catholic theologians in Germany have recently distinguished themselves in this field, some inclining to liberal notions, and others supporting the rules of the Church. It is worthy of remark that Nitsch and Beck have, in recent times, treated Christian dog- matics and morality in combination, the custom having been for the last two centuries to discuss them separately. DOILEY, doy’-le (Dutch, dwaele, a towel), a small ornamental napkin placed beneath Avine- glasses at dessert. DOLCE, OR DOL, doV-chai (Ital., sweet or tender), a term in Music, used to denote that the passage over which it is written is to be played in a soft, smooth, and delicate manner. DOLES AT FUNERALS, doles, an ancient custom of making gifts to the poor at funerals, which was in use till comparatively modern times. It was continued until long after praying for the dead had been abandoned at the Reformation. The custom probably arose from the opinion that such gifts did give repose to the soul of the de- ceased. The practice of giving doles at funerals was not only common in England, but also in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. By some the custom is traced back to the sin-offering amongst the ancient Hebrews. DOLL, doll (Welsh, delor), a toy shaped like the figure of an infant, used as a toy by female children, whose love of dolls not only cultivates their affections, but teaches them to exercise their ingenuity in making clothes for and dress- ing them. The management of a doll is therefore a part of the education of girls, whose natural instincts and love of nursing are exhibited from their tenderest age. The use of these little effigies dates from the most remote period, and is common to all countries. They were portions of the playthings of the children of the ancient Romans and Persians j and in the female children of patrician Europeans, or the savage offspring of the Australian aborigines, the love of the imi- tation of the cares of maternity is equally implanted. The majority of the dolls im- ported into Great Britain come from the Netherlands. The old Dutch doll had a well-made face, a gaudy dress, and thin wooden legs. Great improvements have recently taken place in the manufacture of dolls, and large quantities are made in France, on the Rhine, and in Switzerland, as well as in England ; and many hundred women are employed in their construc- tion ; some of them carve the faces, others the figures, others the limbs ; another class of opera- tives paint them, and another prepare and put on the dresses. Wires and machinery have been introduced into the bodies of the dolls, that make them open and shut their eyes, and imitate the sound of the words “papa” and “mamma.” Some of the more expensive dolls have wax or papier-m^che faces, hands, and feet, and are Avell modelled. The making of dolls’ eyes is an im- portant branch of industry. In America, black doUs are made of gutta-percha, expressly for the use of negro children. DOLLY-SHOP, doV-le, the name applied in London to a shop where rags, old articles, and refuse, are bought, and over the door of which is usually suspended a large black doll. Dolly- shops are often kept as cloaks for an illegal trade — that of unlicensed pawnbroking. DOLMEN, doV -men, the name given by French archaeologists to the monumental records erected over Celtic burial-places in Great Britain and France, which are called cromlechs in this country. [See Oeomlech.) The word is sup- posed to be the Celtic term for a stone table. DOME, dome (Gr., doma ; Lat., domum; Ital., duomo,a, house; but, in the last-named language, applied to cathedrals and churches, as the house of God), a word which expresses any covering placed over a building and taking the form of a hemisphere or spherical vault, whether round or polygonal at the base. A distinction should properly be made between the terms dome and cupola — the former applying to the exterior, or convexity of the covering, and the latter to its interior surface, or concavity ; but they are generally used as synonymous expres- sions. In building a dome of masonry, its thick- ness should be the greatest at the base, which is the weakest part, and gradually diminish to- wards its crown or centre. The lower courses of masonry should also be strengthened by hooping or framing, particularly if the diameter of tlie base be considerable. The principles on which DOMESTIC ANIMALS 161 DON QUIXOTE the equilibrium of a dome is maintained are similar to those on which the equilibrium of arches depends. They are put together on cen- terings of elaborate construction ; but these serve rather as a scaffold for the workman than as a support for the materials of which the dome is made, until the crown is inserted. The use of the dome was not resorted to by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks ; but the Romans, who were the first . to use the arch to any great ex- tent, also erected circular vaulted roofs or domes over many of the temples of their heathen gods ; among which may be named those of Bacchus, Apollo, Minerva, and Diana, and the magnificent Pantheon at Rome. They also covered the cham- bers of some of their splendid baths with roofs built in this form ; as in the baths of Caracalla and Diocletian. In Byzantine architecture, the dome was a peculiar feature in all cathedrals and churches built after that style, and amongst these the dome of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, may be especially noticed. {See Byzantine Akchitecture.) The majority of the Italian churches built during the Middle Ages are also surmounted by domes. The great dome of St. Peter’s at Rome was designed and partly built under the superintendence of Michael-Angelo. Among the most remarkable domes of more modern construction may be mentioned those of the Invalides and the Pantheon at Paris, and those of St. Paul’s, by Sir Christopher Wren, and the reading-room of the British Museum, London. The following are the dimensions of some that have been already mentioned, with one or two additions, giving the height in feet from the base to the centre, and the diameter of the base, including the thickness of the walling or materials between the outer and inner surface ; Name. Height. Diameter. Pantheon, Kome 143 •••• 142 Baths of Caracalla, Pome 116 .... 112 Baths of Diocletian, Rome 83 .... 74 St. Sophia, Constantinople 201 .... 115 S. Maria del Fiore, Florence .... 310 .... 139 St. Peter’s, Rome 330 .... 139 Invalides, Paris* 173 .... 80 Pantheon, Paris 190 .... 67 St. Paul’s, London 215 .... 112 British Museum, London 106 .... 140 Iron domes of great size have been constructed. The following are the dimensions of the inside diameters of some of the largest : — Feet. London Exhibition 140 Vienna Exhibition (1873) 360 Albert Hall (oval) 219X185 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, do-mes'-tik, are those which have been tamed by man and made objects of his care, and in a living state his pro- perty. Some animals, as the elephant, may be tamed and employed in labour, but will not breed except in a wild state. Domesticated animals may be classed as those which are employed in regular work, as horses ; those which are reared for food purposes, as cattle, sheep, and poultry ; those used to hunt or destroy other animals, as dogs and cats ; and those kept as pets (among which dogs and cats have also a conspicuous place), as birds. Domestication in the course of time produces considerable changes in the appear- ance and habits of the animals. DOMINANT, dom' -i-nanty in Music, the fifth above the tonic ; the ruling or governing note of the key. The sub-dominant stands next in importance to the dominant, and has its place on the fourth above, or the fifth below, the tonic. DOMINO, doin' -e -no, a long robe of silk fur- nished with a hood removable at pleasure, and used as a disguise by persons of both sexes, chiefly at masquerades. The name domino was doubtless derived from the habit worn by the priests upon their heads and shoulders during winter ; from whence sprung the association with a word frequently occurring in the liturgy of the Roman Catholic church. DOMINOES, a game generally played with twenty-eight flat oblong pieces of ivory or bone, each divided by a line into two parts, bearing numbers marked by points. The game is won by the player who plays out all his tablets or dominoes first, or, if that is impossible, the player who has the least number of points on the dominoes left in hand. The game of dominoes is supposed to be very ancient ; it has been traced back to Greek, Hebrew, and Chinese origin. At the beginning of the i8th century it was intro- duced into France from Italy, and, after becoming very popular there, it spread into Germany and generally over the Continent. DON AND DOM. — ^Titles of honour, the former in Spain, the latter (another form of the same word) in Portugal. In Spain the title has very little more definite meaning than our English “ esquire,” being applied almost indiscriminately to gentlemen of position; but in Portugal no person can assume the title without special per- mission from the king. Under the form “Dan,” the word is frequently used, in the sense of lord or master, by Chaucer, Spenser, and other old English poets, and applied in a poetical or humorous manner as “Dan Phoebus,” or “Dan Cupid.” ‘ ‘ DON JUAN,” a legendary profligate, who, after leading a life of reckless indulgence, was carried away bodily to the infernal regions by the vivified statue of a man whom he has mur- dered. The hero of the legend is supposed to be a member of a noble family of Seville. The first dramatic version of the legend was by Gabriel Tellez (an ecclesiastic, who in his secular works assumed the name of Tirso de Molina), and was entitled Burlador de Sevilla, the deceiver of Seville. The story is noteworthy as having di- rectly originated Moliere’s Festin de Pierre and Mozart’s greatest ojjera, Don Giovanni, and sug- gested the title at least of Byron’s brilliant poem, “ Don Juan.” ‘‘DON QUIXOTE,” or more accurately, “ Adventures of Don Quixote de la Mancha,” the principal work of the great Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, better known as Cervantes only, and pne of the most renowned productions of modern literature. The first part appeared at Madrid in 1605. Like other poor authors in these days, Cervantes stood in need of a patron, and he requested the Duke of Bexar, an influential nobleman, to permit the work to be dedicated to him. The duke, being informed that the book was of a satirical character, re- fused ; but the author pleaded so earnestly to be allowed to read a single chapter that consent was given, and the delight which the duke experienced was so great that he accepted the dedication. The hero of the fiction, a pure-minded and en- thusiastic poor gentleman of La Mancha, a small district partly in the kingdom of Aragon and partly in Castile, has read so many of the romances and poems of chivalry, that his brain is fired with the idea of emulating the achievements L DONJON 162 DOTTED NOTES of the knights errant of the mediaeval romances. “ He became so infatuated with this kind of study that he j)assed whole days and nights over these books ; and thus, with little sleeping and much reading, his brains were dried up and his intellect deranged. His imagination was full of all that he had read : of enchantments, contests, battles, challenges, wounds, courtships, amours, tortures, and impossible absurdities ; and so firmly was he persuaded of the truth of the whole tissue of visionary fiction that, in his mind, no history in the world was more authentic.” Donning an old suit of armour, and mounted on a wretched horse, which he has named Rosinante, he sets forth in search of adventures, accom- panied by a fat, proverb-loving, most unpoetical rustic, Sancho Panza, whom the knight calls his esquire. The gaunt figure of the knight (whose name Quixote is taken from the Spanish quixades, jaws, expressive of his lean visage) mounted on the almost skeleton horse, and fol- lowed by the rotund, coarse Sancho on a donkey, are grotesque objects enough ; but the intense sincerity, kindliness, and chivalrous courtesy of the “crack-brained gentleman” excite a feeling far above that of the ludicrous. He lives under the influence of a glamour of imaginative enthusiasm. Peasant wenches are lovely distressed princesses ; shepherds are giants, and flocks of sheep hosts of enemies. A windmill is a terrible opponent, and, lance in rest, the gallant knight rides full tilt against it. Innkeepers are lords of castles, and every common incident is magnifled into romantic importance. In matters unconnected with this special delusion, Quixote is a shrewd, scholarly gentleman ; and the conversations between liim and Sancho, the embodiment of uncultured com- mon-sense, but whose love for his master makes him the most faithful of followers, are admirable. Charming little stories and sketches of character are interspersed in episodes; pathos and senti- ment mingling with the fine burlesque and broad humour of the main incidents. The work soon achieved a great popularity ; and in 1614, a few years after its appearance, De Avallanedar, one of those literary pirates who coolly appropriate the ideas of better men than themselves, published a spurious continuation, in which scurrility was more conspicuous than true satire. This probably hastened the appearance of the authentic second part, published in 1615. In this part, Sancho is more conspicuous ; but the work ends with the restoration to reason of the bewildered Quixote, and his death in a frame of mind becoming a Christian gentleman. Quixote ranks with Hamlet and Falstaff among the greatest creations of fiction ; and it is worth noting that Cervantes and Shakespeare died on the same day. DONJON, OR DONGEON, don-jon (Fr., donjon), the name given to the keep or principal part of a castle. (See Castle.) Prisoners were generally confined in the basement story of the donjon, and from this circumstance, the word now written dungeon has been taken to express any dark and dreary prison cell, but more par- ticularly one which is partially or entirely below the surface of the ground. DOOR, dore (Sax., dure; Teuton, deur), the movable panel by which the doorway or entrance to any building, apartment, closet, or court is closed. When they move on hinges, like the ordinary doors of apartments, they are termed “swing-doors.” Large double doors used to separate any long room are called “folding. doors.” A jib-door is a door in a wall, which cannot well be detected when closed. A rolling or sliding door is one which travels on rollers, or in a groove, parallel and close to the wall in which is the aperture that it is intended to close. A smaller door which closes an opening cut in the entrance-door of a court-yard or large build- ing, is called a “ wicket-door.” A trap-door is a door cut in the floor to give access to cellars, or open parts under the roof of a house. In Egyptian and Assyrian architecture the doorways are surmounted with square lintels. The open- ings, particularly in the former, were wider at the bottom than at the top, and surrounded by a flat moulding enriched with sculpture. The lin- tel was generally very deep, and surmounted with a projecting cornice, and colossal figures were usually placed on either side of the opening. The doorways in Grecian architecture were rect- angular in form ; they were surrounded by mouldings, and sometimes surmounted with a cornice supported on brackets. In early Roman architecture the form of the doorway was the same ; but at a later jperiod the semicircular arched heading was introduced, which subse- quently became the characteristic feature of the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. In Arabian and Gothic architecture the head of the doorway assumed a pointed form, and in the latter the opening was surrounded by a great variety of bold and deep mouldings, and richly ornamented. The decoration employed became more and more elaborate in the transition from the Norman style to the Perpendicular English, through the Early English and Decorated English periods, being, perhaps, most graceful and natural in the style last named. In the Perpendicular English style of architecture, the doorway, although it was still pointed, was surmounted by a square moulding or label, which is peculiar to buildings in this style and of the Tudor period, when the flat four-centred arched heading was introduced. DORIC DIALECT, dor'-ik, was one of the four dialects of the ancient Greek language, being that spoken by the inhabitants of Doris. It was characterized by a certain roughness and harsh- ness, and was much less polished than either the Ionic or Attic. Pindar, Theocritus, and Bion wrote in this dialect. DORIC ORDER. Architecture.) DORMANT, dor'-mant (Fr., sleeping), in Heraldry, an animal is said to be dormant when it has its head resting upon its fore-paws, in con- tradistinction to couchant, where the head of the animal is held erect. DORMER, dor'-mer, the name given to a window put in a small projection like a gable rising vertically from the roof of a house, and used to light attics or sleeping apartments in the roof. Their are sometimes three, and even four, rows of dormer windows in the steep roofs of large public edifices built in France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany, between the commence- ment of the 15th and the close of the 17th cen- tury. DORMITORY, dor'-me-tor-e (Lat., dormire; Fr. dormir, to sleep), a sleeping-chamber, but es- pecially applied to large apartments in a monastery or school calculated to hold a great number of beds. Each side of the dormitory in religious houses was often divided into a number of small cells. DOTTED NOTES, dot'ded, in Music, notes DOUAY BIBLE 163 DRAMA which are increased in length by the addition of dots placed after them. A dot placed after a note renders it half as long again. A double dot placed after a note increases it to three-fourths its original value. Rests may also be increased by the addition of dots. When dots are placed at the sides of double bars, they indicate that the portions on the dotted sides are to be repeated. They are sometimes attached to single bars for precisely the same purpose. DOUAY BIBLE. {See Bible.) DOUBLE BAR, duV-l (Fr., double and harre), in Music, a term applied to two straight parallel lines drawn close together perpendicu- larly through the staff, for the purpose of dividing the various strains of movement. DOUBLE BASS, CONTRA BASS, on VIOLINO. — The deepest and most powerful- toned instrument employed in concerted music. It so enriches and sustains the masses of harmony, as to be indispensable in the orchestra. It has three thick catgut strings, which are tuned by fourths, and generally plays from the same book or part as the violoncello, though it is sometimes found necessary to write a distinct part for it. Notwithstanding that all music for the double bass, in common with that for the violoncello, is written in the bass clef, the real pitch of the former instrument is an octave lower than that of the latter. DOUBLET, dub' -let (Ang.-Nor.), a tightly- fitting coat or jacket, closely resembling the jerkin formerly worn. It reached a little below the waist-belt ; and the sleeves, although generally fastened on to the body of the garment, were sometimes detached, and tied on at the shoulder. The name “ doublet ” is derived from the fact, that it was usually wadded, or doubled, for pur- poses of defence. DOWNS (Celtic, dun, a hill), a general name for undulating tracts of upland, covered with short grass, and with a soil too light for cultiva- tion. It is sometimes given to hillocks of sand tlirown up along the sea coast ; but the French form of the word, dunes, is more generally used by geographers. DRACHM, DRACHMA, or DRAM, dram (Gr., drachme), a silver coin of ancient Greece, used as the unit of the money system. Since the year 1833 the unit of the money system of modern Greece has also been called drachma, and is equal to about 8 Jd. Amongst the ancients the value of the drachma varied at different times and places. The Attic drachma was nearly ■equal to a French franc, or qfd. in English money. It differed according to the value of specie, but was always calculated as the looth part of the mina, which was generally worth about £4 sterling. There were also coins valued at two, three, and four drachmas. As a Weight, the drachma was considered also equal to the looth part of a mina, or about i oz. There are two drachmas, or drams, used as weights in England— viz., the avoirdupois, which is equivalent to 27^1 grains troy, and the apothecaries’, which is equivalent to 60 grains troy. DRAGOMAN, drag'-o-man (Turk., truki- man), the term applied, in Turkey, to all inter- preters or foreign guides. The diplomatic drago- men, however, are very important personages, .and serve as a means of communication between the officers of the Ottoman government and the ambassadors of other European nations, and are allowed several important privileges. They are seldom pure natives, but mostly Italians, de- scended from Genoese or Venetian merchants. The occupation of the ordinary Turkish dragoman is similar to that of the French commissionnaire and the Italian cicerone. DRAGON. — In nearly every country, and at all times, there have been legends concerning the existence of a huge monster, which went about devouring and devastating all before it. This monster, or dragon as it is generally called, is supposed to be the symbolical representative of arrogant power and cruelty, whose sole object is to oppose order and progress. Although it is probable, as Brand says, that “ the dragon is one of those shapes which fear has created itself,” nevertheless from the generality of the legends concerning this winged saurian, it is possible that the existence of some species of the pterodactyl, in very remote times, may have originated the superstition. However this may have been, it is certain that this mythical animal, in all ages, has been looked upon as a minister of evil, the de- struction of which was considered one of the grandest objects of human energy. The task was usually allotted to gods and heroes. Apollo killed the Python, and Perseus slew the dragon, and saved Andromeda. Hercules, as the idea of physical power, is also represented as a dragon- slayer, havingkilled the monster which guarded the Hesperides. From poetry the legend of the dragon passed into art, and the Greeks and the Romans bore it as an emblem on their shields and helmets. In the Nihelungen Lied, in later times, Siegfried is represented as killing a dragon ; and in the epic of Beowolf, the two contests of the hero, first with the monster Grendel, and afterwards with the dragon, form the principal incidents of the poem. Among the Scandinavians, Thor was described as a dragon-slayer. Among the Teu- tonic tribes the practice of bearing the dragon as an emblem on their shields and banners was common, and they introduced the practice very early into England. Among the Celts the dragon was considered the emblem of sovereignty, and as such was borne on the helmet of the monarch. In the Middle Ages, in religious paintings, the dragon was looked upon as the representative of sin. Saints and martyrs are frequently depicted tramiDling a dragon under foot. It is also used with this signification in the figure of St. George and the Dragon. Sometimes it has been used as a symbol of heresy. A body of men in Hungary, who enrolled themselves in order to crush John Huss and his followers, called themselves Knights of the Order of the Dragon. The figure of the dragon is much used in Heraldry ; and when an animal, such as a lion or tiger, is represented with its own head but with a dragon’s wings and tail, it is said to be dragonne. The dragon em- blem is very conspicuous in China. In the autho- rized version of the Old Testament, two Hebrew words, of different meanings, are both translated dragon. One refers to some wild beast of the desert ; the other, to a monster either of the land or of the sea, an immense serpent or a whale. In the New Testament the word is used as meta- phorically indicating Satan. DRAMA, dra'-ma (from the Gr., dram, action), a poem or piece composed for the stage ; a composition in dialogue, in which the action is recited and rei)resented, and not related. Almost DRAMATIS PERSONS 164 DRAUGHTSMAN every ancient and modern civilized peoj)le have cultivated dramatic representation in some form. The Hebrews were an exception to the general rule ; for, although the dialogue form was occasionally adopted in their ancient writings, as in the book of Job, and also in the Song of Solomon, there is no instance of anything approaching a dramatic composition as defined above. Imaginative and impassioned as they were, and many of them en- dowed to an almost unrivalled extent with the poetical and .musical faculties, they found in their own authentic history enough of sublime and stirring incidents, and in their national heroes enough of personal interest, to occupy their thoughts Avithout inventing new scenes, or im- personating fictitious representations of elevated humanity ; and their religious veneration pre- vented them from following the example of other nations, and endeavouring to present divine per- sonages in human form. Dramatic performances in a regular form originated in Greece, and in Athens especially attained a high degree of per- fection. It will be more convenient to refer at greater length, historically and critically, to the dramatic literature of Greece, Rome, Italy, Spain, Germany, England, and other countries, under special headings. The main elements of success in a dramatic composition are— first, that the story is clearly told by the dialogue and action on the stage ; secondly, that the incidents are suffi- ciently interesting to attract the audience, and that the characters are strongly individualized. In the earlier Greek drama the first result was not completely attained, and a chorus was intro- duced for the purpose of explaining the incidents and making the story more intelligible. It was considered indispensable, too, when the drama assumed a more regular form, that the “unities” of time and place should be observed, so that the spectator might be impressed by the idea that he was witnessing real occurrences, and not be com- pelled to call his imagination into play to recon- cile the incongruities of the stage. {See Unities.) Modern scenery and costume now assist the imagination by presenting successive pictures, and the spectator is prepared by these accessories to realise changes of place and persons in the action of the drama. Dramatic productions of the highest class combine incident and character, interfused and of mutual infiuence. When the incidents are of a pathetic or terrible kind, and the characters exhibit powerful emotions, a tragedy is the result ; when both incident and character are of a gay and sportive nature, and the dialogue is imaginative and witty, appealing to the fancy rather than to the sterner emotions, the drama is a comedy. The old Greek drama- tists drew a fixed line between tragedy and comedy. More modern writers, with Shakespeare at the head, have relieved tragic incidents by the intro- duction of comic scenes, and so heightened the general effect, while intensifying by contrast the force of the tragic incidents. {See Comedy, Farce, Tragedy, and headings referring to the drama of various countries.) DRAMATIS PERSON.^, dram'-a-tis per- so'-ne (Lat.), the various personages introduced in the course of a drama, or the actors representing the characters in a play. DRAPERY, drai'-pe-re, in the Fine Arts, the proper treatment of drapery thrown about any figure executed in plaster or marble is at- tended with difficulty, and requires considerable skill on the part of the artist and modeller ; in many cases, additional effect is given to the figure, and the story is conveyed to us in a more striking manner, by the addition of a little drapery thrown around the nude form, the folds of which are carefully arranged and skilfully dis- posed to suit the circumstances under which the figure is represented. Thus, a short garment girt round the waist of a running figure, showing the contour of the fore part of the thigh and knee, and streaming out behind, gives additional force to the action by exhibiting the infiuence of the wind on the figure, which is supposed to be in rapid motion. Whenever drapery is used, it should be so contrived that it may give expression to the form of the figure, and aid in explaining the story that the sculptor wishes to convey to us in connection with his work. “DRfPIER’S LETTERS,” a series of letters written by Dean Swift, and signed M. B. Drapier, attacking the Government for granting a patent, in 1723, to a man named Wood, to supply a deficiency of £108,000 in the copper coinage of Ireland. The letters occasioned an im- mense sensation in Ireland ; and in April, 1724, the Government prosecuted and imprisoned Harding, the printer; but he refused to reveal the name of the author. In consequence of the excitement in the country, the patent was aban- doned, after £40,000 in halfpence had been coined; and Wood, who received an indemnity of £300,000 per annum for twelve years, was compelled by the popular indignation to leave the country. The impression apparently was that base coin was issued ; but the halfpence were tested by Sir Isaac Newton, master of the mint, and found to be genuine. DRAUGHTS, a game played by two persons on a board similar to that used in playing chess. Each player has a set of twelve pieces, which consist of small roimd flat disks, made of wood or ivory : one set is black and the other is white. The pieces must all be placed on the same colour, in alternate fours in the first three rows, before each player. The pieces must only move one square at a time, diagonally and forwards. If an opponent’s piece stands in the way, there is no retreat — the player must either advance or take his adversary’s piece. A piece can only be taken, however, when there is a vacant square directly hind it ; the attacking piece is lifted over and placed on this vacant square, while the piece leaped over is removed from the board. The object of the game is either to take all the adver- sary’s pieces, or to hem them in so that he can- not play. The game increases in interest towards the close, as those pieces that reach a vacant square on the adversary’s first line become kings, that is, their power is doubled, and they can move backward or forward to all parts of the board. A iffayer must take a piece when called on to do so, as his opponent, by the loss of that piece, might gain a great advantage in position, for which purpose pieces are often intentionally sacrificed. A player neglecting to capture a piece is “huffed;” that is, forfeits the piece which ought to have taken the other. There is con- siderable room for ingenuity in playing the game, which in France is named Les Dames. DRAUGHTSMAN, drafts’ -man (Anglo- Saxon), one who is skilled in the use of the pen- cil. A mechanical draughtsman is one who is skilful in making drawings of machinery, dia- grams, maps, and plans, in which the use of mathematical instruments is involved. DRAWING 165 DRILL DRAWING, draw'-ing (Ang.-Sax.), the art of delineating objects in outline on a flat surface, without reference to light and shadow, in^ the l^rimary acceptation of the word, which, in a more extended sense, is also taken to signify any finished work of art, with all the necessary ef- fects of light and shade, executed in pencil, crayon, Indian ink, sepia, water-colours, and in pen-and-ink, after the manner of an etching. But to return to the primary meaning of the word. It is by his skill in outline that the pro- ductions of an artist are chiefly marked. A work that is faulty in drawing, however excellent the manipulation may be, is of little worth, and is unsatisfactory to the eye. Good drawing is characterized by jpower, freedom, grace, and ac- curacy, and these qualities can only be acquired by study and constant practice. Sketching, or landscape-drawing, is perhaps less difl&cult than any other branch of the art, because its imperfec- tions can be less readily detected ; but it is a far more difficult task to delineate the human figure, and, by a few bold strokes, to produce outlines which present expression, combined with free- dom of treatment. The student who would excel in the representation of the human form must carefully study the anatomy of the figure, the construction of the skeleton, the functions and positions of the muscles, and the varied workings of those of the face which serve to indicate the various passions and emotions of the mind. To attain correctness in landscape-drawing, a know- ledge of perspective is indispensable, the first principles of which are explained elsewhere. {See Perspective.) Without a knowledge of this most important branch of the art, no representa- tion of landscape scenery or objects which pre- sent geometrical forms can be correctly exj)ressed ; and it is equally necessary to attain a correct method of rendering the lights and shadows of a icture, which are entirely regulated and defined y certain rules of perspective. The aj)paratus required by a beginner consists of a drawing- board made of a piece of deal or mahogany, clamped at the edges by pieces of which the grain runs in a contrary direction, to prevent it from warping ; some pencils, india-rubber, a T square, and a box of simple mathematical instruments. The paper may be damped and pasted to the edges of the drawing-board, and then allowed to dry, when it will be found to present a beauti- fully smooth and even surface, or it may be fastened to it with small pins that have broad flat heads and are known as drawing-pins. After practising at the formation of elementary figures, such as straight lines, curves, rectangles, tri- angles, circles, and ellipses or ovals, there are no better examples for study than the leaves of various plants. When these can be sketched with readiness and freedom, drawings may be made from vases, cups, articles of furniture, and simple plaster casts. From this the learner should proceed to the study of perspective, and give roundness to his forms in outline by the pro- per introduction of light and shade, varying his work by copying from the flat, as it is technically termed. {See Isometrical Drawing, Mechani- cal Drawing.) DREAMS, dreems. It would appear that the reasoning or imaginative powers may occasionally possess in dreaming a strength unknown to them in their ordinary condition. Thus Condorcet saw in his dreams the final steps of a difficult calculation that had puzzled him during the day; and Condillac states that when engaged with his “ Cours d’Etude,” he frequently de- veloped and finished a subject in his dreams which he had broken off before retiring to rest. In this case it would seem that the reasoning faculties having been powerfully excited, kept awake, and free from disturbing influences, ex- erted all their strength. The circumstances un- der which Coleridge composed his fragment called “Kubla Khan” have been described by himself, as follows : — He had fallen asleep in his chair while reading in “Purchas’s Pilgrimage” of a palace built by Khan Kubla, and remained asleep for about three hours, during which time, as he himself tells us, “ he could not have com- posed less than two or three hundred lines — if that, indeed, can be called composition in which all the images rose up before him as things, with a parallel production of the corresponding ex- pressions, without any sensation or consciousness of effort.” On waking, he instantly sat down to commit it to paper ; but after having written so much of it, he was called away by a person on business, and when he returned to the task, the poem had vanished from his memory. The popular belief that there is something super- natural in the nature of dreams, and that fre- quently in this way events are revealed that are about to happen, has been held from the earliest times, and is shared in by many in the present day. Tartini, the Italian violinist, composed a brilliant piece of music in his sleep, writing it down immediately he woke. Many of the in- stances of remarkable dreams may, doubtless, be explained from natural causes, but there are others so well authenticated that we cannot al- together discredit them, that are manifestly un- explainable by any natural means. DreamS, as Divine messages, and their interpretations, are conspicuously mentioned in the Old Testament. If we admit the testimony on which these dreams are given, we are driven to confess that they arise from causes and are subject to laws of which we are ignorant. DRESS, dres (from Fr., dresser, to make straight), a term applied to the body-coverings used by all but the most uncivilized human beings for the purposes of warmth and ornament. The dress adopted in different nations differs in form and in the substances employed, but in general is suited to the climate in which it is worn, and the occupations of the people. In most of the countries of Europe, among the upper and middle classes, one style of dress is adopted, varying at times according to the dictates of fashion. DRILL, the general name given to the exer- cises by which a soldier is qualified for his duty. Squad, or setting-up drill, teaches him how to march in slow, quick, and double time, to go through his facings, and to perform certain simple evolutions from the halt or when marching ; these are combined with posture exercises, called ex- tension motions, which tend to give the soldier a good carriage and an erect military figure. When the recruit is dismissed from squad drill, which is taught to small batches or squads of men by a sergeant appointed for the purpose, he learns company drill, the manual and platoon exercise, and position drill; he is then competent to go through a course of battalion drill in concert with the other companies of the regiment to which he belongs, and to proceed to aiming drill, judging- distance drill, and target practice. In every regiment every soldier goes through a course of DRINKING FOUNTAINS 166 DRUM setting-up drill in the spring. The course of drill for each arm of the service is similar, as far as the elementary part is concerned. Punish- ment drill is an extra quantity of drill assigned to a soldier for some minor fault, which he has to go through in heavy marching order. DRINKING FOUNTAINS.-Several pub- lic fountains, giving out small streams of water, and filled with drinking cups, were erected in Liverpool in 1857 ; and some afterwards in London, by the Metropolitan Drinking Fountain Association. In some of the public parks there are very large and handsome fountains, gifts from distinguished persons. DRINKING USAGES (Sax., drincan, to drink ; Fr., usage, usage). — From the earliest times of remote antiquity, there have always been special usages connected with the custom of drinking. Amongst the ancient Hebrews, the drink-offering constituted one of the most solemn parts of their religious ceremonies. Amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans, the pouring out of libations to the gods was an ordinary religious ceremony. They were not only offered before solemn prayers, but also before meals. In the latter case, the host, before the guests began to eat, poured a small quantity of wine upon the floor, as a sort of propitiation to the gods. This practice was somewhat equivalent to our grace before meat. It was also the custom at times to drink to the health of the guests. From usages such as these, in after-time, arose the custom of proposing healths or giving utterance to senti- ments before drinking at a feast. Among the Scandinavians, Teutons, and Ancient Britons, such usages were customary at their boisterous carousals. The Anglo-Saxons were in the habit of crying, “ Wees hceV’ (be in health) before drinking. The word “‘Wassail” is evidently de- rived from this origin. The practice of pledging a guest before drinking arose from a necessity of showing that there was no poison in the wine, or that there was no danger to the guest while he drank. It originated in the loth century. The introduction of Christianity did not at all con- tribute to abolish the practice of using the was- sail cup. It began, on the contrary, to assume a religious aspect; and in the larger monasteries, amongst the monks of old, the wassail bowl was placed at the right hand of the abbot in the refec- tory. It was handed round to each, and was called JPoculum Charitatis. In the universities a similar cup is still passed round, called the grace cup. In the dinners given by the public companies of the city of London, after the cloth has been removed, the master and wardens rise, and “ drink to their visitors in a loviug cup, and bid them all heartily welcome ! ” A silver cup filled with warm spice wine is then handed round to all present. Some of the drinking-cups belonging to the priesthood in the Middle Ages were of the most costly workmanship. That of Thomas a Becket is still preserved ; it is made of ivory, mounted with silver, and studded on the summit and base with pearls. Round the cup is an in- scription, “ Vinum tuum bibe cum gaudio ” (drink thy wine with joy) ; but round the lid, deeply engraved, is the restraining injunction “ Sobrii estote ” (be moderate). The word toast, with regard to drinking usages, is comparatively modern ; it originated in the practice of imtting a piece of toast in a jug of ale. According to “ The Tatler,” the word toast was first applied to the drinking of healths at Bath, in the reign of Charles II. A celebrated beauty of the time was in the large public bath, and a number of her admirers wore standing around. One of them took a glass of vyater from the bath and drank to her health ; while another who was standing by, half tipsy, offered to jump in, saying, that al- though he objected to the liquor, he would like to ha/e the toast. From that time the word was applied to drinking the health of any beauty at private parties, and, in time, all sorts of subjects were toasted at public and private feasts. Toasts also began to be accompanied by cheers ; and at the present day, at large public banquets, toast- masters are generally appointed, who not only give out the subject of the toast, but lead the cheers which follow. Many drinking usages are connected with domestic events, and seem to have been handed down from ancient times. The custom of drinking at births, christenings, and marriages, can easily be accounted for ; but the strangest usage of all is the practice of drink- ing at funerals. The wakes held in Ireland and some parts of Scotland have been long main- tained, and are still kept up by habit. They lyrobably owed their origin to the want of ex- citement amongst the phlegmatic northern na- tions, and the long dark nights in a cheerless climate. A custom, certainly “ more honoured in the breach than the observance,” very exten- sively prevails. Persons meeting acquaintances on the street appear to think it necessary that they should drink together ; and “ Come and have a glass,” is a very frequent invitation. In many houses of business, too, a bottle of sherry is iJroduced on the conclusion of a transaction. DRIPSTONE, drip' -stone, a projecting moulding or tablet placed over the head of a Gothic doorway or window, for the purpose of throwing off water. DRUM, drum (Du., trom, trommel; Ger., trommel; Dan., tromme), a musical instrument of percussion, the invention of which was attributed by the Greeks to Bacchus, it was used by the Egyp- tians, and was introduced into Western Europe by the Moors. Of drums we have three kinds ; they are as follows : — i. The base or Turkish drum, which is the largest, and consists of a hollow cylinder of oak covered at each end with vellum fastened to the rim in such a manner that it maybe tightened or loosened ad libitum by means of small cords or braces acted upon by sliding knots of leather. 2. The double or kettle drum. — An instrument made of copper, nearly hemispherical, covered with a strong head of calf- skin, and standing upon three iron legs. They are always in pairs, and are tuned by screws — one to the keynote of the piece accompanied, and the other a fourth below. 3. The side-drum . — This is constructed like the first, but generally has a brass cylinder, and is much smaller. In modern large orchestras there has been introduced a drum of great size, without cylinder, and re- sembling two tambourines joined at a short dis- tance apart by small bars of iron. A drum of this kind was first used on the occasion of the first Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace. The Hindoos use a small drum beaten by the hand, and called a “ tom-tom.” The Laplanders formerly had in each family a sacred drum to which rings were attached, and the shaking of the rings, when the drum was beaten with a reindeer’s horn, was supposed to indicate future events. DRUM 167 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY DRUM, a Celtic word signifying a round hill, and forming a part of the names of many places, especially in Ireland. DRUM, a name given in the last century to a fashionable evening party, or, rather, card-play- ing assembly. An afternoon informal party is now known as a “ kettledrum.” DRURY-LANE THEATRE, the most famous of London places of amusement, was first opened as a theatre in the reign of J ames I. , the building having been previously used as a cockpit. It was rebuilt, and for a short time was named the Phoenix, and was opened by the king’s company of players, known as “His Majesty’s servants,” in April, 1663, under the management of Thomas Killigrew, to whom Charles II. had granted an exclusive patent. The theatre was burned down, with sixty houses, in 1672, and a new building, erected from the design of Sir Christopher Wren, was opened on the 26th of May, 1674; and Davenant’s company having united with the king’s, was the only theatre in London. The last performance in Wren’s theatre took place June 4, 1791, after which it was pulled down and rebuilt by M. Holland, the new theatre being opened with a performance of sacred music, March 12, 1794. It was burned down, February 24, 1809 ; and the present building, designed by Mr. B. Wyatt, was opened October 10, 1812. A public competition for an address for the opening night gave rise to the famous “Rejected Ad- dresses,” by the brothers James and Horace Smith, in which the styles of the chief poets and popular versifiers of the day were most comically parodied. The address delivered was written by Byron. Drury-lane theatre is associated with the greatest performers on the British stage — Cibber, Wilkes, Booth, Garrick, the Kembles, Mrs. Siddons, Kean, Dowton, Elliston, Macready, Madame Vestris, Ellen Tree, and many others. DRY POINT, a sharp, fine-pointed etching- needle, used to cut fine lines in a copper or steel plate without biting them in with acid. Work produced in this manner is very delicate as well as durable. DRY PROCESS. ( 5 'ee Photography.) DUAL, du'-al. In some languages, a noun or a verb assumes a form when only two things are spoken of, different from that of the ordinary plural. The form occurs chiefly in the more ancient languages. DUBLIN UNIVERSITY, duV-lin. A University of Dublin in connection with St. Patrick’s Cathedral was established in 1320 ; but ceased to exist on the dissolution of the cathedral by Henry VHI. The existing university was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1591, and incor- porated by charter, or letters patent, as a “ college, the mother of a university,” under the title of “ The College of the Holy and undivided Trinity, near Dublin.” Since that period several royal charters have been granted by succeeding sovereigns, extending the privileges of the uni- versity, and making ^ such alterations in the statutes and constitution as were from time to time deemed necessary. In 1851 a royal com- mission was appointed to enquire into the state, discipline, studies, and revenues, of the uni- versity ; and, in consequence of their report, various alterations were effected in the statutes. Officials. — The officers of the university are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, provost, two proctors (both fellows), a senior lecturer, two deans, a censor, librarian, registrar, auditor, professors, and examiners. Senate. — This body consists of the chancellor, or, in his absence, of the vice-chancellor or pro-vice-chan- cellor for the time being, and such doctors or masters of arts as shall have and keep their names on the books of the college. The senate elects the chancellor. The caput of the senate is a council, consisting of the chancellor or vice-chancellor, the provost (or, in his absence, the vice-provost), and the senior master non- regent, who is elected by the senate. Every grace for the bestowal of a degree must pass the caput before it can be proposed to the rest of the senate, and each member of the caput has a negative voice. Provost. — The provost, or head of the college, is ap- pointed by the Crown, and may be a layman of any religious denomination. His income is about £3,000 a year. Fellows. — The fellows are all chosen in the first in- stance by strict examination, but the seniors are pro- moted from the juniors in the order of seniority. The senior fellows have no stated duties, except those con- nected with the general management of college affairs. The junior fellows, twenty-three in number, form the great teaching staff of the college. The average income of a senior fellow is about £1,380 a year ; that of a junior, £800. They hold their fellowships for life, un- less they choose to accept of the incumbency of one of the thirty-two benefices at the disposal of the college. The law binding them to celibacy was abolished in 1840 ; and it is not now, as formerly, compulsory that they should (with the exception of five) take holy orders n the Episcopal church. Professors. — A large staff of professors give lectures in divinity, natural philosophy, mathematics, law, medicine, languages (including Irish), moral philo- sophy, oratory, English literature, modern history, political economy, botany, geology, civil engineering, and other subjects. Scholars. — The scholars, seventy in number, are chosen from among the undergraduates after examina- tion ; one class of scholarships being for classical, an- other for scientific merit. Scholarships are open to all students, and are tenable for five years. A scholar- ship is worth about £50 a year. Besides these founda- tion scholarships, there are also minor scholarships, and forty exhibitions of £25 per annum tenable for ten years. Students. — There are four grades of students : — i, Noblemen, sons of noblemen, and baronets, who enjoy certain privileges, the two first being entitled to the degree of B.A. per specialem gratiam ; 2, fellow-com- moners, who have the privilege of dining at the fellow’s table, and who are entitled to the degree of B.A. with one term examination less than pensioners ; 3, pension- ers, who form the great body of the students ; 4, sizars, who are students of limited means, and have their com- mons free of expense, and are exempted from annual fees. Sizars are admitted annually by examination, and the number is limited to 30, the sizarship, worth about £37 per annum, being held for four years. The mode of admission into the university is by an examination held once in every month (except February, August, and September. The principal entrance examinations are in June and October (trio). The subjects of ex- amination embrace Latin and English composition, arithmetic, algebra, English history, and modern geo- graphy. Besides the honour of “first place” at entrance, prizes of the value of £5 and £2 are awarded for excellence in special branches of the entrance course, and also for Hebrew. Each student at en- trance must select one of the junior fellows who act as tutors to be his instructor and guardian of his interests during his academic career. Undergraduates of the first and second year are junior and senior freshmen ; of the third and fourth, junior and senior sophisters. The course for all students is— first year, mathematics, Greek, Latin ; second^ mathematics, logic, and meta- physics, Greek, Latin ; third, logic and metaphysics, physics, Greek, Latin ; fourth, astronomy, ethics, physics (mathematical and experimental), classics. An extended course is prescribed for those who aspire to academic honours. Terms may be kept in two ways — by attendance upon the lectures or by merely passing the term examinations. Hence any student, unless he DUCKING-STOOL 168 DUNMOW FLITCH be a scholar, may prepare himself for the examinations without residing in the college or in the city ; and on his being represented by his tutor as resident in the country, no other academic duties are required of him. Students of divinity, law, engineering, and medicine, however, are required to attend lectures, and therefore must reside in the college or city. There are three academic terms in the year — ^Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity ; the two former followed by a short recess, the latter by a vacation of three months. The under- graduate course extends over four years, when the student, having duly passed term examination is pro- moted to the degree of B.A. Degrees. — The comitia for granting degrees are held on Shrove Tuesday and the last Wednesdays on Trinity and Michaelmas terms. The higher degrees are pro- curable after the lapse of a fixed number of years, and on the performance of certain exercises and payment of fees. Fees. — The fees for the entrance or first half-year are — for noblemen £6o, feUow-commoners £30, pensioners £15, sizars £5 is. 3d. ; for other half-years, noblemen £33 I2S., fellow-commoners £16 i6s., pensioners £8 8s., the sizars being exempt. These payments do not include rooms and commons. To encourage meri- torious students, and to make some provision for those who, after graduation, desire to devote themselves to learning, fourteen studentships were founded by royal statute in 1859. These are open to candidates of all religious denominations, and are tenable for a period not exceeding seven years. Two are given every year. The emolument, as fixed by the provost and senior fellows, is not to exceed £100 per annum. Special Schools. — A school of engineering was estab- lished in the university in 1842, with the view of com- bining the theoretical and practical instruction neces- sary for the profession of civil engineering. There are also schools for divinity, law, and medicine. Parliamentary Representation. — The university re- turns two members to Parliament, the electors being the provost, fellows, masters of arts and those of higher degree, and scholars. DUCKING-STOOL, duk' -ing stool (Ang.- Sax.), an apparatus of varied form, used formerly in Britain for punishing scolding wives. One of the most ordinary forms of the ducking-stool was the following : — A strong wooden chair was fas- tened in the end of a long beam, which worked like a see-saw on a pivot, on a post bedded into the edge of a dam or the deep part of a river. The woman was placed in the chair with her arms drawn backwards ; a bar was placed across her back and inside her elbows, while another bar held her upright : in this uncomfortable posi- tion she was securely tied with cords. The per- sons appointed to carry out the punishment, by raising their end of the beam, caused the unfor- tunate culprit to go over head in the water. By IDuUing down their end with a chain, she was once more brought to the surface ; and the duck- ing was repeated, according to the enormity of her offence. Sometimes the ducking-stool was combined with a tumbrel. The practice of using the ducking-stool commenced in the 15th century, but had almost died out by the close of the i8th. DUENNA, du-en'-na (Span., duena), the title applied to the chief lady in waiting upon the Queen of Spain. In a more restricted sense, the term is used to designate a person holding a middle position between a governess and com- panion, and appointed to take charge of those young ladies in Spanish or Portuguese families. DUET, du-et' (Ital., duetto), a two-part musi- cal composition, either vocal or instrumental, with or without a bass and accompaniments. Although combined by the situation of the harmony, the parts are not necessarily similar in their motion ; on the contrary, it is by varying and giving them contrary directions, that the best effects are produced. DULCIMER, duV-se-mer (Ital., dolcimeUo, from dolce, sweet), a musical instrument, con- sisting of three wires strung over sounding boards and bridges, and played by striking with small hammers. The dulcimer mentioned in the Old Testament (Dan. iii. ) was a Chaldean musical in- strument, probably a pipe or series of pipes. DULWICH COLLEGE, duV-ij, was founded at Dulwich, a suburb of London, about 4^ miles S.S.E. of St. Paul’s, by Edward Alleyn, an actor, in 1619. The original revenues only amounted to £800, but they now exceed £17,000, and maintain a master, four fellows, twelve poor brethren, twelve poor sisters, twelve poor scholars, and sixteen out-pensioners. The college was partially rebuilt in 1740 ; and the revenues aris- ing from the property having greatly increased, in 1857 the charity was remodelled, after a con- siderable amount of legal controversy, and now bears the name, “ Alleyn’s College of God’s Gift at Dulwich.” It is managed by nineteen gover- nors, and the Archbishop of Canterbury is the visitor. Four parishes are benefited by the charity — St. Luke’s, Middlesex ; St. Botolph’s, Bishopsgate ; St. Saviour’s, Southwark ; and St. Giles’s, Camberwell. The old College — the warden of which must bear the name of Alleyn, or Allen, license in respect to orthography being permitted— is a quaint building in the Tudor style, rebuilt in 1842, surrounding three sides of a garden, and flanked by the Picture Gallery. The new school buildings, about a quarter of a mile away (opened by the Prince of Wales in 1870), were designed by Mr. Barry, and cost £100,000 ; there is accommodation for the educa- tion of about 700 boys. There is a picture gallery containing some fine paintings, chiefly by the old masters, bequeathed to the college by Sir F. Burgeois, in 1811. DUMB-BELLS, dum' -hells, two weights, made so as to be easily grasped, used for purposes of exercise. They are made of various weights, varying from about 8 lbs. to 28 lbs. ^^DUNCIAD, THE,” dun' -she-ad, a satire originally written in three books, by Alexander Pope, _ in 1728 ; he however added another book in 1742. For a considerable period Pope had suffered from the attacks of a number of critics and detractors, who not only denied his genius, but attributed to him the basest and meanest of motives. Unable to bear these at- tacks any longer patiently, and stung to the quick, he determined to strike out in every direc- tion at his antagonists, and the Dunciad was the method by which he achieved his end. Critics, authors, publishers, et hoc genus omne, winced and howled as the stinging lash of his satire fell right and left among them, and wherever it fell it drew blood. He recriminated, and chastised in terse epigram and not over-delicate satire, everyone by whom he thought he had been ag- grieved, and immortalized his antagonists as he demolished them. Even now, although all the dramatis personoe are passed away from the scene, the Dunciad can still be read with interest as a model of polished verse and keen pungent satire. DUNGEON. {See Donjon ) DUNMOW FLITCH, dun-mo', a singular DRAWING. THE IIERARY OF THE llN|y£flSpressing a vowel or syllable, particularly at the end of a word, for the sake of euphony, or in poetry to suit the verse. It is generally marked by the substitution of an apostrophe (’) in place of a vowel. ELIXIR, e-liks'-er. In popular superstition and poetry, a love-potion or draught, supposed to inspire the feeling of love, was known as an elixir, and was sold by mountebanks. Donizetti’s popular opera, VElisir d’ Amove (elixir of love), is founded on this superstition. Some of the old alchemists professed to have discovered an elixir of life, by the use of which death would be avoided and youth retained. ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, e-liz-a-bef -than, the style that prevailed in England during the latter part of the i6th century and the early part of the 17th, and so called because it is the characteristic style of buildings erected during the reign of Elizabeth. It was used only for palaces, mansions, and dwelling-houses, being unsuited for ecclesiastical architecture ; but, for the purposes to which it was applied, it was stately and picturesque as far as the exterior is concerned, and afforded the means of obtaining a commodious and comfortable interior. It is somewhat similar to the Renaissance style of architecture in France, and is sometimes said to consist of a combination of this with the Tudor style that prevailed in the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry YHI. {See Tudor Style.) The finest old country mansions and palatial resi- dences in England are in this style, and among the best may be mentioned those of Longleat ; Hatfield House, Charlton House, Kuowle ; Hol- land House, Kensington ; Burleigh ; WoUaton House, Notts ; and Aston House, near Binning^ ham. The most common form of the ground- plan of houses in this style is that of the letter E, and it is supposed that it was adopted as a com- pliment to Queen Elizabeth, as it was the initial letter of her name ; it is most probable, however, that the plan was chosen on account of the con- venience it offers for the peculiar structure of the exterior and the interior arrangements, and that the compliment was an after-thought. The main part of the mansion is represented by the back of the letter, while the wings at the sides and the porch in the centre are denoted by the three parallel lines projecting from it at right angles. The material most commonly used was brick of a bright red colour ; the quoins and dressings of the windows were occasionally of freestone ; the face of the exterior was also fre- quently ornamented by dark bricks disposed so as to form a diamond pattern, in diagonal lines cut- ting each other at right angles. When stone was used, it was generally covered with stucco, and the exterior was painted. The larger buildings were reared on a solid basement, and the entrance was gained by flights of steps leading to a terrace with a balustrade in front. The windows were square-headed, generally broader than they are high, and divided into compart- ments by mullions and transoms. Tlie spaces between the windows were adorned with pilasters on pedestals, which were panelled and ornamented with scroll-work. The pilasters were always surmounted by a continuous entablature. The [ gables were various in form, the ogee gable being ; the most common : the greater part of them are ' adorned witli arabesque scrolls and mouldings. The chimney-shafts were tall, and generally circular, octagonal, or twisted in shape ; some- times they were banded with interlaced fret- work. The broad and stately staircase of polished oak is one of the most striking features of the in- terior, the balustrades and massive uprights at the angles being richly carved. The ceilings were divided into compartments by rectangular and curved mouldings. The walls were panelled with wainscot, which had the effect of rendering the rooms dark, and to a certain extent gloomy. The chimney-pieces were elaborately adorned, and were lofty and massive. ELLIPSIS, el-lip' -sis (Gr., elleipsis, an omis- sion), the omission of one or more words w’hich may be easily supplied by the imagination. It ia used either to express passion or for the sake of brevity and conciseness. ELLIPTIC COMPASS, el-lip'-tik, the name applied to any contrivance used for describ- ing an ellipse. The most common and simple method is to take a string, equal in length to the major axis of the ellipse {see Ellipse), and attach the ends to two pms, which are stuck into the material on which the ellipse is to be described, at those points in the major axis which represent the foci of the ellipse. The string must be then extended on the point of a pencil, and the curve traced by the point, the string being kept at full stretch, will be an ellipse. Another j)lan is to take two pieces of wood or metal, which may be fixed at right angles to each other : a deep groove is cut in the upper surface of each, in which twe pins travel, which are attached to a beam, with a hole or socket at one end of it for the reception of a pencil. The pins may be fixed at any dis- tance from each other on the beam, by means of clamping screws, so that ellipses of various sizes may be described, as large as the length of the beam will allow. As the pencil traces out the curved line, the pins move along the grooves from either end to the centre, and from the centre to either end, until the entire curve has been traced out. ELOCUTION, el-o-ku' -shun (Lat., e, and loquor, I speak), is delivery, or the art of effective speaking. {See Oratory.) ELOGE, ai-lozhe' (Fr. ; Lat., elogium', Gr., eulogia), denotes, literally, praise, and is more particularly applied to orations delivered in honour of a deceased person. When a member of the French Academy dies, it is the custom for his successor to deliver a panegyrical oration, setting forth his labours and merits. ELOPEMENT, e-loge'-ment (Dutch, from loopen, to run), in Legal language, is where a married woman of her own account leaves her husband and goes to live with an adulterer. In ordinary language, the word is applied to the clandestine going away of a girl with her lover. Novel-readers suppose that in such cases, the young lady always gets out of a window by the aid of a rope-ladder. ELOQUENCE. {See Oratory.) ELVES. (>Sfee Fairies.) ELYSIUM, OR ELYSIAN FIELDS/ e-lizh'-e-um (Gr., elusion), in Classical Mythology, a place or island in the infernal regions where the souls of the virtuous were supposed to dwell after death. Elysium is conspicuous in the ELZEVIR EDITIONS 181 EMPHASIS Iliad ” and the “Odyssey” of Homer. Nearly all the later classical poets describe Elysium as a place of light and happiness, some adding con- tinual feasting and revelry, others in warlike sports, and others in taming horses and hunting. The position of the Elysian fields differs also ac- cording to various poets. By some it is said to be in mid-air, others in the sun, others in the moon, and others in the centre of the earth, near Tartarus : the general belief was that they lay in one of the isles of the ocean, called the Fortunate Islands, now called the Canary Islands. ELZEVIR EDITIONS, eV -ze-ver.—The Elzevirs were a family of celebrated printers and publishers at Amsterdam, Leyden, the Hague, and Utrecht, who flourished mostly in the early half of the 17th century, and who gave to the world many beautiful editions of the best authors of antiquity. The original name of the family was Elsevier, and the French editions mostly retain that name; but in the Latin editions, which are the more numerous, the name appears as Elzeverius, which became gradually corrupted into Elzevir. The Elzevir editions have been long and deservedly esteemed for the clearness, delicacy, and perfect equality of the characters, for their close position together on a solid and very white paper, and the excellence of the press- work. Many of the Elzevir editions bear, as a typographical mark the words Apud Elzeverios, or E. Officina Elseveriana. Isaac Elzevir adopted as a mark the branch of a tree sm-rounded by a vine branch bearing clusters of fruit, and below it a man standing, with the motto Non solus. Louis Elzevir adopted Minerva with an olive branch, and the motto Ne extra oleas. No fewer than 1,213 works of all kinds bear the name of the Elzevirs, of which 968 are in Latin, 44 in Greek, 126 in French, 32 in Flemish, 22 in the Eastern languages, ii in German, and 10 in Italian. EMBATERION, em-ia-te' -re-on, a war song, accompanied by flutes, sung by the ancient Spartans when marching against an enemy. EMBATTLED, em-hat'-tld, in Heraldry, one of the eight crooked or curved lines used, in addition to the straight line, in dividing one part of the field from another, or for the outline of any principal ordinary. When this outline, or line of division, is in the form of the battlements of a tower, it is said to be embattled. French heralds use the term crenelle. {See Crenel.) EMBLEM, em'-hlem (Gr., emhlema, from en, into, and hallein, to cast), in the primary sense of the word, it means a piece of mosaic, or any work in which bits of one kind of material are inserted or let into another ; but, in our accepta- tion of the term, it is applied to anything which, by association of ideas, appears to be a visible and suitable representation of some abstract quality, or it has a similar meaning to that of the word device. {See Device and Symbol.) EMBOUCHURE, em-hoo' -shure, a geogra- phical term applied to the mouth of a river. EMBOWED, em-hoed' , in Heraldry, any- thing bent like a bow. EMBRASURE, em-brai'-zhur (Fr.), an architectural term applied to the rectangular indentations of a battlement, or the splayed opening for a door or window. EMBRASURE, in Fortification, the opening made in the parapet of a rampart to allow a cannon to be fired through it. In field-works, embrasures are revetted with timber and fascines or gabions, and are protected from the flame from the muzzle of the gun by a covering of raw hides. Mantlets or shutters are often used to mask embrasures, and protect the men at the guns from riflemen. They are withdrawn sud- denly when the gun is to be discharged, and closed after the fire is given. EMBROIDERY, em-hroid'-er-e (Fr., bro- derie), a term applied to the art of working or- namental fig-ures upon fabrics of any kind with a needle and thread. The art of embroidery is one of the oldest, and has always been one of the most important domestic occupations among Oriental nations. It was practised among the Hebrews during the time of Moses ; and the women of Sidon were famous for their embroi- dery before the siege of Troy. In after-years, the women of Greece were celebrated for their proficiency in the same art ; and some of their productions are said to have equalled, if not sur- passed, many of the finest pointings then ex- isting. The inhabitants of Peru, when discovered by the Spaniards, were found to have in their possession elaborate embroideries of gold and silver on feathers, which they manufactured with great skill. The ecclesiastical tapestry, curtains, priests’ vestments, &c., in the middle ages, were all embroidered with the needle ; and screens, corridor linings, &c. , were the daily handiwork of some of the noblest ladies, assisted by their hand- maids. Embroidery is still a fashionable style of needlework, and many elegant works have been l^roduced. Embroidery machines are much used for the production of ornamental muslins and other low-priced articles. EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAM- BRIDGE, was founded in 1584 by Sir Walter Mildmay, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Privy Councillor in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. There are thirteen foundation fellowships ; and there must always be four fellows in priests’ orders, and the others, not being assistant tutors or bursars, are required to take priest’s orders within seven years after election, or to vacate the fellowship three years afterwards. A fellowship is vacated by marriage unless the fellow hold a professorship of less value than £500 a year, also if he comes into possession of an income exceed- ing £300 a year ; but the master and fellows can, by the consent of two-thirds of their number, allow a fellow to retain his fellowship perma- nently, although married, who shall have been for fifteen years a professor in the University, an assistant tutor, or bursar of his college. There are 12 open scholarships of £70 a year ; 10 of £30 a year ; 9 scholarships for which candidates from certain schools have a preference, and four other small scholarships. EMOTION, e-mo' -shun (Lat., e, and moveo, I move), in Mental Philosophy, is a term fre- quently used as synonymous with feeling, but which is strictly a state of feeling awakened through the medium of the intellect, and mani- festing its existence and character by some sensible effect upon the body. An emotion differs from a sensation in not springing directly from an affection of the body, and from a cognition, by its being pleasurable or painful. EMPHASIS, em'-fas-is (Gr., en, and phemi, I speak), in pronunciation, is a mode of denoting EMPIRIC 182 ENCYCLOPAEDIA one or more words in a sentence by a stronger and fuller sound of voice, in order to draw atten- tion to them, or to show how they aifect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a stronger accent, or a resting on the particular word. EMPIRIC, em-pir'-ik (Gr., empeirikos, from empeiria^ experience), is properly one whose knowledge is founded on experience or observa- tion. A certain sect of Greek physicians took this name to denote their mode of treatment, as distinguished from that of the Methodists and Dogmatists. The term is commonly used as synonymous with a charlatan or quack doctor, or more generally an ignorant pretender in science. In philosophical language, the term empirical means simply that which belongs to, or is the product of, experience or observation, as distin- guished from what is the result of reasoning or inference. EMPYREAN, em-pi-re' -an (Gr., empuros, from en, and pur, fire), a term applied by poets and rhetoricians to the highest heaven, where the pure element of fire is supposed to exist. ENAMELLING, ARTISTIC, en-am' -el- ling. An art of great antiquity. The ancient Per- sians and Arabians appear to have practised it ujmn earthenware and porcelain. The Egyptians also practised the art, and from them it is supposed to have passed to the Greeks, and thence to the Romans. That the Saxons were adepts in the art is proved by an enamelled jewel preserved at Oxford, bearing an inscription stating that it was made by order of the great Alfred. The Byzantine Style {cloisonne, enclosed) was the earliest, and was in use in the Byzantine empire from the reign of Justinian down to the year 1300. Its most celebrated exponent was the artist-monk Theophilus. The process was chiefly characterized by the formation of cells, or com- partments of gold filigree, in which the enamel was lodged. The Early Limoges Style {chaup leve) came next, taking its title from the city in which it was much practised between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries. In this method the cavities for the reception of the enamel were incised by a graver in a thick plate of copper. The third, or Early Italian Style, was practised between the thirteenth and six- teenth centuries. This style seems to have taken a position midway between the old incised enamel and the painted enamels which, at a sub- sequent period, came in vogue. The first to de- scribe the process which has obtained the name of the Jewellers’ Style was the celebrated Italian artist Benvenuto Cellini. The Late Limoges was the fifth style, and in this j^rocess the paintings were laid on in transparent colours upon an opaque paste. The chief characteristics of the sixth, or Miniature Style, were the introduction of a number of new colours, a greater number of firings, and a greater graduation of tints. This process, which is almost identical with that practised at the present day, may be regarded as that description of enamelling which most fully comes within the definition of fine-art work. Enamelled Manufactures. — Iron utensils are ena- melled by a mixture of powdered flint glass, carbonate of soda, and boracic acid fixed to- gether, and then broken up into a fine powder, which is applied to the surface of the article, and submitted to a heat sufficient to fuse it to- gether. Slate can be enamelled so as to resemble marble. ENCAMPMENT. (5eeCAMP.) ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, en-kaws'-tik (Gr., egkaustike, from en, in or into, and kaio, I burn), a method of painting that was practised to a great extent among the ancients, from the time of Alexander the Great until the 7th or 8th century, from which time the art gradually de- clined until the 14th century, when it seems to have been abandoned, and a practical knowledge of effecting it entirely lost. About 1750, the lost art was recovered, and the practice of it revived, by M. Bachelier and Count Caylus in France. Both produced pictures in this style, and an account of the method used was published. It was warmly taken up throughout the south of Europe for some years, when it again fell into disuse. It was revived again at Munich in the reign of King Louis of Bavaria, and the interiors of many apartments in his palace, and various public buildings erected under his auspices, were executed in it. Since this time, many fine works in this brilliant style of painting have been pro- duced ; but it is far better suited for decorative work than for portraits, figures, or landscapes. The coloms are ground and laid on with a vehicle composed principally of wax. The wax is brought to the surface either by the application of a warm iron, such as that used for smoothing linen, or by a vessel containing fire being held at a little dis- tance from the picture. ENCAUSTIC TILES, small earthenware tiles used for paving the passages in the nave and aisles of churches, and also the chancel. They are also used for paving entrance-halls and the vestibules of houses. They are so called because they have a light arabesque pattern figured on them on a dark ground, or vice versd, in imitation of the early encaustic painting of the ancients. The clay of which the tiles are made is subjected to a pressure of several hundred tons. The pattern is produced by means of moulds or brass plates, and the hollows so formed are filled up with clay of the required colours. The tile is then pressed and fired. ENCEINTE, on{g)-sayn{g)t' (Fr.) [See For- tification.) ENCHANTMENT. [See Magic.) ENCHORIAL or ENCHORIC CHAR- ACTERS, en-kord -i-al. (/See Hieroglyphics.) ENCORE, on{g)-kore' (French), literally, “again,” “once more,” an expression commonly used in places of public amusement by the audi- ences to express their wish for a repetition of a particular part of the performance. ENCYCLOPEDIA, or CYCLOPE- DIA, en-si-klo-pd -de-a {Gr., paideia enkuklo, in- struction in a circle), is properly a work profes- sing to give instruction in the whole circle of human knowledge. The two terms are used synonymously ; but the former is regarded as the more correct, as denoting “iw a circle ; ” where- as the latter may mean, “0/ a circle.” The use of the word, however, in its present significa- tion, is entirely modern. It does not appear that the ancients ever so applied the term ency- clopsedia. So far as is known, the name appears to have been first used in this sense by Alforabius, a learned Arab who flourished in the loth cen- tury, and whose work, remarkable for its learn- ENCYCLOPEDIA 183 ENCYCLOPEDIA ing and completeness, is preserved in MS. in the library of the Escurial at Madrid. The inde- fatigable Dominican Vincent of Beauvais, who flourished about the middle of the 13th century, gathered together with wonderful diligence the whole knowledge of his time in three works : “ Speculum Historiale,” “ Speculum Naturale,” and “Speculum Doctrinale,” to which was soon afterwards added, by an unknown hand, “Specu- lum Morale.” Several works bearing the name of Cyclopaedia, or Encyclopaedia, appeared in the i6th century; as Kingelberg’s “Cyclopaedia” (Basel, 1541), and Paul Scalich’s “ Encyclopaedia seu Orbis Disciplinarum turn Sacrarum turn Pro- fanarum ” (Basel, 1559). In the beginning of the 17th century, appeared a work of no small merit — Matthew Martini’s “ Idea methodicae et brevis Encyclopaedia, sive Adumbratio TJniversitatis ” (Herborn, 1606) ; but the most noted and valu- able of the early encyclopaedias was that of John Henry Alstedius, a professor at Weissembourg, in Transylvania, which appeared in 2 vols. folio, 1630, a smaller work having appeared ten years before. It consists of thirty-five books, the first four being an explanation of the others. At Basel, in 1677, in 2 vols. folio, appeared the “ Lexicon Universale ” of Hoffmann, followed by a supplement of the same extent in 1683, the two being incorporated in four vols. folio, 1698. The dictionary form which was introduced by Hoff- mann’s work is that which has since been gene- rally adopted in encyclopsedias. It doubtless suggested the first English work of this kind* — the “ Lexicon Technicum, or Universal Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences,” by Dr. J. Harris, 2 vols. folio (London, 1706-10). A supplementary volume was afterwards added. It enjoyed great popularity till the appearance of Ephraim Cham- bers’s Cyclopaedia, in 2 vols. folio, in 1728. This presented a marked improvement upon its prede- cessors. It was long popular, and a seventh edition, in 4 vols. folio, appeared in 1778-85, Various other works of this kind were published before the end of this century, but the only one demand- ing particular notice is the ‘ ‘ Encyclopaedia Britan- nica,” the first edition of which was published in 3 vols. 4to, Edinburgh, 1771. There have been subsequent editions, and the ninth is now in pro- gress under the editorship of Mr. T. S. Baynes. Dr. Abraham Bees, who edited the last edition of Chambers’s Cyclopaedia produced, on the basis of that work, his admirable “ Cyclopaedia, or New Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,” ex- tending to 45 vols. 4to (1802-19). Of the other encyclopaedias, may be mentioned the “British Encyclopaedia,” 6 vols, 8vo, 1807-9; the “En- cyclopaedia Londinensis,” 24 vols. 4to, 1810-29, by John AVilkes ; “ Pantologia, or New Diction- ary of Arts and Sciences,” 12 vols. 8vo, 1813-16 ; Burrowes’ “ Modern Encyclopaedia,” 10 vols. 4to, 1816 ; Miller’s “ Encyclopaedia Edinensis,” 6 vols. 4to,^ 1816; “Encyclopaedia Perthensis,” 2nd edition, 23 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1816 ; “ Oxford Encyclopaedia,” in 6 vols. 4to, 1828; “London Encyclopaedia,” 24 vols. 8vo, 1826-29; “Part- ington’s British Cyclopaedia,” 10 vols. 8vo, 1833-36, in four divisions, of Arts and Sciences ; Biography ; Literature, History, Geography, Law, and Politics ; and Natural History. In 1818 was begun the “ Encyclopaedia Metropo- litana, or Universal Dictionary of Knowledge,” on an original plan, comprising the twofold ad- vantages of a philosophical and an alphabetical arrangement. The plan is by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and is explained in his article “ Method ” i^refixed to the work. The matter is arranged in four divisions : — i, the Pure Sciences ; 2, the Mixed and Applied Sciences ; 3, the Bio- graphical and Historical articles ; and 4, the Mis- cellaneous and Lexicographical articles. The work was completed in 1846, and extended to 25 vols. 4to ; and since that time most of the larger articles have been reprinted in a small cabinet form. The “Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,” edited by Dr. (afterwards Sir David) Brewster, was commenced in 1810 and finished in 1830, in 18 vols. The “ Penny Cyclopaedia ” .of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge was begun in 1833 and completed in 1843, 28 vols. Three volumes of supplements were subsequently added. The “National Cyclopaedia,” in 12 vols. 8vo, 1847-51, was an abridgement of the “Penny Cyclopaedia.” The “ English Cyclopaedia” of Mr. Charles Knight was based upon the “Penny Cyclopaedea,” but divided into four distinct parts, any one of which may be purchased sepa- rately. The Messrs. Chambers, of Edinburgh, have very recently brought out an encyclopaedia based upon the last edition of the German “ Con- versations-Lexikon.” It extends to nine volumes. Based upon an earlier edition of the same work is the “Encyclopaedia Americana,” a popular dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, his- tory, politics, and biography, &c., edited by F. Lieber, in 13 vols. 8vo, Philadelphia, 1829-33, with a supplementary volume in 1848. The “ New American Cyclopaedia,” edited by George Ripley and Charles A. Dana, in 8vo, and “John- son’s Encyclopaedia,” are valuable works of the same class issued in America. The volume now in the hands of the reader is a portion of a four- volume encyclopaedia carefully adopted to popu- lar requirements. In Germany the largest and most comprehensive of the immediate successors of Hoffmann’s work was Zedler’s “Universal Lexicon,” published at Halle and Leipsic in 64 large folio volumes, 1732-50. The largest work of this class, however, is the “Allgemeine En- cyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste,” by Ersch and Gruber, commenced at Leipsic in 1818, and making in all 122 qto vols. The “ Conversa- tions-Lexikon,” projected by Mr. Brockhaus, the publisher, in Leipsic, and first published there in 1812, has since gone through a number of editions. There are several other German encyclopaedias on a somewhat smaller scale. In France, the first volume of the celebrated “ Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Eaisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers,” of Diderot and D’Alembert, ap- peared in 1751, and the seventeenth and last of the original series was published in 1765. It is said to have been founded upon an unpublished French translation of Chambers’s Encyclopaedia, undertaken by an Englishman of the name of Mills. It numbered among its contributors writers of high name, as Voltaire, Rousseau, and others; and soon became very popular, and various editions of it were afterwards published in France and other parts of the Continent, and its principal writers came generally to be known as the Encylopedists. It was followed by an- other work of still greater extent, the “ En- cyclopedie Methodique,” begun in 1781 and not finished till 1832, comprising 201 vols. qto. The first edition of the “ Encyclopedie Moderne, ou Dictionnaire abr6ge, des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Arts, &c. , par une Societe de Gens de Let- tres,” was published in 26 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823-32. A third edition of this work was pub- lished in 27 vols., in 1852-57. The French have ENCYCLOPEDISTS 184 ENGLISH LANGUAGE also a “ Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la Lecture,” in 68 vols. (Paris, 1839-51), of which a new edition begun in 1851 is still in progress, and a “ Conversations-Lexicon,” founded upon the last edition of the German work of that name. Based upon the German “ Conversations- Lexikon ” are the “ Enciclopedia Espanola,” be- gun at Madrid in 1842 ; the “Biblioteca universal de Instruccion,” Barcelona, 1842 ; the “ Almen- nyttight Dansk Konversations-Lexikon,” by P. Larsen, Copenhagen, 1849; the “Svenskt Kon- versations-Lexikon,” Stockholm, 1845 ; besides others in Holland, Russia, Hungary, &c. At Turin, a “Nuova Enciclopedia popolare Italiana,” in 4to, was begun in 1856. ENCYCLOPEDISTS. {See Encyclo- paedia.) ENFILADE, en-fe-laid' (Fr.).— When the line of fire from artillery or musketry is directed along the front of a body of troops drawn up on line, instead of against it, or so as to sweep the interior of any part of the defensive works about a place, or a trench in siege-works, from one end to the other in the direction of its length, it is called an enfilading fire, and is very destructive. « ENGLAND’S PARNASSUS,” par-nas'- suSi a volume published in London, 1600, supposed to have been compiled by Robert Allot, of whose personal history, scarcely anything is known. The full title is “ England’s Parnassus ; or the choycest Flowers of our Modern Poets, with their Poetical comparisons. Descriptions of Bewties, Personages, Castles, Palaces, Moun- taines, Groues, Seas, Springs, Re wens, &c. Where- unto are annexed other various discoveries, both pleasant and profitable.” The book contained passages from forty-three English poets, many of the very highest rank. ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ing'-glish, is the vehicle of spoken and written communication between upwards of 80 millions of people, and is as heterogeneous in its elements as it is widely extended in its sphere. “Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Celtic, Saxon, Danish, French, Spanish, Italian, G rman,” says M. Mfiller, in his “Lectures on the Science of Language” — “nay, even Hindu- etani, Malay, and Chinese words, lie mixed to- gether in the English dictionary.” It was long a popular, and probably somewhat partial, axiom in this country, that Anglo-Saxon formed at least two-thirds of the spoken and written speech of it. But M. Thommerel has established the fact that Anglo-Saxon stands in no greater a propor- tion to the words of immediate or remote Latin origin than the relation of about 13 to 30. Yet the English language is essentially and truly a Teutonic or Saxon tongue ; for it is not the ex- tent of the vocabulary of a language that gives colour to the title of that language — it is to the grammar to which the tongue conforms that we must trace its scientific relationship. Now, what- ever there remains of grammar in English — and, indeed, it is very little — obviously bears marks of being forged in a Teutonic workshop ; and hence the necessity that there is for classifying it as such in the general philology of the world. In tracing the growth of the English language, it is usual to divide its history into the four periods of Anglo-Saxon {449 a.d. — 1066 A.D.), Semi-Saxon (1066 A.D. — 1250 A. D.), Early English (1250 a.d. —1550 A.D.), and Modern English (1500 a.d. to the present day). These in their order : — The Anglo-Saxon period of the language dates from the 5th centm-y. Anglo-Saxon was a Low-German dialect, bearing a close similarity to the old Frisic, which is usually recognised as the parent of the modern Dutch. After long years of social feuds and of national warfare, the absorption by Wessex, or West Saxons, of the various portions of the Heptarchy, in the 9th century, went far to make the ruling speech of the land the tongue of Berks and of Hants, the recognised centre of this clan. Two dialectical peculiarities at least seem at that early period to have prevailed in the island. There was the Northern or Anglian, which prevailed from the Humber to the Firth of Forth, and the Southern or Saxon one, which was spoken from the Humber to the English Channel. The Semi-Saxon period was a transi- tion era, and, like every era of the kind, one of confusion and one of promise. The monks were, of course, the learned class of the time ; and what with their ancient formularies and the mediaeval Latin in which they performed their Ave-Marias and their Paternosters, when they attempted to write their mother-tongue they fell into the grossest mistakes. The “ Saxon Chronicle,” 1173, and Layamon’s “Brut” (about 1200), afford abundant specimens of this slip- shod style of Anglo-Saxon, and it is abun- dantly evident, from an examination of the inflections and genders of the language, that it was undergoing at this time a thorough breaking up. There is a curious feature observable in the Anglo-Saxon of this time — ^that, although its date makes it reach a century or two beyond the Conquest of 1066, it nevertheless exhibits but few traces of Norman French, which might be the language of the court ; it certainly was not the language of the people. The Early English period of the language exhibits important features of consolidation and of final hardening. The English tongue now asserts itself throughout ; yet it is still struggling to become national. In the first place, it contrived gradually to get rid of all Anglo-Saxon inflections, particularly in the sub- stantives and adjectives ; the vowels a, e, u, in final syllables are all represented by e, and the final n of the infinitive has already begun to dis- appear. It constantly prefers to express the relations of an idea by some new word attached to the original one, whereas the old Saxon tongue, like a genuine element of the Teutonic, always expressed such ideas by a modification of this word. By the time we reach Chaucer, Gower, and Lydgate, the French language has become a component part of English speech. And it is obvious that this modification was effected much more through the literary regard which was en- gendered in the breasts of those old poets for the French “Fabliaux,” and such -like writings, than from any superior respect which they reluctantly paid to the .speech of their Norman masters. Yet certain poets still clung affectionately to the old tongue, and in “ Piers Plowman,” and in a few others, we see examples of writers who still found the Anglo-Saxon sufficient for all their wants. In the southern i)art of Scotland, and particularly the Anglian counties lying south of the Forth, the language of the people was to all intents and purposes identical with the language of the extreme south. Barbour, a Scottish contemporary of Chaucer, wrote purer English than Chaucer did ; that is to say, his poems were much freer from the foreign element of Norman-French. The close likeness of the two tongues to the north and south of the island did not last long after the war of independence. ENGLISH DRAMA 185 ENGLISH DRAMA la the Modern English period of the language, it was to a great extent perfected as to its gram- mar, if still deficient as to its vocabulary. Of ■course the rules and forms of the grammar had still to be rendered workable and delicate by the use which great practice can alone communicate. It is to be observed, however, that it was much more in the ease and dexterity which the old forms of speech received that this modern period is distinguished, rather than in any new modifi- cations effected upon the grammar itself. Of course the additions which have been made to the English dictionary since the beginning of the i6th century have been immense — a process which still goes on ; but the effects of change on the glossary of a tongue are merely secondary. The changes, accordingly, which it has since under- gone, are merely changes in style, or in the variety of modes in which different individuals express themselves. The English language is worthy, by its remarkable combination of force, precision, and fulness, of being, as it is already, the speech of nearly all the free nations of the world. ENGLISH DRAMA. — The earliest at- tempts at dramatic performances in England were the “Moralities,” or “Miraele Plays.” Though, as generally used, the terms are synony- mous, the Miracles, properly so called, were the earliest form, and represented either subjects of Scripture, or legends of the lives of saints. The Moralities appeared later, and were allegorical representations of virtues or vices, so contrived as to make virtue always desirable and vice ridic- ulous and deformed. The Mysteries were usually more elaborate and lengthened performances, representing some of the sacred mysteries of Christianity, particularly in the life of Christ. The earliest of these mysteries belong to the 12th century : Chester and Coventry in England were particularly celebrated for the performance of them. The Whitsun plays were acted at Chester, seven or eight on each day, during the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of the Whit- suntide week, by the various crafts in the city, to each of whom a separate mystery was allotted. The drapers, for instance, exhibited the Fall of Lucifer ; the water-carriers of the Dee repro- duced the Deluge ; the cooks had the Harrowing of Hell. The performers were carried from one station to another by means of a movable scat- fold, a huge and ponderous machine mounted on wheels, gaily decorated with flags, and divided into two compartments, the upper of which formed the stage, and the lower defended from vulgar cirriosity by coarse canvas draperies, answered the purposes of the green-room. The performers began at the abbey gates, where they were wit- nessed by the dignitaries of the church ; they then proceeded to the High Cross, where the mayor and civil magnates were assembled ; and so on throughout the city, until this motley his- tory of God and his dealings with man had been played out. The Chester Mysteries have been published by Wright, and the Coventry Mysteries by HalliweU. The Townley Mysteries, so named from the family having possession of the MSS., and supposed to have been written and performed by the Augustinian friars of Woodkirk, have been published by the Surtees Society (London, 1836). In these mysteries they represented not only men, angels, and devils, but even the per- sons of the Trinity. Heaven, hell, the creation and consummation of all things, were vividly pre- sented to the eyes of the spectators. According to Malone, the last mystery performed in Eng- land was that of Christ’s Passion, in the reign of James I. The first English comedy, “ Ralph Roister Doister ” was written by Nicholas Udall, about 1552. “ Ferrex and Porrex,” the first regular English tragedy, was acted before Queen Elizabeth upon the i8th of January, 1501, by the gentlemen of the Inner Temple. “ Gammer Gurton’s Needle,” which was said to be the work of John Still, master of arts, and afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, was first performed in Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1575. At the very commencement, English comedy was founded on characters of middle and humble life, and, unlike the French, was not dependent upon the frivoli- ties and fashions of lords, ladies, and courtiers. It is to be remarked, that as our first tragedy had no intermixture of comedy, so our first comedy had no intermixture of tragedy. The vigorous Elizabethan drama sprang into existence with amazing rapidity. Between 1560 and 1580, 46 regular tragedies and comedies are known to have been enacted, some of which are now ex- tant, besides those which have been preserved. In some instances, the open yards of large inns, such as the Belle Savage, at Ludgate, were con- verted into temporary theatres ; but generally the plays were performed in the halls of the Inns of Court, the Sovereign’s palace, and the resi- dences of the nobility. The Blackfriars Theatre was roofed in, and so were the Whitefriars and the Curtain, at Shoreditch, opened a few years afterwards; but the Bankside theatres, the Rose, Hope, Swan, Paris Garden (originally a place for baiting bears), and the large Globe, built in 1593, were open to the sky. Altogether there were about a dozen theatres open at one time or other in the eighteen years of Shakespeare’s London life. About the time that Shakespeare joined the Blackfriars company, or within two or three years afterwards, several dramatic authors attained considerable reputation. Among them was George Peele, a Devonshire man of good family and Master of Arts of Oxford. When twenty years old he came to London, and led a sadly wild life. He died miserably from the effects of drunkenness and dissipation. Another writer, Robert Greene, contributed to the stage. He was born at Norwich, and was Shakespeare’s senior by three or four years. According to his own account, he had taken the M.A. degrees at both the great universities, and was certainly possessed of learning and superior abilities. He took orders, and was for a short time a vicar in Essex, but soon came to London, and “after leading one of the maddest lives on record, died a miserable death in September, 1592.” John Ford was also a dramatist of con- siderable power. Far greater than either of these was Christopher Marlowe, of “ the mighty line,” who came to London, and, it is thought, appeared as an actor shortly after Shakespeare had established himself at Blackfriars. As a dramatic poet, he unquestionably holds the second place in the Elizabethan annals ; and in “ Faustus ” there are passages of power and beauty which Shakespeare himself could scarcely have surpassed. His ‘ ‘ Troublesome Reign and Lamentable Death of King Edward the Second of England,” may almost take rank with the historical plays of his great contemporary, and perhaps suggested them. His “ Jew of Malta ” was the origin of Shakespeare’s “ Merchant of Venice,” but is savage and sombre, unrelieved ENGLISH DllAMA 186 ENGLISH LITERATURE with the delightful gaiety and tenderness and the human symi^athy infused by the master mind. A tavern brawl ended the life of this great but misguided genius. The influence of the plays of Shakespeare upon poetry, the drama, and the world at large, is universally recognised. It is enough to say that his transcendant genius and matchless power created a model, which never has, and j)erhaps never will be equalled. A special article is devoted to his productions. (See Shakespeake’s Dramas and Poems). The tragedies of Jonson are distinguished for a sub- lime expression of moral sentiment. In comedy he occasionally followed the older Grecian school, as in the “Tale of a Tub,” where, in order to ridicule his enemy, Inigo Jones, he trod in the path of Aristophanes. In the “Staple of News ” and “Cynthia’s Revels,” he introduced allegori- cal characters, and personified abstract passions. (See Jonson’s Dramas.) In tracing the history of the English drama, we perceive the immense influence over his successors, of the plays of Shakespeare. Massinger, a man of considerable genius, endeavoured to unite the romance of Shakespeare to the realistic humour of Jonson ; and to a certain extent he succeeded. His “ New Way to Pay Old Debts,” has been a popular piece of later times, the representation of Sir Giles Overreach by Edmund Kean, being one of that great actor’s most powerful performances. “ The Virgin Martyr,” is an exquisitely beauti- ful play, but Dekker and others were permitted to interpolate comic scenes of a very gross char- acter. Beaumont and Fletcher, both men of remarkable talents, grafted upon Shakespeare’s method of composition the boundless license of the Spanish school. (See Beaumont and Fletcher’s Plays.) The plays of Shirley of. Ford, and of Dekker, although now little known, abound with admirable passages and detached scenes of singular merit ; Webster was a drama- tist of singular power, especially in the treatment of terrible subjects. His “ Duchess of Malfi ” has been frequently performed in our own times. The great and original school founded by Shakespeare and Jonson, and followed by Massinger, Beaumont and Fletcher, and others clesed with the outbreak of the civil war in 1642. A proclamation shut up the theatres and dis- persed the iflayers, almost all of whom took up arms for King Charles, in whose service many of them perished. One Robinson, an actor at the Blackfriars theatre, was killed by Harrison, the regicide, in cold blood, Harrison declaiming the text from Scripture, “ Cursed be he who doeth the Lord’s work negligently.” The winter of 1648, the players at the Cockpit, while acting the “ Bloody Brothers,” were surprised by a party of soldiers in the middle of the play, and carried to prison in their playhouse dresses. On F ebruary ir, 1647, an Act of Parliament was passed that all stage -galleries, seats, and boxes should be pulled down, by warrant of two justices of the peace ; that all actors of plays for the time to come, being convicted, should be publicly whipped; and all spectators of plays should, for each offence, pay five shillings. The Restoration may be said to have inducted the second period of the English drama. Charles H., who in his exile imbibed French tastes, brought with him to England a re- lish for the beauties of the French stage. Dry den, Howard, and the authors of the day, fostered this taste, and heroic plays were applauded by both the court and city. The heroic play was a forced and unnatural mixture of French senti- ment, English noise and bustle, stilted dialogues, drums, and processions. The heroes and heroines were all of one exactly virtuous pattern ; valour was entirely refined, and love of the most im- possible purity. At the same time, comedy de- serted delineation of character and construction of plot, and endeavoured to shine only in dialogue. The atmosphere of a licentious court infected the stage ; and the authors strove by a succession of smart jests and loose epigrams to amuse the wits of the town rather than to point a moral or wing a satirical truth. The Duke of Buckingham’s famous satirical burlesque of “The Rehearsal” exhibited the absurdities of the two French schools of art, and tragedy and comedy retraced their steps. About this time actresses first ap- peared upon the stage. Before the Restoration, the characters of women had been played by boys and young men. It is to this introduction that we owe the brilliant display of passionate tenderness evinced in the female characters of Otway (author of “ The Orphan ” and “Venice Preserved ”), and, despite some rant and fustian, of Lee. Sir George Etheridge, Wycherley, and others, were outrageously licentious ; and Con- greve, slightly less so, was brilliantly witty. The i8th century ushered in genteel comedy, an entertainment that exhibited the foibles of the higher classes ; comedy of intrigue, in which plots and surprises succeed each other ; and English opera. (See Opera.) Addison achieved a success with “ Cato,” a stately play in the classical manner. Farquhar and Mrs. Centhise produced lively comedies early in the century ; at a later period. Goldsmith produced two of the best of English comedies, and afterwards Arthur Murphy and Richard Cumberland wrote some good plays. To Garrick the stage is indebted for a revival of the plays of Shakespeare ; and to Sheridan for a description of comedy that, to the polish and wit of the authors of the Congreve and Farquhar school, added humorous and charac- teristic dialogue. George Colman the elder and George Coleman the younger both contributed admirable comedies to the rich repertory of the drama ; and Maturin, Lord Byron, Coleridge, and Joanna Baillie, were the authors of the tragedies produced in the early part of the present century. The two Kembles and Mrs. Siddons, Edmund Kean, Charles Young, and Miss O’Neil, were of the same era, one of the most brilliant of which the English stage can boast. Sheridan Knowles produced some admirable plays ; and Douglas Jerrold and Dion Boucicault were among the most successful writers of comedy Westland Marston and Sir Edward Bulwer- Lytton rank high in the list of successful drama- tists. The latter produced two of the most success- ful plays ever put upon the stage, “ The Lady of Lyons”and “Richelieu.” Great efforts weremade by Macready at Covent-garden and Drury-Lane, and by Charles Kean, at the Princess’s, to main- tain a high school of dramatic art, and to place Shakespearian and other plays upon the stage with appropriate and beautiful scenery and cos- tumes ; and, at the present time, Henry Irving is, with admirable taste and great ability, treading in their footsteps. Among recent dramatic authors, the most successful have been Mr. Boucicault, Mr. Robertson, Mr. Byron, Mr. Albery, Mr. Madison Morton, Mr. Gilbert,, Mr. Willes, Mr. Palgrave Simpson, and Mr. Sims. ENGLISH LITERATURE is modified in a highly important manner by the history of th& ENGLISH LITERATURE 187 ENGLISH LITERATURE English people. Eras of great literary progress have always been found to succeed those periods of the nation’s history characterized by imijortant social changes, and sometimes by national revolu- tions. The literary annals of England may be conveniently arranged into three periods : — i, That antecedent to the Norman Conquest ; 2, that extending-from the Norman Conquest to the English Reformation ; and 3, from the English Reformation to the present day. i. The time l^eceding the Conquest has a literature composed In three distinct languages, and possessing merits of a highly important character. First, there is the Celtic, spoken by the northern Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh. The “Annals of the Four Masters,” compiled by Tigernach, records the doings of the Irish people so early as the fifth century. Then there are the Scottish Ossianic poems, which, if they were genuine, would lead back the reader to the third century. Among the Welsh people, again, their triads are said to extend as far back as the sixth century. The cultivation of Latin literature in this country succeeded the introduction of CIrristianity into it. Literary effort soon followed, and we meet as first in this honourable list the names of Alcuin, of Erigena, and of Bede. The ‘ ‘ Gleeman’s Song,” the “ Battle of Finnesburgh,” and the “ Tale of Beowulph,” are the only stories of a Homeric cast which the Anglo-Saxon peoj)le possess. The latter, in particular, resembles closely, in some of its vividly picturesque touches, the old Iliad of Troy. Doubtless such remarkable religious poems as those of the monk Caedmon deserve to be mentioned in any summary of the literary history of England. Yet the Anglo-Saxon people were comparatively poor in poetry ; but they were eminently simple and direct prose writers. Portions of the sacred Scriptures, Anglo-Saxon chronicles, sermons, glossaries, grammars, geo- graphies, medical works and dialogues, in their tongue, were all composed by their leading writers, Aldhelm, Bede, and Alfred. It was chiefly through the influence of the latter, who dis- carded Latin in all his communications with his subjects, that the Saxon tongue made so decided a start as it did during the ninth century. 2. The Conquest brought with it a change of language and a change of manners in the court ; but it could hardly modify the speech of the average Englishman of those days. It is owing chiefly to the influence of Chaucer and Gower, and to the literary class generally, that French came materially to modify the existing lan- guage of England. These men knew French, because it was the tongue in which many inter- esting books were written ; and they gave it to the people of England in the firm belief that an acquaintance with it would advance their taste an(l improve their manners. Classical and theo- logical learning were now much prosecuted. The founding of the universities, and the extension of the monastic system, gave leisure for scholarship and induced thought. The close political inter- course that there was then with France improved both England and France in learning and in social manners. Such names as Lanfranc and Anselm, as Hales and Duns Scotus, as Michael Scott and Roger Bacon, show how entirely men were devoted, as they usually are in theinfancy of aliterature, where external peace and leisure will permit of it, to philosophy in both its branches of physical and metaphysical. The historical writers of the time, among whom we must mention William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Giraldus Cambrensis, and Matthew Paris, afford an agree- able offset to those subtle speculators. Of course the learned language of the time was altogether Latin. Personal satire and invective were much rifer in Mapes’s day, than they became ; and the weak king John and the charter of Runny mede afforded those disposed to employ those local squibs only too good targets to aim at. The “ Gesta Romanorum,” a singular medley of tales, apologues, and so forth, told often with much humour and pathos, have an interest of their own j and they possess, likewise, a borrowed grace. They have been instrumental in suggest- ing some of the noblest themes in our recent literature, and thus have double claims on our affection. The “Merchant of Venice” and Marmion,” to go no farther from home, owe much to those old “ Gesta.” These compositions resembled closely in their structure the French “Fabliaux,” and have had a much greater in- fluence on our literature. The fine old romances of “Havelok the Dane,” the “Gest of King Horn,” “ Bevis of Hamptoun,” “Guy of War- wick,” and last and best of all, those fine legends written mostly in French, but composed by Englishmen, to celebrate the greatness and the downfall of the mythical king Ai'thur and his Knights of the Round Table, no English student of this literature will pass by. Mean- while, the vernacular tongue of England, driven from the monasteries and the universities, was almost solely dependent for its patron- age and subsistence on the common people of the land. It had no literature worth mentioning at this period ; and it was rapidly merging into the Semi-Saxon, as it is called, of which the earliest and best representative is the “Brut” of Layamon. The fourteenth and fif- teenth centuries brought in a new era intcv English history and English literature. Crecy and Poictiers were fought, and John Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer were born. The former peserves our ceaseless regard for his translation of the sacred Scriptures, the first ever effected by one hand (1380), and except Sir John Mande ville’s travels (1356), it is the first specimen of early English prose writing in our language. We can hardly do more than name a great many authors who crowd the canvas of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries . Such are J ohn Lydgate , whose “ London Lackpenny ” (about 1430) is still read with interest ; Alexander Barclay, author of the “Ship of Fools ” (1509) ; John Skelton, author of the satire called ‘ ‘ Colin Clout ” (died 1529) ; and Sir Thomas Wyatt, who died in 1541. The prose writers of this jDeriod are Sir John Fortescue, chief justice of the King’s Bench under Henry VI. ; William Caxton who holds the honourable place of being the first who in- troduced printing into Britain (1474), his first book composed with types being the “ Game of Chess ; ” Fabian (1512) ; Hall, an English lawyer and chronicler (1547) ; and Tyndale, who was burnt for heresy in 1536. The Scotch poetry of the period almost matches in interest and import- ance that of the south part of the island. James I., king of Scotland, led the way with his “Queen’s Quhair;” Wyntoun, the chronicler (1420) ; Blind Harry, the author of the once highly popular performance known as “ Sir Wm. Wallace ; ” Robert Henryson (died 1508), and wrote a beautiful poem called “The Testament of Cresseid ; ” Gavin Douglas, whose best work, among a considerable number, is, without doubt, his translation of Virgil’s “A^neid” into Scot- ENGLISH LITERATURE 188 ENGLISH LITERATURE tish verse ; and last and greatest of the poets of this country until the time of Burns, stands William Dunbar (died about 1520), whose “ Daunce of the Seven Deadly Sins” showed him to have possessed imagination and humour, pathos and tenderness, boldness and vigour, in a very remarkable degree. 3. The period extend- ing ft-om the English Meformation to the present time eclipses in brilliancy and grandeur all the other eras of English literature. As the same sequence of events reigns in letters as in social life, the character of one era always determines the nature and complexion of the succeeding one. This is very observable in the Elizabethan age, on which we are now entering. The discovery of printing, and the discovery that all was not gos- pel that came from Rome, were two as potent instruments as could possibly be put into the hands of literary men. AVhat Skelton and Dun- bar had begun, Spenser and Shakespeare carried to a splendid consummation. The names of Latimer, of Cranmer, of Ridley, and of Sir Thomas More, are prominent in the earlier years of the Tudor period. Roger Ascham, the learned tutor of Lady Jane Grey, and the writer of an exceUent work, the “ Schoolmaster,” is another n,dmirable miscellaneous writer of the time. As the English drama forms the subject of a sepa- rate article, we need only mention here Sackville, who wrote the “ Mirrour for Magistrates,” and Brooke, author of the “ Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet ; ” and the Scotsmen, Sir David Lyndsay, Boece, Major, Melville, and George Buchanan. George Buchanan is univers- ally admitted to have been one of the finest classical scholars who has appeared since the age of Augustus. He mingled much in the politics of his time, yet found leisure to nurse his genius in the retired ways of academic seclusion. The founding of the Scottish universities, and the in- stitution of grammar and parish schools, which owed their origin entirely to the indefatigable labours of the reformer Knox, bade fair to give to Scotland an important place in the history of Great Britain. We now come close to the greatest era in the history of English literature. In all the essentials of true genius this age can give way neither to the best days of ancient Greece or Rome, of modern Italy or France. The greatest men the nation has ever produced come trooping up at the mention of Queen Elizabeth’s name. There are Shakespeare and Spenser and Sidney; there are Raleigh and Hooker and Jeremy Taylor ; there are many others beside, “men, all of them,” to adopt the language of Francis Jeffrey, “not merely of great talents and accomplishments, but of vast compass and reach of understanding, and of minds truly creative.” About the close of this period a number of sweet poets arose, who mostly wrote in a lyrical measure, though some of them were didactic ; such as Fletcher and Browne, Drayton and Wither, ■Quarles and “holy George Herbert.” During the l>eriod of the Restoration and the Revolution, literature was much degraded by the profiigacy and indecency of some of the most prominent writers. Yet the age was not wholly corrupt, for it could boast of such distinguished theo- logians as Baxter, Owen, Calamy, Collier, Leigh- ton, South, Tillotson, and Barrow. This was also the time when Milton, who stands in the front rank of poets, lived and sung of Paradise Lost and of Paradise Regained, writing ■“ something,” as he himself hoped, “ which posterity would not willingly let die.” Marvel ridiculed the High Church, and Butler, of “ Hudibras ” fame, burlesqued Dissent ; Walton angled, Locke speculated, Newton discovered, and John Dry den “ found the English language of brick, and left it of marble.” The literary history of the i8th century, and particularly of the reign of Queen Anne, has been censured severely by some, and praised to excess by others. It was natural that the critics of the period should be inclined to over-estimate the infiuence of the literature among which they lived ; but many writers of the present day have decried it, possibly with a considerable touch of truth, for its jiolite scepticism and for its hollow insincerity. It has been glorified by its advocates as the Augustan age of English literature, and decried by its enemies as an age of utilitarianism and satire. The truth is, that both in poetry and in prose the form had come to be observed much more than the matter. Pope, of course, is the poetical chief of this age ; and while he, no doubt, indulged much more than was meet in the most polished and most personal satire, he nevertheless, in some of his poems, displays a fine power of lofty contemplation, and a faculty of expression so brilliant, so happy, graceful, and copious, that we look in vain for the match of it in the entire range of English poetry. Addison is unrivalled for grace and ease ; Swift has no equal in rude, pointed vigour ; and later on came Johnson, regarded as the literary dicta- tor. Young, Akenside, Thomson, Gray, Collins, Beattie, and Cowper were conspicuous in poetry. The greatest poet of the century was Robert Burns. Its novelists were Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, Sterne, and Goldsmith (also a poet) ; its historians were Hume, Robertson, and Gib- bon ; and its philosophers were Butler, Berkeley, Clarke, Shaftesbury, Hume, Paley, and Adam Smith. Horace Walpole, as a letter-Avriter and antiquary, has a peculiar reputation. The first half of the 19th century opens Avith a brilliant galaxy of poets. Coleridge, Wordsworth, Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Campbell, Moore, and Southey, are the poets of this time. There might be periods of greater originality, but there has been none so various, so diverse, and so fresh of its kind, as the period we are describing. This is the age of reviews and periodicals, and, indeed, of noyels and romances. The great reviewers and essayists of this century are Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, Hazlitt, John Foster, De Quincey, and Carlyle ; the great preachers are Hall, Chalmers, and Irving ; the philosophers are Stewart, Mackin- tosh, Bentham, Brown, Hamilton Stuart Mill, and Spencer; the men of science are Owen, Whewell, Faraday, Sedgwick, DarAvin, Tyndall, and Huxley ; the novelists are Dickens , Thacke- ray, Bulwer Lytton, Charlotte Bronte “George Elliot,” Trolloppe, Black, and Hardey ; the historians are Hallam, Macaulay, Thirlwall, Grote, Milman, Carlyle, Froude, Green, Stubbs, and Freeman. Ruskin is eminent as a writer on art. In poetry we have Tennyson, the Brown- ings, Matthew Arnold, Morris, and SAvdnburne, besides a host of others. The most remarkable development of literature, however, in this country has been in connection Avith i^eriodical literature, in the form of high class magazines, an almost limitless diffusion of popular literature, and, most prominently of all, the newspaper press. {See Newspapee.) America has been active in sustaining her credit as a scion of Saxon stock, and can number among her writers W. Irving, ENGRAILED 189 ENVY Poe, Longfellow, Coojjer, Prescott, Emerson, Bancroft, Hawthorne, Lowell, Bryant, Dana, Motley, Whittier, Sigourney, Bret jHarte, and many other writers of great original talent. ENGRAILED, en-graild' (Fr., engreler, to indent in curved lines, to variegate), the name given to a particular form of partition line used in Heraldry. It consists of a series of semicircular or scalloped indentations. ENGROSSING, en-grose' -ing (Ang.-Nor.), among lawyers, means the making of a fair copy of a deed upon stamped paper or parchment, in clear legible characters. ENHARMONIC, en-har-mon' -ik, a term employed by the ancient Greek musicians to de- signate that of their three genera or scales which consisted of quarter-tones and major thirds. Be- sides this they had originally another kind of enharmonic much simpler and easier in execution, and upon which the theorists of the old^ school considered the quarter-tones or diesis as innova- tions too refined and artificial. There is also a species of enharmonic called equi- vocal or enhar- monic change, in which the notation is altered, but the same keys of the instrument are used, and although the notes are theoretically distinct there is no perceptible difference of sound. ENIGMA, e-nig'-ma (Gr., ainigmd), a de- scription or definition of a thing given in obscure or ambiguous terms, with the object either of hiding what the thing is, or of occasioning its discovery to come as a surprise. In ancient times enigmas were considered of such interest that en- voys were sent between the Eastern monarchs solely for the purpose of solving them. They were often used as the vehicles for conveying truths of the greatest importance. As a matter of literary display, the enigma has been a favourite at many times and among many nations. In France, during the 17th century, it was much in vogue ; in fact, several ponderous treatises were written concerning its nature and history. Some of the greatest poets in Germany did not disdain to write enigmas, and several of Schiller’s are in- corporated in his published works. ENSEMBLE, an{g)-san{g)by (Fr., all to- gether), the general effect produced by a musical performance, a picture, or a drama, indepen- dently of the special or siterm defects of parts. ENTABLATURE, en-tah' -la-ture (Fr., en- tablement), the whole of the superstructure that is supported by two or more columns which sustain the roofing of a portico or entrance to any build- ing of importance built in the classic style of architecture. The entablature sometimes sup- ports a pediment with sides sloping downwards from the centre to either end. It is divided into three parts — the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice. [See Akchiteave, Feiezb, Coenice.) The depth of the entablature and its component parts is determined by the diameter of the lower end of the shaft of the column. {See Aechitec- TUEE.) The entablature in each of the five orders of architecture is distinguished by certain methods of treatment and decoration. The Tuscan entablature consists of a plain architrave and frieze, separated by a narrow projecting fillet, and surmounted by a cornice formed of simple mouldings, a fillet, and cymatium. In the Doric entablature, guttce, or rain-drops, are attached to the under-side of the fillet or taenia that se^jarates the architrave from the frieze. immediately under the triglyphs that ornament the latter ; mutules are also placed on the cor- nice above the triglyphs. In the remaining orders the architrave is broken into two or more fillets, or facias, projecting one above another, with an ornamental moulding running along the upper part of each, and immediately under the Mlet above it. The frieze is generally plain in the Ionic order, as in the Doric, although it is some- times enriched, as were also the metopes, or rectangular spaces between the triglyphs on tho frieze of the last-named order ; but in the Corinthian and Composite orders it was richly adorned with sculpture in bas-relief. The cor- nice in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders is supported on a moulding enriched with dentils, and finished above with an ogee mould- ing ; but in the Corinthian order the corona of the cornice is supported on modillions projecting from a band immediately below it, and sur- mounting the ogee moulding that has just been mentioned j while in the Composite order mutules are substituted for the carved modillions. ENTAYLE, or ENTAIL (probably from the Italian intoglio,) richly cut ornaments in architecture. ENTHUSIASM, en-thu' -ze-azm (Gr., en~ thousiasmos, inspiration), is an exalted condition of mind, in which the imagination is inflamed and exalted, thereby conceiving and expressing extraordinary and surprising things. It furnishes an impetus to the will and moral nature, and is the motive power of all great conceptions of possibility. The effect is contagious, and one enthusiastic leader, believing in his mission te achieve a great work, soon finds adherents as enthusiastic as himself. Enthusiasm encourages in danger, and gives a powerful support in suffer- ings. When allied with great intellectual power and purity of sentiment, it produces heroes when the reasoning power is small, and the moral nature unsympathetic, the result is fanaticism. ENTHYMEME, en' -the-meem (Gr., enthu- mema, from en, and thumos, the mind), is a term employed in Rhetoric, Introduced by Aristotle, and which since his time till recently has been almost universally misunderstood. It has gene- rally been defined to be an imperfect syllogism, having one or other of its premises not expressed, but understood. Though several writers before his time had pointed out the error of this defini- tion, Sir W. Hamilton was the first to call general attention to it. An enthymeme differs from a syllogism, not in the accident of suppressing one of its propositions — either may do this, or neither; the difference is essential, and in the nature of the matter; that of the syllogism, being certain, that of the enthememe probable, and drawn from the province of opinion. ENTR’ACTE (Fr., between the acts), apiece of music performed between the acts of a play. ENTRESOL, a'wn{g)' -tre-sol (Fr.), a term borrowed from the French, and used to denote a low intermediate story introduced between two loftier ones. It corresponds to the Italian mezza- nine in its use and purpose. ENVY, enl-ve (Fr., envier), in Ethics, is de- fined by Locke to be an uneasiness of mind, occa- sioned by the consideration of a good we discover in the possession of another person, whom we deem less worthy of it than ourselves. It is char- EOLIAN HARP 190 “ EPISTOL.E acterised by a degree of sorrow that the good contemplated should escape ourselves, and of anger that it should fall to the share of another. EOLIAN HARP. (^egjEoLiAN Harp.) EPAULEMENT, e-pawV-ment (from Fr., epaulCy shoulder), the name given to a parapet, which is thrown up as a means of protection, and used in the construction of field-works. It is also, and more properly, apifiied to a mound of earth thrown up as a protection against an enfi- lading fire. EPAULETTE, ep'-o-let (Fr.), an ornamental badge worn upon the shoulder by military and naval officers. A few years ago the epaulette was abolished in the EngUsh army, the sash being substituted for it. EPHEMERIS, e-fem'-e -ris, a name some- times applied generally to Almanacks, but more •commoffiy limited to astronomical tables, giving the daily places of the sun, moon, and planets. The “ Nautical Almanack ” is a very important work of this kind. EPIC POETRY, ,/-^^.(Gr. , epos, a discourse or narrative), is a kind of poetry which has out- ward objects for its subjects, and is thus dis- tinguished from lyric poetry, which deals with the inner feelings and emotions of the mind. The distinction is general, for there are few pro- ductions to which it can strictly apply ; but they belong to the one class or the other, according to the predominating character. The earliest speci- mens of this form of art probably consisted of simple tales rhythmically arranged, and recited to a very simple musical accompaniment. The longer and more artistic epic poems, however, embrace an extensive series of events and the actions of numerous personages. The epic poetry of the early Greeks naturally divides itself into two classes — the heroic or romantic epos of Honaer, and the meratic epos of Hesiod, the one ■dealing with the political, the other with the religious life of the Greeks. The “Iliad” and “ Odyssey ” of Homer present us with the finest specimens of this class of poetry that have ever appeared. The sacred poetry of Hesiod partakes very much of a lyrical character. The “ .^neid ” of Virgil is not equal to the ‘ ‘ Iliad ” of Homer as an epic ; its superiority depending more on beauty of language and arrangement than on anything in the story. The greatest epic of modern times is the “Paradise Lost” of Milton. Dante’s “Divine Comedy,” however sublime in style, is destitute of that unity of event or action necessary to con- stitute a great work of this class. The ‘ ‘ Jerusalem Delivered ” of Tasso is regularly and strictly an epic, and adorned with all the beauties that be- long to this species of composition. The epic poem is of all poetical works the most dignified, nnd, at the same time, the most difficult in execu- tion ; and hence it is that so very few have suc- ceeded in the attempt to produce a really great epic. EPIGRAM, ep' -e-gram (Gr., epigramma, an inscription), a term originally applied, as shown by its derivation, to the inscriptions on the tombs and monuments of the ancient Greeks. They were generally written in verse, and showed great simplicity of style. Usually they were either de- dicatory, descriptive, amatory, or elegiac. They were seldom humorous ; and their chief merit consisted in the justness of a single thought con- veyed in harmonious language. The ancient Romans, in their acceptation of the term epigram, seem to approach nearer to the idea of modern epigram. Catullus and Martial were amongst their most famous epigrammatists. In modern times an epigram is considered to be a short poem usually consisting of from two to eight lines, in which some striking or ingenious thought is ex- pressed ; whether it be serious or humorous is a matter of indifference. The French have always excelled in this kind of writing. The Germans have usually combined moral proverbs with their epigrams ; but those of Schiller and Goethe are generally satirical. Pope, Byron, Burns, and Moore, in this country, have written epigram- matic satire with the greatest success. EPIGRAPH, ep'-i-graf (Gr., epi, upon, grapho, I write), a short inscription upon archi- tectural or other monuments ; for the prupose of denoting their use or appropriation. In some in- stances the epigraph is worked into the ornamen- tal details. EPILOGUE, ep' -e-log (Gr., epi, on or after ; logos, a speech), amongst the ancient Greeks, the end or summing up of a discourse. In English, the term is applied to the short poem, or prose address, delivered in a theatre at the conclusion of a play. The intention of the epilogue is to create a kind and friendly feeling between the actor and the audience ; and it frequently alludes to the events, fashions, and follies of the day. EPISODE, ep'-e-sode (Gr., epeisodos). — In the Greek drama the term eisodos was applied to the entrance of the chorus upon the stage, and the epeisodion to that part of a play which lay between two choral songs. As these recitations in the early history of the Greek stage had no- thing to do with the choral part, the term epeiso- dion, with its Latin derivative episodium, began to be applied to any incidental narrative or di- gression in a poem which the poet has connected with the main plot, but which is not essential to it. In this light, the catalogue of ships is con- sidered an episode in the “Iliad,” and the de- scription of the war in heaven is considered an episode in “Paradise Lost.” Episodes should grow naturally out of the subject, and should either point out important consequences or de- velop hidden causes. The episode describing the destruction of Troy, in Virgil’s “.ffineid,” is an episode of this kind. “EPISTOL^ OBSCURORUM VIR- ORUM,” epis'-to-le ob-sTcu' -ro-rum vi-ro'-rum, (Latin, letters of obscure men). — A collection of satirical letters professing to have been written by German professors and ecclesiastics. The first part appeared at Hagenau, in 1515 ; and there can be no doubt that the exposure of the works and modes of life of the scholastic teachers and monks, their follies and pedantic speech, in a considerable degree cleared the way for Refor- mation. The letters were addressed to Ortuinus Gratius, a man notable for his arrogance and in- tolerance. There has been almost as much dis- cussion about the authorship as about that of the renowned “Junius” letters in this country. Probably many writers contributed, but it is generally supposed that the chief part was the work of Wolfgang Angst, a witty and learned printer of Hagenau, Ulrich von Hutten, and Erolus Rubeanus. The “ Epistolse ” originated in the persecution by the Church party of Reuchlin, one of the most eminent scholars in Europe, and a man of remarkable intellectual EPITAPH 191 EPOCH powers, who with Erasmus and others were the leaders in a revival of learning, especially the study of the Hebrew and classical languages. He was attacked by the Dominicans and others, who denounced him as the advocate of Jewish blasphemy, because he studied and elucidated the Eabbinical writings. The intolerant ecclesi- astics actually obtained from the emperor an edict commanding that all Hebrew books, with exception of the Bible, should be searched for and burned, “on the ground that Jewish literature was nothing but a stock of libels on the character of Christ and Christianity.” Eeuchlin main- tained his ground, asserting that “a large pro- portion of the Rabbinic writings were not of a theological character at all, and consisted of works not only innocent, but highly useful ; and that the religious books themselves, while not, in general, such as they had been malevolently re- presented, were of the greatest importance to Christianity, as furnishing, in fact, the strongest arguments in refutation of the doctrine being de- fended.” Eeuchlin’s works were burned in public, and the pulpits “rang with calumnies against their victim.” Before his persecution Eeuchlin had published a volume of letters from his correspondents, some of the most eminent men in Germany and England, entitling the volume “Epistolse lUustrium Virorum” — letters from illustrious men. When the persecution was at- its height there was “ launched from an un- known hand a pasquil against the persecution of Eeuchlin ; it fell among them like a bomb, scat- tering dismay and ruin in its explosion. ” This was the “Epistolse Obscurorum Virorum,” professing to be letters addressed to Ortuinus by his friends. A writer in the Edinburgh Review (March, 1831) says — “ The plan of the satire is extremely simple — to make the enemies of Eeuchlin and of polite letters represent themselves j and the representation is managed with a truth of nature only equalled by the absurdity of the postures in which the actors are exhibited. Never were un- conscious barbarisms, self -glorious ignorance, in- tolerant stupidity, and sanctimonious immorality so ludicrously delineated ; never did delineation less betray the artifice of ridicule. The ‘ Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum ’ are at once the most cruel and the most natural of satires ; and, as such, they were the most effective. They converted the tragedy of Eeuchlin’s persecution into a farce ; annihilated in j)ublic consideration the enemies of intellectual improvement ; deter- mined a radical reform in the German univer- sities ; and even the friends of Luther, in Luther’s lifetime, acknowledged that no other writing had contributed so powerfully to the downfall of the Papal dominion Morally considered, indeed, this satire is an atrocious libel, which can only be palliated on the plea of retaliation, necessity, the importance of the end, and the consuetude of the times. Its victims are treated like vermin, punished without law, and exterminated without mercy.” Herder re- marks that this satire “ effected for Germany in- comparably more than ‘ Hudibras ’ for England, or ‘ Garagantua ’ for France, or the ‘ Knight of La Mancha ’ for Spain.” The “ Epistolse ” were denounced in a Papal bull and placed in the Index Expur gatorius. There have been many editions, two of the best having been published respectively at Leipsic and Hanover in 1827. EPITAPH, cp'-e-ia/ (Gr., epi, upon ; taphos, a mound, or monument over a grave), the inscrip- tion upon a funereal monumental tom.bstone. Among the classical nations of antiquity, epitaphs were at first only inscribed upon the tombs of heroes and those who had made them- selves distinguished in their country. Among the Greeks, the term was also applied to those verses which were sung in memory of a deceased person on the day of his funeral, or on its anni- versary. Amonst the Romans, every family who consecrated a tomb to their relations had the privilege of inscribing an epitaph upon it. Both Greek and Roman epitaphs were distinguished by three qualities — brevity, simplicity, and familiarity. The Roman tombs were generally situated by the side of the public road, and the epitaphs usually commenced with the words “ Sta, viator ” — Stop, traveller. Sepulchral in- scriptions seem to have first taken their origin in England in the nth century. At that time they were always written in Latin. In the 13th century, most of the epitajohs were written in French ; but the clergy and religious bodies still continued to write in Latin. English epitaphs were not written till the middle of the 14th cen- tury. The modern English, French, and German epitaphs are more numerous and varied than those of any other time or nation. They exhibit every variety of style and sentiment, from heraldic pro- lixity and epigrammatic conceit to maj estic gravity. Many epitaphs display considerable poetic power and grace. A great number of collections of epitaphs have been j)ublished, mostly including phrases and verses of a broadly comic style. It is extremely doubtful whether many of these are genuine. The most famous authentic epitaphs existing in England are probably that over Shake- speare’s grave ; that (commonly attributed to Ben Jonson, but jjrobably written by William Browne) inscribed on the tomb of the Countess of Pembroke ; the epitaph on Milton by Dryden ; and that which, in St. Paul’s Cathedral, com- memorates Sir Christopher Wren. The last, however, can scarcely properly be described as an epitaph, as it is not inscribed on the tomb (which is in the crypt), but in the nave, over the northern door. EPITHALAMIU M, e-pe-thal-ai' -me-wm (Gr. , epiy on ; thalamoSy a bridal chamber), a species of poem sung by the ancient Greeks and Romans near the bridal chamber of a newly-married couple. Poems of this character were written by Anacreon, Stesichorus, and Pindar. The epitha- lamium written by Catullus on the occasion of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis has always been much admired; and that written by the English poet Spenser has been described as one of the most gorgeous in all literature. EPITHET, ep'-e-thet (Gr., epitheton, from epi, upon, and tithemi, I lay or place), is applied to an adjective expressing some real quality of the thing to which it is applied, or an attributive expressing some quality ascribed to it. Epithets are often used in poetry and rhetoric. Epithets are also sometimes applied as surnames, or as persons’ second appellations, and were anciently bestowed very freely on account of peculiarities, either of body or mind — even kings not being exempt from them; as Edward Longshanks, Richard Cceur de Lion. EPOCH, e’-pok, in Chronology, the term epoch is used synonymously with era, and signi- fies a certain time from which we begin to count a series of years. ( “Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes, and groves, And ye that on the sands with printless foot Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do flee him When he comes back.” — Tempest, act v. sc. i. The general belief is that the native land of fairy mythology is Arabia, and that our knowledge of these beings was brought from that country by the Crusaders ; but there can be no doubt that their origin is much more ancient. They are gene- rally believed to be a kind of intermediate beings, partaking both of the nature of men and spirits, having material bodies, and yet possessed of the l^ower of making themselves invisible, and of FAIRY RING 200 FANDANGO passing through any sort of inclosure. They are remarkably small in stature, with fair com- l^lexions, and generally clothed in green. Their haunts were believed to be groves, verdant meadows, and the slopes of hills, and their great diversion dancing hand-in-hand in a circle, as al- luded to in M idsuvimer Night's Dream. The traces of their tiny feet are supposed to remain visible in the grass long afterwards, and are called Fairy Rings or Circles (which see). They were regarded as of a doubtful character, being sometimes benevolent and sometimes mischievous. The diseases of cattle were frequently attributed to their mischievous operation ; and cattle that died suddenly, without any apparent cause, were commonly said to be elf-shot. They were said to be very fond of human children, and were in the habit of carrying away such as they could lay hold of, and leave vixens of their own in their room. (See Changeling.) T. Crofton Croker, in his “ Fairy Legends and traditions of the South of Ireland,” describes them as beings “ a few inches high, airy, and almost transparent in body ; so delicate in their form that a dewdrop, when they chance to dance on it, trembles, in- deed, but never breaks. Both sexes are of ex- traordinary beauty, and mortal beings cannot be compared with them.” They live in large societies, and are governed by a queen : and the peasantry never speak of them but with caution and respect, as the good people and friends, believing them to be present, and to hear what is said. They have their dwellings in clefts of rocks, caves, and ancient tumuli, and every part of them is decorated in the most splendid and georgeous manner. The popular belief in fairies may now be said to have died out in this country ; but to it we are indebted for a class of literature which, at least to the young, has its ceaseless charms. The true fairy tales first became popu- lar in the latter part of tiie 17th century, and the Italians appear to have been the first to take the lead. After a time they became very popular in France ; and at present they are more extensive and popular in Germany than in any other country. (ASee Brownie, Kelpie, Sylph.) FAIRY RING, or CIRCLE, k a ring oc- casionally observed in pastures, and which was usually attributed by the peasantry to the danc- ing of the fairies. Shakespeare refers to them as “ the green sour ringlets whereof the ewe bites not and Tennyson, in “ Guinevere,” says, “ Still at evenings on before his horse, The flickering fairy circle wheeled and broke." They are seldom of a perfect form, but are usually more or less irregular, sometimes forming a series of arcs of circles. They were ascribed by scien- tific men to various causes ; but they are now known to be occasioned by the growth of certain kinds of fungi, which, proceeding outwards from a centre, render the soil for a time unfitted for the nourishment of grass. FALCHION , fawV‘Chun. (See Sword.) FALCONET, faV -hon-et. — The name of a very small cannon in use in the 15th and i6th centuries. FALCONRY. Hawking.) FALERNIAN WINE, /a?-e/-we-aw, a very fine wine drunk by the ancient Romans, and especi- ally referred to as of excellent quality by Horace. The vines from which it was made were culti- vated in Falernus Ager, a district in the northern part of Campania. FALSETTO, f awl-set' -to, an Italian word used in Music to signify a feigned or artificial voice, produced by diminishing the aperture of the throat. The Italians call the falsetto, voce di testa, or voice from the head, in contradistinc- tion to voce di 'petto, the natural or chest voice. The art of a singer is displayed in so blending the voices, that no break is perceptible. (Sax., fann), an instrument which is used by ladies to agitate the air, in order to create a sensation of coolness around them. It is manufactured of feathers, of paper, thin skin, or ivory, joined together, and is generally carved and painted, in order to ensure its embellishment. The fan is mentioned in the Grecian classics (Euripides) ; indeed, it was known in an era far prior, as there are paintings in the relics of Thebes to prove that the Egyptians were familiar with its use. The fan was first brought into European notoriety by Catherine de Medicis, who introduced it into France, where it was so constructed that it could be used and folded in a manner similar to the fan in use at the present day. Great sums were spent on the ornamenta- tion of the fans first in vogue, and many were painted on by the cunning fingers of Watteau. The Chinese have greatly excelled in the art of fan-making, and in the species of lacquered fans their superiority is fully adihitted. The Chinese themselves use a cheaper sort, made of bamboo and paper, polished, which cost about tenpence each. In the “ Spectator,” Addison and Steele made the fan a frequent subject for good- humoured raillery. In No. 102, Addison ijub- lished a letter from a pretended correspondent, who begins: “Women are armed with fans as men with swords, and sometimes do more execu- tion with them. To the end, therefore, that ladies may be entire mistresses of the weapon, I have erected an academy for the training up of young women in the exercise of the fan, according to the most fashionable airs and motions that are now practised at court. The ladies who carry fans under me are drawn up twice a day in my great hall, where they are instructed in the use of their arms, and exercised by the following words of command, ‘Handle your fans. Unfurl your fans. Discharge your fans. Ground your fans. Recover your fans, Flutter your fans.’ By the right observation of these few plain words of command, a woman of a tolerable genius, who will apply herself diligently for the space of but one half-year, shall be able to give her fan all the graces that can possibly enter into that little modish machine.” At fashionable dancing as- semblies in the last century, gentlemen frequently drew fans for partners, the fans of the ladies being placed in a hat, and each gentleman drew one, the lady to whom it belonged being his partner. A species of large fan is used in India for cooling the air of rooms and keeping down the temperature. (See Pumkah.) Winnowing Fans. (See Fanners.) FANARIOTS, fan-a' -ri-ots, a general name for the Greeks inhabiting the Fanar quarter in Constantinople, so named from the beacon (phan- arion) situated in it. They are probably descen- dants of Byzantine families who escaiJed the fury of the barbarians. FANDANGO, fan-dang’-go (Sp.), the name of an old popular Spanish dance, which proceeds FANFARE 201 “ FAUST gradually from a slow and uniform to the most lively, but never violent, motion. It is danced by two persons only, the dancers marking the time with carbanets, and represents the various gradations of the passion of love to an extent bordering on the licentious. Attempts have been made by the clergy to suppress this dance, but without success. FANFARE, fan{g)-far' (Fr.), a short lively military call, executed on brass instruments. It was brought by the Arabs into Spain. Fanfaron, a derived word, is applied to a bragger who “blows his own trumpet,” and his loud empty talk and boastings are styled /an/aronnade. FANG (Ang.-Sax., fengan, to fasten upon), the teeth of a dog or serpent, by which it catches and holds its prey, are known as fangs. In Low- land Scotch, fang is something stolen, and a thief taken with the stolen goods in his possession is said to be “ taken with the fang.” Shakespeare uses the word in the sense of to seize upon or to catch. FANTASIA, fan-tai' -zhe-a (Itah), in Music, a term used to denote an extempore performance, in which the musician gives full scope to his imagination ; and which, although subjected to the fundamental laws of melody, modulation, and harmony, is not elaborated by any strict rules or forms of construction. This term also signifies a written composition of a similar character. FANTOCCINI. {See Puppets.) FAN TRACERY VAULTING, abeautiful kind of vaulting originated in England in con- nection with the late Gothic style of architecture. The ribs or veins of the vaulted roof spring from the cope of the shaft and radiate with the same curvature, and at equal intervals, round the surface of a curved cone or polygon, till they reach the ribs which divide the roof horizontally. The spaces between the ribs are filled Avith tracery, from which the name fan tracery is taken. Very fine examples may be seen in the chapel of King’s College, Cambridge ; Henry the Seventh’s Chapel at Westminster ; St. George’s Chapel, Windsor; and in the Cloister of Canterbury Cathedral. F ARCE , farse (Lat. ,farsum, stuffed, denoting a mixture of different things), a dramatic piece of a low comic character, usually played as an afterpiece. Its sole end being to excite mirth, it excludes nothing, however wild or extravagant, which may contribute to that object. It differs from comedy in this, that while the latter is based upon nature and truth, the former does not scruple to have recourse to any not absolutely impossible extravagance or absurdity that may serve its purpose. Farces are said to have been first intro- duced by the Society of Clercs de Bazoche, in Paris, about 1400. Mohere greatly improved and elevated this class of dramatic literature. FARDEL, (Itah, /arcfeZ^o), a bundle or parcel ; an incumbrance. Shakespeare uses the word in the sense of a burden, when he makes Hamlet ask, “ Who would fardels bear ?” FARNESE WORKS OF ART, far-nai'- S(ti. The name of the great Italian family has been given especially to two famous sculptures formerly the property of members of the family. The Farnese Bull, a colossal group, was dis- covered in 1546, and having been restored, was placed in the Farnese Palace at Eome. It is probably the work of Apollonius and Tauriscus, of Asia Minor, who lived about 300 B.c. The group represents Dirce bound to the horns of a bull by Zethus and Amphion, for ill-usage of her mother. This noble piece of sculpture was taken to Eome, where it was placed in the Baths of Caracalla ; but was afterwards lost to view for more than a thousand years. The Farnese Hercules is a copy by Glykon from the original by Lysippus, a Greek sculptor, who lived about the end of the third century before the Christian era. Hercules is represented, exhausted by toil, leaning on his club. FARO, fa’-ro, a game of cards, formerly much in vogue in England : at present, it is seldom if ever played. In the principles of the game, it is somewhat similar to rouge et noir. The players have to bet on their cards winning against those dealt for the bank, and can double their stakes every time they win. They are not allowed to increase their stakes, however, to more than sixteen times what they were originally. FARTHING EPIC.-Mr. E. H. Horne published, in 1843, an epic poem, “ Orion,” at the price of one farthing, in order to test the pubHc demand for epic poetry. FARTHINGALE, OR FARDINGALE, far' -thing-gaile, a petticoat expanded by hoops of whalebone, &c. They were first introduced into England during the reign of Elizabeth ; and after coming into and going out of fashion several times, they re-appeared about 1856. {See Crino- line.) An old form of the name is “ Verdin- gale,” derived in a round-about fashion from the French vertu-garde, “guard of modesty.” Some writers have intimated that “concealer of shame” would be a more appropriate form of words. FASCIA. {See Facia.) FASCINES, /as-seen s' (Lat., /asccs), long fag- gots, or bundles of brushwood, used for various military purposes; such as forming the revet- ments of parapets in field-works, and making the roof of a blindage or magazine, which may be rendered bomb-proof by covering the fascines with a sufficient depth of earth. They are also used for making roads over wet boggy ground. FAUSSE-BRAYE, fose'-hrai (Fr., fausse- hraye ; It&l., fossa-brea), the name given to a low rampart and parapet, which was sometimes raised in the ditch surrounding the enceinte of defensive works of the isth, i6th, and 17th centuries, round the base of the main rampart of the fortress, and extending about 20 feet beyond it. “FAUST” LEGEND AND LITERA- TUEE, The old German legend of “ The Devil and Dr. Faustus ” has given rise to a con- siderable amount of literature, including some of the most splendid efforts of poetic genius. The legends, poems, and dramas originated in the half mythical story of the life of one Johann Faust, born in the latter part of the 15th century at Knittlingen, in Suabia, or, as some writers think, at Eoda, near Weimar. His parents are supposed to have belonged to the peasant class, but he had a wealthy uncle, who enabled him to study at Wittenberg, and afterwards established himself as a doctor of medicine at Ingolstadt. On the death of this uncle, Faust became pos- sessed of considerable wealth, which he spent FAUST 202 FAUST recklessly. Then, the popular legends go on to say, he studied the magical arts at Cracow and other places, and, in order to obtain unlimited sensual enjoyments, entered into a compact with the devil that at the end of twenty -four years he should be his, “body and soul.” He wandered about Europe, in the character of a travelling scholar, being conveyed from place to place on a magic mantle, performing strange feats and ac- quiring great celebrity, and was attended by a familiar spirit, or demon, named Mophistopheles. “When the allotted time had expired, the devil seized him and carried him away, and tradition avers that this terrible event occurred in 1560, at a village named Kimlich, near Wittenberg ; but another version of the story assigns Breda, a village of Saxony, as the jdace where the terrible scene occm-red, and a room, with blood stains on the walls, is yet i)ointed out as the place where the evil one demanded the fulfilment of his con- tract, and mangled the body of the wretched Faust. There is probably in this, as in many other stories of magic and contracts with the devil, a slight basis of fact. Faust was probably a man of great intellectual power, animated by an eager desire to gain knowledge, who had ob- tained an insight into some of the mysterious ])owers of nature which modern science has util- ized, and was so far in advance of the learning and science of his time, that his contemporaries could only account for his attainments, and explain some of his experiments by the supposition that he was assisted by supernatural power. As it was an article of popular belief that the devil always required a quid pro quo, the story of a contract and the surrender of Faust’s soul and body followed as a matter of course. Melancthon, the great Keformer, a man of scrupulous veracity, stated that he had seen and conversed with Faust (better known by the Latinized form of the name, Faustus) ; and Luther, in his “ Table Talk,” refers to him as a real person, but so far adopted the prevailing opinion, added that he was “ a man lost beyond all hope.” Some writers have endea- voured to identify him with Johann Fust, one of the earliest practisers of the art of printing ; but there can be no doubt they were different persons. In course of time, Faust became identified in the popular mind with nearly all other so-called magicians and necromancers, and was credited not only with many of the wonders performed by such presumed possessors of occult powers as Albertus Magnus, Simon Magus, and Paracelsis, but with having performed innumerable feats of vulgar juggling. The clergy preached about the wicked doctor and held him up as a frightful warning of the danger of yielding to temptation and seeking to obtain an acquaintance with for- bidden things. Legend soon developed into literature. As early as 1588, a little book relat- ing the strange career of the doctor appeared at Frankfort, and was soon translated into other European languages. A larger book soon fol- lowed j and many trashy little books, professing to describe Faust’s method of performing his wonders, and containing spells supposed to have been used by him, were eagerly bought by the wonder-loving German people. The earlier books mentioned above appear to have reached England very soon after they were published, and to have powerfully appealed to the imagination of that great dramatic genius, Christopher Mar- lowe, who, about 1600, produced a splendid drama, “ The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Dr. John Faustus,” abounding in poetical diction and the exhibition of magnificent qualities of ' imagination and fancy. Many of the lines and images have taken place among the gems of Eng- lish poetry. Faust and Mephistoi^heles travel about the world, the latter raising s]>irits and performing marvellous magical feats. One of the spirits raised is that of Helen of Troy, “ fairer than the evening air, clad in the beauty of a thousand stars.” The concluding scene of this wonderfully fine poetic drama is appalling in its tragic power. On the fatal night when the period of the contract has expired, two scholars have supped with Faust, and he has told them that Lucifer and Mephistopheles are coming — ‘ ‘ I gave them my soul for my cunning.” The action of the scene is summarized by Mr. Filmore : — “ They depart to offer up their prayers for him, and leave him to wrestle with his agony alone. The good and bad angels visit him, one remind- ing him of what he has lost, and the other show- ing him what is to come. The description of the infernal tortures, given by the bad angel, reads like a passage from Dante. As they vanish, the clock strikes eleven ; and Faust’s concluding ' soliloquy is only interrupted by the striking of the bell, which speaks the lapse of the short re- mainder of the time with double distinctness, while he prays for an hour, a moment’s respite, and calls upon the mountains to cover him. 2is the clock strikes twelve, he is torn in pieces.” The story of Faust naturally attracted the atten- tion of German writers, some of whom exhibited sympathy with the vulgar belief in the magical powers of Faust, wliile others, of greater intellec- tual grasp, recognised in the myth anotherinstance of the vain struggle of the human intellect with the mysterious problems presented by the un- known and the hereafter. It has been estimated that about a hundred and twenty distinct works, many, it is admitted, of very small literary value, have been founded on the Faustus legend. Among the German authors are Lessing, Muller, Klinger, Bechstein, J. D. Hoffmann, Grabbe, Nicolas Lenau, Lenz, Schreiber, Von Soden, Holtei, Rosenkranz, Pfizer, Harvo Harring, Berkowitz, Schone, Chamisso, and Voigt. The greatest of all the works founded on the story is Goethe’s Faust, the first part of which appeared under the title of “ Dr. Faust, a Tragedy,” at Leipsic in 1790, and afterwards in a remodelled form at Tubingen, in 1808. The second part was not published till 1833, after the author’s death. It is the first part which has attained universal celebrity. It is complete in itself, and the second part was an afterthought, and comparatively weak. “ Faust ” ranks with the highest produc- tions of the human intellect and imagination. Philosophy, dramatic force, touching pathos, wildest humour, personal and cynical satire, audacious speculation, poetic fervour, and daring irreverence are strangely and wonderfully co- mingled. Margaret (in the original, Gretchin, a familiar diminutive), innocent, simple, loving, the victim of the faithlessness of Faust and the machinations of Mephistopheles, is exquisitely depicted. The most prominent character of the tragedy is the demon Mephistopheles, the very embodiment of a mocking fiend, with unbounded intellectual power, but no perception of good. He is witty, humorous, adroit, callously cruel, delighting in buffoonery, and “as a being not subject to restraint, physical, human, or divine, totally devoid of scruples.” Hallam notices the different modes in which the two writers of genius have embodied the evil spirit. “ There is an FEBRUARY 203 FENCING awful melancholy about Marlowe’s Mephisto- plieles, perhaps more impressive than the malig- nant mirth of the fiend in the renowned work of Goethe.” The scene of the “ Walpurgis Night,” or the visit to the witches’ assembly, and the “ intermezzo,” referring to the same subject, con- tains personal and local allusions which have puzzled critics, and probably are not worth in- quiring about. The “Prologue in Heaven,” which introduces the tragedy, is a most daring adaptation of the opening chapters of the book of Job. The second part of “Faust” has less hu- man and dramatic interest. It deals with the travels and many adventures of Faust and Me- phistopheles, and contains many passages of great lyric and poetic beauty. The most complete information on the subject of Faust literature is contained in “ Literature of the Faust Myth ” [LiteraUir der Faustsage), published at Leipsic in 1857. FEBRUARY, feV-ru-a-re (Lat., Februarius^ from/e6rwo, I purify), is the nanxe of the second month of our year, and contains ordinarily twenty- eight days, except in leap-year, when it has twenty-nine, an intercalary day being added. It is so called because a festival called the Febru- alia was held in that month. It was intro- duced into the calendar by Numa, who gave it the twelfth place but the decemviri subse- quently transferred it to where it now stands. FEELING, feeV-ing (Sax., felan, to feel), is primarily employed to denote the perceptions which we have of external objects by the sense of touch ; but it has also come to be applied to our inward sensations. Thus a man may have a feeling of pleasure from heat, or from contem- plating a beautiful landscape. In this way we have intellectual feelings, moral feelings, sensual feelings, feelings of taste, &c. FEINT. — In. military matters a sham attack or assault made to divert the attention of the enemy from a real design on his position. {See also Fencing.) FELLOWSHIP, feV-lo-sMp (Sax., fdaw, fellow), in a college, is an endowment entitling the holder to a share of its revenues, and consti- tuting him a part of the corporation. Fellow- ships are either original, having been constituted by the foimder of the college, or endowed by subsequent benefactors. Formerly, most of the fellowships were restricted to the inhabitants of certain dioceses, or districts, or persons ; but most of these restrictions have been removed by modern legislation. Some fellowships may be held by laymen, but, in general, they can only be held by persons in holy orders, or who are ordained within a specified time. {See Uni- versities, and various headings.) FEMALE MEDICAL PRACTITION- ERS. — The first session of the Female Medical School, London, was held in 1865. There are now nearly 400 female physicians in active prac- tice in 26 of the United States, the majority of them being settled in New York, Massa- chusetts, and Pennsylvania. These figures show a very rapid increase in the number of women practising medicine in the United States. A few years ago a lady doctor was more or less a rara avis ; now there is scarcely a village in any one of the Eastern States which cannot boast of at least one such practitioner. In Russia 12 female doctors are now ofiicially engaged in teaching medicine to women, 30 are in the service of the Zemstvos, and 40 others serve the hospitals. Twenty-five female doctors who took part in the military operations of 1877 have been decorated, by order of the Emperor, with the order of St. Stanislas of the Tiiird Class. The number of female students is steadily increasing. FEMININE, -fem'-e-nin (Lat., femina, a woman), is the opposite of masculine, and means liertaining to a woman or women. In Grammar, words are said to be feminine when they denote females, or have the terminations proper to express females in any given language. FENCE MONTHS. — in Forestry, before Midsummer, a month in which it is unlawful to hunt in the forests, because in that month the female deer fawn. FENCIBLES, fen-si' -his. At one time regiments raised for local defence at a special crisis— especially local militia and volunteers— were denominated fencibles. FENCING, fen' -sing (from the same root as defence and fence), the art of using skilfully, in attack or self defence, a sword, rapier, or bayo- net j but usually taken to mean address in the use of the second of these weapons. In actual personal combat- the rapier is, or more correctly was, used, for its employment has gone out with the practice of duelling. In the school of fence the foil is wielded. The foil is a circular or quadrangular rod or blade of pliable highly- tempered steel, blunted, and covered with leather at the point, so as to prevent accidents in its practice. In length it varies between thirty-one and thirty-eight inches, and, for the j)urposes of the art, it is divided into two parts — forte, which occupies the half of the blade ending with the hilt, and th^faible, which occupies the other half terminating with the button. During the pastime, the fencers wear a strong wire mask upon their faces as a defence against accidental thrusts, &c. When metal casing became some- what, if not altogether, disused, fencing came into vogue ; and, as all gentlemen wore swords, and quarrels were matters easily got up, it was absolutely necessary that all should have some knowledge of the “fence.” In France a school was established for its prosecution, and new im- provements were found out every day in the science. The early Italian and Spanish schools taught the management of the sword, aided, generally, by the dagger or the mantlet ; the shifting of the position of the fencer was alsa necessary to avoid attack. But since the habit of wearing the dagger and mantlet have been abandoned, and the velocity of attack and de- fence become so great, instruction in fencing has. been strictly limited to the foil, and shifting position would be fatal to one engaged. The Italian foil is some thirty-eight or forty inches long, while the French is shorter, being only thirty-four inches, generally, in length. In fenc- ing there are three openings or entrances — the inside, comprising the whole breast from shoul- der to shoulder ; the outside, which can be at- tacked by all the thrusts made above the wrist on the outside of the sword ; and, finally, the low ports, which embracee the armpits to the hips. The following are the princqial attacks and de- fences: — First, the carte is a guard which is shown by turning the wrist with the nails up- wards, and the hand in a line with the lower part of your breast, the arm somewhat bent, the FERULA 204 FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD elbow inclining a little to the outside, and the point of 3'our foil directed towards the upper part of your adversary’s breast at an angle of about 15°. The thrust, lunge, or longe, is an attack. When at the guard in carte (as just shown), straighten the arm, raising your wrist above your head, keeping the point of your foil still pointing to your adversary’s breast, and then thrust out first the wrist and then the whole body by a “lunge” of the right foot some two feet from the guard; your left foot remaining firm all the time. The parade is formed by mov- ing your sword over from your guard, when re- ceived, obliquely downward to the right about six inches, and opposing the inside of your foil to your adversary’s blade. The seconde is shown by holding your nails and wrist downwards, hand opposed outwards; and the blade should form an angle of 45® Avith the ground, pointed low. Feints consist in threatening an attack on one side of your foil and executing it on the other. There are many varieties of these, and the best defence is the half -circle parade, which is done by straightening your arm with your wrist on a line with your shoulder, and by a quick motion of your wrist, sweeping the point of your foil from right to left ; thus covering your body from head to knee, and obliging your adversary once more to come to position. The cavalry sword- cxercise is but another instance of fencing applied on horseback. FERULA, fer'-u-la (Lat.), is the classical appellation of a wand or rod. In the time of the Eastern empire, the/erw?a was the name given to the emperor’s sceptre. It consisted of a long stem Avith a flat head, and it is often to be seen de- picted on old medals. FERULE, /gr'-td(?, (Lat., /mo, I strike). — A little flat wooden slice or pallet for punishing children at school, by striking them with it on the palms of their hands. It Avas more frequently used in “the good old times” when teachers believed in the infliction of pain as a valuable means of stimulating the mental faculties. FESCENNINE VERSES, fes' -sen-nine, a kind of rude licentious poetry, common in ancient Italy, and said to have derived their name from the Etrurian city of Fescennium. They were in the form of dialogues between two persons, who satirized and ridiculed each other’s follies and vices. They were sung on festive occasions, Ijarticularly at weddings, but were distinct from the epithalamia, which were more refined and regular compositions. The emperor Augustus prohibited them, as tending to corrupt the public morals. Similar verses are now popular among the Italian peasants. FESS. — In Heraldry, lines drawn horizontally across the shield, and containing the third part of it. It is one of the honourable ordinaries, and is supposed to have been intended to represent the girdle of honour, one of the insignia of Knights. FESTOON, /es-^oon' (Fr., feston). — Strictly speaking, this word means a garland or wreath ; but in^ architecture, sculpture, &c. , it is applied to designate an ornament composed of flowers, fruits, and leaves interAVOven or tAvisted together, suspended at each end. The ornament is fre- quently used in Roman and Renaissance build- ings. FETLOCK, fet'-lok, in Heraldry, the fet- lock or fetterlock, is represented by a short bar of iron with a hoof or chain connecting the ends. Such a fetlock was placed on the leg of a horse, when at pasture to prevent it running away. FEUD, /tide (Ang.-Sax., fceght), denotes a deadly quarrel or enmity subsisting between one tribe or family and another. They formerly pre- vailed extensively among the northern nations of Europe, and were a combination of kindred to revenge the death of any of their blood against the slayer and all his race, and were frequently kept up for many generations. {See Vendetta.) FEU DE JOIE, fu-de{r)-zhwaw' , a term de- rived from the French, and applied to bonfires lighted in public places and in villages, to cele- brate any important event or festive season. These feux de joie were known amongst the Romans, as Romulus instituted a species of them, particularly in honour of the building of the city of Rome. The term feu de joie is also often applied to a salute fired on any particular occa- sion, in celebration of festivals, &c. FEUILLETON, fu{r)' -ye-ton{g) (Fr.), is pro- perly a small leaf, but is generally applied to that part of a political newspaper which is devoted to news of a non-political character, as criticisms on literature and art, &c., and which is commonly, in continental newspapers, to be found at the bottom of the page. The feuilleton is an inven- tion of the Journal des Debats, which, in 1800, introduced the system of giving literary criti- cisms in this form. Afterwards the belles-lettres element began to prevail in the fueilleton, and Jules Janin became the acknowledged king in this class of literature. In the years immediately preceding the Revolution of February, whole romances were spun out in the feuilleton ; and in particular, the Constitutionnel made large sums from the social romances of Eugene Sue, which it first published in this Avay. The French system has been imitated in England and Germany, and many of the English provincial newspapers now publish stories continued from week to week. FIACRE, fe-dkr'. — ^A name given to French hackney-coaches, because they were used to con- vey pilgrims from Paris to the shrine of St. Fiacre at Breuil, and started from an inn known by the sign of St. Fiacre. FIASCO, fe-as'-Jco{lia\\a\\,fiasco, aflask). — A failure on the part of an actor or singer to please the audience, and generally applied to an actual break down, the performer being as worthless as a broken bottle. FICTION, fik'-shun {Jjat., fctio, from jingo, I feign). {See Novel, Romances.) FIDDLE. {See Violin). FIELD, feeld, in Heraldry, the field is the whole surface of the escutcheon or shield. In blazoning, the tincture or metal of the field must be the first thing mentioned. FIELD WORKS, military works thrown up by an army when besieging a fortress or town ; also those works erected by the besieged for the purposes of defence. Trenches, rifle-pits, &c., like those constructed by our army in the Crimea, are instances of one class of field works. FIELD SPORTS, diversions in the field in pursuit of games, as hunting, shooting, cours- ing, &c. FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, FIFE 205 FILIGREE the name given to a plain near Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. of England met Francis I. of France in June, 1520. The nobility of both countries displayed an excessive gorgeousness of apparel, from which the meeting took its name. FIFE, (Fr., fifre), a wind instrument of music resembling a small flute in its form and method of performance, seldom having any keys, and never more than one. Fifes are of three kinds, called respectively A, B, and C. They are made from ten to sixteen inches in length, with or without a joint. The B fifes are the longer and lowest in tone, while those tuned to the key of 0 are the shortest and highest, and are much oftener used ; they have a compass of two octaves. When employed for military pur- poses, or open-air performance, the fife is a very stirring as well as useful instrument. FIFTH, (Sax., fifta), in Music, a dis- tance comprising four diatonic intervals, that is, three tones and a half. As consecutive fifths do not produce a good effect, they are not allowable in harmony. There are three kinds of fifths — viz., the perfect fifth (C — G), consisting of three whole tones and a semi-tone ; the flat, diminished, or imperfect fifth _(B — F), consisting of two whole tones and two semi-tones ; and the extreme sharp, or superfluous fifth (C — G sharp), composed of four whole tones. FIGARO, fig'-a-ro, is a dramatic character, brought by Beaumarchais on the stage at Paris about 1785, in his two dramas, the Barhiere de Seville and Mariage de Figaro. Since that time Mozart, Paesiello, and Rossini have made the name celebrated in classic operas. A satirical and political newspaper piiblished in Paris is entitled Figaro. FIGURANTES, fig'-u-rants, dancers, who, in ballets, occupy a similar position to the mem- bers of the chorus in an opera. They dance in groups, not singly as the principal dancers do. FIGURE, fig’-ur (Fr., figure 'y Lat., figura), expressive of the form, shape, or distinguishing characteristics of anything as expressed by the outline or terminating extremities. In Arith- metic, the term is applied to certain characters, by which any number which can be expressed by a combination of the nine digits and the cipher is denoted ; as, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o. These figures are called Arabic, on account, as it is sur- mised, of their being introduced into Europe by the Arabians. In Theology, the term figure is used to denote a type or symbol. In Geometry, it is used in two different senses. In the first instance, it denotes, generally, a space boun- ded on all sides, whether by lines or by planes ; in the second sense, it signifies the representation (by draw- ing on paper or otherwise) of the object, or subject of a theorem or problem, in order to render the demon- stration or solution to be more easily understood and followed : in this last sense, the word figure is analo- gous to diagram. All bodies are necessarily inclosed by one or more boundaries, and therefore possess figure ; hence, jigurability, or the quality of possessing figure, is termed one of the first essentials of matter. In Painting, and art generally, figure is applied to the representation of living objects, as a statue or the form of man. In Rhetoric, is defined to be, in general, “that language which is prompted either by the imagination or by the passions.” Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes— figures of words and figures of thought ; the words in the former case being employed in a sense different from their original and primitive meaning ; in the latter the words are used in their proper and literal meaning, the figure consist- ing in the turn of thought. Figures serve to enrich a language and render it more copious ; and they also bestow a dignity upon style, by enabling us to avoid the frequent use of common expressions to which the ear has been accustomed ; also, as illustrations, they enable the speaker to represent his conceptions more vividly. FIGURE-HEAD, an ornamental figure or bust, emblematical of war, navigation, or com- merce, &c., fixed on the top of the projecting portion of a shij)’s stem or cutwater. FILE (Lat., filum, a thread), the term applied to two soldiers standing one before the other, or conjointly to any soldier in the front rank and the man who stands immediately be- hind him in the rear rank, when the company or regiment is drawn up in line. A body of soldiers is often spoken of as consisting of so many rank- and-file, which includes the corporals, lance- corporals, and privates, who stand in the ranks, the officers and sergeants have different posts assigned to them in front, on the flanks, or in the rear of the company, as occasion requires ; thus, a company of 80 men, exclusive of officers and sergeants, would be spoken of as consisting of 80 rank-and-file, or 40 files. File-Marching. — AVhen a company is drawn up in line, and the order is given to face to the right or left and march in that direction. This method of marching is called file-matching. Each front rank man and his rear rank man on his right or left, according to the direction in which the company has faced, still composes a file. Men marching singly in a line, one after another, are said to be marching in single or Indian file. FILIBUSTERS, -fil-le-hus'-ters, is the name given to certain adventurers in America, and is derived from the French fiibustiers, a corruption of the English freebooters or buccaneers. {See Buccaneees. ) The filibusters came into notice after the war between the United States and Mexico, and exerted themselves in setting on foot, within the United States, military expedi- tions designed to operate in the Spanish -American countries to the south. The pretended object of these expeditions was the emancipation of those countries from tyranny, foreign or domestic, and the introduction of democratic institutions after the model of the United States ; but their real object undoubtedly was their own aggrandize- ment, by re-enacting the part of the original Spanish conquerors. The most noted expedition of this sort was that led by William Walker against Nicaragua in 1855, who succeeded in maintaining himself in that country for nearly two years ; but was at length expelled by the union against him of the other Central American states. Walker was subsequently taken and shot at Truxillo, in Central America, in i860, when engaged on another piratical expedition. Filibus- tering is also a cant term used of late years in the legislative assemblies of the United States to designate the employment of parliamentary tactics to defeat a measure, by raising frivolous questions of order, calls to the house, motions to adjourn, &c., in order to weary out the opposite party and to gain time ; the adoption, in fact, of the method so discreditably known in our own Parliament as “ obstruction.” FILIGREE, OR FILAGREE, fiV-e-gre^ fiV -la-gr eiL&t., filum, a thread, and granum, a grain), a delicate species of ornamental work in gold or silver, wrought in little threads of the metal intertwisted in eccentric forms andjiatterns. riLLIBEG 20G FINIAL It is of eastern origin, and was first introduced into Europe by tlie Italians. In the East, India, Sumatra, and Java have been celebrated for the high excellence to which they have arrived in the cultivation of this art. When the gold or silver has arrived at a molten state, it is drawn into v/u’e and then twisted. After tvristing, it is hammered down again into a flat state, and formed into the shape of flowers and leaves. When the filigree is finished, it is cleansed by boiling in water with common salt and alum, or occasionally lime-juice. The Chinese often manu- facture filigree jewellery, but which is not so elegant as that produced by the Malays. FILLIBEG. {See Kilt). FILLET, fiV-let (Lat., filum, a thread), the name given to a narrow band, or flat ribbon- moulding, frequently used to divide mouldings of a curved form. It is a common feature in architectural designs, especially in entablatures. It is distinguished from the band by being of narrow width and always flat. FILLY, (Ang.-Nor.), a name applied to a young mare before it has reached its third year. For further information see article Hoese. FINALE, fin-a'-le (Lat., finalis), the last portion of any act of an opera, or part of a concert. Finales are of different kinds. In instrumental music, they are commonly of a lively character and performance, combined with a quick move- ment ; while in operas, they generally consist of a series of compositions for many voices, and are various in character, time, and movement. FINE ARTS. — This term may be viewed as embracing all works which are executed by the mind and ingenuity of man. The phrase has of late, however, been restricted to a narrower and more technical signification, and it is chiefly applied to painting, sculpture, music, poetry, and architecture, as the five principal or greater fine arts, all of which appeal to the eye, as the medium and interpreter of the pleasure derived. Notice of the various national schools of painting, and of sculpture are given under separate headings. Art Manufactures.— The term is employed to dis- tinguish a certain class of manufactures of a scientific and ingenious nature from others which only require manual skill and dexterity. The line of demarcation between the fine arts and the manufacturing arts is undefined, and in many respects they blend together. From the period of the 17th century, science and art have been drawn more closely together, and in later years have made rapid progress, each mutually assist- ing the other. The establishment of schools of art in connection with manufactures is only of recent date in England ; but the manner in which aU classes have aided and supported the various schools of design and mechanics’ institutions shows that the nation appreci- ates the value of cultivating manufacturing art. We see the same thing, also, in the great success which has attended the production of popular works on science in modem times. The discoveries of photography and •electro-plating form closer bonds between science and art. For many years past, the British government has applied annually for a grant in aid of scientific and artistic education, which has been variously applied ; but the Museum at South Kensington, which was sug- gested and carried out by the late much-lamented Frince Consort, is the most important result of late years. By means of this institution, and others of a like character, a knowledge of science and art is dis- seminated among the workmen and workwomen of the kingdom. Another step in the same direction is the appointment of eminent sculptors and painters, in order to design models and patterns for manufactures. In France, more attention is paid to the artistic educa- tion of artisans than in any other country. The Con- servatoire des Arts et Metiers, in Paris, is a most re- markable institution. It consists of a number of large halls, each of which is devoted to some particular trade, or branch of manufacture, and contains a perfect collection of the raw and the manufactured produce, together with all the implements employed in the pro- cess. A lecturer is appointed to each hall, for the instruction of the people. Art-Unions, institutions formed, with the object of promoting a more liberal patronage of, and a livelier interest on the part of the general public in, the fine arts. The original notion or foundation of art-unions belongs to France, in the days of the first Napoleon. They were afterwards established in Belgium, and ten years later were encouraged and adopted in Germany. The art-union of Malines commenced its operations in 1812 ; that of Munich in j 823. The eminent Alexander von Humboldt, who took great interest in these insti- tutions, recommended their adoption ; and his advice was carried into effect in Leipsic, Dresden, Berlin. Halberstadt, Breslau, and other towns and cities, and, in 1833, nearly every important town in Germany could boast of its art-union. Since then, groups of associa- tions, each including several towns, such as Hanover, Cassel, Brunswick, Gotha, Halberstadt, Magdeburg, and Halle, have been formed for the encouragement of works of the highest class of art ; and the influence of these aesthetic associations in improving and refining the general public taste, by the collection and distri- bution of modern works of art, has been most powerful and beneficial. From Germany art-unions were intro- duced into Scotland and England. An art-union was formed at Edinburgh in 1836. The Art-Union of Lon- don was established in February, 1837, and in Decem- ber, 1846, received a royal charter. The Art-Union Indemnity Act, by which the society was exempted from the penalties imposed by the Lotteries Acts of 1826 and 1836. {See Lotteries.) Many similar art- unions have been formed on a smaller scale. The constitution of art-unions, which with some few ex- ceptions, is common to all, is as follows Every mem- ber pays an annual sum — in England usually one guinea— in return for which he receives an acknow- ledgment, which serves the purpose of a ticket in the lottery, by means of which the pictures, statues, and other works of art purchased with the whole sum thus contributed, are distributed among the different members. A certain amount of the money is generally kept in hand, and applied to the execution of an en- graving, a copy of which is presented to each of those members who have drawn a blank in the lottery. The method of distributing the funds of the unions varies in different places. In London the money itself is distributed by lot, and the holders of prizes are com- pelled to expend it on the pictures exhibited, the se- lection being left to their own judgment. On the Continent, the whole sum collected for the year is placed in the hands of a committee of gentlemen, elected for their artistic tastes and acquirements, who select works of art, which are distributed to the sub- scribers by lot. FINGER-BOARD, fin'-ger-hord (Aug.- Sax.). — ^That thin black board which extends over the necks of instruments of the violin kind, on which, during performance, the strings are pressed by the fingers of the left hand, is denominated by this term. The whole of the keys of a piano- forte or organ are sometimes described as the finger-board, but key board is the more usual term. FINGERING, fin'-ger-ing (Ang.-Sax.), the art of so disposing the fingers on any musical instrument, more especially on the pianoforte and organ, as to produce the required notes in an easy and graceful manner. FINIAL, fin' -e-al finis, end, termina- tion), in Gothic Architecture, the term by which the carved ornament which surmounts the top of pinnacles, canopies, mouldings, &c., is designated. It is generally in the form of foliage clustering round a knob or boss. The ornament called a FINITE 207 FITZ poppy-head, frequently used to finish the upright sides of open pews in churches, is a finial. FINITE, fi'-nite (Lat., finis, end), signifies having a limit, bounded. It is the opposite of infinite. FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITER- ATUKE, fin'-nish. — The language of Finland forms one of the chief branches of the Uralo- Altaic family, being, with the Esthonic and Lappish collaterals, kindred to the languages of the Ugrians, or Eastern Turks, Osmanli ^rks, Samoyeds, and other Tartars, Magyars, Mongols, and Tunguses, whose chief branch are the Mant- choos. All these constitute the so-called Scythic, or Turanian, or Allophylic family. The Finnish comprises a number of dialects, of which the principal are the lower, which is used along the coasts, its Abo variety being that which is used in books ; and the upper, which is spoken in the inland regions, divided into the sub-dialects of Ulea and Viborg. It is written by Latin or Ger- man characters ; but the letters 6, c, d, /, g, occur only in a few foreign words, and q is now obsolete. It is, however, rich in vowel-sounds, having no fewer than eight, a and o standing at the end of the alphabet. It has also many diph- thongs, and, according to Eask, it is the most harmonious of tongues. The nouns have fourteen cases, which are expressed by suffixes or postposi- tions to the nominative, and plurality is denoted for the nominative by suffixing t, and for the other cases by inserting i before their endings. There are only two declensions, the one for nouns ending in a vowel, the other for those ending in a consonant. The declension of adjectives is essen- tially the same as that of substantives, while the comparative ends in mbi and the superlative in in.^ There are no grammatic genders, the sexes being indicated either by distinct words or by epithets. The verbs have only two simple tenses, — the present and the past, the others being peri- phrastic. Their conjugation is complicated, their voices, moods, and other nice shades of meaning, being expressed by certain syllables inserted between the root and the personal suffixes. There are no separate particles, and all their prepositions are placed at the end of the words to which they are related. From the number of syllables thus brought together, some of the words are of great length (from eight to ten, and some- times even as many as eighteen syllables) ; but in this way the most complicated ideas may often be expressed in one word, which would require several in most other languages. The construc- tion is extremely free, without endangering the clearness of the sense. There can be little doubt, from the character and constmetion of the lan- guage, that this is not only one of the most ancient but one of the purest of the whole Asiatic- European family, being less mixed with foreign elements than the Hungarian, Turkish, or Mon- golian. The literature of Finland is particularly rich in popular songs or runes, which are sung by the runolainen, or song-men, to the sound of the favourite national instrument, kantele, a species of harp_ mth five wire strings. They may be divided into mythical and lyrical songs. These songs were handed down by oral tradition from generation to generation for many centuries, until at length, about the close of the i8th century, Professor Porthan, the Bishop Percy of Finland, made a collection of them, which was published ■at Abo. With the death of Porthan the subject went to sleep, until Dr. Topelius entered upon the same field, and published five volumes of ancient and modern popular songs, the last of which appeared in 1831, at Helsingfors. Topelius prepared the way for Dr, Elias Lonnrot, the most enthusiastic and successful of all the collectors of old Finnish poetry. He was fortunate enough, in 1832 and the following year, to discover among the peasants of Karelen, and still farther on in Eussia, a series of valuable poems, preserved by tradition, and comprising a mythical epic on the subject of the Finlandic Orpheus, the God of Song, Wseineemoinen, his journeyings and adven- tures. He endeavoured, as far as possible, to pre- sent this cycle of songs in a connected epic form, and published them under the name of “Kffie- vala ” (from Kaleva, the great ancestor of all Finnish heroes), at Helsingfors, in 1835. In 1834^ the Finlandic Society of Literature was estab- lished at Helsingfors, and has done much to spread a knowledge of, and develop a taste for, this language. In 1854, Eudbak published a col- lection of Finnish legends and tales. These pub- lications have given a great stimulus to the study of the Finnish language ; and while the upper classes still cling to the use of the Swedish, the peasantry welcome with avidity every addition to the limited stock of their printed literature. Newspapers and periodicals in their native tongue now circulate among them, and are eagerly read. The prose literature of the people is devoted almost exclusively to religious and moral subjects. A Finnish translation of the New Testament ap- peared in 1548, and a portion of the Old Testa- ment in 1552 ; but the whole Bible was not trans- lated into Finnish till 1642. The best grammar of the language is that of Jacob Juden, in Swedish (Viborg, 1818), and the best dictionary that of Lonnrot, Helsingfors, 1853. FIOHD, OR FJORD {fe'-ord), the Nor- wegian and Danish name applied to any bay, creek, or arm of the sea which extends inland. It is somewhat analogous to the Celtic lough or loch. FIRMAMENT, (Lat. ,firmamen- turn), was a term used in ancient Astronomy to signify the eighth heaven, or sphere in which the fixed stars were placed. It was called the eighth heaven because of the seven spheres of the planets which it surrounds. Th^firmament was supposed to have had two motions ; one from east to west, round about the poles of the ecliptic, and another and opposite motion from west to east. These revolutions it is said to complete in 25,412 years, or, according to Copernicus, in 258,000 years ; at the end of which time the fixed stars return to the exact points that they occupied prior to their revolution. In the classics, the period was de- nominated the Platonic or great year. The word firmament usually designates the expansive arch over our heads, in which all the various pheno- mena of the stars and planets appear to take place. In the Old Testament the word is used as the equivalent to the Hebrew rakia, expanded or stretched out, denoting the hemisphere above the earth. FISHING. {See Angling.) fit-tchai. — In Heraldry, crosses are described as fitche, or fitchy, when the lower branch ends in a short point. FITZ, fits (old Nor.), signifying son, and evidently a corruption of the 'Lo.iin filius. It is prefixed to proper names, like the Scotch Mac, the Irish O, and the oriental Ben, to signify de- FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM 208 FLEMISH LANGUAGE scent, as in the names Fitzwalter, Fitzwilliam, Fitzherbert. It has also been employed in recent times to denote the natural sons of kings and princes, as in Fitzroy, Fitzjames, Fitzclarence. FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM. -A museum established at Cambridge by a bequest of Vis- count Fitzwilliam, who, in i8i6, left his library, pictures, &c., to the University, with £100,000 for a building to contain them. FIVES, GAME OF. — A ball game, formerly known as hand-tennis, the present name being taken from the ordinary mode of playing by two sides of five each. The game resembles in many respects tennis, or rackets, but the ball is struck with the palm of the hand instead of with a bat. It is a lively game, requiring great quickness and activity on the part of the players. FLAGEOLET, flaj'-o-let (Fr.), a small musical instrument of the flute kind, played on by means of a mouthpiece at the upper end. It is generally made of box, ebony, or other hard wood ; but sometimes of ivory, and has a clear and shrill tone. There are double flageolets, con- sisting of two tubes united by one mouth];)iece. This instrument is now very seldom used. Flageolet Tones, the harmonic notes of the violin and other stringed instruments. (See Harmonics.) FLAKE- WHITE, a pigment, consisting of a preparation of carbonate of lead. It is much used in painting in body-colours, beinga substance with which transparent colours derived from vegetable matter may be mixed and rendered opaque, so that they may be laid on vellum or paper in the form of an even coating, possessing some degree of thickness and consistency. It is also used for putting in the high lights in drawings in water-colours, and crayon drawings in two or three tints ; but it is apt to become brown and discoloured in course of time. FLAMBEAU, flam' -bo (Fr.), a kind of torch made of thick wicks, covered with wax, and used at illuminations and processions in the streets at night. The word is sometimes applied to any kind of torch. Dryden, in his fine poem, “Alexander’s Feast,” says, “The King seized a flambeau, with zeal to destroy.” Some old English writers spell the word “ flamboy.” FLAMBOYANT, flam-boy' -ant (Lat., flamma, a flame), the name given to French ecclesiastical architecture of the 15th century, derived from the beautifully carved tracery of windows and panels, which appears to run in waving lines somewhat resembling the various directions taken by lambent flames of fire. FLANCHES, flanch'-es, in Heraldry, arched lines drawn from the upper angles of the escut- cheon to the base points. FLANK, flanh {Yr.,flanc), in Military, a term frequently applied to either side of a body of troops ; the extremities of a body of soldiers in line, or the sides of a column, being termed the right and left flanks respectively. In any defen- sive work, it is applied to that part from which a fire may be directed against the side or flank of an attacking party. FLAT, flat (Du., plat), in Music, a character employed to lower or depress any note or notes in the natural scale one half-tone. An accidental flat is one which, although not occurring at the commencement of the staff, is inserted in any other part of it, and only affects the bar in which it is placed. FLECHE, flaishe (Fr., flecke, an arrow), a small work, so called because its outline resem- bles the shape of a broad arrow. FLEET, fleet {Sax., flota, fliet), the term ap- plied to the different detachments, or squadrons, which form the navy of any country, which are stationed in various parts of the world, for de- fence, aggression, or intimidation. In the more extended interpretation of the term, it is also applied to any company of vessels united to- gether, and sailing with one object, either mer- cantile or warlike. {See Navy.) FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITE- EATUEB,/m'-M(Ger., Flamisch or Vldmisch). — The Flemish is the vernacular language of the Flemings, an ancient people who inhabited certain parts of Belgium and Holland, and who number upwards of 2,000,000. It is a form of the low German, and the Dutch of the present day is a modern offshoot of it. It is more palatal and nasal than the language of Holland, which, on the other hand, is more guttural ; but the differences are not essential. So little change has taken place in this language, that the earliest monuments of its literature, an ordinance of Duke Hem-y I. of Brabant (1229), is perfectly intelligible in the present day. Among the more remarkable of the earliest works in this language are the Rymbybel, or Bible in rhyme ; and the Spiegel historicel, the Historical Mirror, of J. Van Maerlant (born in 1235) ; the Civic Laws of Ant- werp (1300) ; the Chronicle of J. Van Clere, and many others ; a translation of Boethius, by Jacob Veit, of Bruges, of the 15th century ; and the “Hive of the Catholic Church,” by Philip Van Marnix (1569). Many French forms of speech were introduced during the Burgundian reign, and also many Dutch during the sway of the Hapsburgs j so that the old Flemish lost much of its purity and terseness. A translation of the entire Bible into Flemish was completed about the middle of the 17th century by two Flemings, Bandaert and Walour, and two Dutchmen, Bogermann and Hommias. Hooft, Vondel, and Cats, are the three men whose names figure most prominently among the writers of the 17th cen- tury. Hooft was a poet, but is best known by his excellent “ History of the Netherlands ; ” Vondel was a satirical dramatist, and, in his later days, an ardent advocate of the Eoman Catholic religion, which he had adopted ; and Cats, a lawyer and statesman, was a popular poet, whose works, appealing to the domestic feelings of his countrymen, are still held in great favour. The i8th century furnishes scarcely any name of note. Under Napoleon, every effort was made to sup- press the use of this language and introduce the French ; and it is only since the revolution of 1830 that the Flemish has again come to occupy its former position. Since that time numerous societies and unions have been formed, news- papers and periodicals published, and other means adopted, with a view to diffusing a knowledge and a taste for the cultivation of this language. On the occasion of a linguistic congress at Ghent, in 1841, the members of the government, for the first time, publicly addressed the people in the Flemish language. Among modern Flemish authors, Blommaert and Conscience occupy a distinguished place. Besides the Flemish gram- mars of Van Beers and Heremans, and the die- FLETA 209 FOLIO tionary of Sleecx, we may mention Vanden- bossche, Nouvelle Grammaire, raisonnie i^our apprendre le Flamand et le HoUandais, 1825 ; J. Desroclies, Grammaire Flamande, Antwerp, 1826 ; Vandenhoven, La Langue Flamande, son passe et son avenir^ Brussels, 1844 ; Lebrocquy, Analogies Linguistiques ; du Flamand dans ses rapports avec les autres idiomes d'origine teu- tonique, Brussels, 1845 J Desroclies, Nouveau Bic- tionnaire Francais-Flamand et Flamand-Fran- cais, Ghent, 1805 ; Olinger, Nouveau Dictionnaire Francais-Flamand, Malines, 1834. [See, also, Sleecx on the History and Relations of the Flemish to other Languages.) “ FLETA,” fle'-ta, is the name of a valuable treatise, in Latin, on the law of England, and is so called from its having been written in the Fleet prison. Nothing is known of the author ; but it must have been written about the thirteenth year of the reign of Edward I. It is one of the earliest authorities on English law, and gives a complete account of it as it stood at the time the author wrote. FLEUR-DE-LIS, Jlur-de-W (Fr.), the heraldic term for the flower of the water-lily or yeUow flag, which constituted the principal fea- ture in the armorial bearings of the monarchs of France prior to the execution of Louis XVI. and the establishment of the flrst French republic. It was introduced into the arms of France about the year 1140, being first borne by Louis VII. ; and from this circumstance its present name may be derived, being a corruption of fleur de Logs, or flower of Louis. Some, however, believe it to be so called because it grew in great abundance on the banks of the Lys, a river rising in the north of France, and joining the Escaut near Ghent. It is used as an ornament of the crown of the English sovereign, and the regal insignia of many of the continental monarchs, and it forms, in Heraldry, the mark of cadency for the sixth son. FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEA- PONS, are relics of the primitive inhabitants of Europe, which have been discovered from time to time, by being accide . tally turned up whilst ploughing in fields, or by the zealous search of some indefatigable antiquary. Arrow-heads and hatchets are the forms in which the weapons are mostly discovered, and there is an unlimited variety in the shape and construction of even these. {See Celts.) FLOATING. {See Swimming.) FLOATING BATTERY. (>SeeBATTEEY.) FLOATING ISLANDS, GARDENS, AND HOUSES. — Gardens and islands, formed of patches of wood and weeds, covered with grass, flowers, and other vegetable productions, supported on the surface of the water. On the English lakes there are one or two of these natmal eccentricities, and on the Ganges, in India, they are continually passing down the river, being detached from the banks by the forie of the currents. On these latter, tall trees art often seen. The lake of Gerdan, in Prussia, has large floating islands ; and the lake of Kolk, in Osnabruck, carries a plantation of fine elms. The English lake Derwentwater has a fine float- ing lake. In northern India, in Cashmere, and on tte borders of Thibet and Persia, gardens are often erected by the natives for the purpose of yj.ieing melons, cucumbers, and other similar vegetables and plants, which require a very aqueous soil for their cultivation. These gar- dens, however, are of a very fragile nature, and rarely exceed a foot in depth of soil, their prime structure being composed of wickerwork, inter- laced with reeds and watlings, and covered with matting, over which the earth is placed. The Spanish invaders found floating gardens on the lake of Mexico. Floating houses are built by the inhabitants of Bangk’ok, the capital of Siam, from motives of comfort and safety. These houses form whole streets, being anchored in rows, and are capable of being moved from one position to another at pleasure. From the depth of water, large vessels of from 200 to 300 tons bur- den, can sail up this picturesque town, and pass alongside the houses of the inhabitants. These floating houses are made of bamboo-stems, wickerwork, and palms, with a verandah in front ; and they are built on large rafts. FLOTILLA, flo-tiV-la (Spanish), signifies, properly, a little fleet ; and though sometimes used in this sense, it is more frequently applied to a fleet of whatever size, composed only of small vessels. FLORID ENGLISH. {See Pekpendicu- LAR English.) FLOWERS, LANGUAGE OF. {See Language of Flowers.) FLUTE, (Fr.), a popular musical instru- ment, the use of which, under various forms, may be traced to the most remote ages. In its primitive state, the flute was played like the modern flageolet, with a mouth-piece at the up- per end ; and from the shape of this mouth-piece, which resembled the beak of a bird, it received the name of flute d bee. In this form, vath slight alterations, it continued until the beginning of the last century, when it was gradually super- seded by the Jlauto traverso, or transverse flute, so called from its being blown at the side, and consequently held in a horizontal position. The sound is produced by blowing into an orifice, part of which is covered by the lips, so that the air, in its passage from the mouth, impinges against the opposite edge of the hole. At its in- troduction, this instrument was about eighteen inches in length, and had but one key. Shortly afterwards, a movable head-joint was invented, its length being increased, and more keys added ; some flutes at the present time having more than a dozen keys, and few less than six. By means of these, they are enabled to execute any music, however chromatic, if within their compass. Flutes for solo-playing have in some cases a com- pass from G below the treble to C in altissinio. Flute-work. — In organs, a particular class of stops distinct from reed-work. FLUTING. — In Architecture, mouldings in the form of hollows or channels cut vertically in the surface of columns, and adopted in the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles. In Koman- esque architecture, the fluting is not vertical, but twines round the shaft in a fanciful manner. FLY.-A carriage let out for hire, but of a superior kind to the ordinary hackney carriage. FOIL. {See Fencing.) FOLIO, fo'-le-o (Italian, a leaf), as used in Book-keeping, denotes a page, or rather the two rightandleft-hand pages of an account-book, which O FOLK-LORE 210 FOOTBALL are reckoned as one. In Literature, it is used to denote the size of a volume ; thus a folio volume, or a book in folio, is one in which the sheet is only- folded in two, each leaf making half a sheet. FOLK-LORE, foke'-lore (Ang.-Sax.), is a word which has recently been applied, in the English language, to the ideas, prejudices, and superstitions — such as legends, and other similar stories — of the uneducated classes. The term is generally applied to all those customs and old habits generally handed down from father to son in old retired country villages and parishes ; and the folk-lore of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, would form sufficient matter to fill more than a volume. The fairy tales of the Irish, the “ second sight ” of the Scotch, the time-honoured old customs of the English, and the legends of the Welsh, are so many instances of what is meant to be designated by “folk-lore.” Old Easter and Christmas ceremonies may also be regarded in a similar point of view. Popular, but unscientific, prophecies with regard to the weather are examples of folk-lore. In illustrating particular periods in history, folk-lore is some- times a valuable adjunct. Many collections of the proverbs, popular rhymes, superstitious practices, and other folk-lore of various European nations have been made. FONT, font (Lat., fons, a fountain), a stone vessel in the form of a large bowl or basin, resting on a pedestal, and used for the reception of water required in the administration of the sacrament of baptism. The proper position for the font is at the west end of the church, opposite the principal porch or entrance. Examples occur, however, in some of our cathedrals and old churches, in which the font is placed in a baptis- tery divided from the body of the building ; and in some of our modern ecclesiastical structures it has been placed in an inclosure formed by low walls, or in a chamber especially designed and constructed for it in the basement of the belfry tower. The fonts that were placed in churches built in the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman styles of architecture, were generally circular or square, supported on a short but massive pedestal, cylindrical in form. The bowl itself, and some- times the stem, was often adorned with sculptured figures, scroll-work, or interlaced fret-work. The fonts of the three periods of English Gothic architecture are more frequently octagonal in form, and more richly carved with figures and emblems placed in sunken panels or niches, and the angles of the pedestal are adorned with buttresses. They are also generally raised on a platform, formed of two or three steps. Those of the Perpendicular, or third Pointed style, are generally surmounted by a lofty octagonal canopy in the form of a spire, which was formed of wood, and magnificently carved and embellished with crockets at the angles, and a rich finial at the summit. This custom of covering fonts origi- nated about 1250, in an order that was issued to the clergy to provide covers for these vessels, which were to be kept locked. In a few of our churches the fonts are made of lead, cast in a mould ; many of these are covered -with figures in bas-relief. They are supposed to have been executed by workmen of no ordinary skill, about the beginning of the 12th century. In the Roman Catholic Church a solemn form for the blessing of the baptismal font is included in the service for Easter Sunday. FOOT, in Poetry, a metre, or measure, com- posed of a certain number of long and short syllables. {See Metke.) In Music, the foot is similar to the poetic foot, the term denoting a short melodic figure of notes with only one accent. FOOTBALL, a very old English out-of-door game, which was certainly popular in the 13th century, and probably long before then. Games of a somewhat similar kind were played by the Greeks and Romans. It was maintained as a favourite amusement in this country, especially in the northern counties, but when cricket came into fashion, it came to be considered only as a sport suited for rustics. Recently, however, it has revived in popularity, and now almost shares with cricket the position of a national game. Cricket is suited only to the summer months, and dry weather is almost indispensable to the proper playing and enjoyment of the game ; but football is a sport for “ winter and foul weather,” and, indeed, the muddier the ground and the colder the atmosphere, the more the players ap- pear to enjoy themselves. There are diversities in the mode of playing the game in different localities, but the leading principle is the same. Two parties, or “ teams,” are opposed to each other, and at each end of the field is a goal, formed of two uprights and a cross-bar. The players on one side try to kick the ball through their opponents’ goal, and the players on the other side try to prevent such a result, and, in their turn, send the ball through the other goal. The game demands great quickness, activity, and strength, and involves a considerable amount of pushing and struggling, and the players, when the game is finished, are often nearly covered with mud, have their woollen jerseys nearly torn from their backs, and bruises, and even broken limbs, are not unfrequently the result of a closely contested game. With some insignificant varia- tions, sanctioned by the customs of the different public schools where football is a favourite amusement, the game is generally played in accordance either with the Association or the Rugby Union rules. The Football Association was founded in 1863, the object being to frame a set of rules which should be observed by all foot- ball clubs ; but the code proposed did not meet the wishes of the representatives of the great public schools, who formed the Rugby Union, the members of which play the game in their own manner. The rules for the Association game are 15 in number ; but the Rugby Union game is regulated by 59. A goal is obtained at the Asso- ciation game by the ball passing under the cross- bar of the goal ; but in the Rugby game it must be kicked over the bar. As a general rule, the number of players on each side is ii in the Asso- ciation game ; but the Rugby Union ifiay 15, or even 20, on each side. But the greatest and most striking distinction between the two modes of play is that, in the Association game, no one but the goal-keeper is allowed to handle the ball, while, under Rugby Union rules, any player may take up the ball and run with it, except in a “ scrummage,” when handling is strictly for- bidden. No score can be made at the Association game except a goal be kicked ; but the Rugby laws provide that a match shall be decided by a majority of tries, in the event of no goal being obtained. A “ scrummage ” in the Rugby game is when the forward players on each side close round the ball, and endeavour to kick it out of FOOTMAN 211 FORTIFICATION the crowd. This is rough work, and very un- pleasant kicks are sometimes received, not by the ball, but by the legs of the players. The ball used is formed of an india-rubber or ox-bladder covered with leather. The Association ball is round, and about 27 inches in circumference ; the Rugby ball is about the same size, but the shape approaches an oval. Football clubs now almost rival cricket clubs in number, and matches are arranged, among the most interesting of which are the annual matches between England and Scotland, and for the possession of the Associa- tion challenge cup, also contested annually ; and there are also frequent county matches. FOOTMAN. — An old word for foot-soldiers, and used in that sense in the Bible. The modern application of the word is to male servants who attend carriages and visitors. They are generally attired in showy liveries. Formerly, servants ran before the carriages of wealthy persons to clear the way, and from that the appellation footman was taken. FORAGE, /or'-ai (Fr., fourrage), a military term applied to hay, oats, corn, barley, grass, clover, and other means of sustenance for horses brought into camp. FORCENE, for-se-nai'. — In Heraldry, a term applied to a horse rearing on his hind legs. FORD, ford (Sax., ford or fyrd), a name applied to that part of a river where the water is sufficiently shallow to admit of any person or persons crossing by means of wading, without having recourse to a bridge, ferry, or any other means of transportation. FORELAND, /ore'-toncZ (Dan., land), a term which is nearly synonymous with promontory, cape, or headland, applied to any projecting point of land running into the sea — as the North and South Foreland at the mouth of the Thames. FORELOCK, fore' dole (Ang.-Sax.), the hair that grows from the forepart of the head. In nautical language, it is applied to a small flat- pointed wedge of iron, used at the end of a bolt, to retain it in its place. FORE-SHORTENING, an expression in Painting and Perspective intended to convey the method of drawing, in strict accordance with the rules of perspective, the limbs or body of a human being, or the body of an animal, when we are looking directly against either of them, in a posi- tion which shows their breadth while it conceals their length, either entirely or partially. Or, in other words, fore-shortening occurs when the latter is either approaching or receding from us, and when the former is extended either towards us or from us, in a direction varying from a line which is at right angles to the surface of the eye to another that is parallel with it ; under the former of which conditions it would be seen fore-shortened to the greatest possible degree, while, under the latter, it would be viewed in its entire length. Great attention must be paid to the treatment of light and shadow in fore-shortening the arm, leg, or body of a^ human being, or the carcass and legs of an animal, that the effect produced may convey a correct idea of the intention of the draughtsman. FORLORN HOPE, for-lom' hope (Sax., forloren, left without resource ; hopa, hope). — ^A detachment of men, generally volunteers, from different regiments, are selected to assault a breach, or other position without which a town could not be taken, and the attack on which is certain to be of a very dangerous character ; and this is termed taking a forlorn hope. FORMS OF ADDRESS. (5fec Address.) FORT, fort (Lat., fortis, strong), the name properly applied to a small inclosed work, generally erected near an important fortress or fortified town, to command any of the approaches to it. Forts are also frequently erected on the sea-coast, for the defence of certain positions, and are garrisoned by a small body of troops. Although they do not inclose a space of any great extent, yet they are strongly constructed, and, being placed in commanding situations, often form an important line of defence. In British North America, trading forts barricaded or other- wise defended against attacks by savages. FORTE, for'-tai, in Music, an Italian term for loud ; the superlative being fortissimo. FORTIFICATION, for-tif-e-kai' -shun (Lat., /oriis, strong, and facer e, to make), the art of constructing works of defence and offence for the protection or reduction of any important town or position. Such works are commonly divided into two classes, respectively known as permanent fortifications and field-works. Under the former, all works are included that are con- structed for the defence of a town, harbour, arsenal, dockyard, &c., being carefully laid out and built with a view to durability and the resis- tance of an attack, whenever it may be made ; while, under the latter, all works are classed that are intended to serve a temporary pruriDose ; such as siege-works and batteries for an attack on a fortress, or lines of intrenchment hastily thrown up for the protection of an army in the field, or to check the advance of an enemy on an important strategical position. The existing system of fortification doubtless found its origin in early ages, in the formation of a mound and trench round any small collection of dwellings, for the purpose of affording the inmates and their pos- sessions some protection from the attack of a marauding foe; a gate being made in one part of the rampart for the ingress and egress of those that dwelt within it, with a movable bridge for the passage of the ditch. This method was pur- sued by the Gauls and Britons in the time of Caesar ; and they added strength to the earthen mound by throwing it up against a stockade of stout stakes or piles, which were driven into the earth in close proximity to each other, and inter- woven with boughs and branches of trees. The field-works of the Romans were as effective as the permanent fortifications of the savage tribes of Central and Western Europe, remaining in many parts of England to this day, as a testimony to the skill of the Roman soldiers in fortifying even temporary camps, and the great strength of their works. But the field-works of the Gauls and Britons consisted of nothing more than their cars and waggons disposed round the camp, in the form of a circle, and strengthened by an abbatis, or barricade, formed of the branches and trunks of trees, very similar, in fact, to the “lager” temporary camps adopted by our forces in South Africa. At a very early period stone walls of considerable breadth and great strength took the place of the simple rampart of earth, for the de- fensive works thrown up around “ fenced cities ; ” and these were furnished with battlements and machicolations {see Machicolation) for the pro- FORTIFICATION 212 FORTIFICATION tection of the archers that manned the walls, and as a means of annoying the besiegers who might attempt to undermine the rampart. The spaces between the battlements, and the battlements themselves, were subsequently modified into the parapet-wall and embrasui-es, as we now have them, on the introduction of cannon. Examines of early fortifications are to be found in the re- mains of the Cyclopian walls that once surrounded the old Greek cities of Tiryns and Mycense. The Phoenicians are said to have been the first who regularly fortified their cities with stone walls ; bub, however this may be, it is certain that the cities of Egypt, and the great cities of Assyria — Babylon and Nineveh — were girdled with fortifica- tions of marvellous strength and size, on wliich several chariots could be driven abreast of each other. Until the year 1500, the characteristics of the defensive works of a town were nearly the same in all countries : first, they consisted of a lofty and massive polygonal wall of great thick- ness, with sbfausse-braye, or bank of earth, thrown up in a sloping form against the exterior, to pro- tect it from the attacks of the battering-ram. Then towers were added, in the form of a large square or semi-circular buttresses, projecting from the angles, and also from the face of the wall in various parts, which enabled the defenders to enfilade that portion of the wall which lay between any two of them, and so defend it in a more effectual manner from the attacks of assailants who sought to make a breach at its base with their engines of war. These flanking towers were the origin of the modern bastions. Outworks were then constructed beyond the ditch, opposite to the different entrances to the town, for the better protection of the gates, con- nected with the main works by drawbridges. While this disposition of the wall, and its various parts, may be traced in all the fortifications of ancient cities, and those of the towns and castles of the Middle Ages, so it may be seen more fully developed in the curtains, bastions, crown- works, and bridge-heads of the fortifications of modern times. The old method of construction was effi- cient enough as long as battering-rams, scaling- ladders, and similar en^nes, formed the chief means of attack, and javelins and arrows the most formidable projectiles that could be showered on the assailants by those who manned the walls ; and no modifications of the principles of construc- tion were found absolutely necessary until the in- vention of cannon, which followed closely on that of gunpowder, in the 14th century, directed the thoughts of the soldier architects of the suc- ceeding cycle to seek means whereby the new weapon might be made as efficient for the pro- tection of the walls, by a proper disposition of the faces of the works with reference to each other, as it was effective in causing breaches in the ramparts, that rapidly crumbled under the crush- ing shock of the heavy balls of stone and iron that were hurled point blank against them. The result was the introduction of bastions of the present form, instead of the old flanking towers, projecting from the corners of the work in salient angles, the rampart forming four sides of an rregular pentagon, the fifth, or gorge, being left open as a communication between the bastion and the interior of the fortress. But the chief fault of the old flanking towers was equally perceptible in the new bastions : they were still too small, and too far apart, to defend each other in an efficient manner ; and the platforms or terre- pleins of the majority were not calculated for the reception of artillery of any size. Towards the end of the i6th century, an attempt to remedy this defect was made by Errard de Bar le Due, a French engineer, who introduced considerable im- provements into the received methods of con- structing fortifications. He made the faces of his bastions much longer, and the ciutains con- necting them much shorter, than they had hitherto been ; but the faces of the bastions terminated at the shoulders in orillons, or pieces of the rampart in continuation of the face, which were in the form of an arc, and entered towards the interior of the bastion ; and his flanks, which were bereft of their due proportions by the orillons, were disposed at an angle of 80° to the curtain, which would inevitably bring a fire of musketry, directed from the flank at right angles to its face, on the defenders occupying the opposite extremity of the curtain. De Ville, an engineer who flourished about 1630, lengthened the flanks, and constructed them at right angles to the cur- tain ; but a still further advance to the present system was made about fifteen years later, by Count Pagan, who constructed the faces of his flanks in lines perpendicular to the faces of the collateral bastions produced, which caused them to splay outwards from the curtain in such a direction, that a fire directed perpendicularly from the faces along their entire length would enfilade the faces of the collateral bastions, and prevent an attacking party from effecting a lodge- ment in the ditch. He also constructed double and triple flanks to his bastions, which were parapets parallel to the faces of the outer flanks, rising above one another in tiers toAvards the interior of the bastion. It remained for Vauban to give a systematic method of constructing regular fortifications, which he effected by taking fractional parts of the length of the side of the polygon within which the enceinte was formed, and which was bounded by lines drawn to join the salient angles of the bastions (which, indeed, were coincident Avith the angles of the polygon, as far as their vertices were concerned), to furnish the dimensions of various parts of the work. This is the foundation on which all other systems are based which have been introduced since Yauban’s time, and a knowledge of it is required from all candidates for commissions in the army. Vauban improved the construction of the ravelin, and was the first engineer who introduced ricochet firing on attacking a fortress. He also formed traverses in the covered way, to protect the besieged from this kind of firing, and the places of arms at the salient and re-entering angles of the covered way. The Dutch engineer Coehern was contemporary mth Vauban, and constructed the fortifications of most of the principal towns of Holland and Belgium. His system is very similar to those of Vauban ; but it is distinguished by the introduction of large orillons, forming casemated batteries at the shoulders of the bastions. He also constructed works of great strength in the interior of the bastions, as well as in front of them ; and re- doubts in the interior of the ravelins, which pro- tected his curtains. About 1740, Cormontaigne, a Frenchman, introduced a system founded on Vauban’s, in which he extended the faces of the ravelin in front of the curtain, diminishing the extent of the salient angle formed by them. He also formed retrenchments in his bastions, and made the re-entering places of arms in the covered way large enough to admit of the construction of redoubts, having the main ditch immediately in FORTRESS 213 FOURTH their rear. These were useful in adding to the means of defending the covered way, and they also protected the openings that appear between the extremities of the tenaille and the flanks of the bastions, on eitheir side of it. Various addi- tions and modifications of these systems have been introduced from time to time by English, French, and German engineers, since 1750. In the present century, however, the most remark- able is the new system, introduced by the Prussians, of surrounding the place with a poly- gonal enceinte without bastions, and protecting tliem by flank fires from works resembling caponnieres, projecting at right angles from the main walls at the centre of each side of the poly- gon, so that the guns of the enceinte flank the caponnieres, while those of the caponniere flank the enceinte. The head of the projecting work is rotected by a ravelin, the faces of which can also e enfiladed from the enceinte by guns placed in casemates cut in the proper direction. In the siege of Sebastopol, the Russian general Todleben, one of the most skilful engineers of modern times, employed large earthworks with singular success for the protection of the town. FORTRESS, for'-tres, a city or town sur- rounded by regular works of defence, that requires to be invested by an attacking force, and subjected to regular siege operations before it can be reduced. Fortresses are generally found on the frontiers of continental states, and in the immediate vicinity of important harbours on the sea-coast, where there are extensive naval _ dock- yards and arsenals, and great quantities of Government stores are gathered together. FORTUNATUS,’’ for-tu-nai'-tus, is the title of one of the best German Volksbiicher (people’s books) ever written, and which has been translated into perhaps every language of Europe. It originated in the 15th century, though many of the tales included in it are of much older date. The oldest printed edition of the book now extant was published at Frankfort in 1509. The story is, that Fortunatus and his sons are the possessors of an inexhaustible purse of gold and a wishing- cap, which, however, in the end, prove their ruin. The story was dramatised by Hans Sachs, the poet of Nuremberg. Thomas Decker made it the subject of his “ Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus ” (1600) ; and Tieck gives the story in his “ Phantasus” (3 vols. Berlin, 1816). FORTUNE-TELLING. — A form of im- position practised by gypsies, who pretend to tell credulous people what will happen to them, or to ensure their good luck by “ruling the planets,” for which purpose as much silver as the dupe can command is to be paid to the fortune-teller, or by other impostors who pretend to be able to Re- tell events by the shufiiing of a pack of cards. Fortune-tellers are liable to imprisonment as rogues and vagabonds. Silly women (not by any means wholly of the uneducated classes) are mostly the dupes. FORUM, fore’ -urn (Lat., forum, a market or open space), the name given to an open space in Roman cities generally surrounded by a covered colonnade, that formed an ambulatory, and buildings of various kinds, such as temples, courts of law, prisons, granaries, &c. In the later period of the empire, when Rome had attained the summit of its glory, there were nineteen fora within its limits, which were divided into two classes, some being especially set apart for public meetings and the proceedings of the law courts, while others were devoted to business purposes and the requirements of trade. The Forum Romanum, the first that was erected in Rome, served equally for the purposes of trade and all public meetings, as well as for the admini- stration of justice by the consuls, decemvirs, and other magistrates of Rome. This forum was sub- sequently distinguished for its magnificence ; the shops were removed, and many temples of the heathen gods, the senate-house, andthecomitiuin, were erected in its immediate vicinity, and in communication with it. It was also adorned with arches, statues, and pulpits, from which public meetings were addressed, and which were called rostra, from being surrounded with the brazen beaks (rostra), or ornaments of the prows of the shij)s of war that had been captured by the Roman triremes. Exhibitions of gladiators were often shown in the forum. The Roman forum corresponded to the agora of the Greeks, and no Roman city or colony was without this important centre for the transaction of business and public affairs. FOSSE, OH FOSS, fos (Lat., fossa, from fodio, I dig), a ditch, generally filled with water, encircling the rampart of a fort, lying between the scarp and the counter-scarp. FOUGASS, fougasse), in Mili- tary language, the name of a small mine, made by sinking a pit about ten or twelve feet below the surface of the ground, and putting a wooden case at the bottom, containing several pounds of powder, and occasionally some shells, which are exploded by means of the electric spark and by detonating powder. FOUNTAIN, f own' -tan (Lat., fons ; Fr., fontaine), a spring or source of water rising above the earth in a jet or jets, forced up by either natural or artificial means. Artificial fountains flow from vases, statues, or other picturesque jneces of sculpture. Among the ancients, foun- tains were generally esteemed sacred, and sacrifices and libations were made in their honour. Horace, in his odes, gives a tribute of praise to one at Rome distinguished by the ap- pelation of Fons Blandusice. Many of the Greek cities were adorned with these beautiful and necessary objects' of art, Corinth especially. In the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum, fountains were seen in nearly every situation ; and, from the number of leaden pipes also found, it seems that every house was provided with one. In modern Rome, this practice of having foun- tains distributed through the city is kept up in the present day : and those of Trevi and the Pauline, at San Pietro in Montorio, are splendid piles of architecture, adorned with imposing pieces of sculpture. In Paris, the fountains of Versailles and St. Cloud used to be considered the finest in the world ; but since the erection in England of the system of fountains at the Crystal Palace, they have been fully rivalled. (See D SINKING Fountains.) ‘‘ FOUR MASTERS.”— A name given to four Irish chroniclers, Michael, Conary, O’Clery, and O’Mulconry, who compiled from original docu- ments the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.c. to 1616 A.D. A translation, edited by Dr. O’Dono- van, was published at Dublin in 1851. FOURTH, in Music, a distance comprising tliree diatonic intervals. There are three kinds FOX-HUNTING 214 FRENCH LANGUAGE of fourths — viz., the diminishQd fourth^ composed of a whole tone and two semitones ; the perfect fourth^ consisting of two whole tones and a semitone ; and the extreme sharp, or superfluous fourth, consisting of three whole tones. FOX-HUNTING, Hunting.) FRANK, frank, a name given by the Greeks, Turks, Arabs, and other Eastern nations, to a Christian. It probably originated at the time of the Crusades, in which the French particularly distinguished themselves. This was also the name of a powerful German tribe that about the 3rd century of the Christian era were found in- habiting the lower Ilhine, and which afterwards overthrew the Roman empire in the north-east of Gaul ) whence, in Germany, that country is termed F^'ankreich — i.e., the kingdom of the Franks. About the middle of the 4th century they became divided into two groups — the Salic and the Eipuaric Franks, the former inhabiting the Low Countries, the latter extending them- selves up the Rhine as far as the Maine. Each group had its own laws, which, however, did not differ much from each other, and are known as the Lex Salica and the Lex Bipuariorum. FRANKENSTEIN, frank' -en-stine. — The name of a romance of a very exciting character, written by Mrs. Shelley, wife of the poet and daughter of William Godwin and Mary Woll- stonecraft. In his “ Life of Lord Byron,” Moore says, referring to his residence at Diodati in 1816; — “During a week of rain at this time, having amused themselves with reading German ghost-stories, they agreed at last to write some- thing in imitation of them. ‘ You and I,’ said Lord Byron to Mrs. Shelley, ‘ will publish ours together.’ He then began the tale of the ‘ Vam- pire ; ’ and, having the whole arranged in his head, repeated to them a sketch of the story one evening ; but, from the narration being in prose, made but little progress in filling up his outline. The most remarkable result, indeed, of the story- telling compact, was Plrs. Shelley’s wild and powerful romance of ‘ Frankenstein,’ one of those original conceptions that take hold of the public mind at once and for ever.” Dr Polidori, a young Italian physician, at that time intimate with Byron, remembered Byron’s sketch of his story, and expanded it into a story, published afterwards in France, and accepted as an authen- tic i)roduction of Byron’s. Mrs. Shelley’s romance was published in 1816, and at once attracted extraordinary attention. A German student is supposed by his scientific art to have constructed a monstrous man, and infused life into the figure, which is afterwards an object of perpetual terror to him. “FRASER’S MAGAZINE.»-A monthly magazine established in 1830, by Mr. Fraser, a London publisher, in some respects as a rival to the famous Blackwood of Edinburgh. It soon attained a high position. Among the contributors, at different periods, were Dr. Maginn (for a long time editor), “Father Prout” (Mr. Mahoney), Carlyle, whose “ Sartus Resartus” appeared in its pages, and Thackeray, who, under the signa- ture of “Michael Angelo Titmarshe,” contributed some of his most characteristic humorous works. Maclise, afterwards Royal Academician, etched portraits of literary and political celebrities. At a later period, Froude, the historian and W. Allingham, the poet, held the editorial position. The last number published was that for October, 1882. FREEBOOTER, free' -hoot-er (Ger., frei- tenter ; Fr., flibustier). — A name given to a class of adventurers who have existed at different times and in different countries, but more par- ticularly in the New Continent, and who were usually remarkable for their daring and intre- pidity. (/See Buccaneees, Filibustees.) FRENCH HORN, frentsh horn, a wind instrument, consisting of a long tube twisted into several circular folds, gradually increasing in size from the mouth-piece to the hell, or end at which the sound issues. As it is not j)rovided with holes, like the flute, its sounds are varied by the lips of the player, the greater or lesser pressure of his breath, and the insertion of the hand into the bell, or end from which the sound issues ; it may also be tuned to a variety of keys, by means of crooks and shanks, or movable pieces added to, or removed from, the top of the tube, as required. FRENCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. — The origin of the French lan- guage is to be traced to three distinct sources — • the Celtic, the Latin, and the German. Of the Celtic, or earliest of these, the language of the country prior to the Roman invasion, compara- tively few traces are to be found in that of the present day. When the country came under the dominion of the Romans, the Latin being the language of the Conquerors, a corrupt dialect of it, known as the lingua Romana rustica, became the language of the peoj)le generally. On the overthrow of the Western Roman empire, this language became corrupted by the admixture of words and expressions from the Burgundian, Visigothic, Frankish, and other barbaric tongues. In the 7th century, two forms of speech prevailed in the country — a corrupt dialect of the lingua Romana, and a form of German known as the lingua Francisca or Theotisca, or the Tudesque. The latter prevailed in the north and east parts of the country, and the former was spoken south of the Loire. The council of Tours (813) recom- mended the use of both the Rustic and Tudesque versions of the Homilies. In course of time these two became in some measure blended, the Latin element remaining the more prominent ; and this corrupt language was called the Romance. It was divided into two branches which took their names from their respective modes of expressing the word yes. The Visigoths and Burgundians south of the Loire said oc (Latin ac, German auch, also) for yes, while the Franks and Normans to the north said oil ; and hence the dialect of the former was called la langue d'oc, and of the latter la langue d'oil ; the former of these, which came to receive the name of Provencal, from the kingdom of Pro- vence, which at one time included the whole of the south of France, was characterised rather by a modification of Latin words, than by the ad- mixture of foreign words and idiems. Though much changed, it is still the dialect of the com- mon people in Provence, Languedoc (the name taken from the phrase), Catalonia, Valentia, Majorca, Minorca, and Sardinia. Less troubled by wars, and of a more gay and sprightly turn of mind, the language of the southerns speedily be- came polished, and its glory was spread over Europe by the labours of the Troubadours. The dialect of northern France had a much greater FRENCH LITERATURE 215 FRENCH LITERATURE admixture of tlie Germanic element than the south, which was still farther augmented by the establishment of the Normans in that part, in the beginning of the loth century. After the commencement of the Crusades, both languages approached towards a fusion. The cruel perse- cution of the Albigenses checked the develop- ment of the Provencal language ; and the ex- tending of the political rule of the north south- wards, brought with it the language of that people. The real French language began to be developed about the time of the Conquest of Constantinople by the French Crusaders, at the be- ginning of the 13th century. Froissart’s “Chroni- cles,” of the 14th century, is the earliest work in genuine French — French Avhich is quite in- telligible to the student of the present day. Francis I. greatly encouraged the development of the French, and substituted that language for Latin in public transactions. Kabelais greatly enriched it ; Ronsard and Du Bellay, Amyot and Montaigne, and others developed it still further. The religious reform, political troubles, the in- fluence of the Italian wars and queens, modified it greatly. The Acad 6 mie Franqaise, established by Richelieu for the regulation of the national language (1635), the influence of the court, the labours of the jPort Royalists, especially Pascal (1656), and a galaxy of great writers, purified, augmented, and diffused it more and more. It was first used as a diplomatic language at the conferences of Nimeguen (1678). The French is the most generally known of all languages among civilized nations, and, throughout Europe, is the language of diplomacy. Literature. — The earliest literature of France is that of the Troubadours and Trouv^res. The former flou- rished most during the nth and 12th centuries. Their productions were chiefly short lyrical efltusions on love or matters of trifling import ; and they exhibit little play of the imagination, little depth of emotion, and very slight traces of learning. The Trouv^res, on the other hand, in their narrative poems known as Chan- sons de geste, and written in the energetic langue d’oif, treated of great national subjects, and celebrated the heroic deeds of illustrious kings and knights. Some of their compositions, especially the earlier, have a striking character of grandeur, which may sometimes be not unfavourably compared with that of the ancient epic poems,. These chansons de geste, also called ro- mances, are very numerous, and have been classified into three cycles, bearing respectively the names of Charlemagne, King Arthur, and Alexander. These were succeeded by satirical and allegorical poems of equally vast proportions, some of which enjoyed un- paralleled popularity ; such as the ‘ ‘ Roman de Renard,” and the “ Roman de la Rose.” The former is the well- known story of ‘ ‘ Reynard the Fox,” the “ Reinecke der Fuchs ” of the Germans ; the latter is a poem of 22,000 verses, 4,150 of which were written by Guillaume de Lorris in the early part of the 13th century ; and the work was completed fifty years later, by Jean de Mean. This is, perhaps, the most celebrated French production of the Middle Ages. It is a kind of didactic allegorical poem, which professes to teach the art of love, and embraces the most varied subjects. It con- tains a great deal of learned lore, scholastic subtleties, and scraps of ancient history, freely mingled with ab- stractions and allegories. Another kind of poetry of this period is the fabliaux, or tales, which are partly of Oriental origin, and were introduced by the Cru- saders into Europe. {See Fabliaux.) Songs were not neglected ; and those of the illustrious Abelard, in the 1 2th century, en j oyed a wide popularity. The progress of prose was slower than that of poetry ; but the 13th century presents two specimens, showing that it had already acquired a degree of power and polish. These are the “ Chronicle of the Conquest of Constanti- nople,” by Villehardouin (1207), and the interesting and simple Life of St. Louis, written by Joinville. The whole of the literature of the 14th century culminates in Froissart’s “ Chronicles,” which present the liveliest pictures of society and manners during that period of war and gallant enterprise. The greatest writer of the 15th century, also a chronicler like Froissart, is Philippe de Comines, who in his “ Memoires ” presents a striking delineation of the characters of Louis XL and his contemporaries. To the same period belong two of France’s distinguished poets, who, strange to say, pre- sent a striking contrast to each other in their outward circumstances, the one the princely Duke Charles of Orleans, the other the low-bred and lawless Villon, a strange compound of villainy and inspiration. A new epoch in the history of French literature begins with the reign of Francis I. (1515)- The study of Greek and Roman authors now began to prevail in France and writers, dazzled by the hitherto unknown beauties, of the classical writers, despised the works of their forefathers, and attached themselves to the imitation, of the ancients. Thus arose the so-called modern; classical school ; while that which, instead of imitating the ancients, derived its materials from national ele- ments, has been designated by the appellation of Romantic. Tolerably free from the classic element are the works of Clement Marot, the greatest French poet of the reign of Francis I. ; while the leader of the new or classical school was Ronsard, an author long extolled far above his merits. A host of other writers characterize this century, chief among whom are Rabelais and Montaigne. In the 1 7th century Malherbe appeared as the reformer, or rather the regulator, of poetry, a man of fastidious taste but meagre imagina- tion, who despised the artistic luxuriance of Ronsard, introducing in its stead a style of grammatical correct- ness and dry elegance, which sometimes reached pom- posity. Balzac devoted his attention to the improve- ment of prose, and his semi-philosophical works, espe- cially his Epistles, were valuable at the time as models of careful and harmonious style. Such were also the frivolous but witty letters of his friend Voiture. In 1634 the French Academy was instituted, under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu, “to establish certain rules for the French language, and to make it not only elegant, but capable of treating all matters of art and, science.” Three writers of this period enriched French literature with important works, and did much towards the improvement of its language. Pierre Corneille brought tragedy to a degree of grandeur which has not been surpassed ; “Le Cid,” “Horace,” “ Cinna,” and “Polynecte,” being among the best of his w'orks. Descartes, in his “ Discours sur la Methode,” showed that the French language was equal to the highest phi- losophical subjects ; and Pascal, in his “ Lettres Pro- vinciales,” in which comic pleasantry and vehement eloquence are happily blended, first formed a standard for French prose. Such was the opening of the splen- did literary epoch which is generally styled the Age of Louis XIV., and which is distinguished by a galaxy of superior intellects, who, under the royal patronage, applied themselves to perfecting every branch of litera- ture. The pulpit is set forth by the eloquence of such men as Bossuet, Flechier, Bourdalone, and Massillon. Tragedy lost little of its power in the hands of Racine, whose “ Andromaque,” “ Iphigenie,” and “PhMre,” remind one of the productions of ancient Greece ; while comedy reached its highest pitch with Moliere, whose masterpieces, “ Le Misanthrope,” “ Tar tuff e,” “ L’Avare,” and “Les Femmes Savantes,” are very humorous creations. In his Fables, La Fontaine showed himself the greatest master of that kind of composition in modern times. Didactic poetry was represented by Boileau, whose works are remarkable for symmetry and good sense, but are entirely deficient in poetical enthusiasm. Moral philosophy was culti- vated by Malebranche, by Bossuet, by F^nllon, and by Pascal ; La Rochefoucald and La Bruyere were other conspicuous authors of their time. In the field of history, we also meet with Bossuet, as the author of “Discours sur I’Histoire universelle,” and “Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes.” Here, too, we have M^zeray, author of the “ Histoire de France,” and Fleury, author of “ Histoire de I’Eglise.” In memoirs andletters, there are the personal “ Mcimoires ” of Cardinal De Retz ; Hamilton’s “ Memoires dn Comte de Grammont ; ” and the interesting letters of Madame de Sevign 4 to her daughter and friends. The 17th century had been, at least professedly, a religious one ; but the i8th was eminently an age of scepticism FRENCH LITERATURE * 216 FRENCH LITERATURE and infidelity. Literature now became a means of conveying bold opinions, or assaulting time-honoured creeds and institutions. The persons who exercised the chief sway during this period, and who exerted a powerful influence upon their contemporaries, were Montesquieu, Voltaire, J. J. Eousseau, and Buff on. Voltaire, the true personation of his age in disposition, as well as in talents, was, for half a century, the leader of public opinion in France. Diderot and D’Alembert founded the “ Encyclopedie,” a vast review of human knowledge, but always hostile to religion. Helvetius, in his treatise “De I’Esprit; ” D’Holbach, in his “ Syst^me de la Nature;” and Lametterie, by his “L’Homme Machine" and “La Vie Heureuse de S4n6que,” far exceeded the encyclopedists in the de- Btructive tendency of their doctrines. Among the few defenders of revealed religion during the period was J. Vernet. Among the metaphysical writers, the first place is due to Condillac, followed by Vauvenargues, Condorcet, and Bonnet of Geneva, all of whom remained on the side of moderation, and gave little support to the tendencies of the age. One of the most learned historians of that period was Mably. Charles de Drosses, Goguet, Barth^leray, Eaynal, De Mehegan, Velley, are also names of note in this department. The mathematical and physical sciences made great progress in France during the i8th century ; as witness the names of D’Alembert, Lagrange, Lalande, Lacaille, Maupertuis, Clairaut, Lemonnier, Condamine, and- others. In natural history, we have Buffon and Charles Bonnet ; Brisson, Vicq d’Azyr, Jussieu, in botany ; and Saussure in geology. In poetry, the drama, and general literature, we may mention the names of Crebillon and Ducis, both tragic poets ; Le Sage, author of “Gil Bias’ and of “’rurcaret,” per- haps the best comedy after those of Moli^re ; Beau- marchais, author of the “ Barbier de Seville ; ” Bernardin de St. Pierre, author of “ Paul et Virginie ; ” St. Simon, whose “ Memoires ’’ have gained a deserved celebrity ; Marmontel, the author of “ Belisaire,” and Lebrun, the lyric poet. The period of the Eevolution •was by no means favourable to literature, and little more so was that of the Empire w'hich succeeded. Madame de Stasl and Chateaubriand were the fore- runners of a revival, which was, perhaps, less owing to their works than to the influence upon public taste of the master-pieces of English and German literature, which found more and more admirers in France. A new romantic school now sprung up ; and, through the exertions of many young and original writers, new life was infused into nearly every branch of literature, poetry, history, philosophy, and the drama. An animated controversy was maintained be- tween the supporters of reform and the adherents of the classical school ; and the contest reached its utmost fury, when Frederic Souli4, Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, and others, produced on the stage dramas framed according to their ideas of the Shakespearian style. It was only after several years that the younger body of combatants came out victo- rious. Novels which, during the excitement of this contest, had been scarcely noticed, became the rage soon after it was settled. George Sand (Madame Du- devant), one of the most elegant writers of her country, e.stablished her character by her “ Indiana,” which appeared in 1832 ; and has since published many popu- lar works. Alexandre Dumas, the inexhaustible story- teller, has won immense popularity by his works, “ Trois Mousquetaires,” “ Le Comte de Monte Christo,” and numerous other works. Eugene Suo also obtained great popularity from his works “-Les Mysteres de Paris,” and “ Le Juif Errant,” which depict in glaring colours the miseries and depravities of society. Among other distinguished writers, we may mention Honord de Balzac, Frederic Soulie, Al- piionse Karr, Alfred de Musset, Prosper Merim^e, hladame Emile de Girardin, Theophile Gautier, Jules Sandeau, and Emile Souvestre. A new generation of story-tellers has been rising within the last few years, who, though their powers are scarcely to be compared with those of their predecessors, are nevertheless not devoid of talent. Some of them belong to what they themselves call the “realist school they are Henri Murger, Alexandre Dumas fils, Champfleury, Ernest Feydeau, Gustave, Faubert, Octave Feuillet, and Ed- mond About. Poetry is far from being as popular in France as the novel, and the country has produced few great poets during the present century. The four greatest poets are Bdranger, Victor Hugo, Lamartine, and Alfred de Musset ; besides whom, Casimir Dela- vigne, Auguste Barbier, and Victor de la Prade, are the only names requiring to be mentioned. History is, undoubtedly, the most successful branch of modem French literature. A larger number of valuable his- torical works has been published within the last thirty-five years than during any other equal period of its history ; and the taste for such performances is stiU on the increase. M. Guizot, the great philosophical expounder of social institutions, and Augustin Thierry, the artistic historian of the Middle Ages, stand fore- most among the promoters of this movement. Sis- mondi, Michelet, and Henri Martin, have each devoted their efforts to a full recital of the general history of France ; while De Barante, after giving, in his “ His- toire des Dues de Bourgogne” (1824), an attractive specimen of purely narrative history, has recently published histories of the Convention and the Direc- tory, in which his monarchial tendencies are strongly apparent. The revolutionary period has engaged the attention of many historians ; among whom the most prominent are Thiers, Mignet, Michelet, and Louis Blanc. Lamartine also figures among the historians, having produced several works of that class, which, however, are more remarkable for their showy language than for their accuracy or research. The elegant and accomplished Villemain, although better known in other fields of literature, has also produced several his- torical works ; as his “ Histoire de Cromwell,” and his “ Souvenirs Contemporains.” Archaeology has not been neglected ; as is evinced by the works of Letrone, Eaoul Eochette, and Beul4. Champollion, Sylvestre de Sacy, Ernest Eenan, and Abel de E^musat have thrown great light upon Egyptian and Oriental languages an d literature. In philosophy, Victor Cousin and his disciples have, under the name of Eclecticism, brought back the materialism of the preceding age to spiritualist principles. Jouffroy, Damiron, and Jules Simon are among those who have contributed to this result. As writers on politics and political economy, are Joseph de Maistre Bonald, Ballanche, Lamennais, Michel Chevalier, De Tocqueville, and Laferriere ; while as socialists, figure the names of St. Simon, Fourrier, and Pierre Leroux. Auguste Comte, in his “ Cours de Philosophie positive,” offers a connected system of philosophy, embodying ideas derived from Hegel and various of the French Socialists. The various branches, of natural philosophy boast of many original and powerful writers. In natural history and physiology, are Cuvier, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Isidore St. Hilaire, Milne-Edwards, Claude Bernard, and others ; mineralogy boasts of Elie de Beaumont, Ben- dan t, and Dufrenoy : and chemistry and physics, of Th^nard and Dumas, Gay-Lussac and Despretz. In medical literature, are the names of Bichat, Broussais Corvisart, Magendie, Trousseau, and many others. The mathematical sciences have distinguished repre- sentatives in Lagrange, Laplace, Ampere, Biot, and Arago. The French essayists and literary critics are legion, and some of them have attained great eminence ; among whom we may mention Sylvestre de Sacy, St. Marc Girardin, Philar6te Chasles, Ernest Eenan, Hippolyte Eigaud, Gustave Blanche, Ste. Beuve, Charles de E?musat, Albert de Broglie, Edmond About, Theophile Gautier, Leon Delaborde, Taine, and Jules Janin, the dramatic feuilletonist. French Drama. — France has boasted that when the classic drama was banished from every stage in Europe, it found a home in Paris ; and yet her drama, like those of other nations, •was, during the i6th and a great part of the 17th century, borrowed from Spain. As the English owe the excellence of their stage to Shakespeare, so France is equally indebted to Corneille. Eacine occupies a very eminent position as a tragic writer, and some of Voltaire’s tragedies still keep the stage. It was at this period that the classical fetters of the three unities were imposed upon French dramatic poets. Moliere, the founder of French comedy, followed the path marked out by Menander, and has closely copied some pieces from the Latin stage. This comedy of manners rather than of nature was overturned by the “Figaro” of Beaumarchais— a- production in which incident, intrigue, characters in high and low life, lively dialogue, and political satire, were so craftily intermingled, the whole being with a FRENZY 217 FRITHJOF’S SAGA strong tone of licentiousness, that it was received by the Parisian public with an almost frantic enthusiasm. Of modern French dramatists, the foremost place must be given to Victor Hugo ; Scribe, Dumas (fils), Sardou, are also dramatists of eminent ability. FRENZY, /re?t' -26 (Fr.^frendsie ; Gr., phreni- tis, ixom phren, mind), denotes madness, distrac- tion, rage, or any violent agitation of the mind approaching to distraction. FREQUENTATIVE, fre-kwen! -ta-tiv (Lat.), in Grammar, is a term applied to certain verbs, which denote the frequent repetition of an action. FRESCO PAINTING, fires’ -ko (Ital., firesco, fresh), the art of painting in water-colours on the surface of a wall that has just been plas- tered, while the plaster is still in a moist con- dition. The Romans were in the habit of colour- ing their walls while the plaster was still wet, to produce a ground of one uniform tint ; and they added decorating in distemper colours when the surface was perfectly dry ; but fresco-painting, properly so called, cannot be considered to have been introduced earlier than the close of the 14th century, when the practice of painting designs on the damp surface of freshly-plastered walls was adopted for the decoration of cathe- drals and churches at Florence, Orvieto, Pisa, and other towns in Northern Italy. Fresco painting was subsequently practised by all the Italian painters of celebrity — Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, and others having left exquisite specimens of their work in this branch of art in the palace of the Vatican and many of the churches of Rome. Fresco painting fell into disuse about the end of the 1 6th century, and remained in abeyance until some German painters revived the art in the decoration of a villa at Rome about 1816 ; and Louis of Bavaria subsequently caused many of the magnificent buildings that were erected at Munich during his reign to be adorned in this manner. It may be executed on any walls covered with a coating of plaster. The lime used for making the plaster, especially that of which the intonaco, or ground on which the painting is executed, is composed, should be as pure as possible, approaching as nearly as may be a pure carbonate of lime, without any admixture of iron or other mineral substances. The best limestone for the purpose found in England is that which is quarried on Durdham Down, near Bristol. As fresco paintings cover a large superficial area, it is necessary to execute them at different times in several pieces, as much of the intonaco or surface being spread at one time as the painter can conveniently colour before it begins to harden ; and it is contrived, if possible, to let the joint between the work of one day and that of another correspond with the outline of a figure, or with that of the drapery that is thrown around it. Before painting, the wall must be thoroughly soaked with water, and two very thin coats of the intonaco spread over it, both consisting of prepared lime and very fine river-sand, but the sand preponderating in the mixture used for the first coat. The design, of Avhich the painter has a finished sketch already prepared, is then traced with a hard blunt tool on the intonaco, from cartoons laid on it, as soon as it is hard enough to withstand the action of the brush and receive the colour. The outline having been thus produced, the colouring is applied in washes, half-an-hour, or rather less, beicg allowed to elapse between the- application I of the successive washes, when two or three are necessary to produce a proper depth of tint. Roundness is given to figures, and the proper effect of light and shade is 'produced by cross- hatching ; and the whole is toned by washes and glazes, all of which must be done while the plas- ter is still moist. The colours used are prepared from coloured earths and a few minerals, such as the oxides of iron and cobalt. Vegetable colours, or those made from animal matter, such as gam- boge and Prussian blue, cannot be used, as lime has an injurious effect upon them. Frescoes may be cleaned with bread or sj)onged with water when the surface appears dirty ; and there is a process by which they may be detached from the wall on which they are painted, and transferred to canvas. Fresco Secco, or dry fresco, is an inferior kind of fresco, executed in water colours on a dry wall. It has been recently much improA^ed by the invention of “ water-glass " as a preservative. (See Stereochbomic Painting.) FRET. — A device in Heraldry, representing two bars crossing the shield diagonally, forming a crown, and interlaced with a diamond-shaped figure. When several pieces are represented, forming a sort of lattice-work, the shield is described as “ fretting.” FRETS, /reis(Ang.-Sax.), in Music, are short pieces of wire placed across the finger-boards of stringed instruments under the strings, to mark those portions of them which are to be pressed on the finger-board for the purpose of producing certain sounds. FRIEZE, /recze (Fr.), in Architecture, that portion of the entablature which is between the architrave and the cornice. (See Entablatube.) The term frieze was also applied to a broad band of sculpture, in low relief, that Avas frequently fjlaced round the cella of a Grecian temple, im- mediately under the ceiling of the portico, and completely surrounding the exterior. In modern domestic architecture, a frieze is frequently in- troduced immediately below the cornice of an apartment. FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LITER- ATURE, firiz'-shan. — The Frisians were an an- cient Germanic people, who inhabited the ex- treme north-west of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems, and were sub- jected to the Roman power under Drusus. The language of the Frisians is intermediate between the Anglo-Saxon and the Old Norse. Our know- ledge of the Old Frisian is derived from certain collections of laws ; as the “ Asegabuch,” com- posed about 1200; the “Brokmerbrief,” in the 13th century ; the “ (Epnsiger Domen,” about 1300, and some others. (See Richthofen’s Fries. Rechtsquellen, Gott. 1840.) The modern Frisian is now spoken only in few districts, and even in these only by the peasantry ; not being used either in the churches or schools. It is further divided into a number of local dialects. Attempts have recently been made to revive an interest in the Frisian, and various specimens of its earlier liter- ature have been published. A Dictionary of the old Frisian, by Richthofen, was published in 1840. FRITHJOF’S SAGA, /riiA' -2/0/s sa'-ga, an Icelandic myth, written down, apparently, about the end of the 13th century, but evidently be- longing to a much earlier period. It narrates the adventures of the NorAvegian hero Frithjof (properly Fridhthejofr, i.e., peacestealer), and his love for the beautiful Ingebjorg, which some at- FROGS 218 FUSIL tribute to the 8th century, others to a much earlier period. This saga has been rendered famous chiefly from being selected by the poet Tegner as the subject of a beautiful poem of the same name, which has been repeatedly translated into English. FROGS. — Stripes of braid or lace on the Front of military uniforms. FROISSART’S CHRONICLES, frwois'- sar. — A work descriptive of the occurrences of his time, written by Jean Froissart, a French poet and historian, who visited England and Italy, and was acquainted with most of the leading person- ages of the time. The chronicles extend over the years 1326-1400, are most picturesque and vivacious, and have afforded delight to readers for nearly five centuries. They have aided the historian, the romancer, and the poet. There are two English versions : one, produced about 1525, by Lord Berners, and a modern one by Thomas Johnes. In the library at Breslau is a beautiful manuscript of the chronicles executed in 1468. FRONTISPIECE, front’ -is-peese (Lat., frons, front ; inspicio, I look upon), a term used to denote the engraving or ornamental page which is placed in the beginning of a book. In Architecture, frontispiece signifies the principal face or front of a huilding, and the decorated entrance to the same. FRU CTIDOR. {See Calendar. ) FUGUE, (Lat., /w5ra,a flight or chase), a term signifying a musical composition, vocal or instrumental, or both, in which a determined succession of notes, called the subject, passes successively, and alternately, from one part to the other, according to certain rules of harmony and modulation. There are four kinds of fugue — viz : the “ strict fugue,” in which the subject is given out by one j)art and answered by another, the subject being again repeated in the third part; the “free fugue,” in which the composer is not so much restrained, but is allowed to in- troduce passages not closely related to the theme ; the “ double fugue, in which there are two subjects occasionally intermingled, and moving together; and the “inverted fugue,” in which, as its name implies, the theme is inverted. FUNDAMENTAL, fun-da-men' -tal (Lat., fundum, the bottom of a thing), in Music, is a term applicable to either a chord or to a note ; to the former, when its lowest component part is the note on which the harmony is founded ; and to the latter, when it is both the lowest con- stituent part of a chord and the note from which the harmony is really and nominally derived. FUR, in Heraldry, there are various modes of representing furs on shields, the chief being ermine, black spots on a white field, or vice versd, or gold spots on a white field. FURLOUGH, fur'-lo (Du., verlof), the leave of absence granted to a soldier to absent himself from duty. FURNITURE, fur’-ni-tchure. — A term ap- plied in various ways to articles used in fitting up, or supplying necessary accommodation ; but more generally to household goods and chatties, as chairs, tables, couches, cabinets, bedsteads, looking-glasses, &c. The fundamental idea, that of utility, being observed, there is abundant op- portunity for the exercise of taste in design and adaptation to the size and decoration of the rooms. In very early times, great ingenuity and frequently artistic skill was displayed in chairs and couches ; and the use of Gothic architecture led to an adaptation of some of its leading prin- ciples to the furniture of large edifices, especially ecclesiastical. One writer on the subject says : “ A history of furniture would be in great measiu e a history of the progress of the human race. Per- haps the rude cave-dwellers, whose only tools and weapons were a few roughly-chipped flints, were content with the grassy turf or white sand as a seat by day and a couch by night. But the primitive man early aspired to render his lot less comfortless. At the very dawn of authentic history we find races widely differing in other matters yet at one with regard to the furnishing of their dwellings with articles of necessity or of luxury. There is not an age in the chronicles of man’s existence, nor a land of his abode now visited, where substantially the same wants as to household furniture are not met, and where art does not seek to give beauty to articles designed to meet this demand.” The Renaissance, the Louis Quatorze, the Queen Anne periods all originated special fashions in furniture ; and in this country the Georgian period was discredit- ably distinguished by the manufacture of heavy and usually tasteless articles. Lighter and fragile articles succeeded them, and now there is a tend- ency to revert to what is known as the Queen Anne style. Speaking of the modern revival of the forms adopted by Chippendale, and Sheraton, and other cabinet makers of the “ Queen Anne ” period, a clever writer, Mrs. Spofford, says: “Articles in this style may be characterised as severely square with sharp corners, standing on feet usually straight, but sometimes slightly bending outward, built in an upright and downright fashion, with no pretence and no sham, the motif being solidity and com- I)actness. The panel-work is small, square, and in multiplicity. When glass is used it is alwaya bevelled plate ; a tiny classic balustrade fre- quently crowns the articles ; and they are decorated to the last point with carvings in the face, sometimes of birds, fruits, figures, but usually with conventional treatment, and largely of mere floral suggestions. The Queen Anne style, then, may be summed up as possessing the remarkable simplicity and quietness of old work, together with great picturesqueness and some quaintness. Although straight and square, with right lines and angles, yet it contrives to have a want of formality and a freedom from restraint, and always seems to be enriched with a ‘ flavour of the past.’ ” Although this kind of furniture is named after Pope’s “ Great Anna,” it must bo by no means supposed that her short reign covera the whole period of the style. On the contrary, the latter preceded Queen Anne, and lasted for long subsequent. It was, in fact, partly only a natural outgrowth from the heavier Jacobean furniture, partly the Dutch influence which ac- companied William of Orange, which assisted to form the quaint, piquant style of which we are speaking. The influence of the great exhibitions of the practical arts has been largely felt in the improvement of taste in furniture, and also in the workmanship. FUSIL, fu'-zil fusil), a kind of firelock similar to the old musket, but lighter and shorter. Some of the light infantry regiments in the British army were armed with this weapon luior to the in- troduction of the Enfield rifle, from which they acquired the distinctive appellation of fusilierr. GABION 219 GAELIC G is the seventh letter in onr alphabet, as well as in the Latin and all the other alphabets de- rived from it ; while in the Greek and Oriental alphabets it occupies the third place. It has two sounds — one hard, as in gay, go ; the other soft, as in gem, giant. It is hard before the vowels, a, o, u, and generally soft before e and i. but not invariably so, “get” “ gilt “girt” “ give ” and other words affording excej)tions. G is liable to many changes in different dialects or languages, as interchanging with k, h, y, g, u, w, b, d, &c. In Music, G is the fifth note or sound of the natural diatonic scale, corresponding to the sol of the French and Italians, G fiat is the note G depressed half a tone ; the fifth note introduced in modulating by fourtlis from the natural or diatonic mode. GABION, gfai'-5e-on (Ital., gdbbione), a basket or cylinder made of wicker work, open at both ends, used in the construction of earthworks. These baskets, are 2 feet 9 inches in height, and from 2 to 6 feet in diameter. They are placed on end and filled with earth taken from the ditch dug out in front of the rampart. They add considerably to the strength of the mound, by affording support to the earth that is thrown over and against them. A line of gabions thrown up by troops as a defence after being driven back from a stronger position, is known as a gabion- nade. GABLE, gai'-hl ('Welsh, gavael), in Archi- tecture, the name given to the upper part of the end-wall of a building, the sides of which meet in an angle and afford support to the ends of the rafters of the roof. The angle thus formed cor- responds to the slope of the roof : it attains the greatest degree of acuteness in Gothic architec- ture. The gables of the different styles of Gothic architecture were often richly ornamented. In Elizabethan architecture, the outline of the gable was composed of curves and angles variously combined, that known as the ogee gable being the most common. It was often richly ornamented with open stonework. The end of a house terminating in a gable is indifferently called the gable or gable-end of the building. GAELIC, OR ERSE, LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, gai'-lik. — The language spoken by the Highlanders of Scotland is termed by them the Gaelic ; but the name frequently given to it by the lowlanders is Erse or Ersh, evi- dently a corruption of Irish. It is a dialect of that great branch of the Celtic languages termed the Gwyddelian, or Gaelic, and to which belong also the Irish and Manx, or that spoken in the Isle of Man. At the time of the Roman invasion, Celtic was the language generally spoken in 'Western Europe. The dialects of the Celtic still spoken, besides the three already mentioned, are the Welsh, and the language of Britanny; while the Cornish, another dialect, though not now spoken, is preserved in books. The three dialects, the Irish, the Scotch Gaelic, and the Manx, approach each other so nearly as to form, in fact, but one language, the peculiarities which distinguish them from each other not being sufficiently broad or vital to constitute either of them a distinct language. The differences be- tween the spoken language of the Scottish Highlanders and the Irish exist partly in the pronunciation, partly in the grammar, and partly in the idioms. In the vocabulary, also, there are considerable differences, as where words now obsolete in Irish are still used in the Scotch Gaelic, and others are used in a different sense. There are also marked differences in the language, as spoken in different parts of the Highlands ; and a native of Sutherland has. some difficulty in understanding one of the southern districts of Argyle. The Gaelic, which, from a variety of causes, has retained, in a con- siderable degree, its original purity, is copious, bold, and expressive. It derives no assistance from the languages either of Greece or Rome, from which it differs in its structure and for- mation. Having affixes and prefixes, it greatly resembles the Hebrew, particularly in the in- flections of its nouns and verbs. In Ireland, too, the Gaelic spoken in the different parts varies, and the difference is very marked between that spoken in the north and south parts of the island. The written and cultivated language of the High- lands came to be identical with that of Ireland ; but, according to Mr. Skene, we have no reason to conclude, on that account, that there was not a vernacular Gaelic which preserved many of the independent features of a native language, and existed among the people as a spoken dialect. The introduction, however, of the Reformation, in the i6th century, gave rise to a religious liter- ature, which, commencing in the written, or Irish Gaelic, gradually approached nearer and nearer to the spoken dialect of the country, and, accom- panied by the preaching of the clergy in the ver- nacular dialect, tended to preserve and stereotype the language spoken in the Highlands in its na- tive form and idiom. The first printed book in Gaelic was a translation of the form of prayer issued by John Knox, and printed at Edinburgh, 1567. The second was a translation of Calvin’s Catechism, published along with an English edi- tion, in 1631. In 1659, the Presbyterian synod of Ajgyle took up the work of issuing translations into Gaelic of the metrical Psalms and of the Scriptures. In 1690, the first Bible was pub- lished for the use of the Highlands. All these works were in Irish orthography and Irish dia- lect, the last being simply an edition of the Irish version of the Bible, with a short vocabulary. In 1767, the first translation of the New Testa- ment Avas jpublished in the Scotch dialect ; and in 1783, a translation of the Old Testament was undertaken by the Society for Propa- gating Christian Knowledge in Scotland, and completed in 1787. In 1816, a committee of the best Gaelic scholars was appointed by the Gene- ral Assembly of the Church of Scotland to effect an improved translation of the Scriptures, the whole being published in 1826. The earliest specimens of Scottish Gaelic poetry are preserved in a collection made in the beginning of the i6th century, by Sir James Macgregor, Vicar of Fort- ingall and dean of Lismore, and now preserved in the Advocates’ Library in Edinburg A se- lection from it was published about twenty years ago, with translations. Some of the poems are in Dure Irish, others in pure Scotch Gaelic ; GALENISTS 220 GARRISON and others in a mixed dialect, in which the one or the other idiom predominates. The MS. is of no small literary value, as throwing some light upon the much controverted subject of Ossian’s poems. {See Ossianic Poems.) GALENISTS, a term applied to those pro- fessors of medicine who adhered to the system of ■Galen, more particularly as opposed to the Chemical school. The former ran much upon multiplying herbs and roots in the same com- position, which they usually prescribed in the form of tinctures or extracts ; while the latter dealt chiefly with mineral substances, and pro- fessed, by means of various chemical processes, or operations, to extract the virtues or essences out of them into a very small compass. GALLANTRY, gaV-lan-tre i^v.^galanterie), denotes bravery, heroism, intrepidity, nobleness, as well as civility, or polite attention to ladies. When the respect for ladies which chivalry culti- vated degenerated more and more into frivolous attentions, the word gallantry came also to be used in a less favourable sense ; and at length it has come to receive a bad signification, as synonymous with lewdness or debauchery, though always retaining the meaning of bravery. GALLERY, ‘ gaV-le-re (Dan., gallerie\ Fr., galerie), a passage open or closed on one side, and having on the other side the doors of a series of apartments which open into it. In this sense it is synonymous with the term “corridor.” In acclesiastical architecture, the name is given to a floor midway between the ground-floor of the building and the roof projecting from the walls on either side, or at the west end, and supported on a series of columns ; or, if the span be short, a beam stretching from wall to wall. In theatres, the gallery is the inferior range of seats above the ui^per boxes. The term is also applied to a large room devoted to the reception of paintings, sculpture, andotherworksof art; and in Maritime, to the balcony that is generally made outside the stern of men-of-war and vessels of large size. Gfallery, the narrow passage leading to a mine in which powder is deposited, for the purpose of blowing up and destroying any portion of the fortifications of a town or siege-works. GALLIARD, gaV -e-yard (Fr., gai, lively). — A favourite dance in old times in France and England, The tune was brisk and lively. GALLICISM, gaV -le-sizm (Lat., from Gallia, France), in Literature, is applied to any phrase •or mode of speech used in our language, but modelled after the French. GAMBIT, gam! -hit, a word derived from an old Italian phrase, used to signify the tripping up of an adversary in wrestling. It is aioplied in the game of chess to the method of opening the game. There are several gambits known to players by specific names. GAMES, gaimz (Sax., gaman, diversion, «port, pastime), a term applied to certain bodily oxerclses and mental recreations practised as a relaxation from business or study, or employed ns a mode of passing the time. They are divided naturally into two classes, mental and physical, but more definitely they are distin- guished as games of chance, games of skill, and mixed games. In the first class the result does not depend upon the attention and dexterity of the player, but is merely determined by chance ; it includes games played with dice alone, such as hazard, and many of the games played with cards, such as quinze, vingt-et-un, lansquenet, com- merce, loo, &c. The second class comprehends those games which, when once begun, are inde- pendent of chance, and are gained by the superior skill and experience of one party. In the third class the games are generally decided by chance where the players are equal, but otherwise depend much for their event on the skill and caution of the players. GAMES, PUBLIC, OF ANTIQUITY, were contests and spectacles of varied kinds cele- brated by the ancients, which, in the earlier ages, were connected with religious ceremonials. Among the Grecian games, the most celebrated were the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian. {See Vakious Headings.) The amusements in the Roman Circus did not differ materially from those which were cele- brated in the games of ancient Greece. The theriomachia, or beast-fight, was a favourite species of entertainment among them ; and the men employed in this barbarous amusement, in which men fought with wild beasts, were called hestiarii. {See Bestiaeii.) There is no doubt that the athletic games of tlie ancients not only improved the physical development of the people, but tended directly to advance their intellectual and moral culture. The early and long training by which they were preceded, and the exercises through which the child, the youth, and the man were conducted by successive stages, ultimated at length in that union of beauty and strength in which physical perfection consists, and in which the ancient Greeks surpassed every other known nation. GAMUT, gam’-ut, a term applied to the table or scale invented by Guido d’Arrezzo, from his having adopted the gamma, or third letter of the Greek alphabet, as a sign for its lowest note, which was one note below the lowest tone of the ancients. It consisted of twenty notes— viz., two octaves and a major sixth. In modern music, the term gamut signifies the diatonic scale, and is occasionally applied to the note G below the bass clef. GARDANT, gard'-ant, in Heraldry, a term applied to the representation of an animal, full- faced and looking forward. GARGOYLE, orGURGOYLE, gar'-goyl (Fr., gargouille). — The name given to ah orna- mental spout projecting below the battlements of a tower or the parapet of a wall, through which the rain that falls on the roof is discharged at a little distance beyond the face of the wall. The gargoyle forms a striking feature in the Early English and Decorated English styles, being frequently in the form of a dragon, or lion, or some heraldic monster, and sometimes a grotesque representation of the human face and figure. It was introduced to mask the unsightly appearance of a piece of leaden pipe sticking out of the wall, the pipe being passed through a block of stone, which was subsequently carved into a form corresponding to the general char- acter of the architecture of the building. GARRISON, gar'-re-son (Fr., garnison, from the low Latin garnisio, ammunition, military stores), a term applied to a body of troops stationed in any town or fortified place, either to defend the position against an enemy, to keep GASCONNADE 221 GENEALOGY the inhabitants under subjection, or merely to be subsisted. By military writers, the term garrison is generally applied to a fort or fortress, to the body of troops or guard placed in a citadel, or to any troop of soldiers quartered in a town. GASCONNADE, gas-con-naid' (Fr.), is a term used in the French language to denote a habit of boasting, or speaking beyond the truth in conversation. The name is derived from the province of Gascony, the inhabitants of that part having the character of being addicted to this vice. GASTRONOMY, gas-tron' -o-me [gaster, the stomach, and nomos, law), may be strictly defined to be the science of eating and drinking, or, in short, the physiology of taste in food. It is the science of the epicure and gourmand, not of the practical cook. Lucullus and Apicius, among the ancients, and Brillat-Savarin, among the . moderns, are the most renowned writers on the subject. GATEWAY, gait' -way (Ang.-Sax.). — The gateways, or gatehouses, of the Middle Ages were most imposing structures. They used to be erect.ed over the principal entrances of the pre- cincts of religious establishments, colleges, and other buildings, and sometimes also in the courts of private houses, and those before castles and other fortifications. In military edifices, the entrance usually consisted of a single arch- way, with a strong door, large enough to admit carriages, and portcullis at each end, with a vaulted ceiling pierced with holes, through which missiles might be rained down on an enemy. The sides of the gateway were generally flanked with large projecting towers pierced with loop- hole!?, and the upper part terminated in a series of machicolations and a battlemented parapet. In civil edifices, the gateway admitted of much greater diversity of form. Sometimes it was formed of a single square tower, with the front ornamented ; or it was extended to a considerable breadth, as at Battle Abbey, in Sussex. The gateways of religious houses had frequently a chapel attached to them. Examples of them may be seen in most of our old cathedral towns ; a s at Oxford, Canterbury, &c. Greek and Roman gateways were frequently of great beauty. GAVOTTE j gavotte), a piece of dance music, consisting of two light lively strains in common time, each being played twice. The first usually contains four or eight bars, and the second eight or twelve, and sometimes more. The first strain should close in the dominant or fifth of the key ; for if it has its termination in the tonic or key-note, it is not a gavoty but a rondeau. GAZE. — In Heraldry, a beast of the chase, represented as full-faced or affronts. GAZETTE, gra-zet' (Ital., gazzetta), the name of certain newspapers in this country and on the Continent. It is said to be taken from gazzetta, the name of a Venetian coin worth somewhat less than a farthing, and which was the price of the earliest newspaper published in Venice (1563). According to others, it is derived from gaza, a treasure, or gazza, a magpie. The first Gazette pubhshed in France (under that name) appeared in 1631. I'ondon Gazette, — The first fourteen numbers of the London Gazette were published at Oxford, in 1665, the court being then resident there on account of the- plague in London. It is published under authority of the Government, and appears regularly twice a week, on Tuesdays and Fridays. It contains all proclama- tions, orders of council, and an account of all matters done by the queen in her official capacity ; promotions and appointments to commissions in the army and navy ; the appointment of ambassadors, consuls, and other civil officers of the higher ranks ; also various matters connected with legal proceedings, notices of bankruptcies, insolvencies and sequestrations, dissolu- tion of partnerships, &c. Notices of intended applica- tions to Parliament for private Acts relating to rail- ways, canals, &c., require to be published in the Gazette. GAZETTEER, gaz-et-teer' , is, in other words, a dictionary of geography, a work giving an account of the different places on the face of the earth, under their particular names, in alpha- betical order. The first work of this kind with which we are acquainted is that of Stephen of Byzantium, who lived about the beginning of the 6th century. The first modern work of the kind is the “ Dictionarium Historico-Geographicum (Geneva, 1565), by Charles Stephens, with ad- ditions by N. Lloyd (Oxford, 1670, and London, 1686). The works of Ferrari, “Lexicon Geo- graphicum,” and Bandrand, “Geogr. ordine Literarum dispos” (1682), are full of the strangest errors. Those of Maty (1701), Thomas Corneille (3 vols. folio, 1708), and Savonarola (1713), were based on the former, with additions and correc- tions. The “ Dictionnaire Geographique, His- torique, et Critique,” of La Martiniere (Hague and Amsterdam, 10 vols. folio, 1726; Paris, 6 vols. 1768), superseded all that had gone before it, though it still retained many ‘errors. The “ Geographisch-Statistisches Handworterbuch,” by Hassel (2 vols. 1817, with a supplement of 2 vols.), was the most complete and accurate work of its time. The “Edinburgh Gazetteer” (6' vols. 8vo, 1817-22), was a tolerably accurate book. Since that time, however, numerous valuable works of this class have appeared, both in this and in other countries. GENDER, ygn'-cfer (Fr., gendre, from Lat., genus, race, kind). — In Grammar, is the distinc- tion of nouns according to sex. Nouns denoting the male sex are said to be masculine ; those de- noting the female sex, feminine ; and those which denote neither male nor female are said to be neuter (Lat., neutris generis, of neither gender) ; and hence grammarians have come, somewhat incorrectly, to speak of three genders. In He- brew, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, there is no neuter, every noun being either mas- culine or feminine. In English only livuig beings are described as masculine or feminine. There are, however, certain ideas, as magnitude, strength, vigour, &c., which are considered as characteristic of males ; while gentleness, timidity, submission, &c., are regarded as properties of females, which, when they come to be associated with a neuter noun, raise it to the masculine or feminine : thus we speak of the sun as he, and of the moon as she. Abstract nouns and general terms are also usually regarded as feminines. The masculine and feminine are sometimes de- noted by different words, as boy, girl, horse, mare, cock, hen ; sometimes by a change in the termination, as count, countess; executor, exe- cutrix ; songster, songstress ; and sometimes by the addition of a word, as cock-sparrow, hen- sparrow, he-goat, she-goat. GENEALOGY, ye-ng-ai'-o-^e (Gr. , gencalogia, from genos, race, and logos, account). — An acc-ount- GENERA 222 GENRE PAINTING or enumeration of the ancestors or relations of a particular person or family. No nation was more careful to trace and preserve its genealogies than the children of Israel. Their sacred writings con- tain genealogies which extend through a period of more than 3,500 years, from the creation of Adam to the captivity of Judah, and even after that time. Josephus informs us that he traced his own descent from the tribe of Levi by means of public registers, and that, however dispersed and depressed his nation were, they never ne- glected to have exact genealogical tables prepared from authentic documents which were kept at Jerusalem. Critical genealogical studies were not begun before the 17th century. Genealogical accounts are not only interesting to persons who feel a more or less natural curiosity about their ancestors, but are also useful to the historian, as elucidating the often complicated relations of dynasties, families, claims, and controversies of successions, &c. They are also of importance in legal cases concerning claims of inheritance ; and, indeed, are indispensable in states in which the enjoyment of certain rights is made to depend upon lineage or descent. A genealogy, or lineage, is frequently represented in the form of a tree {arbor consanguinitatis), giving a distinct view of the various branches of the family, and the de- grees of descent from the common progenitor, who is generally represented in the root or stem. Genealogical tables are either descending or ascending. The former are chiefly used in his- torical records, presenting the descendants of a certain person in the order of procreation ; the latter, in documents of nobility, serving to show the claims of any man or family to the titles of paternal and maternal ancestors. The Genea- logical Society was established in London in 1843. GENERA, jen'e-ra (Lat.), in Music, the different scales by which the Greeks regulated their divisions of the tetrachord, of which there were three — viz., the enharmonic, chromatic, and diatonic, all of which will be found treated of under their respective names. GENERALIZATION, jen-e-ral-i-zai' -shun (Lat. , generalis, general), the act of extending from particulars to generals ; the act of making general. In Logic. — The act of comprehending under a com- mon name several objects, agreeing in some point which we abstract from each of them, and which that common name serves to indicate. Another kind of generalization is when, from observing that two or more objects have certain things or properties in com- mon, that therefore they have others also in common. In this process of generalizing there is involved a principle which experience does not furnish, by which we affirm not only that all heavy bodies which have been observed gravitate, but that all heavy bodies, whether they have been observed or not, do so. In this there is implied a belief that there exists a certain order in nature, and that, under the same circum- stances, the same substances will present the same phenomena. (See Induction, Classification.) In Mathematics. — A geometrical figure is said to be generated by another w’hen produced by an opera- tion performed upon the other, as in the case of a cone which is produced by the revolution of a right-angled triangle, one of the sides adjoin, the right angle being the axis. In Chronology. —The interval of time between the birth of a father and the birth of his child. The average length of a generation is taken as 33 years. GENITIVE, genitivus; Gr., genike), in Grammar, is the name of the second case in the declension of nouns, generally indicat- ing the relation expressed in English by the pre- XCisition of. In English, the genitive, or posses- sive, case is marked by the addition of the letter s, preceded by an apostrophe ; as, the king’s son, my father’s horse. When the plural ends in s, the additional s of the genitive is omitted, and only the apostrophe added ; as, kings’ sons. GENIUS, je'-ne-us (Lat., from gigno, I beget or produce), was the term appli»jd by the ancient Romans to a class of spiritual oeings which at- tended upon man ; and hence, in course of time, the word came to signify the natural powers and abilities of men, more especially their natural in- clination 01 disposition. In modern times it has come to be employed in a still more restricted and special sense, as signifying the very highest condition of the mental powers, the perfection of human intelligence. Like many other words of a similar kind, it is difficult or impossible to de- fine it in words ; but there is always associated with it the idea of creative or inventive power. Genius is sometimes used to signify that talent or aptitude which we receivp from nature for ex- celling in any one thing whatever. Thus we speak of a genius for mathematics as well as a genius for poetry ; of a genius for war, for poli- tics, or for any mechanical employment. A modern writer says : “Genius may, perhaps, be defined as an unconscious, almost instinctive, ex- ertion of the reasoning jiowers, by which the logical conclusion of an intellectual process is arrived at, without the process itself being ap- parent to the mind. In common language, it is described as inspiration, because the results reached are not the last step in a connected chain of reasoning. Genius knows, or believes implicitly that it knows, what ordinary minds accept when demonstrated by evidence. How it knows it cannot explain, but the knowledge is thenceforth united, not only with the intellectual, but with the emotional nature. The intuitions, or apparent intuitions, of genius are the faith of the intellect, a reliance on things unseen as ab- solutely as on those which are seen and proved step by step by the most rigid laws of logic. The intellect, by process, discovers truth ; genius feels truth, but cannot readily demonstrate it. There is a tendency on the part of some to suppose that genius is a kind of prophetic intuition which en- joys a light denied to ordinary mortals. It has unquestionably a clearer perception of the light, reaches the brightness with more rapid and elastic steps, but the light is the same. Genius anticipates, as youth anticipates, but no more than steady and strong manhood can reach. It can discover no laws peculiarly its own, reach no atmosphere which may not be breathed by all. Genius always, by its i»ore acute perceptions, discerns and believes in many possibilities, not suspected by others ; but having announced them, the practical intellect, weaker in degree and slower in operation, but identical in kind, speedily realizes them. Genius does not discover and conquer a land where it alone can dwell, but opens up new regions to the wide world. Its limits are the eternal limits of the mind, marking the boundaries which all who are able may reach, but which none can go beyond. Within the domains so enclosed, intellectual and moral law is universal and impartial, and genius, although it possesses greater powers, has no special privi- leges. It can discover law, or rather the more subtle workings of law, but cannot, although oftentimes it would, make laws for itself.” GENRE PAINTING, jhannr (Fr., kind, or fashion). — A term applied generally in the GENTOO 223 GERMAN LANGUAGE Fine Arts to any special branch of painting, as historic or landscape ; but more specifically to pictures containing human figures, especially of a small size, which cannot claim to be historical- figures which are typical of a class, and groups which represent no special incident, flower-pieces and representations of still life. The Dutch masters especially cultivated this style ; and of living painters in this department, the French artist Meissonier is, perhaps, the most eminent. GENTOO, gen' -too (Portuguese, gentio, gen- tile). — A name formerly given to the natives of India, but now obsolete. GEORGICS,” je-or'-jiks (Gr., georgika, things relating to husbandry). — The title of a poem on agriculture and rural economy, by Virgil, in four books. It is regarded as the most perfect of his works, and displays an intimate knowledge of the subject. GEOMETRICAL TRACERY.— A kind of architectural tracery where the parts are all more or less like diagrams in geometry. GERMAN LANGUAGE AND LITER- ATURE (Ger., Deutsche Sprache und Literatur). — The German language is a branch of the Indo- Germanic class of languages, which separated from the parent stock at a very early period. The Germans called their language Deutsch or Teutsch, from their ancestors, the Teutons. In its widest sense the Teutonic consists of two branches — the Northern, or Scandinavian, and the Southern, or German. The latter has three sub-divisions — the Eastern, or Gothic, the High German, and the Low German. The Gothic is the earliest of these of which we possess any literary remains, there being still in existence portions of a translation of the Bible into Gothic made by Bishop Ulfilas in the 4th century ; but we possess nothing of the High or Low German till the 7th century. Hence many persons have been led to regard the Gothic as the original source of the German ; but, according to Max Muller, the grammatical differences between the two are of such a nature as to show that this was impossible. “ There never was,” he says, “ a common uniform Teutonic language, nor is there any evidence to show that there existed at any time a uniform High German or Low German language, from which all High German and Low German dialects are respectively derived.” The Gothic language died out in the 9th century. The Low German {Platt Deutsch) comprehends many dialects in the north or lowlands of Germany, as well as the Friesian, Dutch, and Flemish dialects. The oldest literary document of Low German on the Continent is the Christian epic the “Heljand” (Healer or Saviour), which is preserved to us in two MSS. of the 9th century. There are traces of a certain amount of literature in Saxon or Low German from that time onward, through the Middle Ages, up to the 17th century, but little of that literature has been preserved ; and after the translation of the Bible by Luther into High German, the fate of Low German literature was sealed. High German {Hoch Deutsch^ has been the literary language of Germany ever since the days of Charlemagne. Its history may be traced through three periods— the Old High German, extending from the 7th to the 12th century ; the Middle High German, from the 12th century to the time of Luther ; and the New High German, from Luther down to the present time. In the present day there are various dialects of the German spoken in different parts of the country ; as the Swabian, Bavarian, Franconian, Saxon, &c. National Literature.— The earliest literature of Ger- many is known to us only by report or tradition. Ac- cording to Tacitus, the Germans celebrated in songs, which were old even in his time, the praises of their national deity Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as well as the deeds of their great heroes. When the nations be- gan to migrate, heroes of greater and greater renown march into the scene of song, and the historic forms of Attila, Theodoric, Gunther, and others appear. The two most ancient German poems are the “ Lay of Hildebrand and Hadubrand,” and the “Prayer of Weiszenbrun,” which belong to the 8th century. Many of the legends of this period were afterwards embodied in the lay of the “ Nibelungen,” the most celebrated production of German medieval poetry. The introduction of .Christianity exercised an im- portant change in the early literature of Germany. The Latin language came to be that of the church, the court, and the law. A kind of religious poetry, after the model of the Roman poets, was introduced in place of the ancient heroic and mythical songs, and was fostered by the court as well as by the clergy. The poetical remains of this period are chiefly of a religious nature, and, together with the contemporary prose literature, are not worthy of notice. Germany, by losing its French and Italian provinces, had become Germany again ; and a desire to cultivate the national literature again began to manifest itself ; but the nth century presents almost an entire blank in the history of German literature. The old High German had be- come a literary language chiefly through the efforts of the clergy, and its character was pre-eminently clerical. The Crusades, however, put an end to the clerical ele- ment in the literature of Germany. Middle High German, the language of the Swabian court, became the language of poetry, and the poets took their in- spiration from real life, though they borrowed their models from the romantic cycles of Brittany and Pro- vence. Poets made bold for the first time to express their own feelings, their joys, and sufferings, and epic poetry had to share its honours with lyric songs. There are two kinds of poetry of this period — the national, or people’s poetry, the production of stroll- ing minstrels ; and the art poetry, or that of the courts, composed chiefly by kings and courtiers. The fall of the Swabian dynasty of the house of Hohen- staufen, in the latter half of the 13th century, was the death-blow to German chivalric poetry. The middle classes, the burghers of the free towns of Germany, were now beginning to rise into power, and poetry again changed hands. It now passed from the abodes of princes and knights to the homes of burghers and the workshops of artisans ; and instead of the Minne- sanger, we have the Meistersanger, and their strains were more subdued, practical, and homely. Poetry became a trade, like an.y other, and guilds were formed, consisting of master-singers and their apprentices. In the 13th century, prose literature begins to flourish, and several local chronicles appear— as well as works on jurisprudence, and some sermons. In the 14th century, Germany possessed several mystic theo- logians, as Eckart and Tauler, men of clear intellect and energy of purpose, whose sermons and writings contributed to pave the way for the Reformation. In 1373, the first complete translation of the Bible into German was made by Matthias of Beheim. An im- portant event in this century, in its general influence upon the future progress of German literature, was the establishment of the university of Prague, followed soon after by universities in almost all parts of Ger- many. The 15th century was rich in scholars, but poor in men of genius or strong thinkers. The in- vention of the art of printing was a reformation in this century, the benefits of which were chiefly felt by the great masses of the people. It extended to them the privileges which had previously been confined to the rich. Between 1470 and 1500, several thousand editions of books were printed in Germany. The i6th century introduces, along with the Reformation, a new era in the history of the literature of Germany. Luther’s translation of the Bible is so pure in lan- guage, and so beautiful in style, that it is still re- garded, even in the present day, as a model of elegant expression. The religious quarrels which agitated GERMAN LANGUAGE 224 GERMAN LANGUAGE Germany during the i6th century gave to literature a theological direction,, and the first scholars of that time were more or less engaged in religious contro- versy. The period before and after the Reformation was especially fruitful in satirical and allegorical works. One of the most remarkable of the former class was the “Ship of Fools” (Narrenschiff), by Sebastian Brant, a metrical satire on the follies of the age. The most able satirical and didactic poet of the i6th‘ century was Johann Fischart, who has been called the German Rabelais. Of the popular songs {Volks- lieder) of this period, some have been much admired. The works of Hans Sachs, the poet and cobbler of Nuremberg, display a very remarkable degree of fertility, liveliness, and humour. He was the most popular poet in Germany during that century. His works are numerous, and in all styles of composition, from the most tragic touch of feeling to the most comic turn of thought. This period produced several distinguished scholars and men of science ; among whom may be mentioned Melanchthon, Camerarius (classics and philology), Cornelius Agrippa, Theo- hrastus Paracelsus (mystical philosophy and natural istory), Copernicus (astronomy), Leonhard Fuchs (botany and medicine), Conrad Gesner (botany and zoology), and Agricola (mineralogy). Towards the end of the i6th century, everything seemed drifting back into the Middle Ages ; and then came the Thirty Years’ war, which, in its consequences, was most dis- astrous to Germany. The physical and moral vigour of the nation was broken. "We meet with no trace of originality, truth, taste, or feeling in the poetry of that period, except, indeed, in the sacred poetry, many of the hymns of Paul Gerhard being still sung in the Protestant churches of Germany. A rage for every- thing foreign that then prevailed was utterly opposed to nationality or originality. The “ First Silesian school ” is represented by men like Opitz and Weck- herlin, and is characterized as pseudo-classical. It was imitated in the north of Germany by Simon Dach, Paul Flemming, and a number of less-gifted oets, who form the “ Kdnigsberg school.” The chief eroes of the “ Second Silesian school” are Hoff mann- waldau and Lohenstein, whose compositions are moi’e ambitious, bombastic, and full of metaphors than those of Opitz ; but are also more disappointing. Among the other works of this period we may men- tion the “ Simplicissimus,” a novel giving a lively picture of German life during the Thirty Years’ war ; the patriotic writings of Professor Schupp ; the his- torical works of Puffendorf ; the pietistic sermons of Spener and of Franke, Professor Arnold’s ecclesias- tical history ; the first political pamphlets of Professor Thomasius ; and among philosophers, Jacob Boehme at the beginning and Leibnitz at the end of the cen- tury. The xSth century was marked by a revolution in the literature and modes of thought in Germany. Johann Christoph Gottsched, professor of eloquence at Leipsic, in the early part of this century, exercised great power as a critic. Among those who distin- guished themselves were Gartner, Gellert, Kastner, Adolf Schlegel (father of the brothers Schlegel), Kleist, and Gleim. Of greater infiuence, however, than any of those here named, were Hagedorn of Hamburg, whose fables and songs have immortalized him in Germany; and Albert von Haller, the phy- siologist, remarkable also as a writer of descriptive and didactic poetry. During this literary struggle, the great names of German poetry sprang up— Klop- stock, Wieland, Lessing, Herder, Goethe, and Schiller. Klopstock’s “Messiah” made a profound impres- sion by its mystic, devout, and rapturous faith, as well as a work of art. The fashionable and elegant portion of society was attracted by the semi-Grecian semi-Parisian muse of Wieland. But it was reserved for Lessing to give a new direction to German litera- ture. He established a new school of criticism, and exerted a powerful influence upon the progress of the drama, by unfolding, for the first time, to the Ger- man mind, all the beauty, originality, and vigour of Shakespeare. His tragedy “Emilia Galotti,” his comedy “ Mina von Barnhelm,” and his philosophical drama “Nathan der Weise,” are models of dramatic composition. Herder, a man of vast learning as well as a poetic genius, exerted a strong influence upon the poets of his time, and contributed powerfully to promote the study of Oriental poetry, as well as the ancient popular songs of different nations. The crowning work of his life is his “ Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit.” Another great im- pulse was given by Winckelmann, whose writings on the remains of ancient art modified all the old theories of the beautiful. It was only, however, after Schiller’s union with Goethe (1795) that, by their combined labours, German literature was brought to that classic perfection which, from a purely local, has since given to it a universal influence. The philosophic spirit of this age also gave birth in rapid succession to the master minds of Kant, Fichte, Hegel, and Schel- ling. Jean Paul Richter is a peculiar and powerful writer of this period, whose works, though charac- terized by obscurity and irregularity, are frequentlv lighted up by flashes of humour and brilliant gems of thought and feeling. Novalis (von Hardenberg) is another strangely-constituted writer, whose works, though few and fragmentary, contain scattered thoughts of such wisdom and genius as to give them a high place in the literature of his country. Ludwig Tieck, a more voluminous and connected writer than his friend Novalis, was also much more of a creative genius. To the so-called Romantic school belong the brothers Schlegel— August Wilhelm, author of various critical and sesthetical works, and a metrical transla- tion of Shakespeare ; and Friedrich, known as a writer on the history of ancient and modern literature, and the philosophy of history. In almost every depart- ment of literature, the writers of the present or last century, in Germany, occupy a chief place. {See Ger- man Philosophy and German Theology.) Merely to enumerate the prominent recent and living authors would occupy more space than our limits will allow. German Philosophy.— The philosophic spirit which characterises Germany in the present day is only of comparatively modern origin. The old scholastic forms retained their place here long after they had been forsaken in France and England. Leibnitz was the first German who made an epoch in the history of German philosophy, and who, from the influence which he exerted on all sides, must be regarded as the originator of the philosophic spirit in Germany. Chris- topher Wolf sought to establish a system of philosophy complete in all its parts, according to the rules of strict logic, and he exerted a great influence for a time. With Immanuel Kant begins the more modern period of German philosophy ; and although, at first, his “ Critique of Pure Reason ” was in danger of being overlooked ; yet, after a time, this and the principal of his other critical works, which, after long preparation, made their appearance in rapid succession, gave a powerful stimulus to scientific research. {See Kan- tian Philosophy). J. G. Fichte believed that he had found that absolute point of unity which the criticism of Kant had indicated, in the fact of consciousness. Fichte, travelling on the path which Kant had pointed out, changed the half -idealism of Kant into a complete idealism, while he declared the ego to be, not only the bearer and source of knowledge, but also the only reality, the representation and act of which is the world. With this idealism began a kind of revolution- ary excitement among the philosophic minds of Ger- many, which contrasted strongly with the quiet and sober spirit of Kant. System followed system, philo- sophic literature became overwhelming, and the public excitement was general for twenty or thirty years. Schelling was the first to exert a more general influ- ence, and changed the idealism of Fichte, under the influence of Spinoza, into the so-called philosophy of identity. Schelling assigned intellectual intuition as alone corresponding to the absolute ; yea, as repre- senting, and identical with, the absolute itself. The organ of this intuition was called reason, and, as such, was opposed to the reflection of the understanding, which was held to be quite incapable of comprehend- ing absolute identity. In the direction indicated by Fichte and Schelling, the philosophy of Hegel also as- serted itself, and attempted to develop in regular suc- cession the contents of the intellectual intuition by the dialectic method. (See Hegelian Philosophy.)' While the systems above-mentioned form a tolerably straight line of progress, there arose certain other systems, as that of J. F. Herbart, in opposition to the idealism of Fichte, and which took a direction quite contrary to the philosophy of the time. Herbart, Schelling, and Hegel are the only thinkers that can GERUND 225 GLADIATORS claim to have exerted any general influence since the time of Kant. Among the numerous other thinkers of this time, who were chiefly occupied in defending or remodelling the older systems, we may mention Krug, Fries, and others, who were employed in the development of the Kantian system ; Steffens, Oken, Schubert, von Baader, and Eschenmayer, who were employed chiefly in physical researches ; those who attempted to exhibit systematically the philosophy of Jacobi ; the different attempts to bring back philo- sophy to an empirical psychology ; the peculiar specu- lative attempts of Schleiermacher, J. J. Wagner, Krause, Weisze, the younger Fichte, Branisz, E. Keinhold, A. Trendelenburgh, H. Bitter, A. Gunther, and others ; the different tendencies within the Hegelian school; and, finally, the relation which Schelling latterly took up to his own earlier teaching, as well as to that which had been developed out of them. GERUND, (Lat., gerundiurriy from gero, I carry), in Latin Grammar, is a part of the verb used to denote something as being done ; thus legendum, reading, from lego, I read. It is a sort of verbal substantive, being declined like a noun, but having the same power of government as its verb. In English, the present participle occupies the place of the gerund. GESTA ROMANORUM, jes'-ta ro-ma- no' -rum (Lat., the deeds of the Eomans), is the title of a work of the Middle Ages, written in Latin. It is a collection of stories, each of which purports to be a narrative of events which oc- curred during the reign of a Roman emperor. Some of the names given, however, were never borne by any emperor. Some of the stories are from Oriental sources, some originated in the Talmud, and some are derived from Greek litera- ture. They were probably written or collected early in the 14th century, and have been attri- buted to Petrus Berchorius, of the Benedictine convent of St. Eligius in Paris ; but it is probable that he only contributed the moral reflections and that the actual author (or editor, as in modern fashion, he might be styled) was a monk named Elinadus. The collection soon became popular in England. Preachers made used of the stories, and Chaucer, Lydgate, Shakespeare, and many others freely adapted them. The origin of The Merchant of Venice, King Lear, and Pericles may certainly be traced to this book; and German fabulists and novelists made great use of it. There are old translations into French, English, German, and Dutch. An edition was prepared by Sir Frederick Madden for the Roxburghe Club; and in 1880 an edition was published by the Early English Text Society. GHOSTS. {See Apparition.) GIAOUR, djowr (Turkish, infidel), a term applied by the Turks to Christians, or, indeed, to all who are not Mohammedans. Originally, it was employed as an expression of contempt or reproach, but it is now used merely as a dis- tinctive epithet. GIBBON’S “DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROI^IAN EMPIRE.”— One of the most elaborate and able historical works ever produced, written in a noble style, and exhibiting an almost unrivalled mastery of complicated details. The author, Edward Gibbon, conceived the idea of writing it when sitting amidst the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, on the 15th October, 1764. The first volume was published in 1776, and achieved a great success. The work was not com- pleted until June, 1787. Three years after the appearance of the last six volumes of the original L edition, the publisher, Mr. Cadell, issued an edition in twelve volumes, and he is said to have cleared £60,000 by the sale of the work. Writ- ing shortly after the appearance of the first volume, in 1776, Gibbon says, “The first impres- sion was exhausted in a few days ; a second and third edition were scarcely adequate to the de- mand, and the booksellers’ property was twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin. My book was upon every table, and almost on every toilette, the historian was crowned by the taste or fashion of the day.” The concluding chapters (isth and i6th), of the first volume, greatly alarmed re- ligious people, by its method of accounting for the progress of Christianity, and several elaborate replies, especially one by Bishop Watson, were published. In some modern editions these chap- ters were omitted ; but in the edition edited by Milman, the great ecclesiastical historian, the chapters are retained, with appended notes which successfully expose the weak points of Gibbon’s argument. The entire work, is described by Niebuhr, as probably the greatest achievement of human thought and erudition in the depart- ment of history. Prescott says of the author, “He exhibits his ideas in the most splendid and imposing forms of which the English language is capable ; ” and Alison, the historian of Europe, speaks of “ The Decline and Fall,” as the greatest historical work in existence. The history in- cludes that of the Western and Eastern empires ; and extends from the year 89 A.D., to the i6th century, when the Popes acquired the absolute dominion of Rome. GILLYFLOWER, jiV -le-jlower (French, girojle, a clove). — A popular name for wall- flowers, stocks, and the clove-pink. Some writers have suggested “July flower” as the origin of the name ; but Chaucer uses the form gilofre, evidently a corruption of the French. GINGAL, jin' -gal. — A large clumsy musket, fired from a rest, used by Chinese soldiers when defending a fortress. GIPSIES. (5^ee Gypsies.) GIRTON COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. A collegiate institution exclusively for female students. It was first established at Hitchin in 1869, and removed to Cambridge in 1873. There are about 60 young lady students, and many have highly distinguished themselves. GLACIS, gla'-se (Fr)., in Fortification, the inclined plane or slope that extends from the ex- terior of the covered way towards the open country. GLADIATORS, glad' -e-ai- tors (Latin). — Those persons who fought, generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment of the spectators. The custom of gladiatorial combats was intro- duced into Rome from Asia, and some suppose that the reason of keeping up the diversion was to accustom the people to despise danger and death. The origin of these combats seems to have been a custom in which many nations in- dulged, of sacrificing captives or prisoners of war to the manes of the men who had died in the campaign. The profession of gladiator became an art, the masters of which were called lanistas by the Romans. They purchased and trained up slaves for the purpose, and then sold them to those who had charge of the gladiatorial exhibitions. In process of time the Romans became so fond of these bloody entertainments that not only heirs P (GLASGOW, UNIVERSITY OF 22G GLORIA IN EXCELSIS coming into property, but all the principal magis- trates, presented the people with shows of this nature in order to court their favour. The em- perors also found it was much to their interest to provide gladiatorial displays. On several occa- sions Eome was in danger through the large number of gladiators. One of the most memor- able instances happened in the year 76 b.c., when seventy-four gladiators, headed by Spartacus, a Thracian, overcame their master at Capua, and fled to the mountains. There they were joined by runaway slaves and peasants, and soon be- came the terror of the country, and spread alarm almost to the gates of Kome. The war lasted three years, when Spartacus was slain by M. Crassus, after displaying much valour. Gladia- tors were classed according to the weapons which they used and the manner in which they fought. The Ordinarii fought in pairs in the ordinary way ; the Catervarii fought several together ; the Equities fought on horseback ; the Betiarii used a fork, called a tridens, and a net, which they threw over their opponent, who w^as generally armed with a short sword and a shield : the Andabatce fought blindfolded, the helmets which covered their heads having no apertmes — their ludicrous motions were very amusing to the spectators ; and the Hoplomachi, who fought in complete armour ; together with various others. All the gladiators wore armour on the right arm, if no- where else, and all wore helmets and carried shields, except the Eetiarii. When a gladiator was so severely wounded as not to be able to con- tinue the flght, his antagonist stood over him pausing, until he received the flat from the spectators, as to whether he should kill him or not. If he had fought well, the audience turned their thumbs downwards, to indicate that his life should be spared. If, however, he had neither shown courage nor address, they held up their thumbs, and the victor immediately passed his sword through the body of his fallen antagonist. Palms were awarded to the conqueror, and a gladiator, on retiring from service, was presented with a wooden sword. GLASGOW, UNIVERSITY 0 'F,gias'-go, was founded in 1451 by William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow, in terms of a bull obtained from Pope Nicholas V. in the preceding year. Two years after. King James II. conferred upon it, by royal charter, certain important privileges. In 1459, James Lord Hamilton bequeathed some property in Glasgow for the use of the College of Arts ; and a few years later, Thomas Arthurlie bequeathed another tenement to the college. During the period of the Reformation, this uni- versity was almost completely annihilated ; but in 1560, Queen Mary bestowed upon it the manse and church of the Preaching Friars, with thir- teen acres adjacent ; and in 1577, James VI. en- dowed it with the rectory and vicarage of the arish of Govan. Since that time the college as continued to flourish, and has given forth many learned men. In 1864, the university buildings and adjacent lands in the busiest part of the city were sold, and noble buildings were •erected, from designs by Sir G. Gilbert Scott, over the West End Park, on the bank of the Kelvin river, and opened in 1870. The cost of the building was about £500,000, of which £120,000 was voted by Parliament, and £100,000 was paid by a railway company for the old site. The building, which has a central tower 150 feet high, surmounted by a tall spire, is in the Early Pointed style, intermixed with the domestic Franco-Scottish. Governing Bodies and Office-Bearers. — The office- bearers are the Chancellor, Rector, Principal, and Dean of Faculties, The Chancellor and Rector are purely honorary offices, the former held for life by a nobleman of high rank (the Duke of Buccleuch being the present Chancellor), and the latter by some person of great literary or political eminence. The Rector is elected for three years by the students, and his chief duty is to deliver an address some time during his term of office. The Dean of Faculties is elected annually by the Senate. Faculties and Professors.— There are faculties of arts, law, medicine, and theology, with chairs for Latin, Greek, mathematics, logic, natural and moral philo- sophy, humanity, English language and literature, natural history, botany, chemistry, anatomy, physio- logy, institutes of medicine, pathology, materia medica, practice of physic, clinical surgery and medicine, mid- wifery, surgery, divinity, chmch history. Oriental languages, Biblical criticism, conveyancing, civil engin- eering, and astronomy. Students’ Bursaries and Exhibitions. — There are about 1,500 matriculated students, divided, according to their place of birth, into four ‘ ‘ nations : ” — Glottiana, (Lanarkshire), Transforthana (Scotland north of the Forth), Rothseina (Buteshire, Renfrewshire, and Ayr- shire), and Loudoniana (all other places). There are, in the gift of the Senate, about 30 bursaries, of the yearly value of from £6 to £50 ; and ten exhibitions at Oxford, founded by John Snell, a native of Ayrshire, who, in 1688, bequeathed a considerable estate in War- wickshire for the support at Balliol College, Oxford, of Scotch students who had studied at the University of Glasgow. Degrees.— The degrees granted are Master of Arts, Doctor of Medicine, Master of Surgery, Bachelor of Divinity, Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws, and Bachelor of Laws, the last three being honorary. GLASSES, MUSICAL, an instrument of music, composed of a number of drinking -glasses, tuned by filling them more or less with water, and played upon by rubbing them with the end of the finger damped. The smaller the quantity of water contained in a glass, the lower is its tone : hence, it is evident that by proctxring a number of glasses, exactly alike in size and shape, and putting a certain amount of water in each, a complete scale may be formed. [See Haemonica. ) GLEE, glee (Sax., glie),^ vocal composition in three or four parts, generally consisting of more than one movementj the subject of which, notwithstanding the received sense of the word glee, may be either gay, tender, or grave. GLEEMEN , glee! -men, a name given by the Saxons before the Conquest to those who were afterwards called “ minstrels.” Their art con- sisted not only in being the poets and historians of their times, but they were also buffoons, rhymers, singers, story-tellers, and jugglers, all these branches being sometimes filled by one man, but oftener by several. GLOBULAR PROJECTION, ghh'-u-lar, the name more particularly applied to a kind of projection, very seldom used in map-drawing, in which the eye is supposed to be situated at a point which is distant from the part of the globe that is represented by one half of the chord of an arc of 90?. GLORIA IN EXCELSIS, glo'-re-a in eks- sel'-sis (Lat., glory to God in the highest), is the name of a hymn in the Roman Catholic service, and also in the communion service of the Church of England, and is so called from the words with which it begins. It is founded on the hymn of GLOSS GOLDEN LEGEND 227 the Angels, given in Luke ii. 14, and is vdry ancient, appearing nearly as now used in the Apostolic Constitutions. It is also known as “the great Doxology.” GLOSS, gloss (Gr., glossa, a tongue or lan- guage). — The explanation or interpretation of un- common or foreign words ; hence the term glossary^ which is applied to a collection of such words arranged and explained in alphabetical order. In Jurisprudence.— The name is given to the inter- pretations or explanations of the Justinian code, which were generally written between the lines of the text and on the margin, and were hence called glosscB interlineares and glossace marginales. These glosses were sometimes held to be of equal authority with the text itself. Accursius, who died about 1260, collected and arranged the glosses of his predecessors. The practice of introducing glosses was also adopted with the books of the canon law. In Biblical Criticism. — The explanation of verbal difficulties in the text, in reference especially to foreign, provincial, obsolete, or technical words. There are various Hebrew, Greek, and Latin glossaries. GLOVE, gluv (Sax., glof), a covering for the hand, and is divided into compartments for each separate finger. Xenophon asserts that the Persians used gloves in cold weather, and makes a charge against them, on that accotmt, for their luxurious habits. They were in early use in Eng- land, as is learned by their Saxon name; and in the Middle Ages they were decorated with gold and x^recious stones, and formed a costly article in the dress of kings, nobles, and prelates. In the days of chivalry, it was the custom for the knights to wear the glove of a lady in their helmet, and this gift from the fair sex was esteemed a great favour, the knight’s success in arms being considered as owing to the virtue of the lady. Throwing down the glove or gauntlet, was likewise esteemed a challenge to single combat amongst our ancestors, and he who took up the glove thus cast down was deemed to have accepted the wager of battle. According to an ancient custom, it is the practice on a maiden assize — that is, when there is no offender to be tried— for the sheriff to present the judge with a pair of white gloves, and a similar prac- tice is frequently observed in a magistrate’s court ; also during the time fairs were held, it was the custom to hang out a glove from the town-hall, and as long as it remained suspended there, all persons visiting the fair were privileged or exempt from arrest ; and the taking down of the glove was a signal that the fair was closed and the privilege at an end. GLYPHOGDAPHY, gli-fog'-ra-fe . — A pro- cess now very httle practised, intended as a cheap substitute for wood-engraving. A plate of metal has an ordinary etching-ground placed upon it. the metal is etched in the usual manner. It is afterwards submitted to the action of a voltaic battery, whereby a plate with the drawing in relief is obtained. This plate may be printed in conjunction with type, or separately, at a typo- graphical press. GNOME, nome (Gr., a sentence or opinion), a short sententious saying, conveying some maxim or moral precept. The gnomic poets are those Greek poets whose remains consist chiefly of gnomes, short sententious precepts and reflec- tions. The principal writers of this class are Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Tyrtseus, Simonides. GNOME (Gr. , gnomon, knowing, cunning), is the name given by cabalistic writers to a certain class of elemental spirits, which they believe to inhabit the earth and to preside over its treasures. They were of both sexes, and some were said to be beautiful, and others ugly. They sometimes did good, and sometimes evil, to man, the latter especially when they were irritated. The well- known German Rubezahl, or “ Number Nip,” being of this class. Pope and Darwin have made graceful poetical use of these spirits in “The Eape of the Lock,” and “Loves of the Plants.” GNOMONIC PROJECTION, no-mon'-ik. {See Projection.) GOBLIN , gdb'-lin (French, gobelin ; Greek, kobalos). — In popular superstition, a spirit which lurks about houses or in lonely places, “bogies,” or “bogles.” Shakespeare uses the word in Hamlet in the sense of a malignant sph’it, “ gob- lin damned ; ” and Milton, as equivalent to the good-natured elf which assists in household work, “ the drudging goblin.” GOBELIN TAPESTRY. Tapestry.) “ GOD SAVE THE KING [QUEEN].” The national anthem of Great Britain, respecting the origin of which there has been considerable disimte. The music is generally credited to Dr. John Bull, a composer of eminence in the time of James I., and who set to music an ode begin- ning, “ God save great James our King,” written in commemoration of the discovery of the Gun- powder Plot ; but recent research has proved that Dr. Henry Carey, an English poet and musician, who died in 1743, was the author of the words and the music. It was performed for the first time in pubhc at a dinner given in 1740 by the Mercers’ Company, in honour of the birthday of George II. The words have been oc- casionally altered to suit the exigencies of metre dependent on the change of the sovereign’s name. The air has been adopted as the national anthem of Germany. Attempts have been made to show that it is almost identical with an old French air. GOG AND MAGOG, — These names have been popularly given to two huge figures that adorn the Guildhall of London. Many fables are given of the origin of these worthies ; and some antiquaries suppose they were intended to represent two mighty Cornish giants, who figure largely in legendary history. The old giants, which were of wickerwork and pasteboard, were destroyed by the great fire of 1666, and the present ones, of wood, were constructed in 1708. They are fourteen feet high. GOLDEN FLEECE. — in Greek legend, the fleece of a ram which it was the object of the Argonautic expedition to recover. {See Argon- AUTic Expedition.) GOLDEN LEGEND (Lat., Aurea Le- genda), a work of a Dominican friar, James de Vorgaigne, who was born in or about the year 1230, and who became first provincial of his order, and afterwards archbishop of Genoa. The Golden Legend consists of a history and descrip- tion of all the different saints and festivals in the calendar. From the fact of its being more de- scriptive than critical, it illustrates the religious habits of the period better than any other work could have none. The title “ Golden Legend ” was adopted by Longfellow for one of the most beautiful of his longer poems, founded on a medieval story of a young maiden who was will GOLF 228 GOTHIC ARCHITECTUEE ing to sacrifice her life to secure the restoration to health of her prince. GOLF, golf (Du., kolfy a club). — A very popular game in some parts of Scotland, but the exact period of its introduction is unknown. It is played with a ball and clubs, on links or downs. The ball is of gutta-percha, painted white, and about an inch and a half in dia- meter. The clubs are of various kinds, accord- ing as the object may be to send the ball a long or a short distance, to raise it out of an awk- ward position, &c. The game is played on extensive links, and a series of small round holes about four inches in diameter, and perhaps the same in depth, usually several hundred yards apart, are disposed so as to form a circuit or roxmd, composed probably of six or eight of them ; but much depends upon the nature of the gi’ound. The game is properly played by only two persons; but sometimes there are two or more persons on each side, and then those on one side strike the ball alternately. The object of the game is to drive the ball from one hole into another with the fewest number of strokes, and the person who puts in his ball with the fewest number of strokes is said to gain a hole. The match is usually decided by the greatest number of holes gained in one or more rounds. GONDOLA, gon' -do-la (Ital.), a peculiar kind of boat used at Venice for the same purposes as cabs and carriages in other cities. It is usually about thirty feet long, five in breadth, and light and elegant in form, having high prows, some of which are of elaborate workmanship and elegantly carved. About the centre a cabin is erected for the passengers, which is carpeted, hung with cur- tains, and fitted with stuffed cushions. A law was passed by the ancient republic ordaining that all these boats were to be painted black and hung with black cloth, except those for the use of foreign ambassadors and for state purposes. The name gondola is ^ven in other parts of Italy to passage boats having six or eight oars. GONFALON, gon' -fa-lon. — The name given in Italy to a standard or ensign. In some of the cities the chief magistrates were formerly known as gonfaloniers. GONG, gong (Ang.-Sax.), a musical instru- ment, used in Asia chiefiy to give a national cast to the music, or to awaken surprise and arouse the attention of the auditors. It is of a shallow, circular, concave form, and is made of a composi- tion of tin and copper, and its tones, which are very deep and sonorous, are produced by striking it with a kind of drumstick, having a head covered with leather. In this country the gong is em- ployed in public gardens and institutions as a signal for the departure of visitors, and some- times in country houses as an intimation that dinner is preparing. The name is imitative of the sound. GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. — The college was originally founded in 1348 by Edmond GonvUle. Bishop Bateman of Norwich, the executor of Gonville, altered the name to the “ Hall of the Annuncia- tion of Blessed Mary the Virgin.” Dr. Caius, an eminent court physician, obtained a Royal Charter in 1558, and refounded the college, altering the name to that which it now bears. There are a master, 32 fellows, and 40 scholars. The fellow- ships are not vacated by marriage, but terminate at the end of ten years, except under certain cir- cumstances. The scholarships are all open, and are divided into four classes of different values — nine of £60, nine of £40, eight of £30, and four- teen of £20. There are also two scholarships of the annual value of £52 los. appropriated to Harrow School ; and five Tancred studentships in medicine, each of the annual value of £100. The number of undergraduates averages about 135. GORDIAN KNOT, gor’-de-an not. — ^Ac- cording to Greek legendary history, a knot made in the harness of a chariot by Gordius, king of Phrygia, which knot was so intricate as to baflle every attempt to untie it, or even to find out where it began or ended. The oracle of the day having declared that he who succeeded in solving the complications should be the conqueror of the world, Alexander the Great determined to effect it if possible. Deliberating that if he failed, his followers would be dispirited, he determined to separate it with his sword, and with one blow he cut the momentous Gordian knot, which was fraught with such interest to the whole world. The expression “ cutting the Gordian knot,” has consequently been used by the moderns to signify eluding any difficulty or task by bold or unusual means. GORE. — In Heraldry, a charge cutting off one third of the shield. A gore sinister is a mark of dishonour. GORGE, gorj (Fr.), the name that is given to the entrance of any military work, or that part which is open to the rear between the inner extremities of its flanks or faces. GORGET, gov' -jet (Fr., gorgette), a small piece of steel armour, intended to protect the neck and throat. It was worn by officers in the army long after the use of armour had been abandoned. GOSSIP, gos'-sip (Sax., God-sib, a kinsman in God), was a name formerly given, in England, to the sponsors at baptism. It is formed from God and sib (affinity), and hence denoted one who was considered to have a kind of spiritual affinity to another. In popular language, the word was sometimes applied to a priest who heard confes- sions. « GOTHA, ALMANACH DE,” go'-tha, is a famous publication which takes its name from the city of Gotha, in Germany, where it is pub- lished. It is a small pocket volume, 32mo, con- taining nearly 1,000 pages, and has been issued every year since 1763. It is chiefly remarkable for the large amount of statistical and political information which it contains, regarding all the different states of the world ; and as these are always prepared with care from the most reliable sources, it is received as an authority upon such points. German and French editions are printed. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, go'-thik. The name given to the style of architecture that was adopted by European nations generally dur- ing the medieval ages. The name was first applied as a term of reproach by the Renaissance architects [see Renaissance) to the medieval styles. We may consider Gothic architecture to consist of two divisions — ^the Romanesque, or round-arched Gothic, and the Medieval, or pointed Gothic, to which the term “ Gothic” is now more particularly applied, and, indeed, generally restricted. The early forms of the GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 229 GRAMMAR round-arched Gothic were based on the archi- tecture that prevailed in ancient Eome about the time of the Christian era, in which the circular arch is a common feature. {See Roman- esque Architectuke.) During the nth, and the early part of the 12th century, Gothic archi- tecture was in a state of transition from the first stage to the second, round and pointed arches being used indiscriminately; and in the cathe- drals and churches that were erected in England during this period, such as Canterbury Cathedral, Glastonbury Abbey, and the Abbey Church of St. Albans ; and in France, nearly to the close of the 13th century, many of the characteristics of the Romanesque and Pointed styles of Gothic architecture are to be seen in juxtaposition. Medieval, or Pointed Gothic architecture, dates from the middle of the 12th century, and is divided, in England, into three distinct varieties, known as the First, Second, and Third Pointed, or, the Early English, Decorated English, and Perpendicular English styles of architecture. The principal characteristics of these styles, and the period of time during which each was succes- sively the prevailing form of Anglo-Gothic archi- tecture, are mentioned elsewhere. {See Early English, Decorated English, Perpendicular English.) These three styles were all marked by the use of the pointed arch struck from two centres, which varied in form, the arches being termed obtuse or acute as the centres were taken within or without the span of the arch. Of the different forms of pointed arches that may be obtained by varying the position of the centres from which the curves that form the arch are described, the equilateral arch, in which the centres coincide with the extremities of the span, is considered as the characteristic of architecture that may be termed purely Gothic. During the prevalence of the Third Pointed, or Perpendicular English style, an arch was introduced which is known as the four-centred or depressed arch, being composed of segments of circles struck from four different centres, and having the point of the arch but a short distance above the span. This arch became the characteristic feature of the Tudor style of architecture {see Tudor Archi- tecture) ; a style which is generally termed by architects debased English, and which was the last phase of Gothic architecture in England, being the prevailing style, especially in colleges and buildings of a private character, until the middle of the i6th century. From this time few, if any, buildings were erected after the Gothic style in this country, until its revival about 1825, which is mainly owing to the endeavours of A. W. Pugin, an architect of considerable eminence in his profession, to restore a taste for Gothic architecture, especially in buildings designed for ecclesiastical purposes, that had long lain dor- mant. Since that time considerable improve- ment has been effected in the style of our church architecture ; and among other public buildings that have been erected in this style may be named that magnificent structure the New Palace of Westminster. Sir. G. W. Scott, Mr. Street, and other eminent architects have de- signed many splendid churches and public edifi- ces in this style. French Gothic architecture, like that of England, is divided into three styles, termed Ogival primitif, Ogival secondaire, and Ogival tertiaire, or Flamboyant ; corresponding to our First, Second, and Third Pointed styles in their principal characteristics, and the period of time during which they prevailed. GOTHIC LANGUAGE. {See German Language and Literature.) GRAAL, OR GREAL, SAN, or HOLY, grail -al. — The subject of many medieval legends, and of metrical romances founded there- in. Graal, or greal, a word of uncertain origin, means a dish or chalice. The legends represent the Holy Graal to have been brought from heaven by angels, and to have been drunk from by Christ at the Last Supper. One version of the legend affirms that the graal was the dish which held the paschal lamb on the same occasion. It was made of a single precious stone, and had the power of preserving purity, and prolonging life. J oseph of Arimathea was said to have caught the last drops of the Saviour’s blood in it ; and it was afterwards guarded by angels and then by a number of pure and devoted knights on an inac- cessible mountain. The legends and poems referring to Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table {see Arthurian Legends) repre- sent some of the knights as engaging in the search for the Holy Graal, and encountering extraordin- ary adventures ; and Tennyson has embodied the legend in his “ Idylls of the King.” It appeared in German poetry as early as the 13th century. GRACES, THE — in Greek mythology, the goddesses of grace, beauty, and gentleness. Homer does not limit their number, representing them as attending on Venus, especially at the back. Most of the later poets mention three, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne ; but others re- fer to two only. In pictorial and plaster art, they are generally represented as three beautiful nude nymphs affectionately embracing. GRACIOSO, grath-e-o' -so (Sp.), is the name given in Spain to the buffoon, who is a very popular personage on the stage in that country. GRADUATE, grad'-u-ait (Lat., gradus, a step), is one who has taken a degree at a college or university. The act of conferring degrees is called graduation. {See Degree, University.) GRADUS AD PARNASSUM, grai'-dus ad par-nas'-sum (Lat., a step to Parnassus), is the name of a classbook used by scholars for as- sisting them in the composition of Latin verses. The words are arranged in alphabetical order, and the quantities of each marked. The first work of this kind was by the Jesuit Aler, and published at Cologne, 1702. GRAFFITO, graf-fe'-to (Ital., a scratching), is the name given to a class of inscriptions which have been found in Pomi^eii, Rome, and other ancient cities, and which have recently excited some interest. They are street scribblings, the names, words, and sentences which are found rudely traced in charcoal or red chalk, or scratched with a stylus on the plaster of the walls or pillars in the public places. Many of the inscriptions are of a religious character, others political ; but the great majority of them appear to have been personal, and often of a satirical or grossly libellous character, and frequently disgusting. They are certainly not worth the labour bestowed on them by some scholars and antiquaries. GRAMMAR, gram! -mar (Fr., grammaire; Gc&c.., grammatik ; G[V.,grammatike ; gram- matical). — The art of speaking or writing any language with correctness and propriety. With- out attempting any alteration in a* language already in use, it furnishes certain rules, founded GRAMMARIAN 230 GREEK ARCHITECTURE on observation, to which the method of speaking adopted in that language may be reduced; and this collection of rules is called the grammar of that language. But apart from grammar, as ap- plied to any particular language, there is the pure science of grammar, otherwise called uni- versal grammar, which views language only as significant of thought, and, neglecting particular and arbitrary modifications, introduced for the sake of beauty, or otherwise, examines the ana- logy and relations between words and ideas ; distinguishes between those particulars which are essential to language and those which are only accidental ; and thus furnishes a certain standard by which different languages may be compared, and their several excellencies or de- fects pointed out. It was through the study of the ancient dialects of their own language that the Greeks of Alexandria were first led to critical and philological studies. The general outline of grammar existed at an earlier period, but they were the first to study the language critically, analyzing and arranging it under general cate- gories, distinguishing the various parts of speech, inventing proper technical terms ]^or the various functions of words, &c. The first real practical Greek grammar was that of Dionysius Thrax, a Thracian, who went to Koine, and taught the language there about the time of Pompey. He was the first who applied the results of the labours of former philosophers and critics to the practical work of teaching. His work thus be- came one of the principal channels through which the grammatical terminology which had been carried from Athens to Alexandria flowed back to Rome, to spread from thence over the whole civilized world. After Constantine had moved the seat of government from Rome, grammatical science received a new home in the academy of Constantinople. There were no less than twenty Greek and Latin grammarians who held professor- ships at Constantinoifie. Under Justinian, in the sixth century, the name of Priscianus gave a new lustre to grammatical studies, and his work remained an authority during the Middle Ages to nearly our own times. Grammar, in its essence, may be described as a logic of words, showing their mutual relation in accordance with the logical consistency of the thoughts they express. In treating of the grammar of any language, gram- marians usually divide the subject into four dis- tinct heads : — Orthography, or the art of com- bining letters into syllables and syllables into words ; Etymology, or the art of deducing one word from another, and the various modifications by which the sense of any one word can be diver- sified consistently with its original meaning, or its relation to the theme whence it is derived ; Syntax, or what relates to the construction or due disposition of the words of a language into sentences or phrases ; and Prosody, or that which treats of the quantities and accents of syllables, and the art of making verses. All language is made up of words, which may be defined to be sounds significant of some idea or relation, and may be distinguished as — i. Substantives ; 2, Attributives ; 3, Definitives ; and 4, Connectives. {See Adjectives, Adveebs, Articles, Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, and other headings.) GRAMMARIAN, gram-mai' -re-an, was anciently a title of honour given to persons accounted learned in any art or faculty whatso- ever ; but now it is commonly applied to one who is skilled in or who teaches grammar. GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, Schools.) GRANDMASTER, a name which was applied, during the Middle Ages, to the chiefs of the various dominant orders of knighthood, as the Templars and the Hospitallers, the latter of whom were later termed the Knights of Malta. The grand-master was, in a sort of a way, the sovereign for life of the order which he com- manded, and his word was law in all matters, whether concerning life or death. GRAPE-SHOT, p'aip, a kind of shot used against troops advancing in column at a short distance, or, in naval warfare, to sweep the decks of an enemy’s ship at close quarters. It consists of a number of balls fastened together, in the form of a short cylinder. The balls vary in weight, according to the calibre of the inece from which they are to be discharged. The shot are placed between a series of iron plates, the whole being kept together by pressure, exerted by a nut screwed on to the end of the bolt which passes through them. The shot begin to scatter immediately on leaving the muzzle of the piece. GRAPHOTYPE, gra'-fo-tipe (Gr., grapho, I write ; tupos, an impression), the name given to a process of engraving, discovered in i860, by Mr. de Witt Clinton Hitchcock, an artist of New York, enabling the artist to become his own engraver. An artificial chalk block or plate is produced by grinding the best French chalk to a fine powder with water, to a thin cream, and by pressure depositing it on a zinc plate, which then presents a perfectly smooth upper surface. The artist proceeds as in the ordinary method of drawing on wood. The drawing being completed, the portions of the chalk surface intervening between the lines of the drawing, are disintegrated and removed, to the depth of an eighth of an inch or so by means of brushes, some of them of fitch-hair and others of silk velvet, and the chalk block is then hardened by being soaked in a solution of an al- kaline silicate. A mould is then taken from the chalk block, and a type-metal cast produced from this mould. The process is now very little used. GRAYITA, grav-e'-ta . — In Music, an Italian term directing that the piece is to be played or sung in a grave and earnest manner. GREAVES, greevz (Sp, and Port., grevas), pieces of armour used at a very early period to defend the leg between the knee and the ankle. They formed a part of the armour of the early Eastern nations. At the time of the Norman Conquest, armour for the legs consisted of hose, on which scales or rings of metal were fastened. When plate-armour came into use, the greaves consisted of plates of polished steel, covering the fore part of the legs. GREEK ARCHITECTURE.-The early architecture of Greece is exemplified in the massive remains of walls at Mycenae, Argos, and others of the old Grecian cities, which are com- posed of huge, irregular, undressed blocks of stone roughly piled together. {See Cyclopean Architecture.) It is devoid of ornament, but in one or two instances examples remain of at- tempts to adorn the stones forming the piers and lintel of a gateway with rude representations of animals, as in the principal entrance to tlie Acropolis of Mycenae mentioned above. Grecian architecture, properly so called, was the produc- tion of a far later age, and may be traced to that GREEK ARCHITECTURE 231 GREEK LANGUAGE of Egypt and Western Asia, combining, as it does, the strength and solidity of the former ■with the more elegant features and decorative principles of the latter. The Doric, the first of the three Greek orders, assimilates more closely to the architecture of Egypt than either of the others, in its substantial and massive propor- tions : it is simple in character, but always con- veys to the mind of the spectator a striking iin- IKession of its dignity and beauty. The Ionic order, and its ornamentation, is derived from the architecture of Western Asia, and is characterized by a greater degree of lightness in its proportions than the Doric order possesses, and the introduc- tion of decorations in minor details. The Corin- thian, the last, and by far the most elegant of the Greek orders, surpasses the Doric and Ionic orders in its elaborate adornment and symmetry of proportion ; but, even in this, a similarity to the architecture of Egypt can be traced in the bell-shaped capitals of its columns and the clusters of leaves that curl outwards from its surface. But, although each order exhibits a decided step in advance of that which precedes it, as far as elegance and ornament are concerned, the three orders were uniformly characterized by beauty and harmony of proportion ; and it may be said that the buildings of ancient Greece, especially the temples, were superior to those of any climate and any age, as regards simplicity of form, the purposes for which they were intended, and the habits and requirements of the people for whose use they were erected. The chief characteristics and the scale of proportions pre- served in the three Grecian orders, will be found elsewhere (see Akchitectuke) ; and the principal parts that compose what is termed an order in classic architecture are treated under their re- spective headings. (See Architrave, Base, Capital, Column, Cornice, Entablature, Frieze.) The temples of the Greeks were generally placed on a level platform, consisting of three steps rising one above another, and of greater or less depth in proportion to the height and diameter of the columns that were placed upon them. These steps were too steep to afford the means of access to the temple, and it is sup- posed that intermediate steps were placed at intervals along the larger ones, to allow the worshippers to pass easily from one to another, and thus to gain the level of the portico. The Greek -windows and doorways, hke those of the Egyptians, were narrower at the top than at the bottom, the sides inclining inwards. They were generally surrounded by a moulding, which was broken at the top of the -window by a right angle, and turned outwards on either side, for a short space, in a horizontal direction, before resuming its perpendicular course, so that an architrave or lintel was formed above the window of the same width as the sill below. The doorway was al- ways in the centre of the portico of the temple, and was carried up to a considerable height for the purpose of admitting light into the interior. The arch is never employed in Grecian archi- tecture, which is chiefly characterized by the use of the beam supported on columns, by which an appearance of great strength and solidity is ob- -tained. It is also marked by its strict adherence to outlines formed by horizontal lines, and lines that are vertical, or nearly so, being frequently slightly inclined inwards. It is a known prin- ciple in perspective, that straight lines proceed- ing to a great distance in the same direction present a slightly curved appearance to the eye of an observer. To correct this appearance, the Greek architects carefully constructed their vertical and horizontal lines in the form of a very slight and scarcely perceptible curve, giving their columns an entasis, as it is termed, or a slight out-ward swelling near the middle ; which principle of construction was effected by means of certain fixed rules. The columns, also, in- stead of being vertical, had a slight inclination inwards, and their pavements, and the platforms on which the temples stood, were constructed with a very slight rise in the centre. Of the three orders of Grecian architecture, the Par- thenon at Athens, and the Temple of Minerva at Aigina, may be cited as the best examples of the Doric order ; the Erechtheum and Pandrosium at Athens, of the Ionic order ; and the choragic Monument of Lysicrates, in the same city, as the most beautiful, and almost the only existing, pure Greek specimen of the Corinthian order. GREEK MUSIC. — Until quite a recent period it was believed that the art of music had attained to a high degree of excellence -with the ancient Greeks. The inquiries and dis- coveries of the learned, however, have demon- strated the truth that the art of music among the old Hellenes was but in an imperfect state. The scale was not based on the octave, but on fourths, and consisted of five tetrachords each containing four consecutive sounds, the last sound of one tetrachord being the first of the next. All that are known to be in existence of the old Greek music are a few hymns and an ode by Pindar. Even these fragments are held by some scholars to be spurious. GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERA- TURE. — The Greek consists of three principal dialects — the Aiolic, Doric, and Ionic ; to which at a later period was added the mixed Attic dialect; and besides these there were several minor dialects. The Doric was a rough, hard, broad dialect, with long a predominant over all the other vowels. It was spoken originally in the mountains of Thessaly, whence it travelled southward, and became the language of the greater part of the Peloponnesus. The Aiolic was a more ancient dialect than the preceding, but was refined at an earlier period, and was less harsh than the Doric, although also broad and open. It was spoken north of the Isthmus of Corinth (with the exception of Megaris, Attica, and Doris), in the Aiolic colonies of Asia Minor, and on some islands of the Aigean sea. It con- tains some of the Pelasgic forms, and is to be found in the fragments of Sappho, Myrtis, and Alcaeus. The Ionic is the softest and most musical of all the dialects. It abounds in vowels and diphthongs, and is partial to labials and linguals. It was the earliest cultivated of the dialects, and is that of Homer, and other of the early authors, as Hesiod, Herodotus, &c. It was spoken principally by the people of Attica and the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor. The Attic sprang from the Ionic, from which at first it differed but little. It was developed principally after the Persian wars, and was brought to per- fection by the poets, philosophers, and historians of Greece, who flourished after that time. It held a middle place between the hardness of the Aiolic and Doric and softness of the Ionic. It was harmonious and powerful in its expressions, concise and regular in its syntax. (See Attio Dialect.) Grammarians have distinguished between the genuine Attic and the Attic of GREEK LANGUAGE 232 GREEK LANGUAGE common life, calling the latter the “common Greek,” or “Hellenic dialect;” and even the later Attic writers, posterior to the golden age of the literature, were called “ Hellenes,” or “ com- mon Greeks.” At what time this language first began to be expressed in writing is a question of much uncertainty. According to tradition, Cad- mus the Phoenician introduced the alphabet into Greece about 1500 years B.c. The ancient letters were all uncial, or what we call capital ; the present cursive or round letters occur first in inscriptions of the age of Augustus, and resemble the Coptic forms. The Greeks wrote originally from right to left ; afterwards alternately, the one line from right to left, and the next from left to right (called houstrophedon, as being the mode in which oxen ploughed in a field) ; and finally from left to right, as we do now. The Greek language is a branch of the great Indo-Germanic family of tongues. It is rich in roots, flexible in the formation of words, picturesque in its modes of expressing thought, highly plastic and eupho- nious. Its syntax is free, full of inversions, subtle and perfect, yet without obscurity. Its antiquity, its intrinsic excellence, its literature, and its influence on the progress of the fairest portion of mankind, challenge our deepest admira- tion. Modern Greek. — The language of modern Greece is what is termed Romaic, or Neo-Hellenic. It differs from the ancient Greek chiefly in the formation of the tenses, and in the termination of the nouns ; but the difference between the two is not greater than between the Doric and the Attic dialects of ancient Greece. The tendency of late years has been to assimilate it more and more to the ancient ton^e; and a good ancient Greek scholar will have little difficulty in making out a Greek newspaper of the present day. Greek Literature.— The origin of Greek literature is lost in the darkness of antiquity. The earliest existing monuments of it carry us back to nearly 1000 years B.C., and even then we find the art of poetical composi- tion existing in the highest perfection. The admirable structure and the wonderful language of the Homeric poems imply a long period of antecedent culture. {See Homehic Poems.) Of the poets previous to Homer nothing satisfactory is known. The names of many of them, as Olen, Linus, Orpheus, Musjbus, and many others, are preserved to us ; but their works are all lost. Hesiod, the next great epic poet after Homer, was a Boeotian, and is believed to have flourished about the middle of the 9th century before Christ. His principal poems are the “ Works and Days,” the leading subject of which is the various occupations and duties of life in its several relations ; and the “ Theo- gonia,” containing a history of the origin of the world and the genealogies of the gods. Lyric poetry arose on the decline of the epic, and was much cultivated from about B.c. 776 to the commencement of the Persian wars. Next to the gods, who were celebrated at their festivals with hymns, their country, with its heroes, was the leading subject of their song ; and in every- thing there was a more powerful impulse towards meditation, investigation, and labour, for the attain- ment of a desired end than before. The greatest of all the masters of lyric song, however, was Pindar, born at Cynoscephalse, in Boeotia, in b.c. 522. Of his numerous compositions, we have only the four series of Epinician odes, i.e., odes written in commemoration of victories gained at the four national festivals— the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. The earliest writers of prose were those who first en- gaged in philosophical speculations. (See Greek Phibosophy.) In history the lonians took the lead. Cadmus of Melitus, about 540 b.c., is the earliest ; Acesilaus of Argos soon followed ; then Pherecydes of Leros, Charon of Lampsacus, Hellamicus of Mitylene, Dionysius of Melitus, all of whom preceded Herodotus, but are rather chroniclers than historians, in the strict sense of the term. The first great historian was Hero- dotus of Halicarnassus (484 b.c.), the “ Father of His- tory.” The drama took its rise from the festivities with which the country people solemnized the gathering in of the vintage, and which were accompanied with songs and dances. By degrees, variety and some measure of art were given to these proceedings. The first direct step to the introduction of the drama was made by Thespis, who added action to the chorus (b.c. 536), and who exhibited on movable stages, at the cross-ways or in the villages. He was folio .ved by Phrynichus, who flourished B.o 511, and who was the first to bring female characters upon the stage. iEschylus, the great perfecter of the tragic art, was born at Eleusis 525 b.c. He first substituted actors who repeated their parts by rote, in place of an inter- mediate speaker, who related his story extempo- raneously. Sophocles and Euripides, the other great masters of Greek tragedy, fiourished soon after .Eschylus. Comedy was first brought into regular form by Epicharmus, who lived about 500 b.c. &ati- nus. Crates, Phrynichus, and Eupolis, are well-known names in this field ; but the greatest is Aristophanes. (See Aristophanes, Comedies and Satires of.) The fertility and excellence of the Greek dramatic literature were most remarkable. The prose composi- tions that belong to this age were equally distinguished by their appropriate excellences. In history we have Thucydides (born 471 b.c.), whose work on the Pelo- ponnesian war is not only the first specimen of what has been called philosophical history, but remains un- surpassed down to the present time. The historical works of Xenophon (born 447 b.c.), though not equal to that of Thucydides in vigour of colouring and depth of reflection, are yet adorned with every grace of nar- rative and description. His other works are valuable for the light they throw on the spirit of Greek institu- tions and the peculiarities of Greek life. Of the works of Ctesias, Philistus, Theopompus, and Ephorus, which belong to a period somewhat earlier, none have come down to us entire. In philosophy, to which the teachings of Socrates (born 468 b.c.) gave a great im- pulse, we have the writings of Plato (born 428 b,c.) and his pupil Aristotle (born 384 b.c.). Plato was endowed with a brilliant imagination, and loved to soar into the highest regions of speculation ; while Aristotle was a student and observer, practical results being the objects of his investigations. In the same period, political eloquence, always a characteristic form of Greek eloquence, reached its highest perfection. The first rhetorical school at Athens was opened by Georgias of Leontini. Other sophists and teachers of rhetoric were Protagoras, Prodicus, Hippias, &c. Among the Athenian orators whose works are extant, in whole or in part, are Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Lycurgus, Hyperides, .Eschines, Demades, Demos- thenes, and Dinarchus. Mathematics was now culti- vated, and geography served to illustrate history. Astronomy is indebted to the Ionic school, arithmetic to the Italian, and geometry to the Academic school, for many discoveries. As mathematicians, Theodorus of Gyrene, Meton, Euctemon, Archytas of Tarentum, and Eudoxus of Cnidus, were celebrated. Geography was particularly enriched by voyages of discovery, which were occasioned by commerce. After the death of Alexander, although literature still continued to be cultivated in Greece, yet, till the Roman Conquest, the principal seat of letters and science was Alexandria ; and this period is called the Alexandrian age. Its characteristics were erudition, criticism, and the study of science ; and in poetry, the only original species was the bucolic or idyl. The principal poets were Bion of Smyrna, Theocritus, Aratus, Lycophron, Callimachus, and Moschus. During the Roman supremacy, and down to the introduction of Christianity, the principal poet was Nicander ; the most important prose writers —Polybius, Apollodorus, Dionysius, Thrax, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Dionysius Periegetes. From this period to the close of the Roman empire in the west, are two parallel series of writers — the Pagan, and the Jewish and Christian. Of the former, the most important are Babrius, Strabo, Epictetus, Plutarch, Dion Chrysostomus, Arrian, Paus- anius, Marcus Antoninus, Aristides, Lucian, Diogenes Laertius, Achilles Tatius, Dion Cassius, Athenaeus Herodianus, Philostratus, Plotinus, Longinus, lambli- chus ; of the latter, Josephus Philo, the authors of the books of the New Testament, Clement of Rome, Justinus, Polycarp, Irenseus, Clemens of Alexandria, and Origen. During the long period which elapsed GREEN-ROOM 233 GUILDHALL between the establishment of the seat of government at Constantinople, a.d. 330, and the capture of that city by the Turks, a.d. 1453, the names in Greek literature are comparatively few. They comprise the series of authors known as the Byzantine historians ; the ecclesiastical and other writers, as Eusebius, Atha- nasius, Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius, Synesius, Socrates, Basilius, Georgius Pisides, Malales, Georgius Syncellus, Nicephorus, Photius, Constantine Porphy- rogenitus, Leo (Philosophus), Theodosius ; the rheto- ricians and grammarians ; a few poets, as Moschus, Quintus of Smyrna, Coluthus, Agathas ; and in the 12th century, Ptochoprodromus ; the romance writers — Longus Xenophon of Ephesus, Heliodorus ; the his- torians, as Zosimus, Procopius, Anna Comnena, and her husband Bryennius, Chalcocondylas, &c. After the capture of Constantinople, intellectual pursuits lan- guished under the tyranny of the Turk. Modern Greek Literature.— Since the establishment of the Greek kingdom, literature has made great pro- gress in Greece. In the department of education, the publications have been innumerable. In history, works of distinguished merit have appeared. Many news- papers and other periodicals are now published at Athens and other parts of Greece, as well as at Constantinople, London, &c., in the Neo-Hellenic, and everwhere the people seem to be making rapid advances. GREEN-ROOM is the name given to the actors’ retiring-room in a theatre, and was origin- ally conferred probably on account of its being painted or otherwise ornamented with green. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. {See Cal- EXDAE.) GREGORIAN CHANT, greg-or' -e-an. About 600, Pope Gregory I. (the Great) made improvements in the musical services of the Church at Kome by substituting the scale of the octave for the Greek tetrachord hitherto in use {see Greek Music), but retained some of the best modes of the Ambrosian Chant. {See Ambrosian Chant.) At first the chant was sung in unison and in notes all of the same length. The letters of the Eoman and Greek alphabet were at first used to express the notes, but in course of time came a system of notation ; but a stave of only four lines was used. Ch'egorian tones are a certain melodious formula made out of the union of a perfect fifth and a perfect fourth. At first there were eleven or twelve of these tones, but they were subsequently reduced to eight, which are sufficient for all the purposes of Church song. This chant is known as Plain song. GRENADE, gre-naid- (Sp., granado), a mis- sile invented and brought into use about 1594, consisting of a small shell about two or three inches in diameter, charged with powder, and fired by a fuse, or by percussion-caps placed on nipples projecting from the surface. It is thrown by the hand. GRIFFIN, OR GRYPHON, grif-fin (Fr., griffon ; Lat. , gryphus). — A fabulous animal, sup- posed to be generated between a lion and an eagle. It is represented with four legs, wings, and a beak ; the upper part resembling an eagle, and the lower having the characteristics of a lion. This ima- ginary animal was supposed to watch over gold- mines and all hidden treasures, and was conse- crated to the sun, whose chariot some of the ancient painters represent as drawn by griffins. The griffin is found on many old medals, and it seems to have been a principal ornament of Grecian architecture. In Heraldry, the griffin is the symbol of strength, swiftness, courage, and vigilance, and it thus finds a place on many escutcheons*, it is fully blazoned rampant, although occasionally segreiant is thought to be its proper position. The ugly so-called griffin, set up by the corporation of London to mark the spot where Temple-Bar stood, is really a heraldic dragon. The griffin, mentioned sometimes in Scripture, was a species of eagle, called by the Latins ossifraga, or osprey. GRIMM'S LAW. — A law announced by Jacob Ludweg Grimm, a distinguished German philologist (1785-1863), as regulating the inter- change of the consonants in corresponding words of the different Aryan languages. He discovered that the consonants go through a cycle of changes — for instance, fr becomes /, and then 6, which has a tendency to pass into p, and so the cycle begins again. This law obviously applies most strictly to unwritten languages, in which there is no fixed system of orthography. GRISELDA, gris-eV-da. — The name of the heroine of a popular tale of the Middle Ages, originally apparently Italian, but which was subsequently adopted by various other nations. She was originally a poor charcoal-burner, whom the Marquis Walter of Saluzzo took to wife, and then put her humility and obedience to the hardest tests ; but having victoriously withstood them all, a reconciliation took place. As a tale, said to have an historical foundation, we first meet with it in Boccaccio’s Decameron. Chaucer introduced the story into his “Canterbury Tales.” It was translated into Latin by Petrarch in 1373, and in the 15th century it was well known in Germany. It was dramatized in Paris in 1393 ; in England, with the title The Patient Griszel, 1599; and in Germany, by Hans Sachs, in 1546. GROG.-The rum and water served out to sailors. Admiral Vernon, who introduced the drink into the service, had been nicknamed “ Old Grog,” from his habit of wearing a grogram coat in wet weather, and the name was transferred to the beverage. GROINED VAULTING, groind.-\n Architecture, that kind of vaulting in which one vault cuts into another — ^the angle formed by the intersection being known as the groin. GROTESQUE, gro'-tesk (Italian, grotto ). — ^A style of classical ornament, which received the name from having been rediscovered in the excavations made in the Koman baths of Titus. The leading feature of this style is the mingling of animal and vegetable forms ; and in the Re- naissance period the name was extended to fanci- ful combinations of natural forms. GROUP, groop. — In Design, the combination of figures so as to form an agreeable whole. GUARD, gard. — In Military Ian guage, the name applied to a body of soldiers charged with the care of prisoners, or the protection of baggage and military stores. A guard of honour is a de- tachment on duty on special occasions, as a token of respect. The name was formerly applied to a man who travelled with a coach to look after the safety and convenience of passengers, and is now given to a railway official in charge of a train. GUERRILLA, gwer-riV-la (Sp., a little war- fare, from guerra, war), a name applied in Spain to armed and irregular bands of peasants or others who keep up an independent system of hostile attacks upon an enemy. GUILDHALL, gild-hawl. — An important public building of the city of London, the seat GUILLOCHE 234 GUN, AIR of the municipal Government, and the place of its civic meetings and festivities. Of the original Guildhall little now remains hut the stone and mortar of the walls, it having suffered greatly by the great fire of 1666. It was patched up by Wren, and again in the last century by Dance, who, in 1789, erected the present. A magnifi- cent free library and reading-room, designed by Mr. Horace Jones, was opened in November, 1872. GUILLOCHE, OR GUILLOCHOS, geel-lotche' , geel-lo' -kos (Greek, guiort, a member; lokos, a snare). — In Architectiu’e, an interlaced ornament, consisting of two bands crossing and recrossing one another, and forming a regular pattern. GUILLOTINE , giV-lo-teen. — ^An instrument used for the infliction of capital punishment by decapitation. In general form it usually consists of two upright posts surmountedby a crossbeam, and grooved so as to allow an oblique-edged knife with a heavily-weighted back to descend surely and swiftly when the cord by which it is sus- pended is let go. The instrument took its name from Joseph Ignace Guillotin, a physician in Paris, who was a member of the French National Assembly at the time of the Revolution, and proposed its adoption by the Assembly. This name, however, was bestowed upon it in derison and anticipation, and climg to it, in spite of an attempt to call it the Louison, after M. Louis, the secretary of the College of Surgeons, who actually presided over the construction of the machine, which Guillotin had only indicated. Its adoption was proclaimed in a decree of March 20, 1792. It is a common error to suppose that Dr. Guillotin fell a victim to his own invention. To attribute the invention of the guillotin to Dr. Guillotin is also a mistake. It had been in use for centuries in Germany, in England, Scot- land, and Italy. Its use at Halifax, in England, is traced as far back as the reign of Edward III. , and the last criminals who suffered by it were executed in 1650. In the museum of the Anti- quarian Society of Edinburgh, a rudely-shaped guillotin, called “ the Maiden,” is still preserved. A machine was also used by the Italians which closely resembled the guillotine, and Mannia. The guillotine was not, therefore, a new instru- ment when it was adopted by the French. After being in exercise for a few months, it became the delight of the Parisian mob ; and not of the mob only, for it was cannonized in the philosophical rubric as la Sainte Guillotine, and, in miniature, became the model of ornaments for women and toys for children. During the period of one year and one month, while the guillotine stood in the space now known as la Place de Concorde, 1,256 persons were executed by it. Afterwards it was removed to the Barriere du Trone, where it despatched 1,270 persons of both sexes. The guillotine is still the instrument of capital punishment in France. GUITAJEl, git-tar^ (Fr,, guitare), a musical stringed instrument, supposed to have originated in Spain, where it is very common ; indeed, so much so, that there are few, even of the poorer classes, who cannot play on it. About the middle of the last century it became so popular in England as to greatly injure the sale of other in- struments. The guitar is of a somewhat oval form, having a neck similar to that of the violin. The strings — six in number — are stretched from the head to the lower end, passing over the sounding-hole and bridge. The sound is produced by twitching the strings with the fingers of the right hand. GULES, gulez, in Heraldry, the term used tO' denote a red colour in armorial bearings. The origin of the term is much disputed. In engravings of coats-of-arms this colour is expressed by parallel lines crossing the field in a perpendicular direction, “GULLIVER’S TRAVELS,” guV-li-ver. — The title by which Dean Swift’s masterpiece is most generally known. The full title is “ Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. By Samuel Guilliver, first a surgeon and then a captain of several ships.” The sup- posed author professes to describe four voyages — I, to Lilliput, the country of pigmies, only four or five inches high ; 2, to Brobdingnag, the in- habitants of which are giants of enormous size, so that Gulliver bears the same proportion to them that the Lilliputians did to him ; 3, to Laputor, Balnibarbi, Luggnagg, Glubbdubdrib, and Japan ; 3, to the country of the Hou- ynnhnms, where horses were the superior race, and human beings, or Yahoos, the most degraded and revolting creatures. It will be noticed that Japan is the only real name in the list, and that country is only incidentally mentioned as touched at on the return voyage. The attraction of the book to the general reader is almost confined to the Lilliputians and Biobdingnagians. The others contain much subtle satire of the scientific men and politicians of the time ; and the voyage to the country of the horses was painful for the savage cynicism and contempt for humanity exhibited by Swift. The description of the earlier voyages abounds in satire of political per- sons and social customs, but it is generally good tempered and highly humorous. The book ap- peared in 1727, eight years after the appearance of the first part of Defoe’s “ Robinson Crusoe ; ” and the effect of the style of that remarkable author on Swift is very noticeable. There is the same literalness of style, the same attention to accuracy in minute details which makes the fiction appear so truthful, and the opening of the first chapter in which Gulliver relates the incidents of his early life might have been written by Defoe himself. The book has gone through innumerable editions. Sir Walter Soott said of it, “Perhaps no work ever exhibited such general attractions to all classes. It offered per- sonal and political satire to the readers in high life, low and coarse incidents to the vulgar, marvels to the romantic, wit to the young and lively, lessons of morality and policy to the grave, and maxims of deep and bitter misan- thropy to neglected age and disappointed am- bition.” Lord Jeffrey wrote in the Edinburgh Review, “ The idea of making fictitious travel the vehicle of satire as well as of amusement is at least as old as Lucian, but has never been carried into execution with such success, spirit, and originality as in this celebrated performance.” GUN, gun (Ang.-Sax.). — An instrument con- sisting of a barrel or tube, of iron or other metfil, from which balls, shot, or other missiles are dis- charged by the explosive force of gunpowder. The larger species of guns are called cannon; the smaller species are called rifles, muskets, carbines, fowling-pieces, &c. GUN, AIR. {See Air-Gun.) GUSSET 235 GYPSIES GUSSET, gus'-set . — A piece of armoiir in- tended to protect the part where the defences of the arm and breast left a vulnerable gap. In Heraldry, a gusset, represented by aline extending diagonally across the upper part of the shield, and then descending perpendicularly to the base, is an abate- ment, or mark of disgrace for unknightly conduct. In some cases, a knight had behaved so ill that his shield was marked with two gussets. GUTTURALS, gut'-tu-mls (Lat., guttur, the throat), is a name given to certain sounds formed in the throat or back part of the mouth. In English there are, properly speaking, no gutturals ; but the palatals, g and A;, are nearly allied to them. In the Spanish language alone, of those derived from the Latin, are gutturals common. In German, the guttural ch is very common, as it was also in Greek ; and it occurs in Scotch in such words as loch. The Arabian language is full of gutturals. GYMNASIUM, jim-nai' -ze-um (Gr., gum- nos, naked). — The name given by the Greeks to those places in which their youth exercised them- selves naked. The gymnasia of the Greeks and Romans were looked upon as an important part of their educational systems. The Greeks, in- deed, devoted more time to the gymnastic train ing of their youths than on all the other depart- ments of education. There were three public gymnasia in Athens — the Academia, Lyceum, and Cynosarges, besides several smaller private ones. In these gymnasia there appear to have been ten gymnasiarchs, or superintendents, with many inferior officers. The gymnasium of the ancients was not one building, but rather a group of edifices, which could contain a vast number of people. In Rome, during the Republic, there were no buildings which could be compared with the Greek gymnasia. Under the Caesars, the public baths bore some resemblance to them, but the gymnasia may be said to have disappeared with the thermae. Modern Gymnasia. — The name is employed, in the present day, to designate the higher class of schools in Germany — those that are intended to be immediately preparatory to the university. The gymnasia differ from other schools, which are intended to give a suit- able education for such as are destined for business or trade, in having as their object the bestowing of a mental and scientific education on such as are intended for the universities. The course of study usually ex- tends over six or seven years. GYMNASTICS, jim-nas' -tiks . — ^Those exer- cises of the body and limbs which tend to invigo- rate and develop their power. Gymnastic games are of very ancient origin. It is only since the commencement of the present century that gym- nastic exercises have been revived as a science. In 1806, the revival began in Prussia, when gym- nasia were opened, and the science became so popular that it rapidly attracted attention. Sweden imitated Prussia; and from that time the practice of gymnastics has formed a leading feature in the course of education in both coun- tries. As the gymnasia in Prussia began to be the scenes of political meetings of a kind offen- sive to the government, they were abolished in 1818. The practice of gymnastics was, however, kept up by the troops, and with such evident success that a similar course of training was adopted in the French army in 1844. England was late in recognising the advantages of this kind of training; but the troops at Aldershot and other camps are now regularly instructed in the science. Gymnasia have, however, been long in use in private life in this country. The gym- nastic exercises adopted by the pugilists and wrestlers of the present day in their course of training fail to produce on the mind or body any desirable effect ; and the same was ob- served in the condition of the athletes of old. But gymnastic exercises, practised under proper control, must act beneficially, both mentally and physically. In general, all methods of instruction are divided into a number of courses regularly graduated, beginning with elementary and parti- cular movements, so as to render every part of the body pliant, and to develop the muscles. These exercises are called elementary gymnastics ; while exercises in leaping, vaulting, climbing, swinging, walking on stilts, &c., are called ap- plied gymnastics. In ordinary gymnasia, the principal apparatus employed consists of the horizontal pole, the parallel bars, the masts or poles, the ropes, the triangle and trapeze, the ladder, the wooden horse, the inclined plane, and the fiying-course, or giant’s stride. The national games of England by themselves contain nearly all the advantages to be got by gymnastic exer- cise. These games, although not all, perhaps, originally belonging to this country, have been adopted, and have become peculiarly national through their popularity and regular imi)rove- ment. GYPSIES , jip'-seez, a term derived from a corruption of the word Egyptians, and applied to a wandering race of people, who are found dis- tributed over many countries of Europe and Asia. A great amount of speculation has been indulged in as to their origin; but from linguistic and other evidence, it seems to be established that the north of India was their first home. Several writers of great ability have investigated the sub- ject, especially Mr. George Borrow and Mr. Leland, and the latter, in Ms recently published works, “ The English Gypsies and their Lan- guages,” and “The Gypsies,” has possibly accu- mulated all the information that can be obtained on the subject. From these sources we gather that the Gypsies are representatives of one of the tribes that, six or seven hundred years ago, came from India into Europe. Their language, which they have carefully preserved, keeping it very free from the slang of the ordinary tramps, we are told “carries the philologist back to a day before the Sanscrit, of which it is said to be ‘ an elder, though vagabond, sister.’ It is so full of old Hindi words that the more intelligent Gypsies can vaguely understand a conversation in Hindu- stani, and declare that ‘ it is Rommanis, though very bad Rommanis ’ ” Rommanis, or Rommany, is their name for their language and their race. They seem to have migrated into Europe from the East at the beginning of the 12th century, and the earliest known notice of them occurs in a German paraphrase of the book of Genesis, by a German monk, about 1122, who mentions “ Ishmaelites and braziers,” noted for their cheat- ing dishonest tricks. A much larger migration took place about two centuries later, probably as a result of the invasion and conquests by Tamer- lane ; and many of them settled in Hungary. They appeared in many parts of Germany, in Switzerland, and Italy. One Swiss historian, Stumpf, says that 14,000 of them appeared at Basel in 1422, but that is probably a considerable exaggeration. They first appeared in Paris in 1427, representing themselves as Christian peni- tents, driven out of Egypt by the Saracens. They GYPSIES 233 GYROMANOY were more than 120 in number, and, according to a French writer, “They had their ears pierced, from which depended a ring of silver ; their hair was black and crispy, and their women filthy to a degree, and were sorceresses, who told fortunes.” They gave various accounts of themselves, saying among other things, that they had been driven out of Egypt by the Saracens, that they were •condemned to roam through the world as a pun- ishmentfor their want of hospitality to J oseph and Mary ; also that they had been once Christians, but having renounced the faith, the Pope had imposed on them a wandering life as a penance. {A modern writer, Mr. Roberts, it maybe noticed, believes them to be the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, and their wanderings to be the pun- ishment predicted by Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, for the sins of their forefathers.) They u,nd their people, who arrived in great num- bers, obtained permission to remain in the king- dom ; but after a short while, on account of tJieir idleness and depredations, terrible laws were en- acted, in order to suppress them and drive them from the country. The name of “Bohemians” was given to them by the French, probably because a larger number of them had come into France through Bohemia. Many, in consequence of the severity shown towards them, were driven back into the woods and forests of the same country ; •others passed into Germany and Hungary ; while bands of others swarmed over the Pyrenees, and poured down upon the jilains of Spain. The names by which the gypsies are known differ with the country in which they are found, al- though, with one or two exceptions, not materi- ally. In Russia they are styled Zigani ; in Turkey a,nd Persia, Zingarri ; in Germany, Zigeuner ; in Spain, Gitanos ; in Italy, Zingani ; all which words apparently spring from the same root, I)robably “ Zincali,” a term by which these people sometimes designate themselves, and the mean- ing of which is supposed to be “ the black men of Zend, or Ind.” The Zigani are found in most parts of Russia. Their principal employment is trafficing in horses and curing the diseases in cattle. In Moscow, however, they have given up their wandering habits, and inhabit stately houses, and go abroad in elegant carriages, being behind the higher orders of the Russians neither in appearance nor mental acquirements, and are especially noted for musical ability. The females are celebrated for their vocal powers. Mr. W. R. S. Ralston says, “ All who have heard their women sing are enthusiastic about the weird witchery of their performances.” The Czigamy, or Hungarian gypsies, live in rags and filth, but are merry, and fond of music. They are addicted to horse-dealing, and are tinkers and smiths in a small way ; the women tell for- tunes, and both sexes are incorrigible thieves. In Wallachia and Moldavia, they call themselves Roumouni, and in all countries the gypsies style themselves, and the language which they speak, Rommany. In the gypsy language, Rom means a husband, and Rommany the sect of the hus- bands. Although no country appears less adapted for this wandering life, which seems so natural to these people, than England, it is nevertheless true that they do exist here, and the covered cart and little tent of the Rommany seldom re- main more than a day or two in one place. When the gypsies first arrived in England, they were much persecuted. After a time their per- secutors got weary of jiursuing them, and at present they are considered in some degree as a privileged people. Although their way of life is unlawful, it is connived at, the law of England having discovered, by experience, that it is in- efficient to restrain them from their habits. The male gypsies in England are dealers in horses, and sometimes employ their idle time in mending the tin and copper utensils of the peasantry ; the females tell fortunes. In all countries the gypsies are very handsome when young, but hideously ugly when they grow old. In no land is the ap- pearance of the gypsy so prepossessing as in this country. They have tawny skins, black hair and eyes, graceful slender forms, and very expressive features. They exhibit a remarkable liking for bright and showy colours in dress. The dialect of the Rommany which they speak is tolerably pure, but mixed with English words. Dabbling in sorcery has always been a profession of the gypsies in all times and countries, and is especi- ally the province of the females. They are divided into classes or tribes in England, each of which acknowledges a head, sometimes a female, popularly known as the queen. Considerable numbers of gypsies have found their way to America, where the vast area of the country is appreciated by these born wanderers. They are apparently prosperous, and do not beg as many of the English gypsies do. This strange people have no inherited religion, profess no creed, maintain no service, and appear to have no idea of a God. A recent writer describes them as “ natural Posi- tivists.” They render a sort of worshij) to the dead, and abstain from food, drink, and other indulgences as a kind of offering to the memory of the dead. Mr. Leland gives instances of men who for years did not touch their favourite drink, out of regard to the memory of a brother ; others, in similar circumstances, have abandoned tobacco. GYROMANCY,>'-o -manse (Ger., guros, a circle, and man^aa,aprophecy), isakind of divina- tion performed by a soothsayer, by means of a circle. The soothsayer usually describes a circle variously marked with letters, and then walks round it with various ceremonies, saying magic words and making mysterious motions, the more effectually to deceive the uninitiated. H. H is the eighth letter and sixth consonant of the English alphabet. It may, however, be said to be a semi-vowel rather than a consonant, being pronounced merely by a forcible emission of the breath. {See Aspirate. ) The Greeks and Latins never, therefore, considered it as a consonant, but only as a breathing ; and in the language of the former there was no distinct letter for it, but merely a sign. In Latin, many words were written indifferently ^vith or without an ^ ; as arundo, harundo. In those languages in which h is considered a consonant or pronounced hard, it is classed with the gutturals. It is a very delicate letter, and is frequently not sounded at all — the tendency being, as a language gets softened, to make it always lighter. The Italians have almost JOUST. hawk dressed. THE LURE. HAWKING. ILLUMINATED LETTER. ISOMKTRICAL PERSPECTIVE. HACKNEY-COACH 237 HANGING GARDENS entirely banished h as an independent letter out of their language. H, as a Latin numeral, de- notes 200, and with a dash over it 200,000. HACKNEY-COACH.— A vehicle which, before the introduction of cabs, was let for hire in the London streets. The name is not, as some ersons suppose, taken from the suburb Hackney, ut from the French haquends, “let out for hire.” HAKLUYT SOCIETY, hak'-luit, the name of a society formed in the year 1846, for the purpose of printing in English, for distribu- tion among its members, rare and valuable voyages, travels, and geographical records, in- cluding the more important early narratives of British enterprise. This society was named after the celebrated old English geographer and historian, Eichard Hakluyt, or Hackluyt. HALBERT, or HALBERD, haV-lert (Fr., halleharde), an offensive weapon consisting of a shaft about five feet long, made of oak, having a steel head resembling a bill-hook. It was much used formerly, but is seldom or ever now seen, except in some Scotch boroughs, where it is em- ployed by the civil officers who attend the magis- trates in processions and on other public oc- casions. HALCYON DAYS, haV-se-on.—A term applied by the ancients to the seven days which immediately precede and follow the shortest day, from the circumstance that the halycon or king- fisher selected that period for incubation, and they believed that, on that account, the weather was always remarkably quiet about that time. Hence the phrase “halcyon days” has passed into a proverb, as denoting times of peace and tranquillity. HALL, hawl (Sax., heal; Ger., saal; Lat., aula; Fr., salle), the principal apartment in the castles and mansions of the Middle Ages, which was used on all occasions of ceremony, and in which the meals were served. Some of the palaces of the early Saxon kings appear to have consisted of little else than the hall. The earliest existing specimens are of the 12th century ; and though none of them retain their roofs or fittings, it is apparent that several of them were divided into three alleys, by rows of pillars and arches. In these haUs the king, together with his courtiers and all his retainers, dwelt, sat at the same table, and round the same hearth. The Normans built halls very similar to those of the Saxons; and with few modifications, similar buildings were erected until the 14th century. The hail held its place as the chief room of the house, in which the king or lord of the manor administered justice, gave audiences, or received and entertained his guests. From the 14th century downwards, numerous examples of large and stately halls still remain, the finest being Westminster Hall. There is a noble hall at Hampton Court, and there are fine examples in several of the col- leges at Oxford and Cambridge. The hall ori- ginally was essentially a part of feudal architec- ture. At the upper end, a portion of the floor, called the dais, was raised one or two steps above the rest, on which was placed the principal table, at which the host and superior guests sat. HALLOWEEN, HALLOWEVEN, or ALLHALLOW EVEN, hal-lo-een'. — The eve, or vigil, of All-Saints’ Day, which is the istof Novem- ber. It was formerly customary in some parts of England to crack nuts, duck for apples in a tub of water, or catch at them when stuck upon one end of a kind of hanging beam, at the other ex- tremity of which is fixed a lighted candle, and that with the mouth only, the hands being tied behind the back. In Scotland, these ceremonies were of a more superstitious character. Young people believed that, by employing some particular charm, they could see their future husbands and wives. Burns describes the amusements in his- poem “ Halloween.” HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM, ham-il-to'- ne-an. — A system of teaching languages, after Mr. James Hamilton (1769 — 1831), an English merchant, who afterwards took to teaching languages. His system is simply this : — to have some simple book in the language about to be learned, usually the gospel of St. John, with an interlinear translation, so literal as to show at once the number and case of the noun, as well as the mood, tense, and person of the verb. Each word has under it its exact English equiva- lent, and in its primary signification. The system has the advantage of bringing the pupil at once to a practical acquaintance with the rules and idioms of the language ; by which means his attention is awakened and kept up, while, at the same time, he is acquiring a knowledge of words in the best possible manner, by having the foreign word, with its English equivalent, presented through the eye to the mind, together, or at the same instant. HAMLET (Fr., hameau, a village ; or Sax., ham, home). — A little village, or a small cluster of houses. HANDICAPPING, hand' -i-kap-ping . — A term used by sporting men to describe the mode of equalizing competitors in a race or game. In horse racing, the best horses carry extra weights j in foot races, the weaker runners have a certain start, and so on. The handicapper, or person who arranges the conditions, must have large ex- perience and a keen perception of merit. HANDWRITING, hand' -ri-ting, in Law,, is, in general, proved by a witness who has seen the person write. The mark of a person wh» cannot write is proved by a person who has seen him make his mark, and is acquainted with it. In some circumstances, as where the party ia resident abroad, the evidence of one who has fre- quently received letters from him would be ad- mitted, though he had never seen him write. Evidence of handwriting by comparison is inad- missible, except where the writing acknowledged to be genuine is already in evidence in the cause, or the disputed writing is an ancient document. This rule does not, however, apply to the court- or the jury. HANGING GARDENS. A series of mag- nificent gardens laid out on elevated terraces at Babylon, and stated by the Greek romantic his- torians to have been constructed by the mythical Queen Semiramis. According to Diodorus and Strabo, the form of these gardens was square, each side being about 400 feet in length ; so that the area of the base was nearly four acres. They were made to rise with terraces con- structed in a curious manner, above one another, in the form of steps, and were supported by stone pillars to the height of more than 300 feet, gradually diminishing upwards tiU the area of the superior surface, which was flat, was reduced considerably below that of the base. It is most HAREM 238 HARP probable that these gardens were constructed in the latter days of the Babylonish empire by the magnificent King Nebuchadnezzar, to gratify his Median wife, Amigitis, that she might not be afflicted with a longing for her native mountain scenery. HAREM, ha -reem! (Arab., the sacred or in- violable), is the name generally given among Mo- hammedans to those apartments which are appro- priated exclusively to the female members of a family. It is also applied to the holy cities Mecca and Medina, and especially to the mosque at Mecca, Mesj id-el-harem. HARLEIAN COLLECTIOK {See British Museum.) HARLEQUIN, har’ -le-Tcwin (Ital., arlechi- no ; Ft., arlequin). — The name of a personage who figures largely on our stage in the panto- mimes, and who has been borrowed from the Italian. The character of the ancient harlequin was a mixture of extravagant buffoonery with great corporeal agility, while his expressions were characterized by impudence, drollery, satire, and often indelicacy. His character, however, changed about the middle of the i6th century. He became a simple, ignorant servant, who as- sumes all colours, and is easily induced, through fear or interest, to commit all sorts of tricks or knaveries. He excels in extempore sallies, and tries very hard to be witty, even at the expense of being malicious. In this country, harlequin is a graceful and active dancer in a pantomime {see Pantomime) ; the buffoonery and tricks be- ing allotted to the clown. HARMONICA, har-mon' -e-ka, a musical instrument now seldom or ever used, which derived its origin from the musical glasses. Its sounds are produced from glasses blown as nearly hemispherical as possible, each having an open neck or socket in the middle, into which a per- forated cork is fitted. The largest glass is nine inches in diameter and the smallest three. Be- tween these there are twenty -three different sizes. The glasses are placed on a round iron spindle (fixed horizontally in the middle of a box, and made to turn on brass gudgeons at each end), one within the other, each leaving about an inch of its brim above that of the other. The spindle is turned by means of a foot-wheel, and the tones produced by rubbing the exposed parts of the glasses with the ends of the fingers damped and rubbed with chalk, to bring out the tone more readily. The glasses also should be occasionally wetted with a sponge and clean water. Many attempts were made to play it by keys, but none have succeeded. HARMONIUM, har-mo'-ne-um (Gr.), a musical instrument of modern invention, bearing eome affinity to the organ, but, unlike that instru- ment, made upon a principle technically termed the “free vibrating reed,” which was long sup- posed to have been a European discovery, but is now ascertained to have been known in China long before it was heard of in Europe. It con- sists of a brass plate containing an oblong slit, having a thin elastic tongue fixed to one end, in such a manner, and so exactly fitting into the slit, as to completely close it, but so that it will, upon the pressure of the wind on the free end, pass either inwards or outwards, without touch- ing the end or sides. Debain, of Paris, was the first to construct a keyed instrument upon the free-reed principle of a really useful character. Several attempts had been made, but all had more or less failed, until Debain invented the harmonium. The wind is supplied by means of bellows with two feeders, which the player moves alternately with his feet. Some harmoniums are made with two rows of keys, increasing the musical value of the instrument. {See Organ, American.) HARMONY, har'-mo-ne (Gr., harmonia), the agreement of two or more united sounds. It may be either natural or artificial ; the former consisting of the harmonic triad, or common chord, and the latter of a mixture of concords and discords, bearing relation to the harmonic triad of the fundamental note. In modern music the term is employed to designate a union of melodies, a succession of combined sounds, com- posed of consonant intervals, and moving accord- ing to the stated laws of modulation. Harmony is the combination of sounds and the succession of chords, and may be said to combine the life and soul of music. The ancients knew very little of harmony, and it has not yet been introduced into the music of the Chinese and other Eastern nations. It is a comparatively modern invention. The laws regulating the succession of chords were at first rather arbitrary. {See Chord.) Har- mony may be divided into simple and compound. Simple harmony is that in which there is no con- cord to the fundamental above an octave. Com- pound harmony is that which to the simple har- mony of an octave, adds that of another octave. From the union of harmony and melody music is formed. Although melody may exist without harmony, harmony cannot exist without the melodious arrangement of each of its several parts. {See Melody.) HARMONY OF THE SPHERES.— Many of the ancient philosophers held that the regular movements of the various heavenly bodies through space produced a kind of harmony, which they called the “harmony of the spheres.” Shakespeare, in the Merchant of Venice, makes Lorenzo say to Jessica, — “ There’s not the smallest orb which thou behold’st, But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim.” HARP , harp (Sax. , hearpa), a stringed in- strument of music, which may be traced, under various forms, to the remotest ages of antiquity. It was held in high veneration amongst the Celts, and although it has disappeared from the High- lands of Scotland, may still be found amongst the Welsh and Irish. In Ireland, its former pre- valence has led to its adoption as the national sym- bol. There is little doubt that it was brought to great perfection in Egypt, as its figure has been found drawn on buildings of the great antiquity. In the Bible we find the harp continually men- tioned, while its invention is ascribed to Jubal, seventh only in descent from Adam. There are three kinds of harps now known — the Italian harp, the Double, or David’s har^i, and the Pedal harp. The first of these is very imperfect, and seldom or ever used. The double harp is a better instrument, of a triangular form, having gut strings and a sounding board; but it was not until the invention of pedals, in 1794, that this instrument became really useful. For its present improved and nearly perfect state we are in- debted to M. Sebastian Erard, of Paris, who HARP AND CROSS MONEY 239 HAWKING patented a harp with seven pedals in 1794, this being a single-action harp. The pedals only effecting one change on the strings, he produced, in 1808, a double-action harp, the pedals of which have two actions. This instrument is tuned in the key of 0 flat, but may, by flxing the pedals in the flrst groove, be at once transposed to that of 0 natural, while by fixing them in the second, it is transposed into that of 0. sharp. The compass of this instrument is from E double below the bass to E in altissimo. HARP AND CROSS MONEY.— Money coined at the time of the Commonwealth, having on one side a shield bearing the arms of St. George, and on the other a shield bearing a harp. Money of this kind to the amount of about £70,000 was coined. HARP, .-KOLIAN. {See ^olian Hakp.) HARPSICHORD, harp' -se-kord. — A. musi- cal instrument resembling a grand pianoforte in shape, formerly much used, but now entirely superseded by the piano. The date of its inven- tion is unknown, although it is supposed to have been about the i6th century ; it was not, how- ever, introduced into England until the 17th. It consists of a mahogany or walnut-wood case, within which is the belly or sounding-board, over which the strings are stretched, supported by bridges. The sound is produced by small pieces of crowquill or hard leather, which project from the jacks (small pieces of wood that stand upright between the strings), and which, when the instrument is in use, are pushed upwards by the keys till they touch the strings, causing a brilliant but rather harsh sound. The great fault in the harpsichord is its deficiency of any means of modification in respect to piano and forte notes. HARPY, har^-pe.—ln Greek Mythology, a creature considered to be a minister of the vengeance of the gods. They are described as winged monsters of hideous and hungry aspect, filthy, and contaminating everything they touched. In Heraldry, a harpy is represented as having the head and breasts of a woman and the body of a vulture. HARRI-KA.RRI, har'-re-Tcar'-re. — A term meaning “happy despatch,” applied by the Chinese to the mode of suicide by ripping up the belly, which officials, who had committed any offence, were ordered to commit. HARVARD COLLEGE, har'-vard — The oldest college of the United States, is situated at Cambridge, three miles from Boston, Massa- chusetts. It was founded in 1636, only six years after the establishment of this region by the English. Afterwards, in 1639, the name, which was first Newtown, and then Cambridge, was changed to Harvard, in consequence of a liberal endowment of about £700 left to it by the Rev. John Harvard, in 1638. It has received various other public and private grants. The govern- ment of the college is vested in the president and fellows, and a board of overseers. There are 56 professors and 14 tutors, and about 1200 pui^ils, of whom more than half are under- graduates, the others attending the professional courses, of which there are four — law, science, medicine, and theology. Of late years, the standard of education has been greatly raised and extended, and a scientific branch has been endowed, for the benefit of persons who do not wish to ijursue the full course ; and the institu- tion at present enjoys a good name for its care and thoroughness in teaching. The college lib- rary contains upwards of 140,000 volumes. HARVEST, har'-vest (Sax., hcerfest), the period at which any crop is reaped, although it is more generally applied to the crops of corn and hay. Harvest time is generally a very joyous time, and great mirth and festivity celebrate the end of the husbandman’s labours. The harvest- home is kept when the last of the crop has been carted into the farmer’s storehouse, and the name is applied to the feast which the employer gives to all his “ hands ” at the termination of their labours. HATCHMENT. — The funeral escutcheon, setting forth the rank and circumstances of a deceased person. It is in the form of a lozenge, with the arms of the deceased in the cen- tre. The hatchments, or^ achievements, ex- hibit peculiarities, in denoting whether the de- ceased was a bachelor, an unmarried lady, a husband, wife, widower, or widow. In the case of a husband or wife, one half of the shield is on a black ground. On the decease of the last of a family, a death’s head surmounts the shield in place of a crest. HAUBERK, havd -berk. — ^A coat of mail, sometimes reaching only to the neck, but some- times extended so as to cover the head. HAUTBOY, OB- OBOE, o' -boy (Fr.), a musi- cal wind instrument of the reed kind, which at a very early date took its place as one of the es- sential instruments of the orchestra. It consists of a tube, made of box, ebony, or cocoa-wood, about twenty-one inches long, narrow at the top, but gradually widening towards the lower end or bell, and divided into three pieces or joints. In the upper and middle ends are holes, by stopping or opening which with the fingers the natural scale is formed, the intermediate semi- tones being produced by means of the keys, seldom less than fifteen in number. The tone of the hautboy is rich and sweet, and is particularly adapted to piano and dolce passages. This term is also given by organ-builders to a reed stop. HAVERSACK, hav'-er-sak (Fr., havresac), is a strong bag, made of some coarse material, used for carrying provisions on the march. HAWKING, hawk'-ing (Sax. , hafoc^ a hawk), the art of training and flying hawks, in order to take other birds. The practice of teaching one bird to fly at and catch another is frequently called falconry, and is of high antiquity. Amongst the Asiatics the sport seems to have been j)ractised from the earliest period. From the East the art gradually spread over Europe. From the Heptarchy to the days of Charles II., hawking was a favourite amusement of the Eng- lish. A person of rank scarcely stirred out of doors without his hawk on his hand ; and in old paintings and seals this is the criterion of nobility. In the Bayeux tapestry, Harold, when setting out on a most important embassy to Nor- mandy, is represented with a bird on his hand and a dog under his arm. The expenses of the sport were sometimes very great. Sir Thomas Monson, in the reign of James I., is said to have given £1,000 for a cast of hawks. The laws with regard to the protection of the birds were also HAZARD 240 HEIRLOOM very rigorous. Edward III. made it felony to steal a hawk ; and to take its eggs was, even in a person’s own ground, punishable with imprison- ment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king’s pleasure. With these slight restrictions, hawking remained a favourite amusement till the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when the im- prisonment was reduced to three months ; but the offender had to find security for his good behaviour for seven years, or lie in prison till he did so. The birds most generally used in hawk- ing were the peregrine falcon and the ger-falcon. When under a year old, hawks were called red hawks, on account of their plumage being dusky red in colour. When over a year old, the hawk was called a haggard. In some cases hawks were made the tenures by which several of the nobility held their estates from the crown. Sir John Stanley and his heirs held a grant of the Isle of man from Henry IV., by paying two falcons to the reigning sovereign on the day of coronation. The amusement had almost a language of its own. Every part of a hawk has its distinct name. The legs, from the thigh to the foot, are called arms; the toes, the petty singles; the claws, the pounces; the wings, the sails. The crop is called the gorge ; the upper part of the bill, the beak ; the lower part, the clap ; the yellow part between the beak and eyes, the cere, and the small holes in it, the nares. The furni- ture, the leathers, with bells fastened on the legs, are called hewits ; the leathern thong by which the hawk is held is called the leash ; and the little straps fastening them to the legs, the jesses. A head-covering, in order to keep the bird in the dark, is called a hood. The lure is a figure or resemblance of a fowl made of leather and feathers ; and the resting-place when the hawk is off the falconer’s hand, the perch. When the bird flutters on the hand or perch, it is said to bate ; when standing too near, hawks fight with each other, it is called crabbing ; when the young ones quiver in obedience to the elder, it is called cowring. The seizure of its prey by a hawk is called binding ; when it pulls off the feathers, it is said to plume ; when it forsakes the proper game, and flies at magpies, crows, &c., it is called check. The fowl or game flown at is called the quarry, and the dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk is called the pelt. The making of a hawk tame and gentle is called re- claiming ; the bringing one to endure company, manning ; and a hawk well enough trained to set an example to a young one is called a make- hawk. George, earl of Orford, tried to revive hawking in the latter part of the i8th century ; and, in Yorkshire, Colonel Thompson had a hawking establishment at a later period. As a general diversion, however, in this country, the sport has entirely gone out, although now and then occasional attempts have been made to re- vive it. HAZARD, haz'-ard. — A game at dice started by one player throwing the dice for a main, which must be above 4 and not more than 9. The caster then throws his own chance. If the throw is the same as the main, it is a nick, and the caster wins from the setter, or other player who betted against him. He also wins if under certain conditions he can repeat a throw (not a nick) before the main turns up ; but if he fail to do so, the setter wins. It is reckoned that the setter has slightly the advantage of the caster. The players calciffate probabilities, and arrange the bets accordingly. Immense sums of money have changed hands over this game, and large estates have been staked on “ the haiard of the die.” HECATOMB, hek'-a-toomb (from Greek, hekaton, a hundred ; bous, an ox), a sumptuous or magnificent sacrifice ; originally consisting of the sacrifice of a hundred beasts of the same kind, at a hundred altars, by a hundred priests or sacrificers. Pythagoras is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb of a hundred oxen to the muses, in joy and gratitude for his having discovered the demonstration of the 47th proposition of the first book of Euclid. Although a true hecatomb con- sisted of a hundred oxen, yet, in the time of Homer, the word had lost its real etymological meaning : it merely meant a great public sacrifice. Thus, in the Iliad, an allusion is made to a hecatomb of twelve oxen ; to another of oxen and rams ; and to another of fifty. HE(jrIRA, OR HEDJRAH, hej'-i-rah (Arab., hajara, I remove), the era from which Mahometan nations commute all chronologi- cal events subsequent to the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, on the night of the 15th of July, 922. The first day of the first year of the of the Hegira is, therefore, the i6th of July in that year. As there are only 354 days in the Mahometan year, it follows that thirty-three of their years are very nearly equivalent to thirty- two years according to our system of reckoning. We must, therefore, in bringing any date reckoned from the Hegira to its corresponding date accord- ing to the Christian era, subtract three years for every hundred years contained in it, or, to speak more accurately, one year for every thirty-three years, and then add to the result the number of the year of our Lord in which the hegira took place, less one ; and in converting a date of the Christian era into its corresponding date reckon- ing from the Hegira, we must reverse the process, subtracting the number of the year in which the Hegira took place, less one, from it, and adding to the result one year for every thirty-two years contained in it. HEIMSKRINGLA, Mmez' -kring-la (Ice- landic, the circle of the earth), the name given to the greatest work written by Snorro Sturleson, the last of the northern Scalds, who lived in the beginning of the 12th century. He himself called the book the “ Saga, or Story of the Kings of Norway,” and the term heimskringla was be- stowed upon it on account of that word being the first prominent one in the old Scaldic manuscript of Snorro. The work is a connected series of memoirs of the kings and mighty men of the Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark, and England, from an almost mythological period down to his own time. Historical incidents, speeches, and anecdotes, constitute the work, interspersed with rude snatches of Scaldic song. In 1230, Sturla, the nephew of Snorro, made a copy of the Heim- skringla, which is considered to be the most authentic text of the work. As late as 1567, copies were made of this manuscript. In 1844, Samuel Laing translated the Heimskringla into- English, with a preliminary dissertation on the intellectual and social condition of the Northmen. HEIRLOOM, such goods and personal chattels as, contrary to the nature of chattels, ga by the special custom of a particular place to the heir, together with the inheritance, and not to HELIX 241 HERALDRY the executors or administrators. The word “loom” is of Saxon origin, and signifies limb, or member; an heirloom being thus a limb or member of an inheritance. HELIX, h^-liks (Gr., helix^ a wreath or circumvolution, from helissein^ to wind round, environ). — ^Part of a spiral line, consisting of an entire turn of the thread of a screw round the central cylinder. In Architecture, the term is applied to the small volutes introduced under the flowers of the Corinthian capital, which are also called urillce. In Anatomy, the auricle or outer part of the ear is so called ; and, in Zoology, the snail, from the peculiar shape of its shell, which consists of a single spiral valve. HELL-FIRE CLUBS. — Secret associa- tions under this name, having both male and female members, existed in London about 1720. Their tendencies and practices were supposed to be similar to those of the Mohocks, suppressed in 1811. In April, 1721, a Royal proclamation interdicted such assemblies. HELMET, heV-met (LowLat., helmus', Ital., elmetto). — A piece of defensive armour for the head, which has been worn by the soldiers of all nations from the earliest ages. The oldest form of the helmet seems to have been that of a conical cap of metal, with a piece projecting downwards from the rim in front, called a nasal, that protected the face. The Egyptians wore helmets of quilted linen, as well as those of metal. The Greeks and Romans wore them in the form of a round skull-cap, with a ridge of metal rising along the centre, from the front to the back, which was ornamented with a fringe or crest of horsehair. Some of these helmets had broad triangular nasals, covering the whole of the upi)er part of the free, and narrowing gradually to a point at the chin, with holes for the eyes of the wearers. In ancient sculptures, Minerva is often depicted as wearing one of this kind, pushed back to expose the face, with the nasal resting on the upper part of the face. The Anglo-Saxons generally wore helmets of leather, strengthened with a metal ring ; the nobility having them of metal in the form of a cone, with a small projecting nasal. The helmet of the Saxon monarch, called the cynehealm, or royal helm, was the emblem of his rank, like the crown, and is sometimes represented with a coronet surrounding it. Little change seems to have been made in the form of the helmet until the reign of Richard I. , when cylindrical helmets, flat at the top, were introduced, with an aven- taille^ or plate, to protect the face. {See Beaver. ) When plate armour was worn, the face of the knight was entirely concealed by the helmet, which was constructed so as to cover the head and neck of the wearer ; and this gave rise to the introduction of crests as a mark of distinction, by which he might be recognised. In the present day, metal helmets are worn by the life-guards, horse-guards, and many dragoon regiments, and regiments of yeomanry cavalry ; those of the household cavalry having a spike rising from the top, from which a plume of horsehair falls on all sides over the helmet. Helmets of felt are worn by the police, and brass helmets, with a protec- tion for the neck, by firemen. In Heraldry, the crest is always depicted on or above a helmet, the shape of which differs for different ranks. The sovereign and princes of the blood royal have a full-faced helmet of gold, with gold bars over the opening in front ; dukes and marquises, the same, but L of steel with steel bars ; earls, viscounts, and barons, an open helmet of steel, in profile, with steel bars ; baronets and knights, a full-faced steel helmet with the visor raised ; and esquires and gentlemen, a steel helmet, in profile, with the visor closed. HERALD, her' -aid (Low Lat., heraldus ). — Among the Greeks and Romans, heralds were employed to carry messages to friendly and hostile nations, to conclude treaties of peace and amity, or to declare war. In medieval times, their duties were very similar, and they had the direction and management of tournaments and jousts, and the regulation of ceremonies of state : it also fell to their part to make lists of the knights and soldiers who were slain in battle. The supervision of pedigrees of descent, and the armorial bearings of families, also came within the especial province of the heralds, who, with the kings-at-arms, held visitations in different counties at certain times for this purpose. Her- alds are first mentioned under this title about the middle of the 12th century. The English heralds were formed into a body corporate by Richard HI. {See Herald’s College.) HERALDRY, her'-ald-re, the science which teaches everything relating to armorial bearings, badges of honour, the order of precedence to be taken by all estates of the realm ; the ceremonials to be observed at coronations, royal christenings, marriages, and funerals; the creation o± peers, knights of the Garter, &c. ; and on public occasions, such as the opening of parliament. Heraldry, as far as the distinction of families and tribes by various emblems is concerned, is a science of great antiquity. The twelve tribes of the Jews, had each its cognizance, and the standards nf nations from the earliest ages bore some particular heraldic device. {See Badge, Flag.) But the terms and distinctions of modern heraldry originated about the middle of the 12th century, when the use of armour, and the helmet with closed visor, which con- cealed the countenance, rendered the assumption of marks of distinction, such as the crest on the casque, and the armorial bearings on the surcoat, absolutely needful to enable the combatants to distinguish friend from foe in the heat of battle. The Normans appear to have borne devices, generally figures of animals, on their shields when they invaded England, but they are not identical with armorial bearings. Shortly after the 12th century, armorial bearings, which had been assumed at pleasure by those who bore them, became hereditary, and confined to certain families. The armorial bearings attributed by some early writers, to the Saxon Kings of England, Charlemagne, and other great person- ages are now known to be fictitious. The litera- ture of heraldry begins with the treatises of Sassoferrato about 1358, and De Fosse in the reign of Richard II, Armorial Bearings. — There are ten different kinds of armorial bearings — namely, arms of Adoption, Alli- ance, Assumption, Community, Concession, Dominion, Patronage, Pretension and Succession, and arms Hereditary. The chief of these are arms of Dominion and Pretension, the first of which are borne by sovereigns in virtue of the tenitories over which they rule ; and the second in virtue of countries over which they claim a right to rule, but exercise no actual authority. Arms of Community, or armorial bearings borne by cities, bishoprics, and bodies corporate ; arms of Alliance, which are used by families, to show the intermarriage of an ancestor with an heiress, and to indicate their maternal descent ; and arms Hereditary, which descend from father to son, the fourth bearer Q HERALDS’ COLLEGE 242 HERMETIC BOOKS any coat from the first possessor, or his great grand- son, being considered a gentleman of ancestry. If the field of the shield be divided into three equal portions by horizontal lines, the upper part is distinguished as the chief, the middle part as the fess, and the lower part as the base. There are also nine points used to indicate the situation of charges : these are — dexter chief, middle chief, sinister chief, honour point, fess point, nombril point, dexter base, middle base, sinister base. The colours and metals used in blazonry are nine in number, the metals being or and argent ; the colours, gules, azure, sable, vert, purpure, tenne, and sanguine. These are all indicated, in engraving, by various lines and dots, after the method said to be in- vented by Petrasancta, an Italian ; they are severally noticed under their respective headings. Certain furs are also used, which consist of ten distinct sorts or varieties. {See Ermine, Potent, Vair.) There are also nine principal ordinaries, or charges, termed “honourable,” and fourteen subordinate ordinaries. The principal ordinaries are the chief, pale, bend, bend sinister, fess, bar, chevron, cross, and saltier. The fess occupies the third and central part of the shield, and is considered to be derived from the broad baldric, or belt, that encircled the loins of the warrior. The cross, when considered as an ordinary, consists of two broad stripes or bars, one perpendicular and the other horizontal, crossing each other at right angles, in the centre of the shield. There are, however, numerous forms of the cross used in heraldry ; such as the cross avellane, cross bottonny, and cross cross- let, which are classed among common charges. The remaining principal ordinaries, with their diminutives, are mentioned under their respective headings, as are also the lines of division or demarcation, used as out- lines of the ordinaries, or to divide the field of the shield in directions indicated by the names of all these charges, except the chief; as, “party (or parted) per bend,” when the shield is divided by a diagonal line, proceeding from the dexter chief to the sinister base. These lines of partition are termed embattled, engrai- led, dancette, indented, invented, nebuly, raguly, and wavy. The subordinate ordinaries, are the canton, a third part of the chief on the dexter side ; the gyron, a gusset-shaped ordinary, occupying the eighth part of the shield, and formed by a right line and diagonal line meeting in the centre of the shield, or fess point ; the fret, formed of two diagonal bars, and a lozenge- shaped frame in the centre of the shield, interlaced ; the quarter (see Quarter) ; the pile (see Pile) ; the orle and tressure (see Orle); the fianches, fiasques, and voiders (see Voiders); and the lozenge, fusil, mascle, and rustre (see Lozenge). To these charges, innumerable representations of the various heavenly bodies, the human form, and its different parts, the head, hands, &c., birds, beasts, fishes, fiowers, trees, boughs, towers, weapons, and implements, or parts of implements, of various kinds, which are blazoned according to the position in which they are depicted, and their situation in the shield, or with regard to other ordinaries and charges that appear in it. Ar- morial bearings, in an extended sense, consist of four parts : the shield and its charges ; the crest, which is generally drawn surmounting a helmet (see Crest, Helmet), which is surrounded by pieces of silk or velvet, jagged at the edges, and lined with fur, which are termed “mantlings,” or “lambrequins;” the motto, which may be assumed at pleasure (see Motto) ; and the supporters, which are not borne by com- moners (see Supporters, Blazonry, Differences, Marshalling of Arms.) HERALDS’ COLLEGE, or COLLEGE OF ARMS. — ^A corporation consisting of the three English Idngs-at-arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants, to whom a charter of privileges was granted by Richard III., in 1483. This king also gave them a house, in which they might hold their chapters and deposit their records ; but it was taken from themshortly after by his successor, Henry VII. Edward VI. , however, confirmed their charter, and Queen Mary gave them a building on Benet’s Hill, St. Paul’s Churchyard, known as Derby House, on the site of which the present college now stands, with the frontage to Queen 1 Victoria Street. The kings-at-arms are Garter, Clarenceux, and Norroy ; the heralds, Somerset, Chester, Windsor, Richmond, Lancaster, and York ; the pursuivants. Blue Mantle, Rouge Croix, Rouge Dragon, and Portcullis. There is a king-at-arms attached to the order of the Bath, named Bath king-at-arms, who has no connection with the heralds’ college. The presidency of the college is vested in the hereditary earl-marshal. Pedigrees are preserved, and grants of arms are made and registered by the members of the college, who are privileged to receive certain fees, in virtue of their office, from those who wish to search their records or avail themselves of their services in any way. In Scotland, there is a college of arms, consisting of Lyon king-at- arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants ; and in Ireland, the chief heraldic officer is termed Ulster king-at-arms. HERBARIUM, her-hair'-e-um, a term generally applied to a collection of specimens of plants carefully dried and preserved. Such col- lections are very valuable — for a well-preserved plant displays its botanical structure, in all its minutiai, better than the most accurate engraving. In order to compose an herbarium, plants are usually collected in a tin box, called a ‘ ‘ vasculum,” which preserves them from withering for at least a short time. They should be gathered on a dry day, and those which have collected moisture in their leaves should be placed in a vessel of water and be allowed to dry there. It is necessary to kill plants with succulent stems or leaves, by im- mersing them for a short time in hot water. In order to complete the drying of the specimens, they are placed between layers of blotting-paper, or a specially prepared paper known as botanical drying-paper, so as not to distort their iiarts. Pressure is then applied, which varies according to the nature of the plants. Those specimens which are quickly dried have the best appear- ance ; and some plants which lose their natural colour and turn black in the ordinary mode of drying, can be beautifully preserved by a quick process. Thus, in the case of the orchids, and other similar plants, when placed between layers of paper, inclosed in a wire net- work frame, and hung before a fire, where the package is made to turn like meat roasting, they can be exquisitely dried in a few hours. By the ordinary process they would require eight or ten days. When properly dried, the specimens are placed in sheets of writing-paper, and may be slightly fastened by making the top and bottom of the stalk pass through slits in the paper for the purpose. The name of the genus and species, the locality where it was found, together with any other interesting information, are then marked beside each. The method of preserving cryptogamous plants is more difficult, on account of the great quantity of moisture which they contain and the great delicacy of their texture. Herbaria are generally arranged on a botanical system ; and great care is required in order to preserve their contents from the ravages of moths and beetles. Camphor and a little corrosive sublimate are good preservatives. HERMETIC BOOKS, her-mei! -ik (Fr., her- mAtique), a term applied to the supposed literary compositions of the ancient Egyptian god Thoth, who was believed to have acted as the scribe of the other gods. Tradition varied as to the char- acter and number of these inspired writings, which were held to contain all knowledge. HERMODACTYL 243 HIEROGLYPHICS whether divine or human, in its totality. Cle- ment of Alexandria gives the number of the her- metic books as forty -two ; lamblichus, as 20,000; while Manetho raises the number to 36,525. According to the best authorities, these writings were : — one book containing the sacred hymns of Osiris ; one book on the life of a king ; four books of astrological precepts and observations ; eleven books treating of the cosmography, geo- graphy, and chorography of Egypt and the Nile ; ten upon the laws and discipline of the priest- hood, and six treating of medicine. Several pre- tended Greek translations of these books have survived ; but the true origin of these writings is held to be due to Egyptian, Persian, and Eabini- cal sources. In medieval times, the alchemists and astrologers were particularly prone to entitle their works hermetic writings. HERMODACTYL her-mo-dak' -til (Greek, Hermes, Mercury, and dactylos, a finger), the later Greek and Arabian physicians gave this name to a medicine (probably prepared from colchicum) in high repute as a remedy for gout and rheumatism. HERO, HEROIC AGE, he'-ro, he-ro'-ik (Gr. keros, a being intermediate between gods and men). — During the Homeric period, any king, prince, leader in battle, or one who distinguished himself above his companions as a brave warrior, or in wisdom, or in beauty, was fabled to be of divine origin, and after death was worshipped as a deity by those cities or races of mankind that claimed him as founder or ancestor. According to Thirlwall, the heroic age lasted during six generations, or about two hundred years, ter- sminating with the death of the near descendant of those Greeks who fought at Troy. In Homer, however, the word hero is often synonymous with warrior ; and in that sense the word is now gene- rally used. It is also applied in literature to the leading personage of a legend, epic poem, or romance. Heroic Verse, that in which epic poetry, devoted to a history of the exploits of heroes, is composed. In Greek and Latin, heroic verse is generally expressed in hexameter lines ; in English, Italian, and German, by the iambic of ten syllables, either with or without the additional short syllable ; and in French, by the iambic of twelve syllables. HERODOTUS, HISTORY BY, he-rod'- i-tus. — The oldest of the Greek histories, written by Herodotus (484 b.c. — ^ 406 B.C.). The leading object of the history is to describe the war be- tween the Greeks and Persians, but includes many collateral subjects, as the history of Egypt, derived from the priestly records and traditions. The work is divided into nine books, to each of which his country gave the name of one of the nine muses. Herodotus visited various countries, and describes with remarkable vigour and ac- curacy what he had seen ; but it is admitted as sometimes too ready to accept as historically true, priestly traditions and popular legends. The history is written in the Ionic dialect, and scholars admire it for its vigorous and graceful diction, while the general reader is pleased with its variety and liveliness of style. HEXAMETER, heks-am' -e-ter (Gr., Aea;, and metron, a measure). — The most important form of dactylic verse used amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was termed hexameter in con- sequence of its consisting of six feet, either dactyls (one long syllable and two short) or spondees (two long syllables), which could be used indifferently throughout the verse, with two exceptions — that the last foot must be in- variably a spondee, and the last but one a dactyl. In a few rare cases, either to vary the rhythm or to produce some special effect, a spondee is intro- duced in the fifth foot, when the line is denominated a spondaic line. In modern times, several writers have endeavoured to introduce hexameter verse into English poetry, but with varying degrees of success, the language present- ing many difficulties which only great skill and a very sensitive ear can overcome. Arthur Clough wrote some good hexameters, and Longfellow was moderately successful in “ Evangeline,” but less so in “ Miles Standish.” Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller produced some excellent German hexa- meters. Three of the best lines in Longfellow’s “Evangeline” may be quoted as illustrating the construction of the hexametrical measure : — “ Ye who believe in affection that hopes and endures, and is patient. Ye who believe in the beauty and strength of woman’s devotion, List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the forest. HIERATIC WRITING, hi-e-rat' ik. {See Hieroglyphics.) HIEROGLYPHICS, hi-e-ro-glif'-iks (Gr., hieros, sacred ; glupho, I engrave), a term gene- rally applied to the representations of animals or other forms, used to express language, and more especially to those found sculptured on the monu- ments of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians appear to have used about 1,000 symbols, by means of which they were enabled to express themselves correctly and clearly. Amongst the ancient Greeks this mode of writing was called hierogly- phic, or hierographic ; and its invention was attributed to Thoth, the Egyptian Hermes. They were called by the Egyptians, Neter Kharu, or ‘ ‘ divine words. ” The knowledge of hieroglyphics was confined to the priestly caste, and long pre- served as a mysterious secret, not to be entrusted to ordinary mortals. In nearly all cases, hiero- glyphics consist of representations of the sun, moon, and stars ; the human form, animals, fishes ; works of art, &c. , which were either en- graved in relief, sunk below the surface, or traced with a reed pen on slabs of stone, pieces of wood, or leaves of the papyrus. In the Egyptian monu- ments the hieroglyphics are sometimes plain, and sometimes decorated with colours, either with one simple tone, and thence known to us as monochrome, or else ornamented with a variety of colours and described as polychrome. Those found on coffins appear to have been traced out and afterwards coloured ; those inscribed on papyri are merely sketched out, and are called linear hieroglyphs. They are arranged in per- pendicular or horizontal columns, separated by lines, and in some cases distributed about the area of the picture to which they refer. Hiero- glyphics appear on the walls of the earliest tombs, and are even found scrawled on the blocks of stone which form the great pyramid of King Cheops. The hieroglyphical inscriptions on stone are all religious, historical, or sepulchral. They continued in use for upwards of 3,000 years, when they were superseded by a more condensed writing, called the Demotic, and lastly by the modern Coptic, on the introduction of Christi- anity. All knowledge of the mode of deciphering HIEROGLYPHICS 244 HINDOO LANGUAGES hieroglyphics was lost from the loth to the i6th century ; and on the revival of learning, the task was undertaken in vain, till the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799, when a clue to their inter- pretation was gained. (See Rosetta Stone.) In 1814, Dr. Young was the first to discover, from the name of Ptolemy on this stone, and that of Berenice on a doorway in the south corner of Karnac, that certain hieroglyphics were used to represent sounds, and not ideas exclusively, as had been believed up to that time. The study of hieroglyphics has been pursued by many learned men, both in this country and on the Continent, from that period. Among the most distinguished students of the subject have been Champallion, Lepsius, Birch, Brugsch, and Bunsen. Ideogpraphic and Phonetic Hieroglyphics. — Hiero- glyphics are divided into two classes— ideographs, or symbols representing ideas, not sounds; and phone- tics, which spell the sound of the word, the sense of which they are intended to convey. Nearly all the inscriptions are principally composed of phonetics, which are easily distinguished by their constant recur- rence. The ideographs are divided into two classes — first, those which represent the object directly; as a wolf to represent that animal, a man having the head of an ibis to represent the god Thoth, a bundle of flax to represent flax, &c. ; secondly, those which are enig- matic, and express the idea by less direct means ; as a woman beating a tambourine to express joy, a smok- ing pail for milk, an ape for anger or irritability, and a jackal for cimning. The number of these particular signs, however, was not many (about 180), as a certain class of them (known as determinatives) was used to express more ideas than one. Thus, a figure repre- senting a seated man signified man in all his relations, functions, and offices ; meaning either father, brother, governor, priest, &c. ; the particular meaning being conveyed by the arrangement of phonetics before the sign. In the same manner all acts of locomotion were represented by two legs in the act of walking ; all actions where the arms were required, by an arm hold- ing a stick ; all precious stones by a ring ; and all beasts and objects made of leather by a skin. An attribute or quality was represented by some animals generally supposed to possess it, as we might depict a fox to represent cunning, or a dog for fidelity. The direct action was often represented as a bird fishing to express the idea of fishing generally. The ideographs are often preceded by a group of phonetics, about 130 in number, which give the sound of the idea they are intended to express, and are divided into two classes — those ending in vowels and those ending in consonants. The former are fifty- two in number ; and as they re- present eighteen sounds of the spoken language, answer the purposes of a pure alphabet. The grammatical forms, the abstract prefixes and affixes, substantive and auxiliary verbs— in fact, the great body of the lan- guage, is composed of the phonetics. The groups of phonetics preceding the ideographs are constantly interchanged among themselves ; and during the long period of three thousand years similar texts in the papyri show hundreds of words written with different symbols. Hieratic and Demotic Writing. — All Egyptian books, with the exception of the Rituals, or hieratic books, were written in a cursive or flowing hand, of a very distinct, clear shape, written on long rolls of papyrus in black and red characters. This hieratic character, as it is called, did not employ so many symbols as the hieroglyphic, and approached nearer to the alphabetic system. It continued in use till the 2nd or 3rd cen- tury after the birth of Christ. After the 8th century B.O., it was only used for religious purposes. The demotic character (or that employed by writers not belonging to the priestly caste, see Demotic), was at first only an abridgement of the hieratic forms ; butlit rapidly lost all resemblance, and finally tried to ac- commodate the written language as nearly as possible to the alphabetical Greek and Phoenician systems then known to the Egyptians. It remained in use till the 3rd century a.d., when it gave way to the Coptic. During the time of Clement it was first learned by the beginners, who then proceeded to learn the hieratic ; and afterwards the hieroglyphic, then an old and dead writing. Language of the Hieroglyphics. — There is some similarity between the language of the ancient inscrip- tions and the Coptic in the form which it assumed about the 3rd century of the Christian era. Many of the words are similar to words in the Semitic lan- guages ; and inscriptions dating about thirteen centu- ries B.c. exhibit an introduction of Syriac, Aramaic, and Hebrew words, the result evidently of the Egyptian military expedition, which brought the people into contact with the eastern and north-eastern races. Ethiopian, Assyrian, and other Hieroglyphics. — The ancient Ethiopians carved hieroglyphics on their pyra- mids and monuments, as well as the Egyptians. The characters resemble those in use in the latter days of the Egyptian monarchy. Hieroglyphical inscriptions have also been found at Nineveh, Koyunjik, and in the islands of the Greek Archipelago. The term hieroglyphics has been applied to the picture-writing of the Aztecs, or ancient Mexicans. The subject delineated, such as a monarch or a town, was repre- sented by painting, and certain hieroglyphs were intro- duced in order to aid the explanation. The symbol expressing the king’s name is attached by a cord over the head of the monarch ; that of the town over it ; and so on. After the introduction of Christianity, it is said that the monks used these symbols, according to their sounds, to write the Lord’s Prayer and other religious formulas. The term hieroglyphics was ap- plied by writers in the i6th century to emblemata or devices symbolizing sentences taken from the Greek and Latin poets, and having no relation to Egyptian hieroglyphics. Almanac-makers and astrologers have also appUed the term hieroglyphic to the symbolical pictures which are supposed to be prophetic of coming events. HIGHWAYMAN. — ^A robber, usually well mounted on horseback, who attacked carriages and equestrians on lonely roads at night-time. The establishment of a police force and of rail- ways has rendered this class of thieves obsolete. Their adventures have found favour in the eyes of novel-writers, especially Bulwer and Ainsworth. HIMYARITIC INCRIPTIONS, him-ya- rilf-ik. — In ethnology, and linguistically, the term Himyaritic denotes the whole group of races and languages from the basin of the Euphrates, across South Arabia to Abyssinia. The old name of the people was Sabseans. In 1774 Kar- sten Niebuhr directed attention to the existence of inscriptions in a peculiar character in the southern districts of Arabia. Many other inscrip- tions have since been discovered, and gems and bronze tablets are in the British Museum. The incriptions are generally written in horizontal lines from right to left, the words being separated by a vertical stroke. They are read by means of alphabets of the Himyaritic character preserved by Arabic writers. The greater number appear to be of dates between 100 b.o. and 600 a.d. HINDOO ARCHITECTURE, hin-doo'. {See Indian Aechitecture.) HINDOO ERA. — ^The Hindoos begin their record at 3101 b.c., or 756 years before the Deluge. HINDOO LANGUAGES.— I. The San- scrit, known also as Gronthon (from grandha, book), is the sacred language of the Brahmins and of literature. {See Sanscrit and Pali.) The languages spoken by Hindoos in various parts of the peninsula of Hindostan are chiefly — Bengali, in Bengal ; dialects of the same spoken in Orissa, Assam, and Nepaul ; Hindi, in various dialects, in the western plain of the Ganges and Malwa ; Gujerati, in Gujerat ; Cut- HINDOOS, LITEEATURE OF THE 245 HISTORY chi, in Cutch ; and Mahrati, in the north-west Deccan. 2. The Pracrit is the common language, and comprehends within itself the various dialects used in writing and in social inter- course. HINDOOS, LITERATURE OF THE. — In common with their religious traditions and the invention of their alphabet, the literature of the Hindoos is of the highest antiquity. Nearly all the literary compositions of the Hindoos are in verse. Because men feel before they speculate, therefore is poetry, which is the earliest form of expressing the feelings, the first literature. At this primary stage has the literature of the Hindoos remained. To commence with the Sacred Literature : — Under the general term of Shastras, the Hindoos possess the four Vedas, named respectively the Rig, Yajar, Sama, and Atharva ; the four Upavedas, or Sub- Vedas, the Ayash, Dhanush, Ghandarva, and Artha; the Vendanga, or Six Angas ; and, finally, the Upangas. The Vedas are written in Sanscrit {see Sanscrit), as is the Mantras, or prayers, the Brahmanas, or commandments, and, in short, the whole body of Hindoo theology proper. The Upavedas form a second class of sacred books, and consist of treatises upon surgery, medicine, music, dancing, war, architecture, and many mechanical arts. The Vedangas, or Six Angas, are treatises subsidary to the Vedas, and compre- hend — rules for reciting the Vedas, and especially as regards the accents and tones to be observed ; a treatise on grammar ; besides dissertations upon metres, astrology, and astronomy. These works are held to have been given by inspiration of God to enable the Brahmins to read and under- stand the Vedas. The L pangas, or inferior bodies of learning, comprehend logic, theology, the institutes of the law, and certain legendary treatises, to the number of eighteen, which bear the name of Puranas. The two oldest and most important epic poems, which are' also classed among the sacred books, are the “ Ramayana,” containing the history of Ramatshandra, king of Ayodya, the seventh great incarnation of Vishnu ; and the “ Mahabharata,” detailing the war of the Pundus and Kurus, consisting of 18 books and upwards of 100,000 stanzas. The principal works of the secular literature must be briefly noticed. The “ Mugdhabodha,” or Beauty of Knowledge, by Goswami, is held to be the best Sanscrit grammar. There are in all eighteen dictionaries of high reputation, but the “ Amarasinha ” is deemed the best. The poetry of the Hindoos betrays throughout an elegiac earnestness and sweetness which owes its origin to their oldest poet, Valmiki, who sang in plaintive strains the murder of a youth who lived happily with his mistress in a beautiful wilderness, and was mourned by her in heartrending lamentations. Among the dramatic poets is Calidas, who has been called the Hindoo Shakspeare. His finest drama is “ Sakoontolah,” or the Fatal Ring, which has been translated into English by Sir William Jones, and into German by Forster, Herder, and others. According to Herder, the scenes of this great drama “are connected by flowery bands ; each grows out of the subject as naturally as a beautiful plant. A multitude of sublime as well as tender ideas are found in it, which we should look for in vain in a Grecian drama.” Another great drama of this author is the “Megha Duta,” or Cloud-Messenger, which has been rendered into English by Wilkins. Among the most important philosophical works of the Hindoos, there are — “ Gangheswara Fatwa Schirtamani,” which is a treatise on metaphysics ; “ Pratikhya Tippani,” a commentary on visible objects; “Anumaka Didhlti,” is a treatise on memory ; “ Smriti Tatwa,” is an abstract of the laws; and “ Hitopadesa,” a Hindoo book of fables, called also the Fables of Bidpay or Pilpay. This latter was the first work published in Europe in the Hindoo language. It appeared in 1810. HIPPOCRENE, hip-po-Jereen' (Greek hip- pos, a horse ; krene,& fountain). — A fountain on Mount Helicon, said, in the old Greek mytholo- gical legends, to have been produced by a stroke from the hoof of the horse Pegasus, and con- sidered sacred to the Muses. HIPPODROME, hip'-pod-rome (Gr. , hippos, a horse, and dromos, a racecource). — A place ap- propriated by the Greeks to equestrian exercises, and in which prizes were contended for during the celebration of some of the Olympic games. {See Games.) The most remarkable of all the Grecian hippodromes was certainly that built at Olympia, which is stated by Pausanias to have been four leagues long and one in breadth. The word itself is still in use, and is applied to cir- cuses and other buildings set apart for equestrian purposes. HIPPOGRIFF, OR HIPPOGRYPH, hip' -po-grif. — A fabulous animal, represented as a winged horse, with the head of a griflSin. Ariasto introduced it into his poem, “ Orlando Furioso ” (which see). HIPPOPHAGI, hip-pof-a-ji (Gr., hippos, a horse, and phagein, to eat), a term applied to a people of Scythia that fed on horse-flesh. The descendants of these — the Kalmuck Tartars of the present day — still retain the peculiarities of the Scythians, and esteem horseflesh as a dainty. {See Horse.) HISTORY, his'-to-re (Gr., historia, from the verb historeo, I inquire), means literally an ac- count of facts. It is a word first used by Hero- dotus, who calls his work by the title ‘ ‘ Historia ;” and this ancient writer fixed the sense in which the word has since been applied — that is, as meaning the science which treats of man in all his social relations, religious, moral, commercial, political, or literary, as far as these are the result of general influences extending to large masses of men. Embracing both the past and present, history consequently considers everything which acts upon men — ^regarding them in the light of members of a society. The history or life of a nation may be either rendered in parts, or as a whole. The most complete work is that which starts at the birth of a kingdom, or nation, and carries the reader upwards in its course amid its various ramifications, changes, and aspects, and finally leaves him when he has obtained a thorough insight into its life, past, present, and possibly future state. A true historian must not merely satisfy himself with chronicling facts, for such a course would only reduce history to the level of chronological annals ; but he must de- scribe and estimate the causes which led to cer- tain results. Herodotus is the father of ancient history, as he is often rightly called ; and to him we are indebted for the first work really deserv- ing that title. Thucydides and Xenophon are ‘‘HITOPADESA’’ 246 HOMERIC POEMS the writers who have bequeathed us the deeds of the Grecian commonwealth. Livy is the his- torian of Rome ; Justin the compiler of a brief attempt at general history. The works of Cicero, Sallust, Tacitus, and Csesar, also illustrate one of the most important eras in Roman history. After the revival of letters, history became one of the greatest of literary works, and as such it is esteemed and valued in the present day. Philo- sophical history is that in which the mere narra- tion of facts is considered as subordinate to the elucidation of general truths and influences; and, consequently, it often lapses into the broach- ing of a favourite theory. Of philosophical his torians. Gibbon on the “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ” may be considered as entitled to the chief place. {See Decline and Fall.) No department of prose composition offers greater opportunities for the exhibition of a fine literary style. “ HITOPADESA,” Mt-o-pa-de' -sa . — The title given to a famous collection of Sanscrit fables. {See Sansgkit Litekature.) The word means “ good advice, or instruction.” HOBBY-HORSE. — a framework repre- senting the body and head of a horse, with an opening in the centre for a man to stand, his legs being hidden by trappings. It was a favourite feature on rustic and May-day games, and is now frequently exhibited by clowns in circus perform- ances. HOCUS-POCUS, ho'-kus po'-kus . — ^A com- mon epithet applied to a conjurer’s trick or cheat. Its origin is uncertain, but it is said by Dr. Tillotson to be derived from the words hoc est corpus, the form used for consecrating the sacra- mental wafer in the Roman Catholic Church. Another etymologist, however, derives'it from the Welsh hocced, a cheat, and pocus, a bag, applicable to the machinery by which a juggler performs his tricks. It is more probable, how- ever, that no meaning whatever is attached to the words, which are only a burlesque imitation of the phrases of Latin with which mountebanks and quack doctors interlarded their speeches at country fairs. HOGMANY, hog-ma-nay * . — The name given in some parts of Scotland, and the north of England, to New Year’s eve, at which time it was customary for the lower orders to go from door to door and ask, in doggrel rhymes, for cakes, cheese, or money. HOLOCAUST, hol'-o-kawst (Gr., holos, the whole, and kaio, I burn), a solemn burnt-sacrifice, common amongst the Greeks and other pagan nations of antiquity, in which the whole of the victim was consumed upon the altar, in contra- distinction to the usual custom, which enjoined that only a portion of the sacrifice should be consumed. HOLSTERS, hoV-sten (Ang.-Sax., healster, hiding-place). — Cases, generally covered, for pistols, affixed to the pommel of a saddle. HOMERIC POEMS, ho-me'-rik . — The two famous epic poems, the “ Iliad ” and the “ Odys- sey,” have been for nearly three thousand years attributed to Homer, a blind wandering minstrel, who went from land to land singing ballads relat- ing the story of the great expedition undertaken by the Grecian kings to avenge the abduction of Helen (wife of Menelaus, and reported daughter of Jupiter and Leda), by the handsome and accom- plished Paris, one of the sons of Priam, king of Ilium, or Troy, on the coast of Asia Minor ; and the siege of that renowned city. With the death of Hector, the warlike son of Priam, and the Trojan champion, at the hand of Achilles, the “Iliad” ends. The “Odyssey” relates the wanderings and adventures on his return to Greece of Odysseus or Ulysses, and the search for him by his son Telemachus, sent by his mother Penelope. In the “Iliad” not only the Greek kings, led by Agamemnon, and the heroes who accompanied them (especially Achilles, the son of King Peleus and Thetis, a sea-goddess, and the real hero of the poem), are conspicuous for their achievements, but the Olympic deities ap- pear as combatants, or as watching with intense interest the progress of events. Zeus (Jupiter), favours the Trojans, but Here (Juno), Athend (Minerva), and Poseidon (Neptune) interfere actively on behalf of the Greeks. The general belief has been that Homer did not compose the “ Iliad,” or the “ Odyssey,” at one time as a complete poem, but that, in the course of his long wanderings, he, from time to time, produced ballads relating to the subject, and that at some subsequent time they were collected. The Rev. W. Collins, in the introduction to the article on Homer, in the “Ancient Classics for English Readers,” says, “No doubt the song grew as he sang. He would probably add from time to time to the original lay. It may fairly be granted also that future minstrels, who sang the great poet’s lays after his death, would interweave with them here and there something of their own, more or less successful in its imitation of the original.” In 1795, Professor F. A. Wolf, of Berlin, a dis- tinguished scholar, published a text of the Homeric poems, and asserted that Homer, as an individual, was a myth, and that the “Iliad” and “Odyssey” were compilations of jDopular ballads by many authors, similar in fact (to ad- duce an instance familiar to English readers), to the Robin Hood ballads, sung or recited by vari- ous minstrels at various times, and afterwards collected. This W olfian theory, as it is styled, has received considerable support, especially from German critics, but is not accepted by most English writers on the subject. Mr. Collins, already quoted, says, “ The speculations of modern scholars, in this, as in other cases, have been much more successful in shaking the poimlar belief than replacing it by anyconstructive theory of theirown, whichis notnearly so credible. ‘ Homer ’ is quite as likely to have been really Homer, as a mere name under whose shadow the poems of various unknown writers have been grouped.” Mr. Gladstone, one of the most laborious workers in the Homeric field, in his “ Studies of Homer and the Homeric Age,” “An Inquiry into the Time and Place of Homer,” and other works re- lating to the subject, expresses belief in the per- sonality of the poet, rejecting the theory advanced by Wolf. He says, “ Over and above correspon- dence of tangible particulars, there is what I must call a unity of atmosphere in the poems, such as I believe has never been achieved by forgery or imitation.” But he does not understand Homer as being strictly the proper name of the poet, but rather as a generic term implying author. Mr. F. W. Newman, one of the latest translators of Homer, says, “ When I say Homer, I mean the poet of the ‘Iliad;’” adding, “I have no conviction at all that the ‘ Odyssey ’ is from the HOMERIC POEMS 247 HONOUR same author.” Another recent writer probably comes very near the truth in suggesting that — while “ it is not credible that poems pervaded by such a wonderful unity of tone and plan, mani- festly also inspired by a genius of the highest order, should be resolvable into the mere patch- work of skilful compilers — the materials of Homer’s poetry were not invented by himself, but taken up from the living traditions of the people to whom he belonged.” One of the mar- vels connected with the history of the poems is their preservation (their great length being con- sidered) through so long a period. They were publicly recited at great national festivals in all parts of Greece, and professional minstrels, or “ rhapsodists,” chanted portions, narrating the achievements of some particular hero, to gather- ings of the people in all parts of Greece. A col- lection of the poems is said to have been first brought from Asia to Sparta by Lycurgus ; and, at Athens, Solon is supposed to have compelled the minstrels to recite the several portions in due order. A number of eminent scholars were em- ployed by Pisistratus to prepare a proper text ; and after that time a familiarity with Homer was considered a test of education and mental cul- ture. The early manuscripts of the great poems were prepared in the costliest fashion, and one, corrected by Aristotle, was carefully preserved by Alexander the Great, preserved in a golden casket. In the Middle Ages, ecclesiastical writers thought they discovered in the two poems allegorical versions of Hebrew history; and superstitious people treated them as charms, re- commending, as a cure for a quartan ague, the placing of the fourth book of the “ Iliad ” under the patient’s pillow. Some modern critics, even of high repute, have been as wild in their theories as some of their predecessors, and relegated the “Iliad” to the class of “Solar Myths,” assert- ing that the siege of Troy is but “ a repetition of the daily siege of the East by the solar powers that every evening are robbed of their highest treasures in the West,” and that the Homeric heroes and their exploits, all represent allegori- cally, in one form or another, the great confiict between light and darkness. These suggestions are undoubtedly subtle and ingenious ; but, as all nations have delighted to treasure up legends re- specting the achievements of heroes, and have employed such poetical means as were at their command to give a more permanent form to oral traditions, it is very likely indeed that the ancient Greeks partook of what appears to be a common instinct, and thought no more of a con- nection between Achilles or Hector, or any other of the personages of the poem, and sunrise and sunset than did the chroniclers or poets who wrote of Arthur and his Knights. The “ Iliad ” and the “ Odyssey ” were originally composed in the Ionic dialect {see Gkeek Language and Litekatuke), and in hexameters, “the metre,” says Mr. Newman, “being undoubtedly founded on ‘ditty’ or sing-song, like our own ballad.” Translators labour under great difficulties in ren- dering the old Greek into modern metres. Pro- bably the characteristic vigour of the original would be best reproduced in a style of versifica- tion similar to that adopted by Walter Scott in “ Marmion.” George Ohapnian, one of the earliest, and certainly one of the best, of Homer’s translators, adopted the hexameter, but without reproducing Homer’s peculiar metre ; Pope, and his assistants, made a splendid paraphrase (only by literary courtesy can it be called a translation) in the heroic measure, with rhymed couplets ; Cowper employed blank verse, and in some parts conveyed an adequate impression of the original, but missed the rough vigour, the musical ‘ ‘ swing,” of the Greek metre. Among recent translators, the most eminent are Mr. Worsley, who wrote in the Spenserian stanza with the concluding Alex- andrine ; the Earl of Derby, whose blank verse is remarkably vigorous, and Mr. F. W. Newman, whose aim was “ to retain every peculiarity of the original, so far as I am able, with the greater care the more foreign it may happen to be, whether it be matter of taste, of intellect, or of morals.” He adopted, as the English metre best fitted to translate Homer’s hexameter, a long line com- posed of two short ones, having each either three beats or four beats, and without rhymes. {See Metke.) Professor Conington and Dean Alford have also produced translations ; and various portions of the “Iliad” have been translated with considerable success by Mr. Gladstone, and fragments, more especially as experiments in metre, by Mr. Tennyson. The intrinsic merit of the great epics is exhibited by the extent to which they have impressed some of the finest minds of all subsequent ages. The “ Iliad,” writes Mr. Collins, “ was for genera- tions the mainspring of Greek legend and song.” Shakspeare found in it inspiration, founding on it “ Troilus and Cressida,” and epic poets of all times have regarded Homer as one of the greatest, if not the greatest, of their models. Mr. Glad- stone says, “ Homer has supplied us with a more complete picture of the Greek, or, as he would probably say, of the Achaian people of his time than any other author — it might almost be said, than any number of authors — have supplied with reference to any other age or people. He was not only the glory and delight, but he was, in a great degree, the poietes, the ‘ maker,’ of his nation.” Mr. Newman writes, “ He is alternately poet, orator, historian, theologian, geographer, traveller, jocose as well as serious, dramatic as well as descriptive. The style is direct, popular, forcible, quaint, flowing, garrulous, similar to the old English ballad.” HONEYMOON. — The first month after marriage. The term originated in an old Teutonic custom of drinking diluted honey for a month after a marriage feast. HONEY-STJCKLE ORNAMENT, hone- suk'-l . — ^An architectural ornament of Eastern origin, used in Assyria, Persia, and India. The Greeks adopted and greatly improved it, and it is one of the most beautiful of their decorative fea- tures, especially in connection with the Ionic style. HONORARIUM, hon-or-a' -ri-um . — The fee paid to barristers or physicians, presumed, by a social fiction, to be a present, not a regular payment for services rendered. HONOUR, on'-o)!' (Lat., honor), a term which in its ordinary sense, is capable of many and various significations. The primary signification is obedience to a sense of right, above the influ- ence of mere legal commands or restrictions ; and it also implies in the language of civilized society, a regard for the opinions of society gene- rally. It marks out, or indicates, certain rulea or notions by which society regulates its proceed- ings with a sort of tacit understanding ; any de- viation from which rigorous code incurs the risk of expulsion beyond its pale. The phrase deU HORACE, POEMS OF 248 HORSEMANSHIP of honour, implies a debt the payment of wbicb cannot be enforced by law, but depends upon the sense of honour which compels the fulfilment of an obligation. Affair of honour, law of honour, court of honour, with some slight modifications, carry their own interpretation along with them. In another meaning of the word, it signifies a special mark of approbation as a title or a deco- ration conferred by a sovereign for distinguished services. {See Legion of Honoue.) Honours in Card Games. — In whist, the ace, king, queen, and knave are known as honours, and are counted in the game, except when equally divided be- tween the opponents. One honour is not reckoned, but if one side holds three honours, two are counted, and if all four honours are held, the four are counted. HORACE, POEMS OP, Horace is the Anglicised form of name by which Quintus Horatius Flaccus, the Roman poet of the Augustan age, is most familiarly known. The earliest of his known works are satires, in which the spirit of the Greek masters of the art is very successfully transferred to the Latin language. His most famous productions are the “Odes,” “ Satires,” and “Ei)istles.” He was an Epicurean in philosophy and a man of the world by habit, witty, gay, amorous, with a keen sense of beauty, and endowed with lyrical facility. No writer of the ancient world probably has been so univer- sally popular. Some of the most accomplished of British writers have delighted to translate or imitate him. Ben Jonson, Cowley, Dry den, and Pope, are among the earlier translators ; and the “Imitations of Horace,” by Pope, are among the wittiest of that great author’s pro- ductions. Francis’s translation of the whole of the works of Horace was for many years the standard English version ; but later translations, especially those of Theodore Martin, Lord Ly tton. Lord Ravensworth, and Professor Conington, are admirably done, and Professor Newman has pro- duced a translation i^resenting peculiarities which have provoked much criticism. HORN, a wind instrument, of which there are various kinds, made of different materials ; such as wood, brass, copper, and sometimes silver. (For a description of the horn, see French Horn, Bugle, Cornet -a- piston, Sax -Horn, &c.) HORNBOOK, horn' -hooTc, a name formerly given to a copy of the alphabet set in a frame and covered with a thin plate of transparent horn, to prevent the paper from being thumbed to pieces by the children who were made to study it. HORNING, LETTERS OF._in Scotch Law, a writ compelling a party to execute a judgment or decree of the court. It is now little used, other methods of enforcing civil decrees being adopted. HORNPIPE, horn'-pipe, a rustic musical instrument seldom or ever now seen, except in Wales, where it is still very common. Its Welsh name is pib-corn, meaning hornpipe : it is so called from its being constructed of a wooden pipe, with holes at certain distances and a horn at each end, one to collect the wind blown into it, and the other to augment the sound. ^ This term is also applied to a dance in triple time of six crotchets in a bar. The Sailor’s Hornpipe is a well-known dance for one performer, formerly in great favour with the “jolly British tars.” The College Hornpipe is a lively and favourite tune. HORN-WORK. Crown-Work.) HOROSCOPE, Astrology.) HORS HE COMBAT, hor-de-kom'-hat (French). — Literally, “beyond the battle,” a phrase meaning that the individual, or body, to whom it is applied is completely beaten, and in- capable of further action. HORSEMANSHIP. — it would be im* possible to find out who was the first horseman ; but there is little doubt that even in the re- motest ages of _ antiquity, men were accustomed to mount their steeds, causing them to career along with that irresistible speed and endurance with which the genus Equidoe are so highly gifted. Good horsemanship has always been considered as one of the corporeal accomplishments of a gentleman. There is a great difference be- tween regimental riding and that of a genuine sportsman. The military seat approaches nearer than any other to that of the manege ; and, by reason of the horse-soldier having, in general, but one hand to hold his bridle with, is one which gives him great command over his horse without disturbing his seat. He sits well down in his saddle with his body erect, and in perfect equili- brium with his horse ; his legs well stretched down the sides, with a firm pressure of the calves, as well as of the knees and thighs, and the feet firm in the stirrups. But it is not by any one of these aids that he becomes a good horseman. He must be in perfect unison, as it were, with his horse’s actions and paces to maintain a good and graceful seat ; and in proportion to the just balance of his body will he be able to have a steady hand, a point of vast importance to the dragoon. The importance of this balance, and keeping himself in a proper equilibrium with his horse, is increased by the fact of his not being allowed to rise to the horse’s trot, and therefore, requires a still finer use of the bridle hand. The man who rides with the aid of the proper equili- brium, will, in case of necessity, know when to apply the strength he has retained with a steady, light hand, and govern every motion according as he finds it necessary for his purpose ; play light with his own weight upon the saddle (by a gentle spring in the instep of both feet on the stirrups), with an easy pressure of both thighs, knees, and calves of the legs. When the horse jumps or plunges, then these aids are also requisite to keep the seat. To become an easy, elegant, or proper horseman, he must learn to ride with comfort and pleasure to his horse, as well as to himself ; he must learn to seek his balance from his hip upward, to keep the body with a slight inclination backwards from the perpendicular, and balance himself thus gradually on his horse in all the different paces ; which, of course, can- not be expected all at once. The man who rides his horse with a light, steady hand, and elastic body (which when disturbed even has the power of restoring itself to its former seat), in unison with the horse’s action, may be truly said to ride in the proper equilibrium. Mounting is the first step in horsemanship ; and a certain precaution is necessary in this, as in everything pertaining to horses. The person must approach the animal by walking up to him on the left side, not directly in front, as this might alarm him and make him strike out. The rider is recommended HORSEMANSHIP 249 HORSE-RACING to take the reins and the pommel of the saddle in his left hand, after having placed his left foot firmly in the stirrup, and by laying his right hand fast on the hinder part of the saddle, to vault into his seat. When mounted, the first thing to set about is the proper adjustment of the reins. If the horse is to be ridden with a single-bridle rein, the reins must be drawn with the rider’s right hand through his left, until the horse’s mouth has been placed equally on both sides, and then the left hand must be shut, allowing the little finger to separate the two reins. With a double-reign bridle the same must be done. When a horse pulls at his rider, he should advance his arm a little, but not the shoulder, towards the horse’s head, raising his hand towards his breast ; but he should not shorten the rein in his hand if he can command his horse without it, or he may loose the proper appui, or bearing of his mouth, the thumb being uppermost and placed on the bridle. After due attention has been paid to the holding of the bridle, the seat must be the next consideration of the learner. A great improvement has been made in this respect, by substituting the long stirruji-leathers for the shorter ones which were formerly in vogue. The thighs should touch the saddle and the sides of the horse with their inner surface chiefly, and the knees and toes should not protrude too much. The toes should be turned a little outward and upward ; for the toes being turned in, necessarily cramps the knees. As an easy seat is most important to persons who are obliged, whether by necessity or pleasure, to ride many hours in succession on the road, the following rules should be carefully observed, in order to obtain the same : — The rider should, in the first place, sit well down in the middle of the saddle, with just that length of stirrup- leather as will admit of the fork clearing the pommel of the saddle. The body of the rider should also incline forwards in the trot, as he thus furnishes a proper counter -balance to the movements of the horse ; and, above all things, a steady seat must be maintained, as, unless such is the case, the horse will be incommoded in his pace and distressed beyond measure. The seat and horsemanship required when following hounds are described under the article Hunting. HORSE-RACING. — ^There is much doubt as to when horse-racing was first adopted as a sport and pastime ; but it may be surmised that, as trials between man and his fellow-man, both in speed and strength, must have been nearly coeval with his pristine state, so, when he had subjugated such animals as were swift of foot, he was led to promote emulous racings between them. Chariot-races were most probably those in which the horse first distinguished himself ; and the Mithraic festivals in Persia, we are in- formed by Zoroaster, were attended with chariot- races in honour of the sun. This idolatrous form of worship, accompanied with its games, revelries, and races, extended itself from Persia to Greece and Rome, whence the introduction of horse- racing may be traced into Europe. The Olympic games, first practised at Olympia, are the earliest of which we have any credible account, and the chariot-races in the hippodrome were their great- est attractions. The most opulent citizens in Greece expended great wealth and pains in pro- ducing those species of horses which were best adapted to the course. From Greece horse-racing next travelled to Rome ; and here we are informed by Plutarch that chariot-racing was first held in honour of Mithras, during the time of Pompey ; but it languished until Julius Caesar restored the institution with increased magnificence and effect. Although the equestrian spectacles of the Romans were modelled much after those seen in the Olympic games of Greece, yet they exhibited several distinctive features which plainly marked the advancement which had taken place. In lieu of the noble riders and charioteers of the Attic race, the horses of the Roman course and circus were more frequently ridden or driven by slaves and other persons employed for the express pur- pose, than by the owners themselves, who merely looked on their triumph or defeat, without per- sonally taking part in it ; and yet, notwithstand- ing this, the Romans were far more enthusiastic, both as jockeys and charioteers, than the Greeks; for horse-racing seems to have been their princi- pal amusement. The mounted races of the cer- tamina eqaestria were a favourite exercise ; but saddles were not then in use, and it seems sur- prising how some of the riders could perform the feats which it is asserted that they did ; such as leaping up and down from their horses, lying at length on their backs, standing upright on them : these riders were termed desultores, or leapers, and seem to have resembled those of oim own theatrical circuses. In the Roman racing, as in the Grecian, certain prescribed rules and regula- tions were rigidly adhered to, and those competi- tors who went against them were deemed to have lost their chance. They were obliged to enter their names and send their horses to a given place at least thirty days before the races commenced ; and a species of training was imposed during this interval, not only on the horses, but also on the jockeys and drivers of chariots. Like our own custom, the longer courses were appropriated to aged horses, and the shorter ones to colts ; mares ran against mares, as at the Epsom Oak Stakes ; while there were both a clerk of the course and a judge, who had all authority vested in them- selves. The Roman jockeys rode in different colours, as ours do now, particularly the com- panies of charioteers, in order that the lookers-on might know the several owners. It is supposed that the first British chariot-races were intro- duced by the Romans shortly after their invasion of England, and there is every probability that this supposition is based on a true foundation. The first authentic account of local races which we read of, is that referring to the races held at Smithfield, where we are informed by Fitzstephen that races were common enough in the reign of Henry II. Between this period and that of the times of Henry VIII., we learn little or nothing of horse-racing; but during the latter monarch’s reign it met with great improvement, a revival having taken place in the sport. Newmarket was first made a favourite sport for turf exploits at the commencement of the reign of Charles I., and by that monarch also races were established in Hyde Park ; he likewise altered the prize to a silver or gold cup instead of a bell. With the Restoration, all field sports re- ceived a fresh impetus ; and amongst them the race-course came in for even more than its fair share of encouragement, as Charles took it under his special patronage. He sent his master of the horse to the Levant, in order to purchase brood mares and stallions, principally Barbs and Turks ; and to these he devoted so much trouble and time, that the breed of race-horses became con- siderably improved. So enthusiastic was Charles HORSE-RACING 250 HORSE-RACING in this, his favourite sport, that he entered his horses in his own name ; and it is said that most of the present turf rules and regulations emana- ted from him. Dining the reigns of William III. and Anne, some royal patronage was given to the turf — during the latter reign x^articularly, George, prince of Denmark, being distinguished for the excellence of the stud which he kept up. Mr. Darley, also, in this reign, brought forward the claims of the Arabian horse ; and to him we are indebted for the racers of unequalled beauty, strength, and speed, that we possess at the pre- sent era. George II. did little for racing, and the same may be said of George III. ; but in the latter reign, however, great improvements were made. One horse, known as the Darley Arabian, was the sire of Flying Childers and great grand- sire of Eclipse, two of the swiftest, perhaps the very siviftest, race-horses ever known. Flying Childers was never beaten, won £200,000 in stakes, and was the sire of 497 winning horses. Eclipse won eleven plates and was never beaten. “Eclipse first, the rest nowhere,” became a pro- verbial x)hrase, so great was his superiority over all other horses of his time. He ran a mile in a minute at Newmarket. At least 160 winning horses were his immediate descendants. An- other famous horse imported into this country was the Godalphin Arabian, from whom many of the fleetest racers have descended. Among the swiftest horses of recent times have been Blair Athol, Flying Dutchman, West Australian, Blink Bonny, Thormanhy, Gladiateur, Eobert the Devil, and Bend d’or. Horse-racing is now nearly as popular in France as in England. Training. — The first thing which has to be attended to in the education of the racer, is “breaking in” the colt ; and this is commenced generally when the animal is about twelve months old. The great points to be aimed at in this rudimentary system of educa- tion are, to command obedience and inspire confid- ence ; for if these are not well grounded into the colt at an early age, his future career will meet with many obstacles. The application of the cavesson is the first active restraint applied to all colts, whether destined for the turf or not ; but with racers the colts are gene- rally “booted” first, in order to prevent them from rubbing their legs together whilst “ lounging.” The colt is bitted, and a long halter attached to the front part of the nose-strap, which the trainer holds in his hand, while a lad walks behind the animal with a whip, and urges him on by cracking it, without, how- ever, whipping him. In three or four days, when they go boldly and freely at full length of the rein each way in the lounge, for fifteen or twenty minutes, hav- ing by degrees been brought to this pace and time of lounging, the mouthing-bits, rollers, and cruppers may be put on ; and when the colt has become accustomed to them, the saddling him is the next step to be gained. For the first time this operation requires the greatest caution and care ; the girths should not be drawn tight, and the stirrups should not be left hanging loose ; while the “ bearing up” of the bridle should be gradual, and “ reining back ” must not be too roughly pressed on the colt, by way of supplying his shoulders and giving sensation to the mouth. Mounting him should be only very carefully attempted, and when he seems to be quite at home, with the saddle on his back; and the colt should be familiar with tlie person who first mounts him. The training of race-horses depends naturally on their age, con- dition, and constitution ; and the processes by which they are rendered capable of racing vary accordingly. A four or five-year old must be trained so as to be able to run a course of from two to four miles ; therefore such a horse must in his exercises be habituated to go, at a good telling pace, a much longer distance than that which he will be obliged to do when he comes to the post. It is also highly im- portant that he should have his training sweats and gallops carried up to the time of his going to the post. If he is a hearty feeding horse, not a sweat must be lost, as, if so, he would be found to have superfluous flesh on the day of the race, which would consequently incapacitate him for his trial. Training exercises for race-horses are confined to walking, cantering, and galloping— trotting forming no part of turf practice. Sweatings are important agents in training, as by this process the body of the horse is relieved from all un- nessary matter ; they promote speed by lightening the body, and give increased endurance by clearing the air-vessels. The process by which this is done is to envelop the horse in blankets and heavy clothes, and start him into a canter ; after which he is stripped and rubbed down, and his clothes resumed. Eacers are generally clipped once in the winter ; but if their coats be extremely rough, the process is repeated a second time. The jockey must be trained as well as the horse. According to Nimrod, he should possess the following not every-day qualifications : — “Considerable bodily power in a very small compass ; much personal in- trepidity ; a kind of habitual insensibility to provoca- tion, bordering upon apathy, which no efforts of an opponent in a race can get the better of ; and an habitual check to the tongue. Exclusive of the peril with which the actual race is attended, his profession lays a heavy tax on the constitution. The jockey must at all times work hard ; but, the hardest of all tasks, he must work upon an empty stomach. During his preparation for the race, he must have the abstinence of an Asiatic ; indeed, it too often happens that at meals he can only be a spectator— we mean during the period of his wasting. To sum up all, he has to work hard, and deprive himself of every comfort, risking his neck into the bargain.” Ages for Running.— The ages of race-horses are reckoned from the ist of January in the year he is foaled. Some horses run when two years old ; but the more important races are contested by three-year-olds. Racing and Race-Courses, — Just before a race com- mences, the horses are ushered forth from their stables, and brought up to the “paddock” with their clothes on, when the business of stripping and saddling is commenced. All racing saddles are made of the very best materials, in order to avert any evil consequences which might accrue both to the horse and his rider from the accidental slipping of a strap or the rupture of a girth, or similar casualties. The horses, after being saddled, are mounted by their jockeys, who take a preliminary canter to get them in heat for the forth- coming race. They are then pulled up and ranged in a line at the starting-post, from which they go off at the signal given by the starter, who drops a flag for the purpose. In a short course, the speed is generally husbanded until the finish, when the jockeys go to work with spur and whip to make the most of their various chances. In a long race, however, of three or four miles, if a jockey is mounted on an aged horse, and the rest of the competitors on two or three-year-olds, he generally puts forth the best speed at first, in con- sequence of his own horse being able to last twice the distance that the others can ; and when they are ex- hausted, he is able to go in to win, on account of the superior endurance of the animal which he bestrides. Newmarket bears away the palm as the metropolis of racing ; and after that come Epsom, Ascot, York, Don- caster, and Goodwood, all of which are celebrated for mportant races run during the year. The Turf is governed by the rules and regulations which were first instituted in its interest, and over it presides a court of honour, termed the “Jockey Club,” which annually elects the different stewards of races, and decides all disputes which may arise during the settlement of matches, wagers, and similar sporting matters. Steeple-Chasing ought to be characterised as a hybrid species between hunting and true racing. It does not take place on race-courses, but over open country, generally presenting considerable difiiculties. At first a steeple was chosen as marking the winning place, and from that the name was derived. The ground is marked out the morning of the race, unknown to the com- petitors, and leaps and jumps are included in the course to be gone over. Hurdle-Racing is a species of steeple-chasing ; but takes place on race-courses, the leaps being only over low flights of hurdles, it is not so dangerous, and con- sequently less exciting. HOTEL 251 HCJLSEAN SCHOLARSHIPS Handicapping,— In some races the speed of horses is equalised by “handicapping,” or proportioning the weights they are to carry. (See Handicapping.) Bettting.— An enormous amount of money changes hands on every great race. Owners of race-horses and others back particular animals for great amounts, and there is a large class of professional betting-men known as “the ring,” who make bets with all comers, so “ making their book ” by proportioning, the odds they accept being such that it is rarely possible for them to lose much even under adverse circumstances, and they may win large amounts. Sometimes, however, an “ outsider,” or horse which appeared to have no chance, comes to the front, calculations are upset, and disaster to the bookmaker follows. As no debts incurred by betting are recoverable by law, they are “debts of honour,” and no mercy is shown to a defaulter, who is known as a “ welch er,” and chased and assaulted if he appears on a race-course. HOTEL, ho-teV (Fr.). — In its general sense, a large inn for the reception of strangers ; but, in a restricted sense, particularly in France, identical with the word palace, or mansion, and it is applied to the residences of persons of rank. Hotels for the accommodation of visitors are, in many instances, of great dimensions. In New York and San Francisco, there are hotels with two or three hundred bedrooms, and the arrangements and furnishings are of the most elaborate kind. Some large hotels in this country, especially those in connection with the great lines of railway, are little inferior in size. (See Inn.) In another sense, the term is nearly synonymous with the term hospital, and is ap- plied to buildings set apart for the reception of sick and infirm paupers ; as the Hotel de Dieu, Hotel des Invalides. HOUND, hownd (Sax., Uund), a name ap- plied generally to different dogs used in hunting and other field sports ; and more especially to those which hunt by scent. The characteristic of a hound is its long pendulous ears. Some naturalists consider the hound to be a distinct species of dog, naming it Ganis Sagax. The bloodhound would appear to be the origin of the other sub-varieties, which are mentioned in this work under their different names. England, not only from the climate, but also on account of the great care bestowed in the breeding and manage- ment of these animals, excels all other countries in her different breeds of hounds. (See Blood- hound, Foxhound, Gkeyhound, Harrier, Staghound, &c., &c.) HOURIS, how' -reez (Arab, hUr-al-oyHn, black-eyed). — According to the Koran, virgins who are promised as one of the rewards of the blessed in Mahomet’s paradise. From the de- scription given in the book on which the Moham- medan faith is grounded, it appears that the houris surpass both pearls and rubies in their dazzling beauty : they are subject to no impurity; are always represented with dark eyes concealed by long jet eyelashes, the languishing glances of which they reserve for the voluptuous enjoyment of “ true believers ” alone. They are not created of clay like mortal women, but of pure musk, and are endowed with immortal youth, and every intellectual and corporeal charm. They dwell in ^een gardens, which are beautiful beyond what imagination can conceive. HOUSE, howse (Ang.-Sax.). — In the widest acceptation of this term, this term may be applied to any erection calculated to afford shelter to man or cattle, or protection to goods and stores ; but in a more restricted sense, it is confined to the dwellings in which the middle classes of English society reside, in contradistinction to the more extensive palace, castle, or mansion of the titled and wealthy on the one hand, and the little cottage of an artisan and labouring man, on the other. The construction of the house in different countries and at different periods, has, of course, varied considerably according to cir- cumstances of climate, position, and available building materials. In the houses of the mediae- val period, the walls of the basement story were strongly built, to afford protection to the inmates against the attacks of robbers and personal ene- mies. In France, Scotland, and Belgium, the houses were often many stories in height, and of great size. The roofs were high and steep, and a picturesque character was given to many of these old buildings by the peaked gables, which were often richly adorned by carved woodwork. Another peculiar feature in mediaeval houses, that may still be seen in some towns possessing buildings of some antiquity was the projection of one fioor over that which was immediately below it, so that in a street in which the houses were of considerable height, the upper stories of the buildings on either side were only a few feet apart. Although the houses of Italy, Holland, Belgium, and Flanders, that were built during the i2th and 13th centuries, are frequently marked by great architectural beauty externally, yet little improvement was made in domestic architecture in England, especially in the interior arrangements, until the reign of Elizabeth, when the architects of the day began to construct dwelling-houses with some regard to the locality in which they were situated, and the purposes for which they were especially required, and also in accordance with the tastes, habits, and pur- suits of the persons for whom they were erected. (See Elizabethan Architecture.) The houses of the i8th century, consisting chiefiy of large square piles of red brick, pierced with numerous windows in front and at the back, with a porch over the entrance, and a heavy slated roof pro- jecting beyond the face of the walls, and sup- ported by a bold but simple cornice, were roomy and comfortable, if not picturesque and ornate in appearance, and the style has recently been revived in what are known as Queen Anne houses ; but those of the Victorian age exhibit examples in which external elegance of structure is combined with judiciously-contrived internal arrangements, that tend to the comfort and con- venience of the occupants in every respect. (See Building, Brickwork, &c.) HOWITZER, how'-itz-er (Ger., hauhitzey from hauferii to fill), a kind of gun, from which large shot and shell may be thrown at short ranges. These guns are constructed in brass and iron. Howitzers are longer than mortars, and shorter than guns of the same calibre ; they re- quire a small charge of powder, but the angle of elevation at which they are fired is high. They were first used in the British service about the end of the 17th century. The Coehorn howitzer, used in the hilly districts of India, is so small that it can be easily carried by a horse. HULSEAN SCHOLARSHIPS, LEC- TURES, AND PROFESSORSHIP, huV-se-an.— The Rev. John Hulse, of Elworth, Cheshire, who died in 1790, bequeathed a considerable amount of property to the University of Cam- bridge, where he had been educated, for the HUMANITIES 252 HUNTING advancement of religious learning. There are two scholarships attached to St. John’s College : an annual prize of £40 for a theological disquisi- tion ; a Hulsean Lecturer, who is elected annu- ally, and whose duty is to preach not less than four nor more than six times before the Univer- sity ; and a Hulsean Professorship of Divinity j established by statute in i860, and in which was merged an oflSce knoAvn as that of Christian Advocate. HUMANITIES, hu-man’ -e-teez, a term em- ployed in modern European schools and colleges to signify polite literature, or grammer, rhetoric, and poetry, including the study of the ancient classics. The term is employed in opposition to philosophy and science. In a more restricted sense it is used for philology. HUMOUR, hu'-mor. — A. word frequently used as synonymous with disposition, and we speak of being in a good or bad humour. Old writers use the word in the same sense of whim or fancy, and Shakespeare makes Corporal Nym repeat the phrase “ that is the humour of it,” meaning it is my whim to do so. Another and more modern meaning of the word is almost equivalent to fun or comicality, and we speak of an actor or a writer possessed of a great fund of humour. HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, hun-gair' -e-an . — The language of Hungary, or the Magyar tongue, is defined by philologists as belonging to the Finnic family of languages, and a syntax bears some resemblance to the Turkish. It is very beautiful and expres- sive, and is admirably adapted for poetic com- position. No trace of literary productions appears in the Magyar dialect before the 12th century, when several works of a religious character were issued in the native tongue. In the 14th and 15th centuries Magyar was the language of the court, and was used in official documents. Some works were published in Magyar, but a regular literature in that language may be said to have been first developed in the course of the hundred years following 1437, when two Hussite monks translated a large portion of the Scriptures for the use of Hungarian refugees in Moldavia. Other translations appeared, and poetical chroni- cles and ecclesiastical legends also appeared in the popular tongue. In the i6th century ap- peared other versions of the Scriptures, and a considerable body of popular poetry. The earli- est Magyar lyrical poet was Valentine Balassa, in the latter part of the 16th century, and Rimas was another pleasing poet of the same period. The 17th century was marked by much activity in the religious world, and a version of the Vulgate and many polemical works appeared. Various historical productions by Szalardi, Lisznyai, Peth6, Remeny, and others, appeared during the period. A Hungarian Latin Dictionary was com- piled by Parispdpai ; and a very distinct epoch was marked by the appearance, in 1657, of a heroic poem by Nicolas Zrinyi, descriptive of the siege and fall of Sziget. Other long poems appeared, one (the Disaster of Mohacs) in thirteen cantos, by Baron Lisiti, and Stephen Gyomgyosi, produced several lyric and epic poems. Literary activity in the Magyar language, afterwards declined, but between 1772 and 1807 there was a marked re- vival; and in the following year, Francis Kazinczy, and other writers who followed his example, revived the purity and beauty of the native tongue. In 1830 the Hungarian Academy of Science was established, and the development of Magyar literature received an immense impulse. Among the leading writers of recent times are — in^ history, Ormos, Pulszky, Marczali, Fraknoi, and Radvanszky; in fiction, Jokai, Abrangi, Miksath and Beksic ; in poetry and the drama, Vajda, Arany (considered to be the first Hungarian poet of the day), Csiky and Berczik ; and in philological and in educational literature, Badenz, Szasz, Molnar, Wenzel and Vambery. HUNTING, hunt'-ing (from Sax., huntian, to hunt). — A. favourite British sport, which seems to have been pursued even in the earliest times. The classics have many and full accounts as to the hunting of wild animals for pleasure ; but the fox-hunting of the present day eclipses, in its hardihood and naive recklessness, all the chases which were prosecuted both by the Greeks and Romans. The hunter (horse ridden in the chase) is trained nearly in a similar manner to the racer {see Hoese-Racing), with this alteration, that the object with the latter is to “ keep the length in him,” or, in other words, to insure a burst of speed when called upon ; while the former is trained to exhibit stoutness and increased endur- ance, with a proportionately less degree of speed. The seat in the hunting-saddle stands next to that of the jockey in importance, as on it depends the whole success of the fox-hunter. He must not only be firm in the saddle, in order to prevent falling during the performance of the leaps which his horse takes, but must also so ride his hunter as to make the most of him, and not weary him out by holding him in too tightly, or working him unnecessarily. Hare-hunting is a compara- tively mild form of sport. In old times stag- hunting was the true royal pastime, but now fox- hunting has usurped its place, and stag-hunting is now but comparatively rarely followed, and chiefly in the western counties. The Queen’s staghounds meet during the season at or near Windsor ; but as the animal hunted is usually one of the half-tame stags of the park, and carted to the place of meeting, the excitement is not very considerable. The different varieties of dogs used in hunting are described under the proper headings. {See Foxhound, Hakeiee, Staghound, &c.) Hunting Phraseology. — There are many technical terms connected with hunting which must be well known by the would-be sportsman. With regard to the tails of animals, that of the fox is called its brush, that of the deer, its single ; while the feet of a fox are called pads, its face, the mask or front, and that of a deer, its snout or nose. With regard to the numbers of dogs, we say a brace of greyhounds, but a couple of hounds ; a leash of the former, but a couple-and-half of the latter. In true sporting phraseology, it is a kennel of foxhounds, a pack being thought more appro- priate to harriers ; but many crack sportsmen are nevertheless heard to talk of a pack of foxhounds in common parlance. When it is observed that hounds, in drawing a cover, hit the scent the reverse way, they are said to draw amiss. When the game is up, and the hounds scent it in the opposite direction to that which it is taking, they are then said to run to the heel, or run to counter. When they take a fresh scent, i.e., go off on another trail to that on which they started, in consequence of the two scents crossing, they are said to hunt change. The terms run mute and run riot are also employed when they run without any cry, or are disobedient to the huntsman. In a fox-hunt, when the sportsmen are assembled, and the hounds enter the first cover, they are said to throw off, and when they carry the scent to a given point, and no longer stoop their noses to it, they are said to throw up. When the goodness of the scent enables the HURDLES 253 IAMBICS whole pack to stream away at the top of their speed, they often do not cry, or, in sporting phraseology, throw a tongue. When the hounds acknowledge the scent, however, by lifting their tongues freely, they are said to be in. full cry. Every pack of hounds, be- sides the huntsman, should possess at least two whippers-in, one in order to turn the hounds when at fault, and the other to keep up those that are trailing off. The place where the hounds and sportsmen as- semble is termed the meet. HURDLES, hurd'-ls. — Strong fences of wicker-work, or interlaced wattles or branches, formed into portions about six feet long and three feet high. They are used in military operations for the purpose of forming temporary protection to soldiers in the field, and as assistance in throw- ing up earthworks ; and in sport as fences for horses or men to leap over. {See Racing.) HURDY-GU RD Y, hur^-de-guif-de. — ^An old, stringed, musical instrument, played by means of a small wooden wheel, the edge of which is charged with rosin, which acts upon four strings of gut. Two of the strings are regulated by finger-keys, and have a compass of about twelve notes ; the other strings are tuned in unison or in fifths, and form a drone bass. The hurdy- gurdy, which originated in Germany, is a favourite instrument with the peasantry of southern Europe. HURST (Saxon, a little wood or thicket). — Atermination to many names of places in England, especially in the southern counties, indicating the original character of the locality. In Heraldry, a charge representing a small group of trees. HYDROGRAPHY, hi-drog' -raf-e (Gr., hudor^ water ; grofho^ I write). — ^A term applied to that part of science which relates to the de- scription of the waters existing on the surface of the earth, particularly with reference to the bearings of the coast, the depth, currents, and other circumstances important or useful in navagation. Hydrography implies the same thing with regard to the sea that geography implies with respect to the land. There is a hydrographic department of the Admiralty, where the results of surveys, in different parts of the world, are embodied in maps and charts. HYPER, hi' -per (Gr., huper, over, beyond), a Greek preposition, which is conjoined with other words in order to denote excess, or any- thing beyond, or over, and above the original quality of the word to which it is added. HYPERBOLE, hi-per'-bo-le (from Gr., huper ; and hallo, I throw). — A figure used in rhetoric, which signifies more than it is intended to represent to the hearer or reader. When ex- pressions are made use of and assertions made which might be deemed incredible or beyond be- lief, in order to induce credibility in some fact wanted to be proved, the argument may be said to be supported by hyperboles. As is well ob- served, exaggeration is but hyperbole applied to narrative, in order to produce a better impression than woifid be gained by plain facts alone. It is the basis of many metaphors. HYPERBOREAJd, hi-per-ho' -re-an (from Gr., huper, beyond; and horeas, the north), a designation applied to people who dwell in coun- tries very far north. The ancients gave this de- nomination to the people and places to the north- ward of the Scythians, as their knowledge of the localities and the inhabitants did not extend be- yond the country belonging to that nation. HYPHEN, hi' -fen (Gr., huphen, together with), 8 mark, or short line, written thus (-), and placed between two words, in order to show that they are connected together and form a compound word; as, four-leaved, steam engine. In writing and printing, the hyphen is used to connect the syllables ot a divided word, and is placed after the syllable that closes a line, with the following syllable in the next line. I is the ninth letter, and the third vowel, of the English language. In different countries the pronounciation of this letter varies considerably. In Italy, France, and other countries, it is pro- noxmced similarly to the English e. In England its sound varies ; in some words it is long, as bright, fine ; and in others short, as prince, tin; in others, again, it is pronounced like y, as in union, farrier ; and in some words it is pro- nounced like double e, as in magazine. The name of the character in Greek was iota, from the HebrewyocZ, and beingthe smallest in the alphabet, was figuratively used to signify a trifle, “ not an iota,” or more familiarly “not a jot” being common expressions. Used as a numeral, the letter I signifies one, and represents as many units as it is times repeated ; thus, I. one, II. two, III. three ; and when put before a higher numeral, it subtracts itself ; as, IV. four IX., nine; and so on : when, however, it is placed after a higher numeral, it adds itself; thus VI. is 5+i, or 6 In the Greek and Latin languages there was only one character for i. and^. and in some old English dictionaries, the two letters are mixed up. In Roman coins the I was the mark of the as in value and weight ; and as an initial letter in in- I. scriptions, it stood for idcea, imperator, imperii, indulgentia, invictus, &c. The dot over the small i originated in the 14th century. IAMBICS, i-am'-biks, a species of verse used by the Greek and Latin poets, and originally com- posed of a succession of iambi feet (one short and one long syllable). The derivation of the word has never been ascertained, but according tO' Aristotle, the iambic measure was first employed in satirical poems called iambi, which appear to- have been acted dramatically. Amongst the Greek tragic poets, the iambic is the measure most commonly used. They consisted of three entire metres, or six feet, and were consequently called the tragic trimeter acatalectic. Mthough, as stated above, this species of verse originally consisted of iambi only, in time other feet were introduced into the metre. In modern European languages, verses composed of five iambic feet form a favourite metre. Such verses are much used in the lighter French poetry : and in serious composition it is ordinarily used by the English, Germans, and Italians. Scott’s longer poems afford many excellent illustrations of the success- ful use of the metre. ICH DIEiq^ 254 ILLUSTRATION ICH DIEN, ik deem (Ger., I serve), the motto of the Prince of Wales. Besides the coronet, this prince has a distinguishing mark of honour, called the Prince of Wales’ feathers. This consists of a plume of three ostrich-feathers, with an ancient coronet ; imder which in a scroll is the motto “ICH Dien.” This device (accord- ing to popular history) was first assumed by Edward, the Black Prince, after the famous battle of Cressy, in which he killed John, king of Bohemia, the stipendiary of the king of France, and took from him such a plume and motto, which have ever since been borne by every suc- ceeding Prince of Wales. ICHN OGR APH Y, ik-nog' -raf-e (Gr. , ichnos, and graphein, to write or draw), a term formerly used, but now nearly obsolete, to exi)ress the ground-plan of any building, and also applied to the delineation of the same. ICHOR, ik'-or, with the ancient Greeks the term signified the divine liquor which flowed from the wounds of the gods. ICONOGRAPNY, i-ko-nog'-ra-fe (Gr., eikon, an image or representation ; and graphein, to write). — In an extended sense, the word incono- graphy is applied to the description of any figures found in paintings and sculpture, as well as monumental records of ancient date ; but in its restricted signification it is confined to descrip- tions and drawings of any sculptured images or paintings of the human form, animals, and in- animate objects, that are found in buildings and their appurtences, and furniture, that are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes. This is more properly termed Christian iconography, and embraces all objects connected with Christian art from the earliest times, as far as the close of the 15th century. ICONOLOGY, i-kon-oV -o-je (Gr., eikon, an image, and logos, word, or discourse), a descrip- tion and explanation of allegorical figures, symbols, emblems, and visible representations, or embodi- ments of abstract qualities. IDEOGRAPHS, or IDEOGRAPHIC CHARACTERS. {S$e Hieroglyphics.) IDES, idez. [See Calends.) IDIOM, id' -e-om {from Gr., idios, peculiar). — ^A mode of speaking or writing which is foreign to the usages of grammar or the general law of language, and which is restricted to some indi- vidual dialect. The sense of the word itself is by no means restricted, as the French word idiome expresses any peculiar dialect or language, al- though idiotisme may be deemed a more correct equivalent for our own word idiom. There are several subordinate words to ex^^ress the idioms ef different nations — as Latinism for a Latin one. Gallicism for a French idiom, Hibernicism for an Irish one. IDYLL, OR IDYL, i'-dil[G:V,,eidullion,i}ie diminutive of eidos, form), a short pastoral poem, or an animated description and representation of ordinary objects of nature in harmonious verse. The bucolic poems of Theocritus are called idylls, while those of Virgil are distinguished by the name of eclogues, which renders it a difficult matter to decide why there should be any differ- ence in name, as both compositions are of a simi- lar nature throughout. That the ancients did not restrict the use of the word may be seen by the works of Ausonius, which are called idylls. In English literature, Thomson’s “ Seasons,” Burns’ “Cotters’ Saturday Night,” and Gold- smith’s “ Deserted Village,” are examples of idylls ; while Tennyson, in his “ Idylls of the King,” has extended the interpretation of the word to a further degree even than was done by the ancients, making it almost equivalent to epic, by the introduction of romantic and tragical incidents. “ILIAD” AND “ODYSSEY,” u'-e-ad od'-is-se. [See Homeric Poems.) ILLUMINATING, il-lu' -min-ai-ting (Lat., lumen, light ; Fr., illuminer, to enlighten). — The art of embellishing and adorning manuscripts with pictorial illustrations of various scenes and events, portraits, initial letters, borders, &c., which was practised in the mediaeval ages prior to the introduction of printing. Illuminating was generally executed by the monks, almost every monastery having a scriptorium, or writing- room, in which copies of the Scriptures and other works were made with great labour, neatness, and care, and afterwards ornamented with pictures in gold and colours. The colours employed by the artists were extremely brilliant, and the general effect was heightened by the introduction of gold and silver leaf, which was highty bur- nished. The initial letters and ornamental borders are generally very elaborate, and executed with great skill and taste, and the portraits of eminent persons, particularly those which were executed between the 5th and loth centuries, are often extremely good. The illuminations that were executed in the nth, 12th, and 13th centuries are not so carefully drawn and coloured, nor do they evince so much artistic skill as those of an earlier period ; but from the commencement of the 14th century to the introduction of printing, they show considerable improvement in style and execution. Illumination was practised by the Romans, as Pliny mentions in his “Natural History,” book xxv. chap. 2, a biographical work, written by Varro, which included the lives of 700 Romans of eminence, and was en- riched with portraits executed by the author himself. Many valuable specimens of illuminated manuscripts are prescribed in all the principal libraries of Europe, and copies of a great number of drawings illustrative of English antiquities including portraits of the early kings and queens of England, with representations of the persons and costume of our ancestors, their arms, houses, ships, and household furniture, have been pub- lished by Mr. Strutt , an eminent English antiquary. Since the revival of Gothic architecture, and the introduction of medieval ornamentation into our churches, the illumination of scrolls with texts of Scripture, for decorative purposes in con- nection with churches, schools, &c., and a variety of ornamental work, has become a fashionable amusement. ILLUSTRATION, U-ius- trai'-shun (Lat., illustrare, to show). — ^A term used in Rhetoric, and distinct from comparison, or simile, in this fact only, that illustration is used to illumine an argument, while the former are only used to give force to expression. Illustration is some- times used in a wider and far more extended sense, in which, according to Brande, it seems to comprehend example, in which case it is the recital of a particular fact or instance, evincing IMBROGLIO 255 INCUNABULA the truth of a general proposition laid down in argument, IMBROGLIO, im-hrole' -yo (Ital., brogliare^ to confound or mix together ). — K term applied to the plot of a romance or drama, when it is much perplexed, complicated, and interwoven. The word is also used in connection with the affairs of real life, and generally means a quarrel arising from a complication of circumstances. IMBRUED, im-hrude'. — In Heraldry, signi - 1 fies dropping with blood, and weapons thus blazoned are represented with blood dropping from them. IMITATION, im-i-tai' -shun. — In Musical Composition, the repetition of a passage or the following of a passage with a similar one in other parts or voices. Strict imitation is when the passage is exactly repeated either in unison or octave ; piece imitation when some expressive variations are adopted. “ IMMORTALS,” im-mor’ -taJs. — The name given to the flower of the ancient Persian army, limited in number to 10,000, and recruited from the nobility alone. Herodotus speaks of them as the body-guard of Xerxes. The name was also given to the body-guard of the Eastern em- perors at Constantinoifle, in the 4th and 5th cen- turies. The members of the French Academy are sometimes spoken of familiarly as “ The Immortals.” IMMORTELLES, im-mor’-tels. {See Evee- LASTING Flo WEES.) IMPALE, im-pale'. — In Heraldry, to impale is to arrange the coats of arms side by side on one shield, as in the case of the combined coats of husband and wife, where the husband’s arms occupy the place of honour on the dexter side. IMPERATIVE MOOD, im-per'-a-tiv (Lat., impero,^ I command), is that part of the verb which is employed in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as. Depart in peace. Avoid evil companions. IMPERFECT TENSE. — -That tense, or part of a verb, which expresses the action or event of which we speak, as at a certain time, to which we refer, in an unflnished or imperfect state ; as, I was reading when he arrived. IMPERSONAL VERBS, im-per'-so-nal (Fr., impersonnel). — Such as are used only in the third person; as. It rains, it snows, it thunders. The word impersonal, however, as implying a total absence of persons, cannot, with strict pro- priety, be applied to these verbs, nor, indeed, to .any verbs ; and hence some grammarians reject the name altogether. IMPLUVIUM, im-plu' -ve-um. — ^A tank in the centre of the hall of a Roman house, placed immediately under the unroofed part, and in- tended to receive the rain running down from the roof. It was generally of marble. IMPOST, im'-post. — In architecture, the point where an arch rests on a wall or column. IMPRIMATUR, im-pri-7nai' -tur (Lat., Let it be printed). — The permission granted by the ■censor, in^ those countries where a censorship of the press is established, for a book to be printed. The forrn was also used with books printed iii England in early times ; and even in the present •day, books printed with the sanction of certain of the Scottish universities and religious works written by Roman Catholics bear an announce- ment that they are issued with the j)ermission of the authorities. IMPRIMIS, im-pri'-mis (Lat., in the first place). — A word generally used in cataloguing a series of things, ideas, or arguments. IMPRINT, im! -print (from Fr. imprimer, to impress). — The designation of the place where, by whom, and when, a book is published, always placed under the title of the same. By the Act 39 Geo. III. cap. 79, every printer is obliged to affix his name and residence to each article he shall print ; and if it consists of more than one leaf, then upon the first and last leaves, under a heavy penalty. There are some exceptions to this law, however. In newspapers, the imprint is generally placed at the end of the last column of the final page. In books, the name of the printer is sometimes placed at the back of the title-page, and sometimes at the end of the work. IMPROMPTU, im-prompif-u (Lat. , in readi- ness). — In Literature, is applied to something given out on the spur of the moment, or without premeditation, usually of a witty or epigram- matic character. In Music, it means a short, extemporaneous composition. IMPROVISATORE, im-pro-ve-za-td -re (Ital., unpremeditatedly). — A term applied to one who has the power of composing and reciting a number of verses upon any given subject without premeditation. Among the ancient Greeks, the gift was common ; and many of the more culti- vated Arabs are proficients in the art. The Italians particularly excel in this species of com- position, owing, no doubt, in great measure, to the 'richness and flexibility of their language. Few of the poems so produced have acquired any permanent reputation. The improvisatore gener- ally accompanies himself on the guitar while he is giving forth his verses. Several females have greatly distinguished themselves in this art, and are styled improvisatrici. INCANTATION, in-Tcan' -ta-shun (from Latin root, canere, to sing). — ^An impressive cere- mony in the old systems of magic, on which rhymes were musically chanted in the belief that they would produce supernatural results. It is a custom in many rural districts, and among un- lettered people, to chant in a low voice, a rhyme supposed to have the power of producing cures in case of illness or accident. The more poetical and dignified form of incantation is illustrated in the “Runic rhymes,” of Norma of the Fitful Head, in Walter Scott’s “Pirate.” INCH, insh. — In Geography, a Gaelic word signifying island, corresponding to the Irish innis, both words frequently forming prefixes to proper names of places. INCOGNITO, in-Tcog' -ne-to (Lat., unknown), is commonly applied to a prince, nobleman, &c. , travelling in such a way as not to be recognized or known, which is usually done by assuming a feigned name, and dispensing with retinue or other marks of distinction. INCUNABULA, in-Jcu-ndb'-u-la (Lat., a cradle). — ^Aterm applied by bibiographers to early books, printed before the year 1550. It is sup- posed that there are nearly 20,000 of these books in existence. Many catalogues have been pub- lished, but the most complete is given in Hain’s INDECLINABLE 253 INDIAN ABCHITECTUEE “ Repertorium Bibliographicum,” 2 vols., Stuttg. 1826-38. INDECLINABLE, in-de-Tdi' -na-ll (Lat. , indeclinahilis). — A grammatical term applied to a word which admits of no declension or inflection ; as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions. In Latin and Greek, indeclinable nouns are such as have the same termination for all cases. INDENTED, in-dent' -ed (Lat., dens, a tooth). — One of the eight lines of partition used in Her- aldry for dividing one part of the fleld of the shield from another, or for forming the outline of any ordinary or sub-ordinary. It consists of a zigzag line, resembling the teeth of a saw. INDEX, in'-deks (Lat., indico, I point out). — ^An alphabetical list at the end of a work, of the principal subjects treated of or contained therein, with references to the pages where they are to be found. INDLAN AECECITECTUIIE. — The oldest buildings that remain as examples of the early architecture of India are considered by competent judges not to have been erected earlier than 300 years prior to the Christian era. Indian archi- tecture may be broadly classifled as Buddhist, Brahman, and Mohammedan, which three styles derive their names from the religion professed by the dominant pov\'er in India during the period in which each prevailed. There are many points in which the architecture of Hindostan bears a striking resemblance to that of Egypt, temples being found in both countries that have been hewn out of the solid rock, and ornamented with statues attached to piers or walls, which are remarkable for their size and colossal proportions. The chief, and, indeed, almost the only, remains of Buddhist architecture, with the exception of the topes, or structures built to contain relics of Buddha, are the cave-temples found in southern India, the principal of which are the temples of Elephanta and Salsette, near Bombay ; Behar, Cuttack, and those of EUora and Carli, in the province of Aunmgabad. These temples consist of excavations cut out of the solid rock with considerable labour; and in addition to the temple itself, monasteries, if they may be so termed, are also hewn out of the stone in the same manner in some localities, to afford accom- modation for the priests who were in attendance on the shrine of the divinity. The rock-temple of Carli is supposed to be one of the oldest of these curious excavations. It consists of a nave about 26 feet in width, separated from narrow aisles on either side by rows of massive pillars. The entire length of this temple is 126 feet, and its breadth about 47 feet. The roof is vaulted, and rises about 45 feet above the level of the floor in the centre. The columns on either side of the nave consist of a base, shaft, and capital. The base is very high, especially when compared with the bases of columns used in the various styles of European architecture ; the shaft is octagonal, and about equal to the base in height ; while the capitals are ornamented with kneeling elephants, on which male and female flgures are seated. Entrance to the body of the temple is obtained through three doors, the largest being in the centre, and the two smaller ones on either side of it. There is a porch before these doors, which extends along the whole facade of the temple and a few feet beyond it ; and above them is a gallery. The space above the gallery up to the roof itself is entirely open, forming a large semi-circular window, by which light is admitted into the interior. The temple terminates in a semi-circular apse, surmounted by a semi-dome, and in this apse the shrine and image of the divinity are placed. The temple of Elephanta is much larger, and excavated in the side of a mountain: it is about 130 feet square. It is fllled with rich and varied sculpture, consisting chiefly of colossal figures in alto relievo. The columns are composed of a fluted shaft swelling outwards in the middle, standing on a high square base, and surmounted by a bulb-shaped circular capital, which is one of the chief distinc- tive features of Indian architecture. The Bud- dhist rock-monasteries consist of a series of cells ranged round a central hall. They are not so richly ornamented with sculpture as the temples ; but many of the chambers are decorated with paintings representing events in the life of Buddha, and portraits of Buddha himself and Buddhist saints. The topes are generally m the form of circular buildings, but some are large towers. They vary from 10 or 20 feet in diameter to 180 or 200 feet, and for the most part consist of a solid cupola erected on a flat terrace reached by steps, with a relic-case called a tee, or a square ornament in the form of a box, intended to represent a relic-case, on the summit. A column called a Idt was placed , in front of the Buddhist religious buildings, on which the Buddhist creed was inscribed. Some of the Buddhist temples in Ceylon, Burmah, and Java consist of a series of terraces rising above one another in a pyramidal form, with a relic of Buddha under a dome at the summit. {See Boro Buddor.) On the decline of the worship of Buddha in India, a sect known as the Jains, or Jainas, sprang up. The temples erected by the Jains were characterized by great elegance and lightness of structure, combined with richness of ornamentation. They consist of a central dome, surrounded by others more or less in number, supported on sculpture columns. The ceiling of the cupolas, which are hollow and not solid like the domes of the topes erected by the Buddhists, are panelled and adorned with elaborately designed scroll-work and foliage. The temples of the followers of Brahma consist of an inner temple, or sanctuary, called the' himana. This is in the form of a four-sided pyramid, which rises to a great height, and is formed of a succession of steps or terraces, adorned with figures and sculpture, and crowned by a small dome. In this was the cell, or sanctuary, which contained the image of the deity, and was lighted by lamps. A porch was placed before the entrance to this inner sanctuary, and the entire pile formed the centre of a rectangular court, surrounded by a high wall. The entrance to this court was flanked by pyramidal gate towers, called gopuras. Halls, or colonnades, consisting of a roof, supported on pillars, varying in number from four up to a thousand, according to the size of the buil ding, were erected in the inclosures that surrounded the Brah- man temples. These halls were called choultries : they served for the celebration of festivals and ceremonies connected with the worship of Brahma, that occurred at various seasons of the year. The temples at Tanjore and Bareilly are the best ex- amples of this style of Indian architecture. Some of the finest buildings in India in the Hindoo style are the ghauts, or landing places, and the reservoirs are ornamented with temples and kiosks. "WTien the Mohammedans conquered India, they introduced the arch, and various INDICATIVE MOOD 257 INNS OF COURT features of Saracenic or Moorish architecture, which were gradually blended with the more prominent features of the previous styles pre- vailing in that country, until a new style was produced similar in many respects to the archi- tecture of Arabia, Northern Africa, and Spain, when the Saracens had the mastery over those countries, but containing other characteristics, which are sufficient to mark it as a distinct style. The ornamentation is as rich and minute in de- tail as that of Moorish architecture, and the pointed and horse-shoe arch are introduced in a square panel, but the bulbous cupolas swelling outwards and extending considerably beyond the circle of the base, as well as the projecting galleries of the minarets and balconies, sup- ported on cantievers of great length, are peculiar, and belong entirely to the Mohammedan archi- tecture of India. The mosques, and some of the tombs erected by the great Mohammedan sul- tans of India, afford the best examples of this style of architecture. Among these may be named the great mosque at Delhi, and the mag- nificent mausoleum built by Shah Jehan, near Agra, about 1640, to the memory of one of his queens. [See Taj Mahal.) INDICATIVE MOOD, in-dik' -a-tiv (Lat., indico, I point out). — That particular form or state of a verb which simply indicates or declares a thing ; as, I love, He is feared. INDICTION, in -dik'-shun (Lat., indictio, establishment, order). — A period of fifteen years, different from other cycles, in the fact of its hav- ing no reference to astronomical phenomena. The indication is supposed to relate to certain judicial acts, as tariffs of the taxes and such like decrees, at stated intervals, under the old Greek emperors. The Caesarean indiction fell on the 8th of the calends of October (24th September) ; the Constantinopolitan diction on the ist Sep- tember ; and the Pontifical indiction on the ist January. The year of indication may be com- puted by the following formula, to correspond with the year of our era : — Add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder will be the year of the indiction. If the remainder be o, it will signify the isth of the cycle. The reader will find the subject fully discussed in Gibbon’s “ Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire.” INDO-GERMANIC, INDO- EUEOPEAN, OR ARYAN LANGUAGES, in- do-jer' -man-ik, are the different names given by different philologers to one of the three great families into which the tongues of mankind are divided. [See Aryan and Aryan Languages.) INFANT SCHOOLS. (See Schools.) INFANTA, in-fan' -ta (Sp.), a word signify- ing child, and generally applied as a title of honour to the princesses of the royal houses of Spain and Portugal. The pre-eminence implied by the appellation may be seen by infanta, signi- fying the child par excellence. The princes are styled infanU. INFERNAL MACHINE, in-fer'-nali^v.^ from Lat. inf emus), a name given generally to all machines containing powder and projectiles, and intended to destroy human life. The name, however, applies more particularly to those machines made use of in conspiracies and politi- cal plots, as the one tried against Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800, against Louis Philippe in 1835, and against Louis Napoleon on the 14th January, 1858, none of which was successful. INFINITIVE MOOD, in-fin! -i-tiv (Lat., infinitivus). — That form or state of the verb which expresses a thing in a general manner, without any distinction of number or person ; as, to walk, to speak, to be feared. INFLECTION, or INFLEXION, in- flek'-shun (Lat., inflectio, I bend). — A change which takes place in a word, from a modification of its sense between the root and the teomination. The inflexion must therefore not be confounded with the termination itself. For example, the syllable am is the root of all the words em- ployed in the conjugation of the Latin verb amo, “ I love ; ” in the imperfect tense the inflexion is. the syllable ab. The termination varies accord- ing to the person ; amdbam, amdbas, amabat. INITIALS, in-esh'-als. — The first letters of the Christian and surname of a person, or of official and other titles. [See Abbreviation.) The initials of a name are frequently ornament- ally combined into a monogram. [See Mono- gram). In some cases, a court of law will accept initials appended to documents as equivalent to to the full signature. INNS OF COURT. — ^When the Court of Common Pleas was fixed at Westminster, in terms of an article in the Magna Charta, which declared that it should no longer follow the king’s court, but be held in some certain place, numerous professors of the municipal law were thus brought together and formed into an aggregate body. They naturally fell into a kind of collegiate order, purchased or became possessed, at various times, of certain houses between Westminster and the City, where exercises were performed, lecture's read, and degrees at length conferred in the common law. The degrees were those of barris- ter, answering to bachelor in the universities. According to Fortescue, there were two sorts of collegiate houses — one called Inns of Chancery, in which the younger students of the law were usually placed, and the greater inns, called the Inns of Court, into which the more advanced students were admitted. The Inns of Court are Lincoln’s Inn, the Inner Temple, the Middle Temple, and Gray’s Inn. These four courts alone possess the power of conferring the rank of bar- rister-at-law, a rank which constitutes an indis- pensable qualification for practice in the superior courts. (/See Barrister.) Lincoln’s Inn appears to have taken its name from one of the earls of Lincoln, whose house came to be appropriated to students of law. It has a magnificent chapel, built by Inigo Jones, and an elegant hall and library, built by Hardwick, in the Tudor style, in 1845. The library contains a very large and valuable collection of books. The Inner and Middle Temples came into the hands of the pro- fessors of law after the dissolution of the Knights Templars, and a temporary occupation by the Knights Hospitallers. In the reign of Henry VIH. the members of the Temple divided into two societies, afterwards known as the Inner and Middle Temples. Probably some buildings be- yond the western boundary of the city were in- tended to form an Outer Temple, but no traces of such an inn remain. The magnificent Temple church, common to both societies, was founded by the Templars upon the model of that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Middle Temple Hall, built in 1572, is a noble building, in which, L R INNUENDO 258 INTERCALARY in the Elizabethan days, masques and revelry were held, and it is the only existing building in which a play of Shakespeare’s was performed in the poet’s lifetime. The Middle Temple library is an elegant Gothic building, opened in 1862 ; and the new Hall of the Inner Temple was opened in 1870. Gray’s Inn takes its name from the lords Gray of Wilton, and was established in the reign of Edward III. The chapel and hall are plain buildings. Each inn of court is gov erned by a body of its own, known by the name of Benchers, with a treasurer elected annually. Besides the four inns of court, there are subor- dinate inns, which are now only used as cham- bers, principally by solicitors and attorneys. INNUENDO, in-nu'-en-do (Greek, neuo, to nod with the head). — A remote hint or suggestion of a person or thing not actually named. INSCRIPTION, in-skrip'-shun (Lat. , in, and scHbo, I write). — A term applied to designate any monumental writing intended to com- memorate a remarkable event, or to hand down to posterity the name of the builder of a monu- ment, or of the person in whose honour it was erected. From the very earliest periods in the history of antiquity, when documents are rare, and, indeed, often wanting altogether, inscrip- tions appear to form one of the most important sources from which we have derived our knowledge of the public, private, religious, and social life of the ancients. Inscriptions, more commonly, are limited to portraying the deeds and names of memorable men ; but we have also records of battles, dates of important events, chronicles of laws, decrees, legends, moral and scientific pre- cepts, and chronological tables beyond number. We have thus important records of the annals of antiquity ; and the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Indians, Persians, Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans, all have left such traces behind them. Some of the earliest inscriptions are written like the Hebrew, from the right to the left ; others varied their lines, the first being written from the left to the right, and the second from the right to the left. In this manner, which is called boustrophedon, the laws of Solon were written, and some specimens are still extant. The method of later times was to write, like ourselves, from the left to the right. But besides these general distinctions, there occur a great variety, and some modifications of writing, which are the re- sult of mere fancy. An important point, which it is necessary to master before attempting to read Greek, and more especially Roman inscrip- tions, is the abbreviation of names and words. The oldest Latin inscriptions are those which were found at Rome, and which are now kept in the monastery of Einsiedeln : they are written on parchment, and probably belong to the loth or nth century. INSPIRATION, in-spe-ra' -shun (Lat., spiro, to breathe). — In Literature, a term some- what loosely applied to the enlarged preceptions of men of genius, who see more of the beauty which literature or art can express than ordinary persons can. In this manner we speak of in- spired painters, poets, and musicians, of being inspired by a love of country or noble ambition, not in any way understanding that the person spoken of was the rccepient of supernatural powers. INSTITUTE, NATIONAL, OP FRANCE (from Lat., instituere, to found). — A learned body which was organized in France shortly after the first storm of the revolution of the last century had spent its fury. Its necessity arose from the fact of the academies and art institutions having been destroyed ; consequently, the Institut National was formed on the 25th October, 1795, out of the remnants of the five academies ; namely, the French Academy, the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, that of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences, of the Fine Arts, and of the Moral and Political Sciences, all united in one harmonious whole. The great object designed by the Institute was the advancement of the arts and sciences, by continual researches, by the publication of new discoveries, and by a correspondence with the most distinguished scholars of all nations (known as associates or corresponding members), and especially by promoting such scientific and liter- ary undertakings as would tend to the national glory and welfare. INSTITUTION, in-stit-u' -shun, a name given to a system, plan, or society, established, either by law or by the authority of individuals, for promoting any object, public or social. Thus, a college is termed a collegiate institution ; an academy of belles-lettres, a literary institution ; an almsgiving society, a benevolent or charitable institution ; while a banking company or insur- ance office is a commercial institution. Hospitals are likewise charitable institutions, and will be found given under their respective heads. {See also Mechanics’ Institutions.) INTAGLIO, in-taV-yo Ital., from in, into, and tagliare, to cut). — All gems, sculpture, and the dies from which coins and metals are struck, in which the design is hollowed out, or sunk beneath the surface of the stone, are said to be cut in intaglio, Gems and stones cut in intaglio are thus designated to distinguish them from cameos {see Cameo), in which the device is raised in relief above the surface. The art of cutting gems in intaglio must have been practised at a very early age, as we find from Genesis xxxviii. 18, that signets were in use at that period, and Moses was directed to have the names of the twelve tribes engraved on the twelve stones that were set in the breast-plate of the high priest. It was also practised, to a great extent, among the Greeks and Romans, the latter especially being passionately fond of wearing a profusion of engraved gems on the fingers and about their clothing, and making collections of these works of art ; while the Greek engravers seem to have excelled in their production, both in beauty of design and excellence of execution. Stones of all sorts, such as agate, cornelian, onyx, jasper, and amethyst, and the garnet, were employed by the ancient engravers for gems in intaglio; but some of the best that are now extant are executed in paste, or jems made artificially. The method of cutting intaglios, that was practised by the Greek and Roman engravers, is supposed to be very similar to that which is adopted by the modern seal engraver, who sinks the design into the stone, by means of finely -pointed cutting- tools, to which a rotary motion is imparted by a wheel and treadle, as in the turning-lathe. The operation is materially assisted by the introduc- tion of a little diamond dust and sweet oil into the orifice made by the cutting-tool, at various stages of the operation. 1 INTERCALARY, in-ter-kaV -a-re (Lat., INTERCOLUMNIATION 259 INYERSION inter calarius^ inserted between others). — The name that is applied to any day or days that are inserted out of the usual course, for the purpose of preserving the equation of time. (See Calendar and Leap-Year.) INTERCOLUMNIATION, ne-ai-shun (Latin, inter, between ; columna, column), the open area between columns measured between their lower diameters. There are five kinds of intercolumniation ; — pienostylos, or columns thick set ; systylos, having an interval of two diameters; eustylos, with two and a- quarter diameters ; diastylos, with three diame- ters ; and arceostylos, with four diameters, or columns thin set. INTERJECTION, in-ter-jek'-shun (from Lat., interjicio, I throw between). — A word used to express some passion or emotion of the mind ; SI’S joy? grief, wonder, &c. Interjections have usually been considered, by grammarians, as forming a distinct part of speech, though some regard them as not entitled to this dignity, most of them being nothing more than mere ejacula- tions, and none forming parts of sentences. INTERLUDE, in'-ter-lude (Lat., inter, be- tween ; Indus, a play), a short play, or dance, accompanied by music, introduced between the acts of a piece, or between the play and the after- piece. Those short pieces of church music seldom exceeding a few bars, and generally produced extempore, and played after each stanza, except- ing the last of the metrical psalm, to give breath- ing-time to the singers, are called interludes. INTERMARRIAGE, in-ter-ma' -rij. — The marriage of persons nearly related to each other. If continued for several generations in the human race, there is good reason for supposing that phy- sical degeneration will result, but this law does not appear to apply to the lower animals, as some of the finest breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep have resulted from continuous in -breeding. INTERMEZZO, in- ter -met' -zo (Italian). — ^A short scene, generally of a humorous character, introduced between the acts of an opera or play. The practice is peculiar to the Italian drama. INTERPOLATION, in-ter-poV -ai-shun (Lat. , interpola, I place between). — The insertion of spurious passages in a work, in some cases for the support of a particular theory or doctrine. In some printed texts, passages that are sus- pected of not being genuine are often inclosed in brackets. INTERROGATION , in-ter-ro- gai’-shun (from Lat., interrogo, I question). — The act of questioning, also a note in writing and printing which marks a question being put, thus (?). INTERVAL, in'-ter-val (Lat., intervallum, space between things). — In Music, the difference in point of gravity or acuteness between any two sounds. By the ancients, intervals were divided into simple, or uncomposite, and composite. The first of these they termed diastems, and the second systems. According to Bacchius, the en- harmonic diesis, or fourth of a tone, was the least of all the intervals in the Greek music ; but as all our tones concur in consonances (to which order only the diatonic of the three ancient genera was accommodated), our scale does not notice so small a division. In modern music, the semitone is considered as a simple interval ; thus from B to 0 is a semitone, or simple interval. and only those which consist of two or more semitones are termed composite, as from C to D, which is two half-tones, or a compound interval. INTONATION, in-to-nai' -shun (Latin, intono, I utter a sound). — The art of tuning and giving to the tones of the voice, or instruments, that occasional impulse, swell, and decrease upon which all expression, to a great extent, depends. In church music, those antiphonies which are first sung by the priest and responded to by the choir or congregation, are called intonations. The greater part of the prayer is recited on one note, the last two or three words being sung to the proximate notes of the scale ; but in the longer prayers the terminal inflection is generally omitted. INTRADOS, in-trail -dos, (Lat., intra, within; dorsum, back.) — In Architecture, the out- line or curve formed by the junction of the lower ends of the voussoirs is called its extrados or soffit ; while the curve similarly formed by the upper ends of the voussoirs is termed its extrados. INTRANSITIVE, in-tran' -si-tiv (Lat., in- transitivus, passing over). — ^An intransitive verb is one which expresses an action or state that is limited to the agent, or, in other words, an action that does not pass over to, or operate upon, an object ; as, “I read,” or “he sleeps.” INTRENCHMENT. (See Lines oe In- TRENCHMENT. INTRIGUE, in-tree^ (from Ital., intrigo), an assemblage of events or circumstances which occur in any affair, and lead to the perplexity of the persons acting therein. In this sense it is used to signify the plot of a play or romance, or that point in which the principal characters are most embarrassed, through artifice or through un- fortunate accidents and incidents. The term is also applied to the pursuit of illicit amours. INVEOTED, in-vek'-ted, (Lat., in, into; and vehere, to carry). — One of the eight partition lines used in heraldry. It resembles the line termed “ engrailed ” in form (see Engrailed), as it consists of a series of semicircular or scolloped indentations ; but it differs from it in having the points of the indentations turned inwards and projecting into the charge, instead of into the field of the shield. INVENTION AND DISCOVERY, in-ven' -shun, dis-kui^ -e-re (Lat., invenio, I find out; Fr., decouvrir, literally, to uncover, lay open what was before concealed.) — Invention is the creation or construction of something which has not before existed in that form or system of arrangment ; discovery is the making mani- fest something which has hitherto been unknown. Galileo invented the telescope ; Harvey dis- covered the circulation of the blood. In older times, however, this distinction was not observed, and the two terms were used synonymously; thus Locke and Bacon talk of the invention of sciences. (/See Patent. ) INVERSION, in-ver'-shun (Lat., inversio, change of order), in Rhetoric, is the placing of words out of their natural order. In every lan- guage there is a certain customary arrangement observed in the ordering of words in a sentence. In English the order generally is, first the nomin- ative, then the verb, and afterwards the accus- ative, if the verb be active. This order, however, is, for the sake of effect, jind owing to the pre- INVERSION 260 IRONY eminence of one particular idea, frequently varied; as in the sentence “Great is Diana of the Ei)hesians,” which is infinitely more forcible than “ Diana of the Ephesians is great.” The leading idea of the phrase is the greatness of Diana, and the word expressing the quality is the first to be uttered. In this respect the Latin language admits of much more liberty than ours does. Milton, in his prose works, and some of the older English writers, in attempting to imi- tate this, produced obscurity. INVERSION, in-ver' -shun. — In Music, the transposing of one of the two notes of an interval of a position the reverse of that which it before occupied with respect to the other note, so that, if before it was the lower note of the two, it shall be the higher, and vice versa. INVOCATION, in-vo-kai' -shun (Lat., invo- co, I call upon). — A term applied in literature to that part at the commencement of a poem in which the poet calls upon the Muses, or some one capable of giving him inspiration, in the affected, old-fashioned manner, to aid him in his labour. IONIAN MODE, i-o'-ne-an. — In Church Music, an old mode supposed to be identical with the ancient Greek mode so named. ION IC DIALECT. [See Greek Lan- guage AND Literature.) IONIC ARCHITECTURE.-a style of Greek architecture which originated in Ionia, and appeared to have derived many of its leading features from Assyria. (See Greek Archi- tecture.) The capitals of Ionic columns are de- corated with volutes, and the columns have bases. IRELAND FORGERIES. -In 1786, a young man, W. H. Ireland, who had been en- gaged in a lawyer’s office, announced that he had discovered some manuscripts in Shakespeare’s handwriting. He had forged them, but so cleverly that they deceived many critics. Emboldened by his success, he ventured to produce a tragedy, Vostigern, which John Kemble was induced to put upon the stage, although himself not believ- ing it to be authentic. The audience had better judgment than the professed critics, and hissed the drama from the stage. Ireland afterwards confessed the fraud. IRISH LANGUAGE. (See Gaelic.) IRON CAGE. — A. mode of torture by im- prisonment in an iron cage, about 8 or 9 feet square, has been adopted at various times. After the battle of Angora, in Asia Minor, in 1402, at which Timour, or Tamerlane, took the Sultan Bajazet prisoner, the captive was confined in an iron cage, which was carried about in a wagon. This story has been doubted by some historians, but Gibbon thinks it too well attested to be without foundation. The punishment was not uncommon in the Middle Ages in Spain and Italy ; and in 1469, Louis XI. of France confined Cardinal Balue (detected in an act of treachery) in an iron cage, 8 feet square, in the Chateau d’Ouzain, near Blois. The wretched Cardinal remained in that condition for ten years. Reference is made to this horrible cruelty by Walter Scott, in “ Quen- tin Durward.” IRON MASK, MAN WITH THE.— A mysterious prisoner of State in France wearing a black mask, made of velvet, but popularly supposed to be of iron. He was under the especial charge of M. de St. Mars, and was confined at Pigneral in 1679, at Exelles, 1681, at Sainte Marguerite, 1687; and in September, 1698, was brought by his cus- todian to the Bastille, Paris. According to the journal of Dujonca, the lieutenant of the Bastille, the prisoner died on the 19th of September, 1703, and was buried in the cemetery of St. Paul, and the register of that parish contains an entry in which the deceased is named Marchiali. During his imprisonment great deference was paid to him by his custodian, and he was addressed as if he were a person of high rank. Various unsuccess- ful attempts have been made to penetrate the secret of his identity. Voltaire accepted a sug- gestion that the prisoner was the Duke of Ver- mandois, a natural son of Louis XIV. and Louise de la Valliere, and the cause of the offence was that the young duke struck his half-brother the Dauphin. The fact that the Duke of Vermandois was known to have died in camp in 1683, did not suffice to convince some of the believers in this story. Another statement which has found much credence is, that the prisoner was the son of Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV., either by Cardinal Mazarin or the English Duke of Buck- ingham. It is said that the existence of this elder half-brother wae not made known to Louis XIV. until he came of age, and that he then re- solved to imprison his relative for life. He has also been considered a twin brother of Louis XIV. Other and wilder theories have been ad- vanced, some writers going so far as to say that James, Duke of Monmouth, generally supposed to have been executed on Tower Hill, saved his life by a trick, and was permitted to go to France, where he was secured and condemned to perpetual seclusion, wearing a black mask. Weighty argu- ments have been adduced in favour of the sug- gestion that the prisoner was Count Matthioli, minister of Charles HI., Duke of Mantua. Matthioli had been bribed to urge the duke to deliver up the fortress of Casale, which gave access to the whole of Lombardy, but had, in- stead, betrayed the French interests. Louis induced him to cross the French frontier, when he was secretly arrested and imprisoned for life. This suggestion has been supported by -writers of considerable historical reputation ; but more re- cently, a French investigator, M. Lung, has given attention to the examination of an immense number of State and official documents, and has come to the conclusion that the Man in the Iron Mask was not Matthioli, but probably the secret head of a wide-spread and formidable conspiracy for the assassination of Louis XIV. and some of his advisers. If that were so, there must have been grave reasons of State for hushing up the matter, as the substitution of imprisonment for execution was not a usual incident. Louis XIV. and his ministers were not squeamish about taking life. The mystery is scarcely likely now to be satisfactorily solved. IRONS. — Shackles of iron sometimes used to- restrain refractory soldiers and sailors. (See Biltoes.) IRONY, i'-ron-e (Gr., eironeia). — A form of expression in which the words used convey a meaning the direct contrary of what is intended- The essence of irony consists in its being simple- and natural, not too closely concealed, as that its meaning may be hid, and yet not so patent as^ to- deprive it of its natural character. The meaning ISIAC TABLE 261 ITALIAN AECHITECTURE given to this word by the ancients was somewhat different from that in which it is now employed : it denoted an ignorance purposely affected, to provoke or confound an antagonist, and in this sense, was much employed by Socrates against the Sojphists. ISIAC TABLE, i'-si-ak. — A bronze plate inlaid with nickle and silver, about 4 feet 8 inches high and 3 feet long, preserved in the museum of Turin. On it are three rows of figures of Egyption deities and emblems. It was for a long period highly valued by archaeologists, but is now generally considered to be a late or spurious production. ISLAND, i'-land (Anglo-Saxon, igland, or “ eye-land,” a spot of land surrounded by water, as the eye in the face). — A mass of land sur- rounded by water. In the case of the very large island, Australia, the term continent is frequently applied, on account of its great size. The greatest number of islands, including those of the largest size, are found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. When a number of small islands are grouped to- gether they form an archipelago. Islands of the Blessed. — An ancient Greek myth ex- pressing a belief in the existence of certain islands in the Western Ocean, where the favourites of the gods enjoyed an immortality of bliss. (See .^.llantides.) ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE, iso- met' -re-kal (Gr., isos, equal; and metrein, to measure). — ^A method of drawing any building, or range of buildings, in such a manner that the height, length, and breadth may be exhibited in the proportion which they really bear to each other, and not as they appear when the drawing is made in accordance with the rules of perspec- tive ; in other words, the perspective plane of the paper must be imagined as making equal angles with the three principal dimensions of the figure and the eye, at an infinite distance. Thus lines in the three principal directions will be drawn on the same scale, and that scale the same for all parts of the line. One decided advantage possessed by geometrical drawings is, that mea- surements from one scale will serve for all the views of an object, whether these be in plan, ele- vation, or section. While, however, presenting this desideratum, they are deficient in another : by their aid the relative position of vertical to horizontal lines, or vice versa, cannot be deli- neated on the same paper or plan. Thus, if one view is in plan, it is confined to plan alone, no lines delineating elevation being admissible in the same drawing ; hence the variety of drawings required to give the measurements and positions of an object or design having many points of view. The rules of perspective are applicable to the delineation of objects by which two or more sides can be seen. Thus, in the case of a box which is longer than it is broad, but having the bottom of the same dimensions as the top, to give drawings geometrically constructed, from which a workman might take measurements, three sepa- rate views would be essential — namely, one of the side, one of the end, these being in elevation, and one of the top, this being in plan ; the bot- tom being of the same dimensions as the top, no plan of this would be requisite. Now, by the rules of perspective, the box might be drawn in such a way that the side, end, and top would all be visible. But if lines converge or recede from one another, in order that the idea of dis- tance may be given, and as the lines to produce this effect are — even in comparatively simple sub- jects — numerous, the intricacy of the drawings renders it a matter of extreme difficulty to take measurements from the various parts with that ease and facility which ought to be an essential feature in mechanical operations. A method of drawing objects, then, by which two or more views could be shown in one drawing, and yet all measured from the same scale, is of considerable importance. By isometrical perspective or pro- jection, this desideratum is attained with ^eat facility. The term projection, in its widest sense, means a plan or delineation of any object, but is also used by some writers and practitioners to distinguish the method of drawing in which the principal is involved of delineating the ob- jects as if viewed at an infinite distance ; this re- sulting in all the parts being drawn without the converging or diminution of parts visible in com- mon perspective, from their being veiwed from the same distance. The methods by which ob- jects are projected are very numerous, but it is foreign to the scope of our work to enter into a detail of their peculiarities ; we shall confine ourselves to the elucidation of the simple rules of isometrical projection, which is the only mode by which the various parts of an object so delineated can be measured from the same scale. Professor Parish, of Cambridge, was the first publicly to elucidate the principles of this method of draw- ing, and he gave the name isometrical as indica- tive of its chief feature, from two Greek words signifyivg equal measurements. Isometrical pro- jection gives the representation of the three sides of the cube, all of which are equal, and the boundary -lines of which are also equal. In draw- ing isometrically, the pupil is recommended in all cases to use the drawing-board and T-square ; it will much facilitate his operations. The method of applying this style of drawing to the delinea- tion of horticultural edifices is displayed in fig. 10. The length, breadth, and height are all shown in one view ; the scantling and position of rafters, glass door, also clearly delineated ; drawn to a common scale by means of the isometrical ruler, the measurements of the various parts can easily be taken. ISTHMIAN GAMES (Greek festivals, so named from the Isthmus of Corinth). {See Games.) ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE, it-al'-yan. A style of architecture founded on the old Roman orders, and the characteristic features of the ancient buildings of Rome, and which may be considered to have been initiated in Italy by Brunelleschi and the Italian architects of the day, in the 15th century, and brought to perfec- tion by Palladio and other architects of eminence, in the i6th century, who flourished in the times of the Medici. In buildings designed both for public and private purposes, it is chiefly char- acterized by the use of the Roman orders of architecture, rather as decorative than construc- tive features. These are mainly obtained by the use of pilasters placed along the fagade of each story of a building at intervals, each row of pilasters being surmounted by an entablature running along the entire length of the edifice, like a string-course. When engaged columns, or columns attached to the wall, and projecting from its face to the extent of one-half or three- fourths of their diameter, were used, the en- tablature was broken over each column, to pre- ITALIAN LANGUAGE 262 ITALIAN LANGUAGE vent the heavy appearance that it would have presented if it had been of the same depth throughout ; and this was frequently done in the case of pilasters. The cornices of the entabla- tures were richly ornamented. The windows and doors were decorated with pilasters or columns, rising from a massive and projecting sill, and surmounted by circular, pointed, or broken pediments, on which recumbent figures were frequently placed. The roof was partially hidden by a balustrade, which crowned the edifice, and rose above the attic story, and the pedestals of the balustrade generally supported statues or sculptured vases. {See Balustrade.) There are three styles or schools of Italian archi- tecture — the Florentine, of which strength and grandeur are the prevailing characteristics ; Boman, in which the old Eoman style is more closely followed ; and the Venetian, the most highly ornamented and picturesque. It was not until the 17th century that the style of archi- tecture that had prevailed in Italy during the previous century was followed and copied in England. Many of the buildings erected during the reigns of the monarchs of the house of Stuart, by Inigo Jones and others, present good examples of this style; among which may be mentioned the Banqueting-house at Whitehall. Somerset-house, built after designs by Sir W^ilKam Chambers, in 1775, and many of the modern club-houses, as those belonging to the Carlton, Keform, and Travellers’ clubs are also built after this style. ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA- TURE. — There are many theories as to the exact origin of the Italian language, and the subject is involved in considerable obscurity. Some writers on the subject seem to think that the harmonious tongue spoken by the sons of Italy has originated from an intermixture of the classic Latin with the barbarous dialects of the tribes that overran Italy after her fall. An Italian writer of the 15th century, Leonardo Bruni, surnamed L’Are- tino, from his birthplace Arezzo, maintains the theory that the Italian language is coeval with the Latin, and that both were used at the same time in ancient Rome ; the Latin by the learned and polished, and the Italian dialect by the common people. Two other writers. Cardinal Bembo and Francesco Saverio Quadrio, have maintained the same opinion since the time that Bruni wrote. The third theory on the subject of the ori^ of the Italian lan^age is that of the Marquis Scipio Maffei. This writer rejects the opinion of Bruni and his desciples ; for he reasonably lays down the argument, that “ vul- garisms are not sufficient to form a language, nor to render it adequate to literature.” He also rejects the theory first mentioned, that Italian was formed by the intermixture of the classic tongue with barbarous dialects ; and the opinion he advances is, that the Italian language, as it stands at present, was formed by the gradual corruption of the classic Latin, without the inter- vention of any extraneous influence whatever. So much for the different theories on the subject. The first authentic specimen of the Italian language belongs to the close of the 12th century. It is a canzone of Ciullo d’Alcamo, by birth a Sicilian, and the earliest Italian poet whose name is on record. There is no doubt that the new language was opposed to the great variety of dialects which had grown into use after the in- vasion of the Northeners ; but the formation of it was indeed low, for the learned and the poets (from whom it was necessary for the infant language to receive its stamp and entree into fashionable life) were averse to its introduction, as they deemed it a sorry scion of the classic Latin, which latter was esteemed both for its age and for its recollections of former greatness, which the Italians were only too eager to maintain, after the downfall of their empire. From the 12th century to the close of the 13th, but little was done to advance the Italian language ; but Pier delle Vigne, secretary to the Emperor Frederick II., residing in the Sicilian court, had produced odes and canzones in very eloquent Italian ; and afterwards came the glorious epoch of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. They were emphatically the giants of an early age, when gigantic strength was wanted to fix the uncertain foundations of their national language and literature on a scale broad and deep and massive. By such writers was the Italian language brought to the highest point of its literary culture before the close of the 14th century. From the commencement to the end of the 15th, and, indeed, until she middle of the i6th, there is nothing remarkable in its history ; but at this latter date, a great contest arose with regard to it, which resulted in the complete triumph of the writings of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, and the firm establishment of the Italian language as a complete whole, both in the literary world and amongst the people generally. The Italian language, as it at present stands, is essentially a Latin dialect, although somewhat changed in its grammer and con- struction, by the infusion of the modern spirit into the antique, as the character of the people underwent the same change. Italian Dialects. — There are seventeen leading dialects in the Italian, which may be ranked in the following order: — The Sicilian, the Calebrian, the Neapolitan, the Eoman, the Norcian, the Tuscan, the Bolognese, the Venetian, the Friulian, the Paduan, the Lombardian, the Milanese, the Bergamask, the Piedmontese, the Genoese, the Corsican, and lastly, the Sardinian. Of these the Sicilian is the first of the Italian dialects which was converted to literary uses ; and it may be, in fact, called the mother tongue of the Italian muse, as Sicily is generally called her cradle. It exhibits traces, more or less, of the different dominant rulers of the island, and words may be clearly discovered which are undoubtedly of Grecian, Carthaginian, Roman, Byzantine, Arabian, Norman, German, French, and Spanish origin. We cannot touch in detail upon the different dialects individually. A few general remarks will suffice instead. The Floren- tine is that in which the greatest portion of the literary monuments of Italy is written, in consequence of the great poets and other authors being born at Florence, and hence using their native dialect. But there cannot be much doubt that the classic Italian tongue is based principally on the Tuscan dialect, which has done more to its formation than any other spoken through- out the length and breadth of Italy. The study of the language in modern times has much increased, and great pains have been bestowed on vocabularies, dictionaries, and other works of an educational class. Considered in any light, the Italin language is one of the most beautiful and harmonious of European tongues, and is rightly deemed to be the true medium for the interpretation of real poetic feeling. The liquid sound of the language is owing to the prevalence of labials and vowels throughout it, which, even in the roughest dialects, as in the Tuscan, which is more composed of gutturals, combined with the soft pro- nunciation peculiar to the sons of Italy, renders the Italian language the most euphonious in Europe— indeed, in the world. Italian Literature may be divided into periods, according to the general plan pursued by historians on ITALIAN LANGUAGE 263 ITINERARY the subject. In the first and second periods, which embrace the years between the era of Charlemagne and the peace of Constance in 1183, not much was done in Italy towards the spread of literature, the principal authors being not of much influence, either in a philo- logical or ethical point of view. They are as follows : — In theology: the Popes Eugene, Adrian I., Leo V., Nicholas I., and Sylvester II. ; also Paulinus, patri- arch of Aquileia, and Theodolphus, bishop of Orleans. In the second period, the principal theologians were Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, and the two celebrated archbishops Lanfranc and Anselm. Among the his- torians, both of the first and second periods, may be mentioned Disconus, Andrew of Bergamo (author of a Chronicle of Italy from 868 to 875), Luitprandus of Pavia, Amolphus, Sire Kaoul, and many obscure writers, too numerous to mention. In the third period, from the peace of Constance to the end of the 13th century, literature gradually made a consider- able advance. The emperor Frederick I. may be said to be the prime mover in this desire for enlighten- ment, and his court was thronged by the learned in every branch, either of science, of art, or of literature. In philosophy, the most celebrated njan we meet with in this era is Thomas Aquinas, who wrote a comment- ary on the works of Aristotle. In mathematics, Cam- pano wrote a commentary on the works of Euclid ; and many others, as Lanfranco, Leonardo, and Guido Bonatti, followed in his footsteps. The study of law became also greatly improved. In history, the name of Matteo Spinello must be honourably mentioned, as he wrote the first lengthy and complete work in Italian prose ; but superior in style is Malespini, of Florence. The chief poets of the period were Guincelle, Ghisi- lieri, and Fabrizio, of Bologna ; Lapo, of Mantua, and the Tuscan poets, Guittone, Bonagiunta, and Brunetto Latini, the instructor of Dante, famous and ver- satile. The fourth period, which embraces the whole of the 14th century, is, however, the grandest, as it is the starting-point in the real history of Italian literature. Albert of Padua, Gregory of Bimini, Bona- ventura of Perugia, and Ludovico Marsigli, are the theologians of this period. Petrarch, the creator of Italian lyric poetry, and whose sonnets still rank with the finest productions of the kind, is the real philoso- pher of the times, who does honour to his country. Paolo, surnamed Georaetria, is said by Villani to be the first of mathematical discoverers, and he likewise lived in this century. In history we have also Petrarch, who wrote the “Kerum Memorandarum ; ” and Boccaccio, who was the author of “ De Genealogia Decorum,” and many other works. Dino Compagne and Giovanni Villani contributed good work to the historical literature of this period. In this period also occur the first collection of Italian tales and romances ; and here, again, we have to thank Boccaccio for his “ Decameron ” and “ Fiametta,” masterpieces of litera- ture. (See Decameron.) Sacchetti and Grovanni Fiorentino wrote stories with great elegance. Dante, however, must be given the prime place in the litera- ture both of this period and of his country in general. Of all his works, his “ Divine Comedy’ must rank highest (see “ Divina Commedia ”) ; but he was also the author of the “ Vita Nuova,” the “ Convito,” and also his work, “ De Vulgari Eloquentia ” (in which he lays down the basis of the new Italian language), and his “ De Monarchia.” Among the minor poets of this period are Francesco Stabile, Francesco da Barberino, and Cino da Pistiga (who relieved his labours as a jurist by writing graceful amatory verses). Passing over the fifth period, which lasted from 1400 to 1500, and entering upon the sixth, or i6th and 17th cen- turies, we arrive at the most glorious of any in the literary history of Italy. The power of her republics and the magnificence of her princes had done much to restore the former splendour and greatness of the country, and Italy could well, at the time of which we are speaking, point proudly to herself as an example for the rest of Europe to follow. The number of academies and libraries had increased to such a degree, that few, even of the small cities, were without them, and learning, and a fostering of the arts, had spread likewise in a proportionate manner. Among the popes there were many who promoted this general desire for improvement ; ancT the names of Julius II., Leo X. (the Magnificent). Gregory XIII., and Urban VIII., well deserve the prominence they occupy in history. even on this account alone. Next must the princes be mentioned ; for they were by no means behindhand with the popes in their activity for the spread of litera- ture. Among these latter we come across the names of Gonzaga of Mantua, the Prince d’Este da Ferrara, the Medici of Florence, and Duke Charles Emanuel of Savoy. In history much was done, and well done too. Carlo Sigonio wrote a general history, in Latin ; Giro- lamo Brian! a similar chronicle, but in Italian ; Machiavelli a “History of Florence,” which latter must ever bear up the reputation of its author, and “ The Prince,” the work most nearly associated with his name — among many others who did something for history, but whose names even are too numerous to be even mentioned in the present article. In poetry, we have pre-eminently Ariosto, the author of Orlando Furiosi, considered to be the first genuine epic of chivalry and romance ; Bernardo and Torquato Tasso, the former celebrated for his Letters, and the latter for his La Gerusalemme Liberata (see Jerusalem Delivered) ; also Pietro Badoaro, a poet of no mean repute ; Alberto Lollio and Claudio Tolommei, besides many others. The novelists of this period were numerous indeed, and criticism was also beginning to be judiciously exercised, as we have evidence of in the attack and defence of Tasso’s great epic. During the seventh period, which lasted from 1650 up to the year 1820, much cannot be said to have been done for Italian literature— the few names that occur, touching on the history of literature per se, being Crescimbeni, Quadrio Fontanini, A. Zeno, Mazzucchelli, Fabroni, Tiraboschi, and Comiani. Sarpi, Pallavicino, Bentu- voglio, Davila, and Giannone, produced good historical works ; and in the 17th century, Marino, Tassoni, Filicaja, Metastasio, and the great dramatic writers Alfieri and Gotdom obtained eminence. Passing on to the last period, which embraces the years between 1820 and the present time, we must notice the decay of Italian literature, with, however, a hope of its rise again in future years, now that Italy has become once more a kingdom. The restraints which naturally arise in a country entrammelled by politics are undoubtedly one of the chief causes which have led to this fall, com- bined with the indolence induced by too warm a cli- mate and one too favourable for idleness. Of the writers of this period, few occupy any prominent place, with the exception of Andrea Maffei, who has done much, both by original works and translations, for the advancement of literature. In science and art, the 19th century has not been unproductive to Italy, but in poetry and literature there has been a sad falling off from the noble era ushered in by Dante. One of the most conspicuous writers of the middle of the present century was Leopardi, the poet and Pessimist philo- sopher, of whom a recent critic says, “Everything is terrible and grand in these poems which are the most agonizing cry in modern literature, uttered with a solemn quietness that at once elevates and terrifies us. The poetry of despair never had a more powerful or a more sorrowful voice than this.” Other authors of eminence are Battista Nicolini, a dramatist of rare powers ; Ginsti, the satirical poet ; Mansoni, a novelist whose Promessi Sposi is widely known ; D’Azegho, a patriotic novelist ; and Eossetti, the commentator on Dante. Several authoresses of established reputation, and vigorous writers on historical and economical sub- jects, living, or more recent writers of merit, are- historians, Vittorio Bersezio, Eugghiero Borghi, Bian- chi, Ottolorghi, and Morosi ; philosophy and art, Tatto Massarini, Mamiavi, and Bertolotti ; in novels and the drama, Barilli, Giovagnoli, Satmini, Montecorboli, Nerucci, Cacciapiga, Cavallotti, Castelnuovo, Muratori, and Sacchetti ; in poetry, Chiarini, Eegaldi, Palcizzi, Gemma, Panzacchi, Novell!, Franciosa, Procacci, the Marchesa Maria Eicci, Mazzoni, and Massarani ; in criticism, literary history, and belles lettres, Emiliani Gindici, Setternbrini, De Sanctos, Bartoli, Del Lungo, Hortis, Manotti, Ginliani, and Galanti. There is a host of minor authors, and numerous literary and scientific periodicals have been established. ITINERARY, i-tin' -e-ra-re (Lat., iter,^ a journey). — The name given to a book containing a list of the stations and halting-places on a road between two places, with a statement of the distances between them. The most important ITIS 264 “ JERUSALEM DELIVERED itineraries of antiquity are — i. the Itineraria Antonini, including the Jtinerarium Provinci- num, or a list of the routes through the Roman provinces of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the Itinerariuin Maritimum, exhibiting the most frequented tracts along the coasts and at sea ; and 2, the Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, made by a Christian in A.D. 333, for the use of travel- lers from Burdigale (Bordeaux) to Jerusalem. Itineraries of districts little known, or unknown to Europeans, are of importance to geographers and the makers of maps ; as are, for our know- ledge of the ancient world, the itineraries of antiquity. ITIS, i’-tis (Gr., from iemai, denoting violent or impetuous action). — A termination added to the genitive case of the Greek name of an organ, to indicate inflammation of that part ; as, gastri- tis, hapatitis, carditis ; meaning inflammation of the stomach, liver, or heart. J is the tenth letter and the seventh consonant in our alphabet. Both the sound and the cha- racter originated in the vowel i. {See I.) Its sound in English resembles that of dzh, and in Erench it has the sound of sh or zh. In German it is always pronounced like our p before a vowel ; as ja, pronounced ya. In Spanish it is a guttural, a little softer than the ch in ach. In Italian the sound is represented by gi. Its pronunciation in Latin is disputed ; but there is reason to believe that the English sound was not unknown to them ; for, originally, Jupiter was written Diupi- ter, and Janus, Dianus, JACK, jak. — This nickname, or diminutive, for the name John (derived directly from the Erench Jacques) is used in various ways. It is