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THE PROJECT METHOD OF TEACHING 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
 
 BY 
 
 EINAR AUGUST HANSEN 
 
 B.A. St. 01 af College. 1920 
 
 THESIS 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
 FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION 
 IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS, 1922 
 
 URBANA, ILLINOIS 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 June 3* 1 92 2 
 
 1 HEREBY RECOMMEND THAI' THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY’ 
 
 SUPERVISION BY Einar August Hansen — 
 
 ENTITLED. The Project Met hod of Teaching 
 
 C om position — — 
 
 BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 THE DEGREE of Master of Artg in Educati on 
 
 Recommendation concurred in* 
 
 Committee 
 
 on 
 
 Final Examination* 
 
 •Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 
 

 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. Page. 
 
 The History cf English in Secondary Schools . . . , , . 1 
 
 Changes in Emphasis in Subject Matter- 
 The Three Periods with Particular Ideals - 
 Changes in Methods of Teaching, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Project Method in English Composition 11 
 
 History of the Term - Project Teaching and 
 Child Learning - Project Teaching Defined -Project 
 Definitions - Kinds of Projects - Testing Chart for 
 Projects - Development of a Project - The Advantages 
 of the Project Method - The Disadvantages - In Com- 
 position Work - Summary, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Application of the Project Method to 
 
 English Composition Teaching 48 
 
 Grade Sch o ol Proj ec ts: Live in Virginia - 
 
 Where in the United States Do We Get Our Food 
 Supply? - The National Fire Prevention Day - 
 High School Pr oje cts: The Employment Lesson - 
 
 Chicago: Cur City - Better English Week - 
 
Page. 
 
 College P roj e ctjjj. 
 
 The St. Olaf College Experiment. 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 75 
 
- 1 . 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 The H istory of th e Study of Engl ish in American 
 
 m .W - mm- mo. mjmm mujmc — — i imfclii f i ■ i %•- *2 ■ «-«- ■ 
 
 Second ary Schools . 
 
 The American high school has ceased to be mainly a pre- 
 paratory school for students intending to enter college. In 
 achieving this end it is realizing the original aim with 
 which it replaced the old academy. This school too began 
 with the present high school’s aim, but due to rapid change 
 of conditions it gradually narrowed its lines in response to 
 a demand of fitting students for collegiate work. The high 
 school began as the "peoples’ college", then gradually fol- 
 lowed the path of its predecessor, and now within the last 
 two decades has rapidly come into its own field in gaining 
 its initial goal. After more than half a century of strug- 
 gle, the public high school has definitely established itself 
 as a continuation of common school instruction. It has set 
 itself to the task of fitting its curriculum to satisfy the 
 demands of a wider clientele. 
 
 Agitation for reform in all studies of these schools has 
 not left the English courses undisturbed. It was not until 
 the Harvard College Requirements of 1874 that any sort of 
 English study except English Grammar received much attention 
 in the secondary schools. This was taught, like much else in 
 these schools at that time, mainly as formal intellectual 
 discipline, not a6 useful knowledge or as a means of attain- 
 ing a specific skill. In 1875-74 the Harvard requirements in 
 

 
 
 
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 regard to English read as follows: "English Compos iti on » 
 
 Each candidate will he required to write a short English com- 
 position correct in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and ex- 
 pression, the subject to be taken from such works of stand- 
 ard authors as shall be announced from time to time* The sub- 
 jects for 1874 will be taken from one of the following works: 
 Shakespeare’s Tempest , Julius Caesar , and Merchant of Venice : 
 Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefi eld: Scott’s Ivanhoe , and Lay of 
 the Last Minstrel, " "The example of Harvard was followed by 
 other colleges, and the lead thus furnished caused important 
 changes in the English courses of secondary schools. Clear- 
 ness and accuracy of written expression became the new factors 
 stressed, with English grammar given a subordinate position. 
 Later The Commission of New England Colleges on Admission Ex- 
 aminations undertook the plan of formulating from year to year 
 the requirements in English. The custom of having certain 
 prescribed masterpieces of English literature as a basis of 
 tests in writing was followed and continued firmly establish- 
 ed. After twenty years with these ideals predominating a new 
 element appeared, introduced by Yale University in 1894, name- 
 ly, knowledge of literary masterpieces for their own sake. 
 
 Since then this new aim has become general until at present 
 it finds a place as one of the important aims of secondary 
 
 1. Bureau of E d, , Bull etin, No. 2- 1917 quotation from: 
 
 Twenty years of School and College English - Harvard Univer- 
 sity - 1896. 
 

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 echool English courses. 
 
 The college admission requirements in English did not 
 become uniform, however, until after some agitation of the 
 matter which culminated in 1695. A committee appointed to 
 prepare a report on the subject came forward with the follow- 
 ing recommendations: 
 
 "1. That any examination set should be based upon the 
 reading of certain masterpieces of English literature, not 
 fewer in number than those at present recommended by The Com- 
 mission of Colleges in New England on Admission Examinations. 
 
 2 m That certain of these books should be read by the 
 candidate as literature, and that others - a limited number - 
 should be carefully studied under the immediate direction of 
 the teacher. 
 
 3. That each of the whole number of books should be re- 
 presentative, so far as possible, of a period, a tendency, or 
 a type of literature; and that the whole number of works se- 
 lected for any year should represent with as few gaps as pos- 
 sible, the course of English literature from the Elizabethan 
 period to the present time. 
 
 4. That the candidate’s proficiency in composition 
 should be judged from his answers to the questions set, which 
 should be so framed as to require answers of some length and 
 to test his power of applying the principles of composition. 
 
 5. That formal grammar and exercises in the correction 
 of incorrect English should in no case be more than a subor- 
 

 
 
 
 
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 dinate part of the examinations " . 
 
 As is evident throughout the main idea was fitting for 
 college entrance,, "Like the preceding commissions, the com- 
 mittee on college entrance requirements made a report which 
 tended to foster a type of English study that practically ig- 
 nored oral composition and subjects drawn from the pupils* 
 
 own experiences, and that constantly applied in the study of 
 
 3 
 
 literary masterpieces formal rhetorical categories". A reac- 
 tion against such a type of study with the methods it logical- 
 ly seemed to employ was bound to come, and has come with the 
 wonderful growth of the high schools since 1900. While Eng- 
 lish literature has remained an important branch of the work 
 the tendency in written discourse has changed,, Today more of 
 the child’s experiences are being utilized as fit subject mat- 
 ter for writing than formerly. This must not be taken to mean 
 that such material for composition work is used in all second- 
 ary school English instruction, for even at present writers 
 cite illustrations of other contents being utilized. Often 
 the literature studied forms a basis for the written work. 
 Within this narrower field current practice varies. 
 
 Changes in Metho ds o f Ins true t i on. 
 
 The foregoing has dealt with the content of English 
 study for the last fifty years with a view to Bhowing what 
 
 2. Cook, A. 8. A Summary of th e P roceedings of the Meetings 
 of t he Co nference o n Uniform Entran ce Req uirem ent s in English 
 1894-1899 . 
 
 3. Bureau of Education Bulletin, No.2 r 1917. page 15» 
 
- 5 - 
 
 hae been emphasized in the classroom work. Within the last 
 two decades just as important changes have come about in the 
 methods of teaching English. Some secondary schools have as* 
 signed the study of literature to certain years of the course, 
 and composition work to one year. Others have combined the 
 two in one or more years, and have reserved certain semesters 
 for literature only. 
 
 Often the work in both literature and composition clas- 
 ses has been taught by the old method of assigning so many 
 pages in a text and hearing students recite at the next meet- 
 ing of the class. So have students been quizzed on, and sup- 
 posedly taught, rules of grammar, ideas of unity, coherence, 
 and emphasis, rules of punctuation, and the contents of clas- 
 sics of literature, and information as to the writers of such 
 classics. In many places the method still persists with a 
 loss to all engaged, with a gradual dislike for the whole sub- 
 ject of English, and with a sigh of relief by both teachers 
 and pupils when the grades have been reported. Many teachers 
 still continue assigning such theme subjects as: Autumn 
 
 Thoughts, If I were a Girl (or Boy), Vacation, The Vice of 
 Ambition, "Principals and teachers still follow the routine 
 that tradition has passed down, choosing the way that seems 
 safe even if unsatisfactory rather than making an effort to 
 find out the elements in his (the pupil’s) outside activities 
 that appeal to the pupil and to apply them as completely as 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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possible to the activities of the classroom". 
 
 With an increasing number of teachers, happily other me- 
 thods are in vogue 0 With greater interest in the learner 
 rather than the subject taught numerous experiments of method 
 have been tried with encouraging results. The tendency in re- 
 cent years in all teaching has been the "pupil-doing" move- 
 ment. Behind this influence and furnishing the main point of 
 attention for teachers stand the interests of the pupils 
 which supply the inner urge necessary to lead the children to 
 express themselves,, Boussea,u and Pestalozzi in the eighteenth 
 century early recognized the need of appealing to the things 
 in child life which most absorb the learner*© attention. 
 
 Since their time more has been done to make clearer the fact 
 that as the interests of pupils govern their activity outside 
 of school they should be considered important in school. In 
 English composition this has manifested itself in freeing the 
 students from all artificial conditions, and substituting for 
 these real audiences, real readers beside the teacher, writ- 
 ing something for a specific purpose otherwise than as a 
 classroom exercise. The aim now is to supply such conditions 
 as govern the genuine act of writing or speaking outside of 
 the schoolroom. The change has been made from: Have I writ- 
 
 ten thiB to satisfy the teacher’s rules of punctuation and 
 grammar? - to: Will John know just what happened? The me- 
 
 thod will be recognized as one which places greater value up- 
 
 4, Lasher, George S, - The I l linois Association o f Teacher s 
 of English . Bulletin Vol. XIII No . 7, p age 1. 
 

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 on the pupil* 8 satisfaction with the work produced than upon 
 the opinion of the teacher as to its worth. 
 
 The socialized recitation has been evolved by many 
 thoughtful teachers in history, geography, literature, and 
 composition to enlist the increasing cofiperation and intelli- 
 gent fellowship among pupils. It has been discovered that 
 the mastery of certain kinds of subject matter by the indivi- 
 dual is made easier and more certain through activities on 
 the part of the pupils that can be termed as social. One 
 teacher organizes her class into a literary society, at the 
 meetings of which papers are read, literary selections de- 
 claimed, talks or reports given; where the pupils conduct 
 the meetings on a parliamentary basis, electing their own 
 officers, conducting their own business, and appointing or 
 choosing committees. Invitations are written by the pupils 
 asking other classes to the programs, posters and other ad- 
 vertising materials are designed. Another teacher starts a 
 class writing a book on the subject "Our Town - the Place to 
 Live”. This necessitates committees for visiting manufac- 
 tory plants, natural scenes of beauty and parks; others for 
 interviewing town officials, calling at libraries, museums, 
 and so forth. A class studying H The Lady of the Lake" made 
 the work their own in a unique way. The pupils formed a 
 newspaper of regular size by gluing articles written on sub- 
 jects taken from Scotch life on large sheets of paper. The 
 pupils vied with one another in securing fitting information; 
 in writing what they had to contribute in suitable and at- 
 tractive form, and in advertising the work among the other 
 

 
 
 
 
 
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 pupils, The pupils, in other courses, did the typewriting, 
 decorating, and added other touches to make the job as com- 
 plete as possible. And so illustrations might follow of simi- 
 lar experiments, many more to be found than have been report- 
 ed in current writings. In all uses made of such methods the 
 emphasis has been placed on the pupil doing his written work 
 on a subject which to him at least was interesting and worth- 
 while. 
 
 These efforts have all had their shortcomings, but the 
 general opinion of the teachers who have made them has been 
 that they have proved a distinct advance over the old method 
 of teaching the subject of English composition. Their stu- 
 dents have often learned more of the mechanice of writing, 
 they have been forced to think, their interest has been 
 aroused, they have come to believe that they could actually 
 produce something worth the effort expended, and they have 
 really begun to like English composition. 
 
 Summary 
 
 Up to about 1876 there was scarcely to be found, in the 
 United States, any definite, well-organized system of instruc- 
 tion in English. Composition and rhetoric had, however, teen 
 well established by that time in all the American colleges. 
 Following the Harvard Entrance Requirements of 1874 the second- 
 ary schools began in earnest the teaching of English always in- 
 fluenced in what they should teach by the demands of the col- 
 leges. Professor F. N. Scott summarizes the history of Eng- 
 lish study in the nineteenth century in the United States in 
 three ideals. First, that of grammatical correctness ; s econd. 
 

 
 
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 the ideal of rhetorical correctness; third, a familiarity 
 
 with and appreciation of Englieh literature. "The rapid 
 
 widening outlook of teachers has led to the building up of an 
 
 ideal more stable than any of those mentioned, - the ideal of 
 
 a well-balanced course of instruction in the language and 
 
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 literature of the mother tongue* " This ideal may be said to 
 be the aim in English courses in our secondary schools at pre- 
 sent. 
 
 English teaching has followed the changes in method 
 which have affected all other studies. The traditional, for- 
 mal, lesson-hearing type has gradually given way to the more 
 natural socialized form where the students are made the cen- 
 ter of attention. Miss Gertrude Buck indicates this change 
 when she writes: "Within the memory almost of the youngest 
 
 English teachers, the precepts of formal rhetoric as a guide 
 to writing have been discredited and abandoned, the acts of 
 composition in our schools has been conditioned more natural- 
 ly by a real occasion for writing and a real audience to be 
 addressed, such theory as must be involved in the criticism 
 of the student’s writing has grown steadily less complex and 
 dogmatic springing more directly from the writing itself; in 
 short, the tendency of every recent reform has been to free 
 the student’s act of writing from all artificial conditions, 
 and to substitute for such conditions as accompany a genuine 
 act of writing outside the schoolroom. The purpose of this 
 
 5. Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T. , and Scott, Fred N. - 
 The Tea c hing of English - page 189, New York 1908. 
 
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 substitution has, of course, been purely practical; that, 
 namely, of making the student’s writing thereby fresher, di- 
 
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 recter, and more spontaneously effective"". The present re- 
 sult of this new tendency of the pupils writing in units of 
 real life value is the project method of teaching. 
 
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 Buck, Gertrude, Ed. Review 1901, Vol _» 22 - page 197. 
 

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CHAPTER II 
 
 The Project Method of Teaching , 
 
 A Historical Statement of the Projec t • 
 
 Historically the word "project" has been used for many 
 years in business and in some specialized forms of education,, 
 as in agriculture, with no definite, generally accepted mean- 
 ing. The United States Department of Agriculture took it to 
 mean an outlined plan for carrying on a piece of cooperative 
 work. It was early employed by R, W. Stimson, who used the 
 expression "home project" in the agricultural courses of the 
 Massachusetts 1 vocational schools. In 1908-1910 the unmodi- 
 fied word "project" was used by Stimson, Snedden, Prosser and 
 Allen in their report to the Massachusetts* Legislature. 
 
 Since this use in Massachusetts the term has been applied 
 with many variations of meaning to an increasing number of 
 subjects in the course of study. 
 
 With modifications the idea behind the term has been in 
 use for some time in such fields as law, medicine, engineer- 
 ing, journalism, manual training, and foreign languages. In 
 various informal ways the concept Mas been slowly developing 
 in many of the subjects of the curriculum of the elementary 
 school, the high school, and the college. 
 
 A brief historical sketch of the term by Heald as used 
 in agriculture may be accepted as authoritative: 
 
 "For many years the term * project* has been used to 
 designate carefully planned investigations in agricultural 
 

 
 
 
 
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 science covering a considerable period of time, frequently 
 demanding several years for their completion. Such plans, 
 including aims and methods, have been submitted by the agri- 
 cultural experiment stations of the several states and ap- 
 proved by the Office of Experiment Stations in the United 
 \ 
 
 States Relations Service of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 "More recently the same terra ’project’ under practically 
 the same conditions has been applied to the projects in de- 
 monstration work and extension teaching carried out under the 
 Smith- Lever Act. The term carries with it the idea of a pro- 
 gram of importance, of 3ome tangible and valuable results. 
 
 "This term ’project* was borrowed first by secondary 
 school teachers of science and manual arts because its use by 
 experiment stations suggested an idea of value in connection 
 with the practical phases of teaching these subjects. 
 
 "In connection with the teaching of agriculture in se- 
 condary schools the idea of projects at home crystalized and 
 took on the name of ’home project’ about 1908 in Massachu- 
 setts, receiving the sanction of the State Board of Education 
 under suitable legislation in 1911. This plan, with modifi- 
 cations which do not change the principal points of the de- 
 finition, had been adopted in most of the states which had 
 constructive legislation on agriculture in the secondary 
 schools previous to the enactment of the Smi th-Hughes Act. 
 
 In its work on secondary and elementary school agriculture, 
 the United States department of Agriculture had previously 
 accepted the prevailing conception of the home project, issu- 
 
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 ing several publications on this basis". 
 
 Pro.lect Teaching a nd Child Learning . 
 
 What is the project method and how will it function in 
 the teaching of English composition? 
 
 In much of the teaching that has been done in the past 
 the child has generally been taken at the beginning stage of 
 his experience in the field and given material which adults 
 have decided he ought to learn. The teacher has spent his 
 time outside of school carefully selecting, planning, condens- 
 ing and organizing material to be presented to the children 
 the next recitation hour. The reason given in defense of this 
 plan has been that it will save time for the pupil to get 
 nothing but the pure gold carefully riddled out from the baser 
 materials. Yet a moment's reflection on the things which an 
 adult really has learned will suffice to show that we learn 
 mainly through our personal experiences. In this attempt to 
 be logical much of our teaching has been done backwards for 
 it is contrary to the ways of learning. Mere contact with or 
 mechanical repetition and memorization of organized, logical 
 material does not insure logical grasp and logical thinking. 
 
 "To select a bundle of grain separate the chaff from the 
 wheat, grind and pre- digest the kernels, weigh and place the 
 food in a neatly constructed container, all ready for the pu- 
 pil to carry off, - this has been the false ideal toward 
 which we so earnestly strove in our efforts to play the role 
 
 7. Stevenson, J. A. The Project Method o f Teachin g -from a 
 
 report by Heald, F. E., Bulletin No. 21 Agricultural Series 3 
 page 7 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, 1918. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
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 of education and distribute to the hungering multitude what 
 
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 we thought to be - Truth". 
 
 Criticism of such methods of teaching implies that some- 
 thing is at fault with the better aims of education. If pu- 
 pils are merely to absorb as much information as possible no 
 more need be said. But educational writers have long agreed 
 that information for its own sake is not a satisfactory end 
 of education. Thus, F. M. McMurry writes: 
 
 "Much has been said in times past about art for art* 3 
 sake, science for the sake of science, and knowledge for the 
 sake of knowledge; but these are vague expressions that will 
 excite little interest so long as the worth of a man is de- 
 termined by what comes out of him, by the service he renders ® 
 rather than by what enters in. Other branches of knowledge 
 used for educative purposes, therefore, resemble the useful 
 
 arts in the recognition of their bearings on man, their ac- 
 
 9 
 
 tual use as the goal in their study". 
 
 From E. C. Moore we have like ideas presented when he 
 writes: Learning to use one’s own mind, however, in such 
 
 ways that he will go on using it to advantage as long as he 
 
 3. Von Hofe, George D, Jr., "Development of a Project" 
 Teachers College Record 17:24-46, 1916 . 
 
 9. Stevenson,J. A. - The Projec t Method of Teaching page 10 
 quotation from McMurry, F.M. , How to Study, page 198 (Hew 
 York 1909) 
 

 
 
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 lives is the one great, supreme object of education. Now 
 
 that psychology has defined itself as the study of behavior# 
 
 education must follow suit by conceiving its mission as that 
 
 of training the student to profitable behavior, that is, to 
 
 do things that the situations which he will meet in life call 
 
 for. Our contention is that these social doings are definite 
 
 responses to concrete situations, and that the learning which 
 
 will fit us to make them must be the learning of definite do- 
 
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 ings, not that vague thing which is called general training". 
 
 It is quite probable that good teachers have always used 
 these latter aims in their work. More has been done, however, 
 in the last few decades than at any other time to have methods 
 embodying these aims more generally practiced. That such in- 
 struction has been more common in some subjects than in others 
 is quite evident, by reason, in most cases ,of the nature of 
 the content of these studies. Where manual exercises are an 
 important part of the work in the subject, the development of 
 such teaching is easy. In others where manual activity is 
 absent or much less in amount this form of instruction has 
 been retarded in its development. 
 
 Among the most recent innovations in class room methods 
 is that of project teaching which embodies the worthy aims of 
 education now accepted. Its origin has not been a sudden one, 
 but it is rather the culmination of a steady growth. 
 
 10. Moore, E. C. What is Education ? pp. 235 - 236 
 (Chicago, 1916). 
 
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-16 
 
 Project Teach i ng Defined . 
 
 Method in the classroom instruction means the combined 
 activities of teacher and pupils. The project method is a 
 method of teaching by series of purposeful units of pupil 
 experience. Contrary to having the teacher do all the ini- 
 tiating, planning, executing, and judging of the work done 
 this method of instruction engenders these activities in the 
 pupils, A project may be defined in various ways as will be 
 shown later, but the present writer means by a project: Any 
 
 unit of experience dominated by such a purpose as sets an aim 
 
 for the experience, guides its process, and furnishes the 
 
 11 
 
 drive for its vigorous prosecution. Stated more briefly: 
 a project is any unit of purposeful activity. That is, it is 
 any task which is undertaken consciously because some need, 
 usually arising in a social situation, is felt by the pupil. 
 With the emphasis on the word "purpose" in the definition it 
 is evident that projects are typical unite from everyday 
 life. They are those things which we pro-ject before us to 
 engage our attention and enlist our efforts. Suppose a boy 
 has written a letter of application for a position in an 
 office. If he did in hearty fashion purpose to write the let- 
 ter, if he planned it* if he wrote it himself - that was a 
 project for the boy. For him it was a unit of wholehearted, 
 purposeful activity. To illustrate further - the following 
 
 11. Kilpatrick, William H. - "Dangers and Difficulties of 
 the Project Method and How to Overcome Them - A Symposium," 
 Teachers College Record-September 1921 . 
 

 
 
 
 
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 unit as adopted by this class became their project. It is 
 quoted here in full to illustrate also how the resourceful 
 teacher secures projects* 
 
 "A newspaper clipping a few months ago gave rise to a 
 simple project in a school located in a Michigan city* It 
 told how a mother and her fifteen year old daughter were 
 hurrying across the city from one railway station to another 
 in order to catch a train that would take them to the husband 
 and father who was seriously ill at their home in the South* 
 The taxi in which they were riding smashed into another auto- 
 mobile, and as a result the girl’s left arm and left leg were 
 broken, but the mother escaped with only a few minor bruises* 
 The girl was taken to a hospital while the mother continued 
 her journey to the bedside of her husband. The reporter gave 
 to the story a touch of "heart interest” by suggesting the 
 lonely hours the young girl would have to spend in a strange 
 city, far away from her family and friends. 
 
 "The teacher read the clipping without comment and 
 started to turn to some class work when a boy raised his 
 hand. He spoke to the class as follows: *1 don’t know how 
 
 you people feel about it, but I think we ought to show some 
 interest in this girl. She is about our own age, maybe she 
 is a sophomore in high school as we are. Why not send her 
 some flowers?* Another boy suggested that something to eat 
 would be better. One girl stated that if she were in a simi- 
 lar condition she would want books and magazines to read. 
 Finally a quiet, thoughtful girl said: *I*m sure this girl 
 
 would appreciate everything that has been suggested, but I 
 

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 believe friendly letters would make her feel less lonely 
 than anything.* 
 
 H There was instant approval, and the class immediately 
 voted that each member should write this young southern girl 
 a letter. Plans were discussed and the entire problem care- 
 fully thought out. In order to prevent duplication of mater- 
 ial it was decided that each member should take some one sub- 
 ject that would be likely to interest the girl as the central 
 theme of his or her letter. An unusually large number of at- 
 tractive subjects were listed on the board, and members of 
 the class made their choice. There was considerable discus- 
 sion over just what really makes a letter worth while, and 
 the teacher read several to show how various well-known wri- 
 ters had expressed themselves in letters. It was discovered 
 that ideas as well as incidents and descriptions were of in- 
 terest: in fact the verdict seemed to be that they were the 
 
 most interesting. The class also decided that as they would 
 be judged by this girl in accordance to the letters sent her 
 each letter should receive the approval of the class. It was 
 decided to send but two letters each day, so that they would 
 last through a considerable portion of the girl’s confinement 
 in the hospital. Some of the letters were approved upon their 
 first reading to the class; others were rewritten, partially 
 because the class felt they were not as interesting as they 
 should be; some were ordered to be rewritten entirely. In 
 each case of rewriting, the class gave definite, constructive 
 suggestions to help the pupil produce a more worthy effort. 
 
 A committee also inspected each letter to see that the punc- 
 

 
 
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 12 
 
 tuation and spelling were correct." 
 
 This situation developed into a simple project which was 
 initiated by the pupils, planned and carried out by them, with 
 all difficulties attendent upon the progress of the task 
 solved by the pupils. The oration a pupil writes to compete 
 in a contest where the school representative i3 to be chosen, 
 the letter another writes in application for a position, the 
 news item written for the local newspaper about the "all 
 school party" are only a very few of the whole host of pro- 
 jects the material for which is readily found in the everyday 
 lives of children and adults. 
 
 Project D e finitions 
 
 It seems advisable to include here some few statements 
 of current definitions for the term "project" since object- 
 ions to the use of the method have often been urged on the 
 basis of one somewhat narrow definition. 
 
 Some confusion has naturally arisen over terminology, 
 as the term "project" has been used in various ways. Aside 
 from a difference in emphasis upon some part of the defini- 
 tion there are no radical differences among these definitions. 
 Dr. Snedden defines it thus: "A project is a unit of educa- 
 
 tive work in which the most prominent feature is some form 
 
 13 
 
 of positive or concrete achievement." As it stands, this 
 
 12. Lasher, George S, - The Illinois A ssociation of T eachers 
 of .En glis h. B ulletin Volj_ XII I No. 7 . pp. 8-9 
 
 13. Snedden, David - "The Project as a Teaching Unit"; Schoo l 
 and Society 4:419-423 
 

 
 
 
 
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 definition seems to imply that unless there is material result 
 there is no project. Mr. A. J. Kendall, of Pratt Institute, 
 gives this definition: "A school project is a problem, the so- 
 lution of which results in the production of some object or 
 
 knowledge of such value to the worker as to make the labor in- 
 
 14 
 
 volved seem to him worth while." Here the most important ele- 
 ment is the attitude which the worker assumes,, 
 
 Dr. W. H. Kilpatrick defines the project as: A whole- 
 
 hearted, purposeful activity proceeding in a social environ- 
 15 
 
 ment." In this definition emphasis is placed upon the indivi- 
 dual, his methods of work, and his environment. J. A. Steven- 
 son lists the following as his definition: "A project is a 
 
 16 
 
 problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting,,* 
 Here is found an additional emphasis on the completion of the 
 unit and has the problem feature important. 
 
 In the teaching of English literature and composition, 
 
 J. P. Hosic has made use of the teriiio The following gives in 
 detail his characterization: 
 
 *'* I understand by project a complete unit of experience. 
 
 The essential aspects or elements of an experience are, in the 
 
 14. Kendall, A. J. -Quoted by Minor, Ruby - "The Supervision 
 of Project Teaching" - Bulletin Emporia, Kansas State Normal 
 Scho^L^18 0 
 
 15. Kilpatrick, William H. - "The Project Method". - Teachers 
 College Bull etin No. 5 - October 12, 1913. 
 
 16, Stevenson, J. A. - The Project Method (McMillan, 1921) 
 

 
 
 
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 simplest form, a situation and the response to it. This, how- 
 ever, will not describe adequately what is meant by the type of 
 experience called complete. Such a unit includes the follow- 
 ing phases: situation, problem, purpose, plan, criticism of 
 
 the plan, execution, judgment of results, appreciation. This 
 is, of course, not a chronological order strictly speaking, as 
 a feeling of appreciation will spring up in anticipation of 
 the outcome, while on the other hand, purpose persists and plan 
 is modified to the very end. Negatively, the project is not 
 to be confused with mere problem, with motivation, with inci- 
 dental learning, with correlation, with self-activity, or with 
 the idea of general method as illustrated by the Herbartian 
 formal steps’*. To understand what the project method is we 
 have only to go out into life and study any case of purposeful 
 living. Perhaps, then, the word purposeful should be added to 
 the original definition of a project - a complete unit of pur- 
 poseful experience. This will distinguish the project method 
 from ordinary habitual reaction, as thinking, planning, criti- 
 cizing, etc., are essential. I may say that the results to 
 flow from the project will include growth in initiative, in 
 power to think, in judgment of values, and in appreciation, 
 as well as in concentration and power of organization, at least 
 within the range of specific suggestions in which the exper- 
 ience functions. So far as these results are general that 
 result will be secured by observing the laws which govern the 
 

 
 
 
 
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 conditions of transfer** 
 
 The completion of the project, the problem factor, and 
 natural setting are stressed in this definition* In another 
 summary, the author indicates that the project is "organiza- 
 tion of school life in accordance with life in the home and 
 community.** 
 
 These are but some of the rather larger number of defini- 
 tions for "project** that are at present to be found in a sur- 
 vey of literature dealing with this topic. As has been stated 
 by George S* Lasher no definition is entirely satisfactory* 
 
 Most of the definitions employ words which themselves have 
 several connotations . The brief definition first given, that: 
 a project is a unit of whole-hearted, purposeful activity, 
 seems most acceptable to the present writer. 
 
 A project may be a large unit of work involving the ef- 
 forts of a large group of individuals, it may be a smaller unit 
 involving less time and effort with small or large groups of 
 people engaged, or it may be a specific bit of work simple or 
 complex for one individual. The one essential of any project, 
 no matter what the other conditions just above named, is that 
 the person or persons engaged must be working whole-heartedly 
 in an undertaking for which there has been felt a need and for 
 which there has been purposeful planning. "This overemphasis 
 upon a special field tends to defeat one of the most useful 
 
 17. Stevenson, J. A. , - The Project Method of Teaching 
 (New York 1921) pp, 84-85 -(Quotation from a letter sent by 
 Hosic, J. F., March 20, 1918* 
 
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 purposes of the project method: namely, to make the various 
 
 18 
 
 phases of school work ♦life-units 1 ." Adult activity in daily 
 experience is composed of various projects which seem to favor 
 one or more of these definitions from their narrower point of 
 view. However, all may be said to come under the general de- 
 finition which has the "purpose" essential prominent. 
 
 Kinds of Projects . 
 
 The first division that suggests itself when one takes 
 into account kinds of projects is that such units may be either 
 simple or complex. A simple unit is one which develops smooth- 
 ly from the decision by the pupil to engage upon it to the exe- 
 cution and finish. Complex units are those in which certain 
 difficulties arise which must be solved as the project is com- 
 pleted. Often these difficulties take the form of smaller 
 projects and their claims must also be satisfied before the 
 main project is finished. 
 
 From the standpoint of the persons engaged in the effort 
 projects are of two kinds: (a) individual, (b) group. Some 
 
 group projects may involve individual projects, as in the il- 
 lustration of the letters to the southern girl where each pu- 
 pil’s letter was his particular project, a distinct part of 
 the whole class or group project. As is readily seen projects 
 classed in this way may be either simple or complex in nature. 
 
 Projects may be manual or intellectual, or their develop- 
 ment may involve both of these. Thus the children who used 
 
 16 . Minor, Ruby - "The Supervision of Project Teaching" - 
 Bull etin Emporia, Kansas State Normal School, 1918. 
 

 
 
 
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 Scott’s "Lady of the Lake" as a project after writing their 
 articles on Scottish life constructed a rather elaborate news- 
 paper which required typewriting, advertising posters, draw- 
 ings, color work for decorations, and binding,. Indeed, if the 
 meaning of manual be narrowed sufficiently most projects would 
 resolve into manual- intellectual. The two types of projects 
 are recognized by Miss Alice Karackowizer in the following quo- 
 tation: 
 
 "There are various types of projects. One of these types 
 involves mental processes alone, without manipulation of mater- 
 ial and without the necessity of outward expression; this is 
 the problem type. It goes Y/ithout saying that, while this type 
 may exist by itself, it is not likely to do so in the child’s 
 world. On the other hand, all other types of projects include 
 
 the problem type in so far as they are not merely unconscious 
 19 
 
 responses . " 
 
 Professor William H. Kilpatrick classifies projects into 
 four different types as: 
 
 Type I, where the purpose is to embody some idea or plan 
 in external form, as writing a letter, writing a play, giving 
 a play, writing an article for the school paper, organizing a 
 literary society, writing a poem, abstracting a book, and giv- 
 ing a declamation. Type 2, where the purpose is to enjoy 
 some (esthetic) experience, as listening to a story, seeing a 
 drama, or reading a novel. Type 3, where the purpose is to 
 
 19. Krackowizer, Alice M. , Projects i n the Pri mar y Grades , 
 page 16 - Philadelphia 1919. 
 

 
 
 
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 straighten out some intellectual difficulty, as to ascertain 
 what the expenses will he for constructing the stage for the 
 school play, suggesting in an article to the town newspaper 
 improvements for the city park, and explaining why India should 
 he given her freedom by England. Type 4, w;here the purpose is 
 to obtain some item or degree of skill or knowledge, as learn- 
 ing the proper use of punctuation marks, gaining proficiency 
 in spelling common words, acquiring the skill in handwriting 
 equivalent to Grade 14 on the Thorndike Scale, and learning the 
 proper use of the pronouns. 
 
 As the present writer suggests, it is evident at once that 
 these groupings show considerable overlapping, and that one 
 type may be used as a means to bringing another one to comple- 
 tion. Essentially they are not foreign to the divisions made 
 earlier under this subject of kinds of projects, and are listed 
 by Professor Kilpatrick with the following view in mind; 
 
 "The value of such a classification as that here given 
 
 seems to me to be in the light it should throw on the kind of 
 
 projects teachers may expect - and on the procedure that nor- 
 
 20 
 
 mally prevails in the several types, " 
 
 Te a tin g_ C har t_ f o r^ro j jec t s , 
 
 A fair eummary of the ideas concerning just v/hat consti- 
 tutes a project might well take the form of a simple testing 
 chart. The basis for determining which shall be utilized and 
 which rejected, includes the following questions: 
 
 20. Kilpatrick, William H., "The Project Method" - Teachers 
 College Bulletin, No. 3- October 1918^ 
 
 

 
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 1. If a group project is the one in question, does it 
 appeal to the majority of the group? 
 
 2. Is it of sufficient value to the individual to en- 
 able him to make by means of it a distinct contribution to 
 himself or to the group? 
 
 3. Does it open up to the individual or the group, con- 
 sciously or unconsciously, visions of new problems to be 
 solved and projects to be worked out in consequence? 
 
 4. Does it help illumine some phase of experience or 
 activity worth preserving and fixing even temporarily? 
 
 5. Does it help lengthen gradually the pupil’s power of 
 sustained attention? 
 
 6. Will it stimulate and strengthen the pupil’s initia- 
 tive, mental activity, cooperation, self-reliance, etc,? 
 
 7. Does its suggested subsequent development seem rea- 
 sonably free from new evils which might counterbalance its 
 good features? 
 
 8. Does it allow both the best and average pupils an 
 adequate opportunity for maximum effort? 
 
 If these or similar questions can be answered in the af- 
 firmative, the project bids fair to succeed. If too many of 
 these must be answered otherwise, the chances are that some 
 better project ought to be found, or the present one changed 
 sufficiently to increase its general worth. Such questions 
 as these ought to form themselves at once in the mind of the 
 teacher both in her own planning of work for the class and in 
 guiding the suggestions made by the pupils. With more mature 
 pupils seme such plan of procedure might be given them, with 
 

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 the idea that they use it in considering the suitability of 
 21 
 
 projects. 
 
 Development of the Project. 
 
 The project makes provisions for the necessary requi- 
 sites for thinking outlined by Dewey. "Every recitation in 
 every subject gives opportunity for establishing cross connec- 
 tions between the subject matter of the lesson and the wider 
 
 and more direct experiences of life 
 
 Processes of instruction are unified in the degree in whicjh 
 they center in the production of good habits of thinking, 
 while we may speak without error of the method of thought, the 
 important thing is that thinking is the method of an educative 
 experience. The essentials of method are therefore identical 
 with the essentials of reflection. They are first, that the 
 pupil has a genuine situation of experience - that there be 
 a continuous activity in which he is interested for its own 
 sake; secondly, that a genuine problem develops within this 
 situation as a stimulus to thought; third, that he possess the 
 information and make the observations needed to deal with it; 
 fourth, that suggested solutions occur to him which shall be 
 responsible for developing in an orderly way; fifth, that he 
 have opportunity and occasion to test his ideas by application, 
 
 to make their meaning clear and to discover for himself their 
 
 22 
 
 validity." Pupil planning and pupil-doing give opportunity 
 
 21. Krackowizer, Alice K. Projects in the Primary Gra des 
 Philadelphis 1919. 
 
 22. Dewey, John. - Democr a cy and Education - Rew York 1917 - 
 pp. 191-192. 
 

 
 
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 for thought and the exercise of judgment. 
 
 In connection y/ith his types one and four, Kilpatrick 
 states that these four steps of development have been suggest* 
 ted to him; purposing, planning, executing, and judging. Num- 
 ber three, the ordinary problem type, has the four steps in the 
 logical method of arriving at a. solution of a problem; (l) de- 
 finition of problem; (2) collection of data; (3) hypothesis; 
 
 (4) verification. As yet no steps have been outlined for type 
 2 mentioned by Kilpatrick. He states as his reason for includ- 
 ing it as a type of project; "the factor of purpose undoubtedly 
 
 guides the process and -I must think - influences the growth of 
 23. 
 
 appreciation" . 
 
 In special and detailed discussion of the third type of 
 project Mr. Mendel E, Branom offers some brief illustrations. 
 
 It is also evident that in his development of these projects 
 (he calls them project- problems) he includes Kilpatrick’s four 
 steps within his own. 
 
 " Illustration one. Preparatory step : Denmark once offer- 
 
 ed to sell the Danish We st Indies to the United States, but the 
 United States refused to buy; later, the United States wanted 
 to buy the islands, but Denmark, under German influences, re- 
 fused to sell. In 1917 the United States was willing to buy 
 and Denmark was willing to sell. The United States purchased 
 the islands for $25, 000, 000. 
 
 Problem rais ed: Are the Danish West Indies worth the price? 
 
 23. Kilpatrick, William H., "The Project Method" - Teache rs 
 Colleg e Bul let in No, 3 - October 1918- page 17, 
 

 
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 Materials secu red and i nterpre ted: The islands were con- 
 
 sidered from the standpoint of pastoral, agricultural, mining, 
 fishing and manufacturing possibilities, from the standpoint 
 of their strategic location in guarding the eastermost entrance 
 to the Carribbean Sea and the Panama Canal Zone. 
 
 Problem So lv ed; The islands are worth the price because 
 of their strategic importance in helping the United States to 
 watch over its interests in the "American Medi terranean" . 
 
 Illustrat ion Two , Pre par ato ry ste p: From a study of maps 
 showing the distribution of agricultural products and popula- 
 tion in Argentina, it was found that over three- fourths of the 
 people live, and over three-fourths of the agricultural pro- 
 ducts are produced, in the pampas region. 
 
 Problem ra ised: Account for the dominating importance in 
 
 Argentina, of the pampas. 
 
 Material s secure d and inte rpreted: A consideration of fac- 
 tors in the pampas, favorable for agricultural production, 
 thus accounting for its absolute importance, was made; and a 
 study of limitations imposed, in the Gran Chaco region, the 
 Andean foothills, and the Patagonian Plateau, was made to ac- 
 count for the relative importance of the pampas. 
 
 Prob lem sol ved: The pampas region is of dominant impor- 
 
 tance because of its favorable location, area, topography, 
 
 soils, climate; because of the relatively unfavorable physical 
 
 24 
 
 factors elsewhere". 
 
 24, Branom, Mendel E. - The Proj ect Method in Educa tion 
 Boston 1919 - pp. 165-166. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Carrying out these steps of procedure in completing a 
 project requires that one have access to various sources of 
 material. Some simple projects require relatively little in- 
 formation outside what the pupil already has, and in such the 
 completion of the work unit is easy. Others, more complex, 
 often take the individual far afield, which necessitates some- 
 times use of all the mediums we now have for supplying re- 
 quired material. For project work in English the pupils must 
 have access to a good library in charge of which there is a 
 librarian competent to assist immature pupils in thorough use 
 of the sources collected. Such a library had best be in the 
 school building or on the school grounds, if the most efficient 
 work is to be done. Close at hand, in the English recitation 
 room if possible, ought to be dictionaries, encyclopedias, 
 other reference works such as almanacs, general histories, etc,, 
 and Poole’s Index to Periodical Literature. There ought also 
 to be within easy reach maps of local and national importance. 
 Museums are also of infinite value for use in certain projects. 
 "Teachers lagging in the rear fail to see the good teaching 
 that the best museums are doing in their purposive method, 
 their presentation of specimans, and their silent tuition in 
 the form of lables giving not only names and classifications, 
 but also detailed accounts of the history, habitat, life, uses, 
 
 and value of specimans, with helpful references to popular 
 25 
 
 books". Daily experiences of pupils are another fruitful 
 
 25. Von Hofe, George D., "The Development of a Project" 
 Teacher s Co llege Record 17:24-46, 19 16. 
 
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-31 
 
 source of supply for project work. Student problems in the 
 school and on the campus, in connection with the school paper, 
 student finance, vocational ambitions, and attitude toward 
 phases of school work, community activities in town politics 
 and finance, paving and lighting problems, town beautification 
 schemes, and other communal undertakings offer a great deal of 
 material for project work. Newspapers, government reports and 
 other bulletins of similar nature, railroad and other company 
 advertisements may in many cases be used both to suggest pro- 
 jects and supply information for their successful prosecution. 
 
 The following account of what took place in a sixth grade 
 
 class in the Horace Mann School, Columbia University shows what 
 
 can be done in this matter of development: "The class chooses 
 
 a project, something that has attracted attention and in which 
 
 they (the pupils) are vitally interested. The teacher then 
 
 presents the information to follow not the so-called "logical" 
 
 development found in textbooks, but the trend of thought of the 
 26 
 
 pupils." This presentation was supplemented by popular maga- 
 zine readings on the part of the pupils. The subject was 
 "Water." The teacher went through the Reader's Guide for 
 articles to which the pupils were later referred. These natur- 
 ally were divided into two classes: those suitable for the pu- 
 
 pils, and those which the teacher had to read and interpret 
 for them. These references were listed in somewhat the follow- 
 ing manner: 
 
 26. Von Hofe, George D. "The Development of a Project", 
 Teachers Co l lege Record 17:24-46, 1916. 
 

 
 
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 1. "The Nation’s White Coal" - Outlook 103:338-9, 
 
 February 15, 1913, 
 
 Short article on the using of water-falls in place of coal. 
 The relation of the governemnt to the owners of water plants, 
 
 2, "Water" - By E. P. Wrightman, (Needs to be interpreted 
 by teacher) Popular Sc ience Mo nthl y 84 : 218-26 March 1914, 
 
 The condition of water at the formation of the earth; the 
 combination of hydrogen and oxygen; the physical properties of 
 water. Why the deserts have no rain. The body which is 75$ 
 water requires 5.5 pounds of water a day for sustenance. A list 
 of foods with the percentage of water they contain is given. 
 Well-written, popular, few technical terms. A resumfe of the 
 physics of water. 
 
 In like manner other articles pertinent to the subject of 
 the project were arranged and described for the pupils, A set 
 of sixty lantern slides on "The Wonderful Work of Water" bor- 
 rowed from the American Museum of Natural History was also used 
 in connection with the discussion. 
 
 All school material bearing on problems should be placed 
 conveniently for the use of the pupils. It is an unnecessary 
 waste of a pupil’s time to give vague directions as to where 
 materials can be secured. It may be necessary, as described 
 above, with the grade school pupils to list definitely the 
 articles of value, but the amount of such help can gradually 
 be decreased as more and more mature pupils are engaged. The 
 solution of project-problems does not mean that students wander 
 aimlessly through numerous volumes, accidentally stumbling upon 
 pertinent material. The significant thing is not that general 
 
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 material shall be found, but that, from this material selec- 
 tions shall be made and interpreted to meet the demands of 
 the problems. Pupils, however, should be encouraged to secure 
 supplementary material. As many different references as pos- 
 sible should be secured. Variety rather than uniformity should 
 govern in the selection of supplementary material for such 
 work. Pupils, reading different articles will be differently 
 stimulated, and will come to class expecting to make actual 
 contributions. Through the cooperation of all members of the 
 class, the problems should be solved and all other difficulties 
 removed. If a pupil is engaged in an individual project the 
 same general principles hold true. 
 
 The Advantage s_ o f the Project Met hod . 
 
 Current Y/r iters who have experimented with the project 
 method of teaching have generally been very emphatic in stating 
 the marked success of their attempts. This comment applies 
 more to teachers in the actual work of teaching the various 
 subjects of the elementary and high schools than it does to ex- 
 perimenters in the field of educational practice. Frequently 
 whole lists of advantages of project teaching are stated by 
 teachers who have used the method in their work. These though 
 couched in different terms and in varied arrangements 6how 
 striking similarity in the benefits teachers find in such a 
 method. In discussing his project "Chicago -Cur City", 
 
 George S. Lasher v/rites: "Judged from the teacher’s point of 
 
 view, the project was a success. In the first place, prac- 
 tically every pupil took an interest and pride in what he wrote^ 
 and his constant effort to improve his chapter by revising was 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 satisfying indeed. The by-products were particularly valuable. 
 The oral themes, the library work, the drill in mechanics and 
 grammar, the organization and illustration of the style sheet, 
 the proof-reading, and the business letter writing connected 
 with the project all had definite point and were undertaken 
 with zest because of the purpose behind them. More than this, 
 however, the pupils learned how to attack a real problem, how 
 to find the sources of knowledge, and how to make use of them. 
 They also gained a sense of responsibility, for they under- 
 stood clearly that the instructor would not correct their er- 
 rors, As a result, the chapters are not free from mistakes; 
 
 but they are honest, not careless mistakes. The pupils also 
 
 27 
 
 felt the satisfaction of contributing to their school." 
 
 These comments stated in a general way are listed by 
 others in great detail. One of the most pointed and unique 
 plans used in getting at the values and defects of project 
 teaching was carried out by R. W. Hatch, teacher of history in 
 the Horace Mann School at Columbia University. He writes: 
 
 "I was asked to speak on the dangers and difficulties 
 which have been successfully overcome in the teaching of my 
 classes by the project method in the Horace Mann School. These 
 classes are in the ninth and tenth years of our senior high 
 school. The ninth year class is studying modern European his- 
 
 27. lasher, George Star. "The Project Method, etc," 
 Bulletin Ho . 7- Vol^ XI II p 111 ! no is As socia tion of Teac h ers 
 of Engli sh. April 1, 1921 . 
 
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 tory and the tenth year modern problems. These pupils are 
 observed daily by my Teachers College class, who are for the 
 most part experienced teachers of history and civics. 
 
 "The more I thought of the topic given me for discussion 
 the more I hesitated. I realized that I might be considered 
 a prejudiced witness. And so I resolved to shift this respon- 
 sibility to the shoulders of my students, - both those who 
 
 are taking the course in the Horace Mann School, and also the 
 
 • - 
 
 observers from Teachers College. And so I asked these two 
 groups to give careful thought to this question: "What do 
 
 you oonsider to be the good and bad features of the project 
 method?" The answers in all cases but one were handed in 
 without any names attached. From the replies I have listed 
 the following items, avoiding unnecessary repetitions, but 
 giving in their own words their testimony, for and against the 
 project method as I have interpreted it in my teaching pro- 
 cedure with them. 
 
 "I will first give the answers of the Horace Mann pupils. 
 In nearly every instance there was a majority vote of the 
 class favoring the statement as given: 
 
 Good Features . 
 
 1. We have overcome the difficulty of getting enough 
 references by going to many different sources for material so 
 everyone may be prepared each day. 
 
 2. We learn how to organize material for ourselves and 
 do not have everything prepared for us by the teacher. 
 
 3. We do our arguing and discussing on the basis of 
 ’light, not heat,’ and are becoming more broad-minded. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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-36- 
 
 4. We learn more lasting information because we have 
 rooted, it out for ourselves. 
 
 5. It trains us logically, to think clearly, and to get 
 our ideas over to the class. 
 
 6. The pupils have attained an independent attitude of 
 studying and we are getting along much faster. 
 
 7. Our discussions are usually the most helpful part of 
 our lessons. 
 
 8. Getting and putting things together from the library 
 has helped us a very great deal, not only in history but in 
 everything. 
 
 9. Our interest in current literature has been stimu- 
 lated. 
 
 10. We learn how to do things, how to work out our own 
 problems. 
 
 11. We learn to thrash out questions for ourselves, in- 
 stead of relying on our textbooks. 
 
 12. The pupil3 are more interested and will work harder. 
 
 They will remember what they learn because they choose the sub- 
 ject and build it up themselves...... 
 
 H From the answers handed in to me by my observers from 
 Teachers College, who have followed the work daily from the 
 beginning of the spring term, the following expressions were 
 compiled. In order to get a general response both pro and con 
 I asked the group of regular observers to vote on each state- 
 ment and have appended their answers, giving ‘Yes 1 vote first 
 ineach instance. 
 

 
 
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 Advan tages , 
 
 1. Tolerance of the opinions of others, open-mindedness 
 and good will. ( 7-0 ) 
 
 2. Self-reliance, i.e, ability to go and gather useful 
 information. (7-0) 
 
 3. The beginning of a scientific and critical attitude 
 toward material. (7-0 ) 
 
 4. General orderliness; ((very good (4); good (3).j) # 
 Discipline shifted from teacher to group itself: self-govern- 
 ment. 
 
 5. A get-together spirit and ability to cooperate. This 
 is a remarkable feature. (7-0) 
 
 6. Good fellowship and leadership. (7-0) 
 
 7. Acquiring the power to participate in worth-while 
 constructive discussion. (7-0) 
 
 8. An aroused and increased interest. (7-0) 
 
 9. Whole-hearted activity stimulated in pursuit of 
 knowledge. (6-1) 
 
 10. Remarkable facility in using parliamentary procedure 
 as an instrument in conducting class affairs. (7-0) 
 
 11. The teacher is 'not dethroned*. He is in the cen- 
 ter of the group as adviser and guide instead of dictator. 
 (7-0) 
 
 12. Responsibility for the conduct of the work felt to 
 rest on both teacher and pupils. (7-0 ) 
 
 13. Life situations, (approximate). (6-1) 
 
 A summary of these many advantages claimed by the dif- 
 ferent writers for the project method was made by Miss Ruby 
 

 
 
 
-38- 
 
 Minor of the State Normal School* Emporia, Kansas. Her com- 
 pilation with some few changes represents as complete and 
 satisfactory a list as may be made. In fact upon first glance 
 it may seem open to the popular criticism often brought 
 against original work that it claims every advantage old and 
 new. This is, however, only apparent. 
 
 1. Subject-matter is considered in the way that people 
 in general consider it; in its bearings on life’s activities. 
 
 2. It is the natural method of learning, through group 
 activity, and provides the best conditions for learning. 
 
 3. It enables pupils to gain, under the most favorable 
 conditions, that part of the social inheritance which it is 
 the business of the school to transmit, 
 
 4. It gives emphasis to attitudes. 
 
 (a) It challenges the ability; arouses determina- 
 tion to win. 
 
 (b) Its appeal to the social, intellectual, and 
 emotional factors, arouses greater interest and enthusiasm. 
 
 (c) It leaves the student with a desire to know 
 
 more . 
 
 5. It is more economical. By emphasizing larger things, 
 pupils learn to evaluate and classify. 
 
 6. It furnishes the criterion for determining the capa- 
 city of children; and enables the teacher to recognize and 
 meet individual needs, 
 
 7. It provides for a balanced development by providing 
 for the use of all the mental powers. 
 

 
 
-39- 
 
 8o It develops skill under conditions that tend toward 
 habituation,, 
 
 9, It contributes to democracy,, 
 
 (a) It gives training in cooperative social service,, 
 including leadership and division of labor* 
 
 (b) It imposes responsibility, 
 
 (c) It exercises discriminating judgment, and, 
 hence, awakens appreciation of values* 
 
 (d) It makes for self-reliance, self-direction and 
 self-control . 
 
 The Disadvantages * 
 
 While an examination of the literature dealing with the 
 project method reveals many advantages and few disadvantages, 
 teachers recognize that it is no panacea for all classroom 
 difficulties. Careful thinkers have mentioned these in detail 
 with such force that no one can fail to see the cautions ne- 
 cessary in procuring the benefits claimed for project work. 
 
 In the discussion by R, W, Hatch mentioned under the 
 last topic are disadvantages listed by his pupils and his 
 graduate students. He writes: 
 
 Bad Features . 
 
 1. The home-work assignments are indefinite, although we 
 are improving in this respect, 
 
 2. Too much time is spent on one project through unne- 
 cessary discussion. 
 
 3. It is hard to get references that bear directly on 
 the point of discussion. 
 
 4. There is a tendency to wander off the track when be- 
 
-40- 
 
 coming interested in something else. 
 
 5. We don’t do our home-work regularly. 
 
 6. Too much work is carried by a few pupils. 
 
 7. No one can detect the pupils who do not do the out- 
 side reading. 
 
 The class of observers from Teachers College reported as 
 follows; 
 
 D is ad van t ages . 
 
 "1. Loss of time in ground covered due to parliamentary 
 discussion. The latter, however, felt to be distinctly worth- 
 while; a question of relative values. (7-l) 
 
 2. Loss of time due to needless discussion, but the 
 class is conscious of this fault and is trying to overcome it. 
 ( 8 - 0 ) 
 
 5. A lack of continuous and severe mental work. (3-4) 
 
 4. The slower student seems to demand more definiteness 
 in the daily assignments. (7-1) 
 
 5. Getting beyond the depths of the pupils so that they 
 talk about things without clearly understanding them. (2-6) 
 
 6. Certain required subject matter slighted. (1-7) 
 
 7. Non-participation on part of some members of the 
 class is greater in this method. (3-5) 
 
 8. Encourages expression of opinion not founded on suf- 
 
 28 
 
 ficient knowledge. (3-5)" 
 
 28. Hatch R. W. - "Student Reactions to the Project Method" 
 Teachers College Record September 1921 . 
 

 
 
 
- 41 - 
 
 Pro,ject Teaching and Composition Work . 
 
 Throughout the foregoing discussion of the project method 
 care has been exercised to show that teaching by units of pur- 
 poseful activity can be employed in English composition cour- 
 ses. The illustrations recorded were selected from the work 
 of pupils using projects in their classes® The other examples 
 used are from educational writings which deal with project 
 teaching in its the-ory and practice® The present writer feels 
 that the sections treating with: the kinds of projects,, test- 
 
 ing for projects, the development of a project, and the ad- 
 vantages and disadvantages of the method are equally as true 
 in composition teaching as when used in other courses of 
 study. In these final paragraphs of the chapter some addi- 
 tional explanation will be made in regard to the method when 
 carried on in composition instruction. The compilation of ex- 
 periments constituting chapter three will further substantiate 
 the conclusions that have been made. 
 
 In various expressions both written and oral by English 
 teachers this one main purpose is named for composition work; 
 to enable the pupil to speak and write correctly, convincing- 
 ly, and interestingly. It is a mistake to put a narrow con- 
 struction upon this aim by treating English as merely a formal 
 subject. In no sense but for the specialist in language should 
 English be considered as form of expression apart from content® 
 To narrow the aim in this manner reduces the study to an ac- 
 quisition of skill through sufficient drill on the mechanics 
 and technique of writing and speaking® Language has alwayB 
 been a vehicle for thought and exists for use in communication. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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- 42 - 
 
 not apart or separable by itself. The project method supplies 
 this content, giving ample opportunity for use of the language 
 and, in addition, enables the pupils to gain some serviceable 
 knowledge. 
 
 Among the different kinds of projects listed in a precede 
 ing paragraph were two very important i.e. the individual and 
 group types. With the definition adopted it is clear that such 
 a‘ division may well be made. In the lists of advantages and 
 disadvantages claimed for the use of projects in teaching it 
 is evident that many of them are applicable only to group pro- 
 jects. Thus one, five and six in Mr, Hatch’s list of advan- 
 tages hold true practically altogether for group work, while 
 seven and ten may be true of both types of projects. In nearly 
 every experiment that has been reported of the method being 
 used in English composition small groups as committees or a 
 large group of the whole class have completed the project. 
 
 This arises from the very nature of the subject - oral and 
 written language for conveying ideas to others. The most ef- 
 ficient use of projects has been with those of this large and 
 small group type. 
 
 One of the most important and justifiable objections to 
 project teaching of composition is that it does not provide 
 for sufficient drill. However, this has been answered by some 
 experimenters in the past by stating that such an objection 
 arises through a narrow unders tanding of a project. If the 
 element of purpose be made fundamental, the question arises 
 whether one might not purpose to drill himself; and the answer 
 must be, yes. This means that drill on grammar or the mechan- 
 

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-43- 
 
 ics of writing is assumed as a temporary project whenever spe- 
 cific need for it is found vitally necessary in the course of 
 developing the main project at hand. In reporting his project 
 with the Chicago high school freshmen, Mr, lasher is careful to 
 v/rite how this element was cared for. The pupils set out to dis- 
 cover v/hat rules of capitalization, punctuation, and grammar were 
 followed by the best edited magazines and newspapers. As a re- 
 sult of the study each pupil wrote out rules in his own phrase- 
 ology and illustrated them with clippings from these periodicals# 
 The pupils corrected their own manuscripts in conformity with 
 their rules and then exchanged these with other members of the 
 class in order to correct each other’s errors. After the pupils 
 had done their best, the instructor read the chapters; but in- 
 stead of marking the mistakes he gave each pupil a card on which 
 v/ere recorded the number of mechanical errors made. Everyone 
 was then v/illing to participate in some review lessons and drill 
 work which would deal specifically with those errors. After an- 
 other correction of the manuscripts, the copy was declared ready 
 
 29 
 
 for publication. 
 
 However, it is not likely that such success may be secured 
 in any but the highest grades of the elementary school. As yet 
 no one has written of this factor in connection with grade school 
 projects. Uo entire course in English composition has been 
 
 29. Lasher, George Starr - "The Project Method" - Bulleti n 
 Illin oi s Associatio n Teac h ers o f English, April 1, 1921 . 
 

 
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- 44 - 
 
 based wholly on the project method, and subsequent experiment 
 may show that in the grade schools at least this can never be 
 done successfully. It may be found that frequent periods of 
 drill on grammar and the mechanics of writing aside from all 
 project work are an absolute essential in elementary work. 
 Whether such conclusions will be true for the higher school 
 composition courses remains to be seen. At present this is 
 equally as much a conjecture as that the project method will 
 fail to supply sufficient drill. The persistence with which 
 even the most flagrant evils in English continue with educated 
 adults shows some lack in the old method. The project method 
 permits of drill to weed out the mechanical mistakes of pupils, 
 by utilizing only such information as relates to the specific 
 errors found; all other such facts are passed by as irrele- 
 vant for the time being. It may be that this plan will prove 
 most efficient. 
 
 The new position of the teacher . 
 
 Method is the combined activities of the pupils and the 
 teacher working together. The old method of composition teach- 
 ing places the greater share of the responsibility for effi- 
 cient class work upon the teacher. He is the taskmaster, the 
 final authority, the one for whom all writing is done, the one 
 to be satisfied at all times and at all costs. The project 
 type of teaching changes this but does not give the teacher a 
 subordinate place as is sometimes erroneously supposed. His 
 new position is that of creator and director of activity with 
 added responsibilities due to the changed position of the pu- 
 pils in the recitation. Since the pupils under the new method 
 

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- 45 - 
 
 are to be more than mere receivers of knowledge, their efforts 
 must be vigilantly guided by the alert teacher. He does no 
 more than is necessary yet he is always the final arbiter of 
 what shall be performed in the school room. This will not re- 
 move the personal initiative on the part of the pupils so much 
 desired, for the teacher discourages the unworthy and approves 
 what promises sufficient value. This new outlook presupposes 
 on the part of the teacher a willingness to work, daily growth 
 of ideas, keeping abreast of current community life, a breadth 
 of interests - which means keeping young in spirit, and a sym- 
 pathy for that which seems important in child life even though 
 it may not seem so for the adult. The project method rightly 
 used is not the easy way out for the teacher, but in propor- 
 tion to the responsibilities it offers are promised lasting 
 benefits for himself and his pupils. 
 
 Summary . 
 
 The project method of teaching is teaching by means of 
 projects. A project defined is: A unit of purposeful activity 
 
 where the dominating purpose, as an inner urge, (l) fixes the 
 aim of the action, (2) guides its process, and (3) furnishes 
 its drive, its inner motivation. The one essential of any 
 project is that the person or persons engaged must be working 
 whole-heartedly in an undertaking for which there has been 
 purposeful planning. Projects may be of various types as 
 simple and complex, individual and group, manual and intel- 
 lectual. It has been noted in English composition work that 
 among the most successful ones are the group projects in which 
 the whole class participates. Projects may be suggested by 
 

 
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- 46 - 
 
 the teacher but must always be made the personal property, 
 so to speak, of the pupils if the success desired is to be 
 attained,, 
 
 For teachers and pupils using the project method we 
 noted first a list of advantages. For the pupil the method 
 affords opportunities for: leadership, initiative, coOpera - 
 
 tion, intelligent following, self-reliance, and judging of 
 results. For the teacher: it enables him to keep young in 
 
 spirit through a constant interest in current life, it gives 
 opportunity for vigorous mental activity, it permits him to 
 keep abreast of progress, and it allows for sympathy with pu- 
 pil efforts in mounting difficulties real for them as they 
 grow. 
 
 There were two main objections. First, that the method 
 wasted time on long projects and in parliamentary discussion. 
 This latter, however, affords excellent opportunity for oral 
 expression not otherwise granted in usual composition work. 
 Second, that the method does not provide sufficient drill. 
 This may be a more pertineht objection in the grades than 
 elsewhere, but writers answer this by stating that one may 
 purpose to drill himself, making drill a project. 
 
 As yet no entire course of English composition for any 
 grade has been reported as being based entirely on the pro- 
 ject method. Future trials with the method must be made be- 
 fore any such plan can be proposed. Comparisons between the 
 results gained by a control group using the old plan and an 
 experimental group taught by the project method ought to be 
 made before any definite conclusions can be offered. There 
 
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 can be no list of stereotyped projects formulated if the method 
 is to succeed as fully as is now thought possible. 
 
. 
 
 
48, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Applicatio n of the Projec t Me t hod to the 
 Teaching of English Composition . 
 
 In the first chapter of this discussion an attempt was 
 made to sketch briefly some of the changes that had taken 
 place in the teaching of English in our American secondary 
 schools since 1874. The history of education shows that simi- 
 lar changes took place in the other subjects of the elementary, 
 secondary, and higher school curriculuras during the nineteenth 
 century. In the early division of labor teaching was turned 
 over to those men who already were scholars or to men whose 
 interests were so bent as to lead them to become scholars 
 later. Hence it was natural that the first emphasis should be 
 on a subject matter that was abstract, apart from life outside 
 of school and in terms of school life. This has changed in 
 our country since the time (roughly set) of the Civil War when 
 the emphasis came to be put on fitting the pupil to take his 
 place in the life outside of school. 
 
 With two exceptions the following projects have been 
 taken from current literature on the subject to demonstrate 
 how the project method has succeeded where it has been tried. 
 
 In no case has the writer learned of an entire course in com- 
 position being taught entirely by projects, nor are the il- 
 lustrations to follow offered with the idea of organizing such 
 a course. The difficulties attendent upon a plan of that 
 character for a whole course make imperative much more experi- 
 
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-49- 
 
 mentation than has been given the method thus far. It may be 
 that such a course cannot be successfully accomplished owing 
 to the nature of the subject and the necessity of preventing 
 projects from becoming stereotyped. Examples have been chosen 
 from articles in such writings as: The En glish Journal . The 
 
 Journal of Educational Methods . The Bulletin of the Illinois 
 Association of Teachers of English . School and Society , and 
 other periodicals of similar nature. Among the group are com- 
 position projects that have been carried on in lower, second- 
 ary, and higher fields of education. 
 
 Grade School Proje cts* 
 
 " Live 3Ln_ Virgi nia” . This project represents the most 
 common one in point of type that has been utilized for English 
 project teaching. The teacher believing at first that project 
 teaching could be used only at the close of a "regular*' course 
 sometimee in May or June resolved to attempt it at the begin- 
 ning in September by acting on the suggestion of a supervisor 
 who named "Virginia" as a fit subject, 
 
 A thorough canvass of the subject gave thirty topics that 
 would need to be handled in order to cover the work. These in- 
 cluded the history of the city, its advantages due to loca- 
 tion, its schools, churches, library, Virginia as a melting 
 pot (there are so many foreigners), open- pit and underground 
 mining, all the other important industries, public utilities. 
 
 3G , Glaser, Emma - "Eighth Grade Composition by Projects" 
 English Jou r nal - Novem ber 1921 . 
 

 
 
 
 
 
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-5C- 
 
 government , and other phases of the city’s life, ending with 
 a chapter on suggestions for improvements in the city. The 
 entire project was so divided into minor ones that it could 
 be carried on and completed by two classes of about equal 
 ability. 
 
 These classes were organized into booster clubs, one as 
 "The Cheerful Class of Boosters”, the other, "Thrifty Boosters 
 Both, choosing by vote from a list of mottoes they had sug- 
 gested, selected "We are Virginians as well as Americans," 
 
 The children were wildly enthusiastic about the plan. It had 
 the appeal of reality and worth-whileness which held their en- 
 thusiasm throughout the term. The entire class period was 
 given over to the club meeting, which was conducted by the 
 children alone. Four topics were covered each week, two in 
 each class, by the following plan. 
 
 The teacher divided both classes into groups or committees 
 of three, being careful to have at least one in each group with 
 a reasonable amount of initiative, but mixing groups promis- 
 cuously as to boys and girls and chums. The topics were care- 
 fully assigned to each group with regard to appeal or inter- 
 est, Some evidences of dissatisfaction were anticipated since 
 almost everyone would wish to investigate such topics as under- 
 ground mining and night schools in preference to climate, 
 garages, and the like. Eut invariably the president’s an- 
 nouncements of the committees for the following week was met 
 with obvious satisfaction. 
 
 As soon as possible after each assignment on Friday, the 
 teacher made an appointment with each of the four committees 
 
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-51- 
 
 for a brief survey of given topics, and aided the pupils to 
 make a general outline as a basis guide# Sometimes it ■was 
 necessary to direct the research at the library, in the use 
 of the card catalog and reference indexes, or in the selection 
 of books that might contain desirable material,. Whenever prac- 
 ticable the teacher went with the groups on trips of investi- 
 gation, urging always on such occasions free and individual 
 questioning, on the part of the pupils,, 
 
 Afterward each group was left to arrange its own meetings 
 for study and theme preparation. After the preliminary busi- 
 ness of the meeting on Friday the theme was read or told, as 
 a unit by one member, or in parts by the three. Then followed 
 discussion, comment, and suggestions by the class. Class 
 criticism which is often hard to secure or to keep unbiased, 
 became spontaneous and good-natured. The children criticised 
 sincerely because each paper was a common interest, being a 
 chapter for the prospective book on Virginia, which every mem- 
 ber was anxious to make a worthy class accomplishment , After 
 the class discussion the committees prepared their final pa- 
 pers, containing many snapshots, colored post cards, etc., 
 which were decorated with pen-and-ink sketches and at last 
 bound together into a book called H The Story of Virginia" with 
 covers made by the art committee. 
 
 21 
 
 " Where i n^ the Uni ted States Do We^ G e t^ Our Food S upply?" 
 This project complete was carried out in the fourth grade where 
 
 2l. Warren, Minetta L. , - "A project for the Entire Term" 
 Jour nal^ of _ Educ ational Meth od ^ - September 1921-page 26 . 
 

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-52- 
 
 one teacher taught all the subjects and lasted the entire 
 term for the children. The other grade studies beside Eng- 
 lish were cared for in detail. The use that was made of the 
 project for composition work is of interest and will be con- 
 sidered here. 
 
 The project as set involved: Where in the United States 
 
 do we get our food supply? Of what does it consist, chiefly? 
 How do we get it and who helps us get it? In developing these 
 topics minor projects grew readily among them such as the ne- 
 cessity of constructing model reapers, binders, and threshing 
 machines out of pasteboard for models. The written work de- 
 veloped from these and other efforts. 
 
 1. When the pupils brought in their concrete projects 
 they y/ished to tell the teacher how they had been made. She 
 
 suggested that, since she could not possibly have time to 
 
 hear them all, they tell her on paper, which they did. 
 
 2. A young niece, who was spending the summer in the 
 
 mountains near Denver, sent the teacher a collection of Rocky 
 Mountain wild flowers. Among them were some fine specimens 
 of the Indian kinnikinnik. With them she inclosed a beauti- 
 ful legend concerning it, which had been told her by Enos A. 
 Mills, the well-knov.Ti naturalist. The children wrote and 
 thanked her for both legend and flowers. 
 
 5. A young college girl, without training in method, be- 
 gan teaching in a small town in Oregon and asked for sugges- 
 tions. Miss Warren sent her a list of the names of her own 
 pupils requesting that her pupils write Miss Warren’s asking 
 anything they cared to know about Detroit and Michigan, and 
 

 
 
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-53- 
 
 telling about something of which they were sure the others 
 could know but little* such as the salmon fisheries, mountain 
 scenery, and anything else which would be of interest. The 
 Detroit pupils answered the letters received, giving points of 
 local interest and inclosing a colored postcard. Miss Warren 
 wrote the teacher, giving some interesting facts in the early 
 history of Detroit and Michigan, and inclosing two dozen post- 
 cards,, From this quite a vigorous correspondence resulted,, 
 
 4 o The children all wrote to a Minneapolis publishing 
 company asking for pictures of the wheat industry. From the 
 number of letters v/ritten the teacher selected about one-half 
 dozen which were examined by a committee of the pupils which 
 chose one from among these six. 
 
 32 
 
 " The Na tional Fire _ Prevention Da r v w . This well-developed 
 project taken from one of the very latest of the new type of 
 English lextbooks for the grades has a two- fold value. First, 
 it suggests amply how a project on this important subject may 
 be carried on; second, it represents a use that may be made of 
 all national and local celebration days. Such projects as may 
 be formed about birthdays of great statesmen, generals, wri- 
 ters, inventors, and others, in connection with national holi- 
 days as Armistice Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, Easter, Fourth 
 of July, etc., are bound to become a much more important part 
 of the project work in English than they have been in the past. 
 
 32. Miller, William D., and Paul, Harry G., - Frac t ical 
 English Book III - Lyons and Carnahan (Chicago, 1 922, pp. 222-226) 
 

 
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- 54 * 
 
 " The Nati onal Fire Preve ntion Da y , 
 
 On October the ninth, many years ago, the giant Fire 
 went tearing through the City of Chicago, sweeping away large 
 and costly buildings, and feeding on human blood and life. 
 
 Now October the ninth has been made our National Fire Preven- 
 tion Lay which is observed by schools all over the United 
 States. Naturally you wish your community and your school to 
 take part in this splendid movement; so you may now begin 
 your preparations for observing Fire Prevention Day. 
 
 " Inviti ng Your Gue s ts . 
 
 Probably you will wish to observe October the ninth as 
 your Fire Prevention Day. If, for any reason, that date is not 
 convenient, you may decide upon another one. What hour of the 
 day will test suit your guests and you? Having determined your 
 date, you may next decide whom you will invite. What shall be 
 the form of your invitation? How shall these invitations be 
 prepared? When and how shall they be sent out? 
 
 " Learning abou t Fire Prevention Day . 
 
 T' * m Pm»fc.r - p"< i — »■ ■■ i m,\ m — ■ > >i — <i 
 
 Now you will need a committee to learn the chief facte 
 concerning Fire Prevention Day and to prepare a report which 
 shall form one of the numbers on your program. First this com- 
 mittee will find out what it can do about the movement from 
 some of your local insurance agents. Your teacher will then 
 tell the committee of other sources of information about this 
 important day. As it is necessary to send away for this ma- 
 terial, this committee should begin its work well in advance 
 of the time for your program. 
 

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- 55 - 
 
 " What Fire Costs. Your Community. 
 
 Another committee may take up the question of what fire 
 has cost the community. It may include in its report an ac- 
 count of the chief causes of fire in your neighborhood. It 
 may try to find out what fire has cost your community and may 
 show what use the school might make of the money thus wasted. 
 
 " Fire Preven ti on in_ Your Com munity , 
 
 Each pupil may be a member of the committee which will 
 make a survey of your community to discover possible sources 
 of fire and to suggest means of removing or of lessening the 
 dangers from these. Here are some questions that may help 
 you plan your work. You wall doubtless have many other topics 
 which you will wish to discuss. 
 
 "What are the chief causes of fire around the home? Why 
 is such rubbish as old paper or broken furniture in the attic 
 or in the basement a frequent source of fire? How are fires 
 sometimes started from rubbish in the yard? 
 
 What can be done to lessen the danger of fires starting on 
 the roof? 
 
 "After you have made a careful survey of your home and 
 your neighborhood, you may decide what is the most practical 
 and valuable suggestion each of you can offer to the class for 
 preventing fire. Come to class ready to tell your fellow pu- 
 pils of the situation which you think most needs attention, in 
 your school, or in your community. 
 
 "After you have presented these matters orally in class. 
 

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-56 
 
 you may write out your talk carefully. Do your test to make 
 your classmates see the situation just as you see it and to 
 show clearly the remedy. Before handing in your work to the 
 committee on Ways to Aid in Fire Prevention, be sure that it 
 is as clear and interesting and helpful as you can make it. 
 Proof-read it carefully - there must be no mistakes in form - 
 and make sure that it is neat and easy to read. The committee 
 on Ways to Aid in Fire Prevention will go over these papers 
 carefully and, with the aid of your teacher, will decide how 
 many and what papers shall form a part of your program. 
 
 " Securin g a Spea ker . 
 
 If you live in a community where there is a fire company, 
 some fireman will probably be glad to take part in your pro- 
 gram and to talk to you on M How School Children can Help the 
 
 Fire Department" 
 
 How and when shall your speaker be invited? 
 
 "Other Features of the Program . 
 
 What songs shall form a part of your program? Of course 
 you will wish some of our national songs. What should be the 
 nature of the other songs you select? Do you wish any marches 
 or fire drills? If so, what shall be the nature of these?... 
 
 Whit other suggestions can you offer for making this the best 
 program you have ever prepared? 
 
 " The Program Com m ittee . 
 
 After you have discussed these matters fully in class* 
 the Program Committee will arrange the different numbers in 
 the best order and will provide the necessary copies for your 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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-57- 
 
 guests . 
 
 " The De cor ation Cpmm i tte e . 
 
 Of course you wish to make your room as neat and attrac- 
 tive for your guests as you can. Why is it especially appro- 
 priate that you should give your desks and room a good house- 
 cleaning for this occasion? In decorating what use can you 
 make of fire prevention colors and the device used as a symbol. 
 Can you suggest any appropriate materials to place on the 
 
 blackboard? 
 
 " Other- Committe es. 
 
 Do you wish other committees to provide chairs for your 
 guests and to act as ushers? 
 
 " Summing Up Results . 
 
 After you have given your program, you may come to class 
 prepared to tell your fellow pupils either of the most valu- 
 able idea you have gained from Fire Prevention Day or of what 
 you propose to do during the coming year to lessen the danger 
 from fire in your home and in your community. If you choose 
 the latter subject, be sure that you are suggesting something 
 which you can actually carry out." 
 
 Secon d ar y Sc hool P roj ects . 
 
 33 ~ 
 
 " The Employment Le sson." - Correlation of the oral with 
 the vocational lesson offers infinite possibilities. First, 
 for roll-call, enumerate vocations for boys and girls. Busi- 
 
 33. Stacy, Mabel if., - "Practical Experiments in Oral English 
 in the High School" - The Illinoi s Associa tion of Teacher s o f 
 
 English. Bulletin April 1 . 1922 
 

 
 
-58- 
 
 nese life demands the useful. Always have a roll-call of the 
 class to which each pupil answers with something suitable to 
 the lesson. This gives an opportunity to speak at least once, 
 and even the more difficult will respond easily to this part 
 of the lesson. 
 
 Vocation Lesson: If I were to leave school now, what vo- 
 
 cation would I follow? 
 
 1. Why? 3. My fitness. 
 
 2. Qualifications. 4. Possibilities - 
 
 Financial - 
 Service - 
 Other benefits. 
 
 Ambition - Lay: 
 
 Roll-call - name ambitions in order of appearanc es in life. 
 
 Topic - My Present Ambition: 
 
 1. Origin, 4. Why change it? 
 
 2. Explain it. 5. Ambition now, why? 
 
 3. Illustrate how it worked out. 
 
 Five of the class acted as employers, suiting themselves 
 to the group applying for positions as stenographers, clerks, 
 mechanics, draftsmen, cooks, and chauffeurs. Each applied in 
 person, bringing recommendations and really selling his ser- 
 vices. There was an office boy, and telephone conversations 
 were really vitally helpful to some of the applicants who ac- 
 tually used the suggestions gained here in getting positions 
 in the city. 
 
 The following is the text of the original play issued in 
 connection with The Employment Lesson. 
 
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- 59 - 
 
 Why Didn* t - She Get the Posi tion ? 
 
 (Scene is in a section of a brokerage office 0 Woman 
 seated at desk, writing. Applicant enters, watching woman, 
 standing about ten feet or so away from the desk. Applicant 
 coughs slightly to draw her attention, and she looks up in- 
 quiringly) 
 
 Stenographer - You had an advertisement in the paper - 
 
 Employer - Yes, 
 
 Sten. - Is the job still open? 
 
 Emp. - Yes. I suppose you want to apply,. Sit down. 
 
 (Stenographer sits down carefully.) 
 
 Emp. - (Now turning her entire attention to scrutiniz- 
 ing applicant, apparently not well satisfied) What is your 
 experience? 
 
 Sten. - (Glibly) Three years. 
 
 Emp.. - Three years at what? 
 
 Sten, - Stenography. 
 
 Emp. - Where did you work? 
 
 Sten. - (Impressively) One year with a lawyer, about a 
 year with a tailor factory, six months in a railroad office, 
 two months in an overall manufacturing concern, and one month 
 in the City Hospital. 
 
 Emp. - (Smiling) Your experience has certainly been 
 varied. 
 
 Sten, - (Eagerly) Oh, yes, I can handle any job in the 
 stenographic line, and if this job pays right 1*11 take it. 
 
 Emp. - But why have you changed so often? 
 
 Sten. - (Sulkily) Just as soon as I*d get settled on a 
 
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 job, they’d start picking on me, and finding fault, and I 
 wouldn’t stand for it. 
 
 Emp. - They did that at each one of these places? 
 
 Sten. - Most all. 
 
 Emp. - Well the work isn’t hard here, altho it is impor- 
 tant that the letters be absolutely correct. It consists of 
 confirmations of telegrams mainly; and after the stenographer 
 gets familiar with the work, she will probably be able to take 
 care of them without dictation. Suppose you try a letter - 
 
 (Stenographer accepts pencil and paper) 
 
 Emp. - (Dictates) "In confirmation our telegram we were 
 obliged to let go of a small block of your A;ztes -25 stock 8 
 since your remittance of $1000.00 was not forthcoming. We 
 fear a further drop and wish you would advise us by wire what 
 to do." Read that back please. 
 
 Sten. - (Reads) "In confirmation of your telegram we 
 were obliged to let go of a small block with Aztes, since your 
 $1000.00 was not coming. We feel a hard drop and wish to ad- 
 vise you by wire what we will do." 
 
 Emp. - (Much annoyed) Oh, you have entirely lost the 
 sense of the letter. That would never do, 
 
 Sten. - (Defensively) It’s what you said ! 
 
 Emp. - (Impatiently) If I did say it I couldn’t keep a 
 position longer than a month either. Did you kill anyone down 
 atl the hospital? Good afternoon. (Turns back to her work) 
 
 Sten. - (Rising to go) Oh, well, I wouldn’t have taken 
 the job anyway. You know, women are awfully crabby people to 
 work for. 
 

 
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-61 
 
 34 
 
 " Chicago - Our City ** - There is no reason why atten- 
 tion in an English composition course should not concern it- 
 self with content as well as form. It was with the idea that 
 his freshman classes should gain some serviceable knowledge 
 as well as training in expression that the first time Mr. Lash- 
 er faced them he offered this challenge: H Is Chicago a de- 
 
 sirable place in which to live? The answer was decidedly in 
 the affirmative; but he insisted, that they would have to 
 prove this contention as he had come to Chicago under protest, 
 believing it to be a dirty, noisy, disagreeable city. They 
 agreed to accept the challenge and prove his judgment ill 
 founded. 
 
 As a result, the following day twenty-five oral themes 
 in each class were directed at the instructor, some of which 
 were not without force and all of which were marked by down- 
 right earnestness. When the talks were completed, he told the 
 pupils that while he was considerably impressed, he was not 
 convinced, because their facts were too meager; but if their 
 claims could be substantiated he felt almost anyone would be 
 compelled to admit that Chicago was a good place in which to 
 live. He intimated that it seemed rather futile to go to work 
 to prove their case unless some sort of permanent record of 
 information were made. Various suggestions were offered by 
 the pupils as to what would be a desirable means of preserv- 
 
 34. Lasher, George Starr - "The Project Method: Giving Pur- 
 pose to English Composition". The Illinois Association of 
 Teachers of English - Bulle ti n April 1. • 
 

 
 
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62 - 
 
 ing this information. At last the waited-for suggestion came: 
 "Why not write a book about Chicago?" The idea found instant 
 favor, and the class plunged immediately into the necessary 
 plans. 
 
 From the composite list suggested by members of the class, 
 each pupil made a selection of his individual chapter, in the 
 writing of which, the class decided, he should be permitted 
 to use his ov/n originality. Each pupil, however, outlined his 
 plan to the class securing helpful criticisms and suggestions,, 
 Many devices were used, including telling of visits to the city* 
 diary records, inspection of towns, newspaper interviews, rides 
 in sightseeing automobiles, and guide-book sketches 
 
 After the plans had been adopted and rough outlines of 
 each chapter made, the pupils found themselves face to face 
 to fact with their first big problem, the securing of authori- 
 tative material. Real motive was thus afforded a week' 3 Btudy 
 of library methods in which was gained training in the use of 
 books, the card catalog, the Reader* s Guide to Periodical 
 Literature, pamphlets, and other library sources. A biblio- 
 graphy on each chapter was made out. Pupils supplemented 
 their reading with inspection trips, personal inves tigation, 
 and correspondence and conferences with persons from whom 
 information might be secured. 
 
 Portions of each chapter were read as they were written; 
 these were criticized thoroughly by the class, and revised 
 in accordance with the wiser criticism. Although at no time 
 did the instructor suggest rewriting, some of the pupils re- 
 wrote their chapters completely three and four times in an 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 effort to secure the best possible result. 
 
 After the pupils had completed writing their chapters, 
 they found that editing and proof-reading were essential steps 
 in bookraaking. It was decided that a style sheet would be 
 necessary to insure uniformity. The pupils set out to discover 
 what rules in capitalization, punctuation, and grammar were 
 followed by the best edited magazines and newspapers. As a 
 result of this study each pupil wrote out rules in his own 
 phraseology and illustrated them with clippings from newspa- 
 pers and magazines. The pupils corrected their own manuscripts 
 in conformity with their rules and then exchanged with other 
 members of the class in order to correct each other's errors. 
 Many were the warm arguments over these corrections, occasion- 
 ally necessi tating the services of the instructor as a referee. 
 After the pupils had done their best, the instructor read the 
 chapters; but instead of marking the mistakes he gave each 
 pupil a card on which were recorded the number of errors made 
 in spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capi talization. Every- 
 one was then willing to participate in some review lessons 
 and drill work which would deal specifically with those errors. 
 After another correction of the manuscripts, the copy was de- 
 clared ready for publication. 
 
 About one third of the pupils had access to typewriters, 
 and they offered to type the chapters. This necessitated 
 more proof-reading on the part of the authors. As it was de- 
 cided that illustrations would add to the value of the books, 
 two days were spent in gathering postcards, pen-and-ink 
 sketches, clippings from periodicals and kodak views. Each 
 
-64- 
 
 author designed a title page for his respective chapter. 
 
 The various chapters were then assembled into a book, 
 and a title page, a preface, chosen through competition, and 
 a table of contents added. Arrangements for binding the book 
 had been made with a binding company through letters written 
 by the class. As a result "Chicago * Our City" became a part 
 of the high school library, to be made use of in any way the 
 pupils of that school saw fit". 
 
 In addition to this final product the pupils were given 
 opportunity to judge of the results obtained. "Not the least 
 valuable experience in connection with the project was the 
 discussion which followed its completion. Each pupil was 
 given a chance to tell how the book as a whole compared with 
 the expectation he had had, and how his own chapter met the 
 standards he had. set up. While the general feeling prevailed 
 that the project had been well worth while, individuals told 
 clearly how they would improve their own contribution if an- 
 other opportunity were offered. They felt, however, that they 
 had learned a good deal from their mistakes. Furthermore, 
 they realized that they had acquired desirable information 
 about and a keener appreciation of their ov/n city. 
 
 55 
 
 Better English Week . - No plan has been more popular in 
 the teaching of English composition than what is known as 
 
 35. Stevenson, J. A.- The Pro ject Method of Teac hi ng New 
 York 1921-pp. 197*200. A quotation from a student report* 
 

- 65 - 
 
 Better English Week. This has been made a real live project 
 in several cities often engaging the efforts of pupils in 
 the elementary schools, high schools, and normal schools. One 
 teacher has made and used the following plan to arouse a de- 
 sire for better expression among the pupils: 
 
 About two or three weeks before Better English Y/eek, she 
 sent members of her class about the town to find out for them- 
 selves if business men put much value on good English. Some 
 were sent to interview lawyers, merchants .and ministers. 
 
 Others put the question to farmers, workmen on the street, to 
 the mayor of the city, and so on, until they came in contact 
 with many types of business and professional men. 
 
 They were asked to bring back to class reports of their 
 conversations word for word as far as possible. Some of the 
 results plainly indicated that men who used good English and 
 knew how to express themselves could carry on a logical con- 
 versation which could be repeated point by point in good 
 style. Other pupils could report only a few incoherent sen- 
 tences and say that they had tried to get the ideas or opin- 
 ions of the person interviewed but that he did not seem able 
 to express himself. The class agreed that the persons who 
 used good English and expressed themselves clearly were al- 
 ways the most interesting to talk to, and in almost every 
 case these persons were more successful in the business world 
 than those who used poor English. 
 
 When the class realized this fact they verified their 
 results still further. They wrote letters to a number of 
 the most influential men in town and asked each one to make 
 

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 a list of qualifications which he thought essential for a 
 young man or woman to have who wished to get on well in the 
 business world. Nearly everyone who responded included good 
 expression in the list. Here was the place to introduce busi- 
 ness letter writing. The pupils saw a need for it, were ready 
 for it and wanted it. The letters referred to above were writ- 
 ten as a class exercise. 
 
 After this inves tigation the members of the class saw 
 that they must learn to express themselves well if they were 
 to be successful. The class wished to start a campaign for 
 better English. The work was turned over to the pupils, clever 
 posters and slogans were made in the arts classes. These were 
 placed in classrooms and corridors on the Friday before Better 
 English Week. 
 
 The members of the class jotted down every error in 
 grammar that they detected in the classrooms or on the school 
 grounds, made by either pupils or teachers. Everyone was very 
 careful during that week to avoid getting a "black mark". On 
 Friday the reports were made and a record of the frequency of 
 mistakes was put on the blackboard. This record showed that 
 fewer errors were made during the latter part of .the week. 
 
 The most frequent errors were made in the use of the forms of 
 the verbs to go, to see, to do, and to be, and these were 
 chosen by the class for drill work for the following week. 
 
 The drill work aroused a great deal of enthusiasm. 
 
 During this week the pupils began to cultivate the habit 
 of observing their own English. This was followed by a drill 
 
 on corrected forms. This exercise probably did more to 1m- 
 

 
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 prove their English than the same amount of time devoted to 
 a formal study of rules and examples. 
 
 The pupils were interested and pleased with the results. 
 They asked to have another Better English Week -the next fall. 
 
 Colle ge Pro j ec ts . 
 
 The St.Qlaf College Ex per iment . - During the second se- 
 mester of the year 1920-1921 the writer used the project method 
 in teaching a class of superior students at St.Olaf College, 
 Northfield, Minnesota. These students were selected on the 
 baBis of their scores made in the Army Alpha Intelligence Test. 
 All who made a score of 140 in the examination and all others 
 who in the instructor’s estimation were students distinctly 
 above average ability were called from their regular classes 
 to meet once a week for special work in projects. The idea 
 was explained to them that all the work was to depend upon 
 their own initiative, and that all sluggards would be dropped 
 at once. The work was to be purely voluntary throughout. 
 
 Later these students were excused from one regular recitation, 
 the extra session taking its place. 
 
 It is interesting to note that none of the students were 
 dropped for everyone worked with truly unusual skill to do the 
 tasks in the new section. The idea stimulated the efforts of 
 the other students in the writer’s classes who were told that 
 upon showing sufficient increased ability they too were eli- 
 gible, for extra work. Several were transferred in later in 
 the semester. 
 
 In beginning the work a favorable attitude was secured 
 

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 by asking the question "If you were writing a younger brother 
 or sister who is coming here next year what advice would you 
 offer on the basis of your experience as to how he or she could 
 succeed best as a student?" After some discussion it was de- 
 cided that there were certain best methods of study for the dif- 
 ferent subjects,, Upon suggestion they decided that if there 
 were any books desling with this subject, certainly incoming 
 freshmen ought to know of them early, and they themselves ought 
 to read them at once. Since these were many, someone brought 
 forward the hoped for suggestion: "Why not let some of us read 
 one and write an abstract of it for the class?" Finally it 
 was decided that certain appointed members of the class should 
 read one such book and at the next meeting report to the class. 
 Some excellent abstracts were written, the two best being on 
 Kitson’o How to Use Y our Mind, and McMurre.y*s H ow to Study . 
 
 These were read not only to the special class but the writers, 
 or their representatives, read them in the regular sections 
 with good results. The reports were later typewritten and 
 placed in the book of which the abstract had been written, and 
 both were then returned to the library for the use of everyone. 
 Those who did not write abstracts upon their own suggestion 
 wrote poems and short prose selections for the literary supple- 
 ment of the college weekly paper. Some half dozen of these 
 were also sent to a prominent church paper and published there. 
 
 In order to make the work as important for the pupils as 
 possible the instructor requested that each student fill out 
 a card on which was recorded such information as: Name of 
 
 home town, subjects studied in college, chief interests out- 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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-69- 
 
 side of school,; aim as to life work, etc, A sample of such a 
 card follows: 
 
 Lola Steidl Wheaton, Minnesota 
 
 1. English Composition 
 
 2. Biology 
 
 3 0 Religion 
 
 4. Economics 
 
 5. Norv/egian. 
 
 I am interested in: Athletics, nature, 
 
 economics, good literature, and social service, 
 
 - Teaching. 
 
 These blanks proved of great value in suggesting projects 
 for individuals. Prospective ministers (this was a church 
 school) wrote speeches which were delivered at the meetings 
 of the college Prayer Circle, the Y. W„ C, A., the Mission 
 Board, and Luther League, One girl who has planned to follow 
 her father as missionary to Madagascar wrote an excellent 
 paper about that island treating of its history, its people, 
 missionary possibilities, the geography of the country, etc,, 
 all of which as she stated she needed to know before going 
 there in 1925, Personal interviews with the instructor in 
 regard to reports were many and were constantly sought. 
 
 After some weeks of such individual projects the stu- 
 dents began suggesting others which demanded group work. The 
 beginning in this larger field was made by assigning the prob- 
 

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 lems presented, or such as were suggested by the instructor, 
 to groups of three or four care being exercised to include 
 at least one student of marked initiative in each. There was 
 no lack of projects for the other faculty members joined in 
 by suggesting problems they personally would like to see solved 
 Some of these could not be handled as well by any other method 
 as through student initiative and effort. Among these were 
 the projects developed and completed by the groups on: What 
 
 is the present attitude of the St. Olaf College' students toward 
 the classic languages? - also what is the reason for this, etc. 
 Why are the male students decreasing in number in the English 
 literature courses? Is there, and if so why is there, a feel- 
 ing of antagonism between the students and faculty at the col- 
 lege? In all these cases the members of the committees or 
 groups interviewed their fellow students from the various 
 classes in order to get their personal opinions. The reports 
 submitted were joint products which were written in final form 
 only after several meetings of the members of these groups for 
 consultation with one another. Copies of the accounts sub- 
 mitted were then given to the instructors interested. Judging 
 from the use made of the information they contained by these 
 men in speaking at faculty meetings and other group gather- 
 ings the results were beneficial to more than the students 
 themselves. 
 
 One of the most interesting and carefully developed pro- 
 jects of the class was that done by two men who undertook to 
 provide a handbook of information for intelligent use of the 
 library. The original purpose for it was that the administra- 
 

 
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- 71 - 
 
 tion of the college should be urged to furnish each freshman 
 with a copy of such a work the next fall. In consultation 
 with the instructor they decided to include: accurate floor 
 
 plans of the library building indicating along the walls the 
 class number of the books to be found on the shelves there, a 
 set of directions for correct use of the card index file, in- 
 formation under suitable heads as to what books (in a general 
 way) the library contains, facts about bound magazines, es- 
 pecially as to for what dates copies may be had, etc . , re- 
 served books and regulations for the use of such works, and 
 other similar essential points. The suggestions accepted 
 were diligently carried out, the students meeting several 
 times with the librarian before opening hours in order to 
 learn as accurately as possible what they wanted to know. 
 
 After the manuscript report had been finished it was 
 typewri tten, the floor plans were carefully drawn in ink, and 
 the whole bound in loose fashion, A copy was presented to the 
 president for his consideration and approval. He expressed 
 a favorable opinion of the work done, A second copy was giv- 
 en the professor of education, who used it as an example of 
 project work for his classes in teachers* courses. 
 
 The most successful of the last type of project experi- 
 mented with was the one which might be called M Horthf ield* s 
 Display Windows”. The class organized themselves into groups 
 of five or six whose purpose it should be to visit the town 
 stores and criticise the appearance of the windows of these 
 establishments. They were to give suggestions for improve- 
 ments in all cases , comparing stores both different in kind 
 

 
 
 
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* 72 - 
 
 and alike. Their reports were also to contain information as 
 to just what constitutes a good window display. After several 
 excursions to the various stores the groups met for vigorous 
 discussion of the data secured. Reports were written and sub- 
 mitted to the group which selected the best for the final 
 writing. The instructor offered to take their work to the edi- 
 tor of the local paper provided all considered them good 
 enough for such use. This lent great impetus in making the re- 
 ports as accurate in every way as was possible. Most of them 
 were rewritten several times and final typewritten copies pre- 
 sented, all voluntary on the part of the pupils. The copies 
 werfe given the newspaper editor who wrote an excellent editor- 
 ial on the subject quoting the student suggestions as to the 
 improvement of the windows in Northfield's stores. 
 
 Conclusion . 
 
 The recitation hour of this special class occupied with 
 short exercises of abstracting, impromptu speaking, discus- 
 sions of the various projects, or listening to reports made 
 by the several members. Free discussion on books or magazine 
 articles read was encouraged at all times and with good success 
 
 In all some twenty odd projects were attempted. Not all 
 by any means were successful, and some of those which pro- 
 mised greatest success dwindled into almost complete failure. 
 There was no trouble in securing cooperation on the part of 
 the members of the class even while they were forced to at- 
 tend an extra session each week for the work. It was only 
 after Easter that they were allowed one recitation cut from 
 their regular classes. Boll was called and the few absences 
 

 
 
 
 
 
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-75- 
 
 that did occur were required to be excused by the deans in 
 the regular arrangement. 
 
 The objections to such a method of composition teaching 
 as were eyident at the close of the trial made by the writer 
 at St. Olaf College are: 
 
 1. There was not enough real work on the part of some 
 of the pupils, 
 
 2. Too few of the projects really represented positive 
 needs of the pupils, 
 
 3. The organization of the work impressed all as being 
 too much hit or miss in nature, 
 
 4. Certain required subject matter outlined by the de- 
 partment was slighted. 
 
 The value of the class for the students and hence the 
 true success of the course is best indicated in the following 
 discussion by a student who wrote a history of the class 
 alone. In summing up her composition she writes: "Without a 
 
 doubt the members of Section X consider the work successful, 
 Everyone is enthusiastic about what was done - it was never 
 boresome but a pleasure. The tasks, which at times have been 
 very difficult, have been very beneficial to us. The course 
 has helped us in every phase of English and has greatly aided 
 us in our own individual line. It has made us capable of 
 better and more difficult accomplishment; it has increased 
 our aptitude for the study of English, literature and composi- 
 tion; it has taught us to see, observe, think, speak, and 
 
- 7 4«* 
 
 26 
 
 write more than before taking up the work in Section X. M 
 
 26, This quotation is taken from an unpublished article by 
 Miss Agnes Matson. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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-75- 
 
 Bib liography 
 
 Bagley, William C. - "Projects and Purposes in Teaching and 
 in Learning"; Teachers College Record September 1921, 
 
 Bigelow, G. I. - M 
 
 Teachers College Record 21:327-336 
 
 Bonsey, Frederick G, - "Dangers and Difficulties of the Project 
 Method; Teachers College Record September 1921, 
 
 Branora, Mendel E, - The Project Method in Education - 
 (R. G, Badger <Se Co. 1919) 
 
 Buck, Gertrude - "Recent Tendencies in the Teaching of English 
 Composition"; Educational Review November 1901. 
 
 Carpenter, George R, , Baker, Franklin T., and Scott, Fred N, - 
 The Teaching of English (Longmans Green & Co. 1913) 
 
 Charters, J. A, - "Problem Method of Teaching Ideals"; 
 
 English Journal 9:461-73 
 
 Clark, A. B. - "Experiments in Problem Teaching"; English 
 Journal 6:535-38 
 
 Cody, Frank W, - "The Laboratory Method at Middleburg College" 
 English Journal Vol, 4-page 124. 
 
-76- 
 
 > ■ • 
 
 Colvin, So S. - An Introduction to High School Teaching 
 (MacMillan 1919), 
 
 Cook, E. C, - "Experiments in the Teaching of College English" ; 
 Teachers College Record 19:131-146. 
 
 Courtis, Stuart A. - "Teaching Through The Use of Projects or 
 Purposeful Acts"; Teachers College Record 21; 139-149, 
 
 Davis, William H. - "The Teaching of English Composition: 
 
 Its Present Status"; English Journal May 1917-Vol.6, 
 page 235. 
 
 Earle, Samuel C. - "English Courses in the Small Colleges"; 
 English Journal Vol.3 page 422, 
 
 Gerrish, Carolyn M, - " 
 
 Educa. Review Vol. 49 page 128, 
 
 Glaser, Emma - "Eighth Grade Composition by Project"; 
 
 English Journal November, 1921. 
 
 Hatfield, W. W. - "Editorial"; English Journal October 1920, 
 Vol. 9 page 476. Business English Projects (MacMillan 1921 ) 
 
 Harrington, H.F. -"Teaching Journalism in a Natural Setting"; 
 Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. 5 
 page 198, April 1919. 
 

 
 
 
 
-77 
 
 Hatch, F.. W. - "Student Reactions to the Project Method"; 
 
 Teachers College Record September 1921. 
 
 _ * "Teaching Modern History by the Project Method" 
 Teachers College Record November 1920. 
 
 Herring, John P. - "Criteria of the Project"; Teachers College 
 Record September 1921. 
 
 Hinkley, Mary A. - "Motivating English Composition"; English 
 Journal Vol. 4 page 266. 
 
 Hodgson, Elizabeth • "Orientation in English Composition"; 
 
 English Journal Vol. 3 page 233. 
 
 Hosic, James P. - "The Project Method"; Teachers College Record 
 September 1921. 
 
 _ - "Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools,*' 
 
 Eulletin No. 2-1917 Bureau of Education. 
 
 - "Outline of the Problem-Project Method"; 
 
 English Journal November 1918. 
 
 - "The use of the Project in the Field of English 
 Instruction"; Stevenson "The Project Method of Teaching"; 
 page 84-85 (MacMillan 1921) 
 
»?e- 
 
 Kyde, Marietta - "Projects in Literature English Journal”; 
 
 Vol. 7 page 4Q1 0 
 
 Jackson, L. L. -"Project Sinning, etc."; Industrial Arte 
 Magazine 7:138-139. 
 
 Kilpatrick, William H. * "The Project Method"; Teachers Col- 
 lege Bulletin No. 3-0ctober 12, 1918. 
 
 - "The Problem- Pro j ec t Attack in Organiza- 
 tion, Subject-Matter, and Teachings"; Proceedings N.E.A. 
 Vol. 56:528-31. 
 
 _ • "Dangers and Difficulties, etc." - 
 
 Teachers College Record September 1921. 
 
 Lasher, George Starr - "The Project Method, etc."; Eulletin 
 April 1, 1921. The Illinois Association of Teachers of 
 English. 
 
 Lull, H. G. - "Project Problem Instruction"; School and Home 
 Education Vol . 38: 79-82. 
 
 - "What are Projects and Problems"; Chicago School 
 Journal Vol. 2: 19-25. 
 
 Marsh, Alice Louise - "Socializing Influences in the Classroom"; 
 English Journal Vol. 5 page 89. 
 
-79* 
 
 McComb, E.H. Kemper - "Social Motives for Composition"; 
 
 English Journal Vol. 3 page 408 o 
 
 McMurry, Charles A. - Teaching by Projects. (MacMillan Co, 1919) 
 
 Miller, William D„, and Paul, Harry G. - Practical English 
 Vol 3 (Lyons and Carnahan 1922) 
 
 Minor, Ruby - "The Supervision of Project Teaching"; Bulletin 
 Emporia Kansas State Normal School 1918. 
 
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< ♦ 
 
-eo- 
 
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