THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 203 
 
 Sa5c 
 

 Return this book on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. A 
 charge is made on all overdue 
 books. 
 
 U. of I. Library 
 
 MRIO'33 
 
 14685-S 
 
\ 
 
A CONCISE 
 
 Cyclopedia of Religious 
 
 Knowledge. 
 
 BIBLICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, HIS¬ 
 TORICAL, PRACTICAL AND THEOLOGICAL. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 Elias Benjamin Sanford, M. A. 
 
 Printed in the United States 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, 
 LONDON AND TORONTO. 
 
 i 8 95 - 
 
Copyrighted, 1890, 
 
 By CHARLES L. WEBSTER & CO 
 {All rights reserved.') 
 
HH 
 
 a 03 
 
 Sa.S'e 
 
 
 SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS. 
 
 •s. 
 
 Rev. Thomas Armitage, D. D., New York, author of A History of the Baptists. 
 
 Rev. Isaac Morgan Atwood, D. D., President of the Canton Theological School, Can¬ 
 ton, N. Y. 
 
 Rev. Amos S. Chesebrough, D. D., Saybrook, Conn. 
 
 Rev. Francis E. Clark, D. D., Editor of the Golden Rule , Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rev. Wilbur Fisk Crafts, M. A., New York. 
 
 Rev. David D. Demarest, D. D., Professor of Pastoral Theology and Sacred Rhetoric 
 in the Theological Seminary of New Brunswick, N. J. 
 
 Rev. M. B. De Witt. Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Rev. Edward Everett Hale, D. D., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rev. Eugene Russell Hendrix, D. D., LL. D., Bishop of the Methodist EpiscopaL 
 Church South, Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Rev. Abram Herbert Lewis, D. D., Plainfield, N. J. 
 
 Rev. H. McDiarmid, M. A., Editor of the Christian Standard , Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Rev. Selah Merrill, D. D., LL. D., Andover, Mass., author of East of the Jordan. 
 
 Rev. William Stevens Perry, D. D., LL. D., Bishop of Iowa, American Episcopal 
 Church, Davenport, Iowa. 
 
 Rev. Bernard Pick, Ph. D., Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Rev. William North Rice, LL. D., Professor of Geology in the Wesleyan University, 
 Middletown, Conn. 
 
 Rev. Charles S. Robinson, D. D., LL. D., New York. 
 
 Rev. David Steele, D. D., Professor of Doctrinal Theology in the Reformed Presby¬ 
 terian Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rev. George Barker Stevens, D. D., Professor of Sacred Literature, Yale Divinity 
 School, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 Rev. E. E. Strong, D. D., Editor of the Missionary Herald , Boston, Mass. 
 
 Rev. Josiah Strong, D. D., Secretary of the Evangelical Alliance, New York, author of 
 Our Country. 
 
 Rev. Charles L. Thompson, D. D., Pastor of the Memorial Presbyterian Church, New 
 York City. 
 
 Rev. John H. Vincent, D. D., LL. D., Bishop of the Methodist EpiscopaL Church, 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 Rev. Alexander G. Wallace, D. D., Sewickley, Pa. 
 
 Rev. Jonathan Weaver, D. D., Bishop of the United Brethren in Christ, Dayton, Ohio. 
 Rev. Moseley H. Williams, M. A., Associate Editor, the American Sunday-School Union, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Rev. Edmund J. Wolf, D. D., Professor of Church History and New Testament Exegesis 
 in the Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa., author of Lutherans in America. 
 
 Rev. John L. Ewell, M. A., Millbury, Mass. 
 
 673289 
 
 / 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * <* 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I N the preparation of this work I have sought to give the condensed results 
 of the most recent investigations in the field of religious knowledge. The 
 process of severe abridgment has been applied to subjects of minor inter¬ 
 est, while those of importance have been allowed the space needed for full 
 and accurate presentation. Great care has been taken with the articles deal¬ 
 ing with those questions and subjects which are now under Special discussion, 
 and the historical sketches of the various Christian denominations have, as a 
 rule, been prepared by eminent leaders in their ranks. 
 
 In gratefully recognizing the many kindnesses that have been shown to me 
 in the progress of my labors there is one that deserves special mention. Find¬ 
 ing that along certain lines Benham’s Dictionary of Religion (Cassell Publish¬ 
 ing Company, London and New York, 1887), in its treatment of subjects was 
 in accord with the plan of my work, the privilege was sought and granted of 
 using many important articles. Mention need not be made here of other 
 sources of information from which I have drawn, by permission, as in all cases 
 of direct quotation due acknowledgment has been made. 
 
 This work has been prepared from the standpoint of reverent criticism and 
 evangelical faith. Seeking to avoid the expression of personal dogmatic opin¬ 
 ions it has been the purpose to present every subject impartially and accu¬ 
 rately. That it may prove a convenient and trustworthy manual of reference, 
 and make available for use information which many could not otherwise easily 
 secure, is my earnest hope. 
 
 E. B. Sanford. 
 
 , Nov. 7, 1890. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A. D. (Anno Domini ) In the year of our Lord. 
 Anon. Anonymous. 
 
 B. C. Before Christ. 
 
 Cf. or cf. ( Confer ) Compare. 
 
 Ch. or ch. Chapter. 
 
 e. g. (Exempli gratia) For example. 
 
 i. e. (Id esi) That is. 
 
 1 . c. (Loco citato) In the place cited. 
 
 N. S. New Style. 
 
 N. T. New Testament. 
 
 O. S. Old Style. 
 
 R. V. Revised Version. 
 
 q. v. (Quod vide) Which see. 
 
 sc. (Scilicet) Namely; that is to say. 
 
 seq., sq. or sqq. (Seqzcens, sequentia) The following 
 
 s. v. (Sub voce) Under the word (or heading). 
 
A CONCISE CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 —OF— 
 
 Religious Knowledge. 
 
 a 
 
 A is used as the first letter in almost all 
 alphabets. Both the Hebrews and the 
 Greeks employed their letters as numerals. 
 Hence Alpha came to signify the first. In 
 combination with Omega, the last letter of 
 the Greek alphabet, it was used three times 
 by our Lord, in the Apocalypse, to set forth 
 his eternity. (Rev. i. 8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13.) 
 The early Christians often inscribed these 
 letters upon their tombs as the symbol of 
 their hope; sometimes alone, but more fre¬ 
 quently combined with the monogram of 
 Christ in various forms. These letters are 
 found stamped on rings, pictures, mosaics, 
 etc. Sometimes this symbol is used by 
 Protestants; e.g ., on the front of the mort¬ 
 uary chapel at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, 
 and in the Madison Square Presbyterian 
 Church, New York, and other American 
 churches. 
 
 Aachen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Aa'ron ( enlightened ), the eldest son of 
 Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, 
 and brother of Moses and Miriam. (Ex. vi. 
 18, 23.) He and his sons, by divine com¬ 
 mand, were set apart for the priesthood 
 and consecrated by Moses. (Lev. viii.) This 
 choice was miraculously confirmed by the 
 budding rod. (Num. xvii.) After holding 
 his office for nearly forty years it passed 
 to Eleazar, the older sons having been 
 slain for their sins. (Lev. x. 1, 2.) He 
 was faithful and self-sacrificing in the per¬ 
 formance of his duties, but was easily in¬ 
 fluenced by others. He made the golden 
 calf at the solicitation of the people at Sinai 
 (Ex. xxxii. 4); joined Miriam in murmur¬ 
 ing against Moses, and with Moses was im¬ 
 patient of the divine command at Meribah. 
 
 ( 
 
 Abb 
 
 (Num. xx. 10.) For this sin he was not 
 permitted to enter the promised land. He 
 died at Mount Hor at the age of one hun¬ 
 dred and twenty-three years, mourned by 
 all the people. (Num. xx. 24, sqq.) 
 
 Ab'ana (stony) and Phar/par (swift), 
 rivers of Damascus. (2 Kings v. 12.) The 
 Abana, the present Barada, is a clear, cold, 
 and swift mountain stream rising in Anti- 
 Lebanon, and flowing southeast into the 
 plain, where it finally rushes through a 
 gorge two miles northwest of Damascus, 
 and turning eastward skirts the northern 
 wall of the city, and twenty miles away 
 empties into two large lakes. Its perennial 
 waters are drawn off in canals at several 
 points, and make the plains very fertile and 
 beautiful. 
 
 Abba, the Aramaic word for father. 
 It is applied to God by Christ (Mark xiv. 
 36), and by St. Paul. (Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 
 6.) Among the Christians of the East it is 
 used to designate a bishop or the head of a 
 monastery. 
 
 Abbadie, James, a distinguished French 
 Protestant minister; b. at Nay, near Pau, 
 1654; d. in Marylebone, London, Sept. 25, 
 1727. He received his education at the uni¬ 
 versities of Saumur, Paris, and Sedan, and 
 became pastor of the French Protestant 
 Church, in Berlin, in 1680. An earnest sup¬ 
 porter of the Revolution, he was appointed 
 pastor of the French Church in the Savoy, 
 London, 1689, and non-resident dean of Kil- 
 laloe, 1699. He was a prolific writer, but 
 his fame rests upon his The Truth of the 
 Christian Religion (1684-89). This work has 
 passed through many editions, and gained 
 
 ) 
 
Abb 
 
 (2) 
 
 Abb 
 
 acceptance, both among Roman Catholics 
 and Protestants, as a standard in French 
 apologetical literature. 
 
 Abbat. See Abbot. 
 
 Abbe, the French name for abbot. Pre¬ 
 vious to the French Revolution it was the 
 designation of a class who drew large in¬ 
 comes from the monasteries, but were often 
 not even priests. It is now applied (i) to 
 secular priests, so called because they are 
 not connected with any monastic order; 
 and (2) as a title of courtesy to those de¬ 
 voting themselves to the study of theology 
 and literature. 
 
 Abbess, the mother-superior of a relig¬ 
 ious community of women, corresponding 
 in rank and authority to an abbot, except 
 in not being allowed to exercise the spir¬ 
 itual functions of the priesthood—such as 
 preaching, confession, etc. Abbesses are 
 usually elected by the nuns over whom they 
 rule. If elected from her own cloister she 
 must be at least 40 years old, and if from 
 another she must be 30 years old. 
 
 Abbey. Before the dissolution of mon¬ 
 asteries an abbey was (1) the corporate 
 body of monks or nuns presided over by an 
 abbot or abbess; (2) the church in which 
 they held their religious services and the 
 buildings in which they lived and carried 
 on their various pursuits. Since the mon¬ 
 asteries were suppressed and their great 
 wealth confiscated, in the sixteenth century, 
 the term abbey has been used in an ecclesi¬ 
 astical sense, to designate the churches that 
 have not been constituted cathedrals, that 
 were once connected with monasteries. 
 The most remarkable of these churches is 
 Westminster Abbey. Royal abbeys were 
 under the patronage of kings, and episcopal 
 abbeys under the care of the bishops. See 
 Monastery, Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Abbo of Fleury, a learned Benedictine 
 monk; b. near Orleans about 945. He aid¬ 
 ed in the founding of Ramsey Abbey, Eng., 
 and revived an interest in classical study 
 among the monks. After his return to 
 France he was made Abbot of Fleury, 
 where he introduced severe reforms, and 
 gained a position of wide influence. While 
 on a visit to the monastery at Reole, where 
 he purposed to make changes in the interest 
 of reform, a riot was stirred up among the 
 people, in which he was murdered, Nov. 13, 
 1004. Many of his works still exist in man¬ 
 uscript. 
 
 Abbot, the head of a community of 
 monks. The name Is derived from the 
 
 Hebrew Ab, or father. It was first used 
 as a term of respect for any monk, but was 
 soon restricted to the superior. The name 
 now, in Roman Catholic usage, is retained 
 only by the Benedictine and Cistercian 
 orders. “ Regular abbots are those who 
 wear the religious habit, and actually pre¬ 
 side over an abbey, both in spiritual and 
 temporal matters. Secular abbots are priests 
 who enjoy the benefices, but employ a vicar 
 to discharge its duties. Lay abbots are 
 laymen to whom the revenues of abbeys 
 are given by princes or patrons. The priv¬ 
 ileges and duties of abbots are determined 
 by the rules of the order to which they be¬ 
 long, as well as by canonical regulations. 
 The cotnmendatory abbots in France and 
 England were secular ecclesiastics who en¬ 
 joyed a portion of the revenues, but without 
 jurisdiction.” — McClintock and Strong: 
 Ency. The title of abbot is sometimes be¬ 
 stowed upon divines in Germany who re¬ 
 ceive the revenues of former abbeys. 
 
 Abbot, Ezra, S.T. D., LL. D.; b. at Jack- 
 son, Me., April 28, 1819; d. at Cambridge, 
 Mass., March 21,1884. He was graduated at 
 Bowdoin College 1840, and in 1856 was ap¬ 
 pointed assistant librarian of Harvard Uni¬ 
 versity. From 1872 till his death he was 
 Bussey professor of New Testament crit¬ 
 icism and interpretation in the Divinity 
 School of Harvard University. Dr. Abbot 
 in this department of scholarship was pre¬ 
 eminent. “ He was,” says Dr. Schaff, “ the 
 first textual critic of the Greek Testament 
 in America, and for microscopic accuracy 
 of biblical scholarship he had no superior 
 in the world.” He was one of the most 
 efficient and faithful members of the Amer¬ 
 ican Bible-Revision Committee. (1S71-81.) 
 Among his writings one of the most im¬ 
 portant is his defense of the Johannean 
 Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. He was a 
 Unitarian in belief, and never sought min¬ 
 isterial ordination. A rare scholar, modest 
 and unselfish in spirit, he was beloved by 
 all who knew him. The Authorship of the 
 Fourth Gospel , External Evidences, with 
 other “ Critical Essays,” were republished 
 under the editorship of Prof. J. H. Thayer, 
 Boston, 1889. See Ezra Abbot, a memoir 
 edited by Rev. S. J. Barrows, Cambridge, 
 1884. 
 
 Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury; b. at Guildford, Oct. 29, 1562; d. 
 at Croyden, Aug. 4, 1633. Educated at 
 Oxford; Master of University College 1597; 
 Bishop of Lichfield 1609, and the same 
 year elected Bishop of London and Arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury. He was one of the 
 Oxford divines appointed in 1604 to trans¬ 
 late the New Testament, excepting the 
 
Abb 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 Abe 
 
 Epistles. Abbot sympathized with the 
 Puritan party, and was suspended for a time 
 for refusing to license a sermon of Dr. Sib- 
 thorp’s, which exalted the king’s preroga¬ 
 tives too highly. Among his writings are 
 a Geography , and an Exposition on the Proph¬ 
 et Jonah (j 600), which was reprinted in 1845. 
 
 Abbot, Robert, b. about 1588; d. about 
 1657. He was vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, 
 and minister of Southwick, Hampshire, 
 from whence he was called to London as 
 rector of St. Austin, Watling Street, where 
 he remained until his death. A Puritan of 
 earnest convictions, he vigorously opposed 
 the Brownists in the controversies of the 
 time. He was a popular writer. 
 
 Abbott, Benjamin, one of the most suc¬ 
 cessful of the pioneer Methodist preachers 
 in America; b. in Pennsylvania in 1732; d. 
 1796. He was an unlearned man, but pos¬ 
 sessed great natural ability, which, com¬ 
 bined with a spirit of entire devotion, made 
 him the instrument in the conversion of 
 many thousands of people. 
 
 Abbott, Jacob, a popular writer for the 
 young; b. at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803; 
 d. at Farmington, Me., Oct., 31, 1879. Aft¬ 
 er he was graduated at Bowdoin College in 
 1820, he taught for many years, but during 
 this time his pen was busy, and he finally 
 devoted himself to literary work. He ac¬ 
 quired great popularity as an author of 
 books adapted to interest and inform the 
 minds of young people. Nearly all of his 
 works were republished in England, and 
 attracted the favorable commendation of 
 instructors like Arnold of Rugby and oth¬ 
 ers. His most popular book was The Yoting 
 Christian. He also wrote The Franconia 
 Stories , Lives of Celebrated Persons (30 
 vols.), Polio Books , etc. 
 
 Abbott, John Stephens Cabot, b. in 
 Maine, 1805; d.at New Haven, Conn., 1877. 
 After he was graduated at Bowdoin Col¬ 
 lege and Andover Seminary in 1825, he trav¬ 
 eled, both in this country and Europe, to 
 study methods of education. He was or¬ 
 dained as a Congregational minister in 1830, 
 and was settled successively at Worcester, 
 Roxbury, and Nantucket. For several 
 years he was pastor of churches in New 
 Haven, where he died. Dr. Abbott pub¬ 
 lished his first book, The Mother at Home , 
 in 1833. His pen was busy from this time 
 until the close of his useful life. His Life 
 of Napoleon Bonaparte is the best known of 
 his books, most of which had a large cir¬ 
 culation. 
 
 Abbott, Lyman, D. D. (New York Uni¬ 
 
 versity, 1877), Congregationalist ; b. at 
 Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835. He was 
 graduated at the University of New York 
 City in 1853, and studied law. After a 
 brief practice in the legal profession he 
 decided to enter the ministry, and was pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational Church at Terre 
 Haute, Ind., 1860-65; in New York City 
 (New England Church), 1866-69; and in 
 Brooklyn (Plymouth Church), 1888 to 
 date. From 1871 to 1876 he was editor of 
 the Lllustrated Christian Weekly (New 
 York); and since 1876 of The Christian 
 Union (New York). His best-known books 
 are Jesus of Nazareth (N. Y., 1869); Old 
 Testament Shadows of New Testa7nent 
 Truths (1870); A Dictionary of Religious 
 Knowledge (1873); Henry Ward Beecher: A 
 Sketch of his Career ( 1883); and Commentary 
 upon Matthew and Mark (1875),Acts (1876), 
 Luke (1877), John (1879), Romans (1888). 
 
 Abbreviators, officers of the papal chan¬ 
 cery whose duty it is to prepare outlines 
 of briefs, bulls, and other official docu¬ 
 ments that are sent out from the court of 
 Rome, and also to revise them. 
 
 Abecedarian Psalms and Hymns de¬ 
 note those which are so composed that 
 the initial letters of the successive verses 
 are formed from the successive letters of 
 the alphabet. See Acrostic. 
 
 \ 
 
 A Becket. See Becket, Thomas. 
 
 Abeel, David, D. D., an eminent mis¬ 
 sionary; b. at New Brunswick, N. J., June 
 12, 1804; d. at Albany, N. Y., Sept. 4, 
 1846. After being graduated at the theolog¬ 
 ical seminary in his native town he was set¬ 
 tled over the Reformed Dutch Church at 
 Athens, N. Y., in 1825. In the autumn of 
 1829 he sailed for Canton as a chaplain of 
 the Seamen’s Friend Society, and a year 
 afterward accepted an appointment as mis¬ 
 sionary of the American Board. He be¬ 
 came proficient in the Chinese language, 
 and labored with much success until his 
 health failed. On his return home in 1833, 
 he visited several countries on the Conti¬ 
 nent, and England, and urged the claims of 
 missions. He returned to China in 1839, 
 and in 1843 he founded the Amoy mission. 
 Ill health compelled his return to this 
 country in 1845, and he died the following 
 year. See Me7noirs of the Rev. D. Abeel , 
 by G. R. Williamson (N. Y. 1849). 
 
 Abelard, Peter, b. at Palais, not far from 
 Nantes, in 1079; d. in the priory of St. 
 Marcellus, near Chalons, April 21, 1142. 
 When but a lad he developed precocious 
 ability as a scholar. He studied philoso- 
 
Abe 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 Abi 
 
 phy under William of Champeaux at Paris, 
 (1095), and at the age of twenty engaged 
 in discussions that compelled his famous 
 teacher to alter his system. He first open¬ 
 ed a school at Melun and then at Corbeil. 
 Returning to Paris, the opposition of Will¬ 
 iam compelled him to leave the city, and 
 he studied theology at Laon. After the re¬ 
 tirement of William, he again opened his 
 school in Paris. Thousands of pupils 
 gathered to receive his instruction, and he 
 was recognized as the most famous teacher 
 of the age. His relations with Heloise 
 brought to a close this brilliant career. 
 This beautiful and intellectually gifted girl 
 was the niece of Fulbert, canon of the 
 Cathedral of Paris. Her education was in¬ 
 trusted to the care of Abelard. A passion¬ 
 ate and guilty love resulted in the birth of 
 a son. In order to appease Fulbert they 
 were married. Angered by the attempt to 
 keep this secret, and the placing of Heloise 
 in a nunnery, Fulbert one night broke into 
 the sleeping-room of Abelard, and, with the 
 aid of assistants, mutilated him. Abelard 
 first sought to bury himself with his sor¬ 
 rows in the Abbey of St. Denis, but soon 
 came forth and opened his school. Scholars 
 flocked to receive his instructions, but the 
 publication of his lectures led his enemies 
 to charge him with the heresy of Sabellius. 
 Having been condemned by irregular pro¬ 
 ceedings, he threw his book on the Divine 
 Unity and Trinity into the flames, and then 
 was shut up in the convent of St. Medard. 
 After a time he left the monastery, and in a 
 desert place he built himself a cabin of 
 stubble and reeds and turned hermit. His 
 retreat became known, and thousands of 
 students from Paris covered the wilder¬ 
 ness around him with their tents and huts. 
 There they built for him an oratory called 
 the Paraclete, but threatening dangers com¬ 
 pelled him to seek a new refuge on the 
 shores of Lower Brittany. After ten years 
 of sorrowful struggle with adverse condi¬ 
 tions he left the abbey. It was at this 
 time that Heloise, who had been placed by 
 his influence at the head of a new religious 
 house at the deserted Paraclete, wrote her 
 first letter , which remains as a wonderful 
 expression of human passion and womanly 
 devotion. Abelard removed to Paris, and 
 for a little time renewed the triumphs of his 
 youth. The famous Bernard of Clairvaux 
 arraigned him for heresy as a rationalist. 
 Abelard appealed to Rome. The council, 
 however, condemned him, and its action 
 was ratified by the Pope in the following 
 year. While on his way to Rome to plead 
 his cause in person, Abelard, broken by sor¬ 
 rows and trials, was taken ill, and died at 
 the Priory of St. Marcellus, April 21, 1142. 
 His body was secretly removed to the 
 
 Paraclete, and when Heloise died, in 1164, 
 she was buried in the same grave. From 
 here the remains were taken and placed in 
 a sarcophagus in the cemetery of Pere 
 Lachaise in Paris. 
 
 In theology Abelard was a rationalist, 
 and the doctrine of the Trinity becomes 
 under his treatment, the expression of a 
 divine attribute. His Historia Calamitatum 
 is an autobiography written near the close 
 of his life. This, with the letters of Hel¬ 
 oise, gives the story of their love, faithful 
 unto death. See Wight, Romance of Abe¬ 
 lard and Heloise, (N. Y., 1853). 
 
 Abelites, or Abelonians, a small sect 
 of the fifth century, which, in order to pre¬ 
 vent the spread of original sin, held that, 
 while marriage was necessary, children 
 should not be procreated. In this they 
 pretended to follow the example of Abel. 
 Each couple adopted a boy and girl, whom 
 they brought up under the promise that 
 they would follow their example. 
 
 Aben-Ezra, one of the most eminent 
 Jewish scholars of the Middle Ages; b. at 
 Toledo, about 1090; d. probably in 1168. 
 He gained reputation for learning as a phi¬ 
 losopher, astronomer, and physician, but 
 his fame rests upon his Com?nentaries on 
 the Old Testament. This work has receiv¬ 
 ed the highest praise as being the first to 
 “ raise biblical exegesis to the rank of a 
 science.” He wrote treatises on astronomy 
 and grammar. 
 
 Ab'gar, the name or title of a line of 
 kings of Edessa in Mesopotamia. One of 
 them (the fifteenth) is said to have sent a 
 letter to Jesus entreating him to come and 
 heal him of leprosy. The answer of Jesus, 
 in which he promises to send a disciple to 
 cure Abgar after his ascension, is given by 
 Eusebius, who appears to have believed 
 the letter to be genuine. Thaddeus, accord¬ 
 ing to the tradition, was the one sent, and 
 Abgar and his subjects were converted to 
 Christianity. A later legend states that 
 Jesus sent Abgar his portrait. For full de¬ 
 tails of Abgar Legends see Tixeron, Paris, 
 1888. 
 
 Ability. See Inability. 
 
 Abim'elech {father of the King), (1) the 
 name of two Kings of Gerar whose re¬ 
 lations to Abraham and Isaac are given in 
 Gen. xx., xxvi. (2) A son of Gideon by a 
 concubine wife. He made himself King, 
 and slew his seventy brothers. Three 
 years after, he was killed by a piece of a 
 mill-stone, thrown on his head by a woman, 
 while attacking Thebez. (Judg. ix.) 
 
Abj 
 
 Abr 
 
 ( 5 
 
 Abjuration. In the Roman Church, a 
 formal act by which heretics and those 
 suspected of heresy renounced their errors 
 before receiving absolution and restoration 
 to communion. 
 
 Ablution, a ceremonial washing, sym¬ 
 bolizing purification from uncleanness. In 
 the Roman Church ablution is a liturgical 
 term, which denotes the use made by the 
 priests of wine and water after the com¬ 
 munion in cleansing the chalice and fingers. 
 In the Greek Church ablution is a cere¬ 
 mony which takes place seven days after 
 baptism, when the unction of the chrism is 
 washed off from those who have been 
 baptized. 
 
 Ab'ner {father of light), first cousin of 
 Saul, and commander-in-chief of his army. 
 The chief references to him during the life¬ 
 time of Saul are found in i Sam. xvii. 55; 
 xxvi. 5. It was only after the death of 
 that monarch, however, that Abner was 
 brought into a position of the first political 
 importance. At first he adhered to Ish- 
 bosheth (2 Sam. i. 8), but revolted to 
 David (2 Sam. iii. 8), and was treacherous¬ 
 ly slain by Joab. (2 Sam. iii. 27). His death 
 was lamented by David. (2 Sam. iii. 31). 
 
 A'braham {father of a multitude ), orig¬ 
 inally Abram {father of elevation), the great 
 progenitor of the Israelite race, was the first¬ 
 born sonofTerah. After spending seven¬ 
 ty years in his native city of Ur, in Chal¬ 
 dea, “ at the call of God he left his idola¬ 
 trous kindred (Gen. xi. 31) and removed to 
 Haran in Mesopotamia, accompanied by his 
 father, his wife Sarai, his brother Nahor, 
 and his nephew Lot. A few years after, 
 having buried his father, he again removed, 
 at the call of God, with his wife and neph¬ 
 ew, and entered the land of promise as a 
 wandering shepherd. Sojourning for a time 
 at Shechem, he built here, as was his cus¬ 
 tom, an altar to the Lord, who appeared to 
 him and promised that land to his seed. 
 (Gen. xii. 7.) Removing from place to place 
 for convenience of water and pasturage, he 
 was at length driven by a famine into Egypt, 
 where he dissembled in calling his wife his 
 sister. (Gen. xii.) Returning to Canaan 
 rich in flocks and herds, he generously left 
 Lot to dwell in the fertile plain of the low¬ 
 er Jordan and pitched his own tents in 
 Mamre. (Gen. xiii.) A few years after, he 
 rescued Lot and his friends from captivity, 
 and received the blessing of Melchizedek. 
 (Gen. xiv.) Again God appeared to him, 
 promised that his seed should be like the 
 stars for number, and foretold their oppres¬ 
 sion in Egypt 400 years, and their return to 
 possess the promised land. (Gen. xv.) But 
 
 ) 
 
 the promise of a son being yet unfulfilled, 
 Sarai gave him Hagar, her maid, for a sec¬ 
 ondary wife, of whom Ishmael was born. 
 (Gen. xvi.) After thirteen years God again 
 appeared to him, and assured him that the 
 heir of the promise should yet be born of 
 his wife, whose name was then changed to 
 Sarah. He established also the covenant 
 of circumcision. (Gen. xvii.) Here, too, 
 occurred the visit of the three angels, and 
 the memorable intercession with the Angel- 
 Jehovah for the inhabitants of Sodom. 
 (Gen. xviii.) After this Abraham jour¬ 
 neyed south to Gerar, where he again call¬ 
 ed Sarah his sister. In this region Isaac 
 was born, when Abraham was one hundred 
 years old (Gen. xxi. 5), and soon after Ha¬ 
 gar and Ishmael were driven out to seek a 
 new home. (Gen. xxi.) About twenty-five 
 years after, God put to trial the faith of 
 Abraham, by commanding him to sacrifice 
 Isaac, his son and the heir of the promise, 
 upon Mount Moriah. (Gen. xii.) After 
 twelve years, Sarah died, and the cave of 
 Machpelah was bought for a burial-place. 
 (Gen. xxiii.) Abraham sent his steward, 
 and obtained a wife for Isaac from his pious 
 kindred in Mesopotamia. (Gen. xxiv.) He 
 himself also married Keturah, and had six 
 sons, each one the founder of a distinct 
 people in Arabia. At the age of one hun¬ 
 dred and seventy-five, full of years and 
 honors, he died, and was buried by his sons 
 Isaac and Ishmael in the same tomb with 
 Sarah. (Gen. xxv.)”—Rand: Bible Diction¬ 
 ary. “From the intimate communion which 
 Abraham held with the Almighty, he is dis¬ 
 tinguished by the high title of the ‘ friend ’ 
 of God. (2 Chron. xx. 7; Isa. xii. 8; James 
 ii. 23); and El-Khalil, ‘ the friend,' is the 
 appellation by which he is familiarly known 
 in the traditions of the Arabs, who have 
 given the same name to Hebron, the place 
 of his residence. The legends which have 
 been recorded of him are numerous. Ac¬ 
 cording to Josephus, he taught the worship 
 of one God to the Chaldseans, and instruct¬ 
 ed the Egyptians and Phoenicians in astron¬ 
 omy and philosophy. The Greek tradition 
 related by Nicolaus of Damascus assigns 
 to him the conquest of that city, and names 
 him as its fourth king. With the help of 
 Ishmael he is said to have rebuilt, for the 
 fourth time, the Kaaba over the sacred 
 black stone of Mecca. The Rabbinical leg¬ 
 ends tell how Abraham destroyed the idols 
 which his father made and worshipped, and 
 how he was delivered from the fiery fur¬ 
 nace into which he was cast by Nimrod.”— 
 Smith: Diet, of the Bible. See H. J. Tom¬ 
 kins: Stzuiies on the Times of Abraham (Lon¬ 
 don, 1878); Geikie: Hours With the Bible; 
 Stanley’s Jewish Church, vol. 1 (New York, 
 1863). 
 
Abr 
 
 ( 6 ) 
 
 Aby 
 
 Abraham’s Bosom. “ To lie in Abra¬ 
 ham’s bosom ” was a favorite phrase with 
 the Jews when they wished to express the 
 felicity of paradise. (Luke xvi. 19-31.) 
 
 Abrahamites, (1) a short-lived sect of 
 the Paulicians, organized at Antioch about 
 805, by a native named Abraham. (2) A 
 modern sect which existed at Pardubitz, 
 Bohemia, in the last century. They pro¬ 
 fessed to adopt the religion which Abraham 
 professed before his circumcision. The 
 Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer 
 were the only portions of the Bible they 
 received. 
 
 Abraxas ( stones), a word with mystic 
 meaning, engraved on stones which were 
 used as amulets or charms. It was prob¬ 
 ably first employed by the Basilidians, a 
 Gnostic sect. The Greek letters that form 
 the word, in their notation, combine in the 
 number 365. The name, Abraxas, was 
 therefore given by the Basilidians to the 
 365 orders of spirits which they claimed 
 emanated from the Supreme Being. The 
 mystic word is found engraved on precious 
 stones in combination with symbolic figures 
 representing Gnostic ideas. They are also 
 known as “ Gnostic gems ” or “ Abraxas 
 gems.” 
 
 Ab'salom (father of peace), the third son 
 of David. (2 Sam. iii. 3.) He was remark¬ 
 able for beauty, and special mention is made 
 of his hair. (2 Sam. xiv. 25, 26.) Enraged by 
 the violation of his sister Tamar by his half- 
 brother Amnon, he caused his servants to 
 murder Amnon, and then fled to the kingdom 
 of his maternal grandfather. After three 
 
 Absalom’s tomb. 
 
 years he was recalled (2 Sam. xiii. 38: xiv. 
 28), and, under the suspicion that he would 
 not be the heir of his father’s throne, he in¬ 
 cited a rebellion that for a time bid fair to 
 succeed, but he was finally defeated and 
 killed by Joab. (2 Sam. xv. 1: xviii. 33.) 
 
 “ Absalom’s Tomb.” at the foot of Mount 
 Olivet, according to Jewish tradition, was 
 erected by Absalom during his lifetime, and 
 is pelted by them with stones as they pass 
 by, in execration of his treason. The archi¬ 
 tecture of the monument and the fact that 
 it is not mentioned before A. D. 333, makes 
 the tradition doubtful. 
 
 Absolute, a philosophical expression for 
 God “ because he is not dependent for his 
 existence, nature, attributes, or acts on 
 any other being.”—Hodge: Systetnatic The¬ 
 ology, vol. 1, p. 357. 
 
 Absolution,(i) the act by which the priest 
 declares the forgiveness of sins. (See Con¬ 
 fession.) (2) The term is also used in the 
 Roman Church to designate the prayer at 
 a burial, for the delivery of the soul from 
 purgatory, and also as a title to some pray¬ 
 ers before the lessons in matins. 
 
 Abstinence is that form of fasting in 
 which the eating of certain kinds of foods, 
 especially meat, is abstained from. Eggs, 
 cheese, and butter are not included under 
 the designation of animal food. See Fasting. 
 
 Abyssinia, Church of. Christianity 
 was originally introduced into Ethiopia, a 
 country now represented by Nubia and 
 Abyssinia, in the Apostolic age, Irenaeus 
 (a. d. 130-200) and Eusebius both record¬ 
 ing that it was first made known through 
 the preaching of Queen Candace’s Treas¬ 
 urer (Acts viii. 26-40), known traditionally 
 by the name of Indich: But it appears at 
 that time to have taken no permanent hold 
 upon the country, and the existing Church 
 of Abyssinia owes its foundation to mis¬ 
 sionaries who were sent there from Alexan¬ 
 dria in the first half of the fourth century. 
 The story of this second conversion of 
 Ethiopia is a romantic one. A Christian 
 philosopher of Tyre, named Meropius, 
 undertook a voyage for scientific purposes, 
 carrying with him his two nephews, Fru- 
 mentius and ^Edesius. Returning to 
 Egypt by the Red Sea, the crew landed on 
 the coast of Abyssinia to obtain a supply 
 of fresh water, when the whole of the voy¬ 
 agers were murdered except the two boys, 
 who were retained as slaves in the service 
 of the king. Both of them attained to high 
 offices at court, yEdesius becoming cup¬ 
 bearer to the king, and Frumentius secre¬ 
 tary. On the death of the king, Frumen- 
 
Aby 
 
 Acc 
 
 tius became guardian to his two young- 
 sons and successors; and his influence be¬ 
 ing very great, he provided a church for 
 the Christian merchants who traded with 
 Abyssinia, and otherwise prepared the way 
 for introducing Christianity into the coun¬ 
 try. The younger brother, ASdesius, had 
 now returned to Tyre, where he had been 
 ordained priest, and this suggested to Fru- 
 mentius that he himself might assist the 
 cause he had at heart more effectively as a 
 Christian minister than as a layman. He 
 accordingly visited Alexandria in the year 
 326, and by the persuasion of the great St. 
 Athanasius, then Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 Frumentius was consecrated to the Episco¬ 
 pate, his see being fixed at Axum, now 
 known as Auxuma. 
 
 On his return to Abyssinia, Frumentius 
 found his former pupils, Abreha and 
 Atzbeha, reigning as joint sovereigns, and 
 they showed so great zeal in assisting him 
 to propagate Christianity that they are 
 commemorated as saints on Oct. 1 in the 
 Abyssinian calendar. Frumentius con¬ 
 tinued his good work for many years, 
 converting great numbers, organizing 
 churches, and translating the Holy Script¬ 
 ures into the Ethiopic language. He died 
 about A. d. 360, and is commemorated in 
 the Abyssinian calendar on Dec. 14, July 20, 
 and Sept. 20. His Abyssinian name, Fre- 
 monatos, though he is also called Salama, 
 is perpetuated in that of the city of Fre- 
 mona. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian, Bible 
 is a translation of the Alexandrine Septua- 
 gint. The Liturgy is also derived from 
 that of Alexandria, being of the same 
 family with the Coptic Liturgy of St. Cyril 
 and the Greek Liturgy of St. Mark. 
 
 Since the time of St. Frumentius, Chris¬ 
 tianity has never again become extinct in 
 Abyssinia. The Church is so far depend¬ 
 ent on that of Egypt that its Abuna, or 
 Metropolitan Bishop, is always appointed 
 and consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexan¬ 
 dria, and is always an Egyptian, not an 
 Abyssinian. It is, however, singularly 
 Jewish in its character, the Sabbath being 
 observed, Christians being circumcised, 
 and Mosaic distinctions of clean and un¬ 
 clean food being kept up. Its creed was 
 also corrupted in the sixth century by the 
 Monophysite heresy respecting the two 
 natures of our Lord (Monophysites). In 
 other respects Abyssinian Christianity is 
 of the same type as that which is found in 
 the principal Churches of the East. At¬ 
 tempts were made in 1177 and in 1441 to 
 bring the Abyssinian Church under the 
 control of the Pope, and for a time a de¬ 
 cree of Eugenius IV., passed in 1441, unit¬ 
 ing the two Churches, was accepted in 
 Abyssinia; but the union did not long con¬ 
 
 7 ) 
 
 tinue, and in later times the Abyssinians 
 have received their Abuna, as in more 
 ancient days, from the Egyptian, or Coptic, 
 Church.—Benham: Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 Roman Catholic missionaries from the 
 twelfth century until the present time have 
 endeavored to Romanize the Abyssinians, 
 but with little success. Protestant mis¬ 
 sions have proved almost an entire failure. 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society 
 bought and printed a translation of the 
 Bible into Amharic, which had been made 
 by an Abyssinian monk, and in 1830 the 
 missionaries Gobat and Kugler were sent 
 to Abyssinia, and in 1837 they were suc¬ 
 ceeded by Isenberg and Krapf. They 
 labored earnestly, but left the field in 1843 
 with small results. In 1858 the St. Chris- 
 chona Society of Basel sent a number of 
 missionaries into the country, but the dis¬ 
 turbances of the reign of King Theodore 
 ruined their work, and the field was aban¬ 
 doned. In 1888 the Greek Church sent 
 missionaries into the country. 
 
 Acacians. See Acacius. 
 
 Aca'cius, one of the leaders of the Arian 
 party; d. 363. He succeeded Eusebius as 
 bishop of Caesarea, 340, and was deposed 
 in 359. He opposed the more radical wing 
 of the Arian party. “ Though denying 
 the sameness, he accepted the likeness of 
 substance between the Father and the 
 Son, and subscribed finally to the Nicene 
 symbol.” — Herzog. His followers were 
 called Acacians. 
 
 Acceptants, is the name given to the 
 French prelates and clergy who in the 
 Jansenist controversy accepted the bull 
 Unigenitus. See Jansenism. 
 
 Accident, in philosophical language a 
 property or quality of a thing which is not 
 essential to it, as taste or color. The 
 Roman Church in its statement of the dog¬ 
 ma of transubstantiation, holds that, while 
 the accidents of the bread and wine remain, 
 the substance has been changed into the 
 body and blood of Christ. 
 
 Accommodation, a term used in Biblical 
 interpretation to signify the manner and 
 method by which Divine truths are brought 
 within reach of the human understanding 
 by illustration and parabolic language. 
 The word is used, however, in another 
 sense, in which it has reference to the mat¬ 
 ter taught. Writers of the rationalistic 
 school have gone so far as to assert that 
 the writers of Scripture, and even Christ 
 himself, modified or perverted the truth, 
 in order that it might find a more general ac- 
 
Acc 
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 Act 
 
 ceptance, by stating it in accord with views 
 then prevalent. Those who hold this 
 view say. for instance, that the New Testa¬ 
 ment statement of the doctrine of the 
 atonement was given simply to satisfy the 
 Jews for the loss of their sacrificial 
 worship. 
 
 Accursed. See Anathema. 
 
 Acephali (headless), a name given to cer¬ 
 tain ecclesiastical parties who in various 
 ways took a position independent of the 
 Church to which they belonged. It was 
 applied also to priests who repudiated the 
 authority of their bishops, or bishops who 
 claimed exemption from the jurisdiction of 
 their metropolitans. 
 
 Accemetse (Gr. akoimetai, the sleepless), 
 a name given to the communities of monks 
 who divided their numbers in such a way 
 that services of prayer and praise were 
 continued in the monastery without ceasing 
 day and night. The practice is said to 
 have originated with a Syrian monk named 
 Alexander, who founded a monastery on 
 the Euphrates. Their principal seat was at 
 Constantinople. They are sometimes call¬ 
 ed Studites, from the fact that they oc¬ 
 cupied the monastery of St. John the 
 Baptist, which was built by a nobleman 
 named John Studius. 
 
 Acolytes (Gr. akolouthos , follower), the 
 name given the first of the four minor 
 orders of the ancient Church. It was the 
 duty of the acolyte to wait upon the deacon 
 or sub-deacon at the celebration of the 
 Eucharist, and light the candles of the 
 church. In time, the duties of the minor 
 w'ere performed generally by laymen, as at 
 presentinthe Romanchurches. See Orders. 
 
 Acropolis. See Athens. 
 
 Acrostic. The forming of a name or 
 word by the combination of the initial let¬ 
 ters of successive lines or words, was a 
 favorite method of composition in the early 
 Church. The following acrostic will illus¬ 
 trate: 
 
 Jesus, who for me hast borne 
 Every sorrow, pain, and scorn, 
 Standing at man’s judgment seat, 
 Unjust judgment there to meet; 
 Save me by Thy mercy sweet. 
 
 Christ, who on the cruel tree, 
 Hanging all the day for me, 
 
 Reigned at eve in victory: 
 
 In Thy victory let me share, 
 
 See Thee, now Thou reignest, where 
 Thou our mansions dost prepare. 
 
 One of the most familiar of the ancient 
 acrostics is the symbol of faith formed 
 from the Greek word Ichthus. See 
 Ichthys, Alphabet Psalms and Hymns. 
 
 Action Sermon, a Scotch name for the 
 sermon preached immediately before the 
 Lord’s Supper. 
 
 Act of Faith. See Auto da Fe. 
 
 Acta Sanctorum. This title, “ The Acts 
 of the Saints,” is the name given to a col¬ 
 lection of the histories and legends of those 
 who are recognized as saints in the ancient 
 martyrologies and the Roman Church. 
 The work was begun early in the seven¬ 
 teenth century, and already fills sixty large 
 volumes. It was planned by a learned 
 Jesuit of North Brabant, Heribert Ros- 
 weyd. After his death it was continued 
 by John van Bolland (1596-1665). He 
 organized a body of scholars who, from 
 generation to generation, under the name 
 of Bollandists, have carried forward this 
 remarkable literary undertaking until the 
 present time. It was hindered for some 
 years by the bull of Clement XIV., sup¬ 
 pressing the Jesuits (1773), and by the 
 French Revolution. The work was revived 
 in 1837. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles. “ This book, ac¬ 
 cording to internal and external evidence, 
 was written by Luke, and forms the sequel 
 to his Gospel. It is the history of the 
 foundation and spread of the Christian 
 Church—the former under Peter (i-xii), 
 the later under Paul (xiii-xxviii). It was 
 founded on the Day of Pentecost; its first 
 sons tvere Jews; hence it appeared only a 
 Jewish sect in Judaea, and the former part 
 of the book is occupied with its establish¬ 
 ment there, with arguments in its favor, 
 and with challenges to disprove the funda¬ 
 mental fact of Christ’s Resurrection. Its 
 first development into an organized com¬ 
 munity, with official staff, provoked the 
 first persecution and martyrdom, which 
 precipitated its extension to Samaria and 
 Syria, and caused a new and more inde¬ 
 pendent centre of operations to be planted 
 at Antioch, whence, under Paul (the first 
 converted persecutor), it spread to Asia 
 Minor, Greece, Rome, and various parts 
 of the Gentile world. The motive influence 
 was the direct impulse of the Holy Spirit, 
 not any preconceived plan of the Apostolic 
 body (ii. 4; xi. 17; xv. 6, 7, 9).”—Oxford 
 Bible. See the Introductions of Davidson 
 and others, and the commentaries especially 
 of Alexander, Hacket, and Meyer, and that 
 of Dean Howson and Canon Spence, with 
 notes, by Rev. D. S. Schaff (N. Y., 1S82). 
 
Ada 
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 Add 
 
 Adalbert of Prague. See Prussia, Con¬ 
 version of. 
 
 Ad'am, the first man. whose creation, fall, 
 and history are given in the opening chap¬ 
 ters of Genesis. In simple language the 
 Bible here records the “most momentous 
 event in history previous to the birth of 
 Christ. For then happened the Fall; sin 
 was let loose to ravage the world; a blight 
 had fallen upon the race. The first proof 
 of sin was shame. The wretched folly of 
 all attempts to cover sin is symbolized by 
 the fig-leaf aprons of our first parents; they 
 were no coverings at all. The second proof 
 of sin was their fear before God. They 
 stood condemned, and owned his dreadful 
 sentence just. They were banished from 
 paradise. The ground was cursed for their 
 sake. In the hardship of toil and labor, in 
 the care and suffering of childbirth and par¬ 
 entage, they began to feel at once the woes 
 their transgression involved. All the bur¬ 
 dens of life, the heavy cross, sickness, dis¬ 
 aster, trouble, death, come from the action 
 of that fatal day. They are the dread re¬ 
 minders of our fallen state. Our first 
 parents involved all their posterity in that 
 ruin they first experienced. But in the nar¬ 
 rative of the Fall there stands also the 
 promise of a deliverer, the woman’s seed 
 (the son of Mary), who should crush the 
 serpent’s head—that is, destroy the power 
 of sin and Satan. (Gen. iii. 15.) This prom¬ 
 ise, which is called the 4 first gospel,’ was 
 fulfilled in the Crucifixion. Christ is the 
 second Adam, as Paul shows in Rom. v. 12, 
 ff., and 1 Cor. xv. 45. He undid the work 
 of the first. He abolished the power of sin 
 and death for believers, and brought life 
 and immortality to light through the gospel. 
 (2 Tim. 1-10.) The redemption by Christ 
 is the glorious solution of the fall of Adam. 
 Christ has given us much more than we 
 lost by Adam. Paradise regained is better 
 than Paradise lost, and can never be lost 
 again. God, in his infinite wisdom and 
 mercy, overruled the fall of man for the 
 revelation of his redeeming love, which in 
 turn calls out the deepest gratitude and 
 bliss of the redeemed.”—Schaff: Bible Dic¬ 
 tionary. 
 
 Adam of St. Victor. He entered the ab- 
 jbey of St. Victor, Paris, about 1130, and d. 
 thereabout 1192. His poetical works, which 
 rank him the greatest Latin poet of the 
 Middle Ages, were translated by Wrang- 
 ham, 3 vols., (London, 1881). 
 
 Adamites, a fanatical sect which flour¬ 
 ished in the second and third centuries in 
 North Africa. They worshipped in a state 
 of nudity, claiming that in so doing they 
 
 were re-established in Adam’s condition of 
 original innocency. This custom was re¬ 
 vived in the fifteenth century among the 
 Beghards, and Brethren of the Free Spirit. 
 In 1421 they were almost exterminated by 
 the Hussite leader, Zisk, who did not hes¬ 
 itate to put them to death at the stake. In 
 1849 the sect appeared in a district of Aus¬ 
 tria, but was suppressed by the Govern¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Adams, Mrs. Sarah Flower; b. at Har¬ 
 low, Essex, Eng., Feb. 22, 1805; d. Aug. 13, 
 1849. She wrote many poems, but her 
 name will live as the author of the hymn, 
 
 4 *' Nearer, my God, to Thee.” This hymn 
 was contributed to a collection of Hymns and 
 Anthems (1840-41), made by her pastor, the 
 Rev. William J. Fox (1787-1864), of London. 
 
 Adams, Thomas, a pious and learned 
 Puritan divine. The time of his birth and 
 death are uncertain. He died before the 
 Restoration. Southey called him 44 the 
 prose Shakespeare of the Puritan theolo¬ 
 gians.” An edition of his Works , edited by 
 Rev. Drs. Joseph Angus and Thomas Smith, 
 was (published in London, 1862, 3 vols. 
 
 Adams, William, D. D., b. in Colchester, 
 Conn., Jan. 25, 1807; d. at Orange Mount¬ 
 ain, N. J., Aug. 31,1880. After being grad¬ 
 uated at Yale (1827), and studying theology 
 at Andover, he entered the Congregational 
 ministry. In 1834 he was called to the 
 Central (now Madison Square) Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church in New York, where he re¬ 
 mained more than forty years. After resign¬ 
 ing his pastorate he was elected professor 
 and president of the Union Theological Sem¬ 
 inary (1873). His life was eminently useful 
 and influential. He wrote several volumes, 
 among them The Three Gardens, Eden, 
 Gethsemane, and Paradise: or, Man's Ruin, 
 Redemption, and Restoratioft (N. Y., 1856); 
 Thanksgiving: Memories of the Day and 
 Helps to the Habit (1865). 
 
 Addison, Joseph, an eminent British 
 writer and essayist; b. at Milston May 1, 
 1672; d. at Kensington, June 17, 1719. He 
 was educated at the Charter House and 
 Queens and Magdalen colleges at Oxford. 
 In connection with other essays in the Tat¬ 
 tler, Spectator, and Guardian, he wrote a 
 series which were republished under the 
 title of Addison’s Evidences of the Christian 
 Religion. He is the author of several pop¬ 
 ular hymns. In his last illness he sent for 
 a young nobleman of irregular life to visit 
 him. At the close of the interview the 
 young man was deeply affected, and at part¬ 
 ing Addison said, 44 I sent for you that you 
 might see how a Christian can die.” 
 
Ade 
 
 ( io ) 
 
 Ado 
 
 Adelbert (properly Woytech; “the comfort 
 of the host”),areligious leader, and so-called 
 “Apostle of the Prussians;” b. at Prague 
 about 956; studied in Magdeburg, and elect¬ 
 ed bishop of Prague in 983. A man of en¬ 
 ergetic character, he planned a missionary 
 tour in Prussia, but was killed by a pagan 
 priest soon after entering the country. 
 
 Adiaphorists (Gr. adiaphora, indiffer¬ 
 ent). During the period of the Reformation 
 a party of Lutherans, having Melancthon as 
 their leader, dissatisfied with the Augsburg 
 Interim, prepared the Leipzig Interim 
 (1548), in which several doctrinal and li¬ 
 turgical points were yielded as adiaphora 
 (things indifferent). The position was op¬ 
 posed by the extreme Lutherans. The con¬ 
 flict raged until the questions in dispute 
 lost their importance, by the peace of 1555 
 and the adoption of the Formula Concordice. 
 Adiaphoristic controversy is still continued 
 among Christians touching the question of 
 amusements; some contending that such 
 amusements as dancing, card - playing, 
 theatre-going, etc., ought not to be classed 
 among things “ indifferent,” but should be 
 repudiated as sinful. 
 
 Ad'-onai {Lord), the Hebrew plural of 
 excellence. 
 
 Adoni'jah {my Lord is Jehovah), David’s 
 fourth son (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death 
 of Absalom, being the oldest living son of 
 David, he plotted to seize the throne. When 
 his intrigues came to the knowledge of the 
 king, then, near his death, he caused Solo¬ 
 mon to be anointed king. (1 Kings i. 39.) 
 The noise of the public rejoicing over this 
 event was heard by Adonijah while feast¬ 
 ing with friends, and Jonathan came and 
 informed him of what had taken place. He 
 fled for safety to the temple, and laid hold 
 of the horns of the altar. But he was call¬ 
 ed into the presence of Solomon and re¬ 
 ceived pardon. (1 Kings i. 52.) After the 
 death of David he sought, through Bath- 
 sheba, to gain Abishag, the virgin widow 
 of his father, in marriage. According to 
 Oriental court law this was treason against 
 the throne, and he was put to death. (1 Kings 
 ii. 25.) 
 
 Adoption, as a Biblical term, occurs only 
 in the New Testament. It is used meta¬ 
 phorically by St. Paul in reference to the 
 present and prospective privileges of Chris¬ 
 tians. (Rom. viii. 15, 23; Gal. iv. 5; Eph. 
 i. 5.) He probably alludes to the Roman 
 custom of adoption, by which a person, not 
 having children of his own, might adopt as 
 his son one born of other parents. Theo¬ 
 logically, the Westminster Shorter Catechism 
 
 defines adoption as the act of God’s grace, 
 whereby we are received into the number, 
 and have a right to all the privileges of the 
 sons of God. The Armenian view is given 
 by Richard Watson in his Theological Lnsti- 
 tutes: “ Adoption is the second concomi¬ 
 tant of justification, and is that act by which 
 we, who were alienated, enemies, disinher¬ 
 ited, are made the sons of God and heirs of 
 his eternal glory; .... from it flows a 
 comfortable persuasion or conviction of our 
 present acceptance with God, and the hope 
 of our future and eternal glory.” (Part 11., 
 chap. 24, p. 269.) 
 
 Adoptionists, those who maintained the 
 theory that our Lord, as Man, was the Son 
 of God the Father by adoption, although as 
 God he was the Son of God. This opinion 
 was held by some as early as the fourth 
 century, and is opposed in the writings of 
 St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Ambrose, St. 
 Augustine, and St. Hilary of Arles. It pre¬ 
 vailed much in Spain, being mentioned in a 
 canon of the eleventh Council of Toledo 
 (a. d. 675), and it was in Spain that it be¬ 
 came distinctly formalized as an heretical 
 opinion. There is some probability that it 
 was taught as a means of conciliating the 
 Mahometans, and making Christianity ac¬ 
 ceptable to them; but the idea that Christ 
 as Man was not that which the angel said 
 he should be called, the Son of God (Luke 
 i. 36), is so contrary to the fundamental 
 principle of Christianity, the Mediatorship 
 of our Lord, that it was vigorously opposed 
 by theologians. The leaders of the Adop- 
 tionist party were Elipandus, Archbishop 
 of Toledo; and Felix, Bishop of Urgel, in 
 Catalonia. Their principal opponent was 
 the great English scholar and theologian, 
 Alcuin, the friend of Charlemagne, at 
 whose desire he wrote a treatise on the 
 subject in a. D. 794, and the error was con¬ 
 demned at the Council of Frankfort in that 
 year. Felix argued with Alcuin for six 
 days before the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 in the year 799, was convinced of his error, 
 and renounced it before the Council, but 
 Elipandus was never called to account, as 
 Toledo was at that time in the hands of the 
 Saracens. The error itself has occasion¬ 
 ally been revived in later ages, but it has 
 not definitely appeared in the literature of 
 theology since the seventeenth century, 
 when it was advocated in a work of Calix- 
 tus.—Benham: Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 Adoration, an act of homage or worship. 
 Among the Hebrews it was manifested by 
 putting off the shoes, standing, bowing, 
 kneeling, and kissing. Those who approach¬ 
 ed the Greek and Roman emperors bowed 
 low or knelt, and, after reverently touching 
 
Adr 
 
 (ii) 
 
 Adv 
 
 the imperial robe, the hand was withdrawn 
 and pressed to the lips. Eastern subjects 
 prostrated themselves at the feet of the 
 prince, and kissed the ground. This Ori¬ 
 ental custom was adopted, after the ninth 
 century, by the popes in the ceremony of 
 kissing the feet. A distinction is made in 
 the Roman Church between Latvia , a wor¬ 
 ship due only to God, and Dulia, the ven¬ 
 eration accorded to the saints, martyrs, 
 crucifixes, the host, etc. Hyperdulia desig¬ 
 nated the adoration given to the Blessed 
 Virgin as the most exalted of creatures. 
 The Adoration of the Host is the kneeling 
 of the congregation when the priest uplifts 
 the wafer which is said to have been trans¬ 
 formed into the body of Christ. This cere¬ 
 mony was introduced by Pope Honorius 
 
 III. (a. D. 1227). Perpetual Adoration de¬ 
 notes that some one is praying in the church 
 at all hours. 
 
 Adram'melech ( honor of the king), (1) 
 an idol of the Sepharvites whom Shalma¬ 
 neser brought to Samaria after carrying 
 their inhabitants captive to Assyria. (2 
 Kings xvii. 31.) (2) A son of Sennacherib, 
 
 king of Assyria, who, with his brother 
 Sharezer, slew their father in the temple 
 of Nisroch, B.C. 721. (2 Kings xix. 37.) 
 
 Adrian, the name of six popes. Adrian 
 
 IV. was the only Englishman ever elected 
 pope. His original name was Nicholas 
 Breakspeare, the son of a laborer near St. 
 Albans, of which monastery he was a lay 
 brother. Nicholas was refused admission 
 to the monastery because of his lack of 
 education, and he went to the continent, 
 where he became a lay brother of St. 
 Rufus, in Provence. In 1146 he became 
 Cardinal Bishop of Albano, and in 1154 was 
 elected Pope and reigned until his death in 
 1159. He was a strenuous advocate of 
 the pretensions of the papal power to 
 world-wide sovereignty. His bestowal of 
 Ireland upon Henry II. was an assertion 
 of this power. When Frederick Barba- 
 rossa entered Italy to claim the crown of 
 Germany from the hand of the pope he re¬ 
 fused to hold the pontiff’s stirrup as a 
 mark of respect. The action of the pope 
 in withholding his blessing made the em¬ 
 peror yield the desired homage, and his 
 coronation took place in the Church of St. 
 Peter. The quarrel was soon opened, and 
 Adrian was just about to pronounce a sen¬ 
 tence of excommunication against the Ger¬ 
 man emperor, when he died. See Popes. 
 
 Adul'lam ( hiding-place ), an ancient city 
 southwest of Jerusalem. (Gen. xxxviii. 1; 
 Josh. xv. 35; 2 Chron. xi. 7; Neh. xi. 30; 
 Micah. i. 15.) Some have supposed that 
 
 th^ cave of Adulla/n, in which David so¬ 
 journed for a time, was in the vicinity of 
 this city, but the best authorities locate it 
 near Bethlehem. 
 
 Adultery. See Marriage. Divorce. 
 
 Advent (from the Lat. adventus; “ a 
 coming ”). The period of the year im¬ 
 mediately preceding Christmas, in which 
 many churches celebrate the approach of 
 the nativity of Christ. In the American 
 and English Episcopal Church the first 
 Sunday in Advent, or Advent Sunday, is 
 the Sunday, whether before or after,which 
 falls nearest to St. Andrew’s Day (Nov. 
 30). In the Greek Church the season of 
 Advent dates from St. Martin’s Day (Nov. 
 11). At one time Advent was observed 
 almost as strictly as Lent, but the rule is 
 now relaxed. 
 
 Adventists, is the general name of a 
 body who look for the early personal com¬ 
 ing of Christ. Their founder was William 
 Miller (q.v.), who believed that the advent 
 was near at hand. He fixed the date in 
 1843; other times were subsequently de¬ 
 cided upon, but repeated disappointments 
 divided his followers, and many of them 
 fell away. The doctrine of the immortality 
 of the soul has also been a cause of divis¬ 
 ion. Of the distinct branches of Advent¬ 
 ists in the United States all believe in the 
 personal premillenial coming of Christ and 
 that it will soon take place. The Evangel¬ 
 ical Adventists believe in the natural im¬ 
 mortality of the soul and in eternal future 
 punishment. The Advent Christians, on 
 the contrary, hold that man is material, 
 and that the wicked will finally be annihi¬ 
 lated, and the earth become the abode of the 
 saints. The Seventh-Day Adventists, hav¬ 
 ing their headquarters at Battle Creek, 
 Mich., sustain a college and other denom¬ 
 inational institutions. They hold that it is 
 still obligatory to observe the seventh day 
 as the Sabbath, and they accept the testi¬ 
 monies and visions as given by Mrs. White. 
 The Life and Advent Union believe that 
 only the righteous dead will take part in 
 the resurrection. The Age-to-Come Ad¬ 
 ventists believe that the Jews will finally be 
 re-established at Jerusalem. All of these 
 bodies are Congregational in polity. The 
 Seventh-Day has general and annual con¬ 
 ferences. The most trustworthy sources 
 of information give the following statistics 
 of the different branches of Adventists in 
 1888: 
 
 (1) Evangelical Adventists. About 100 
 
 churches, 50 preachers and 500 mem¬ 
 bers. 
 
 (2) Advent Christians. They have in 
 
Adv 
 
 ( 12 ) 
 
 /El 
 
 their thirty conferences 400 preachers, 
 600 churches and 15,000 members, and 
 about as many more not enrolled. 
 
 (3) Seventh-Day Adventists. They 
 have thirty-two conferences, 400 preach¬ 
 ers, goi churches, and an enrolled mem¬ 
 bership of 26,112, and some 4,000 scat¬ 
 tered. 
 
 (4) Church of God. A seceding branch 
 of the Seventh-Day Adventists, having 
 their headquarters at Stanbury, Mis¬ 
 souri, number 4 conferences, 27 preach¬ 
 ers, 30 churches and 2,000 members. 
 
 (5) Life and Advent Union, number 
 about 5,000 members with 50 preachers. 
 
 (6) Age-to-Come Adventists. 50 preach¬ 
 ers and 5,000 members. 
 
 Advent Christians. See Adventists. 
 
 Advocate of the Church. This term was 
 applied in the primitive Church to those 
 who defended the Christians against their 
 persecutors. As the Church became more 
 powerful and wealthy the position of ad¬ 
 vocate, as legal adviser, was sought after 
 as one of dignity and emolument. The 
 office went into the hands of the laity as 
 the law controlled that only those who 
 could bear arms could appear in their own 
 name before the courts. As early as the 
 twelfth century, complaint was made of the 
 extortion of those who held this position, 
 usually some feudal lord of power and in¬ 
 fluence. In time, the office became fixed 
 in its duties and emoluments, and it was 
 customary for the founders of churches 
 and religious endowments to keep the 
 nomination of this office to themselves and 
 their representatives. 
 
 Advocatus Dei, Diaboli. These officers 
 of the Roman Church make investigations 
 in regard to the claims of any name pre¬ 
 sented as a candidate for canonization. 
 The latter gives the reasons why the per¬ 
 son should not be canonized, and the former 
 defends him. 
 
 Advowson, the right of presentation 
 to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice in the 
 Church of England. Advowsons are dis¬ 
 tinguished as presentative , collative and 
 donative. In a presentative advowson the 
 patron presents a clergyman to the bishop, 
 who is bound to induct the candidate to the 
 vacant living, if he be canonically qualified. 
 In a collative advowson the bishop is the 
 patron in his own right, or because the 
 proper patron has failed to exercise his 
 right within the six months required by 
 law, after a vacancy occurs. In a donative 
 advowson the sovereign, or a subject hav¬ 
 ing a special license from him, confers a 
 
 benefice by letter without consultation 
 with the bishop. Such an incumbent is to 
 a great extent independent of the bishop, 
 who can only reach him through the action 
 of an ecclesiastical court. An advowson, 
 being property, may be sold or mortgaged 
 under certain restrictions of time and 
 place. There are some 13,000 benefices in 
 the Church of England. 
 
 JEon (age), the life or duration of any 
 person or thing. The Gnostics used the 
 term to denote the “emanations” from 
 the supreme being. See Gnostics. 
 
 Affections. “ The affections, as they 
 respect religion, may be defined to be the 
 ‘ vigorous and sensible exercises of the in¬ 
 clination and will of the soul toward relig¬ 
 ious objects.’ Whatever extremes Stoics 
 or enthusiasts have run into, it is evident 
 that the exercise of the affections is essen¬ 
 tial to the existence of true religion. It is 
 true, indeed, ‘that all affectionate devotion 
 is not wise and rational; but it is no less 
 true that all wise and rational devotion 
 must be affectionate.’ The affections are 
 the springs of action. They belong to 
 our nature, so that, with the highest per¬ 
 ceptions of truth and religion, we should 
 be inactive without them. They have con¬ 
 siderable influence on men in the common 
 concerns of life; how much more, then, 
 should they operate in those important ob¬ 
 jects that relate to the Divine Being, the 
 immortality of the soul, and the happiness 
 or misery of a future state? The religion 
 of the most eminent saints has always con¬ 
 sisted in the exercise of holy affections. 
 Jesus Christ himself affords us an example 
 of the most lively and vigorous affections; 
 and we have every reason to believe that 
 the employment of heaven consists in the 
 exercise of them. In addition to all which, 
 the Scriptures of truth teach us that relig¬ 
 ion is nothing if it occupy not the affec¬ 
 tions. (Deut. vi. 5; xxx. 6; Rom. xii. 11; 1 
 Cor. xiii. 13; Psa. xxvii. 14.) In order to 
 ascertain whether our affections are excited 
 in a spiritual manner, we must inquire 
 whether that which moves our affections 
 be truly spiritual; whether our consciences 
 be alarmed and our hearts impressed; 
 whether the judgment be enlightened, and 
 we have a perception of the moral excel¬ 
 lency of divine things; and lastly, whether 
 our affections have a holy tendency, and 
 produce the happy effects of obedience to 
 God, humility in ourselves and justice to 
 our fellow-creatures.”—McClintock and 
 Strong: Encyclopcedia. 
 
 i^Elfric, (1) archbishop of Canterbury 
 (994-1005); b. about 940. While a canon 
 
Aff 
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
 Aga 
 
 monk of Winchester he undertook the 
 translation of the Bible into English. The 
 Pentateuch, the books of Joshua and 
 Judges, and the four Gospels, with other 
 fragmentary portions of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment, have come down to us. Many of his 
 religious works and homilies have been 
 preserved. (2) Archbishop of York (1023 
 -1050). He assisted at the coronation of 
 Canute, Edward the Confessor, and other 
 kings. He has sometimes received undue 
 credit as the author of works that were 
 written by the Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Affusion denotes the pouring of water 
 upon the person in the administration of 
 baptism, in distinction from sprinkling , or 
 immersion. 
 
 Afghanistan. Of the 4,000,000 inhab¬ 
 itants most are Mohammedans. Hindoos, 
 Christians and Jews are tolerated. The 
 clergy are also teachers, and schools in 
 which reading and the Mohammedan faith 
 are taught are found in almost every vil¬ 
 lage. American missionaries have gained 
 a slight foothold in the country. The first 
 native convert was baptized in 1859. 
 
 Africa. Christianity is professed in 
 Abyssinia, and in Egypt by the Copts, but 
 its doctrines and precepts are little under¬ 
 stood and obeyed. Mohammedanism pre¬ 
 vails in all Northern Africa, excepting 
 Abyssinia, as far as a line passing through 
 the Soudan, from the Gambia on the west 
 to the confluence of the Quonaand Benue, 
 and thence eastward, generally following 
 the tenth parallel of n. lat., to the Nile be¬ 
 low the junction of the Ghazal; thence 
 southeast, leaving the coast-land in the 
 Mohammedan region, to Cape Delgado. In 
 Morocco, Algeria and Egypt there is an 
 admixture of Jews. Heathen Negroes and 
 Caffre tribes extend southward over the 
 continent, from the line described above to 
 the colonies in the southern extremity of 
 the continent, and on this vast area the 
 native mind is surrendered to superstitions 
 of infinite number and character. In the 
 Cape Colony Protestantism again prevails, 
 with a strong intermixture of heathenism. 
 The labors of Christian missionaries have, 
 however, done much, especially in South 
 Africa, toward turning the benighted Afri¬ 
 cans from idols to the living God. See Mis¬ 
 sions. 
 
 Africa, Church of, founded early in the 
 second century. The church enjoyed for 
 a time remarkable prosperity, and in 258 
 there were assembled in its synod 87 
 bishops. The centre of its activities was 
 the city of Carthage. The conquest of the 
 
 Vandals closed its history. Augustine, 
 whose name is the greatest in its annals, 
 died in 430. Among other great leaders 
 in the Church of Africa were Cyprian and 
 Arnobius; and several great doctrinal con¬ 
 flicts were here waged, especially that 
 with the Pelagians. See Juiian Lloyd, 
 The North African Church (London, 1880). 
 
 African Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 The early Methodists were very success¬ 
 ful in their labors among the colored 
 people, both slave and free. In 1816 some 
 of them thought it would be best for them 
 to unite in a separate organization, and at 
 a convention held at Philadelphia, in April 
 of that year, they adopted their present 
 name. The growth of the church has been 
 constant and quite rapid since the Civil 
 War. They hold the doctrines of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, and their 
 government is nearly the same. The 
 highest literary institution of the denom¬ 
 ination is the Wilberforce University at 
 Xenia, Ohio. 
 
 African Methodist Episcopal Zion 
 Church. This denomination originated in 
 1820, by the secession of the Zion congre¬ 
 gation of New York from the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. The separation grew 
 out of a controversy in regard to church 
 government. The highest officers in the 
 church are superintendents, who are elect¬ 
 ed every four years by the General Con¬ 
 ference, which is composed of all the 
 travelling ministers of the connection. 
 They hold the doctrines of the M. E. 
 Church. 
 
 Agape, the love-feast which, among the 
 primitive Christians, usually accompa¬ 
 nied the Eucharist. According to Chrys¬ 
 ostom, the Agape was a common feast, 
 symbolizing the community of goods when 
 it no longer really existed, to which the 
 rich brought provisions, and the poor, who 
 brought nothing, were invited. At first it 
 was observed probably every evening in 
 connection with the celebration of the 
 Lord’s Supper. It closed with the holy 
 kiss. The church at Corinth was the first 
 to pervert this feast by destroying the 
 community between rich and poor. It 
 was probably on this account, and also to 
 escape persecutors, that by the middle of 
 the second century the Lord’s Supper was 
 separated from the Agape by celebrating 
 the former at the close of morning service 
 on Sunday, and the latter by itself earlier 
 in the day. Abuses crept in, and these 
 love-feasts were put under greater restric¬ 
 tions. The rich finally absented them¬ 
 selves to such an extent that it was regard- 
 
Aga 
 
 Ago 
 
 ed as a provision for the poor alone. An 
 effort was made to correct abuses, but at 
 length various synods and councils con¬ 
 demned the holding of these feasts in 
 churches, as well as the participation of the 
 clergy in them, and their observance alto¬ 
 gether died out. In modern times it has 
 been revived in one form and another by 
 the Moravian Brethren, by various 
 branches of the Wesleyan and Methodist 
 Episcopal churches, and, in Scotland, by 
 the followers of Robert Sandeman. 
 
 Agapeti and Agapetae {beloved). The 
 first refers to men who dwelt in the same 
 house with deaconesses, and the latter to 
 virgins who lived in the same house with 
 monks. They professed to exercise only 
 spiritual love toward each other, but their 
 intercourse soon became an occasion of 
 great scandal, and their action was de¬ 
 nounced by prominent church fathers, and 
 condemned by councils. 
 
 Agapetus, (i) pope, 535 ~ 53 6 * He was 
 sent by the king of the Goths in Italy to 
 Constantinople, in 536, to sue for peace 
 from the Emperor Justinian. He did not 
 accomplish this purpose, but was success¬ 
 ful in persuading the emperor that the 
 patriarch Anthimus was guilty of heresy 
 in holding the theory of Monophysitism 
 and secured his deposal, while Mennas was 
 put in his place and consecrated by the 
 pope, whodiedsoonafter. (2) Pope,946-955. 
 
 Agatha, St., a virgin said to have suf¬ 
 fered martyrdom during the Decian perse¬ 
 cution at Catania, in Sicily, of which city 
 she is regarded as the patron saint. The 
 story of her life is probably a mixture of 
 legend and fable, with a slight historical 
 basis. She is commemorated on Feb. 5. 
 
 Agatho, pope, 678-682. He took a 
 prominent part in the settlement of the 
 Monothelitic controversy. 
 
 Agbar. See Abgar. 
 
 Age. See Canonical Age. 
 
 Agenda (Lat. things to be done), a litur¬ 
 gical term which describes the duties of 
 divine worship. “ Things to be done ” 
 as distinguished from “ things to be be¬ 
 lieved ” {credenda). It was early used to 
 designate the Eucharist, and then given to 
 the hook prescribing the order of worship. 
 It is still used to designate the liturgy of 
 the Lutheran Church. 
 
 Age-to-come Adventists. See Advent¬ 
 ists. 
 
 Agnes, St., is commemorated in the 
 Roman Church, Jan. 21 and 28. She was 
 a Christian virgin, martyred by order of 
 Diocletian. Her chastity, according to tra¬ 
 dition, was preserved under the severest 
 trials. She is represented in mediaeval art 
 as followed by a lamb. The women of Rome 
 pray at her shrine for the gifts of meek¬ 
 ness and chastity. 
 
 Agnoetae. Two sects bear this name. 
 (1) The first were extreme Arians, and 
 were founded in the latter part of the 
 fourth century by Eunomius and Theo- 
 phronius. They held that God only knew 
 things past by memory and the future by 
 uncertain prescience, so that his omnis¬ 
 cience was limited to the present. (2) In 
 the sixth century Themistius, a deacon of 
 the Monophysites in Alexandria, founded a 
 sect which maintained that Christ, as to 
 his human soul, was limited as to his 
 knowledge in every respect, like others. 
 They quoted, in favor of their position, 
 Mark xiii. 32; John xi. 34. 
 
 Agnosticism (Gr. agnostos, unknowing), 
 a term brought into use by Professor Hux¬ 
 ley in 1869. It has been defined as “ a the¬ 
 ory of the Unknowable, which assumes its 
 most definite form in the denial of the pos¬ 
 sibility of any knowledge of God.” — Cal- 
 derrvood. In recent years the name Agnos¬ 
 tic has been given to Positivists and others, 
 as indicating their attitude toward Christi¬ 
 anity and revealed religion. See Kant. 
 Positivism. 
 
 Agnus Dei {La?nb of God), a title of 
 our Lord (John i. 29; comp. Isa. liii. 7; 
 Rev. v. 6, 12), early introduced into the 
 liturgies of the Eastern and Western 
 churches. In the Litany it is given in the 
 sentence, “ O Lamb of God, that takest 
 away the sins of the world,” etc. The 
 name is also given to the figure of a lamb 
 bearing a cross, symbolical of the Saviour 
 as the “ Lamb of God.” This symbol was 
 stamped upon wax medallions that were 
 often made of the remains of the great 
 Paschal taper, consecrated by the pope, and 
 given by him to distinguished persons. 
 This symbol is often found in the cata¬ 
 combs and ancient churches. 
 
 Agonistici. See Circumcelliones. 
 
 Agostino da Montefeltro, the “ modern 
 Savonarola; ” b. in Italy about 1S40. Ac¬ 
 cording to a generally received story he 
 entered a Franciscan monastery about 
 1865, in consequence of the murder, in self- 
 defence, of the brother of his betrothed. 
 After remaining in the silence of his clois- 
 
Agr 
 
 ( 15 ) 
 
 Agr 
 
 ter for twenty years he became a preach¬ 
 ing friar, and in recent years has preached 
 both at Rome and Florence to great con¬ 
 gregations. Many of his sermons have 
 been translated into English. (London and 
 New York, 1888-89, 2 series.) 
 
 Agriculture Among the Hebrews. The 
 cereal crops of constant mention in the 
 Bible “ are wheat and barley, and more 
 rarely rye and millet (?). Of the two for¬ 
 mer, together with the vine, olive and fig, 
 the use of irrigation, the plough and the 
 harrow, mention is made in the book of 
 Job (xxxi. 40; xv. 33 ; xxiv. 6 ; xxix. 19 ; 
 xxxix. 10). Two kinds of cumin (the black 
 variety called ‘ fitches,’ Isa. xxviii. 27), 
 and such podded plants as beans and lentils, 
 may be named among the staple produce. 
 To these, later writers add a great variety 
 of garden plants: e.g. , kidney-beans, peas, 
 lettuce, endive, leek, garlic, onions, mel¬ 
 ons, cucumbers, cabbage, 
 etc. The produce which 
 formed Jacob’s present 
 was of such kinds as would 
 keep, and had been pre¬ 
 served during the famine. 
 
 (Gen. xliii. II.) 
 
 ‘ ‘ Ploughing and Sowing. 
 
 —The plough probably 
 was like the Egyptian, and 
 the process of ploughing 
 mostly very light, one 
 yoke of oxen usually suf¬ 
 ficing to draw it. New 
 ground and fallows, the 
 use of which latter was 
 familiar to the Jews (Jer. 
 iv. 3; Hos. x. 12), were 
 cleared of stones and of 
 thorns (Isa. v. 2) early in the year, sow¬ 
 ing or gathering from “among thorns” 
 being a proverb for slovenly husbandry. 
 (Job v. 5; Prov. xxiv. 30, 31.) Virgin land 
 was ploughed a second time. Sowing also 
 took place without previous ploughing, the 
 seed, as in the parable of the sower, being 
 scattered broadcast, and ploughed in after¬ 
 wards, the roots of the late crop being so 
 far decayed as to serve for manure.—(Fel¬ 
 lows, Asia Minor, p. 72.) The soil was 
 then brushed over with a light harrow, 
 often of thorn bushes. In highly irrigated 
 spots the seed was trampled in by cattle 
 (Isa. xxxii. 20), as in Egypt by goats. 
 Sometimes, however, the sowing was by 
 patches only in well-manured spots. 
 Where the soil was heavier, the ploughing 
 was best done dry; but the more formal 
 routine of heavy western soils must not be 
 made the standard of such a naturally fine 
 tilth as that of Palestine generally. During 
 the rains, if not too heavy, or between their 
 
 two periods, would be the best time for 
 these operations; thus, seventy days be¬ 
 fore the Passover was the time prescribed 
 for sowing for the ‘ wave-sheaf,’ and 
 probably, therefore, for that of barley 
 generally. The oxen were urged on by a 
 goad like a spear. (Judg. iii. 31.) The cus¬ 
 tom of watching ripening crops and thresh¬ 
 ing-floors against theft or damage, is prob¬ 
 ably ancient. Thus Boaz slept on the 
 floor. (Ruth iii. 4, 7.) Barley ripened a 
 week or two before wheat, and as fine har¬ 
 vest weather was certain (Prov. xxvi. 1; 1 
 Sam. xii. 17; Amos. iv. 7), the crop chiefly 
 varied with the quantity of timely rain. 
 The period of harvest must always have 
 differed according to elevation, aspect, etc. 
 The proportion of harvest gathered to 
 seed sown was often vast, a hundred-fold 
 is mentioned, but in such a way as to sig¬ 
 nify that it was a limit rarely attained. 
 (Gen. xxvi. 12; Matt. xiii. 8.) The rota¬ 
 
 The Ndreg, a threshing-machine used by the modern Egyptians. 
 
 tion of crops, familiar to the Egyptians, 
 can hardly have been unknown to the 
 Hebrews. Sowing a field with divers seeds 
 was forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9), and minute 
 directions are given by the Rabbins for 
 arranging a seeded surface with great vari¬ 
 ety, yet avoiding juxtaposition of hetero- 
 genea. 
 
 “ Reaping and Threshing. —The wheat, 
 etc., was reaped by the sickle, or was 
 pulled up by the roots. It was bound in 
 sheaves—a process prominent in Script¬ 
 ure. The sheaves or heaps were carted 
 (Amos. ii. 13) to the floor, a circular spot of 
 hard ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 
 80 or 100 feet in diameter. Such floors 
 were probably permanent, and became 
 well-known spots. (Gen. 1 . 10, 11; 2 Sam. 
 xxiv. 16, 18.) On these the oxen, etc., 
 forbidden to be muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4), 
 trampled out the grain, as we find repre¬ 
 sented in the Egyptian monuments. At a 
 later time the Jews used a threshing sledge 
 
Agr 
 
 ( 16 ) 
 
 Aha 
 
 called Morag ( Isa. xli. 15; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22; 
 1 Chron. xxi. 23), probably resembling the 
 ndreg, still employed in Egypt—a stage 
 with three rollers ridged with iron, which, 
 aided by the driver’s weight, crushed out, 
 often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or 
 tore the straw, which thus became fit for 
 fodder. Lighter grains were beaten out 
 with a stick. (Isa. xxviii. 27.) Barley was 
 sometimes soaked and then parched before 
 treading out, which got rid of the pellicle 
 of the grain.—The use of animal manure 
 is proved frequent by such recurring ex¬ 
 pressions as ‘ dung on the face of the 
 earth, field,’ etc. (Psa. lxxxiii. 10; 2 Kings 
 ix. 37; Jer. viii. 2, etc.) 
 
 “ Winnowing .—The ‘ shovel ’ and * fan’ 
 (Isa. xxx. 24), the precise difference of 
 which is doubtful, indicate the process of 
 winnowing—a conspicuous part of ancient 
 husbandry (Psa. xxxv. 5; Job xxi. 18; Isa. 
 xvii. 13), and important, owing to the 
 
 slovenly threshing. Evening was the 
 favorite time (Ruth iii. 2), when there was 
 mostly a breeze. The ‘ fan ’ (Matt. iii. 
 12) was perhaps a broad shovel which 
 threw the grain up against the wind. The 
 last process was the shaking in a sieve, to 
 separate dirt and refuse. (Amos. ix. 9.)— 
 Fields and floors were not commonly en¬ 
 closed ; vineyards mostly w T ere, with a 
 tower and other buildings. (Num. xxii. 24; 
 Ps. lxxx. 12; Isa. v. 5; Matt. xxi. 33; comp. 
 Judg. vi. 11.) Banks of mud from ditches 
 were also used.—With regard to occu¬ 
 pancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money 
 rent (Cant. viii. 11), or a stipulated share 
 of the fruits (2 Sam. ix. 10; Matt. xxi. 34), 
 often a half or a third; but local custom 
 was the only rule. A passer-by might eat 
 any quantity of corn or grapes, but not 
 reap or carry off fruit. (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25; 
 Matt. xii. 1.)—The rights of the corner to 
 be left, and of gleaning, formed the poor 
 man’s claim on the soil for support. For 
 
 his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in carry¬ 
 ing to the floor was to be left; so also with 
 regard to the vineyard and the olive grove. 
 (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19.) Besides, 
 there seems a probability that every third 
 year a second tithe, besides the priests’, 
 was paid for the poor. (Deut. xiv. 28; xxvi. 
 12; Amos. iv. 4; Tob. i. 7.) ”—Smith : 
 Dictionary of the Bible . 
 
 Agrip'pa, (1) Herod Agrippa I., the 
 grandson of Herod the Great. He was 
 educated at Rome, and there imprisoned 
 by Tiberius. Having gained the good-will 
 of Caligula he was made king. Identify¬ 
 ing himself with the Pharisees, in order to 
 please the Jews, he persecuted the apos¬ 
 tles. By his orders James w r as beheaded, 
 and Peter cast into prison. (Acts xii. 1-19.) 
 (2) Herod Agrippa II., son of the preced¬ 
 ing; brother of Bernice and Drusilla. In 
 52 he obtained the tetrarchies of Philip and 
 Lysanias, with the title of king. 
 It was in his presence that Paul 
 told the story of his conversion. 
 (Acts xxvi.) In the rebellion 
 under Vespasian, he took part 
 with the Romans, and died 
 about 100. 
 
 A'hab (father s brother ), (1) 
 son and successor of Omri. 
 Through the influence of his 
 wife Jezebel, daughter of Eth- 
 baal, king of Tyre, he adopted 
 the Baal worship. The proph¬ 
 ets of Jehovah were perse¬ 
 cuted, and Ahab maintained 
 four hundred and fifty priests 
 of Baal, and his w r ife four hun¬ 
 dred prophets of Astarte. In 
 punishment for this idolatry God sent a 
 drought, which terminated only with the 
 victory of Elijah over the priests of Baal 
 on Carmel. (1 Kings-viii.) Ahab during 
 his reign built cities, and -waged successful 
 war against Syria. (1 Kings xx.) Although 
 shrewd and energetic, indecision and weak¬ 
 ness marked his character. “ He trembled 
 before Elijah, whom at first he denounced. 
 His action about the vineyard of Naboth 
 was childish. (1 Kings xxi.) His repent¬ 
 ance was shallow; he was moved by im¬ 
 pulses. And yet there was a gleam of 
 virtue in him; he spared Benhadad, his 
 enemy (1 Kings xx. 33); and he had physi¬ 
 cal courage enough to stay upon the battle¬ 
 field after his fatal wound. (1 Kings xxii. 
 35.) But upon him and all connected with 
 him the curse of God rested. He dragged 
 Israel and Judah into ruin.”— Schultz. (2) 
 A false prophet who deceived the captive 
 Jews in Babylon, and was burned by order 
 of Nebuchadnezzar. (Jer. xxix. 21, 22.) 
 
 EASTERN WINNOWING-FANS. 
 
Aha 
 
 Aha 
 
 ( i 
 
 Ahasue'rus, the title of one Median and 
 two Persian kings mentioned in the Script¬ 
 ures. (i) The father of Darius the Median, 
 identical with Astyages. (Dan. ix. i.) (2) 
 
 The son and successor of Cyrus, probably 
 Cambyses. (Ezra iv. 6.) (3) The husband 
 
 of Esther, Xerxes, son of Darius Hystas- 
 pes. The character of Xerxes as given in 
 profane history coincides with the Script¬ 
 ure representation,and the testimony of the 
 cuneiform inscriptions leaves little room 
 to doubt this identification. 
 
 A'haz, (1) “eleventh king of Judah, son 
 of Jotham; reigned b. c. 741-726. At the 
 time of his ascension Rezin, king of Da¬ 
 mascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, had 
 recently formed a league against Judah, 
 and they proceeded to lay siege to Jerusa¬ 
 lem. Upon this the great prophet hast¬ 
 ened to give advice and encouragement to 
 Ahaz, and it was probably owing to the 
 spirit* of energy and religious devotion 
 which he poured into his counsels that the 
 allies failed in their attack on Jerusalem. 
 (Isa. vii., viii.,ix.) But the allies took a 
 vast number of captives, who, however, 
 were restored in virtue of the remon¬ 
 strances of the prophet Oded; and they 
 also inflicted a most severe injury on 
 Judah by the capture of Elath, a flourish¬ 
 ing port on the Red Sea, while the Philis¬ 
 tines invaded the W.and S. (2 Kings xvi.; 2 
 Chron.xxviii.) The weak-minded and help¬ 
 less Ahaz sought deliverance from these 
 numerous troubles by appealing to Tig- 
 lath-pileser, king of Assyria, who freed 
 him from his most formidable enemies by 
 invading Syria, taking Damascus, killing 
 Rezin, and depriving Israel of its northern 
 and trans-Jordanic districts. But Ahaz 
 had to purchase this help at a costly price: 
 he became tributary to Tiglath-pileser, 
 sent him all the treasures of the Temple 
 and his own palace, and even appeared be¬ 
 fore him in Damascus as a vassal. He also 
 ventured to seek for safety in heathen 
 ceremonies; making his son pass through 
 the fire to Moloch, consulting wizards and 
 necromancers (Isa. viii. 19), sacrificing to 
 the Syrian gods, introducing a foreign altar 
 from Damascus, and probably the worship 
 of the heavenly bodies from Assyria and 
 Babylon, as he would seem to have set up 
 the horses of the sun mentioned in 2 Kings 
 xxiii. 11; and ‘ the altars on the top (or roof) 
 of the upper chamber of Ahaz ’ (2 Kings 
 xxiii. 12) were connected with the adora¬ 
 tion of the stars. We see another and 
 blameless result of this intercourse with 
 an astronomical people in the ‘ sun-dial of 
 Ahaz.’ (Isa. xxxviii. 8.) (2) A son of 
 
 Micah, the grandson of Jonathan, through 
 Merib-baal or Mephibosheth. (1 Chron. 
 
 7 ) 
 
 viii. 35, 36; ix. 42.)”—Smith: Diet, of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Ahazi'ah, (1) “a son of Ahab and Jeze¬ 
 bel, and eighth king of Israel; reigned 
 B. c. 896-895. After the battle of Ramoth 
 in Gilead the Syrians had the command of 
 the country along the east of Jordan, and 
 they cut off all communication between the 
 Israelites and Moabites, so that the vassal 
 king of Moab refused his yearly tribute of 
 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams with their 
 wool (comp. Isa. xvi. 1). Before Ahaziah 
 could take measures for enforcing his 
 claim, he was seriously injured by a fall 
 through a lattice in his palace at Samaria. 
 In his health he had worshipped his moth¬ 
 er’s gods, and now he sent to inquire of 
 the oracle of Baal-zebub in the Philistine 
 city of Ekron whether he should recover 
 his health. But Elijah, who now for the 
 last time exercised the prophetic office, re¬ 
 buked him for this impiety, and announced 
 to him his approaching death. The only 
 other recorded transaction of his reign, his 
 endeavor to join the king of Judah in trad¬ 
 ing to Ophir, is more fitly related under 
 Jehoshaphat. (i Kingsxxii. 49-53; 2 Kings 
 1; 2 Chron. xx. 35-37.) (2) Fifth king of 
 
 Judah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah, a 
 daughter of Ahab, and therefore nephew 
 of the preceding Ahaziah. He is called 
 Azariah (2 Chron. xxii. 6), probably by a 
 copyist’s error, and Jehoahaz. (2 Chron. 
 
 xxi. 17.) So, too, while in 2 Kings viii. 
 26 we read that he was 22 years old 
 at his accession, we find in 2 Chron. 
 
 xxii. 2 that his age at that time was 42. 
 The former number is certainly right, as 
 in 2 Chron. xxi. 5, 20, we see that his father 
 Jehoram was 40 when he died, which 
 would make him younger than his own 
 son, so that a transcriber must have made 
 a mistake in the numbers. Ahaziah was 
 an idolater, and he allied himself with his 
 uncle Jehoram, king of Israel, brother and 
 successor of the preceding Ahaziah, against 
 Hazael, the new king of Syria. The two 
 kings were, however, defeated at Ramoth, 
 where Jehoram was so severely wounded 
 that he retired to his mother’s palace at 
 Jezreel to be healed. The revolution car¬ 
 ried out in Israel by Jehu under the guid¬ 
 ance of Elisha broke out while Ahaziah 
 was visiting his uncle at Jezreel. As Jehu 
 approached the town, Jehoram and Ahaziah 
 went out to meet him; the former was shot 
 through the heart by Jehu, and Ahaziah 
 was pursued as far as the pass of Gur, 
 near the city of Ibleam, and there mortally 
 wounded. He died when he reached 
 Megiddo. In 2 Chron. xxii. 9 an apparently 
 different account is given of his death. 
 Ahaziah reigned one year, b. c. 884. (2 
 
Ahi 
 
 ( 18) 
 
 Ail 
 
 Kings viii. 26; 2 Kings ix. 29.)”—Smith: 
 Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Ahim'elech (brother or friend of the king), 
 (1) the son of Ahitub, and his successor as 
 high-priest at Nob, in the days of Saul. 
 (1 Sam. xxi. 1.) He gave David the shew- 
 breat to eat, and the sword of Goliath, when 
 he fled from Saul. For this act, at the in¬ 
 stigation of Doeg, the Edomite, he was put 
 to death, and with him eighty-five priests; 
 Abiathar alone escaped. (1 Sam. xx. 11.) (2) 
 A Hittite who was a companion of David 
 during his flight from Saul. 
 
 Ahith'ophel (brother of foolishness), a na¬ 
 tive of Giloh in the hill-country of Judah, 
 and the intimate friend and counsellor of 
 David. (Psa. iv. 12-14 ! 2 Sam. xv. 12 ; 1 
 Chron. xxvii. 33.) A man of remarkable 
 wisdom in state affairs, he was persuaded 
 to join in the conspiracy of Absalom against 
 his father. His shrewd advice, however, 
 was defeated by Hushai, and, seeing the 
 probable ruin that would overtake Absalom, 
 and dreading David’s revenge, he hanged 
 himself. (2 Sam. xvii. 23.) Ahithophel was 
 the grandfather of Bath-sheba. 
 
 Ahlfeld, Johann Friedrich, D. D., 
 an eminent and eloquent Lutheran 
 clergyman; b. at Mehringen, An¬ 
 halt, Nov. 1, 1810; d. at Leipzig, 
 
 March 4, 1884. Educated at Halle 
 (1S30-33), he was pastor at Alsleben, 
 
 1838, and at Halle, 1847. From 1851 
 until his death he was pastor of St. 
 Nicholas’ Church at Leipzig. His 
 preaching attracted great throngs, 
 and was thoroughly evangelical. 
 
 He taught in the Leipzig Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary and was a member of 
 the commission to revise the Luther 
 version of the Old Testament. Sev¬ 
 eral volumes of his sermons were 
 published. 
 
 Aidan (635-651). This great 
 North-of-England missionary was 
 educated as a monk in Iona. Con¬ 
 secrated bishop, he went to North¬ 
 umbria in 635. He founded a mon¬ 
 astery on the island of Lindisfarne. 
 
 “ So unwearying was the work of 
 St. Aidan, so self-denying his life, 
 and so holy his example, that the 
 country was won over to the faith, 
 even in his own lifetime.” He died 
 at Bamborough, near Lindisfarne, 
 
 Aug. 31, 651. 
 
 Ailli (al'-ye), Pierre d’, b. at 
 Aillihautclocher in North France 
 in 1350; d. in Avignon, August 9, 
 
 1420. He was a student of theology in 
 the University of Paris in 1372, and be¬ 
 came a doctor of theology in 1380, hav¬ 
 ing already attained prominence as a 
 teacher and writer. His views antag¬ 
 onized the Papists of his time in denying 
 the infalliblity of the pope, and asserting 
 that the oecumenical council was the true 
 representative of the Church. In 1389, he 
 was made Chancellor of the University of 
 Paris, and took an influential part in eccle¬ 
 siastical affairs, especially in those pertain¬ 
 ing to the papal schism. After the death 
 of Clement VII. (1394), Benedict XIII. was 
 elected his successor, and through the 
 efforts of Ailli was recognized by France. 
 In 1395 Benedict made Ailli bishop of Puy, 
 and in 1397 of Cambray. A’illi advocated 
 the calling of a general council to devise a 
 settlement of the schism. This pleased 
 John XXIII., who made him a cardinal in 
 1411. The Council of Constance was held, 
 and the schism healed by the deposition of 
 Gregory XII., John XXIII., and Benedict 
 XIII. and the election of Martin V., whose 
 legate Ailli became at Avignon. Ailli was 
 a prolific writer, not only upon doctrinal and 
 ecclesiastical subjects, but also wrote on 
 geography and astronomy. It is said that 
 
 SOUTH AISLE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY, 
 
Ain 
 
 ( 19 ) 
 
 Alb 
 
 Columbus found [in his writings the source 
 of the suggestion that there might possibly 
 be a western passage from Spain to India. 
 See his Life by Paul Tschackert, Gotha, 
 1877. 
 
 Ainsworth, Henry, D. D., a celebrated 
 Non-conformist divine and one of the earli¬ 
 est leaders of the Independents; b. at 
 Pleasington, Lancashire, about 1560. He 
 gained a profound knowledge of the Hebrew 
 language, and his Annotations on Several 
 Books of the Bible has passed through many 
 editions. He removed to Amsterdam about 
 1593, and had a church there to which he 
 ministered until his death in 1622. See 
 
 Neal: History of the Puritans. 
 
 % 
 
 Aisle, the “wing” (Lat. ala), or side 
 passage or part of a church, attached alike 
 in large churches to the nave, transepts, 
 and chancel. In English churches there 
 are commonly two aisles to the nave—one 
 on the north, and the other on the south. 
 In small churches there is often only one 
 aisle, which is generally on the south side 
 of the nave, while in larger ones there are 
 sometimes two or even more on either side 
 of the nave.— Benham. In American church¬ 
 es the passage-ways by which the seats are 
 reached are called aisles. 
 
 Aitken, William Hay Macdowall 
 Hunter, Church of England; b. at Liver¬ 
 pool, Sept. 21, 1841. A graduate of Ox¬ 
 ford, since 1875 he has been prominent as 
 an evangelistic leader in revival work. In 
 1884 he was appointed general superintend¬ 
 ent of the Church of England Parochial 
 Mission Society. He is the author of a 
 number of popular religious works. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle (Aks-la-sha-pel'); Ger¬ 
 man, Aaehen(ar-ken); Latin, Aquis Granum. 
 The capital of a district of the same name 
 in Rhenish Prussia, and about 40 miles 
 west of Cologne. It was the place where 
 the German emperors were crowned, 803- 
 1558. Its cathedral contains the tomb of 
 the Emperor Charlemagne. Several impor¬ 
 tant synods were held here: (1) 789, when 
 the Apocrypha were separated from the 
 church canon; (4) 809. Inserted the Filio- 
 que {q. v.) in the Nicene Creed. 
 
 Aikba, a learned Jewish rabbi of the 
 second century. As a teacher he exerted 
 a great influence, and did much to develop 
 and diffuse the Talmudic learning and the 
 Cabala. 
 
 Akoimetoi. See Accemet^:. 
 
 A'lasco. See Lasco. 
 
 Alb {alba, white), a long white tunic 
 worn during service by all Roman eccle¬ 
 siastics. It is like the surplice used in the 
 Church of England, excepting that it has 
 narrower sleeves and fits the body more 
 closely. In the early church it was the 
 custom to clothe the recently baptized in 
 white garments as a symbol of purity. The 
 albis was worn from Easter Eve until the 
 Sunday after Easter, which was called 
 Dominica in albis ; that is, “the Sunday 
 in white,” whence the name Whitsunday. 
 
 Alban, St. See Alban’s, St. 
 
 Alban’s, St., ( Hertfordshire ), near the 
 Roman Verulam, derived its present name 
 from Alban, the British protomartyr, said 
 to have been beheaded during the persecu¬ 
 tion by Diocletian, 304. A stately monas¬ 
 tery to his memory was erected by Offa, 
 King of Mercia, about 793, who granted it 
 many privileges.— Hayden. 
 
 Albanenses, a small sect which revived 
 Gnostic and Manichaean doctrines about 
 796. They were named from Albano which 
 was the seat of their principal bishop. 
 
 Albert the Great {Albertus Magnus ), b. at 
 Lauingen, Bavaria, 1193; d. in Cologne, 
 Nov. 15, 1280. He studied at Padua 
 and entered the order of St. Dominic in 
 1221. As a theologian, philosopher, and 
 mathematician, he was deemed the most 
 learned man of his age. He was a strong 
 Aristotelian and wrote many commentaries 
 on the works of his master. His princi¬ 
 pal theological works are a commentary in 
 three volumes on the Books of the Sentences 
 of Peter Lombard and the Summa Theo¬ 
 logies, in two volumes. “ Albert’s activity, 
 however, is rather philosophical than theo¬ 
 logical, for, while pressing philosophy in 
 general and Aristotle in particular into the 
 service of theology, he excludes from what 
 belongs to the natural reason all that is 
 specially biblical; as (e. g.) miracles, the 
 atonement, and the Trinity ; though he 
 does not refuse with Augustine exemplifica¬ 
 tions, shadowings of the latter doctrine 
 even in nature.”— Ency. Britannica , vol. 1, 
 p. 454. In 1260, Alexander IV. made Albert 
 bishop of Regensburg, but in a short time 
 he sought release from these duties and 
 retired to his monastery at Cologne where 
 he spent his life in scholarly activities. See 
 his collected works by Jammy (Lyons, 1651), 
 21 vols. fol. See life by Sighart, English 
 translation by Dixon (London, 1876). 
 
 Albertus Magnus. See above. 
 
 Albigenses,“ a sect opposed to the Church 
 
Alb 
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 Ale 
 
 of Rome, which derives its name from AI- 
 biga (the modern Albi ) either because its 
 doctrines were expressly condemned at a 
 council held then, or, more probably, be¬ 
 cause its adherents were to be found in 
 great numbers in that town and its neigh¬ 
 borhood. The Albigenses were kindred 
 in origin, and more or less similar in doc¬ 
 trine to the sects in Italy known as Caterins, 
 in Germany as Catharists, and in France as 
 Bulgarians, but they are not to be entirely 
 identified with any of these. Still less 
 ought they to be confounded, as has 
 frequently been the case, with the Wal- 
 denses, who first appear at a later period 
 in history, and are materially different in 
 their doctrinal views. The descent of the 
 Albigenses may be traced with tolerable 
 distinctness from the Paulicians, a sect 
 that sprang into existence in the Eastern 
 Church during the sixth century. (See 
 Paulicians.) The Paulicians were Gnostics, 
 and were accused by their enemies and 
 persecutors of holding Manichaean doc¬ 
 trines, which, it is said, they vehemently 
 disowned. Their creed, whatever it was 
 precisely, spread gradually westward 
 through Europe. In the ninth century it 
 found many adherents in Bulgaria, and 
 300 years later it was maintained and de¬ 
 fended, though not without important 
 modifications, by the Albigenses in the 
 south of France. The attempt to discover 
 the precise doctrinal opinions held by the 
 Albigenses is attended with a double dif¬ 
 ficulty. No formal creed or definite doc¬ 
 trinal statement framed by themselves 
 exists; and in default of this it is impossi¬ 
 ble to depend on the representations of 
 their views given by their opponents in 
 the Church of Rome, who did not scruple 
 to exaggerate and distort the opinions held 
 by those whom they had branded as 
 heretics. It is probably impossible now 
 to determine accurately what is true and 
 what is false in these representations. It 
 seems almost certain, however, that the 
 bond which united the Albigenses was not 
 so much a positive, fully developed re¬ 
 ligious faith as a determined opposition to 
 the Church of Rome. They inherited in¬ 
 deed, as has been already said, certain 
 doctrines of Eastern origin, such as the 
 Manichaean dualism, docetism in relation 
 to the person of Christ, and a theory of 
 metempsychosis. They seem, like the 
 Manichees, to have disowned the authority 
 of the Old Testament; and the division of 
 their adherents into perfecti and credentis is 
 similar to the Manichaean distinction be¬ 
 tween electi and auditores. The statement 
 that they rejected marriage, often made by 
 Roman Catholics, has probably no other 
 foundation in fact than that they denied 
 
 that marriage was a sacrament; and many 
 other statements as to their doctrine and 
 practice must be received, at least with 
 suspicion, as coming from prejudiced and 
 implacable opponents. The history of the 
 Albigenses may be said to be written in 
 blood. At first the Church was content to 
 condemn their errors at various councils 
 (1165, 1176, 1178, 1179), but as their practi¬ 
 cal opposition to Rome became stronger, 
 more decided measures were taken. In¬ 
 nocent III. had scarcely ascended the papal 
 throne when he sent legates to Toulouse 
 (1198) to endeavor to suppress the sect. 
 Two Cistercians, Guy and Regnier, were 
 first commissioned, and in 1199 they were 
 joined by Peter of Castelnau and others, 
 who were known throughout the district 
 as inquisitors. Raymond VI., Count of 
 Toulouse, took the part of his Albigensian 
 subjects, though not himself belonging to 
 the sect, and for this he was excommuni¬ 
 cated in 1207. A year later the pope 
 found a pretext for resorting to the most 
 extreme measures in the assassination of 
 his legate, Peter of Castelnau, Jan. 15, 
 1208. A crusade against the Albigenses 
 was at once ordered, and Raymond, who 
 had meanwhile submitted and done pen¬ 
 ance, was forced to take the field against his 
 own subjects. The bloody war of exter¬ 
 mination which followed has scarcely a 
 parallel in history, As town after town 
 was taken, the inhabitants were put to the 
 sword without distinction of age or sex, 
 and the numerous ecclesiastics who were 
 in the army especially distinguished them¬ 
 selves by a bloodthirsty ferocity. At the 
 taking of Beziers (July 22, 1209), the Ab¬ 
 bot Arnold, being asked how the heretics 
 were to be distinguished from the faithful, 
 made the infamous reply, “ Slay all; God 
 will know his own.” The war was carried 
 on under the command of Simon de Mont- 
 fort with undiminished cruelty for a num¬ 
 ber of years. Raymond’s nephew, Vis¬ 
 count Raymond Roger, who had espoused 
 the cause of the Albigenses, was taken 
 prisoner at Carcassonne, and the sect be¬ 
 came fewer in numbers year by year. 
 The establishment of an Inquisition at 
 Languedoc in 1229 accelerated the exter¬ 
 minating process, and a few years later 
 the sect was all but extinct.”— Ency. Britan- 
 nica , s. v. See Maitland: History of the Al¬ 
 bigenses, tic. (London, 1832). See Cathari. 
 
 Albright, Jacob. See Evangelical As¬ 
 sociation. 
 
 Albright Brethren. See Evangelical 
 Association. 
 
 Alcantara, Order of. See Military 
 Orders. 
 
Ale 
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 Ale 
 
 Alcuin, an eminent ecclesiastic, b. in 
 Yorkshire about 735; d. at Tours, 804. He 
 had won distinction as a scholar and teacher 
 when he first met Charlemagne at Pavia in 
 782. He became the intimate friend of the 
 emperor and was chosen as the instructor 
 of the royal family. As the ecclesiastical 
 counselor of Charlemagne, he exerted a re¬ 
 markable influence in organizing universi¬ 
 ties at Paris, Tours, and other places, and 
 securing a prominent place for the study 
 of theology. He was a prolific writer, and 
 did much to revive learning and aid Char¬ 
 lemagne in his plans for building up a 
 Christian state. Retiring to the abbey of 
 St. Martin at Tours, of which he had been 
 appointed head in 796, he devoted himself 
 to the work of teaching until his death. 
 His works were published at Paris, 1617; 
 Ratisbon, 1777. 
 
 Aldhelm, d. May 25, 709. He belonged 
 to the royal family of Wessex and was ab¬ 
 bot of Malesbury, and, in 705, Bishop of 
 Sherborn. He was the first Englishman 
 who gained reputation as a Latin scholar. 
 He made a translation of the first fifty 
 Psalms, some in prose and others in verse. 
 His collected works were edited by Dr. 
 Giles (Oxford, 1844). 
 
 Alesius, Alexander, b. in Edinburgh, 
 April 23, 1500; d. at Leipzig, Nov. 29, 
 1560. Educated at the university of St. 
 Andrew’s, he was appointed canon there, 
 and in the discharge of his duties was re¬ 
 quired to seek the recantation of Patrick 
 Hamilton {q. v.), but his intercourse with 
 Hamilton resulted in a conversion to his 
 views. To avoid persecution, he fled to 
 Germany and joined the Lutherans at Wit¬ 
 tenberg. In 1535 he returned to England 
 and lectured on divinity at Cambridge. For 
 a time he practised medicine in London, 
 but in 1540 returned to Germany where he 
 became professor of theology, first at 
 Frankfort on the Oder, and then at Leipzig 
 (1543). He was an able scholar and showed 
 both courage and moderation in his advo¬ 
 cacy of the reformed doctrines. His orig¬ 
 inal name was Alane, but he assumed the 
 one by which he is known while in exile. 
 
 Alexander is the name of eight popes. 
 See Popes. 
 
 Alexander, Archibald, D. D., b. in Rock- 
 bridgevCounty, Va., April 17, 1772; d. in 
 Princeton, N. J., Oct. 22, 1S51. This 
 distinguished Presbyterian divine was of 
 Scotch descent and self-educated. Licensed 
 to preach in 1791, he was engaged for seven 
 years as an itinerant missionary in his na¬ 
 tive state, and acquired during this period 
 
 the facility of extemporaneous speaking 
 for which he was remarkable. For a time 
 president of Hampden Sidney College, he 
 then accepted, in 1807, the pastorate of the 
 Pine Street Church, Philadelphia. Ini8n 
 he was appointed first professor in the 
 newly established Presbyterian theological 
 seminary at Princeton. He filled this chair 
 until his death in 1851. Among other 
 books, he wrote Outlines of the Evidences of 
 Christianity , which had a large circulation, 
 and a Treatise on the Canon of the Old and 
 New Testament. See his Memoir by his 
 son, Rev. Dr. J. W. Alexander (N. Y., 
 
 1854)* 
 
 Alexander, James Waddell, D. D., b. in 
 Louisa County, Va., March 13, 1804; d. at 
 the Red Sweet Springs, Va., July 31, 1859. 
 Son of Dr. Archibald. After being graduat¬ 
 ed at Princeton he was pastor of a Presby¬ 
 terian Church at Charlotte, Va., and then 
 at Trenton, N. J.; professor of belles-lettres 
 and Latin in Princeton College, 1833-44; 
 pastor of Duane Street Church, New York, 
 1844-49; professor of ecclesiastical history 
 and sacred rhetoric in Princeton Seminary, 
 1849-51. When the Duane Street Church 
 was removed to Fifth Avenue he was again 
 called to the pastorate, and remained in this 
 position until his death. Dr. Alexander 
 was a preacher of great ability and elo¬ 
 quence, and a prolific writer for the press. 
 See Forty Years' Familiar Letters of Rev. J. 
 W. Alexander, edited by Rev. Dr. J. Hall 
 of Trenton, N. J. (i860), 2 vols. 
 
 Alexander, Joseph Addison, D. D., son 
 of Dr. Archibald, b. in Philadelphia, April 
 24, 1809; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 28, 
 i860. He was one of the most eminent 
 of American biblical scholars. P'rom 1830 
 to 1833 he was adjunct professor of ancient 
 languages and literature at Princeton, and 
 in 1838 he was transferred to the chair of 
 biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history 
 in the seminary. Dr. Alexander wrote 
 several important volumes; among them, 
 a Translation of and Cofnmentary on the 
 Psalms, and a Critical Cotnmentary on the 
 Prophecies of Isaiah. See his Biography 
 by H. C. Alexander (N, Y., 1870), 2 vols. 
 
 Alexander Nevski, a Russian prince and 
 general, whose rule was so beneficent that 
 he is venerated as a saint of the Greek 
 Church; b. at Vladimir, 1219; d. at Goro- 
 detz, Nov. 14, 1263. He gained a great 
 victory over the Swedes on the Neva 
 in 1240. Here Peter the Great built one 
 of the richest monasteries in Russia. 
 Pope Alexander made unsuccessful efforts 
 to bring the great general into the Roman 
 Church. 
 
Ale 
 
 ( 22 ) 
 
 All 
 
 Alexander of Hales, b. in England; d. in 
 Paris, Aug. 27, 1245. He studied theol¬ 
 ogy and the canon law both in England 
 and Paris, and gained such fame as a teach¬ 
 er that he was called “ The Irrefragable 
 Doctor.” In his Summa Universes Theo- 
 logice, he applies the Aristotelian methods 
 of philosophy to theology. 
 
 Alexander the Great, b. B. C. 356; d. at 
 Babylon, B. C. 323; and was buried at Alex¬ 
 andria, which he founded, b. c. 332. His 
 name is mentioned in the Apocrypha, 1 
 Macc. i. 1-9; vi. 2, and figuratively in Dan. 
 ii. 39; vii. 6; viii. 5-7; xi. 3, 4. Josephus 
 says that Alexander visited Jerusalem 
 after the siege of Tyre, and was so im¬ 
 pressed with the prophecies of Daniel and 
 their fulfillment, that he granted the Jews 
 peculiar privileges. 
 
 Alexandria, was founded by Alexander 
 the Great, 332 b. c. Next to Rome and 
 Antioch, it was the most magnificent city 
 of antiquity, as well as the chief seat of 
 the Grecian learning and literature. Large 
 numbers of Jews made it their home. At 
 the opening of the present century it had 
 fallen into decay, and was but a small vil¬ 
 lage; but it has regained its former 
 prosperity and now has a population of 
 over two hundred thousand. Alexandria 
 was the seat of the famous catechetical 
 school, which tradition says was establish¬ 
 ed by St. Mark the Evangelist. Pantsenus 
 was the first teacher of the school, of whom 
 we know with certainty. He was succeed¬ 
 ed by Clement, whose successor was 
 Origen. It is not strange that the fame of 
 these great men drew great numbers of 
 pupils. Although Origen, after he was ex¬ 
 pelled from the city, established a school 
 in Caesarea in Palestine, the school at 
 Alexandria still flourished under his pupils 
 Heraclas and Dionysius. After the time 
 of Dionysius it gradually lost its preemi¬ 
 nent influence and finally became a school 
 simply for children. See Clement; 
 Origen. 
 
 Alexandrian School. See Alexandria. 
 
 Alexians, so called from their patron 
 saint, Alexius. The association was first 
 formed at Antwerp in 1300, for the purpose 
 of caring for the sick poor and burying 
 their dead. They were also called Cellites , 
 from cella , a tomb, and Lullards , from the fu¬ 
 neral dirges which they sang when follow¬ 
 ing the remains of any of their number to 
 the grave. 
 
 Alford, Henry, D. D., Dean of Canter¬ 
 bury and an eminent biblical critic, b. in 
 
 London, Eng., Oct. 7, 1810; d. there Jan. 
 12, 1871. This eminent divine won dis¬ 
 tinguished honor as poet, preacher, paint¬ 
 er, musician, and scholar in the field of sa¬ 
 cred literature. His greatest work, and 
 the one by which he is best known, was 
 his edition of the Greek Testament (1849- 
 1861). See his Life and Letters , edited by 
 his widow (London, 1872), 2 vols. 
 
 Alfred the Great, king of England, 871- 
 901, in addition to his remarkable gifts and 
 triumphs as a statesman and military lead¬ 
 er, was deeply interested in the religious 
 life and ecclesiastical organization of the 
 nation. He rebuilt the churches and mon¬ 
 asteries that had been burned by the Danes, 
 and founded the University of Oxford. 
 He gathered about him a circle of learned 
 men and engaged himself in scholarly la¬ 
 bors. He translated several religious 
 works that had a marked influence; among 
 them was the Liber Pastoralis Curce by Greg¬ 
 ory I. It is said that Alfred began a trans¬ 
 lation of the Psalms. 
 
 Alienation, “ ecclesiastically speaking, is 
 the improper disposal of such lands and 
 goods as have become the property of the 
 church; alienation in mortmain, the con¬ 
 veying or making over lands or tenements 
 to any religious house or other corporate 
 body.”— Hook. 
 
 Allah, the Mohammedan name for God, 
 contracted from the Arabic al ilah , “the 
 God.” It is commonly used with one or 
 more of the 99 epithets or attributes of 
 God. 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation of the Script¬ 
 ures, assumes that besides the literal sense 
 the sacred writers convey a spiritual or 
 mystic sense. The allegorical interpreta¬ 
 tion of the Bible was introduced by the 
 Alexandrian Jews, who attempted to recon¬ 
 cile the Mosaic revelation with the Greek 
 philosophy. This method was taken up 
 and fostered by Origen, Clement of Alex¬ 
 andria, and others of the Christian Fathers, 
 and has had many advocates in every pe¬ 
 riod. In recent times it has justly fallen 
 into disrepute as a false and misleading 
 system. 
 
 Allegory, “ a figurative representation 
 conveying a meaning other than, and in ad¬ 
 dition to, the literal. An allegory is distin¬ 
 guished from a metaphor by being longer 
 sustained and more fully carried out in its 
 details; and from an analogy by the fact 
 that the one appeals to the imagination and 
 the other to the reason. The fable or par¬ 
 able is a short allegory with one definite 
 
All 
 
 All 
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
 moral. The allegory has been a favorite 
 form in the literature of nearly every na¬ 
 tion.”— Ency . Britannica. There is frequent 
 use of the allegory in the Bible, as in the 
 eightieth Psalm, where the history of Israel 
 is compared to the growth of a vine. In 
 the fourth chapter of Galatians (22-31 vs.) 
 Paul explains certain differences between 
 the Jewish and the Christian Dispensations 
 by allegorizing the history of Ishmael and 
 Isaac. Among modern allegories Bunyan's 
 Pilgrim's Progress is the most perfect. 
 
 Alleine, Joseph, [an English Non-conform¬ 
 ist divine; author of The Alarm to the Un¬ 
 converted; b. at Devizes, England., in 1634; 
 d. at Taunton, Nov. 17, 1668. He was a 
 graduate of Oxford where he became tutor 
 and chaplain of Corpus Christi College. 
 Declining offers of high preferment in the 
 state, he accepted the position of assistant 
 in the great church of St. Mary Magdalene, 
 Taunton (1654). His life was a model of 
 pastoral devotion, but he found time to 
 prosecute both theological and scientific 
 studies. When the persecution of the Non¬ 
 conformist ministers commenced, he was 
 one of those who were ejected from their 
 parishes. He became an itinerant preach¬ 
 er, and for this he was cast into prison. 
 After his release he still continued his work 
 in great physical weakness until his death. 
 
 Allen, Henry, b. at Newport, R. I., June 
 14, 1748; d. at Northampton, N. H., Feb. 
 2, 1784. He began to propagate his pecul¬ 
 iar views in Nova Scotia, in 1784, where he 
 labored for many years. “He held that 
 all the souls of the human race were ema¬ 
 nations from one great spirit; that they 
 were all present in the Garden of Eden and 
 took actual part in the fall; that the human 
 body and the whole material world did not 
 exist before the fall, but were created to pre¬ 
 vent the absolute destruction of the human 
 race by the fall.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 He contended that Christ never was raised, 
 and that there will be no resurrection of 
 the body. He gained quite a body of fol¬ 
 lowers, but since his death they have dwin¬ 
 dled away. 
 
 » 
 
 Allen, William, D. D., Congregational¬ 
 ism b. at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; d. 
 at Northampton, Mass., July 16, 1868. He 
 was graduated at Harvard in 1802, and for 
 some time was assistant librarian of that 
 institution. In 1809 he published an 
 American Biographical and Historical Dic¬ 
 tionary , which in successive editions in¬ 
 creased the number of its titles from seven 
 hundred in the first to seven thousand in 
 the edition of 1857. It was the pioneer 
 work of its kind in America. Dr. Allen 
 
 succeeded his father as pastor of the Con¬ 
 gregational church in Pittsfield, Mass., in 
 1810, and in 1820 became president of Bow- 
 doin College, where he remained until 1839. 
 The closing years of his life were spent in 
 Northampton, Mass. 
 
 All-hallow’s-day, a former name for All- 
 saints’-day, “ hallowe ” being a mediaeval 
 English word for “ saint.” All-hallow- 
 e’en is still used to designate the evening 
 before All-saints’-day. 
 
 Alliaco, Peter. See Ailly, Pierre d\ 
 
 Alliance, Evangelical. The Evangeli¬ 
 cal Alliance, which is a world-wide organ¬ 
 ization, was formed in London in August, 
 1846. At its organization fifty denomina¬ 
 tions of evangelical Christians were repre¬ 
 sented by upwards of 800 clergymen and 
 laymen from all parts of the world. The 
 object of the Alliance is to strengthen and 
 manifest Christian fellowship, to promote 
 religious liberty, and to encourage cooper¬ 
 ation in extending the kingdom of Christ. 
 General Conferences have been held in 
 London, in 1851; Paris, in 1855; Berlin in 
 1857; Geneva,in 1861; Amsterdam, in 1867; 
 New York, in 1873; Basle, in 1879, and in 
 Copenhagen, in 1884. The doctrinal basis 
 is as follows: 
 
 “ 1. The Divine inspiration, authority, 
 and sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 “ 2. The right and duty of private judg¬ 
 ment in the interpretation of the Holy 
 Scriptures. 
 
 “ 3. The Unity of the God-head, and the 
 Trinity of the persons therein. 
 
 “ 4. The utter depravity of human na¬ 
 ture in consequence of the Fall. 
 
 “ 5. The incarnation of the Son of God, 
 his work of atonement for the sins of man¬ 
 kind, and his mediatorial intercession and 
 reign. 
 
 “ 6. The justification of the sinner by 
 faith alone. 
 
 “ 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the 
 conversion and sanctification of the sinner. 
 
 “ 8. The immortality of the soul, the 
 resurrection of the body, the judgment of 
 the world by our Lord Jesus Christ, with 
 the eternal blessedness of the righteous, 
 and the eternal punishment of the wicked. 
 
 “ 9. The Divine institution of the Chris¬ 
 tian ministry, and the obligation and per-, 
 petuity of the ordinances of Baptism and 
 the Lord’s Supper. 
 
 “ It being, however, distinctly declared 
 that this brief summary is not to be regard¬ 
 ed in any formal or ecclesiastical sense as 
 a creed or confession, nor the adoption of 
 it as involving an assumption of the right 
 authoritatively to define the limits of Chris- 
 
All 
 
 ( 24 ) 
 
 All 
 
 tian Brotherhood, but simply as as an indi¬ 
 cation of the class of persons whom it is de¬ 
 sirable to embrace within the Alliance.” 
 
 The Evangelical Alliance for the United 
 States was not formed until January, 1867. 
 At its organization the following resolu¬ 
 tions were adopted: 
 
 Resolved , That in forming an Evangelical 
 Alliance for the United States, in coopera¬ 
 tive union with other branches of the Al¬ 
 liance, we have no intention or desire to 
 give rise to a new denomination or sect; 
 nor to effect an amalgamation of Churches, 
 except in the way of facilitating personal 
 Christian intercourse and a mutual good 
 understanding; nor to interfere in any way 
 whatever with the internal affairs of the 
 various denominations; but simply to bring 
 individual Christians into closer fellowship 
 and cooperation, on the basis of the spir¬ 
 itual union which already exists in the vi¬ 
 tal relation of Christ to the members of his 
 body in all ages and countries. 
 
 Resolved , That in the same spirit, we pro¬ 
 pose no new creed; but, taking broad, his¬ 
 torical, and evangelical catholic ground, we 
 solemnly reaffirm and profess our faith in 
 all the doctrines of the inspired Word of 
 God, and the consensus of doctrines as held 
 by all true Christians from the beginning. 
 And we do more especially affirm our be¬ 
 lief in the Divine-human per son and atoning 
 work of our Lord and Saviour , Jesus Christ , 
 as the only and sufficient source of salva¬ 
 tion, as the heart and soul of Christianity, 
 and as the centre of all true Christian union 
 and fellowship. 
 
 Resolved , That, with this explanation, and 
 in the spirit of a just Christian liberality 
 in regard to the minor differences of theo¬ 
 logical schools and religious denomina¬ 
 tions, we also adopt, as a summary of the 
 consensus of the various Evangelical Con¬ 
 fessions of Faith, the Articles and Explan¬ 
 atory Statement set forth and agreed on by 
 the Evangelical Alliance at its formation 
 in London, 1846, and approved by the sep¬ 
 arate European organizations. 
 
 In 1887 there was a national Christian 
 Conference held at Washington, under the 
 auspices and direction of the Evangelical 
 Alliance for the United States, at which a 
 new movement of that organization was 
 introduced to the public. This movement 
 sprung from a recognition of the perils 
 which threaten our Christian and American 
 civilization, and the great social problems 
 which press for solution. It is believed 
 that the Gospel of Christ affords the only 
 safeguard from these perils, and the only 
 solution of these problems. But how is it 
 to be applied ? A very large proportion of 
 the people, “ the masses,” do not enter 
 the churches. The leaven which alone can 
 
 leaven the lump is not mingled with Lhe 
 meal. If the people will not come to the 
 churches, the churches must go to the 
 people. 
 
 This movement aims to help the church¬ 
 es reach every house with Christian influ¬ 
 ence by family-to-family visitation through 
 sustained personal endeavor. When per¬ 
 sonal influence has been gained through 
 personal acquaintance, it is used to win the 
 non-church-goer to Christ and the church. 
 
 Personal effort, in order to the best econ¬ 
 omy and the largest results, must be organ¬ 
 ized; and in order to prevent overlapping 
 in some cases and oversight in others, there 
 must be cooperation between the churches. 
 
 The method, therefore, by which this 
 movement aims to bring the churches and 
 the non-churcli-goers into contact is that of 
 cooperation in sustained house-to-house 
 visitation. 
 
 This acquaintance with the homes of the 
 people brings to light the needs of the com¬ 
 munity, and shows whatever interferes 
 with its spiritual, moral, intellectual, so¬ 
 cial, sanitary, or general welfare. That is, 
 systematic visitation shows what needs to 
 be done, and the churches of the commu¬ 
 nity stand ready to cooperate in doing it. 
 Thus there is made a practical applica¬ 
 tion of the Gospel to the life of the com¬ 
 munity. 
 
 The movement contemplates the organi¬ 
 zation of a local alliance wherever there is 
 more than one evangelical church. The 
 work has been inaugurated in a dozen 
 States and one Territory. In New York it 
 has been in successful operation for a year 
 or more in nearly a score of cities, and a 
 State organization has been formed. 
 
 Josiah Strong. 
 
 Alliance of the Reformed Churches. See 
 
 Presbyterian Alliance. 
 
 Alliance, The Holy, was formed in 1815 
 between Alexander of Russia, Francis I. of 
 Austria, and Frederick William of Prussia. 
 The purpose of this league was to pro¬ 
 mote the interests of peace, founded upon 
 the law of Christian love and righteous¬ 
 ness. In its practical working the alliance 
 <Jjd not attain a high ideal. 
 
 Allocution denotes an address from the 
 pope to the College of Cardinals while in 
 session. It has reference, generally, to the 
 relations of the Roman see to some foreign 
 government, and the policy it explains can¬ 
 not be used as a precedent. 
 
 All-Saints’-day, a festival, first instituted 
 about 610 in memory of the martyrs, and 
 kept on May 1. Since S34 it has been cele- 
 
All 
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 Alt 
 
 brated on November 1, as a general com¬ 
 memoration of all the saints. 
 
 All-Souls’-day. The day following All- 
 Saints’-day, November 2, is consecrated 
 by the Roman Catholic Church to the 
 memory of the dead, and to prayer for 
 souls suffering in purgatory. 
 
 Almericians. See Amalric. 
 
 Almoner was the name given the officer 
 in religious houses, who had in charge the 
 management and distribution of the alms 
 of the house- By the ancient canons, all 
 monasteries had to spend a tenth part of 
 their income in alms to the poor, and the 
 bishops were required to keep almoners. 
 
 Alms, the giving of money or goods to 
 the poor as a religious duty. Both in the 
 Old and New Testament this duty is incul¬ 
 cated alike by command and example. In 
 the early Church, collections for the poor 
 are mentioned as a bond of unity, and the 
 expression of spiritual life. The message 
 given to Cornelius shows the Divine 
 recognition of this service of love. “ Thy 
 prayers and thine alms are come up for a 
 memorial before God.” (Acts x. 4.) 
 
 Alogi, a name anciently applied to those 
 who denied the doctrine of the “ Logos,” 
 as taught by St. John. They respected 
 both his gospel, and the book of Revela¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Alombrados {Illuminati), a mystic sect 
 originating in Spain in the early part of the 
 sixteenth century. They rejected the minis¬ 
 terial office, and considered neither the 
 sacraments nor good works necessary. 
 The sect was exterminated with great 
 ' severity by the Inquisition. Some fled to 
 France, and an outgrowth of the sect flour¬ 
 ished in Southern France as late as the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 Alpha and Omega. See A. 
 
 Alphonsus Maria de Liguori. See Li- 
 
 GUORI. 
 
 Altar. “The first altar of which we have 
 any account is that built by Noah when he 
 left the ark. (Gen. viii. 20.) In the early 
 times altars were usually built in certain 
 spots hallowed by religious associations; 
 e. g., where God appeared. (Gen. xii. 7; 
 xiii. 18; xxvi. 25; xxxv. 1.) Generally, of 
 course, they were erected for the offering 
 of sacrifice; but in some instances they ap¬ 
 pear to have been only memorials. The 
 Law of Moses directed that two altars 
 
 should be made, the one the Altar of 
 Burnt-offering (called, also, simply the 
 Altar), and the other the Altar of Incense. 
 (1) The Altar of Burnt-offering, called in 
 Mai. i. 7, 12, ‘the table of the Lord,’ per¬ 
 haps, also, in Ezek. xliv. 16. It differed in 
 construction at different times. In Solo¬ 
 mon’s Temple the altar was considerably 
 larger in its dimensions, as might have 
 been expected from the much greater size 
 of the building in which it was placed. 
 Like the former it was square; but the 
 length and breadth were now twenty cubits, 
 and the height ten. (2 Chron. iv. 1.) It dif¬ 
 fered, too, in the material of which it was 
 made, being entirely of brass. (1 Kings viii. 
 64; 2Chron.vii.7.) (2) The Altar of Incense, 
 called also the golden altar, to distinguish 
 it from the Altar of Burnt-offering, which 
 was called the brazen altar. The name 
 ‘altar’ was not strictly appropriate, as no 
 sacrifices were offered upon it; but once in 
 
 ANCIENT ALTARS. 
 
 1.—Jewish Altar of Burnt-offering. 
 
 2.—Jewish Altar of Incense. 
 3, 4.—Greek Altars. 5.—Babylonian. 6.—Roman. 
 
 the year, on the great day of atonement, 
 the liigh-priest sprinkled upon the horns of 
 it the blood of the sin-offering. The Altar 
 of Incense is mentioned as having been re¬ 
 moved from the Temple of Zerubbabel by 
 Antiochus Epiphanes. (1 Macc.i. 21.) Judas 
 Maccabaeus restored it, together with the 
 holy vessels, etc. (1 Macc. iv. 49.) On the 
 Arch of Titus no Altar of Incense appears. 
 But that it existed in the last temple, and 
 was richly overlaid, we learn from the 
 Mishna. From the circumstance that the 
 sweet incense was burnt upon it every day, 
 morning and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8), as 
 well as that the blood of atonement was 
 sprinkled upon it (v. 10), this altar had a 
 special importance attached to it. It is the 
 only altar which appears in the Heavenly 
 Temple. (Isa. vi. 6; Rev. viii. 3, 4.)”— 
 Smith: Diet . of the Bible. 
 
 “ The word ‘ Altar’ has been transferred 
 into the Christian system. For upward of 
 
 e 
 
Alt 
 
 Ama 
 
 ( 26 ) 
 
 five centuries altars in the Christian 
 churches were, for the most part, made of 
 wood; but in 509 A. D., it was decreed by 
 a council held at Epone, in France, that 
 none should be consecrated with chrism ex¬ 
 cept those built of stone. In the first ages 
 of Christianity there was only one altar in 
 a church, but, from a very early time, the 
 Latins have used more than one. In the 
 twelfth century the adorning of churches 
 with images and numerous altars was 
 carried to a great extent, and they were 
 embellished with gold, silver, and precious 
 stones. The Greek churches use but one 
 altar. Altars were frequently placed at 
 the west end of the ancient churches, in¬ 
 stead of the east, but in England almost 
 uniformly in the east. The old English 
 divines, and, indeed, all Protestant ecclesi¬ 
 astical writers of any importance, are 
 unanimous in their opinion that among 
 Christians the word cannot mean what the 
 Jews and heathens expressed by it. The 
 later fathers used various phrases to de¬ 
 note the solemnity which should attach to 
 the communion-table, such as the ‘ mys¬ 
 tical and tremendous table,’ the ‘ mystical 
 table,’ and the 1 holy table,’ etc. And they 
 termed it an altar because, first, the holy 
 Eucharist was regarded as a kind of com¬ 
 memoration sacrifice, or, more properly, a 
 consecrated memorial before God of the 
 great sacrifice on Calvary; and, second, the 
 prayers of the communicants were held to 
 be in themselves sacrifices, or oblations— 
 sacrifices of thanksgiving, as it were. This 
 is the view of those who hold high-church 
 opinions, but does not exclude the other 
 view. Again, they termed it a table when 
 the Eucharist was considered exclusively 
 in the light of a sacrament, to be partaken 
 of by believers as spiritual food. In the 
 former case, the sacrifice was commemo¬ 
 rated; in the latter, it was applied; in the 
 former, it expressed more directly the grati¬ 
 tude, in the latter, more directly the faith, 
 of the Christian.”— Chambers' Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Altar-piece, a painting placed over the 
 altar of a church. 
 
 Altar-screen. See Reredos. 
 
 Altar-Tomb, a monument built in the 
 form of a stone altar, and sometimes sur¬ 
 mounted by a canopy. A tomb of this 
 character commemorates the poet Chaucer 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Altruism, a fanciful term originating 
 with Comte (see Positivism), and adopted 
 by Herbert Spencer, to indicate a moral 
 principle opposed to egoism; that it is a 
 duty to live for others ( altrui ), denying 
 
 ourselves, and bestowing all our love upon 
 others.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 Benevolence; Beneficence. 
 
 Am'alek (,dweller in a valley ), the grand¬ 
 son of Esau. (Gen. xxxvi. 16.) He was not 
 the founder of the Amalekites, as the rec¬ 
 ord (Gen. xiv. 7) shows that they existed 
 before his birth. 
 
 Am'alekites. The origin of this nation 
 is unknown. They are first mentioned in 
 connection with the invasion of Chedor- 
 laomer (Gen. xiv. 7), and they are called 
 (Num. xxiv. 20) “ the first of the nations.” 
 They were routed in a contest with the 
 children of Israel at Rephidim, and were 
 threatened with God’s judgments. (Exod. 
 xvii. 14.) Defeated by Gideon (Judg. vii. 
 22), and by Saul (1 Sam. xv.), and David 
 (1 Sam. xxk.), they were completely de¬ 
 stroyed. They lived in the region between 
 Canaan and Egypt. 
 
 Amal'ric of Bena, a teacher of philosophy 
 and theology in the University of Paris 
 about the end of the twelfth century. He was 
 accused of heresy in 1204, and condemned 
 by Innocent III., and d. soon after. His 
 followers were condemned by a synod held 
 at Paris, 1209, and the bones of Amalric 
 were exhumed and scattered abroad. The 
 doctrines of the Almericians may be stated 
 in brief as follows: (1) God is all; (2) Every 
 Christian must believe that he is a member 
 of the body of Christ in order to salva¬ 
 tion; (3) He who remains in love can com¬ 
 mit no sin. 
 
 Amazi’ah, “son of Joash and eighth king 
 of Judah; reigned b. c. 837-809. He suc¬ 
 ceeded to the throne at the age of 25, on 
 the murder of his father, and punished the 
 murderers; sparing, however, their chil¬ 
 dren, in accordance with Deut. xxiv. t6, as 
 the second book of Kings (xiv. 6) expressly 
 informs us, thereby implying that the pre¬ 
 cept had not been generally observed. In 
 order to restore his kingdom to the great¬ 
 ness of Jehoshaphat’s days, he made war 
 on the Edomites, defeated them in the val¬ 
 ley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, and 
 took their capital, Selah or Petra, to which 
 he gave the name of Jokteel, i. e., God- 
 subdued. We read in 2 Chron. xxv. 12-14 
 that the victorious • Jews threw 10,000 
 Edomites from the cliffs, and that Amaziah 
 performed religious ceremonies in honor 
 of the gods of the country—an exception to 
 the general character of his reign. (Cf. 2 
 Kings xiv. 3, with 2 Chron. xxv. 2.) In 
 consequence of this he was overtaken by 
 misfortune. Having already offended the 
 Hebrews of the northern kingdom by send- 
 
Amb 
 
 Amb 
 
 ( 27 ) 
 
 jng back, in obedience to a prophet’s direc¬ 
 tion, some mercenary troops whom he had 
 hired from it, he had the foolish arro¬ 
 gance to challenge Joash, king of Israel, to 
 battle, despising, probably, a sovereign 
 whose strength had been exhausted by 
 Syrian wars, and who had not yet made 
 himself respected by the great successes 
 recorded in 2 Kings xiii. 25. But Judah 
 was completely defeated, and Amaziah 
 himself was taken prisoner, and conveyed 
 by Joash to Jerusalem, which opened its 
 gates to the conqueror. A portion of the 
 wall of Jerusalem on the side toward the 
 Israelitish frontier was broken down, and 
 treasures and hostages were carried off to 
 Samaria. Amaziah lived fifteen years after 
 the death of Joash, and in the twenty- 
 ninth year of his reign was murdered by 
 conspirators at Lachish, whither he had re¬ 
 tired for safety from Jerusalem. (2 Chron. 
 xxv. 27.) (2) A descendant of Simeon. (1 
 
 Chron. iv. 34.) (3) A Levite. (1 Chron. vi. 
 45.) (4) Priest of the golden calf at Bethel, 
 who endeavored to drive the prophet Amos 
 from Israel into Judah. (Amos vii. 10, 12, 
 14.)”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Ambo, a reading-desk, or pulpit, in early 
 Christian churches, which was placed in 
 the centre of the nave. It was sometimes 
 large enough to accommodate fifty per¬ 
 sons. The lessons were read from it, and 
 it was occasionally used by the preacher. 
 The ambo has given place in modern 
 churches to the lectern and pulpit. 
 
 Ambrose, Isaac, a celebrated Puritan di¬ 
 vine, b. May 29,1604; d. 1663. A graduate of 
 Oxford, he was vicar at Gerstang when the 
 Act of Uniformity was passed. He retired; 
 and spent his later years in Preston, where 
 he had formerly been vicar. His practical 
 and devotional writings were very popular, 
 and one of his publications, Looking Unto 
 Jesus (1658), is still read with interest, hav¬ 
 ing never been out of print. 
 
 Ambrose, St., Bishop of Milan, and one 
 of the most distinguished of the Latin 
 fathers of the fourth century; b. about the 
 year 340, probably at Treves, in Gaul, where 
 his father held the office of prefect. He 
 received a good education under the direc¬ 
 tion of a noble and pious mother. He be¬ 
 came proficient in Greek and Roman liter¬ 
 ature and entered the profession of law. 
 Appointed consular prefect of the province, 
 which included a considerable part of north¬ 
 ern Italy, he made his residence at Milan, 
 where his administration gained great pub¬ 
 lic approval. At the death of Auxen- 
 tius, in 374, the divisions that existed be¬ 
 tween the orthodox party and the Arians 
 
 gave rise to a violent contest in the choice 
 of his successor. Ambrose, in a public ad¬ 
 dress, counseled peace and wise action. 
 The suggestion that the prefect should be 
 made bishop was ratified by his unanimous 
 election. At first he declined, but finally 
 was baptized and ordained bishop about 
 374. This high office he filled, until his 
 death, with marked ability, fidelity, and 
 courage. This last quality was illustrated 
 in his action toward the Emperor Theodo¬ 
 sius. During the popular revolt in Thes- 
 salonica, in A. D. 390, some officers of the 
 Roman garrison were massacred. In his 
 anger Theodosius, in putting down the in¬ 
 surrection, slew seven thousand persons. 
 For this action Ambrose rebuked him in the 
 severest terms, and refused either to ad¬ 
 minister or celebrate the Eucharist in his 
 presence until he had made atonement for 
 his crime by the most severe penance. 
 Ambrose was not only eminent as an eccle¬ 
 siastic but popular as a preacher. He was 
 the spiritual father of Augustine and a vo¬ 
 luminous writer; but his works do not 
 stand in the highest rank of Patristic liter¬ 
 ature. The Hymns of St. Ambrose have 
 been a treasure of the church universal. 
 Many, however, have been attributed to 
 him that he did not write. Ambrose died 
 April 4, 397. His mortal remains rest un¬ 
 der the high altar of the great Cathedral of 
 Milan. 
 
 Ambrosian Chant denotes the mode of 
 church singing introduced into the Western 
 Church by St. Ambrose. Just what the 
 form was is now unknown, but it is thought 
 that it was a modification of a more simple 
 mode of chanting. The Ambrosian chant 
 was further developed into the elaborate 
 Gregorian system. St. Augustine says it 
 was first introduced into the Church of 
 Milan. 
 
 Ambrosiaster, the name given, for lit¬ 
 erary and critical purposes, to the unknown 
 author of a Commentary on the Epistles of 
 St. Paul , which was formerly believed to 
 be one of the works of St. Ambrose, but 
 which is now known to have been written 
 some years before he was baptized, be¬ 
 tween A. D. 366 and A. D. 384. It is a workj 
 of high value as an early interpretation of 
 St. Paul’s writings, and also as containing 
 many quotations from the ancient Vulgate, 
 a Latin version of the Scriptures earlier 
 than that of St. Jerome. — Benham. 
 
 Ambulatory, literally, a place to walk 
 in, from the Latin word ambulare. It is used 
 ecclesiastically to designate a covered clois¬ 
 ter outside of a church, or the aisles with¬ 
 in, principally the aisle around the choir in 
 
Ame 
 
 ( 28 ) 
 
 Amm 
 
 cathedrals and other large churches, which 
 was used as a “ procession path.”— Ben- 
 ham. 
 
 Amen {true, faithful). In the Old Tes¬ 
 tament “amen” was used mostly in a 
 liturgical sense. In the apostolic church 
 it was uttered by the people as a response 
 at the close of the public prayers. (1 Cor. 
 xiv. 26.) In liturgical use it has the two¬ 
 fold sense of emphatic assent, “ So it is,” 
 or “ So I believe,” and that of ratification, 
 “ So be it.” Jesus calls himself the Amen. 
 (Rev. iii. 14.) 
 
 American and Foreign Christian Union. 
 This society, organized in 1849, had f° r its 
 special purpose the conversion of foreign 
 Roman Catholics. For a time it prose¬ 
 cuted its work with considerable vigor, 
 but it now does nothing beyond the sup¬ 
 port of the American Chapel in Paris. 
 
 American and Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 See Bible Societies. 
 
 American Bible Union. See Bible Soci¬ 
 eties, American. 
 
 American Bible Society. See Bible 
 Societies, American. 
 
 American Baptist Missionary Union. 
 
 See Missions, Baptist. 
 
 American Baptist Publication Society. 
 
 See Baptists. 
 
 American Board of Commissioners for 
 Foreign Missions. See Missions; Congre- 
 GATIONALISTS. 
 
 American Home Missionary Society. 
 
 See CONGREGATIONALISTS. 
 
 American Sunday-school Union. See 
 Sunday-schools. 
 
 American Tract Societies. See Tract 
 Societies. 
 
 Ames, Edward R., D. D., b. at Ames- 
 ville, Ohio, May 20, 1S06; a bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. He-entered 
 the Ohio University in 1826, and in 1836 
 became an itinerant minister in the Indiana 
 Conference. He was elected a delegate to 
 the General Conference in 1840, and soon 
 after became corresponding secretary of 
 the Missionary Society for the South and 
 West. From 1844101852 he held the office 
 of presiding elder, and was elected bishop 
 in 1S52. He was a man of great executive 
 ability, and during the war was often con¬ 
 
 sulted by President Lincoln, at whose re¬ 
 quest he served on several important com¬ 
 missions. He died at Baltimore in 1879. 
 
 Ames, William, a celebrated Puritan 
 divine; b. in Norfolk, 1576; d. at Rotter¬ 
 dam in 1633. He was graduated at Christ’s 
 College, Cambridge, and received the ap¬ 
 pointment of chaplain to the university. 
 His plain, outspoken preaching against 
 certain evil practices aroused so much 
 opposition that he left England, and be¬ 
 came English chaplain at the Hague, and 
 afterward professor of divinity at Franeker 
 in Friesland. He was an eminent contro- 
 versalist, and strong opponent of Arminian- 
 ism. He wrote many works. See Neal: 
 Hist, of the Puritans. 
 
 Amess, a tippet of fur worn by canons 
 and other dignitaries of cathedrals during 
 cold weather. 
 
 Amice, a piece of fine linen tied around 
 the neck. It is worn over the cassock, and 
 is put on by the officiating priest during the 
 celebration of the mass in Roman churches. 
 
 Ammonites, “ a people descended from 
 Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot by his younger 
 daughter (Gen. xix. 38; comp. Psa. lxxxiii. 
 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder, and dat¬ 
 ing from the destruction of Sodom. The 
 near relation between the two peoples, in¬ 
 dicated in the story of their origin, con¬ 
 tinued throughout their existence. (Comp. 
 Judg. x. 6; 2 Chron. xx. 1; Zeph. ii. 8, 
 etc.) Indeed, so close was their union, 
 and so near their identity, that each would 
 appear to be occasionally spoken of un¬ 
 der the name of the other. Unlike Moab, 
 the precise position of the territory of the 
 Ammonites is not ascertainable. In the 
 earliest mention of them(Deut. ii. 20) they 
 are said to have destroyed the Rephaim, 
 whom they called the Zamzummim, and to 
 have dwelt in their place, Jabbok being 
 their border. (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 
 37; iii. 16.) * Land’ or ‘ country’ is, how¬ 
 
 ever, but rarely ascribed to them, nor is 
 there any reference to those habits and cir¬ 
 cumstances of civilization, which so con¬ 
 stantly recur in the allusions to Moab. (Isa. 
 xv., xvi.; Jer. xlviii.) On the contrary, 
 we find everywhere traces of the fierce hab¬ 
 its of marauders in their incursions (1 Sam. 
 xi. 2; Amos i. 13), and a very high degree 
 of crafty cruelty to their foes. (Jer. xli. 6, 
 7; Judg. vii. 11, 12.) It appears that Moab 
 was the settled and civilized half of the na¬ 
 tion of Lot, and that Ammon formed its 
 predatory and Bedouin section.”—Smith: 
 Diet, of the Bible. The Ammonites are 
 mentioned by Justin Martyr as being nu- 
 
Amm 
 
 (29) 
 
 Amo 
 
 merous in his day. They afterward were 
 lost to sight, and merged into the general 
 Arab population. 
 
 Ammonius, (1) the originator of the 
 neo-Platonic movement, lived at Alexan¬ 
 dria during the 2d century, and d. there, 
 241. Very little is known of his life. 
 From Hierocles, as quoted by Photius, we 
 learn that his fundamental doctrine was an 
 eclecticism, or union of Plato and Aristotle. 
 How his system stood related to the Jew¬ 
 ish and Christian theosophies we have no 
 means of knowing. (2) A Christian writer 
 who, about the middle of the third century, 
 prepared a harmony of the Gospels. 
 
 A'mon ( builder ), son and successor of 
 Manasseh as king of Judah. After a wick¬ 
 ed and idolatrous reign of two years, his 
 servants conspired against him and slew 
 him in the palace. The people put the 
 conspirators to death and placed his son 
 Josiah on the throne. (2 Kings xxi. 19; 2 
 Chron. xxxiii. 21-25.) 
 
 Am'orite, the Am'orites (i. e.,the dwell¬ 
 ers on the summits ; or mountaineers ), one 
 of the chief nations who possessed the 
 land of Canaan before its conquest by the 
 Israelites. In the genealogical table of 
 Gen. x. “the Amorite ” is given as the 
 fourth son of Canaan, with “ Zidon, Heth 
 (Hittite), the Jebusite,” etc. As dwelling 
 on the elevated portions of the country, 
 they are contrasted with the Canaanites, 
 who were the dwellers in the lowlands; 
 and the two thus formed the main broad 
 divisions of the Holy Land. Their terri¬ 
 tory was divided between Reuben and Gad 
 and the half-tribe of Manasseh. (Josh. xiii. 
 8, sq.) They were so completely defeated 
 (Deut. ii. 36; Josh. x. 5), that they never 
 again were powerful, and are rarely men¬ 
 tioned. 
 
 Amortization. See Mortmain. 
 
 A'mos (burden), “a native of Tekoa, in 
 Judah, about six miles south of Bethle¬ 
 hem; originally a shepherd and dresser of 
 sycamore trees, who was called by God’s 
 Spirit to be a prophet, although not trained 
 in any of the regular prophetic schools. 
 (Am. i. 1; vii. 14, 15.) He travelled from 
 Judah into the northern kingdom of Israel, 
 or Ephraim, and there exercised his minis¬ 
 try, apparently not for any long time. His 
 date cannot be later than the fifteenth year 
 of Uzziah’s reign (b. c. 808), for he tells us 
 that he prophesied ‘ in the reigns of Uz- 
 ziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam, the son 
 of Joash, king of Israel, two years before 
 the earthquake.’ This earthquake (also 
 
 mentioned, Zech. xiv. 5) cannot have oc¬ 
 curred after the seventeenth year of 
 Uzziah, since Jeroboam II. died in the fif¬ 
 teenth year of that king’s reign, which, 
 therefore, is the latest year fulfilling the 
 three chronological indications furnished by 
 the prophet himself. But his ministry prob¬ 
 ably took place at an earlier period of 
 Jeroboam’s reign, perhaps about the mid¬ 
 dle of it; for, on the one hand, Amos 
 speaks of the conquests of this warlike 
 king as completed (vi. 13; cf. 2 Kings xiv. 
 25); and, on the other, the Assyrians, who, 
 towards the end of his reign, were ap¬ 
 proaching Palestine (Hos. x. 6; xi. 5), do 
 not seem as yet to have caused any alarm 
 in the country. Amos predicts, indeed, 
 that Israel and other neighboring nations 
 will be punished by certain wild conquer¬ 
 ors from the North (i. 5; v. 27; vi. 14), 
 but does not name them, as if they were 
 still unknown or unheeded. In this 
 prophet’s time Israel was at the height of 
 power, wealth, and security, but infected 
 by the crimes to which such a state is 
 liable. The poor were oppressed (viii. 4), 
 the ordinances of religion thought burden¬ 
 some (viii. 5), and idleness, luxury, and 
 extravagance were general, (iii. 15.) The 
 source of these evils was idolatry—that of 
 the golden calves. Calf-worship was 
 specially practised at Bethel, where was a 
 principal temple and summer palace for 
 the king (vii. 13; cf. iii. 15); also at Gilgal, 
 Dan, and Beer-sheba in Judah (iv. 4; v. 5; 
 viii. 14), and was offensively united with 
 the true worship of the Lord. (v. 14, 21- 
 23; cf. 2 Kings xvii. 33.) Amos went to 
 rebuke this at Bethel itself, but was com¬ 
 pelled to return to Judah by the high- 
 priest Amaziah, who procured from Jero¬ 
 boam an order for his expulsion from the 
 northern kingdom. The book of the proph¬ 
 ecies of Amos seems divided into four 
 principal portions, closely connected to¬ 
 gether. (1) From i. 1 to ii. 3 he denounces 
 the sins of the nations bordering on Israel 
 and Judah, as a preparation for (2), in 
 which, from ii. 4 to vi. 14, he describes the 
 state of those two kingdoms, especially the 
 former. This is followed by (3) vii. 1 to ix. 
 10, in which, after reflecting on the pre¬ 
 vious prophecy, he relates his visit to 
 Bethel, and sketches the impending pun¬ 
 ishment of Israel, which he predicted to 
 Amaziah. After this in (4) he rises to a 
 loftier and more evangelical strain, look¬ 
 ing forward to the time when the hope of 
 the Messiah’s kingdom will be fulfilled, 
 and His people forgiven, and established 
 in the enjoyment of God’s blessings to all 
 eternity. The chief peculiarity of the style 
 consists in the number of allusions to 
 natural objects and agricultural occupa- 
 
Amp 
 
 ( 30 ) 
 
 Ana 
 
 tions, as might be expected from the early 
 life of the author. See i. 3; ii. 13; iii. 4, 
 5; iv. 2, 7, 9; v. 8, 19; vi. 12; vii. 1; ix. 3, 
 9, 13, 14. The references to it in the New 
 Testament are two: v. 25,26, 27 is quoted 
 by St. Stephen, in Acts vii. 42, 43; and ix. 
 11 by St. James, in Acts xv. 16. As the 
 book is evidently not a series of detached 
 prophecies, but logically and artistically 
 connected in its several parts, it was prob¬ 
 ably written by Amos, as we now have it, 
 after his return to Tekoa from his mission 
 to Bethel.” — Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 See the general commentaries, T. W. 
 Chambers ; Commentary on Amos (en¬ 
 larged from Schmoller s), in the American 
 edition of Lange’s Cotnmentary (N. Y., 
 1875); Pusey: Co?n?nentary on the Minor 
 Prophets (N. Y., 1885). 
 
 Ampulla, (1) a flask or cruet for holding 
 the consecrated oil or chrism used in cere¬ 
 monies of unction. (2) The cruets hold¬ 
 ing the wine and water used in the Eu¬ 
 charist. 
 
 Amsdorf, Nikolaus von, b. in Saxony 
 1483; d. at Eisenach, May 14, 1565. He 
 was educated at Wittenberg, where he 
 became professor of theology (1511), and 
 took a leading part in advancing the cause 
 of the Reformation. In the course of a 
 vigorous controversy with George Major, 
 a Lutheran divine of Wittenberg, Amsdorf 
 maintained an exaggerated form of the doc¬ 
 trine of Luther respecting the inefficacy 
 of good works to salvation, declaring that 
 they were not only not necessary, but were 
 even a hindrance to salvation. The parties 
 of the two divines were reconciled by a 
 ‘Formula of Concord,’which was drawn 
 up at Bergen in the year 1577. Amsdorf 
 was consecrated bishop of Naumburg, by 
 Luther in 1542, but he lost his see during 
 the Smalcald war (1547), and was appoint¬ 
 ed general superintendent at Eisenach. His 
 followers were known as Amsdorfians. 
 
 Amsdorfians. See above. 
 
 Amulets, something worn as preserva¬ 
 tives against the power of enchantments. 
 More commonly they were worn as orna¬ 
 ments, and suspended from a necklace or 
 ear-ring, with an inscription or figure of a 
 god upon them. Sometimes they were in 
 the form of charms written upon papyrus or 
 parchment, rolled tightly and sewed in lin¬ 
 en. These are the tablets referred to in 
 Isa. iii. 20, and which in the Revised Ver¬ 
 sion is rendered amulets. The wearing of 
 amulets became so common among Chris¬ 
 tians that the Council of Trullo (692), ex¬ 
 communicated the makers of them, and 
 
 condemned the custom as a heathen super¬ 
 stition. 
 
 Amyraldism. This is the name given to 
 the theory.of predestination held by Amy- 
 raut (see below) and his followers. This 
 theory opposed the extreme Calvinistic 
 doctrine of the Divine decrees, in that it was 
 maintained that all had salvation within 
 their power, while saving grace was given 
 only to the elect. Baxter, Fuller, and the 
 New England divines have favored this 
 theory. 
 
 Amyraut, MoIse, an eminent French Prot¬ 
 estant theologian and metaphysician, b. at 
 Bourgueil, in Tourraine, Sept. 1596; d. at 
 Saumur, Jan. 8, 1664. He prosecuted with 
 success the study of law in the University 
 of Poitiers; but on his way home he met 
 a Protestant minister who, with the added 
 influence of a prominent official, persuaded 
 him to leave the law for theology. He 
 studied at Saumur with the famous teach¬ 
 er, Cameron. His reputation for scholarly 
 ability gained him invitations to many 
 prominent churches and universities. He 
 referred them all to the synod of Anjou, 
 and it was decided that he should remain 
 at Saumur. The bond of affection that 
 bound together the teachers in this school 
 was beautiful and remarkable. Amyraut 
 was a recognized leader in the great theo¬ 
 logical controversies of his times. A strong 
 advocate of a moderate type of Calvinism, 
 he was noted for his liberality and kindness 
 of spirit. Saumur became a stronghold of 
 Protestantism. Amyraut, among other la¬ 
 bors, wrote many books, some of which 
 still carry religious instruction and comfort 
 into the Protestant homes of France. His 
 Traite des Religio 7 is (1631), translated into 
 English (London, 1660), is still a living 
 work. 
 
 Anabaptists. See Baptists. For his¬ 
 tory of the excesses of the fanatical Ana¬ 
 baptists of the sixteenth century, see Mun¬ 
 ster. 
 
 Anachorites. See Anchorites. 
 
 Anacle'tus, the name of two popes. See 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Anagogical, a word derived from the 
 Greek anagein (to lead upwards), and des¬ 
 ignating that form of the mystical interpre¬ 
 tation of Holy Scripture which raises the 
 thoughts from an earthly meaning to a 
 heavenly. Thus, the weekly rest of the 
 earthly Sabbath may be anagogicallv inter¬ 
 preted of the sabbatismos , or sabbatical and 
 eternal rest of heaven (Heb. iv. 4-11); or 
 
Ana 
 
 ( 3i ) 
 
 And 
 
 the mystery of the union between man and 
 wife of the union between Christ and the 
 Church. (Eph. v. 22-32.)— Benham. 
 
 Anagnostes, the name given to the order 
 of a reader in the Eastern Church. 
 
 Analogion, the name of the pulpit in a 
 Greek or Eastern Church. 
 
 Analogy of Faith. See Faith; Herme¬ 
 neutics. 
 
 Anam'melech, an idol god in whose 
 worship the Sepharvites burnt their chil¬ 
 dren. (2 Kings xvii. 31.) Anammelech is 
 supposed to represent the moon and Ad- 
 rammelech the sun. 
 
 Anani'as (the Greek form of Hananiah; 
 whom Jehovah has graciously given), (1) 
 one who professed conversion under the 
 preaching of the apostles. The story of 
 his perfidy and death is told in Acts v. 1-11. 
 (2) A Jewish Christian of Damascus who 
 visited Saul in his blindness, and, after re¬ 
 storing his sight, baptized him. (Acts ix. 
 10-18.) (3) A high - priest, appointed by 
 Herod, King of Chalcis, A. D. 48. He was 
 sent to Rome to be tried under a charge of 
 oppression preferred by the Samaritans, 
 but was acquitted. Paul was tried before 
 him. (Acts xxiv. 1.) He was deposed not 
 long after this, and finally murdered, A. D. 
 
 67. 
 
 Anaphora, that part of the Liturgies of 
 the Eastern Churches which corresponds 
 to the Canon of the Mass in the Western, 
 and contains the prayers and praises con¬ 
 nected with the Acts of Consecration and 
 Communion. The corresponding portion 
 of the Liturgy in the English service is 
 that which begins with “ Lift up your 
 hearts,” and ends with the Benediction. 
 It is the most ancient part of the Eucha¬ 
 ristic Service.— Benham. 
 
 Anastasias, the name of four popes and 
 one antipope. See Popes. 
 
 Anathema, a Greek word equivalent 
 to the Hebrew cherem , which signified 
 things or persons so set apart, or devoted 
 to the Lord, for the purpose of destruction, 
 that they could not be redeemed. (Josh, 
 vi. 17.) In the New Testament it means 
 accursed, and separated from the church, 
 and at an early date became the technical 
 term for a form of excommunication. 
 (Rom. ix. 3; 1 Cor. xvi. 22; Gal. i. 8.) 
 
 Anato'lius, bishop of Constantinople; d. 
 458. He is the author of several hymns, 
 
 the best known of which is the one begin¬ 
 ning, “ Fierce was the wild billow,” trans¬ 
 lated by John Mason Neale. Hymns of the 
 Eastern Church (London, 1863). 
 
 Anchieta ( an-she-d-ta) Jose de, the Jesuit 
 “apostle of Brazil,” b. at Laguna, 1533; 
 d. at Retirygba,’June 9, 1597. He began 
 his labors as a missionary in Brazil in 
 1553, and made many converts among the 
 Indians, and prepared a grammar of their 
 language (1595), still in use. 
 
 Anchorites or Anachorites (Gr. ana- 
 chorein; to retire, withdraw), the name 
 given to the hermits who lived in solitude 
 that they might practice their devotional 
 exercises without distraction of any kind. 
 They first appear in the second and third 
 centuries. Living in caves, for the most 
 part, they held no intercourse with others, 
 partook of as little food as possible, and 
 prayed in silence. Some, who were known 
 as Stylites, stood, in all kinds of weather, 
 on high hill-tops or columns. Their 
 sanctity drew many to visit them, and 
 seek their blessing. Sometimes, with 
 prophetic zeal, they suddenly appeared in 
 the cities with messages of rebuke and 
 warning. In time it became customary for 
 several anchorites to unite in a community, 
 building their cells about a chapel. In 
 this way the anchorites became coenobites. 
 A few anchorites still are found on Mount 
 Athos, not connected with the monastery. 
 
 Anderson, Rufus, D. D., LL. D., b. Aug. 
 17, 1796, at North Yarmouth, Me; d. May 
 30, 1880, at Boston, Mass. He was gradu¬ 
 ated at Bowdoin College, Me., in 1818, and 
 studied at Andover Seminary, 1819-1822. 
 He became an assistant to the corresponding 
 secretary of the American Board of Com¬ 
 missioners for Foreign Missions after being- 
 graduated at the seminary; assistant cor¬ 
 responding secretary in 1824; foreign sec¬ 
 retary, 1832. This position he held until 
 1866, when he resigned, because he was 
 convinced that seventy years form “ a limit 
 beyond which it would not be wise for him 
 to remain in so arduous a position.” Dr. 
 Anderson was eminently successful as an 
 administrator, and wrote several volumes 
 in regard to mission work and its conduct. 
 He was one of the founders of Mount 
 Holyoke Seminary, and a member of the 
 Board of Trust of Andover Seminary. 
 Among his published works are: Foreign 
 Missions , their Relations and Claims { N. Y., 
 1869); History of the Missions of A. B. C. 
 F. M. to the Oriental Churches (1872), 2 
 vols., and in India (1874). 
 
 Andrea (an-dra-a), Jacob (1528-90), a 
 
And 
 
 ( 32 ) 
 
 Ang 
 
 \ 
 
 German theologian. Educated at Stutt¬ 
 gart and Tubingen, he returned to the lat¬ 
 ter city in 1548, where he gained reputa¬ 
 tion as a Protestant preacher. In 1562 he 
 was appointed professor of theology, pro¬ 
 vost, and chancellor of the University of 
 Tubingen. He was an active and ardent 
 leader of the Lutherans, and was indefati¬ 
 gable in his efforts to unite the various 
 parties whose differences threatened the 
 cause of Protestantism. He was promi¬ 
 nent in the conferences that led to the 
 preparation of the Forttiula Concordia , 
 which was accepted as one of the symbol¬ 
 ical books of the Lutheran Church. An¬ 
 drea was the author of more than a hun¬ 
 dred and fifty works, most of which are 
 polemical. 
 
 Andrewes, Lancelot, b. in London, 1555; 
 d. at Winchester, Sept. 25, 1626. A grad¬ 
 uate of Cambridge, he became master of 
 Pembroke Hall, Chaplain to the Queen, 
 dean of Westminster, 1601; bishop of Chi¬ 
 chester, 1605; of Ely in 1609; and of Win¬ 
 chester in 1618. He was a very learned 
 and influential prelate, and was appointed 
 first on the list of the King James’ Bible 
 Revisers (1607-11). He published ninety- 
 six sermons, an edition of which is given 
 in the Anglo-Catholic Library, Oxford, 
 1841-43. These are “ full of learned the¬ 
 ology and rich in devotional thought,” but 
 his best-known work is his Private Devo¬ 
 tions (latest edition, London, 1883). 
 
 An'drew ( manly ), one of the twelve dis¬ 
 ciples, the son of Jonas and brother of Si¬ 
 mon Peter. The incidents of his life, as 
 recorded in the gospels, are found in Matt, 
 iv. 18-20; Mark xiii. 3; John i. 35-40; vi. 
 3-13; xii. 22. According to tradition, An¬ 
 drew preached in Scythia, Greece, and 
 Asia Minor, where he was crucified upon 
 a cross which, from its peculiar shape (X), 
 is named St. Andrew’s cross. St. Andrew’s 
 Day is Nov. 30. 
 
 Angel (Gr. angelos). This word has the 
 original sense of “ messenger,” but in the 
 Old and New Testaments it always means 
 a Divine messenger, or messenger sent by 
 God. Thus our Lord is called “ the Mes¬ 
 senger,” or Angel,“ of the Covenant” (Mai. 
 iii. 1); St. John the Baptist “ the messen¬ 
 ger,” or angel,“of God” (Mai. iii. 1; comp. 
 Matt. xi. 10); and a certain class of bishops 
 “ Angels of the Churches.” (Rev. i. 20.) 
 But the most common sense in which the 
 word “ angel ” is used is to designate a 
 created being of a different nature from 
 that of men, and one having special minis¬ 
 trations to perform toward God and toward 
 man. 
 
 The Nature and For?n of Angels .—That 
 the angelic nature is not the same as human 
 nature is declared by St. Paul, when he says 
 that the Son of God did not take hold of 
 angels by assuming their nature, but took 
 hold of the seed of Abraham, thus assum¬ 
 ing human nature (Heb. ii. 16); words 
 which imply that the two natures are differ¬ 
 ent. He also says that angels are “ spirits 
 engaged in sacred service” (Heb. i. 14); 
 words which imply that angels live under 
 the condition of spiritual beings, not that 
 of corporeal beings. The experience of 
 those who have seen, or have been visited 
 by, angels has been that those who have 
 been seen on earth have had the human 
 form, but that they have appeared and dis¬ 
 appeared, descended from above and as¬ 
 cended thither again, in a manner which 
 shows that they are not subject to the laws 
 affecting material substances as, or to the 
 same extent as, human beings are. Yet 
 these angelic spirits seem to have some 
 bodily substance as well as bodily form, by 
 means of which they are capable of per¬ 
 forming acts in a similar manner to that in 
 which they are performed by material be¬ 
 ings. Such appears to be the natural in¬ 
 ference to be drawn from statements re¬ 
 specting angels at different periods—that 
 they “ put forth their hand and pulled Lot 
 into the house to them, and shut to the 
 door;” or, “laid hold upon his hand, and 
 upon the hand of his wife, and upon the 
 hand of his two daughters,” and led them 
 out of the city (Gen. xix. 10, 16); or, par¬ 
 took of the food which Abraham and Lot 
 prepared for them (Gen. xviii. 8; xix. 3); 
 or, “ rolled back the stone from the door,” 
 of the Holy Sepulchre, “ and sat upon it ” 
 (Matt, xxviii. 2); or, “ smote Peter on the 
 side and raised him up ” (Acts xii. 7); or, 
 spoke with audible voices in human lan¬ 
 guage. 
 
 As to their form, it is evident that when¬ 
 ever angels have become visible upon 
 earth they have appeared in the form of 
 human beings, though mostly with some 
 special signs of celestial brightness and 
 glory that distinguished them from human 
 beings. Thus, those who appeared to Abra¬ 
 ham in the plains of Mamre are spoken of 
 as “three men.” (Gen. xvi. 7; xviii. 2, 3; 
 xxii. 16; xxxii. 24.) So, also, Ezekiel saw 
 a vision of six destroying angels coming to 
 Jerusalem in the form of “ six men” (Ezek. 
 ix. 2); and in later ages Zacharias and the 
 Blessed Virgin saw the angel Gabriel in 
 human form, and heard him speak to them 
 with human voice. (Luke i. 11-20, 26-38.) 
 So the holy women at the Sepulchre saw “a 
 vision of angels ” as “ two men,” who stood 
 by them in shining garments (Luke xxiv. 
 4. 23), whom Mary Magdalene had seen as 
 
An g 
 
 Ang 
 
 ( 33 ) 
 
 “ two angels in white sitting, the one at the 
 head, and the other at the feet, where the 
 body of Jesus had lain ” (John xx. 12), and 
 one of whom had been seen by the sentinels 
 as he “descended from heaven, and came 
 and rolled back the stone from the door 
 and sat upon it, his countenance ” being 
 “ like lightning, and his raiment white as 
 snow.” (Matt, xxviii. 2, 3.) Of a similar 
 appearance and form were the angels who 
 appeared to the Apostles at the time of our 
 Lord’s ascension (Acts i. 10); those who 
 appeared to Cornelius (Acts. x. 3), and to 
 St. Peter in his prison (Acts. xii. 7-10); and 
 those whom St. John saw in his Apocalyp¬ 
 tic visions. (Rev. viii. 2, 3; x. 1, 10; xvi. 
 1,6; xxi. 9, 17; xxii. 8,9.) But the human 
 form is not invariably attributed to angels, 
 for we must regard as angels those beings 
 who minister before God as Seraphim (Isa. 
 vi. 2-4), and Cherubim (Ezek. i. 4-25; Rev. 
 iv. 6-8), living creatures (or created beings, 
 as distinguished from the Uncreated Divine 
 Being), whose mysterious form and glory 
 transcends the power of human language 
 to describe, unless it may be generally 
 spoken of as that of winged men with feat¬ 
 ures taken from some of the noblest of 
 animal beings of a lower order. 
 
 The general conclusion to be drawn re¬ 
 specting the nature and form of angels 
 seems to be that they are spirits embodied 
 in some pure corporeal substance of a 
 highly attenuated kind, which is not sub¬ 
 ject to the ordinary laws of matter; that 
 those have most frequently been seen on 
 earth which are in human form, but that 
 others exist which have other forms also, 
 and that all belong to that order of creation 
 to which the “spiritual body” of the resur¬ 
 rection will belong (1 Cor. xv. 44)—beings 
 whose natural abode is heaven, and whose 
 nature is fitted to the conditions of life 
 there. 
 
 The Ministration of Angels Toward God. 
 —Whenever there has been a revelation 
 of the manner in which angels are engag¬ 
 ed in heaven, they have always appear¬ 
 ed in the immediate Presence of God, 
 bearing up His throne of glory, as the 
 Cherubim (Ezek. i. 26; x. 1); perpetually 
 adoring Him, like the Seraphim hovering 
 above it (Isa. vi. 1-3); “ standing by Him 
 on His right hand and on His left” (1 Kings 
 xxii. 19), “thousand thousands” that “min¬ 
 istered unto Him, and ten thousand times 
 ten thousand” that “stood before him” 
 (Dan.vii. 9, 10), waiting to go forth whither¬ 
 soever He should send them; and all a 
 myriad of adoring spirits, “ the number” of 
 whom “ was ten thousand times ten thou¬ 
 sand and thousands of thousands” singing, 
 “ Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to re¬ 
 ceive power, and riches, and wisdom, and 
 
 strength, and honor, and glory, and bless¬ 
 ing.” (Rev. v. 11, 12.) The general picture 
 presented to our minds is that of a vast an¬ 
 gelic host, continually attendant on the 
 Divine Presence; constantly engaged in 
 acts of adoration and praise, and ever wait¬ 
 ing to do willing and obedient service to 
 Him whom they adore. The old devotional 
 theology of the Church loved to represent 
 these Hosts of God as consisting of Nine 
 Orders of Angels, namely: Seraphim (Isa* 
 vi. 2), Cherubbn (Ezek. i. 5), Thrones y 
 Dominions , Principalities , Powers , Mights 
 (Col. i. 16; Rom. viii. 38; Eph. i. 21; iii. 10), 
 Archangels (Tobit xiii. 15; 1 Thess. iv. 16; 
 Jude 9), and Angels. So from before her 
 altars the hymn of praise continually min¬ 
 gled with that on high, “ Therefore with 
 Angels and Archangels, and with all the 
 company of Heaven, we laud and magnify 
 Thy glorious Name; evermore praising 
 Thee, and saying, Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord 
 God of Hosts, Heaven and Earth are full 
 of Thy Glory: Glory be to Thee, O Lord 
 most High.” 
 
 The Ministration of Angels Toward Men. 
 —But for twelve or thirteen centuries 
 the faith of the Christian world has also 
 been expressed in words of prayer, as well 
 as of praise. “ O everlasting God, Who 
 hast ordained and constituted the services 
 of Angels and Men in a wonderful order; 
 Mercifully grant, that as Thy holy Angels 
 always do Thee service in Heaven, so by 
 Thy appointment they may succor and de¬ 
 fend us on earth, through Jesus Christ our 
 Lord.” This belief is in strict accordance 
 with the well-known words of St. Paul, 
 “ Are they not all ministering spirits, sent 
 forth to minister for them who shall be 
 heirs of salvation ?” (Heb. i. 14), and.with 
 many instances of such ministrations re¬ 
 corded in Holy Scripture. 
 
 From these instances we may gather 
 that the angels are sometimes sent forth 
 among men on special and extraordinary 
 missions: as when they were sent forth as 
 messengers from God to Lot, or to Jacob, 
 or to the prophets of the Old Testament, 
 or to the Seer of the New Testament, or to 
 those appointed to special service—as the 
 Apostles. 
 
 But there is abundant evidence, also, in 
 Holy Scripture that there are many ordi¬ 
 nary ministrations in which the Angel of the 
 Lord encampeth round about them that 
 fear Him, as the hosts of Mahanaim did 
 around Jacob (Psa. xxxiv. 7), and in which 
 the words spoken respecting Christ are ful¬ 
 filled in respect to His members/ 1 He shall 
 give His Angels charge over thee, to keep 
 thee in all thy ways.” (Psa. xci. 11; comp. 
 Matt. iv. 6.) Ever and anon they manifested 
 their presence round the Holy Jesus, as 
 
Ang 
 
 Ang 
 
 ( 34 ) 
 
 when Gabriel, the angel of the Incarnation, 
 was sent to Zacharias to warn him of the 
 comingbirthof Christ’s Forerunner (Luke i. 
 11-20); and to the Virgin Mary to announce 
 her maternity as the mother of Him whom 
 the Forerunner heralded (Luke i. 26-38); 
 and to Joseph, bidding him take the Lord’s 
 mother for his wife (Matt. i. 20, 21); and to 
 the shepherds to tell them of the glad ti¬ 
 dings which they were presently afterward 
 to hear proclaimed by a multitude of the 
 heavenly host (Luke ii. 9-14); and to 
 Joseph again, to guide him in his care of 
 the Holy Child. (Matt. ii. 13-19.) Such 
 ministrations to the Child Jesus lead to the 
 belief that there is sound truth in the old 
 Christian conviction that little children are 
 specially under the guardianship of the 
 angels, and that our Lord’s own words are 
 to be accepted in a literal sense: “ Take 
 heed that ye despise not one of these little 
 ones; for I say unto you, That in heaven 
 their angels do always behold the face of 
 my Father which is in heaven.” (Matt, 
 xviii. 10.) And tender thoughts of com¬ 
 forting faith may thus be suggested to 
 parents in regard to their little ones who 
 have been made children of God and heirs 
 of salvation. 
 
 Later on in His holy life, when the 
 Fasting and Temptation of our Lord—the 
 trial of His spiritual life—had weakened 
 His human nature, “angels came and min¬ 
 istered unto Him” (Matt. iv. 11); and in 
 the depression of His agony “ there ap¬ 
 peared an angel unto Him from heaven, 
 strengthening Him.” (Luke xxii. 43.) They 
 ministered to Hirnalso at the Resurrection 
 (Luke xxiv. 23; Johnxx. 12); and when He 
 ascended up on high, the chariot of the 
 Cherubim received Him out of the Apos¬ 
 tles’ sight, and multitudes of the heavenly 
 host surrounded Him, singing some such 
 strain as “ Lift up your heads, O ye gates, 
 and be ye lifted up, ye everlasting doors; 
 and the King of Glory shall come in.” (Psa. 
 xxiv. 9.) So, it may be devoutly and rev¬ 
 erently hoped, are the “ ministering spirits 
 sent forth to minister for them who shall 
 be heirs of salvation.” Such ministrations 
 are more than implied in the words,“There 
 is joy in the presence of the angels of God 
 over one sinner that repenteth ” (Luke xv. 
 10); in the succor which angels gave to St. 
 Peter, St. Paul, and St. Silas (Acts. xii. 7- 
 10); in the charge which St. Paul gives to 
 Timothy, not only “ before God and Christ 
 Jesus,” but also before “ the elect angels ” 
 (1 Tim. v. 21); in the assuring words 
 which “an Angel of God” spoke to Corne¬ 
 lius, “Thy prayers and thine alms are come 
 up for a memorial before God;” and in the 
 directions which the same Angel gave to 
 him respecting the means by which he was 
 
 to attain to a higher state of grace. (Acts, 
 x. 4-6.) 
 
 It has also been revealed by our Lord 
 Himself, in His parable of the Rich Man 
 and Lazarus (Luke xvi. 22), that when the 
 souls of those who die in His faith, fear, 
 and love, go forth into the world of spirits, 
 they do not go forth alone and in darkness, 
 but are received by the hands of the angels 
 appointed to minister to them. And in 
 such a light as the presence of angels brings 
 from their abode of light, the souls of God’s 
 children are carried onward toa better light, 
 the light of Christ’s own Presence in Para¬ 
 dise.— Benham: Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 Angel of the Church. (Rev. ii. 1.) “The 
 only true interpretation of this phrase is 
 the one which makes the angels the rulers 
 and teachers of the congregation, so called 
 because they were the ambassadors of God 
 to the churches, and on them devolved the 
 pastoral care and government.”—Schaff: 
 Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Angelicals, an order of nuns founded at 
 Milan about 1530 by Louisa, the wealthy 
 Countess of Guastella. They followed the 
 rule of St. Augustine. It no longer exists. 
 
 Angelic Hymn, the “ Gloria in Excelsis.” 
 See Gloria in Excelsis. 
 
 Angelic Salutation, the words of the 
 Archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary 
 when announcing the incarnation of the 
 Son of God through her means. (Luke i. 28.) 
 
 Angelus, a Roman Catholic devotion 
 which gathered around the ancient form of 
 the “Hail Mary” (angelic salutation) in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
 in the following form: “ The angel of the 
 Lord announced unto Mary, and she con¬ 
 ceived of the Holy Ghost. Hail, thou that 
 art highly favored, the Lord is with thee; 
 blessed art thou among women, and blessed 
 is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy 
 Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, 
 now and at the hour of our death. Amen. 
 Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it 
 done unto me according to thy word. Hail, 
 Mary, thou that art,” etc. “And the Word 
 was made Flesh, and dwelt among us. Hail, 
 Mary, thou that art,” etc. “ We beseech 
 thee, O Lord, pour thy grace <into our 
 hearts, that as we have known the Incarna¬ 
 tion of thy Son, Jesus Christ, by the mes¬ 
 sage of an angel, so by His cross and pas¬ 
 sion we may be brought unto the glory of 
 His Resurrection; through the same Jesus 
 Christ our Lord. Amen.” This memorial 
 of the Incarnation is said three times a day 
 —in the early morning, at noon, and in the 
 
An g 
 
 Ann 
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
 •evening, by strict Roman Catholics, and 
 one of the church bells, called the “ An- 
 gelus Bell,” is rung to give warning of the 
 time for the devotion, which is said wher¬ 
 ever persons may happen to be. 
 
 Arigilbert, St., the friend of Charlemagne, 
 and the most distinguished poet of his age. 
 Having married Bertha, the daughter of 
 Charlemagne, he retired in 790 to the mon¬ 
 astery of St. Centule, now St. Riquier, of 
 w r hich he was made abbot in 794. He was 
 called the Homer of his time. He d. in 814. 
 
 Anglican, a distinctive name given in re¬ 
 cent times to High-Churchmen, who con¬ 
 sider that the doctrine and ritual of the 
 Church of England are strictly those of the 
 Post-Reformation Church of England. 
 
 Anglo-Catholics, a designation frequent¬ 
 ly assumed by the earlier members of 
 the High-Church party to indicate their 
 community of faith and practice with the 
 churches in open communion with Rome, 
 and with the Catholic Churches of the East 
 and West, rather than with Protestants. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, Conversion of the. See 
 Church of England. 
 
 Angus, Joseph, D. D. (Brown Univer¬ 
 sity, 1852), Baptist; b. at Bolam, North¬ 
 umberland, England, Jan. 16, 1816. He 
 was graduated at Edinburgh University 
 in 1838, and became pastor of the New 
 Park Street Baptist Church, London, in the 
 same year; secretary of the Baptist Mis¬ 
 sionary Society in 1842, and president of 
 Regent’s Park College in 1849, where he 
 has since remained. Of his published 
 'works The Bible Hand-Book (1854) has had 
 a large circulation in the United States. 
 
 An'imal. The distinction made by the 
 Hebrews between clean and unclean ani¬ 
 mals, and their use in sacrifice and food, is 
 given in Lev. xi. 
 
 Anna, St., the name, according to tra¬ 
 dition, of the mother of the Virgin Mary. 
 She was the daughter of Matthan the 
 priest, who lived in Bethlehem. Her hus¬ 
 band was a Galilean, named Joachim, and 
 they had been married many years before 
 the Virgin Mary was born. They lived at 
 Nazareth. As early as the fourth century 
 St. Anna was deeply venerated by the 
 Eastern Church. She is commemorated by 
 the Greek Church on three days, Sept. 4, 
 as her festival; Dec. 9, as the day of her 
 conception; July 25, as that of her death. 
 The Roman Catholic Church and the 
 Church of England commemorate her on 
 
 July 26. In sacred art St. Anna is usually 
 represented as teaching the Virgin Mary 
 to read the Old Testament Scriptures. 
 
 An'nas, a high-priest of the Jews. “ He 
 was the son of one Seth, and was appointed 
 high-priest in the year a. d. 7, by Quirinus, 
 the imperial governor of Syria; but was 
 obliged by Valerius Gratus, procurator of 
 Judaea, to give way to Ismael, son of 
 Phabi, at the beginning of the reign of Ti¬ 
 berius, A. D. 14. But soon Ismael was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Eleazar, son of Annas; then fol¬ 
 lowed, after one year, Simon, son of Cam- 
 ithus, and then, after another year (about 
 A. D. 25), Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of 
 Annas. (John xviii. 13.) But in Luke iii. 
 2, Annas and Caiaphas are both called 
 high-priests, Annas being mentioned first. 
 Our Lord’s first hearing (John xviii. 15) 
 was before Annas, who then sent him 
 bound to Caiaphas. In Acts iv. 6, Annas 
 is plainly called the high-priest, and Caia¬ 
 phas merely named with others of his 
 family. It is no easy matter to give an 
 account of the seemingly capricious ap¬ 
 plications of this title. Some maintain 
 that the two, Annas and Caiaphas, were to¬ 
 gether at the head of the Jewish people— 
 Caiaphas as actual high-priest, Annas as 
 president of the Sanhedrim. Others again 
 suppose that Annas held the office of 
 sagan, or substitute of the high-priest, 
 mentioned by the later Talmudists. He 
 lived to old age, having had five sons high- 
 priests.”—Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 Annates, the first year’s income of an 
 ecclesiastical benefice. They were also 
 known as “ First Fruits,” and this is the 
 name by which the payment is known at 
 the present time. Before the separation 
 of the Church of England from the Roman 
 Church this tax was paid to the pope. 
 Afterward it was paid to the Crown, but 
 in the reign of Queen Anne this revenue 
 was placed in the hands of commission¬ 
 ers under the name of “ Queen Anne’s 
 Bounty ” to increase the income of poorly 
 endowed benefices. 
 
 Annihilationism is that theory which 
 holds that the everlasting punishment of 
 the wicked consists in utter destruction, 
 annihilation. This view has found some 
 earnest advocates, and numbers many be¬ 
 lievers. It is held by many Adventists 
 as a part of their creed. See Richard 
 Whately: A View of the Scripture Revela¬ 
 tions Concerning a Futtire State (London, 
 1832); Hudson: Debt and Grace as related to 
 the Doctrine of a Future State{ 1857); White: 
 Life in Christ (1875); Pettingill: Theolog - 
 ica l Trileni ma . 
 
Ann 
 
 ( 36 ) 
 
 Ant 
 
 Annunciation. This festival, which com¬ 
 memorates the visit of the Angel Gabriel 
 to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 26, sqq.), is 
 celebrated on March 25. 
 
 Anointing, in the East, early came into 
 use (1) as a means of health. The entire 
 body or head was covered with an aromatic 
 oil, the application, as a rule, being made 
 in connection with the bath. (2) Guests 
 and strangers were anointed upon the 
 head as a token of honor. (Psa. xxiii. 5; 
 Luke vii. 46.) (3) As a symbol of con¬ 
 
 secration the Jews, from the time of the 
 exodus, practised anointing those who were 
 set apart to be prophets, priests, and 
 kings. The titles Messiah and Christ , both 
 signifying anointing, are applied .to the 
 Savior in his character of prophet, priest, 
 and king. Anointing, as a symbolic ser¬ 
 vice, is now used in connection with many 
 rites and ceremonials in the Roman, Greek, 
 and Episcopal churches. See Extreme 
 Unction. 
 
 Anomceans, the most extreme party of 
 the Arians, so named from its distinctive 
 tenet, that the Second Person of the Holy 
 Trinity is entirely unlike to the First Per¬ 
 son in essence or substance. See Arius. 
 
 Anselm, St., Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 and one of the greatest of scholastic phil¬ 
 osophers and theologians; b. at or near 
 Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033; d. at Canter¬ 
 bury, April 21, 1109. The son of wealthy 
 parents his early life was checkered in ex¬ 
 perience. The fame of Lanfrance attracted 
 him to the monastery of Bee, where, at the 
 age of twenty-seven, he became a monk. 
 Three years later he became prior, and in 
 1078 abbot of the monastery, then the 
 most renowned school of the eleventh 
 century. After the death of Lanfrance the 
 Archbishopric of Canterbury remained 
 vacant for four years, when the serious ill¬ 
 ness of the king, William Rufus, led him 
 to send for Anselm, whom he nominated, 
 and urged to accept the vacant see. He 
 did so with the understanding that the king 
 should give up all the revenues and pos¬ 
 sessions of the see. This he was loath to 
 do. Anselm insisted that his Pallium , or 
 robe of office, should be given by Pope 
 Urban, but William would not permit this, 
 as he favored the antipope Clement. 
 These differences resulted in a conflict, 
 which revealed the resolute and vigorous 
 character of Anselm, and had an important 
 influence in the progress of events that cul¬ 
 minated in the organization and independ¬ 
 ent authority of the Church of England. 
 In close alliance with Rome, much of the 
 time an exile from his see, Anselm labored 
 
 to free the ecclesiastical power in England 
 from the control of the Throne, and at the 
 same time favored the usurpations and 
 dominance of the popes of Rome. During 
 a period of voluntary exile from Canter¬ 
 bury he finished his great treatise on the 
 atonement, Cur Deus ho?no. He was' one 
 of the first and ablest of the schoolmen. 
 Holding fast to the doctrines of the church 
 as stated by Augustine, he still affirmed 
 that, while faith must precede knowledge, 
 every effort should be made to demonstrate 
 by reason the truth of what we believe. 
 Among the schoolmen Anselm has been 
 styled the head of the orthodox or realistic 
 party. Translations of his Cur Deus hotner 
 and Proslogium are given in the Bibliotheca 
 Sacra , vols. viii., ix., xii. See his Life by 
 Dean Church (London, 1875). See Atone¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Anselm of Laon, a famous theologian,. 
 b.atLaon; d.1117. He is said to have been 
 a pupil of St. Anselm at Bee. He taught 
 at Paris about 1076, and then became the 
 head of a school of theology in his native 
 place that was the most famous in Europe. 
 His greatest work was an interlinear gloss 
 of the Vulgate, which has been frequently 
 reprinted. 
 
 Ansgar, called the “apostle of the 
 North,” because of his labors to intro¬ 
 duce Christianity into Scandinavia ; b. 
 Sept. 9, 801, in the diocese of Amiens; d. 
 in Bremen, Feb. 3, 865. He was edu¬ 
 cated in the monastery of Corbie, and in 
 826 entered upon his labors in Jutland as 
 missionary among the Danes. In 831 he 
 was appointed bishop of Hamburg, and in 
 864 he became archbishop of Scandinavia. 
 In the face of great difficulties and the 
 fierce opposition of the heathen Danes, 
 Ansgar, in his life-time, saw Christianity 
 gain a strong hold among this people. 
 
 Antependium, the cloth which hangs in 
 front of the altar. 
 
 Anthologion, the name of one of the 
 church-books of the Greek Church contain¬ 
 ing the prayers, hymns, and scripture 
 readings to be chanted on feast and saints' 
 days. 
 
 Anthony, St., the founder of monasti- 
 cism; b. in the village of Coma in Egypt, 
 251; d. in the desert near the Red Sea in 
 356. Falling heir to a large fortune, he 
 distributed it among his neighbors and the 
 poor, and devoted himself to a life of 
 asceticism. Many followed him to his re¬ 
 treat at Fayoom, and, building their cells 
 near his, formed the first monastic com- 
 
Ant 
 
 ^ ( 37 ) 
 
 Ant 
 
 munity. When nearly a hundred years 
 old he visited Alexandria, and took part in 
 the controversy with the Arians, dying 
 soon after his return. According to tradi¬ 
 tion many miracles were wrought by him, 
 especially, in the cure of “ sacred fire,” 
 afterwards called “St. Anthony’s fire” 
 (erysipelas). For this reason he is gen¬ 
 erally represented with a fire by his side. 
 His sore temptation by the devil in early 
 life, and his meeting with St. Paul, have 
 been made the subject of celebrated paint¬ 
 ings. Seven Latin translations of his let¬ 
 ters are extant. His day is celebrated Jan. 
 17. See Monasticism. 
 
 Anthony, St., Order of, an order of 
 monks established in the eleventh century 
 for nursing persons afflicted with “ St. 
 Anthony’s fire.” At the time of the 
 Reformation the order had fallen into dis¬ 
 repute, and in 1774 it was united with the 
 Malthese, and with that order was finally 
 dissolved. 
 
 Anthony of Padua, a great Franciscan 
 preacher; b. at Lisbon, Aug. 15, 1195; d. 
 at Padua, 1231, and was canonized in the 
 following year. 
 
 Anthropology {the doctrine of man). See 
 Theology. 
 
 Anthropomorphism is a term which de¬ 
 notes those views which represent God as 
 possessed of corporeal and human prop¬ 
 erties. 
 
 Anthropomorphites. See Audiens. 
 
 Antiburghers, the name given those in 
 the Secession Church of Scotland who 
 denied, on the grounds of conscience, the 
 lawfulness of the oath administered to 
 burghesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and 
 Perth. See Secessionists. 
 
 Antichrist. “ The word occurs in the 
 New Testament only in the Epistles of 
 John; but the idea—an antitype to the 
 Messiah, a worldly power working against 
 l the divine scheme of salvation, the last and 
 greatest enemy which the Saviour of man¬ 
 kind has to defeat—is often referred to in 
 the eschatological discourses of the Gospels 
 (Matt. xxiv. 15, sqq.), in the Epistles of 
 Paul (2 Thess. ii. 3), in Revelation (xvi., 
 xvii.); and it has its roots in the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. (Ezek. xxxviii., xxxix.; Dan. xi.) 
 The idea is apocalyptic in its whole charac¬ 
 ter—dim, giving only one vague glimpse 
 of what is to happen when the time has 
 come, and yet full of warning, and, by its 
 fitness for application, offering a clew to 
 
 the meaning of the passing times. Daniel 
 seems to apply it to Antiochus Epiphanes; 
 the Revelation to Nero—if the interpreta¬ 
 tion of the cabalistic figure 666 is correct— 
 the Christians of the eighth century to 
 Mohammed; the reformers to the pope— 
 the idea involving hostility to Christ, and 
 false teaching ; Hengstenberg and his 
 school to that combination of social radi¬ 
 calism and military despotism which char¬ 
 acterized the government of Napoleon III.; 
 Godet, Martensen, and others, to that 
 merely negative liberalism, which, accom¬ 
 panied by an almost cynical sensualism, 
 works in modern civilization as a most 
 baneful agency of demoralization.”—M. 
 Kahler,in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. ,vol. i,p.g2. 
 
 Antidicomarianites («opposers of Mary), a 
 sect which flourished in the latter part of 
 the fourth century. They maintained that 
 Mary had other children than our Lord, 
 either by a husband whom she married 
 after the death of Joseph, or by Joseph 
 himself. The Puritans of the time of the 
 Reformation, in holding this opinion, were 
 vigorously opposed by the Reformers of 
 the Church of England, who defended the 
 view of Mary’s perpetual virginity. 
 
 Antidoron, the name given, in the Greek 
 Church, to the bread which is blessed, but 
 not needed in consecration, and given to 
 the people after mass. 
 
 Antilegomena, a term used in early 
 Christian times to designate books which 
 claimed to be part of the New Testament, 
 but whose authority was disputed, or 
 “spoken against,” as is the literal meaning 
 of the word. Such were the seven General 
 Epistles, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and 
 the Revelation of St. John the Divine. 
 (Euseb.: Eccl. Hist. vi. 14.) As there were 
 such books, also—those now called “Apoc¬ 
 rypha”—in the Greek version of the Old 
 Testament, the name of Antilegomena 
 came to be applied to them also..— Beii- 
 ha 7 n. 
 
 Antimensium (instead of a table), the 
 name given in the Greek Church to the 
 consecrated altar-cloth, which answers to 
 the “ corporal ” of the Latin Church. The 
 same name is given to portable altars in 
 the Latin Church. 
 
 Anti-Mission Baptists (Primitive, or 
 Old-School Baptists), are in accord with 
 the doctrines and polity of the regular 
 Baptists, but are opposed to missions, 
 Sunday-schools, and kindred organiza¬ 
 tions. The Chemung Association (N. Y. 
 and Pa.) was the first to withdraw fellow- 
 
Ant 
 
 Ant 
 
 (38) 
 
 ship (1835) from other Baptist churches on 
 this ground. The Baltimore Association 
 followed in 1836, and the division extended 
 mostly in the South and West. Their 
 estimated number in 1888 gave them 
 46,000 communicants, with 1,800 churches, 
 and goo ministers. 
 
 Antinomianism (Gr. anti , against; and 
 nomos , law), the doctrine or opinion that a 
 perfect Christian is freed from obligation 
 to keep the precepts of the moral law. 
 The tendency to this error appeared early, 
 and is referred to by St. Paul. (Rom. vi. 
 14, 15.) Antinomianism is found in the 
 views held by many of the Gnostic sects, 
 
 in itself was wicked. This view found 
 but few adherents, and it is to be distin¬ 
 guished from that held by the German Re¬ 
 formers, who. while contending that the 
 law of Moses was no longer a rule bind¬ 
 ing upon Christians, also admitted that 
 a Christian was under obligatfon to lead 
 a holy life. 
 
 Antioch, in Syria, was founded by Seleu- 
 cus Nicator, about 300 b. C. It was situated 
 not far from 300 miles north of Jerusalem 
 on the left bank of the Orontes, sixteen and 
 a half miles from the Mediterranean. It 
 was the third city in the Roman Empire in 
 population (500,000), and wealth. It was 
 
 ANTIOCH, IN SYRIA. 
 
 who taught that a “ truly spiritual man 
 could and should be entirely indifferent to 
 the moral sphere of human life. ” The term 
 was first employed by Luther in his oppo¬ 
 sition to the views advocated by John 
 Agricola. In the reaction from the extreme 
 stress laid upon the value of good works 
 by the Roman Church, Agricola utterly 
 ignored the claims of the moral law as a 
 condition of salvation. His position was 
 so earnestly opposed by Luther that he 
 left Wittenberg. In later years he again 
 opened the controversy which was kept 
 alive by others for a long time. In Eng¬ 
 land, during the seventeenth century, some 
 extreme Calvinists held that an elect per¬ 
 son did not sin, even if he did that which 
 
 here the disciples were first called Chris¬ 
 tians (Acts xi. 26), and it became a centre 
 from which the gospel spread. 
 
 The church at Antioch early became the 
 most prominent one in Asia. It has been 
 the seat of a patriarch since the fifth cen¬ 
 tury. During the time of Chrysostom (b. 
 there 347), it is said that of the population 
 of two hundred thousand one-half were 
 professing Christians. From 252 to 3S0 
 ten councils were held here, some of them 
 of importance in connection with the Arian 
 controversy. In 635 the city fell into the 
 hands of the Saracens, was retaken in 969, 
 captured by the Crusaders, 109S, and since 
 1268 ruled by the Mohammedans. It has 
 suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, and 
 
 
Ant 
 
 Ape 
 
 ( 39 ) 
 
 is now an insignificant town of about six 
 thousand inhabitants. It still holds the 
 position of a patriarchate both in the Greek 
 and Latin churches. There is a flourishing 
 Protestant mission in the place. 
 
 Antioch, School of, “a theological sem¬ 
 inary which arose at the end of the fourth 
 century, but which had been prepared for 
 a century before by the learned presbyters 
 of the Church of Antioch. It distinguish¬ 
 ed itself by diffusing a taste for scriptural 
 Knowledge, and aimed at a middle course 
 in Biblical Hermeneutics, between a vigor¬ 
 ously literal and an allegorical method of 
 interpretation. Several other seminaries 
 sprung from it in the Syrian Church. As 
 distinguished from the school of Alexan¬ 
 dria, its tendency was logical rather than 
 intuitional or mystical. The term school of 
 Antioch is used also to denote the theolog¬ 
 ical tendencies of the Syrian Church clergy. 
 Nestorianism arose out of the bosom of 
 this school.”—McClintock and Strong: 
 Ency. It was in the school of Antioch 
 that Chrysostom learned the method of 
 exegesis that made his writings the source 
 of sound theology. 
 
 Antipaedobaptists, opponents of infant 
 (Gr. paidios) baptism. 
 
 Antipaschal Week. The week beginning 
 with Low Sunday , or the first Sunday after 
 Easter, is so called in the Eastern Church. 
 
 Antiphony, a form of singing in which 
 the choir or congregation, being divided in¬ 
 to two parts, sing alternately. It originated 
 probably in the service of the ancient Jew¬ 
 ish Church. Ignatius (d. 115) is said to 
 have introduced it into Christian worship. 
 The antiphonary, now used in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, was compiled by Gregory 
 the Great (590). 
 
 Antipopes, those who have claimed to be 
 popes, but whose pretensions to the papal 
 throne have been uncanonical. During the 
 great schism, 1378-1409, there was great 
 confusion, and popes and antipopes excom¬ 
 municated each other. The following is 
 the list of antipopes: (1) Hippolytus, 218- 
 223; (2) Novatianus, 251; (3) Felix II., 355- 
 366; (4) Ursinus, 366; (5) Eulalius, 418; (6) 
 Laurentius, 498 ; (7) Dioscorus, 530 ; (8) 
 Paschal, 687-692; (9) John, 844; (10) Anas- 
 tasius, 855; (11) Boniface VII., 974; (12) 
 Calabritanus (John XVI.), 997-998 ; (13) 
 Gregory, 1012; (14) Sylvester III., 1044- 
 1046; (15) Cadalous (Honorius II.), 1061; 
 
 (16) Wilbertus (Clement III.), 1080-1100; 
 
 (17) Theodoricus, 1100; (18) Albertus, 1102; 
 
 (19) Maginulfus (Sylvester IV.), 1105-1111; 
 
 (20) Burdinus (Gregory VIII.), 1118-1121; 
 
 (21) Theobaldus Buccapecus (Celestine), 
 1124; (22) Anacletus II., 1130-1138; (23) 
 Gregory (Victor IV.), 1138; (24) Octavianus 
 (Victor IV.), 1159-1164; (25) Guido Cre- 
 mensis (Paschal III.), 1164-1168; (26) 
 Johannes de Struma (Calixtus III.), 1168- 
 1178; (27) Landus Titinus (Innocent III.), 
 1178-1180; (28) Clement VII., 1378-1394; 
 (29) Benedict XIII. (deposed 1409), 1394- 
 1423; (30) Clement VIII., 1417-1431; (31) 
 Felix V., 1439-1449. 
 
 Antitaetae. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Antitrinitarians, those who deny the doc¬ 
 trine that God is Three Persons in One 
 God—“ One God in Trinity, and Trinity in 
 Unity”—and oppose to it the tenet of a 
 God without distinction of Persons. The 
 Antitrinitarians of the early Church were 
 the Sabellians and the Arians; the leading 
 ones in modern times have been the 
 Socinians and the Unitarians, but no doubt 
 Antitrinitarianism is maintained by many 
 who do not definitely belong to either of 
 these sects. 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo, a noted Italian car¬ 
 dinal and statesman; b. at Sonnino, April 
 2, 1806; d. in Rome, Nov. 7, 1876. He 
 early won distinction, and Gregory XVI., 
 in 1845, made him his minister of finance. 
 He was appointed cardinal-deacon (1847) 
 by Pius IX., who made him his secretary 
 of foreign affairs in 1849. He proved an 
 astute adviser, but he could not stay the 
 tide of affairs; and Victor Emmanuel en¬ 
 tered Rome, as king of Italy, Nov. 21, 
 1871. The moral character of the great 
 Italian prelate suffered from the disclo¬ 
 sures that were brought out in the suit 
 urged by Countess Lambertini to obtain 
 his property, who claimed to be his natural 
 daughter. 
 
 Antrim, Presbytery of, a section of 
 the Irish Presbyterians, which separated 
 from the main body in a. d. 1750-. They 
 refused to subscribe to the Westminster 
 Confession of Faith, and adopted Arian 
 principles. 
 
 Apelleians, Apellianists, or Apellites, 
 a Gnostic sect of the second century, 
 which took its name from Apelles, its 
 founder. Apelles had been a follower of 
 Marcion ( Marcionites ), but was repudi¬ 
 ated by the latter on account of his licen¬ 
 tiousness. He then established a sect 
 which embraced some of the opinions of 
 Marcion, but rejected others. The Apelle¬ 
 ians attributed the creation of the world to 
 a being created by God, not to God him- 
 
Aph 
 
 ( 40 ) 
 
 Apo 
 
 . self, and believed that this creator was the 
 author of evil. Christ, who suffered and 
 died, was, in their opinion, a Spirit who 
 descended from heaven, and assumed a 
 body compounded of the four elements, 
 earth, air, fire, and water, which elements 
 being dispersed, the Spirit called Christ 
 reascended to heaven: the prophets of 
 the Old Testament were inspired by the 
 author of evil, the creator of the world, 
 and the Law of Moses was also evil.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 A'phek {strength), (1) a city on the 
 northwest slopes of Mount Lebanon, as¬ 
 signed to the tribe of Asher. (2) A place 
 noted in the wars with the Philistines. (1 
 Sam. iv. 1; xxix. 1.) (3) A city six miles 
 
 east of the Sea of Galilee. (1 Kings xx. 24- 
 26.) 
 
 Apthartodocetae. See Monophysites. 
 
 Apis, the bull worshiped by the Egyp¬ 
 tians, who considered it as a symbol of 
 Osiris. It was kept at Memphis, in the 
 care of a retinue of priests. The marks of 
 the Apis w r ere a black hide, with a white 
 triangle-shaped spot on the forehead, the 
 liair on the back shaped like an eagle, a 
 white mark on the right side resembling a 
 lunar crescent, and a knot under the tongue 
 formed like a scarabaeus, the sacred insect 
 and emblem of Ptah, at whose temple the 
 bull was kept. If it did not die before the 
 age of twenty-five it was secretly killed. 
 When a calf was discovered with the re¬ 
 quired marks, it was taken to Memphis, 
 and treated with great care, until it was, 
 by the death of the old Apis, installed in 
 the old temple as a god. The last-known 
 Apis was the one brought to the Emperor 
 Julian II., 362-363 A. d. 
 
 Apocalypse. See Revelation. 
 
 Apocalyptic Books. See Apocrypha of 
 New Testament. 
 
 Apocrisiarius. Ecclesiastical ambassa¬ 
 dors, representing patriarchs and popes at 
 the court of the Greek emperor. 
 
 Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the 
 Old Testament. After a careful examina¬ 
 tion of the scope of the biblical canon, 
 the ancient church divided the mass of bib¬ 
 lical literature, in the widest sense of the 
 word, into three classes: (r) the canonical 
 and inspired; (2) the non-canonical, but, on 
 account of their long use, worthy of being 
 read in the churches {antilego?nena or ec¬ 
 clesiastical)’, and (3) the other books of a 
 biblical character in circulation (biblical 
 name in the title, a biblical form, biblical 
 contents, but differing greatly in spirit and 
 truth from the canonical books), called 
 apocryphal, or such as should be kept 
 secret. Virtually the same books which 
 the ancient church called apocrypha are 
 embraced under the name Pseudepigrapha 
 by the Protestant Church. Since, after 
 the example of Jerome, the non-canonical 
 books of the Old Testament received the 
 name apocrypha, it became necessary to 
 find a new one for the third class. The 
 name Pseudepigrapha is, indeed, as Dill- 
 mann remarks, “ taken only from a single 
 and outward mark, namely: the spurious 
 character of the author’s name which they 
 bear. It is neither sufficiently compre¬ 
 hensive, nor does it distinguish sufficiently 
 this class of writings from the anti- 
 legomena; nor is it applicable to all the 
 writings of the third class. Since, however, 
 the pseudepigraphic form suits at least 
 most of these writings, since this form is 
 intimately connected with the uncertainty 
 and spuriousness of the contents, and since, 
 finally, pseudepigraphic literary work is a 
 characteristic mark of the whole period, to 
 which these books mainly belong, this 
 term alwa3's retains its good sense and 
 right.” We accordingly speak (1) of the 
 Apocrypha; (2) of the Pseudepigrapha. 
 
 I. The Apocrypha. To this class belong 
 the following writings: 
 
 (1) The Apocryphal Esdras or Ezra (call¬ 
 ed the first in the Greek, the third in the 
 Latin Bibles), a compilation, identical in 
 its chief contents with the canonical Ezra 
 (ch. i.=2 Chron. xxx. 6; ii. i-4=Ezra i; ii. 
 15-25; Ezra iv. 7-24; iii.; Ezra v. 6; v. 7 
 -io==Ezraii. 1 toiv. 5; vi., vii=Ezra v.,vi., 
 viii.; ix. 36=Ezra vii. to x; ix. 37-55=Neh. 
 vii. 13 to viii. 13.) The author evidently 
 “ desired to present a history of the 
 temple from the last days of the legal 
 authors to the building of the temple, and 
 the restoration of the worship, compiled 
 from other works.” (2) Additions to Esther. 
 (3) Additions to Daniel: (a) the prayer of 
 Azarias, and the song of the Three Children 
 
Apo 
 
 Apo 
 
 ( 4i ) 
 
 in the oven; ( b ) the history of Susanna; (c) 
 the history of Bel and the Dragon. (4) 
 The prayer of Manasses, probably with 
 reference to 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13, 18. 
 {5) Baruck, in which, after a confession and 
 prayer, Israel is admonished to understand 
 wisdom, and Jerusalem exhorted to re¬ 
 joice, for she will return from captivity 
 with glory. (6) The letter of Jereniiah. ad¬ 
 dressed to the captives of Nebuchadnezzar 
 in Babylon, warning them against idolatry. 
 (7) Tobit , containing an interesting di¬ 
 dactic tale, whose object it is to show the 
 value and reward of serving God faithfully, 
 composed probably about 200 b. c. (8) 
 Judith , containing the story of a Jewish 
 widow called Judith, who delivered her 
 native town, Bethulia, and all Israel from 
 destruction. Originally written in Hebrew. 
 (9) The first book of Maccabees, relating 
 the fortunes of the Jews from the accession 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death of the 
 high-priest Simon (175—135 B. c.). It was 
 originally written in Hebrew. (10) The 
 second book of Maccabees, originally in Greek, 
 is professedly an extract from a history of 
 the Maccabaean struggle written by Jason 
 of Cyrene. (11) The third book of the Mac¬ 
 cabees relates to the attempted endeavor of 
 Ptolemy IV. (Philopater) to enter the 
 Holy of Holies (b. c. 267), and how he fell 
 down paralyzed. In revenge he persecuted 
 the Jews of Alexandria. (12) Jesus Sirach, 
 commonly known as Ecclesiasticus, often 
 quoted in the Talmud, like the canonical 
 Scriptures, but only extant now in the 
 Greek translation of the grandson, who 
 came to Egypt about b. c. 132, and made 
 the translation here. (13) The Wisdom 
 of Solomon, a hymn in praise of wisdom, 
 written by a Jewish Alexandrian philos¬ 
 opher between 150—50 b. c. 
 
 The literature on the Apocrypha is very 
 rich, but the reader will find all that is 
 necessary in Bissell: The Apocrypha of the 
 Old Testa?nent, with historical introductions; 
 a revised translation and notes critical and 
 explanatory (New York 1880, being a sup¬ 
 plement volume to the American edition 
 of Lange’s Old Testament Commentary); 
 and the Apocrypha , edited by H. Wace, 2 
 vols. (London 1888), (additional vols. to 
 the Speaker's Commentary)', in the elaborate 
 article of Schlirer, in Herzog’s Real Ency ., 
 vol. I. (2d ed.), s. v. Apokryphen des Alten 
 Testament, and in his The Jewish People in 
 the Time of Christ, vol. ill. (of the 2d divi¬ 
 sion in the English translation). 
 
 (2) The Pseudepigrapha, or Pseudonymic 
 writings. They are so called because, as 
 has already been stated, most of the works 
 so composed appeared under the assumed 
 name of some famous person. The general 
 character of these writings is anti-heathen, 
 
 perhaps missionary, but chiefly apocalyp¬ 
 tic. They are attempts at taking up the 
 key-note struck in the prophecies of Daniel, 
 and are therefore valuable because they 
 throw light upon Jewish belief at the most 
 important era. Those which are plainly 
 antecedent to Christian times have their 
 own special utility; while the later produc¬ 
 tions, which belong to the first Christian 
 centuries, show the influence of new ideas, 
 even on those who retained their affection 
 for the old religion. The number of these 
 writings must have been once very large. 
 In one of the latest of them (4 Esdras xiv. 
 44, 46), they are put down at seventy, 
 probably a round number, and are de¬ 
 scribed as intended for the wise among the 
 people ; “ for in them is the spring of 
 understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and 
 the stream of knowledge.” 
 
 The documents may be divided into 
 three classes; typical, prophetical, and his¬ 
 torical. Confining ourselves to the most 
 important only, we mention as belonging 
 to the first class (1) the Psalter of Solomon, 
 a collection of eighteen Psalms, written 
 originally in Hebrew, about half a cen¬ 
 tury before the Christian era, but ex¬ 
 tant only in a Greek version. They ex¬ 
 press ardent Messianic aspirations, and a 
 firm faith in the Resurrection, and in eter¬ 
 nal rewards and punishments. The second 
 class is called prophetical, and may be 
 divided into two sections, composed re¬ 
 spectively of Apocalypses and Testaments. 
 Apocalyptic writings are very numerous, 
 the most celebrated being (2)the Fourth Book 
 of Esdras, (called the Second in our Eng¬ 
 lish Bibles), and (3) the Book of Enoch. The 
 document from which, according to Origen, 
 St. Jude borrowed his allusion to Michael’s 
 dispute with Satan about the body of 
 Moses, is called (4) the Assumption of Moses. 
 Different from the Book of Baruch and the 
 Epistle of Jeremy, in our English Apocry¬ 
 pha, is (5) the Apocalypse of Baruch. A 
 work describing the martyrdom of Isaiah 
 —an allusion to which is supposed to be 
 made in Heb. xi. 37—is (6) the Ascension of 
 Isaiah. There is a Prophecy and Revela¬ 
 tion of Esdras, another of Baruch, an 
 apocalypse of Elijah, Jeremiah, Zephaniah, 
 Ezekiel, Habakkuk, Zechariah; a revela¬ 
 tion of Adam, Lamech, Moses, and Abra¬ 
 ham; a prophecy of Eldad and Modah. 
 Among the productions which assume the 
 Testamentary form we mention especially 
 (7), the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 
 containing many legendary particulars of 
 the sons of Jacob not found in Scripture; 
 revelations of the future; and Messianic 
 predictions. To the third class, which 
 takes a historical character, belongs (8) the 
 Book of Jubilees or Little Genesis, a kind of 
 
Apo 
 
 Apo 
 
 ( 42 ) 
 
 legendary supplement to the Book of 
 Genesis, intended to explain some of its 
 difficulties, and to fill up its historic lacuna. 
 Other works of which little is known are: 
 the history of Jannes and Jambres, the 
 magicians who withstood Moses; the con¬ 
 version of Manasses, a different work from 
 the prayer of Manasses in our Apocrypha; 
 the life, revelation, and repentance of 
 Adam; the daughters of Adam; the story 
 of Asenath, Joseph’s wife, and that of Noria, 
 the wife of Noah. As belonging to neither 
 of the seclasses we mention (9), the Sibylline 
 oracles , of which the oldest portions date 
 from about 160 B. c., that come to us from 
 Egypt. In a very elaborate manner the 
 Pseudepigrapha have been located by Dill- 
 mann, in Herzog’s Real Ency ., vol. xii. 
 (2d ed.), pp. 341-367, and by Schiirer in 
 his work quoted already. B. Pick. 
 
 Apocrypha of the New Testament. The 
 relation of the apocrypha of the New Tes¬ 
 tament to the canonical books of the New 
 Testament is essentially different from 
 that of the Old Testament apocrypha to 
 the canonical books of the Old Testament. 
 The Old Testament apocrypha aim simply 
 at a continuation of the sacred history, 
 and pursue this aim in an honest manner, 
 though without divine authority. The 
 apocrypha of the New Testament, on the 
 contrary, purpose directly to substitute 
 spurious sources for genuine. The Church, 
 however, has never recognized them, nor 
 given them a place in the canon of the New 
 Testament. The great mass of these apoc¬ 
 ryphal writings is divided into four classes: 
 (1) Apocryphal Gospels; (2) Apocryphal 
 Acts; (3) Apocryphal Epistles; and (4) 
 Apocryphal Revelations. 
 
 A. The Apocryphal Gospels. About 50 
 such gospels are still extant, or, at least, 
 known to us. Some have come down to us 
 entire, others only in fragments; and of a 
 few we only know the names. The char¬ 
 acter of these gospels is thus described by 
 Hofmann: “ The method employed in these 
 compositions is always the same, whether 
 the author intended simply to collect and 
 arrange what was floating in the general 
 tradition, or whether he intended to pro¬ 
 duce a definite dogmatical effect. Rarely 
 he threw himself on his own invention, but 
 generally he elaborated what was only 
 hinted at in the canonical gospels, or tran¬ 
 scribed words of Jesus into actions, or de¬ 
 scribed the literal fulfilment of some Jew¬ 
 ish expectation concerning the Messiah, or 
 repeated the wonders of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment, but in a more complete form, etc. 
 The work done, he took care to conceal 
 his own name, and inscribed his book with 
 the name of some apostle or disciple, in 
 order to give it authority.” As a rule, 
 
 therefore, the apocryphal gospels give de¬ 
 tails regarding those periods of our Lord’s 
 life about which the New Testament is 
 wisely silent. The following is a list of 
 the different gospels: 
 
 a. The gospel of James (commonly call¬ 
 ed the Protevangelium),comprising the pe¬ 
 riod from the announcement of the birth 
 of Mary to the massacre of the innocents. 
 
 b. The gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, or of 
 the Infancy of Mary and of Jesus. 
 
 c. The gospel of the Nativity of Mary. 
 
 d. The history of Joseph the Carpenter. 
 
 e. The gospel of Thomas, extant in 
 three recensions—twoGreek and one Latin. 
 
 f. The Arabic gospel of the Infancy. 
 
 g. The gospel of Nicodemus, consisting 
 of two separate works: The Acts of Pilate , 
 in three recensions, two in Greek and one 
 in Latin; and Descent of Christ to the Under¬ 
 world, in three recensions, one in Greek 
 and two in Latin. 
 
 h. The letter of Pilate to Tiberius, giv¬ 
 ing a report of Christ’s resurrection. 
 
 i. The epistle of Pilate to Caesar. 
 
 k. The report of Pilate on the trial, ex¬ 
 ecution, death, and resurrection of Jesus. 
 
 /. The trial and condemnation of Pilate. 
 
 m. The death of Pilate. 
 
 n. The story of Joseph of Arimathea. 
 
 o. The avengingof the Saviour, contain¬ 
 ing the legend of Veronica. 
 
 Besides the gospels already mentioned, 
 there were circulated about thirty others, 
 of which we have fragments only, or their 
 mere names. 
 
 B. The Apocryphal Acts. To this class 
 belong the following: 
 
 a. The acts of Peter and Paul. 
 
 b. The acts of Paul and Thecla. 
 
 c. The acts of Barnabas. 
 
 d. The acts of Philip. 
 
 e. The acts of Philip in Hellas. 
 
 f. The acts of Andrew. 
 
 g. The acts of Andrew and Matthias. 
 
 h. The acts and martyrdom of Matthew. 
 
 i. The acts of Thomas. 
 
 k. The consummation of Thomas. 
 
 /. The martyrdom of Bartholomew. 
 
 m. The acts of Thaddseus. 
 
 n. The acts of John. 
 
 o. The acts of Peter and Andrew. 
 
 C. The Apocryphal Epistles. 
 
 a. The letter of Abgar to Jesus, and 
 
 b. The letter of Jesus to Abgar. 
 
 c. The letter of Lentulus. 
 
 d. The epistles of Mary to Ignatius; to 
 the Messanenses and Florentines. 
 
 e. The epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans. 
 
 /. A third (or rather first) epistle of Paul 
 
 to the Corinthians. 
 
 g. The correspondence of St. Paul and 
 Seneca. 
 
 h. An epistle of Peter to James, and 
 
Apo 
 
 ( 43 ) 
 
 Apo 
 
 i. An epistle of John to a dropsical man. 
 
 D. The Apocryphal Apocalypses. 
 
 a. The apocalypse of Moses. 
 
 b. The apocalypse of Esdras. 
 
 c. The apocalypse of Paul. 
 
 d. The apocalypse of John. 
 
 e. f, g. The assumption of Mary. 
 
 The literature on the New Testament 
 apocrypha is very rich. The reader will 
 find the necessary material in Hofmann’s 
 art. Apokryphen des Neue Testa?nent, in Her¬ 
 zog’s Real Ency. (2d ed.), vol. i., pp. 511- 
 529; in the Dictionary of Christian Biography 
 (ed. Smith and Wace), arts. Apocalypses, 
 Epistles, Gospels, Acts (apocryphal). An 
 English translation of the apocrypha is 
 found in the “ Ante-Nicene Library,” Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1870, republished in Coxe’s edi¬ 
 tion Anti-Niccne Fathers, vol. viii. (Buffalo, 
 1886); a Life of Jesus, according to the 
 apocryphal gospels, was published by B. 
 Pick (New York, 1887). B. Pick. 
 
 Apokatastasis. See Restorationism. 
 
 Appollinarianism. See Appollinaris. 
 
 Appollinaris, the younger, bishop of 
 Laodicea, in Syria (d. 392), was one of the 
 warmest opponents of Arianism. Both as 
 a man and a scholar, he was held in the 
 greatest reverence; and his writings were 
 extensively read in his own day. He main¬ 
 tained the doctrine that the Logos, or divine 
 nature in Christ, took the place of the ra¬ 
 tional human soul or mind, and that the 
 body of Christ was a spiritualized and 
 glorified form of humanity. This doctrine 
 was condemned by the Council of Con¬ 
 stantinople (381) and other synods, on the 
 ground that it denied the true human nat¬ 
 ure of Christ. The heresy styled Appol¬ 
 linarianism spread itself rapidly in Syria 
 and neighboring countries, and, after the 
 death of its author, divided itself into two 
 sects, one of which, the Polemians, assert¬ 
 ed that the divine and human natures were 
 so blended as one substance in Christ that 
 his body was a proper object of adoration. 
 Only fragments of his works are extant. 
 
 Apollonia, St., suffered martyrdom at 
 Alexandria during the Decian persecution 
 (249). “ She was seized, together with 
 
 other Christians, and received such violent 
 blows upon her jaws that she lost all her 
 teeth. The pagans then lit the pyre, and 
 demanded that she should curse Christ. 
 She hesitated for a moment, and then she 
 suddenly leaped into the fire. During the 
 Middle Ages she was worshiped as the pat¬ 
 roness against the toothache. She is com¬ 
 memorated in the Roman Church on Feb. 
 9.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Apol'los, “ a Jew from Alexandria, elo¬ 
 quent (which may also mean learned ), and 
 mighty in the Scriptures : one instructed 
 in the way of the Lord, according to the 
 imperfect view of the disciples of John th.e 
 Baptist (Acts xviii. 25), but, on his coming 
 to Ephesus during a temporary absence of 
 St. Paul, A. D. 54, more perfectly taught by 
 Aquila and Priscilla. After this he be¬ 
 came a preacher of the Gospel, first in 
 Achaia and then in Corinth (Acts xviii. 27; 
 xix. 1), where he watered that which Paul 
 had planted. (1 Cor. iii. 6.) When the 
 apostle wrote his first Epistle to the Corin¬ 
 thians, Apollos was with or near him (iCor. 
 xvi. 12), probably at Ephesus, in a. d. 57: 
 we hear of him then that he was unwilling 
 at that time to journey to Corinth, but 
 would do so when he should have conven¬ 
 ient time. He is mentioned but once more 
 in the New Testament, in Tit. iii. 13, where 
 Titus is desired to ‘ bring Zenas the law¬ 
 yer and Apollos on their way diligently, 
 that nothing may be wanting to them.’ 
 After this nothing is known of him.”— 
 Smith: Did. of the Bible. Some have sup¬ 
 posed that he was author of the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews. Tradition asserts that he 
 became bishop of Caesarea. 
 
 Apologetics, from a Greek word mean¬ 
 ing defensive speech , is a designation ap¬ 
 plied to the defense of revelation. It is 
 that branch of theological science which 
 maintains Christianity to be the absolute 
 truth. To the believer there is no need of 
 such a defense. The gospel has been at¬ 
 tested in his own heart as the power of 
 God, and there is as much occasion for 
 demonstrating that light is a reality, or 
 that bread is nourishment, as for proving 
 to him that the faith he holds is from 
 above. 
 
 On the other hand, devout inquirers, as 
 well as the avowed enemies of Christian¬ 
 ity, have at all times demanded scientific 
 evidence of its supernatural origin, and 
 Christians are charged by their own oracles 
 “ to be ready always to give an answer to 
 every man that asketh a reason of the hope 
 that is in them.” There rests upon the 
 Church the twofold service of spreading 
 the gospel and of sustaining its claims 
 against assault. And the truth has never 
 been left without faithful witnesses. The 
 line of defense shifts from time to time, 
 with the form of attack, but the issue is 
 always the same. Can it be shown from 
 reason that Christianity is of God ? Is the 
 system, as a whole, compatible with the 
 postulates of philosophy ? 
 
 Apologetics became a distinct branch of 
 theological science as late as the eighteenth 
 century; but the hostility alike of Jews 
 
Apo 
 
 Apo 
 
 ( 44 ) 
 
 and pagans called for a scientific vindica¬ 
 tion of the new religion in the first period 
 of its history. It had, in its infancy, to 
 battle for existence against the learning of 
 the world, and this struggle so impressed 
 itself upon the age, that it is wont to be 
 called the Age of Apologetics, while the 
 earliest Christian writers of distinction are 
 called the Apologists, chief among whom 
 were Justin Martyr and Origen. 
 
 The argument was, from the first, divided 
 into two classes, the internal and the ex¬ 
 ternal. By the former was shown the in¬ 
 trinsic excellence and reasonableness of 
 Christianity; the incomparable superiority 
 of its ideas and principles to every other 
 system of religion or philosophy; its real¬ 
 ization of the yearnings and hopes of 
 heathenism, as well as its fulfillment of the 
 prefigurations and prophecies of Judaism. 
 It arose as the full-orbed light, from which 
 had radiated every moral and spiritual 
 beam in preceding ages. A profound cor¬ 
 respondence is discovered between Chris¬ 
 tianity and human nature. The former is 
 such an adaptation to the needs and condi¬ 
 tions of the latter, that it must be designed 
 by the author of our being as a redemp¬ 
 tion from the ills of life, an agency by 
 which alone the soul can reach its destina¬ 
 tion—a favorite phase of this argument, 
 and one of peculiar force in the face of cor¬ 
 rupt heathenism, being the moral effect of 
 Christianity upon its adherents. 
 
 The external form of the argument em¬ 
 braces the historical evidences, such as 
 miracles, the fulfillment of prophecy, the 
 preservation and trustworthiness of the 
 Scriptures. The early Apologists claimed 
 to have known persons who had been 
 miraculously healed or restored to life by 
 Jesus, and appealed to the occurrence of 
 indubitable miracles in their day, espe¬ 
 cially the cure of demoniacs through his 
 name and the sign of the cross. The 
 accomplishment of prophecy, in the de¬ 
 struction of Jerusalem and the temple, and 
 the extraordinary spread of Christianity in 
 the midst of bloody persecutions, were 
 cited as irresistible proofs that the gospel 
 was not evolved from the human mind. 
 The ablest apology put forth by the an¬ 
 cient Church is Augustine’s De Civitate 
 Dei. 
 
 After Constantine granted imperial 
 recognition to Christianity, it became the 
 religion of the civilized world, and the 
 assaults of the learned came to an end. 
 During the Middle Ages only Jews and 
 Mohammedans provoked Apologetical 
 writings; but just when the subtle dialec¬ 
 tics of the schoolmen had completed the 
 dogmatic development of Christianity, the 
 whole structure was shaken by the prob¬ 
 
 lem of the relation of faith and knowledge, 
 revelation and reason. The profound 
 philosophy of Thomas Aquinas offered a 
 solution in the proposition that the doc¬ 
 trines of revelation are above reason, but 
 not contradictory to it. 
 
 Under the influence of pagan philosophy, 
 unbelief made its appearance within the 
 Church during the Renaissance, when 
 writers like Grotius, and, above all others, 
 Pascal, made a noble defense of Christian 
 truth. 
 
 The prevalence of Deism in England in 
 the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 gave birth to a voluminous literature in 
 support of the possibility, necessity, and 
 value of a supernatural revelation, its 
 principal representatives being Baxter, 
 Cudworth, Bentley, Waterland, Paley, 
 and, surpassing all, Bishop Butler, 
 author of the immortal Analogy. The 
 frivolous skepticism of Voltaire, Rousseau, 
 and the encyclopaedists of France was met 
 by a number of able and learned refuta¬ 
 tions, alike from Roman Catholics and 
 Protestants. 
 
 From the middle of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury a rationalistic atmosphere enveloped 
 German theology, and its baleful influence 
 produced a period of the boldest doubt 
 and criticism. Since then, the claims alike 
 of natural and revealed theology have sus¬ 
 tained the assaults of a combination of all 
 possible forms of skepticism, the triumph 
 over which has once more demonstrated 
 the indestructibility of Christianity. 
 
 The Wolfenbiittel Fragments contested 
 the truth of the gospel narratives. The 
 Tubingen School assailed the historic 
 foundations of Scripture. Naturalistic in¬ 
 terpretation undermined its infallible au¬ 
 thority, Physical Science has denied the 
 miracles, and Agnosticism holds to the 
 impossibility of verifying the supernatural. 
 
 Modern Apologists have anew formu¬ 
 lated the proofs for the Divine Existence 
 from the light of nature, and contended, 
 though not without varying concessions, 
 for the inspiration and consequent author¬ 
 ity of the Scriptures; but their main 
 ground of defense has been the moral per¬ 
 fection of the Christ of the Gospels, whose 
 historical trustworthiness is irrefragable. 
 Everything is finally staked upon his 
 resurrection, an event established beyond 
 question in the four epistles which the 
 most adverse criticism ascribes to Paul. 
 Christ is the argument for Christianity. 
 His resurrection declared him to be the 
 Son of God with power. On these immov¬ 
 able facts rests the whole Christian sys¬ 
 tem. Besides this triumphant victory of 
 Apologetics, the long conflict with doubt 
 has yielded another result, second only in 
 
Apo 
 
 Apo 
 
 ( 45 ) 
 
 importance to this, namely: that between 
 Christianity as a revelation and absolute 
 despair there is no resting-place for the 
 human mind. 
 
 Among the ablest of modern Apologists 
 are: Dawson: Origin of the World; Drum¬ 
 mond: Natural Law in the Spiritual 
 World; Westcott: History of the Canon of 
 the New Testament; Bruce : The Mirac¬ 
 ulous Element in the Gospels; Lightfoot: 
 Supernatural Religion; Fisher: Grounds of 
 Theistic and Christian Belief; and Row: 
 Manuals of Christian Evidences; and the 
 Apologetic works of Luthardt, Christlieb, 
 and Ebrard. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Apostasy denotes entire renunciation of 
 the Christian faith. In the early days of 
 Christianity, persecution induced many to 
 apostatize, and it was common for them to 
 indicate the act by offering incense to a 
 heathen deity, or blaspheming the name of 
 Christ. Those who thus denied the faith, 
 and afterward desired to return, were re¬ 
 fused absolution; but in time this severe 
 rule was relaxed, and they were restored 
 on condition of repentance and penance. 
 Apostasy is applied, in the Roman Church, 
 to those who renounce their monastic 
 vows, and those who abandon the clerical 
 profession for the life of the world.,Under 
 the first Christian emperors apostasy was 
 considered a civil crime, and severely pun¬ 
 ished. Excommunication is the only pen¬ 
 alty that can now be enforced, and the 
 only one desired by Protestants. 
 
 Apos'tle, a word derived from a Greek 
 verb, apostellein, signifying to send on a 
 message. The title was first given by our 
 Lord to the twelve especially chosen dis¬ 
 ciples. “ The office and commission of the 
 apostles were remarkable in the following 
 particulars: (i) They were all required to 
 have been eye-and-ear witnesses of what 
 they testified, especially of the resurrec¬ 
 tion of Christ. (John xv. 27; Acts i. 21; 1 
 Cor. ix. 1, 15.) (2) They were all called 
 
 or chosen by our Saviour himself. (Luke 
 vi. 13; Gal. i. 1.) Even Matthias is not 
 an exception to this remark, as the deter¬ 
 mination of the lot was of God. (Acts i. 24 
 -26.) (3) They were inspired. (John xvi. 
 
 13.) (4) They had the power of miracles. 
 
 (Mark xvi. 20; Acts ii. 43; 2 Cor. xii. 12.)” 
 —Schaff: Bible Diet. The title “ apostle ” 
 is once used of our Lord himself (Heb. 
 iii. 1), and it is applied in a wider sense 
 to other than the twelve. (2 Cor. viii. 23; 
 Phil. ii. 25.) 
 
 Apostles’ Creed. See Creed. 
 
 Apostolici, or Apostolic Brethren, 
 
 the name assumed by three different sects, 
 who professed to adhere very closely to 
 the practices and doctrine of the apostles. 
 The most important of these sects was 
 founded toward the close of the thirteenth 
 century by Gerhard Sagarelli, a mechanic 
 of Parma. Having sought admittance to 
 the Franciscan order, and being rejected, 
 he set himself to work to organize a com¬ 
 munity in which the life of the apostles was 
 to be followed as closely as possible. In 
 time he gathered quite a following among 
 the lower classes. His arrest, and the is¬ 
 sue of a decree against them by Honorius 
 IV. (1286), and Nicholas IV. (1290), placed 
 them in open hostility to Rome. They 
 prophesied the downfall of the papacy, and 
 the establishment of a purer Church. 
 Sagarelli was accused of heresy, in 1294, 
 but escaped for the time by recantation. 
 In 1300 he was again condemned as a re¬ 
 lapsed heretic, and burned at the stake. 
 Dolcino, of Novara, now became the leader 
 of the sect, which grew rapidly under his 
 guidance, until, finally, he was taken pris¬ 
 oner and put to death. The Apostolici, 
 often called “ Dolcinists,” did not become 
 extinct until the beginning of the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 Apostolic Canons, “ a compilation of 
 practical rules for the guidance of the 
 clergy, made from Holy Scripture, the 
 decisions of the earlier councils, and exist¬ 
 ing ecclesiastical usage by an unknown 
 ecclesiastic, belonging, probably, to the 
 Syrian Church, who lived in the fourth or 
 fifth century.”— T. M. Lindsay. See his 
 article in Ency. Brit., also article Apos¬ 
 tolical Canons in Smith and Cheetham: 
 Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 
 
 Apostolic Constitutions “ are a collec¬ 
 tion of eight books of directions and pre¬ 
 scriptions on ecclesiastical and theological 
 matters, for which apostolic origin and 
 authority have been frequently claimed. 
 The book as a whole has never been re¬ 
 ceived as an authority, and its influence 
 has been greater in the East than in the 
 West. ’ ’— Lindsay. 
 
 Apostolic Fathers, the name given to 
 the immediate disciples and fellow-laborers 
 of the apostles, and especially to those 
 among them whose writings have been 
 handed down to us. They are usually 
 divided into two classes, viz.: disciples of 
 Paul: Barnabas, Clemens Romanus, and 
 Hermas; and disciples of John: Ignatius, 
 Polycarp, and Papias. See Fathers. 
 
 Apostolical Council, a title sometimes 
 given to the assembly of the apostles, of 
 
Apo 
 
 ( 46 ) 
 
 Ara 
 
 which an account is given in the fifteenth 
 chapter of the Acts. It is also sometimes 
 called “ The Council of Jerusalem.” 
 
 Apotactici, a sect of the third century, 
 in Phrygia, Cilicia, and Pamphylia who 
 assumed their name (Renuntiants), because 
 they claimed to follow the apostles in re¬ 
 nouncing private property, marriage, etc. 
 See Apostolici. 
 
 Appellants. See Jansenism. 
 
 Approbation of Books. The fifth Lat- 
 eran council (1512) decided that no theo¬ 
 logical book should be published without 
 the approval of a bishop. This rule still 
 holds in the Roman Church. See Index 
 Expurgatorius. 
 
 Apse, the semicircular or polygonal ter¬ 
 mination to a church. This form was prob¬ 
 ably derived from the concha or bema, in 
 the classic and early Christian basilica. 
 
 Aquaviva, Claudius, general of the Jes¬ 
 uit order in 1580; b. 1543; d. 1615. In the 
 face of many difficulties the order flourish¬ 
 ed under his leadership. “ He was pru¬ 
 dent enough to silence Molino, when the 
 controversy with the Dominicans became 
 too hot; and to silence Mariana, whose doc¬ 
 trine of the allowableness of the murder of 
 tyrants produced the deepest indignation.” 
 —Schaff-Herzog: Ency . 
 
 Aq'uila (eagle), a native of Pontus, by 
 occupation a tent-maker. Previous to his 
 stay at Corinth he had resided at Rome, 
 and both himself and his wife Priscilla 
 united with the Church there. He was 
 forced to leave the city in consequence of 
 an edict issued by Claudius, commanding 
 all Jews to leave Rome. At Corinth, 
 Aquila and Priscilla met Paul, and became 
 his companions in some of his mission¬ 
 ary labors, and instructed Apollos. (Acts, 
 xviii. 2, 18, 26; Rom. xvi. 3; 1 Cor. 
 
 xvi. 19.) 
 
 Aqui'nas, Thomas, one of the most influ¬ 
 ential of the scholastic theologians, was of 
 an illustrious family in the kingdom of 
 Naples; b. 1224 or 1227, in the castle of his 
 father at Rocca Sicca, in the territory of 
 Naples ; d. in the monastery of Fossa 
 Nuova, March 7, 1274. A strong love for 
 philosophical speculation determined the 
 young nobleman, against the will of his 
 family, to enter a Dominican convent. In 
 order to frustrate the attempts of his 
 friends to remove him from the convent he 
 was sent to Naples, but on the way his 
 brothers seized him from his conductors, 
 
 and carried him to the paternal castle,where 
 he was guarded as a prisoner for two years. 
 By the help of Dominicans he finally es¬ 
 caped, and went to the convent at Cologne, 
 when he enjoyed the instructions of the 
 famous Albert Magnus. Another account 
 says that the emperor and pope secured his 
 release. He gained great reputation as a 
 lecturer at Paris, and was called by the pope 
 to teach philosophy in Rome, Bologna, and 
 Pisa. 
 
 “ The writings of Thomas are of very 
 great importance for philosophy as well as 
 theology, for he is the spirit of scholastic¬ 
 ism incarnate, and has done more than any 
 other writer, save Augustine, to fashion the 
 theological language of the Western 
 Church. He held that there were two 
 sources of knowledge — the mysteries of 
 Christian faith and the truths of human 
 reason.”— Lindsay. But while reason and 
 revelation were two distinct sources of 
 truth, yet the truths which each revealed 
 are not in themselves contradictory. He 
 held that revelation is the more important 
 of the two. His principal works on the¬ 
 ology are his Commentary on Peter the 
 Lombard’s Sentences,‘ Compendium Theologice 
 (incomplete) ; the Adversus Gentiles and 
 Summa Totius Theologice. The best edition 
 of his works is the one published in Venice 
 in 1787, in 28 quarto vols. 
 
 Ara'bia ( wilderness ), the great south¬ 
 western peninsula of Asia. In the Bible, 
 however, the name designates only the 
 northern part, contiguous to Palestine. Its 
 length, from north to south, is about 1,500 
 miles, its breadth about 800. Arabia is 
 mentioned in 1 Kings x. 15; Ezek. xxvii. 
 21; Gal. iv. 25. Paul went into Arabia. 
 (Gal. i. 17.) In modern geography the 
 country is divided into (1) Arabia Pe- 
 tr^A, which lies south of the Holy Land, 
 and had Petra for its capital. Here were 
 Kadesh-barnea, Gerar, Beer-sheba, Paran, 
 Arad, etc.; it included, also, the peninsula 
 of Mount Sinai, and the land of Midian. 
 
 (2) Arabia Fe'lix is the country still fur¬ 
 ther south, being bounded on the east by 
 the Persian Gulf, and west by the Red 
 Sea. The Queen of Sheba was probably 
 queen of a part of this country. The cities 
 of Mecca and Medina are in Arabia Felix. 
 
 (3) Arabia Deserta is the vast steppe, 
 with occasional hills, bounded by the 
 mountains of Gilead on the west, and 
 River Euphrates on the east, and extend¬ 
 ing far to the south. Here the Ishmaelites 
 and other wandering tribes dwelt. 
 
 Arabian life is now either nomadic or 
 settled. The wandering tribes, or Bedou¬ 
 ins, look with contempt upon the located 
 tribes. Few nations have approached so 
 

 ( A 7 ) 
 
Ara 
 
 (43) 
 
 Arc 
 
 near as the Arabs to the condition of 
 standing still for centuries, in a moral and 
 social point of view. They are nominally 
 Mohammedan, but the Bedouins pay slight 
 attention to the ceremonial precepts of the 
 Koran. In hospitality the Arabs of our 
 times have in no degree degenerated from 
 the reputation they have always borne. 
 The study of their customs and language 
 still throws important light on the Old 
 Testament. See Robinson: Biblical Re¬ 
 searches in Palestine (Boston, 1850), 3 vols.; 
 Stanley: Sinai and Palestine (1856); Pal- 
 grave : Journey through Central and Eastern 
 Arabia (London, 1865); Schaff: Through 
 Bible-Lands (N. Y., 1879), 
 
 northeast of Palestine, in the direction of 
 the Euphrates river. (Num. xxiii. 7; 1 
 Chron. i. 17; ii. 23.) It was nearly iden¬ 
 tical with Syria. Aram-Naharaim of Gen. 
 xxiv. 10, is translated Mesopotamia in the 
 English version, and refers to the region 
 between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. 
 There were probably several petty king¬ 
 doms included under Aram, as Aram- 
 Zobah,Aram-Beth-rehob, Aram-Damascus, 
 Padan-aram; all these were gradually ab¬ 
 sorbed by that of Damascus, which became 
 the capital of all ‘ Aram,’or ‘Syria.’”— 
 Schaff: Bible Did. 
 
 Ararat (holy land or high land) orig- 
 
 MOUNT ARARAT, ARMENIA. 
 
 Arabians or Arabici, a sect which arose 
 early in the third century. They held to 
 the doctrine that the soul perished, and 
 was restored to life with the body. They 
 are mentioned by Augustine, and Eusebius 
 says that the sect were convinced of their 
 error by Origen, and renounced it at a 
 council held about 246. 
 
 A'rad, a royal city of the Canaanites, 
 situated about twenty miles south of He¬ 
 bron, on the border of Judah, on a hill now 
 called Tel Arad. (Josh. xii. 14; Num. xxi. 
 
 i-3-) 
 
 A'ram ( highlands ), “ the elevated region 
 
 inally designated an entire district of Asia 
 (Gen. viii. 4), but is used now with refer¬ 
 ence to the lofty Armenian mountain 
 which stands on the confines of the Rus¬ 
 sian, Turkish, and Persian dominions. It 
 is called by the Persians Kuh-i-Nuh , or 
 Noah’s Mountain. According to tradition 
 the ark rested on the southern slope of the 
 mountain. Another tradition has fixed 
 upon Mount Judi, in the south of Armenia, 
 as the ark’s resting-place. 
 
 Arcani,Disciplina,“ a term applied to the 
 practice, general in the ancient Church, of 
 excluding all the uninitiated from certain 
 parts of the divine service, and maintain- 
 
Arc 
 
 ( 49 ) 
 
 Arc 
 
 ing a studied reticence, when speaking in 
 public, about certain sacred objects and 
 proceedings. The reason for this practice 
 was simply that Christianity was an ‘ un¬ 
 recognized religion,’and, as such, exposed 
 to the fury and persecutions of the pagans. 
 When these circumstances changed, the 
 practice itself disappeared.”— Zezschwitz. 
 Seehisart. inSchaff-Herzog: Amrj.; alsoart. 
 “ Disciplina Arcani ” in Smith and Cheet- 
 ham: Dictionary Christian Antiquities. 
 
 Archaeology, Biblical, leaving out bib¬ 
 lical history, properly so-called, has 
 been defined “as a representation of the 
 physical, geographical, statistical, econom¬ 
 ical, and social conditions of that nation 
 which produced the Bible.” Of the antiq¬ 
 uities of other nations that came in 
 contact with the Hebrews, only those are 
 admitted that have a direct bearing on 
 some scriptural passage. “The sources of 
 this science comprise : (i) Antique monu¬ 
 ments and buildings, plastic represen¬ 
 tations, inscriptions and coins. (2) Among 
 the written sources the Bible occupies 
 the first place. The writings of Philo and 
 Josephus give excellent information with 
 regard to their own times ; but for the 
 older periods they must be used with 
 caution. The Talmud, Targums, and the 
 Rabbins form a ‘ rich but not clear source.’ 
 The older portions of them are of great 
 value for the explanation of the New 
 Testament.”— Ruetschi. Some Greek and 
 Roman authors give important informa¬ 
 tion,and also Oriental writers,and the relig¬ 
 ious books of the Arabs and Parsees. The 
 literature both of Biblical and Ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal Archaeology is extensive. See Kitto; 
 Smith; McClintockand Strong; and Bissell: 
 Antiquities of the Bible (American S. S. 
 Union, 1888). 
 
 Archaeology, Ecclesiastical, treats of 
 the organization of the Christian Church, 
 its officers, legislation, discipline, and rev¬ 
 enues; the social life of Christians; their 
 worship and ceremonial, with the accom¬ 
 panying music, vestments, instruments, 
 vessels, and insignia; their sacred places; 
 their architecture and other forms of Art; 
 their symbolism; their sacred days and 
 seasons, and all matters pertaining to 
 ecclesiastical order and development. See 
 Smith and Cheetham: Dictionary of Chris¬ 
 tian Antiquities (London, 1875-80), 2 vols., 
 an authority on this subject for the first 
 eight centuries; also Bingham :Antiquities of 
 the Christian Church (London, 1878), 2 vols. 
 
 Archangel, a chief or principal angel. 
 The word only occurs twice in the Bible. 
 (1 Thess. iv. 16 : Jude 9.) See Angel. 
 
 Archbishop, “ the title of a church digni¬ 
 tary of the first class. Archbishops were 
 not known in the Church before the fourth 
 century after Christ, when the term 
 ‘ Archbishop ’ was introduced in the East 
 as a title of dignity, which did not neces¬ 
 sarily imply any superiority of jurisdiction 
 over a bishop.”— Ency. Britannica. See 
 Bishop. 
 
 Archdeacon. “ The office of archdeacon 
 is of ancient institution in the Christian 
 Church, as archdeacons are mentioned in 
 the fourth century after Christ. The title 
 was originally given to the chief deacon 
 in each diocese, who had charge of the tem¬ 
 poral affairs of the church, and the super¬ 
 vision of all matters which appertained to 
 the order and decency of divine service.”— 
 Ency. Britannica. In time, the archdeacons 
 encroached upon the episcopal jurisdiction, 
 but they were restrained by councils held 
 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
 In the Church of England the archdeacons 
 are appointed by the bishops, and have a 
 general oversight of the churches within 
 the bounds of the archdeaconry. 
 
 Archpresbyter. See Archdeacon. 
 
 Archela'us ( ruler of the people}, a son of 
 Herod the Great, and elder brother of 
 Herod Antipas, with whom he was brought 
 up at Rome. He succeeded his father in 
 the government of Judaea and Samaria, 
 with the title of ethnarch. His cruelty 
 led to his deposition by Augustus in the 
 tenth year of his reign, and he was banish¬ 
 ed to Vienne, in Gaul, where he died. 
 
 Ar'chevites,“the name of a people trans¬ 
 planted by the Assyrians into the depopu¬ 
 lated Samaria. (Ezek. iv. 9.) They were 
 inhabitants of Erech and its neighborhood, 
 mentioned in Gen. x. 10 as belonging to 
 the kingdom of Nimrod. Erech has been 
 identified in the ruins of Warka, on the 
 banks of the Euphrates, eighty-two miles 
 south-east from Babylon.”— Wolf Baudis- 
 sin. 
 
 Archiman'drite. Since the fifth century 
 this name has been given by the Greek 
 Christians to the head of a monastery, and 
 the title is retained even after the office is 
 resigned. 
 
 Architecture, Christian. It was not until 
 the time of Constantine that Christian ar¬ 
 chitecture began to develop as an art. (1) 
 The so-called Basilican style was an imita¬ 
 tion of the Roman basilica, a rectangular 
 building with plain walls on the outside, 
 and on the interior a large hall surrounded 
 

 Arc ( 50 ) Arc 
 
 by columns and galleries. The alterations 
 required to change an ancient basilica into 
 a church were very slight. The atrium 
 (q. v.) was enlarged and provided with a 
 fountain. The main room was entered by 
 several doors, according as the hall was di¬ 
 vided into three, five, or seven aisles. 
 Three was the more common number. The 
 place for the clergy was slightly elevated 
 above the nave, and separated from it by a 
 railing. Here stood, in the centre the altar 
 and on either side, the pulpits. The bish¬ 
 op’s throne was back of the altar, and the 
 seats for the clergy were ranged along the 
 wall. Some of the early basilicas were 
 very richly furnished with pictures and 
 hangings of costly stuffs. 
 
 (2) The Byzantine style had its origin 
 probably from the Roman mausoleum, 
 modified by Persian influence. The pecul¬ 
 iarity of this style was the combination of 
 the cupola and the square. The two great 
 masterpieces of the style are St. Vitale in 
 Ravenna (526-547), and St. Sophia in Con¬ 
 stantinople (532-557). A later development 
 of the Byzantine style substituted the 
 Greek cross for the square substructure, 
 and increased the number of cupolas. The 
 Church of St. Mark, in Venice (1043-71), is 
 a noble example. (3) The Ro??ianesque 
 style was an adaptation of the Basilican 
 with that of the Byzantine. It dates from 
 the beginning of the eleventh century, and 
 disappeared in the thirteenth century, as the 
 Gothic style developed. See Gothic Ar¬ 
 chitecture. 
 
 (4) The Renaissance style superseded the 
 Gothic in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen¬ 
 turies. It was a reproduction of classical 
 forms. Its greatest example is St. Peter’s 
 at Rome ( q. v. ). In modern times church 
 building represents a mixture of styles. 
 See Brown: Sacred Architecture (London, 
 1845); Charles Eliot Norton: Studies of 
 Church-building in the Middle Ages (New 
 York, 1880). 
 
 Architecture, Hebrew. It was not until 
 after the occupation of Canaan that the Is¬ 
 raelites became dwellers in towns, and lived 
 in houses of stone. Solomon was the first 
 in the royal line who gave a great impulse 
 to architecture. “ Besides the Temple and 
 his other great works, he built fortresses 
 and cities in various places, among which 
 Baalath and Tadmor are in all probability 
 represented by Baalbec and Palmyra. (1 
 Kings ix. 15, 24.) Among the succeeding 
 kings of Israel and of Judah, more than one 
 is recorded as a builder: Asa (1 Kings xv. 
 23), Baasha (xv. 17), Omri (xvi. 24), Ahab 
 xvi. 32; xxii. 39), Hezekiah(2 Kings xx. 20: 
 2 Chron. xxxii. 27-30), Jehoash and Josiah 
 (2 Kings xii. 11, 12; xxii. 6); and, lastly, Je- 
 
 hoiakim, whose winter palace is mentioned. 
 (Jer. xxii. 14; xxxvi. 22; see also Amos. iii. 
 15.) On the return from captivity the 
 chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the 
 Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a 
 substantial manner, with stone, and with 
 timber from Lebanon. (Ezra iii. 8; v. 8; 
 Neh. ii. 8; iii.) But the reigns of Herod 
 and his successors were especially remark¬ 
 able for their great architectural works. 
 Not only was the Temple restored, but the 
 fortifications and other public buildings of 
 Jerusalem were enlarged and embellished. 
 (Luke xxi. 5.) The town of Caesarea was 
 built on the site of Strato’s Tower; Samaria 
 was enlarged and received the name of Se- 
 baste. Of the original splendor of these 
 great works no doubt can be entertained; 
 but of their style and appearance we can 
 only conjecture that they were formed on 
 Greek and Roman models. The connec¬ 
 tion of Solomon vvith Egypt and with Tyre, 
 and the influence of the Captivity, must 
 necessarily have affected the style of the 
 palatial edifices of that monarch, and of the 
 first and second temples. The enormous 
 stones employed in the Assyrian, Persepol- 
 itan, and Egyptian buildings, find a paral¬ 
 lel in the substructions of Baalbec, and in 
 the huge blocks which still remain at Jeru¬ 
 salem, relics of the buildings either of Sol¬ 
 omon or of Herod. But few monuments 
 are known to exist in Palestine by which 
 we can form an accurate idea of its build¬ 
 ings; and even of those which do remain, no 
 trustworthy examination has yet been 
 made. It is probable, however, that the 
 reservoirs known under the names of the 
 Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah contain 
 some portions, at least, of the original fab¬ 
 rics. The domestic architecture of the 
 Jews, so far as it can be understood, is 
 treated under House.” —Smith: Did. of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Archontics, a sect of local Gnostics 
 which arose in Palestine in the middle of 
 the second century, and derived its name 
 from the “ Archons,” or sub-deities, who 
 corresponded in their system with the 
 ^Eons of Simon Magus and the Valentinians 
 (Ton). The sect spread to Armenia, but 
 was never very numerous, and seems 
 to have been a branch of the Egyptian 
 Ophites. They had various apocryphal 
 books, and among them that known as the 
 Ascension of Isaiah. 
 
 Archpriest. In the primitive Church 
 this was the principal priest of a diocese, 
 usually the senior one, according to the 
 date of his ordination as priest. As the 
 organization of dioceses advanced, the num¬ 
 ber of archpriests increased, and one was 
 
Are 
 
 (5i) 
 
 Ari 
 
 appointed for each principal town and its 
 neighborhood under the name of the “rural 
 archpriest.” The office is often confused 
 with that of the Chorepiscopus , but was 
 in reality the same as that of the Rural 
 Dean , though in mediaeval times its duties 
 were assumed by the Archdeacons. 
 
 Ar'etas, the King of Arabia Petraea. His 
 daughter married Herod Antipas, and when 
 Herod divorced her, to make way for Hero- 
 dias, Aretas took up arms against him, and 
 defeated him. The Roman emperor, Ti¬ 
 berius, came to the assistance of Antipas, 
 and ordered Tullius, governor of Syria, to 
 attack Aretas. The death of Tiberius pre¬ 
 vented him; and as Aretas gained the good¬ 
 will of the new emperor, Caligula, he was 
 restored to the government of Damascus. 
 This explains the statement of Paul. (2 Cor. 
 xi. 32.) 
 
 Argentine Republic, The, was discover¬ 
 ed and occupied by the Spaniards in 1516. 
 The Roman Catholic Church was at once es¬ 
 tablished, and has continued the Church of 
 the State. Since 1813 most of the convents 
 have been suppressed, and their property 
 confiscated. The Government has as¬ 
 sumed the administration of tithes, and de¬ 
 votes one part of them for educational pur¬ 
 poses. While the missions were under 
 the control of the Jesuits (1586-1767), 
 large numbers of Indians were reclaimed, 
 and were induced to choose civilized 
 methods of life and work. Many were 
 taught agriculture and trade. After the 
 expulsion of the Jesuits, the Roman 
 Church, represented by the Dominican 
 and Franciscan orders, became indolent 
 and tyrannical, and thousands of the In¬ 
 dians relapsed into barbarism. 
 
 Protestant missionaries came into the 
 country in 1835, and several flourishing 
 stations have been established, especially 
 by the Methodists. 
 
 Arianism. See Arius. 
 
 Arimathe'a, a town in Judaea, the birth¬ 
 place of Joseph, in whose sepulchre the 
 body of Jesus was laid. (Matt, xxviii. 57; 
 Mark xv. 43; Luke xxiii. 51; John xix. 38.) 
 Some identify it with Ramah, the birth¬ 
 place of Samuel. 
 
 Aristar'chus, the fellow-laborer of Paul, 
 who went with him on his last journey to 
 Jerusalem from Troas, and shared his im¬ 
 prisonment at Caesarea. (Acts xix. 29; xx. 
 4; Col. iv. 10.) He accompanied the 
 apostle on the perilous sea-voyage to 
 Rome (Acts xxvii. 2), and, it appears, left 
 him' soon after their reaching that city. 
 
 According to tradition he was Bishop of 
 Thessalonica, and suffered martyrdom un¬ 
 der Nero. 
 
 Aristobu'lus, an Alexandrian Jew, re¬ 
 ferred to in 2 Macc. i. 10 as a “ teacher” 
 of the king and a man of influence among 
 his people. Some think he was the author 
 of an allegorical commentary on the Penta¬ 
 teuch, fragments of which are preserved in 
 the writings of Clement of Alexandria, and 
 Eusebius. 
 
 Aristotle was born at Stagira, 384 B. c.; 
 was a pupil of Plato, from 364 to 347; be¬ 
 came preceptor of Alexander the Great, in 
 342; and d. in 322. He divided the circle 
 of knowledge into Metaphysics and Logic, 
 Physics, including part of the science of 
 mind, and Ethics. “ The philosophy of 
 Aristotle is a strongly pronounced dualism; 
 matter and form, God and the world, are dis¬ 
 tinct though inseparable existences. The 
 harmony of this duality is an equally pro¬ 
 nounced Pantheism; God is an act rather 
 than a will, a process and not a person. 
 But the dualism of Aristotle is not ma¬ 
 terialistic; the form, God, is the principal 
 constituent; and his Pantheism is abso¬ 
 lutely monotheistic, directly opposed to 
 every form of polytheism.”— Schaff-Herzog . 
 The philosophy of Aristotle had a marked 
 influence upon the religious thought of the 
 Middle Ages, but was discarded by the 
 theologians of the Reformation. The best 
 edition of Aristotle’s works is by Bekker 
 (Berlin, 1831-70), 5 vols. See art. in Ency. 
 Britannica. 
 
 Arius and the Arians. Early in the 
 fourth century the heretical opinions 
 which had been promulgated respecting 
 the Godhead of our Lord culminated in 
 the widely spread heresy of Arianism, so 
 named after Arius, its principal leader. 
 Arius was a native of Ptolemais (now 
 known as Tolmeit), a city in Cyrenaica, or 
 that part of North Africa which lies, exact¬ 
 ly opposite to the southern part of Greece. 
 The date of his birth is uncertain, but the 
 important part of his life takes in from 
 A. d. 306 to A. D. 336, and this is the period 
 with which we have to deal, in treating of 
 his personal history and influence. 
 
 In his appearance and manners he was 
 exceedingly attractive, and much of his 
 personal influence seems 'to have been 
 gained by his gentle and winning ways in 
 society. We read of him as a very tall and 
 thin man, of rigidly ascetic look and seri¬ 
 ous countenance, of downcast eyes, per¬ 
 haps from weak sight, and given to violent 
 starts and wild glances, “ as if suffering,” 
 suggests Dean Stanley, “from some vio- 
 
Ari 
 
 ( 52 ) 
 
 Ari 
 
 lent and internal complaint, the same, per¬ 
 haps, that will terminate one day in his 
 sudden and frightful death.” He was a 
 man of much ability, tact, and learning, 
 and full of energy. 
 
 The first we hear of Arius is as a lay¬ 
 man, who made himself so prominent as a 
 partisan of Meletius, a bishop of Lycopolis 
 (who had apostatized from Christianity to 
 save his life, during the Diocletian perse¬ 
 cution; and, when safe times had returned, 
 wished to take up his position as if noth¬ 
 ing had happened), that he appears to have 
 been excommunicated by his own bishop, 
 Peter of Alexandria. Arius was, however, 
 reconciled to the bishop, and ordained 
 deacon about the year 306. His partisan¬ 
 ship was not by any means eradicated, 
 nevertheless; for the supporters of Mele¬ 
 tius having started a church of their own, 
 and Meletius having ordained bishops, 
 Arius advocated their claims to be ad¬ 
 mitted on equal terms of fellowship by the 
 Bishop of Alexandria; and this went on 
 until he was again ejected from the com¬ 
 munion of the Church. Whenever he was 
 excommunicated Arius seems to have re¬ 
 pented, and, when he was received back 
 again, to have relapsed on the earliest 
 opportunity. The repentance now came 
 with the imprisonment of the bishop by 
 the persecutor Maximin, in 311. 
 
 Arius persuaded a number of the Alex¬ 
 andrian clergy, who probably thought the 
 matter between him and the bishop was 
 more personal than anything else, to go to 
 Peter in prison, and intercede for his 
 restoration. This was sternly refused by 
 the old bishop, who, it is said, supported 
 his refusal by the narrative of a vision he 
 had seen the night before, in which it was 
 revealed to him that Arius would be the 
 cause of terrible divisions in the Church of 
 Christ. Turning to two clergymen, named 
 Achillas and Alexander, he predicted, the 
 story continues, that they, and not Arius, 
 would each in his turn be his successors; 
 and the event proved his words to be 
 prophetic. 
 
 After the bishop’s martyrdom, in the 
 year 312, the first-named of these, Achillas, 
 was elected bishop, and Arius, appearing 
 to him to be penitent (and probably being 
 so at the time, for he was a man of strong 
 impulses), he restored him to communion, 
 ordained him priest, appointed him to the 
 charge of the church of Baucalis, in Alex¬ 
 andria, and made him Divinity Lecturer at 
 the college of that city, where he became 
 exceedingly popular with his pupils. 
 Achillas dying, Alexander and Arius were 
 candidates for the see; but it seems that a 
 very small party desired the election of 
 the latter, and Alexander was elected. 
 
 Arius and the party who had supported 
 him were, however, thrown into a bitter 
 state of hostility towards those who had 
 preferred Alexander; the latter, on the 
 other hand, gave Arius the first place of 
 dignity among his clergy, next to him¬ 
 self. 
 
 The particular line which Arius marked 
 out for himself was that of substituting 
 “rational” ideas about the Blessed Trinity 
 for those mysteries which had hitherto 
 been accepted and believed in by the great 
 body of Christians at all times and every¬ 
 where. He followed in the track of for¬ 
 mer heretics, and kept up the succession 
 which is to be traced through Paul of 
 Samosata, Sabellius, Praxeas, the Gnostics, 
 the Docette and Cerinthus, back to the 
 Apostolic Age itself; but as the last gen¬ 
 eral persecution of the Church was the. 
 most severe which it had to undergo, so 
 the last heresy of that period was by far 
 the most dangerous and the most widely 
 spread of all heresies. 
 
 Arius began by a controversy with a 
 clergyman named Baucalas, in which the 
 eternal existence of our Lord, as God the 
 Son, was the subject of dispute; but who 
 was the original assailant of the other does 
 not appear, though it seems probable that 
 Arius was, since he had already accused 
 the bishop of Sabellianism. 
 
 The matter became notorious, and the 
 bishop was driven to take some steps re¬ 
 specting it. What he did was exceedingly 
 fair and honorable, and shows that he was 
 not actuated by any private pique against 
 his late rival; for he called together a 
 synod, composed of a hundred of the 
 neighboring bishops, that they might hear 
 what each of the disputants had to say, 
 and advise them as to the right or the 
 wrong of their arguments. Arius, mean¬ 
 while, took a step, which seems to show 
 that he was a thorough agitator, for, while 
 his matter was thus sub judice, he en¬ 
 deavored to secure influence over his 
 judges by writing to all neighboring 
 bishops. 
 
 All of them, however, with the excep¬ 
 tion of Eusebius of Nicomaedia (not Euse¬ 
 bius the historian, who was bishop of 
 Caesarea), refused their countenance, and 
 referred him to his diocesan, Bishop 
 Alexander; and the hundred other bishops 
 decided that the doctrine of Arius was not 
 the doctrine of the Church, and urged him 
 to recant. As he refused to do so, and 
 the case had become so serious that no 
 alternative was left, the bishop excommu¬ 
 nicated him (a. d. 320). 
 
 There are always many to side with 
 an oppressed man, or one who is thought 
 to be so, and Arius was a man made for 
 
Ari 
 
 (53) 
 
 Ari 
 
 popularity. Among the ladies of Alex¬ 
 andria he found many followers. Some of 
 the younger laity were also won over to 
 his side; a few deacons and several priests 
 were his clerical supporters, as also the 
 Bishop of Ptolemais, his native place, and 
 of Marmarica, the see which lay between 
 it and his present abode. But he seems 
 never to have numbered men of the high¬ 
 est class of intellect among his followers, 
 Eusebius, the historian, being the only 
 one who could at all be excepted, and he 
 only half inclining toward him at one 
 period of his career, through fear of the 
 clergy running into an opposite extreme. 
 
 After the condemnation of his opinions 
 by the bishop and provincial council of 
 Alexandria, Arius left the city, and went 
 on a tour among the bishops of Palestine, 
 endeavoring to win them over to his side. 
 
 This led to a circular letter being ad¬ 
 dressed, by Bishop Alexander, to seventy 
 of them, in which he told them the history 
 of the controversy, and mixed up with it 
 the name of the Bishop of Nicomaedia, 
 who had always been an important friend 
 of Arius (Nicomaedia being the capital of 
 the Eastern Empire, as Rome was of the 
 Western), and who now espoused his 
 cause more warmly still, receiving him as 
 a visitor. The tact, energy, and talents of 
 Arius are shown by his literary works 
 while at Nicomaedia, for under the name 
 of Thalia he composed some songs for 
 sailors and workmen, in which he endeav¬ 
 ored to secure a public opinion for his 
 tenets among the lower classes. These 
 songs no longer exist, except in a few 
 fragments, but they are said by St. Atha¬ 
 nasius to contain some immoralities. 
 
 The substance of Arian doctrine may be 
 stated in a few words: It is, that although 
 the Second Person in the Holy Trinity 
 may be designated as God, in some sense, 
 He is not God in the same sense as the 
 First, or in any really true sense, because 
 He is not eternal, and there was, therefore, 
 a time when he did not exist. It was 
 seldom, however, that Arius put forth his 
 doctrine in this simple form, as his object 
 seems to have been rather to secure as 
 many supporters as he could by broad and 
 indefinite statements, of which only edu¬ 
 cated theologians could see the bearing. 
 That bearing is illustrated by the change 
 which Arius and his followers adopted in 
 the old Doxology of the Church. 
 
 This they used in .the form, “ Glory be 
 to the Father, by the Son, in the Holy 
 Ghost,” which was, in the mouth of an 
 Arian, a most important change, since the 
 more ancient form ascribes glory to the Son 
 as it does to the Father, and hence acknowl¬ 
 edges his equal Godhead. The contro¬ 
 
 versy thus settled on the Greek word 
 homdousios, which, in the English transla¬ 
 tion of the Nicene Creed, is rendered, “ of 
 one substance with;” the one side main¬ 
 taining that God the Son is an uncreated 
 being, as entirely God as God the Father; 
 the other, that he is a created being, but in 
 some way similar to God the Father; in 
 fact, a kind of demi-god. 
 
 The controversy had hitherto been 
 represented by Alexander, Bishop or Patri¬ 
 arch of Alexandria, on one side, and Arius 
 himself on the other. It was while the 
 influence of the latter was being exerted to 
 the utmost at Nicomaedia, and had pene¬ 
 trated into the family circle of the Emperor 
 Constantine, that a young deacon was 
 brought forward by Alexander as the theo¬ 
 logical champion of the old doctrine. This 
 young deacon became ultimately that great 
 opponent of Arianism, whose name is pre¬ 
 served in memory to this day by the hymn 
 or creed which is called after his name (as 
 representing his statements of the received 
 doctrine), the great Athanasius. (Athana¬ 
 sius, St.) 
 
 The controversy had now covered so 
 large a surface, and involved so many per¬ 
 sons on either side, as to have become a 
 public question of great importance. 
 About fifty years later, the general inter¬ 
 est which a revival of it excited is quaintly 
 but forcibly described by Gregory of 
 Nyssa. “ The town is full,” he wrote— 
 meaning Constantinople—“ of those who 
 dogmatize about incomprehensible mat¬ 
 ters; they are in the streets, in the mar¬ 
 kets, among the clothiers, money-changers 
 and victuallers. If you ask any one how 
 much you have to pay, they dogmatize 
 about ‘ being begotten ’ and ‘ not being 
 begotten.’ If you ask the price of bread, 
 the reply is, ‘ The Father is greater than 
 the Son, and the Son is inferior to the 
 Father.’ If you ask, ‘ Is the bath ready?’ 
 the answer is, ‘ The Son is made out of 
 nothing.’ ” Though this was written when 
 Arianism was in high favor with the em¬ 
 peror, who then held his court at Con¬ 
 stantinople, it probably represents some¬ 
 thing of the tone of society at Nicomaedia 
 and Alexandria at the earlier period with 
 which we are now dealing, and the moving 
 causes which led the Emperor Constantine 
 to interfere in the controversy. The em¬ 
 peror did not attempt to decide it himself, 
 but, finding a large body of his subjects 
 were at variance on a question which he 
 was not competent to investigate, he ap¬ 
 pointed a proper ecclesiastical person as a 
 deputy for the purpose, intrusting Hosius, 
 Bishop of Cordova, in the south of Spain, 
 with the office of judging the case, and, if 
 possible, of quieting the controversy, 
 
Ari 
 
 Ari 
 
 ( 54 ) 
 
 The report which Hosius made to the 
 emperor was of such a nature that Con¬ 
 stantine decided on assembling an immense 
 council of bishops from every part of the 
 world, and intrusting to them the final de¬ 
 cision of the question; and there seems to 
 be an intimation of the vital and universal 
 importance of it, in the fact that such an 
 idea was providentially impressed upon 
 the mind of a recent convert like the em¬ 
 peror, who could have known very little of 
 the real point at issue, or of Christian the¬ 
 ology in general. This assembly met in 
 the year 325, at Nicsea, not far from the im¬ 
 perial residence and the new city which 
 Constantine was then building on the op¬ 
 posite shore of the Bosphorus, and which 
 still retains his name. To this Council of 
 Nicaea, summoned by the secular head of 
 the civilized world, 318 bishops traveled 
 from all parts of the world, at the public 
 expense, and some, it is thought, went 
 thither even from the far-distant country 
 of Britain. Such an assembly, when we 
 come rationally to consider its composition, 
 must have been one to command the 
 respect of the age, and one which may com¬ 
 mand our respect also. Those who com¬ 
 posed it were men of mature years, many 
 of them long past the meridian of life; 
 they had been picked out of the best edu¬ 
 cated class among their fellow-country¬ 
 men at home, as having the knowledge, 
 judgment, and goodness which fitted them 
 for the office of bishop; they were, many of 
 them, men who had suffered grievously for 
 their religion, showing by their maimed 
 bodies, as they sat in the council, how real 
 those sufferings had been; they now met 
 together, under imperial command, to de¬ 
 cide on an important public question, and 
 must have felt the responsibility of their 
 office; and they believed that God’s guid¬ 
 ance would lead them to a right decision. 
 
 The proceeding of the Council was, in 
 fact, very simple. All its members started 
 w T ith the axiom that the real object for 
 which they had met was not to decide 
 by argument who was right and who was 
 wrong, but to judge of a fact—who was 
 and who was not in agreement with the 
 general belief of Christians all over the 
 world, from the apostles’ time downwards. 
 The Bishop of Cordova was President of 
 the Council. Sylvester, the Bishop of 
 Rome, was not there, but sent two priests 
 as his representatives, who acted for him, 
 and had the second place of honor at the 
 Council. 
 
 Upon hearing the doctrine of Arius from 
 his own lips, indignation and horror were 
 shown by the great majority of the bishops: 
 it was so plainly antagonistic to the truth 
 which they had received, and believed, 
 
 and taught, and on which their hopes were 
 founded. When each in turn was asked to 
 bear witness to the constant belief of the 
 Church in his part of the world, the testi¬ 
 mony proved to be an almost unanimous 
 condemnation of the doctrine of Arius. 
 And when the Nicene Creed (wdth the ex¬ 
 ception of the clauses after “ I believe in 
 the Holy Ghost,” which were added some 
 years later) was submitted to the 318 
 bishops, everyone subscribed it as the true 
 statement of their faith, except the two 
 bishops of Ptolemais and Marmarica, who 
 have before been mentioned as being con¬ 
 nected, the one with the birthplace of 
 Arius, and the other with the adjacent 
 country, and who were probably, there¬ 
 fore, his personal friends. Even Eusebius 
 of Nicomaedia subscribed, but he did it by 
 a subterfuge, turning the word “ homo- 
 ousion ” into “ homoeousion,” and thus, 
 by the substitution of a diphthong for a 
 single letter, making the word mean “ of a 
 similar substance,” instead of meaning 
 “of one substance” with the Father: a 
 perversion the full value and importance 
 of which was afterward so strongly shown, 
 as to remind one, by contrast, of ourLord’s 
 saying that not one jot or one tittle of his 
 words should fall to the ground. 
 
 Of the subsequent progress of Arianism, 
 after this authoritative decision, much de¬ 
 tail cannot be given without entering into 
 particulars that are likely to prove weari¬ 
 some to the general reader. Arius him¬ 
 self was restored to imperial favor through 
 the influence of Constantia, the emperor’s 
 sister, who had been entirely gained over 
 to his heresy at Nicomaedia. He was ex¬ 
 iled after the Council, but recalled in a few 
 years, and gradually gained so much influ¬ 
 ence at court that Constantine issued a 
 command to Alexander, the Bishop of Con¬ 
 stantinople, to receive the excommunicated 
 heretic back to the communion of the 
 Church on a certain Sunday in the year 
 336. Alexander spent the Sabbath, the 
 day before, in prayer, and it is said that 
 he prayed God that either he or Arius 
 might be removed from this life before the 
 hour of trial came. The first minutes of 
 that hour came, however, and both were 
 living. A procession was formed, with 
 Arius in the midst, and began a triumph¬ 
 ant march through the city toward the 
 Church of Peace, where Alexander was 
 again prostrate at the altar. While the 
 procession was pompously parading the 
 city, and the triumph of Arius seemed all 
 but complete, he was taken with a sudden 
 pain, and died a few minutes after. 
 
 Arianism did not cease with the death of 
 its originator. It was the rallying centre 
 for numbers of men, especially in the 
 
Ark 
 
 ( 55 ) 
 
 Arm 
 
 Eastern Church, for many a long year; 
 and it was also the starting-point for some 
 other heresies, the tendency of the opin¬ 
 ions of Arius always developing toward a 
 denial of the Incarnation. After contro¬ 
 versies which shook the Roman Empire to 
 its foundations for forty years, the Arians 
 were formally suppressed, as an organized 
 body, by decree of the Emperor, Theodo¬ 
 sius the Great, in A. d. 381. But the vast 
 Gothic population, lying on the borders of 
 the empire, and about to descend upon it 
 and overturn it, were Arians, as far as 
 they were Christians at all. Alaric, the 
 first conqueror of Rome, was an Arian; so 
 was Ulfilas, the first translator of the 
 Scriptures into the Teutonic language. It 
 was because the Visigoths, who settled in 
 Gaul, were Arians, that the orthodox 
 bishops invited Clovis the Frank to invade 
 the country, and Arianism was a great 
 factor in the downfall of the Gothic King¬ 
 dom of Spain, and its conquest by the 
 Mohammedans.—Benham: Dictionary of 
 Religion. See W. Gw at kin: The Arian 
 Controversy (London, 1889). 
 
 s ' .ml 
 
 ARK OF THE COVENANT. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant, “ a small chest 
 made of shittim wood overlaid with gold, 
 on the lid of which was placed the golden 
 * mercy-seat,’ over which two cherubim 
 extended their wings. It was made to 
 preserve the two tables of stone, on which 
 ‘ the Covenant ’ between God and His 
 people was engraven. It was 2 cubits 
 long, \]/ z broad, and 1%. deep. Around 
 its upper edge was a cornice of gold, and 
 it was carried in front of the people on 
 their march, by the Levites, who bore it by 
 means of two poles of shittim wood cover¬ 
 ed with gold, which were passed through 
 two rings on each side of the ark. In it 
 were also placed, by Divine command, an 
 omer of manna, Aaron’s rod which budded, 
 and the books of the Law. On nearing 
 Palestine, the priests carried it into the 
 
 Jordan, whose stream stood still above 
 them,'but flowed on below as long as the 
 ark was in its bed. It was carried once 
 daily round Jericho for six days, and seven 
 times on the seventh, when the walls fell 
 down. It accompanied the Israelites to 
 Shechem, where the elders of each tribe 
 laid their hands on it (after the cursings of 
 the Law had been read from Mount Ebal, 
 and the blessings from Gerizim), while all 
 the Congregation swore to observe the 
 Covenant. After the subjugation of the 
 land, it was placed in the Tabernacle at 
 Shiloh, till the time of Eli, when it was 
 taken into the camp, and captured by the 
 Philistines, who carried it to Ashdod, 
 placing it in the Temple of Dagon, whose 
 image fell down before it and was broken. 
 The plagues of emerods and mice com¬ 
 pelled them to send it away at the end of 
 seven months, and it was conveyed by two 
 milch kine, in a new cart, into the field of 
 Joshua, at Beth-shemesh. From thence it 
 was carried to the house of Abinadab, at 
 Kirjath-jearim, from whence David tried 
 to fetch it; but, on the way, Uzzah was 
 struck dead fdr touching it, and David, 
 fearing to continue the removal, left it in 
 the care of Obed-edom the Gittite, where 
 it remained three months. David then 
 fetched it up to Mount Zion, and placed it 
 in a tabernacle he had erected, where it 
 continued till Solomon transferred it to his 
 new Temple on Mount Moriah, placing it 
 in the Holy of Holies. At the Captivity 
 it is said to have been buried by Jeremiah 
 the prophet.”—“Oxford” Teachers’ Bible. 
 
 Ark'ite, The, the name of one of the 
 families in Canaan. (Gen. x. 17; 1 Chron. 
 i. 15.) The town was called Arka, and its 
 ruins are still known by the same name. 
 It was situated on the sea-coast, twelve 
 miles north of Tripoli, at the foot of Mount 
 Lebanon. It was a famous stronghold in 
 the time of the crusades, and was de¬ 
 stroyed by an earthquake in 1202. 
 
 Armenian Church, The, “ is one of the 
 oldest Eastern Christian churches not in 
 communion with the orthodox Greek 
 Church or with the Church of Rome. The 
 historical founder of the Armenian Church 
 was S. Gregory, called the ‘ Illuminator.’ 
 He was a prince of a reigning family, and 
 after his conversion to Christianity was 
 eager for the conversion of his countrymen. 
 In his missionary work he endured many 
 persecutions, but at last managed to win 
 over the King of Armenia and a consider¬ 
 able portion of his subjects. At the king’s 
 desire Gregory went to Caesarea, or Sis, 
 and was there consecrated bishop of Arme¬ 
 nia (302 A. u.). The infant church grew 
 
Arm 
 
 ( 56) 
 
 Arm 
 
 and prospered in spite of the opposition of 
 heathen fellow-countrymen and Persian 
 conquerors. The Bible was translated in 
 410 A. d. ; the Liturgy, said to be very old, 
 was improved, and the Armenian bishops 
 took part in some of the synods of the 
 Church, notably in the third oecumenical 
 council (Ephesus, 431 A. D.). The Arme¬ 
 nian Church did not accept the decisions of 
 the Council of Chalcedon, and in 491 a. d. 
 the patriarch, in full synod, annulled them. 
 This act led to the separation of the Ar¬ 
 menian Church from the orthodox Greek 
 Church. In spite of national calamities, 
 internal dissensions, and even banishment, 
 the Armenian Church preserved its char¬ 
 acter, doctrine, and discipline until the mid¬ 
 dle of the fifteenth century, when contro¬ 
 versies arose which resulted in schism. 
 These quarrels were occasioned by Jesuit 
 missionaries, who endeavored to make the 
 Armenians adopt the doctrine, liturgy, and 
 ceremonies of the Roman Church. They 
 were successful in gaining many adherents, 
 and the Catholic Armenians, as they were 
 called, became a separate community tow¬ 
 ard the end of the sixteenth century. This 
 schism weakened the orthodox church and 
 revived the old persecutions. About the 
 middle of the eighteenth century the patri¬ 
 arch sought and obtained the intervention of 
 Peter the Great of Russia. Since then the 
 Armenian Church has found shelter under 
 the protection of Russia. There is now a 
 reformation going on in the Armenian 
 Church, and a Reformed Church has arisen, 
 which seeks to ally itself with the Calvin¬ 
 ist churches of Europe and America. The 
 doctrines of the Armenians are almost iden¬ 
 tical with those of the orthodox Greek 
 Church. Their Liturgy is said to date from 
 the first century, and to have been founded 
 on that of the Church of Jerusalem. Pray¬ 
 ers are said for the dead, and entreaty is 
 made for the pardon of their sins; but the 
 church does not believe in purgatory, nor 
 admit of indulgences. The Church of Ar¬ 
 menia has the seven sacraments: baptism, 
 confirmation, the eucharist, penance, ordi¬ 
 nation, marriage, and extreme unction. 
 Baptism is by immersion; the child is im¬ 
 mersed three times; it is then anointed with 
 holy oil, is confirmed, and partakes of the 
 eucharist in both elements. Confirmation 
 is administered to children immediately 
 after baptism. The eucharist is adminis¬ 
 tered in both elements to all members of 
 the church. There is a threefold order of 
 the clergy—bishops, priests, and deacons; 
 and there are three degrees of episcopal 
 rank—the archbishops (chief among whom 
 is the patriarch), the bishop, and the varta- 
 bed, or doctor of theology, who has fre¬ 
 quently charge of a diocese, with episcopal 
 
 functions. The clergy are further divided 
 into the black and white. The black clergy 
 are monks, and are alone eligible for the 
 higher clerical offices; the white clergy 
 include the parish priests and lower clergy, 
 and are permitted to marry before ordina¬ 
 tion, but not after. The clergy of all ranks 
 are supported entirely by the free-will of¬ 
 ferings of the people.”— Ency. Britannica . 
 
 American missionaries began work 
 among the Armenians in Turkey, in 1831. 
 For many years it was hoped that they 
 might quietly, and without formal church 
 organizations, exert an influence that would 
 reform and spiritualize the ancient church 
 from within. Persecution reluctantly com¬ 
 pelled the missionaries to seek protection 
 by forming a separate Protestant Church 
 in 1850. There are now some seventy-five 
 churches, with over five thousand mem¬ 
 bers; three theological schools, and two 
 colleges, besides Robert College which is 
 not connected with the missions. Since the 
 disruption a very friendly feeling has exist¬ 
 ed between the Protestants and the Old- 
 Church Armenians. 
 
 Arminianism. See Arminians. 
 
 Armin'ians, a religious party which 
 arose in Holland in the end of the six¬ 
 teenth century and the beginning of the 
 seventeenth, and strongly opposed the 
 Calvinistic doctrine of Predestination to 
 Eternal Salvation or Eternal Punishment. 
 The founder of the party was James Har- 
 mensen, or Herrimann, whose name was 
 Latinized into Arminius (a. d. 1560-1609). 
 He was born at Oudewater, on the Yssel, 
 in South Holland, and was the son of a 
 cutler, who died while he was yet a boy. 
 By the assistance of friends he received a 
 learned education at Utrecht, Marburg, 
 Rotterdam, and Leyden; and, having heard 
 lectures from Beza at Geneva, he visited 
 Rome for a short time. At Basle he was 
 offered a Doctor of Divinity’s degree at the 
 premature age of twenty-two, but declined 
 the honor. Returning to Amsterdam in 
 1588, he was appointed preacher there, and 
 soon became very popular. A layman 
 named Kornhert had here made some 
 vigorous attacks upon Calvin’s doctrine of 
 predestination, and had been proclaimed a 
 heretic by the Calvinists. Arminius was 
 requested by the authorities to refute 
 Kornhe-rt, and also to defend the Supralap- 
 sarian doctrine against the Sublapsarian. 
 In preparing to undertake the work thus 
 assigned him, Arminius came round to the 
 opinions of his opponent, and was accused 
 of Pelagianism. Being summoned before 
 the magistrates of Amsterdam, he was 
 prevailed on to promise that he would 
 
Arm 
 
 ( 57 ) 
 
 Arm 
 
 teach nothing at variance with the Heidel¬ 
 berg Confession; but he was again accused 
 of teaching that Christ died to save all 
 men, instead of to save only an elect few 
 •—an opinion which he henceforth avowed 
 openly. In 1603 Arminius became Pro¬ 
 fessor of Divinity at Leyden, where he 
 soon became involved in a controversy so 
 fierce that the Government was obliged to 
 interfere for the preservation of the peace. 
 To settle the controversy, a general synod 
 was summoned, in which the strict Cal¬ 
 vinists were to be headed by Francis 
 Gomas, the colleague of Arminius in the 
 university, while Arminius himself was to 
 lead his followers on the anti-Calvinistic 
 side. But the controversy preyed upon 
 the health of Arminius, and he died before 
 the date fixed for the meeting of the synod, 
 on Oct. 18, 1609. 
 
 The Arminian party presented a “ Re¬ 
 monstrance ” to the States-general of Hol¬ 
 land in the following year, in self-defence, 
 and hence received the name of “ Remon¬ 
 strants.” This “ Remonstrance” was, in 
 fact, a statement of Arminian principles in 
 five “ Articles,” so well known afterward 
 as “ The Five Points.” The substance of 
 these articles was as follows: (1) That al¬ 
 though God had, from eternity, decreed to 
 eternal life those who would persevere in 
 their faith, and to eternal death those who 
 should die impenitent, yet that His eternal 
 decrees were determined by His eternal 
 foreknowledge as to the perseverance or 
 impenitence to death of each particular 
 person to be saved or lost. (2) That our 
 Lord Jesus made expiation by His death 
 for the sins of all men, but that only be¬ 
 lievers can be partakers of this Divine 
 benefit. (3) That no one can of himself, 
 or by the power of his will, originate sav¬ 
 ing faith within him; but, being by nature 
 born unable to think and to do that which 
 is good, he must be born again through 
 the operation of the Holy Ghost. (4) That 
 God’s grace is not in such a sense irresist¬ 
 ible, as to compel a man to be saved against 
 his will, though it may be repelled by his 
 perverse will; and that whatever is good 
 in man comes from the operation of this 
 grace, so that good works done by him 
 are to be ascribed to its operation only. 
 (5) That those who are united to Christ 
 by faith have sufficient spiritual strength 
 to continue In that union until their lives 
 end, but whether they can fall away or not 
 is a question respecting which we have not 
 sufficient evidence in Holy Scripture. 
 From the “ Five Articles” thus summa¬ 
 rized, the dispute between the Dutch Cal¬ 
 vinists and the Dutch Arminians came to 
 be called “ The Quinquarticular Contro¬ 
 versy,” and it became one of the most bit¬ 
 
 ter controversies known to history. With¬ 
 in the five or six years that followed the 
 death of Arminius, conferences were held 
 at the Hague (a. d. 1610), and at Delft 
 (a. D. 1613); and a decree was issued by 
 the States - general enforcing toleration 
 and forbidding controversy, but all in 
 vain. Strong political feeling aided in 
 making the two parties more exasperated 
 against each other, the Arminians wishing 
 for peace with Spain, and the Calvinists 
 urging the Prince of Orange and the States- 
 general to begin war; and the language of 
 the Calvinists toward their opponents was 
 so violent and blood-thirsty that the latter 
 thought it necessary to organize a militia 
 for self-defence. 
 
 At last it was determined by the Prince 
 and the States-general that another assem¬ 
 bly of Protestant divines should be sum¬ 
 moned, the decision of which should be 
 final. The Synod of Dort, or Dordrecht, 
 was therefore convened, and sat in the 
 city from which it took its name, from Nov. 
 13, 1618, until the end of April, 1619. It 
 consisted entirely of Calvinist divines, the 
 intention being to assume throughout that 
 the Arminian divines were present on 
 their defence as accused persons, and not 
 for the purpose of equal deliberation with 
 the others. (Dort, Synod of. ) The object 
 of the Calvinist party was effectually ob¬ 
 tained. The opinions of Arminius were 
 condemned, and the “ Remonstrants,” or 
 Arminian party, were required to sub¬ 
 scribe the condemnation. Seven hundred 
 families, whose heads refused to subscribe, 
 were banished from Holland by a decree 
 of the States-general. Grotius and Hoog- 
 arbetz, two of the chief of their leaders, 
 were sentenced to perpetual imprison¬ 
 ment, from which Grotius escaped two 
 years afterward, concealed in a linen- 
 chest. Barqeveldt, an aged member of 
 the States-general who had protected the 
 Arminian party, was actually put to 
 death. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the sympathy 
 which the sufferings of the Dutch Armin¬ 
 ians aroused, there can be no doubt that 
 the tendency of their opinions after the 
 death of Arminius was decidedly toward a 
 denial of the leading principles of Christi¬ 
 anity. Episcopius, their principal theolo¬ 
 gian, returned from exile, on the promul¬ 
 gation of a decree of toleration in 1634, to 
 open a college in Amsterdam, in which he 
 taught theories which practically ended in 
 Unitarianism and Universalism. Ever 
 since that time the descent has been on 
 a downward path, in the direction of 
 Rationalism, some of the most distin¬ 
 guished teachers of the Rationalist school 
 having also sprung from among them. 
 
 / 
 
Arm 
 
 Am 
 
 (58 > 
 
 Few are now to be found, except in Am¬ 
 sterdam and Rotterdam. 
 
 Those who have been called Arminians 
 in England, were called so as following the 
 earlier teaching of Arminius himself, and 
 not the later teaching of his disciples. Be¬ 
 fore the Great Rebellion the name was 
 freely given to the Laudian party, a cer¬ 
 tain likeness being evident between the 
 High-church anti-Calvinism and the anti- 
 Calvinism of the Arminians. After the 
 Restoration the name passed over to the 
 Latitudinarians, or Broad - church party, 
 of which Tillotson was the representative. 
 When Whitefield and Wesley established 
 their work on different lines,Whitefield be¬ 
 came the father of Calvinistic Methodists, 
 and Wesley of Arminian Methodists.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Great was the opposition between those 
 who held with Whitefield the doctrine of 
 the Divine decrees to salvation or con¬ 
 demnation, and those who held with Wes¬ 
 ley that God ever desires the salvation of 
 all men, gives them a free will to choose 
 the way of salvation, and offers them grace 
 to help them on the road. The leading 
 representatives of Arminianism are the 
 Wesleyans of Great Britain and the Meth¬ 
 odists of America, but its tenets are held, 
 with varied interpretation, by many con¬ 
 nected with other denominations. The 
 writings of Arminius were published at 
 Leyden, 1629. An American edition of 
 the English translation was published at 
 Auburn and Buffalo (1853), 3 vols. See 
 Bangs: Life of Arminius. Among author¬ 
 ities on Wesleyan or Methodist Arminian¬ 
 ism are Fletcher: Checks to Antinomian- 
 ism; Wesley: Sermons; Richard Watson: 
 Institutes; Miner Raymond : Systematic 
 Theology (1879), 3 vols.; Pope: Christian 
 Theology; Strong: Arminianism (Wes¬ 
 leyan), art. in Schaff-Herzog, vol. i., p. 145. 
 
 Arminius. See Arminians. 
 
 Armitage, Thomas, D. D., Baptist; b. at 
 Pontefract, Yorkshire, England, Aug. 2, 
 1819. He came to the United States in 
 1838, and for some years was a minister in 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. Having 
 changed his views regarding baptism, he 
 entered the Baptist ministry in 1848, and 
 became pastor of the Fifth Avenue Baptist 
 Church in New York'City, which relation 
 he sustained with eminent success until his 
 retirement, in 1889. Besides miscellaneous 
 papers, he has published Preaching: its Ideal 
 and Inner Life (Phila., 1880); A History of 
 the Baptists (New York, 1886). 
 
 Armor. Of defensive armor among the 
 Hebrews there were the Coat of Mail , the 
 
 Helmet , Greaves of brass for the feet (1 
 Sam. xvii. 6), and two kinds of Shields , one 
 protecting the entire person, and the other 
 smaller, a buckler for hand-to-hand fight¬ 
 ing. (1 Kings x. 16, 17.) 
 
 Arms. The chief offensive weapons in 
 Bible times were a sword, spear, javelin, 
 dart, bow and arrows, sling, and dagger. 
 In David’s army there was a company of 
 slingers. (For defensive arms, see Armor). 
 
 Arnaud ( ar-no ), Henri, the celebrated 
 pastor, military leader, and historian of the 
 Vaudois, was b. in 1641, at La Tour, in 
 Piedmont. He is said to have served un¬ 
 der William of Orange, and it is probable 
 that he received pecuniary assistance from 
 that prince in his efforts to restore the ex¬ 
 iled Vaudois to their native valleys. Ow¬ 
 ing to the cruelties of Victor Amadeus of 
 Savoy, from two to three thousand of these 
 Vaudois had been forced to take refuge in 
 Switzerland and the states along the banks 
 of the Rhine; and twice they ineffectually 
 attempted to return to their homes. The 
 English Revolution of 1688, and the acces¬ 
 sion of William of Orange, encouraged Ar¬ 
 naud to make another attempt. With 900 of 
 his followers he embarked on the Lake of 
 Geneva on the night of Aug. 16, 1689. In 
 September they forced an entrance into the 
 valley of San Martino, but the French 
 army was so great that they were obliged 
 to retire to the lofty table-land of the Bal- 
 sille, which they fortified with such skill as 
 to be able to withstand the fiercest attacks 
 of the enemy, repeatedly renewed through 
 the whole winter. In the spring they re¬ 
 sisted an assault of 22,000 French, without 
 the loss of a single man. Not long after 
 this, when their escape seemed impos¬ 
 sible, they learned that war had broken 
 out between France and Piedmont, and 
 their King, who had persecuted and ex¬ 
 pelled them, was now ready to receive 
 them with open arms. The Vaudois were 
 allowed to remain in peaceful possession 
 of their ancient homes but a little while. 
 When the war of the Spanish Succession 
 broke out, Arnaud and his followers took 
 part in the combination against France, and 
 rendered the allies effective service. When 
 .the war came to a close, the ungrateful 
 King of Piedmont once more joined the 
 French monarch against his .own subjects, 
 and the Vaudois were expelled from some 
 of their valleys,and, to the number of 3,000, 
 found refuge in Wiirtemberg. Arnaud re¬ 
 ceived an invitation from William III. to 
 spend the rest of his days in ease and honor 
 in England, but he chose rather to continue 
 the pastor of the exiles in the village of 
 Schdnberg, where he died in 1721. Every 
 
Am 
 
 ( 59 ) 
 
 Arn 
 
 memorial that he left behind him was long 
 cherished by his followers and their poster¬ 
 ity. He wrote The Glorious Recovery by the 
 Vaudois, of their Valleys (1710); English 
 translation (London, 1827). 
 
 Arnauld ( ar-no ) Antoine, one of the 
 greatest French theologians and philos¬ 
 ophers; b. at Paris, Feb. 8, 1612; d. at 
 Brussels, Aug. 8, 1694. He first studied 
 law, but changed for theology, and took his 
 doctor’s degree and became a priest in 1641. 
 Two years later he published a work, De 
 la Fre'quente Communion, in which he open¬ 
 ed a lifelong conflict with the Jesuits. 
 Through the efforts of the order he was ex¬ 
 pelled from the Sorbonne, and deprived of 
 his doctorate. The Peace-edict of Clement 
 IX. (1668) enabled him to hold an influential 
 position, and he wrote in defense of Jan¬ 
 senism, against those who contended that it 
 led to Calvinism. In 1669, he began the 
 publication of his Morale Pratique des Jes- 
 uites which again aroused the hatred of the 
 Jesuits. He left France in 1679, and in 
 1682 settled in Brussels. His collected 
 works in forty-five volumes were published 
 in Paris and Lausanne (1775-83). See Jan¬ 
 senism. 
 
 Arndt {amt), Johann, German Lutheran; 
 b. at Ballenstedt, Anhalt, Dec. 27, 1555; 
 d. at Celle, Hanover, May 11, 1621; studied 
 theology at Helmstedt, Wittenberg, Stras- 
 burg, and Basel; pastor at Badeborn, 1581; 
 at Quedlinburg, 1590; at Braunschweig, 
 1599; at Eisleben, 1608; at Celle, 1611. 
 His fame rests upon his mystical and de¬ 
 votional writings, which found their inspira¬ 
 tion in Bernard, Tauler, and Thomas a 
 Kempis. His books have enjoyed a re¬ 
 markable popularity. His principal work, 
 True Christianity, has been translated into 
 most of the languages of Europe; English 
 translation (London, 1712-14); new ed. 
 rev., by C. F. Schaeffer (Phila., 1868). 
 Another of his works, The Garden of Para¬ 
 dise (Leipzig, 1612), appeared in English 
 translation (London, 1716). Complete ed. 
 of his works (Leipzig, 1734-36), 3 vols. 
 
 Arnobius, a Christian writer of the early 
 part of the fourth century, a native of 
 Numidia in Africa. After his conversion 
 he wrote a treatise in seven volumes, en¬ 
 titled Adversus Gentes, in which he defended 
 the Christians against their enemies. His 
 views were tinged with Gnosticism and 
 Dualism. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia. See Arnoldists. 
 
 Arnoldists, the followers of Arnold of 
 Brescia, or Brixia (d. a. d. 1155). He 
 
 was a monk of northern Italy and a 
 pupil of Abelard. Sympathizing with the 
 people of Lombardy in their efforts to se¬ 
 cure the freedom of their cities, he preach¬ 
 ed against the power of the bishops and 
 clergy, which had been secured through the 
 increase of endowments and wealth. The 
 Second Lateran Council banished him from 
 Italy. For a time he found refuge with 
 Abelard, in France, but was compelled, 
 finally, to go to Zurich. With the uprising 
 of the party who sought to establish a re¬ 
 public (in 1143), Arnold was summoned to 
 Italy as their leader. They gained posses¬ 
 sion of Rome, and the rebellion continued 
 for nine years, when Hadrian IV. came to 
 the papal throne in 1154, and at once put 
 the Romans under interdict. This broke 
 the power of the insurrectionists, and 
 Arnold sought safety in flight. A short 
 time after, he was captured and tried, and 
 hung at Rome. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, the eldest son of 
 Thomas Arnold, and a distinguished critic 
 and writer; b. at Laleham, Eng., Dec. 24, 
 1822; d. near Liverpool, April 15, 1888. 
 He was a graduate of Oxford, and after 
 acting as private secretary to Lord Lans- 
 downe, from 1847 to 1851, he held the office 
 of inspector of schools until the time of his 
 death. From 1857 to 1867 he was professor 
 of poetry at Oxford. Among his writings 
 were several on matters pertaining to re¬ 
 ligion: St. Paul and Protestantism: with 
 an essay on Puritanism and the Church of 
 England (1871); Literature and Dogma 
 (1872); God and the Bible (1875); Last Essays 
 on Church and Religion (1877). His position 
 was rationalistic, and, in many respects 
 antagonistic to Christian faith. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, famous as the head¬ 
 master of Rugby School, England, was b. 
 in the Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795. He was 
 graduated at Oxford with honors, and was 
 elected Fellow of Oriel College, where he 
 remained until 1819, when he removed to 
 Laleham, and for nine years was -busy in 
 historical studies while superintending the 
 education of a few young men preparing 
 for college. While here he preached oc¬ 
 casionally, and published a volume of ser¬ 
 mons. In 1827 he was elected head-master 
 of Rugby, where for fourteen years he did 
 a work in training the young that gave 
 him a reputation as a teacher of preemi¬ 
 nent power. In 1841 he was offered the 
 chair of modern history at Oxford. A few 
 months after the delivery of his first course 
 of lectures, while making preparations to 
 spend the vacation at his favorite country 
 home at Fox How, in the English Lake 
 District, he was taken suddenly ill, and 
 
Am 
 
 ( 60 ) 
 
 Art 
 
 died on the morning of June 12, 1842. 
 “ The great peculiarity and charm of his 
 •nature seemed to lie in the regal suprem¬ 
 acy of the moral and the spiritual ele¬ 
 ment over his whole being and powers. 
 His intellectual faculties were not such as 
 to surpass those of many who were his 
 contemporaries; in scholarship he occupied 
 a subordinate place to several who filled 
 situations like his; and he had not much of 
 what is usually called tact, in his dealings 
 either with the juvenile or the adult mind. 
 What gave him his power, and secured for 
 him, so deeply, the respect and veneration 
 of his pupils and acquaintances, was the 
 intensely religious character of his whole 
 life. He seemed ever to act from a severe 
 and lofty estimate of duty. To be just, 
 honest, and truthful, he ever held to be 
 the first aim of his being. With all this 
 there was intense sympathy with his fel¬ 
 lows, the tenderest domestic affections, the 
 most generous friendship, the most expan¬ 
 sive benevolence. But to understand aright 
 his claims upon our respect and homage, 
 the history of his life must be read at large. 
 As has been truly observed by one who 
 seems to have known him well, ‘ His 
 Thucydides, his history, his sermons, his 
 miscellaneous writings, are all proofs of 
 his ability and goodness. Yet the story 
 of his life is worth them all.’ ”— Ency. Brit. 
 His historical works are: History of Rome, 
 (1838-43, unfinished); History of the Later 
 Roman Commonwealth (1845); Lectures on 
 Modern History (1842). See Stanley: The 
 Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold 
 (1844; 12th ed. 1881). 
 
 Ar'non ( noisy ), the present Wady el 
 Mojeb. It was formerly the boundary be¬ 
 tween Moaband the Amorites. (Num. xxi. 
 13, 26; Deut. iii. 8.) The banks of this 
 torrent stream, which is dry in summer 
 and full in winter, is in many places high 
 and precipitous. It empties into the Dead 
 Sea. 
 
 Arnot, William, an eminent Scotch 
 preacher; b. in Perthshire, Scotland, 1808; 
 d. in Edinburgh, June 3, 1875. He was an 
 eloquent and earnest speaker, and his writ¬ 
 ings have had a wide circulation. Among 
 the best known of his books are: Illustra¬ 
 tions of the Book of Proverbs, and The Par¬ 
 ables of our Lord. See his Autobigraphy 
 and Memoir (1877). 
 
 Arphax'ad, “ the son of Shem and ances¬ 
 tor of Eber. (Gen. x. 22, 24; xi. 10-13.) Ac¬ 
 cording to Josephus he was also progenitor 
 of the Chaldaeans. There has been much 
 discussion regarding the etymology of the 
 name : The interpretations, ‘ the border 
 
 of the Chaldaeans,’ ‘ the stronghold of 
 the Chaldaeans,’ are open to objection be¬ 
 cause of the erroneous conception of the 
 word, as a union of Hebrew and Arabic. 
 It is better to interpret ‘ dispersion,’ and 
 to read in the word that the Hebrew race, 
 whose remote ancestor is called Arphaxao 
 in this chapter (Gen. x.), had originally it« 
 seat in Arrapachitis, and from there press¬ 
 ed first to Mesopotamia, then over the 
 Euphrates to Canaan and Arabia. It is 
 confirmatory of this view that the progen¬ 
 itors of the Hebrews are said to have come 
 from Ur of the Chaldees. (Gen. xi. 22 sq.)” 
 —Spiegel in Schaff-Herzog: Eitcy. 
 
 Arsenian Schism, the name given to a 
 breach of communion which occurred be¬ 
 tween the Churches of Alexandria and Con¬ 
 stantinople in a. d. 1265, through the dep¬ 
 osition of Arsenius, Patriarch of Constan¬ 
 tinople, at the bidding of the Emperor, 
 Michael Palaeologus, who was excommuni¬ 
 cated by Arsenius for cruelly imprisoning 
 and blinding the young John Lascaris, only 
 ten years of age, who was the true heir to 
 the throne. On the deposition of Arsenius 
 and the appointment of Germanus of 
 Adrianople as Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 the Patriarch Nicolas of Alexandria de¬ 
 clared that this was an act of schism, and 
 refused to hold communication with Ger¬ 
 manus. On the death of the Emperor a 
 reconciliation took place between the two 
 Churches; but new causes of difference 
 arose, chiefly out of the proposals for 
 union between the Roman and the Eastern 
 Churches; and it was only when the gen¬ 
 eral ruin of the latter by the Mahometans 
 in the fourteenth century ensued, that the 
 Arsenian schism was permanently brought 
 to an end.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Artaxerx'es ( the great warrior), a name 
 given as the honorary title of Persian kings. 
 Two of them are mentioned in the Bible. 
 (1) Pseudo-Smerdis, the Magian, and the 
 pretended brother of Cambyses, who seized 
 the throne B. C. 522, and was murdered 
 after a reign of eight months. He it was 
 who stopped the rebuilding of the temple, 
 because of reports brought by the enemies 
 of the Jews. (Ezra iv. 7-24.) (2) The 
 
 second Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. 7, and Neh. 
 ii. 1), is generally regarded as the same as 
 Artaxerxes Longimanus, son of Xerxes, 
 who reigned b. C. 457. He permitted Ezra 
 to return to Judaea with those of his coun¬ 
 trymen who desired to go with him, and, 
 fourteen years later, allowed Nehemiah, 
 also, to return to Jerusalem. 
 
 Artemonites, a sect of Antitrinitarians, 
 in the early part of the third century, 
 
Art 
 
 ( 61 ) 
 
 Asb 
 
 named from its leader Artemon, who was 
 a disciple of Theodotus of Byzantium. He 
 was excommunicated (202-217). 
 
 Articles of Faith, are the points of doc¬ 
 trine drawn up to express the beliefs of 
 churches and congregations. The method 
 of their acceptance differs. See Creed. 
 
 Articles, The Thirty - nine, of the 
 Church of England, contain the public 
 standard of religious belief adopted by that 
 body. They were drawn up by Arch¬ 
 bishop Parker, sanctioned by Convocation 
 in 1562, and published by royal authority 
 in the following year. They were modi¬ 
 fied and changed in many ways before 
 reaching their present statement. They 
 treat, in order, of the main points of theo¬ 
 logical doctrine, and may be classified thus: 
 (1) Articles i-v., the doctrine of the Trin¬ 
 ity; (2) Articles vi-viii., the rule of faith, 
 or sources of our knowledge of religious 
 matters; (3) Articles ix-xviii., the doctrines 
 which concern the Christian as an individ¬ 
 ual: i. e., sin, redemption, and their cog¬ 
 nate notions; (4) Articles xix-xxxix., the 
 necessary relations of Christians as mem¬ 
 bers of a religious community, including 
 the general theory of the Church, and the 
 doctrines of the sacrament. The Church 
 of Ireland adopted the Thirty-nine Articles 
 in 1635. The Episcopal Church in Scot¬ 
 land accepted the Articles in 1804, and, in 
 America, the Church subscribed to them in 
 1801, excluding, however, the Athanasian 
 Creed. See Schaff: Creeds of Christen¬ 
 dom (N. Y., 1881); vol. i.,pp. 592 sq.; iii., 
 pp. 485-522. 
 
 Articles of Religion, Irish. The Church 
 of Ireland accepted and used the series of 
 Eleven Articles drawn up in 1559, until 
 1615, when a more elaborate code was 
 drawn up by Ussher. This was used un¬ 
 til 1635 when the Thirty - nine Articles 
 were adopted. 
 
 Articles, Lambeth. The only earnest 
 effort made to change the Thirty - nine 
 Articles was in 1595, when Dr. Whitaker 
 of Cambridge submitted a series of articles 
 strongly Calvinistic in tone, to Archbishop 
 Whitgift. They were soon suppressed, al¬ 
 though a second attempt was made in 
 1604 to introduce these Lambeth Articles , 
 so called because drawn up at Lambeth 
 Palace. 
 
 A sa (physician), son of Abijam and third 
 king of Judah, (b. c. 956-916.) He reign¬ 
 ed forty-one years. He earnestly support¬ 
 ed the worship of God, and deposed his 
 grandmother Maachah for idolatry. (1 
 
 Kings xv. 8-24.) He defeated Terah, an 
 Ethiopian king who invaded his territories 
 with an army of a million men. (2 Chron. 
 xiv.) Through an alliance with Ben-hadad, 
 king of Syria, he was led away from his 
 trust in God, and when smitten with dis¬ 
 ease “ he sought not to the Lord, but to 
 the physicians.” He died b. c. 915. 
 
 A'saph, a Levite and chief leader of 
 the temple service (1 Chron. vi. 39), and 
 the author of twelve Psalms. (Psa. 1 and 
 lxxiii. to lxxxii. inclusive.) He received 
 the title of “seer.” (2 Chron. xxix. 30.) 
 “The sons of Asaph ” probably means a 
 school of musicians. 
 
 A'saph, St. The cathedral of St. Asaph 
 is one of the smallest in Great Britain. It 
 is a cruciform building, 178 by 68 feet, with 
 a tower 93 feet high, and was erected in 
 1284 on the site of a wooden structure 
 
 CATHEDRAL OF ST. ASAPH. 
 
 founded before 596. It stands on the top 
 of the hill, upon which the town of St. 
 Asaph is built, between the rivers Chvyd 
 and Elwy in the northwest of Flintshire, 
 Wales. The revenue of the bishopric is 
 ^4.200. 
 
 Asbury, Francis, the first bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church in America; b. 
 at Handsworth, Staffordshire, Eng., Aug. 
 20, 1745. He was converted in youth, and 
 at sixteen became a local preacher. In 
 1771 John Wesley appointed him mission¬ 
 ary to America. During the war he met 
 with some persecution, but soon proved his 
 devotion to the interests of the people, and 
 was permitted to continue his evangelistic 
 labors. At the close of the war the Meth¬ 
 odists organized an independent church, 
 and Asbury was elected bishop, and ordain¬ 
 ed by Dr. Coke, Dec. 25, 17S4. From this 
 time on his success in organizing and for- 
 
Asc 
 
 Asp 
 
 ( 6 2 ) 
 
 warding the interests of his church was 
 marvelous. He endured severe and inces¬ 
 sant toil, and proved himself worthy to be 
 enrolled among the great leaders of Chris¬ 
 tian faith. He saw the Methodist Church 
 grow from a little band of four preachers 
 and 316 members, to nearly 700 itinerants, 
 2,000 local preachers, and over 214,235 
 members. He died in Spottsylvania, Va., 
 March 31, 1816. See Asbury: Journals , 3 
 vols. (N. Y., 1858); Janes: Life of Asbury 
 (N. Y., 1872). 
 
 Ascension-Day, a festival of the church, 
 held forty days after Easter, or ten days 
 before Whit-Sunday, in memory of Christ’s 
 ascension into heaven forty days after his 
 resurrection. 
 
 Asceticism, a term ( askesis) borrowed 
 from the Greeks, among whom it signified 
 exercise and self-restraint for the purpose 
 of gaining strength and skill in athletic 
 sports. Among Christians it came to sig¬ 
 nify abstinence from food, from wine, from 
 marriage, and from many other things that 
 are lawful in themselves, for the sake of 
 living a strict, and, in extreme cases, a very 
 austere, Christian life. The first large 
 class, or order, of ascetics (Gr. asketai) 
 among Christians, were the hermits of the 
 desert (Anchoret), whose ideas of self- 
 discipline embraced the abnegation of near¬ 
 ly all the good gifts of God, the rupture of 
 all natural ties which his Providence had 
 made for them, and the desertion of all so¬ 
 cial duties which he had imposed upon 
 them. In some cases they practiced absurd 
 gymnastic feats, such as those of the Pillar- 
 saints, under the perverted idea that they 
 promoted personal holiness; and in others 
 tortured themselves with mortification al¬ 
 most suicidal, as the devotees of India do 
 at the present day. The monastic commu¬ 
 nities inherited the ascetic principles of the 
 hermits, but dropped most of their fanat¬ 
 ical excesses. Under the rule ordained by 
 law-givers like St. Benedict,the discipline of 
 rigorous abstinence was not carried so far as 
 to interfere with the bodily powers neces¬ 
 sary to exercise laborinthe field or the work¬ 
 shop or the writing cloister or the library. 
 
 Asceticism, in its more extreme forms, 
 can hardly be said to enter the practice of 
 Christians who live outside monastic com¬ 
 munities; and in modern times such ideas 
 of self-discipline by means of bodily mor¬ 
 tification have been superseded, to a large 
 extent, by the idea of duty done in the 
 world, and in the work of life to which Di¬ 
 vine Providence has called us.—Benham: 
 Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 Ash'dod, or Azo'tus (Acts viii. 40),“one 
 
 of the five confederate cities of the Philis¬ 
 tines, situated about thirty miles from the 
 southern frontier of Palestine, three from 
 the Mediterranean Sea, and nearly midway 
 between Gaza and Joppa. It was assigned 
 to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), but 
 was never subdued by the Israelites; and 
 even down to Nehemiah’s age it preserved 
 its distinctiveness of race and language. 
 (Neh. xiii. 23, 24.) But its chief impor¬ 
 tance arose from its position on the high¬ 
 road from Palestine to Egypt: it was, on 
 this account, besieged by Tartan, the gen¬ 
 eral of the Assyrian king, Sargon, about 
 B. c. 716, apparently to frustrate the league 
 formed between Hezekiah and Egypt. (Isa. 
 xx. 1.) The effects of its siege by Psam- 
 metichus (b. c. 630) are incidentally refer¬ 
 red to in Jer. xxv. 20. It was destroyed 
 by the Maccabees (1 Macc. v. 68; x. 84); 
 and lay in ruins until the Roman conquest 
 of Judaea, when it was restored by Gabin- 
 ius (b. c. 55). It is now an insignificant 
 village, with no memorials of its ancient 
 importance, but is still called Esdud .”— 
 Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Asher. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Ash'ima, a name of a god whose wor¬ 
 ship was introduced into Samaria by the 
 Hamathite colonists whom Shalmaneser 
 settled there. (2 Kings xvii. 30.) 
 
 Ash'kelon (migration), one of the five cities 
 of the Philistines, taken by Judah (Judg. i. 
 18), ten miles north of Gaza. It was the 
 birthplace of Herod the Great. During 
 the crusades it was captured and destroyed 
 several times. Extensive ruins bear wit¬ 
 ness to its former greatness. 
 
 Ash'taroth, the plural form of Ashtoreth. 
 (Judg. ii. 13; 1 Sam. vii. 3.) See Astarte. 
 
 Ashtoreth. See Astarte. 
 
 Ash-Wednesday, the first day of Lent, is 
 supposed to have received this name from 
 a custom in the Church of sprinkling ashes 
 on the heads of penitents then received 
 into the Church. 
 
 Askelon. See Ashkelon. 
 
 Asmode'us, an evil demon, found in 
 later Jewish tradition, about whom there 
 has been much fanciful speculation. He 
 is sometimes identified with Beelzebub. 
 The story of his love for Sara, the daugh¬ 
 ter of Raguel, is told in the apocryphal 
 book of Tobit. 
 
 Aspergillum, the brush used for sprink- 
 
Asp 
 
 Ass 
 
 ( 63 ) 
 
 ling holy water in Roman Catholic 
 churches. 
 
 Aspersion, a term used to designate the 
 sprinkling of water in the administration 
 of baptism. 
 
 Ass, the favorite domestic animal of 
 the East. After Solomon’s time they do 
 not appear to have been used by the He¬ 
 brews for warlike purposes, and the Mes¬ 
 siah (Zech. ix. 9), as the Prince of Peace, 
 is represented as riding upon an ass. (Matt, 
 xxi. 2.) 
 
 Assembly, General, in Scotland, Ireland, 
 and the United States, denotes the highest 
 court of the Presbyterian Church. It rep¬ 
 resents both the lay and the clerical ele¬ 
 ments in the church, and possesses su¬ 
 preme legislative and judicial authority in 
 all matters purely ecclesiastical. 
 
 Assembly, Westminster. See West¬ 
 minster Assembly of Divines. 
 
 Associate Presbyterian Church. See 
 Presbyterian Churches. 
 
 Assumptio Mosis (assumption of Moses). 
 This apocryphal book, which Origen says 
 is quoted by Jude in verse 9, was discov¬ 
 ered in a fragmentary condition, and edited 
 by Ceriani in 1861. See Apocrypha; and 
 PSEUDEPIGRAPHA OF OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 Assumption, a festival observed on the 
 15th of August, both by the Roman and 
 Greek Churches, in honor of the miraculous 
 ascent of the Virgin Mary into heaven. 
 The tradition of her ascent was first re¬ 
 corded by Gregory of Tours, and the date 
 of the festival was fixed early in the eighth 
 century. 
 
 Assurance, in theology, is the tenet that 
 those who are truly converted have, or may 
 have, a firm persuasion that their sins are 
 pardoned. See Watson: Theo. Inst., ii. 280; 
 Wesley: Works, v. 19, sq.; Hodge: Theol., 
 iii. 107. 
 
 Assyria. It is now fully confirmed by 
 the excavations that the Assyrians were a 
 colony from the Babylonians. This is in¬ 
 ferred already from Gen. x. 8-12. They 
 were Shemites and Babylonians; and for 
 this the following reasons hold good: The 
 classification of Asshur as Shem’s second 
 son (Gen. x. 22) is corroborated by statues 
 and relief pictures, which represent the 
 Assyrians with facial contour quite similar 
 to that of the Jews and Arabs of to-day.— 
 Kiepert. A second proof is the Assyrian 
 
 language, which is Shemitic, though not 
 Aramaic. The main proof is the religion. 
 With the exception of Assur which, as the 
 national deity, stands at the head, the As¬ 
 syrian pantheon is the same as the Baby¬ 
 lonian. 
 
 The name “Assyria” first designated 
 the land and kingdom ; and this is the 
 meaning of the name Asshur, wherever it 
 is mentioned in the Old Testament. The 
 oldest capital, Assur, stood about sixty 
 English miles from Mosul, on the right 
 bank of the Tigris, and its site is now 
 marked by the large hill, Kileh-Shergat (or 
 Kala-Shergat, according to Rassam who, in 
 1853, discovered the palace of Tiglath- 
 pileser I.). Another principal city of As¬ 
 syria was Calah, or Kelach (according to 
 Delitzsch). The oldest Assyrian settle¬ 
 ment founded by Babylonian colonists— 
 probably only a few decades before 2000 
 b. c. —was designated with a name of the 
 sacred language of Babylonia, Ausar, which 
 means “ watered meadow,” a name which 
 the banks of the Tigris near Kileh-Shergat 
 fully merited. Here the first colonists 
 settled, and the god of the city of Ausar 
 became the main god of the new settlers, 
 and thus the principal of the other Baby- 
 lonio-Assyrian deities. In course of time 
 Ausar became Astir, and afterward, Assilr. 
 
 The oldest Assyrian sovereign is Bel- 
 kapkapu (i. e.,“ Bel is strong ”), who prob¬ 
 ably ruled about i860 B. c. His son, Isme- 
 Dagan (i. e., “Dagon has heard”) (about 
 1830), was followed by Samsi-Raman I. 
 (z. e., “ my sun is Raman”) (about 1806) 
 who, besides other large edifices, built the 
 temple of the god Asur. Passing over the 
 following rulers, we come to Salmanussir 
 I. (about 1330 B. c.). This king, whose 
 name means “ Salman, lead right,” or “ let 
 it prosper,” enlarged the national sanctu¬ 
 ary, and founded the city of Calah. (Gen. 
 x. 11, seq.) Under his son, Tukulti-Adar I. 
 (about 1310), the power of the young As¬ 
 syrian state reached its zenith; for Tukulti- 
 Adar was for a time king also of Babylonia. 
 Under his successors the Assyrian power 
 was weakened, until Adar-pal-esara (z. e., 
 “ Adar is the son of Esara ”) (about 1200 
 b. c.) regained the former independence. 
 Passing over about three centuries, we 
 come to Asurdan II. (about 930-911), with 
 whom the palmy days of Assyria com¬ 
 menced. He built cities, and founded 
 temples, and made a canal, also. His son, 
 Raman-nirari II. (about 911-890), en¬ 
 larged the kingdom, and commenced again 
 the never-ceasing complications with 
 Babylonia. His son, Tukulti-Adar II. 
 (about 890-884), was cruel, and so was his 
 son, Asur-nasir-pal (z. e. ,“ Asur protects 
 the son ”) (about 884-860), who extended 
 
Ass 
 
 (64) 
 
 Ass 
 
 the Assyrian rule, and made Tyre, Sidon, 
 Byblus, and Arad as tributary. 
 
 His son was Salmanussir (Shalmaneser) 
 
 II. (860-824), the contemporary of Ahab and 
 Jehu of Israel, and Ben-hadad and Hazael of 
 Syria. From inscriptions we learn that Sal¬ 
 manussir defeated Ben-hadad (or Daddu- 
 ’idri, as he is called) at Karkar, in 854, to¬ 
 gether with about a dozen allied princes. 
 Among these was Ahab of Israel. In the 
 year 849 Ben-hadad and his allies were 
 again defeated, and so, also, in 846. The 
 consequence was that the alliance was dis¬ 
 solved, and Damascus stood alone. In the 
 year 842, the eighteenth regnal year, Sal¬ 
 manussir defeated Ben-hadad’s successor, 
 Hazael, at Mount Senir. Tyre, Sidon, 
 and Ja-u-a, the son of Omri (z. e., Jehu of 
 Israel ), bring tributes and presents. Sal¬ 
 manussir was followed by Samsiramanu 
 (824-811): his son was Raman-nirari III. 
 (811-782), who subdued the whole “ west 
 land,” including Phoenicia, Philistaea, 
 Edom, and the land of the house of Omri 
 (z. e ., Israel). Salmanussir III. (782-772), 
 his son, was at war with Armenia, and 
 went toward Damascus in 773. Asur-dan 
 
 III. (772-754), the next king, was warlike 
 like his predecessors. 
 
 In the ninth year of his reign, i. e. , 763, 
 an eclipse of the sun took place, of which 
 we read in the Eponym Canon, or list of 
 the Assyrian officials who gave names to 
 the )mars. By astronomical calculation it 
 has been ascertained that this eclipse took 
 place June 15, 763 b. c. ; and this date forms 
 essentially the basis of Assyrian and, at the 
 same time, of Old Testament chronology. 
 Asur-nirari(754-745)lost his throne to Phul 
 (Poros), z. e. , Tukultipalesara II. (745- 
 727). This king, who is better known as 
 Tiglath-pileser, and who, in 731, made 
 himself king of Shumer and Akkad (z. e ., 
 Southern and Northern Babylonia), was 
 the first Assyrian king who crossed over 
 the confines of the kingdoms of Israel and 
 Judah. He is mentioned in the Bible in 2 
 Kings xv. 19,29; xvi. 7-10; 1 Chron, v. 6,26; 
 2 Chron. xxviii. 29. He subdued Damas¬ 
 cus, and Rezin, its king; he came in contact 
 with Menahem of Samaria , Azariah of 
 Judah ,and supported Ahaz of Jiidah against 
 Pekah. After killing the latter, Tiglath- 
 pileser interfered so effectively in the af¬ 
 fairs of Israel that he placed Hoshea, as 
 his vassal, on the throne of Israel. Sal¬ 
 manussir (Shalmaneser) IV. (727-722) sus¬ 
 pected Hoshea of disloyalty, and went up 
 against him (comp. 2 Kings xvii. 3-5; 
 xviii. 9). Hoshea submitted to him, and 
 gave him tribute, but entered into a con¬ 
 spiracy with So (or Seveh), king of Egypt. 
 At this the Assyrian king went up against 
 Hoshea, bound him and put him in prison, 
 
 and besieged Samaria, which was only 
 taken by Sarrukin (i. e ., “he has appointed 
 the king,” or “ true, legitimate king ”), or 
 Sargon, in 722, who carried away Hoshea 
 and a great number of his subjects into 
 captivity; while foreign settlers, from the 
 East, came and took possession of the 
 land of Israel. Sargon (722-705) defeated 
 the Egyptians in the great battle of Raphia 
 (720). He took Ashdod in 711 (comp. Isa. 
 xx. 1), and made the kingdom of Judah 
 tributary. Sargon built Dur-Sarrukin, a 
 city whose ruins were discovered where 
 now lies the modern Khorsabad. He was 
 followed by his son, Sinaherba (z. e. , “Sin, 
 multiply the brothers”), or Sennacherib 
 (705-681). In his third campaign he came 
 in contact with Hezekiah, king of Judah 
 (comp. 2 Kings xviii. 13 to xxx. 37; Isa. 
 xxxvi. 1 to xxxvii. 38; 2 Chron. xxxii. 1- 
 22). Sennacherib was followed by his son 
 Asurahiddina (z. e. , “ Asur has given a 
 brother ”), or Esar-haddon (681-668), who 
 conquered all Egypt, penetrated into Nu¬ 
 bia, and styled himself “King of the kings 
 of Egypt, Cush.” He made Manasseh, 
 king of Judah, tributary. 
 
 He was followed by his son Asur- 
 banipal (z. e. , “ Asur is the father of the 
 son ”) probably the same great and noble 
 Asnapperwho is mentioned in Ezra iv. 10. 
 He ascended the throne, but signs of de¬ 
 cay already began to appear. A general 
 rising took place under Samassumukin, 
 the brother of Asnapper, who succeeded 
 in forming an alliance with the Babylonians 
 and Elamites and other nations against the 
 Assyrian power. That Manasseh, king of 
 Judah, seemed to have favored this alli¬ 
 ance—on which account “ the captains of 
 the host of the king of Assyria ” took him 
 among the thorns, and bound him with 
 fetters, and carried him to Babylon, and 
 only released him when he had purged 
 himself from this suspicion—may be in¬ 
 ferred from .2 Chron. xxxiii. 11. The re¬ 
 volt was suppressed, and Samassumukin 
 burned himself (648-647). In 625 the As¬ 
 syrian Empire came to an end, after Nine¬ 
 veh (the Ni-na-a, or Ni-nu-a, of the cunei¬ 
 form inscriptions), which, no doubt, had 
 been founded at about the same time as 
 Assur, was taken. Nineveh, or Nebi 
 Yunus as it is popularly called, with refer¬ 
 ence to the mosque erected on it to the 
 prophet Jonah, is said to have stood where 
 the southern hill, opposite Mosul, on the 
 Tigris, lies. When the Medes, in concert 
 with the Babylonian governor, Nabopo- 
 lassar, had destroyed this fortified place, 
 the founder of which is said to have been 
 Nimrod (Gen. x. 11), its name soon van¬ 
 ished from the memory of the nations; and 
 when, two centuries later, Xenophon 
 
Ass 
 
 ( 65 ) 
 
 Ath 
 
 passed by the ruins of Nineveh its name 
 could hardly be told any more. (The above 
 is condensed from the arts. “Nineveh” 
 and “ Sanherib ” by Friedrich Delitzsch in 
 Herzog’s Real Ency ., 2d ed., vols. x. and 
 xiii.) B. Pick. 
 
 Literature. — George Rawlinson : The 
 Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient East¬ 
 ern World , 3 vols. (London, 1879; N. Y., 
 1880); A. H. Sayce: The Ancient Empires 
 of the East (London and N. Y., -1884); Lect¬ 
 ures on the Origin and Growth of Religion , 
 as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient 
 Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures) (London, 
 1887); Cunningham Geikie: Hours with the 
 Bible (N. Y., 1881-1884); Z. A. Ragozin: 
 The Story of Chaldea (N. Y. and London, 
 1886); The Story of Assyria (1887); The 
 Story of Media, Babylon, and Persia (1888); 
 E. Schrader: The Cuneiform Inscriptions , 
 and the Old Testa??ient, 2 vols. (London, 
 1885-1888). 
 
 Assyriology and the Bible. See Assyria. 
 
 Astar'te and Ash'erah. Astarte is the 
 Greek and Latin name “ for the principal 
 Phoenician female divinity (called in He¬ 
 brew Ashtoreth, and very frequently in 
 plural form, Ashtaroth), the correlative of 
 Baal, the principal male divinity. She is 
 called the goddess of the Sidonians (1 Kings 
 xi. 5), but was worshipped also by the 
 Philistines, even in the time of Abraham, 
 as is shown by the name of the city Ash'- 
 teroth-Karna'im. Afterward, in the days 
 of Saul, we read of a Philistine temple in 
 her honor. (1 Sam. xxxi. 10.) Solomon 
 introduced her worship into Jerusalem 
 (1 Kings xi. 5); and the bamoth , or artificial 
 mounds surmounted by altars (“ high 
 places ”), he had built, were not destroyed 
 until Josiah’s day. (2 Kings xxiii. 13.) 
 Originally she was not a Phoenician but an 
 old Babylonian goddess (Istar).” — Wolf 
 Baudissin. 
 
 Asherah, which, in the Authorized Ver¬ 
 sion is mistranslated “ grove,” was the 
 name of a goddess, whose worship was 
 early introduced into Israel. It was car¬ 
 ried on under green trees, upon high hills 
 (2 Kings xvii. 10), and in connection with 
 Baal. Scholars are not decided as to 
 whether Asherah is but another name for 
 Astarte. 
 
 Asterius, Bishop of Amasia, in Pontus; 
 d. about 410. His fame rests upon his 
 Homilies , which had a great reputation in 
 the Eastern Church. Eleven of them have 
 been preserved, and the fragments of 
 twenty-two others. 
 
 Astrology ( the science of the stars ) was 
 
 studied under the two departments of nat¬ 
 ural and judicial astrology. The former 
 developed into the science of astronomy; 
 the latter ascribed to the stars a subtle and 
 mysterious influence upon the will. Those 
 who taught it pretended to trace this influ¬ 
 ence in its relation to the destinies of men. 
 The Chaldean astrologers became world- 
 famous, and during the dark ages this de¬ 
 lusion crept into the Church, and it found 
 many learned adherents until the Coperni- 
 can system of astronomy was fully estab¬ 
 lished. 
 
 Asylum. See Sanctuary. 
 
 Atar'gatis, a Syrian goddess not men¬ 
 tioned in the Bible, but in 2 Macc. xii. 26. 
 She is represented with the body of a 
 woman and the tail of a fish. “ She was 
 the Syrian form of Astarte, and the Greek 
 and Roman writers represent her as a fish- 
 goddess, the cause of the seas’ fruitful¬ 
 ness. ”—Wolf Baudissin. See Astarte. 
 
 Athali'ah, a granddaughter of Omri, and 
 daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. (2 Kings 
 xi. 1.) She married Jehoram, the son of 
 Jehoshaphat. After the death of her hus¬ 
 band and son, she seized the government 
 of Judah, and sought to make her position 
 more secure by murdering the entire royal 
 family. Her grandson, Joash, was saved 
 by his aunt, Jehosheba, and six years after¬ 
 ward he was brought from the place of con¬ 
 cealment and crowned by the high-priest 
 Jehoiada, who, at the same time, caused 
 Athaliah to be put to death. 
 
 Athanasius, St. (a. d. 296-373), one of 
 the greatest of the Fathers, upon whom it 
 devolved to defend the doctrine of our 
 Lord’s Godhead against the Arians. He 
 was Patriarch of Alexandria for nearly 
 half a century (a. d. 326-373), but was four 
 times driven into exile, and went through 
 much suffering at the hands of the Arian 
 party. 
 
 In early life Athanasius was brought un¬ 
 der the notice of Alexander, the Patriarch 
 of Alexandria, whom he eventually suc¬ 
 ceeded; and the first introduction of the 
 youth to his venerable predecessor is as¬ 
 sociated with a story, which Dean Stanley 
 agreed with earlier historians in believing 
 to be true. Sitting at the window of a 
 house which overlooked the beach, the 
 patriarch saw some boys “playing at 
 church,” and observed that the particular 
 part of Divine Service which they imitated 
 was the administration of baptism. By 
 direction of the bishop the boys were 
 brought before him, in the presence of the 
 clergy attending upon him, and he found, 
 
Ath 
 
 ( 66 ) 
 
 Ath 
 
 on examining them, that one of them, 
 named Athanasius, had assumed the posi¬ 
 tion of bishop among his playfellows, and 
 had christened some of them who had not 
 yet received baptism. After consulting 
 with his clergy, the patriarch determined 
 that the baptism had been administered 
 with water and the proper words, and was 
 thus valid, so that the children would not 
 need to be baptized again. He thought it 
 expedient, however, that Athanasius and 
 the boys who had specially assisted him 
 should be given up by their parents to be 
 brought up as clergymen; and before long 
 Athanasius was taken under the bishop’s 
 own care, becoming eventually his secre¬ 
 tary, and living with him, St. Cyril says, 
 as an adopted son. 
 
 About the year 318 Athanasius was or¬ 
 dained deacon by his master and friend 
 and father in God, and was at once, or 
 soon afterwards, made head of the deacons, 
 the archdeacon of those days having more 
 of a collegiate position than a territorial 
 dignitary, and being also deacon, or per¬ 
 sonal minister, to the bishop, in Divine 
 Service and on other public occasions. It 
 was as deacon to the bishop, and scarcely, 
 as is sometimes said, as Archdeacon of 
 Alexandria, that Athanasius attended the 
 most important Council of Nicaea, in a. d. 
 325; and it was at the Council that his 
 growing reputation as a theologian ac¬ 
 quired such dimensions as to make him 
 known for ever throughout the world as 
 the great defender of the doctrine that 
 Jesus was, and is, God Incarnate. 
 
 At Easter, in the following year, nine 
 months after the conclusion of the Nicene 
 Council, the Bishop and Patriarch of Alex¬ 
 andria died, calling for Athanasius in his 
 last hour, to nominate him as his successor, 
 and, when he was told that the young dea¬ 
 con could not be found, saying, “ You think 
 to escape, but it cannot be.” Perhaps he 
 foresaw something of the work which his 
 secretary and friend would have to do, and 
 something, also, of the suffering which he 
 would have to undergo; and perhaps there 
 was a tone of censure in his words, for it 
 is certain that when Athanasius himself 
 was riper in Christian experience, he dis¬ 
 approved of his own conduct in endeavor¬ 
 ing to evade the responsibilities which were 
 about to be laid upon him. Subsequent 
 events proved that, notwithstanding Arian 
 misrepresentations, the foresight of the 
 dying bishop as to the best man to become 
 his successor was also the opinion of the 
 majority of the clergy, and the whole of 
 the lay people of Alexandria. The strug¬ 
 gle of the Arians to obtain an Arian bishop 
 protracted the election for several days 
 and nights, but the laity were all the time 
 
 loudly calling for a decision in favor of 
 the young deacon, and eventually the ob¬ 
 structive minority was obliged to give way 
 Athanasius was duly elected to that see— 
 a great position, which practically included 
 that of archbishop and patriarch—on June 
 8, 326, two months after the death of 
 Alexander. It was not, however, until 
 December that he was consecrated. 
 
 For a few years the new patriarch ad¬ 
 ministered the affairs of his church, free 
 from any distracting cares and dissensions; 
 but then began forty years of such trouble 
 and suffering that, in the words of Hooker, 
 “ the Arians never suffered Athanasius, 
 till the last hour of his life in this world, 
 to enjoy the comfort of a peaceable day.” 
 Twenty years out of the forty were, in part, 
 spent in exile. 
 
 This period of his troubles began with 
 the Emperor Constantine’s change of mind 
 in respect to the Arians, from an alteration 
 either in his opinions or in his policy. Im¬ 
 mediately after the Nicene Council, Con¬ 
 stantine had made it penal to refuse sub¬ 
 scription to its decisions; but when, in A. d. 
 328, his good mother, St. Helena, died, he 
 was brought under the influence of Euse¬ 
 bius, the Arian Bishop of Nicomedia (care¬ 
 fully to be distinguished from Eusebius, the 
 historian, Bishop of Caesarea), through his 
 sister Constantia, and from that time he 
 became friendly to the Arians. His first 
 act in their favor was to recall Arius 
 from exile, in a. d. 330. He then permitted 
 Eusebius to write from the court to Atha¬ 
 nasius, requiring him to admit the man, 
 who had been declared heretical by the 
 Council of Nicaea, to the communion of the 
 Church. Athanasius replied that it could 
 not be right to admit persons to commun¬ 
 ion who had invented a heresy contrary to 
 the faith of the Church, and condemned 
 by a great general council of the bishops 
 of the Church, who had been gathered 
 from all parts of the world. The Em¬ 
 peror himself then wrote to Athanasius, 
 commanding him to admit to communion 
 all who desired to re-join the Church. The 
 Bishop, however, refused compliance, and 
 Constantine gave way. His enemies then 
 laid formal charges against him, which 
 amounted to treason, but these were re¬ 
 futed easily, and his accusers were cen¬ 
 sured by the Emperor. Next, they charged 
 him with murder, and it was in vain that 
 he established his innocence. Fresh accu¬ 
 sations were brought against him, and the 
 old ones brushed up again, and, among 
 others, one that he had talked of injuring 
 Constantine’s newly built city of Constan¬ 
 tinople by hindering its supply of corn 
 from Alexandria. This last accusation 
 was brought to light suddenly, while 
 
Ath 
 
 ( 67 ) 
 
 Ath 
 
 Athanasius was defending himself against 
 other charges before the Emperor, in Con¬ 
 stantinople itself. Constantine was en¬ 
 raged; he had lately beheaded the philos¬ 
 opher, Sopater, on the mere suspicion of his 
 having done the same thing; and, without 
 listening to protestations of innocence, he 
 banished Athanasius to Treves, an impe¬ 
 rial city, in which Constantine, the eldest 
 son of the emperor, was then residing as 
 the Viceroy of France, Spain, and Britain. 
 Here he remained an exile, though treated 
 with honor, for two years and a half (A. D. 
 336-338). 
 
 Constantine II. and his two brothers, 
 Constantius and Constans, divided the 
 empire of their father among them, and 
 Alexandria, being in the empire of the 
 East, fell under the government of Con¬ 
 stantius, whose sympathies were on the 
 side of the Arians. Yet all three em¬ 
 perors agreed that Athanasius should be 
 restored to his see, and he returned to 
 Alexandria amidst the glad acclamations 
 of his flock, in November, 338. But the 
 hostility of his opponents never grew 
 weary. A scheme was now set on foot 
 for superseding the patriarch by the con¬ 
 secration of a successor, and although the 
 first attempt failed, the second was suc¬ 
 cessful; so that, in the midst of riot, sacri¬ 
 lege, and massacre, an Arian of Cappado¬ 
 cia, named Gregory, was sent from the 
 Court of Constantius to be received as the 
 Bishop of Alexandria. The scenes of vio¬ 
 lence and cruelty were now such that, with 
 the hope of restoring peace and order, 
 Athanasius first concealed himself outside 
 the city, and then sailed for Rome in the 
 spring of A. d. 340. There Julius, the 
 Bishop of Rome, summoned a Provincial 
 Council, which acquitted the persecuted 
 patriarch of the charges brought against 
 him; and two years afterwards the Em¬ 
 perors Constans and Constantius called a 
 General Council to meet at Sardica, where 
 380 bishops, of whom seventy-six were 
 Arians, met together in a. d. 343. The 
 Arian bishops would not sit as a minority, 
 and they arranged themselves as a Second 
 Council at Philippopolis. But the remain¬ 
 ing three hundred bishops, among whom 
 were three from Britain, carried on the in¬ 
 quiry, and completely exculpated Athana¬ 
 sius, writing letters to the bishops and 
 laity within his jurisdiction as Patriarch, 
 in which they exhorted all “to contend 
 earnestly for the sound faith, and for the 
 innocence of Athanasius.” Once more 
 the exiled patriarch was allowed to return 
 to Alexandria, which he did about the time 
 that his supplanter, Gregory, died, A. D. 345, 
 and the reception which he met with showed 
 that his popularity was notat alldiminished. 
 
 Soon, however, the Arian party regained 
 their ascendency by the accession of Con¬ 
 stantius to the whole empire, on the mur¬ 
 der of his only remaining brother, Con¬ 
 stans. The condemnation of Athanasius 
 was obtained by court favor and court 
 threats in the Councils of Arles (a. d. 353) 
 and Milan (a. d. 355); his orthodox defend¬ 
 ers were sent into exile, and he himself 
 was driven into the wilderness of the The- 
 baid, where he remained among the her¬ 
 mits for eight or nine years (a. d. 354-362), 
 being superseded by the Arian bishop, 
 George of Cappadocia. 
 
 When he had escaped from Alexandria, 
 it was the intention of Athanasius to go 
 and appeal personally to Constantius, but 
 the persecution spread throughout the 
 West, a price was set upon his head, and 
 close search was made for him. He there¬ 
 fore changed his mind, and retired to the 
 Thebaid, where he was greatly beloved by 
 the monks who had gathered there under 
 the rule of St. Antony, his own great friend, 
 who had recently died. 
 
 The accession of the infidel Emperor 
 Julian, a nephew of Constantine the Great, 
 was almost immediately followed by the 
 murder of George, the Cappadocian bishop, 
 who had all this while been sitting in the 
 seat of Athanasius. To show his con¬ 
 tempt for Christianity, by minimizing the 
 controversies which divided Arians and the 
 Orthodox, Julian permitted all exiled 
 bishops to return to their sees, and among 
 them Athanasius, who resumed his throne, 
 to the great joy of Alexandrian Christians, 
 on Feb. 22, 362. All the time of his ab¬ 
 sence he had been actively engaged, by 
 correspondence and by messengers, with 
 the ecclesiastical affairs of his patriarchate; 
 but important matters had to be undertaken 
 on his return, and the transaction of these 
 brought upon him the resentment of the 
 pagan part of the population and of the 
 emperor, who, declaring that he had never 
 intended him to resume “ what is called 
 the episcopal throne,” ordered him to 
 leave Alexandria at once. Again he took 
 up his home among the monks of Lower 
 Egypt, where he remained until the death 
 of Julian, which occurred on June 26, 363. 
 He then returned privately to Alexandria, 
 but immediately after his arrival he receiv¬ 
 ed a letter from the new emperor, Jovian, 
 desiring him to resume his duties as patri¬ 
 arch. 
 
 For a short time after the death of Jo¬ 
 vian the troubles of Athanasius returned; 
 Valens, his successor in the East, ordering, 
 in a. d. 365, that all bishops expelled from 
 their sees by his Arian predecessor, Con¬ 
 stantius, and recalled by Julian, should 
 once more be banished. There was some 
 
Ath 
 
 ( 68 ; 
 
 Ath 
 
 sort of promise to the people of Alexan¬ 
 dria that Athanasius should be excepted 
 from this decree; but he was warned that 
 his life was in danger, and, leaving the city, 
 he concealed himself for four months in 
 his father’s tomb outside the city walls. 
 At the end of that time an imperial order 
 was sent for his recall, and, his retreat hav¬ 
 ing been discovered, he was carried back to 
 the city by a great multitude, not again to 
 be driven from it. 
 
 St. Athanasius died at the great age of 
 seventy-seven, after anepiscopate ofnearly 
 forty-seven years, on May 2, 373, the day 
 on which he is commemorated in the cal¬ 
 endars of the Church. Notwithstanding 
 his laborious work as the bishop of an im¬ 
 portant see, and the Archbishop and Patri¬ 
 arch of many other bishops, he left behind 
 
 the doctrines taught and defended with so 
 much power by Athanasius. “ The Cath¬ 
 olic doctrine of the Trinity has been more 
 identified with his ‘ immortal ’ name than 
 with any other in the history of the Church 
 and of Christian theology.”— Tulloch. See 
 Creeds. 
 
 Atheists, those who profess to believe 
 that there is no God; the words atheism 
 and atheist being taken from a Greek word 
 which is formed from the word theos 
 (God), made negative by the prefix a. 
 
 Athenag'oras, an early Christian philos¬ 
 opher and apologist. Little is known of his 
 life but by tradition. Two of his works 
 are still in existence. His Apology , ad¬ 
 dressed to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius 
 
 Modern city. Temple of Theseus. Southwestern part of modern city. 
 
 ATHENS. 
 
 him a voluminous collection of letters and 
 treatises, which fill four folio volumes. 
 Much of his literary work was doubtless 
 done during the periods of his exile, espe¬ 
 cially when living in the coenobite establish¬ 
 ments of St. Antony, in the Thebaid. 
 While he lived he was the great break¬ 
 water by which the flood of Arianism was 
 withstood, and after his death his works 
 formed one of those strong literary bul¬ 
 warks by which the faith delivered in the 
 Nicene Creed has been maintained against 
 a long series of assaults.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. See H. R. Reynolds: Athanasius 
 (London 1889). 
 
 Athanasian Creed, the name given to 
 that summary of belief, respecting the 
 Persons of the Trinity, which embodies 
 
 and Lucius Aurelius Commodus, is placed 
 in the period between 176 and 178. He 
 also wrote a Treatise on the Resurrection. 
 
 Athens,“the capital of Attica, and the 
 chief seat of Grecian learning and civiliza¬ 
 tion during the golden period of the history 
 of Greece. An account of this city would 
 be out of place in the present work. St. 
 Paul visited it in his journey from Mace¬ 
 donia, and appears to have remained there 
 some time. (Acts xvii. 14-34; comp. 1 
 Thess. iii. 1.) During his residence he 
 delivered his memorable discourse on the 
 Areopagus to the “ men of Athens.” (Acts 
 xvii. 22-31.) The Agora, or “ market,” 
 where St. Paul disputed daily, was situ¬ 
 ated in the valley between the Acropolis, 
 the Areopagus, the Pnyx,and the Museum,. 
 
Ath 
 
 Ato 
 
 ( 69 ) 
 
 being bounded by the Acropolis on the 
 N.E. and E., by the Areopagus on the N., 
 by the Pnyx on the N.W. and W., and by 
 the Museum on the S. The annexed plan 
 shows the position of the Agora. The re¬ 
 mark of the sacred historian, respecting the 
 inquisitive character of the Athenians 
 Jxvii. 21), is attested by the unanimous 
 voice of antiquity. Demosthenes rebukes 
 his countrymen for their love of constantly 
 going about in the market, and asking one 
 another, What news? The remark of St. 
 Paul upon the “superstitious” character 
 of the Athenians (xvii. 22) is, in like man¬ 
 ner, confirmed by the ancient writers. Thus 
 Pausanias says that the Athenians sur¬ 
 passed all other states in the attention 
 w T hich they paid to the worship of the 
 gods; and hence the city was crowded in 
 every direction with temples, altars, and 
 other sacred buildings. Of the Christian 
 Church, founded by St. Paul at Athens, 
 according to ecclesiastical tradition, Dio¬ 
 nysius the Areopagite was the first bishop.” 
 —Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Athos, a mountain at the extremity of 
 the promontory of Chalcis, in European 
 Turkey. There are now located upon the 
 sides of the mountain twenty monasteries, 
 and a large number of hermitages, in 
 which more than five thousand monks live. 
 They are mostly Russian, and of the order 
 of St. Basil. They live in great seclusion; 
 and no female, even of the lower animals, 
 is permitted within the bounds of their 
 property. Their libraries contain some 
 valuable MSS. They pay yearly tribute 
 to the Sultan, and are governed by a body 
 consisting of one representative from each 
 monastery. It was at Mt. Athos that the 
 sect of Hesychasts had their origin, in the 
 fourteenth century. See Hesychasts. 
 
 Atonement. “Sin violates the ground of 
 union which the personal creature has, by 
 nature, with the holy God. The act of sin 
 is one of separation; the act begets the 
 state of sin, the state confirms and repeats 
 the act. The doctrine of the Atonement 
 treats of the mediation necessary for re¬ 
 storing the union between God and man, 
 which has been lost by sin. The Atonement, 
 therefore, must ever be the fundamental 
 doctrine in every religion of sinful crea¬ 
 tures. In the Christian religion it mani¬ 
 festly occupies this central position; for the 
 Christian doctrine of the Atonement is but 
 the explanation of its great historic fact— 
 the embodiment in one person of the divine 
 and human natures in perfect agreement. 
 In the person of Christ, God and man are 
 atoned; he is their atonement. So funda¬ 
 mental is the doctrine of the Atonement in 
 
 the Christian religion, that it does not, like 
 many other doctrines, form a ground of 
 distinction among the different bodies into 
 which the Christian world has been divided. 
 All churches may be said to be equally or¬ 
 thodox on this point. The Church of Rome, 
 the Greek Church, the various Protestant 
 Churches—established and dissenting—all 
 agree, taking their standards as a criterion, 
 in resting the sinner’s hope of salvation on 
 the mediatorial work or Atonement of Jesus 
 Christ. Nevertheless, there have been, 
 from the very beginning of speculative 
 Christian theology, and still continue 
 to be, within the bosom of the several 
 churches, various ways of conceiving and 
 explaining the exact nature and mode of 
 operation of this mediatorial work. What 
 follows is a brief sketch of the historical 
 development of these speculations. 
 
 Christianity differs from heathenism in 
 the clear perception which it has of the 
 antagonism sin has introduced between God 
 and man. Heathenism but vaguely con¬ 
 ceives of this variance, and consequently 
 has but an ill-defined notion of the atone¬ 
 ment required; the notion seldom contain¬ 
 ing more than the idea of a reconciled union 
 of the individual man with nature and the 
 universal life. Even where its mythical 
 divinities assume personality, it is but an 
 ideal personality, without any concrete 
 reality of life, and, consequently, without 
 any real significance for the conscience. In 
 this state, the abject subjection of man to 
 nature prevents his rising into that sphere 
 of conscious freedom which makes sin sin¬ 
 ful, and demands an atonement with one 
 who is Lord both of nature and man. 
 
 In Judaism, man stands above nature, in 
 conscious relation to a personal God, whose 
 written law exhibits the requirements of 
 his relationship with man—requirements 
 which are never met, and which only make 
 him fearfully conscious of the ever-widen¬ 
 ing breach between him and his God. Thus 
 the law awakened the sense of guilt, and 
 the desire for an atonement; a desire it 
 could never satisfy. The never-ceasing 
 demands of these ever-unfulfilled require¬ 
 ments were constantly acknowledged by its 
 whole sacrificial ctiltus , which expressed the 
 hidden ground of Jewish hope, and pro¬ 
 phetically pointed to its future manifesta¬ 
 tion. 
 
 But whilst the holy Scriptures, through¬ 
 out the Old Testament, exhibit the making 
 of an atonement by vicarious sacrifice 
 (Lev. xvi. 21; xvii. 11); and the idea, both 
 of the suffering and the deliverance of 
 many by the sins and virtues of one, was 
 common to all antiquity, the idea of the 
 suffering and vicarious Messiah, plainly de¬ 
 clared in the writings of the prophets 
 
Ato 
 
 ( 70 ) 
 
 Atr 
 
 (Luke xxiv. 46; Isa. liii; Psa. xxii.), and not 
 entirely hidden from the more thoughtful 
 and devout contemporaries of Jesus (Luke 
 
 ii. 34; John i. 29), was one which was for¬ 
 eign to the Messianic faith of the great 
 body of the people. 
 
 In the New Testament, Christ is every¬ 
 where exhibited as one sent from God for 
 the salvation of the world (John iii. 16, 17); 
 and as the condition, on the part of man, 
 of his obtaining this salvation, we read of 
 the requirement of repentance, faith, and 
 reformation (Matt. iv. 17; v. 3, 11; vi. 12; 
 Mark xvi. 16; Luke xv. 11), whilst, on the 
 part of God, as conditioning and mediating 
 his forgiveness of sins, we have exhibited 
 the entire life of Christ upon earth con¬ 
 ceived of as embracing, severally, its indi¬ 
 vidual features (Acts v. 31; Rom. iv. 25; 
 
 viii. 34); but, more especially, his death as 
 a ransom for our sins (Matt. xx. 28; xxvi. 
 2S), as a vicarious sacrifice (1 Peter i. 19; 
 2 Cor. v. 21), by which we are redeemed 
 from the bondage of sin (1 Tim. ii. 6; Gal. 
 
 iii. 13; 2 Peter ii. 1), and obtain forgiveness 
 (Rom. v. 19; 1 Cor. xv. 3; 1 John i. 7), and 
 eternal life and peace with God (John x. 11; 
 Col. i. 20). Christ is, therefore, the Medi¬ 
 ator between God and man (1 Tim. ii. 5), 
 having made peace through the the blood 
 of his cross (Col. i. 20); the propitiation 
 for our sins (1 John ii. 2; iv. 10); and our 
 high-priest who offers himself a sacrifice to 
 reconcile us with God (Heb. ii. 17; v. 1; 
 
 ix. 28). Moreover, we are also taught that 
 God has, in Christ, reconciled the world 
 with himself (Rom. v. 10; Col. i. 22; 2 
 Cor. v. 19).”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. 
 
 The doctrine of the Atonement, while 
 held in full accord with the explicit teach¬ 
 ings of the Scriptures, was not systemat¬ 
 ically developed during the early centuries 
 of the Christian Church. Anselm w'as the 
 first to give a scientific definition of the 
 doctrines of expiation and satisfaction that 
 had been held, heretofore, in a general way. 
 So far as the general theory of vicarious 
 satisfaction is concerned, Anselm, in his 
 Cur Deus H01710 , gives the substance of the 
 reformed doctrine as it is now incorporated 
 in the creeds of the Christian Church. What 
 is known as the Moral Influence Theory was 
 taught by Abelard and Socinus, and in 
 recent times has numbered among its ad¬ 
 vocates Maurice, Jowett, Bushnell. The 
 Governmental Theory of the Atonement was 
 introduced into the Church by Hugo Gro- 
 tius (d. 1645), and in this country has been 
 ably taught by Jonathan Edwards, Jr., 
 Smalley, Emmons, Park, and others. The 
 great body of the Arminians have held 
 substantially this view. The Mystical 
 Theory, which was held by the Platonizing 
 Fathers, and by Scotus Erigena and his dis¬ 
 
 ciples in the Middle Ages, and by Osiander 
 and Schwenkfeld at the Reformation, has 
 found in modern times its most prominent 
 advocates in Schleiermacher and his dis¬ 
 ciples. See Anselm : Cur Deus Homo , 
 translated in the Bibliotheca Sacra , vol. xii; 
 also separately (Oxford, 1865); Hugo Gro- 
 tius: Defensio Fidei Catholicce de Satisfac- 
 tione Christi (modern ed., Oxford, 1836); 
 F. D. Maurice : Theological Essays (Lon¬ 
 don, 1853); The Doctrine of Sacrifices: a 
 Series of Sert?ions (new ed., 1879); J- 
 McLeod Campbell: The Nature of the 
 Atone?ncnt (4th ed., London, 1873); E. A. 
 Park: Discourses and Treatises on the Atone- 
 ment (by different writers) (Boston, 1859); 
 Horace Bushnell: The Vicarious Sacrifice 
 (N. Y., 1876), 2 vols.; A. A. Hodge: The 
 Atonement (Phila., 1867, new ed., 1877); R. 
 W. Dale: The Atonement (London and 
 N. Y., 1876, 8th ed., 1881); John Miley: 
 Atonement in Christ (N. Y., 1879). See 
 also, Watson: Theological Institutes; Charles 
 Hodge: Systematic Theology (N. Y., 1872); 
 Schaff: Creeds of Christendom , vols. ii. and 
 iii. 
 
 Atonement, Day of. The directions for 
 its observance are found in Lev. xvi., xxiii. 
 26-32; Num. xxix. 7-11. The day is still 
 kept, but with less imposing ceremonial 
 than in the period before the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. See Lightfoot: Temple Ser¬ 
 vice ; Ewald: The Antiquities of Israel , 
 Eng. trans. (Boston, 1876), p. 361, sqq.; 
 Oehler in Schaff-Herzog, vol. i., pp. 166-168. 
 
 Atrium, “ the court attached to churches 
 in the earlier centuries. It was usually 
 placed before the front of the church and 
 surrounded by porticoes. In the centre of 
 the open area was a fountain, or, at least, a 
 large vessel, containing water for ablution. 
 This fountain was sometimes covered with 
 a roof, and surrounded by railings. The 
 atrium was, in the earlier ages, considered 
 an important, almost indispensable, adjunct 
 to at any rate the larger churches.”—Smith 
 and Cheetham: Did. Christian Antiquities. 
 According to Eusebius, the first class of 
 penitents stood in this atrium to beg the 
 prayers of the faithful. The great colon¬ 
 nade in front of St. Peter’s is a magnif¬ 
 icent illustration of the atrium. The obe¬ 
 lisk which stands in the centre was erected 
 by Sixtus V. in 1586. It is a solid mass of 
 red granite, without hieroglyphics, and 
 originally stood in the circus of Nero, and 
 is, therefore, now not far from its original 
 situation. The fountains on either side of 
 this obelisk (but one is seen in the picture) 
 were designed by Carlo Maderno. The water 
 is thrown to a height of about 18 feet, and 
 falls back into a basin of Oriental granite. 
 
( 71 ) 
 
 ATRIUM OF ST. PETER’S CHURCH, ROME, 
 
Att 
 
 Aug 
 
 ( 72 ) 
 
 Atterbury, Francis (1662-1731), a Bish¬ 
 op of Rochester in the reign of Queen 
 Anne. He was a distinguished preacher 
 in London when made bishop. In 1722 he 
 was imprisoned in the Tower on the charge 
 of being in correspondence with members 
 of the exiled Stuart family. His eloquent 
 defense did not avail, and the last nine 
 years of his life were spent in exile at 
 Brussels and Paris. He was buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Attrition, a term used by Roman cas¬ 
 uists to express that sorrow for sin which 
 arises through fear of its penalties, or 
 through the shame of exposure. 
 
 Aubigne. See Merle d’Aubigne. 
 
 Auburn Declaration. See Presbyterian 
 Church. 
 
 Audaeans, a sect that flourished in the 
 early part of the fourth century. Its found¬ 
 er, Audaeus or Audius, a Syrian of Meso¬ 
 potamia, gained his following by preaching 
 against the luxurious habits of the bishops 
 and clergy. He became the first bishop of 
 the sect, which died out in the fifth cen¬ 
 tury. The Audaeans were Anthropomor- 
 phites. 
 
 Audians. See Audaeans. 
 
 Augsburg, Confession of. See Prot¬ 
 estant Confessions. 
 
 Augsburg, Interim of. See Interim. 
 
 Augsburg, The Peace of, was conclud¬ 
 ed on Sept. 25, 1555. By its terms the 
 sovereign could choose between the Augs¬ 
 burg Confession and the Roman Church, 
 and his subjects were compelled to accept 
 his choice. The only relief for the indi¬ 
 vidual was to remove into the territory 
 where the religion of the sovereign was in 
 accord with his own. 
 
 Augustine, or Austin, St., the first 
 Archbishop of Canterbury; d. 604. In 596 
 he was sent from Rome by Gregory the 
 Great (590-604) to aid in the conversion of 
 the Anglo-Saxons. The conversion of 
 Ethelbert (597) opened the way to the 
 Christianization of his people. Augustine 
 was canonized for the reputed cure of a 
 Saxon of his blindness. 
 
 Augustine, St. ,(1) (a. d. 354-430). This 
 renowned Father of the Church was born 
 on Nov. 13th, 354, at Tagaste, in Nu- 
 midia. He was Bishop of Hippo for 
 thirty-five years, and as one of the four 
 
 great teachers of the Church, became 
 known as “the Doctor of Grace.” (Doc¬ 
 tor.) His father, Patricius, whom he 
 calls “ a poor freeman of Tagaste,” did not 
 profess Christianity at the time of Augus¬ 
 tine’s birth, but was afterward converted 
 and baptized. His mother, Monnica, was 
 certainly a Christian at the period of his 
 birth, and had probably been baptized in 
 her infancy. He appears to have been the 
 only child of his mother, and, as was nat¬ 
 ural, there was the most tender affection 
 between them all their lives. Unfortu¬ 
 nately for Augustine, his mother did not 
 bring him to baptism in his early days, 
 dreading that he would fall into sin after 
 being baptized. “ My cleansing was defer¬ 
 red,” he says, in his confession, “ because 
 the defilements of sin would, after that 
 washing, bring greater and more perilous 
 guilt.” Until he was thirty-three years 
 of age, and during his youth, his mother’s 
 good influence was too weak to prevent 
 him from falling into a self-willed course 
 of very vicious living, especially while he 
 was receiving his higher education at Car¬ 
 thage, which he called Babylon. For nine 
 years also, from the age of nineteen to 
 that of twenty-eight, he combined with 
 his reckless vice the heresy of Mani- 
 ■ ch/Eism ( q . v.). About thirty he aban¬ 
 doned both the heresy and the habitual 
 vice, and took up with the philosophy of 
 the neo-PLATONiSTS (q. v.), and, although 
 there was little of Christianity in their 
 opinions, he was brought under better in¬ 
 fluences, and especially was led to the 
 study of Holy Scripture. 
 
 Augustine had long been a lecturer in 
 the schools of Carthage, and about this 
 time he returned to Tagaste, his native 
 place, to engage in the teaching of rhetoric 
 there. He soon, however, returned to 
 Carthage, and from thence removed to 
 Rome, still following the same profession, 
 in A. d. 383. Disappointed of success at 
 Rome, he went to Milan, where he was 
 joined by his mother, and where a new 
 life opened itself out before him; for at 
 Milan he came in contact with Ambrose, 
 the great and popular bishop of that city, 
 under the influence of whose preaching 
 and example Augustine was converted to 
 Christianity. He was baptized by St. Am¬ 
 brose, together with his dearly beloved 
 natural son, Adeodatus, on April 25, 
 387, Augustine being then thirty-three 
 years of age, and his son fifteen. 
 
 The earlier years of his Christian life 
 were spent by St. Augustine in retirement 
 and study. Soon after his baptism he set 
 out, with his mother and his son, to return 
 to Africa. Monnica died on the way, at 
 Ostia, and, in his grief, Augustine went to 
 
rt.ug 
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
 Aug 
 
 Rome, where he remained for more than a 
 year, spending his time in writing and 
 speaking against his former associates, the 
 Manichees. After this, he returned with 
 Adeodatus to Tagaste, where he estab¬ 
 lished a small monastic community, con¬ 
 sisting of friends who, like himself, aspired 
 after a stricter life of personal holiness and 
 good works than seemed possible when 
 living in the ordinary freedom of society. 
 Thus three years passed away in study 
 and writing, and in prayer, acts of self-dis¬ 
 cipline, and charitable works among the 
 poor; and during that time another great 
 sorrow came upon St. Augustine in the 
 early death of his pious son, Adeodatus. 
 
 In a. D. 390, when he was more than 
 thirty-five years of age, his clerical life 
 began. He went on a visit to a friend, 
 who was an official of the empire at Hippo 
 Regius, a small sea-coast town, the ruins 
 of which still exist in the east of Algeria, 
 and immediately opposite the southern end 
 of Sardinia. There he became acquainted 
 with Valerius, the Bishop of Hippo, who 
 at once ordained him to the priesthood. 
 This epoch of his life we have narrated in 
 his own words, in a sermon which he 
 preached at Hippo many years afterwards 
 on “ The Life and Conversation of the 
 Clergy,” and in which, with his customary 
 outspokenness respecting himself, he thus 
 records the circumstances of his ordination: 
 “ I, whom by the grace of God ye thus see 
 as your bishop, came as a young man to 
 this city, as many of you know. I was 
 looking for a place where to form a monas¬ 
 tery to live with my brethren. For all 
 worldly hopes I had abandoned, and what 
 I might have been I would not be; nor yet 
 sought I to be what I am. ‘ I chose rather 
 to be cast down in the house of my God 
 than to dwell in the tents of the ungodly.’ 
 I separated me from those who love the 
 world, nor yet did I set myself with those 
 who are placed over the people. Nor in 
 the Feast of my Lord did I ‘ choose the 
 higher place,’ but the lower and abject 
 one, and it pleased Him to say to me, ‘Go 
 up higher.’ But so exceedingly did I 
 dread the episcopate, that, because my 
 reputation had now begun to be of some 
 account among the servants of God, I 
 would not go to any place where I knew 
 there was no bishop. For I was afraid of 
 this, and did what I could, that in a low 
 place I might be saved, lest in a high one 
 I should be periled. But, as I said, the 
 servant must not oppose his Master. I 
 came to this city to see a friend whom I 
 thought I might gain to God, that he might 
 live with us in the monastery; I came as 
 being safe, the place having a bishop al¬ 
 ready. I was laid hold of, made a presby¬ 
 
 ter, and by this step came to the episco¬ 
 pacy.” 
 
 It is probable, especially from the eager¬ 
 ness with which Bishop Valerius enlisted 
 the services of St. Augustine, that, even as 
 a priest only, he occupied an important 
 position in the Church of Hippo. Per¬ 
 haps, in an office similar to that of dean, he 
 became archpresbyter, or the chief of the 
 priests, at Hippo, as St. Athanasius had 
 been chief of the deacons, or archdeacon, 
 at Alexandria. But, after three or four 
 years, the voice “Go up higher” was 
 heard, and he was consecrated coadjutor 
 to the bishop, the death of Valerius, a few 
 months later, opening the way for him to 
 become his successor as actual Bishop of 
 Hippo. His Confessions , a kind of spirit¬ 
 ual autobiography, are a rich mine of 
 material for his personal history during 
 the time of his life as a layman, and his 
 Retractations are a review of his liter¬ 
 ary work, nearly to the time of his death; 
 but there is little recorded of his life and 
 work simply as bishop of his diocese. He 
 lived in a somewhat ascetic manner, sur¬ 
 rounded by a number of his clergy, who, 
 like himself, preferred the common life of 
 a monastic society to any other mode of 
 living. He gave up much time to the ed¬ 
 ucation of those who were candidates for 
 the ministry. Every day he was accessi¬ 
 ble in a court which he held for the per¬ 
 sonal administration of Christian equity. 
 He was also indefatigable in preaching and 
 the ordinary duties of the episcopal office. 
 But beyond this, there is little detailed 
 record of St. Augustine’s life as a bishop. 
 There is, however, a touching passage in 
 one of his later sermons, in which, after 
 occupying his high office for more than 
 thirty years, he appeals to his people in a 
 manner that he would scarcely have done 
 unless he had been speaking heart to 
 heart, and appealing to those from whom 
 he was sure of a loving response. “ I 
 have not presumption enough,” he says, 
 “to imagine that I have never given any 
 of you subject of complaint against me 
 during the time I have exercised the func¬ 
 tions of the episcopacy. If, then, over¬ 
 whelmed at times with the cares and duties 
 of my office, I have not granted audience 
 to you when you asked it, or if I have re¬ 
 ceived you with an air of coldness or ab¬ 
 straction; if I have ever spoken to any 
 one with severity; if, by anything what¬ 
 ever in my answers, I have wounded the 
 feelings of the afflicted who implored my 
 succor; if, occupied with other thoughts, 
 I have neglected or deferred assisting the 
 poor, or shown, by any displeasure in my 
 countenance, that I deemed them too im¬ 
 portunate in their solicitations; lastly, if 
 
Aug 
 
 ( 74 ) 
 
 Aur 
 
 
 
 I have betrayed too much acuteness of 
 feeling with respect to the false suspicions 
 that some, have entertained against me; 
 and if, through the weakness of human 
 nature, I have conceived unjust opinions 
 of others: in return, pardon me, oh my 
 people, to whom I confess all my faults— 
 pardon me for them, I conjure you, and so 
 also shall you obtain the pardon of your 
 sins.” 
 
 But St. Augustine was much more than 
 Bishop of Hippo. In his time the great 
 schism of the Donatists was rending into 
 fractions the Christianity of North Africa, 
 setting up altar against altar, church 
 against church (Donatists). In his efforts 
 to defend the unity of the Church, he was 
 so successful that, whereas at the beginning 
 of his episcopate the schismatics were split 
 up into innumerable parties—united in 
 nothing but opposition to the Church, and 
 having as many as four hundred bishops 
 in Africa—at its close a large number of 
 Donatist bishops had passed over to the 
 Church at the head of their flocks, and the 
 schism had almost disappeared. With 
 equal vigor and equal success St. Augus¬ 
 tine combated the errors of Pelagianism 
 (< q. v.) which, however, did not, at any time, 
 form the basis of an organized sect. The 
 chief of these errors was the denial of orig¬ 
 inal sin, and the assertion that man can, of 
 his own will, work out his salvation with¬ 
 out the assistance of God’s grace. Against 
 Pelagianism St. Augustine preached and 
 wrote for twenty years of his life; and, 
 while he contributed largely to its extinc¬ 
 tion at that time, his works remained for 
 all subsequent ages as an efficient antidote 
 to its subtle revivals. 
 
 It was in the midst of St. Augustine’s 
 episcopate that the Roman Empire began 
 to fall finally to pieces. Rome was taken 
 and sacked by the Goths under Alaric, in 
 A. D. 410, when Christians grew sad and 
 desponding, as if the end of the world were 
 near; while pagans attacked their faith as 
 if Christianity were the cause of all the 
 disasters that had occurred since the world 
 had come under its influence. It was at 
 this crisis that St. Augustine brought for¬ 
 ward his learned and beautiful work on 
 The City of God, in which he undertook to 
 defend the workings of God’s providence, 
 to show the solidity of the “ city which 
 hath foundations,” and the instability of 
 paganism. But as the great Father’s life 
 drew toward its close, it was overclouded 
 by the ruin which drew near to his own 
 diocese. Genseric, the King of the Vandals, 
 advanced from Spain into North Africa, 
 and by the treachery of Count Boniface, 
 and by alliance with the Moors, succeeded 
 in devastating the Roman province. Boni¬ 
 
 face repented of his treachery, and endeav¬ 
 ored to rid the province of the wild foe 
 whom he had brought into it, but he was 
 defeated time after time, and was at last 
 shut up in the city of Hippo, which was 
 closely besieged. The aged bishop fore¬ 
 saw what the result would be, and, though 
 he supported his people with encourage¬ 
 ment and consolation, he yet prayed that 
 he might be spared the sight of their de¬ 
 struction. His prayer was heard, and he 
 passed away on Aug. 28, 430, in the third 
 month of the siege. In the following year 
 the city was taken, but the Vandals re¬ 
 spected the body of the saint, and also his 
 library. The body was taken to St. 
 Stephen’s, in Sardinia, when Augustine’s 
 successor fled thither from persecution in 
 A. d. 505. It was afterward removed 
 thence to Pavia, about A. D. 713. There 
 it was discovered in a. d. 1695, and was at 
 last returned to the city of his rule on Oct. 
 23, 1842. He is commemorated in the cal¬ 
 endars of the Church on Aug. 28, the day 
 of his death, and no ecclesiastical writer 
 ever won greater veneration by his works. 
 
 These works fill twelve folio volumes, 
 and form a most rich treasure of scriptural 
 exposition as well as of theological argu¬ 
 ment. Many of them have been translated 
 into English, and among those so trans¬ 
 lated which are not controversial, may 
 be mentioned his Commentaries on the 
 Psal??is, and Homilies on St. John; The 
 City of God, a large number of his letters, 
 many of his sermons, a series of Practical 
 Treatises, and his Confessions. —Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. The wor£s of Augustine 
 referred to in this article, with many 
 others, were published by the Christian 
 Literature Co. (N. Y., 1886-88), 8 vols; 
 revised and enlarged from Edinburgh edi¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Augustinian Friars, commonly called 
 “ Austin Friars.” See Friars. 
 
 Augustinians, a name assumed by the 
 Jansenists to emphasize their profession 
 of holding and teaching the doctrine of 
 St. Augustine on the subject of Divine 
 grace. 
 
 Auricular Confession, the confession of 
 sin at the ear (Latin auris) of the priest, 
 must have been an early practice, since it 
 is said to have been forbidden in the fourth 
 century by Nectarius, Archbishop of Con¬ 
 stantinople. It was enjoined by the Coun¬ 
 cil of Lateran in 1215, and by the Council 
 of Trent in 1551. It is made obligatory, 
 at least once a year, upon all Catholics, un¬ 
 der pain of excommunication, and, conse¬ 
 quently, the loss of Christian burial. 
 
Aus 
 
 Baa 
 
 ( 75 ) 
 
 Australia. The Episcopalians are the 
 most numerous body among the religious 
 sects represented on the continent, but 
 there is no Established Church; and state 
 aid to religion is almost entirely abolished. 
 The Roman Catholics rank next to the 
 Episcopalians in numbers, but both the 
 Wesleyans and Presbyterians have a large 
 number of communicants. 
 
 Austria “ has always remained strongly 
 attached to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Her sovereigns, however, have in general 
 resisted the temporal pretensions of the 
 popes, and reserved to themselves certain 
 important rights, such as the imposing of 
 taxes on church property, the nomination 
 of bishops and archbishops, and the option 
 of restricting, or even prohibiting, the cir¬ 
 culation of Papal bulls. About two-thirds 
 of the people, or nearly 24,000,000, profess 
 the Roman Catholic religion. If, however, 
 we deduct the kingdom of Hungary and 
 Galicia, where less than one-half of the 
 people are Roman Catholics, the pro¬ 
 portion in the rest of the country is much 
 increased. In some parts the proportion 
 to the entire population is as high as 90 to 
 98 per cent. The Greek Catholics number, 
 in Austria proper, 2,342,168, almost all in 
 Galicia, and in Hungary 1,599,628. The 
 Eastern Greek Church numbers 461,511 
 adherents in Austria, and 2,589,319 in Hun¬ 
 gary. Of the Protestant denominations, 
 the Lutherans are more numerous in the 
 western half of the empire, the Calvinists 
 in the eastern. The numbers are, in 
 Austria proper, Lutherans, 252,327, and 
 Calvinists, 111,935; in Hungary, Luther¬ 
 ans, 1,365,835, Calvinists, 2,143,178. The 
 principal other religions are, the Jew¬ 
 ish, 1,375,861 (nearly one-half of them in 
 Galicia); Armenian, 10,133; Unitarian, 
 55»°79 (nearly all in Transylvania). The 
 Catholic Church, including the Greek and 
 Armenian Catholics, has eleven arch¬ 
 bishops, twenty-four suffragan bishops, 
 two vicariate bishops, and one military 
 bishop in Austria proper, and five arch¬ 
 bishops, and twenty - three bishops in 
 Hungary. Altogether there are about 34- 
 goo ecclesiastics, and 950 convents, with 
 8,500 monks and 5,700 nuns. The Oriental 
 Greek Church has, in Austria proper, 
 three bishops (one in Buckowina, and two 
 in Dalmatia), and in Hungary, the patriarch 
 of Karlowitz, the archbishop of Herr- 
 mannstadt, and eight bishops, with, in all, 
 4,000 priests and forty convents, with 300 
 monks.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Authorized Version of the Bible. See Bible. 
 
 Auto-da-Fe (act of faith), “ a public 
 
 solemnity of the Inquisition in Spain and 
 Portugal, at which the sentences of the 
 court were read; those who were declared 
 innocent were formally absolved, and the 
 condemned were handed over to the secu¬ 
 lar power for punishment. The day chos¬ 
 en was usually some Sunday between 
 Trinity and Advent. The first auto-da-fe 
 was held by Torquemada at Seville, in 
 1481; the last was probably that mentioned 
 by Llorente, the historian of the Inqui¬ 
 sition, as having been solemnized in Mex¬ 
 ico in 1815.”— Ency. Brit. See Inquisition. 
 
 Ave Maria, or Hail Mary, the words 
 with which the angel Gabriel saluted the 
 Virgin. (Luke i. 28.) It is also the name 
 of a form of prayer authorized by the 
 Roman Church. See Angelus. 
 
 Avignon, situated on the Rhone, in the 
 southern part of France. From 1305 to 
 1377 it was the residence of the popes. 
 (See Popes.) The ruins of the old “ Pal¬ 
 ace of the Popes ” are still imposing. 
 
 Avis, the Order of, an association of 
 knights founded in 1145 by King Alfonso I. 
 of Portugal, to fight against the Moors who 
 held the southern part of the country. In 
 1789 it became a military order, and the 
 ecclesiastical vows were abolished. 
 
 Awakening is a term descriptive of the 
 work of the Spirit in the quickened feeling 
 and conviction of sin and need that is often 
 the beginning of conversion. It is also ap¬ 
 plied to revivals of religion in which large 
 numbers are awakened. The revivals 
 which followed the preaching of Whitefield 
 and others in the last century are com¬ 
 monly spoken of as the Great Awakening. 
 
 Aza'zel is a transliteration of the Hebrew 
 word, translated in the authorized version 
 (Lev. xvi. 8, sq.) scapegoat. There has been 
 much discussion regarding the meaning of 
 the term. Some take it to be the name of 
 a region, “ the desert,” others of a person 
 to whom the goat was sent. The latter 
 opinion is favored by the best scholars, 
 and they hold that reference is made to 
 Satan. The goat that was sent away typified 
 the removing of the guilt of the people. 
 
 Azymites, an epithet applied by the 
 members of the Greek Church to those of 
 the Roman, because they used unleavened 
 bread in the Lord’s Supper. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baader, Benedict Franz Xaver, b. in 
 Munich, March 27, 1765; d. there May 23, 
 1841.' In early life he became eminent as 
 a mining engineer, but, from 1826 until his 
 
Baa 
 
 ( 76) 
 
 Bac 
 
 death, was professor of philosophy and 
 speculative theology in the University of 
 Munich. “ He was an original thinker of 
 great suggestiveness; and, though a Ro¬ 
 man Catholic, he maintained a very inde¬ 
 pendent position with respect to the papacy, 
 which he considered a very equivocal in¬ 
 stitution, not essential to the Church.”— 
 Schaff-Herzog. His collected works were 
 published at Leipzig (1850-60), 16 vols. • 
 
 Baal, and Bel, different forms of the 
 name of the chief male divinity of the Phoe¬ 
 nicians and Canaanites. The name means 
 “ lord,” or “ possessor.” By many schol¬ 
 ars Baal is supposed to represent the sun, 
 as the chief female divinity, Astarte, rep¬ 
 resented the moon. Others think they rep¬ 
 resent Jupiter and Venus. The worship of 
 Baal was known to the Hebrews while 
 they were in the wilderness, and Ahab, 
 influenced by Jezebel, introduced this idol¬ 
 atrous worship, and it did not entirely 
 cease until after the exile. The name often 
 appears in compounds, as (1) Ba'al-Be- 
 RITH ( lord of the covenant ), worshiped by 
 the Shechemites (Judg. viii. 33 ; ix. 4) ; 
 
 (2) Ba'al-pe'or (lordof the opening ), allud¬ 
 ing to the character of the rites of worship 
 (Num. xxv. 3; Deut. iv. 3; Josh. xxii. 17); 
 
 (3) (Ba'al-zebub ( lord of the fly), the form 
 of Baal worshiped at Ekron (2 Kings i. 
 2-6, 16). Sacrifices of children were made 
 to Baal as a destructive god (Jer. xix. 5; 
 xxxii. 35), and his priests were numerous. 
 
 Ba'albec, an ancient city of Syria, cele¬ 
 brated for the magnificence of its ruins. It 
 was called by the Greeks Heliopolis , “ city 
 of the sun.” Here Baal, the sun-god, was 
 worshiped. At one period, its wealth, 
 gained through its commercial relations, 
 was very great. It was sacked by the 
 Arabs in 748, and by Tamerlane about 
 1400, and frequent earthquakes completed 
 its ruin. At present it is an unsightly vil¬ 
 lage. Its principal ruins are the Great 
 Temple, the Temple of the Sun, and the 
 Circular Temple, which, down to the pres¬ 
 ent century, was used as a Greek church. 
 In the early Christian centuries Baalbec 
 was the seat of pagan worship, and its im¬ 
 moralities were often described by Chris¬ 
 tian writers. 
 
 Baanites. See Paulicians. 
 
 Ba'asha (valor), son of Ahijah, and third 
 king of Israel. He reached the throne by 
 the slaughter of Nadab and all his family 
 (1 Kings xv. 27), and undesignedly, by this 
 act, fulfilled Ahijah’s prophecy. (1 Kings 
 xiv. 10.) Brave and warlike, but treach¬ 
 erous, he ruled for twenty-four years 
 
 (b. C. 955-932), and was buried at Tirzah. 
 His family perished as predicted. (1 Kings 
 xvi. 3-11.) 
 
 Babel, Tower of. The “ tower of Ba¬ 
 bel ” is mentioned only once in Scripture 
 (Gen. xi. 4, 5), and then as incomplete. It 
 was built of bricks, and the “ slime ” used 
 for mortar was probably bitumen. While 
 many places have been suggested, its loca¬ 
 tion is unknown. Local tradition identifies 
 it with the modern Birs Nii?irud, the ruin¬ 
 ed remains of the “ Temple of the Seven 
 Lights of the Earth,” at Borsippa, a sub¬ 
 urb of Babylon, which was dedicated to 
 Nebo. 
 
 Bab'ylon, the metropolis of the Babylo¬ 
 nian empire. It was built on both sides of 
 the river Euphrates in the form of a square, 
 and enclosed within a double row of high 
 walls. According to Herodotus, it includ¬ 
 ed an area of about 200 square miles. 
 Probably nine-tenths of this great space 
 consisted of gardens, parks, and fields. 
 The height of the walls was about 335 feet. 
 The most remarkable edifice in Babylon 
 was the temple of Bel, completed by Neb¬ 
 uchadnezzar. It was during the reign of 
 this monarch that Babylon attained the 
 height of its glory and magnificence. It 
 suffered greatly when taken by Cyrus, and 
 two sieges in the reign of Darius Hystas-' 
 pis, and one in the reign of Xerxes, had 
 brought about a ruinous condition, when it 
 was captured by Alexander the Great. Its 
 overthrow was often predicted. (Isa. xiii. 
 4-22; Jer. xxv. 12; 1 . 2, 3; li; Hab. i. 5-10.) 
 See Assyria. 
 
 Babylonia. See Assyria. 
 
 Babylonian Captivity. See Captivity. 
 
 Baccanarists. At the time the Jesuits 
 were temporarily suppressed in 1773, 
 Nicolas Baccanari attempted to revive the 
 order under the title of Clerks of the Faith 
 of Jesus. The Baccanarists never prosper¬ 
 ed, though favored by Pope Pius VI., and 
 when the Jesuits were reestablished in 
 1814, they were absorbed into them. See 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Backus, Aziel, D. D., Congregational¬ 
 ism b. at Norwich, Conn., Nov. 5, 1765. He 
 was graduated at Yale in 1787, and, enter¬ 
 ing the ministry, became the successor of 
 Dr. Bellamy at Bethlehem, Conn. In 
 connection with these duties he had charge 
 of a classical school until 1812, when he was 
 elected President of Hamilton College. 
 After a successful administration of the 
 college for five years, he died, Dec. 9, 1817. 
 
Bac 
 
 ( 77 ) 
 
 Bai 
 
 Bacon, Francis, b. in London, Jan. 22, 
 1561; d. at Highgate, April 9, 1626. After 
 graduating at Cambridge, he was, for a 
 time, in the diplomatic service. In 1580 
 he entered upon the profession of law, and 
 in 1607 he was appointed solicitor-general, 
 from which jurisdiction he rose to be Lord- 
 Chancellor. He was accused and con¬ 
 demned before the Parliament of 1621 of 
 taking bribes, and spent the remainder of 
 his life in retirement. His studies in phil¬ 
 osophy revolutionized that science. He 
 contended that the only correct way to in¬ 
 terpret nature was by the induction of 
 facts. “ It is curious and significant that 
 in the domain of the moral and metaphys¬ 
 ical sciences his influence has been, perhaps, 
 more powerful, and his authority has been 
 more frequently appealed to than in that of 
 the physical. This is due, not so much to 
 his expressed opinion that the inductive 
 method was applicable to all the sciences, 
 as to the generally practical, or, one may 
 say, positive spirit of his system. Theo¬ 
 logical questions, which had tortured the 
 minds of generations, are by him relegated 
 from the province of reason to that of 
 faith. Even reason must be restrained 
 from striving after ultimate truth; it is one 
 of the errors of the human intellect that it 
 will not rest in general principles, but 
 must push its investigations deeper. Ex¬ 
 perience and observation are the only 
 remedies against prejudice and error. 
 Into questions of metaphysics, as common¬ 
 ly understood, Bacon can hardly be said to 
 have entered, but a long line of think¬ 
 ers have drawn inspiration from him.”— 
 Ency. Britannica , vol. iii., p. 217. See 
 his Works , edited by Spedding, Ellis & 
 Heath (London, 1857-59), 7 vols.; (2d 
 ed., 1870). Popular ed. (N. Y., 1877), 
 2 vols. Bacon’s Essays , with Annotations 
 by Archbishop Whately (London 1856; 
 Boston, 1863). 
 
 Bacon, Leonard, D. D., Congregational- 
 ist; b. in Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802; d. in 
 New Haven, Dec. 24, 1881. After gradu¬ 
 ating at Yale College in 1820, he studied 
 theology at Andover, and was installed as 
 pastor of the First Congregational Church 
 in New Haven, in 1825. He continued this 
 service until 1866, when he became pastor 
 emerittis. From 1866 to 1871 he was in¬ 
 structor in Revealed Theology in the Yale 
 Theological Seminary, and Lecturer on 
 Church Polity from 1871 until his death. 
 Dr. Bacon was one of the founders of the 
 Independent and the New Englander , and 
 for many years was editorially connected 
 with those publications. He was an able 
 and prolific writer, and took a prominent 
 part in the anti-slavery discussions of his 
 
 time. Among American Congregational- 
 ists he was a recognized leader. 
 
 He published the Life and Select Works 
 of Richard Baxter (1830); Thirteen Histor¬ 
 ical Discourses on the Completion of Two 
 Hundred Years from the Beginning of the 
 First Church in New Haven ( 1839); Essays 
 on Slavery (1846); Genesis of the New Eng¬ 
 land Churches (1874). 
 
 Bacon, Roger, an English monk, whose 
 marvelous discoveries in several sciences 
 added much to the then scanty knowledge 
 of nature; b. in Somersetshire, in 1214; 
 d. at Oxford, 1294. His great knowledge 
 and inventive genius aroused the jealousy 
 and hate of his brother monks, and he suf¬ 
 fered persecution and imprisonment. He 
 finally recovered his freedom, and, after 
 his return to Oxford, wrote a compendium 
 of theology. While a devout Catholic, he 
 lamented the corruptions that existed in 
 the Church, and earnestly advocated the 
 study of the Bible as the highest authority 
 in matters of religion, 
 
 Badgers’ Skins “are mentioned in the 
 authorized version (e. g. , Exod. xxvi. 14; 
 Ezek. xvi. 10) as one of the coverings of 
 the tabernacle, and as the sandals of a fine 
 lady; but the word, from its analogy to 
 the Arabic for seal, is now usually so 
 translated. The badger is very rare in 
 Arabia, if, indeed, it be known.”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Baillie, Robert, D. D., one of the most 
 eminent of all the Scotch Presbyterian 
 clergy during the time of the civil war; 
 b. at Glasgow, in 1599; d. there in 1662. He 
 was an active leader in the ecclesiastical 
 controversies of the days in which he 
 lived. He was one of the five Scotch clergy¬ 
 men chosen in 1643 as delegates to the 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines, and sat 
 in that famous body for three years. His 
 Letters and Journals are a valuable con¬ 
 tribution to our knowledge of the times. 
 
 Baird, Charles Washington, D. D., 
 Presbyterian; b. at Princeton, N. J., Aug. 
 28, 1828; was graduated at the University 
 of the City of New York, 1848, and at Un¬ 
 ion Theological Seminary, 1852; became 
 pastor at Rye, N. Y., in 1861, where he 
 remained until his death, Feb. 10, 1887. 
 His best-known work is a History of the 
 Huguenot Emigration to America (New 
 York, 1885), 2 vols. 
 
 Baird, Henry Martyn, Ph. D., LL. D. 
 (Princeton, 1867, 1882), D. D. (Rutgers, 
 1877), Presbyterian ; b. in Philadelphia, 
 Jan. 17, 1832; was graduated at the Univer- 
 
Bai 
 
 ( 78 ) 
 
 Bal 
 
 sity of the City of New York, 1850, and 
 at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1856. 
 In 1859 he became professor of the Greek 
 language and literature in the University 
 of the City of New York. He is the author 
 of a History of the Rise of the Huguenots of 
 France (New York, 1879), 2 vols.; The 
 Huguenots and Henry of Navarre (1886), 
 2 vols. 
 
 Baird, Robert, D. D., Presbyterian 
 (father of the two preceding); b. in Fayette 
 County, Pa., Oct. 6, 1798; d. at Yonkers, 
 N. Y., March 15, 1863. He studied at 
 the Theological Seminary at Princeton, 
 and was ordained in 1828. He was an ear¬ 
 nest advocate of evangelical Protestantism 
 and temperance; and, after residing in 
 Europe from 1835 to 1843, where he labored 
 to carry the gospel into Roman Catholic 
 countries, he became, on his return, the cor¬ 
 responding secretary of the Foreign Evan¬ 
 gelical Society and the American and For¬ 
 eign Christian Union. He wrote a History 
 of the Temperance Societies in the United 
 States (1836), and Religion in A?nerica (1842), 
 which was translated into several European 
 languages. See his Life , by his son, H. 
 M. Baird (N. Y., 1866). 
 
 Bajus (ba-yus), the Latinized name of Mi¬ 
 chael de Bay, b. 1513; d. at Louvain. Sept. 
 15, 1589. He was graduated at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Louvain in 1550, and was connected 
 with that institution during his entire life. 
 An ardent student of St. Augustine he con¬ 
 tended against the semi-Pelagian views 
 that had become prevalent in the Roman 
 Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. 
 His views upon the doctrines of sin and 
 grace brought him into conflict with his 
 colleagues in the university, and the Fran¬ 
 ciscans. They were condemned by the 
 University of Paris (1560), and by the Pope 
 (1567), though without mentioning the 
 name of Bajus. Having submitted, he was 
 honored with influential positions. His 
 Augustinian views, and those upon the 
 episcopal authority and papal infallibility, 
 were very liberal, and spread rapidly 
 through the Netherlands and Northern 
 France. His theories laid the foundations 
 of Jansenism ( q . v.). 
 
 Baker, Daniel, b. at Midway, Ga., Aug. 
 17, 1791; d. at Austin, Texas, Dec. 10, 
 1857. After graduating at the Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary at Princeton in 1818, 
 he was pastor of a church in Washington 
 from 1822 to 1828; he then began his re¬ 
 markable career as a revivalistic preacher. 
 He finally settled at Austin, Texas, where 
 he founded the college of which he became 
 the first president. A series of his Revival 
 
 Sermons , with an introduction by his son, 
 has had a wide circulation. 
 
 Balaam (devourer) “ was a Jehovah 
 prophet who lived in Pethor, a city of 
 Northern Mesopotamia, not far from the 
 Euphrates. The interesting episode in his 
 life is related at length in Num. xxii. 5; 
 xxiv. 25; reference is made to him in Num. 
 xxxi. 8, 16; 2 Pet. ii. 15, 16; Jude 11; Rev. ii. 
 14. The story is briefly this: Balak, king of 
 the Moabites, finding himself unable to op¬ 
 pose Israel in battle, called upon Balaam, 
 who had a great reputation in the East as a 
 sorcerer and prophet, and who, withal, was 
 a worshiper of the God of the Israelites, 
 to curse them: thinking that the curse of 
 a fellow-worshiper would be more effica¬ 
 cious than that of a heathen. On receiving 
 the invitation, Balaam consulted-Jehovah, 
 and, being refused permission, he declined 
 to go. A second and more imposing depu¬ 
 tation of Moab and Midian, with promises 
 of wealth and dignity, excited the cupidity 
 of Balaam, who again consulted Jehovah, 
 and this time was granted permission to 
 go, with the distinct understanding that he 
 was to say the words, and none other, that 
 Jehovah put into his mouth. He gladly 
 went, dreaming of future glory, apparently 
 not perceiving that the condition of the di¬ 
 vine permission rendered such dreaming 
 vain. On the journey the angel of Jeho¬ 
 vah opposed his path, and it was then the 
 ass spake, showing herself to be a more 
 willing servant of Jehovah than her mas¬ 
 ter. Balaam and Balak met, and the for¬ 
 mer told the king very plainly that he had 
 no power to say anything except what God 
 put into his mouth. Balak was both sur¬ 
 prised and increasingly indignant to hear 
 the famous prophet, whom he had been at 
 so much pains to bring to curse Israel, 
 bless them in.exalted and inspired words. 
 Never did the divine afflatus act so grandly. 
 For the first two times Balaam kept the 
 form of the heathen auguries; but the last 
 time, perceiving how the divine mind 
 worked, he abandoned incantations and 
 lonely watchings, and yielded himself up 
 unto Jehovah, and in a strain of eloquence 
 never excelled, he described the future of 
 Israel. Balak quite naturally dismissed 
 him in anger, and the dishonored, ruined 
 prophet went back to Pethor, but, on his 
 way, stopped among the Midianites, and 
 out of sheer desperation, desiring to regain 
 popularity, counseled the seduction of 
 the Israelites unto the worship of Baal- 
 peor by means of the Moabite and Midian- 
 ite women, shrewdly judging that idolatry 
 would quickest destroy them. (See Baal.) 
 Thus Num. xxiv. 25, and xxxi. 8, are rec¬ 
 onciled. In the war which ensued, Baalam 
 
Bal 
 
 Bam 
 
 ( 79 ) 
 
 was killed; and thus the curtain drops upon 
 a strange life, but one of great instructive¬ 
 ness. Balaam is used in the New Testa¬ 
 ment as the type of those who love the 
 wages of unrighteousness, and tempt unto 
 sin. Very aptly Hengstenberg compares 
 him to Simon Magus. (Acts viii. 9, 24.) That 
 there are difficulties connected with the 
 narrative is no reason for rejecting it. It 
 is too strange not to be true, and too fit¬ 
 ting to the time to be the product of any 
 other age. Balaam was a bad man, though 
 a true prophet. He had no sincere convic¬ 
 tions of the superiority of Jehovah. He 
 followed him because it suited his inter¬ 
 ests. Thus ‘ a man may be full of the 
 knowledge of God, and yet utterly desti¬ 
 tute of the grace of God.’”— Volck in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. i., p. 193. 
 
 Baldacchino, the Italian name for a 
 canopy, or what used in England to be 
 called a “ Cloth of Estate,” such as was 
 set over the sovereign’s throne or the seats 
 of dignitaries, such as bishops and judges 
 and nobles, and their ladies, when keeping 
 their state in their halls or at the head of 
 their tables. It was also carried in pro¬ 
 cession over the person to be honored, 
 as also over the coffin at a state funeral; 
 and in a similar manner it was reproduced 
 in the form of a solid structure of marble 
 over the tomb. 
 
 But the name baldacchino has been spe¬ 
 cially given to the canopy, generally sup¬ 
 ported by pillars, but sometimes sus¬ 
 pended from above, placed over the altar 
 in a Roman Catholic church, not so much 
 to protect it as to impart to it additional 
 grace and dignity. It is generally square 
 in form, covered with silk or other rich 
 material, fringed at the margin. It is sup¬ 
 posed to be copied from a structure erected 
 by the early Christians over tombs and 
 altars, and, from its resemblance to the 
 bowl of a cup, called in Latin, Ciborium, 
 and in Greek, Kiborion. The largest and 
 finest baldacchino known is that at St. 
 Peter’s, Rome, reaching an elevation, in¬ 
 cluding the cross, of 126^ feet.— Benham. 
 
 Bale, John, b. at Cove, Suffolk, Nov. 21, 
 1495; d. at Canterbury, Nov., 1563. He 
 was educated at Cambridge and the Car¬ 
 melite monastery of Norwich. Having 
 adopted Protestant opinions about 1530, 
 he was imprisoned at Greenwich,- under 
 charge of heresy. He gained protection 
 through Cromwell, but after his execution 
 he was compelled to flee into Holland, 
 where he remained until the accession of 
 Edward VI. He was made Bishop of Os- 
 sory in 1552, but, at the death of Edward, 
 his ardent advocacy of the Reformation 
 
 again brought him under persecution, and 
 during Queen Mary’s reign he found a 
 refuge at Basle. With the accession of 
 Elizabeth, he returned to England, and 
 was appointed a prebend of Canterbury, 
 where he died. Bale was a learned man, 
 but fierce, and often coarse, in his contro¬ 
 versial attacks. His principal work is II- 
 lustrium Mcijoris Britannia Scriptortim 
 Summarium (1548). He wrote a series 
 of plays, founded on the life of Christ, 
 which were published by the Camden So¬ 
 ciety (1838). 
 
 Ball, John, b. near Woodstock, in Ox¬ 
 fordshire, Oct., 1585; d. Oct. 20, 1640. 
 Educated at Oxford, he was ordained in 
 1610, and became minister at Whitmore, 
 where he spent his life. He was a zealous 
 Puritan, and one of the founders of Pres¬ 
 byterianism in England. His chief literary 
 work, A Treatise of the Covenant of Grace, 
 was published after his death. In this 
 book he brought out the view of the cove¬ 
 nants which was expressed in the West¬ 
 minster Confession. 
 
 Ballou, Hosea,(i) b. at Richmond, N. H., 
 April 30, 1771; d. at Boston, June 7, 1852. 
 The son of a Baptist minister, he strug¬ 
 gled with adverse circumstances in secur¬ 
 ing an education. He began to preach in 
 1792, but very soon accepted Unitarian 
 and Universalist views, and from 1794 to 
 1817 advocated them in different places. 
 In 1817 he accepted the pastorate of the 
 Second Universalist Society at Boston, 
 and in 1819 founded the Universalist Mag¬ 
 azine, and in 1831 the Universalist Ex¬ 
 positor. He was a prolific writer on the doc¬ 
 trines held by the denomination of which 
 he was an influential leader. (2) Hosea 
 Ballou, Jr., nephew of above; b. at Hali¬ 
 fax, Vt., Oct. 18, 1796; d. at Somerville, 
 Mass., May 27, 1861. He was engaged in 
 pastoral service until 1853, when he be¬ 
 came president of Tufts College, at Med¬ 
 ford, Mass. He was the editor, for many 
 years, of the Universalist Expositor and 
 Universalist Quarterly. 
 
 Balsamon, Theodore (d. 1204), an ec- 
 clesiast, and writer of the Greek Church. 
 He was librarian of the Cathedral of St. 
 Sophia, Constantinople. His works con¬ 
 sist of Commentaries on the Canon Law, 
 and oppose the claims of the papacy. 
 
 Bambino, an Italian word, which means, 
 literally, a little boy. It is the special 
 designation of a small figure of the Holy 
 Child Jesus, which is publicly exhibited 
 in Roman Catholic churches at Christmas 
 time. 
 
 4 
 
Bam 
 
 Bap 
 
 ( 80 ) 
 
 Bampton Lectures, a series of eight 
 lectures, or sermons, delivered annually at 
 Oxford. They were founded by John 
 Bampton, Canon of Salisbury (b. 1689; d. 
 1751), “ to confirm and establish the Chris¬ 
 tian faith, and to confute all heretics and 
 schismatics.” The lectures began in 1780. 
 
 Bancroft, Richard (1544-1610), edu¬ 
 cated at Cambridge; Bishop of London, 
 1597; Archbishop of Canterbury, 1604. 
 He was a strenuous advocate of the di¬ 
 vine right of episcopal authority, and bit¬ 
 terly opposed Puritanism. He was one of 
 the chief commissioners on behalf of the 
 Church of England in the famous Hamp¬ 
 ton Court Conference under James I. 
 
 Bangorian Controversy. See Hoadly, 
 Bishop of Bangor. 
 
 Bangs, Nathan, D. D., a distinguished 
 Methodist preacher and writer ; b. at 
 Stratford, Conn., May 2, 1778; d. in New 
 York City, May 3, 1862. He was for 
 many years at the head of the Methodist 
 Book Concern; editor of the Christian 
 Advocate , of the Methodist Quarterly Review, 
 and president of the Wesleyan University 
 (1841). Few men in his time had greater 
 influence in the councils of his denomina¬ 
 tion. He wrote a History of the M. E. 
 Church fro?n 1776 to 1840 (New York, 1839 
 -1842), 4 vols. See his Life by Abel 
 Stevens (New York, 1863). 
 
 Banns, the public notice in church of a 
 marriage to be contracted. This custom 
 is traced back, in England and France, to 
 the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It 
 seems to have been of very early origin, 
 as it is frequently mentioned by Tertul- 
 lian. Banns are not published in the 
 United States, except in Roman Catholic 
 churches. 
 
 Baptism <(Pedobaptist View), one of 
 the two Sacraments ordained by Christ, 
 and that rite whereby admission is given 
 to Christianity. 
 
 (1) Origin. —It is, though not demon¬ 
 strably certain, very highly probable that 
 the admission to Judaism, by baptism, of 
 Proselytes of Righteousness (the highest 
 class of proselytes), which certainly existed 
 after our Lord’s time, existed during and 
 before his time and that of John the 
 Baptist. Dr. John Lightfoot (on Matt, iii.) 
 and Prideaux assume it at once; and it is 
 urged that, if it is not free from doubt, a 
 very strong argument may be founded on 
 the way in which the subject is handled in 
 the earlier chapters of St. Matthew and St. 
 Luke, as if the idea of baptism was per¬ 
 
 fectly familiar to the Jews; and it agrees 
 with analogy that the rite should be found¬ 
 ed on, and developed out of, one already 
 known. References to authorities may be 
 found in Smith’s Dictionary of Christian 
 Antiquities , under “Baptism,” 1., 170. This 
 proselyte baptism was by immersion of 
 the whole body in water, and its deriva¬ 
 tive, that of John, would probably be so, 
 also: “They were baptized of him in 
 Jordan.” (Matt. iii. 6.) Our Lord also 
 came up “ out of the water.” 
 
 ' Thus, then, John’s baptism prepared the 
 way for that of the Greater than he, who 
 was to come after him, and even this 
 Greater, “ to fulfill all righteousness,” 
 deigned to receive it at his hands. The 
 disciples of our Lord also baptized, but it 
 was not with full Christian baptism, for 
 that, in the name of the Holy Trinity, was 
 not instituted by Him till just before His 
 ascension. (Matt, xxviii. 19.) Probably 
 their baptism, like John’s, was a baptism 
 merely of repentance. 
 
 (2) Progress. —The full form of baptism, 
 instituted by the glorified Savior, became 
 instantly the only authorized form, and all 
 seeming exceptions in the New Testament 
 can be shown to be not really such, 
 chiefly by these considerations: That the 
 phrase “in the Name of Jesus Christ” 
 (Acts ii. 38 ; viii. 16 ; xix. 4), follows in¬ 
 stantly on a mention of the preaching of 
 that Name, so that it is most natural that 
 the speaker or narrator (not speaking, as 
 no early writer in such cases speaks, with 
 strict theological accuracy) should con¬ 
 tinue the use of the same form of lan¬ 
 guage; also, that the preposition answering 
 to the English “ in ” is not always the 
 same; also, that in no case is the expres¬ 
 sion strictly “ in the Name of the Son.” 
 Some very few real exceptions there after¬ 
 ward were, but formal decisions were al¬ 
 ways in favor of the orthodox way. 
 
 Adult baptism, in the first days of Chris¬ 
 tianity, was, of course, the rule, and in¬ 
 fant baptism only know n when whole 
 households were converted at once. Of 
 this, instances can be given where children 
 can hardly have failed to make part; and 
 that infant baptism was our Lord’s inten¬ 
 tion, the two texts, Mark x. 14 and John 
 iii. 5, when taken together, are, in the 
 opinion of the great majority of Christians, 
 enough to show. As Christianity grew, 
 and children were born of Christian par¬ 
 ents, these were, in many cases, baptized 
 in their infancy (Iren.: Agt. Heresies , 11. 39; 
 Tert.: De Bapt ., 18; Iren.: Ho?n. on St. 
 Luke , 14); but not in all, for an exaggerated 
 opinion of sin after baptism, and probably, 
 in some cases, even the mere fact that the 
 parents themselves had been baptized as 
 
Bap 
 
 Bap 
 
 ( 81 ) 
 
 adults, led often to the deferring of bap¬ 
 tism, as in the cases of St. Augustine and 
 the Emperor Constantine. About the fifth 
 and sixth centuries infant baptism became 
 the rule, and has so remained ever since; 
 but there have always been bodies of 
 Christians, larger or smaller, who have 
 denied the necessity of infant baptism, and, 
 as is well known, such exist at the present 
 time. (Baptists.) 
 
 (3) Matter, Mode, and Manner. — The 
 essentials of baptism are: first, water, and, 
 secondly, the recitation of the formula, 
 “ In the Name of the Father, of the Son, 
 and of the Holy Ghost;” and it is, of 
 course, further necessary that the water 
 should actually touch the person of him 
 who is to be baptized, but the quantity of 
 water which obtains this contact is not es¬ 
 sential; and, therefore, three ways of ad¬ 
 ministering baptism,all equally valid, have 
 existed, corresponding to the three ways 
 in which this necessary contact may be 
 procured. These are: dipping in the water 
 (Immersion), pouring the water on (Affu¬ 
 sion), sprinkling the water (Aspersion). 
 Immersion was, there is no doubt, the first 
 rule of the Church. All early descriptions 
 of baptism, as Tertullian’s De Baptismo, 
 use such words as going down, and plung¬ 
 ing in the water; but, at the same time, it 
 is also clear that Affusion was known, and 
 used where necessary, as where the Philip¬ 
 pian jailer was baptized, “he and all his 
 straightway,” in the middle of the night, 
 St. Paul being still a prisoner, and cer- 
 "inly not able to take them out to the 
 River Gangites. In the Western Church, 
 however, Affusion gradually took the place 
 of Immersion, and as early as the thir¬ 
 teenth century had become the custom 
 which it now is, taking the form of Asper¬ 
 sion. — Benham : Diet, of Religion. See, 
 for full presentation of the Pedobaptist 
 view, James W. Dale: Classic, Judaic , 
 Johannic, Christie, and Patristic Baptism 
 (Phila., 1874), 4 vols.; G. D. Armstrong: 
 The Sacraments of the New Testament (New 
 York, 1880). 
 
 Baptism (The Baptist View). See 
 Baptists. 
 
 Baptism for the Dead. See Dead, 
 Baptism for the. 
 
 Baptism with the Holy Ghost and Fire, 
 a figurative expression used in Matt. iii. 
 11; Luke iii. 16, and fulfilled on the day of 
 Pentecost, and often in the history of the 
 Church. 
 
 Baptistery, the building set apart in 
 or near a church for the administration of 
 
 baptism. They came into use during the 
 fourth century. It was the custom to ad¬ 
 minister baptism three times a year, at 
 Epiphany, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and 
 as the number of candidates was large, 
 and as the presence of the bishop was re¬ 
 quired to confirm the baptism and the bap¬ 
 tized, the baptisteries were generally an¬ 
 nexed to cathedral churches. They were 
 circular, or six or eight sided, with a large 
 reservoir in the centre, reached by three 
 steps, and having depth sufficient f®r im¬ 
 mersion by kneeling or stooping. The 
 dome covering the reservoir was support¬ 
 ed on columns of marble, and was deco¬ 
 rated with paintings illustrating the rite of 
 baptism and other Gospel subjects. When 
 infant baptism became the rule, the sacra¬ 
 ment was administered in all the churches 
 throughout the year. No baptisteries were 
 built after the ninth century, and the bap¬ 
 tismal basin was changed into the baptis¬ 
 mal font. 
 
 Baptists, The, claim that their distinct¬ 
 ive principles and practices date back to 
 the Apostolic times, and have existed ever 
 since, although sometimes in separate 
 churches bearing other names; and that 
 some of those principles and practices 
 found a home in the Latin and Greek 
 churches for thirteen centuries, the Greek 
 Church retaining them down to this day, as 
 her 70,000,000 of communicants have all 
 been immersed, and the Latin Church hav¬ 
 ing dipped its members for thirteen hun¬ 
 dred years. The Montanists of the third 
 century had no controversy with the Cath¬ 
 olics on the subject of immersion, for they 
 practiced that ordinance in common. Ter- 
 tullian, the great Montanist leader, taught 
 that: “ There is no difference whether one 
 is washed in the sea or in a pool, in a river or 
 in a fountain, in a lake or in a canal; nor is 
 there any difference between those whom 
 John dipped in the Jordan, and those whom 
 Peter dipped in the Tiber.” The prime 
 idea of the Montanists was that of the Bap¬ 
 tists, namely: that the churches -should 
 consist of purely regenerate persons only, 
 and they were called “Anabaptists,” not 
 because they rebaptized those who had 
 been christened in infancy, for infant bap¬ 
 tism was not known at that time, but be¬ 
 cause they insisted on the reimmersion 
 of those who had “ lapsed ’’from the faith 
 in persecution, but had returned to the 
 faith. 
 
 The Novatians of the same century were 
 called “ Anabaptists ” because they held 
 that the Catholics were corrupt, and hence 
 they not only reimmersed the “lapsed,’* 
 but also all who came to them from the 
 Catholics. Various other sects of the 
 
Bap 
 
 (82) 
 
 Bap 
 
 following centuries held what are now 
 peculiarly Baptist principles, and the 
 Christian world erected baptisteries every¬ 
 where, on a similar scale to that at Pisa, 
 in which the members of the churches 
 were uniformly plunged, for immersion 
 was the general custom. The Cathari (or 
 pure) of the eleventh and two following 
 centuries, were not Baptists in all things, 
 but they were distinctly so in many things, 
 especially the Petrobrusians and a large 
 class of the Waldensians. Peter of Bruis 
 rejected the baptism of immersed infants, 
 and insisted on the immersion only of be¬ 
 lievers, as early as 1104, and the followers 
 of Henry, his disciple, were organized into 
 what would now pass for Baptist churches, 
 all through the Swiss valleys. These 
 spread in every direction, in Northern 
 France, and in Switzerland, and in Italy, 
 with Upper and Lower Germany and Hol¬ 
 land. The Swiss, the Bohemian, and the 
 Netherland Baptists became very strong, 
 and suffered severely, furnishing several 
 hundred thousand martyrs. 
 
 The great body of men, on both sides, 
 who entered into the Peasants’ War, were 
 Catholics and Lutherans, but some few 
 were Baptists. The disgraceful scenes of 
 Munster were perpetrated by but few Bap¬ 
 tists, until Rothmann, a powerful Lutheran 
 pastor of Munster, in 1532, avowed him¬ 
 self an “ Anabaptist.” From that time on, 
 one vagary after another converted this 
 mingled mass of madmen into the most 
 furious rabble, but Dr. Keller, the present 
 librarian of Munster, has largely redeemed 
 the honest Baptists of that day from the 
 disgraceful aspersions cast upon them, in 
 his recent remarkable publications. No 
 one now living has pushed his investiga¬ 
 tions so far on this subject, or with such 
 honorable results. There is much evidence 
 that the Baptists of England and Wales date 
 back to very early times. Collier speaks 
 of many infants who were left unbaptized 
 in the middle of the twelfth century; Rob¬ 
 inson speaks of a Baptist church at Ches¬ 
 terton in 1459, and Fox records the burning 
 of nineteen “ Anabaptists ” in England, in 
 1535. But the earliest reliable account 
 that we have of an organized Baptist 
 church there, is one in London, 1612-14, 
 and from that time onward their church- 
 history in Great Britain is clearly traceable, 
 and after 1641 very full. 
 
 The growth of Baptists in America has 
 been remarkable, since the days of Roger 
 Williams ( q . v .), the founder of Rhode Isl¬ 
 and. Williams took his Bachelor’s degree 
 at Oxford, in 1627, and was ordained in the 
 Church of England by John Williams, then 
 Bishop of Lincoln, and afterward Archbish¬ 
 op of York. Laud soon drove Roger out 
 
 of the country, and in 1631 he landed in 
 Boston, Mass., where he discarded Epis¬ 
 copacy and became a Separatist. He then 
 settled in Salem, where he embraced the 
 views of Baptists, in rejecting all union 
 between the Church and the State, for 
 which views he was banished from the col¬ 
 ony. He soon established the city of 
 Providence, and, in the spring of 1639, Eze¬ 
 kiel Holliman, who had been a member of 
 his church in Salem, immersed him. Will¬ 
 iams had been ordained first as an Episco¬ 
 pal and then as a Congregational minis¬ 
 ter, and after this he immersed Holliman 
 and ten others. These twelve formed the 
 first Baptist church in America, where 
 their churches now have over 3,000,000 of 
 communicants. 
 
 The great body of these churches are 
 Calvinistic, in a higher or lower degree, 
 and hold the general views of evangelical 
 denominations. Yet the features which 
 distinguish them from their Pedobaptist 
 brethren are radical, reaching to the foun¬ 
 dations of church life. Their primary 
 teaching is, that the Holy Scriptures form 
 the only absolute standard of faith; there¬ 
 fore that no merely ecclesiastical custom 
 or tradition is of any authority over the 
 conscience. They deny all controlling au¬ 
 thority to the creeds, the catechisms, and 
 the decretals of churches. Before any per¬ 
 son can be baptized into the fellowship of 
 a Baptist church, regeneration must be 
 wrought on the soul by the direct power of 
 the Holy Spirit. That is to say, the Spir^ 
 of God must make the candidate a fit sub¬ 
 ject for baptism before that ordinance can 
 be administered, because the church must 
 be made up only of persons w r ho profess 
 conversion according to the teaching of 
 Christ: “ Except a man be born again, he 
 cannot see the kingdom of God.” They 
 repudiate the doctrine of baptismal regen¬ 
 eration in every'form, by refusing baptism 
 to all who are not already regenerated, and 
 by demanding regeneration as the prime 
 qualification for baptism. This is the rea¬ 
 son why they reject infant baptism. It sa¬ 
 vors of baptismal regeneration, while it is 
 powerless to work any spiritual change in 
 the child, and hence it is a meaningless 
 ceremony, the Scriptures being silent on 
 the subject. They hold that our Lord in 
 his commission (Matt, xxviii. 19, 20) asso¬ 
 ciated teaching with baptism, and limited 
 the rite'to the taught (Acts ii. 41; viii. 12), 
 as is shown by the practice of the Apostles. 
 
 The Baptists also believe that the burial 
 of the believer’s body in water constitutes 
 the act of baptism, as Paul teaches in the 
 sixth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, 
 where he insists on “ burial in baptism,” 
 so that the subject is hidden, covered in 
 
Bap 
 
 Bap 
 
 (83) 
 
 water, as a dead man is concealed in a 
 grave. They also restrict themselves to 
 the literal and metaphorical meaning of the 
 Greek word baptizein , denying that it ever 
 means to pour or sprinkle, and so declar¬ 
 ing that, in consequence, immersion only is 
 baptism. 
 
 The entire independency of individual 
 churches is another principle of the Bap¬ 
 tists, which they sacredly conserve. Each 
 church elects its own pastor and deacons, 
 and administers all its internal affairs, in 
 complete independence of other churches. 
 All its members have the right to vote in 
 the primary assembly, and the decision of 
 the majority is final, as in other popular or 
 democratic franchises. The churches form 
 Associations and call Councils, but these 
 - bodies are of a purely fraternal and mis¬ 
 sionary character. They may give advice 
 when the churches askfor it, but they have 
 no authority whatever over the churches, 
 in any respect. 
 
 Absolute soul liberty, or freedom of con¬ 
 science has always been demanded and 
 maintained by the Baptists. Consequently, 
 in the Providence Plantations the first pro¬ 
 vision which was made, was, that the mag¬ 
 istrates should interfere “ only in civil 
 things .” Every man should have “ full lib¬ 
 erty in religious concernments.” The Bap¬ 
 tists believe that civil liberty is of God’s 
 appointment, and that the government must 
 be sustained in the maintenance of all civil 
 rights. But they deny that the magistrate 
 has any power whatever to interfere in re¬ 
 ligious matters; these concern the relations 
 between God and the individual, and no 
 other power must intermeddle in the slight¬ 
 est degree. For insisting upon this right, 
 the Baptists were whipped, imprisoned, 
 fined, and banished, by the Congregation- 
 alists of New England and the Episcopa¬ 
 lians in Virginia, in colonial times, princi¬ 
 pally; but they finally succeeded in shaking 
 off the yoke, and in establishing the individ¬ 
 ual right to worship God under the dic¬ 
 tates of conscience only. When the United 
 States had secured their independence, the 
 new Constitution provided (Art. VI.) that 
 Congress should not impose religious tests 
 on those who held “ office or public trusts 
 under the United States,” but left it at lib¬ 
 erty to impose such tests in other cases. 
 This alarmed the Baptists,, who to a man 
 had supported the Revolution, and they 
 called a Convention, in Richmond, Va., to 
 protest. This body met on Aug. 8, 1798, 
 and sent a powerful address to President 
 Washington on the subject. He thanked 
 them for their thorough patriotism, and 
 Madison, with the approval of Washington, 
 moved, in Congress, that the Constitution 
 be so amended as to provide that “ Con¬ 
 
 gress shall make no law respecting an es¬ 
 tablishment of religion, or prohibiting the 
 free exercise thereof.” This change was 
 adopted by the States and is a part of Art. 
 I. in our Constitution, and no Baptist is 
 now persecuted in the United States. 
 
 American Baptists have taken a leading 
 part in the great modern movement for 
 Foreign Missions. As early as May, 1814, 
 the Denomination formed the Baptist Mis¬ 
 sionary Convention, now the Missionary 
 Union. It has under its care, in Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, 279 missionaries, 2,079 
 native preachers, 1,316 churches, and 134,- 
 413 members. In 1889 its treasurer re¬ 
 ported that the Union had expended for 
 missions during the year, $398,145.86. 
 The Southern Baptist Convention also has 
 missionaries in China, Africa, Brazil, Mex¬ 
 ico, Cuba, and Italy, who are doing a great 
 work, and the Canadian Baptists are alive 
 to the same holy toil. 
 
 All kinds of educational interests are 
 fostered by the American Baptists. In the 
 United States, they have seven Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminaries, thirty-four Universities 
 and Colleges, besides thirty-two Semi¬ 
 naries for female education exclusively, 
 forty - two academies for co-education, 
 and seventeen institutions for the colored 
 race and Indians. The Canadian Baptists 
 have three colleges, one theological sem¬ 
 inary, and several academies. The de¬ 
 nomination is increasing at a rapid rate in 
 the Republic. 
 
 Authorities in Baptist History are found 
 in [the best and most comprehensive work 
 is Armitage’s History of the Baptists , New 
 York, 1887.—Editor.] Van Bracht: Thea- 
 trum Marty rum ; Corvinus de Miserabili 
 Monasteriensum A nabaptistarum Obsidione; 
 Van Dale: Historia Baptismorum; Ottii: 
 Annales Anabaptistica ; Racine: Source et 
 fondement des Anab.; Burrage: Anabaptists 
 of Switzerland; Backus: History of New 
 England Baptists; Benedict: History of 
 Baptists in America; Bogne and Bennet: 
 History of Dissenters; Crosby: History of 
 English Baptists; J. Davis: History of 
 Welsh Baptists; Duncan: History of the 
 Early Baptists; Ivimey: History of the 
 English Baptists; Jones: Church History; 
 Mann : Lectures on Non-conformity; 
 
 Murch: History of Baptists hi England; 
 Orchard: History of Foreign Baptists; Rip- 
 pon: Baptist Annual Register; Thomas: 
 History of the Welsh Baptists; Underhill: 
 Martyrology ; Cramp : Baptist History ; 
 Douglas: History of the Baptist Churches ; 
 Cathcart: Baptist Encyclopedia; and Robin- 
 son: Researches. Thos. Armitage. 
 
 Baptists, Various Bodies of. See Free- 
 Will Baptists; Separatists or Free- 
 
Bar 
 
 (84) 
 
 Bar 
 
 Communion Baptists; Anti-Mission Bap¬ 
 tists; Seventh-Day Baptists; Six-Prin¬ 
 ciple Baptists; Tunkers, The; Wine- 
 
 BRENNIANS; DlSCIPLES J GENERAL BAP¬ 
 TISTS. 
 
 Barbara, St., suffered martyrdom under 
 Maximus (306). After her conversion she 
 sought to convert her father, but he repu¬ 
 diated her; and, having been put to the 
 torture and still refusing to deny Christ, 
 she was sentenced to death, and decapitated 
 by the hands of her father. Scarcely was 
 the deed done when he was struck by 
 lightning. Hence, St. Barbara is to this 
 day prayed to in storms. Her day falls on 
 Dec. 4. 
 
 Barclay, Robert, a distinguished mem¬ 
 ber of the Society of Friends; b. at Gor- 
 donstown, Scotland, Dec. 23, 1648; d. at 
 Ury, Oct. 3, 1690. After completing his 
 education in Paris, he returned to Scot¬ 
 land, and, following the example of his 
 father, Colonel Barclay, of Ury, he united 
 with the Society of Friends. With great 
 earnestness of purpose he devoted his 
 time and strength to disseminating the 
 doctrines of the Friends, in the face of 
 persecution and frequent imprisonment. 
 His most important work was An Apology 
 for the True Christian Divinity , in which 
 a systematic presentation is made of the 
 spiritual mysticism upon which the views 
 of the Friends are based. 
 
 Bar-cocheba [son of the star), a famous 
 Jewish leader in an insurrection against 
 the Emperor Hadrian (a. d. 131-135). He 
 assumed the name of Bar-cocheba, because 
 of his assertion that the ancient Jewish 
 prophecy was to be fulfilled in him, “There 
 shall come a star out of Jacob.” (Num. 
 xxiv. 17.) He gathered many followers, 
 defeated the Roman general, and took Je¬ 
 rusalem. He was proclaimed king of Je¬ 
 rusalem, and coins were struck in his 
 honor: but he was at last defeated by 
 Julius Severus, who cruelly massacred 
 many rabbis who were accused of incit¬ 
 ing the rebellion (135). The final disper¬ 
 sion of the Jews dates from this peri¬ 
 od. Bar-cocheba, it is said, put to death 
 all Christians who would not join his 
 army. 
 
 Bardesanes, a celebrated Gnostic, who 
 flourished during the reign of Marcus Au¬ 
 relius. He was a professing Christian, 
 notwithstanding his peculiar views. He 
 held that evil arises from matter, and that 
 the body of Christ was only phenomenal, 
 not real. He wrote many hymns, frag¬ 
 ments of which are still extant. 
 
 Barefooted Monks and Nuns. See Dis- 
 
 CALCEATI. 
 
 Barlaam (d. 1348), Abbot of St. Salvador, 
 Constantinople (1327). While connected 
 with the Greek Church, he instigated a 
 violent attack upon the Hesychast, or 
 Quietist, party among the monks of Mount 
 Athos, charging them with heresy. They 
 made so able a defense that Barlaam left 
 the city and fled to Rome. Here he joined 
 the Roman Church, and wrote as bitterly 
 against the Greek Church as he had for¬ 
 merly against the Latin. 
 
 Barlaamites, so named from Barlaam. 
 They were the opponents of the fanatical 
 Hesychasts, or Quietists, of that age. 
 
 Bar'nabas, “ a name signifying son of 
 prophecy, or exhortation (or, but not so prob¬ 
 ably, consolation, as A. V.), given by the 
 apostles (Acts iv. 36) to Joseph (or Joses), 
 a Levite of the island of Cyprus, who was 
 only a disciple of Christ. In Acts ix. 27, 
 we find him introducing the newly con¬ 
 verted Saul to the apostles at Jerusalem, 
 in a way which seems to imply previous 
 acquaintance between the two. On tidings 
 coming to the church at Jerusalem that 
 men of Cyprus and Cyrene had been 
 preaching to Gentiles at Antioch, Barna¬ 
 bas was sent thither (Acts xi. 19-26), and 
 went to Tarsus to seek Saul, as one spe¬ 
 cially raised up to preach to the Gentiles. 
 (Acts xxvi. 17.) Having brought Saul to 
 Antioch, he was sent with him to Jerusa¬ 
 lem, with relief for the brethren in Judaea. 
 (Acts xi. 30.) On their return to Antioch 
 they (Acts xiii. 2) were ordained by the 
 Church for the missionary work, and sent 
 forth (a. d. 45). From this time Barnabas 
 and Paul enjoy the title and dignity of 
 apostles. Their first missionary journey 
 is related in Acts xiii.; xiv.: it was confined 
 to Cyprus and Asia Minor. Some time 
 after their return to Antioch (a. d. 47 or 
 48), they were sent (a. d. 50), with some 
 others, to Jerusalem, to determine with 
 the apostles and elders the difficult ques¬ 
 tion respecting the necessity of circum¬ 
 cision for the Gentile converts. (Acts xv. 1 
 ff.) On that occasion Paul and Barnabas 
 were recognized as the apostles of the un¬ 
 circumcision. After another stay in Anti¬ 
 och, on their return, a variance took place 
 between Barnabas and Paul on the ques¬ 
 tion of taking with them, on a second mis¬ 
 sionary journey, John Mark, sister’s son 
 to Barnabas. (Acts xv. 36 ff.) ‘ The con¬ 
 tention was so sharp that they parted 
 asunder,’ and Barnabas took Mark, and 
 sailed to Cyprus, his native island. Here 
 the Scripture notices of him cease. As to 
 
Bar 
 
 ( 85 ) 
 
 Bar 
 
 his further labors and death, traditions 
 differ. Some say he went to Milan, and 
 became first bishop of the church there. 
 There is extant an apocryphal work, prob¬ 
 ably of the fifth century, Acta et Passio 
 Barnabce in Cypro; and a still later enco¬ 
 mium of Barnabas, by a Cyprian monk, 
 Alexander. We have an Epistle in twenty- 
 one chapters called by the name of Barna¬ 
 bas. Its authenticity has been defended 
 by some great writers; but it is very gen¬ 
 erally given up now, and the Epistle is be¬ 
 lieved to have been written early in the 
 second century.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Barnabas, Epistle of. See above. 
 
 Barnabites, a religious order founded 
 for charitable purposes at Milan, in 1530. 
 Its first name was the Regular Clerks of 
 St. Paul, but they were afterward called 
 Barnabites, because they assembled in the 
 Church of St. Barnabas. To the ordinary 
 monastic vows of poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, this orde.' added a fourth— 
 never to seek any kind of ecclesiastical 
 preferment. During the lifetime of its 
 founders, the order was confined to Milan, 
 but it eventually spread into Italy, Ger¬ 
 many, and France. They have now about 
 twenty houses on the Continent. 
 
 Barnes, Albert, Presbyterian ; b. at 
 Rome, N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798 ; d. in Phila¬ 
 delphia, Pa., Dec. 24, 1870. Graduating 
 at Hamilton College in 1820, and at the 
 Princeton Theological Seminary in 1824, 
 he became pastor of the Presbyterian 
 Church at Morristown, N. J., in 1825. He 
 remained here until called to the First 
 Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, in 
 1830, where he labored until 1867, when he 
 resigned, and was elected pastor emeritus. 
 Unremitting in his pastoral and pulpit 
 duties, he found time for study and re¬ 
 search that bore fruit in a series of com¬ 
 mentaries upon the entire New Testament, 
 of which more than a million copies have 
 been sold. His advocacy of the teachings 
 of the New School branch of the Presby¬ 
 terian Church, especially the doctrine of 
 unlimited atonement, made him prominent 
 in the discussions that led to a division in 
 the denomination, which he was, happily, 
 permitted to see healed before his death. 
 
 Barrow, Isaac, an eminent English math¬ 
 ematician and theologian; b. in London, 
 1630; d. there, May 4, 1677. A graduate 
 of Cambridge University, he was ap¬ 
 pointed professor of mathematics in 1663, 
 but resigned in 1669, in favor of his pupil, 
 the celebrated Newton. He was appointed 
 master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 
 
 1672, and in 1675 he became vice-chancellor 
 of the university. His fame rests upon 
 his sermons, “which are very remarkable 
 as specimens of clear, exhaustive, and 
 vigorous discussion.” The best edition 
 of his works was published at Cambridge, 
 (1859), 9 vols. His biography, by Dr. 
 Whewell, is in vol. ix. 
 
 Barrowe, Henry, was of a good family, 
 and gained admittance to the bar in 1576. 
 He was converted, and met John Green¬ 
 wood, with whom he became interested in 
 church reform. He visited Greenwood in 
 prison, and was himself arrested, and, after 
 several examinations, confined the remain¬ 
 der of his life in the Fleet Prison. In 
 connection with Greenwood, he wrote sev¬ 
 eral books and tracts. The most impor¬ 
 tant work from his own pen was entitled, A 
 Brief Discovery of the False Church (Lon¬ 
 don, 1590). With Greenwood, he stood 
 trial at the Old Bailey, March 23, 1593. 
 They were condemned, and suffered a 
 martyr’s death, by hanging, April 6, 1593. 
 See H. M. Dexter: Congregationalis?n as 
 Seen in its Literature (N. Y., 1880), pp. 
 211-245. 
 
 Barth, Christian Gottlob, b. in Stutt¬ 
 gart, July 31, 1799; d. at Calw, Nov. 12, 
 1862. From 1817-21 he was a student of 
 theology at Tubingen, and pastor at Mott- 
 lingen from 1824-1838. He then retired 
 to Calw, where he founded the missionary 
 society of Wiirtemberg. This society 
 came into active cooperation with mission¬ 
 ary organizations all over the world. He 
 was very successful as a writer of books 
 on practical Christianity, and composed 
 some excellent German missionary hymns. 
 
 Bartholomew ( son of Talmai ), one of the 
 twelve apostles, identified with the same 
 person elsewhere called Nathaniel. The 
 only reference to his history is that found 
 in his conversion (John i. 45-51), and his 
 presence with the other disciples when 
 the risen Lord appeared to them at the 
 Lake of Tiberias. (John xxi. 2.) 
 
 Bartholomew’s Day, The Massacre of 
 St. This terrible tragedy occurred in 
 1572. The principalProtestants of France, 
 under an oath of safety, were in Paris to 
 celebrate the marriage of the king of Na¬ 
 varre with the sister of the French King. 
 Instigated by his mother, Catherine de 
 Medici, the king (Charles IX.) ordered the 
 massacre, which began about 3 o’clock on 
 the morning of Aug. 24. Admiral Coligny 
 was one of the first victims. More than 
 five thousand Protestants were murdered 
 in cold blood, in the city of Paris alone, 
 
Bar 
 
 Bas 
 
 ( 86 ) 
 
 and about thirty thousand in all were 
 killed. The news was received at Rome 
 with joy, and a medal was struck, having a 
 picture of the pope on one side, and on the 
 other a rude representation of the massa¬ 
 cre. See H. M. Baird: Rise of the Huguenots 
 ofRrance( N. Y.,1879); Henry White: The 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ( N. Y., 1868). 
 
 Barton, Elizabeth, the “Maid of Kent,” 
 was a servant girl in the village of Alding¬ 
 ton, in Kent. Of a nervous temperament 
 and subject to epilepsy, her mind was 
 deeply affected by the stories that came to 
 her ears of the efforts which were being 
 made by the king, Henry VIII., to obtain a 
 divorce from Queen Catherine. She 
 claimed to have visions in regard to the 
 wrong of this action, and declared that it 
 had been revealed to her that if the divorce 
 took place, the king would be a dead man 
 within seven months. The agents of the 
 pope and influential friends of Queen Cath¬ 
 erine did all they could to increase the ex¬ 
 citement caused by the prophetess, who 
 was known now as “the holy maid of 
 Kent.” The anger of the king was aroused. 
 In 1553 Elizabeth, with several of her 
 prominent supporters, were examined be¬ 
 fore Parliament, and sentenced to be exe¬ 
 cuted. She was beheaded at Tyburn, 
 April 21. 1534. 
 
 Baruch. See Apocrypha and Pseude- 
 
 PIGRAPHA. 
 
 Baruli, a sect of the Albanenses of the 
 twelfth century. They held that the Son 
 of God did not assume a body of flesh and 
 blood, but a kind of celestial body of im¬ 
 material substance. They held also the 
 curious opinion that all souls were created 
 before the creation of the world, and all fell 
 into sin soon afterwards. 
 
 Bascom, Henry B., one of the bishops 
 of the M. E. Church, South; b. in Hancock, 
 N. Y., May 27, 1796; d. at Louisville, Ky., 
 Sept. 8, 1850. He early attracted attention 
 as a pulpit orator, and in 1823 was elected 
 chaplain of Congress. In 1827 he became 
 President of Madison College, Pa.; and in 
 1829, agent of the American Colonization 
 Society. In 1832 he accepted the profes¬ 
 sorship of morals in Augusta College, Pa., 
 which he resigned (1842) to become Pres¬ 
 ident of Transylvania University. He 
 edited the Quarterly Review of the M. E. 
 Church, South, from 1846 to 1850, when 
 he was elected bishop. At one time he 
 was probably the most popular pulpit 
 orator in the United States. 
 
 Basel, Confession of, a Calvinistic con¬ 
 
 fession adopted by the Protestants of Basel 
 in 1534. It was first prepared by CEcolam- 
 padius, not long before his death, and elab¬ 
 orated by Myconius before it was submit¬ 
 ted to the people. 
 
 Basel, The Council of (1431-1443), was 
 summoned by Martin V. The three sub¬ 
 jects that were assigned to the council were, 
 “ The reunion of the Greek and Latin 
 churches, the reconciliation of the Bohemi¬ 
 ans, and the reform of the church, accord¬ 
 ing to the resolutions come to at Con¬ 
 stance.” The proceedings of the council 
 alarmed the authorities at Rome, and Eu- 
 genius IV., the successor of Martin V., 
 made two attempts to break it up. The 
 council would not yield. They passed vari¬ 
 ous enactments that sought to curb the 
 power of the Pope and the Roman curia. 
 The discussion that arose, as to the place 
 where the subject of the reunion with the 
 Greek Church should be considered, was 
 made the occasion by Eugenius of assem¬ 
 bling another council, which met first at 
 Ferrara, and then at Florence. (See Flor¬ 
 ence, Council of.) The rest of the pro¬ 
 ceedings of the Council of Basel is the 
 record of its struggles with the Pope. 
 They deposed Eugenius, and, in answer to 
 his excommunication, elected a new Pope, 
 Amadeus, Duke of Saxony, who assumed 
 the name of Felix V. This schism was not 
 healed until the death of Eugenius, when 
 a compromise was effected, and Felix re¬ 
 signed the pontificate in favor of Nicholas 
 V., who confirmed the acts and decrees of 
 the Council of Basel. 
 
 Ba'shan, ‘ ‘a district on the east of Jordan. 
 It is not, like Argob and other districts of 
 Palestine, distinguished by one constant 
 designation, but is sometimes spoken of as 
 the ‘ land of Bashan ’ (1 Chron. v. 11; and 
 comp. Num. xxi. 33; xxxii. 33), and some¬ 
 times as ‘all Bashan’ (Deut. iii. 10, 13; 
 Josh. xii. 5; xiii. 12, 30), but most com¬ 
 monly without any addition. It was taken 
 by the children of Israel after their con¬ 
 quest of the land of Sihon,‘,.from Arnon to 
 Jabbok. They ‘ turned ’ from their road 
 over Jordan and ‘ went up by the way of 
 Bashan ’ to Edrei on the western edge of 
 the Lejah. Here they encountered Og, 
 King of Bashan, who ‘came out’ prob¬ 
 ably from the natural fastnesses of Argob, 
 only to meet the entire destruction of him¬ 
 self, his sons, and all his people. (Num. 
 xxi. 33-35; Deut. iii. 1-3.) The limits of 
 Bashan are very strictly defined. It ex¬ 
 tended from the ‘ border of Gilead ’ on 
 the south, to Mount Hermon on the north 
 (Deut. iii. 3, 10, 14; Josh. xii. 5; 1 Chron. v. 
 23); and from the Arabah, or Jordan valley, 
 
Bas 
 
 Bat 
 
 (87) 
 
 on the west to Salchah ( Sulkhad) and the 
 border of the Geshurites, and the Maacha- 
 thites on the east. (Josh. xii. 3-5; Deut. iii. 
 10.) This important district was bestowed 
 on the half tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 
 29-31), together with ‘ half Gilead.’ It is 
 just named in the list of Solomon’s com¬ 
 missariat districts. (1 Kings iv. 13.) And 
 here, with the exception of one more pass¬ 
 ing glimpse, closes the history of Bashan, 
 as far as the Bible is concerned. It van¬ 
 ishes from our view until we meet with it 
 as being devastated by Hazael in the reign 
 of Jehu. (2 Kings x. 33.) After the cap¬ 
 tivity Bashan is mentioned as divided into 
 four provinces — Gaulanitis, Auranitis, 
 Trachonitis, and Batanaea, or Ard-el-Bath- 
 anyeh , which lies on the east of the Lejah 
 and the north of the range of Jebel Hauran , 
 or ed Druze.” —Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 It was a singularly fertile country. The 
 existing ruins are probably, in many cases, 
 the work of the earliest known inhabitants 
 of the land, the Amorites or Rephaim. 
 Many interesting inscriptions have been 
 found in this region. 
 
 Basil, Bishop of Ancyra, was originally 
 a physician. He was a leader in the semi- 
 Arian party, but was deposed from his see 
 in 347 by the Council of Sardica. He held 
 possession, however, through the favor of 
 the Arian Emperor, Constantius. Again 
 deposed (360), he died in exile. 
 
 Basil, St., surnamed The Great; b. at 
 Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 330; d. 
 there, in 379. Sprung from an illustrious 
 family in the life of the early church, he 
 studied at Constantinople and Athens, 
 where he formed the friendship which in 
 after years bound him so closely to Greg¬ 
 ory Nazianzen. After teaching for a time 
 in Caesarea, he entered upon a monastic 
 life in Pontus, where he became the head 
 of a convent near Arnesi, where his mother 
 and his sister Macrina joined him in devo¬ 
 tion to religious and charitable service. 
 It was here that he instituted the form of 
 common for hermit life, which was finally 
 developed fully under the Benedictine rule, 
 which combines industry for the general 
 good with strict devotion. It was not un¬ 
 til he was about thirty-six years of age 
 that Basil was ordained to the priesthood. 
 From this time forward he became promi¬ 
 nent in the theological controversies of his 
 age. For a long time he had sympathized 
 with the middle party, the Homoiousians, 
 who stood between Arianism and Ortho¬ 
 doxy. His friendship for Eustathius,Bishop 
 of Sebaste, brought him under the ban of 
 censure in many directions. After Eusta¬ 
 thius openly avowed his adherence with 
 
 the semi-Arian party, and denied the divin¬ 
 ity of the Holy Spirit, Basil withdrew all 
 further relations with him and the semi- 
 Arians, and devoted himself to the effort 
 of drawing over the middle party to the 
 Orthodox side. After the death of Euse¬ 
 bius, he was elected bishop of Caesarea. 
 When the Emperor Valens, in a visit to 
 Asia Minor, enforced Arianism upon the 
 churches, he left the church in Cappadocia 
 unmolested — a marked tribute to the 
 efforts which Basil had made in the inter¬ 
 ests of unity. Another object that deeply 
 engaged his attention was the reconciliation 
 of the Eastern and Western churches. One 
 of his principal works was upon the doc¬ 
 trine of the procession of the Holy Ghost. 
 He was a great preacher, and prepared 
 homilies on the Psalms and Isaiah, some 
 of which are still in existence, with other 
 works. See Life , by R. F. Smith (London, 
 1881). 
 
 Basilians, an order of monks and nuns 
 organized by Basil the Great. At the death 
 of their founder they are said to have 
 numbered upwards of 90,000. There are 
 now about fifty houses, with one thousand 
 members. One of the houses is at Toronto, 
 Canada. 
 
 Basilica, the name given anciently to 
 large rectangular halls, used for secular 
 purposes, and afterward applied to Chris¬ 
 tian church edifices that were built on the 
 same general plan. The oldest and most 
 famous of the basilicas were erected at 
 Rome. 
 
 Basili'des, one of the most celebrated of 
 the Gnostics, flourished probably about 130 
 A. D. Scholars have found in his works 
 the earliest testimony to the Gospel of 
 John, from his quotation of the passages, 
 “ The true light, which enlighteneth every 
 man, was coming into the world,” and 
 “ My hour is not yet come.” See Gnos¬ 
 ticism. 
 
 Bath. In Eastern countries bathing is 
 a necessity as well as luxury. It was com¬ 
 manded by the Mosaic law in certain cases 
 of Levitical uncleanness (Lev. xiv. 8; xv. 
 5; xvii. 6; Deut. xxiii. 11), and was also 
 practiced in connection with the religion of 
 the Egyptians and the Mohammedans. The 
 high-priest, on the day of atonement, before 
 each act of expiation, was obliged to bathe 
 (Lev. xvi. 4, 24), and also at his own con¬ 
 secration (viii. 6). The Jews bathed in 
 running water or in pools in the courtyard 
 of their houses. Mention is made in the 
 New Testament of the Jerusalem baths, 
 Bethesda and Siloam. (John v. 2; ix. 7.) 
 
Bat 
 
 ( 88 ) 
 
 Bau 
 
 In later times there was a public bath in 
 every considerable town. The Talmud 
 gives minute directions in regard to their 
 use and construction. In connection with 
 the public baths that abounded in Roman 
 cities, voices were raised among Christian 
 teachers against the shameless conduct of 
 some who frequented them, but there was 
 no formal prohibition of their use. After 
 the time of Constantine, baths were built 
 near the church, partly for the use of the 
 clergy and ecclesiastical purposes. 
 
 Bath. See Measures. 
 
 Bath'kol ( daughter of the voice , i. e. , echo), 
 “ a Talmudic term for a supposed divine 
 revelation. The true idea of it is that it 
 was the echo of a heavenly voice. Instances 
 of it are given in the Talmud. The Bath- 
 kol was (i) the first result of reflection 
 upon the prophecies of the Old Testament, 
 grown up upon the soil of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment, causing a sense of desertion by the 
 Lord, and a deep longing for the return of 
 the Shekinah. (2) It was designed to pre¬ 
 pare the people for the remarkable voices 
 during the last times of the second temple, 
 which, equally with the miracles of Jesus 
 and his apostles, pointed out the Messiah 
 and his kingdom, until the obdurate and 
 devoted city, immediately before its cap¬ 
 ture and destruction, was dumbfounded by 
 the cry which issued from the temple: ‘ Let 
 us go hence.’ ”— Pressel in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency., vol. i.,p. 223. 
 
 Baur (frowr), Ferdinand Christian, 
 founder of the New Testament and histor¬ 
 ical criticism which bears his name; b. at 
 Schmiden, near Stuttgart, Germany, June 
 21, 1792; d. at Tubingen, Dec. 2, i860. 
 He was educated first in the seminary at 
 Blaubeuren, and entered the University of 
 Tubingen in 1809. In 1817 he was called 
 to a professorship at Blaubeuren, and as 
 the result of his studies he published his 
 Symbolism and Mythology: or the Nature Re¬ 
 ligion of Antiquity (Stuttgart, 1824-25), 2 
 vols. His reputation was already great, 
 when he accepted a call in 1826 to the pro¬ 
 fessorship of church history at Tubingen. 
 “ He soon gathered a large audience 
 around his chair, and filled them with ad¬ 
 miration by his genius, learning, and en¬ 
 thusiasm as a teacher. A Hegelian him¬ 
 self, he applied Hegel’s method of dialec¬ 
 tical development, by mediation between 
 two opposites, to church history and the 
 growth of the New Testament, and thus 
 founded the famous ‘ Tubingen School ’ 
 of theology, which revolutionized the 
 church history of the apostolic and post- 
 apcstolic times. He must be ranked along¬ 
 
 side of Neander and Gieseler as a church 
 historian of the first rank, independent, 
 original, profound, and scholarly. He had 
 a rare talent for critical combination, and 
 the grasp of a giant in handling historical 
 problems. He was, however, deficient in 
 well-balanced judgment; and so, while tire¬ 
 less in his investigations and bold in his 
 theories, he overvalued tendencies and un¬ 
 dervalued persons and facts. He ruth¬ 
 lessly attacked the optimistic opinion of 
 the Apostolic Church, and attempted to 
 show that, so far from being peaceful, 
 quiet, loving, and united, it was torn by 
 opposing factions—the friends of Peter and 
 those of Paul. He thus resolved its rich 
 spiritual life of faith and love into a pure¬ 
 ly speculative process of conflicting ten¬ 
 dencies, a keen rivalry between the Petrine 
 and Pauline parties, and supposed that 
 the war stopped by a compromise in the 
 ancient Catholic Church. According to his 
 theory, he regarded the Acts as a docu¬ 
 ment of this compromise, in which the 
 points of opposition are obscured; and, 
 further, he unhesitatingly rejected all 
 those Epistles of the New Testament in 
 which he could not find traces of such a (sup¬ 
 posed) conflict. It must be acknowledged 
 that by his keen, critical analysis he fully 
 brought to light the profound intellectual 
 fermentation of the primitive church, but 
 failed to describe the exact state of the 
 case, because he eliminated the supernat¬ 
 ural and miraculous elements. Yet, as an 
 earnest and honest skeptic, he had to con¬ 
 fess at last a psychological miracle in the 
 conversion of Paul, and to bow before the 
 greater miracle of the resurrection of 
 Christ, without which the former is an in¬ 
 explicable enigma. His critical researches 
 and speculations gave a powerful stimulus 
 to New Testament historical studies, and 
 resulted in vastly increased knowledge. 
 The studies of those times by a critical 
 and impartial method dates from Baur. 
 But while he acknowledged only four 
 Epistles of Paul (Romans, the two Corin¬ 
 thians, Galatians), and the Revelation to 
 be genuine products of the apostolic age,his 
 followers have been compelled, by the use 
 against them of their own weapons, to 
 yield point after point; so that now they 
 grant the authority and genuineness of ten 
 of Paul’s Epistles, and take their stand 
 only at the twenty called Pastoral Epistles. ” 
 —Schaff-Herzog: Ency.,s.v. The literary 
 activity of Baur carrried him into the field 
 of historical theology, and he prepared 
 works on the doctrine of the Atonement 
 (1838), and of the Trinity and Incarnation 
 (1841-43), 3 vols., and a History of Doctrine 
 (1847). For his views regarding primitive 
 Christianity see his Church History of the 
 
Bau 
 
 Bax 
 
 ( 89 ) 
 
 First Three Centuries (English translation, 
 London 1878-79), 2 vols., and Paul (Eng¬ 
 lish translation 1873-75). 
 
 Bautain (bo-tan), Louis Eugene Marie, 
 Roman Catholic, philosopher and theolo¬ 
 gian; b. at Paris, Feb. 17, 1796; d. at Vir- 
 oflay, near Versailles, Oct. 15, 1867. In 
 1816 he was called to the chair of philoso¬ 
 phy in the University of Strasburg, which 
 he resigned, and took orders in 1828, but 
 still continued to lecture in the University. 
 In 1849 he became vicar of the diocese of 
 Paris, and in 1853 professor of moral the¬ 
 ology in the theological faculty. He held 
 the views of Anselm and his successors, 
 regarding the relation of reason and faith. 
 He published a large number of philo¬ 
 sophical works, but is best known by his 
 Art of Extempore Speaking (1856; Eng. 
 trans. 1858), which has had a very large 
 circulation. 
 
 Bavaria was early entered by missiona¬ 
 ries from Italy, but it was not fully Chris¬ 
 tianized until the middle of the eighth cen¬ 
 tury. The Reformation at first made good 
 progress in this country, but after the 
 Diet of Worms the active hostility of 
 Duke William checked it. Those who 
 went to hear the reformers preach were 
 arrested and severely punished. From 
 1549 until the close of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury the Jesuits controlled affairs, but 
 about the opening of this century they 
 were expelled by the Elector Maximilian 
 Joseph II. With this gaining of new ter¬ 
 ritory a more liberal policy was adopted, 
 and by the constitution of 1818, Protes¬ 
 tants were put on an equal footing with 
 Roman Catholics. Of the 5,022,390 inhab¬ 
 itants in 1875, 3,573,142 were Roman Cath¬ 
 olics, 1,392,120 Protestants, 51,335 Jews. 
 There are 595 monastic institutions in the 
 kingdom—500 for nuns, with 5,031 sisters, 
 and ninety-five for monks, with 1,233 
 brethren. The Protestant Church is gov¬ 
 erned by consistories, under a supreme 
 consistory at Munich. It has a theological 
 seminary at Erlangen, and there are 1,036 
 parishes. . 
 
 Baxter, Richard, one of the most emi¬ 
 nent Non-conformist divines; b. at Rowton, 
 in Shropshire, Nov. 12, 1615; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, Dec. 8, 1691. Of a good family, he 
 did not pursue a university course, but 
 was under the care of excellent instructors. 
 A brief tarry in London, in which he had 
 a taste of court life, was followed by the 
 determination to return home and study 
 theology. He was appointed master of 
 the Free Grammar School, Dudley, where 
 he was ordained and licensed to preach. 
 
 Not long after, he became assistant minis¬ 
 ter at Bridgnorth. The qualities of 
 faithfulness and zeal that marked his en¬ 
 tire life were soon widely recognized. A 
 careful study of the subject led him to re¬ 
 ject Episcopacy in many of its forms, and 
 from this time forward he laid little stress 
 upon church polity, except as organization 
 was necessary to advance the interests of 
 religion. The attention of the Long Par¬ 
 liament was called to the sad spiritual des¬ 
 titution of many places in the kingdom, 
 because of the utter inefficiency of the 
 clergy who held the livings. The town of 
 Kidderminster attracted the special atten¬ 
 tion of the committee having the matter 
 in charge. The vicar of the parish agreed 
 to pay about one-third of his income of 
 two hundred pounds to the person who 
 might be chosen as minister of the place. 
 Baxter, then twenty-six years of age, was 
 unanimously elected, and entered upon 
 the ministry that wrought so marvelous 
 a change that the town, noted for its wick¬ 
 edness, became famous for the sobriety 
 and religious life of its people. For nine¬ 
 teen years, with brief interruptions, caused 
 by the civil war, Baxter labored at Kid¬ 
 derminster in the spirit of devotion he in¬ 
 culcated in his well-known book, The Re¬ 
 formed Pastor. For a time, after the battle 
 of Naseby, he acted as chaplain in the 
 army, where he preached with faithfulness 
 views that were not altogether palatable to 
 Cromwell. For two years, after the Res¬ 
 toration, Baxter labored in London, but the 
 Ejectment Act (1662) made it impossible 
 for him to continue his services within the 
 Established Church. He declined the of¬ 
 fered bishopric of Hereford, and retired 
 to Acton, in Middlesex. But his life for 
 many years was embittered and its labors 
 hampered by persecution. Again and again 
 he was seized and imprisoned under the 
 most trivial charges. It was in 1685 that 
 he was brought before the brutal Jeffreys, 
 on the charge that his Paraphrase of the 
 New Testa??ient was a seditious book. He 
 was sentenced to pay a heavy fine, and re¬ 
 mained in prison for two years. The In¬ 
 dulgence of 1687 set him free, and from 
 this time until his death in 1691, his life 
 was spent in peace, among friends who 
 loved and honored him. From the Eject¬ 
 ment of 1662, although suffering greatly 
 from physical disabilities, he labored in¬ 
 cessantly with his pen. No less than 168 
 different works are credited to him. Some 
 of them are elaborate theological treatises 
 that exhibit profound and varied knowl¬ 
 edge; but the works by which he is best 
 known, and that have exerted the widest in¬ 
 fluence, are of a devotional and practical 
 character. Among these may be men- 
 
Bay 
 
 ( 90 ) 
 
 Bea 
 
 tioned: The Reformed Pastor, the fruit of 
 his experiences at Kidderminster; Reasons 
 for the Christian Religion; The Poor Man’s 
 Family Book, and the best known of his 
 works, The Saint's Everlasting Rest, and 
 The Call to the Unconverted. As pastor, 
 preacher, debater, and author, Baxter 
 showed the strength and diversity of his 
 remarkable gifts of head and heart. His 
 sympathies were so large, and his views 
 of theology and ecclesiastical polity so 
 broad and practical, that no sect in his day 
 could claim his allegiance. No man, how¬ 
 ever, ever exerted a more powerful influ¬ 
 ence in the interests of Non-conformity 
 than Richard Baxter, or did more in his 
 generation to advance pure and undefiled 
 religion. Dr. Barrow said of him that 
 “ his practical writings were never 
 mended, and his controversial ones seldom 
 confuted;” and Bishop Wilkens affirmed 
 that “if he had lived in the primitive time 
 he had been one of the fathers of the 
 Church.” The most valuable source of 
 information regarding Baxter is found in 
 his autobiography, down to 1684, and the 
 continuation of his life as given by Dr. 
 Calamy. 
 
 Bayle {bat), Pierre (b. 1647; d. 1706), a 
 celebrated French Protestant writer; edu¬ 
 cated at the University of Toulouse; pro¬ 
 fessor of philosophy at Sedan, and after¬ 
 ward at ^Rotterdam. The work by which 
 he is best known is his Critical and Philo¬ 
 sophical Dictionary, published in 1695. It 
 is a book of great learning, but skeptical 
 in its tendencies, and marred by coarse¬ 
 ness. 
 
 Bayley, James Roosevelt, D. D., b. in 
 New York City, Aug. 23, 1814; d. in Bal¬ 
 timore, Oct. 3, 1877. He was graduated at 
 Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., and en¬ 
 tered the ministry of the Episcopal Church. 
 He soon withdrew, and became a Roman 
 Catholic, and spent some time in the 
 study of theology in Paris and Rome. He 
 was ordained as a priest in 1842, and after 
 his return to America was appointed pro¬ 
 fessor of belles-lettres in St. John’s Col¬ 
 lege, Fordham, of which institution he 
 was president for one year. In 1853 he 
 was made Bishop of Newark, N. J., and 
 in 1872 appointed Archbishop of Baltimore 
 and Primate of America. His aunt, Mother 
 Seaton, was the founder of the order of 
 the Sisters of Charity in the United States. 
 
 Bdell'ium is mentioned but twice in the 
 Bible: (1) in Gen. ii. 12, as a product of the 
 land of Havilah; (2) in Num. xi. 7, when it 
 is used to describe the manna. It is a 
 highly transparent and odorous gum, 
 
 which exudes from a sort of palm which 
 grows in Arabia and adjacent countries. 
 The best authorities consider this the most 
 satisfactory explanation of a word that has 
 caused some controversy, because many 
 rabbins have defined it as meaning cl pearl. 
 
 Beadle, Bedell ( one who proclaims). 
 There are ecclesiastical beadles and secu¬ 
 lar beadles, parochial beadles and com¬ 
 panies’ beadles; there are also university 
 
 bedells. 
 
 Generally speaking, the beadle is a sum¬ 
 moning officer, the word having the same 
 root as the verb to bid{ Bedes); and around 
 this have grown other ministerial duties 
 very various. Thus, a parish beadle may 
 assist the churchwarden in seating the 
 people in church, or in keeping order, and 
 a company’s beadle may carry about all 
 sorts of messages for his company. 
 
 Beads. See Rosary. 
 
 Beard, Richard, D. D., Cumberland 
 Presbyterian; b. in Sumner County, Tenn., 
 Nov. 27, 1799; d. at Lebanon, Tenn., Nov. 
 6, 1880. He began his public ministry in 
 1820. He afterward became a teacher in 
 Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., and 
 then in Sharon College, Sharon, Miss. He 
 was president of Cumberland College from 
 1842 to 1854, and then accepted the profes¬ 
 sorship of systematic theology in Cumber¬ 
 land University, Lebanon, Tenn. He was 
 for many years one of the most eminent 
 leaders in the Cumberland Presbyterian 
 Church, and was frequently made modera¬ 
 tor of the General Assembly. He publish¬ 
 ed Lectures on Theology (Nashville, 1870), 3 
 vols.; and Why ai?i la Cumberland Presby¬ 
 terian ? (Nashville, 1874.) 
 
 Beatific Vision, a term used by theolog¬ 
 ical writers to express the open and unhin¬ 
 dered vision of God enjoyed by the blessed 
 dead. Many Protestants, especially Luther¬ 
 ans and Calvinists, put the vision after 
 the judgment. This is the opinion of the 
 Greek Church. 
 
 % 
 
 Beatification, a preliminary step to can¬ 
 onization. The person receiving this de¬ 
 gree is granted certain religious honor, 
 until it is decided whether he is a saint or 
 not. The ceremony can be performed in 
 no other place but the basilica of the Vati¬ 
 can. See Canonization. 
 
 Beausobre (bo-sobr), Isaac de. an eminent 
 writer among the French Protestants; b. 
 at Niort, March 8, 1659; d. at Berlin, June 
 5, 1738. Forsaking the profession of law 
 for which he had been trained, he studied 
 
Bee 
 
 Bee 
 
 ( 91 ) 
 
 theology, and became minister at Chatillon- 
 sur-Indre, in Touraine, in 1685. His 
 loyalty to the Huguenot faith compelled 
 him to seek refuge first at Rotterdam and 
 then at Dessau, where he became chaplain 
 to the Princess of Anhalt. From 1695 till 
 his death he was French pastor in Berlin. 
 His fame rests upon a learned history of 
 Manicheism (Amsterdam, 1718), and a his¬ 
 tory of the Reformation (1517-1530). He 
 carried on active controversies with the 
 Lutherans and Roman Catholics. 
 
 Becket, Thomas a, “ Archbishop of Can¬ 
 terbury, was the son of a merchant, and 
 was born in London in 1119. The story 
 which makes his mother a Saracen is charm¬ 
 ingly romantic, but there are doubts if it 
 has any historical basis. He studied 
 theology at Oxford and Paris, and after¬ 
 ward law at Bologna, and at Auxerre, in 
 Burgundy. Having been recommended to 
 Henry II. by Theobald, Archbishop of Can¬ 
 terbury, who had had experience of his 
 abilities, he was promoted to the office of 
 high chancellor, and thus (according to 
 Thierry) resuscitated the hopes of the Eng¬ 
 lish as the first native Englishman, since 
 the Conquest, who had filled any high 
 office. His duties as high chancellor were 
 numerous and burdensome, but he dis¬ 
 charged them vigorously. He was magnif¬ 
 icently liberal in his hospitality. Henry 
 himself did not live in a more sumptuous 
 manner. As yet, Becket seems to have 
 regarded himself as a mere layman, though, 
 in point of fact, he was a deacon: but in 
 1162, when he was created Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (an office which, as it then in¬ 
 volved the abbacy of the cathedral monas¬ 
 tery, had never but twice before been held 
 by any but a monk or canon-regular), a re¬ 
 markable change became manifest in his 
 whole deportment. He resigned the chan¬ 
 cellorship, threw aside suddenly his luxu¬ 
 rious and courtly habits, assumed an austere 
 religious character, exhibited his liberality 
 only in his ‘charities,’ and soon appeared 
 as a zealous champion of the Church against 
 all aggressions by the king and the nobility. 
 Several noblemen and laymen were excom¬ 
 municated for their alienation of church 
 property. Henry II., who, like all the 
 Norman kings, endeavored to keep the 
 clergy in subordination to the state, con¬ 
 voked the nobility with the clergy to a 
 council, in 1164, at Clarendon (near Salis¬ 
 bury), where the so-called ‘ constitutions ’ 
 (or laws relative to the respective powers 
 of church and state) were adopted. To 
 these the primate, at first, declared he 
 would never consent ; but afterwards, 
 through the efforts of the nobles, some of 
 the bishops, and, finally, of the pope him¬ 
 
 self, he was induced to give his unwilling 
 approbation. Henry now began to per¬ 
 ceive that Becket’s notions and his were 
 utterly antagonistic, and clearly exhibited 
 his hostility to the prelate, whereupon 
 Becket tried to leave the country. For 
 this offence the king charged him with 
 breach of allegiance, in a parliament sum¬ 
 moned at Northampton in 1164, confiscated 
 his goods, and sequestered the revenues of 
 his see. A claim was also made on him 
 for not less than 44,000 marks, as the bal¬ 
 ance due by him to the crown when he 
 ceased to be chancellor. Becket appealed 
 to the pope, and next day, leaving North¬ 
 ampton in disguise, fled to France, where 
 he spent two years in retirement at Pon- 
 tigny, in Burgundy. The French monarch 
 and the pope, however, now took up his 
 cause. Becket went to Rome, pleaded per¬ 
 sonally before his holiness, who reinstated 
 him in the see of Canterbury. Becket now 
 returned to France, whence he wrote angry 
 letters to the English bishops, threatening 
 them with excommunication. Several 
 efforts were made to reconcile Henry and 
 Becket, which, however, proved futile; but 
 at length, in 1170, a formal agreement was 
 come to at Fretville, on the borders of 
 Touraine. The result was that he return¬ 
 ed to England, entering Canterbury amid 
 the rejoicings of the people, who were un¬ 
 questionably proud of Becket and regarded 
 him—whether wisely or not is another 
 question—as a shield from the oppressions 
 of the nobility; but he soon manifested all 
 his former boldness of opposition to royal 
 authority. At last, it is said, the king, 
 while in Normandy, expressed impatience 
 that none of his followers would rid him of 
 an insolent priest. The fatal suggestion 
 was immediately understood, and carried 
 into effect by four barons, who departed by 
 separate ways for England. On the even¬ 
 ing of the 29th Dec., 1170, they entered 
 the cathedral, and, having failed in an at¬ 
 tempt to drag him out of the church, there 
 slew Becket before the altar of St. Benedict, 
 in the north transept. Henry was com¬ 
 pelled to make heavy concessions to avoid 
 the ban of excommunication. The mur¬ 
 derers, having repaired to Rome as peni¬ 
 tents, were sent on a pilgrimage to Pales¬ 
 tine; and, two years after his death, Becket 
 was canonized by pope Alexander III., and 
 the anniversary of his death was set apart 
 as the yearly festival of St. Thomas of 
 Canterbury. In 1220 his bones were 
 raised from the grave in the crypt where 
 they had been hastily buried two days after 
 his murder, and were, by order of King 
 Henry III., deposited in a splendid shrine, 
 which for three centuries continued to be 
 the object of one of the great pilgrimages 
 
Bed 
 
 (' 92 ) 
 
 Bee 
 
 
 of Christendom, and still lives in English 
 literature in connection with Chaucer’s 
 Canterbury 7 'ales. At the reformation 
 Henry VIII. despoiled the shrine, erased 
 his name from the calendar, and caused his 
 bones to be burnt and scattered to the 
 winds. It is extremely difficult to estimate 
 properly the character of Becket. We do 
 not know what his ultimate aims were, 
 whether, as some suppose, they were pa¬ 
 triotic, i. e. Saxon , as opposed to Norman , 
 or, as others believe, purely sacerdotal. 
 At all events, the means he used for the 
 attainment of them was a despotic and irre¬ 
 sponsible ecclesiasticism. He admitted 
 nothing done by churchmen to be secular, 
 or within the jurisdiction of civil courts, 
 not even murder or larceny. Fortunately 
 the Plantagenets were as dogged believers 
 in their own powers and privileges as 
 Becket in those of the Church: and by their 
 obstinate good sense England was kept 
 wholesomely jealous of the pretensions of 
 Rome.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia . See Dr. 
 Giles: Vita ct Epistolce S. Thomes Cantua- 
 riensis; Canon Morris: Life of St. Tho?nas 
 Becket; Canon Robertson: Life of Becket; 
 Canon Stanley : Historical Memorials of 
 Canterbury; Freeman: Historical Essays; 
 Hook: Lives of the Archbishops of Canter¬ 
 bury; Froude: Life and Times of Thot}ias 
 Becket (1S78). 
 
 Bede, or Beda, The Venerable, “the 
 father of English history;” b. 674; d. 735. 
 When but seven years of age he was placed 
 under the care of instructors in the monas¬ 
 tery of Wearmouth, and from here (682) 
 was transferred to Jarrow, where he spent 
 a laborious and useful life. His literary 
 industry was remarkable. Forty treatises 
 are from his pen. A large portion treat of 
 biblical subjects, and the lives of saints 
 and martyrs; but astronomy, medicine, 
 grammar, and arithmetic are among the 
 subjects that engaged his attention. His 
 chief work is the Ecclesiastical History of 
 the English Nation. This furnishes the 
 best knowledge we have of the history of 
 England up to the time of his death. The 
 great scholar and teacher is represented 
 to us as a man of singular beauty of char¬ 
 acter, devout, humble, trustful. 
 
 Bedell, William, an eminent and beloved 
 prelate of the English Church; b. at Black 
 Motley, Essex, Eng., in 1570; d. Feb. 7, 
 1642. He was educated at Cambridge, 
 and after serving for five years the parish 
 of Bury St. Edmunds, he became, in 1604, 
 the chaplain of Sir Henry Wotton, at 
 Venice. On his return home, he again 
 served at Bury. In 1615 he was presented 
 with the living of Horningsheath, in Suf¬ 
 
 folk, where he remained twelve years. 
 From here (1627) he was called to be pro¬ 
 vost of Trinity College, Dublin, and two 
 years afterward was elected Bishop of 
 Kilmore and Ardagh. He earnestly sought 
 to reform many crying abuses that pre¬ 
 vailed in his diocese, and displayed so 
 loving and noble a spirit in the work that 
 even his enemies were compelled to admit 
 his virtues. The translation of the Old 
 Testament into Irish was accomplished 
 under his direction. When the rebellion 
 of 1641 broke out, his house was the only 
 one in the county of Cavan that was spared. 
 Refusing to dismiss his flock, he was 
 finally seized and imprisoned in the Castle 
 of Cloughboughter. From here he was 
 taken to the house of a Protestant clergy¬ 
 man, where he continued to minister offi¬ 
 cially until his death, which occurred 
 within a short time. 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward; b. at Litchfield, 
 Conn., June 24, 1813; d. in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., March 8, 1887. After graduating 
 at Amherst College in 1834, he studied 
 theology at Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, of 
 which his father was then president. He 
 was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at 
 Lawrenceburg, Ind. (1837), and then at In¬ 
 dianapolis from 1839 to 1847, when he ac¬ 
 cepted a call to Plymouth Cong. Church, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. His fame as a pulpit 
 orator and platform speaker was world¬ 
 wide. He was foremost in urging forward 
 the philanthropic reforms of his generation. 
 His death called forth the testimony on 
 every side that no voice had ever spoken 
 with more marvelous range of power, and 
 influence for humanity and the country in 
 its hour of peril. From 1861 to 1863 he 
 was the editor of the Independent , and of 
 the Christian Union from 1870 to 1880. 
 His sermons were regularly published 
 from 1859 until his death. The following, 
 books, of which he was the author, have 
 had a large sale: Lectures to Young Men 
 (New York, 1850); Star Papers (1855); 
 Norwood: a novel (1867); Lecture Room 
 Talks (1870); Life of Christ (vol. i., 1871); 
 Yale Lectures on Preaching (1872-1874), 3 
 vols.; Evolution and Religion (1885). See 
 his biography by Lyman Abbott (N. Y., 
 1883, new ed. 1887), and by W. C. Beecher 
 and S. Scoville (N. Y., 1888). 
 
 Beecher, Lyman, father of the preced¬ 
 ing; b. at New Haven, Oct. 12, 1775; d. in 
 Brooklyn, Jan. 10, 1863; was graduated at 
 Yale in 1797, studied theology under Dr. 
 Dwight, and was ordained pastor at East 
 Hampton, L. I., Sept. 5, 1799. In 1810 he 
 accepted the pastorate of the Cong. Church, 
 Litchfield, and thence he removed, in 1S26, 
 
Bee 
 
 ( 93 ) 
 
 Bel 
 
 to Boston. In 1832 he was chosen presi¬ 
 dent and professor of theology of Lane 
 Theological Seminary, Cincinnati. In ad¬ 
 vanced life (1852) he returned to Boston, 
 but spent his last years in Brooklyn. Dr. 
 Beecher was a preacher of remarkable 
 power and original thought. He took an 
 active part in the theological discussions 
 of his times. His Six Sermons on Intem¬ 
 perance exerted a world-wide influence; 
 and as an evangelistic preacher and pastor 
 his labors were followed by revivals, in 
 which many souls were converted. See 
 his Autobiography, edited by his son Charles 
 (N. Y., 1864-1865), 2 vols. 
 
 Beelzebub. The name of the supreme 
 god among the Syro-Phoenician peoples 
 was Baal, i. e., lord, or owner; and by ad¬ 
 ding to it zebub, insect, the proper name 
 Baal-zebub was formed; the god of Ekron, 
 according to 2 Kings i. 2; the fly-god; the 
 averter of insects. Beelzebub was so named 
 from his supposed power of driving away 
 noxious flies. In the New Testament the 
 word is applied to Satan, the ruler or prince 
 of the demons (Matt. x. 25; xii. 24, 27; 
 Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15, 18, 19). The 
 best Greek MSS. read Beelzebul in the 
 gospels—an orthography followed by the 
 latest critical editions. 
 
 Bee'roth ( the wells), one of the four cities 
 of the Hivites, who deluded Joshua into a 
 treaty of peace with them. (Josh. ix. 17.) 
 It is identified with the modern el Birch, 
 which is about ten miles north of Jerusalem, 
 on the great road to Ndblus. According to 
 tradition it was at this point in the journey 
 that Mary discovered that the child Jesus 
 was not “ in the company.” (Luke ii. 44.) 
 
 Be'er-she'ba ( well of seven, or of the oath), 
 
 a city on the southern border of Canaan. 
 Here Abraham lived (Gen. xxi. 33), and 
 Isaac (xxvi. 33). After the conquest it 
 formed a part of Judah. It was a seat of 
 idolatrous worship. (Amos v. 5; viii. 14.) 
 It was a fortified town under the Romans, 
 but fell into decay. It still retains the 
 name of Bir-es-seba, and there are two large 
 wells, surrounded by troughs, still used 
 for watering flocks and herds, as in the 
 days of the patriarchs. 
 
 Beghards and Beguines. Toward the end 
 of the twelfth century, companies of wom¬ 
 en in several of the towns of the Nether¬ 
 lands banded together, under a simple rule, 
 for the purpose of taking care of the sick, 
 and for other charitable objects. They 
 were generally widows and maidens of 
 high rank. Some years later, companies 
 of men were formed in a similar way, and 
 under similar rule. They took no vows, 
 and were at liberty to leave the company 
 when they liked. In the fourteenth century 
 they were in close alliance with the 
 “Brethren of the Free Spirit” (<7. v.). 
 Clement V. sought, through the Inquisition, 
 to destroy them. John XXII. protected 
 the Beguines,but persecuted the Beghards, 
 who were finally absorbed in the Tertiarii 
 of the Franciscans in the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury. Small communities of the Beguines 
 still exist in the Netherlands. 
 
 Bel. See Baal. 
 
 Bel and Dagon. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Belgic Confession, a confession of faith 
 prepared by Guido de Bres of Brabant, 
 and others, about 1561. It was 
 written in French, and based on 
 Calvinistic doctrines. See Prot¬ 
 estant Confessions. 
 
 Belgium. Almost the entire 
 population of Belgium is Roman 
 Catholic, there being probably 
 less than 15,000 Protestants and 
 3,000 Jews. Full liberty in the 
 exercise of religious worship is 
 granted to all, and the state does 
 not interfere in any way with 
 matters of religion. The Prot¬ 
 estant Evangelical Church is 
 under a synod composed of the 
 clergymen of the body, and a rep¬ 
 resentative from each of the 
 churches. It sits in Brussels 
 once a year, when each member 
 is required to be present, or to 
 delegate his powers to another 
 member. The Anglican Church 
 
 One of the seven wells at Beer-sheba, with watering-troughs for 
 
 camels about it. 
 
Bel 
 
 Bern 
 
 ( 94 ) 
 
 has eight pastors and as many chapels in 
 Belgium—three in Brussels, and one in 
 each of the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, 
 Ghent, Ostend, and Spa. 
 
 Belknap, Jeremy, b. at Boston, June 4, 
 1744, where he d., June 20, 1798. After 
 graduating at Harvard he became pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational Church of Dover, 
 N. H., 1767, where he remained until 1787, 
 when he removed to Boston. He was one 
 of the founders of the Massachusetts His¬ 
 torical Society, and the author of a His¬ 
 tory of New Hampshire (1784-1792), and 
 American Biography , 2 vols., (1794-1798). 
 
 Bell, Book, and Candle, Cursing by, 
 the popular way of expressing the cere¬ 
 monies with which excommunication was 
 pronounced. The “ book” was that from 
 which the sentence or form of excommuni¬ 
 cation was read; the “candle” was kept 
 lighted during the time that it was being 
 read, and then cast upon the ground and 
 extinguished, to symbolize the expulsion 
 of the sinner’s light, or “ candlestick,” 
 from the Church of God until he should 
 repent; and the “ bell ” was rung, or some¬ 
 times the whole peal of bells, with a dis¬ 
 cordant clangor, as an advertisement to 
 those outside the church of what was go¬ 
 ing on within. 
 
 Similar ceremonies were also used at 
 exorcism, and thus the same phrase came 
 to be used for it. See Exorcism. 
 
 Bellamy, Joseph, b. in Cheshire, Conn., 
 Feb. 20, 1719; d. at Bethlehem, Conn., 
 March 6, 1790. He was graduated at Yale 
 when but sixteen years of age, and, in part, 
 received his theological training from 
 Jonathan Edwards. He commenced preach¬ 
 ing at about eighteen years of age, and in 
 his twenty-first year was ordained as pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational Church in Beth¬ 
 lehem, where he spent the rest of his life. 
 He was a man of commanding presence, 
 and great power in the pulpit. While 
 naturally somewhat overbearing in tem¬ 
 per, he won and commanded universal 
 esteem. He is said to have been the first 
 American pastor who established a theo¬ 
 logical training school for young ministers 
 in his own house. As a teacher he was 
 very successful, and was both admired and 
 beloved by his pupils. He received the 
 degree of D. D. from the University of 
 Aberdeen in 1768. His writings on theo¬ 
 logical subjects were widely read in their 
 day, but he was more successful as a 
 preacher and teacher than as an author. 
 
 Bellarmine, Robert, an eminent Roman 
 Catholic controversialist and Jesuit; b. at 
 
 Montepulciano, in Tuscany, Oct. 4, 1542; 
 d. in Rome, Sept. 17, 1621. He became 
 rector of the Collegium Romanum in 1592; 
 cardinal in 1599, and Archbishop of Capua 
 in 1602. His principal work, Disputaliones 
 de Controversiis Fidei adversus hujus Tem- 
 poris Hereticos , is still considered one of 
 the strongest statements of the Roman 
 faith. 
 
 Bellows, Henry Whitney, D. D., a dis¬ 
 tinguished Unitarian clergyman; b. in Wal¬ 
 pole, N. H., June 10, 1814; d. in New York, 
 Jan. 30, 1882. A graduate of Harvard Col¬ 
 lege, 1832, and of the Divinity School, 
 1837, he became pastor of the Unitarian 
 Society, now known as All Souls’ Unita¬ 
 rian Church, New York, in 1838, where he 
 labored until his death. Dr. Bellows was 
 a man of catholic sympathies and broad 
 culture, and, in various ways, exerted a 
 great influence for good in the life of the 
 city. His position as one of the organ¬ 
 izers and president of the U. S. Sanitary 
 Commission (1861-66), brought him promi¬ 
 nently before the public. Among his pub¬ 
 lished works are: Festatetnents of Christian 
 Doctrine (Boston, 1859); ar *d Old World in 
 its New Face: Impressions of Europe in 
 1867-68 (N. Y., 1868). 
 
 Bells. Small, closed bells ( tintinnabula) 
 were used by the Hebrews (Exod. xxviii. 
 33), the Romans, and the Greeks for vari¬ 
 ous purposes. The invention of church 
 bells is generally ascribed to Paulinus, 
 Bishop of Nola, a city of Campania, who 
 died in 431. They were introduced into 
 France as early as 550, and in the seventh 
 century Bede mentions them in England. 
 
 Belshazzar, the eldest son of Nabonidus, 
 who usurped the Babylonian throne. His 
 mother was a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 Some of the difficulties between the histo¬ 
 rians and the book of Daniel are explained 
 by inscriptions that have been discovered 
 that go to show that Belshazzar was asso¬ 
 ciated upon the throne with his father. The 
 verification of the Bible history by the cu¬ 
 neiform inscriptions is given in Rawlinson’s 
 Great Monarchies. 
 
 Bema, the part of a church raised above 
 the rest, shut off by railings or screens, 
 and reserved for the higher clergy. Some¬ 
 times the apse was large enough to fur¬ 
 nish sufficient room for the bema, but if 
 not, a space in front of the apse was often 
 included. 
 
 Beman, Nathaniel S. S., D. D., Pres¬ 
 byterian; b. in 1785; d. at Troy, N. Y., 
 1871. A graduate of Middlebury College, 
 
Ben 
 
 ( 95 ) 
 
 Ben 
 
 he was for a time engaged in missionary 
 work in Georgia. In 1822 he became pas¬ 
 tor of the First Presbyterian Church, in 
 Troy, N. Y., where he labored more than 
 forty years. He was a leader of the New 
 School Presbyterian Church, and was elect¬ 
 ed Moderator of the General Assembly in 
 1831, and in 1837. A volume of his ser¬ 
 mons and addresses was published, and 
 also Four Sermons on the Atonement. 
 
 Bena'iah ( whom Jehovah hath built up), 
 son of Jehoiada, and captainof David’s body¬ 
 guard. (2 Sam. viii. 18.) He was distin¬ 
 guished for his bravery. (2 Sam. xxiii. 
 20-23.) Loyal in his adherence to Solo¬ 
 mon, he executed the death-sentence upon 
 Adonijah and Joab, and was appointed the 
 successor of Joab. (1 Kings ii. 29-35.) 
 There are a number of other men of this 
 name mentioned in the Bible. 
 
 Benedicite, the Canticle at Morning 
 Prayer alternative to the Te Deum\ so 
 called, like all other canticles, and the 
 whole Psalter, from its first word in Latin. 
 In its origin it is a part, not the whole, of 
 the song which, in the Greek and Latin 
 translations of the Bible, Shadrach, Me- 
 shach, and Abednego sang in the furnace 
 of fire. (Dan. iii.) In the original He¬ 
 brew this song does not exist, and there¬ 
 fore in modern English Bibles it is placed, 
 with other like books and parts of books, 
 in that section of the Bible known as the 
 Apocrypha; the reference for' the Bene¬ 
 dicite to our English Apocrypha is Song of 
 the Three Holy Children (vv. 35-66).— 
 Benham. 
 
 Benedict of Aniane; b. in Languedoc, 750; 
 d. at Suda, Feb. 12, 821. Educated in the 
 court of Charlemagne, he early renounced 
 the world, and entered the monastery of 
 St. Sequanus, in Laugres. In the face 
 of persecution he sought to purify the or¬ 
 der with which he had connected himself. 
 In 779 he founded a new monastery in 
 Languedoc, on the River Aniane. His 
 influence was widely felt, and he became 
 an adviser of Charlemagne. In order to 
 be near the court, he was called to found 
 the monastery of Juda, near Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle, and as superintendent of all the 
 monasteries of the kingdom, he introduced 
 many reforms, and gained for them a 
 strong position in the state. 
 
 Benedict, St., founder of the Benedict¬ 
 ine order; b. at Nursia, in Umbria, about 
 the year 480; d. March 21, 543, at Monte 
 Cassino. While pursuing his studies as a 
 lad at Rome, shocked by the vice and cor¬ 
 ruption about him, he fled from the city, 
 
 and found refuge in a secluded grotto, 
 near Subiaco, some forty miles away. For 
 the story of his life we are dependent 
 upon the biography of Gregory the Great, 
 in which, after the mediaeval fashion, ex¬ 
 aggerated traditions distort the picture. 
 There is no room to doubt that Benedict 
 led a life of remarkable religious austerity 
 and devotion, and great personal purity. 
 After about three years spent in seclusion, 
 a convent of monks near by chose him as 
 their head. The severity of his rule led 
 to bitter opposition, and, after an attempt 
 had been made to poison him, he withdrew 
 again to the refuge of his grotto. The 
 fame of his piety spread rapidly, and the 
 number of his followers became so great 
 that twelve cloisters were built in the 
 neighborhood. 
 
 In many ways Benedict suffered through 
 those jealous of his fame, and temptations 
 were put in his way to draw him from the 
 path of purity. After spending thirty 
 years in this lonely valley of the Anio, he 
 made his home at Monte Cassino, near the 
 source of the Liris. He destroyed an an¬ 
 cient temple of Apollo, and built two or¬ 
 atories, which were the nucleus of the 
 great monastery which became the nursery 
 of the order that has made the name and 
 fame of its founder world-wide. Benedict 
 labored here for fourteen years. A be¬ 
 loved sister also established a nunnery at 
 Monte Cassino. By the rules of the order 
 they were permitted to see each other 
 once a year. After one of these meetings, 
 marked by prolonged spiritual exercises, 
 Benedict, three days later, saw in a vision 
 the soul of his sister entering heaven, and 
 in a little time the hour of his own release 
 came, and he was buried by her side. 
 
 Benedict is the name of one schismatic 
 and fourteen regular popes. See Popes. 
 
 Benedictines, the name given to the fol¬ 
 lowers of St. Benedict, who submitted to 
 the monastic rule which he instituted. 
 This rule will be generally described in the 
 article on Monasticism. It is sufficient to 
 say here that its two main principles were 
 labor and obedience. “ It was the distinc¬ 
 tion of Benedict that he not merely organ¬ 
 ized the monks into communities, but based 
 their community life, in a great degree, on 
 manual labor, in contrast to the merely 
 meditative seclusion which had hitherto 
 been in vogue both in the East and the 
 West. Probably not even the founder 
 himself foresaw all the prospective advan¬ 
 tages of his law, which was destined, not 
 merely to make many a wilderness and 
 solitary place to rejoice with fidelity, but 
 to expand, moreover, into a noble intellect- 
 
Ben 
 
 Ben 
 
 ( 9 6 ) 
 
 ual fruitfulness, which has been the glory 
 of the Benedictine order. The law of 
 obedience was absolute, but was tempered 
 by the necessity, on the part of the superior, 
 of consulting all the monks, assembled in a 
 council or chapter, upon all important 
 business. The abbot, or superior, was 
 also elected by all the monks, whose liberty 
 of choice was unrestricted. No right of 
 endowment properly subsisted within the 
 monastery; and the vow of stability, once 
 undertaken after the expiry of the year of 
 novitiate, could never be recalled. Food 
 and clothing were of the simplest kind, and 
 all duly regulated; and the intervals of 
 labor were relieved by a continually recur¬ 
 ring round of religious service from prime 
 to even-song. The Benedictine rule spread 
 almost universally in the West, not in 
 rivalry of any other rule, but as the more 
 full and complete development of the mo¬ 
 nastic system.”— Ency . Britannica. At one 
 time there are said to have been 37,000 Ben¬ 
 edictine monasteries. They numbered 
 among their branches the powerful order 
 of the Cistercians and that of Clugny. In 
 England most of the richest abbeys belong¬ 
 ed to this order. 
 
 Benediction. The practice of benedic¬ 
 tion passed from the Jewish to the Chris¬ 
 tian Church. In the Roman Church it is 
 considered a holy action, by which God’s 
 grace is implored in behalf of some person 
 or thing, and is attended by certain gest¬ 
 ures and signs of the hands. Innumer¬ 
 able formulas are prescribed. In the 
 Protestant churches the act of benediction 
 has no significance like that in the Roman 
 and Greek Churches. 
 
 Benefice. (1) “ In feuaal law originally 
 a fee or an estate in lands granted for life 
 only, and held ex tnero beneficio (on the 
 mere good pleasure) of the donor. (2) An 
 ecclesiastical living; a church office en¬ 
 dowed with a revenue for its proper ful¬ 
 filment; the revenue itself. The following 
 terms of canon law are frequently found 
 associated with this word, which is of his¬ 
 torical importance: A benefice involving 
 no other obligation than service in the 
 public offices of the church is sifnple; if the 
 cure of souls is attached to it, double; if 
 with a certain rank attached, dignitary or 
 major; the two former, without rank, 
 minor. Thus, a chantry was a simple bene¬ 
 fice; a prebend gives the right to only a 
 part of the income of a canonry attached 
 to a collegiate or cathedral church; while 
 the benefice is perpetual, and has a charge, 
 though there are some (called manual , 
 from their being in the hands of the one 
 conferring them) revocable. The benefice 
 
 is said to be regular if held by one quali¬ 
 fied to fulfil the duties of the office; secular 
 if held by a layman; and in commendam 
 when in the charge of one commended by 
 the proper authorities until one duly quali¬ 
 fied to fulfil its duties is appointed. In the 
 last-named case the discharge of the office 
 is provided for at the expense of the hold¬ 
 er. A benefice is received by election —for 
 example, by a chapter—or is conferred by 
 the proper ecclesiastical superior ; these 
 nominations, in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, regularly need confirmation from 
 the pope. His action may cause a benefice 
 to be reserved or affected (i. e. , reserved to 
 persons possessed of certain qualifications) 
 or the collation (i. e., the presentation of 
 the benefice) is made alternative —that is, 
 to the pope and regular patron or superior, 
 according to the months in which the bene¬ 
 fice falls vacant, by definite system.”— 
 Century Dictionary , s. v. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy. See Clergy, Bene¬ 
 fit of. 
 
 Benevolence, Beneficence. The first has 
 reference to the desire of the heart to do 
 good to others, and the latter to practical 
 efforts in their behalf. The one is uni¬ 
 versal in its sympathy, the other is guided 
 in its activities by various circumstances. 
 The rule of life should be to do good to all 
 men as we have opportunity. (Gal. vi. 10.) 
 
 Beng'el, Johann Albricht, an eminent 
 Biblical commentator and critic; b. at Win- 
 nenden, in Wiirtemberg, June 24, 1687; d. 
 at Stuttgart, Nov. 2, 1751. He studied the¬ 
 ology at Tubingen, and after service there 
 as theological tutor, from 1708 to 1713, 
 he was appointed principal of the prepar¬ 
 atory school of theology at Denkendorf, 
 where he remained for twenty-eight years. 
 This was the period in which he prepared 
 the critical works on the New Testament 
 which are so widely known. His Gnomon 
 Novi Test amentia which appeared in 1742, 
 “ remains unto this day a treasure-house 
 of exposition, delivered in sentences whose 
 point, clearness, brevity, and wondrous 
 depth of meaning, render them not only 
 worthy of patient study, but a part of the 
 mental stores of the attentive student. It 
 was the fruit of twenty years of labor, 
 and it has been said of it that it ‘ condenses 
 more matter into a line than can be ex¬ 
 tracted from the pages of other writers.’ ” 
 The principles of interpretation as stated 
 by himself, were, “to put nothing into 
 the Scriptures, but to draw everything 
 from them, and suffer nothing to remain 
 hidden that is really in them.” Bengel 
 was appointed prelate of Herbrechtingen 
 
Ben 
 
 ( 97 ) 
 
 Ber 
 
 in 1741, and consistorial counselor and 
 prelate of Alpirsbach, with residence at 
 Stuttgart, in 1749. His official power was 
 used in the interests of religious liberty, 
 and his later years were crowned with re¬ 
 spect and usefulness. A Memoir of his Life 
 and Writings , by J. C. F. Burk, was trans¬ 
 lated into English (London, 1837). 
 
 Ben - ha'dad ( son , i. e., worshiper of 
 Hadad ), the name of three Syrian kings. 
 (1) The son of Tabrimon, who came to the 
 relief of Asa, king of Judah, against Baa- 
 sha, king of Israel. (1 Kings xvi. 18.) (2) 
 A son of the preceding, who made war 
 against Ahab and Jehoram. He was once de¬ 
 feated, but escaped by stratagem. (1 Kings 
 xx.) Besieging Jehoram in Samaria, the 
 Syrian host, by divine intervention, were 
 dispersed. (2 Kings vi. 8; vii. 20.) He 
 consulted Elijah when sick, and was assas¬ 
 sinated by Hazael. (2 Kings vi. to viii.) (3) 
 The son of Hazael, who suffered defeat, 
 and was compelled to relinquish all of the 
 land his father had gained in conquest. (2 
 Kings xiii. 25; Amos i. 4.) 
 
 Benjamin. See Tribes. 
 
 Benno, Bishop of Meissen; b. near Gos- 
 lar, Hanover, 1010; d. at Meissen, Sax¬ 
 ony, June 16, 1106. He was the author of 
 two works still extant, on Teaching and on 
 the Sunday Gospels. He was twice impris¬ 
 oned by Henry IV. on suspicion of disloy¬ 
 alty. His canonization in 1523 was much 
 ridiculed by Luther, who brought forward 
 some instances of his defective character. 
 He is buried at Munich, and is accepted as 
 the patron saint of Bavaria. 
 
 Benson, Rt. Hon. and Most Rev. Ed¬ 
 ward White, D. D. (Cambridge, 1867), 
 D. C. L. (Oxford, 1884), Lord Archbishop 
 of Canterbury and Primate of All England, 
 and Metropolitan; b. near Birmingham, 
 July 14, 1829; graduated at Cambridge, 
 1852; assistant master at Rugby, 1853; 
 first head-master of Wellington College, 
 1859; Bishop of Truro, 1877; transferred to 
 Canterbury and enthroned, 1882. He has 
 published several volumes of sermons: 
 The Cathedral: its Necessary Place in the 
 Life and Work of the Church (1879); The 
 Seven Gifts (1885). 
 
 Benson, Joseph, b. at Melmerby, in 
 Cumberland, England, Jan. 25, 1748; d. in 
 London, Feb. 16, 1821. He was one of the 
 most eminent of the early Methodist min¬ 
 isters of Great Britain. Well educated, 
 and an earnest student during all his public 
 life, he filled the most important stations 
 in the Wesleyan connection. He was very 
 
 popular as a preacher, and prepared A 
 Commentary on the Holy Scriptures , that had 
 a large circulation. 
 
 Bentley, Richard, a distinguished schol¬ 
 ar; b. at Oulton, Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1662; 
 d. at Cambridge, July 14, 1742. A gradu¬ 
 ate of Cambridge, he was appointed to the 
 Boyle lectureship in 1692; master of Trin¬ 
 ity College, Cambridge, in 1699; and re- 
 gius professor of divinity in 1717. He ed¬ 
 ited many classics, but his fame, to a large 
 extent, rests upon the Dissertation on the 
 Epistles of Phalaris. His Boyle lectures 
 and Remarks upon a late Discourse of Free 
 Thinking , 1713, were masterly attacks 
 
 against atheism. A man of severe and ac¬ 
 rimonious temper, he aroused bitter en¬ 
 mities, but his bold and earnest efforts 
 brought about many reforms in the college 
 of which he was long the head. Bunsen 
 says of Bentley that he “ was the founder 
 of historical philology.” See Works of 
 Richard Bentley , edited by the Rev. Alexan¬ 
 der Dyce, 3 vols. (London 1836). 
 
 Bereans, a sect founded by John Barclay 
 (1734-1798). They claimed to imitate the 
 aacient Bereans (Acts xvii. 11), and found 
 their only rule of conduct in the Script¬ 
 ures. A few congregations still exist in 
 Scotland. 
 
 Berenga'rius, an eminent theologian of 
 the Middle Ages; b. at Tours in 998; d. on 
 the island of St. Cosme, 1088. Educated 
 under Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, in 1031 
 he was appointed director of the cathedral 
 school at Tours, and in 1040 was made 
 archdeacon of Angers. It was not far 
 from this time that accusations were made 
 against him of holding heretical views re¬ 
 garding the Lord’s Supper. The contro¬ 
 versy in which he engaged turned upon 
 the questions—(1) “ Whether the words 
 * This is My Body,’ and ‘ This is My 
 Blood,’ mean that the consecrated bread 
 and wine actually become changed into the 
 body and blood of Christ, in such a sense 
 that the bread and wine no longer exist 
 (transubstantiation) ; or (2) whether the 
 words are used in a symbolic sense only, 
 and so do not mean that the body and 
 blood of Christ are really present at all in 
 the consecrated bread and wine; or (3) 
 whether the words mean that the body and 
 blood of Christ are truly present in asso¬ 
 ciation with the consecrated elements, but 
 present in a mysterious manner which can¬ 
 not be explained. The last of these state¬ 
 ments was that which was actually main¬ 
 tained by Berengarius. The second was 
 that which he was accused of maintaining; 
 and the first was that which was maintain- 
 
Ber 
 
 Ber 
 
 ( 98 ) 
 
 ed by his opponents.”—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. Berengarius entered upon a cor¬ 
 respondence with Lanfranc, which brought 
 his views to the attention of Pope Leo IX., 
 and at two different synods in 1050 he was 
 condemned without a hearing. He was 
 released from prison through the interven¬ 
 tion of powerful friends, and at the Coun¬ 
 cil of Tours (1054) he gained the assistance 
 of Hildebrand, who satisfied the Council 
 that Berengarius did not deny the real 
 presence of Christ in the sacramental ele¬ 
 ments. At the Synod of Rome, in 1059, 
 under fear of death, he subscribed to the 
 strongest statement of the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation. This act caused him 
 keen remorse, and he made the best 
 amends he could by asserting his former 
 views more strenuously than ever. In 
 1078 he was summoned to Rome, and dur¬ 
 ing the progress of a synod in the follow¬ 
 ing year, under the stern command of Hil¬ 
 debrand, now Pope Gregory VII., he again 
 made a recantation. With bitter tears he 
 soon recalled this forced expression of er¬ 
 ror, but he no longer attempted to promul¬ 
 gate his views in public, but retired to the 
 solitude of the island of St. Como, near 
 Tours, where he spent the rest of his life. 
 
 Berengarians, the followers of Beren¬ 
 garius. No sect was ever formed under 
 his name; but those in the Middle Ages 
 who denied the real presence of the body 
 and blood of Christ in the Eucharist were 
 called Berengarians. 
 
 Berkeley, George, bishop of the Church 
 of England ; b. at Dysert Castle, county 
 of Kilkenny, Ireland, March 12, 1685; d. 
 at Oxford, England, Jan. 14, 1753. He 
 was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 where he gained a fellowship in 1707. In 
 1724 he was preferred to the deanery of 
 Derry, but, having become deeply interest¬ 
 ed in missionary work for North America, 
 he still hoped to carry out his plans in this 
 direction. Disappointed in founding, at 
 Bermuda, a college for the training of mis¬ 
 sionaries, he came to America in 1729, and 
 made his home at Newport, Rhode Island. 
 He did not receive the aid which had been 
 promised him, and after three years of labor 
 he returned to England, and in 1730 was 
 made bishop of Cloyne, Ireland. “ He is 
 chiefly remembered as the author of what 
 is called the Ideal Philosophy, which is 
 founded upon the doctrine of Locke, that 
 it is not things we know, but the ideas of 
 things. This system was further developed 
 by Berkeley, who held that the ideas are 
 themselves the things and the only things 
 that seem real. However paradoxical this 
 may seem, and regarded, as it is, by many 
 
 as skeptical, it was intended by Berkeley to 
 meet the prevailing skepticism of his day. 
 He defended his theory in several works, 
 chiefly in The Principles of Human Knowl¬ 
 edge (1710), Three Dialogues Between Hylas 
 and Philonous (1713), and The Minute Phil¬ 
 osopher (1732). He was also the author of 
 The Theory of Vision (1709), in which he 
 showed that many of the properties of 
 bodies are known to us, not by sight, but 
 by other faculties, and thence by associa¬ 
 tion and reasoning. In his later years he 
 published a work called Siris: or, A Chain 
 of Philosophical Refections and Inquiries , 
 beginning with a discussion on the virtues 
 of tar water, and ending with the doctrine of 
 the Holy Trinity. He was a man of remark¬ 
 ably beautiful and benevolent character, 
 and his style is a model for philosophical 
 disquisition.” — Cassell: Ency. See his 
 complete works (ed. by R. C. Fraser, Ox¬ 
 ford, 1871), 4 vols., with biography. 
 
 Bern, The Disputation of, was famous 
 among the many gatherings held during 
 the Reformation, to decide whether Prot¬ 
 estantism or Romanism should be the ac¬ 
 knowledged religion of the country. Bern 
 had for some time been halting between 
 two opinions, but at last the lords and 
 chief citizens determined to hold a confer¬ 
 ence, to choose once for all between the 
 Pope and Luther. They sent invitations to 
 the bishops, and desired all the cantons 
 and free towns of the Helvetic Confeder¬ 
 acy to send deputies; indeed, so anxious 
 were they to thoroughly sift the matter, 
 that they invited the ablest champions on 
 both sides, promising them freedom of de¬ 
 bate. The assemblage amounted to about 
 350 persons. The place chosen for the 
 conference was the Church of the Corde¬ 
 liers; the Popish deputies sat at one table 
 and the Protestants at the other, and be¬ 
 tween them sat the secretaries, who were 
 bound by an oath to make a true and unbi¬ 
 ased report of the proceedings. The meet¬ 
 ing lasted for twenty days, from Jan. 6, 
 1528, to Jan. 27. It sat on Sundays as 
 well as week-days, except on Jan. 22d, the 
 fete of St. Vincent, the patron saint of 
 Bern. Then it was seen that the Protes¬ 
 tants had gained the day; the Bernese had 
 been accustomed to observe the day with 
 much solemnity, but now the bells called 
 in vain to service: neither priest nor wor¬ 
 shiper appeared. Then the canons and 
 ecclesiastics were assembled and asked if 
 they wished to subscribe to the Reformed 
 theses, to which they replied with hearty 
 consent, and forthwith signed the articles. 
 Eck and other champions of Rome had de¬ 
 clined to be present, thus leaving the field 
 open to the Protestants, who were repre- 
 
Ber 
 
 ( 99 ) 
 
 Ber 
 
 sented by Zwingli, Kolb, Haller, Capito 
 and (Ecolampadius. On Feb. 7, 1528, the 
 Reformation Edict was published, consist¬ 
 ing of thirteen articles. Mass was abol¬ 
 ished, and the altars were pulled down, 
 images were removed, and the Reforma¬ 
 tion may be said to have won a complete 
 and easy victory.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Bernard, St., the most distinguished 
 representative of monasticism in the 
 Middle Ages ; b. at Fontaines, near Di¬ 
 jon, in 1091; d. at Clairvaux, Aug. 20, 
 1153. Sprung from a noble family, the 
 influence of a pious mother, in connection 
 with his natural disposition, early drew 
 him to the life of the cloister. He was but 
 twenty-two years old when he entered the 
 monastery of Citeaux (1113), and at once 
 gave evidence of the persuasive power of 
 eloquence that ever after marked his ca¬ 
 reer. At the time he joined the monas¬ 
 tery, it was in charge of Stephen Harding, 
 an Englishman, who soon discovered that 
 the young monk was a man of extraordi¬ 
 nary promise. Giving himself with singu¬ 
 lar devotion to religious duties, in medita¬ 
 tion and fasting, he gladly performed the 
 most menial duties. In thus “ losing his 
 life,” his example became a pattern for oth¬ 
 ers, and the fame of the monastery soon 
 filled its walls to overflowing, and new col¬ 
 onies were sent forth. Bernard was placed 
 at the head of a company (1115) that, in a 
 wild, secluded valley of Langres, laid the 
 foundations of the abbey of Clairvaux. 
 Under the pressure of labor, hardship, and 
 fastings, Bernard fell ill, but regained his 
 strength under the care of his friend, Wil¬ 
 liam of Champeaux. 
 
 With health restored, his influence as a 
 preacher, writer, and ecclesiastical leader 
 was recognized throughout the bounds of 
 Christendom. When, after the death of 
 Pope Honorius II., in 1130, the Roman 
 Church was distracted by the claims of 
 rival popes, Bernard favored Innocent II. 
 His influence proved irresistible, and the 
 struggle at its close found him the recog¬ 
 nized ecclesiastical leader of his age. It was 
 at this time that he entered upon his mem¬ 
 orable theological conflict with Abelard. 
 At their first meeting, Abelard refused to 
 proceed with his defense, and appealed to 
 Rome. Bernard forwarded to the Pope a 
 letter of indictment against his opponent, 
 and Abelard was silenced. A partial recon¬ 
 ciliation was afterward effected between 
 the two great leaders by Peter the Vener¬ 
 able, Abbot of Cluny. 
 
 The connection of Bernard with the 
 Crusades forms the saddest chapter in his 
 history, but is a remarkable illustration of 
 
 the influence his words and counsel exert¬ 
 ed. The fall of Edessa in 1144 aroused an 
 intense desire throughout the Roman em¬ 
 pire to rescue the Holy Land from the in¬ 
 fidels. St. Bernard was urged by the Pope 
 to preach the new crusade. Passing through 
 Germany and France, his eloquence kin¬ 
 dled a flame of enthusiasm that soon gath¬ 
 ered a vast army. History records the 
 utter failure of the crusade. The suffering 
 and ruin that was so wide-spread found 
 vent in the abuse of the great preacher. 
 Accepting these assaults in a spirit of hu¬ 
 mility, Bernard was distressed in mind 
 and broken in body. Faithful in the dis¬ 
 charge of his duties to the last, amid the 
 sorrow of his devoted followers, he re¬ 
 joiced when the hour of his departure 
 came. Luther says, “ If there ever lived 
 on the earth a God-fearing and holy monk, 
 it was St. Bernard of Clairvaux.” The best 
 edition of his works is that of Mabillon 
 (Paris, 1690; reprinted in 1854; 4 vols. 
 English trans. by S. J. Eales, London, 
 1889). In the church universal the name of 
 St. Bernard is best known as the author of 
 several hymns, the most famous of which 
 is, “O Sacred Head, now Wounded,” which 
 was translated into German by Gerhardt. 
 
 Bernard of Cluny, b. about the middle of 
 the twelfth century, at Morlaix, in Brit¬ 
 tany; d. at Cluny. He wrote a Latin 
 poem, “ De Contemptu Mundi.” Through 
 the translations of Dr. Trench and Rev. J. 
 M. Neale, extracts from the poem have 
 passed into general use in the hymn-books 
 of all denominations. The most popular 
 of the hymns are: “ Brief Life is Here our 
 Portion ”; “ For Thee, O dear, dear Coun¬ 
 try! ” and “ Jerusalem, the Golden.” 
 Nothing is known of the life of Bernard. 
 
 Bernard of Mentone (923-1008), the 
 founder of the hospitals for travelers 
 across the Alpine passes, known as “ The 
 Great St. Bernard ” and “ The Little St. 
 Bernard.” For nine centuries the two 
 hospices, built through his efforts, have 
 been the home of Augustinian monks,who 
 have ministered to the wants of, and often 
 rescued from death, distressed travelers. 
 It was while Archdeacon of Aosta, and 
 engaged in missionary work among the 
 mountaineers, that his attention was called 
 to the need of the hospitals which he 
 founded, and which have accomplished so 
 much good. 
 
 Bernardine of Siena, St., b. at Massa, 
 1380; d. at Aquila, May 30, 1444. At the 
 age of twenty-two he became a Franciscan, 
 and during the plague which ravaged 
 Siena in 1400 he showed rare devotion 
 
Ber 
 
 / 
 
 ( ioo ) 
 
 Bet 
 
 and courage. He was the most celebrated 
 preacher of his time, and by his eloquence 
 many were converted to a life of sobriety 
 and virtue. He refused several bishoprics. 
 It is said that he founded no less than 300 
 monasteries. 
 
 Bernardines, a second name for the Cis¬ 
 tercian order of monks. See Cistercians. 
 
 Berni'ce, or Berenice ( victorious ), the 
 eldest daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 
 xxv. 13, 23; xxvi. 30.) She was first mar¬ 
 ried to her uncle Herod, the king of Chal- 
 cis; and after his death lived in a connec¬ 
 tion with her brother Agrippa that gave 
 rise to much scandal. She finally became 
 the mistress of Vespasian, and then of his 
 son Titus. 
 
 Berquin ( ber-kan ), Louis de, b. at Passy 
 about 1490; d. in Paris, April 17, 1529. 
 After close investigation he became a con¬ 
 vert to the doctrines of Luther. He was 
 twice imprisoned on a charge of heresy, 
 but, through the intercession of the king, 
 was released the second time. Having 
 openly attacked the Sorbonne, he was sen¬ 
 tenced to have his tongue pierced with a 
 hot iron, and remain in prison the rest of 
 his life. He appealed to the king, but this 
 so enraged his judges that they then con¬ 
 demned him to be burned alive. The sen¬ 
 tence was executed in Paris, April 17, 
 1529. He was the first Protestant martyr 
 in France. See Baird: Rise of the Hugue¬ 
 nots , I., 128 sqq. 
 
 Berthold, founder of the Carmelites. See 
 Carmelites. 
 
 Beryl. This precious stone was the first 
 in the fourth row in the high-priest’s breast¬ 
 plate (Ex. xxviii. 20), and eighth in the 
 foundation of the holy Jerusalem. (Rev. 
 xxi. 20.) It is supposed to be allied to 
 the emerald, and to have been the same as 
 aqua-marina. 
 
 Beth-ab'ara ( house of the ford), a place 
 upon the Jordan where John baptized our 
 Lord. (John i. 28.) Following the most an¬ 
 cient manuscripts, the Revised Version 
 reads “ Bethany,” an obscure village in 
 Peraea, not to be confounded with Bethany 
 on the Mount of Olives. 
 
 Beth'any (house of misery), a village on 
 the eastern slope of Mount Olivet, about 
 two miles from Jerusalem. It was the 
 home of Mary and Martha (Matt. xxi. 17; 
 Mark xi. 11, 12; John xi), and also of Si¬ 
 mon the Leper (Mark xiv. 3); and near here 
 our Lord ascended. (Luke xxiv. 50.) The 
 
 little Arab village, composed of forty rude 
 stone houses, is now called el Aziriyeh, 
 “ place of Lazarus.” 
 
 Beth'el (house of God), a place about 
 twelve miles north of Jerusalem. It was 
 visited by Abraham (Gen. xii. 8); here la- 
 cob had his vision of the ladder (Gen. 
 xxviii. 11-19); Samuel judged there (1 Sam. 
 vii. 16), and Jeroboam made it the chief 
 seat of the calf-worship. (1 Kings xii. 28-33; 
 xiii. 1.) After the captivity it was again 
 settled by Benjamites. (Neh. xi. 31.) It 
 is not mentioned in the New Testament. 
 It is now called Beitin , and a village of 
 about twenty-five Moslem hovels is scatter¬ 
 ed over the site of ruins that cover some 
 four acres. 
 
 Bethes'da (house of mercy), a pool in Jeru¬ 
 salem near the sheep-gate. (John v. 2.) 
 Tradition identifies it with the modern Bir - 
 ket-Israil, a reservoir choked with rubbish, 
 360 feet long, 120 wide, and 80 feet deep. 
 Robinson identified it with the intermittent 
 Pool of the Virgin, outside the city, in the 
 Valley of the Kedron. 
 
 Beth-ho'ron (house of the hollow), the name 
 of two places, the “ Upper ” and “ Nether” 
 Beth-horon (Josh. xvi. 3, 5), situated about 
 three miles apart, on opposite sides of a ra¬ 
 vine on the way from Jerusalem to the sea- 
 coast. It was through this ravine that the 
 Amorites fled after the battle of Gibeon. 
 (Josh. x. 1-11.) 
 
 Beth'lehem (house of bread), “ a town in 
 the ‘ hill country,’ about six miles south of 
 Jerusalem, situated on a narrow ridge run¬ 
 ning eastward, which breaks down in ab¬ 
 rupt terraced slopes to the deep valleys 
 below. The town is one of the oldest in 
 Palestine. It was Rachel’s burial-place 
 (still marked by a white mosque near the 
 town), and called Ephrath (Gen. xxxv. 
 19); the home of Naomi, Boaz, and Ruth 
 (Ruth i. 19); birthplace of David (1 Sam. 
 xvii. 12); burial-place of Joab’s family (2 
 Sam. ii. 32); taken by the Philistines, and 
 had a noted well (2 Sam. xxiii. 14, 15); for¬ 
 tified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 6); fore¬ 
 told as the birthplace of Christ (Mic. v. 2); 
 the birthplace of Jesus (Matt. ii. 1); was 
 visited by the shepherds (Luke ii. 15-17), 
 and by the magi. (Matt, ii.) It has existed 
 as a town for over 4,000 years. It was a 
 small place until after the time of Christ; 
 was improved, and its walls rebuilt by Jus¬ 
 tinian; had a famous church in a. d. 600; 
 was destroyed by the Arabs, rebuilt by the 
 Franks, again twice destroyed, a. d. 1244 
 and in 1489; rebuilt within the last two 
 centuries; now has about 5,000 inhab- 
 
Bet 
 
 ( ioi ) 
 
 Bet 
 
 itants, nearly all nominally Christians, 
 mostly of the Greek Church. It is now 
 called Beit-Lahm\ is surrounded by nicely 
 kept terraces covered with vines, olive and 
 fig trees. The Church of the Nativity, the 
 oldest in Christendom, built in a. d. 330 by 
 the Empress Helena, stands over the grot¬ 
 to reputed to be the place of our Lord’s 
 birth, and is the joint property of the 
 Greeks, Latins, and Armenians, who have 
 separate convents adjoining it. The ‘plain 
 of the Shepherds ’ is about a mile from the 
 town. The so-called David’s well is point¬ 
 ed out near the city. A massive column 
 stands upon the reputed spot where monk¬ 
 ish legends say 20,000 martyred innocents 
 
 es. In the northernmost of these is a mar¬ 
 ble slab, on which a silver star marks the 
 supposed spot of the Nativity. The tra¬ 
 dition that Jesus was born in this cave 
 is very old, and is first mentioned by 
 Justin Martyr (about A. D. 140), who 
 was a native of Palestine.”—Schaff: Bibit 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Bethlehemites, (1) a Roman Catholic or¬ 
 der founded in 1659, in Guatemala, by 
 Peter of Bethencourt, a Franciscan. Their 
 special work was to care for the sick in 
 hospitals, and teach in schools. There are 
 a few houses of the order in Central Amer¬ 
 ica, but none elsewhere. (2) A name given 
 
 BETHLEHEM. 
 
 were slain. The claim of these places as 
 the true localities where the biblical events 
 occurred rests wholly upon traditions cov¬ 
 ered with the accumulated rubbish of su¬ 
 perstition, which render the identifications 
 of small value. The chapel beneath the 
 church, however, was the study of Jerome, 
 where he spent thirty years on his great 
 work, the Latin version of the Bible, called 
 the Vulgate , and which is still the standard 
 version in the Roman Church. The ‘ holy 
 crypt,’ the reputed birthplace of our Lord, 
 is a cave in the solid rock, twenty feet be¬ 
 neath the great choir of the church. At 
 ‘the entrance of along winding passage, cut 
 out of the limestone rock, is an irregular¬ 
 shaped chapel, containing two small recess- 
 
 the Hussites from the name of the chapel 
 in Prague where Huss preached. 
 
 Beth'phage (house of figs), a place near 
 Bethany; probably west of it. Here the 
 colt was found which Christ used in his 
 triumphal entrance to Jerusalem. (Matt, 
 xi. 1.) 
 
 Bethsa'ida (house of fishing), a city of 
 Galilee, near Capernaum. (John xii. 21; 
 Matt. xi. 21.) It has been the opinion of 
 many scholars that there were two towns 
 of this name, one in Galilee, on the west 
 side of the lake, and the other in Gaulanitis, 
 on the east bank of the Jordan. Dr. W. 
 M. Thomson, sustained by eminent au- 
 
Bet 
 
 ( 102 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 thorities, holds that there was but one 
 Bethsaida, which was built on both sides 
 of the Jordan, where its waters flow into the 
 Lake of Galilee. SeeSchaff: Through Bible 
 Lands; Thomson: The Land and the Book. 
 
 Beth-she'an (house of quiet), a city situat¬ 
 ed on the road from Jerusalem, about five 
 miles from the Jordan. The dead body of 
 Saul was fastened to its walls, (i Sam. 
 xxxi. io.) It was called Scythopolis after 
 the captivity, and became a chief city of 
 Decapolis. Its site is marked by exten¬ 
 sive ruins. It is now known as Beizan. 
 
 Beth-she'mesh ( house of the sun) a city 
 of Judah which belonged to the priests. 
 (Josh. xxi. 16.) Here the ark was returned, 
 (i Sam. vi. 12-18.) It is about fourteen 
 miles west of Jerusalem, and is now a heap 
 of ruins near 'Ain Shetns. 
 
 Bethu'lia ( virgin of Jehovah ), the place 
 in which the prominent events recorded in 
 the apocryphal Book of Judith took place. 
 It has never been identified. 
 
 Bethune, George W., D. D., b. in New 
 York City, March 18, 1805; d. at Florence, 
 Italy, April 27, 1862. He was a graduate 
 of Dickinson College,Carlisle, Penn., 1823, 
 and studied theology at Princeton Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary. After receiving license to 
 preach, in 1826, he spent a year in mission¬ 
 ary labor among the colored people and the 
 sailors at Savannah, Gal His ministerial 
 life was spent in connection with the Re¬ 
 formed (Dutch) denomination: Rhinebeck, 
 1827-30; Utica, 1830-34; First Church, 
 Philadelphia, 1834-37; Third Church, in the 
 same city, which he helped to organize, 
 1837-49; Central Church, Brooklyn, 1849- 
 50; Churchonthe Heights, Brooklyn, 1850- 
 59: Associate minister of the Twenty-first 
 Street Church, New York, 1859-60. He 
 was a ripe scholar, an eloquent preacher, 
 a beloved pastor, and a great lover of na¬ 
 ture. He wrote well on a variety of sub¬ 
 jects. See his Life by A. R.Van Nest (New 
 York, 1867). 
 
 Beveridge, William, a very learned and 
 devout English bishop; b. at Barrow, in 
 1637; d. at Westminster, March 5, 1708. 
 Educated at Cambridge, he became Arch¬ 
 deacon of Colchester in 1681, and Bishop 
 of St. Asaph in 1704. He wrote regarding 
 church history and the canon law. His 
 complete works were published in 12 vols. 
 (Oxford, 1S44-1848). He has been called 
 “ the great reviver and restorer of primi¬ 
 tive piety,” because of his personal exam¬ 
 ple, and zeal in the discharge of his minis¬ 
 terial duties. 
 
 Be'za, Theodore, or, more correctly, 
 De Beze; b. at Vezelai, in Burgundy, July 
 24, 1519; d. in Geneva, Oct. 15, 1605. The 
 child of influential and pious parents, he 
 was adopted in infancy by an uncle, in 
 whose home in Paris he was educated with 
 great care. When but ten years of age he 
 was put in charge of Melchior Wolmar, 
 and was under his instruction at Orleans 
 and Bourges for seven years. Wolmar 
 was a Protestant, and instilled into the 
 mind of his pupil the principles of the 
 Reformed faith, and trained him in the 
 critical study of the Bible. When Wolmar 
 returned to Germany (1535), Beza con¬ 
 tinued the study of law at Orleans, until 
 he received his license, when he made his 
 home in Paris. This period of his life was 
 one that he lived deeply to regret, although 
 the extent to which he yielded to the al¬ 
 lurements of the temptations around him 
 have, no doubt, been often very much ex¬ 
 aggerated. A severe illness led to sincere 
 repentance, and the beginning of a new 
 life. He retired to Geneva (1548), married 
 the woman with whom he had formerly 
 lived, and united with the Reformed 
 Church. It was here that he came into 
 close relations of friendship with Calvin. 
 The following year he became teacher of 
 Greek at Lausanne, where he remained 
 for ten years. It was here that he began 
 the work upon which his fame rests: the 
 Translation of the New Testament , with 
 Comments. In 1558 he removed to Geneva, 
 where he taught Greek, and aided Calvin 
 in many directions. After the death of 
 Calvin, in 1564, he was appointed his suc¬ 
 cessor as teacher of theology. He showed 
 great executive ability, and managed the 
 affairs of the Reformed Church with con¬ 
 summate skill. His pen was busy almost 
 to the last. He resigned all official posi¬ 
 tions five years, before his death, which 
 occurred at the advanced age of eighty-six. 
 
 Bezpopoftschins, a division of Russian 
 Dissenters which does not retain the office 
 of priest. It comprehends many sects. 
 
 Bezslovestni, a curious sect of Russian 
 Dissenters, formed in the last century, 
 whose members, after their conversion, 
 renounced the use of speech, and so ac¬ 
 quired their distinctive name, which means 
 “ The Dumb.” Cruel forms of torture 
 were used by Pestal, Governor-general of 
 Siberia during the reign of Catherine II., 
 with the object of obtaining information 
 as to their tenets, but without success. 
 
 Bible. That the volume which we call 
 the Bible is the inspired revelation of God 
 appears from a chain of evidence begin- 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 103 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 ning with very early times. The history 
 of the LXX., the Greek translation of the 
 Old Testament (see below), proves the ex¬ 
 istence of the Old Testament long before 
 the Christian era; in the second prologue 
 to Ecclesiasticus, about b. c. 230, “ the 
 Law and the Prophets and the rest of the 
 Books ” are spoken of, which virtually 
 represents our Lord’s own division. (Luke 
 xxiv. 44.) And that these books, then, 
 afterwards, and now existing, came from 
 most primitive ages as the productions of 
 those whose names they bear, may rest 
 upon the testimony of Philo, the Jewish 
 philosopher, in the first half, and Josephus, 
 the Jewish historian, in the second half, of 
 the first century, to the extreme and jeal¬ 
 ous care with which the Jews preserved 
 their sacred writings—writings described 
 by Josephus in agreement with all later 
 catalogues of the Old Testament. 
 
 Of these later catalogues, the first extant 
 is that in the works of Melito, Bishop of 
 Sardis (a. d. 180), another is by Origen, a 
 few years later, and there are eight others 
 in the works of the Fathers, down to St. 
 Augustine in the fifth century. Then came 
 the catalogues set forth by the councils, 
 adding the New Testament; that of Lao- 
 dicea (363), gives all our books except the 
 Revelation of St. John; while that of Car¬ 
 thage (397), adds the Revelation, and in¬ 
 serts also some of the Apocryphal books. 
 
 The word Bible , in Greek and Latin 
 Biblia , is a plural noun turned into a 
 singular, being the Greek “ books.” St. 
 Chrysostom, in the fourth century, first 
 uses it in his Homilies (the earlier titles of 
 the “ Bible ” being such as answer to our 
 expressions, “ the Holy Scriptures,” or 
 “ Sacred Writings ”); and through the 
 Latin translation into ancient, middle, and 
 modern English, it passed as the familiar 
 name by which we know the volume of 
 sacred books of our Christian religion. 
 With most of the reformed churches it is 
 divided into the three great sections of the 
 Old Testament, the Apocrypha, and the 
 New Testament. 
 
 I. — The Original Hebrew Old Testament . 
 —The thirty-nine books, whose names stand 
 at the beginning of our Bibles, in “ The 
 Names and Order of all the Books,” 
 formed, of course, and form now, the He¬ 
 brew Bible; but they were differently ar¬ 
 ranged into the three sections of which 
 our Lord speaks (Luke xxiv. 44), as “ the 
 Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms;” (1) 
 the Lazo being the five Books of Moses; 
 (2) the Prophets , not only those books 
 which we call by that name, but the his¬ 
 torical ones also, which were placed in 
 this category in consequence of the belief 
 that the prophets were the historians; (3) 
 
 the Psalms , the book of that name and the 
 other poetical ones. This is but a rough 
 classification, and not at all times strictly 
 accurate, but such was the principle. 
 
 The books are of most various dates, 
 from Job, or rather part of Job, down to 
 Malachi the prophet. With regard to the 
 former, the exact date is uncertain, but it 
 is thought by some that Moses edited what 
 already existed, and added the historical 
 beginning and end; the date usually given 
 to Moses is about b. c. 1490. From about 
 this time, then, the five Books of Moses 
 and that of Job are dated; and the Book 
 of Malachi from about b. c. 420. Over 
 more than a thousand years, therefore, 
 the Books of the Old Testament range; 
 and, as during this time the work of collec¬ 
 tion was gradually going on, more than 
 one assemblage of books is, as might be 
 expected, known. Thus about b. c. 1420, 
 “the Book of the Law of God” (Josh, 
 xxiv. 26) was, as tradition has uniformly 
 maintained, what is now known as the 
 Pentateuch. About b. C. 710 Isaiah (xxxiv. 
 16) mentions “ the Book of the Lord;” 
 and about b. c. 520 Zechariah’s mention 
 (vii. 7) of “ the former prophets ” is prob¬ 
 ably an allusion, though not quite so clear 
 a one, to an earlier compilation of prophets 
 and historians. And at the end of the 
 fifth century before Christ, that is, rather 
 more than a hundred years after the last 
 date, the latest'collection and redaction was 
 made by Ezra and Nehemiah, the two Jew¬ 
 ish restorers, and the standard copy thus 
 produced laid up in the Temple. This 
 was lost at the taking of Jerusalem by the 
 Romans (a. d. 70), just as the sacred auto¬ 
 graphs had been lost when Nebuchadnez¬ 
 zar of Babylon took the city (b. c. 588). 
 
 Far later even than A. d. 70 are the earli¬ 
 est Hebrew copies which now exist. The 
 MS. Bible in the Cambridge University 
 Library is said to date from A. d. 856 
 (Smith: Dictionary of the Bible , under Old 
 Testament), and other copies of different 
 books on the Continent from 843, 897, 916; 
 the MSS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch, a 
 recension in Samaritan characters, made 
 about b. c. 400, date from the tenth cen¬ 
 tury. The printed editions began in 1477, 
 with the Psalter, at Bologna; other sepa¬ 
 rate portions followed, and before the end 
 of the century the whole Bible was printed 
 at Soncino, near Cremona; a copy of this 
 edition is at Exeter College. The great 
 Complutensian Polyglot (the Bible in He¬ 
 brew, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin), succeed¬ 
 ed in 1522, at Complutense, now Alcala; 
 and many other editions more or less im¬ 
 portant, among which the other Polyglots 
 may be mentioned: the Antwerp Polyglot, 
 1569-1572, containing (besides the above 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 104 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 languages) the Syriac version; the Paris, 
 1628-1645, containing also Samaritan and 
 Arabic; the London, 1657 (edited by Bishop 
 Watson, of Chester); the Leipsic, 1750, 
 containing the German version; and the 
 Second London, 1816,‘published by the Bag- 
 sters. All modern Hebrew Bibles, how¬ 
 ever, are based on Van der Hooght’s edi¬ 
 tion, Amsterdam, 1705. 
 
 The Greek Old Testament .—Some por¬ 
 tions of the Old Testament (the history of 
 the Exodus, the settlement in Canaan, the 
 Law of Moses, strictly so called), may have 
 been translated into Greek very shortly 
 after the final redaction by Ezra; and there 
 is a quotation of Aristobulus, a Jewish 
 priest of about b. c. 160, by Clement of 
 Alexandria ( Stromata , or Miscellanies, i. 
 22), to the effect that Plato the philosopher 
 (b. c. 428-347) had studied them. But the 
 whole of the Old Testament was first trans¬ 
 lated in the reign of Ptolemy II., Philadel- 
 phus, King of Egypt (b. c. 288-247). This 
 king was the founder of the famous mu¬ 
 seum and library of Alexandria, and under 
 the care of Demetrius Phalereus, the orator, 
 who was his librarian, the Old Testament 
 was translated by learned Jews of Alexan¬ 
 dria. This is all that is really known of 
 the history of the translation; the legends 
 that seventy translators were sent from 
 Jerusalem by the high - priest, that they 
 were shut up in seventy cells on the island 
 of Pharos, and each, by the help of the Holy 
 Ghost, finished a version in seventy days, 
 which seventy, by the same Divine power, 
 minutely agreed—these are discredited by 
 the simple evidence of the version itself, 
 that the translators were not quite perfect¬ 
 ly acquainted with Hebrew; one portion, 
 however, of these traditions is embodied in 
 the name of the version, “ the Septuagint,” 
 or, in short, LXX. 
 
 One of the oldest MSS. of the Septuagint 
 known, the Codex Cottonianus, of the 
 fourth century, was almost destroyed by 
 fire in 1731; what remains is in the British 
 Museum. There is also the Codex Alex- 
 andrinus, which is almost complete in both 
 Testaments, and dates from the fifth cen¬ 
 tury; but at the Vatican is a Greek Bible 
 somewhat less complete, of the same age 
 as the Cottonian, another at Paris, and 
 another at Milan, more fragmentary still, 
 and about two centuries younger. The 
 Psalter was printed at. Milan, in 14S1, and 
 at Venice, 14S6 and 1496, but the first com¬ 
 plete LXX. was in the Complutensian 
 Polyglot already mentioned, 1517. The 
 text of this was an eclectic one; but re¬ 
 prints of both the Alexandrian and Vatican 
 MSS., which differ slightly from each other 
 (the latter being generally nearest the 
 Hebrew), have often been made; thus the 
 
 latter is taken by Bishop Walton in his 
 Polyglot, 1697; by Holmes and Parsons, 
 Oxford, 1798; by Dean Gaisford’s small 
 edition, Oxford, 1848 ; also by Messrs. 
 Bagster’s reprints; while the former is rep¬ 
 resented by Grabe, Oxford, 1707 ; Breit- 
 inger, Zurich, 1730; and Mr. Field in 1859, 
 who also arranged the version according to 
 the Hebrew, by separating the Apocryphal 
 Books, and altering, where necessary, the 
 arrangement of chapters. 
 
 Three other versions, by Aquila, Theo- 
 dotion, and Symmachus, date from the sec¬ 
 ond century; they are not extant except in 
 fragments; their characteristics are—of Aq- 
 uila’s, great and unintelligible literalness; 
 of Theodotion’s, very considerable igno¬ 
 rance of Hebrew, far more than the slight 
 and partial ignorance of the LXX.; of Sym¬ 
 machus’, the reverse of the first, too great 
 paraphrase. Theodotion’s requires further 
 notice, from the curious fact that his Daniel 
 was, for unknown reasons, very early sub¬ 
 stituted for that of the LXX. It so remain¬ 
 ed universally till 1772, when the latter 
 was first published at Rome, from the 
 Codex Chigianus of the tenth century, and 
 very commonly so afterward. Gaisford 
 (1848) gives both. Yet three more ver¬ 
 sions, though only partial ones, existed, 
 but are now extant only in very scattered 
 fragments; being anonymous they are only 
 known as the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh ver¬ 
 sions. All the seven, together with the 
 original Hebrew, and the same in Greek 
 letters, formed the great Hexapla of Origen 
 (a. d. 185-254), arranged in parallel col¬ 
 umns, and having its title from the num¬ 
 ber of columns which went throughout. 
 This work was kept at Caesarea, but was 
 destroyed when the Saracens took the 
 town in 653. The central column only, 
 being the LXX. itself, with Origen’s anno¬ 
 tations, was preserved in a copy made by 
 Eusebius; but numerous fragments were 
 embedded as quotations in different works 
 of the Fathers and others, and all these 
 have been brought together successively 
 by Morin (1587), Drusius (1622), Montfau- 
 con (1714), and Mr. Field (1875), whose 
 preface is now the best, as well as the lat¬ 
 est, authority on the whole subject. 
 
 The Latin Old 7 'estament .—The earliest 
 Latin versions, not only of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment but of the whole Bible, did not come, 
 as might have been expected, from the 
 Roman Church, which, in the first days of 
 Christianity, was Greek-speaking, but from 
 that of Africa, which from the beginning 
 seems to have used Latin. One version, 
 which is not otherwise known, is quoted 
 by very early writers of our own Church, 
 as by Fastidius, a devotional writer of the 
 fifth century, said to have been Bishop of 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 105 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 London; and even before this, as early as 
 Tertullian (A. D. 150-220), there seems to 
 have been more than one version, or, more 
 properly, several recensions of the same 
 text, such as the African, British, Gallican, 
 and one, the best known, called the Old 
 Italic. Of this last, the chief part (of the 
 Old Testament) which now remains is the 
 Psalter, which was long used in divine ser¬ 
 vice, and with us till the Norman conquest. 
 These early versions were from the LXX.; 
 as the preface to our English Bible says: 
 “ They were not out of the Hebrew fount¬ 
 ain, but out of the Greek stream; therefore 
 the Greek not being altogether clear, the 
 Latin derived from it must needs be mud¬ 
 dy. This moved St. Jerome to undertake 
 the translating of the Old Testament out of 
 the very fountains themselves.” He be¬ 
 gan with the Psalter, of which he left three 
 distinct versions, all extant; (1) the Roman, 
 being the Old Italic slightly corrected; (2) 
 the Gallican, a fresh version from the LXX; 
 (3) the Hebrew, direct from the original: 
 he then proceeded with the rest of the 
 Bible, and finished it during the last twen¬ 
 ty years of the fourth century. His version 
 by degrees superseded the Old Italic, and, 
 revised by order of Charlemagne (a. d. 
 802), and again by Pope Clement VIII. in 
 1593, is the present authorized version of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. The name, 
 Vulgate, by which this Bible is known, was 
 originally applied by Jerome himself to the 
 Old Italic, and afterwards gradually trans¬ 
 ferred to his own work. The existing 
 MSS. are very many; some of the earliest 
 date from the sixth centurjr; one of this 
 age, the Codex Amiatinus, is at Florence; 
 one in the British Museum, known as Char¬ 
 lemagne’s Bible, is beautifully illuminated, 
 and another of the same kind at Durham 
 Cathedral is known by the name of Bishop 
 Pudsey, or de Brisac (1153-1197). The 
 Vulgate, on the invention of printing, was 
 the very first book to come from the press, 
 about 1450; after the edition was supposed 
 to be lost, a copy of it was found, in the 
 seventh century, in the library of Cardinal 
 Giulio Mazarin, at Paris, and it is therefore 
 called the Mazarin Bible. About twenty 
 copies are now known, mostly in England. 
 
 In the sixteenth century other transla¬ 
 tions were made; in 1527 by Sanctes Pa- 
 quinus (d. 1536) ; in 1535 by Sebastian 
 Munster (d. 1552); in 1572, by Benedict 
 Arias Montanus (d. 1598); in 1579, by 
 
 Emanuel Tremellius (d. 1580), to which his 
 son-in-law, Francis Junius (d. 1602), added 
 a translation of the Apocrypha; this name 
 has led a writer in Smith’s Dictionary of the 
 Bible into a strange blunder (ii. 466); “ the 
 margin of the A. V. (Tob. xi. 18), gives Ju¬ 
 nius as the equivalent of Nabas.” 
 
 II.— The Original Greek New Testa¬ 
 ment .—The New Testament was all orig¬ 
 inally written in Greek (for the theories 
 that St. Matthew’s gospel was a transla¬ 
 tion from Hebrew, and St. Mark’s from 
 Latin, are now given up, the latter by all 
 scholars, the former by nearly all) within 
 the last half of the first century; the orig¬ 
 inal autographs are long since lost, it is im¬ 
 possible to say when or how, and the ear¬ 
 liest MSS. which exist date from the fourth 
 and fifth centuries. The principal ones (of 
 which some have already been mentioned) 
 are: (1) The Sinaitic MS., discovered by 
 Tischendorf in 1859, and now at St. Peters¬ 
 burg, of the latter part of the fourth cen¬ 
 tury; (2) the Alexandrine, brought to 
 England in 1625, and placed in the British 
 Museum, 1753, of the early portion of the 
 fifth century; (3) the Vatican, in that Li¬ 
 brary since 1450, of the early part of the 
 fourth century, and so the oldest known; 
 (4) Ephraem, at Paris, of the fifth century; 
 and (5) Bezae, at Cambridge since 1581, of 
 the sixth century. Of these, the only one 
 where the New Testament is quite com¬ 
 plete, is the first; the second is very nearly 
 so; the third somewhat more deficient; the 
 fourth is only large fragments; and the fifth 
 the Gospels and Acts. Little more than a 
 brief list can be given of some of the more 
 important printed editions, of which the 
 first (though some of the early chapters of 
 St. John had been printed sooner), was, as 
 of the Old Testament, that of the Com- 
 plutensian Polyglot of Cardinal Francis 
 Ximenes deCisueros, which was published 
 in 1514, before the rest: to Ximenes suc¬ 
 ceeded Erasmus, who published in his life¬ 
 time five editions, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 
 1535. Theodore Beza, and the printers 
 Stephens and Elzevir, were the editors of 
 the next hundred years, and Dr. Scriv¬ 
 ener thinks that Beza’s last edition, 1598, 
 is the text which our Authorized Version 
 most nearly represents. But not all of the 
 five great MSS. were yet known: those 
 which were known do not appear to have 
 been used, and Ximenes and Erasmus 
 formed their text from very few, and those 
 late and unimportant ones. Stephens was 
 the first to collate any number, though 
 even he used them carelessly ; and the 
 Polyglot of Bishop Walton of Chester, 
 1657, was the first real, preparation for the 
 formation of a correct text by criticism. 
 Bishop Fell of Oxford, 1675, in some meas¬ 
 ure, though slightly, carried on the work; 
 but Dr. John Mill, Canon of Canterbury, 
 1707, “ found the edifice of wood and left 
 it marble ” (Scrivener): such was his in¬ 
 dustry, zeal, and sagacity, that he is uni¬ 
 versally allowed to be the parent of all 
 the work that has been done. Bentley’s 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 106 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 great plans came to nothing, and for 
 the next century almost all original re¬ 
 search was made in Germany. Bengel, 
 Wetstein, Griesbach, Scholz, Lachmann, 
 successively did their work upon the New 
 Testament, which was crowned, in 1872, by 
 Tischendorf’s final and eighth edition of 
 his revised text. Meanwhile, of later 
 years, in England, the three texts of Dr. 
 Tregelles, Dean Alford,-and Bishop Words¬ 
 worth have been published, and in 1881 
 the great edition of Professors Westcott 
 and Hort came forth, which is the last at¬ 
 tempt to settle the words actually written 
 by the inspired writers. 
 
 These, the words actually written, can¬ 
 not, it is almost universally allowed, be 
 those of the common or received text; and 
 the problem before critics, unless Westcott 
 and Hort, as some think, have solved it, is 
 to ascertain these as nearly as possible 
 from the three chief sources, namely MSS., 
 Versions, and Quotations. Of these three 
 only one has yet been mentioned, and but 
 a small portion of that; but there exist, 
 roughly speaking, about 2,000 MSS., more 
 or less complete, of which rather less than 
 a tenth are “ uncial,” the others being 
 “ cursive ” (the modern words answering 
 to these would-be “ point-hand ” and “run¬ 
 ning-hand ”), the uncial being, as a rule, the 
 earliest. The Versions of chief critical 
 value are the Latin, Syriac, Gothic, Egyp¬ 
 tian, Ethiopic, and Armenian; and the 
 Quotations referred to are those made by 
 the early Fathers of the Church. These 
 three sources of evidence come in the or¬ 
 der of their value; for in the second it can¬ 
 not, of course, be always certain what 
 Greek reading is represented by any trans¬ 
 lation, nor in the third whether a quotation 
 is meant to be a verbatim one. Again, in 
 applying the evidences there will be differ¬ 
 ences; for some critics, as Dean Alford 
 and others, attach paramount importance 
 to the early r uncials, those already men¬ 
 tioned by name and some few others, and 
 to their descent from and relation to each 
 other; while some, of whom Dean Burgon 
 in his celebrated Quarterly Reviezu papers, 
 and in a less degree Mr. Maclellan, in his 
 English New Testament, are examples, give 
 great weight in all cases to the later cur¬ 
 sives, whose influence formed our received 
 text, and to the possibility, which, no doubt, 
 always exists, that some may be copies 
 from an earlier uncial than any we now pos¬ 
 sess. To strike the balance is the great 
 difficulty of criticism; and it must not be 
 forgotten that Tischendorf, one of the 
 greatest of critics, in many cases returned 
 in his later editions to the received read¬ 
 ings. • 
 
 There are also “Graeco-Latin” MSS., 
 
 i. e., of the two languages side by side. 
 The best known is Codex Bezae, whose 
 Latin is simply its translation of its own 
 Greek; others have, some the Old Italic, 
 some the Vulgate. Lastly, Theodore Beza, 
 in 1556, made a very elegant version of the 
 New Testament, which went through 
 many editions, and has been reprinted by 
 the Bagsters; and Emanuel Tremellius, in 
 1569, made a version from the Syriac. 
 
 III. — Other Early Versions of the Bible. 
 —To these very little space can be given; 
 those whose names have been already 
 mentioned are: (1) The Syriac, in which 
 language and its dialects there are known 
 six more or less different and perfect 
 versions; the best known, the Peshito 
 (meaning Simple), is of the third century, 
 and was published as early as 1555, by Al¬ 
 bert Wiedmanstadt, Chancellor to the Em¬ 
 peror Ferdinand I.; (2) the Egyptian, di¬ 
 viding into three in different dialects, of 
 the fourth or fifth century; (3) the Goth¬ 
 ic, made by Bishop Ulfilas, about A. d. 360; 
 (4) the Ethiopic, whose date is unknown 
 (Christianity came to .Ethiopia in the 
 fourth century); this version only exists 
 in late MSS.; (5) the Armenian made in 
 the fifth century. Others are (6) the Ara¬ 
 bic, of the tenth century; (7) the Chaldee 
 of the Old Testament only, called the Tar- 
 gum, a word of unknown meaning; this is 
 intermixed with Jewish comment, para¬ 
 phrase, and explanation, and is of very va¬ 
 rious and uncertain dates; (8) the Samari¬ 
 tan, in a debased Hebrew dialect, of per¬ 
 haps the seventh century—not to be con¬ 
 fused with the “ Samaritan Pentateuch;” 
 (9) the Slavonic, of doubtful age, perhaps, 
 partly, even mediaeval. 
 
 IV. — The English Bible. 
 
 (1) Prittiitive Versions. —Of these there 
 is a trace, but a very slight one, in a 
 sermon of St. Chrysostom, about the end 
 of the fourth century; the Scriptures are 
 read, he says, even in the British Isles, 
 and the same faith is learnt as at Constan¬ 
 tinople, though in another tongue. 
 
 (2) Ancient English, or Saxon and 
 Norman Versions. —No complete Anglo- 
 Saxon version of the Bible now exists, or 
 probably ever existed; the Venerable Bede 
 (672—735), Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne 
 (d. 721), and King Alfred the Great, trans¬ 
 lated great part of it, but these versions 
 are now lost. Elfric, Archbishop of Can¬ 
 terbury (d. 1005), translated the Hepta¬ 
 teuch (Moses, with Joshua and Judges), 
 parts of Kings, Esther, Job, Judith, two 
 Books of Maccabees, with the apocryphal 
 gospel of Nicodemus; of these, the Hep¬ 
 tateuch, Job, Judith, and Nicodemus, were 
 published, 1699, by Edward Thwaites (d. 
 1711), Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford, 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 107 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 Regius Professor of Greek, also Professor 
 of Moral Philosophy. The Anglo-Saxon 
 translation of the Gospels appears to be 
 ascribed to HHfric without sufficient au¬ 
 thority. There remain six such MSS. at 
 Cambridge, Oxford, and the British Mu¬ 
 seum, of which the oldest is at Corpus 
 Christi College, Cambridge; but they dif¬ 
 fer from one another, and their relations, 
 either common or mutual, are not as yet 
 clear. A text representing them was pub¬ 
 lished by Archbishop Parker, and John 
 Foxe, 1571; by Thomas Marshall, Rector 
 of Lincoln College (d. 1685), 1665; by Mr. 
 Benjamin Thorpe, the eminent Anglo-Sax¬ 
 on scholar, 1842, and by Professor Bos- 
 worth, 1865. Besides these are twroglosses, or 
 Latin with interlinear Anglo-Saxon, known 
 as the Lindisfarne and Rushworth Gospels; 
 the former, in the British Museum, is of 
 the tenth century, the latter, in the Bod¬ 
 leian Library, of the ninth; both have been 
 published by the Surtees Society. There 
 were also metrical versions, more or less 
 paraphrastic, which have no strict right to 
 be on the present list—such as the narra¬ 
 tive poems by Caedmon, a monk of Whitby, 
 in the seventh century, published in 1655, 
 and by Mr. Thorpe in 1832; and the ver¬ 
 sion of the Psalms by Aldhelm, Bishop of 
 Sherborne (d. 709), published by Sir John 
 Spelman, 1640, by Mr. Thorpe, 1835, and 
 the Rev. Joseph Stevenson, 1843. Later, 
 when the language began to change, there 
 seems to have been a version of the Bible 
 in Norman-English, of which fragments re¬ 
 main; and, as in Saxon-English, there were 
 also metrical paraphrases. The chief of 
 these are the “ Ormulum” and the “South- 
 ear,” both in the Bodleian Library. The 
 former, of the eleventh century, contains 
 the New Testament narrative only; the 
 latter, of about the twelfth century, that 
 of both Testaments. 
 
 (3) Mediaeval jE?iglish Versions. —These 
 begin with the Psalters of William Shore- 
 ham, Vicar of Chart Sutton, near Staple- 
 hurst, and of Richard Rolle, chantry priest 
 of Hampole (now Hamphall), near Don¬ 
 caster, which were produced about the 
 same time, the first half of the fourteenth 
 century. The former exists only in one 
 MS. in the British Museum; the latter is 
 more common, and was printed as late as 
 1536. Of entire translations of the Bible, 
 it has been asserted more than once that 
 Wycliffe’s was not the first. Foxe, quot¬ 
 ing from a tract of the early fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury, speaks of “a Bible in English of 
 Northern speech, which seemed to be 200 
 years old;” Sir Thomas More, 1532, says 
 that there was a translation in English “ by 
 virtuous and well-learned men long before 
 Wycliffe’s days.” This testimony is very 
 
 vague, and it is at any rate certain that 
 Wycliffe knew nothing of any predecessor. 
 Foxe’s Bible may have been one of the 
 Saxon, or i perhaps more probably) Norman 
 versions; More’s, either this or an early 
 copy of Wycliffe, for since he speaks of 
 “long before,” he cannot, prima facie , re¬ 
 fer to the version of John Trevisa, for the 
 former existence of which there is reaily 
 evidence of a certain kind, summed up by 
 Mr. J. H. Cooke, F. S. A., in Notes and 
 Queries , 4th s., x. 261. John Trevisa, 
 whom Allibone styles “a Cornish divine,” 
 Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford, and 
 Canon of Westbury-on-Trym (where, curi¬ 
 ously enough, Wycliffe was also Canon) 
 was vicar of Berkeley, and chaplain to the 
 Lords Berkeley, from 1350 to 1412. Among 
 his other works he translated Higden’s 
 Polychronicon; and Caxton, in the version 
 based on this, which he printed, 1482, is the 
 first to mention his translation of the Bible; 
 the mention was repeated by Bale, Holins- 
 hed, and others, and in the preface to our 
 Authorized Version. There remains at 
 Berkeley Castle a draft letter from the first 
 Earl of Berkeley to James, Duke of York, 
 afterward James II., asking his acceptance 
 of “ a booke, wh. is an ancient collection in 
 manuscript of some part of the Bible,” 
 which “ has been carefully preserved near 
 400 years,’’and the Berkeley librarian of the 
 beginning of this century records that the 
 “ booke ” is now in the Vatican. Mr. Cooke, 
 however, says that such search as has been 
 made there, has not disclosed it; and all 
 that is really known of Trevisa’s labors in 
 this kind are some fragments of the text of 
 the Apocalypse, painted by him in Latin 
 and Norman-French on the roof of Ber¬ 
 keley Chapel. 
 
 In default, therefore, of this, the earliest 
 version must be considered to be the Wyc¬ 
 liffe Bible , which work was begun by John 
 Wycliffe (Rector of Lutterworth), about 
 1360, in his commentaries, first on the 
 Revelation, then on the Gospels, transla¬ 
 tions being added to both works. Shortly 
 afterward he translated the rest of the New 
 Testament, and put the whole together in 
 a volume (1380). The Old Testament was 
 begun by Nicholas Hereford (D. D., 
 Queen’s College, Oxford, Chancellor and 
 Treasurer of Hereford), but not finished, 
 as the translator, being tried, 1382, for 
 heresy, was excommunicated, and left Eng¬ 
 land to appeal at Rome; it was completed 
 by Wycliffe himself, and thus a complete 
 English Bible was for the first time pro¬ 
 duced. Like all other translations hitherto 
 made, however, it was from the Vulgate, 
 and from not very good MSS. of that; and, 
 a few years after Wycliffe’s death in 1384, 
 a revision was made by John Purvey, after- 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 108 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 ward vicar of West Hythe. Of both these 
 versions there are many MSS. still extant; 
 but they were not printed in mediaeval 
 times, and there were, indeed, much un¬ 
 certainty and confusion in the whole his¬ 
 tory, till the admirable edition of the Rev. 
 Josiah Forshall and Sir Frederick Madden 
 appeared (4 vols. 4to., 1850), giving a list 
 of 170 existing MSS. The edition contains 
 the two versions in parallel columns, and 
 was the first printing of the Old Testament 
 in this version, except that Wycliffe’s 
 “Song of Solomon” had been printed in 
 Dr. Adam Clarke’s Commentary , 1810—25. 
 Wycliffe’s New Testament was published 
 by Mr. Lea Wilson in 1848, and Purvey’s 
 (which was then supposed to be Wycliffe’s), 
 by the Rev. John Lewis in 1731, by the 
 Rev. Henry Baker in 1810, and in Bagster’s 
 English Hexapla, 1841. 
 
 Of the long opposition, partly political, 
 partly ecclesiastical, to those Protestant 
 doctrines of which Wycliffe was one of the 
 earliest preachers, and, consequently, to the 
 Bible in the vulgar tongue, this is not the 
 place to speak. The translation was form¬ 
 ally condemned in Convocation by Arch¬ 
 bishop Thomas Arundel, 1408; but the ver¬ 
 sion survived, and the number of still 
 extant MSS. is enough to show the wide 
 circulation which it had. 
 
 (4) Modern English Versions. —John 
 Foxe’s witness to the circulation of the 
 Wycliffite versions at the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century is well known: some, he 
 says, “ gave a load of hay for a few chap¬ 
 ters of St. Paul.” This earnest desire fora 
 vernacular Bible, translated from the Greek 
 Testament of Erasmus, was much increas¬ 
 ed by Luther’s German version, and Wil¬ 
 liam Tyndale at last undertook the work. 
 He began with the New Testament; but 
 finding the work impossible in England, 
 since Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall of London 
 (afterward of Durham) obstinately refused 
 his sanction, he settled at Hamburg, in 
 1524, where he seems to have published St. 
 Matthew and St. Mark separately. Next, 
 in 1525, the whole New Testament came 
 out at Cologne and Worms, in two editions, 
 4to and 8vo, and early in 1526 was brought 
 to England, where great but useless 
 efforts were made to stamp it out. Burn¬ 
 ing the copies was of no use; it only put 
 money into the translator’s pocket; even 
 an Act of Parliament afterward passed (35 
 Henry VIII.) was no use. Six more edi¬ 
 tions came out abroad, one after the other, 
 some, unknown to Tyndale, revised by his 
 secretary, George Joye (Fellow of Peter- 
 house, Cambridge, d. 1553). Tyndale then 
 proceeded to the Old Testament, publish¬ 
 ing the Pentateuch in 1530, and the Book 
 of Jonah in 1534; other fragmentary trans¬ 
 
 lations were attached to the New Testa¬ 
 ment of 1534, being such of the Epistles in 
 the Sarum Missal as were taken from the 
 Old Testament. Tyndale, however, was 
 executed on a charge of heresy, 1536, leav¬ 
 ing more of his Old Testament in MS. as 
 far as the end of II. Chronicles. This was 
 afterward used, as will be seen, by Rog¬ 
 ers and Matthews. 
 
 Tyndale’s actual work was so effectually 
 destroyed that very few copies remain; of 
 the 4to New Testament in the first edition 
 one fragment, St. Matthew to xxii. 12, was 
 discovered in 1836, and is now in the Brit¬ 
 ish Museum; of the 8vo first edition a per¬ 
 fect copy, except the title, is in the Baptist 
 College at Bristol (from this the Bagsters 
 reprinted in their Hexapla ), and an imper¬ 
 fect one is at St. Paul’s; of some of the 
 other editions there are copies at Cam¬ 
 bridge University Library and the British 
 Museum. In the latter, also, there are cop¬ 
 ies of the Pentateuch; and one of the Book 
 of Jonah was discovered in 1861, bound in 
 a volume of tracts, by the present Bishop 
 of Bath and Wells. 
 
 But Tyndale’s end was attained: even 
 before his death one complete translation, 
 the first ever printed, came forth, and 
 another was preparing, for which the royal 
 license had been granted. In 1535 came 
 
 (5) Coverdale's Bible , translated by 
 Miles Coverdale, afterward Bishop of 
 Exeter, probably under the auspices of 
 Thomas Cromwell. How far this was from 
 the original is not clear; the title of the 
 first issue had the words “ out of Douche 
 (German) and Latyn,” i. e. (roughly speak¬ 
 ing), Luther and the Vulgate; and though 
 these words were afterward struck out, 
 there is little, if any, positive evidence to 
 show that they do not represent the fact, 
 though there is, on the other hand.no doubt 
 that Coverdale knew some Hebrew. Other 
 editions were published in 1537, 1550, 1553, 
 and in 1538 three editions of the New Tes¬ 
 tament, with the Vulgate—to which it was 
 more closely adapted by a revision—in 
 parallel columns. This Bible was reprinted 
 in 1838 by Bagster, and in the preface is a 
 list of twenty-one existing copies. 
 
 (6) Matthews' and Taverner's Bibles .— 
 What of Tyndale’s Old Testament had re¬ 
 mained unpublished had come into the 
 hands of his friend, John Rogers, Canon 
 of St. Paul’s, afterward the first Protestant 
 martyr under Queen Mary; and he, in 1537, 
 published a Bible made up of Tyndale to 
 the end of the Second Book of Chronicles, 
 the rest of the Old Testament and Apocry¬ 
 pha (except the Prayer of Manasses, by him¬ 
 self) by Coverdale, and Tyndale’s New 
 Testament of 1535. John Rogers’s initials 
 occur throughout the book, and Foxe’s testi- 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 109 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 mony (inaccurate as Foxe sometimes is) 
 may prove their meaning; but the question 
 concerning Thomas Matthews, under whose 
 name the book appeared, is not so easy. 
 It has usually been said that he was no one 
 but Rogers, and Rogers at his trial is de¬ 
 scribed with such an alias: Professor West- 
 cott, however ( History of the Bible , p. 88), 
 is of a different opinion. Other editions of 
 Matthews’ Bible were published in 1549 and 
 1551; copies remain in the chief public 
 libraries. It was revised in 1539 by Richard 
 Taverner (Barrister - at - Law and High 
 Sheriff of Oxfordshire), but his revision had 
 but very little circulation, and was but once 
 reprinted. 
 
 (7) CromzvelFs and Cranmer's Bibles .— 
 Next came the first “ Authorized Version.” 
 As has been said, steps toward this were 
 taken even before the death of Tyndale, by 
 a petition from Convocation to Henry VIII. 
 to license a translation. The license is not 
 found, but there is no doubt that it was 
 granted, and Archbishop Cranmer, with 
 the help of others, among whom was 
 Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, 
 began the translation. This work, however, 
 was never perfected; and in 1538 Thomas 
 Cromwell commissioned Coverdale to pre¬ 
 pare another Bible. This was to have been 
 published at Paris, with the leave of the 
 King of France; the Inquisition, however, 
 interfered, and it became necessary to re¬ 
 move the work to England, where the 
 Great Bible, as it was called, came forth in 
 1539. There is no proof (Westcott, p. 100) 
 that Cranmer was engaged in it, or even 
 knew of it: but to the second edition, 1540, 
 he wrote a preface, and it is very probable 
 that his translations of 1536 were used in 
 the revisions which took place in the suc¬ 
 cessive editions of 1541 and after. Copies 
 remain in considerable numbers, and one 
 part at any rate is perfectly familiar, for 
 the Prayer-book Psalms are from this ver¬ 
 sion, immediately, as is said by Dr. Archi¬ 
 bald Stephens {Book of Common Prayer with 
 A r otes, iii., 1799), from the fourth edition 
 of 1541. 
 
 About 1550 Sir John Cheke (M. A., St. 
 John’s College, Cambridge, Regius Pro¬ 
 fessor of Greek) translated St. Matthew 
 and a few verses of St. Mark; his MS. re¬ 
 mains at Corpus Christi College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and was first published in 1843 by 
 the Rev. James Goodwin, M. A., Fellow 
 and Tutor of that college. 
 
 (8) Geneva Bible. — During the check 
 given to the work of reformation by the 
 reign of Queen Mary, the Protestant ex¬ 
 iles at Geneva entered on another version. 
 Of this, the New Testament was first pub¬ 
 lished in 1557, being Tyndale’s translation 
 revised on Beza’s Latin by William Whit- 
 
 tingham (brother-in-law of Calvin), after¬ 
 ward, though a layman, Dean of Durham: 
 this is the text given in Bagster’s Hexapla. 
 The whole Bible was published in 1560, 
 when the New Testament was again re¬ 
 vised; yet a further revision of it, pro¬ 
 fessedly based on Beza’s Latin, was made 
 in 1576 by Lawrence Tomson, secretary to 
 Sir Francis Walsingham, which was some¬ 
 times substituted in editions of this Bible. 
 This Bible was, for many reasons, the most 
 “ popular ” one that had appeared; it was 
 the first of less than folio size, the first in 
 ordinary Roman type, the first divided into 
 verses (see below), and thus it was printed 
 in as many as eighty editions, and as late 
 as 1617, and copies are constantly met 
 with. That item, so common in second¬ 
 hand booksellers’ catalogues, “ the cele¬ 
 brated Breeches Bible,” is nothing but a 
 copy of one of several editions where Gen. 
 iii. 7 reads, “ And they sewed fig leaves 
 together, and made themselves breeches.” 
 Wycliffe, however, had used the word be¬ 
 fore ; Coverdale had“apurns,”as he spells it. 
 
 (9) The Bishops' Bible. —The last-men¬ 
 tioned being the production of the Puritan 
 party. Archbishop Parker resolved on a 
 new translation; this was begun in 1563, 
 and published in 1568. The name was 
 given by the Puritans; but it so happened 
 that, out of the fifteen translators, all but 
 three were then or afterward bishops. 
 This version was rather an unhappy one; 
 the Geneva, Puritan though it was, had 
 made many improvements, which were not 
 sufficiently regarded ; and, being very 
 large and costly, the Bishops’ Bible never 
 became popular. 
 
 (10) Rheims and Douay Bible. —Next in 
 order of time came the Roman Catholic 
 translation, into which the Romanists were 
 at last fairly driven. The New Testament 
 was published at Rheims, 1582, the Old at 
 Douay, 1610, both, of course, from the 
 Vulgate, this being the authorized original 
 of the Roman Catholic Church; but there 
 is clear evidence that in the New Testa¬ 
 ment the Greek text was not neglected, 
 and the version is of considerable value to 
 scholars. It has been much revised, 
 chiefly in 1750 and 1791, and is now much 
 nearer our own version than it used to be. 
 
 (11) Present Authorized and Revised Ver¬ 
 sions. —The first motion for that Authorized 
 Version which we now have came from Dr. 
 Reynolds, the spokesman of the Puritan 
 party at the Hampton Court Conference, 
 1604. King James I. took the matter up 
 with the greatest interest, and named (no 
 doubt on the presentation of the Univer¬ 
 sities and others) fifty-four learned men to 
 undertake the work. Only forty-seven of 
 them, however, are now known. 
 
Bib 
 
 ( no ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 The “ hard, heavy, and holy task,” as 
 Fuller calls it, was carried on simultane¬ 
 ously at Westminster, Oxford, and Cam¬ 
 bridge for three or four years, and the re¬ 
 sult of it published in 1611; but it did not 
 at once supersede former translations; the 
 Bishops’ Bible, indeed, was not printed, as 
 a whole, after 1606; but the New Testament 
 appeared as late as 1618, and the Geneva 
 Bible in the year 1617. 
 
 Thus, then, we obtained our present 
 Bible; but it must not be supposed that 
 the copies in common use are verbati?n et 
 literatim reprints; for, in these respects, a 
 silent and not publicly authorized emenda¬ 
 tion has been gradually going on—some 
 aspects of which will be hereafter men¬ 
 tioned—principally through the editions of 
 1616, 1638, 1701, edited by Bishop Lloyd, 
 of Worcester; 1762, by Dr. Paris; 1769, by 
 Dr. Blayney; and lastly, the classical edi¬ 
 tion of 1873, by Dr. Scrivener. So that for 
 an exact representation of the “author¬ 
 ized” standard, the Oxford fac-simile of 
 1833 must be turned to. 
 
 The causes which led to the revision of 
 the Authorized Version may be easily gath¬ 
 ered from our section on the original 
 Greek, and the revisers’ preface to the 
 New Testament will explain them in full. 
 The revision was begun in 1870, by a com¬ 
 mittee of fifty-three scholars and divines, 
 nominated by the Southern Convocation, 
 the Northern declining to cooperate; of 
 these, twenty-seven were engaged on the 
 Old Testament, and twenty-six on the 
 New. The assistance of American scholars 
 was also invited and received, and the 
 work began on the 22d June, 1870, and 
 ended on the nth November, 1880, as far 
 as the New Testament was concerned: it 
 was published in 1881. The Old was pre¬ 
 sented to Convocation on the last day of 
 April, 1885, and published on the 19th of 
 May following. Both works were followed 
 by an appendix, containing renderings pre¬ 
 ferred by the American committee; in edi¬ 
 tions published in America these are in¬ 
 serted in the text. 
 
 Two editions of the original Greek have 
 since been published, intended to show the 
 Greek form of the alterations introduced 
 by the revisers: one at Oxford, by Arch¬ 
 deacon Palmer, in which the readings 
 which they have adopted have been placed 
 in the text, those of the received editions 
 at the bottom of the page; the other at 
 Cambridge, by Dr. Scrivener, where the 
 reverse plan has been followed, the body 
 of the text being Beza’s, of 1598, with the 
 readings of such other old printed editions 
 as the translators of 1611 used, while at 
 the bottom of the page are given those 
 preferred by the revisers. The latter is 
 
 certainly the more scholarly plan, since 
 the revisers did not undertake to construct 
 a Greek text, and Archdeacon Palmer’s, 
 therefore, is an altogether new one, which 
 cannot represent their work, except so far 
 as the alterations actually made are con¬ 
 cerned; they must, almost certainly, have 
 made many minor changes, not, indeed, 
 affecting the English rendering, but by no 
 means unimportant in the study of the 
 Greek. 
 
 (12) Private Translations were made of 
 the whole Bible by Anthony Purver, a 
 Quaker, 1764; David Macrae, 1799; Dr. 
 John Bellamy, 1818: none of these are of 
 any value, though Macrae’s went to three 
 editions; and, more lately, by Mr. Samuel 
 Sharpe. Of the New Testament alone 
 there have been private versions by many 
 writers, as Dean Alford, Mr. Highton, and 
 lastly, by Mr. Maclellan, with analysis, 
 notes, and so forth. Of this last, though 
 it is believed to be finished, only the Gos¬ 
 pels are yet published. 
 
 (13) Versions in other Modern Languages. 
 — (a) German, of course, claims preced¬ 
 ence, in which tongue Luther’s was the 
 first complete version, though many de¬ 
 tached books had before been translated. 
 Luther’s New Testament was published in 
 1522, the Old Testament, at intervals, with¬ 
 in the next ten years, and the whole Bible 
 in 1534; another, called the Zurich Bible, 
 is by Luther and other scholars, of whom 
 Ulric Zwingli was one: this came out in 
 1529; a third, the Worms Bible, of much 
 the same composition, appeared also in that 
 year, (h) The earliest French Bibles, of 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 
 appear,like our own Anglo-Saxon ones, to 
 have been paraphrastic in their nature. A 
 New Testament was published in 1478, 
 and a complete Bible in 1487; in 1530 and 
 1535, two others by Jacques Lefevre, the 
 first French reformer, and Robert Olive- 
 tan, which were revised in 1707 and 1744; 
 there are also more modern versions by 
 Louis Segond and others, (e) Malerni’s 
 Italian Bible was printed at Venice in 1471, 
 and Bruccioli’s at the same place in 1532; 
 Diodati’s, 1607; Scio’s, and others fol¬ 
 lowed. ( d ) In Valencian Spanish the Bible 
 was published in 1478, but in classical 
 Spanish the New Testament was the first to 
 appear in 1543, succeeded by Pinel’s Bible, 
 1553; De Reyna’s, 1569; De Valera’s, 1602; 
 while ( e ) no Portuguese translations ap¬ 
 peared till the New Testament in 1712,and 
 the whole Bible in 1748. 
 
 V.—We return now to the Authorized 
 Version and its predecessors, to consider 
 their prefaces, notes, and other helps; 
 also their sectional divisions of different 
 kinds. All the different translations have 
 
Bib 
 
 ( in ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 their own prefaces , and it is a great pity 
 that that of our present Bible is so little 
 known; printers have thought proper to 
 leave it out, instead of the fulsome dedica¬ 
 tion, which we could far better have 
 spared, to James I., “the Sun in his 
 strength,” and to Queen Elizabeth’s mem¬ 
 ory, “ the bright occidental star." The 
 general drift of these prefaces is usually 
 much the same, pointing out the right use 
 of Scripture, justifying the translation and 
 translators, describing their work and what 
 like work went before, and explaining, 
 either there or in special prologues, the 
 contents of each book. Wycliffe,besides his 
 own prologue (though this is properly Pur- 
 vey’s), added a translation of St. Jerome’s; 
 he gives, also, marginal or textual notes. 
 Tyndale has his prologues to separate 
 books, and somewhat polemical notes; 
 Coverdale, chapter-headings placed to¬ 
 gether; Matthews, a marginal commentary, 
 which Taverner somewhat abridged; the 
 Geneva Bible has “arguments” to each 
 book, as well as chapter-headings and mar¬ 
 ginal notes; these last are, in many cases, 
 dogmatic, as also, though less often, are 
 those in the Bishops’ Bible. But all this 
 apparatus was swept away at the last revis¬ 
 ion by King James’s special desire, and 
 what remains is the noble preface by Miles 
 Smith, Bishop of Gloucester (d. 1624), the 
 headings of chapter and column, and the 
 marginal references with dates, and a few 
 explanatory notes. 
 
 The Chapter-headings have remained un¬ 
 altered since 1611, except in twelve cases, 
 of which the only important one is that 
 of the 149th Psalm. Here the original 
 reading was, “ that power which He hath 
 given to the Church to rule the conscience of 
 men;" where Dr. Paris, 1762, struck out 
 the last six words, Dr. Blayney, 1769, put 
 “ His saints ” for “ the Church;” before 
 then, indeed, a i2mo of the Stationers’ 
 Company, 1647, had left out the whole 
 clause, but here, as in many other cases, 
 the headings are shortened. Blayney’s 
 reading, however, took no root, though 
 it is found in a King’s Printers’ copy for 
 the Bible Society, 1825, and a Cambridge 
 one for the S. P. C. K., 1838; the common 
 reading is Paris’s. Blayney, in fact, made 
 an entirely new set of headings, though 
 they Avere never accepted; Scott, in his 
 commentary, did the same. 
 
 The Column-headings , which are short 
 portions of those of the chapters, vary in 
 different editions, of necessity in different¬ 
 sized ones, and even in those of the same 
 size they differ. 
 
 The Marginal References are of very va¬ 
 rying value, some giving real illustrations 
 of the text, some mere verbal coincidences, 
 
 while some are altogether mistaken; they 
 came atr first from the Vulgate, and have 
 been very freely added to by different com¬ 
 mentators and editors, especially by Paris 
 and Blayney. The Dates in the Margin are 
 from the Annales Veteris et Novi Testamen- 
 torum of Archbishop Ussher, of Armagh 
 (1650-54), and were first inserted by Bish¬ 
 op Lloyd, 1701; he also added, from the 
 Essay on Jewish Weights and Measures of 
 Bishop Cumberland of Peterborough, 
 1685, the tables on those subjects and the 
 others which were found in old Bibles, but 
 are not now usually printed; they are in 
 D’Oyly and Mant’s edition, but probably 
 in few later. The Marginal Notes which 
 remain in our present Bibles are those 
 giving (1) a more literal translation, as 
 Gen. i. 5; Matt. xiv. 22; or (2) another 
 translation altogether, as Gen. iv. 13; Matt, 
 iii. 8; or (3) a variation of a proper name, 
 as Gen. xxii. 23 (these are often very tri¬ 
 fling, being mere differences of spelling in 
 the Hebrew and Greek and Latin forms); 
 or (4) an explanation of one, as Gen. v. 29; 
 Matt. i. 21; or, lastly (5), an explanation, 
 historical or otherwise, as Judges xi. 29; 
 Matt, xviii. 24. Those referring to differ¬ 
 ences of reading are very few; instances 
 are Gen. x. 4; Acts xxv. 6; but in the Re¬ 
 vised New Testament, 1881, they are 
 greatly increased in number. 
 
 The division into our modern chapters 
 was introduced into the Vulgate about the 
 middle of the thirteenth century by Cardi¬ 
 nal Hugh de St. Cher (d. 1263), for the 
 purposes of his Concordance—the first ever 
 put together; these chapters he subdivided 
 into smaller sections by the letters A , B, C, 
 etc., in the margin. The chapter-division 
 at once took root everywhere; the other, 
 though used by Coverdale in his Bible, 
 1 535 (in Bagster’s reprint the letters come 
 at intervals of from twenty to thirty lines), 
 was after a time superseded by the mod¬ 
 ern verse division. This was introduced 
 first into the Hebrew Bible about 1445, 
 and extended to the New Testament in 
 1528, by Sanctes Paquinus, in his .Latin 
 version. These verses were, however, of 
 somewhat greater length than those now 
 known, and Robert Stephens, the printer, 
 brought them into the modern shape in 
 1548 and 1551; the Geneva Bible, 1560, 
 was the first English one completely ar¬ 
 ranged with chapter and verse as they are 
 at present seen. The paragraph divisions 
 of the Authorized Version, that is, the sec¬ 
 tions marked ^[, are of no value whatever, 
 proceeding as they do on no principle of 
 any kind; but a division of the kind now 
 known as the “ paragraph division ” was 
 first used by John Reeves, King’s Printer, 
 about 1800; in England it attracted little 
 
Bib 
 
 ( 112 ) 
 
 Bib 
 
 attention at first, though the University of 
 Oxford reprinted Reeves’s edition about 
 1830; but in America two similar editions 
 were published in 1834 by the Rev. Dr. 
 Coit, and in 1836 by James Nourse; and in 
 1838 the Religious Tract Society reprinted 
 Dr. Coit’s Bible somewhat further revised. 
 The “Church Service ” system of publi¬ 
 cation, too, which appears to have begun 
 about this time, and is now so well known, 
 doubtless had a good deal to do with mak¬ 
 ing the division familiar; lastly, Dr. Scriv¬ 
 ener’s edition is arranged on this plan: in 
 1881 it was adopted in the Revised New 
 Testament, and now it appears in the Re¬ 
 vised Old Testament; thus our children, 
 or at any rate our grandchildren, will per¬ 
 haps know nothing else in their new Bi¬ 
 bles, the chapters and verses being only 
 printed in the margin. 
 
 The words found in Italics in our present 
 Bibles, and partly retained by our modern 
 Revisers, are those not directly represent¬ 
 ed in the original languages, but yet neces¬ 
 sary to the English sense. The plan is 
 believed to have been first employed by 
 Sebastian Munster in his Latin version, 
 1534, and was borrowed from him in the 
 Authorized Bible of 1539. Thence, through 
 the Geneva and the Bishops’ Bible, it de¬ 
 scended to the Revisers of 1611. By them, 
 however, it was very uncertainly and in¬ 
 consistently used; and though some revis¬ 
 ion of it was attempted in the same cen¬ 
 tury, and in the next by Paris and Blayney, 
 it was first thoroughly and critically set¬ 
 tled by Dr. Scrivener in 1873.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. See Horne’s Introduc¬ 
 tion , 14th ed., by Ayer and Tregelles (Lon¬ 
 don, 1877), 4 vols.; T. W. Chambers: A 
 Co??ipanion to the Revised Old Testament 
 (New York, 1885); Schaff: Companion to the 
 Greek Testament and English Version (New 
 York, 1883; 3d ed., 1888); Mobert: Hand¬ 
 book of the English Versions of the Bible 
 (New York, 1883); Westcott: History of the 
 Canon (1855, 5th ed., 1881). 
 
 Bible Christians. This denomination was 
 organized in the west of England, by W. 
 O’Bryan, in 1816. Mr. O’Bryan had for¬ 
 merly been a “ local preacher ” in connec¬ 
 tion with the Wesleyan Methodists. They 
 assumed the name of “ Bible Christians,” 
 because they laid special stress upon the 
 use of the Bible by their preachers, in 
 preaching, pastoral visitation, and private 
 study. In 1838 the membership was 9,839. 
 For some years the conference consisted 
 of preachers only, but lay delegates were 
 finally admitted. Mr. O’Bryan for a long 
 time held the position of general superin¬ 
 tendent, but opposition arose to his claims 
 of authority, and he withdrew from the 
 
 connection. In 1831 missionaries were sent 
 to Canada, and afterward to Australia. 
 The work in America was organized into a 
 separate conference in 1854. In 1882 there 
 were ten districts in this conference, two 
 of which are in the United States—one in 
 Ohio, and one in Wisconsin. The number 
 of preachers is eighty-one, with 7,531 mem¬ 
 bers. The Australian conference had thirty- 
 one ministers, and 2,306 members. The 
 entire membership of the denomination, in 
 1882, was over 34,000, with 299 ministers. 
 The “ Bible Christians” are Methodist in 
 doctrine. They have no connection with a 
 small sect bearing the same name, who 
 have a few churches in the eastern part of 
 the United States. 
 
 Bible for the Poor. See Biblia Pauperum. 
 
 Bible Societies. Various societies in 
 Great Britain, founded in the seventeenth 
 century, had made the circulation of the 
 Bible a part of their work, but the first 
 organization that made this their sole aim 
 was the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
 This society was founded in 1804, and had 
 distributed within eighty years more than 
 one hundred million copies of the Bible,in 
 whole or part, and aided in printing the 
 Scriptures in more than 240 languages or 
 dialects. On the continent of Europe, in 
 Germany, the Canstein Bible Institute was 
 founded in 1710, and other organizations 
 have engaged in the work; but the most 
 prosperous has been the Berlin Bible So¬ 
 ciety , founded in 1806, and absorbed into 
 the Prussian Bible Society in 1814. In the 
 early part of the present century, Bible 
 distribution was actively prosecuted in 
 every part of Switzerland, and in Holland 
 the United Netherlands Bible Society was 
 founded in 1815. The movement was be¬ 
 gun in France in 1792, but was checked by 
 the Revolution. In 1818 the Protestant 
 Bible Society of Paris was established. The 
 Danish Bible Society was founded in 1814, 
 and that of Iceland in 1815. In 1813 the 
 Evangelical Bible Society in Russia was 
 established, but suppressed in 1826. In 
 1863 another was privately formed, which 
 has the imperial sanction. Bible societies 
 were formed in Malta (1817), Corfu (1819), 
 Calcutta (1811), Bombay (1813), Madras 
 (1820), and other places in Asia. All of 
 these organizations were aided by the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society. All of 
 the Scotch organizations united in 1861, 
 and formed the National Bible Society of 
 Scotland. 
 
 The American Bible Society , formed in 
 1816, was the union of many existing soci¬ 
 eties. Next to the British it is the most 
 important in the extent of its work. Its 
 
Bib 
 
 ( ii3 ) 
 
 Bid 
 
 annual receipts from all sources are not far 
 from half a million of dollars, and each 
 year it issues a million and a half copies of 
 the Bible, in whole or part. At the Bible 
 House it publishes the Scriptures in one 
 hundred foreign languages, and the New 
 Testament in as many more; and it has 
 stereotyped the whole Bible in raised let¬ 
 ters, for the use of the blind. Two discus¬ 
 sions of special interest have occurred in 
 the history of the Society. In 1833, Dr. 
 Judson and his coadjutors, in preparing 
 their Burmese translation of the New 
 Testament, at the expense of the society, 
 rendered the Greek words baptismos , bcip- 
 tizo, by immersion and to immerse. This led 
 to the adoption of a rule that all transla¬ 
 tions must conform to the common English 
 Bible, and the controversy resulted in the 
 formation of the American and Foreign 
 Bible Society. (See below). In 1851 a com¬ 
 mittee that had been appointed to collate 
 the edition of the Bible in common use 
 with the original edition of 1611, and also 
 to make such changes in the use of Italic 
 words, capital letters, and the article a or 
 an , and some chapter-headings that would 
 make the version more correct, made a re¬ 
 port that was accepted, and for several 
 years the new edition was circulated with¬ 
 out objection. In 1856 opposition to these 
 alterations arose, and, as there was no 
 authority to make them, they were given 
 up, and all editions conformed to the ver¬ 
 sion used when the Bible Society was 
 formed. It is to be hoped that public 
 opinion will soon be strong enough to 
 bring about a change in the constitution of 
 the Society, by which it can publish the 
 Revised Version. 
 
 The A?nerican and Foreign Bible Soci¬ 
 ety was organized in 1836 by those Bap¬ 
 tists who felt aggrieved by the action of 
 the American Bible Society, as noted 
 above, in connection with the Burmese 
 translation of the New Testament. They 
 declared that translations should “ con¬ 
 form as nearly as possible to the original 
 text,” but in the distribution of the Script¬ 
 ures in the English language the commonly 
 received version was to be used. This 
 was not entirely satisfactory, and in 1850 
 the American Bible Union was organized by 
 Baptists who desired that an English ver¬ 
 sion of the Scriptures should be circulated, 
 which would “ conform as nearly as pos¬ 
 sible to the original text.” Since 1883 both of 
 the last-named societies havegiven the pub¬ 
 lication of their versions into the hands of 
 the American Baptist Publication Society. 
 
 Bible Text and Versions. See Bible. 
 
 Biblia Pauperum, i. e., “ The Bible of 
 
 the Poor,” a title given to a book, printed 
 before the invention of movable types, con¬ 
 taining forty engravings on wood blocks of 
 scenes in the life of our Lord, with explan¬ 
 atory inscriptions. They were chiefly used 
 by the itinerant preaching friars. The 
 stained-glass windows in Lambeth Chapel 
 are copied from some of these blocks, and 
 recently a fac-simile edition has been pub¬ 
 lished.— Benham. 1 
 
 Biblical Theology has for its purpose to 
 set forth the doctrinal and ethical contents 
 of the Bible in their historical develop¬ 
 ment. Standard works on this subject are 
 found in Oehler: Old Testament Theology , 
 translated by Day (New York, 1883); and 
 in Weiss on the Nezv Testa 7 nent (Edinburgh, 
 1882-83), 2 vols. 
 
 Bibliomancy, a kind of fortune-telling by 
 means of the Bible, which was invented 
 by the Puritans. Texts of Scripture are 
 selected at random, and, by more or less 
 manipulation of these, persons are made 
 to imagine that they obtain knowledge of 
 future events, or of secrets, or guidance in 
 respect to their conduct in matters of pres¬ 
 ent concern. Bunyan and Wesley are both 
 said to have believed in this superstition, 
 and even nowadays it would not be diffi¬ 
 cult to find some advocates for it.— Ben¬ 
 ham. 
 
 Bickersteth, Edward, b. in Westmore¬ 
 land, Eng., March 19, 1786; d. at Watton, 
 Feb. 28, 1850. From 1830 he was rec¬ 
 tor of Watton, and in his time a leader of 
 the Evangelistic Party. A collected edi¬ 
 tion of his works appeared in 1853 (Lon¬ 
 don), 16 vols. He edited the Christian 
 Family Library, 50 vols., and was one of 
 the founders of the Evangelical Alliance. 
 See Memoir by T. H. Birks (London, 1855). 
 
 Bidding of Prayers. In the Roman 
 Church, previous to the Reformation, this 
 custom was called Bidding the Beads. The 
 priest named the subjects for which the 
 prayers of the congregation were asked, 
 and then the people said their beads in si¬ 
 lence. A form of Bidding Prayer is still 
 in use in the Church of England, before 
 University sermons, and sometimes before 
 the morning sermons in cathedrals, and in 
 the Chapels Royal. It consists of an ex¬ 
 hortation to intercessory prayer for the 
 Royal Family, Ministers, etc., ending with 
 the Lord’s Prayer, in which minister and 
 congregation join. 
 
 Biddle, John, the founder of English 
 Unitarianism; b. in 1615 at Wotton-under- 
 Edge, Gloucestershire; d. in a London jail. 
 
Bil 
 
 ( 114 ) 
 
 Bir 
 
 Sept. 22, 1662. After graduating at Oxford 
 he became master of the free school at 
 Gloucester, in 1641. While in the success¬ 
 ful discharge of these duties he published 
 a pamphlet, for private circulation, con¬ 
 taining views regarding the personality of 
 the Holy Spirit. That led to his trial and 
 imprisonment for heresy. While in jail he 
 published, in 1648, a Confession of Faith 
 Concerning the Holy Trinity , and Testimo¬ 
 nies. Both of these tracts were suppressed 
 by the Government. The Act of Oblivion 
 (1655) set him free, and he gathered con¬ 
 gregations that were first called Biddel- 
 lians, then Socinians, and, finally, assumed 
 for themselves the name of Unitarians. He 
 was again arrested in 1655, and only es¬ 
 caped by the intervention of Cromwell, 
 who sent him to the Scilly Islands. He 
 returned three years afterward, and was 
 at liberty until the Restoration, when he 
 was again fined and imprisoned, and died 
 in jail. His personal character won the 
 esteem of all who knew him. 
 
 Bilney, Thomas, the first Protestant burn¬ 
 ed for heresy, when Henry VIII. revived 
 the old statutes against heretics; b. at East 
 Bilney (?), 1495(7); educated at Cambridge; 
 after receiving holy orders, his study of 
 the Bible led him to preach against saint- 
 worship and pilgrimages. He was sum¬ 
 moned before Cardinal Wolsey, in 1527, and 
 made a recantation; but after the lapse of 
 about two years he again preached against 
 what he deemed the errors of the Church, 
 and was apprehended and condemned as a 
 heretic, and burned at Norwich, Aug. 31, 
 1531 - 
 
 Bilson, Thomas, Church of England; b. 
 at Winchester, 1547; d. in London, June 
 18, 1616. Educated at Oxford, he became 
 Bishop of Winchester, 1597. His most 
 celebrated work was written at the com¬ 
 mand of Oueen Elizabeth, on Christian 
 Subjection and. Unchristian Rebellion (1585). 
 He was a member of the Hampton Court 
 Conference, and was appointed final re¬ 
 viser of the Authorized Version, and pre¬ 
 pared the chapter headings. 
 
 Bingham, Joseph, Church of England; 
 b. at Wakefield, Sept. 1C68; d. at Head- 
 bourn-Worthy, near Winchester, Aug. 17, 
 1723. Educated at Oxford, he became fel¬ 
 low of University College, in 1689. In a 
 sermon upon the Trinity he broached views 
 that resulted in accusations of heresy, and 
 he resigned his fellowship and became 
 vicar of Headbourn-Worthy. Here he pre¬ 
 pared his great work, Origines Ecclesias¬ 
 tics : or Antiquities of the Christian Church 
 (London, 1708-22), 10 vols., the most ex¬ 
 
 haustive and the greatest work in its de¬ 
 partment yet published. Best ed. of all 
 his works, Oxford, 1855, 10 vols. 
 
 Binney, Thomas, one of the leading Non¬ 
 conformist ministers of England; b. at 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, April, 1798; d. at Clap¬ 
 ton, London, Feb. 24, 1874. He was edu¬ 
 cated at the theological seminary at Wy- 
 mondley, Herts. In 1824 he became pastor 
 of a Congregational Church at Newport, 
 on the Isle of Wight. While here he wrote 
 the well-known hymn, “Eternal Light! 
 Eternal Light! ” In 1829 he entered upon 
 his eminently useful pastorate of the King’s 
 Weigh-House Chapel, London. His in¬ 
 fluence over young men was especially 
 marked, and he was a recognized leader in 
 the philanthropic and religious move¬ 
 ments of his time. He published sev¬ 
 eral volumes of sermons and lectures. 
 See his Memorial , edited by Stoughton 
 (London, 1874). 
 
 Birgitta, a Swedish saint; b. at Finstad, 
 near Upsala, 1302; d. at Rome, July 23, 
 1373. She was related to the royal family 
 of Sweden, and married a wealthy noble¬ 
 man, by whom she bore eight children. 
 After the death of her husband, who had 
 fully sympathized with her religious dis¬ 
 position, she retired into a monastery, 
 where she soon gained great influence, and 
 was looked upon by some as a prophetess, 
 and by others as a sorceress. It was her 
 desire to found an order; and, declaring 
 that the rules that should govern it had 
 been revealed to her by the Lord, she 
 visited Rome to secure the Pope’s sanction. 
 While in Rome she was revered on every 
 hand as a prophetess, and sent letters of 
 advice and admonition to kings and princes. 
 In 1367 the rules of her order w r ere con¬ 
 firmed by Urban V., and in 1370 they were 
 established under the name of Birgittines 
 or Brigittines. The same year Birgitta 
 made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and, soon 
 after her return, died at Rome. She was 
 canonized in 1391. Her celebrated Revela¬ 
 tions was translated into English (London, 
 
 1873)- 
 
 Birgittines, or Brigittines. This order, 
 founded on the rules of St. Birgitta, com¬ 
 prised both monks and nuns who lived in 
 the same monastery, but entirely separated. 
 The first monastery was situated on the 
 shores of Lake Wettern in Sweden. The 
 rules of silence were severe, and promi¬ 
 nence was given to the study of the Bible 
 and devotional reading. The order at one 
 time numbered seventy-four establish¬ 
 ments, but since the Reformation it has al¬ 
 most disappeared. 
 
Bis 
 
 ( 115 ) 
 
 Bla 
 
 Bishop (from the Greek word episcopos; 
 an overseer). As a distinctive term for 
 one particular class of ministers the word 
 “ bishop” or “ episcopos ” is not found in 
 the New Testament. It there has the same 
 meaning as “elder ," presbuteros (cf. Acts xx. 
 17, 28; Tit. i. 5 sq.), and those to whom it 
 was applied occupied the same position. 
 (Phil. i. 1; 1 Tim. iii. 1-8.) At a very early 
 period a distinction, however, was made be¬ 
 tween presbyter and bishop. The superior¬ 
 ity of the bishop is fully recognized by 
 Ignatius, although both Irenaeus ( Adv. 
 Haer. iii. 2,3,) and Jerome ( Epist . c. I., ad. 
 evangelum ) state that the two offices were 
 identical. Those who hold that bishops 
 are the direct successors of the apostles, 
 find a Scripture warrant for this office, 
 distinct in its functions. In the Church of 
 Rome the pope claims the right of the ap¬ 
 pointment of all bishops, and they report 
 to him personally at stated intervals. In 
 the Church of England there are thirty- 
 four bishops, twenty - four of whom are 
 peers of the realm, and sit and vote in the 
 House of Lords. Two of the bishops, 
 Canterbury and York, bear the title of 
 archbishop. The bishops are nominated 
 by the Crown, but are elected formally by 
 the deans and chapters of the dioceses. 
 They alone can administer the rite of con¬ 
 firmation, and ordain candidates for the 
 ministry. In the Church of Russia the 
 synod of bishops recommends two persons 
 to the sovereign, for him to select one of 
 them as bishop. The sovereign may 
 nominate of his own choice a person whom 
 the synod is obliged to elect. In the 
 Greek Church the patriarchs have the 
 right to confirm the election of bishops 
 within the limits of their patriarchate. In 
 the Lutheran Church the general superin¬ 
 tendents are called bishops, but the govern¬ 
 ing power rests with the consistories. In 
 Sweden and Denmark the episcopal office 
 is retained, but without the jure divino 
 theory. The episcopate in the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, the Moravian Church, 
 and the United Brethren, does not denote 
 a difference in order, but of convenience in 
 administration. In the Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal Church, in the United States, the 
 bishops are chosen by the diocese over 
 which they are to preside, and they ex¬ 
 ercise functions similar to prelates in the 
 Church of England. 
 
 Bishopric, the district over which the 
 jurisdiction of a bishop extends. 
 
 Bishop’s Bible. See Bible. 
 
 Bishop’s Book, a work published in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. (1537), entitled The 
 
 Institution of a Christian Man. It was 
 drawn up under the direction of Cranmer, 
 for the purpose of giving instruction to the 
 people in the elements of Christian faith. 
 The book contains an exposition of the 
 Apostle’s Creed, the Seven Sacraments, 
 the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Pray¬ 
 er, the Ave Maria, and the doctrines of 
 justification and purgatory. 
 
 Bissell, Edwin Cone, D. D. (Amherst, 
 1874), Congregationalist; b. at Schoharie, 
 N. Y., March 2, 1832; graduated at Am¬ 
 herst College, Mass., 1855, and Union 
 Theological Seminary, 1S59; in the pastor¬ 
 ate, 1859-1873; missionary of the A. B. C. 
 F. M. in Austria, 1873-1878; since 1881 
 professor of Hebrew in the Hartford Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary. He is the author of: 
 The Historic Origin of the Bible (New York, 
 1873); The Apocrypha of the Old Testament 
 (vol. xv. of the Old Testament in the 
 American Lange series, 1880); The Penta¬ 
 teuch, its Origin and Structure: an Exam¬ 
 ination of Recent Theories (1885); Biblical 
 
 Antiquities (Philadelphia, 1888). 
 
 1 
 
 Bithyn'ia, the northwest province of 
 Asia Minor, conquered by the Romans, 
 b. c. 75. It is a mountainous region. Paul 
 was not permitted to labor here (Acts xvi. 
 7), but there were many Christians in the 
 province (1 Peter i. 1), as Pliny testifies. 
 Nicomedia and Nicaea were its chief cities, 
 and in the latter was held the famous Coun¬ 
 cil of A. D. 325. 
 
 Blackfriars, a name given to monks of 
 the Dominican order, on account of the 
 color of their garments. 
 
 Blaikie (blay-key), William Garden, 
 D. D. (Edinburgh, 1864), LL. D. (Aber¬ 
 deen, 1872), Free Church of Scotland; b. 
 at Aberdeen, Feb. 5, 1820; was graduated 
 at Aberdeen, 1837; in the ministry of the 
 Established Church of Scotland, Drum- 
 blade, 1842; of the Free Church at Pilrig, 
 Edinburgh; appointed professor of apolo¬ 
 getics and pastoral theology in New Col¬ 
 lege, Edinburgh, 1868. Among his pub¬ 
 lished works are: Better Days for Working 
 People (1863); Heads and Hands in the 
 World of Labor (1865); Counsel and Cheer 
 for the Battle of Life (1867); For the Work 
 of the Ministry (1873); Personal Life of 
 David Livingstone (1880); Preachers of Scot¬ 
 land from the Sixth to the Nineteenth Cen¬ 
 tury (1888). 
 
 Blair, Hugh, D. D., Church of Scotland; 
 b. in Edinburgh, April 7, 1718; d. there, 
 Dec. 27, 1800. A graduate of the Univer¬ 
 sity of Edinburgh, he was first a preacher 
 
Bla 
 
 ( n6 ) 
 
 Blu 
 
 in that city from 1743, and, from 1760 to 
 1783, professor of rhetoric in the Univer¬ 
 sity. His fame rests upon his published 
 Sermons (Edinburgh, 1777-1801), 5 vols., 
 and his Rhetoric (London, 1783), 2 vols. 
 
 Blaise, St., Bishop of Sebaste, in Cap¬ 
 padocia; beheaded in the Diocletian perse¬ 
 cution, after suffering torture by having 
 his flesh torn with the iron combs used by 
 wool-combers (316). He is the patron 
 saint of wool-combers, and his name and 
 day are still popular in parts of England, 
 where woolen manufactures are carried 
 on. 
 
 Blandi'na, a slave girl, and one of the 
 forty-eight martyrs of Lyons. Her mar¬ 
 tyrdom is described by Eusebius (vi., ed. 
 Bohn, pp. 159 sq.). 
 
 Blasius. See Blaise, St. 
 
 Blasphemy. This word from the Greek 
 blasphemia , to speak evil against a per¬ 
 son, refers especially to any indignity of¬ 
 fered to the Deity. Under the Mosaic 
 law any one who took the name of God in 
 vain was punished with death by stoning. 
 (Lev. xxiv. 16.) The refusal to honor 
 Christ was considered blasphemy by the 
 New Testament writers. (Matt, xxvii. 39; 
 Mark xv. 29; Acts xviii. 6; xxvi. 11.) In 
 England, Scotland, and in several of the 
 commonwealths of the United States, pro¬ 
 fane cursing and swearing is made punish¬ 
 able by fine or imprisonment, or both. It 
 is matter for regret that the law is but sel¬ 
 dom enforced. 
 
 Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost 
 (Matt. xii. 31; Mark iii. 29; Luke xii. 10) 
 is the unpardonable sin. It denotes a con¬ 
 dition of impenitence that has been so will¬ 
 ful and constant against the influences of 
 the Holy Spirit, that the soul has become 
 incapable of repentance. 
 
 Blayney, Benjamin, Church of England; 
 b. in 1728; d. at Oxford, Sept. 20, 1S01. 
 He was educated at Oxford, where he be¬ 
 came Regius Professor of Hebrew (1787), 
 and rector of Poulshot, Wiltshire. He 
 revised, for the Clarendon Press, the 
 Authorized Version (1769), and published a 
 learned dissertation on Daniels Seventy 
 Weeks (1775), and an edition of the Hebrew 
 Samarita Pentateuch (1790). 
 
 Bleek ( blake ), Friedrich, German theo¬ 
 logian; b. at Ahrensbok, July 4, 1793; d. 
 at Bonn, Feb. 27, 1859. He studied at 
 Kiel and Berlin; lectured in the latter city 
 on biblical exegesis in 1818, and became 
 
 professor there in 1823, and at Bonn in 
 1829. He was the author of an able de¬ 
 fense of the genuineness of the Gospel of 
 John, and wrote a Commentary on Hebrews 
 (1828-40), 3 vols.; and An Introduction to the. 
 Old Testament (1869, 2 vols.; Eng. trans., 
 1875). The more recent editions of this 
 work, edited by Willhausen and Mangold, 
 by the tenor of their notes misrepresent 
 the position of Bleek, who was a conserv¬ 
 ative critic. 
 
 Blood, Avenger of. According to the 
 Mosaic law a willful murderer forfeited his 
 life at the hands of the next of kin to the 
 one whose blood had been shed. Such a 
 crime was committed against God as well 
 as society, and its defilement could only be 
 removed by the blood of the murderer. 
 (Num. xxxv. 31-33.) Failure to avenge 
 was criminal, and if the one whose natural 
 duty it was did not do it, some one must 
 take his place. Flight into a city of refuge 
 could not save a willful murderer. See Cit¬ 
 ies of Refuge. 
 
 Blood, Eating of. In the early Christian 
 Church, the directions which were given 
 the patriarchs (Gen. ix. 4, 6), and the Jews 
 (Lev. vii. 26, 27; xvii. 12, 13; Deut. xii. 
 23, 24), respecting the use of blood was 
 made binding upon all Christians, whether 
 Jews or Gentiles. (Acts xv. 20, 29; xvi. 
 25.) This regulation was obeyed for a 
 long time, and is recognized in canons of 
 councils as late as 691. 
 
 Blood-baptism. In the early Church, 
 when catechumens were martyred before 
 receiving baptism, they were said, in their 
 death, to have received a full substitute by 
 blood-baptism . 
 
 Bloody Marriage, a name given to the 
 marriage of Henry of Navarre and Mar¬ 
 garet of Valois, sister of Charles IX., King 
 of France, which was celebrated on the 
 Monday previous to the massacre of the 
 Huguenots, Sunday, Aug. 24, 1572, St. 
 Bartholomew’s Day. 
 
 Bloody Sweat. Luke says that during 
 Christ’s agony in the garden “ his sweat 
 was as it were great drops of blood falling 
 down to the ground ” (xxii. 44). This 
 phenomenon is not unknown in other cases. 
 Charles IX. of France died of bloody sweat. 
 See Stroud: The Physical Cause of the 
 Death of Christ (London, 1847), pp. S5-88. 
 
 Blunt, John Henry, D. D., Church of 
 England; b. at Chelsea, London, Aug. 
 25, 1823; d. in London as rector of Bevers- 
 ton, Gloucestershire, April 11, 1884. He 
 
Blu 
 
 ( ii7 ) 
 
 Bog 
 
 prepared several well-known biblical and 
 theological compends: Dictionary of Doc¬ 
 trinal and Historical Theology (London, 
 1870); Dictionary of Sects , Heretics , etc. 
 (1874); Reformation of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land (1868-82), 2 vols. 
 
 Blunt, John James, Church of England; 
 b. at Newcastle-under-Lyme; d. at Cam¬ 
 bridge, June 18, 1855. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, and from 1839 was Margaret 
 . Professor of Divinity in that University. 
 His Undesigned Coincidences in the Writ¬ 
 ings of the Old and New Testaments : an Ar¬ 
 gument for their Veracity (London, 1847), is 
 a well-known book. He wrote a History of 
 the Reformation and other volumes. See 
 his Memoir (London, 1856). 
 
 Boardman, George Dana, American 
 Baptist missionary; b. at Livermore, Me., 
 Feb. 8, 1801. He was graduated at Water- 
 ville College, Me., 1822, and, after a course 
 of study at Andover Theological Seminary, 
 went to Burmah in 1825, where he labored 
 successfully among the Karens until his 
 death, near Tavoy, Burmah, Feb. 11, 1831. 
 His widow was the second wife of Adoni- 
 ram Judstrn. 
 
 Boardman, George Dana, D. D. (Brown 
 University, 1866), Baptist; son of preced¬ 
 ing; b. at Tavoy, Burmah, Aug. 18, 1828; 
 was graduated at Brown University, 1852; 
 and at Newton (Mass.) Theological Institu¬ 
 tion, 1825. Since 1864 he has been pastor of 
 the First Church, Philadelphia. He was 
 President of the American Baptist Mission¬ 
 ary Union, 1880-84, and has published sev¬ 
 eral volumes of discourses. 
 
 Boardman, Henry Augustus, D. D., a 
 distinguished Presbyterian minister and 
 writer; b. at Troy, N. Y., Jan. 9, 1808; d. at 
 Philadelphia, June 15, 1880. He was gradu¬ 
 ated at Yale College in 1829, and Prince¬ 
 ton Theological Seminary in 1833. He 
 became pastor of the Tenth Presbyterian 
 Church, Philadelphia, Nov. 8, 1833, in 
 which relation he continued until his death. 
 Among his published works are: The Script¬ 
 ural Doctrine of Original Shi (1839); The 
 Bible in the Counting-House (1853); an d The 
 Higher-Life Doctrine of Sanctification Tried 
 by the Word of God. 
 
 Bockhold, Johann. See Anabaptists. 
 
 Bodenstein. See Carlstadt. 
 
 Boehme, Jacob, a mystical writer, b. in 
 Upper Lusatia, 1575; d. at Gorlitz, in Sile¬ 
 sia, Nov. 17, 1624. He was a shoemaker 
 by trade. As the fruit of religious and 
 
 philosophical meditation, he prepared a 
 thesis which, in manuscript form, was cir¬ 
 culated among his friends. It fell under 
 the eye of the chief ecclesiastical authority 
 in Gorlitz, who aroused the wrath of the 
 magistrate against Boehme, who promised 
 to stop writing. He kept his promise for 
 five years, when he began again to write, 
 and during the remainder of his life wrote 
 some thirty works. The publication of 
 two of these works in 1623 aroused a bit¬ 
 ter persecution, and Boehme fled to Dres¬ 
 den, and then to Silesia, where he was 
 overtaken by illness, and returned home to 
 die. His works were collected and pub¬ 
 lished by his friends, and have been widely 
 read both in Germany and England, and it 
 is conceded that his writings have exerted 
 considerable influence on the theology of 
 recent times. 
 
 Boethius, Ancius Manlius Severinus, 
 b. in Rome, 480; beheaded at Pavia, 525. 
 For many years he held an influential so¬ 
 cial and intellectual position at Rome. Sus¬ 
 pected of connection with the Arians, he 
 was banished by Theodoric to Pavia, and 
 finally beheaded. He exerted a marked 
 influence, by his writings, on mediaeval 
 thought, and his De Consolatione Philoso- 
 phice was translated into Anglo-Saxon by 
 King Alfred, and Thomas Aquinas wrote a 
 commentary upon it. Eng. trans. in Bohn’s 
 Library. It is doubtful if he wrote any of 
 the theological works that have been as¬ 
 cribed to him. 
 
 Bogatzky (bo-gats'-hee), Karl Heinrich 
 von, b. at Jankowe, Silesia, Sept. 7, 1690; 
 d. at Halle, June 15, 1774. From 1746, by 
 Francke’s invitation, he lived at the Halle 
 orphanage, and devoted his time to the 
 preparation of devotional literature. His 
 Golden Treasury for the Children of God 
 (1718, Eng. trans. 1745), has passed through 
 many editions, most recent, London, 1888. 
 See his Autobiography (Eng. trans., Lon¬ 
 don, 1856), and Life by Kelley (London, 
 1889). 
 
 Bogomiles, a heretical sect of the Greek 
 Church, of the twelfth century. Their 
 doctrine was a strange mixture of Mani- 
 cheism, Docetism, and fancy. They re¬ 
 jected baptism by water only, and the 
 symbolic rites of the Lord’s Supper, and 
 were opposed to the worship of images 
 and relics. They suffered persecution, 
 and their leader, Basilius, was put to death, 
 and they were condemned by the synod 
 of Constantinople in 1140. They lingered 
 on, however, during the Middle Ages. 
 See the Church Histories of Neander and 
 Gieseler. 
 
Boh 
 
 ( n8) 
 
 Bon 
 
 Bohemia. “ By far the greater part of 
 the population (4,940,898) belongs to the 
 Roman Catholic Church, while only 3,438 
 are members of the Greek Church, 106,115 
 Protestants, and 89,933 Jews. The coun¬ 
 try constitutes an archbishopric, and is 
 divided into three bishoprics. In 1870 
 there were 140 ecclesiastical foundations, 
 with endowmentsamounting to ^65,726.”— 
 Ency. Britannica. The Evangelical church¬ 
 es represent the adherents both of the 
 Lutheran or Augsburg Confession, and 
 those of the Reformed or Helvetic Con¬ 
 fession. They are controlled by the Church 
 Council in Vienna. Christianity was intro¬ 
 duced into Bohemia from Moravia in the 
 latter part of the ninth century. See Huss; 
 Reformation. 
 
 Bohemian Brethren, a religious society 
 organized in Bohemia near the close of the 
 fifteenth century. Its growth was rapid, 
 and included a large part of the population, 
 when suppressed by Ferdinand II. by the 
 most violent measures. Kept alive to some 
 extent, in secret, it was revived by Count 
 Zinzendorf in Saxony, and received the 
 name of the Moravian Brethren. The sect 
 had its origin with the so-called Chelczicky 
 Brethren, whose leader, Peter Chelczicky, 
 was a layman of the lower nobility, who 
 wrote against the Roman Church and 
 clergy. This little band were compelled to 
 seek refuge in the forests and among the 
 mountains. “ They rejected the oath, the 
 profession of the soldier, all rank and hon¬ 
 or connected with an office, the right of 
 any secular authority to punish, etc. They 
 stood in absolute opposition to any kind of 
 hierarchy. The doctrine of community of 
 property they did not adopt; but they 
 taught that the rich only administered his 
 property for the good of the poor, and 
 their positive goal was an approach to the 
 congregational life of the primitive Church, 
 and a realization, in practical life, of the 
 words and example of Christ. At the Con¬ 
 vention of Lhotka (1467) these tenets were 
 solemnly adopted; and they continued to 
 be the life-giving soul in the social and 
 political body which gradually developed 
 from the Chelczicky Brethren into the 
 Unitas Fratrum , or the Bohemian Breth¬ 
 ren. . . . What the Unitas Fratrum has 
 contributed to the doctrinal development 
 of Christianity is not of great interest; but 
 with respect to the practical application of 
 the Christian doctrines to the individual 
 realization of the Christian ideal in actual 
 life, to the congregational organization 
 under the guidance of the Christian spirit, 
 the Bohemian Brethren have hardly been 
 excelled in the history of the Christian 
 Church but by the apostolic age.”— G. von 
 
 Zezschwitz in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. i., 
 p. 308. The Reformation was the occasion 
 of profound interest on the part of the 
 Unitas Fratrum , but differences of opin¬ 
 ion, especially regarding the doctrine of 
 the Lord’s Supper, kept them from affili¬ 
 ating with the Lutherans. When, in after 
 times, they were absorbed with sects of 
 Protestant faith, they most naturally unit¬ 
 ed with the Calvinists. The Reformation 
 was the beginning of a period of great 
 literary activity in the Unitas Fratrum.. 
 The Bohemian translation of the Bible was 
 one of the fruits of this activity. During 
 the seventeenth century political partisan¬ 
 ship entered into the life of the society, 
 and was among the influences that led to 
 its suppression by Ferdinand II. 
 
 Bolivia. “ The Roman Catholic Church is 
 the established church of the country, with 
 an exclusive privilege of public worship. 
 There are no evangelical congregations in 
 Bolivia. In 1826 the State confiscated and 
 sold the estates of the Church, and assumed 
 the obligation to maintain the church offi¬ 
 cers.”— Plitt. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. JbHN, Vis¬ 
 count; b. at Battersea, London, Oct. 1, 
 1678; d. there, Dec. 12, 1751. A freethink- 
 ing nobleman of great ability, whose opin¬ 
 ions had much influence on the higher 
 classes during the reigns of Queen Anne 
 and the first two Hanoverian kings. He 
 may be said to have originated that con¬ 
 temptuous patronage of Christianity, as a 
 useful kind of religious police system, 
 which was common among the statesmen 
 of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Bollandists. See Acta Sanctorum. 
 
 Bonar, Horatius, D. D., Free Church 
 of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 
 1808, where he was educated. He was 
 pastor at Kelso (1838-1866), and, with his 
 congregation, separated from the Kirk in 
 1843; from 1866 he was pastor of the 
 Grange Free Church, Edinburgh, until his 
 death, July 31, 1889. His fame rests upon 
 his poems and hymns. The best known 
 of his collections is: Hymns of Faith ana 
 Hope (London, 1857-1871), 3 vols. 
 
 Bo'naventu'ra, St., called the Seraphic 
 Doctor ; b. at Bagnorea, Tuscany, 1221; d. 
 at Lyons, July 15, 1274. He entered the 
 order of the Franciscans in 1243, and stud¬ 
 ied theology and philosophy in Paris under 
 Alexander Hales, and became professor of 
 theology in the University, 1253; General 
 of his order, 1256 ; Cardinal-bishop of 
 Alba, 1273. The influence of Bonaventura 
 
Bon 
 
 ( 119 ) 
 
 Bor 
 
 in reforming and administering the affairs 
 of his order was very great. “ As a teacher 
 and author, he occupies one of the most 
 prominent places in the history of mediaeval 
 theology; not so much, however, on account 
 of any strongly pronounced originality, as 
 on account of the comprehensiveness of his 
 views, the ease and clearness of his reason¬ 
 ing, and a style in which are still lingering 
 some traces of the great charm of his per¬ 
 sonality.”— Gass in Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., 
 s. v. See his complete works, in Latin (edi¬ 
 tion, Paris, 1864-1871), 15 vols.; Eng. 
 trans., Life of St. Francis of Assisi (London, 
 1868); The Month of Jesus Christ (1882); 
 Psalter of the Blessed Virgin (1852); The 
 Life of Christ (1881). 
 
 Boniface, the name of nine Popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Boniface, St., the “ Apostle of Ger¬ 
 many; ” b. in Devonshire, Eng., in 680; d. 
 probably in 755, near Dokkum, Friesland. 
 His baptismal name was Winfrid. Edu¬ 
 cated in the convents of Exeter and Nut¬ 
 cell, he entered the priesthood at thirty 
 years of age. Fired with missionary zeal, 
 he visited Friesland in 715, but his efforts 
 were frustrated by a war then waged be¬ 
 tween Charles Martel and the king of the 
 Frisians. In 718 he visited Rome, and was 
 commissioned by Gregory II. to preach to 
 the heathen of Germany. His labors were 
 blessed in the conversion of many thou¬ 
 sands to the Christian faith. He organized 
 several bishoprics, and after the deposition 
 of the Bishop of Mainz, in 745, that was 
 made a metropolitan see, and, against his 
 wishes, conferred upon him. Continuing 
 his evangelistic labors to the last, he set 
 out in 755 to preach to the Frisians. Many 
 converts were made, and a general meeting 
 for confirmation was appointed not far 
 from Dokkum. Here a mob of armed pa¬ 
 gans slew the aged archbishop. His re¬ 
 mains are deposited in the famous abbey 
 of Fulda, which he founded. 
 
 Bonnivard' ( bo-ne-var ), the “ Prisoner of 
 Chillon;” b. 1493, at Seyssel on the Rhone; 
 d. 1570, at Geneva. He was prior of the 
 convent of St. Victor at Geneva, and 
 through the influence of the Duke Charles 
 of Saxony, was deprived of several bene¬ 
 fices to which he had a hereditary right. 
 Embittered by this action he espoused the 
 cause of the Genevan patriots, and was im¬ 
 prisoned, first at Grolee, and afterward at 
 Chillon. His captivity at Chillon has been 
 made immortal by the poem of Byron. On 
 his liberation he was received with great 
 honor by the Genevese, who gave him a 
 liberal pension until his death. He was 
 
 the author of a History of Geneva, and other 
 works more interesting than reliable. 
 
 Boni Homines. See Perfecti. 
 
 Bonner, Edmund, Bishop of London dur¬ 
 ing the persecution of the Protestants by 
 Mary ; b. at Hanley, about 1495 ; d. in 
 the Marshalsea prison, London, Sept. 5, 
 1569. While at Oxford his reputation as a 
 scholar in canon law attracted the attention 
 of Wolsey, who rapidly promoted him. 
 After the death of his patron he was ap¬ 
 pointed chaplain by Henry VIII., whose 
 good-will he gained by efforts in behalf of 
 the reformation. His zeal lasted, how¬ 
 ever, only through the lifetime of the 
 king. Refusing to take the oath of suprem¬ 
 acy, he was imprisoned and deprived of 
 his see in 1549. At the accession of Mary 
 he was restored, and within three years he 
 aided in condemning no less than two hun¬ 
 dred Protestants to the stake. When 
 Elizabeth came to the throne he was de¬ 
 posed and committed to the Marshalsea, 
 where he remained until his death, a period 
 of ten years. His character and life re¬ 
 veal a time-serving and brutal spirit that 
 admits of but slight defence. 
 
 Booth, William, General of the Salva¬ 
 tion Army; b. at Nottingham, England, 
 April 10, 1829. He was first a minister 
 in the Methodist New Connection, but in 
 1865 resigned, and devoted himself entirely 
 to evangelistic labors. From “ the Chris¬ 
 tian Mission,” started in the East End of 
 London, he organized the “ Salvation 
 Army,” now so widely known. See Sal¬ 
 vation Army. 
 
 Bora, Katharina von, Luther’s wife; b. 
 at Bitterfield, Saxony, Jan. 29, 1499; d. 
 at Torgau, Dec. 20, 1552. While a nun 
 at Nimtzsch, near Grimma, having read 
 the writings of Luther, she decided, with 
 eight of her companions, to escape from 
 the convent. She married Luther, June 
 13, 1525, and bore him six children! The 
 marriage was a happy one. After the 
 death of Luther she continued to live in 
 Wittenberg, receiving a scant support from 
 the Danish King, Christian III. Seeking 
 refuge from the plague, in 1552, she died at 
 Torgau. 
 
 Borel, Adam, the founder of the Borelists; 
 b. in Zealand, 1603 ; d. in Amsterdam, 
 1667. He was pastor of a Reformed con¬ 
 gregation, but resigned and became the 
 leader of a party bearing his name. They 
 looked upon the Church as having become 
 entirely degenerate, and, acknowledging no 
 other religious authority than the Bible, 
 
Bor 
 
 ( 120 ) 
 
 Bou 
 
 without note or comment, they confined 
 themselves to private devotion. Their 
 tenets were very similar to those of the 
 Quakers. 
 
 Borromeo, Count Carlo, St., b. of 
 noble and pious parents in the castle of 
 Arona, on Lago Maggiore, Oct. 2, 1538; d. 
 in Milan, Nov. 3, 1584. He studied theol¬ 
 ogy, philosophy, and canon law at Pavia. 
 In 1560, his uncle, Pius IV., made him 
 cardinal-deacon and archbishop of Milan. 
 With singular devotion he sought to bring 
 about reforms in the Church. During the 
 terrible plague of 1576, he remained at the 
 post of duty and gave a noble example of 
 courage and trust. His efforts at reform 
 aroused bitter opposition, and members of 
 the order of Humiliati {q. v. ) instigated a 
 plan to take his life in 1569. He founded 
 the “ Collegium Helvetium ” for the train¬ 
 ing of priests to labor in Switzerland, and 
 oppose the introduction of Protestantism 
 into Italy. Bitter in his attacks upon the 
 Reformers, he did not hesitate to employ 
 the Inquisition. He was canonized, 1610. 
 See his complete works (Milan, 1747); and 
 Lives by G. P. Giussani (Rome, 1610; Eng. 
 trans., London, 2 vols.; C. A Jones, Lon¬ 
 don, 1877). 
 
 Borromeo Union, founded in Coblenz, 
 1844, for the circulation of Roman Catholic 
 literature. Up to 1887 if had distributed 
 $2,500,000 worth of books. 
 
 Borrow, George, b. at East Dereham, 
 Eng., in 1803; d. 1881. Without special 
 advantages in youth, he early developed a 
 r taste for literature and facility in acquir¬ 
 ing languages. With a natural inclination 
 for adventure, he made himself familiar 
 with the habits and language of gipsies, 
 both in England and Spain. He gathered 
 the fruits of his investigations ixia. Diction¬ 
 ary, published in 1841. Under engagement 
 to act in the service of the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society, in their work in 
 Spain, he gave his experiences in a work 
 published in 1843, entitled The Bible in 
 Spain: or , the Journeys , Adventures , and 
 Imprisonment of an Englishman in an At- 
 tempt to Cimilate the Scriptures in the Penin¬ 
 sula. This book, by reason of its charming 
 style and entertaining narrative, had a large 
 circulation. Mr. Borrow labored for a 
 time as colporter in Russia, and then edited 
 the New Testament in the Mandchu or 
 Chinese-Tartar language. 
 
 Bossuet ( bo-sii-a ), Jacques Benigne, a 
 famous French preacher and controver¬ 
 sialist; b. at Dijon, Sept. 27, 1627; d. in 
 Paris, April 12, 1704. He was Bishop of 
 
 Condom in 1669—70, when he was ap¬ 
 pointed Preceptor to the Dauphin, after¬ 
 ward Louis XIV. In 1681 he became 
 Bishop of Meaux, in which see he re¬ 
 mained for nearly a quarter of a century. 
 These promotions came to him through 
 the reputation he early gained as a scholar 
 and pulpit orator. His best-known work, 
 published in 1688, The History of the Va¬ 
 riations of the Protestant Churches , was the 
 occasion of wide-spread discussion. He 
 opposed the Quietistic views of Madame 
 Guyon, and in this way came into conflict 
 with Fenelon. While strongly maintaining 
 the doctrines of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, he opposed the extravagant claims 
 of the Pope to absolute supremacy, and 
 one of his works, that asserted the inde¬ 
 pendence of the French Church, was put 
 into the Index Expurgatorius . 
 
 Boston, Thomas, Church of Scotland; 
 b. at Dunse, March 17, 1677; d. at Ettrick, 
 May 20, 1732; was graduated at Edinburgh 
 University, 1694; pastor at Simprin, Ber¬ 
 wickshire, 1699; at Ettrick, 1707. He was 
 a prolific writer, but is now remembered 
 by two works, The Crook in the Lot (1737), 
 a book for those in sorrow; and Hiwian 
 Nature in its Fourfold Estate (1720). Both 
 of these works have been frequently re¬ 
 printed. See his Memoirs (Edinburgh, 1776; 
 2d ed., 1813). 
 
 Boudinot {boo'-de-not), Elias, LL. D.; 
 b. in Philadelphia, May 2, 1740; d. at Bur¬ 
 lington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821. He was a 
 lawyer by profession, and was elected 
 president of Congress in 1782, and, while 
 holding this position, signed the prelim¬ 
 inary treaty of peace with Great Britain. 
 He was a prominent, member in the early 
 history of the American Board of Commis¬ 
 sioners for Foreign Missions, and the first 
 president of the American Bible Society. 
 He was a model Christian layman. 
 
 Bourdaloue ( boor-da-loo ), Louis, “ the 
 prince of French preachers;” b. at Bourges, 
 Aug. 20, 1632; d. in Paris, May 13, 1704. 
 He belonged to the order of Jesuits. His 
 eloquence gained for him a great reputa¬ 
 tion in Paris, and after the Revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes, he was sent to Lan¬ 
 guedoc to seek the conversion of the Hu¬ 
 guenots to the Church of Rome. Near 
 the close of his life he devoted his time 
 entirely to ministrations in hospitals, pris¬ 
 ons, and houses of charity. Many of his 
 sermons have been translated into English. 
 
 Bourignon {boo-ren-yon'), Antoinette, a 
 Quietist of Roman Catholic origin; b. at 
 Lille, Flanders, Jan. 13, 1616; d. at 
 
Bou 
 
 ( 121 ) 
 
 Bra 
 
 Franeker, Oct. 30, 1680. Physically de¬ 
 formed, her early life was spent in solitude 
 and reading mystical books. Twice, on ac¬ 
 count of her wealth, she was sought in 
 marriage, but escaped by flight, as she was 
 determined to remain single. After the 
 death of her parents she spent part of her 
 inheritance in building a hospital at Lille, 
 1653. In 1667 she gathered about her, in 
 Amsterdam, acompany of followers (known 
 as Bourignonists), to whom she made 
 known her “ revelations.” She taught 
 that religion was an internal ecstasy, and 
 that all religious rites were unnecessary; 
 condemning the churches as corrupt, she 
 announced it as her mission to restore a 
 pure Christianity. Her principles, which 
 she preached with great zeal, found some 
 adherents on the Continent, but met with 
 most favor in Scotland. Her books in 
 English translations are: Light of the World 
 (London, 1696); The Light Risen in Dark¬ 
 ness (i 7 0 3 )> The A cademy of Learned 
 Divines (1708); The Renovation of the Gos¬ 
 pel Spirit (1737); An Apology for A. B. 
 (London, 1669), containing information re¬ 
 garding her life. 
 
 Bourignonists. See above. 
 
 Boy-Bishop. The election of a “ boy- 
 bishop ” was a curious custom in the Ro¬ 
 man Church of mediaeval times. On St. 
 Nicholas’ Day (the patron of children), the 
 cathedral-choir boys elected one of their 
 number “ bishop,” in which office he re¬ 
 mained until Holy Innocents’ Day. Dur¬ 
 ing this time he exercised nearly all of the 
 episcopal functions, sometimes even say¬ 
 ing mass. If he died before the close of 
 his term of office he was buried with epis¬ 
 copal honors. This travesty of sacred 
 things was forbidden by the Council of 
 Paris, in 1212, but the practice continued 
 in many places. In England the custom 
 was abolished in 1542, by Henry VIII., but 
 restored, in 1556, by Queen Mary. “ John 
 Stubbs, Querester,” of Gloucester Cathe¬ 
 dral, was the last boy-bishop elected in 
 England (1558). The sermon which he 
 preached on Holy Innocents’ Day (1558) is 
 preserved in the British Museum. 
 
 Boyle Lectures, founded and endowed 
 by Robert Boyle (b. 1627; d. 1691), for the 
 purpose of demonstrating “ the truth of 
 the Christian religion against atheists, 
 theists, pagans, Jews, and Mahometans.” 
 The course consists of eight sermons to be 
 preached within the period of three years 
 in the Chapel Royal, Whitehall. Boyle 
 was an eminent Christian philosopher, and 
 one of the founders of the Royal Society 
 (1662). He wrote and published several 
 
 theological treatises of value. Among 
 other gifts he paid the expenses incident 
 to the preparation of a Malay translation 
 of the Gospels and the Acts, and of an 
 Irish version of the Bible. 
 
 Bradford, John, burned at Smithfield, 
 June 1, 1555. He began the study of law 
 in the Temple, 1547, then went to Cam¬ 
 bridge, and after studying theology was 
 appointed chaplain to Edward VI., in 1552. 
 With the accession of Queen Mary he 
 was arrested for seditious utterances and 
 heresy. Refusing to recant, he met the 
 death of a martyr with courage. His writ¬ 
 ings were republished by the Parker 
 Society (Cambridge, 1848). 
 
 Bradshaw, William, a Puritan divine; 
 b. 1571; d. 1618. Educated at Cambridge, 
 he was settled at Chatham, in Kent, in 1601, 
 but was suspended for refusing to sign the 
 Thirty-nine Articles. For a time he was 
 lecturer of Christ Church, Newgate Street, 
 London, but his opposition to “cere¬ 
 monies ” caused trouble, and he retired to 
 the country. His most important work is, 
 English Puritanis?ne: Containeing The 
 Maine Opinions of the Rigidest Sort of those 
 that are called Puritanes in the Realme of 
 England (1605). An outline of this work 
 is given in Neal’s History of the Puritans. 
 See Dexter: Congregationalis?n as seen in its 
 Literature. Appendix. 
 
 Bradwardine, Thomas (b. 1290; d. in 
 London, 1349), called “ The profound 
 doctor,” on account of his great learning. 
 He was for some years Chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford, and acted as confess¬ 
 or of Edward III. during his campaigns 
 in France. Faithful in the discharge of his 
 duties, his influence over the king was 
 very great. He became Archbishop of 
 Canterbury in 1349, a few months previous 
 to his death. He was proficient in theol- * 
 ogy, mathematics, and astronomy, and a 
 man of earnest piety. 
 
 Brady, Nicholas, b. at Bandon, Ireland, 
 1659; d. in London, 1726. He was the 
 translator, in connection with Nahum Tate, 
 of the metrical version of the Psalms, 
 which, superseded the version of Stern- 
 hold and Hopkins. He also translated 
 Virgil’s Hineid, and wrote several short 
 poems and dramas. An earnest advocate 
 of the Revolution, he acted as chaplain to 
 William, and at the time of his death held 
 the livings of Claphamand Richmond, near 
 London. 
 
 Brahminism, or Hindooism, the religion 
 professed by about 150,000,000 of the 
 
Bra 
 
 ( 122 ) 
 
 Bra 
 
 — • - 
 
 people of India or Hindustan. It takes its 
 name from the Brahmins, the highest 
 “ caste,” or religious and social class, of 
 those who profess it; these, again, receiv¬ 
 ing their designation as Brahmins from 
 Brahma, the Supreme Being of their sys¬ 
 tem. 
 
 Brahminism is founded on four sacred 
 books, called Vedas, written in Sanskrit; 
 and known by the names of the Rig-Veda, 
 the Yagur-Veda, the Sama-Veda, and the 
 Atharva - Veda. Collectively they are 
 known as “ The Veda,” of which word the 
 original meaning is knowledge by sight, the 
 contents of the work being said to have 
 been “ seen” by those to whom Brahma 
 revealed them. The most important and 
 ancient of these sacred books is the Rig- 
 Veda, or Veda of Praise, which is the 
 foundation of the other three. Each Veda 
 consists of two divisions, the Samhitas or 
 Mantras, which are hymns to the gods, and 
 the Brahmanas or Sutras, which are prose 
 commentaries on the hymns of much later 
 date. The Rig-Veda hymns are more than 
 a thousand in number, addressed to various 
 gods and written by many different authors. 
 All the manuscripts of the Veda are compar¬ 
 atively modern, but the hymns themselves 
 are alleged to be very ancient, the most re¬ 
 cent of them being said to have been writ¬ 
 ten b. c. 1200, and the earliest B. c. 2000. 
 Accepting these dates, the earliest portion 
 of the Veda is contemporary with the pa¬ 
 triarch Abraham, the latest, with the 
 prophet Samuel. 
 
 The religion of Brahminism, as set forth 
 in the Rig-Veda, is that form of polytheism 
 which finds its gods in the forces and as¬ 
 pects of Nature; and nearly half the hymns 
 are addressed to the two most prominent 
 of these deities—Indra, the Firmament, 
 and Agni, Fire. But, at a later date than the 
 Rig-Veda, new elements were introduced 
 by the “ Institutes of Manu,” which con- 
 • sisted mainly of a priesthood, a ceremonial 
 system, and the worship of Brahma. At 
 a still more recent date, when the minute 
 ceremonial and its necessary priesthood 
 had become an intolerable burden to the 
 Hindoos, the system of Buddha (Bud¬ 
 dhism) was introduced as a revolt against 
 them. Then came a reaction, and Bud¬ 
 dhism was entirely expelled from India, 
 finding its home in China and Japan. From 
 this time Brahminism changed to its pres¬ 
 ent form, in which a Supreme Being is 
 acknowledged, who is supreme over the 
 universe, over man, and over 330 millions 
 of other gods. The gods universally ac¬ 
 knowledged, however, are seventeen in 
 number; the great triad, Brahma, Vishnu, 
 and Siva, the creating, preserving, and de¬ 
 stroying principles (with their correspond¬ 
 
 ing feminine principles), being the most 
 important. The other deities are mostly 
 personified powers of nature, including 
 those mentioned in the Veda. Besides 
 these, veneration is paid to the planets, to 
 sacred rivers such as the Ganges, and to a 
 host of local gods. Of the three principal 
 gods, Brahma is now little worshipped, all 
 the worship having been attracted to Vishnu 
 and Siva. Vishnu is worshipped chiefly 
 in the form of Avatars or incarnations, 
 manifestations on earth in various forms, 
 animal and human, ten in number, of which 
 one is yet to come. The most reverenced 
 of these avatars of Vishnu are Krishna and 
 Rama. Siva, the principle of destruction, 
 is worshipped with frequent animal sacri¬ 
 fices, and his devotees inflict terrible and 
 protracted tortures on themselves, such as 
 suspending themselves by hooks driven 
 through the flesh in various parts of their 
 bodies. Their images have in many cases 
 a monstrous character, with many heads, 
 arms, or bodies. 
 
 But this gross system of idolatry and 
 polytheism is explained away for the more 
 educated classes into a monotheistic phi¬ 
 losophy. There is one Supreme Being, it 
 is alleged, from whom all other Divine be¬ 
 ings proceeded by a series of emanations, 
 and this Deity is also called Brahma, like 
 the first person of the triad, who is recog¬ 
 nized as the Creator. The soul of man is 
 regarded as a limited portion of the Divine 
 Essence, separated off from his infinity 
 and, in the case of the good, to be finally 
 reabsorbed into the Divine Essence. This 
 world is a place of trial, in which souls are 
 embodied for the purpose of determining 
 by trial the place and condition of their 
 future existence. This is settled by strik¬ 
 ing a balance between the good works done 
 in this life and their rewards in the next, 
 and the evil works and their punishments. 
 But the highest condition of all is that of 
 absorption into the essence of the Supreme 
 Brahma, and this is attained only by those 
 who carefully observe the ceremonial pre¬ 
 scribed in the laws of Manu, by acquiring 
 the highest knowledge through one of the 
 systems of philosophy, and by devotion to 
 the gods. 
 
 A peculiar power of Brahminism rests in 
 its system of “ caste,” which made a sharp 
 division between the classes of society, 
 and to which the Brahmins, or highest and 
 teaching caste, attributed a sacred charac¬ 
 ter. The castes originally were only four: 
 the Brahmins, from whom alone the priests 
 were taken; the Kshatryas, or princes and 
 warriors; the Vaisyas, or commercial class; 
 and the Sudras, the laboring and wage¬ 
 earning class. There are now a number 
 of subdivisions of every caste except the 
 
Bra 
 
 ( 123 ) 
 
 Bre 
 
 Brahmins, who still reign supreme, though 
 there are signs that their influence is dying 
 out, through contact of the Hindoo popula¬ 
 tion with Europeans.—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Brahmo Somaj (worshiping assembly) is 
 a religious and social organization that 
 was founded in Calcutta in 1830, by the 
 wealthy and cultured Rajah Ram Mohun 
 Roy (b. Bombay, 1772; d. Bristol, Eng., 
 1833). The Brahmo Somaj was a revolt 
 against Hindoo polytheism. One god 
 (Brahma) is recognized, idolatry con¬ 
 demned, and the doctrines of the fatherhood 
 of God and the brotherhood of men made 
 prominent. These views, however, came 
 to their full development under the guid¬ 
 ance of Keshub Chunder Sen, who joined 
 the sect in 1858. The society is essentially 
 Unitarian in its doctrine and faith. The 
 movement has been watched with deep in¬ 
 terest by Christians of every land. Before 
 the death of Chunder Sen in 1884, internal 
 dissensions had weakened the society, but 
 the organization in many ways has exerted 
 a marked influence in the promotion of 
 education and Christian ethics in India. 
 See Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahma 
 Samaj , by T. E. Slater (London, 1884). 
 
 Brainerd, David, a celebrated missionary 
 to the Indians; b. at Haddam, Conn., 
 April 20, 1718; d. at Northampton, Mass., 
 Oct. g, 1747. After completing his studies, 
 he began his missionary work in 1743. He 
 gathered a church of Indian converts at 
 Crossweeks, N. J. In 1746 he left this lit¬ 
 tle company in charge of William Tennett, 
 while he visited the Susquehanna tribe, but 
 his labors had already broken his health, 
 and he retired to the home of Jonathan 
 Edwards, at Northampton, where he soon 
 after died. 
 
 Brasses in Churches, sepulchral tablets, 
 made generally of the mixed metal called 
 latten, and inlaid on slabs of stone, to form 
 part of the pavement of the church, or to 
 lie on the top of an altar-tomb. Brasses 
 are either (1) figures of the persons com¬ 
 memorated, or (2) inscriptions, with or 
 without ornamental scroll-work, or (3) 
 floriated crosses with inscriptions at the 
 foot or in a surrounding border.— Benham. 
 
 Bray, Thomas, b. at Marton, in Shrop¬ 
 shire, 1656; d. in London, 1730. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and in 1698 found¬ 
 ed the “ Society for the Propagation of the 
 the Gospel in Foreign Parts.” He was sent 
 to Maryland (U. S. A.), in 1700, and, after 
 two years of arduous labor in organizing 
 Episcopal churches, and establishing pa¬ 
 
 rochial libraries, he returned home, and 
 became rector of St. Botolph, London. His 
 plan of parish libraries was extended to 
 England and Wales, and there is a society 
 still in existence for this purpose, known 
 as the “ Bray Associates.” Bray published 
 several works: Catechetical Lectures, and 
 Papal Usurpation and Tyranny , Ancient and 
 Modern , are the most important. 
 
 Brazil. The Roman Catholic Church 
 was introduced by the Portuguese when 
 they took possession of the country in 
 1500, first by the Franciscans, and since 
 1549 by the Jesuits. The constitution of 
 1824, still in force, states that “ the Roman 
 Catholic religion will continue to be the 
 religion of the State; but all sects will be 
 tolerated, provided that they should hold 
 worship in special buildings put up for the 
 purpose, without the external form of 
 churches.” The Roman Church is entire¬ 
 ly dependent upon the State; it has no 
 property of its own, and its officials are 
 paid by the State. The monasteries are 
 now practically abandoned. The Arch¬ 
 bishop of Bahia is primate, and there are 
 ten bishops. The clergy have little in¬ 
 fluence over the educated class, and the re¬ 
 cent Revolution has lessened their power 
 in every direction. There are Protestant 
 Churches in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, 
 Rio Grande do Sul, and a few other places. 
 Several foreign missionary societies are 
 doing a work which, it may be hoped, will 
 increase in influence and extent, under the 
 protection of the Republic. See Fletcher 
 and Kidder: Brazil (9th ed., Boston, 1878). 
 
 Bread. Among the Jews bread was gen¬ 
 erally made of wheat. Barley was some¬ 
 times used. (Judg. vii. 13.) The loaves 
 were shaped like a plate, and were about 
 the thickness of the outstretched hand. 
 The unleavened bread was quite thin, and 
 was broken, not cut. The word bread , as 
 used in the Bible, often refers to food or 
 provisions in general. 
 
 Breastplate. See High-Priest. 
 
 Breckenridge, John, D. D.,b. at Cabell’s 
 Dale, Ky., July 4, 1797; d. near Lexing¬ 
 ton, Ky., Aug. 4, 1841. After studying in 
 the Princeton Theological Seminary he was 
 licensed to preach in 1822, and soon after¬ 
 ward was appointed chaplain to the House 
 of Representatives. He was pastor of the 
 Presbyterian Church at Lexington, Ky., 
 1823-26. In 1831 he removed to Philadel¬ 
 phia, and became secretary of the Presby¬ 
 terian Board of Education till 1836 when 
 he accepted a professorship in Princeton 
 Theological Seminary. In 1838 he was 
 
Bre 
 
 ( 124 ) 
 
 Bre 
 
 appointed secretary of the Presbyterian 
 Board of Foreign Missions. He resigned 
 in 1840, and just before his death was 
 chosen president of Oglethorpe University, 
 Georgia. He engaged in a notable dis¬ 
 cussion with Bishop Hughes of New York, 
 which was published in Phil., (1836), un¬ 
 der the title, Roman Catholic Controversy. 
 
 Breckenridge, Robert Jefferson, D. 
 D. LL. D.,a distinguished Presbyterian 
 minister; b. at Cabell’s Dale, Ky., March 
 8, 1800; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. 
 He was graduated at Union College, N. 
 Y., 1819; practised law in Kentucky, 1823- 
 31; pastor of the First Presbyterian Church 
 in Baltimore, 1832-45; president of Jeffer¬ 
 son College, 1845-47; pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., and 
 superintendent of public instruction for the 
 State, 1847-53; professor of theology, Dan¬ 
 ville Seminary, 1853 until his death. Dr. 
 B. was a leader in the Presbyterian Church 
 on the Old School side, and took an active 
 part in the debates that culminated in the 
 disruption of the denomination. He op¬ 
 posed the reunion that took place in 1869. 
 During the war he defended the Union 
 cause, but was much opposed to the 
 emancipation act. He did a great work in 
 organizing the public school system of 
 Kentucky. Like his brother John, he was 
 an earnest opponent of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. His most important publication 
 was, The Knowledge of God , Objectively and 
 Subjectively Considered , 2 vols. (N. Y., 1859). 
 
 Brenz, Johann, next to Melancthon the 
 most prominent German divine of his time; 
 b. at Weil, Swabia, June 24, 1499; d. at 
 Stuttgart, Sept. 11, 1570. Educated at 
 Heidelberg, he became a priest in 1520. 
 While preaching at Swabian Hall (1522), he 
 came out in favor of the Reformation, and 
 was compelled to seek refuge during the 
 Smalcald war (1546) and the Interim (1547). 
 In 1552 he was appointed provost at Stutt¬ 
 gart. He presented the Wiirtemberg Con¬ 
 fession to the Council of Trent in 1553. 
 He was the author of the first Protestant 
 catechism, which was published (1528) a 
 year before that of Luther. The theory of 
 the absolute ubiquity of Christ was first 
 promulgated by him. See his Life by 
 Hartmann (Elberfeld, 1862). 
 
 After the death of Groot, Thomas a Kem- 
 pis became the leader of the association. 
 From this time on, the organization grew 
 rapidly, and the brother and sister houses 
 were to be found everywhere. In teach¬ 
 ing children in the schools and providing 
 good books for their use, they did a great 
 work. During the sixteenth century this 
 work came more under the control of the 
 State, and the association finally disap¬ 
 peared. 
 
 Brethren of the Free Spirit. See Free 
 Spirit, Brethren of the. 
 
 Brethren, Plymouth. See Plymouth 
 Brethren. 
 
 Brethren, United. See Moravians. 
 
 Brethren, United, in Christ. See 
 United Brethren in Christ. 
 
 Bretschneider (bret - shni - der), Karl 
 Gottlieb, b. at Gersdorf, Saxony, Feb. 
 11, 1776; d. at Gotha, Jan. 22, 1848. He 
 studied theology at Leipzig, and was ap¬ 
 pointed superintendent-general at Gotha, 
 in 1816. He was distinguished as a con¬ 
 troversial writer, and became the leader of 
 a party which sought to take a medium 
 position between rationalism and ortho¬ 
 doxy. He was the author of a valuable 
 Greek New Testament lexicon. His auto¬ 
 biography, published in 1851, attracted 
 much attention. A translation of this work, 
 by Prof. Geo. E. Day, appeared in the 
 Bibliotheca Sacra , Nos. 36 and 38 (1852, 
 1853). Of his numerous dogmatic writings, 
 the only one which has been translated 
 into English is his Manual of the Religion 
 and History of the Christian Church , which 
 was published in 1857. 
 
 Breviary, an office-book of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, which contains the offices 
 for the canonical hours. (See Canonical 
 Hours.) The Roman Church enjoins, un¬ 
 der pain of excommunication, all “ relig¬ 
 ious ” persons (i. e., all persons, male or 
 female, who have taken vows in any relig¬ 
 ious order), to repeat, either in private or 
 public, the services of the canonical hours, 
 as contained in the breviary. In the Luther¬ 
 an and Episcopal Churches modifications 
 and translations of the breviary are used. 
 
 Brethren of the Common Life. This as¬ 
 sociation was founded by Gerhard Groot 
 (1340-84). A man of deep and earnest 
 religious spirit, he gathered, in his native 
 city of Deventer, a band of young men 
 who engaged in Christian effort, especially 
 in the direction of guiding those who were 
 seeking for a more perfect life in Christ. 
 
 Brewster, William, b. at Scrooby, Eng., 
 1560 (?); d. at Plymouth, Mass., April 10, 
 1644. He was a student, for a time, at 
 Cambridge, and then was in the employ of 
 William Davison, ambassador and after¬ 
 ward secretary of state to Queen Eliza¬ 
 beth, until the disgrace of that statesman 
 
Bri 
 
 ( 125 ) 
 
 Bro 
 
 in 1585. He then returned to Scrooby, 
 where for some years he had charge of the 
 post-office. A company of Brownists met 
 each Lord’s day in his home until 1608, 
 when the congregation, to avoid further 
 persecution, removed, first to Amsterdam, 
 and in 1609 to Leyden. John Robinson 
 was teacher, and Brewster ruling elder, of 
 this little company. Mr. Brewster, re¬ 
 duced in circumstances by his generosity 
 toward his brethren, gained his living by 
 teaching English. He opened a printing 
 office, and published many controversial 
 works. In 1620, when a part of the con¬ 
 gregation sailed in the Mayflower for New 
 England, Brewster was recognized as their 
 spiritual head. He did not administer the 
 sacraments, as he had not been ordained, 
 but he preached regularly until 1629, when 
 William Ralph was settled as minister at 
 Plymouth. 
 
 Bridget, St. (453-523), the patroness of 
 Ireland. Born about the middle of the 
 fifth century, she early took the veil, and 
 retired into a cell at Kildare, where so 
 many joined her that it was necessary to 
 build nunneries in different parts of the 
 country, all of which acknowledged her as 
 their mother and foundress. Many tradi¬ 
 tions and miracles are given in accounts of 
 her life. Her day falls on Feb. 1. 
 
 Bridgewater Treatises. The Rev. Fran¬ 
 cis Henry, eighth earl of Bridgewater (b. 
 1758; d. 1829), by his will devised the sum 
 of eight thousand pounds to be paid to the 
 author or authors, selected by the presi¬ 
 dent of the Royal Society, who should 
 write and publish 1,000 copies of a treatise 
 “On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness 
 of God, as Manifested in the Creation.” 
 Eight persons were chosen to write treat¬ 
 ises on the several branches of the sub¬ 
 ject. Their names and subjects were as 
 follows: (1) Rev. Thomas Chalmers, D. 
 D.: The Adaptation of External Nature to 
 the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of 
 Man; (2) John Kidd, M. D.: The Adapta¬ 
 tion of External Nature to the Physical Con¬ 
 dition of Man; (3) Rev. W. Whewell: As¬ 
 tronomy and General Physics considered zvith 
 reference to Natural Theology; (4) Sir 
 Charles Bell: The Hand , its Mechanism 
 and Vital Endowments , as Evincing Design’, 
 (5) Peter Mark Roget, M. D.: Animal and 
 Vegetable Physiology considered zvith refer¬ 
 ence to Natural Theology; (6) Rev. Dr. 
 Buckland: On Geology and Mineralogy; (7) 
 Rev. W. Kirby: On the History, Habits, 
 and Instincts of Animals; (8) William 
 Prout: Chemistry, Meteorology , and the 
 Functions of Digestion , considered zvith ref¬ 
 erence to Natural Theology. 
 
 Briefs. See Bulls and Briefs. 
 
 Brigittines. See Birgitta. 
 
 Briggs, Charles Augustus, D. D. (Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1884), Presbyterian; b. in New 
 York City, Jan. 15, 1841; studied in the 
 University of Virginia, 1857-60; in the 
 Union Theological Seminary, New York, 
 1861-63; and in the University of Berlin 
 under Dorner and Rodiger, 1866-69; be¬ 
 came pastor at Roselle, N. J., 1870; pro¬ 
 fessor of Hebrew and the cognate languages 
 in Union Theological Seminary, 1874. He 
 is the author of Biblical Study (New York, 
 1833; 3d ed. 1888); American Presbyterian¬ 
 ism : Its Origin and Growth (1885); Mes¬ 
 sianic Prophecy (1886); Whither ? (1889). 
 
 Broadus, John Albert, D. D. (William 
 and Mary, 1859, Richmond College, 1859); 
 LL. D.(Wake Forrest College, N. C., 1871), 
 Baptist; b. in Culpeper County, Va., Jan. 
 24,1827; was graduated at the University of 
 Virginia, 1850; assistant professor of Latin 
 and Greek in that institution, 1851, and also 
 pastor of the Baptist church; professor of 
 New Testament interpretation and hom¬ 
 iletics in the Southern Baptist Theological 
 Seminary, 1859 (first at Greenville, S. C., 
 removed to Louisville, Ky., 1877). He is 
 the author of: The Preparation and Delivery 
 of Ser?nons (Philadelphia, 1870); Lectures 
 on the History of Preaching (New York, 
 1876); Commentary on Matthew (Philadel¬ 
 phia, 1887). 
 
 Brooks, ElbridgeGerry, D. D., a prom¬ 
 inent leader and minister in the Universal- 
 ist denomination; b. at Dover, N. H., July 
 29, 1816; d. at Philadelphia, April 8, 1878. 
 After serving prominent churches in New 
 England, from 1837 to 1859, he was called 
 to the pastorate of the Church of Our Sav¬ 
 iour in New York City. He remained 
 here until 1867, when he became general 
 agent of the board of trustees of the Gen¬ 
 eral Convention. In 1868 he accepted the 
 pastorate of the Church of the Messiah in 
 Philadelphia. He published Our Nezv De¬ 
 parture (1874); Universalis?n in Life and 
 Doctrine, and its Superiority as a Practical 
 Power. He was a man of marked influ¬ 
 ence in his denomination. See E. S. Brooks: 
 The Life-work of Elbridge Gerry Brooks 
 (Boston, 1881). 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, D. D. (Harvard, 1877; 
 Oxford, 1885; Columbia, 1887), Episcopa¬ 
 lian; b. in Boston, Dec. 13, 1835; was gradu¬ 
 ated at Harvard, 1855; at the P. E. Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, Virginia, 1859; became 
 rector of the Church of the Advent, 
 Philadelphia, 1859; of Holy Trinity in the 
 
Bro 
 
 ( 126 ) 
 
 Bro 
 
 same city, 1862; of Trinity Church, Bos¬ 
 ton, 1869. He is the author of Lectures on 
 Preaching {New York, 1877); Influence of 
 Jesus (Bohlen lectures, 1879), an< ^ several 
 volumes of Sermons (1878, 1881, 1883, 1887, 
 etc.). 
 
 Brorson, Hans Adolf, a Danish relig¬ 
 ious poet; b. at Randrup, in Jutland, 1694; 
 d. in Ribe, 1764. He studied theology in 
 Copenhagen and was minister in Randrup, 
 Touder, and Ribe, becoming bishop of 
 Ribe in 1741. Nearly one-third of the 
 hymns now in use in the Danish Church 
 were from his pen. A collected and critical 
 edition of his hymns, edited by P. A. 
 Arland, was published in Copenhagen 
 (1867). 
 
 Brotherhood. It is not easy to deter¬ 
 mine the origin of brotherhoods in the 
 Christian Church. St. Basil, in the fourth 
 century, gave them their first written con¬ 
 stitution, and St. Jerome evidently ap¬ 
 proved of fraternities rather than “ her¬ 
 mits,” so that we may conclude that they 
 were established throughout the fourth 
 and fifth centuries. In the eighth century 
 we find that the term “fraternity” was 
 confined to monastic and clerical bodies, 
 and not given to laymen; but in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries it is used to de¬ 
 note a “ gild,” whose majority would, 
 most likely, consist of lay members. The 
 history of the different monastic orders 
 will be found under their several heads.— 
 Benham . 
 
 Brown, James Baldwin, English Con- 
 gregationalist; b. in London, Aug. 19, 
 1820; d. there, June 23, 1884. Educated at 
 London University and Highbury Theo¬ 
 logical College, he became pastor at Lon¬ 
 don Road, Derby, 1S43; and, in 1846, of 
 Clay lands Chapel, Clapham Road, London, 
 where he remained until his death. He 
 was chairman of the Congregational Union 
 of England and Wales, in 187S. A man of 
 broad catholicity, sound scholarship, and 
 executive ability, he exerted a wide influ¬ 
 ence. He was a prolific writer. See In 
 Memoriam: James Baldwin Brown, by his 
 wife (London, 1884). 
 
 Brown, John, b. 1722; d. 1787; com¬ 
 monly known as “Brown of Haddington,” 
 in which place he was minister of the 
 Burgher branch of the Secession Church 
 and teacher in a school of theology. 
 Among the valuable works which he pro¬ 
 duced was a Dictionary of the Bible (1769), 
 often reprinted; the Self-Interpreting Bible 
 (1778); Compendious History of the British 
 Churches (1788); A Short Catechism (1764). 
 
 This last work has had an immense circu¬ 
 lation, and is still in use. 
 
 Brown, John Newton, D. D., a Baptist 
 minister; b. at New London, Conn., 1803; 
 d. at Germantown, Penn., 1868. He is 
 best known as the compiler and editor of 
 an Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge, 
 published in one volume at Brattlebor- 
 ough, Vt., in 1835. It has had a large sale, 
 but its information is now out of date. In 
 its time the work reflected great honor 
 upon the industry and ability of Dr. Brown. 
 He was professor of theology and church 
 history in the New Hampton Theological 
 Institution, N. H., from 1838 to 1845; pas¬ 
 tor at Lexington, Va., 1845-1849, and then 
 editorial secretary of the American Baptist 
 Publishing Society. 
 
 Browne, Robert, the founder of the 
 Brownists, and, therefore, of Congregation¬ 
 alism; b. atTolethorp, Rutlandshire, Eng., 
 about 1550; d. between 1631 and ^633. at 
 Northampton. Educated at Cambridge in 
 1571, he acted for a short time as domestic 
 chaplain to the Duke of Norfolk, and 
 at this early date he was cited to ap¬ 
 pear before an ecclesiastical commission, 
 under charge of teaching seditious doc¬ 
 trines. He refused to obey the summons, 
 and became a school-teacher at Southwark 
 for three years. He studied theology at 
 Cambridge about 1578, and, although with¬ 
 out a iicense to preach, he earnestly pro¬ 
 mulgated his views as opportunity offered. 
 In 1581 he began a ministry at Norwich 
 which attracted a large congregation. His 
 unsparing denunciation of the evils and 
 errors that he believed existed in the 
 Established Church aroused a spirit of 
 persecution that led him, with a few fol¬ 
 lowers, to flee to Middelburg in Zealand. 
 Here he remained for two years, where he 
 prepared three treatises which were print¬ 
 ed and sent to England for distribution. 
 The little church formed at Middelburg 
 was soon divided in sentiment, and in 
 Dec., 1583, Browne, with four or five fam¬ 
 ilies, came to Scotland. In the following 
 year he published A Trite and Short 
 Declaration, Both of the Gathering and Joyn- 
 ing together of certaine Persons; and also of 
 the Lamentable Breach and Disuision which 
 fell amongst them (4to, pp. 24). It is from 
 this little pamphlet that we learn the early 
 history of the sect who, as a term of re¬ 
 proach, were known as Brownists. Within 
 a few days after reaching Edinburgh, in 
 Jan., 1584, Browne was summoned before 
 the session of the Kirk. After a brief im¬ 
 prisonment he was released, and, with ac¬ 
 customed zeal and activity he preached in 
 different parts of Scotland, and then re- 
 
Bro 
 
 ( 127 ) 
 
 Bru 
 
 turned to England, where he was confined 
 in prison for a long time. Through the 
 influence of Lord Burghley he was finally 
 released, and made his residence at North¬ 
 ampton. Here he was cited by the bishop 
 of Peterbrough, and, refusing to appear, 
 was excommunicated. We come now to 
 the change in his life and actions that has 
 been the source of much speculation. Not 
 long after his excommunication he asked 
 the privilege of uniting with the Church of 
 England. In 1586 he was appointed mas¬ 
 ter of the grammar-school at St. Olave, 
 Southwark, and in 1591 he was presented 
 by Lord Burghley with the small living of 
 Achurch-cum-Thorpe, where he lived for 
 almost forty years. A dispute with the 
 constable of his parish in regard to the 
 payment of rates, in which he came to 
 blows, and his subsequent insolence to the 
 justice, led to his imprisonment in North¬ 
 ampton jail, where he died, aged eighty. 
 Dr. H. M. Dexter in his Congregationalism 
 as seen in its Literature , finds reason in this 
 incident, connected with the long seclusion 
 of this once strong and active nature in his 
 little parish, to believe that the stress of 
 labor in earlier years, and the sufferings of 
 persecution and imprisonment had left him 
 mentally weak and unbalanced. The in¬ 
 vestigations of Dr. Dexter and others give 
 to Robert Browne his rightful place as the 
 founder of Congregationalism. The story 
 of his later life ought not to hide that of 
 his earlier years when he taught earnestly 
 and distinctly the principles that underlie 
 the polity of ecclesiastical order held by 
 Congregationalists, See Congregation¬ 
 alism. 
 
 Brownson, Orestes Augustus, LL. D., 
 one of the ablest defenders of Romanism 
 this country has produced; b. at Stock- 
 bridge, Vt., 1803; d. 1876. He was orig¬ 
 inally a Baptist; united with the Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church at Ballston, N. Y., in 1823; 
 and after preaching, first as a Universalist 
 and then as a Unitarian minister, he finally 
 became an infidel Socialist. In 1844 he 
 joined the Roman Catholic Church, and 
 established Brownson's Quarterly Review , 
 in which, with remarkable intellectual 
 vigor, he defended the most extreme Ul¬ 
 tramontane views. His collected Works 
 (N. Y., 1883-85) form 19 vols. 
 
 Bruce, Alexander Balmain, D. D. 
 (Glasgow, 1876), Free Church of Scotland; 
 b. in the parish of Aberdalgie, near Perth, 
 Jan. 30, 1831; educated at Edinburgh; en¬ 
 tered the ministry, 1859; pastor at Car- 
 dross, 1859-68; at Broughty Ferry, For¬ 
 farshire, 1868-75; since 1875 professor of 
 apologetics and New Testament exegesis 
 
 in the Free Church College, Glasgow. He 
 is the author of The Training of the Twelve 
 (Edinburgh, 1871; 3d ed., 1883); The Hu¬ 
 miliation of Christ (1876); 1 'he Parabolic 
 Teaching of Christ (1882); The Miraculous 
 Element in the Gospels (N. Y., 1887). 
 
 Brugglenians, a sect founded in 1746 by 
 two brothers, named Kohler, in the village 
 of Bruegglen, in the canton of Bern, Swit¬ 
 zerland. They professed to have direct 
 communications from God, and announced 
 that on a certain day the world would per¬ 
 ish, with the exception of their followers, 
 who would be taken up to heaven. They 
 taught and practised immoralities under 
 the guise of the doctrine that the flesh is 
 under the dominion of Satan, and there¬ 
 fore Satan, and not man, is responsible for 
 what is done in the flesh. In 1752 they 
 were arrested, and one of the brothers, 
 Hieronymous, was executed. It is not 
 known what became of the other. The 
 doctrines of the sect were revived by the 
 Antonians. 
 
 Bruis, Pierre de. See Petrobrus- 
 
 SIANS. 
 
 Brully ( broo-ley ), Peter, the successor 
 of Calvin in Strasburg, and a martyr to 
 the Protestant faith; b. near Metz, Ger¬ 
 many, about 1518; burned at Tournav, 
 Feb. 19, 1545. 
 
 Bruno, St., the “Apostle of the Prus¬ 
 sians;” b. at Querfurt, Prussian Saxony, 
 about 970; d. Feb. 14, 1009. He was 
 canon of Magdeburg, when he became a 
 Benedictine monk, and went as a mission¬ 
 ary in 1004, first to Poland, then to Hun¬ 
 gary and Russia, and finally among the 
 Prussians, where, with eighteen of his 
 companions, he suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Bruno of Cologne, St. , founder of the 
 Carthusian order of monks; b. at Cologne, 
 about 1030; d. at the monastery of La 
 Torre, in Calabria, Oct. 6, 1101. He' was 
 canonized by Leo X. in 1504, and his festi¬ 
 val is observed on Oct. 6. See Carthu¬ 
 sians. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, Italian philosopher; 
 b. at Nola, near Naples, about 1548 ; 
 burned at the stake, in Rome, Feb. 17, 
 1600. In his fifteenth year he entered the 
 order of the Dominicans at Naples. His 
 opinions in regard to some of the Romish 
 mysteries soon brought him into trouble. 
 From Rome, where he had gone to avoid 
 imprisonment, he fled, in 1576, to Geneva, 
 and from there made his way to Paris in 
 1 579. With restless energy, in all the 
 
Bru 
 
 ( 128 ) 
 
 Bud 
 
 places which he visited, he promulgated 
 his pantheistic views, and unfolded the 
 discoveries of Copernicus, which he fully 
 accepted. At Toulouse he lectured on 
 astronomy, and at Paris he was offered a 
 chair of philosophy, if he would receive 
 the Mass. This he refused to do, but was 
 permitted to give lectures. In 1583 Bruno 
 visited England, and some of his most able 
 works were prepared during the two years 
 he remained there. In 1586 he returned to 
 Paris, but the persecution of his enemies 
 compelled him to seek refuge in Marburg 
 and Wittenberg, then at Helmstadt, Frank¬ 
 fort, and Zurich. While at the latter place 
 he accepted an invitation to Venice, where 
 he was seized by the emissaries of the In¬ 
 quisition, and in 1793 was brought to 
 Rome. After an imprisonment of seven 
 years he was excommunicated on the 9th 
 of February, 1600, and on the 17th was 
 burned at the stake. Bruno was the fore¬ 
 runner of the modern pantheistic school of 
 philosophers. He held that the universe 
 was simply a manifestation of God, and 
 therefore itself divine. Upon the spot 
 where he was put to death, a statue in his 
 memory was unveiled, with much cere¬ 
 mony, in Rome, Sunday, June 9, 1889. 
 See his Italian works (ed. P de Lagarde, 
 Gottingen, 1888), 2 vols.; his Life, by I. 
 Frith (London, 1887). 
 
 Bruys, Pierre de. See Petrobrussians. 
 
 Bryanites. See Bible Christians. 
 
 Bryennios, Philotheos, D. D. (Athens, 
 1S80; Edinburgh, 1884); b. at Constanti¬ 
 nople, April 7, 1833; educated at Chalce 
 and Leipzig, Berlin and Munich. He was 
 appointed professor of theology at Chalce, 
 1S61; metropolitan of Serrae, in Macedo¬ 
 nia, in 1875; metropolitan of Nicomedia, 
 1877. In 1873 he made his famous dis¬ 
 covery, in the Jerusalem monastery at 
 Constantinople, of the Second Epistle of 
 Clement to the Corinthians,and th zDidachd 
 (or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ). 
 His edition was published at Constanti¬ 
 nople (1883). See Dr. Schaff’s ed. (3d ed. 
 New T York, 1888). 
 
 Bu'cer, Martin, b. at Schlettstadt, a 
 town of Alsace, near Strasburg, 1491; d. 
 at Cambridge, Eng., Feb. 28, 1551. A 
 member of the Dominican order (1506), he 
 early became a friend and follower of 
 Luther. When the differences arose be¬ 
 tween Luther and Zwingli regarding the 
 Lord’s Supper, he favored the latter, but 
 used his efforts to bring about a union be¬ 
 tween the two great leaders. By invitation 
 of Archbishop Cranmer, he came to Eng¬ 
 
 land to teach theology in the University of 
 Cambridge. After laboring for two years 
 in the interests of the Reformation, he died 
 there. His influence in many ways was 
 marked and useful. 
 
 Buchanites, a Scotch sect which ap¬ 
 peared in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, and is chiefly interesting as fur¬ 
 nishing a strange example of religious ex¬ 
 travagance. The absurdities related and 
 believed about Mrs. Buchan, the found¬ 
 ress, were very numerous and shocking. 
 It is stated that some of the descendants 
 of the Covenanters of the Scottish Low¬ 
 lands were among her adherents .—Benham. 
 
 Buck, Charles, b. in 1771; d. in 1815. 
 His fame rests upon his Theological Dic¬ 
 tionary, first published in London, in 1802. 
 It has had an immense sale both in Eng¬ 
 land and this country. Mr. Buck spent 
 his life in the ministry of the Independents 
 in England. He published Anecdotes, Re¬ 
 ligious, Moral , and Entertaining (1799), 
 which was very popular in its day. 
 
 Buckley, James Monroe, D. D. (Wesley¬ 
 an University, 1876), LL. D. (Emory and 
 Henry, Va., 1882), Methodist; b. at Rah¬ 
 way, N. J., Dec. 16, 1836; studied at Wes¬ 
 leyan University, and entered the Metho¬ 
 dist ministry 1858. After filling many im¬ 
 portant appointments he was elected editor 
 of The Christian Advocate in 1880. He is 
 the author of Appeals to Meti of Sense 
 and Reflection to Begin a Christian Life 
 (New York, 1869; 5th ed. 1875); The 
 Land of the Czar and the Nihilist (Boston 
 1886), and other volumes. 
 
 Budde, Johann Franz, b. 1667; d. at 
 Jena, 1729. He was a German theologian 
 of considerable note as a writer on moral 
 theology, “a man of genuine piety and 
 immense learning.” 
 
 Buddhism, the religion professed by 
 one-third of the population of the world, 
 namely: the people of China, Japan, Siam, 
 Burmah, Nepaul, Ceylon, Mongolia, Tar¬ 
 tary, Thibet, and Cashmere. It is an off¬ 
 shoot of Brahminism, and originated in In¬ 
 dia six centuries before the Christian era 
 with Siddhartha, better known as Sakya- 
 mouni, or by the title of Buddha (Eng., 
 “ The Enlightened ”), which he assumed, 
 and from which his followers are named 
 “ Buddhists.” But it has been questioned 
 whether there ever was such a person as 
 Buddha, and whether the whole mass of 
 traditions respecting him are not unhistor- 
 ical. Of this opinion were Professor Wil¬ 
 son, as shown at length in his Essay on 
 
Bui 
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
 Bun 
 
 Buddha and Buddhism , and also Professor 
 Maurice, as shown in his Lectures on the Re¬ 
 ligions of the World. 
 
 There is no God in the religious system 
 of Buddhism, but there is a kind of wor¬ 
 ship of Buddha, for which temples are 
 erected, and which consists simply of pray¬ 
 ers and the burning of perfumed woods be¬ 
 fore the images and alleged relics of Bud¬ 
 dha, which are innumerable. There are 
 also a vast number of Buddhist monks, or 
 “ bonzes,” who live a strict life in commu¬ 
 nities like those of Christian monks of the 
 Middle Ages, act as preachers and teach¬ 
 ers, and employ themselves in study. The 
 end and object of the Buddhist religion is 
 “ Nirvana,” of which term the meaning is 
 doubtful, some considering that it signifies 
 absolute annihilation, others that it is ab¬ 
 sorption into Buddha, which may be re¬ 
 garded as a form of the religious idea of 
 absorption into God. This end is to be at¬ 
 tained by extinction of self, and thus the 
 strict practice of Buddhism is a rigid as¬ 
 ceticism, similar to that of the early Egyp¬ 
 tian Hermits. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that 
 Buddhism maintains the same form in all 
 the countries where it is professed. It has 
 ever shown a remarkable power of assim¬ 
 ilating with itself some of the features of 
 other religions. In some countries it re¬ 
 tains its original form of a religion without 
 a deity; in others it bears clear traces of 
 the influence of other religions: as of some 
 obsolete Christian heresy in Thibet, and 
 of polytheism in China.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Bulgaria was converted to Christianity 
 about 860, by Cyril and Methodius {<]. v.). 
 Of its present population, the Turks, Tar¬ 
 tars, Albanians and Circassians are Mo¬ 
 hammedans; the Roumanians, the Arme¬ 
 nians, and most of the Russians belong 
 to the Greek Church. After a long con¬ 
 flict, the Bulgarians of Greek faith, in 1870, 
 secured a decree from the Sultan by which 
 a national Bulgarian Church was estab¬ 
 lished. This action was followed by the 
 excommunication of the entire Bulgarian 
 nation from the Orthodox Church by the 
 Greek Patriarch at Constantinople; but 
 this act has not been recognized by other 
 branches of the Orthodox Church, in Rus¬ 
 sia, Greece, etc. American missionaries 
 began their labors in Bulgaria in 1858, and 
 have made a considerable number of con¬ 
 verts, and, through the influence of their 
 schools, have done much to enlighten the 
 people and advance the growth of the na¬ 
 tion. Many young men from Bulgaria 
 have been educated at Robert College, 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Bull, George, D. D., Church of Eng¬ 
 land; b. at Wells, March 25, 1634; d. at 
 Brecknock, South Wales, Feb. 17, 1710. 
 He was educated at Oxford; rector of St. 
 George’s, near Bristol, then of Suddington 
 (1662); Avening (1685); archdeacon of 
 Llandaff (1687); bishop of St. David’s 
 (1705). He is remembered for his Defen- 
 sio Fidei Nicence , in which, with much 
 learning, he attempts to show that the or¬ 
 thodox doctrine of the Trinity was fully 
 developed before the Council of Nice (1680; 
 Eng. trans., Oxford, 1851-55), 3 vols. See 
 his complete works (Oxford, 1S27), 7 vols., 
 with life by Nelson. 
 
 Bullinger ( hool-ling-er ), Heinrich, b. at 
 Bremgarten, near Zurich, July 18, 1504; 
 d. at Zurich, Sept. 17, 1575. He was 4 
 disciple of Zwingli, and a powerful sup¬ 
 porter of that reformer in his contention 
 with Luther on the doctrine of the Lord’s 
 Supper. Through his theological works 
 and correspondence he exerted a strong 
 influence upon Protestant thought in Eng¬ 
 land. Many of his sermons were translated 
 into English. 
 
 Bulls and Briefs, Papal, are the two 
 kinds of authoritative letters issued by the 
 popes in their official capacity as head of 
 the Church, the bulls being the more im¬ 
 portant. They are distinguished from 
 each other by several marks. A bull is 
 written on thick, polished parchment, com¬ 
 monly in angular Gothic characters, and 
 is always open. A brief is not so impor¬ 
 tant as a bull. It is written upon white 
 paper, or thin parchment, in modern cur¬ 
 sive characters, and is sometimes sent 
 open, sometimes closed. There are other 
 points in which they differ, but these dis¬ 
 tinctions are not much older than the fif¬ 
 teenth century. 
 
 Bunsen {boon-sen), Christian Karl 
 JosiAS, a German nobleman and scholar 
 whose intellectual service and Christian 
 character endeared him to the English- 
 speaking world; b. at Korbach in the prin¬ 
 cipality of Waldeck, Aug. 25, 1791; d. at 
 Bonn, Nov. 28, i860. He held many posi¬ 
 tions of political honor, and from 1841 to 
 1854 was minister to England from Prussia. 
 The later years of his life were spent in 
 scholarly retirement at Heidelberg. He 
 wrote many volumes on philological, histor¬ 
 ical, and theological subjects. His Memoirs 
 were published in 1868 by his widow, an 
 accomplished English lady. Bunsen did 
 much to interpret German thought to 
 English readers and thinkers. 
 
 Bunting, Jabez, D. D., an eminent Wes- 
 
Bun 
 
 ( 130 ) 
 
 Bur 
 
 leyan minister; b. at Manchester, Eng., 
 May 13, 1779; d. June 16, 1858. The child 
 of Christian parents who gave him good 
 educational advantages, he was converted 
 when about sixteen, and at nineteen enter¬ 
 ed the ministry of the Wesleyan Con¬ 
 ference. He was very successful in his 
 work, and early won a position of com¬ 
 manding influence. He was four times 
 elected President of the Conference, in 
 1820, 1828, 1S36 and 1S44, and from the 
 foundation of the Wesleyan Theological 
 Institution in 1834 till his death he was its 
 president. For eighteen years he was 
 secretary of the Wesleyan Missionary 
 Society, of which he was a principal organ¬ 
 izer. His word was law among his breth¬ 
 ren, and his rare wisdom and beautiful 
 spirit endeared him to believers of every 
 name. 
 
 Bunyan, John, the author of the Pil¬ 
 grim's Progress; b. at Elstow, near Bed¬ 
 ford, Eng., Nov., 1628; d. in London, Aug. 
 31, i 63 S. He was brought up at his fa¬ 
 ther’s trade, as a tinker. While under 
 parental influences that were by no means 
 unfavorable he appears to have developed 
 in early years a headstrong disposition 
 that often led him into youthful excesses. 
 The facts, however, do not warrant the as¬ 
 sumption that his life was peculiarly loose 
 or disreputable, but rather give evidence 
 that his self-accusations were the severe 
 judgment of a heart and conscience that 
 were keenly alive to their monitions. He 
 joined the army in 1645, but after a brief 
 service he returned to Elstow, and a year 
 after was married, being then about twenty 
 years of age. His wife brought but little 
 dowry beyond two books which she had in¬ 
 herited from her father— The Practice of 
 Piety , by Bishop Bail)', and The Plain 
 Man's Pathway to Heaven , by Arthur Dent. 
 These volumes served to deepen the con¬ 
 victions of spiritual need which already 
 had brought the young tinker into great 
 trouble and depression of mind. Giving 
 up the amusements that were then in 
 vogue, he led a life of strict and austere 
 conduct. Through experiences that prov¬ 
 ed a providential preparation for his life- 
 work, he finally found peace in believing 
 on Christ. The casual conversation of a 
 pious woman of Bedford on the ‘ ‘ new 
 birth,” and the acquaintance, made through 
 her, with the Baptist minister in the town, 
 were among the influences that led to his 
 conversion. He was baptized in 1653, and 
 soon entered the Baptist ministry. As a 
 preacher he at once gathered and held the 
 attention of great congregations. In 1660 
 the Act of Uniformity, compelling at¬ 
 tendance upon the services of the Church 
 
 of England, was revived and enforced with 
 vigor. Bunyan was among the number 
 who refused to obey this law, and he was 
 arrested for continuing his ministry in 
 secret, and imprisoned in Bedford jail. 
 For twelve years he was under official re¬ 
 straint. Efforts were made to secure his 
 pardon, but he proved an incorrigible of¬ 
 fender, in that he used every opportunity 
 of liberty that came to him of preaching 
 the Word of Life. His first wife died two 
 years before his imprisonment, and he had 
 again married an estimable woman, who 
 proved a kind foster-mother to his four 
 children, during his long confinement. 
 The services of his friends, and various 
 liberties that were granted to him, did 
 much to alleviate his trying position. Part 
 of his time he employed in making tags of 
 boot-laces, which enabled him to aid in the 
 support of his family. It was in these 
 years of enforced seclusion and study of 
 the Word of God that he wrote his im¬ 
 mortal Allegory. The Declaration of In¬ 
 dulgence, issued by Charles II. in 1672, for 
 the purpose of removing the disabilities of 
 Roman Catholics, annulled the Act of Uni¬ 
 formity, and Bunyan was set free. Hon¬ 
 ored and beloved, he continued his pas¬ 
 torate among his people at Bedford, at the 
 same time preaching for a part of each 
 year in the Baptist churches of London. 
 His pen was busy, but none of his other 
 works bear comparison with the Pilgrim's 
 Progress. The illness that terminated his 
 life was the result of a cold caught in a 
 rain-storm, while returning home from a 
 visit, where he had sought to effect a 
 reconciliation between a father and son. 
 
 Innumerable editions of the Pilgrim's 
 Progress have been published. The col¬ 
 lection in the Lenox Library, New York, 
 is the most extensive in existence. It has 
 258 editions of the work in English, and 
 seventy-four in foreign languages. The 
 delight of the lowly, this wonderful book 
 has exerted a fascinating power over the 
 most cultured and gifted minds. Eternity 
 can alone reveal the blessing that it has 
 been to multitudes in finding Christ as the 
 Way, the Truth, and the Life. 
 
 Burckhardt ( boork-hart ), Johann Lud¬ 
 wig, a celebrated Eastern traveler; b. at 
 Lausanne, Switzerland, Nov. 24, 1784; d. 
 at Cairo, Egypt, Oct. 15, 1817. He was 
 educated at Leipzig and Gottingen, and 
 came to England in 1806, where he re¬ 
 ceived the aid of the “ Association for Pro¬ 
 moting the Discovery of the Interior Parts 
 of Africa,” and traveled in Syria, Pales¬ 
 tine, Egypt, and Arabia, but his early death 
 cut short his plans for the exploration of 
 the sources of the Niger. His works were; 
 
Bur 
 
 ( 131 ) 
 
 Bus 
 
 Travels in A r ubia (1819); Travels in Syria 
 and the Holy Land (1822): Travels in Ara¬ 
 bia (1829); Notes on the Bedouins and Wa- 
 habvs (1830); Arabic Proverbs (1830). 
 
 Burgher. See Secession Church. 
 
 Burial of the dead was the custom among 
 the Jews from the earliest times. The 
 bodies of persons who were denied relig¬ 
 ious burial were burned. (Josh. vii. 24.) 
 Burial-places were outside of the towns, 
 and the tombs were usually in caves in the 
 limestone rock, and were closed by a stone 
 on the end or surface. Many of these 
 caves are found near Jerusalem, with cham¬ 
 bers resembling the Roman catacombs. 
 The dead were carried on a bier, followed 
 by kindred and friends, and often by pro¬ 
 fessional mourners. (Jer. ix. 17; Amos v. 
 19; Matt. ix. 23.) The early Christians 
 followed the Hebrew custom and buried 
 theirdead. (See Catacombs. ) Their belief 
 in the joyful resurrection of the sainted 
 dead manifested itself in many ways in 
 connection with the burial of their mortal 
 remains. 
 
 Burmah. See Missions. 
 
 Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop of Salisbury; b. 
 at Edinburgh, Sept. iS, 1643; d. at Salis¬ 
 bury, March 17, 1715. From Scotland, 
 where he was educated at Aberdeen, and 
 for some# r ears was professor of divinity, 
 he removed to London in 1673, where he 
 gained great popularity as preacher at the 
 Rolls Chapel. Here, as in Scotland, he 
 became mixed up in the politico-ecclesias- ! 
 tical affairs of the time, and in 1684 he was 
 dismissed from his position because of his 
 connection with Russell, whom he attend¬ 
 ed to the scaffold. During this same year 
 he was introduced to the Prince of Orange 
 and soon became a great favorite. When 
 William came to the throne, Burnet was ap¬ 
 pointed Bishop of Salisbury. He ex¬ 
 pressed many views in his writings that 
 met with disfavor, but his influence was 
 widely recognized. His fame rests upon 
 his two great works, the History of the 
 Reformation of the Church of England , and 
 History of His Own Time. He published 
 a number of other volumes, historical and 
 polemical. 
 
 Burns, William Chalmers, an eminent 
 and devoted Scotch missionary; b. at Dun, 
 Scotland, April 1, 1815; d. at Port of Nieu- 
 chwang, China, April 4, 1868. The child 
 of pious parents, he was educated at the 
 University of Aberdeen, and at Glasgow, 
 where he studied theology, and received a 
 license to preach in 1S39, He became an 
 
 evangelist, and labored with great success 
 in England, Ireland, and Canada (1844-46). 
 In the spring of 1847 he sailed for China 
 to take charge of the mission of the Eng¬ 
 lish Presbyterian Church. It was here 
 that he accomplished a wonderful life- 
 work. He identified himself with the peo¬ 
 ple in every possible way, and gained an 
 influence that opened the way for preach¬ 
 ing the Gospel to great multitudes. See 
 Memoir , by Rev. Islay Burns, D. D. (New 
 York, 1871). 
 
 Burnt-Offerings. See Sacrifices. 
 
 Burr, Enoch Fitch, D. D. (Amherst, 
 1868), Congregationalist; b. at Green’s 
 Farms,Westport, Conn., Oct. 21, 1818; was 
 graduated at Yale College, 1839; since 1850 
 has been pastor in Lyme, Conn. He is 
 author of Ecce Caelum { Boston, 1867); Pater 
 Mundi (1869); Celestial Empires (New 
 York, 1885); Supreme Things (1889), and 
 other volumes. 
 
 Burton, Robert, author of The Anatomy 
 of Melancholy ; b. at Lindley in 1576. He 
 was a graduate of Oxford, and while rector 
 of Segrave, in Leicestershire, still held his 
 fellowship at Christ Church, where he died 
 in 1640. The work which has kept his 
 fame alive is full of a quaint wit and learn¬ 
 ing. 
 
 Bush, George, a popular Bible commen¬ 
 tator; b. at Norwich,Vt., June 12,1796; d.at 
 Rochester, N. Y., 1858. He was a graduate 
 of Dartmouth College and Princeton Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary. In 1824 he became pas¬ 
 tor of a Presbyterian church in Indianap¬ 
 olis, and in 1831 accepted the professorship 
 of Hebrew in the University of the City of 
 New York. He began the publication of 
 his A r otes on the Pentateuch, Joshua, and 
 Judges, in 1840. A new edition was issued 
 in 1S70. Prof. Bush was an earnest ad¬ 
 vocate, from 1845, of Swedenborgianism. 
 See Fernald: Memoirs and Reminiscences of 
 the Late Professor George Bush (Boston, 
 i860). 
 
 Bushnell, Horace, an American Con¬ 
 gregational clergyman, who, by reason of 
 his rich intellectual and spiritual endow¬ 
 ments, his originality and force as a writer, 
 and his power of quickening other minds 
 easily, takes high rank among the strong 
 men of his day. The eldest child in an 
 intelligent Christian family, of genuine 
 New England stock, he was born in the 
 town of Litchfield, Conn., on the 14th of 
 April, 1802; he died in the city of Hart¬ 
 ford, in the same State, Feb. 17, 1876. The 
 development of a robust physique, and of 
 
Bus 
 
 ( 132 ) 
 
 Bus 
 
 great practical ingenuity and deftness was 
 due to an early initiation, by his father, 
 into farm work and mechanical industry. 
 As the result of a faithful Christian nurt¬ 
 ure, he ever manifested during childhood 
 a tender susceptibility to religious truth; 
 but he did not make a public profession of 
 his faith in Christ till he was nineteen 
 years old. Then first he began to apply 
 himself diligently, with a view to a college 
 course of study. At the age of twenty- 
 one he entered Yale College, from which 
 he was graduated with honor, in the class 
 of 1827. 
 
 After a brief trial of school-teaching, he 
 Avas engaged for ten months in editorial 
 work upon the New York Journal of Com¬ 
 merce ,, which contributed most valuable 
 elements to his equipment for the sphere 
 in which he was destined to move. Hav¬ 
 ing spent a half-year in the Yale laAv 
 school, he accepted a tutorship in the col¬ 
 lege, still, however, continuing his law 
 studies for a year and a half longer. Just 
 as he was ready for admission to the bar, 
 there occurred a crisis in his life. It was 
 in connection with a poAverful revival in 
 the college, Avhen he seemed not so much 
 to have been restored from a religious de¬ 
 cline as to have been thoroughly neAv-born. 
 “ My difficulty had been,” he says, “that 
 I had been substituting thought for every¬ 
 thing else, and expecting so intently to 
 dig out a religion by my head, that I Avas 
 pushing it, all the while, practically aAvay. 
 Noav, I Avas to think myself out of my 
 over-thinking, and discover hoAv far above 
 reason is trust." 
 
 The result of this neAv experience Avas 
 the exchange of the laAv for theology; and 
 in this issue the secret longings and hopes 
 of his godly mother, cherished even before 
 his birth, Avere fulfilled. 
 
 His tutorship Avas soon resigned. A 
 course of study in the Yale Divinity school 
 Avas entered upon and completed. On re¬ 
 ceiving a license to preach, he supplied 
 the pulpit of the North Church in Hart¬ 
 ford for six Aveeks, and then Avas unan¬ 
 imously invited to the pastorate. His or¬ 
 dination and installation, Avhich took place 
 on the 22d of May, 1833, constituted a 
 most happy and fruitful pastqral relation, 
 Avhich Avas broken only by the necessities 
 of ill health, after a continuance of tAventy- 
 six years. By his marriage Avith Mary 
 Apthorp, of NeAV Haven, a life-connection 
 Avas formed, Avhich brought to his side a 
 true and efficient helpmeet in the Avork be¬ 
 fore him. 
 
 There was, from the first, a decided flavor 
 of originality in Doctor Bushnell’s preach¬ 
 ing; and in his addresses on public oc¬ 
 casions a richness and independence of 
 
 thought, Avhich dreAv into his congrega¬ 
 tion young people of culture, and profes¬ 
 sional men. General attention was not, 
 hoAvever, attracted to his utterances until 
 the year 1839, "’hen he delivered before 
 the Society of Inquiry, in Andover Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, an address on “ Revela¬ 
 tion.” As he touched upon the biblical 
 teachings concerning the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, suspicions of a departure from 
 orthodoxy were aAvakened. In the spring 
 of 1840 he received and declined an invita¬ 
 tion to the presidency of Middlebury Col¬ 
 lege. In 1841 Wesleyan University con¬ 
 ferred upon him the degree of Doctor of 
 Divinity. Harvard University subse¬ 
 quently honored him Avith the same degree, 
 as also Yale, his Alma Mater, Avith that of 
 LL. D. 
 
 Our limits forbid any attempt to notice 
 in detail the events of his life, or even the 
 published products of his busy pen. We 
 call attention to a feAv salient points only. 
 In the year 1846 his famous “ Discourses 
 on Christian Nurture ” appeared, Avhich set 
 forth the organic unity of the family over 
 against the intense individualism of the 
 day. The doctrine taught was that the 
 child, under a true Christian nurture, is 
 to groAv up a Christian, and never know 
 himself as being otherAvise. It is difficult 
 to understand hoAv it Avas that this Avork, 
 Avhich is noAv generally accepted as a stan¬ 
 dard text-book on this subject, should 
 have encountered the charge cn being full 
 of “dangerous tendencies.” 
 
 “ The year 1848 Avas the central point in 
 the life of Horace Bushnell.” While 
 seeking for clearer light and a higher 
 Christian life, certain vital questions, re¬ 
 specting Christ and his atoning Avork, 
 Avhich had long been engaging his earnest 
 thoughts, seemed to open to him of their 
 own accord. The result Avas such a per¬ 
 sonal discovery of Christ, as a manifesta¬ 
 tion of God, as, in his vieAv, amounted vir¬ 
 tually to a neAv revelation. Having been 
 invited, apart from any agency of his OAvn, 
 to give addresses upon three public occa¬ 
 sions, he regarded the opportunities as 
 providentially prepared for the expression 
 of the neAv vieAvs Avhich had come to him. 
 
 On the 9th of July he delivered before 
 the Harvard Divinity School a “ Discourse 
 on the Atonement.” While he maintained 
 that the sufferings of Christ Avere both 
 vicarious and propitiatory, he rejected the 
 elements of penal satisfaction, and of a 
 compensatory infliction of evil as evil, in 
 these sufferings. Christ is God manifest 
 in the flesh, the expression of God’s love 
 and justice; and as such, Avhen he is re¬ 
 ceived by faith, becomes and is the ground 
 of our justification, and a pOAver for our 
 
Bus 
 
 ( 133 ) 
 
 Bus 
 
 renewal in character. On the 15th of Au¬ 
 gust, by assignment of the General Asso¬ 
 ciation of Connecticut, he gave at New 
 Haven, as a concio ad clerum , a “ Discourse 
 on the Divinity of Christ.” Having 
 proved from the Scriptures that Christ is 
 divine in his being, he undertakes to show 
 that the real intent and value of this doc¬ 
 trine, and of the Trinity as well, lie simply 
 in its adaptation to express God for the 
 uses of the religious life. He refuses to 
 affirm three metaphysical personalities in 
 the Godhead. The three Persons are to 
 be taken as Instrumental Persons for the 
 practical uses of the soul. All questions 
 as to the interior nature of the Godhead 
 are uninvestigable. 
 
 In the third address, entitled “ Dogma 
 and Spirit,” which was given at Andover 
 Seminary in September, he applies his 
 idea of Christ, as a personal manifestation 
 of God, to the subject of “The True Re¬ 
 viving of Religion,” in distinction from 
 sporadic spiritual quickenings, or so-called 
 revivals, which are specially characteristic 
 of the reign of Dogma. 
 
 It may be here parenthetically stated, in 
 the way of illustrating the marvelous ver¬ 
 satility of his mind, and its fertility as well, 
 that, in addition to the preparation of these 
 elaborate papers, he delivered on the 24th 
 of August of the same year, the day after 
 Commencement at Harvard, his sparklingly 
 beautiful oration, “ Work and Play.” His 
 playful nature, instead of suffering restric¬ 
 tions, flourished vigorously in the sunshine 
 of his faith. 
 
 In February of the following year these 
 three theological addresses were consol¬ 
 idated in one published volume, under the 
 title, God in Christ , prefaced by a “ Disser¬ 
 tation on Language,” which was designed 
 to be a key to his whole system of thought. 
 The drift of this paper was to show that 
 names for thought and spirit in language 
 are all based upon material types and 
 images, and are fitted to express our inte¬ 
 rior sentiments and feelings, by reason of 
 some analogy which we cannot explain. 
 Thus it is that language, material in its 
 base, becomes a medium through which 
 God and a spiritual world come into ex¬ 
 pression. The Christian truth is the ex¬ 
 pression of God in language—a principle 
 which applies to the language of act , as, for 
 example, in the incarnation and the cruci¬ 
 fixion, as well as to the language of words 
 in the Scriptures. 
 
 The book was condemned as heretical 
 by leading theological authorities. But 
 their witness “ did not agree together ” as 
 to what and where the heresy was—some 
 charging the author with one error and 
 some with its very opposite. The Hartford 
 
 Central Association, of which he was a 
 member, appointed a committee for the 
 examination of the book, which, through 
 Dr. Noah Porter, the chairman, reported 
 that, though there were, in the views pre¬ 
 sented, variations from the historic formu¬ 
 las of faith, “ the errors were not fun¬ 
 damental.” This report was accepted by 
 the Association with but three dissenting 
 votes. 
 
 This action, which was ecclesiastically 
 final, did not, however, restore quiet. Ag¬ 
 itation was kept up, and the General Asso¬ 
 ciation was appealed to in 1S50, and again 
 in 1852, to pronounce its condemnation 
 upon the alleged heresies. But the body 
 very properly refused to render any judg¬ 
 ment in the case. From this time the ex¬ 
 citement gradually died out. 
 
 Doctor Bushnell took no personal part 
 in the controversy, but devoted himself, 
 with unruffled mind and unremitting ear¬ 
 nestness,- to pastoral labors, and to such 
 outside work as important public occasions 
 called for; of which we cannot make spe¬ 
 cific mention. 
 
 In 1851 the book, Christ in Theology , ap¬ 
 peared, having for its purpose, not to an¬ 
 swer his opponents, but rather to make his 
 positions more intelligible. About this 
 time ominous symptoms of pulmonary dis¬ 
 ease showed themselves; nevertheless, his 
 activities were unceasing, except as inter¬ 
 spaced by more frequent vacations. In 
 1856 he was invited to the presidency of 
 the new College of California, whose 
 location he had helped to fix; but the 
 honor was declined. In 1858 his great 
 work, Nature and the Supernatural —the 
 fruit of many years of study—was given 
 to the public. Compelled, at length, by 
 continued ill health, and to the great grief 
 of his devoted people, he resigned his pas¬ 
 torate, and early in July, 1859, preached 
 his farewell sermon. 
 
 The remaining seventeen years of his 
 life, designated in his biography as a 
 “ Ministry at Large,” were carefully econ¬ 
 omized for the completion, or revision and 
 publication, of literary and theological ma¬ 
 terial, which had engaged the studies of 
 his earlier and more vigorous days. Among 
 these were two volumes of sermons, 
 in addition to Sermons for the New Life , 
 already published; two volumes of Liter¬ 
 ary Varieties, and a reissue of his “ Dis¬ 
 courses on Christian Nurture,” to which 
 were attached thirteen new sermons upon 
 subjects “ adjacent thereto.” Here belong, 
 also, the two volumes on The Vicarious 
 Sacrifice , in the second of which, original¬ 
 ly issued under the title, Forgiveness and 
 Law , he sets forth certain Godward rela¬ 
 tions of the Atonement which he had not 
 
But 
 
 ( 134 ) 
 
 Bux 
 
 taken account of in his previously publish¬ 
 ed views. At the time of his death he had 
 already begun the preparation of an entire¬ 
 ly new work on Inspiration: Its Modes and 
 Uses. A few pages were written, but in 
 the middle of a sentence his pen was laid 
 down, never to be taken up again. 
 
 Although Horace Bushnell was known 
 abroad chiefly as a theologian, at home he 
 was recognized also as an earnest patriot 
 and a public-spirited citizen. The causes 
 of emancipation, of education, and of the 
 preservation of our national unity as 
 against secession, received his zealous and 
 effective support. The honor of his native 
 State Avas especially dear to him; and in 
 behalf of the prosperity and adornment of 
 the city of Hartford, his interest and labors 
 never flagged. It Avas a Avell-earned token 
 of respect Avhich AA^as paid to his foresight 
 and efforts, that, a few hours before he lost 
 consciousness, the beautiful and spacious 
 area of ground on Avhich the State capitol 
 now stands, Avas named, by the unanimous 
 vote of the city Council, “ Bushnell Park.” 
 On the Avails of the neAV church, built by 
 the people Avhom he so faithfully served, 
 is set a mural tablet, containing a marble 
 relievo of his head and face, Avith this in¬ 
 scription: 
 
 “ In Memory of his Great Genius, his 
 Great Character, and his 
 Great Services to 
 Mankind.” 
 
 (See the Life and Letters of Horace Bush¬ 
 nell , by his daughter. Harper & Brothers, 
 New T York, 1880). 
 
 The following list embraces the pub¬ 
 lished volumes of Dr. Bushnell’s Avorks, 
 Avith the dates of publication: Christian 
 Nurture, 1S46, 1S61, 1876; God in Christ , 
 1849, !S 77 ; Christ in Theology , 1851; Ser¬ 
 mons for the New Life, 1858, 1876; A r ature 
 and the Supernatural, 1S58, 1877; Work and 
 Play, 1864, 1881; Christ and his Salvation, 
 
 1864, 1877; The Vicarious Sacrifice, vol. i., 
 
 1865, 1877; Do., vol. ii. (first published un¬ 
 der the title, Forgiveness and Law ), 1874, 
 1877; Moral Uses of Dark Things, 1868, 
 1881; The Reform against Nature, 1869; 
 Sermons on Living Subjects, 1872, 1877; 
 Building Eras, 1881. 
 
 Amos S. Chesebrough. 
 
 Butler, Joseph, the author of the Anal¬ 
 ogy ; b. at Wantage, in Berkshire, May 18, 
 1692; d. at Bath, June 16, 1752. His 
 father, a linen-draper, Avas a Presbyterian 
 layman, and he educated his son Avith a 
 vieAv to his entering the ministry of that 
 church. While pursuing his studies at 
 the academy at Gloucester, he decided to 
 join the Church. Even before he entered 
 Oriel College at Oxford, he gave promise 
 
 of remarkable intellectual ability. In 1718 
 he Avas made preacher at the Chapel of the 
 Rolls, Avhere he remained until 1726. The 
 year previous he Avas made rector of Stan¬ 
 hope, Avhere he labored for nearly eight 
 years, and published the first edition of 
 his Sermons. In 1736 he became prebend¬ 
 ary of Rochester, and in the same year 
 appeared his great Avork, the Analogy op 
 Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the 
 Course and Constitution of Nature. It came 
 at a most opportune time, Avhen the influ¬ 
 ence of deistical speculation Avas at its 
 height, and its defense of revealed relig¬ 
 ion Avas conceded on every hand as one 
 of the best and most complete ever made. 
 Butler had Avon a high place in the esteem 
 of the learned Queen Caroline, and on her 
 death-bed she urged her husband to pro¬ 
 mote him. This he did, in a perfunctory 
 Avay, by appointing him bishop of the 
 small see of Bristol in 1738. Two years 
 later he Avas made dean of St. Paul’s, and 
 in 1750 he accepted the see of Durham, 
 Avhere his labors Avere soon brought to a 
 close by his illness and death. Bishop 
 Butler Avas never married. SomeAvhat 
 austere in spirit, his profound intellect de¬ 
 lighted to grapple Avith the deepest prob¬ 
 lems in the realm of metaphysical thought. 
 His Analogy, assuming the existence of a 
 Divine First Cause, undertakes to shoAv 
 that the “constitution and course of nature” 
 is Avhat Ave might naturally look for, and 
 that it is in perfect analogy Avith both natu¬ 
 ral and revealed religion. The book is nar- 
 roAv in its scope and condensed in its state¬ 
 ments, and requires close attention in or¬ 
 der to be understood and appreciated, but 
 it Avill long continue to hold its place as a 
 marvel of profound and exhaustive reason¬ 
 ing, Avithin the limits of its arguments. 
 Editions of the Analogy are very numerous. 
 
 Butler, William Archer, Church of Ire¬ 
 land; b. at Annerville, Ireland, 1814; d. in 
 Dublin, July 5, 1S48. Brought up a 
 
 Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, 
 and Avas educated at Trinity College, Dub¬ 
 lin, in which institution he Avas appointed 
 professor of moral philosophy in 1S37, at 
 the same time holding the position of rec¬ 
 tor at Clondehorka, and then at Raymo- 
 ghy. His fame rests upon his Sermons 
 (1849-56; republished, N. Y., 1879), 2 
 vols., and Lectures on the History of An¬ 
 cient Philosophy (1856), 2 vols. (2d ed., 
 London, 1874). See his Memoir in first, 
 vol. of Sermons. 
 
 Butzer. See Bucer, Martin. 
 
 Buxton, Sir Thomas Foavell, b. at 
 Earl’s Colne, Essex, April 1, 17S6; d. at 
 
Bux 
 
 ( 135 ) 
 
 Cai 
 
 shown no inclination at all to verse-making 
 until one night, when, sleeping in a stable, 
 he had a wonderful dream. He was order¬ 
 ed to sing a song, and when he said he 
 knew none, he was told to “ sing the be¬ 
 ginning of created things.” From that time 
 he devoted his whole time to his art. His 
 chief work, written about 670, was a para¬ 
 phrase of parts of the Bible, the parts 
 chosen by him being the Creation of the 
 World, the chief points in the history of the 
 Children of Israel, the life of Daniel, and 
 
 Bath, Feb. 19, 1S45. Educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, he entered business life 
 in 1808; member of Parliament (1S1S-37). 
 After the death of Wilberforce he became 
 (1824) the leader of the antislavery party. 
 His philanthropic labors were exerted in 
 many directions. He was made baronet 
 in 1840. See Memoir by his son, Charles 
 Buxton (London, 1S48; new ed., 1872). 
 
 Buxtorf ( books-lorf ), a famous family of 
 Hebraists. (1) Johann, b. at Camen, West¬ 
 phalia, Dec. 25, 1564; d. at Basel, Sept. 
 13, 1629. He became professor of Hebrew 
 at Basel(i59i). His knowledge of rabbin¬ 
 ical literature was very great, and he was 
 a sturdy defender of the Massoretic text. 
 (2) His son, Johann, b. at Basel, Aug. 13, 
 1599; succeeded his father 1630; d. at 
 Basel, Aug. 17, 1664. He held that the 
 Hebrew text was inspired, even in its vow¬ 
 els and vowel-points. (3) Johann Jacob, 
 b. at Basel, Sept. 4, 1645; succeeded his 
 father, 1669, and d. there, April 1, 1704. 
 (4) Johann, his great-grand-nephew; b. at 
 Basel, Jan. 8, 1663; succeeded his uncle, 
 1704, and d. there, June 19, 1732. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cab, a Hebrew measure equal to 3J/3 liq¬ 
 uid or dry pints. 
 
 Cabbala, the secret oral tradition re¬ 
 specting the mystical sense of the Penta¬ 
 teuch, so called because it was reputed 
 among the Jewish doctors that it was “ re¬ 
 ceived ” (Heb. Kabbal , to receive) by Moses 
 from God, by Joshua from Moses, and by 
 the seventy Elders from Joshua. But it 
 really originated in Babylon during the cap¬ 
 tivity, and was collected and put into writ¬ 
 ing about A. D. 125 by Simon ben Jochai. 
 It proposes to give a mystical meaning to 
 every word and every letter of the Law; 
 and its peculiar system of assigning mys¬ 
 tical numbers to letters and words was, it 
 can hardly be doubted, copied by early 
 Christian writers.— Benbam. See Kitto; 
 Milman : History of the Jckjs, ii. p. 421; 
 iii. pp. 438-444; and for full treatment of 
 the subject, Ginsburg: The Kabbalah: its 
 Doctrines , D evelopment , and Literature 
 (London, 1865). 
 
 Caecilia. See Cecilia. 
 
 % 
 
 Caecilianus. See Doxatists. 
 
 Caedmon (ked'-/non), the author of the 
 first Christian English poem, was a native 
 of Northumbria. Caedmon was a servant 
 in one of the Yorkshire abbeys, in the sev¬ 
 enth century, The story goes that he had 
 
 the whole of the gospels. Bede says of 
 him: “ Others after him tried to make re¬ 
 ligious poems, but none could vie with him, 
 for he did not learn the art of poetry from 
 men, nor of men, but from God;” and this 
 was the common idea of his contempora¬ 
 ries. He died somewhere at the end of 
 the seventh century, but the exact date is 
 not known. — Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 The poems ascribed to Caedmon were first 
 published by Francis Junius, in 1655, from 
 a MS. now in the Bodleian Library, at Ox¬ 
 ford. 
 
 Caesarea, the name of two towns in Pal¬ 
 estine. (1) Caesarea Palestine, now Kais- 
 aryah, thirty miles north of Joppa, built 
 by Herod, about 22 b. c. It was the home 
 of Cornelius, and Philip the Evangelist. 
 (Acts x. 1; viii. 40; xxi. 8.) Paul was im¬ 
 prisoned here for two years. (Acts ix. 30; 
 xvii. 22; xxi. 8; xxiii. 23; xxiv. 27.) About 
 65 a. D. a dispute arose as to the control 
 of the city, between the Syrian and Jewish 
 citizens, which led to an insurrection in 
 which 20,000 Jews perished in an hour. C. 
 became the seat of a bishopric, and was 
 the home of Eusebius. Councils were 
 held there in 196, 331, and 337, and it was 
 a prominent point during the crusades. 
 (2) C.esarea Philippi, situated at the 
 base of Mt. Hermon. Rebuilt by Philip 
 the Tetrarch, he gave it the name of Caesar 
 in connection with his own. It was visit¬ 
 ed by our Lord. (Matt. xvi. 13.) It was 
 taken and retaken during the crusades, and 
 was the seat of a bishopric. About fifty 
 families now make their homes among the 
 ruins of its former greatness. 
 
 Caesarius of Arles, b. at Chalons, the lat¬ 
 ter part of the fifth century; d. at Arles, 
 543. He was educated in the monastery 
 of Lerins and became Bishop of Arles in 
 502. He introduced many reforms in his 
 diocese, and presided over several councils, 
 and earnestly defended the doctrines of 
 Augustine against the semi-Pelagians. 
 
 Cai'aphas (depression), high-priest of the 
 Jews under Tiberius during the years of 
 our Lord’s public ministry and at the time 
 
Cai 
 
 ( 136 ) 
 
 Cai 
 
 of his trial and crucifixion. In character 
 he was coarse and brutal, but adroit and 
 crafty. (Matt. xxvi. 3, 4; John xi. 49, 50; 
 xviii. 14.) He it was who instigated the 
 murder of Jesus, and afterward persecuted 
 his followers. (Acts iv. 6, 17.) He was 
 deposed by Vitellius, a. d. 36. 
 
 he was protected. He went into the land of 
 Nod, on the east of Eden, where he built a 
 city, which he named after his son, Enoch. 
 His descendants are enumerated, with the 
 inventions for which they were remarkable. 
 
 Cain'ites, an obscure Gnostic sect of the 
 
 CVESAREA PHll.HTI. 
 
 Cain {possession), the firstborn of Adam 
 and Eve. His history is detailed in Gen. 
 iv. In punishment for the murder of his 
 brother a curse was pronounced upon him, 
 and he w'as condemned to be a “fugitive 
 and a vagabond” on the earth. “ Lest any 
 finding him should kill him,” God merci¬ 
 fully gave him a sign, or mark, whereby 
 
 second century. “They held that Sop/iia 
 (wisdom) found means to preserve in every 
 age in this world, which the Demiurge 
 had created, a race bearing within them a 
 spiritual nature similar to her own, and 
 intent upon opposing the tyranny of the 
 Demiurge. The Cainites regarded Cain 
 as the chief of this race. They honored 
 
Caj 
 
 ( 137 ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 Cain, and the evil characters of Scripture, 
 generally, on the ground that, in propor¬ 
 tion to the hatred such characters evinced 
 of the laws of the god of this world (the 
 Demiurge), the more worthily did they 
 act as the sons of Sophia , whose chief work 
 is to destroy the kingdom of the Demi¬ 
 urge.”— McClintock and Strong: Cvc., 
 $. v. Neander: Ch. Hist., 1., 448. 
 
 Cajetan ( ka-ye-tan ), Cardinal, b. at 
 Gaeta, Italy, Feb. 20, 1469; d. in Rome, 
 Aug. 9, 1534. His proper name was 
 Thomas de Vio, but he adopted that of 
 Cajetan from his birthplace. He was 
 chosen general of the Dominican order in 
 1508, and in 1517 was made a cardinal. 
 The most remarkable event in his life was 
 the conference with Luther at Augsburg, 
 1518. He completely failed in his effort 
 to secure the retraction of Luther, and re¬ 
 turned to Rome deeply impressed with the 
 great reformer’s ability and knowledge of 
 the Bible. He published a Latin version 
 of a portion of the Old Testament, and a 
 commentary upon Thomas Aquinas’s Sum- 
 via, which has often been republished. 
 
 Calamy, Edmund, was born in London, 
 Feb., .1600. He took his B. A. degree at 
 Cambridge, in 1619, being a member of 
 Pembroke Hall. In 1626 he was made a 
 lecturer at Bury St. Edmunds, where he 
 continued until the publication of Bishop 
 Wren’s articles compelled him to give up 
 his office and leave the diocese. He then re¬ 
 ceived the valuable living of Rochford, in 
 Essex, but, having avowed himself a Pres¬ 
 byterian, he lost this position. In 1639 he 
 was made lecturer of St. Mary’s, Alderman- 
 bury, in London, which office he filled for 
 twenty years. He joined with four others 
 in printing a pamphlet, which they pub¬ 
 lished under the pseudonym of Smectym- 
 nuus, this strange word being made up of 
 the initials of their several names: Ste¬ 
 phen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas 
 Yong, Matthew Newcomen, William Spur- 
 stovv. This book was written as a reply 
 to Bishop Hall’s Divine Right of Episco¬ 
 pacy; and it may be doubted whether any¬ 
 thing which has ever issued from the press 
 of the religious world has surpassed this 
 work in severity of language. In 1641 
 Calamy was appointed one of the well- 
 known Assembly of Divines. His views 
 became more moderate when the Inde¬ 
 pendents supplanted the Presbyterians; 
 and he was one of the Presbyterians who 
 remonstrated against the execution of King 
 Charles. At the Restoration Charles II. 
 made him one of his chaplains, and offered 
 him the see of Lichfield and Coventry, 
 which he refused. When the Act of Uni¬ 
 
 formity was passed, he resigned his pre¬ 
 ferment, and refused, like many others, to 
 attend the church in which he had so long 
 officiated. Calamy died, Oct. 29, 1666, of 
 a broken heart, occasioned by the sight of 
 the misery caused by the Fire of London. 
 
 Calderwood, Henry, LL. D. (Glasgow, 
 1865), United Presbyterian Church of Scot¬ 
 land; b. at Peebles, near Edinburgh, May 
 10, 1830; studied at the University of Edin¬ 
 burgh (1847-1853), in which institution he 
 became professor of moral philosophy in 
 1868. He is the author of: The Philosophy 
 of the Infinite (London, 1854); Handbook op 
 Moral Philosophy (1872); The Relations of 
 Mind and Brain (1879); Y’/zz’ Relations of 
 Science and Religion (1881). 
 
 Ca'leb, the son of Jephunneh, of the 
 tribe of Judah (Num. xiii. 6), called also 
 the Kenezite, or son of Kenez. (Num. xxxii. 
 12; Josh. xiv. 6, 14). “ The reconciliation 
 of these accounts is either to suppose that 
 that division of the tribe of Judah which 
 Caleb headed had so intermingled itself 
 with the Kenezites, a tribe of Southern 
 Palestine, that he could be reckoned a 
 Kenezite, or that Caleb was the head of the 
 Kenezites, who had been absorbed by 
 Judah.”— Riietschi. Caleb was one of the 
 twelve spies sent by Moses into Canaan. 
 (Num. xiii. 6.) He and Joshua were the 
 only adults born in Egypt who entered the 
 promised land. He was given possession 
 of Hebron and its neighborhood. (Josh, 
 xiv.) 
 
 Calendar, “the mode of adjusting the 
 months and other divisions of the civil 
 year to the natural or solar year. The ne¬ 
 cessity of some division and measurement 
 of time must have been early felt. The 
 phases or changes of the moon supplied a 
 natural and very obvious mode of dividing 
 and reckoning time, and hence the division 
 into months of twenty-nine or thirty days 
 was, perhaps, the earliest and most uni¬ 
 versal. But it would soon be observed 
 that, for many purposes, the changes of 
 the seasons were more serviceable as marks 
 of division; and thus arose the division into 
 years {q. v.), determined by the motions of 
 the sun. It was soon, however, discovered 
 that the year, or larger, division, did not 
 contain an exact number of the smaller di¬ 
 visions or months, and that an accommo¬ 
 dation was necessary; and various not 
 very dissimilar expedients were employed 
 for correcting the error that arose. The 
 ancient Egyptians had a year determined 
 by the changes of the seasons, without 
 reference to the changes of the moon, and 
 containing 365 days, divided into twelve 
 
Cal 
 
 ( 138 ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 months of thirty days each, with five sup¬ 
 plementary days at the end of the year. 
 The Jewish year consisted, in the earliest 
 periods, as it still does, of twelve lunar 
 months, a thirteenth being from time to 
 time introduced, to accommodate it to the 
 . sun and seasons; this was also the case 
 with the ancient Syrians, Macedonians, 
 etc. The Jewish months have alternately 
 twenty-nine and thirty days; and in a cycle 
 of nineteen years there are seven years 
 having the intercalary month, some of 
 these years having also one, and some two, 
 days more than others have, so that the 
 length of the year varies from 353 to 385 
 days. The Greeks, in the most ancient 
 periods, reckoned according to real lunar 
 months, twelve making a year; and about 
 594 b. c., Solon introduced in Athens the 
 mode of reckoning alternately thirty and 
 twenty-nine days to the month, accommo¬ 
 dating this civil year of 354 days to the 
 solar year by occasional introduction of 
 an intercalary month. A change was after¬ 
 ward made, by which, three times in eight 
 years, a month of thirty days was intercal¬ 
 ated, making the average length of the 
 year 365^ days. 
 
 “ The Romans are said to have had, orig¬ 
 inally,ayearof ten months; but in the times 
 of their kings they adopted a lunar year 
 of 355 days, divided into twelve months, 
 with an occasional intercalary month. 
 Through the ignorance of the priests, who 
 had the charge of this matter, the utmost 
 confusion gradually arose, which Julius 
 Caesar remedied, 46 b. c., by the introduc¬ 
 tion of the Julian Calendar , according to 
 which the year has ordinarily 365 days, 
 and every fourth year is a leap-year of 366 
 days—the length of the year being thus 
 assumed as 36534'days, while it is in reality 
 365 days, five hours, forty-eight minutes, 
 and fifty seconds; or eleven minutes, ten 
 seconds less. Caesar gave to the months 
 the number of days which they still have. 
 
 “ So comparatively perfect was the Julian 
 style of reckoning time, that it prevailed gen- 
 erallyamong Christian nations, and remain¬ 
 ed undisturbed till the renewed accumula¬ 
 tion of the remaining error of eleven min¬ 
 utes or so had amounted, in 15S2 years 
 after the birth of Christ, to ten complete 
 days; the vernal equinox falling on the nth 
 instead of the 21st of March, as it did at the 
 time of the Council of Nice, 325 years after 
 the birth of Christ. This shifting of days 
 had caused great disturbances, by unfixing 
 the times of the celebration of Easter, and, 
 hence, of all the other movable feasts. And 
 accordingly, Pope Gregory XIII., after 
 deep study and calculation, ordained that 
 ten days should be deducted from the year 
 1582, bv calling what, according to the old 
 
 calendar, would have been reckoned the 
 5th of Oct., the 15th of Oct., 1582; and, in 
 order that the displacement might not re¬ 
 cur, it was further ordained that every 
 hundredth year (1S00, 1900, 2100. etc.) 
 should not be counted a leap-year, except¬ 
 ing every fourth hundredth, beginning 
 with 2000. In this way the difference be¬ 
 tween the civil and natural year will not 
 amount to a day in 5,000 years. In Spain, 
 Portugal, and part of Italy, the pope was 
 exactly obeyed. In France, the change 
 took place in the same year, by calling the 
 10th the 20th of Dec. In the Low Coun¬ 
 tries the change was from the 15th Dec. to 
 the 25th; but it was resisted by the Prot¬ 
 estant part of the community till the year 
 1700. The Catholic nations, in general, 
 adopted the style ordained by their sover¬ 
 eign pontiff; but the Protestants were then 
 too much inflamed against Catholicism in 
 all its relations, to receive even a purely 
 scientific improvement from such hands. 
 The Lutherans of Germany, Switzerland, 
 and, as already mentioned, of the Low 
 Countries, at length gave way in 1700, 
 when it had become necessary to omit 
 eleven instead of ten days. A bill to this 
 effect had been brought before the Parlia¬ 
 ment of England in 15S5, but does not ap¬ 
 pear to have gone beyond a second reading 
 in the House of Lords. It was not till 
 1751, and after great inconvenience had 
 been experienced for nearly two centuries, 
 from the difference of the reckoning, that 
 an act was passed (24 Geo. II., 1751) for 
 equalizing the style in Great Britain and 
 Ireland with that used in other countries of 
 Europe. It was then enacted that eleven 
 days should be omitted after the 2d of 
 Sept., 1752, so that the ensuing day should 
 be the 14th. A similar change was, about 
 the same time, made in Sweden and Tus¬ 
 cany; and Russia is now the only country 
 which adheres to the old style; an adher¬ 
 ence which renders it necessary, when a 
 letter is thence addressed to a person in 
 another country, that the date should be 
 
 given thus: April — »or j uly ^ ; for, it will 
 
 be observed, the year 1S00, not being con¬ 
 sidered by us as a leap-year, has interjected 
 another (or twelfth) day between old and 
 new style.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. 
 
 Calf. See Golden Calf. 
 
 Calhoun, Simeon Howard, American 
 foreign missionary; b. in Boston, Mass.. 
 Aug. 15, 1S04; d. at Buffalo, N. Y., Dec. 
 14, 1S76. Graduating at Williams College 
 in 1S29, he studied law, but after his con¬ 
 version became an agent of the American 
 Bible Society in the Levant in 1837. In 
 
Cal 
 
 ( 139 ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 1844 he was appointed a missionary under 
 the American Board, and subsequently 
 under the Presbyterian Board. His prin¬ 
 cipal field of labor was in Syria, at the 
 seminary at Abeih, on the slopes of Leba¬ 
 non. He was a man of rare gifts and great 
 force of character. 
 
 Calixtines, the name given to one of the 
 factions into which the Hussites divided in 
 1420. They asserted that the communion 
 in both kinds was essential to the sacra¬ 
 ment. Their name is derived from the 
 chalice ( calix). 
 
 Calixtus, “ the name of three different 
 popes. Little is known of Calixtus I., 
 Bishop of Rome from about 220-226 A. D., 
 during the reigns of Heliogabalus and Se- 
 verus. Calixtus II., Guido of Vienne,was 
 elected in 1119, after the death of Gelasius 
 
 II. In 1122 he concluded, with the Em¬ 
 peror Henry, the important treaty of 
 Mentz, by which the mutual rights of the 
 Church and the empire were definitely set¬ 
 tled. He died in Dec., 1124. Calixtus 
 
 III. , Alphonso de Borgia, was raised to the 
 papal chair in 1455, at a very advanced age. 
 He was feeble and incompetent. The great 
 object of his policy was the excitement of 
 a crusade against the Turks, but he did 
 not find the Christian princes responsive 
 to his call. He died in 1458.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. 
 
 Calixtus, George, 1586-1656; one of the 
 most independent and influential theolo¬ 
 gians of the Lutheran Church. He was 
 appointed divinity professor at Helmstadt 
 in 1614, where he spent nearly fifty years 
 in laborious literary work. He was, in his 
 time, the most prominent representative of 
 the school of Melancthon, and he met with 
 opposition from the orthodox Lutherans. 
 He was devoted to the cause of Christian 
 union, and did all that he could to bring 
 about a reconciliation between the Luther¬ 
 an and Reformed churches. 
 
 Calmet, Augustine, 1672-1757; a French 
 Benedictine monk. He was a prolific 
 writer. His best-known work is a Dic¬ 
 tionary of the Bible. An American edition, 
 enriched with notes by Dr. Robinson, has 
 had a large circulation. 
 
 Caloyers, is the name given to monks in 
 the Greek Church. It signifies “ a good 
 old age.” Greek monks follow the rules 
 of St. Basil, which are more rigorous than 
 those of the West. Their largest monas¬ 
 tery is at Mt. Sinai. 
 
 Calvary. See Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Calvin, John, b. at Noyon, in Picardy. 
 July 10, 1509; d. at Geneva, May 27, 1564. 
 He was the son of Gerard Calvin, 
 or Chauvin, an official of the cathedral, 
 who had risen from poor estate. Gerard 
 Calvin’s eldest son, Charles, became a 
 priest at Noyon, but, as many priests of 
 that day did, openly professed unbelief 
 while he continued to hold his chaplaincy. 
 He died in 1536, refusing the Sacraments. 
 In 1523 John Calvin went to study classics 
 in Paris, where he is said to have been so 
 strict and severe in manner that his fellow- 
 students dubbed him “ The Accusative 
 Case.” He had been intended by his 
 father for the Church, and not only re¬ 
 ceived the tonsure, but was even made 
 Cure of Pont l’Eveque, his grandfather’s 
 birthplace. But he was never ordained 
 priest, and in 1529 was sent to Orleans 
 College, where he applied himself to the 
 Civil Law under Petrus de Stella, a study 
 in which he afterwards made great prog¬ 
 ress at Bourges, under Andrew Alciat; 
 here also he studied Greek, under Wol- 
 mar. 
 
 By this time he had become deeply 
 moved by the doctrines of the German re¬ 
 formers. He says of himself: “ Every 
 time I looked down into myself my con¬ 
 science was goaded with fierce stings. But 
 God took pity on me, and conquered my 
 heart, and subdued it to docility by a sud¬ 
 den conversion.” The result was that he 
 began to teach, and, though of shy and re¬ 
 tiring habits, he was so full of zeal that 
 he threw himself into his new work with 
 ardor. 
 
 On the death of his father he returned 
 to Paris, and there published Notes on Sen¬ 
 eca de dementia , which, though ostensibly 
 a commentary on a heathen writer, was 
 really a covert appeal to all readers on be¬ 
 half of toleration in matters of faith. 
 When the persecution in France began, 
 Calvin moved from place to place for 
 safety. At Poitiers he, for the first time, 
 celebrated the Lord’s Supper according to 
 the Reformed manner, and the spot is 
 still known as Calvin’s Cave. In 1535 
 he went to Basle, where he studied the 
 Scriptures in the original Hebrew. Here 
 he wrote the first edition of his Institutes , 
 and dedicated it to Francis I. 
 
 He then resolved to visit Italy, where 
 the Reformation was making some prog¬ 
 ress, under the protection,chiefly,of Renee, 
 Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Louis 
 XII. His letters to her, written subse¬ 
 quently, are among the most interesting of 
 his writings. “ I do not hesitate to affirm,” 
 says Guizot, “ that the great Catholic 
 bishop who, in the seventeenth century, 
 directed the consciences of the mightiest 
 
Cal 
 
 ( 140 ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 men in France, did not fulfill this difficult 
 task with more Christian firmness, intelli¬ 
 gent justice, and knowledge of the world, 
 than Calvin displayed in his intercourse 
 with the Duchess of Ferrara.” She, on her 
 side, was always loyal and generous to 
 him; but her husband, Hercules d’Este, 
 displayed so much hostility to the Protes¬ 
 tants that he left Italy, and after wander¬ 
 ing from place to place, reached Geneva in 
 August, 1536, with no other expectation 
 than that he would stay there for a day 
 or two. But here he met with another re¬ 
 former, as enthusiastic and fearless as 
 himself: like himself, also, both in being a 
 I'renchman and a refugee. His name was 
 William Farel. He had succeeded in per¬ 
 suading the Genevans to “ live according 
 to the holy Evangelical law and the Word 
 of God, which had been made known to 
 them, forsaking all masses and other papal 
 ceremonies and frauds, images and idols, 
 and living together in unity and obedience 
 to the law.” But he lacked, and was con¬ 
 scious that he lacked, the power of organ¬ 
 ization, and he saw that Calvin possessed 
 it in a wonderful degree. With extreme 
 difficulty, and after many refusals, he per¬ 
 suaded Calvin to become permanently res¬ 
 ident in Geneva, and the latter began a 
 course of lectures on Divinity, on Sept. 1, 
 1536. In a few months he had drawn up 
 the formula which is memorable as the 
 first Confession of Faith by the Reformed 
 Church of France. 
 
 M. Guizot gives the followingaccount of 
 it: “It was simple in form, moderate in 
 tone, and free from many of the theological 
 controversies which afterward arose among 
 the Reformers; its principal object was to 
 separate the Reformed faith clearly and 
 entirely from the Church of Rome, its tra¬ 
 ditions, its priestcraft, and its worship; at 
 the same time, it was entirely in harmony 
 with the facts, dogmas, and precepts con¬ 
 tained in the Scriptures, the authority of 
 which it asserted as the fixed basis and law 
 of the Christian faith. The Confession is di¬ 
 vided intotwenty-one articles. The starting- 
 point of the first three is the law and word 
 of God, ‘as they are contained in the Holy 
 Scriptures,’ and at their close all the Ten 
 Commandments are inserted, according to 
 the version given in the Book of Exodus. 
 The ten subsequent articles enumerate and 
 announce the fundamental doctrines of 
 evangelical orthodoxy, namely: the natural 
 depravity of man; the redemption by our 
 Lord Jesus Christ; the necessity of faith in 
 Christ for regeneration and salvation; and 
 they end with the insertion of the whole of 
 the Apostles’ Creed and the Lord’s Prayer, 
 together with this previous declaration : 
 ‘ All that Jesus Christ did and suffered for 
 
 our redemption we believe truly and with¬ 
 out doubt, as it is stated in the creed which 
 is recited in the Church.’ The eight re¬ 
 maining articles treat of the Sacraments of 
 the Church, which they reduce to two, 
 Baptism and the Lord’s Supper; they very 
 briefly indicate the essential principles of 
 ecclesiastical organization, the duty of the 
 pastor to his flock, of believers to the civil 
 powers. ‘ By which we mean that every 
 Christian is bound to pray to God for the 
 prosperity of the rulers and governors of 
 the country in which he lives, to obey the 
 statutes and decrees which are not in op¬ 
 position to the commandments of God, to 
 strive to promote the public welfare, peace, 
 and profit, and to take no part in schemes 
 which may provoke danger and dissension. 
 At the same time, in the hands of the 
 Church, and to be exercised by its author¬ 
 ity, these articles formally establish the 
 punishment of excommunication, which we 
 hold to be a sacred and salutary weapon in 
 the hands of believers, so that the wicked, 
 by their evil conversation, may not corrupt 
 the good, and dishonor Christ. We hold 
 that it is expedient, and according to the 
 ordinance of God, that all open idolaters, 
 blasphemers, murderers, thieves, adulter¬ 
 ers, and false witnesses, all seditious and 
 quarrelsome persons, slanderers, pugilists, 
 drunkards, and spendthrifts, if they do not 
 amend their lives after they have been duly 
 admonished, shall be cut off from commun¬ 
 ion with believers, until they have given 
 satisfactory proof of repentance.’ ” 
 
 But the strain was greater than the Swiss 
 could bear. They who had resisted the 
 foreign dukes, and established their polit¬ 
 ical independence, were determined also to 
 be independent of moral laws. Calvin, 
 they said, was a good expounder of Script¬ 
 ure, but had no right over their morals: 
 he was only restoring papal tyranny, with 
 himself for pope. The malcontents were 
 seconded by the partisans of the old relig¬ 
 ion, and in March, 1538, Calvin and Farel 
 were expelled from the city, on the ground 
 that they had withheld the Communion 
 from some who refused to accept their 
 doctrinal views. 
 
 Calvin traveled about for four months, 
 visiting the Reformed bodies in various 
 parts, and then settled himself at Strasburg, 
 where the reformers, Bucer and Capito, 
 esteemed him highly: there he set up a 
 French Church, became its first minister, 
 and was likewise chosen Professor of 
 Divinity. His affection for the Church of 
 Geneva stili continued, as was shown by 
 the answer which he wrote to Cardinal 
 Sadolet’s Epistle to the Church of Geneva, 
 inviting them to return to the ancient faith. 
 The cardinal’s letter was calm, temperate, 
 
Cal 
 
 ( I4i ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 and generous in tone. Calvin’s answer 
 was also courteous and respectful, but 
 thoroughly uncompromising in his asser¬ 
 tion of his own position and of the evils of 
 Rome. It is said—but there is no proof 
 forthcoming — that the two antagonists 
 afterward met, and were mutually pleased. 
 But Calvin’s letter was regarded as tri¬ 
 umphing over the cardinal. 
 
 Two years later the divines of Strasburg 
 desired him to assist at a Diet, which the 
 emperor had convened at Worms and 
 Ratisbon, for settling the differences in re¬ 
 ligion; he complied with their request, and 
 had a conference, at that meeting, with Me- 
 lancthon. By this time the town of Geneva 
 was very pressing for his return; at last he 
 yielded to their importunity, and went 
 thither in Sept., 1541. The first thing he 
 did was to settle a form of discipline and a 
 consistorial jurisdiction, with a power to 
 inflict censures and canonical penances, 
 even to excommunication; this method was 
 thought by many persons to be too rigor¬ 
 ous, and too nearly approaching to Roman 
 tyranny; notwithstanding, the matter was 
 carried, and this new canon legally passed 
 by an assembly of all the people, Nov. 20, 
 1541, the clergy and laity pledging them¬ 
 selves to an unalterable conformity to it. 
 Calvin made for himself a great many 
 enemies by his inflexible severity in 
 maintaining the rights and jurisdiction 
 of his consistory, these rigors being 
 sometimes the occasion of disturbances 
 in the town. 
 
 His conduct towards Servetus has been 
 justly condemned (Servetus), but it must 
 be remembered that religious toleration 
 was a virtue which men were only begin¬ 
 ning to learn, and the condemnation of 
 Servetus was approved, even by the gentle 
 Melancthon. 
 
 Calvin was a man of indefatigable indus¬ 
 try and very considerable learning, had a 
 good memory, and was a brilliant writer. 
 His earnestness on behalf of his opinions 
 has, perhaps, never been surpassed; even 
 Maimbourg and Moreri allowed him to be 
 a person of wisdom and learning, of a very 
 regular and sober life, and so far from 
 covetousness that he died worth only fso, 
 including the value of his library; but they 
 add that he was a melancholy and also 
 irascible man, and that even his friends 
 charged him with being satirical. 
 
 He had always been of feeble and deli¬ 
 cate frame, and on the 27th of May, 1564, 
 he died in perfect calmness, exhorting all 
 about him to cling to the Gospel which he 
 had taught them, and to walk worthy of 
 the Divine goodness. He was buried, ac¬ 
 cording to his own request, in that portion 
 of the burial-ground of Geneva allotted to 
 
 the poor, and the precise spot is unmarked 
 and unknown. 
 
 Calvin’s whole works have been pub¬ 
 lished in several editions. His Commen- 
 tciries on the Scriptures are still regarded as 
 of great value, from their critical power 
 and spiritual insight. But his chief work 
 is his Christian Institutes , the design of 
 which was to exhibit a full view of the 
 doctrines of the Reformers; and, as no sim¬ 
 ilar work had appeared before, it leaped at 
 once into popularity. It went through 
 several editions in his life-time, has been 
 translated into all the principal modern 
 languages, and its effect upon the Christian 
 world ever since has been so remarkable 
 as to entitle it to be looked upon as one of 
 the very few books which have done some¬ 
 thing to change the world. Many lives of 
 Calvin have been written; one of the best 
 is by M. Guizot: St. Louis and Calvin .— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Calvinism is a term that designates the 
 doctrinal system of Calvin, but it is to be 
 remembered that, as regards the doctrines 
 of sin, grace, and predestination, he de¬ 
 veloped more fully the views that Avere 
 first promulgated by St. Augustine (353- 
 430). The tenets held by Calvin are stated 
 as follows by W. Lindsay Alexander, D. D. 
 ( Ency. Britannica, vol. iv., pp. 719, 720): 
 “ Man as a sinner is guilty and corrupt. 
 The first man was made in the image and 
 likeness of God, which not only implies 
 man’s superiority to all other creatures, but 
 indicates his original purity, integrity, and 
 sanctity. From this state Adam fell, and 
 in his fall involved the whole human race 
 descended from him. Hence, depravity 
 and corruption diffused through all parts 
 of the soul, attach to all men, and this first 
 makes them obnoxious to the anger of 
 God, and then comes forth in works, which 
 the Scripture calls works of the flesh. (Gal. 
 v. 19.) Thus all are held vitiated and per¬ 
 verted in all parts of their nature, and on 
 account of such corruption deservedly con¬ 
 demned before God, by whom nothing is 
 accepted, save righteousness, innocence, 
 and purity. Nor is that a being bound for 
 another’s offense; for when it is said that 
 we, through Adam’s sin, have become ob¬ 
 noxious to the divine judgment, it is not 
 to be taken as if we, being ourselves inno¬ 
 cent and blameless, bear the fault of his 
 offense, but that, we having been brought 
 under a curse through his transgression, 
 he is said to have bound us. 
 
 “ From him, however, not only has pun¬ 
 ishment overtaken us, but a pestilence in¬ 
 stilled from him resides in us, to which 
 punishment is justly due. Thus, even in¬ 
 fants, whilst they bring their own condem- 
 
Cal 
 
 ( 142 ) 
 
 Cal 
 
 nation with them from their mothers’ 
 womb, are bound not by another’s, but by 
 their own fault. For, though they have 
 not yet brought forth the fruits of iniquity, 
 they have the seed shut up in them; nay, 
 their whole nature is a sort of seed of sin, 
 therefore it cannot but be hateful and abom¬ 
 inable to God. {Inst ., bk. ii., ch. 1, sec. 8.) 
 To redeem man from this state of guilt, and 
 to recover him from corruption, the Son of 
 God became incarnate, assuming man’s na¬ 
 ture into union with his own, so that in him 
 were two natures in one person. Thus in¬ 
 carnate he took on him the offices of Proph¬ 
 et, Priest, and King, and by his humilia¬ 
 tion, obedience, and suffering unto death, 
 followed by his resurrection and ascension 
 to heaven, he has perfected his work, and 
 fulfilled all that was required in a Re¬ 
 deemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed 
 that he has merited for man the grace of 
 salvation. (Bk. ii., ch. 13-17.) But until a 
 man is in some way really united to Christ, 
 so as to partake of him, the benefits of 
 Christ’s work cannot be attained by him. 
 Now it is by the secret and special opera¬ 
 tion of the Holy Spirit that men are united 
 to Christ, and made members of his body. 
 Through faith, which is a firm and certain 
 cognition of the divine benevolence tow¬ 
 ard us, founded on the truth of the gra¬ 
 cious promise in Christ, men are, by the 
 operation of the Spirit, united to Christ, 
 and are made partakers of his death and 
 resurrection, so that the old man is cruci¬ 
 fied with him, and they are raised to a new 
 life, a life of righteousness and holiness. 
 Thus joined to Christ the believer has life 
 in him, and knows that he is saved, having 
 the witness of the Spirit that he is a child 
 of God, and having the promises, the certi¬ 
 tude of which the Spirit had before im¬ 
 pressed on the mind, sealed by the same 
 Spirit on the heart. (Bk. iii., ch. 33-36.) 
 From faith proceeds repentance, which is 
 the turning of our life to God, proceeding 
 from a sincere and earnest fear of God, 
 and consisting in the mortification of the 
 flesh and the old man within us, and a 
 vivification of the Spirit. Through faith, 
 also, the believer receives justifica¬ 
 tion, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted 
 of God, and is held by him as right¬ 
 eous, the righteousness of Christ being 
 imputed to him, and faith being the 
 instrument by which the man lays hold on 
 Christ, so that, with his righteousness, the 
 man appears in God’s sight as righteous. 
 This imputed righteousness, however, is 
 not disjoined from real personal right¬ 
 eousness, for regeneration and sanctifi¬ 
 cation come to the believer from Christ 
 no less than justification: the two blessings 
 are not to be confounded, but neither are 
 
 they to be disjoined. The assurance 
 which the believer has of salvation he re¬ 
 ceives from the operation and witness of 
 the Holy Spirit; but this again rests on the 
 divine choice of the man to salvation; and 
 this falls back on God’s eternal, sovereign 
 purpose, whereby he has predestinated 
 some to eternal life, while the rest of man¬ 
 kind are predestinated to condemnation and 
 eternal death. Those whom God has chosen 
 to life he effectually calls to salvation, and 
 they are kept by him in progressive faith 
 and holiness unto the end. (Bk. iii. passim.) 
 The external means or aids by which God 
 unites men into the fellowship of Christ, 
 and sustains and advances those who be¬ 
 lieve, are the church and its ordinances, 
 especially the sacraments. The church 
 universal is the multitude gathered from 
 diverse nations, which, though divided by 
 distance of time and place, agree in one 
 common faith, and it is bound by the tie of 
 the same religion: and wherever the word 
 of God is sincerely preached, and the sac¬ 
 raments are duly administered, according 
 to Christ’s institute, there, beyond doubt, is 
 a church of the living God. (Bk. iv.,ch. 1, 
 sec. 7-11.) The permanent officers in the 
 church are pastors and teachers, to the 
 former of whom it belongs to preside over 
 the discipline of the church, to administer 
 the sacraments, and to admonish and ex¬ 
 hort the members, while the latter occupy 
 themselves with the exposition of Script¬ 
 ure, so that pure and wholesome doctrine 
 may be retained. With them are to be 
 joined, for the government of the church, 
 certain pious, grave, and holy men, as a 
 senate in each church; and to others, as 
 deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the 
 poor. The election of the officers in a 
 church is to be with the people, and those 
 duly chosen and called are to be ordained 
 by the laying on of the hands of the pas¬ 
 tors (ch. iii., sec. 4-16). The sacraments 
 are two—Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. 
 Baptism is the sign of initiation, whereby 
 men are admitted into the society of the 
 church, and, being grafted into Christ, are 
 reckoned among the sons of God; it serves 
 both for the confirmation of faith and as a 
 confession before men. The Lord’s Sup¬ 
 per is a spiritual feast, where Christ attests 
 that he is the life-giving bread by which 
 our souls are fed unto true and blessed im¬ 
 mortality. That sacred communication of 
 his flesh and blood whereby Christ trans¬ 
 fuses into us his life, even as if it pene¬ 
 trated into our bones and marrow, he, in 
 the Supper, attests and seals; and that not 
 by a vain or empty sign set before us, but 
 there he puts forth the efficacy of his Spirit 
 whereby he fulfills what he promises. In 
 the mystery of the Supper, Christ is truly 
 
Cam 
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
 Cam 
 
 exhibited to us by the symbols of bread 
 and wine; and so his body and blood, in 
 which he fulfilled all obedience for the ob¬ 
 taining of righteousness for us, are pre¬ 
 sented. There is no such presence of 
 Christ in the Supper as that he is affixed to 
 the bread, or included in it, or in any way 
 circumscribed; but whatever can express 
 the true and substantial communication of 
 the body and blood of the Lord, which is 
 exhibited to believers under the said sym¬ 
 bols of the Supper, is to be received, and 
 that not as perceived by the imagination 
 only, or mental intelligence, but as enjoyed 
 for the aliment of the eternal life. (Bk. iv., 
 ch. 15, 17.)” 
 
 This body of doctrine, so ably set forth 
 and defended by Calvin, has been often re¬ 
 stated and modified by theologians and in 
 accepted creeds. The “ Federal Scheme ” 
 of Cocceius and the labors of the Westmin¬ 
 ster divines changed it somewhat in form. 
 In this country, the views expressed by 
 Hopkins, the younger Edwards, Emmons, 
 N. W. Taylor, and others of the New Eng¬ 
 land school, have had a marked influence in 
 the restatement and modification of Calvin¬ 
 ism, which characterize its presentation 
 and acceptance at the present time to a 
 very general extent. 
 
 Calvinism in history is a wonderful tes¬ 
 timony to its power in personal character, 
 and as a moral force in the life of the na¬ 
 tions where it has been dominant. It has 
 been the friend of education, developed un¬ 
 swerving loyalty to Christ, and proved it¬ 
 self an aggressive missionary faith. 
 
 Camaldules, a religious order founded by 
 Romualdus about 1009, at Camaldoli, a vil¬ 
 lage thirty miles east of Florence. Romu¬ 
 aldus was a Benedictine monk, and a mem¬ 
 ber of the noble family of the dukes of Ra¬ 
 venna. The rules of the order were very 
 strict. The members lived in separate 
 huts, and obeyed the command of silence. 
 From Italy the order spread into France, 
 Germany, and Poland, but it is now almost 
 extinct. 
 
 Cambridge Platform, The, was adopted 
 by a synod of New England churches at 
 Cambridge, Mass., June, 164S. It was sub¬ 
 stantially the Westminster Confession,with 
 such modifications as adapted it to the Con¬ 
 gregational polity of church government. 
 See Schaff: Creeds , vol. i, 836. Congre¬ 
 gationalism. 
 
 Cambridge Platonists, a name given in 
 the seventeenth century to a number of 
 scholars connected with the Cambridge 
 University, who sought to assimilate the 
 doctrines of Plato with those of Christian 
 
 faith. The four chief Platonists were Ben¬ 
 jamin Whichcote, John Smith, Henry 
 More, and Ralph Cudworth, accounts of 
 whom will be found under their several 
 names. 
 
 Camel is a beast of burden frequently 
 mentioned in the Bible. In early times 
 they constituted a large item of wealth 
 among the Hebrews. The peculiar confor¬ 
 mation of its stomach enables it to go with¬ 
 out food or water for days, and it is satis¬ 
 fied with such coarse grass and shrubs as 
 the desert affords. It has an elastic, 
 broad, cushioned foot that does not easily 
 sink in the sand. The common camel 
 travels slowly,but the dromedary can make 
 as many as nine miles an hour. Among 
 the Hebrews the eating of the flesh of the 
 camel was forbidden (Lev. xi. 4), but they 
 used its milk. The Arabs use both flesh 
 and milk. A coarse cloth was woven of 
 its hair, with which John the Baptist is 
 said to have been clothed. The proverb 
 (Matt. xix. 24), “It is easier for a camel to 
 go through a needle’s eye,” etc., is a figu¬ 
 rative expression denoting something be¬ 
 yond human power. Some think it refers 
 to the small door within the heavy door of 
 the Oriental gate, called “ the needle’s 
 eye.” By unloading the camel it can be 
 taken through this door. 
 
 Cameron, Richard, b. at Falkland, Fife; 
 d. at Aysmoss, July 22, 1680. He was a 
 popular field preacher. In 1680, in con¬ 
 nection with Donald Cargill and Thomas 
 Douglas, he drew up the Sanquhar Decla¬ 
 ration (so called from the village in which 
 they met), in which they disowned the au¬ 
 thority of Charles II. At the head of a 
 band of earnest men, he promulgated his 
 views until killed in the battle of Ays¬ 
 moss. 
 
 Cameronians. After the death of Rich¬ 
 ard Cameron his followers welcomed King 
 William; but they were unwilling to join 
 the Established Church. In 1706 the Rev. 
 John Macmillian united with the “socie¬ 
 ties” that had been formed, and in 1743 
 they organized a Presbytery, taking the 
 name of “ Reformed Presbyterians.” A 
 presbytery was formed in the United 
 States in 1774. In 1863 the majority of 
 the body decided that it was right to coun¬ 
 tenance the political institutions of the 
 country. This led to a rupture, and in 
 1876 the large body united with the Free 
 Church of Scotland. See Presbyterians, 
 Reformed. 
 
 Camisards (from camisade , a night at¬ 
 tack). After the revocation of the Edict 
 
Cam 
 
 ( 144 ) 
 
 Cam 
 
 of Nantes by Louis XIV., in 1685, the ter¬ 
 rible persecutions that followed drove the 
 great body of the French Protestants from 
 the country, but the peasantry of Ce- 
 vennes were too poor to escape, and in the 
 fastnesses of the mountains still held their 
 religious gatherings. The Romish author¬ 
 ities instigated the most cruel methods to 
 suppress this rebellion. Fired with relig¬ 
 ious zeal, the Camisards, under the leader¬ 
 ship of Cavalier (q. v.), resisted with des¬ 
 perate valor the armies sent against them 
 (1702-1705), but were finally compelled to 
 surrender, after the province of Langue¬ 
 doc had been laid waste. See History of 
 Ant. Court (1760; new ed., by Alais, 1819). 
 
 Campanella, Thomas, a Dominican 
 monk, distinguished for his philosophical 
 ability; b. at Stilo, in Calabria, Sept. 5, 
 1568; d. in Paris, March 21, 1639. His 
 exposure of many of the artificial dogmas 
 of the “scholastic philosophy” aroused 
 the hatred of the orthodox schoolmen and 
 monks, and he was compelled to flee from 
 Naples to Rome, and then to other cities. 
 Returning to Calabria, he became involved 
 in a political conspiracy, and was confined 
 in a Naples prison for twenty-seven years. 
 Liberated in 1626 by Pope Urban VIII., 
 he finally left Rome for France, where he 
 received a welcome worthy of his great 
 abilities. He wrote in opposition to Aris¬ 
 totle, and was the earnest opposer of the 
 Reformation. His best-known works on 
 theology and philosophy are: Universalis 
 
 Philosophice . Partes Tres; De Gentilismo 
 
 non Retinendo , and Atheismus Trhimphatus 
 seu reductio ad religioneni per scientiam ver- 
 itaiis. 
 
 Campani'le, the detached bell-tower of a 
 church. In Italy there are very fine and 
 lofty examples of such bell-towers, both 
 round and square: that of Florence, 267 
 feet high and forty-five feet square, was 
 designed by the famous Giotto; the tower 
 of Avinelli, at Bologna, is 320 feet high 
 and two yards out of the perpendicular; 
 that of Pisa is 150 feet high and four yards 
 out of the perpendicular; that of Cremona 
 is 395 feet high. 
 
 Campaniles are not unknown in connec¬ 
 tion with English churches. There was 
 one to old St. Paul’s, and a fine one, until 
 the last generation, opposite the south 
 porch of Salisbury Cathedral, since the 
 wanton destruction of which the peal of 
 bells has had no home. There are also 
 such detached towers at Elstow, near Bed¬ 
 ford; at Ledbury and Pembridge, in Here¬ 
 fordshire; and at Berkeley, in Gloucester¬ 
 shire. There are traditions that they 
 were the work of guilds of masons who 
 
 were thrown out of employment by the 
 cessation of church building at the Refor¬ 
 mation.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Campbell, Alexander, founder of the 
 Disciples of Christ; b. near Ballymena, 
 in County Antrim, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1788; 
 d. at Bethany, West Va., March 4, 1866. 
 He was a student for a time at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Glasgow, and before coming to this 
 country, in 1809, he was a licentiate of the 
 Seceder Church, Scotland. His father, a 
 minister in the same church, had been in 
 this country two years when his son joined 
 him at his home in Western Pennsylvania. 
 He continued his studies under his father, 
 and began to preach in 1810. His services 
 met with popular approval, but both father 
 and son fell under the displeasure of the 
 church authorities because of the peculiar 
 views which they held. Those who were 
 in sympathy with them formed a congre¬ 
 gation called “The Christian Association.” 
 The church was known as the “ Brush 
 Run Church,” of which Thomas Campbell, 
 the father, became elder, and Alexander 
 Campbell the preacher. They held to the 
 opinion that “ Christian union can result 
 from nothing short of the destruction of 
 creeds and confessions of faith, inasmuch 
 as human creeds and confessions have de¬ 
 stroyed Christian union,” and “ that noth¬ 
 ing ought to be received into the faith or 
 worship of the Church, or be made a term 
 of communion among Christians that is not 
 as old as the New Testament; nor ought 
 anything to be admitted as of divine obli¬ 
 gation in the Church constitution or man¬ 
 agement, save what is enjoined by the 
 authority of our Lord Jesus Christ and his 
 apostles upon the New Testament Church, 
 either in express terms or by approved 
 precedent.” In 1812, having become con¬ 
 vinced that immersion is the proper form 
 of baptism, Mr. .Campbell, with his con¬ 
 gregation, was immersed. He formed 
 several congregations, which united with 
 a Baptist Association, but, still protesting 
 against creeds, and accepting the Bible 
 alone as the rule of faith and practice, they 
 were, in 1827, excluded from the fellowship 
 of the Baptist churches. They then began 
 to organize under the name of Christians, 
 or Disciples of Christ, and have continued 
 to grow until they now number over six 
 hundred thousand communicants. In 1823 
 Mr. Campbell began the publication of The 
 Christian Baptist , which was afterwards 
 merged in The Millennial Harbinger , of 
 which he was the editor until his death. In 
 1840 he founded Bethany College, and be¬ 
 came its president. In labors he was abun¬ 
 dant. As a pulpit orator he held the rapt 
 attention of vast audiences that gathered 
 
Cam 
 
 ( 145 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 to hear him as he journeyed through the 
 interior States. He was always ready to 
 contend for the truth as it had unfolded to 
 his view, and he held several famous de¬ 
 bates with prominent men, in which he 
 gained wide recognition as a man of re¬ 
 markable power, and did much to call at¬ 
 tention to the denomination which he had 
 founded. He published a summary of 
 theology called the Christian System (often 
 reprinted); a treatise on Remission of Sin 
 (1846); Memoirs of Thomas Campbell (1861). 
 See Richardson: Memoirs of A. Ca 7 npbell 
 (1868). 
 
 Campbellites. See Disciples of Christ. 
 
 Campbell, John M’Leod; b. May 4, 
 1800, in Argyllshire, Scotland; d. at Ros- 
 neath, Feb. 27, 1872. He was educated at 
 the Universities of Glasgow and Edin¬ 
 burgh. In 1825 he became minister of the 
 parish of Row. For preaching the doctrine 
 of unlimited atonement he was tried for 
 heresy, and deposed by the Assembly in 
 1831. In 1833 he began an independent 
 ministry in Glasgow that continued for 
 twenty-six years. He published, in 1856, 
 the work that has made his name prom¬ 
 inent: The Nature of the Atonement , and its 
 Relation to Remission of Sins and Eternal 
 Life. In this treatise he argues that “ It 
 was the spiritual essence and nature of the 
 sufferings of Christ, and not that these 
 sufferings were penal, which constituted 
 their value as entering into the atonement 
 made by the Son of God, when he put 
 away sin by the sacrifice of himself.” 
 Compelled to retire from his Glasgow par¬ 
 ish in 1859, by reason of failing health, he 
 still continued, to some extent, in literary 
 work at his quiet home at Rosneath. He 
 was a man of beautiful Christian character, 
 an able thinker, and beloved and honored 
 by a large circle of devoted friends. He 
 published: Christ , the Bread of Life (1851); 
 Thoughts on Revelation (1862). See D. 
 Campbell : Me?norials of John M’Leod 
 Campbell (London, 1877), 2 vols. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, father of Alexander 
 Campbell; b. in Ireland, Feb. 1, 1763; d. 
 at Bethany, Va., Jan. 4, 1854. See Alex¬ 
 ander Campbell and Disciples. 
 
 Camp-Meeting, a name given to religious 
 gatherings held in the open air. The first 
 meeting of the kind is said to have met in 
 Kentucky, on the banks of the Red River, 
 in 1799, and was in charge of a Methodist 
 and a Presbyterian minister. These meet¬ 
 ings were introduced into England in 1807, 
 by the Rev. Lorenzo Dow. The Wesleyan 
 Conference did not approve of them, and 
 
 William Clowes and Hugh Bourne were 
 expelled for holding them. In 1810 these 
 ministers founded the Primitive Method¬ 
 ists, who sanction the use of camp-meet¬ 
 ings. In recent years certain localities in 
 the United States have been purchased and 
 fitted up, both by Baptists and Methodists, 
 to carry on these meetings, with special 
 conveniences for those who attend. 
 
 Ca'na of Galilee, memorable as the scene 
 of Christ’s first miracle (John ii. 1-11; iv. 
 46), and the home of Nathaniel. (John xxi. 
 2.) The commonly received site is Kefr 
 Kenna, about four miles northeast of 
 Nazareth. Robinson thinks it was Kana- 
 el-Jelil about nine miles north of Nazareth. 
 See Biblical Researches , vol. iii, 204-208. 
 
 Ca'naan, the fourth son of Ham (Gen. 
 x. 6; 1 Chron. i. 8); the progenitor of the 
 Phoenicians (“ Zidon ”), and of the various 
 nations who, before the Israelite conquest, 
 peopled the sea-coast of Palestine, and 
 generally the whole of the country west¬ 
 ward of the Jordan. (Gen. x. 13; 1 Chron. i. 
 I 3>) 
 
 Ca'naan, Land of, the country inhabited 
 by the posterity of Canaan, known as 
 Canaanites. At the time of its conquest 
 by Joshua it was peopled by several tribes 
 known as Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, 
 Girgasites, Hivites, Perizzites, etc. The 
 original boundaries of the country were 
 Mount Lebanon on the north, the wilder¬ 
 ness of Arabia on the south, and the 
 Arabian desert on the east. 
 
 Ca'naanites. See above. 
 
 Can'dace, the title of an Ethiopian queen, 
 whose treasurer was met by Philip and 
 converted. (Acts viii. 27.) Her realm was 
 situated north of Meroe, in upper Nubia. 
 
 Can'dlemas, the festival of the purifica¬ 
 tion of the Virgin Mary, celebrated Feb. 2. 
 The name is derived from the fact that 
 lighted candles were borne about in the 
 processions, and placed in churches in 
 memory of him who “ came to be a light to 
 lighten the Gentiles.” 
 
 Candles, Use of. A candle (from candeo , 
 I burn) was originally made of wax. When 
 it grew thinner in shape toward the end, 
 it was a “ taper.” It is a matter of dispute 
 whether the “ many lights ” of which we 
 are told at the breaking of bread at Troas 
 (Acts xx. 8) were symbolical or not. “There 
 is no gfound,” says Dean Plumptre, “ for 
 assuming that the lamps at this early 
 period had any distinctive ritual or sym- 
 
Can 
 
 ( 146 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 bolic character, though it would be a nat¬ 
 ural expression of respect that two or more 
 should be placed in front of the Apostle, 
 or other presiding elder at such a meeting, 
 beside the loaf which was to be broken and 
 the cup which was to be blest.” (See art. 
 “ Acts of the Apostles,” Bishop Ellicott: 
 Coimnentary on the Bible . 
 
 The same writer inclines to the belief 
 that the “ many lights ” are emphasized by 
 way of answer to the calumny propagated 
 by the enemies of the faith that the meet¬ 
 ings were held in darkness for indulgence 
 in shameful sins. The* advocates of the 
 ceremonial use of lights dwell on the fact 
 that the early Christians were familiar with 
 the symbolical meaning of the candlesticks 
 in the Temple service, and that this has 
 been continued from the beginning. There 
 is no proof, however, of the use before the 
 fourth century; it is mentioned both by 
 Athanasius and Jerome. In the Roman 
 Catholic Church it is a strict rule that wax 
 candles must always be alight during the 
 Mass—even a village priest cannot say 
 Mass without two candles. One must al¬ 
 ways be used, also,'when the Communion is 
 brought to the sick, or when Extreme Unc¬ 
 tion is given. The two candles are to 
 symbolize the two natures of Christ, His 
 Divinity and Manhood.—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion . 
 
 GOLDEN CANDLESTICK. 
 (From the Arch 0/ Titus.) 
 
 Candlestick, The Golden. See Taber¬ 
 nacle. 
 
 Candlish, Robert Smith, D. D., Free 
 Church of-Scotland; b. in Edinburgh, March 
 23, 1806; d. there, Oct. 19, 1872. Educated 
 at the University of Glasgow, he entered 
 
 the ministry of the Established Church of 
 Scotland in 1831, and three years later was 
 appointed to St.George’s, Edinburgh, where 
 he soon won distinction, and remained until 
 his death. With Dr. Chalmers he was a 
 leader in the formation of the Free Church 
 in 1843, and in 1861 became honorary 
 Principal of New College. See his Memoir 
 by W. W T ilson (Edinburgh, 1880). 
 
 Canker-worm. This name is given in the 
 Bible to the larvae, or caterpillar state of 
 the locust. These larvae consume what has 
 been left by the winged locust. (Neh. iii. 
 15, 16; Joel i. 4.) 
 
 Cannon, James Spencer, b. Jan. 28,1776; 
 d. in New Brunswick, N. J., July 25, 1852. 
 From 1818 to 1819, and from 1826 to 1852 
 he was professor of pastoral theology and 
 ecclesiastical history in the Theological 
 Seminary of the Reformed Church, New 
 Brunswick. He was an able and conscien¬ 
 tious teacher. His Lectures 071 Pastoral 
 Theology were published after his death 
 (N. Y., 1853). 
 
 Canon, a person who possesses a preb¬ 
 end or revenue allotted for the perform¬ 
 ance of divine service in a cathedral or 
 collegiate church. Canons connected with 
 the English cathedrals are required to 
 spend three months of the year in residency; 
 there are also minor canons, who take part 
 in the daily choral service. 
 
 Canon of the Mass is that portion of the 
 service in the Roman Church which be¬ 
 gins after the “ Sanctus.” 
 
 Canon of the Scriptures. The collection 
 of books which constitute our Bible is 
 called the “ canon,” because being the rule 
 of faith. In this latter sense, the word was 
 first used only in the fourth century. Orig¬ 
 inally the word “ canon ” means a straight 
 rod or ruler. In a figurative sense, it ex¬ 
 pressed that which serves to meastire or 
 determine anything , whether in ethics, or in 
 art, or in language. Great epochs in his¬ 
 tory, made to serve in the determination 
 of intermediate dates, were called “ chrono¬ 
 logical canons.” The Alexandrine gram¬ 
 marians spoke of the classic Greek authors, 
 as a whole, as “ the canon,” the absolute 
 standard of pure language, the perfect 
 model of composition. By a common 
 transition in the history of words, canon, as 
 that which measures, was afterward used 
 for that which is so measured, and so has 
 passed into the category of approved stand¬ 
 ards. This much for the classical use of 
 the word. As for the ecclesiastical use of 
 the word, it occurs in its literal sense in 
 
Can 
 
 ( 147 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 the apocryphal book of Judith (xiii. 6), for 
 the rod at the head of a couch. In the New 
 Testament it is used in two passages with 
 the meaning of measure or norm (Gal. vi. 
 16); and in the second of the two passages 
 (2 Cor. x. 13) there is already a foreshadow¬ 
 ing of the later patristic usage. Clement of 
 Rome ( Epist . to the Corinthians i.; vii.; xli.) 
 still adheres in general to the New Testa¬ 
 ment definition; but Clement of Alexandria 
 (Stromata vi. 15; vii. 16) who speaks of the 
 “canon of truth,” and others of his contem¬ 
 poraries we find broadening it to signify, 
 not a single rule alone, but the leading, 
 fundamental principles governing the 
 Church of Christ. So, “ little by little, the 
 the word took on the higher meaning of a 
 rule of doctrine, a certain correct type of 
 teaching, as over against that which was 
 erroneous or heretical. From this point 
 the transfer of the title from the doctrine 
 itself to the collection of books supposed 
 to contain it was not far off. At first, parts 
 of books, only, such as came frequently 
 into use at church festivals, were referred 
 to as ‘ canonized.’ That is, they were 
 understood to form a part of the establish¬ 
 ed law and order of the discipleship.” 
 But the term canon, as applied to the Bible 
 as a whole, to designate its proper con¬ 
 tents, we first meet with about the middle 
 of the fourth century, in one of the utter¬ 
 ances of the Council of Laodicea (canon 
 59; a. D. 363), and simultaneously in the 
 Festal Epistles of Athanasius (xxxix). 
 Shortly after this time numerous witnesses 
 testify to the common adoption of the term 
 “canon” in this technical sense. The 
 question arises: Mow did the collection of 
 those books originate? To answer this we 
 must treat each part of the Bible, viz., the 
 Old and New Testaments, separately. 
 
 (a) The canon of the Old Testament . The 
 traditional view, which prevailed for fifteen 
 centuries, was that the collection of the 
 Old Testament books proceeded from Ezra 
 or (and) his contemporaries, or from a little 
 later time, and that the tripartition of the 
 canon, and the manner in which the indi¬ 
 vidual books were placed, were intentional. 
 This view is untenable; for some biblical 
 books {e. g., the present books of Daniel, 
 and Chronicles) belong to a later time; and 
 some books would have certainly been 
 placed differently, had the entire canon 
 originated at once. The order of the Old 
 Testament books is rather to be explained 
 from the history of the Old Testament 
 canon. 
 
 The writings of the Old Testament di¬ 
 vide themselves into four collections: the 
 Pentateuch, the prophetico-historical books 
 (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings), the pro¬ 
 phetical books of prophecy (Isaiah, Jere¬ 
 
 miah, Ezekiel, twelve Minor Prophets), 
 and the other writings. We may safely as¬ 
 sume that, since the time of Moses, laws 
 and documents concerning the Mosaic time 
 were preserved in the sanctuary. (Deut. 
 xxxi. 9, 26; Josh. xxiv. 26; 1 Sam. x. 25; 2 
 Kings xxii. 8.) The priests also would re¬ 
 tain partly oral and partly written infor¬ 
 mation (subsequently combined in the 
 Priests’ Codex), in regard to many similar 
 matters; and between the eighteenth year 
 of Josiah and the destruction of Jerusalem 
 (about 586 b. C.), the writings of Moses and 
 the Priests’ Codex, long in existence, were 
 combined. During and after the exile the 
 influence of this book is great, and the 
 prophets and the pious give it canonical 
 authority. 
 
 As the prophets were the spiritual ex- 
 horters and guides of the people, it was a 
 natural desire to have a collection of their 
 writings. And thus, almost contempora¬ 
 neously, originated the collection of histor- 
 ico-prophetic and distinctively prophetic books 
 (or the so-called second canon). 
 
 Of a slower growth was the third canon 
 or the Hagiographa. Since David, there ex¬ 
 isted collections of Psalms, and since Sol¬ 
 omon, collections of Proverbs. These were 
 increased in the course of time. The 
 name of Solomon made the Song of Songs 
 dear to the Israelites, and its age and con¬ 
 tents made the book of Job precious. Lam¬ 
 entations appeal directly to the heart of the 
 Jew, and was accepted as sacred; and Ruth, 
 on account of its genealogy of David, was 
 regarded as a fit introduction to the Psalms 
 of the royal singer. To these six writings 
 (Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Song of 
 Songs, Lamentations) were added, in the 
 course of time, Ezra , Neherniah , Chronicles , 
 Ecclesiastes , Esther , and, finally, Daniel in 
 the time of Maccabees. After this time 
 no other book was received as canonical, 
 not even the book of Jesus Sirach or Ec- 
 clesiasticus. 
 
 if) The New Testament Canon. The 
 canon of the Old Testament descended 
 to the church from the Jews, with the sanc¬ 
 tion of Christ and the apostles. The New 
 Testament canon was gradually formed, on 
 the model of the Old, in the course of the 
 first four centuries. The first trace of it 
 appears in the second Epistle of Peter (iii. 
 15), where a collection of Paul’s epistles is 
 presumed to exist, and is placed by the 
 side of “ the other scriptures.” From 
 what we know, as early as the middle of 
 the second century, the principal books of 
 the New Testament, the four Gospels, the 
 Acts, the thirteen Epistles of Paul, the 
 first Epistle of Peter, and the first of John 
 (designated by Eusebius as homolegomena , 
 i. e., universally acknowledged), were 
 
Can 
 
 ( 148 ) 
 
 Can 
 
 in general use in the Church, and ac¬ 
 knowledged to be apostolic, inspired by 
 the spirit of Christ, and, therefore, authori¬ 
 tative and canonical. By the close of the 
 fourth century the doubts which had rest¬ 
 ed upon the so-called antilegomena , or 
 spoken against, or controverted books, 
 viz., Epistle to the Hebrews, the Apoc¬ 
 alypse, the second Epistle of Peter, the sec¬ 
 ond and third Epistles of John, the Epistle 
 of James, and the Epistle of Jude, had van¬ 
 ished, and the books which formed then 
 the canon of the New Testament were the 
 same as we have them now. 
 
 (Such is, in short, a succinct history of the 
 Canon of the Scriptures, prepared from 
 the most reliable sources.) 
 
 B. Pick. 
 
 Canon Law is “ a collection of ecclesias¬ 
 tical constitutions for the government and 
 regulation of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 although many of its regulations have been 
 admitted into the ecclesiastical system of 
 the Church of England, and still influence 
 other Protestant bodies. It was compiled 
 from the opinions of the ancient Latin , 
 fathers, the decrees of general councils, 
 and the decretal epistles and bulls of the 
 holy see. These, from a state of disorder 
 and confusion, were gradually reduced into 
 method, and may be briefly described in 
 the following chronological order: (i) Gra¬ 
 ttan's Decree , which was a collection of 
 ordinances, in three books, commenced 
 by Ivo, Bishop of Chartres, 1114 A. D., 
 and subsequently corrected and arranged 
 by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, in the 
 year 1150, after the manner of Justinian’s 
 Pandects of the Roman Law. This work 
 comprises ecclesiastical legislation, as it 
 may be called, from the time of Constan¬ 
 tine the Great, at the beginning of the fourth 
 to that of Pope Alexander III., at the end 
 of the twelfth century. (2) The Decretals. 
 They are a collection of canonical epistles, 
 in five books, written by popes alone, or 
 assisted by some cardinals, to determine 
 any controversy, and first published about 
 the year 1230, by Raimundus Barcinus. 
 They lay down rules respecting the lives 
 and conversation of the clergy, matrimony 
 and divorces, inquisition of criminal mat¬ 
 ters, purgation, penance, excommunica¬ 
 tion, and other matters deemed to be with¬ 
 in the cognizance of the ecclesiastical 
 courts. To these five books of Gregory, 
 Boniface VIII. added a sixth, published 
 1298 A. D., called Sextus Decretalium, or 
 the Sext, which is itself divided into five 
 books, and forms a supplement to the work 
 of Barcinus, of which it follows the ar¬ 
 rangement. The Sext consists of decisions 
 promulgated after the pontificate of Greg¬ 
 
 ory IX. Then there came the Clementines, 
 which were constitutions of Pope Clement 
 V., published 1308 A. u. These decretals 
 form the principal portion of the canon law. 
 John Andreas, a celebrated canonist in the 
 fourteenth century, wrote a commentary 
 on them, which he entitled Novellce, from a 
 very beautiful daughter he had of that 
 name, whom he bred a scholar; the father, 
 being a professor of law at Bologna, had 
 instructed his daughter so well in it that 
 she assisted him in reading lectures to his 
 scholars, and, therefore, to perpetuate her 
 memory, he gave that book the title of 
 Novellce. (3) The Extravagants of John 
 XXII., and other later popes, by which 
 term is meant to be denoted documents 
 which transcend the limits of a particular 
 collection of regulations. These books, 
 viz., Gratian's Decree , the Decretals , and 
 the Extravagatits, together form the Cor¬ 
 pus Juris Canonici , or great body of the 
 C. L., as formerly received and adminis¬ 
 tered by the Church of Rome. There are, 
 however, other publications of a later pe¬ 
 riod, of more or less authority, but which 
 do not appear to have received the formal 
 sanction of the holy see.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopedia. In Germany the Canon Law is 
 still the common law of both sections of the 
 Christian Church, and in purely religious 
 and ecclesiastical questions affecting their 
 internal affairs, it is applicable, so far as 
 not altered by modern church standards. 
 The canon law is of no intrinsic obligation 
 in England. In France, since the begin¬ 
 ning of this century, the affairs of the 
 Church and religion are regulated by civil 
 enactment. As the canon law is one of the 
 sources of common law in England, it has 
 also had an important place in the law of 
 Scotland. 
 
 Canonical Hours, .otherwise called Hours 
 of Prayer , are certain stated times of the 
 day, consigned in the East, and in the 
 West before the Reformation, more espe¬ 
 cially by the Church of Rome, to offices of 
 prayer and devotion. These were at first 
 three only, and were supposed to be in¬ 
 herited from the Jewish Church (see Psa. 
 lv. 17; Dan. iv. 10; Acts iii. 1); namely, 
 the third, sixth and ninth hours, corre¬ 
 sponding to 9 A. m. , noon, and 3 r. M. with 
 us. They were increased to five, and sub¬ 
 sequently to seven (see Ps. cxix. 164), and 
 in time made obligatory on monastic and 
 clerical bodies. 
 
 Canonization, a ceremony in the Church 
 of Rome, by which persons deceased are 
 ranked in the catalogue of the saints. This 
 act is preceded by beatification; and after 
 the merits of the individual have been duly 
 
Can 
 
 ( 149 ) 
 
 Cap 
 
 tested and approved, the pope decrees the 
 canonization. 
 
 Canterbury, a city and borough in the 
 county of Kent, fifty-five miles southeast 
 of London. As the capital of Ethelbert, 
 the fourth Saxon king of Kent, it was the 
 first settlement of Augustine, who was 
 made bishop of the see in 597. From this 
 time Canterbury became the permanent 
 seat of the archbishopric. The Diocese of 
 Canterbury consists of the county of Kent, 
 with the exception of a small district, and 
 includes a portion of Surrey, around Croy¬ 
 don and Addington, the archbishop’s coun¬ 
 try residence, and Lambeth Palace, his 
 London residence, on the south bank of 
 the Thames. The Province of Canterbury 
 includes twenty-four dioceses in England 
 and Wales, over which the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury exercises a metropolitan juris¬ 
 diction. He stands at the head of the 
 Church of England, and is styled the Pri¬ 
 mate of all England, and Metropolitan; and 
 he is, ex officio, the first subject of the 
 crown, after the princes of the blood Royal. 
 The endowment of the office is now fixed 
 at ^15,000 a year. 
 
 The magnificent Cathedral of Canterbury 
 was erected between 1070 and 1495, on 
 ground which had been the site of succes¬ 
 sive churches from the primitive ages of 
 Christianity. The most ancient portions 
 of the existing cathedral are the western 
 half of the crypt, and the towers of St. 
 Andrew and St. Anselm, eastward of the 
 eastern transept. These portions of the 
 church date from the times of Archbishops 
 Lanfranc and Anselm. Next to these are 
 the eastern part of the crypt, the choir, 
 the retro-choir, and the corona, usually 
 called “ Becket’s crown.” The choir screen 
 is early fourteenth-century work, the nave 
 and transepts late fourteenth-century; and 
 the latest portion of all is the central 
 tower, dating, as has been said, from just 
 before the Reformation. As a whole, the 
 prominent architectural features of the 
 cathedral may be said to be late Norman, 
 the earliest of Pointed or Early English, 
 and Perpendicular. The northwestern 
 tower was rebuilt in 1S34, and much res¬ 
 toration has been effected at later dates. 
 
 Apart from its glorious architecture, the 
 cathedral of Canterbury is most interest¬ 
 ing on account of its associations. It has 
 been the Metropolitan Church of the 
 Southern Province for thirteen centuries, 
 and in later times it has been the chief 
 church of the Anglican communion 
 throughout the world. Within its walls 
 are the graves of most of the Archbishops 
 of Canterbury, down to the time of Cardi¬ 
 nal Pole, the last of them who was laid 
 
 there. In graves, known or unknown, 
 within its walls there lie the bodies of St. 
 Blaize, St. Wilfrid, St. Alphege, and St. 
 Anselm; while it was for three centuries 
 and a half (A. D. 1170-1538) regarded with 
 the greatest reverence, as containing the 
 shrine of Thomas a Becket. The cathe¬ 
 dral is also the burial-place of Henry IV., 
 and of Edward, the Black Prince, whose 
 armor is still preserved over his tomb, al¬ 
 though his good sword was appropriated 
 by Oliver Cromwell. In short, to use the 
 words of Dean Stanley, “ There is no 
 church, no place in the kingdom, with the 
 exception of Westminster Abbey, that is 
 so closely connected with the history of 
 Great Britain.” 
 
 Until the Reformation, Canterbury Ca¬ 
 thedral was the church of a large Benedict¬ 
 ine monastery. In A. d. 1538 it was re¬ 
 founded by Henry VIII. as a Cathedral 
 Body of Secular Clergy, and it now con¬ 
 sists of a Dean, six Canons, twenty-five 
 Honorary Canons, six Preachers and four 
 Minor Canons; the income of this body 
 amounting to about ^10,000 a year.— 
 Benham : Diet, of Religion. See Stanley: 
 Afemorials of Canterbury (London, 10th ed. 
 1883). 
 
 Canticles. See Song of Solomon. 
 
 Cantor. See Precentor. 
 
 Caper'naum ( village of Nahum) is called 
 Christ’s “ own city ” (Matt. ix. 1), and was 
 the scene of many of his mighty acts 
 (Matt. viii. 5—14; ix. 2; xvii. 24; John vi. 
 1 7—59; iv. 46, etc.). The Gospels tell us 
 that it was (1) a city of Galilee (Luke iv. 
 31) ; (2) on the shore of the lake (Matt, 
 iv. 13; John vi. 17-24); (3) the seat of a 
 collector and of a garrison (Matt. viii. 5), 
 and probably a custom-house (Matt. xvii. 
 24; Mark ii. 1, 14; Luke v. 27; compare 
 Matt. ix. 1, 9); (4) it had a noted syna¬ 
 gogue built by a Roman centurion (Luke 
 vii. 1, 5); (5) it was named with Chorazin 
 and Bethsaida in the woes pronounced 
 by Jesus, and its destruction predicted. 
 (Matt. xi. 20-23; Luke x. 13-15.) There 
 is little doubt but that the city was on 
 the west side of the Sea of Galilee, and 
 near its northern end. Two places lay 
 claim to its site. One is Khan Minieh , at 
 the northern end of the plain of Gennesaret, 
 near the lake, and the other is Tell Hum, 
 about two miles north of Khan Minieh. 
 Eminent scholars have favored both these 
 sites. It has been generally conceded that 
 the situation of Khan Minieh is most in 
 accord with the New Testament narrative, 
 being near the shore, and on the high road 
 from Jerusalem to Damascus. The main 
 
Cap 
 
 ( 150 ) 
 
 Cap 
 
 reason for favoring Tell Hum has been the 
 fact that extensive ruins were found there, 
 while they were lacking at Khan Minieh. 
 This reason, however, has been removed 
 by the discoveries of an American scholar. 
 Dr. Selah Merrill, in 1876-77, superintend¬ 
 ed excavations which brought to light the 
 existence of well-preserved ruins, beneath 
 a now fertile and cultivated piece of ground 
 near Khan Minieh , and it is but justice to 
 add that it was Dr. Merrill who called the 
 attention of Lieut. Kitchener, the English 
 explorer, to these ruins, the discovery of 
 which has been frequently credited to him. 
 Capernaum had a custom-house and garri¬ 
 son, and the fact that Tell Hum is two miles 
 away from the lake and road that the cus¬ 
 tom-house was designed to accommodate, 
 while at Khan Minieh we have the point 
 where road and lake intersect, would seem 
 to give the weight of argument in favor of 
 the latter place, now that it is known to be 
 the site of an ancient town. 
 
 Caph'tor, the primitive seat of the Caph- 
 torim, or Philistines. (Deut. ii. 23; Jer. 
 xlvii. 4.) It is probably identical with 
 Caphtur , and the northern delta of Egypt. 
 
 Capitularies, a name given to the laws 
 issued by the Frankish kings. Each na¬ 
 tion composing the Frankish Empire was 
 bound by these laws. As the kings ex¬ 
 ercised a legislative authority in the affairs 
 of the Church the capitularies (so called 
 from capitula, because the edicts were 
 divided into chapters) often had important 
 ecclesiastical bearings. 
 
 Cappado'cia, the most eastern district of 
 Asia Minor. It is an elevated table-land 
 intersected by mountain ranges. It is 
 sparsely wooded, but a good grain and 
 grazing country. Some of its Jewish 
 residents were among the hearers of St. 
 Peter’s first sermon (Acts ii. 9), and, after¬ 
 ward, converts in this province were ad¬ 
 dressed by him. (1 Peter i. 1.) 
 
 Cappel, the name of a family of dis¬ 
 tinguished theologians and scholars (1491— 
 1722). Louis Cappel, the most celebrated 
 member of the family (b. 1585; d. 1685) at 
 the age of twenty-eight accepted the chair 
 of Hebrew at Saumur, and, twenty years 
 after, that of theology. He advocated 
 liberal views with regard to the verbal in¬ 
 spiration of Scripture, and the history of 
 the Bible, which were condemned by the 
 authorities at Rome, and he had great dif¬ 
 ficulty in securing the printing of some of 
 his works. 
 
 Captivity of the Jews. The jews reckon 
 
 their national captivities as four: The 
 Babylonian includes “ the ‘ seventy years’ 
 between the first invasion of Judaea by 
 Nebuchadnezzar and the permission for the 
 return, given by Cyrus (b. c. 605-536); 
 the Median was from Darius the Mede to 
 Darius Codomanus (b. C. 536-332); the 
 Grecian, from the entrance of Alexander 
 the Great into Jerusalem to the insurrec¬ 
 tion of the Hebrews under the Maccabees 
 (b. c. 332-167); and the Roman, from b. c. 
 63.” In A. D. 70 Jerusalem was destroyed, 
 and the Jews driven forth as wanderers 
 upon the earth. 
 
 Capuchins. In the Roman Church, a 
 monastic order which grew out of the 
 Order of St. Francis, and was instituted by 
 Matthew de Baschi, of Urbino. He was 
 an observant of the Convent of Monte 
 Falco, and, having convinced himself that 
 the friars of his time wore a different 
 capuche , or cowl, from that worn by St. 
 Francis, he obtained the leave of Pope 
 Clement VII., in 1526, to resume what he 
 held to be the original form. He obtained 
 further permission to retire into solitude 
 and live a hermit life, with as many others 
 as chose to embrace the strict observance. 
 The new order multiplied fast, for in 1529 
 they had four monasteries, keeping strict 
 rules as to hours for worship, for mental 
 prayer, for silence, for discipline. They 
 had no revenues, but were to live by beg¬ 
 ging (and were not to ask for meat, eggs, 
 or cheese, though they might eat them if 
 offered); everything about their churches 
 was to be poor and mean, their very chal¬ 
 ices of pewter. It was a terrible shock to 
 the order when, in 1543, the third vicar- 
 general, Bernardine Ochino, became a 
 Protestant (Ochino). The pope, in his 
 anger, was very near dissolving the order, 
 but their eager and submissive entreaties 
 saved them, and the result was that this 
 order became one of the most extreme 
 types of monasticism. It stands in con¬ 
 trast to Jesuitism, inasmuch as the latter 
 represents the clever and unscrupulous 
 casuistry of the Roman Church, whereas 
 the Capuchins exhibit a strong sympathy 
 with the coarse instincts of the ignorant 
 masses. They had found their way into 
 France and Germany by the end of the 
 sixteenth century, and into Spain early in 
 the seventeenth. The order was abolished 
 in France and Germany at the end of the 
 eighteenth century: it figures much in the 
 history of the French Revolution. In Ger¬ 
 many it revived again, but the monks were 
 driven from their convents in 1SS0. There 
 are still several thousands of them, chiefly 
 in Austria and Switzerland. There are 
 five Capuchin convents in England, two in 
 
Car 
 
 ( I5i ) 
 
 Car 
 
 Wales, and three in Ireland.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Caraites. See Karaites. 
 
 Carbuncle, a pellucid green stone, 
 supposed to be either the emerald or 
 beryl. 
 
 Carche'mish, a city of northern Syria 
 taken by Pharaoh-Necho shortly after the 
 battle of Megiddo (2 Kings xxiii. 29), after¬ 
 ward retaken by Nebuchadnezzar. (Jer. 
 xlvi. 2-12.) Its precise site is still a mat¬ 
 ter of discussion. 
 
 Cardinal, the name of the highest digni¬ 
 tary in the Roman Catholic hierarchy, next 
 to that of the Pope. The origin of the 
 name, and the period in which it was first 
 used, are uncertain. The majority of the 
 cardinals are always Italians. Cardinals 
 alone are eligible to the papal see, and they 
 alone elect the Pope. By reason of their 
 close connection with the papal dignity 
 they were allowed by Innocent IV. (1245) 
 to wear the red hat with the pendent tas¬ 
 sels, and by Paul II. (1464) to wear a 
 purple robe. See Conclave. 
 
 Cardinal Virtues, The, are prudence, 
 justice, temperance, and fortitude. 
 
 Carey, William, D. D., Baptist mission¬ 
 ary; b. at Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, 
 Eng., Aug. 17, 1761; d. at Serampore, 
 India, June 9, 1834. In early youth he 
 learned the trade of a shoemaker, but be¬ 
 fore he was twenty he developed remark¬ 
 able gifts as a linguist, and had made such 
 good use of scanty opportunities that he 
 was an acceptable village preacher. He 
 became pastor of a church at Moulton 
 (1786), and then at Leicester (1789). Five 
 years later he was sent out by the Baptist 
 Missionary Society as their first mission¬ 
 ary to India. Having the misfortune to 
 lose all of his property, he accepted the 
 superintendence of an indigo factory at 
 Malda, and for a time was able at his own 
 expense to prosecute his labors of transla¬ 
 tion. Through the opposition of the Brit¬ 
 ish Government, he was compelled to re¬ 
 move to Serampore in 1799. There he 
 accomplished a great work through his 
 schools and the printing-press, from which 
 proceeded many versions of the Bible. He 
 made a version of the Bible into Bengali, 
 and other languages of India, and prepared 
 grammars and dictionaries. In 1801 he was 
 appointed professor of Sanskrit, Bengali, 
 and Mahratta, in the Fort William College, 
 Calcutta, and filled this position for thirty 
 years. See J. C. Marsh man; Life and 
 
 Times of Carer, Marshman, and Ward 
 (London, 1859), 2 vols.; Iffe, by George 
 Smith (1885). 
 
 Cargill, Donald, one of the leaders of 
 the Scotch Covenanters; b. at Rattray, 
 Perthshire, abojit 1C19; executed in Edin¬ 
 burgh, July 27, 1681. He was educated at 
 St. Andrews, and became minister of the 
 Barony Church, Glasgow, in 1650. When 
 Episcopacy was established in Scotland in 
 1661, he refused to accept his charge from 
 the archbishop, and openly denounced the 
 character of Charles II., and the measures 
 of the Government. He was banished be¬ 
 yond the Tay in 1662, but in his wander¬ 
 ings plotted rebellion, and in 1679 joined 
 Richard Cameron ( q. v.) and others, and 
 was wounded at the battle of Bothwell 
 Bridge. He fled to Holland, where he 
 remained for a little time. On his return, 
 he was captured, July 11, 1681, and taken 
 to Edinburgh, where he was condemned 
 after a brief trial. 
 
 Carlstadt, Andreas Rudolphus Boden- 
 stein, “ one of the boldest of the German 
 Reformers, first the friend and afterward 
 opponent of Martin Luther,” was b. at 
 Carlstadt in 1480; d. at Basel, Dec. 24, 
 1541. As the result of his quarrel with 
 Luther, he was ordered to leave the terri¬ 
 tory of the elector of Saxony. He sought 
 the intercession of Luther, and through 
 his influence he was permitted to return 
 to Saxony. For a few y®ars he led a 
 quiet life at Carlstadt, when he again 
 allied himself with the opponents of the 
 German Reformer. Zwingli took part in 
 support of the views of Carlstadt on the 
 Supper. In 1534 he became pastor and 
 professor of theology at Basel, where he 
 remained until his death. “ He was the 
 first to write against celibacy, and the first 
 Protestant divine to take a wife.” 
 
 Car'mel (fruitful), a mountain, promon¬ 
 tory, or range, about twelve miles long, 
 that juts out into the Mediterranean, south 
 of the bay of Acre. Its highest elevation 
 is 1,740 feet. Now, as in Old Testament 
 times, it is covered with verdure and for¬ 
 ests. (Song of Sol. vii. 5; Isa. xxxiii. 9; 
 xxxv. 2; Amos i. 2.) The history of Eli¬ 
 jah and Elisha is intimately connected with 
 this region. (2 Kings ii. 25; iv. 25.) The 
 scene of the contest between Elijah and 
 the prophets of Baal (1 Kings xviii. 20-42) 
 is supposed to have been near the east end 
 of the ridge, at el Mahrakah, “ the burn¬ 
 ing.” On the summit of the mountain is 
 a Carmelite monastery, the home ©f a lit¬ 
 tle company of monks. A German colony, 
 settled in recent years at Haifa, at the foot 
 
Car 
 
 ( 152 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 of Carmel, have been successful in the 
 cultivation of yneyards. 
 
 Carmelites, one of the four orders of 
 mendicant friars founded in the twelfth 
 century by Berthold, a crusader, who had 
 vowed to embrace the religious life if he 
 should be victorious in battle. He settled 
 as a monk in Calabria, where it was be¬ 
 lieved the prophet Elijah appeared to him 
 in a vision; he then removed to Mount 
 Carmel (1156), and from this place his suc¬ 
 cessors take their name of Carmelites. Al¬ 
 bert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, a native of 
 the diocese of Amiens, and kinsman of 
 Peter the Hermit, gave them sixteen rules 
 of severe discipline in 1205, which Pope 
 Honorius III. confirmed. The severity of 
 these rules was relaxed by Innocent IV. in 
 1245. The habit was at first striped, but 
 they afterward changed it for brown, with 
 
 and dates back, probably, to ante-Christian 
 times, and the Bacchanalian festivals of the 
 Romans. Races, masquerading, buffoonery, 
 and banqueting are the outward forms of 
 carnivals. Carnival-time at Rome has for 
 many generations attracted great crowds of 
 strangers, but is now shorn of most of its 
 old splendors. 
 
 Caroline Books, The, are four works 
 which originated in the controversies of 
 the eighth century concerning image wor¬ 
 ship. The action of the second Synod of 
 Nice (7S7) in commanding the worship of 
 images, met the disapproval of Charle¬ 
 magne, who brought the matter before the 
 theologians of his court for discussion. 
 The result was the preparation of the 
 Caroline Books, which, while admitting 
 the use of Christian art for instruction, 
 protested against its superstitious misuse. 
 
 MOUNT CARMEL, with the village of Haifa and the mouth of the Kishon. 
 
 a white cloak and scapulary. They are 
 sometimes called White Friars. A second 
 order of Carmelites, known as the Dis- 
 ealceati, or barefooted friars, was estab¬ 
 lished in the sixteenth century, chiefly by 
 the zeal of St. Theresa ( q . z\), a nun of 
 this order, belonging to the convent of 
 Avila, in Castile, who restored the ancient 
 rigor of the rule. Pope Clement VIII. 
 gave them large privileges, and they had 
 many houses in Spain and France. 
 
 In Spain they are still numerous, but 
 have been swept away in France. In Eng¬ 
 land there are now six nunneries, and one 
 house of friars, and in Ireland, also, they 
 have several establishments.—Benham : 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Carnival, a name given in Roman Cath¬ 
 olic countries to the days immediately pre¬ 
 ceding Lent. Carnival season has been 
 marked by wild and often riotous revelry. 
 
 Carpenter, Mary, philanthropist; b. at 
 Exeter, Eng., April 3, 1807; d. at Bristol, 
 June 14, 1S77. Her life was spent in 
 seeking to improve the criminal class. She 
 was especially interested in organizing re¬ 
 formatory schools for vicious girls. Be¬ 
 tween 1866 and 1S76 she visited India four 
 times in order to develop philanthropic en¬ 
 terprises in that country. Her life was 
 eminently useful. See her Life ami Work 
 by J. E. Carpenter (London 1S79). 
 
 Carpocratians, a Gnostic sect founded by 
 Carpocrates early in the second century. 
 Their principles were both pantheistic 
 and immoral. Image worship was first 
 fostered by them. 
 
 Carroll, John, the first Roman Catholic 
 bishop of the United States; b. at Upper 
 Marlborough, Md., Jan. S, 1735; d. at Balti¬ 
 more, Md., Dec. 3, 1S15. He was or- 
 
Car 
 
 ( 153 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 dained a priest at Liege, and became a 
 member of the Society of Jesus. At the 
 breaking out of the War of the Revolution 
 he returned to America, and in 1786 was 
 appointed vicar - general of the recently 
 established Roman Catholic hierarchy, and 
 in 1789 was consecrated in England under 
 the title of “ Bishop of Baltimore.” In 
 1S15 he was made archbishop. 
 
 Carson, Alexander, LL. D., b. in Ire¬ 
 land, 1776; d. at Belfast, Aug. 24, 1844. 
 From 1797 to 1805 he was pastor of a Pres¬ 
 byterian church in Tubbermore, Ireland, 
 where he withdrew from the denomination. 
 He was followed by most of his congrega¬ 
 tion, but, as they could gain no legal control 
 of their former chusph edifice, he preached 
 for a long time in barns and fields. He 
 was led by investigation to accept Baptist 
 principles, and became an earnest advocate 
 of their views. His writings upon this 
 subject have been widely read. See Bap¬ 
 tism in its Mode and Subjects, with a Sketch 
 of the Life of Dr. Carson (5th ed., Phila. 
 1357 ). 
 
 Carstares, William, D. D., a prominent 
 political and ecclesiastical leader of the sev¬ 
 enteenth century, who took an active part 
 in bringing about the Revolution of 1688; 
 b. at Cathcart, Scotland, 1649; d. at Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1715. He was employed to nego¬ 
 tiate between the English and Scotch con¬ 
 spirators in the Rye House plot. Arrested 
 and put to the torture of the thumb-screw, 
 he refused to make any confession. Re¬ 
 turning to Holland in 1685, he became one 
 of the principal advisers of the Prince of 
 Orange, and after the prince came to the 
 English throne Carstares was able to ef¬ 
 fect a reconciliation between him and the 
 Scottish Church. His influence was such 
 in ecclesiastical affairs that he was pop¬ 
 ularly called “Cardinal Carstares.” He 
 was elected principal of the University of 
 Edinburgh in 1704, and in the course of 
 eleven years was four times elected Mod¬ 
 erator of the General Assembly. 
 
 Carthage, Ancient Church of. The 
 African churches were not planted by the 
 Apostles, nor were any preachers, so far 
 as we know, sent thither by them. Peti- 
 tian is positive that the Africans were the 
 last people of the empire to receive the 
 Gospel. St. Augustine, in his book De 
 Unitate Ecclesice, does not affirm that 
 Christianity was planted in Africa in apos¬ 
 tolic time; he only asserts that some bar¬ 
 barous nations received the message of the 
 Gospel later. Tertullian, in his Presc 7 'ip- 
 tions, does not range the African Christians 
 with those of apostolic times. Salvian, in 
 
 his seventh book, De Providentid , seems to 
 say that the Church of Carthage was 
 founded by the apostles, but, being of an¬ 
 other country, and much later in time, his 
 testimony is not so reliable as that of St. 
 Augustine and Tertullian. Nicephorus 
 and Dorotheus relate that Simon, the Ca- 
 naanite, surnamed Zelotes, and St. Peter, 
 preached the gospel in Africa, but this 
 account appears altogether fabulous. 
 
 But, by whomsoever it was founded, the 
 Church of Carthage exerted a vast influ¬ 
 ence upon the whole of Christendom. 
 Like Egypt, Carthage had undergone great 
 changes through foreign conquest: orig¬ 
 inally a Punic settlement, it was altogether 
 crushed by the Roman conquest. Conse¬ 
 quently, the Church of Carthage was a 
 Latin church; and Dean Milman says that 
 “ Carthage, not Rome, was the mother of 
 Latin Christianity.” 
 
 The first great name in its annals is that 
 of Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, in 
 the latter part of the second century. 
 (Tertullian.) After him, we come to the 
 great name of St. Cyprian, and the schism 
 of the Donatists, which began in his days. 
 (Cyprian; Donatists.) 
 
 The invasion of the Vandals, who took 
 Carthage in 439, almost ruined the African 
 churches; many of the bishops were ban¬ 
 ished, and the see of Carthage was vacant 
 for some time. But when, in 534, Belisa- 
 rius recovered Africa for the Emperor 
 Justinian, the Catholic religion revived, 
 and held its own till the Moors and Sara¬ 
 cens conquered the country. This event 
 made such havoc in the Church that in 
 Gregory the Great’s time there were not 
 more than three bishops there, who had a 
 very small number of Christians under 
 their care.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Carthu'sians, “ a monastic order which 
 owes its origin to St. Bruno, who retired 
 in 1084, with six companions, to the soli¬ 
 tude of La Chartreuse (whence the name), 
 near Grenoble, where they built hermit¬ 
 ages, wore rude garments, and lived upon 
 vegetables and coarse bread. After 1170, 
 when the order received papal approba¬ 
 tion, it extended rapidly. It dates from 
 1180, in England, where the name of Char¬ 
 treuse-houses was corrupted into charter- 
 houses. The Carthusians were divided 
 into two classes, fathers {patres ), and 
 brothers ( conversi ). Each occupied a sep¬ 
 arate cell, with a bed of straw, a pillow, a 
 woolen coverlet, and the means of manual 
 labor, or of writing. They left their cell, 
 even for meals, only on festivals, and on 
 days of the funeral of a brother of the or¬ 
 der. Thrice a week they fasted on bread, 
 water, and salt, and there were several 
 
( 154 ) 
 
 Car 
 
 Car 
 
 lengthened fasts in the year. Flesh was 
 forbidden at all times, and wine, unless 
 mixed with water. Unbroken silence, ex¬ 
 cept on rare occasions, was enforced, as 
 well as frequent prayer and night-watch¬ 
 ing. These austerities were continued, 
 with little modification, by the modern 
 Carthusians. The order at one time count¬ 
 ed sixteen provinces, and can still boast 
 some of the most magnificent convents in 
 the world—as La Grande Chartreuse , near 
 Grenoble, and Certosa , near Pavia. They 
 were given to hospitality and works of 
 charity, and were, on the whole, better edu¬ 
 cated than the mendicant orders. Their 
 principal seats were in Italy, France, and 
 Switzerland; but they have shared the fate 
 of the other monastic establishments, and 
 their convents are now, for the most part, 
 solitudes indeed. The Carthusian nuns 
 arose at Salette, on the Rhone, in France, 
 about 1229. They followed the rules of 
 the Carthusian monks, but with some miti¬ 
 gations, of which the most notable is that 
 they have a common refectory.”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopedia . 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas, was one of the 
 earliest and most learned champions of 
 Puritanism, and he may be regarded as 
 the founder of Presbyterianism in England. 
 Born in 1535, he went to Clare Hall, Cam¬ 
 bridge, in 1547, and eventually became a 
 Fellow of Trinity College in 1562. He is 
 said to have been a most hard-working stu¬ 
 dent, and never to have slept above five 
 hours a night; his studies, however, were 
 interrupted when Mary became Queen of 
 England, in 1553, for Cartwright then left 
 Cambridge, and studied as alawyer’s clerk. 
 On the accession of Elizabeth, however, 
 he returned to Cambridge, took his B. A. 
 degree in 1567, and two years later was ap¬ 
 pointed Lady Margaret Professor of Divin¬ 
 ity; his lectures now were so hostile to 
 Episcopacy and the established customs of 
 the Church of England, that he came under 
 the displeasure of the Vice-Chancellor of 
 the University, John Whitgift, a strong 
 Episcopalian; the result was that Cart¬ 
 wright was deprived of his professorship 
 in 1570, and of his fellowship in 1571. He 
 now went to Geneva, but was persuaded 
 to return to England in the following year 
 (1572). On his return a bitter controversy 
 arose between the Puritans and Episcopa¬ 
 lians, Cartwright championing the former 
 and Whitgift the latter. 
 
 Hooker, in his preface to The Ecclesias¬ 
 tical Polity , refers to Cartwright’s method 
 of conducting the controversy, and says: 
 “ There will come a time when three words, 
 uttered with charity and meekness, shall 
 receive a far more blessed reward than 
 
 three thousand volumes written with dis¬ 
 dainful sharpness of wit.” Cartwright’s 
 statements, in his published replies to 
 Whitgift, were accounted so dangerous to 
 the peace of the Church and of the king¬ 
 dom that a warrant was issued for his ar¬ 
 rest on December 11, 1574. He, how¬ 
 ever, fled to Antwerp, and ministered there 
 to the English congregation. Meanwhile, 
 the first Presbyterian body in England had 
 established themselves at Wandsworth, 
 and Cartwright had published a trans¬ 
 lation of Travers’s work, naming it a Full 
 and Plain Declaration of Ecclesiastical Dis- 
 cipline , in which it was sought to prove 
 that a Presbyterian form of government, 
 after the Geneva fashion, was the true form 
 of church governm^it. Cartwright re¬ 
 mained abroad till 1585. During his ab¬ 
 sence from England, he published a second 
 reply to Whitgift (1575-1577); visited the 
 Channel Islands, iq order to aid in estab¬ 
 lishing Presbyterianism there (1576); re¬ 
 ceived an offer of the Divinity chair at St. 
 Andrew’s University, Scotland, from 
 James I. (1582), but refused it; and finally, 
 in 1583, issued, in conjunction with Walter 
 Travers, a rough draft of a Presbyterian 
 Book of Holy Discipline which was grad¬ 
 ually adopted by Presbyterian bodies all 
 over England, so that in 1590 the move¬ 
 ment originated by Cartwright boasted of 
 500 ministers. Efforts were now made to 
 suppress it, and Cartwright himself was, 
 by order of the Court of High Commis¬ 
 sion, committed to the Fleet (May, 1590). 
 This was the second time that he had been 
 imprisoned; for on his return to England, 
 in 1585, he was arrested by order of Ayl¬ 
 mer, Bishop of London, and suffered two 
 months’ imprisonment; he was then re¬ 
 leased through the influence of his friend 
 and patron, the Earl of Leicester (a strong 
 defender of the Non-conformists), and re¬ 
 ceived from him the chaplaincy of a hos¬ 
 pital at Warwick, where he stayed till his 
 second imprisonment. He was again re¬ 
 leased in 1592, and allowed to return to 
 his hospital at Warwick, on condition that 
 he did “not meddle with controversies, 
 but inclined his hearers to piety and mod¬ 
 eration; and this promise he kept during 
 his life.” (Walton: Life of Hooker .) His 
 old opponent, Whitgift, who was made 
 Archbishop of Canterbury in 1583, now 
 showed him many acts of kindness, of 
 which the Earl of Leicester says that Cart¬ 
 wright was deeply sensible. In 1603-1604, 
 the two opponents died within a few weeks 
 of each other, “ each ending his days in 
 perfect charity with the other.” 
 
 Cartwright’s books against the Discipline 
 and Prayer Book of the Church of England 
 were answered in the famous Ecclesiastical 
 

 Car ( 155 ) Cas 
 
 Polity of Richard Hooker, published in 
 1594. Many writings of Cartwright were 
 published after his death, including Com¬ 
 mentaries on Ecclesiastes, Proverbs, Co- 
 lossians, and on the whole Gospel history. 
 His greatest work was A Confutation of 
 the Rheviish Translation of the New Testa- 
 nient, published in 1618. Other works from 
 his pen are a Catechisme (1611); Christian 
 Religion (1616); and Harmonia Evangelica 
 (1627).—Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 Brook: Memoir of Thomas Cartwright 
 (1845). 
 
 Cartwright, Peter, a western Methodist 
 preacher, whose eccentric character but 
 sterling ability made him widely known; 
 b. in Virginia, 1785; d. near Pleasant 
 Plains, Ill., Sept. 25, 1872. He was con¬ 
 verted in 1801, and for more than fifty 
 years he was in active ministerial service. 
 He is said to have received over ten thou¬ 
 sand persons into the church, and preached 
 more than fifteen thousand sermons. See 
 Autobiography of Peter Cartwright , the Back- 
 woods Preacher , edited by Rev. W. P. Strick¬ 
 land (N. Y., 1856). 
 
 Casas. See Las Casas. 
 
 Casaubon, Isaac, b. at Geneva, Feb. 18, 
 1559; d. in London, July 1, 1614. Next to 
 Scaliger, he was the greatest scholar of his 
 age. He was professor of Greek at Gene¬ 
 va (1582-96), then at Montpellier (1596- 
 1600). From 1600 he was librarian to Hen¬ 
 ry IV., until the assassination of that mon¬ 
 arch (1610), when he removed to London. 
 He frequently engaged in the theological 
 discussions of his times, and edited a Nov¬ 
 um Testamentum Grcecum (Geneva, 1587). 
 
 Cassander, George, b. 1515; d. at Co¬ 
 logne, 1566. His life-work was a futile 
 attempt to bring about a reconciliation be¬ 
 tween the Roman Church and the Reform¬ 
 ers. An edition of his works was publish¬ 
 ed in Paris, 1616. 
 
 Cassianus, Johannes, one of the first 
 founders of monastic institutions in west¬ 
 ern Europe; b. about 360, and d. about 
 448. He was the founder and first repre¬ 
 sentative of semi-Pelagianism. (See Pela- 
 gianism. ) The first collected edition of his 
 works is that of Basel (1559). 
 
 Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, a Ro¬ 
 man monk, distinguished as a historian 
 and statesman; b. about 468; d. in the 
 monastery of Viviers, about 568. He was 
 very successful in inciting the monks of 
 his time to literary work. The most val¬ 
 uable of his works is Variarum Epistolar- 
 
 um, Libri xii. This is the best source of 
 our knowledge of the Ostrogothic empire 
 in Italy. He wrote much on religious and 
 theological subjects. 
 
 Cassock, a close-fitting garment with 
 tight sleeves, used by clergy of all orders, 
 and also by laymen officially employed in 
 the conduct of Divine worship, such as 
 choirmen, sacristans, clerks, etc. It is 
 worn beneath the surplice or alb. Black 
 is the usual color, but in some churches 
 violet, as a matter of taste, is preferred, 
 while scarlet also is sometimes employed 
 for acolytes and servers on great festivals. 
 In the Roman Church, priests and the mi¬ 
 nor orders wear black; bishops, purple; 
 cardinals, scarlet; and the pope, white. 
 
 Castell, Edmund, a learned English 
 Orientalist; b. 1606; d. in Belfordshire, 
 1685. While connected with Cambridge 
 University he prepared his great Lexicon 
 Heptaglotten. He spent eighteen years and 
 $60,000 on this work, which broke down 
 both his health and fortune. At his death 
 he was rector of Hingham. He aided Dr. 
 Walton in the preparation of his Polyglot 
 Bible. 
 
 Casuistry is that branch of theology and 
 morals which deals with cases of con¬ 
 science; that is, deciding what is right or 
 wrong in doubtful matters. Casuistry 
 was developed among the Jews to a re¬ 
 markable extent, because of their rever¬ 
 ence for the Mosaic laws and the various 
 regulations found in the Apocrypha and 
 the Talmud, in the keeping of which in¬ 
 numerable questions arose. The Stoic 
 philosophers wrote elaborate treatises on 
 the questions, “Is suicide justifiable?” 
 “ Is duty to a friend paramount to the 
 claims of the state ?” etc. The practice of 
 confession in the Roman Catholic Church 
 necessitated rules and regulations for the 
 guidance of the #bishop or priest. Up to 
 the thirteenth century the confessor had 
 to depend to a great extent upon his own 
 discretion in questions of doubtful con¬ 
 science. But since that time elaborate 
 books of instruction have been prepared 
 under the sanction of the ecclesiastical au¬ 
 thorities. Thomas Aquinas was one of 
 the great casuists of the Middle Ages. 
 Among the Jesuits casuistry has had a 
 rank growth, and their avowed principles 
 and actions have often shocked the con¬ 
 sciences of Christians of every name, giv¬ 
 ing permission as they do to the use of de¬ 
 ceit and falsehood, under the plea that 
 this is permissible if the intentions and 
 purposes are good. Among casuistical 
 writers of the Protestant faith may be 
 
Cat 
 
 ( r 56 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 mentioned Melancthon, Jeremy Taylor, 
 and Sanderson. In recent times the ten¬ 
 dency has been to treat the great funda¬ 
 mental questions and principles of religion 
 and morality without attempting to formu¬ 
 late specific rules of application. 
 
 Catabaptist (from kata, against, and 
 bapfizo , baptize), one who opposes bap¬ 
 tism, especially that of infants. 
 
 Catacombs (Gr. kata , and kumbos, a hol¬ 
 low), subterraneous chambers and passages 
 formed generally in a rock which is soft 
 and easily excavated, such as tufa. Cata¬ 
 combs are to be found in almost every 
 country in which such rocks exist, and, 
 in most cases, probably originated in mere 
 quarries, which afterward came to be used 
 either as places of sepulture for the dead 
 or as hiding-places for the living. The 
 most celebrated catacombs in existence, 
 and those which are generally understood 
 when catacombs are spoken of, are those 
 on the Via Appia, at a short distance from 
 Rome. To these dreary crypts it is be¬ 
 lieved that the early Christians were in the 
 habit of retiring, in order to celebrate their 
 new worship, in times of persecution, and 
 in them were buried many of the saints 
 and martyrs of the primitive Church. They 
 consist of long narrow galleries, usual!)' 
 about eight feet high and five feet wide, 
 which twist and turn in all directions, very 
 much resembling mines, and at irregular 
 intervals expand into wide and lofty 
 vaulted chambers. The graves were con¬ 
 structed by hollowing out a portion of the 
 rock, at the side of the gallery, large 
 enough to contain the body. The entrance 
 was then built up with stones, on which 
 usually the letters D. M. (Deo Maximo), 
 or the monogram forming the Greek 
 name of Christ, were inscribed. Other in¬ 
 scriptions and marks, such as the cross, 
 are also found. The original extent of the 
 catacombs is uncertain, the guides main¬ 
 taining that they have a length of twenty 
 miles, whereas about six only can now be 
 ascertained to exist, and of these, many 
 portions have either fallen in or become 
 dangerous. When Rome was besieged by 
 the Lombards in the eighth century, many 
 of the catacombs were destroyed, and the 
 popes afterward caused the remains of 
 many of the saints and martyrs to be re¬ 
 moved and buried in the churches. Art 
 found its way into the catacombs at an 
 early period, and many remains of frescoes 
 are still found in them. After being neg¬ 
 lected for centuries they were again brought 
 to notice by Father Bosio, who spent thirty 
 years in their exploration. His investiga¬ 
 tions were published in 1632, two years 
 
 after his death; but the most exhaustive 
 treatise on the subject in all its aspects is 
 the Rotna Sotterranca of De’ Rossi (1864- 
 67), of which an abridgment is published 
 in English by Dr. Northcote. The cata¬ 
 combs at Naples, cut into the Capo di 
 Monte, resemble those at Rome, and evi¬ 
 dently were used for the same purposes, 
 being in many parts literally covered with 
 Christian symbols. In one of the large 
 vaulted chambers there are paintings, 
 which have retained a freshness which is 
 wonderful, considering the time and the 
 dampness of the situation. The palm-tree, 
 as a memorial of Judea, is a prominent 
 object in these pictures. At Palermo and 
 Syracuse there are similar catacombs, the 
 latter being of considerable extent. They 
 are also found in Greece, in Asia Minor, 
 in Syria, Persia, and Egypt. At Milo, 
 one of the Cyclades, there is a hill 
 which is honey-combed with a labyrinth 
 of tombs running in every direction. In 
 these, bass - reliefs and figures in terra¬ 
 cotta have been found, which prove them 
 to be long anterior to the Christian 
 era. In Peru and other parts of South 
 America, catacombs have been discovered. 
 The catacombs in Paris are a species of 
 charnel-houses, into which the contents of 
 such burving-places as were found to be 
 pestilential, and the bodies of some of the 
 victims of 1792, were cast.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopedia. See J. H. Parker: The Archce- 
 ology of Rotne (London 1874-77), 9 vols.; 
 W. H. Withrow: The Catacombs of Rotne 
 (London, 1888); Smith and Cheetham: 
 Diet, of Chris. Antiquities. 
 
 Cataphrygians. See Montanists. 
 
 Catechism (from the Greek kateched , to 
 teach orally), oral instruction in any 
 science or art, conveyed by questions and 
 answers. The word from which it is de¬ 
 rived is used in Luke i. 4: “ That thou 
 mightest know the certainty concerning 
 the things wherein thou wast instructed,” 
 margin , “ wast taught by word of mouth ” 
 {katechethes). It is, therefore, particularly 
 applied to elementary religious teaching, 
 for the use of those who are about to be 
 confirmed. So entirely was this the case 
 in the early Church, that every person ap¬ 
 plying for admission into the Church by 
 baptism was known as a catechumen. The 
 teacher was known as a “ catechist,” and 
 the position of the candidate was called 
 that of the “ Catechumenate,” as we talk 
 of the “ Episcopate ” and the “ Diaconate.” 
 A person admitted to the Catechumenate 
 was signed with the cross, and received 
 imposition of hands. He was then regard¬ 
 ed as a Christian, though not one of the 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 157 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 Jideles. He now became one of the 
 Audientes , or hearers, who remained in 
 church till the sermon was ended, then 
 withdrew before the celebration of the 
 sacrament. Presently he became one of 
 the Genujiectentes , who were permitted to 
 kneel while prayer was being said for 
 them. Next came the Competentes, who 
 learned the Creeds, preparatory to being 
 baptized. 
 
 Catechising somewhat declined after the 
 establishment of Christianity. For, in the 
 first place, infant baptism became the 
 custom of the Church, parents became 
 instructors, and in place of individual 
 instruction came external organization. 
 Missionaries went into heathen lands and 
 converted the rulers, who thereupon 
 caused their subjects to embrace the Faith. 
 Such was the process under the new state 
 of things. It was the Reformation which 
 gave an impulse to the revival of catechis¬ 
 ing. Luther, in 1529. put forth his Lon¬ 
 ger and Shorter Catechisms, the one for the 
 use of teachers, the other for scholars, and 
 these books are still the recognized text¬ 
 books in Germany and Scandinavia. Al¬ 
 most contemporaneously appeared the 
 Catechism of the Gallican Reformed 
 Church, and in England Cranmer followed 
 the example. He drew up two books, The 
 Institution of a Christian Alan , and A 
 Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any 
 Christian Alan , which contained an expla¬ 
 nation of the Apostles’ Creed, the Ten 
 Commandments, and the Lord’s Prayer. 
 These, and a somewhat voluminous work 
 of the same character, published in 1548, 
 formed the basis of the Church of England 
 Catechism, which appeared in the first 
 Prayer-book of Edward VI. It is almost 
 identical with the first part of that which 
 we have now. 
 
 The other great Catechism which the 
 Reformation produced in Great Britain is 
 that of the Westminster Confession, and 
 this also appears in a double form. The 
 shorter was published in 1646, the longer 
 in 1647. It is the standard book in all 
 Presbyterian churches. (Westminster 
 Confession.) The first question and 
 answer form a noble opening of this cele¬ 
 brated document:— 
 
 Q. What is the chief and highest end of 
 man? 
 
 A. Man’s chief and highest end is to 
 glorify God, and fully to enjoy Him for 
 ever. 
 
 The following is a short analysis of the 
 longer Westminster Catechism: 
 
 What man ought to believe concerning Cod. 
 —His Existence,the Holy Trinity .Creation, 
 Providence, the Fall, Original Sin, and the 
 Punishment of Sin, the Covenant of Grace 
 
 both in the Old and New Testaments, the 
 Mediator, the Incarnation, Christ’s Of¬ 
 fices, His Humiliation, Death, Resur¬ 
 rection, Ascension, Present Intercession, 
 Future Judgment, Church, the Elect, 
 Justification, Sanctification, Assurance. 
 
 The Duty of Alan .— Obedience to the 
 Moral Law, the Ten Commandments, what 
 things make Sins more heinous, their De¬ 
 servings, Ordinances of the Word, Sacra¬ 
 ments, and Prayer, The Lord’s Prayer. 
 
 The Council of Trent, recognizing the 
 force of the impulse in the favor of cate¬ 
 chising, drew up the Catechism which is 
 the authoritative work of the Church of 
 Rome, Catechismus Romanus ex Decreto 
 Cone. Trident. It was published, under 
 the authority of Pope Pius V., in 1566.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Catechu' mens. See Catechism. 
 
 Catena (Lat., a chain'), a continuous 
 chronological collection of extracts from 
 writers, to prove that a given doctrine, as 
 regards faith or morals, has been held 
 without break from the beginning. 
 
 Caterpillar. See Canker-worm. 
 
 Cath'ari, a name very generally given 
 to various branches of a sect which ap¬ 
 peared in Southern Europe during the 
 Middle Ages. They probably originated 
 among the Slavs, and they had a bishopric 
 in Southern Macedonia, which is men¬ 
 tioned in the twelfth century. The Bogom¬ 
 iles (q. v.) were a sect of the Cathari. 
 Slav merchants brought their doctrine 
 into Italy, and about 1035 some of the 
 Cathari were burned by order of the Ro¬ 
 man Church. They continued to spread, 
 and within a hundred years they had many 
 churches, and also dioceses, but before the 
 close of the fourteenth century the bitter 
 persecution of the Inquisition had driven 
 them out of Italy. The most numerous 
 body of the Cathari had their seat in 
 Southern France, where they were known 
 as Albigenses. For a more full descrip¬ 
 tion of their history and doctrines see 
 Albigenses; Paulicians. 
 
 Cath'arine “ is the name of several saints 
 of the Roman Catholic Church. The sim¬ 
 ple designation of Saint Catharine , how¬ 
 ever, is given to a virgin, said to have 
 been of royal descent in Alexandria, who, 
 publicly confessing the gospel at a sacri¬ 
 ficial feast appointed by the emperor Maxi¬ 
 minus, was put to death in 307 A. D. , after 
 being tortured on a wheel. Hence the 
 name of ‘ St. Catharine’s wheel.’ Very 
 extraordinary legends exist as to her con- 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 158 ) 
 
 Cat 
 
 verting fifty philosophers sent by the em¬ 
 peror to convert her in prison, besides a 
 multitude of other persons; the convey¬ 
 ance of her head by the angels to Mount 
 Sinai, etc. She is regarded as the patron¬ 
 ess of girls’ schools. 67 . Catharine of 
 Siena, one of the most famous saints of 
 Italy, was the daughter of a dyer in Siena, 
 and was born there in 1347 A. D.; practiced 
 extraordinary mortifications; and was said 
 to be favored with extraordinary tokens of 
 favor by Christ, whose wounds were im¬ 
 pressed upon her body, etc. She became 
 a Dominican, and therefore, afterward, a 
 patron saint of the Dominicans. She wrote 
 devotional pieces, letters, and poems, 
 which have been more than once printed; 
 the best edition appeared at Siena and 
 Lucca in 1707-1713, in 4 vols., 4to, under 
 the title of Opere della serafica Santa Cata¬ 
 rina. St. Catharine of Bologna and St. 
 Catharine of Sweden are of less note.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Cathedral (Lat. cathedra , a chair), the 
 principal church in a diocese, so called 
 from its possessing the chair or throne of 
 the bishop of the diocese. The officials 
 connected with a cathedral are, generally, 
 the dean, canons, archdeacons of the dio¬ 
 cese, honorary canons, minor canons, lay 
 clerks, choristers, organist, chapter clerk, 
 architect, master of grammar-school, verg¬ 
 ers, bedesmen. 
 
 Catholic ( universal ), a designation adopt¬ 
 ed at a very early period by the Christian 
 Church to indicate its world-wide univer¬ 
 sality in contrast with the national par¬ 
 ticularism of Judaism. It is used in this 
 sense in the phrase in the Apostles’ Creed, 
 “ The holy Catholic Church.” 
 
 Catholic Apostolic Church, “ a religious 
 community, often called * Irvingites,’ but 
 not itself acknowledging any other name 
 than that of ‘ The Catholic Apostolic 
 Church,’ which, the members say, belongs 
 to them in common with the whole of bap¬ 
 tized Christendom. The relation of the 
 celebrated preacher, Edward Irving, to 
 this community was, as they state it, 
 somewhat similar to that of John Baptist 
 to the early Christian Church; i. e., he 
 was the forerunner and prophet of the 
 coming dispensation, not the founder of a 
 new sect; and, indeed, the only connection 
 which Irving seems to have had with the 
 existing organization of the Catholic Apos¬ 
 tolic body was in * fostering spiritual per¬ 
 sons who had been driven out of other 
 congregations for the exercise of their 
 spiritual gifts.’ Shortly after Irving’s 
 trial and deposition, certain persons were, 
 
 at some meetings held for prayer, desig¬ 
 nated as ‘ called to be apostles of the 
 Lord’ by certain others claiming prophetic 
 gifts. In the year 1835, six months after 
 Irving’s death, six others were similarly 
 designated as ‘ called ’ to complete the 
 number of the ‘ twelve,’ who were then 
 formally ‘ separated ’ by the pastors of 
 the local congregations to which they be¬ 
 longed, to their higher office in the Uni¬ 
 versal Church, on the 14th of July, 1835. 
 This separation is understood by the com¬ 
 munity not as ‘ in any sense being a 
 schism, or separation from the one Cath¬ 
 olic Church, but a separation to a special 
 work of blessing and intercession on be¬ 
 half of it.’ The twelve were afterward 
 guided to ordain others—twelve prophets, 
 twelve evangelists, and twelve pastors— 
 ‘ sharing equally with them the one Cath¬ 
 olic Episcopate,’ and also seven deacons, 
 for administering the temporal affairs of 
 the Church Catholic. The central episco¬ 
 pacy of eight and forty was regarded as 
 ‘ indicated by prophecy,’ being foreshown 
 in the forty-eight boards of the Mosaic 
 Tabernacle. For ecclesiastical purposes 
 the Church Universal is under their charge 
 in twelve tribes, for Christendom is con¬ 
 sidered to be divided into twelve portions, 
 or tribes, each tribe being under the spe¬ 
 cial charge of an apostle and his co-minis¬ 
 ters, and the seat of the Apostolic College 
 being at Albury, in England. For the ser¬ 
 vice of the church a comprehensive book 
 of liturgies and offices was provided by 
 the ‘ apostles,’ and lights, incense, vest¬ 
 ments, holy oil, water, chrism, and other 
 adjuncts of worship have been appointed 
 by their authority. Each congregation is 
 presided over by its ‘ angel,’ or bishop, 
 who ranks as pastor in the Universal 
 Church; under him are four and twenty 
 priests, divided into the four ministries of 
 ‘ elders, prophet's, evangelists, and pas¬ 
 tors,’ and with these are the deacons, 
 seven of whom regulate the temporal af¬ 
 fairs of the church, besides whom there 
 are also ‘ sub-deacons, acolytes, singers, 
 and door-keepers.’ The understanding is 
 that each elder, with his co-presbyters and 
 deacons, shall have charge of 500 adult 
 communicants in his district, but this has 
 been but partially carried into practice. 
 This is the full constitution of each par¬ 
 ticular church or congregation, as founded 
 by the ‘ restored apostles,’ each local 
 church thus ‘ reflecting in its government 
 the government of the Church Catholic by 
 the angel or high-priest, Jesus Christ, and 
 his forty-eight presbyters in their fourfold 
 ministry (in which apostles and elders al¬ 
 ways rank first), and under these the dea¬ 
 cons of the Church Catholic.’ The priest- 
 
Cat 
 
 ( 159 ) 
 
 Cel 
 
 hood is supported by tithes, it being 
 deemed a duty, on the part of all members 
 of the church who receive yearly incomes, 
 to offer a tithe of their increase every 
 week, besides the free-will offering for the 
 support of the place of worship, and for 
 the relief of distress. Each local church 
 sends a tithe of its tithes to the * Temple,’ 
 by which the ministers of the Universal 
 Church are supported; by these offerings, 
 too, the needs of poorer churches are sup¬ 
 plied, and other expenses connected with 
 the administration of the Church Catholic. 
 From recent statements made by members 
 of this community, it appears to be mak¬ 
 ing steady progress. It claims to have 
 among its clergy many of the Roman, An¬ 
 glican, and other churches, the orders of 
 those ordained by Greek, Roman, and An¬ 
 glican bishops being recognized by it with 
 the simple confirmation of an ‘ apostolic 
 act.’”— Ency . Britannica. 
 
 They have one church in New York, and 
 a few adherents scattered in different parts 
 of the United States. See Edward Irving 
 and the Catholic Apostolic Church , by J. S. 
 Davenport (N. Y., 1853); The True Consti¬ 
 tution of the Church and the Restoration , by 
 W. W. Andrews (N. Y., 1854); History of 
 Irvingism , by E. Miller (London, 1878), 2 
 vois. 
 
 Catholic or United Copts, that portion 
 of the Coptic Church which acknowledges 
 the supremacy of the pope. 
 
 Catholic Emancipation Act, an act 
 passed by Parliament in 1829 repealing 
 former laws which imposed political dis¬ 
 abilities upon Roman Catholics. 
 
 Catholic ( universal) Epistles, a name 
 given to the following epistles—James, 
 First and Second Peter, First, Second, and 
 Third John, and Jude. 
 
 09: was with the French colony at Portar- 
 lington, Ireland, 1709-27; came to England 
 and was made brigadier - general, 1735; 
 lieutenant-governor of Jersey, 1738; major- 
 general, 1739. 
 
 Cave, William, D. D., Church of Eng¬ 
 land • b. at Pickwell, Leicestershire, Dec. 30, 
 1637; d. at Windsor, Aug. 4,1713. Educated 
 at Cambridge; became vicar of Islington, 
 1662; of Isleworth, 1690; canon of Wind¬ 
 sor, 1684. His fame rests upon his histor¬ 
 ical works, among the best known of which 
 are his j Primitive Christianity (London, 
 1672), and Historia Literaria (1688-98; best 
 ed. Waterland, Oxford 1740-43), 2 vols. 
 
 Cecil, Richard, in his day one of the 
 principal leaders of the Evangelical party; 
 b. in London, Nov. 8, 1748; d. at Hamp¬ 
 stead, Aug. 15, 1810. In early life he im¬ 
 bibed skeptical views, but the Christian 
 character of his mother exerted an influ¬ 
 ence that led to his conversion. After 
 graduating at Oxford he was ordained to 
 the ministry in 1776. In the places where 
 he preached he gained a high reputation 
 for eloquence. His Works with Memoir , 
 were reprinted in New York(1845, 3 vols.), 
 from the London edition. 
 
 Cecilia, St., the patroness of music, be¬ 
 cause she is said to have united instru¬ 
 mental with vocal music in Divine worship. 
 According to tradition she was martyred 
 with her husband, Valerian, in the third 
 century, but nothing is known of her actual 
 history. Her festival day, Nov. 22, is 
 celebrated with splendid music in many 
 Roman Catholic Churches. 
 
 Cedar. This name is applied in Script¬ 
 ure to several cone-bearing trees, and once 
 to the juniper-tree of Sinai (Lev. xiv. 4), 
 but ordinarily it refers to the cedar of Leb¬ 
 anon. Several groves of cedars are still 
 found on the mountains of Lebanon. It is 
 distinguished by its gnarled strength, and 
 massive, wide-spreading branches. The 
 wood is hard and fragrant, and takes a high 
 polish. 
 
 Cattle, as a scriptural term, includes the 
 tame quadrupeds used for domestic pur¬ 
 poses as oxen, horses, camels, goats, etc. 
 (Gen. xiii. 2; Num. xx. 19; Job. i. 3.) Cat¬ 
 tle formed a large part of the wealth of the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Cavalier (ka-va-le-a), Jean, the leader 
 of the Camisards; b. at Ribaute, Langue¬ 
 doc, France, Nov. 28, 1681; d. at Chelsea, 
 London, May 17, 1740. An ardent Protes¬ 
 tant, he espoused the cause of the Cami¬ 
 sards in their uprising in the Cevennes, 
 1702, and was remarkably successful in 
 repelling the forces sent against them, un¬ 
 til, overwhelmed by superior numbers, he 
 was defeated near Nages, April 16, 1704. 
 He served under the Duke of Savoy, 1704- 
 
 Celestine I., St., a Roman by birth, suc¬ 
 ceeded by Boniface I. as Bishop of Rome 
 in 423, and held the seat eight years, five 
 months, and three days. It is told of him 
 that in his time some innovators in the 
 provinces of Narbonne and Vienna, insist¬ 
 ing upon the passage of Scripture, “ Let 
 your loins be girt,” persuaded the clergy 
 to change their former dress, and to wear 
 great cloaks, girded with belts. There¬ 
 upon he wrote, in 428, a long epistle to the 
 bishops of the two provinces, condemning 
 
Cel 
 
 ( 160 ) 
 
 Cel 
 
 this abuse. The great events of his pon¬ 
 tificate were two: (i) the Council of Eph¬ 
 esus in 430, at which Nestorius was con¬ 
 demned (Ephesus), and (2) the dispute 
 about appeals of the African clergy to the 
 Pope of Rome, which had made so much 
 noise in the time of Zosimus ( q . v .), and 
 which was now raised again. The bishops 
 of the African Synod having sent their leg¬ 
 ates into the East to inspect the records of 
 the Council of Nice, these legates brought 
 a copy of the records back with them, 
 which clearly destroyed the pretence of 
 appeals to Rome, and determined the con¬ 
 troversy on the side of the African bishops; 
 upon which they wrote a letter to Pope 
 Celestine, defended the privileges of their 
 churches, and denounced the pope’s in¬ 
 sistence upon appeals, as a piece of secular 
 vanity and encroachment.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. 
 
 Celestines, a monastic order, established 
 in 1254, and so called from their founder, 
 Pope Celestine V. They spread rapidly 
 in France, Germany, and Italy, but there 
 are now only a few convents left. They 
 followed the order of St. Benedict, and 
 wore white garments with black capes and 
 scapularies, and were devoted to a life of 
 contemplation. 
 
 Celibacy, the unmarried state to which, 
 according to the discipline of the Church 
 of Rome, the clergy are bound, as are 
 other persons who pledge themselves to it, 
 by a special vow. In the Jewish Church 
 the priests lived in marriage, but were for¬ 
 bidden to marry a harlot, or a woman who 
 had been divorced, or even a widow. We 
 know that some of the apostles of Christ 
 were married, though St. Paul expressed 
 the opinion that there were certain circum¬ 
 stances which made it better not to marry. 
 This is a passage of his writings worth 
 considering, for it is much relied upon by 
 advocates of celibacy. 
 
 It is the seventh chapter of the first 
 Epistle to the Corinthians. Now, by a 
 thorough consideration of this chapter it 
 appears, firstly, that in some cases the 
 apostle advises marriage, without exception 
 of any order of person (verse 9). Secondly, 
 he leaves it to choice and discretion. 
 Thirdly, he recommends single life, not 
 upon the score of merit, but of conven¬ 
 ience, because the Church was likely to 
 fall under a state of persecution (verse 28). 
 Fourthly, that the advice was not partic¬ 
 ularly directed to the clergy, but to Chris¬ 
 tians in general. The apostle nowhere 
 limits his discourse to the former, but all 
 along applies himself to believers in com¬ 
 mon. Indeed, some of the greatest divines 
 
 of the Church of Rome have owned the 
 celibacy of the clergy as neither of Divine 
 nor apostolical institution. Thus, in the 
 Canon Law, which may be looked upon as 
 the sense of the Church of Rome for some 
 ages, we have Gratian saying, “ The mar¬ 
 riage of priests is forbidden neither by 
 evangelical, legal, nor apostolical author¬ 
 ity; but, for all that, it is altogether pro- 
 prohibited by the laws of the Church.” 
 
 St. Paul, elsewhere, not only does not 
 forbid, but even expressly permits, mar¬ 
 riage to the clergy. For, laying down the 
 qualifications of a bishop, in the Epistle to 
 Titus, he proposes this as one, “ that he be 
 blameless, the husband of one wife, having 
 faithful children.” In the ancient Church 
 many persons were admitted to holy orders 
 who had their wives living and dwelling 
 with them. In the Apostolical Constitutions 
 the apostles were introduced in this man¬ 
 ner: “ We have ordered that a bishop, 
 priest, or deacon, should be the husband of 
 one wife, whether their wives be alive or 
 dead.” The preference for single life 
 seems to have been started by Tertullian, 
 who, in the latter part of his time, being led 
 away with the enthusiasms of Montanus, 
 endeavored to refine upon the Christian 
 religion, and strain it up to angelical per¬ 
 fection. We may likewise observe that 
 the excessive commendation of virginity 
 and ignorance grew together, and that the 
 reputation of celibacy was highest when 
 knowledge was at the lowest ebb, as will 
 appear to any one who considers the his¬ 
 tory of the tenth and eleventh centuries, 
 and compares them with the other periods 
 of the Church; whereas, when the argu¬ 
 ment is impartially considered, it will be 
 found that there is no intrinsic excellence 
 in single life above that of marriage, and 
 that the imputations of discredit and dis¬ 
 advantage thrown upon marriage are no 
 better than a reflection upon the state of 
 creation and the order of Providence. 
 That sobriety is not inconsistent with mar¬ 
 riage appears plainly by the apostle’s as¬ 
 suring us that “marriage is honorable in 
 all men, and the bed undefiled.” (Heb.xiii. 
 4.) In the Council of Nice, when the cel¬ 
 ibacy of the clergy was proposed, under 
 the pretence of promoting chastity, the 
 celebrated Confessor and Bishop, Paphnu- 
 tius, declared that cohabitation with a law¬ 
 ful wife was chastity, and was applauded 
 for his sentence by the whole Council. He 
 added that, though he had lived all his life¬ 
 time in celibacy, yet he did. not think this 
 yoke ought to be imposed upon the clergy. 
 Clement of Alexandria affirms that just 
 men under the old law had children, and 
 lived in marriage with sobriety. “What,” 
 says he, “ cannot people cohabit in matri- 
 
Cel 
 
 ( 161 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 mony with the character of temperance ? 
 Without all doubt; let us not, therefore, 
 attempt to dissolve a union of God’s insti¬ 
 tution.” ( Stromata , lib. iii.) And St. Am¬ 
 brose says: “ The apostle commands a 
 bishop to be the husband of one wife, not 
 that he excludes an unmarried man, for 
 that is farther than the precept reaches. 
 There is, therefore, no more meant by this 
 qualification than that by conjugal chastity 
 he may guard his virtue, and preserve the 
 grace given him in baptism.” (Ambrose: 
 Epist. 82, ad Vere ell .) 
 
 To put the case in a single sentence, the 
 celibacy of the clergy was looked upon as 
 a thing indifferent in the first two cen¬ 
 turies, was proposed in the third, magni¬ 
 fied in the fourth, and, in some places, im¬ 
 posed in the fifth. 
 
 But, notwithstanding that it gained 
 ground in some provinces of the West, 
 celibacy never universally prevailed even 
 there till the thirteenth or fourteenth cen¬ 
 tury. In the East it has never been im¬ 
 posed or practised from the apostles’ time 
 to the present age. It is very noticeable 
 that, among all the heresies, from the 
 Apostles’ time to the Council of Nice, 
 there was scarcely one which did not either 
 condemn or decry marriage, and laud cel¬ 
 ibacy as a most perfect state. Thus did 
 Saturninus, the Cerinthians, Basilidians, 
 Marcionites, and Carpocratians; to whom 
 we may add Tatian, and many others.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Lea: Sac¬ 
 erdotal Celibacy (Phila., 1867; 2d ed., 1884). 
 
 Cellites or Cellit^e. This name, derived 
 from cella , a cell, was given in early days 
 to a class of monks midway between her¬ 
 mits and cenobites. They lived alone like 
 hermits, but, unlike them, repaired at fes¬ 
 tivals to the church of the monastery to 
 which they had attached themselves. In 
 the Middle Ages the name was applied to a 
 religious order, founded in 1300, which 
 had houses at Antwerp, Louvain, Malines, 
 Cologne, and other German towns; their 
 special work was to nurse the sick poor 
 and to bury the dead. They are some¬ 
 times called Alexians, from their founder, 
 Alexius, a Roman, but they were a branch 
 of the Beghards (y. v.). 
 
 Celsus is the first writer against Chris¬ 
 tianity of whom history makes mention. 
 His book has perished, and it is only 
 through the answer made to it by Origen 
 that we have any clew to its contents or 
 the history of the writer. 
 
 Celtic Church. See England, Church 
 of; Scotland, Church of; Ireland, 
 Church of. 
 
 Celtic Religion. See DruidiSm. 
 
 Cen'chrese, the eastern harbor of Cor¬ 
 inth (nine miles distant) on the Saronic 
 Gulf, and the emporium of its trade with 
 Asia. Phoebe was a deaconess in the 
 church formed there (Rom. xvi. 1), and 
 Paul sailed from thence to Ephesus. (Acts 
 xvii. 18.) 
 
 Censer, a portable metal vessel used 
 for receiving from the altar burning coals, 
 on which the priest sprinkled the incense 
 for burning. (2 Chron. xxvi. 16, 18, 19; 
 Luke i. 9.) 
 
 Censer, in Roman Catholic Worship. 
 See Thurible. 
 
 Censor. See Index Expurgatorius. 
 
 Censures, Ecclesiastical, the penalties 
 visited by Church authorities upon offend¬ 
 ers. The different kinds of censure are 
 the following: Excommunication cuts off 
 from the Communion of the Church; Sus- 
 pension forbids the use of the Ecclesiastical 
 Functions, either wholly, or with respect 
 to some branches; Deposition degrades an 
 ecclesiastic, and deprives him of his Or¬ 
 ders; an Interdict , in the Church of Rome, 
 forbids the administering of the Sacraments 
 and performance of Divine Service in pub¬ 
 lic. 
 
 Centuries of Magdeburg, the name given 
 to the first great work on Church History 
 by Protestant writers. It was planned by 
 Matthias Flacius Illyricus, and written 
 with the aid of associates, all of whom 
 lived at Magdeburg, where the work was 
 published (1560-1574). It covers the first 
 thirteen centuries of the history of the 
 Church, and gives a volume to each cen¬ 
 tury. In learning and criticism it has 
 never been superseded. 
 
 Centurion (from centum , one hundred) 
 is the name of an officer in the Roman army, 
 commanding a hundred men. 
 
 Cerdo, a Gnostic teacher. See Marcion¬ 
 ites. 
 
 Cerinthus, the founder of one of the ear¬ 
 liest heretical sects of Christians. He was 
 a Jew, and his views represent a mixture 
 of Gnosticism and Judaism. See Gnos¬ 
 ticism. 
 
 Chaderton, Laurence, a Puritan divine; 
 b. in Lancashire, Sept. 14, 1536; d. 1640. 
 He was a fellow of Christ’s College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and for many years was a favorite 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 162 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 preacher there. He was one of the five 
 Puritan representatives in the Hampton 
 Court Conference (q. v.), and one of the 
 translators of the Bible, from Chronicles 
 to Canticles inclusive. 
 
 Chalcedon, an ancient maritime town of 
 Bithynia, in Asia Minor. In 451 A. D. it 
 was the seat of the Fourth General Coun¬ 
 cil, which condemned the Monophysites. 
 
 Chalced'ony, a brilliant, transparent 
 green stone, named after Chalcedon, in 
 Bithynia, where it was found. (Rev. 
 xxi. 19.) 
 
 Chaldae'a, the country of Assyria and 
 Babylonia. See Assyria. 
 
 Chaldees. See Assyria. 
 
 Chalice (Latin calix , a cup), the cup 
 used in the sacrament of the Lord’s Sup¬ 
 per. 
 
 Chalmers, Thomas, D. D., LL. D., “ was 
 b. at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, 17th March, 
 1780, educated at the university of St. An¬ 
 drews, and in his nineteenth year licensed to 
 preach the gospel. In 1803, he was ordained 
 minister of the parish of Kilmany, in Fife¬ 
 shire, about nine miles from St. Andrews. 
 At this period his attention was entirely 
 absorbed by mathematics and natural phi¬ 
 losophy, to the neglect of the studies apper¬ 
 taining to his profession. To gratify his 
 love of scientific pursuits, he even formed 
 mathematical and chemistry classes in St. 
 Andrews,during the winter of 1803-04,and, 
 by his wonderful enthusiasm and lucidity 
 of exposition, excited intense interest, and 
 obtained for himself a great reputation. 
 In 1808, he published an Inquiry into the 
 Extent and Stability of National Resources , 
 which proved his capacity for dealing with 
 questions of political economy. Shortly 
 after this, certain domestic calamities, and 
 a severe illness of his own, opened up the 
 fountains of his soul, and rendered him 
 keenly susceptible to religiousimpressions. 
 Having to prepare an article on Christian¬ 
 ity for Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopedia, 
 he commenced an extensive study of the 
 evidences, and rose from his investigations 
 convinced that Christianity was a fact , and 
 the Bible the veritable * word of God.’ 
 Then the great genius of the man broke 
 forth like sunshine. He grew earnest, elo¬ 
 quent, devout, and faithful to his pastoral 
 duties. In July, 1815, he was translated 
 to the Tron church and parish, Glasgow, 
 where his magnificent oratory took the city 
 by storm. His Astronomical Discourses 
 were probably the most sublimely intel¬ 
 
 lectual and imaginative that had ever been 
 preached in a Scottish pulpit. They were 
 published in 1817, and had a prodigious 
 popularity. During the same year he 
 visited London, where his preaching excited 
 as great a sensation as at home. But 
 Chalmers’ energies could not be exhausted 
 by mere oratory. Discovering that his 
 parish was in a state of great ignorance and 
 immorality, he began to devise a scheme 
 for overtaking and checking the alarming 
 evil. It seemed to him that the only 
 means by which this could be accomplished 
 was by ‘ revivifying, remodeling, and ex¬ 
 tending the old parochial economy of Scot¬ 
 land,’ which had proved so fruitful of good 
 in the rural parishes. In order to wrestle 
 more closely with the ignorance and vice 
 of Glasgow, in 1819 he became minister of 
 St. John’s parish, ‘ the population of which 
 was made up principally of weavers, labor¬ 
 ers, factory workers, and other operatives.’ 
 ‘ Of its 2,000 families,’ says Dr. Hanna, 
 ‘ more than 800 had no connection with 
 any Christian church, while the number of 
 its uneducated children was countless.’ 
 We have not space to narrate at length how 
 vast and successful were the labors of 
 Chalmers. It is sufficient to say that, in 
 pursuance of his favorite plan, he broke up 
 his parish into twenty-five districts, each 
 of which he placed under separate manage¬ 
 ment, and established two week - day 
 schools, and between forty and fifty local 
 Sabbath-schools, for the instruction of the 
 children of the ‘ poorer and neglected 
 classes,’ more than 1,000 of whom attend¬ 
 ed. In a multitude of other ways he 
 sought to elevate and purify the lives of 
 his parishioners. While in Glasgow, he 
 had matured his opinions relative to the 
 best method of providing for the poor. He 
 disliked the English system of a ‘ compul¬ 
 sory assessment,’ and preferred the old 
 Scotch method of voluntary contributions 
 at the church-door, administered by elders. 
 The management of the poor in the parish 
 of St. John’s was intrusted to his care by 
 the authorities, as an experiment, and in 
 four years he reduced the pauper expend¬ 
 itures from ,£1,400 to £280 per annum. 
 
 “Chalmers was a leader in the General As¬ 
 sembly,and came forward as the vindicator 
 of popular rights; the struggles in regard 
 to patronage between the high-church 
 and the ‘ moderate ’ or ‘ Erastian ’ party 
 became keener and more frequent, until 
 the decision of the civil courts in the 
 famous ‘ Auchterarder and Strathbogie ’ 
 cases brought matters to a crisis; and on 
 the 18th of May, 1S43, followed by 47 ° 
 clergymen, he left the church of his fathers, 
 rather than sacrifice those principles which 
 he believed essential to the purity, honor. 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 163 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 and independence of the church. The rapid 
 formation and organization of the Free 
 Church were greatly owing to his indefati¬ 
 gable exertions, in consequence of which he 
 was elected principal of the Free Church 
 College, and spent the close of his life in 
 the zealous performance of his learned du¬ 
 ties, and in perfecting his Institutes of The¬ 
 ology. He died suddenly at Morningside, 
 Edinburgh, May 30, 1847.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopedia. See Memoir by bis son-in-law, 
 Rev. William Hanna (Edinburgh 1847-52), 
 4 vols.; Life by Donald Fraser (N. Y., 
 1881). 
 
 Chambers, Talbot Wilson, S. T. D. 
 (Columbia College, 1853), LL. D. (Rutgers, 
 1885), Reformed (Dutch); b. at Carlisle,Pa., 
 Feb. 25, 1819; was graduated at Rutgers 
 College, 1834; studied theology in both 
 the New Brunswick and Princeton Theo¬ 
 logical Seminaries; pastor of the Second 
 Reformed Church, Somerville, N. J., 1839, 
 and since 1849 one of the pastors of the 
 Collegiate Dutch Church of New York 
 City. He is the author of The Noon 
 Prayer - Meeting in Fultoti Street (N. Y.* 
 1857): Memoir of Theodore Fr e linghuy sen, 
 (1863): Exposition of Zechariah, in Schaff- 
 Lange’s Commentary (1874); The Psalter: a 
 Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible 
 (1875); Companion to the Revised Version of 
 the Old Testament (1885); Associate editor 
 of Jackson’s Dictionary of Religious Knowl¬ 
 edge. 
 
 Chamberlain, an officer in Eastern courts 
 who was placed in charge of the king’s 
 lodgings, wardrobes, etc. As a rule 
 eunuchs were employed in this service. 
 The term, as used in Acts xii. 20, denotes 
 one holding a position of very close inti¬ 
 macy with the king. Erastus, who sent salu¬ 
 tations to the Roman Christians (Rom. 
 xvi. 23), was probably treasurer of the 
 city. 
 
 Chamier, Daniel, a distinguished French 
 Protestant divine ; b. at Mont 61 imart, 
 Dauphine, France, 1565; killed during the 
 siege of Montauban, 1621. He was pro¬ 
 fessor and pastor at Montauban, 1612. A 
 skilled controversalist, he became a trusted 
 leader of the Protestants. It is said that 
 he drew up the Edict of Nantes. His chief 
 work is Panstratice Catholicce (Geneva, 
 1626), 4 vols. 
 
 Chancel, the upper end of the church, 
 commonly raised above the general level, 
 and including the space for the communion 
 table, altar, and the choir, which is railed 
 off. The name chancel is derived from 
 the lattice or railing ( cancelli ), by which the 
 
 choir is separated from the body of the 
 church. 
 
 Chancellor of a Diocese, in England, is 
 the keeper of the seals of an archbishop or 
 bishop, and the judge of his diocesan court. 
 He exercises jurisdiction when the bishop, 
 by any reason, is disabled. Generally the 
 diocesan chancellor is a layman. 
 
 Channing, William Ellery, the most 
 celebrated Unitarian preacher of modern 
 times, and one of the noblest of philanthro¬ 
 pists. He was born April 7, 1780, at New¬ 
 port, R. I., the son of a judge. Both father 
 and mother were Calvinists of deep relig¬ 
 ious feeling. After graduating at Harvard 
 College, he passed through a time of very 
 anxious religious doubt, which occasioned 
 him such suffering as permanentlyenfeebled 
 his health, but, emerging from it, he be¬ 
 came a preacher in Boston. His fire and 
 eloquence, as well as his personal charac¬ 
 ter, drew large congregations, who soon 
 discovered that their preacher was really 
 an Arian. He was, however, so eagerly 
 bent on the redress of social and moral 
 evils, that he had hardly formulated with 
 definiteness his own creed. It was a time 
 of much controversy in America, parties 
 dividing themselves into “ Anti-Trinita¬ 
 rian ” and “ Anti-Calvinistic.” Channing 
 became the spokesman of both, but his en¬ 
 deavors to recognize the unity between 
 “ all lovers of truth and followers of Christ, 
 both on earth and in heaven,” caused him 
 to be much esteemed by men of all schools. 
 
 Though the theology of Channing is un¬ 
 mistakably Unitarian, it has nothing in 
 common with the coldness of Priestly, or 
 the coarseness of Belsham. He combats 
 the traditional views of the Atonement, 
 and of human depravity, and emphasizes 
 the “ human element ” in the character of 
 Christ; but he maintains firmly the sin¬ 
 lessness, the miracles, and the Resurrec¬ 
 tion of Christ. One of his sermons on the 
 Resurrection was preached, without ac¬ 
 knowledgment, not long ago by- a cele¬ 
 brated preacher in the cathedral of which 
 he is a canon. Channing’s last sermons 
 were among his noblest. His literary 
 essays, too, are of supreme beauty, nota¬ 
 bly that on Milton. But high among all 
 his works rank his labors for the abolition 
 of slavery, for the promotion of temper¬ 
 ance, and for the reform of prisons. A 
 Roman Catholic writer calls him “ the 
 American Fenelon.” He died at Benning¬ 
 ton, Vt., Oct. 2, 1842. — Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. Channing’s Works were pub¬ 
 lished in Boston (1848), 6 vols., and a 
 cheap edition in 1880. See his Memoir , 
 with Extracts from his Correspondence and 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 164 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 Manuscripts, by his nephew, the Rev. W. 
 H. Channing (1848, 10th ed., 1874). 
 
 Chant (Lat. cantus, song), words recited 
 to musical tones without musical measure. 
 It is chiefly used for prose compositions, 
 though sometimes employed for hymns. 
 It is the oldest form of church music. The 
 
 one or more priests to say daily mass for 
 the souls of the founder and his rela¬ 
 tives, or other benefactors. A chantry was 
 often annexed to cathedral and parochial 
 churches, either within the walls, or attach¬ 
 ed to the exterior of the building. Chant¬ 
 ries were dissolved by the statute of 1 
 Edward VI., c. 14. 
 
 HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 Ambrosian is the earliest style of chant 
 that has come down to us, but it is not 
 until the time of Gregory the Great that 
 we have any certain knowledge of church 
 chanting. 
 
 Chantry. Chantries were small buildings, 
 originally founded and endowed with lands 
 and other revenues, for the maintenance of 
 
 Chantry Priest, one whose office it was 
 to serve the altar of a chantry. 
 
 Chapel (Latin capclla ), “ a small church 
 destined for a family or a convent, but 
 without parochial rights; or an addition to 
 a large church,destined for occasional ser¬ 
 vice or for a mission congregation. The 
 derivation of capclla is obscure, but gen- 
 
Cha 
 
 ( i 6 5 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 erally referred back to the capa, or cloak, 
 of St. Martin, which the French kings car¬ 
 ried with them in battle, deposited in a 
 small, transportable structure, hence call¬ 
 ed a capella.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Chapin, Edwin Hubbell, D. D., a Uni- 
 versalist minister, distinguished for his 
 pulpit and platform eloquence; b. at Union 
 Village, N. Y., Dec. 29, 1814; d. in New 
 York City, Dec. 26, 1880. He entered the 
 Universalist ministry in 1837; pastor at 
 Richmond, Va., 1837-40; Charlestown, 
 
 Mass., 1840-46; Boston, 1846-48, when he 
 came to New York, and was pastor of the 
 Fourth Universalist Society until his 
 death. He published several volumes of 
 sermons and addresses. 
 
 Chaplain, originally a clergyman who 
 performed religious services in a chapel. 
 The name is now commonly applied to 
 ministers who are appointed to discharge 
 religious duties in connection with govern¬ 
 mental, philanthropic, and military bodies. 
 Bishops’ chaplains are those who aid them 
 in correspondence, the examination of can¬ 
 didates, etc. There are thirty-six chap¬ 
 
 lains-in-ordinary to the Queen, who re¬ 
 ceive from the Crown ^30 annually, and 
 twelve honorary chaplains, without sala¬ 
 ries. These preach in turn before the 
 Queen. 
 
 Chapter, the community of clergymen 
 connected with a cathedral, or collegiate, 
 church. See Cathedral. 
 
 Chapter-house, the apartment, or half,, 
 in which the dean and chapter meet to 
 transact official business. Some of them,, 
 connected with English cathedrals, are 
 very beautiful. 
 
 Chapter and Verse. See Bible. 
 
 Charge, (1) the spiritual care of a pas¬ 
 tor over his flock, or of a bishop over his 
 diocese. (2) An address from a bishop to his 
 clergy at his visitation, in which he in¬ 
 structs, exhorts, or charges them on mat¬ 
 ters of peculiar importance, or takes occa¬ 
 sion to dilate on the general obligations 
 and responsibilities of the ministerial office. 
 A charge is addressed to the clergy ; a pas¬ 
 toral letter principally to the people. 
 
 Chariot, “a vehicle used either for 
 war-like or peaceful purposes, but 
 most commonly for the former. Of 
 the latter use the following are only 
 probable instances: as regards the 
 Jews, 1 Kings xviii. 44; and as regards 
 other nations, Gen. xli. 43; xlvi. 29; 2 
 Kings v. 9; Acts viii. 28. The earliest 
 mention of chariots in Scripture is in 
 Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of 
 distinction, was placed in Pharaoh’s 
 second chariot (Gen. xli. 43), and, 
 later, when he Went in his own chariot 
 to meet his father on his entrance into 
 Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29). In the 
 funeral procession of Jacob chariots 
 also formed a part, possibly by way 
 of escort, or as a guard of honor (1. 9). 
 The next mention of Egyptian char¬ 
 iots is for a warlike purpose. - (Ex. xiv. 
 7.)”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Charismata. See Gifts, Spiritual. 
 
 Charity, Brothers of, a Romanist 
 order, founded in 1540, at Seville, by 
 Johannes di Dio, a Portuguese. Its 
 special mission has been the nursing 
 of the sick. Magnificent hospitals of 
 the order are found in Milan, Paris, 
 Rome, Naples, Vienna, and Prague. 
 The members study medicine in the 
 place of theology. 
 
 DURHAM CATHEDRAL: CHAPTER-HOUSE. 
 
 Charity, Sisters of, a name given to 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 166 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 EGYPTIAN CHARIOT. 
 
 several orders of celibate women in the 
 Roman Catholic Church, who care for the 
 sick, and needy children. The two most 
 important are “ The Sisters of St. Vincent 
 de Paul,” and “ The Daughters of St. 
 Carlo Borromeo.” The first was founded 
 in 1629, in France, by Vincent de Paul, 
 aided by Madame Louise de Marillac le 
 Gras. They spread rapidly, but, until the 
 end of the eighteenth century, were mostly 
 confined to France. Since 1815 they have 
 been established in all the countries of Eu¬ 
 rope where monastic orders are allowed. 
 They were established in the United States 
 by Elizabeth Seaton (y. v .). Not only girls 
 of lowly position, but many from the high¬ 
 est ranks of society have united with this 
 and other similar orders. The order of the 
 “ Daughters of St. Borromeo” dates from 
 1652. The work accomplished by the no¬ 
 ble women who have devoted their lives 
 to the care of the sick, and the care of 
 needy children, is worthy of the praise 
 and admiration of Christian believers of 
 every name. 
 
 Charlemagne ( shar-le-mdn ), b. about 742 
 at the Castle of Ingelheim, near Mayence; 
 and crowned King of the Franks at Noyon 
 in 768, after the death of his father, Pepin 
 the Short. He began his reign by the de¬ 
 feat of the Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony. 
 The death of his brother, Carloman, made 
 him the sole and absolute monarch of 
 France. 
 
 The next year ne overthrew the Saxons 
 near Osnaburg, and demolished the famous 
 temple dedicated to their false god, Irmen- 
 sul. About this time, Desiderius, King of 
 the Lombards, continuing his predecessor’s 
 design of humbling the Roman pontiffs, at¬ 
 tacked Pope Stephen, and Adrian, his suc¬ 
 cessor, who begged Charlemagne’s assist¬ 
 
 ance; whereupon he led a power¬ 
 ful army into Italy in 771, over¬ 
 threw Desiderius, and destroyed 
 the kingdom of the Lombards in 
 776, two hundred years after its 
 foundation. The victorious prince 
 then visited the pope, and con¬ 
 firmed the gift his father had 
 made the Church by the addition 
 of the territory of Sabina, the 
 dukedom of Spoleto and Bene- 
 ventum. 
 
 After this, he turned his arms 
 a second time against the Saxons, 
 and forced their king, Witikind, 
 to receive baptism. 
 
 The same zeal for religion set 
 Charlemagne upon a journey into 
 Spain against the Saracens in 778. 
 He won great victories over 
 them, but as he was returning 
 from Spain, with a very rich booty, his 
 army was set upon in the narrow Pass of 
 Roncesvalles, in the Pyrenees, by the 
 Gascons, who then lived on theft and rob¬ 
 bery. This disaster was the theme of 
 many a romance of song. 
 
 At last, after engaging in many other 
 wars, he was crowned emperor of the West 
 at Rome, in 800, by Leo III.; the Eastern 
 Emperor, Nicephorus, consenting, and 
 agreeing that the State of Venice should be 
 the limit of both empires. Charlemagne 
 took the name of Caesar and Augustus, the 
 first two emperors of Rome, with the 
 spread and the two-headed eagle to sym¬ 
 bolize respectively the Roman and the 
 German Empire. This was the restoration 
 of the ancient empire of the Caesars, and 
 was known as “ the Holy Roman Empire,” 
 the first adjective signifying the sanction 
 which it received from the Church. It 
 lasted, though after the sixteenth century 
 much shorn of its splendor, until 1806, 
 when Napoleon put an end to it. Charle¬ 
 magne died at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was 
 buried there in 814. There are many rel¬ 
 ics of him in the cathedral there. 
 
 Charlemagne was a great patron of learn¬ 
 ing: always, while sitting at table, he had 
 read to him either history, or some book of 
 St. Augustine. He collected the laws and 
 customs of the nations which had become 
 subject to him, gathered learned men to 
 his court (among them the English Alcuin), 
 and founded universities and schools of 
 learning. 
 
 His dynasty, known in history as the 
 Carlovingian, or Karling, divided itself 
 after his death. Three main divisions 
 sprang from it, Italy, Germany, France. 
 His influence lasted in all these countries 
 long after his family had ceased to rule. 
 But each nation took its line diverse from 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 167 ) 
 
 Cha 
 
 the others, and in Germany only did the 
 imperial form of government prevail. 
 France slowly became a consolidated mon¬ 
 archy, under the descendants of Hugh Ca¬ 
 pet; Italy became a collection of republics. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Bryce: 
 The Holy Ro?nan Empire (1883); Life of 
 Charlemagne , by J. I. Mombert (New York, 
 1888). 
 
 Charles V., emperor of Germany during 
 the period of the Reformation; b.at Ghent, 
 Feb. 24, 1500; d. at Yuste, Spain, Sept. 21, 
 1558. He succeeded his grandfather, Fer¬ 
 dinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and was 
 elected emperor of Germany in 1519, Soon 
 after his coronation he held the Diet at 
 Worms, at which Luther was put under 
 the ban of the empire. He became in¬ 
 volved in a long war with Francis I., king 
 of France, whom he took prisoner at the 
 battle of Pavia, in 1525. At the Diet at 
 Augsburg, in 1530, he acted in the inter¬ 
 ests of the Romanists, and demanded the 
 submission of the Protestants. But even 
 when his arms were victorious he showed 
 great leniency toward his Protestant sub¬ 
 jects, and labored to bring about com¬ 
 promises that might again unify the 
 Church. Worn and disappointed at his 
 •efforts, in 1556 he abdicated the throne, 
 and retired to the monastery of Yuste, 
 where he lived in seclusion until his death. 
 See his Life by Robertson (London, 1764; 
 Prescott’s ed., Boston, 1857). 
 
 Charm. See Divination. 
 
 Charnock, Stephen, a celebrated Puri¬ 
 tan divine; b. in London, 1628; d. there, 
 July 27, 1680. He obtained a fellowship 
 at New College, Oxford, and afterward be¬ 
 came chaplain, in Ireland, to Henry Crom¬ 
 well. He was disqualified under the Act of 
 Uniformity. His fame rests upon his great 
 work, Discourses on the Existence and At¬ 
 tributes of God , which has passed through 
 many editions. His Works were published 
 in Edinburgh, 1864, 5 vols. 
 
 Chassidim {saints), a name given to a 
 Jewish sect, or party, that was active in 
 the time of the Maccabaean struggle. They 
 were very strict in their observance of the 
 written and traditional law. Carrying 
 their austerity to an extreme limit, they 
 finally degenerated into the “ haughty, 
 tyrannical, and censorious Pharisees, the 
 Separatists of the Jewish religion.” The 
 sect and name disappeared until about 
 1740, when Rabbi Israel, called Baal-Shem 
 {lord of the na?ne), since he professed to 
 work miracles by the use of the cabalistic 
 name of God, became the leader of a party 
 
 in Podolia, who called themselves Chassi¬ 
 dim, or Saints. His fame attracted large 
 numbers in Eastern Europe and Palestine, 
 and when he died (1760) his followers 
 numbered about 40,000. The Chassidim 
 are divided into separate congregations, 
 having at their head a rabbi called Tsad- 
 dik,or Saint. They spend much time in con¬ 
 templation and in prayer, working them¬ 
 selves into a peculiar frenzy. They lay 
 great stress on absolute faith, but the out¬ 
 come of their religion shows that it is form¬ 
 al, and, in its spirit, coarse and ignorant. 
 The orthodox Jews repudiate them. 
 
 Chastity “ is the inner side of modesty, 
 the condition of bodily and moral purity in 
 the sexual relations, and the virtue of 
 self-control from forbidden sexual long¬ 
 ings. The New Testament idea of chastity 
 is the natural result of its new view of the 
 body as the temple of the Holy Spirit. 
 Hence the obligations to be chaste were of 
 the strongest. (1 Cor. vii. 15-20.) But 
 obedience is difficult, owing to the force 
 of passion. (1 Peter ii. 11.) This sexual 
 passion is not in itself sinful, but it is to 
 be gratified only within the marriage bond. 
 Unchastity is a scourge, a pestilence, which 
 lays low body and soul. It has a certain 
 and sad effect upon the religious feelings, 
 killing them, so that God is utterly cast 
 out, and, therefore, the door is open to 
 every sin. It leads to unnatural vice. 
 (Rom. i. 26, 27.) And therefore, according 
 to the Bible, the unchaste are lost. (1 Cor. 
 vi. 9; Eph. v. 5; Rev. xxi. 2,27.) Chastity 
 is to be in thought (Matt. v. 28) and word 
 (Eph. v. 3, 12), as well as in deed. In re¬ 
 generation the Christian receives grace to 
 attain this high ideal. It is the duty of 
 both sexes, and of all ages and relations, 
 married or not, to be chaste. To some a 
 special grace to this end is given. (Matt, 
 xix. 12; 1 Cor. vii. 7.) To those who 
 preserve absolute chastity outside of the 
 married state there is peculiar honor; 
 though this is no implied disparagement 
 to marriage (Rev. xiv. 4), which is a 
 divinely ordered protection. Modern ways 
 of living have debarred many from enter¬ 
 ing that state, but their celibacy is no ex¬ 
 cuse for unchastity.” — Karl Burger in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency. vol. i., p. 439. 
 
 Chasuble, the uppermost part of the 
 robes of Roman Catholic priests, worn 
 over the alb during the celebration of the 
 mass. In recent years it has been worn 
 by many clergy in the English Church 
 while administering the Holy Communion. 
 
 Chauncey, Charles, 1589-1671, second 
 president of Harvard College; b. in Eng- 
 
Cha 
 
 ( 168 ) 
 
 Che 
 
 land; d. at Cambridge, Mass. Graduate of 
 Cambridge, Eng., 1617. Silenced by Laud 
 for his Puritan views. He came to New 
 England in 1638, and after preaching at 
 Plymouth for three years he became pastor 
 at Scituate. He was elected president of 
 Harvard College in 1654, where he remain¬ 
 ed until his death. When first condemned 
 by Laud, he recanted. This weakness,which 
 was only for a short time, was the source 
 of life-long regret. He wrote a volume 
 explaining and regretting his action, pub¬ 
 lished in London, 1641 \^The Retraction of 
 Mr. C. C ., for?nerly Min. of Ware, in Har- 
 fordshire. 
 
 Chautauqua, on Chautauqua Lake, in 
 Western New York, famous as the site of 
 the “ Chautauqua Assembly,” a summer 
 school whose varied educational interests 
 have reached out into every part of the 
 nation. The Assembly was projected by 
 the Rev. Dr. J. H. Vincent, now a bishop 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and 
 Lewis Miller, Esq., a wealthy manufact¬ 
 urer in Akron, O. The first meeting was 
 held in August, 1874. Each year the scope 
 of the work of the Assembly has broad¬ 
 ened, and lectures religious, scientific, and 
 literary have been given by distinguished 
 teachers, authors, and preachers. The 
 C. L. S. C. (Chautauqua Literary and 
 Scientific Circle) was organized in 1878, 
 and now numbers many thousands of mem¬ 
 bers. Its course of reading covers a period 
 of four years. Various other departments 
 are in active operation, and the entire 
 movement has had a remarkable influence 
 in “ cultivating independent self-education 
 at home, by those who have hitherto lack¬ 
 ed educational opportunity.” 
 
 Chemnitz {kem-nits), Martin, next to 
 Luther and Melancthon the most eminent 
 Protestant theologian of the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury; b. at Treuenbrietzen, in Branden¬ 
 burg, Nov. 9, 1522; d. at Brunswick, April 
 8, 1586. While filling the position of libra¬ 
 rian at Konigsberg, he became interested 
 in the Osiander controversy, and went to 
 Wittenberg, 1553, where he gave lectures 
 on Melancthon’s Loci Theologici. In 1554 
 he was called to Brunswick as coadjutor, 
 and in 1557 became superintendent. His 
 great work was an examination and criti¬ 
 cism of the theology propounded at the 
 Council of Trent, Exa?nen Coticilii Tri- 
 dentini{i$ 6 $— , ]f), 4 vols. See Life by Lentz 
 (Gotha, 1855). 
 
 Chemosh {subduer), the national deity of 
 the Moabites (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 
 46), identical with Molech. (Judg. xi. 24.) 
 His worship was introduced by Solomon 
 
 (1 Kings xi. 7), and suppressed by Josiah. 
 (2 Kings xxiii. 13.) The inscription on 
 the Moabite stone throws light on the 
 Moabite worship of Chemosh. It was to 
 Chemosh that Mesha offered his son. (2 
 Kings iii. 27.) 
 
 Chester, The Cathedral of, is the an¬ 
 cient abbey church belonging to the mon¬ 
 astery of St. Werburgh; that of St. John 
 the Baptist having been used by the two 
 Norman Bishops of Lichfield, while they 
 occupied Chester, as the seat of the latter 
 bishopric. It stands on the site of a very 
 ancient church, dedicated to St. Peter and 
 St. Paul, which was the mother-church of 
 Chester when the relics of St. Werburgh 
 were removed thither from Hanbury in 
 the year 875, nearly two hundred years 
 after her death. This church was rebuilt 
 in the tenth century by Ethelred, ealdor- 
 man of Mercia, and his wife Ethelfled, 
 and was then, perhaps, re-dedicated in 
 the name of the saint whose shrine it 
 held. In the year 1095 it was again re¬ 
 built, and turned into a Benedictine mon¬ 
 astery by Hugh Lupus, Earl of Chester, 
 under the direction of St. Anselm, Arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury; but this Norman 
 cathedral became ruinous before the end 
 of the twelfth century, and has disap¬ 
 peared. Of the present cathedral, the 
 eastern part is Early English, having been 
 built at various periods between 1194 and 
 1230. The lower portion of the rest of 
 the building belongs to the Decorated or 
 fourteenth-century period, while the upper 
 part of the central tower, the transept and 
 nave, are Perpendicular, as is nearly the 
 whole of the exterior casing of the church, 
 all this part having been constructed at 
 some time between 1485 and 1537. The 
 modern restoration, at an estimated cost 
 of £ 50,000, was begun in 1844. When the 
 see of Chester • was founded, in 1541, 
 the dedication of the church was altered 
 to that of Christ and the Blessed 
 Virgin. 
 
 The cathedral establishment consists of 
 a dean, four canons, twenty-four honorary 
 canons, and four minor canons; and its en¬ 
 dowments amount to about ^4,000 a year. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Cheyne {chan), Thomas Kelly, D. D. 
 (Edinburgh, 1884), Church of England; b. 
 in London, Sept. 18, 1841; was graduated at 
 Worcester College, 1862; fellow of Balliol 
 College, Oxford, 1868; Oriel professor of 
 the interpretation of Holy Scripture, 1885. 
 He is the author of Commentaries on Lsaia/i 
 (1880-81), 2 vols.; Micah (1882); Hosea 
 (1884) ; Jeremiah (1883-84), and a new 
 translation of the Psalms (1884). 
 
Chi 
 
 ( 169 ) 
 
 Chi 
 
 Childermas Day. See Innocents’ Day. 
 
 Chili. “ The form of worship recognized 
 by the constitution is the Roman Catholic, 
 yet Government tolerates the public pro¬ 
 fession of others. For the purposes of 
 ecclesiastical administration, Chili is di¬ 
 vided into four dioceses—one archbishop- 
 
 the adult Indians produced little fruit, but 
 in their schools they have been more suc¬ 
 cessful. Worship, including salaries and 
 repairs of churches, costs the Government 
 annually ,£63,425. In Santiago there is one 
 handsome Protestant church; in Valparaiso, 
 three; and a chapel in Talca. Roman Ca¬ 
 tholicism exists in a mild form among the 
 
 CHESTER CATHEDRAL. 
 
 ric and three bishoprics—which are subdi¬ 
 vided into 144 parishes. The mission 
 department is under the direction of Cap¬ 
 uchin friars, and consists of a prefect and 
 sub-prefect, and a staff of thirty missionaries 
 and several chaplains, stationed in the 
 provinces of Aranco, Valdivia, Llangui- 
 hue, and Magallanes. Their labors among 
 
 educated classes, but with a good deal of 
 superstition among the miners and peas¬ 
 antry.”— Ency. Britannica . 
 
 Chiliasm. See Millennium; Millena- 
 
 RIANISM. 
 
 Chilling worth, William, a learned theo- 
 
Chi 
 
 ( 170 ) 
 
 Chi 
 
 # 
 
 logian of the Church of England; b. at 
 Oxford, Oct. 1602; d. at Chichester, Jan. 
 30, 1644. A fellow of Trinity College, Ox¬ 
 ford, 1628, he joined the Roman Church in 
 1629, and went to Douay. The further 
 study of the subject soon led him to re¬ 
 nounce his new faith, and he returned to 
 England, where he devoted himself to writ¬ 
 ing in defense of the Protestant faith. In 
 1638 he was ordained to the ministry in the 
 Church of England, and the same year ap¬ 
 peared the work upon which his fame rests, 
 The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to 
 Salvation. His Works were last published 
 at Oxford, 3 vols. (1838). See Des Mai- 
 zeaux: Historical and Critical Account of the 
 Life and Writings of W. Chillingworth 
 (London, 1725). 
 
 Chimere (Old French, chamarre , a gown 
 or coat), the vestment which bishops wear 
 over the rochet, which is a short and nar¬ 
 row surplice. It was originally sleeveless, 
 and the lawn sleeves now worn are the 
 sleeves of the rochet, very much length¬ 
 ened and widened. 
 
 China. ‘ ‘ The principal religions of China 
 are Buddhism,Taonism, and Confucianism, 
 to which must be added Mohammedan¬ 
 ism in the northern and western prov¬ 
 inces of the empire. Buddhism was 
 introduced from India during the first 
 century of the Christian era; and thus, 
 coming at a time when the national 
 mind had been prepared by the teach¬ 
 ings of Confucius and the mysticisms 
 of Laon-tsse for the reception of a re¬ 
 ligious system which should satisfy the 
 requirements of its higher nature, the 
 new faith spread rapidly through the 
 country, and, at the present day, num¬ 
 bers more adherents than either of the 
 other two leading religions. 
 
 “ Laon-tsse, who was the founder of 
 the Taonist sect, was a contemporary 
 of Confucius. Like that sage, also, he 
 held office at the court of Chow, but, 
 being disheartened at the want of suc¬ 
 cess attending his efforts to reform the 
 manners of the age, he retired into pri¬ 
 vate life, and devoted himself to the 
 composition of The Sdtra of Reason and 
 Virtue. In this work he enunciated a 
 scheme of philosophy which bears a 
 strong analogy to the doctrines of the 
 Quietists and Manichaeists, the leading 
 point being the relation between some¬ 
 thing, which he calls Taon , and the 
 universe. The philosophical bearing 
 of his system was, however, soon lost 
 sight of, and his profound specula¬ 
 tions were exchanged for the pursuit 
 of immortality and the search after 
 
 the philosopher’s stone by his follow¬ 
 ers. But while Buddhism and Taonism 
 find their adherents among the common 
 people, Confucianism is, par excellence , 
 the religion of the learned. The opin¬ 
 ions and teachings of the sage are their 
 constant study; and at stated periods they 
 assemble fn temples devoted to his honor 
 to worship at the shrine of the ‘ Throne¬ 
 less King.’ But the process of decay, 
 which has been going on for so many 
 centuries in the distinctive features of 
 these creeds, has served so to obliterate 
 the lines of demarcation which originally 
 separated them, that, at the present day, 
 the dogmas of Buddha and .Laon-tsse, and 
 the teachings of Confucius, may, as far as 
 the masses areconcerned, be treated as the 
 foundations of a common faith.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. See Buddhism; Taonism; 
 Confucius. 
 
 China, Missions in. See Missions; Mis¬ 
 sionary Statistics in Appendix. 
 
 Chirothecae, the embroidered gloves 
 worn by Roman Catholic bishops. They 
 were formerly worn by bishops of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 CHOIR OF ST. ASAPH CATHEDRAL. 
 
Cho 
 
 ( I7i ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 CHOIR OF YORK MINSTER. 
 
 Choir (Latin chorus) has always been 
 used in a double sense: (1) of the singers 
 of the church; (2) of the part of the church 
 where they sit. There was a choir in the 
 Jewish temple (2 Chron. v. 12), and very 
 early mention is made of their services in 
 Christian worship. 
 
 The choir “ in churches of fully devel¬ 
 oped plan is that part between the nave and 
 the apse which is reserved for canons, 
 priests, monks, and choristers during di¬ 
 vine service. In cruciform churches the 
 choir usually begins at the transepts, and 
 occupies the head of the cross, including 
 the altar; but sometimes, especially in 
 monastic churches, it extends beyond the 
 transepts, thus encroaching on the nave. 
 In churches without transepts the choir is 
 similarly placed .”—Centurv Dictionary, s.v. 
 
 Chora'zin, a city of Galilee, associated 
 with Capernaum and Bethsaida in the woes 
 pronounced by Christ. (Matt. xi. 21; Luke 
 x. 13.) Dr. W. M. Thomson identifies it 
 with Kherazeh , two miles west of Tell 
 Hum, where there are extensive ruins. 
 
 Chorepiscopi (country bishops), those 
 bishops that acted in country districts, but 
 whose position was subordinate to the 
 bishop of the diocese in which they worked. 
 The friction which was caused by this 
 
 relation led to their abolition in the 
 ninth century. 
 
 Chrism, the consecrated oil used in 
 the Greek and Roman Church, in the 
 administration of baptism, confirma¬ 
 tion, ordination of priests, and ex¬ 
 treme unction. 
 
 Chrisom, the old English name for 
 the white dress of a child at its bap¬ 
 tism. It originally signified the linen 
 band tied over the forehead when the 
 child had been anointed, either at 
 baptism or confirmation. The dress 
 was returned when the mother was 
 churched, but in case the infant died 
 fpl before the chrisom was returned to 
 the church it was called a “ chrisom 
 |ig| child,” and the dress was sometimes 
 used as a shroud. 
 
 HHI Christ. See Jesus Christ. 
 
 IB Christ, Images and Pictures of. 
 
 |||| The evangelists give us no hint of 
 HU the personal appearance of Christ, 
 Hi ll but the Gnostics had what they called 
 images of Christ as early as the sec- 
 sill ond century. In the early church some 
 took the ground that he was physically 
 uncomely, as described in Isaiah lii. 
 14 ; liii. 2 ; while others declared him 
 to have been the most beautiful of man¬ 
 kind. A spurious letter of Lentulus, not 
 older than the fourth century, described 
 Christ as a man of noble appearance, with 
 curly hair parted in front, and falling, dark 
 and glossy, over his shoulders, with a 
 smooth, high forehead, and a reddish 
 beard. He is represented on the sar¬ 
 cophagi, and in some of the frescoes of the 
 catacombs, under the figure of the Good 
 Shepherd, as a young man of joyful 
 countenance. In the middle ages the face 
 of Christ is idealized in art, and finds its 
 highest expression in Leonardo da Vinci’s 
 painting of the Last Supper. Romanists 
 claim that certain images and pictures of 
 Christ, still preserved, are of miraculous 
 origin. One of the most noted of these is 
 the Veronica (the picture known as the 
 Ecce Homo) on a linen cloth which, tradition 
 says, was given to Christ while on his way 
 to Calvary by a woman named Veronica, 
 and with which he wiped his brow. 
 
 Christ, Knights of the Order of, 
 founded by Dionysius, King of Portugal, in 
 1317. At one time the order had immense 
 revenues, but in 1708 it was abolished, 
 and its estates confiscated. 
 
 Christ, Monogram ok, a combination of 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 172 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 
 the letters X and P, found in the catacombs, 
 and used by Constantine on military 
 standards, coins, etc. 
 
 Christ, Person of. See Christology. 
 
 Christ, Sinlessness of. See Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 Christ, Three Offices of, are those of 
 prophet, priest, and king. This distinction, 
 introduced by Calvin, was adopted in the 
 Westminister and Heidelberg catechisms. 
 
 Christadelphians (so called because they 
 believe that all who are in Christ are his 
 brethren), a small sect founded about i860 
 by John Thomas, M. D., who had been con¬ 
 nected with the Disciples of Christ. They 
 have a few congregations, Avhich they 
 designate as " ecclesias,” in the United 
 States and Great Britain. They reject the 
 Trinity, and hold that Jesus Christ is the 
 manifestation of the eternal spirit of God; 
 and that there is only immortality in 
 Christ. Immersion is essential to salva¬ 
 tion, and only those who hold the faith as 
 taught by the Christadelphians will have 
 part in the resurrection, and enjoy im¬ 
 mortality, all others being annihilated. 
 See A Declaration of the First Principles of 
 the Oracles of Deity (Washington, D. C.) 
 
 Christening, a name given to the act of 
 baptism. 
 
 Christian. “ The disciples were called 
 Christians first in Antioch ” (Acts xi. 26)—■ 
 at Antioch, that is, on the Syrian River 
 Orontes—about a. d. 43. 
 
 Other names by which believers in Christ 
 were called were “ the brethren ” (Acts xv. 
 1), and “ the believers.” (Acts v. 14.) It is 
 thus likely that at the time St. Luke speaks 
 of, the name Christian was not self-assum¬ 
 ed; and it is clear that it could not have 
 been given by the Jews, since they would 
 have considered it as profaning the title of 
 their expected Messiah—the names given 
 by them were Nazarenes or Galileans; it 
 must, therefore, have been imposed by the 
 heathen population of Antioch. It was at 
 once adopted, and “ I am a Christian ” be¬ 
 came the formula of the martyr’s confes¬ 
 sion (Tertullian’s Apologia , ii.). 
 
 Christian Commission, The United 
 States. This noble organization, which 
 did so much for the spiritual welfare of the 
 Union armies during the Civil War, was 
 organized in 1861 in New York City under 
 the auspices of the Young Men’s Christian 
 Association. Through its agency, Bibles, 
 tracts, religious newspapers, and books 
 
 were distributed, and a great amount of 
 personal service rendered in camps and 
 hospitals. Counting in the various gifts 
 bestowed through the Society, it distrib¬ 
 uted over $6,000,000. See Lemuel Moss: 
 Annals of the U. S. Christian Commission 
 (Phila., 1868). 
 
 Christians (Christian Connection), an 
 organization of believers that arose almost 
 simultaneously in various parts of the 
 country about the close of the last century. 
 
 The leading spirit of the movement was 
 Rev. James O’Kelly, a prominent minister 
 in the Methodist Episcopal Church. Mr. 
 O’Kelly lived in Virginia, and seems to have 
 become dissatisfied with various require¬ 
 ments in the creed and discipline of his 
 church. The same feeling was shared by 
 a considerable number of his brethren, 
 some of whom were Baptists—who, like 
 the Puritans of old, wanted more liberty of 
 conscience. These brethren, after some 
 consultation, decided to form a new denom¬ 
 ination. They called themselves, at the 
 first,"Republican Methodists,” but adopted 
 almost substantially the principles now 
 held by the Christians, and the following 
 year (1793), they unanimously adopted the 
 name " Christian,” which name has since 
 properly designated the denomination. 
 
 The denomination is peculiar in that the 
 members subscribe to no creed but the un¬ 
 qualified Word of God. They reckon hu¬ 
 man creeds and formal statements of faith 
 as mischievous, and tending to bigotry and 
 disunion among God’s people. But no 
 people are more orthodox in their adher¬ 
 ence to the Bible as the “ only infallible 
 rule of faith and practice.” They regard 
 Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the 
 supreme head of the Church, hence they 
 adopt the name Christian as an appropriate 
 name for all followers of Christ. They 
 also hold that not mere intellectual belief, 
 but Christian character, is the proper test 
 of church fellowship; and, while acknowl¬ 
 edging the right and duty of private judg¬ 
 ment, they believe in the union of all loyal 
 believers—many advocating even the or¬ 
 ganic union of the various sects upon the 
 principles of the teachings of Christ. 
 
 The denomination has its chief following 
 among the rural population, although 
 churches are well sustained in Albany and 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., Fall River, Mass., 
 Springfield, Ohio, and other important 
 towns. It has two Theological schools, 
 one at Stanfordville, N. Y., and one at 
 Merom, Ind. It also maintains several 
 chartered colleges and institutions of a 
 high grade, among which are Antioch Col¬ 
 lege, Ohio; U. C. College, Ind.; Elon Col¬ 
 lege, N. C., and the Christian Correspond- 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 173 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 ence College, N. Y. One of its oldest and 
 most successful institutions, also located in 
 N. Y., is Starkey Seminary and College, 
 which celebrated its semicentennial in 
 June, 1890. 
 
 The denomination is liberal, but not lax. 
 The churches number about 1,500, and the 
 membership nearly 30,000 in this country 
 alone. Within the past few years aggres¬ 
 sive foreign missionary work has been be¬ 
 gun in Japan, and the Christians already 
 have four commissioned missions and sev¬ 
 eral churches in that field. 
 
 The principal organ of the church is the 
 Herald of Gospel Liberty , published un¬ 
 der the direction of the Christian Quadren¬ 
 nial Association at Dayton, Ohio. This 
 paper is said to be the first distinctively 
 religious newspaper that was ever publish¬ 
 ed in America, having been founded in 
 1808. It is now a sixteen-page weekly, 
 open to free and candid discussions on all 
 biblical topics. It has an efficient corps 
 of editors and a good circulation. Various 
 other periodicals are published in the in¬ 
 terests of the cause. See History of the 
 Christians , by J. R. Freese, M. D.,and the 
 writings of N. Summerbell, D. D., Warren 
 Hathaway, D. D., Austin Craig, D. D., 
 
 and others. L. J. Aldrich. 
 
 * 
 
 Christian Endeavor, The Young Peo¬ 
 ple’s Society of. This “latest-born of 
 •the children of the Church,” as the Society 
 of Christian Endeavor has been fitly called, 
 was first established in theWilliston Church 
 in Portland, Maine, on the second day of 
 February, 1881. It was founded by the 
 pastor of that church for the sake of help¬ 
 ing the young people to become more stal¬ 
 wart in their Christian lives, and more de¬ 
 voted to and useful in the church to which 
 they belonged. It was established, in the 
 first place, with little thought beyond the 
 needs of that one church, but it has been 
 providentially used in a marvelous way, in 
 all denominations and in all lands, for the 
 quickening of the zeal of young disciples, 
 and for their establishment in the faith. 
 The following figures show its remarkable 
 growth in the number of societies and 
 members: 
 
 Societies. Members. 
 
 In 1881. 2 68 
 
 ,Ini882. 7 481 
 
 In 1883. 56 2,870 
 
 In 1884. J 5 6 8,905 
 
 In 1885 . 253 10,964 
 
 In 1886. 850 50.000 
 
 In 1887.2,314 140,000 
 
 In 1888.4,879 310.000 
 
 In 1889. 7,672 485,000 
 
 In 1890 (on record to June 1).... - 660,coo 
 
 There are no doctrinal tests imposed, 
 since every society is connected with and 
 
 is absolutely controlled by some local 
 church, whose doctrines and polity it loyal¬ 
 ly accepts. The distinguishing features of 
 the society are the voluntary pledges, 
 which bind the Active members to attend 
 and participate in every weekly prayer¬ 
 meeting of the society, “ unless prevented 
 by some reason which can conscientiously 
 be given to Christ for an excuse”; the 
 monthly . consecration meeting, when the 
 roll of Active members is called (unexcused 
 absence from three consecutive consecra¬ 
 tion meetings forfeiting membership), and 
 the various committees, which vary in 
 number from three to twenty, according to 
 the needs of the churches to which the so¬ 
 cieties belong. The Lookout, Prayer-meet¬ 
 ing, and Social Committee, however, seem 
 essential to every real Society of Christian 
 Endeavor. 
 
 Besides the Active members, who are 
 young Christians willing to take the 
 pledges of the society, there are Associate 
 members, who are those “ who, though not 
 yet ready to be considered decided Chris¬ 
 tians, are willing to put themselves under 
 the influences of the society,” and for 
 whom the Active members especially prom¬ 
 ise to labor and pray. The pledge, usually 
 taken by the Active members, reads as fol¬ 
 lows: 
 
 “Trusting in the Lord Jesus Christ for 
 strength, I promise him that I will strive to 
 do whatever he would like to have me do; 
 that I will pray to him and read the Bible 
 everyday, and that, just so far as I know 
 how, throughout my whole life, I will en¬ 
 deavor to lead a Christian life. As an Act¬ 
 ive member, I promise to be true to all my 
 duties, to be present at and to take some 
 part, aside from singing, in every meeting, 
 unless hindered by some reason which I 
 can conscientiously give to my Lord and 
 Master, Jesus Christ. If obliged to be 
 absent from the monthly consecration¬ 
 meeting, I will, if possible, send an excuse 
 for absence to the Society. 
 
 “ Signed. 
 
 “ Date.“ Residence. -.” 
 
 That taken by the Associate members, as 
 follows: 
 
 “ As an Associate member I promise to 
 attend the prayer-meetings of the Society 
 habitually, and declare my willingness to 
 do what I may be called upon to do, as an 
 Associate member, to advance the interests 
 of the Society. 
 
 “ Signed.” 
 
 Besides these two classes, the pastor, 
 deacons, Sunday-school superintendent, 
 elders, and stewards are, exofficiis, honora¬ 
 ry members of the society; and there are 
 also Affiliated members, who consist of 
 persons no longer young, but who desire 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 174 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 to express their interest in its work, and 
 who are excused from the obligations and 
 service of the Active members. Into 
 this class the Active members may be 
 “ graduated” when other religious duties 
 press so heavily upon them that they can¬ 
 not do the active work of the society. 
 Thus provision is made for keeping the 
 burden and responsibility constantly upon 
 young shoulders. 
 
 It cannot be insisted on too strongly that 
 the Society of Christian Endeavor is, first 
 and last and always, a Religious Society. It 
 has social and literary and other features, 
 but it is not a social nor literary society. 
 
 In the Platform of Principles set forth 
 by the President of the United Society 
 when he accepted the position, and since 
 very generally endorsed by the societies, 
 and adopted by their conventions, is the 
 following: 
 
 “ The purely religious features of the 
 organization shall always be paramount. 
 The Society of Christian Endeavor centres 
 about the prayer - meeting. The strict 
 prayer-meeting pledge, honestly interpret¬ 
 ed, is essential to the continued success of a 
 Society of Christian Endeavor.” 
 
 A society thus organized among the 
 young people has proved itself to be, in 
 many cases, a half-way house to the Church. 
 
 Into this Society the new Christian, 
 however young or feeble he may be, 
 may come at once. Here he may at once 
 be recognized as a Christian, may at once 
 have the opportunity and be encour¬ 
 aged to acknowledge his Saviour, and be 
 at once set to work for him. To use an¬ 
 other figure, this Society bridges the dan¬ 
 gerous gap between conversion and church- 
 membership, which is often a long one in 
 the case of young disciples, an interval 
 when many stray away, and are lost for¬ 
 ever to the Church and the cause of Christ. 
 
 This society is also a training-school in 
 the Church. It gives the young Christian 
 something to do at once. 
 
 It accustoms him to the sound of his own 
 voice in the prayer-meeting. 
 
 It causes him to understand that he has 
 a part to perform in the activities of the 
 Church, as well as the oldest Christian. It 
 sends him upon a hundred errands for 
 Christ. Very soon he learns that he has 
 a duty in the general church prayer-meet¬ 
 ings, and he becomes naturally and easily 
 one of the pastor’s trusted helpers. We 
 are speaking from actual experience in this 
 matter, and are not theorizing. 
 
 A generation of Christians, trained from 
 early boyhood and girlhood in this way, 
 patiently, persistently, kindly, would be a 
 generation of working Christians. 
 
 This society is also a watch-tower for 
 
 the Church. The pastor ought always to 
 attend the prayer-meetings and the social 
 gatherings, and, unseen, keep his hands on 
 the reins of the organization. If he does 
 so, wisely and constantly, he cannot help 
 knowing how the young converts are pro¬ 
 gressing in the Christian life. If they are 
 faithful to their voluntary vows, he knows 
 it, and can mark with joy their growth in 
 grace. If they are negligent, he knows 
 that, and can at once look after and reclaim 
 the unfaithful ones. 
 
 No month need ever go by without the pas¬ 
 tor knowing the religious status of each of 
 his young people. The various committees 
 are very important features of the Young 
 People’s Society of Christian Endeavor. 
 With faithful, earnest, intelligent commit¬ 
 tees, the work can hardly fail to succeed. 
 Perhaps the most important committee is 
 the “ Lookout Committee.” This com¬ 
 mittee has for part of its work to introduce 
 new members to the society, and it needs to 
 take great pains that only those who have be¬ 
 gun the Christian life are thus introduced as 
 Active members. But its most delicate, and 
 at the same time, important, duty is the 
 reclaiming of those who have grown lax 
 and indifferent to their vows. If any Active 
 member is away from the monthly conse¬ 
 cration meeting, the lookout committee 
 should know the fact, and should find out 
 the reason for the absence. The very fact 
 that this committee is on the “ lookout, 
 will prove a salutary restraint upon many. 
 There are but few young people who stay 
 away who cannot be reclaimed and brought 
 back to their allegiance by a wise and faith¬ 
 ful lookout committee. 
 
 The other committees—especially the 
 prayer-meeting and social committees—are 
 scarcely less important, but their duties 
 are easily understood, as defined in the con¬ 
 stitution, and we do not need to dwell upon 
 their work. 
 
 All these committees, according to their 
 zeal and devotion, can make much or lit¬ 
 tle of their office. Each one of them affords 
 a grand opportunity for efficient service, if 
 it is rightly used. Who may become mem¬ 
 bers ? Should there be an age limit ? These 
 are questions which are often asked. We 
 are not in favor of a strict age limit, since 
 youth and age are such variable terms. 
 Many a man is old at twenty-five. Many 
 a man at fifty is still young. This matter 
 can usually be left to the sanctified common- 
 sense of Christian men and women. As a 
 general rule, the older church-members 
 will feel that they can do more good by 
 praying for the young people’s meeting at 
 home. Their presence in large numbers 
 would embarrass, and, perhaps, silence 
 many timid young Christians. Still, there 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 175 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 are exceptions to this rule. It is very es¬ 
 sential that there should be in the society 
 a number of older young people, say those 
 between twenty and forty, to give stability 
 to the work, and to take the lead in the 
 committees. While the children should 
 always be welcomed and encouraged to 
 come, yet a society composed wholly of 
 children will hardly succeed. On the 
 younger side the age limit easily takes 
 care of itself. Children whom their par¬ 
 ents allow to be out in the evening are 
 not too young to become members. 
 
 The Junior Society of Christian Endeav¬ 
 or is a more recent development of the 
 movement, and one which promises greatly 
 to bless the children between six and four¬ 
 teen years of age. 
 
 The United Society of Christian Endeav¬ 
 or was founded in 1885, and is simply a 
 bureau of information. It exerts no au¬ 
 thority, claims no allegiance, and levies no 
 taxes. It answers nearly fifty thousand 
 letters of inquiry a year, sends out explan¬ 
 atory literature which is called for, and is 
 governed by a board of trustees represent¬ 
 ing the various evangelical denominations. 
 
 In the Northern and Western States and 
 several Southern States the societies are 
 associated in State “ Christian Endeavor 
 Unions,” which hold annual conventions of 
 great size and enthusiasm. Local county 
 and city Christian Endeavor Unions are 
 also formed in nearly all parts of the coun¬ 
 try, and are productive of much good. In 
 1886 the Golden Rule newspaper of Boston 
 was adopted as the National representative 
 of the societies. It has attained a very 
 large circulation, and is self-supporting. 
 In 1888, in consequence of a visit of the 
 President of the United Society to England, 
 a British Section of the Christian Endeavor 
 Society was established. There are also 
 many branches of the society in all lands 
 to which American missionaries have gone. 
 The annual Conventions of the society 
 have been meetings of immense power and 
 influence. The Convention in Chicago in 
 1888 called together over 4,000 young peo¬ 
 ple from all parts of the land, and the Con¬ 
 vention in Philadelphia in 1889 over 6,500. 
 It attracted much attention in the religious 
 and secular press, and was pronounced in 
 many quarters “ the largest delegated re¬ 
 ligious convention ever held in the world’s 
 history.” F. E. Clark. 
 
 Christian Union, The. This organiza¬ 
 tion was established in 1864, the prime 
 mover and founder being the Rev. J. F. 
 Given, of Columbus, O. The first Coun¬ 
 cil convened in Columbus, O., Feb. 3, 
 1864, where the following “basis of 
 union” was subscribed: 
 
 “ Having a desire for a more perfect fel¬ 
 lowship in Christ and a more satisfactory 
 enjoyment of the means of religious edifi¬ 
 cation and comfort, we do solemnly form 
 ourselves into a religious Society under 
 style of The Christian Union, in which we 
 aver our true and hearty faith in the re¬ 
 ceived Scriptures of the Old and New 
 Testaments as the Word of God, and the 
 only and sufficient rule of faith and practice, 
 and pledge ourselves, through Christ who 
 strengtheneth us, to keep and observe all 
 thing whatsoever he hath commanded us.” 
 The first General Council convened June 
 the 10th, 1865, at Terra Haute, Ind., em¬ 
 bracing delegates from the State Unions of 
 Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and Illinois. 
 
 They now have two annual Councils in 
 Ohio, one in Indiana, one in Illinois, two in 
 Missouri,one in Iowa, one in Kansas, one in 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, one in Colorado, 
 and many local churches scattered through 
 the other States. Each local church is in¬ 
 dependent, the government of the body 
 being Congregational. The Councils are 
 advisory, and have charge of the literature 
 and publishing interests of the church. 
 The Christian Witness, edited by Rev. H. 
 J. Duckworth, and published by The Chris¬ 
 tian Publishing House, is the acknowledged 
 organ and authorized church paper. The 
 body now numbers about 1,000 ministers, 
 1,500 churches, and 125,000 communi¬ 
 cants. H. J. Duckworth. 
 
 Christianity, the religion which we pro¬ 
 fess, is based upon a new and specific rev¬ 
 elation in the person of Jesus Christ. Its 
 aim is to restore to mankind the lost fel¬ 
 lowship with God in an eternal kingdom, 
 set up here on earth, and called the Church, 
 to be brought to its full and perfect con¬ 
 summation in the world to come. The 
 history of Christianity, then, is the record 
 of the facts pertaining to the nature and 
 growth of the Kingdom of God upon 
 earth, in their external and internal rela¬ 
 tions. This history falls into three main 
 divisions: Ancient, Mediaeval, and .Mod¬ 
 ern. The Ancient history of Christianity 
 is the narrative of the supremacy won by 
 the Church over Greek culture and the 
 Roman Empire. It closes, and Mediaeval 
 history begins, with the epoch of the Car- 
 lovingian dynasty. The Mediaeval period 
 comprises the victories of the Church over 
 the Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonian, and Scan¬ 
 dinavian tribes in the centre and north of 
 Europe, the conflicts and rupture of the 
 Eastern and Western branches of the 
 Church, and the contest between the im¬ 
 perial and papal powers for supremacy. 
 This period closes with the Reformation. 
 The Modern history recites the struggles 
 
Chr 
 
 { 176 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 between Catholicism and Protestantism, 
 and between Christianity and Philosophy, 
 and the growth of Protestant civilization. 
 
 I. Ancient Christianity . The first sub¬ 
 division in this portion (1) reaches from 
 Christ to the days of the Antonines. It 
 comprises the age of the apostles and of 
 the whole of the New Testament Script¬ 
 ures, and is prior to the most wide-spread 
 persecutions, and to the more definite 
 formation of the Catholic polity and the¬ 
 ology. The energy of the Church is dis¬ 
 played in its zealous missionary work, and 
 its unparalleled expansion. During this 
 time were also written the works of the 
 Apostolic Fathers and the first Apologists, 
 to which must be added some heretical 
 writings. Next comes (2) the formation 
 of the Catholic Church in the midst of con¬ 
 flicts and persecutions (a. u. 180—313). 
 The Church, having won her victory over 
 Judaism and the cruder forms of Gnosti¬ 
 cism, is in conflict with popular heathen¬ 
 ism, with the philosophic culture of the 
 time, and with the civil power, and passes 
 through each conflict with the calm con¬ 
 viction of final supremacy. At the begin¬ 
 ning of this period it is diffused beyond 
 the bounds of the Roman Empire; at the 
 close, it is firmly established as asocial and 
 moral power, its civil rights are recog¬ 
 nized, and its superiority to pagan relig¬ 
 ions and philosophy is conceded. This is 
 the period of the severest persecutions by 
 the imperial power, with intervals of re¬ 
 pose. A new philosophy, neo-Platonism, 
 aims to supersede Christianity by reform¬ 
 ing heathen mythology, and though it fails, 
 it proves a large factor in the formation of 
 Alexandrian Christian theology. (Origen; 
 Alexandria.) Eastern and Western Chris¬ 
 tianity show divergence as regards method: 
 the Western, or Latin, tendency is prac¬ 
 tical, resting on authority; the other is 
 speculative and exegetical. Doctrinal con¬ 
 troversy is chiefly concerned with the 
 Person of Christ, starting from simple 
 faith in him as a Divine Redeemer, and 
 seeking to formulate his relation to the 
 Godhead. As the period closes, the strug¬ 
 gle for supremacy between Christianity 
 and heathenism takes decisive form: the 
 latter put forth all its strength to crush 
 the advancing faith, but so entirely failed 
 that the great change under Constantine 
 was universally accepted. During this 
 time the diocesan system had become fully 
 developed; the canon of Scripture was 
 definitely formed; but the Church was af¬ 
 flicted with the Novatian Schism. (3) The 
 Church was now allied with the State; 
 heathenism was gradually rooted out in 
 East and West, and the barbarian hordes 
 which began to desolate the Empire were 
 
 brought by degrees under Christian rule. 
 Monasticism had become a powerful influ¬ 
 ence. The third and fourth centuries 
 were the most marked period in Church 
 history (the sixteenth alone ranking with 
 it) in the development and formal state¬ 
 ment of fundamental Christian doctrines, 
 and the height of Greek theology was now 
 reached. The formulas of the Trinity and 
 the Person of Christ were attained, and 
 have ever since remained in the creed of 
 the Church. Gnosticism was now at an 
 end. The first great controversy was the 
 Arian, the question at issue being whether 
 in Christ there is absolute or only relative 
 Divinity. (Arius. ) Then came the ques¬ 
 tion, Had Christ a real human soul? (Con¬ 
 stantinople, Council of.) This being 
 affirmed, and the Person of Christ declared 
 to be One , with Two Natures , controver¬ 
 sies arose on the relation of these two nat¬ 
 ures. (Ephesus and Chalcedon, Coun¬ 
 cils of.) Now, too, appears the greatest 
 name in the Latin Church, Augustine, 
 Bishop of Hippo. (Augustine.) With him 
 is connected the first great controversy 
 which began in the Western Church, which 
 we may call Anthropological: questions re¬ 
 specting nature, grace, and their relations 
 —predestination and free-will. Opposed to 
 Augustine was Pelagius ( q . v. ). The 
 Catholic idea of the Church, too, was 
 more elaborated by Augustine than it had 
 been before, he insisting on unity and 
 episcopal succession against the Dona- 
 TISTS (i q . v.). 
 
 (4) The West has now become the chief 
 seat of learning and culture in the Church, 
 the Empire is divided and falling to pieces, 
 when, under Leo the Great, begins that 
 transformation which makes Rome the 
 seat of the Papacy, as it had once been of 
 paganism. The barbarian incursions which 
 shattered the Roman Empire in the West 
 infused a new life-blood into the old and 
 dying world. The terrible miseries which 
 ensued were as the labor-pangs of a new 
 world. Chaos was brought into order by 
 the power of the Christian Church. The 
 Eastern Church was comparatively iso¬ 
 lated: the Emperors claimed power over 
 it, and controversies were determined 
 mostly by political considerations; the 
 Western Church had to look to Rome as 
 its centre of unity, for the Roman bishop 
 was its only metropolitan. The barbarian 
 tribes had nearly all been converted to 
 Christianity by Arian missionaries expelled 
 from the Empire; but, one by one, they 
 were won over to the Catholic faith, and 
 thus the Roman power was consolidated, 
 and, while the East was continually en¬ 
 gaged in subtleties and distinctions of doc¬ 
 trines, the definiteness and concentration 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 177 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 
 of the Western mind made its decisions 
 obeyed. But doctrinal controversies still 
 continued with vehemence, the chief being 
 the Monophysite (q. v.). The other, the 
 Semi-Pelagian (q. v.), was left undecided, 
 and was one of the foremost questions of 
 the Reformation in the sixteenth century. 
 (5) The next division of this period begins 
 with the accession to the Papacy of Greg¬ 
 ory the Great, in 590. This period wit¬ 
 nesses the most marked contrast between 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. The 
 new states of the West are shaped more 
 and more into a political and religious 
 unity; the Frankish Empire takes the lead 
 among the nations, and saves Europe from 
 Mahometan subjugation; Frank arms and 
 monastic zeal combine in propagating 
 Christianity in Northern Germany; the 
 Greek Empire is riven by the warlike 
 fanaticism of the Mahometans, and in less 
 than a century Asia Minor, Egypt, Africa, 
 and Spain are subdued to the Crescent. 
 The Iconoclastic dispute between East and 
 West weakens the former, the former see¬ 
 ing in the use of images the progress of 
 superstition, the latter following its usual 
 policy by elevating the popular feeling into 
 a dogma of the faith. (Iconoclasts.) 
 
 II. Mediceval Christianity: from Charle¬ 
 magne to the Reformation. (1) The end 
 of the Greek Exarchate in Italy, in 752 
 (Ravenna), the destruction of the Lom¬ 
 bard Kingdom, in 774, the alliance of the 
 Frank Empire with the Papacy, the divis¬ 
 ion of the Mahometan Khalifate, in 750, 
 into the Abbasides of the East and the 
 Ommiades in Spain, and the decline of the 
 Greek Empire, all make the reign of 
 Charles the Great a turning-point in hu¬ 
 man history. (Charlemagne.) The Pa¬ 
 pacy pushes its claim to universal obedi¬ 
 ence, which is tacitly acquiesced in by 
 Charlemagne, though he and his succes¬ 
 sors assert imperial rights as to the elec¬ 
 tion of the popes. The papal claim is 
 greatly strengthened by the Forged De¬ 
 cretals (q . v.). The result of the claim of 
 the Papacy was the final separation of the 
 Eastern and Western Churches. The dis¬ 
 memberment of Charlemagne’s Empire 
 after his death encouraged the papal 
 claims, but the latter part of the ninth 
 century saw the popes become the puppets 
 of rival Italian factions, and for a while 
 the Papacy became the shame and derision 
 of Europe. Controversies concerning the 
 Eucharist began; monasticism made prog¬ 
 ress, and gradually exempted itself from 
 episcopal jurisdiction, and was made sub¬ 
 ject to the pope only. The best life of 
 the Church was seen in its northern mis¬ 
 sions. These troubles, and the confusions 
 and struggles of the new nations bring us 
 
 to what is known as (2) “ The Dark Age” 
 (900-1073). The old classical learning had 
 died out, theology was at a standstill or 
 retrograde, art was unknown, the schools 
 of Charlemagne were closed; the Papacy 
 was under the feet of a Roman faction, 
 which placed its tools on the papal throne. 
 Out of this evil state Europe was dragged 
 by the establishment of the new German 
 Empire, under Otto the Gre£t (936), which 
 gave to Germany a centre of unity, re¬ 
 stored order in North Italy, and for a cen¬ 
 tury and a half controlled the Papacy. (3) 
 Out of this order—the work of the secular 
 power—came fresh claims from the Papacy 
 which it had purified. Pope Gregory VII. 
 (1073) declared that the Popedom was a 
 theocratic monarchy to rule all the nations; 
 and though this doctrine (as he formulated 
 it) was never admitted, sufficient remained 
 to make the papal power for a couple of 
 centuries the greatest power upon earth. 
 By the enforcement of celibacy in the 
 clergy, Gregory separated the priesthood 
 from sympathy with their own national 
 governments, and branded investiture with 
 ecclesiastical office by the secular power 
 as simony. The ban and interdict were 
 the terrible instruments of this vast usur¬ 
 pation. (Investiture.) The other salient 
 characteristics of the Middle Ages come 
 out in bold relief within this period. Feud¬ 
 alism belongs rather to secular than to ec¬ 
 clesiastical history, but the Crusades , in 
 which the old contest between Europe and 
 Asia, between Islam and Christianity, was 
 revived, were a more distinctly religious 
 movement. (Crusades.) Though they 
 were ineffectual in restoring Christianity 
 in the lost countries, they kept the Mos¬ 
 lems in check, brought back something of 
 Eastern learning to the West, and helped 
 the Papacy to strengthen its hold upon 
 popular impulses. Christian theology 
 took a new form in Scholasticism. (School¬ 
 men.) Not as yet widely felt, but begin¬ 
 ning a new order of things, were three 
 influences: (a) The germs of popular liter¬ 
 ature in the native languages (minnesing¬ 
 ers and troubadours); (h) the Third Es¬ 
 tate, in the Lombard cities and in France; 
 (e) the protesting parties in the Church 
 (Waldenses, etc.), who cried for re¬ 
 ligious reforms. (4) The accession of 
 Pope Innocent III., in 1198, raised the pa¬ 
 pal system to its height. He brought the 
 chief kings of Christendom to submission, 
 held the gates of the East through the new 
 Latin Empire at Constantinople, and con¬ 
 summated his plans at the Lateran Coun¬ 
 cil, in 1215. But his successors were un¬ 
 able to carry out his schemes; they were 
 exhausted by the long struggle with the 
 IIOHENSTAUFENS (q. v.), and retired from 
 
Chr 
 
 ( ws ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 this struggle only to become the vassals 
 of France. The rise of the new Mendi¬ 
 cant Orders of this period will be described 
 under Mendicant Orders. To the same 
 period belongs the establishment of the 
 Inquisition (y. v .). But now a new power 
 appears: the mightiest for many ages. The 
 rise of fanatical sects, both within and 
 without the Church (Flagellants; Frat- 
 icelli; Albigenses), gave an indication 
 that Rome was losing its hold of the com¬ 
 mon people; so did the tone of the modern 
 literature, which now began to rise in all 
 its glory, first in Italy. Rome and Scho¬ 
 lasticism could only use dead Latin; the 
 Divine Comedy of Dante, the tales of Boc¬ 
 caccio, and the sonnets of Petrarch were in 
 the common tongue. In England, Wyc- 
 liffe’s projected reforms touched the very 
 heart of Church and State. (5) The Medi¬ 
 aeval Church had done a good work in 
 subduing the rude tribes of the North to 
 the Gospel, in keeping the Church from 
 being subject to the State, in collecting 
 and transmitting ancient learning. It was 
 a schoolmaster to the nations, but now 
 their pupilage was ending. But when 
 old weapons were found unavailing, the 
 Church took up those of fraud and coer¬ 
 cion. Exactions, simony, extortions, were 
 multiplied; the traffic in indulgences prac¬ 
 tically became the purchase of the right to 
 commit sin. St. Bridget, in her time, had 
 declared that at Rome the whole Deca¬ 
 logue had come down to one precept: 
 “ Givq gold.” The popes were men of 
 shameless lives. At the Councils of Con¬ 
 stance and Basle attempts were made to 
 reform scandalous abuses, but they were 
 too deeply rooted to be thus cured. The 
 invention of printing diffused among the 
 people the culture which hitherto had been 
 the monopoly of the clergy, and the re¬ 
 vived study of Greek and Roman litera¬ 
 ture, owing chiefly to the flight of the 
 Greek scholars before the Turks, who were 
 pressing on Constantinople, opened up the 
 sources of Christian history, and drew back 
 the veil which had long hidden primitive 
 Christianity and the sacred Scriptures. 
 The Papacy was seen to lack historical 
 foundations. The balance of power was 
 moved from the centre to the west of 
 Europe; Venice declined, and the discov¬ 
 ery of a new world placed the future in the 
 grasp of the commercial nations. The 
 Greek Empire fell under Ottoman domin¬ 
 ion, by the capture of Constantinople in 
 1453; but forty years later the Moslem was 
 driven out of Spain, and in 1462 the Greek 
 Church was made the standard of ortho¬ 
 doxy in Russia. 
 
 III. Modern History. — Even Roman 
 Catholic historians have ceased to describe 
 
 the Reformation as a mere violent rupture 
 with the past. The causes of it run back 
 into the very heart of the Middle Ages; its 
 warrant was found not only in the needs of 
 the nation, but in the Holy Scriptures, and 
 the earliest traditions of the Christian 
 Church. The immediate cause was not op¬ 
 position to the Papacy, but a deeper spirit¬ 
 ual experience; a sense of sin, and a need 
 of redemption. So wide-spread was this 
 need that in the first period (1) of the Ref¬ 
 ormation (1517 — 1555) more was gained 
 than was retained; a reaction then began (2) 
 under the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 
 which brought back France and Southern 
 Germany to the Mediaeval Church. No Celt¬ 
 ic race finally accepted the Reform. The 
 Council of Trent (1542—1562) committed 
 Rome irretrievably to the Mediaeval sys¬ 
 tem. (Trent, Council of.) The Reform¬ 
 ed Churches on the Continent were divided 
 into two main portions, the “ Evangelical ” 
 and the “ Reformed,” or Lutheran and 
 Calvinistic. In England the old order was 
 scrupulously observed, and the succession 
 of bishops remained unbroken. (3) The 
 Peace of Westphalia (1648) put an end to 
 the Thirty Years’ War, and established the 
 political rights of the Reformed Churches 
 and princes of Europe. All of the great 
 Confessions of Faith had then been written. 
 The subsequent period saw the progress of 
 the Church in the midst of its conflicts 
 with the civil powers, and also with philos¬ 
 ophy. Its three chief foes were the Deism 
 of England, the Atheism of France, and 
 the Pantheism of Germany. The Angli¬ 
 can theology was shaped by such men as 
 Hooker, Andrewes, Bull, and Waterland. 
 In the early part of the eighteenth century 
 a low tone of theology prevailed. Butler, 
 in his Analogy, defeated the Deists on their 
 own grounds. Whitefield and Wesley rais¬ 
 ed a religious fervor where there had been 
 torpor. The French Revolution came like 
 an earthquake upon Europe, and had a 
 powerful effect, both in humbling the 
 Church of Rome, and in creating a reaction 
 against the infidelity which was so marked 
 a feature of the outbreak. The Roman 
 Catholic Church entered upon a new 
 career, in alliance with absolutism, at the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, and is still a 
 mighty influence in Europe. But in the 
 centre of the reaction, namely France, the 
 division between Religion and Science is 
 growing stronger ever)' day. — Benham: 
 Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 The progress of Christianity in the 
 United States is given in the historical 
 sketches of the various denominations, 
 many of which have had a marvelous 
 growth. The present century has been 
 marked by great activity in missionary 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 179 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 service, and all forms of Christian philan- 
 thopy, and the outlook of the future was 
 never so encouraging as now. 
 
 Christians, Bible. See Bible Chris¬ 
 tians. 
 
 Christians of St. John. About the mid¬ 
 dle of the seventeenth century some Car¬ 
 melite missionaries, in the neighborhood 
 of Basrah and Susa, found a body of Chris¬ 
 tians who called themselves Nazaraeans, or 
 Mendaeans. They claimed to be the de¬ 
 scendants of John the Baptist, hence their 
 name, given by the missionaries. Their 
 holy books are written in an Aramaean 
 dialect. They are called Sabians by the 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 Christians of St. Thomas, the name of a 
 Christian sect living on the Malabar coast. 
 They claim to be descendants of converts 
 made by St. Thomas on his visit to India. 
 Probably they are of Nestorian origin. 
 When the Portuguese conquered the coun¬ 
 try, efforts were made to convert them to 
 the Roman Church, but they have kept a 
 separate existence, although often op¬ 
 pressed. They are now under British pro¬ 
 tection, and number about 60,000 souls. 
 
 Christlieb, Theodor, Ph. D. (Tubingen, 
 1857), D. D. (Berlin, 1870); German Evan¬ 
 gelical preacher and theologian; b. at Bir- 
 kenfeld, Wiirtemburg, March 7, 1833; d. at 
 Bonn, Aug. 15, 1S89. Educated at Tubing¬ 
 en, he became pastor of the Islington 
 German Church, London, 1858-1865. In 
 1868 he was appointed professor of prac¬ 
 tical theology and university preacher at 
 Bonn, where he remained until his death. 
 He was the author of: Modern Doubt and 
 Christian Belief (1868; Eng. trans., Edin¬ 
 burgh and New York, 1874); Protestant 
 Foreign Missions: their Present State (1879; 
 Eng. trans., New York, 1880). 
 
 Christmas Day. “ A festival of the Chris¬ 
 tian Church, observed on the 25th of De¬ 
 cember, in memory of the birth of Jesus 
 Christ. There is, however, a difficulty in 
 accepting this as the date of the Nativity, 
 December being the height of the rainy 
 season in Judea, when neither flocks nor 
 shepherds could have been at night in the 
 fields of Bethlehem. Although, as regards 
 Christmas, an ingenious case on behalf of 
 the month of October has been made out, 
 from what is known concerning the course 
 of Abia (Luke i. 5) it does not seem pos¬ 
 sible to arrive at any certain conclusion. 
 By the fifth century, however, whether 
 from the influence of some tradition, or 
 from the desire to supplant heathen festi¬ 
 
 vals of that period of the year, such as the 
 Saturnalia, the 25th of December has been 
 generally agreed upon. Augustine ex¬ 
 pressly mentions this date (De Sien. iv. 5); 
 and Chrysostom seems to speak of it as a 
 custom imported from the West within ten 
 years. Before that time it appears to have 
 been kept conjointly with the feast of the 
 Epiphany, on the 6th of January. It is 
 generally considered to rank third among 
 the festivals of the Church (Easter and 
 Whitsuntide alone being placed above it), 
 and to have a joy peculiarly its own. In 
 all civilized countries the annual recur¬ 
 rence of Christmas has been celebrated 
 with festivities of various kinds.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. This festival was in England 
 attended by such revelry that the Puritans 
 abolished it altogether, and it was not 
 observed by the churches sprung from 
 them, both in Great Britain and America. 
 In recent years, however, the custom 
 among them of keeping it as a family day, 
 devoted especially to the bestowing of 
 gifts and the joy of childhood, has in¬ 
 creased, and the celebration of Christmas 
 is now well-nigh universal. See Chambers: 
 Book of Days (Edinburgh, 1864). 
 
 Christology. Transcending in impor¬ 
 tance even the teachings and the life of 
 Christ is his unique personality. This was, 
 in fact, the central subject of his teaching, 
 as it was the secret of his incomparable 
 life. He is not only “ the author and 
 finisher of our faith,” he is its object. 
 Christology is, accordingly, the heart of 
 Christianity. Without this it ceases to be 
 Christianity. It is the centre of assault 
 and of defense, the foundation of Christian 
 experience, as well as of Christian theology. 
 Salvation is the work of the personal 
 Christ—Christ for us and Christ in us. 
 All the sources of light and of life are in 
 him. 
 
 The importance of Christology can, 
 therefore, not be exaggerated. The most 
 momentous question ever addressed to 
 human ears is, “ What think ye of Jesus ? 
 Whose Son is he ? ” 
 
 That Jesus Christ is the Son of God, be¬ 
 gotten of the Father from all eternity, is a 
 doctrine properly discussed under the 
 Trinity (which see). But the Logos be¬ 
 came flesh. Christ is the incarnation of 
 deity, unquestionably true man, born of the 
 Virgin Mary. He possesses all the attri¬ 
 butes of our nature intact and unabridged; 
 his body subject to the conditions of birth, 
 nourishment, growth, fatigue, sleep, suf¬ 
 fering, death, and resurrection; his soul 
 characterized by limitations of knowledge, 
 intellectual growth, emotions of joy and 
 sorrow, love, anger, wonder, and prayer. 
 
Chr 
 
 ( i So ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 Significantly he is called in the Scriptures 
 now Son of God, now Son of man. He is 
 at once God and man—a theanthropic sub¬ 
 ject, the God-man. 
 
 The advent of such a composite person 
 is foreshadowed in the Old Testament. A 
 divine Messiah in human form hovered 
 before prophetic vision. The thought of 
 pGod visiting his people coincides with the 
 coming of a deliverer who is to proceed 
 from the House of David. Such instances 
 as that of the Branch raised unto Jehovah 
 (Jer. xxiii. 6), the paradox of David’s Son 
 being David’s Lord (Matt. xxii. 41 ff.); the 
 designation of this deliverer, in the earlier 
 Isaiah, by the terms Immanuel, The Ever¬ 
 lasting Father, The Mighty God (Isa. ix. 
 6; Mai. iii. 1); and his representation, in 
 the later Isaiah, as a despised, suffering 
 servant of Jehovah, offering up his soul as 
 a vicarious sacrifice (Isa. liii.), present col¬ 
 lectively a portraiture so complex and so 
 contradictory, that, without an actual in¬ 
 carnation of God, there is no correlative 
 fulfillment of these mysterious prophecies, 
 no solution to their meaning, and no real¬ 
 ization of the exalted hopes excited by 
 them. 
 
 The possibility of the infinite entering 
 into relations with the finite appears to be 
 assumed in revelation. It inheres in the 
 nature of divinity, and in the nature of hu¬ 
 manity created in the image of God. Even 
 heathenism shared the conception of 
 such a union, since it presents in many of 
 its systems a world of divine-human ideals. 
 The doctrine of an incarnation holds a 
 prominent place, especially in the Oriental 
 philosophies, the unaided human mind 
 feeling the need of it, and struggling with 
 the idea. The supreme miracle of Chris¬ 
 tianity is the consummation of the yearn¬ 
 ings and anticipations alike of inspired and 
 uninspired conceptions, the centre of the 
 world’s history. 
 
 Following the light of the Scriptures and 
 the postulates of Christian consciousness, 
 the primitive Church held fast both to the 
 deity of the Redeemer and to his human¬ 
 ity. They worshiped him as God. They 
 trusted to his death on the cross for salva¬ 
 tion. God only could accomplish the work 
 of saving sinners. Man only could prop¬ 
 erly represent man in this office. When, 
 in the first century, the Docetae denied his 
 human body, and, subsequently, Arians 
 and Apollinarians disputed the complete¬ 
 ness of his rational human soul, theology 
 soon triumphed in establishing the reality 
 of his body, as it is confessed in the Apos¬ 
 tles’ Creed, and declared fundamental in 
 the Scriptures (1 John iv. 3); and, later, it 
 declared the completeness of his human¬ 
 ity, as embracing the rational part as well 
 
 as the psychical and physical. Nothing 
 human, it was seen, could be wanting to 
 him who took his place at the head of hu¬ 
 manity, on the cross and before the throne, 
 in order to lift it back to God. Thus, as 
 protracted and profound discussions re¬ 
 sulted in asserting the perfect divinity of 
 Christ, similar controversies yielded the 
 unalterable result of his perfect humanity. 
 Both points of the dogma are clearly 
 traced in the early Christian writers. That 
 the third point, the union of the two nat¬ 
 ures in one person, was also the common 
 faith, is quite evident, for, staggering as 
 was this paradox when it first confronted 
 scientific reflection, there is nowhere an 
 instance of Christ being viewed as divided 
 into two subjects, some things being pred¬ 
 icated of a divine Christ, some of a human 
 Christ. There never was a time when the 
 Church did not believe in “ one Christ, 
 true God and true man “ God, of the 
 substance of the Father, begotten before 
 the worlds; and man, of the substance of 
 his mother, born in the world.” 
 
 But the proper mutual relation of the 
 two natures, conditioned by their being 
 joined in a personal and perfect union, the 
 part sustained by the divine, and that by 
 the human, in the life, experiences, actions 
 and offices of the God-man, what was to be 
 ascribed to either nature, what to both, 
 was not clearly apprehended, and a long 
 contest ensued before a satisfactory defini¬ 
 tion of this profound mystery was formu¬ 
 lated. The problem to be solved was to 
 preserve the distinction of the two natures 
 without surrendering the unity of person, 
 and, conversely, to hold the unity of per¬ 
 son without confounding the tw r o natures 
 of which it is composed. The appearance 
 of error impelled to a progressive unfold¬ 
 ing of the truth, and aided in its final and 
 fixed determination. Misleading terms and 
 overstatements, endangering either of the 
 elements essential to the dogma, were re¬ 
 jected, and definitions were reached which 
 the consensus of the Church has never 
 materially altered. 
 
 Two schools appeared. The Antiochi- 
 ans, carefully separatingand distinguishing 
 in thought the two natures, emphasizing 
 the reality, completeness, and unchange¬ 
 ableness of the human nature, developed 
 two personal centres—two subjects, God 
 and man, brought, indeed, into a relation 
 of common being and common action, yet 
 each to be conceived as independent of the 
 other. Their union is merely a mechanical 
 conjunction, an indwelling of the Son of 
 God in the son of Mary, analogous to 
 God’s indwelling in believers. Christ is 
 the man with whom God is united. Thus, 
 deity in no sense participated in the birth 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 181 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 passion, or death, of the humanity. Such a 
 view, it was charged, would confuse the 
 two natures, and, therefore, destroy them, 
 paralyzing the action of the finite, and de¬ 
 grading the infinite to creaturehood. The 
 current phrase, “Mary, the mother of God,” 
 was repudiated as blasphemous. What 
 was born of Mary is flesh. This may be 
 adored in so far as it is the organ of the 
 redeeming Logos, but not because of shar¬ 
 ing, itself, in any divine attributes. 
 
 The Alexandrians,always rejecting every 
 theory that involved the mutilation of 
 Christ’s human nature, yet with a predilec¬ 
 tion for what is transcendental and incon¬ 
 ceivable, emphasized the union to a point 
 approximating the deification of the human¬ 
 ity. Cyril broached a communication of 
 properties, whereby the “Logos imparts 
 himself entirely to the flesh, which he as¬ 
 sumes, and thus lifts it up into the deity.” 
 The term used by this school to express the 
 relation was phusike kenosis. The divine 
 indwelling in Christ was altogetherdifferent 
 from his indwelling in good men. There 
 was but one Son of man. In him divinity 
 assumed humanity, making flesh his own. 
 In the process of the miraculous concep¬ 
 tion, the Son of God assumed the human 
 nature, creating it for himself. The pred¬ 
 icates of being born, suffering, dying, were 
 applied also to the divinity. The subject 
 of these experiences was God. After the 
 incarnation, and in concreto we can speak of 
 only one nature, that of the God-man, 
 “ one nature of the divine Logos, incar¬ 
 nate and to be worshiped.” Mary was 
 the mother of God. 
 
 The extreme representation of this view, 
 known as Eutychianism, from Eutychus, 
 Presbyter of Constantinople, sacrificed the 
 •distinction of natures to the unity of per¬ 
 son, the incarnation being regarded an ab¬ 
 sorption of the human nature into the di¬ 
 vine. This was the very opposite of the 
 extreme of the Antiochians, called Nesto- 
 rianism, from Nestorius, patriarch of Con¬ 
 stantinople, although this school did not 
 admit that it sacrificed the unity,and taught, 
 with the others,, that at the incarnation the 
 human nature had lost its personality and 
 independence. By the latter the union 
 was viewed as subjective in us, while ob¬ 
 jectively the two natures were separated 
 to the point of two persons. By the for¬ 
 mer a distinction between the two natures is 
 regarded as logically still existing. God 
 does not cease to be God, nor man cease to 
 be man, but in reality there are no longer 
 two natures. As the Logos is the prin¬ 
 ciple which constitutes the personality, 
 Christ being not a human person with a 
 divine nature, but a divine person with a 
 human nature, that which is assumed 
 
 by this divine person becomes one with 
 it. 
 
 Thus the extremists confronted each 
 other with the problem of a transformation 
 of the two natures, or a division of the one 
 person. Each party had, by undue em¬ 
 phasis, carried one aspect of the truth be¬ 
 yond the limits of orthodoxy into positive 
 error. To eliminate the error on both 
 sides, and to combine the truth as held by 
 both, to effect a union of antagonisms and 
 comprehend the truth in its entirety, be¬ 
 came now the task of theology. 
 
 Nestorianism was shown to be destruc¬ 
 tive of the redemptive activity, which is the 
 work of the theanthropic person. All of 
 Christ’s actions and sufferings possess a 
 priestly and mediatorial character, and they 
 lose their significance when referred to the 
 human Jesus, or predicated only of his hu¬ 
 man nature. Nothing that a man may do 
 or endure can effect human redemption. 
 This is the work of the divine Son incar¬ 
 nate. Nestorianism, in effect, precludes 
 the humiliation, and annihilates the incar¬ 
 nation, thus taking away the very basis for 
 redemption. Such a theory is as irrecon¬ 
 cilable with the facts of Christian experi¬ 
 ence as it is incompatible with “ the undi¬ 
 vided consciousness of the Christ pictured 
 to us in the Gospels.” Christ always 
 speaks of himself as a unit. He always 
 uses the personal pronoun to cover the ac¬ 
 tion of both natures. (John viii. 58; xvii. 5.) 
 The man and the God never hold converse 
 with each other. There is nothing in the 
 historic Christ implying a divided personal¬ 
 ity, or a consciousness of two persons con¬ 
 joined; but from his birth the two natures 
 are hypostatically united, concurring in one 
 personal consciousness which covers the 
 realities of both the divine and the human 
 natures. 
 
 Eutychianism, especially the error that, 
 since the body of Christ was that of deity, 
 it could not have been of the same nature 
 as ours, was likewise seen to be in conflict 
 with the Church’s traditional faith, and to 
 be substantially a reproduction of the her¬ 
 esies of Docetism and Apollinarianism, 
 which had been previously condemned. 
 Nestorius was excommunicated by the 
 Council of Ephesus, A. D. 431, Eutychus at 
 a synod held in Constantinople, A. D. 448. 
 
 No final definition of the boundary-line 
 between Christological truth and Christo- 
 logical error was, however, laid down 
 until the assembly of the fourth (Ecumen¬ 
 ical Council at Chalcedon, A. D. 451. Here, 
 expanding the briefer forms of the Apos¬ 
 tolic and the Nicene creeds, guarding 
 equally against an abstract separation of 
 the divine and human, and an absorption of 
 the human by the divine, in clear, calm. 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 182 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 and balanced statements, the Catholic faith 
 was pronounced to be “ one and the same 
 Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same per¬ 
 fect in Godhead, and also perfect in man¬ 
 hood; truly God and truly man, of a ra¬ 
 tional soul and body; consubstantial with 
 the Father according to the Godhead, and 
 consubstantial with us according to the 
 Manhood; in all things like unto us, without 
 sin; begotten before all ages of the Father, 
 according to the Godhead; and in these lat¬ 
 ter days, for us and for our salvation, born 
 of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, 
 according to the Manhood; One and the 
 same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, 
 to be acknowledged in two natures, incon- 
 fusedly , unchangeably , indivisibly , insepara¬ 
 bly; the distinction of natures being by no 
 means taken away by the union, but rather 
 the property of each nature being pre¬ 
 served, and concurring in one Person and 
 one Subsistence, not parted or divided into 
 two persons, but one and the same Son 
 and Only - begotten, God the Word, the 
 Lord Jesus Christ.” 
 
 The Athanasian creed, in a more con¬ 
 densed form, reads: “ Perfect God and per¬ 
 fect Man; of a rational soul and human 
 flesh subsisting ; equal to the Father as 
 touching his Godhead; and inferior to the 
 Father as touching his Manhood: Who, 
 although he is God and Man, yet he is not 
 two, but one Christ. One, not by conver¬ 
 sion of the Godhead into flesh, but by as¬ 
 sumption of the Manhood into God. One 
 altogether: not by confusion of substance, 
 but by unity of Person. For, as the ra¬ 
 tional soul and flesh is one Man, so God 
 and Man is one Christ, who suffered for 
 our Salvation, descended into Hell,” etc. 
 
 Nestorianism and Monophysitism were 
 both excluded from the orthodox faith. 
 The incarnation, it was recognized, made 
 no change in either of the natures, while 
 it joined them in the perfect individual 
 unity of one personality, whose ego is the 
 central point of both the divine nature, 
 which was proper to him, and of the hu¬ 
 man nature which he took unto him, the 
 latter being, indeed, not personal of itself 
 prior to the union, but being so in and 
 with the divine nature. The personality 
 of the hypostatic union is from the divine 
 side. The constitutive act for Christ’s 
 composite person is, throughout, acknowl¬ 
 edged to have been the assumption of the 
 human nature into union with itself by the 
 divine Logos, through whom all things 
 were made. 
 
 That this is an inscrutable mystery is 
 freely admitted by all who sit at the feet 
 of revelation. All natural reasoning is 
 dashed on this rock. Yet the necessity for 
 the undivided person of a God-man arises 
 
 from the exigency of our fallen state. It 
 is the only means of closing the chasm 
 which sin has made between man and God, 
 the absolute condition of the restoration of 
 real communion between man and God. 
 
 Recoiling from extremes, the Church has 
 generally been content with the Chalcedon- 
 ese statement. It has been practically ac¬ 
 cepted as a final presentation by some, 
 indeed, as the neplus ultra of the endeavor 
 to unfold the mystery of Christ’s complex 
 person. 
 
 Extremists were, however, not silenced 
 by the decision of the Council. The 
 Monophysites continued to assert that nat¬ 
 ure and person were equivalent concepts; 
 that Christ had but one composite nature; 
 and that the doctrine of two natures involv¬ 
 ed the idea of two persons. Some unimpor¬ 
 tant concessions were made to them at the 
 Fifth Council, A. d. 553. When, later, the 
 Monothelites argued that one person could 
 have but one will, since there could not 
 be two wills if they were in perfect har¬ 
 mony, while two inharmonious wills would 
 destroy the unity of person; the orthodox 
 replied that will is an attribute of nature, 
 rather than of person, and that consequent¬ 
 ly Christ had two wills, the human follow¬ 
 ing the divine will. This view received the 
 sanction of the Sixth Council, A. d. 680. 
 
 When the Reformation restored the per¬ 
 sonal Christ to the centre of Christian 
 truth and life, a fresh impulse was given 
 to Christological study, and divergence on 
 this point became a characteristic differ¬ 
 ence between the Lutheran and Reformed 
 Churches. The former have been charged 
 with a Eutychian, the latter with a Nesto- 
 rian leaning. The Reformed, however, at¬ 
 tempted no advance beyond the definitions 
 of Chalcedon, whereas, the Lutherans, 
 proceeding from the basis of the ancient 
 Christology, developed the doctrine of the 
 communication of properties under three 
 heads: 
 
 (1) The genus idiomaticum, according to 
 which the properties of both natures are 
 communicated and belong to the same 
 person. What is peculiar to the divine or 
 the human nature is truly and really 
 ascribed to the entire person, designated 
 by either nature, or by both. “ Those 
 properties which belong only to one nature 
 are ascribed to the person, not apart from 
 the other nature but to the entire person, 
 who is, at the same time, God and man,” 
 and may be indifferently designated by di¬ 
 vine or human titles. He is God when 
 he dies ; he is man when he raises and 
 judges the dead. (Form. Cone. cf. Rom. i. 
 3; 1 Pet. iii. 18; iv. 1.) Any statement short 
 of this destroys the true theanthropic, un¬ 
 divided consciousness of Christ. 
 
Chr 
 
 (183) 
 
 Chr 
 
 (2) The genus apotelismaticutn , according 
 to which the redemptive functions, which 
 belong to the undivided person, are pred¬ 
 icated, not of one nature only, but of both 
 natures. All actions pertaining to the 
 office of Christ are common to both, each 
 contributing that which is its own; “each 
 acting and working what is peculiar to 
 each, with the participation of the other.” 
 “ The person does not act with one, or 
 through one, nature only, but in, with and 
 according to, and through, both natures.” 
 All redemptive work, on earth and in 
 heaven, including the impartation of him¬ 
 self in the Supper, proceeds from the sin¬ 
 gle centre of the Redeemer’s personality, 
 and is participated in by both natures. 
 The sufferings and death of Christ consti¬ 
 tute the decisive act of redemption, but 
 that it may be this, both natures must act¬ 
 ually concur, the forces of both natures 
 be exercised. The Redeemer acts in noth¬ 
 ing as God only, or as man only; but in 
 all as God-man, unity of action resulting 
 from unity of person, all action and all suf¬ 
 fering bearing a divine-human character. 
 Christ is never for a moment our Savior, 
 Mediator, or King, according to one nature 
 only, but according to both. 
 
 (3) The genus tnajestaticum , according to 
 which, since the person of the divine na¬ 
 ture has become also that of the human, 
 there results to the human nature a par¬ 
 ticipation in the attributes of the divine. 
 The human nature, by its participation in 
 the divine person, becomes a participant in 
 the divine nature, and accordingly enters 
 into the possession and use of properties 
 which are inseparable from the divine es¬ 
 sence. No reciprocal transfusion of prop¬ 
 erties is admitted, nor any conversion of 
 the human into the divine, the human, per 
 se, always remaining finite and circum¬ 
 scribed; but the divine omnipresence, 
 power, majesty, and glory, shining, mani¬ 
 festing and exercising themselves in, with, 
 and through the assumed, exalted human 
 nature, the person of which it forms an 
 integral part causing it to share in such 
 attributes. The Logos is never and no¬ 
 where without or beyond his flesh. Christ 
 is present with his composite, undivided 
 person, wherever he pleases. Thus, at 
 least a relative ubiquity is predicated of his 
 humanity, and this view was used in sup¬ 
 port of the “ Real Presence ” in the Eucha¬ 
 rist. The Reformed rejected both the 
 doctrine and the sacramental theory sought 
 to be confirmed by it. 
 
 Confessional statements have never gone 
 beyond the developments here briefly 
 traced. But speculation has boldly sought 
 to sound yet other depths. Was the in¬ 
 carnation due solely to the catastrophe of 
 
 sin ? is a question which suggested itself 
 to some of the early Greek Fathers. Is the 
 supreme event of history the result of an 
 accident ? It has been answered, on the one 
 side, that it is but the summit of creation, 
 the perfecting of humanity, independent of 
 the fall. There is, in the divine nature, a 
 metaphysical necessity for union with the 
 human nature, which is its complement. 
 The finite, too, is capable of the infinite. 
 Others have answered that the Bible ex¬ 
 plicitly declares the incarnation to have 
 occurred for the salvation of sinners. 
 But this objection is met by the fact 
 that the Bible confines itself to the his¬ 
 tory of the revelation of redemption, 
 taking no cognizance of truths outside this 
 province. 
 
 What may be called the modern kenotic 
 theory has been developed, alike by rep¬ 
 resentative Lutheran and Reformed theo¬ 
 logians. Its distinctive conception is that 
 of “ a humanized Logos.” Resting, for the 
 most part, on the old Christological foun¬ 
 dations, and proceeding from the classic 
 passage, Phil. ii. 8, the dominant idea of 
 this view is that the “eternal, preexistent 
 Logos reduced himself to the rank and 
 measures of humanity.” The kenosis was 
 an abandonment of the divine attributes, 
 omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence, 
 during the humiliation. The assumption 
 of human nature involves this self-limita¬ 
 tion. The theory seems to be the reverse 
 of the principle of the communicatio majes- 
 taticum , communicating the properties of 
 the humanity to the divinity. The infinite 
 is lowered to the finite. There is a tempo¬ 
 rary exinanition or depotentiation. The 
 Logos passed from the divine mode of ex¬ 
 istence to the human mode. There was a 
 metamorphosis from the morphe Theoii to 
 the morphe Thoulon. He became subject to 
 time and space, and the laws of develop¬ 
 ment and growth, although retaining the 
 essential attributes of truth, holiness, and 
 love, which, indeed, he revealed during his 
 humiliation. A copious and stimulating 
 literature has appeared on this, subject, 
 which, however, reveals such a diversity 
 of view, that, while it is a proof of the 
 transcendent and ever-increasing interest 
 of the human mind in the person of the 
 Redeemer, is also an admonition that the 
 province of reason here is not to reduce 
 the unknowable to finite terms, but to hold 
 all its powers in adoring wonder. 
 
 Literature: Dorner: The Person 0f 
 
 Christ; Liddon: Our Lords Divinity; 
 Thomasius: Christi: Person unJ Werk; 
 Marten sen: Christian Dogmatics ; Bruce: 
 Humiliation of Christ; Krauth: Conserva¬ 
 tive Pc formation; Schmid: Doctrinal The¬ 
 ology of the Evang. Luth. Church; Schaff; 
 
Chr 
 
 ( 184 ) 
 
 Chr 
 
 the people, and of confidence in the favor 
 of God, notwithstanding the punishment 
 he had inflicted upon them by captivity. 
 For this purpose, nothing could be more 
 effectual than a continuous history of the 
 nation, from David downward, represent¬ 
 ing the Divine favor as dependent upon 
 the faithfulness of rulers and people to the 
 original covenant, and Divine punishment 
 as the natural result of unfaithfulness. 
 The Rook of Chronicles (for it is properly 
 only one) draws the picture which would 
 most stimulate hope and patriotism. It 
 gives, in order, the establishment of the 
 Temple ritual, with its course of priests 
 and officers, under David; its further de¬ 
 velopment under Solomon; its restoration 
 under Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah; 
 and the reappearance of Divine favor at 
 the final restoration of church and nation 
 after the captivity. Thus the Chronicles 
 are the beginning of the ecclesiastical his¬ 
 tory which continues in an unbroken thread 
 to the end of the Book of Nehemiah.”— 
 “Oxford” Bible. See Commentaries of 
 Bertheau (2d ed., 1873); C. F. Keil (1870 
 translated in Clark’s Foreign Theo. Li¬ 
 brary). 
 
 Chrys'olite {golden stone ), the precious 
 stone which garnished the seventh founda¬ 
 tion of the New Jerusalem, which John 
 saw in his vision. (Rev. xxi. 20.) The yel¬ 
 low topaz, or the beryl of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Christ and Christianity; Sartorius: 7 'he 
 Doctrine of Divine Love. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Christopher, St., according to untrust¬ 
 worthy traditions a Christian martyr of the 
 third century, and a native of Lycia. The 
 well - known legend connected with his 
 name is as follows: “ He was very strong, 
 and of gigantic stature, and, wishing to use 
 his strength for the good of others, he car¬ 
 ried people across a stream near which he 
 lived. One night he was aroused by hear¬ 
 ing some one call him, and going out 
 found a child waiting to be carried across. 
 St. Christopher at first found his burden 
 very light, but it grew heavier and heavier, 
 so that he seemed ready to sink under it. 
 When they reached the bank the child had 
 grown to be a man, who said, * Wonder 
 not, my friend; I am Jesus, and you had 
 the weight of the sins of the whole world 
 on your back.’ ” His day is celebrated by 
 the Greek Church, May 9, and by the 
 Latin, July 25. 
 
 Chronicles, I.,II. “These are united into 
 one book in the Hebrew, ‘ The Diaries,’ 
 from whence our title arises. In the LXX. 
 they are called ‘ Things Omitted ’ ( Para - 
 lipomena), or * Supplement.’ They con¬ 
 tain much of the matter of the previous 
 Books of Kings, but supply additional in¬ 
 formation. The genealogical tables are 
 valuable, since they record the unbroken 
 line of the chosen people for about 3,500 
 years. 
 
 “ The authority of these books has been 
 unsuccessfully assailed by those critics 
 who wish to maintain that the origin of the 
 Pentateuch belongs to the period subse¬ 
 quent to the Captivity. Jewish tradition 
 and Christian writers agree in ascribing 
 their compilation to Ezra, who obtained 
 his material from various annals of the 
 monarchy. The cause of their compilation 
 is naturally suggested by the first difficul¬ 
 ties which would present themselves to 
 the leaders of those who returned from 
 captivity, in allotting the various portions 
 of territory to the families entitled to them 
 according to the Mosaic Law. Again, the 
 maintenance of the Temple service and of 
 the payment of tithes, etc., required strict 
 legal proof of hereditary descent on the 
 part of the officiating Priests and Levites. 
 These two great political questions neces¬ 
 sitated the compilation of authoritative 
 genealogical tables. To this work Ezra 
 and Nehemiah seem to have earnestly set 
 themselves. In their hands, moreover, 
 the restoration of the Temple and its wor¬ 
 ship became the great feature in the new 
 constitution. They felt the vital impor¬ 
 tance of restoring a spirit of patriotism in 
 
 Chrysopra'sus(^<?/V/c« leek) (Rex. xxi. 20), 
 an agate stone resembling, in its green 
 color, the juice of the leek, with golden 
 spots. 
 
 Chrys'ostom, John (Gr. Chrysosto??ios, 
 golden-mouth; so named from the splendor 
 of his eloquence), “ was b. at Antioch, in 
 347 A. D. His mother, Anthusa, was a 
 pious woman, wholly devoted to her son, 
 who grew up, under her loving instruc¬ 
 tions, into an earnest, gentle, and serious 
 youth, passing through, as Neander sig¬ 
 nificantly observes, none of those wild, 
 dark struggles with sinful passion which 
 left an ineffaceable impress on the soul of 
 Augustine, and gave a sombre coloring to 
 his whole theology. He studied oratory 
 under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician; 
 soon excelled his teacher; and, after devot¬ 
 ing some time to the study of philosophy, 
 retired to a solitary place in Syria, and 
 there read the Holy Scriptures. The 
 ascetic severity of his life and studies 
 brought on an illness which forced him to 
 return to Antioch, where he was ordained 
 deacon by Bishop Meletius in 381, and 
 presbyter by Bishop Flavianus in 386. 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 185 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 The eloquence, earnestness, and practical 
 tone of his preaching excited the attention 
 of Jews, heathens, and heretics, and se¬ 
 cured for him the reputation of the chief 
 orator of the Eastern Church. In 397, the 
 eunuch Eutropius, minister of the Em¬ 
 peror Arcadius, who had been struck by 
 his bold and brilliant preaching, elevated 
 him to the episcopate of Constantinople. 
 Chrysostom immediately began to restrict 
 the episcopal expenditure in which his 
 predecessors had indulged, and bestowed 
 so large a portion of his revenues on hos¬ 
 pitals and other charities, that he gained 
 the surname of ‘John the Almoner.’ He 
 also endeavored to reform the lives of the 
 clergy, and sent missionaries into Scythia, 
 Persia, Palestine, and other lands. His 
 faithful discharge of his duties, especially 
 in reproof of vices, excited the enmity of 
 the Patriarch Theophilus, and of the Em¬ 
 press Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing 
 and banishing him from the capital. He 
 was soon recalled, to be banished again 
 shortly afterward. He now went to Nicaea, 
 in Bithynia, but was from thence removed 
 to the little town of Kukusus, in the desert 
 parts of the Taurus mountains. Even here 
 his zeal was not abated. He labored for 
 the conversion of the Persians and Goths 
 in the neighborhood, and wrote the seven¬ 
 teen letters (or rather moral essays) to 
 Olympias, to whom he also addressed a 
 treatise on the proposition—‘ None can 
 hurt the man who will not hurt himself.’ 
 The emperor, enraged by the general sym¬ 
 pathy expressed toward him by all true 
 Christians, gave orders that he should be 
 more remotely banished to a desolate tract 
 on the Euxine, at the very verge of the 
 eastern Roman empire. Accordingly, the 
 old man was made to travel on foot, and 
 with his bare head exposed to a burning 
 sun. This cruelty proved fatal. Chrys¬ 
 ostom died on the way, at Comanum, in 
 Pontus, Sept. 14, 407 a. d., blessing God 
 with his dying lips. The news of his death 
 excited much sorrow among all pious 
 Christians, for he was a man who drew 
 the hearts of his fellows after him—a lov¬ 
 able, manly Christian, hating lies, world¬ 
 liness, hypocrisy, and all manner of un¬ 
 truthfulness with that honest warmth of 
 temper which all vigorous people relish.” 
 —Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See W. A. W. 
 Stephens: Life and Times of Chrysostom 
 (London, 1872; 2d ed., 1880). 
 
 Chubb, Thomas, a well-known deistical 
 writer; b. at East Harnham, near Salis¬ 
 bury, Sept. 29, 1679; d. at Salisbury, Feb. 
 8, 1746. Under the most adverse circum¬ 
 stances he secured a fair education. His 
 first volume, The Supremacy of the Father 
 
 Asserted, grew out of a discussion, with his 
 friends, of the views presented by Whish- 
 ton, in his Primitive Christianity Revived. 
 From this time on, Chubb wrote a large 
 number of controversial tracts that attract¬ 
 ed much attention. “ He denied a special 
 providence, miracles, literal inspiration, 
 and, apparently, Christ’s resurrection.” 
 —Cairns: Unbelief in the Eighteenth Cen¬ 
 tury (Edinburgh and N. Y., 1881). 
 
 Church (Greek, kuriakon , the Lord’s 
 house); some derive it from the Celtic 
 root, circus , whence kirk , a circle, because 
 many of the oldest temples in which Chris¬ 
 tians gathered were circular in form. “ In 
 the New Testament the original word is 
 ecclesia, which means an assembly, either 
 secular (Acts xix. 32), or religious (Acts ii. 
 47), etc. It is applied either to the whole 
 body of believers in Christ, the Church 
 universal (Matt. xvi. 18; Eph. i. 22), or to 
 a particular congregation in a local sense, 
 as “ the Church at Jerusalem ” (Acts xv. 
 4), “ at Antioch ” (Acts xvii. 1), etc. The 
 original word is used only twice in the 
 Gospels, each time by Matthew, xvi. 18, 
 where it means the Church universal, and 
 xviii. 17, where it means a local congrega¬ 
 tion. The evangelists usually employ the 
 term “the kingdom of God,” or “the 
 kingdom of heaven,” for the spiritual sub¬ 
 stance of the Church universal.”—Schaff: 
 Bible Did. The definition of a church 
 which is most generally accepted by Prot¬ 
 estants, is that given in the Nineteenth 
 Article of the Church of England—“ a con¬ 
 gregation of faithful men in the which the 
 pure Word of God is preached, and the 
 sacraments be duly ministered according 
 to Christ’s ordinance, in all those things 
 that of necessity are requisite to the same.” 
 The Church is made up of all true Chris¬ 
 tians, but, in its organization, is now di¬ 
 vided either by names that have a local 
 significance, or by differences on points of 
 doctrine or polity. These differences are 
 noted in the historical sketches of religious 
 bodies given under their several names. 
 
 Church-Congress, an annual gathering of 
 clerical and lay members of the Church of 
 England. The first congress was held at 
 Cambridge, in 1861. 
 
 Church-Diet ( Kirchentag ), a name given 
 conventions of clergy and laity in German 
 Protestant churches, having for their pur¬ 
 pose the discussion of religious and social 
 questions. They have been held since 
 1848. 
 
 Church and State. The primordial so¬ 
 cial institution is the family. In this both 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 186) 
 
 Chu 
 
 Church and State have their prototype and 
 source. The former is the organization of 
 society for its spiritual welfare; the latter 
 for its civil well-being. The former has 
 to do with man’s conscience; the latter 
 concerns his political interests. While no 
 power exists but of God, Christ draws a 
 distinction between the spiritual and the 
 civil domain, as wide as that between God 
 and Caesar. In accordance with this dis¬ 
 tinction, each has its own character, sphere, 
 purpose, and instrumentalities, the one 
 being governed and maintained by spirit¬ 
 ual agencies, the other wielding the sword. 
 
 There are, however, questions, such as 
 public morality, marriage, and education, 
 where the boundaries of Church and State 
 seem necessarily to intersect, and often 
 produce a commingling or a collision of 
 jurisdiction involving extreme perplexity. 
 
 Paganism blended politics and religion 
 under one rule. The gods were national, 
 the sovereign was supreme pontiff, the 
 priests were state officials, and war and 
 worship were conducted under the same 
 authority—were constituent parts of the 
 same system. Judaism was a theocracy, 
 embracing Church and State in immediate 
 union, all political and religious adminis¬ 
 tration being vested in divinely appointed 
 organs. 
 
 When Christ came, the chosen people 
 had lost their independence. They looked 
 to him for national deliverance, and were 
 prepared with one mind to seat him on the 
 throne of David. He protested alike to 
 Jews and to their Roman rulers that his 
 kingdom was not of this world, and his re¬ 
 fusal of temporal power excited the hos¬ 
 tility of the leaders, and estranged many 
 who stood ready to enlist under his stand¬ 
 ard. 
 
 Christianity thus arose in absolute inde¬ 
 pendence of the civil power. As it avowed 
 its purpose, in its rapid progress, to sup¬ 
 plant all other religions, and as these were 
 everywhere institutions of the State, per¬ 
 iling all social and civic relations, an at¬ 
 tack upon the religion of the State was an 
 attack upon the State itself. The opposi¬ 
 tion of the government was, therefore, to be 
 expected, and the more an emperor felt his 
 responsibility to guard all the interests of 
 the empire, the more inexorable was his 
 purpose to exterminate a movement that 
 threatened a religious revolution. For 
 centuries, accordingly, the only relation 
 which the Church sustained to the State 
 was its encountering a series of bloody 
 persecutions inaugurated for its destruc¬ 
 tion. And by common consent those were 
 the golden centuries of Christianity; the 
 period of its greatest purity and vigor; 
 the age of its matchless triumphs. Such 
 
 was the light which shone out from the 
 teachings of the Church, from its superior 
 morality and from the flames of its mar¬ 
 tyrs, that it converted the civilized world, 
 and one of the greatest of rulers pro¬ 
 claimed it as the religion of the empire, in 
 the hope of arresting its civic dissolution. 
 
 The cross became the imperial ensign; 
 but alas! the heel of secular power soon 
 defiled the altar. The sudden transition 
 from a detested and persecuted commu¬ 
 nity to the exalted station of political power 
 involved no immediate changes in the con¬ 
 stitution and character of the Church, yet 
 what was gained in outward advantage 
 was a poor exchange for what was lost in 
 the vitiation of its life-blood. The strong 
 carnal hand which supported it presumed 
 also, practically, to govern it. Laws were 
 enacted requiring public institutions and 
 popular customs to be conformed to Chris¬ 
 tian principles, maintaining the rights of 
 humanity, providing special privileges for 
 the Church and its officials, and giving 
 State sanction to ecclesiastical discipline 
 and conciliar decisions; but on the other 
 hand, court-influence stifled free develop¬ 
 ment, force was substituted for the weap¬ 
 ons of the Spirit, temporal advantages led 
 to the profession of Christianity, and the 
 influx of the worldly-minded relaxed the 
 moral earnestness of the Church and as¬ 
 similated it to the world. 
 
 The emperor, it was understood, had no 
 jurisdiction over internal questions, doc¬ 
 trine, worship, and discipline; yet, as a 
 sort of pontifical character gradually at¬ 
 tached to him, he came to exercise, directly 
 or indirectly, especially through the ap¬ 
 pointment of bishops, a decisive influence 
 upon the Church. The Donatists, in the 
 fourth century, stood alone in the repudi¬ 
 ation of the usurpation of Church func¬ 
 tions by the State. 
 
 The removal of the seat of government 
 to Constantinople combined, with various 
 other circumstances, to place political au¬ 
 thority in the hands of the bishops of 
 Rome, and the founders of the new 
 Romano-German Empire allowed them a 
 relative local sovereignty over a consider¬ 
 able portion of Italy, from -which was de¬ 
 veloped the temporal power of the Papacy 
 (the States of the Church), which continued 
 until the occupation of Rome by Victor Em¬ 
 manuel in 1870. But not even in ecclesias¬ 
 tical concerns did the Frankish monarchs 
 surrender their supremacy. While the 
 great ecclesiastics became feudal lords, and 
 civil and religious matters were blended 
 under the rule of secular princes, the em¬ 
 peror was supreme over all, the head of a 
 theocratic monarchy, with only God and 
 his law above him, the two separate do- 
 
Chu 
 
 ( i8 7 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 mains of Church and State united in his 
 person. 
 
 Subsequently, the popes asserted for 
 themselves unlimited supremacy, includ¬ 
 ing secular and spiritual sway. They 
 maintained that all power on earth ema¬ 
 nated from the Church, and centred in the 
 pope, its visible head. The resistance to 
 this stupendous claim on the part of ener¬ 
 getic sovereigns forms the religious and 
 political history of Europe through the 
 Middle Ages. It involved the overthrow 
 of great dynasties, destroyed the independ¬ 
 ence of nations, made the Church a ruler 
 instead of a preacher, and “ stands in his¬ 
 tory as a ghastly spectre from the past.” 
 
 The inordinate usurpations and frightful 
 abuse of political government by the 
 Church had much to do with hastening the 
 Reformation, and securing its triumph. 
 This great revolution was attended by a 
 complete reversal of the relation of Church 
 and State. Ecclesiastical autonomy being 
 found impracticable under the changed con¬ 
 ditions, the Reformers had to content them¬ 
 selves with the assumption, by the princes, 
 of governmental functions in the Church. 
 The civil ruler became, in all Protestant 
 countries, the Summus Episcopus, the 
 master of the Church, not only holding 
 and administering its property, but author¬ 
 izing its creed and rituals, and appointing 
 its ministers and teachers. 
 
 This subordination of the Church to the 
 civil magistrate has always been deplored 
 by men clearly apprehending the spiritual 
 mission of Christianity, and, like an incu¬ 
 bus, it has stifled that freedom which is 
 essential to its complete triumph. The 
 manifest evils of such an abnormal system 
 have been increasingly felt, and the ques¬ 
 tion has given rise, especially in England, 
 to violent political conflicts and to the with¬ 
 drawal of multitudes from the Church. 
 
 Europe still retains its State Churches, 
 but steady progress is made toward a sys¬ 
 tem more consonant with liberal principles. 
 The modern idea, which commends itself 
 generally to Protestants,is that of full recip¬ 
 rocal independence of Church and State. 
 This is the American theory, which Dr. 
 Schaff (Church and State ) defines as “a 
 free Church in a free State, or a self-sup¬ 
 porting and self-governing Christianity in 
 independent but friendly relation to the 
 civil government.” This theory was, how¬ 
 ever, not planted here by the earliest 
 European settlers. The New England 
 colonies were theocratic communities, State 
 Churches or Church States, and, in some 
 cases, only members of the church enjoyed 
 political rights in the colony. The Episco¬ 
 pal Church was established in New York, 
 Virginia, and the Carolinas. Even Pennsyl¬ 
 
 vania and Rhode Island proscribed Roman 
 Catholics. With the independence of the 
 country came the assertion of absolute re¬ 
 ligious liberty, and the first amendment to 
 the National Constitution provides that 
 “ Congress shall make no law respecting 
 an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
 the free exercise thereof.” But the entire 
 separation of Church and State was not 
 completed in Connecticut till 1818, and not 
 till 1833 in Massachusetts. 
 
 Church property is protected by the 
 State in accordance with the regulations of 
 different church bodies, and is generally 
 exempted from taxation. So, also, the rights 
 of the individual under the laws of the or¬ 
 ganization to which he belongs are enforced 
 by civil courts. Vital questions which 
 still create agitation are the legal enforce¬ 
 ment of Sunday observance, and the right 
 of the State, the Church having surrender¬ 
 ed the function of education to its control, 
 to impart religious instruction. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Church Discipline. Moral earnestness 
 was, from the first, a conspicuous feature 
 of the Christian community. The Gospel 
 proposes the renewal of depraved affec¬ 
 tions, and with all the freedom of the 
 Christian he is required to conform his 
 conduct to the highest standard. The fun¬ 
 damental authority, vesting the power of 
 discipline in the Church, is given Matt. xvi. 
 18, 19, and xviii. 15-18. The first grave of¬ 
 fense was instantly visited byanawful judg¬ 
 ment. (Actsv.) The apostolic letters enjoin 
 the churches to guard strictly their purity, 
 both as an end in itself and as a condition of 
 preserving the vigor of the common spir¬ 
 itual life. Those causing public scandal 
 by irregularity in conduct (1 Cor. v; 2 
 Thess. iii., etc.), or error in doctrine (2 Tim, 
 ii. 17; Tit. iii. 10, etc.), were accordingly 
 formally cast out by the judgment of the 
 congregation, the hope being cherished that 
 the reformation of the offender might be 
 effected. 
 
 At the time of the Decian persecution, 
 A. d. 250, a well-defined order of proced¬ 
 ure was in force, called for especially by 
 the considerable number of those who, un¬ 
 der the stress of their trials, denied the 
 faith. The Lapsi were required to pass 
 through four stages of penance, extending 
 over as many years, before they could re¬ 
 ceive absolution and return into full com¬ 
 munion. Opinions were divided on the 
 question whether reconciliation was per¬ 
 missible in the case of any mortal sin. It 
 was wont to be refused, absolutely, in cases 
 of idolatry and murder. 
 
 This disciplinary rigor was maintained 
 for several centuries, but, extreme as it 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 188) 
 
 Chu 
 
 was, several sects, the Montanists and the 
 Novatians, went still further, and denied 
 that the Church was warranted in assuring 
 forgiveness to any who had fallen. Ex¬ 
 cessive severity caused a rebound to the op¬ 
 posite extreme of undue laxity. Such was 
 the influence enjoyed by confessors that 
 commendatory letters from them, often 
 given recklessly, brought about the imme¬ 
 diate restoration of the fallen, and broke 
 down all wholesome discipline, the strict¬ 
 ness of which was, at all events, materially 
 abated when Christianity became the re¬ 
 ligion of the State. 
 
 After the sixth century, penitential impo¬ 
 sitions were commuted for fines, church 
 punishments compounded for money. 
 About the same time arose the doctrine of 
 purgatory, and its correlative, the theory of 
 indulgences, which, for a financial equiv¬ 
 alent, exempted the offender from the pen¬ 
 alties imposed by the Church. The scho¬ 
 lastic definition of penance included three 
 parts, Contritio cordis , confessio oris , and 
 satisfactio operis. The extreme forms of 
 ecclesiastical punishments were the major 
 excommunication, directed against the indi¬ 
 vidual, and the interdict, against a commu¬ 
 nity. The Inquisition was instituted as an 
 engine for searching out and punishing her¬ 
 etics. 
 
 The Reformation, in its revolt from 
 priestly rule, restored discipline, “ the 
 power of the keys,” to the entire congre¬ 
 gation, which administers it in accordance 
 with the polity of the respective commu¬ 
 nities, and always with a view to the rec¬ 
 lamation of the offender. Theoretically, 
 the Reformed Churches were stricter than 
 the Lutheran in the exercise of discipline, 
 the Calvinists, in particular, enforcing a le¬ 
 galistic rigor in contrast with the evangel¬ 
 ical freedom of the Lutherans; the former 
 laying more stress upon a verifiable regen¬ 
 eration of its membership, the latter keep¬ 
 ing in mind the educational office of the 
 Church and the purpose of the means of 
 grace. In Europe the dependence of the 
 Church upon the State has virtually par¬ 
 alyzed discipline. Yet in the American 
 Churches, which are entirely independent, 
 it has also largely fallen into disuse. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Church Government. No historical 
 subject is surrounded by greater uncer¬ 
 tainty and difficulty than the primitive or¬ 
 ganization of Christian society. With the 
 ascended Lord for its Head, the Spirit 
 dwelling in its members, love binding their 
 hearts together, and special gifts being im¬ 
 parted for teaching and ruling, fixed or 
 definite regulations were, at first indeed, not 
 called for; still, the presumption is that the 
 
 apostles, on their departure from newly 
 formed congregations, would leave them in 
 an organized condition, especially as the 
 Church recognized from the beginning its 
 call to missionary and humanitarian ac¬ 
 tivity. 
 
 Two questions arise at the outset, (i) 
 Can the specific form of primitive Church 
 government be ascertained? (2) If that 
 form be determined is it normative for 
 the Church in all periods ? Many have 
 answered the first question affirmatively, 
 and, as a rule, these have made a similar 
 answer to the second; but so various have 
 been their interpretations that not only the 
 papacy but all the distinctive polities that 
 were developed in the Reformation have 
 claimed authority from the Scriptures. It 
 has been taught by Protestants “ that the 
 parts of Church government are all of them 
 exactly described in the Word of God . . . 
 so that it is not left in the power of men 
 . . . to add or diminish or alter anything 
 in the least measure therein.” 
 
 The upholders of the Papacy cite Matt, 
 xvi. 18, 19 in support of the theory that the 
 supremacy over the Church was committed 
 to Peter and to his supposed successors in 
 the see of Rome. The Book of Common 
 Prayer says, “ It is evident unto all men 
 diligently reading the Holy Scripture, and 
 ancient Authors, that from the Apostles' 
 time there have been these Orders of 
 Ministers in Christ’s Church; Bishops, 
 Priests, and Deacons,” and according to 
 Episcopalians as well as Romanists the 
 bishops are the successors of the apostles 
 and endowed with certain prerogatives. 
 
 Some kind of Episcopal organization pre¬ 
 vailed, doubtless, early in the second cen¬ 
 tury. The congregation of each city had 
 its bishop, with presbyters and deacons as 
 subordinates. Various causes operated 
 gradually to concentrate power in episco¬ 
 pal hands, such as the efficient administra¬ 
 tion of the local church, the appearance of 
 heresies threatening division and dissolu¬ 
 tion, the havoc of persecution, the require¬ 
 ments of order and outward unity in the 
 Church at large, the need of bringing the 
 individual congregations into an organic 
 unit to meet the stress of the times. 
 Sacerdotal ideas derived from the Old 
 Testament contributed likewise to its es¬ 
 tablishment. The development of the claim 
 of apostolical and monarchical prerogatives 
 for the bishops was, in the main, the work 
 of Cyprian (1258), and the exigencies of the 
 Church in his day show clearly enough that 
 “the development of the Episcopal Hie¬ 
 rarchy was the result of an evolution which, 
 in existing circumstances, was not only 
 natural but almost necessary.” 
 
 A gradation of rank among the bishops 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 189 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 followed, doubtless in imitation of the 
 secular ranks which characterized the gov¬ 
 ernment of the Roman Empire, even titles 
 and designations being borrowed from the 
 latter. When the Church, in 313, came 
 under imperial protection, it had a compact 
 organization of bishops having the over¬ 
 sight of several churches; Metropolitans, 
 in the larger cities, having a position of 
 priority, and those occupying sees founded 
 by the apostles—Rome, Antioch, and 
 Alexandria—holding precedence over all 
 others. 
 
 Divers circumstances brought about the 
 colossal monarchy of the Roman bishop, 
 claiming authority over the Universal 
 Church. Chief among these were the 
 prestige of Rome as the capital of the 
 world, the position of its church as the 
 most important apostolic see, the idea that 
 to Peter and his successors Christ had as¬ 
 signed the supremacy, the belief that tra¬ 
 dition had been preserved there in its 
 purest form, the appeals carried there of 
 issues whose solution was found difficult, 
 the general orthodoxy of the Roman 
 bishops during the great controversies, 
 and their superior ability, especially the 
 Roman faculty for administration and or¬ 
 der, which proved of immense importance 
 amid the dissolution of civil authority in 
 the West, and the universal disorder oc¬ 
 casioned by the irruption of the barbarians. 
 For centuries the pope was the one repre¬ 
 sentative of government in the western 
 world, the sole instrument of social order, 
 a providential necessity. 
 
 Presbyterianism has also been regarded 
 as a divine institution. The synagogue, 
 it is held, was governed by a college of 
 elders, and such synagogues as accepted 
 the teachings of the gospel made no 
 change of organization, while Christians 
 who withdrew from unbelieving syna¬ 
 gogues adopted for their government the 
 pattern to which they had been accustomed. 
 Synagogue and church came to be inter¬ 
 changeable terms. The origin of the diac- 
 onate (Acts vi. 1-6) is ascribed directly to 
 the apostles, and their practical sanction of 
 the presbyterate, which had been for a long 
 time the usage of Israel, is equivalent to 
 a divine warrant. (Acts xiv. 23; Tit. i. 5.) 
 This form of organization, it is maintained, 
 became the model of the first Gentile 
 churches, which were founded by apostles. 
 The parity of the elders in the early 
 Church is a feature of Presbyterianism, 
 but whether it was their office, originally, to 
 teach or to govern, whether there was a 
 distinction between ruling and teaching 
 elders, are questions upon which the advo¬ 
 cates of that system do not agree. 
 
 Kurtz, in his latest edition, observes 
 
 the notion “ that the constitution of the 
 Apostolic Church was moulded upon the 
 pattern of the synagogues, is now no longer 
 seriously entertained.” And a distinction 
 between ruling and teaching elders vanishes 
 before the well-established truth that the 
 early Church knew of no distinction between 
 clergy and laity. 
 
 Congregationalism holds the autonomy 
 of the local church to be of divine right. 1 
 The rule of the majority is the best species 
 of government, and it is to be presumed’ 
 that Christ has prescribed such a form to 
 his churches, although this autonomy is 
 prominent as the basis of the N. T. consti¬ 
 tution. The claim to “ a complete pre¬ 
 scriptive basis in the Scriptures ” is not 
 held as rigorously to-day as it was former¬ 
 ly. With the principle of local independ¬ 
 ence and self-government is combined the 
 duty of churches preserving church-fellow¬ 
 ship with each other. This is secured 
 through the ecclesiastical council and the 
 district association of churches. 
 
 All other forms of government, adopted 
 by Lutherans, Methodists, and others, are 
 either modifications or combinations of 
 these systems. The results of the most 
 recent historic inquiry are altogether favor¬ 
 able to the view of those who believe that 
 it is not the genius of the gospel to pre¬ 
 scribe a particular polity. 
 
 All that the New Testament yields cer¬ 
 tainly is that the entire membership of a 
 church took part in consultation, and in the 
 election of officers (Acts vi. 2-6; xv. 4, 22), 
 and that at Jerusalem seven persons thus 
 chosen were set apart by the apostles to 
 assist them in the distribution of their 
 charities, and that everywhere they were 
 wont to set apart men, now called elders, 
 now bishops, to preside over the respect¬ 
 ive churches. “ The Teaching of the 
 Twelve,” the oldest uninspired document, 
 urges likewise, upon congregations en¬ 
 joying the ministry of the Word, to ap¬ 
 point for themselves bishops and deacons. 
 There seems to have been a gradual devel¬ 
 opment of offices, determined partly by 
 the natural course of events, partly by the 
 policy of conforming to other organizations 
 countenanced by the State. 
 
 According to Hatch, Harnack, and other 
 moderns, the constitution of the Gentile 
 churches was modeled after the various 
 social organizations in the empire. There 
 was a great number of these. They were 
 founded for various purposes, such as the 
 burial of the dead, the study of foreign 
 modes of worship, etc. They had recog¬ 
 nized privileges. All ranks were admitted 
 on equal conditions, and all members had 
 the same rights. “ By attaching itself to 
 modes of association already existing and 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 190 ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 acknowledged by the State, the Church as¬ 
 sumed a form of existence which protected 
 it from the suspicion of the Government,” 
 and it could do this without any interfer¬ 
 ence with the development of its own prin¬ 
 ciples. It is claimed that the officers of 
 these guilds bore names identical with 
 those of the church officials; that they even 
 had mysteries for the initiated alone, as well 
 as exoteric worship with open doors, just 
 what we find in the Christian community. 
 One must not conclude from this that the 
 Church derived its principal observances 
 from paganism. These grew out of the 
 inmost being of Christianity, but it appro¬ 
 priated certain forms and names which it 
 inspired with a Christian spirit and enrich¬ 
 ed with Christian contents. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Church History. The lines of Church 
 history run so close to the lines of general 
 history that they often intertwine insepa¬ 
 rably. Christianity has for many centuries 
 been the most powerful agent in the civil¬ 
 ized world, and the course of political 
 events has been, in large measure, deter¬ 
 mined by the diffusion and development of 
 its ideas. Church and State have, besides, 
 so often been united under one regime, 
 that the history of the one is necessarily 
 connected with the history of the other. 
 Yet the two are distinct sciences, just as 
 Church and State are distinct institutions, 
 representing different spheres; the latter 
 occupied wholly with this world, the for¬ 
 mer including an invisible and eternal or¬ 
 der of things. 
 
 The Church deals primarily with man’s 
 relation to his Creator, addresses itself to 
 the conscience, aims at the appropriation 
 of salvation by every individual, intro¬ 
 duces a new spiritual energy into the lives 
 of men, and seeks to bind all together in 
 the bonds of love. It is under the imme¬ 
 diate headship of Christ, the God-man, 
 who represents the fullness of the God¬ 
 head and the fullness of renewed human¬ 
 ity, and under the guidance of his indwell¬ 
 ing Spirit. Church history is, accordingly, 
 distinguished by the element of the super¬ 
 natural. 
 
 God is, indeed, active in all history. 
 Divinity shapes the course of human 
 events. The world is a plan of the Infinite, 
 and Atheists are incompetent to write its 
 history; but Church history is concerned 
 with the special interposition of God in be¬ 
 half of human redemption. It treats of the 
 progress of an institution which is so specif¬ 
 ically divine, and whose human adminis¬ 
 tration is so directly under divine care and 
 guidance, that it is virtually a heavenly 
 kingdom, set up in the midst of the king¬ 
 
 doms of this world, in order to permeate 
 them with a heaven-born life, and that by 
 means of purely spiritual activities. 
 
 Although it may be treated as a branch 
 of the general history of the world,Church 
 history has an immense compass of its 
 own, with the widest ramifications. It 
 treats of both an outward and an inward 
 progressive movement, the mustard seed 
 and the leaven, the triumphant advance¬ 
 ment of Christianity amid opposition, con¬ 
 flict, and temporary failure, and the steady 
 development of its doctrine, constitution, 
 discipline, and worship; and along with 
 these elements are included its relation to 
 civil government, to art, science, philos¬ 
 ophy, literature, and commerce. All the 
 phenomena sustaining dynamic relations, 
 either to the external fortunes of the 
 Church or its intrinsic life and thought, 
 fall within the province of Church history. 
 Some of the subjects essentially compre¬ 
 hended in it have been exhibited as inde¬ 
 pendent sciences, and there are valuable 
 treatises on the history of dogmas, of wor¬ 
 ship, of missions, of heresies, etc.; but 
 Church history is properly a representa¬ 
 tion of the Church, comprehending the 
 progressive features of all its various ele¬ 
 ments and activities. It is, of course, no 
 mere record of these, isolated from each 
 other, but their presentation according to 
 historic perspective, regarding the law of 
 cause and effect, and the interdependence 
 of events and ideas, recognizing the invis¬ 
 ible life-principle which permeates and 
 unifies the whole course of development, 
 and produces uniform manifestations un¬ 
 der variant conditions and the most widely 
 different people, and finally discovering 
 the convergence of all movements toward 
 a common and glorious goal. 
 
 The sources of Church history are mon¬ 
 uments, including works of art and living 
 communities, original documents, accounts 
 by eye-witnesses or contemporaries, and 
 historical writings following sources now 
 lost, acts of councils and other legislative 
 bodies, decrees of ecclesiastical and civil 
 rulers, liturgies and confessions. A care¬ 
 ful criticism of the sources is of the first 
 importance. 
 
 The vastness and diversity of material 
 admit of different modes of treatment. 
 The distribution may be according to sub¬ 
 jects, grouping those similar in nature. 
 The narrative may follow the outward ca¬ 
 reer of the Church and its internal thought 
 and spirit. It may portray the Church as 
 a whole, or according to its numerous di¬ 
 visions. It may exhibit it under its Greek, 
 Roman, and Protestant manifestations, or 
 deal with national Churches and particular 
 communions, separately organized in view 
 
Chu 
 
 ( IQI ) 
 
 Chu 
 
 of disagreement in doctrine, worship, or 
 polity. 
 
 The method generally adopted is an ar¬ 
 rangement according to periods, which is 
 in conformity to the very idea of history, 
 although not altogether satisfactory, since, 
 while the tide may for a time set in a par¬ 
 ticular direction, or rise to an unusual 
 height, the general current is never inter¬ 
 rupted, and overflows all artificial lines. No 
 period is dissevered from what precedes, 
 or what follows. Hence chronological di¬ 
 visions vary, according to the writers, al¬ 
 though certain clearly marked eras, like the 
 conversion of Constantine and the Refor¬ 
 mation, are recognized by all. 
 
 Church history, it is generally admitted, 
 begins properly with the close of the 
 Apostolic Age, about the year A. D. 100. 
 By some, the birth of the Redeemer is 
 viewed as the proper starting point, by 
 some, the Day of Pentecost, when the 
 Church, filled with the Spirit, entered 
 upon the stage and manifested itself as a 
 distinctly Christian community. As it 
 portrays the rise and progress of God’s 
 kingdom, it may begin with the first mani¬ 
 festation of the redemptive purpose, and 
 present the successive revelations and in¬ 
 stitutions of the Jewish theocracy; but 
 those earlier features are properly viewed 
 as preparatory stages, and they are rightly 
 included in the exposition of Scripture, as 
 they were, likewise, developed under the 
 guidance of inspired agents. 
 
 The division followed by Hase com¬ 
 mends itself by its natural and logical or¬ 
 der, and its conformity to the historic 
 progress. It comprises the whole in Three 
 Ages , each embracing Two Periods. (1) 
 Ancient Church History , the first period 
 extending to the establishment of the 
 Church under Constantine, the second 
 period to A. D. 800, during which the de¬ 
 velopment of the faith was completed, and 
 the barbarian immigrations were brought 
 under the cross. (2) Medioeval Church His¬ 
 tory , to the Reformation, A. d. 1517; the 
 first period bounded by the summit of 
 papal despotism, a. ' d. 1215, the second 
 marked by the gradual decline of Cathol¬ 
 icism, and futile struggles for reform. (3) 
 Modern Church History, extending to the 
 present; the first period, to a. d. 1648, ex¬ 
 hibiting the victory of Protestantism, the 
 second exhibiting the conflict of Liberalism 
 with Orthodoxy. 
 
 Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea (340), is 
 called the Father of Church History. Em¬ 
 inent names among his successors are Soc¬ 
 rates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Theodorus, 
 and Sulpicius Severus. The Reforma¬ 
 tion produced the Magdeburg Centiiries, a 
 voluminous work of Lutheran theologians, 
 
 in thirteen folio volumes, each covering a 
 century, and the valuable work of Cardinal 
 Baronius, in twelve volumes. For a while 
 historical studies received inconsiderable 
 attention, until a new epoch began with 
 the magnificent treatise of Mosheim. Since 
 then illustrious scholars have illuminated 
 this domain. Gieseler’s work is a monu¬ 
 ment of research, distinguished by critical 
 merit and ample quotations from original 
 sources. Neander’s deals especially with 
 the developments of the inner life, Christ’s 
 presence and power inhumanity. Kurtz’s 
 is so comprehensive, clear, and concise, 
 that it has long been a standard in the the¬ 
 ological schools of Europe and America. 
 Schaff’s, written in classic style, and per¬ 
 vaded by an evangelic catholic spirit, is 
 unsurpassed in the English language. A 
 compendious history of the Church in this 
 country remains a desideratum . 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Church Jurisdiction. See Jurisdiction. 
 
 Church Music. See Music. 
 
 Church Polity. See Church Govern¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Church Property. The wealth of the 
 Church consists in a spiritual treasury. 
 Financial resources were of little conse¬ 
 quence to the early Christians. Looking 
 for a speedy termination of the existing or¬ 
 der, they felt a decided indifference to 
 earthly possessions. The relief of the poor 
 by the Church was, however, from the first, 
 a characteristic of Christianity. A warm 
 and ample charity provided for the exigen¬ 
 cies of the hour, many contributing their 
 all, but as long as the Church was in the 
 throes of persecution no institutions for 
 the future were founded, nothing in the 
 nature of endowment is recorded. 
 
 Beyond this provision for immediate 
 distress, which, like the Collegia of the 
 poor, must have enjoyed a certain legal 
 protection, there is no evidence of-Church 
 property with any considerable returns in 
 the first centuries. “ The accumulation of 
 permanent Church property, at least the 
 acquisition of estates,” says Uhlhorn, “ be¬ 
 gins to occur, indeed, in the last times of 
 the conflict (persecution), but the posses¬ 
 sions of the Church were still at any rate 
 very inconsiderable.” 
 
 By means of collections, the extraordi¬ 
 nary gifts of the rich, and the binding force 
 which was gradually accorded to the Old 
 Testament law of tithes and first-fruits, 
 large sums came into the Church’s treas¬ 
 ury, to be disbursed by the presbytery or 
 bishop, through the deacons, among the 
 
Chu 
 
 ( 192 ) 
 
 Cir 
 
 various classes of the needy. Constantine 
 gave the Church corporate rights, and him¬ 
 self set the example of large donations, 
 from which time the Church began rapidly 
 to amass property from legacies and from 
 the gifts of the rich and great. It also in¬ 
 herited vast possessions belonging to 
 heathen temples as well as the accumula¬ 
 tions of many of the Collegia. In a short 
 time immense wealth was in the hands of 
 the Church. In the fifth century it was 
 the greatest landowner in the empire, 
 whose rulers sought in vain to prevent 
 such an absorption of real property. This 
 wealth was primarily the patrimony of the 
 poor. The great bishops of the time were 
 the fathers of the poor, and the vast rev¬ 
 enues at their disposal were destined for 
 the relief of countless multitudes whom 
 the calamities of a dissolving empire had 
 made helpless. They came, later, to be ap¬ 
 plied also to the purposes of public wor¬ 
 ship, the erection of Church buildings, and 
 the maintenance of the clergy. 
 
 It was an established principle that no 
 property could be alienated from the 
 Church. Add to this the claim that it was 
 the proper heir of all the clergy, the found¬ 
 ing of numerous monasteries which acquir¬ 
 ed extensive domains, and the exercise of 
 civil power by prelates, and the Church in 
 the natural course of things must have a 
 continuous and vast increase of wealth. 
 
 The fall of the hierarchy,through the Ref¬ 
 ormation, was followed in different coun¬ 
 tries by the confiscation of such property 
 as could no longer serve its original pur¬ 
 pose, on account of the triumph of evan¬ 
 gelical doctrines. It was, as a rule, ap¬ 
 plied to educational and charitable pur¬ 
 poses, although in some instances the 
 State appropriated it to purely secular ob¬ 
 jects. The Church became, in fact, a 
 State institution, its functions were by de¬ 
 grees largely transferred to the State, and 
 even the property, endowments, etc., re¬ 
 served for purely religious uses, passed 
 into the ownership of the civil power. 
 
 In England, where the Reformation 
 made but slight changes in the ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal constitution, the bishops retain princely 
 revenues, as they continue to exercise po¬ 
 litical power as lords spiritual. In Amer¬ 
 ica each denomination controls its own 
 property, although not wholly free from 
 restrictions by the State, which protects 
 it, and, as a rule, exempts it from tax¬ 
 ation. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Church Rates, in England, a tax or as¬ 
 sessment laid on the parishioners and oc¬ 
 cupiers of land within a parish, by the 
 majority of their own body in vestry assem¬ 
 
 bled, for church repairs : the payment, 
 however, cannot be compelled. 
 
 Church, States of the. See States of 
 the Church. 
 
 Church Wardens, “ lay-officers in the 
 Episcopal Church in England and America, 
 appointed by the united consent of minister 
 and parishioners (in the United States they 
 are elected at Easter), whose duties are to 
 protect the church building, and provide' 
 public worship, and see that it be orderly .'* 
 — Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day 
 Saints. See Mormons. 
 
 Churching of Women, a religious usage 
 prevailing in the Christian Church from an 
 early period, of women, on their recovery 
 after child-bearing, going to church to give 
 thanks. It appears to have been borrowed 
 from the Jewish law. (Lev. xii. 6.) In the 
 Church of the early ages, it was accompan¬ 
 ied with various rites; and in the Church of 
 Rome and Greek Church, it is imperative. 
 In the Church of England, also, a service 
 for the Churching of Women finds a place 
 in the liturgy. 
 
 Ciborium, (1) the chalice or cup used to 
 hold the host, or consecrated wafer, in the 
 mass. (2) The name given to a canopy 
 over the altar, which was supported by four 
 columns. 
 
 Cili'cia, “a maritime province in the S. E. 
 of Asia Minor, bordering on Pamphylia in 
 the W., Lycaonia and Cappadocia in the 
 N., and Syria in the E. Lofty mountain 
 chains separate it from these provinces, 
 Mons Amanus from Syria, and Anti-Taurus 
 from Cappadocia. The western portion of 
 the province is intersected with the ridges 
 of Anti-Taurus, and was denominated Tra- 
 chaea, rough , in contradistinction to Pedias, 
 the level district in the E. The connection 
 between the Jews and Cilicia dates from 
 the time when it became part of the Syrian 
 kingdom. In the Apostolic Age they were 
 still there in considerable numbers. (Acts 
 vi. 9.) Cilicia was, from its geographical 
 position, the high road between Syria and 
 the West; it was also the native country of 
 St. Paul ; hence it was visited by him, 
 firstly, soon after his conversion (Gal. i. 21; 
 Acts ix. 30); and again in his second apos¬ 
 tolical journey, when he entered it on the 
 side of Syria, and crossed Anti-Taurus by 
 the Pylse Ciliciae into Lycaonia. (Acts xv. 
 41.)”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Circumcellions, a fanatical party among 
 
Cir 
 
 ( 193 ) 
 
 Cit 
 
 the Donatists. The name was also given 
 to certain supporters of the Emperor Fred¬ 
 erick II. in his contest with Pope Inno¬ 
 cent IV., early in the thirteenth century. 
 See Donatists. 
 
 Circumcision, a custom among many 
 Eastern nations of cutting off part of the 
 prepuce as a religious ceremony. In the 
 oldest times the operation was performed 
 with a stone knife (Ex. iv. 25; Josh. v. 2); 
 in later times the Jews used a steel knife. 
 The operation was dangerous, especially 
 when performed upon adults. The third 
 day was feared the most. (Gen. xxxiv. 25.) 
 Any Israelite could perform the rite of cir¬ 
 cumcision, but no Gentile; in general, it 
 was performed by the father (Gen. xvii. 
 23); in case of emergency, also by the 
 mother. (Ex. iv. 25; 1 Macc. i. 60.) After¬ 
 ward the rite was performed by a physi¬ 
 cian. To-day it is performed by a special 
 officer, styled mohel , i. e. circumcisor. Ac¬ 
 cording to Gen. xvii. 10-14, circumcision 
 was made obligatory upon Abraham and 
 his servants and his seed, as well as to 
 their own children, on penalty of being cut 
 off from the people. The usage thus in¬ 
 troduced by Abraham was formally enact¬ 
 ed as a legal institute by Moses. (Lev. xii. 
 3; comp. John vii. 23.) Slaves, whether 
 home-born or purchased, were circum¬ 
 cised (Gen. xvii. 12, 13); and foreigners 
 must have their males circumcised before 
 they could be allowed to partake of the 
 passover. (Ex. xii. 48.) The eighth day 
 after birth of a male child was appointed 
 for the performance of the rite, even if 
 this day should be a Sabbath; in case of 
 sickness, a delay was permitted. The an¬ 
 cient Egyptians performed the ceremony 
 between the sixth and tenth year; the Mo¬ 
 hammedans of our day often wait till the 
 twelfth or thirteenth year. Among the 
 Israelites the child received its name with 
 the circumcision. (Luke i. 59; ii. 21; comp. 
 Gen. xvii. 5.) 
 
 The significance of this symbolical act 
 consisted in this: that for the Israelites 
 circumcision was an act of purification; 
 hence, the sign of the covenant between 
 God and his people. The introduction of 
 Christianity was the signal for the aboli¬ 
 tion of this rite in the Church of God (Gal. 
 vi. 15; Col. iii. 11), though among the 
 Jewish Christians were still found many 
 who clung tenaciously to that rite. Bap¬ 
 tism, as the rite of admission into the 
 Church, took the place of circumcision, but 
 in a still higher sense, by requiring not 
 only the purification of a certain part of 
 the body, but a regeneration of the whole 
 man. 
 
 Orelli-Pick. 
 
 Cistercian Monks, or Bernardines, or 
 White Monks, an order of monks who de¬ 
 rived their name from Cisteaux, or Citeaux 
 (Lat. Cistercitim), a village between Dijon 
 and Chalons, in Burgundy. This order 
 was originally founded in the year 1098, 
 by Robert, Abbot of Molesme, but the at¬ 
 tempts of the first founder to gather a 
 society together at Citeaux had proved a 
 failure, and when he forsook it in despair, 
 his work was taken up by an Englishman, 
 named Stephen Harding. Here, under 
 much discouragement, Harding labored 
 for some years, not wholly in sympathy 
 with the life of labor rather than of study 
 and meditation, which the Cistercians had 
 adopted. At length, in A. d. iii 3, his 
 perseverance was rewarded by the arrival 
 of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, with a com¬ 
 pany of thirty young and zealous men, 
 who came to enlist themselves as monks 
 of the Cistercian Order. From that time 
 it began rapidly to flourish; and St. Ber¬ 
 nard’s intellectual power and self-denying 
 piety made him, in his life-time, the mostin- 
 fhiential person in Christendom. Within 
 a little more than a century there were 
 about 1,800 abbeys of the Order founded in 
 England and Europe. The Cistercians 
 were called White Monks, from their dis¬ 
 tinctive dress, which was a white frock, or 
 cassock. By the middle of the thirteenth 
 century the order came to he period of 
 its greatest prosperity, and thereafter be¬ 
 gan to decay. The famous convent of 
 Port Royal belonged to the Cistercians. 
 See Bernard, St. 
 
 Cities of Refuge, six Levitical cities, into 
 which those who had committed involun¬ 
 tary homicide might flee, and dwell in se¬ 
 curity until released from banishment by 
 the death of the high-priest. (Num. xxxv. 
 4-34; Deut. iv. 41, 42; xix. 1-3; Josh. xx. 
 2, 7, 8.) Any fugitive who proved to be a 
 willful murderer was given up by the au¬ 
 thorities. Sign-posts along the principal 
 roads indicated the way to the cities of 
 refuge. Among other sacred places of 
 refuge were the temple and the altar of 
 burnt-offerings. (Ex. xxi. 14.) 
 
 Citizenship. “ The use of this term in 
 Scripture has exclusive reference to the 
 usages of the Roman empire. The priv¬ 
 ilege of Roman citizenship was originally 
 acquired in various ways, as by purchase 
 (Acts xxii. 28), by military services, by 
 favor, or by manumission. The right once 
 obtained descended to a man’s children. 
 (Acts xxii. 28.) Among the privileges at¬ 
 tached to citizenship, we may note that a 
 man could not be bound or imprisoned 
 without a formal trial (Acts xxii, 29), still 
 
Cit 
 
 ( 194 ) 
 
 Cla 
 
 less be scourged. (Acts xvi. 37; Cic.: In 
 Vcrr., v. 63, 66.) Another privilege at¬ 
 taching to citizenship was the appeal from 
 a provincial tribunal to the emperor at 
 Rome. (Acts xxv. 11.)”—Smith: Diet, of 
 the Bihle. 
 
 City. Cities date from the days of Cain. 
 (Gen. iv. 17.) “ We find already in the 
 
 times of the patriarchs a distinction made 
 between cities and villages. The latter 
 were not only smaller, but were without 
 walls, and generally dependent on some 
 city near which they stood. It is an inter¬ 
 esting fact that the Israelites, for the most 
 part, inherited cities rather than built 
 them. The land of Canaan is described as 
 being full of cities at the time of the con¬ 
 quest, and it may be inferred that not a 
 few of them were of considerable size and 
 age. Such, at least, were Hazor and 
 Jericho.”—Bissell: Biblical Antiquities , pp. 
 31, 32. Just outside the gate of the city 
 was an open space, where councils and 
 public gatherings were held, and the peo¬ 
 ple met for social conversation. (1 Sam.iv. 
 r8; Job xxix. 7.) The streets of most of 
 the ancient cities were narrow and un¬ 
 paved. Some, as in the case of Babylon, 
 were adorned with open squares and 
 beautiful gardens. 
 
 Clap, Thomas, a president of Yale Col¬ 
 lege; b. at Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703; 
 d. at New Haven, Jan. 7, 1767. He was a 
 graduate of Harvard (1722); pastor of the 
 Congregational Church, Windham, Conn., 
 1726-39; president of Yale College, 1739- 
 1766. He was one of the most learned 
 men of his times. He opposed Whitefield, 
 and wrote A Brief History and Vindication 
 of the Doctrines received atid established in 
 the Churches of New England, loith a Spec- 
 imen of the New Scheme of Religion begin¬ 
 ning to prevail (1755). The conflict of 
 opinion growing out of this discussion led 
 him to resign his office not long before his 
 death. He published Annals or History 
 of Yale College (1766). 
 
 Clare, St. , foundress of the order of nuns 
 known as Clarisses; b. at Assisi, in 1194; d. 
 there, in 1253. She was a follower of St. 
 Francis, and her order received its rule from 
 him (1224). It enjoined absolute poverty, 
 silence, fasting, etc. This rule was relaxed 
 in the time of Innocent IV., but revived, 
 with extreme rigor, in the fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury by Colette of Corbie. Several orders 
 have sprung from the Clarisses. Clare 
 was canonized soon after her death. 
 
 Clarke, Adam, LL. D., an English Wes¬ 
 leyan minister widely known as a Bible 
 
 commentator; b. near Londonderry, Ire¬ 
 land, about 1762; d. of cholera, in London, 
 Aug.26,1832. He was an itinerant preacher 
 in the Wesleyan connection from 1782 to 
 1805, and from 1805 to 1815 was connected 
 with the British and Foreign Bible Soci¬ 
 ety, having the charge of the printing of 
 their Arabic Bible. He was a profound 
 scholar, and gained wide recognition, es¬ 
 pecially for his proficiency in Oriental 
 languages. Among his elaborate works 
 the best known is his Commentary on the 
 Holy Bible (London, 1812-26), to which he 
 devoted forty years of labor. It has 
 passed through many editions. See his 
 Memoirs (London, 1833), 3 vols. 
 
 Clarke, James Freeman, D. D. (Harvard 
 College, 1863), Unitarian; b. at Hanover, 
 N. H., April 4, 1810; d. in Boston, June 8, 
 1888. He was graduated at Harvard College 
 1829, and at the Cambridge Divinity 
 School, 1833; pastor at Louisville, Ky., 
 1833-40; and of the Church of the Dis¬ 
 ciples, Boston, 1841-50, and from 1853 un¬ 
 til his death. He was a prolific writer, 
 and among his published works are Ortho¬ 
 doxy: its Truths and its Errors (1866); The 
 Ten Great Religions (1870-83, 2 vols.; 1st 
 vol., 22d ed., 1886; 2d vol., 5th ed., 1886). 
 His published sermons had a wide circula¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Clarke, John, one of the founders of 
 Rhode Island; b. in Bedfordshire, Eng., 
 Oct. 8, 1609; d. in Newport, R. I., April 
 20, 1676. lie was sent with Roger Wil¬ 
 liams to England in 1651, as agent of the 
 colony. He founded the second Baptist 
 church in Newport in 1644, and was the 
 author of a famous tract: III Nezus from 
 New England: or, a Narrative of New Eng¬ 
 land' s Persecution (1652). 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, D. D., Church of Eng¬ 
 land; b. at Norwich, Oct. 11, 1675; d. in 
 London, May 17, 1729. Educated at Cam¬ 
 bridge, he was for twelve years domestic 
 chaplain to Dr. More, Bishop of Norwich, 
 through whose influence he became rector 
 of St. Benet’s in London, and then of St. 
 James’s, Piccadilly. He first became known 
 through his Boyle lectures, preached in 
 1704: Discourses Concerning the Being and 
 Attributes of God. This work, and a sub¬ 
 sequent one on The Scripture Doctrine of 
 the Trinity, involved him in an extended 
 controversy. He was a philosopher of 
 considerable merit, and the reviver of mod¬ 
 ern Arianism in England. His works were 
 collected in 4 vols. by Bishop Hoadly 
 (London, 1738). 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas, the great English 
 
Cla 
 
 ( 195 ) 
 
 Cle 
 
 .antislavery leader; b. near Cambridge, 
 March 28, 1760; d. at Playford Hall, Suf¬ 
 folk, Sept. 26, 1846. He won the prize at 
 Cambridge in 1785 for an essay on this 
 question, “Is it right to make slaves of 
 others against their will ? ” This paper 
 had a wide circulation, and Clarkson devot¬ 
 ed his time to bringing about the emanci¬ 
 pation of the slaves. With Wilberforce 
 and others, he labored unceasingly, until 
 the British slave-trade was abolished in 
 1807. The remainder of his long life was 
 filled with philanthropic service. 
 
 Classis, a term used in the Reformed 
 Church, and corresponding to the “ presby¬ 
 tery” in the Presbyterian Church. See Pre¬ 
 formed Church. 
 
 Class-Meetings were instituted by John 
 Wesley, and are a part of the organized 
 life of Methodist churches throughout the 
 world. Each congregation is divided into 
 classes that are placed in charge of an expe¬ 
 rienced leader, appointed by the pastor. 
 In the Methodist Episcopal Church it is 
 his duty “ t. To see each person in his 
 class once a week at least, in order (1) To 
 inquire how their souls prosper. (2) To ad¬ 
 vise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occa¬ 
 sion may require. (3) To receive what they 
 are willing to give toward the relief of the 
 preachers, church and poor. ir. To meet 
 the ministers and the stewards of the so¬ 
 ciety once a week, in order (1) To inform 
 the minister of any that are sick, or of any 
 that walk disorderly and will not be re¬ 
 proved. (2) To pay the stewards what 
 they have received of their several classes 
 in the week preceding.” ( Discipline , pt. i. 
 ch. ii. § 1.) “ Much of the energy, unity, 
 
 and stability of Methodism is due to the 
 class system.” 
 
 Claude, Jean, one of the most eminent 
 of French Protestant divines; b. at La 
 Sauvetat, near Agen, in the south of 
 France, in 1619; d. at the Hague, Jan. 13, 
 1687. He studied at Montauban and was 
 ordained in 1645; became pastor at La 
 Treine, 1645; at Nismes, 1654; at Montau¬ 
 ban, 1662; at Charenton, near Paris, 1666. 
 During these years he was regarded as the 
 leader of the French Protestants, and vig¬ 
 orously held his ground in controversies 
 with Arnauld, Nicole, and Bossuet. The 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes obliged 
 him, in 1685, to seek refuge at the 
 Hague. Several of his works have been 
 translated into English, among them his 
 Essay on the Composition of a Sermon 
 (London and New York, 1853); Account of 
 the Complaints of the Protestants (London, 
 
 1707). 
 
 Clau'dius, the fourth Roman emperor 
 (excluding Julius Caesar), succeeding Ca¬ 
 ligula, A. D. 41-54. Several famines oc¬ 
 curred during his reign, caused by unfa¬ 
 vorable harvests, and one of them appears 
 to be that which was foretold by Agabus. 
 (Acts xi. 28.) During the reign of Clau¬ 
 dius several persecutions of Christians by 
 Jews took place in the dominions of Her¬ 
 od Agrippa, in one of which the apostle 
 James was executed. He also banished 
 at one time the Jews from Rome, and with 
 them the Christians, as a supposed sect of 
 the Jews. (Acts xviii. 2.) 
 
 Clean and Unclean, terms applied in the 
 Jewish law to persons, animals, and things. 
 (Lev. xi. to xv.; Num. xix.; Deut. xiv.) The 
 division of animals into clean and unclean 
 existed before the flood (Gen. vii. 2), and 
 was probably founded upon the practice of 
 animal sacrifice. The design of these reg¬ 
 ulations was to distinguish those who ob¬ 
 served them, as a peculiar people, to keep 
 them from idolatry, and from intercourse 
 with Gentiles. The ritual was done away 
 by a special revelation to Peter. (Acts x. 
 9-i6.) 
 
 Clearstory (or clerestory ), the upper part 
 of the centre aisle of a church, raised above 
 the roofs of the adjoining side-aisles, with 
 windows to light the nave below. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, one of the great¬ 
 est and noblest of early Christian writers. 
 He was born in the middle of the second 
 century, and became a disciple of Pant^;- 
 nus (y. v.), from whom he learned what 
 principles lay at the root of Gnosticism, 
 and by this knowledge was able to do more 
 than any one had ever done to undermine 
 it. He saw that its intention was to search 
 after God. He had entered into that 
 search, and in his prayers and seekings had 
 learned that God had sought and found 
 him. He gathered scholars around him, 
 and taught them to bow themselves to the 
 Divine will, to love God and his laws, and 
 thus he wrought a more practical effect 
 than any teacher that the century produc¬ 
 ed. Three complete treatises of his sur¬ 
 vive, and the principle underlying them all 
 is the same: it is not we, only, who are 
 seeking God; God is also seeking us, and 
 when we remember that, we find rest. The 
 works are (1) Logos Protreptikos , an ex¬ 
 hortation to the heathen; (2) Pcedagogus , 
 “ the Instructor” ; (3) Stromata , miscel¬ 
 lanies, a collection of information concern¬ 
 ing new and current opinions, arranged 
 and viewed by one who had gone through 
 anxieties of his own, and had learned sym¬ 
 pathy with seekers and wanderers. Dr. 
 
Cle 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 Cle 
 
 Kaye, formerly Bishop of Lincoln, has 
 left a very interesting account of his writ¬ 
 ings. “ He seems to me,” writes F. D. 
 Maurice, “ that one of the old Fathers 
 whom we should all have reverenced most 
 as a teacher, and loved best as a friend.” 
 — Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Eng. 
 trans. of his works in Ante-Nicene Fathers 
 (ed. Coxe, Christian Literature Co., New 
 York), vol. ii. 
 
 Clement of Rome, one of the Apostolic 
 Fathers, and third Bishop of Rome. Some 
 hold that he is the Clement mentioned in 
 Phil. iv. 3, but this is improbable. No 
 details of his life are known, beyond the 
 fact that he is said to have been martyred 
 in the reign of Domitian. Two Epistles 
 written by him to the Corinthians are ex¬ 
 tant. The first is occasioned, as much of 
 St. Paul’s first Epistle to the same Church 
 was, by feuds and factions which had 
 arisen. St. Clement exhorts to love and 
 unity in a tone of childlike beauty and 
 tenderness. The work is full of quota¬ 
 tions from the writings of the apostles, 
 and is extremely valuable for the evidence 
 it affords of the genuineness of the New 
 Testament. The second epistle — the 
 genuineness of which, however, is in dis¬ 
 pute—is a homily rather than an epistle. 
 Both may be read in Archbishop Wake’s 
 Apostolic Fathers. Other works which 
 have been ascribed to him are now recog¬ 
 nized to be spurious; they are the Recog¬ 
 nitions, the Clementine Homilies , and the 
 Epitome. The second of these is like a 
 fiction, consisting partly of letters, partly 
 of a narrative of a journey made by 
 Clement, and what befell him. But un¬ 
 der the romantic adventure is discernible 
 an endeavor to teach Ebionite doctrine. 
 Probably the work is that of an heretical 
 teacher of the second or third century. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Eng. 
 trans. of Clement’s works in Ante-Nicene 
 Fathers (ed. Coxe, Christian Literature 
 Co., New York), vols. i. and viii. 
 
 Clement, the name of fourteen popes. 
 See Popes. 
 
 Clementines “ is the name generally ap¬ 
 plied to a very remarkable group of writ¬ 
 ings, closely related to each other with re¬ 
 spect to their contents, and evidently drawn 
 from the same source,butoftentranscribed, 
 augmented, and variously remodeled. 
 They have falsely been ascribed to Clem¬ 
 ent of Rome ( q. v.) } and probably had their 
 origin after the middle of the second cen¬ 
 tury. Of the group, three works are still 
 extant: the Clementine Homilies, the Rec¬ 
 ognitions, and the Epitome , They are 
 
 three independent elaborations, perhaps at 
 first hand, perhaps at second or third, of 
 some older tract not now at hand.”— Uhl- 
 horn. See his art. in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 vol. i., pp. 497-498. 
 
 Clergy (Gr. cleros, a lot, an inheritance), 
 “a term very generally applied to the minis¬ 
 ters of the Christian religion, in contradis¬ 
 tinction to the laity. This use of the term 
 is very ancient, and appears to have grad¬ 
 ually become prevalent, as the ministers 
 of religion more and more exclusively, in¬ 
 stead of the members of the Christian 
 Church equally, began to be regarded as 
 God’s ‘heritage’ and ‘priesthood’ (1 
 Pet. ii. 9, and v. 3), consecrated to him, 
 and peculiarly his. The distinction be¬ 
 tween the clergy and the laity became more 
 marked through the multiplication of 
 offices and titles among the clergy, the 
 ascription to them of a place in the Chris¬ 
 tian Church similar to that of the priests 
 and Levites in the Jewish Church, with 
 peculiar rights and privileges, their as¬ 
 sumption of a peculiar dress and of official 
 insignia, the growth of monastic institu¬ 
 tions, and the introduction of celibacy. In 
 harmony with the notions on which this 
 distinction is founded, is that of an indel¬ 
 ible, or almost indelible, character derived 
 from ordination, so that a renunciation of 
 the clerical office is either viewed as an 
 impossibility, or a sort of apostasy. These 
 notions in their highest degree belong to 
 the Church of Rome. In the Protestant 
 churches, the distinction between clergv 
 and laity is much less wide; and, although 
 the same terms are often used, it is rather 
 conventionally than in their full significa¬ 
 tion. The employment of official robes by 
 the clergy preceded their assumption of a 
 peculiar ordinary dress, and is not so inti¬ 
 mately connected with any peculiar preten¬ 
 sions. Among the privileges accorded to 
 the clergy by the Roman emperors, and in 
 the Middle Ages, was exemption from civil 
 offices; among the rights asserted by them, 
 and which caused much dispute, was 
 exemption from lay jurisdiction, even in 
 cases of felony. The clergy were distin¬ 
 guished into the higher clergy and the loiuer 
 clergy, the latter including janitors, aco¬ 
 lytes, lectors, exorcists, etc. The term 
 secular clergy is the designation of priests 
 of the Church of Rome who are not of any 
 religious order, but have the care of par¬ 
 ishes. Monks who are in holy orders are 
 designated regular clergy .” — Chambers: 
 Cyclopccdia. See Benefit of Clergy. 
 
 Clergy, Benefit of, a mediteval custom 
 which marked the extent to which the de¬ 
 mand of the clergymen was acceded to in 
 
Cle 
 
 ( 197 ) 
 
 Clu 
 
 England, for exemption from the common- 
 law tribunals; the privilege first granted 
 to them was extended to all who could 
 read, such persons being, in the eye of the 
 law, clerici or clerks. This privilege was 
 abridged and modified by various statutes, 
 and finally abolished in the reign of George 
 IV. See Blackstone: Commentaries, iv. 28. 
 
 Clerk, originally the name given to those 
 in holy orders, and still used by clergy¬ 
 men of the Church of England in signing 
 any legal instrument. It in time came to 
 designate a learned man, or one who could 
 read, and is now the name given those who 
 lead the responses in the parish churches 
 of England. 
 
 Clerks, Apostolical. See Jesuits. 
 
 Clerks, Minor. See Franciscans. 
 
 Clerks of St. Paul. See Barnabites. 
 
 Clerks, Regular. See Canons and Reg¬ 
 ulars. 
 
 Clinic Baptism was a term used in the 
 early Church, to designate baptism on the 
 sick-bed. 
 
 Cloister (claustrum , an enclosure). The 
 word originally was applied strictly to the 
 wall or enclosure of a monastery. It is now 
 more commonly used to designate the 
 quadrangle of a monastery, one side of 
 which is generally formed by the church, 
 and the others by the conventual build¬ 
 ings, and which frequently has an arcade 
 or colonnade running round the sides. 
 
 Clothing and Ornaments of the Hebrews. 
 “The collective name for clothes is begadim, 
 which were made out of linen, wool, and 
 cotton; although silk is also mentioned. 
 (Ezek. xvi. 10; Rev. xviii. 22.) Clothing- 
 prepared from wool and linen was prohib¬ 
 ited. (Lev. xix. iq; Deut. xxii. 11.) Costly 
 clothing was of divers colors, and of needle¬ 
 work. Luxury in, and imitation of, for¬ 
 eign fashions, are often censured. (Isa. iii. 
 16; Zeph. ii. 8.) The costume of both 
 sexes was very similar; there was suffi¬ 
 cient difference, however, to mark the 
 sex. 
 
 “The articles of clothing common to men 
 and women were: (1) The under-garment, 
 which was held together by a girdle, and 
 besides which a linen shirt ( sadin) is some¬ 
 times mentioned. A person who had only 
 this under-garment on, was called ‘ naked.’ 
 (1 Sam. xix. 24; Job xxiv. 10; Isa. xx. 2.) 
 Persons in high stations wore two under¬ 
 garments: the outer one being called met l, 
 
 a robe. (1 Sam. xv. 27; xviii. 4; xxiv. 5; 
 Job. i. 20.) A Chaldee costume was the 
 pattish, or mantle. (Dan. iii. 21.) (2) The 
 
 over-garment , for which different expres¬ 
 sions are given, and which was thrown 
 around the person. Poor people, and trav¬ 
 elers also, used the outer garment as night¬ 
 clothes. Both sexes made out of the su¬ 
 perabundant folds, in front, a pocket or lap. 
 Priests alone wore a kind of drawers. Be¬ 
 sides these dresses, the women wore veils. 
 Both sexes covered the head with a turban 
 made of divers articles, and in different 
 forms; hence, from its costliness, it is also 
 called ‘ an ornament,’ ‘ beauty.’ Gloves 
 were not unknown, yet they appear not to 
 have been used as a part of the attire, but 
 by workmen, as a protection of the hands 
 from injury and soiling. (Cf. Mishna, Cheli- 
 no , xvi. 6; xxiv. 15; xxvii. 3.) The cov¬ 
 ering of the feet was sandals of leather or 
 wood, bound to the foot with thongs; they 
 were dispensed with indoors, and put on 
 when leaving the house. On entering of 
 sacred places, the sandals were cast off. 
 
 “ As for ornaments, they were especially 
 common to the female sex, although both 
 sexes wore bracelets. (2 Sam. i. 10; Num. 
 xxi. 50.) Besides, we find ear-rings, which 
 (according to Jobxii. 11) were also worn by- 
 men. So-called ear-pendants (Judg. viii. 
 26; Isa. iii. 19) were also attached to the 
 ear-rings. Other ornaments were the nose¬ 
 rings, made of precious metal or ivory, 
 the signet, which was suspended by a 
 siring; necklaces, formed of perforated gold 
 drops strung together; to which must be 
 added the anklets —an especial ornament of 
 the women—which were connected with 
 step-chains, to announce their coming, and 
 to attract or drive away the opposite sex.’' 
 —Leyrer in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., s. v. 
 
 Clothing, Clerical. See Vestments. 
 
 Clovis, king of the Franks, and founder 
 of the Frankish Empire in ancient Gaul. 
 He was a heathen when he was invited by 
 the Christian clergy to invade Gaul, they 
 being moved by the desire to extinguish 
 the Arianism professed by the native 
 dwellers. He was baptized at Rheims on 
 Christmas Day, 496. 
 
 Clugny (clun-yee’), Congregation of, 
 established at Clugny, in eastern France, 
 under the rule of St. Benedict, by Duke 
 William, in 910. The monastery at Clugny 
 was the largest in Christendom, and its 
 church one of the most magnificent built in 
 the Middle Ages. For a long period the 
 congregation exerted a reforming influence 
 upon monastic life, but this declined, with 
 increase of wealth and power, until it was 
 
 i 
 
Coa 
 
 ( 19S ) 
 
 Coc 
 
 closed by the act of the French Assembly 
 in 1790, which suppressed all convents. 
 
 Coadjutor, in the Roman Church the 
 assistant of an ecclesiastic who, by reason 
 of sickness or age, is unable to attend to his 
 duties. The appointment may be perpet¬ 
 ual or temporary. 
 
 Cobb, Sylvanus, D. D., a prominent 
 Universalist minister; b. at Norway, Me., 
 July, 1799: d. in East Boston, Mass., Oct. 
 31, 1866. For about twenty years he edited 
 a denominational paper and, among other 
 works, wrote a Commentary on the New Tes¬ 
 tament. 
 
 Cobham, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle), b. 
 about 1360; martyred at London for his 
 adherence to the Lollards, in 1417. The 
 influence of his rank and wealth he used in 
 behalf of the Lollards, and he wrote a book 
 in 1395, in which he exposed the corrup¬ 
 tions of the Church. See Lollards. 
 
 Cocceius (Koch), Johannes, an eminent 
 Dutch theologian; b. at Bremen, July 30, 
 1603; appointed professor there, 1629; at 
 Franeker, 1636; at Leyden, where he d. 
 Nov. 4, 1669. He was the first to elaborate 
 the system of Federal Theology, which 
 became dominant in Holland, and was 
 adopted in the Westminster Standards. 
 (See his Summa Doctrines de Foedere et Tes- 
 tamento Dei , 1648.) Cocceius “ laid down 
 the guiding exegetical principle, that every 
 passage must be interpreted according to 
 its context, and have only that sense to 
 which the context leads. He drew his 
 theology directly from the Bible, and from 
 it alone; and thus he put himself in oppo¬ 
 sition to the scholastics and the Cartesians. 
 
 “ And, since the Bible is the history of 
 redemption, in the form of a covenant be¬ 
 tween God and man after the fall, he logic¬ 
 ally conceived of the relation between the 
 parties before the fall as also a covenant. 
 But this covenant is not, like a human one, 
 an agreement for mutual service; rather, 
 it is one-sided. The fundamental law of 
 every covenant of God with men is, he says, 
 that man is receiver, God giver. Man 
 was qualified by his creation to receive 
 it. He was free, rational, and holy. The 
 first covenant was ‘of works.’ God gave 
 man the promise of eternal felicity, on con¬ 
 dition that man remained holy, as he was 
 able to do. This was his 7 vork. But he 
 fell, and accordingly was cursed. After 
 the fall he was still bound to perfect obe¬ 
 dience and faith: God, however, who is rich 
 in mercy, put in place of the Covenant 
 of Works the ‘ Covenant of Grace,’ upon 
 precisely similar principles. God yet stands 
 
 as free giver; man, as willing receiver. 
 Cocceius shows that the fulfillment of the 
 latter required the sending of Jesus Christ, 
 and, in the biblical way, handles the doc¬ 
 trines of redemption under nine divisions 
 —its purpose (the promised grace), its 
 mode (gratuitous), its founder (a mediator), 
 its means (faith), its recipients (believers), 
 its cause (God’s good pleasure), its revela¬ 
 tions (the Bible), the method of its appli¬ 
 cation (the operation of the Holy Spirit), 
 its ultimate object (the glory of God). The 
 history of the second covenant falls into 
 three divisions (economies): the ante-legal 
 (the law under the form of conscience, the 
 grace under which the patriarchal prot- 
 evangel manifested itself, and the kingdom 
 of God existed in the form of the family); 
 the legal (the written law, grace in the form 
 of ceremonial types and prophecy, the 
 kingdom of God existed in the nation); and 
 the post-legal economy (in which Christ 
 himself appeared as the completely fulfilled 
 personal law, and as the personal grace, 
 as the personal word, and in which the 
 kingdom of God exists in universal form). 
 The effects of the Covenant of Grace 
 are the happiness of the individual soul, 
 the conversion of physical death from a 
 punishment into a deliverance from the 
 body of sin, and, lastly, the resurrection 
 of the body. The Federal theology of Coc¬ 
 ceius does not rest upon the doctrine of 
 predestination, as did the teaching of the 
 Protestant scholastics of the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury. Man, he taught, was not a machine 
 by which the divine decree was carried out, 
 but a person who received the divine grace 
 into his heart, and by it was led unto per¬ 
 fection. (See Ebrard: Christliche Dogmatik, 
 § 257.) As was to be expected, the scholastic 
 school attacked him, and called him a her¬ 
 etic. He replied that ‘ orthodoxy a la mode ’ 
 was the ruin of the Reformed Church, be¬ 
 cause it prided itself upon its orthodoxy, and 
 yet was full of worldliness. Cocceius had 
 the spiritually minded upon his side. He 
 took the substantially pietistic ground that 
 one should not listen to those preachers 
 who regarded the work of teaching religion 
 merely as a profession. Unhappily the 
 controversy took a political turn. The 
 aristocratic party, which had supported 
 Arminius, supported the Cocceians; the 
 Oranian party, his opponents. At one time, 
 a deeper split than Arminianism had made 
 threatened the Netherland Church, but by 
 pacificatory measures peace was restored, 
 and it was established by law that one out 
 of every three or dinar ii at each university 
 should be aCocceian.”— A. Ebrard it) Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. vol. i., p. 503. Cocceius, be¬ 
 sides commentaries on nearly the whole 
 Bible, and other works, was the author of 
 
Cod 
 
 ( 199 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 the first complete Hebrew lexicon: Lexicon , 
 Heb . et Chat. V. T. (Leyden, 1669). 
 
 Codex (Lat., a manuscript). There are, 
 according to Mr. Scrivener, 1,583 Codices 
 of the New Testament known to exist. 
 Probably others will yet be found in out- 
 of-the-way Eastern monasteries. But very 
 few of these MSS. contain the whole of 
 the New Testament. The Codices are 
 divided into Uncials , i. e., those written in 
 capital letters, and Cursives , those in run¬ 
 ning-hand. One of the most valuable, the 
 Codex Sinaiticus , was found by Tischen- 
 dorf, in the monastery on Mount Sinai, in 
 1859. See Bible; Textual Criticism. 
 
 Coelesyria, the name of the country 
 about Damascus, and also of a large part 
 of the country east of the Jordan. This 
 region, “celebrated in ancient times for 
 its fertility, and its numerous and warlike 
 inhabitants, large cities and magnificent 
 temples, is now merely an insignificant 
 district of the Turkish empire.’'— Thom¬ 
 son. 
 
 Coenobites. See Monasticism. 
 
 Coffin. See Burial. 
 
 Coffin, Charles, a distinguished French 
 hymnist; b. at Buzancy, 1676; d. in Paris, 
 1749. From 1712 until his death he held 
 the position of principal of the College of 
 Dormans-Beauvais, University of Paris. 
 A number of his Latin hymns are found 
 in the translations of Mason Neale and 
 John Chandler. 
 
 Colarbasians. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Coke, Thomas, LL. D., first bishop of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church; b. at 
 Brecon, Wales, Sept. 9, 1747; d. May, 
 1814. A graduate of Oxford, he became 
 curate of South Petherton, which position 
 he resigned in 1777 to join Wesley, by 
 whom he was set apart, in 1784, as super¬ 
 intendent of the work in America. He dis¬ 
 charged his duties with great energy. He 
 founded a mission among the negroes in 
 the West Indies, and one in the East Indies. 
 It was while on the way to the latter field 
 that he died at sea. He wrote a Life of 
 fohn Wesley; Commentary on the Old and 
 New Testament , 6 vols.; A History of the 
 West Indies , 3 vols., and several other 
 works. See his Life by J. W. Etheridge 
 (London, i860). 
 
 Colenso, John William, Church of 
 England, first colonial bishop of Natal; b. 
 at St. Austell, Cornwall, Eng., Jan. 24, 
 
 1814; d. at Natal, South Africa,June 20,1883. 
 He was graduated at St. John’s College, 
 Cambridge, in 1836, and became fellow anti 
 assistant tutor of his college; vicar of 
 Forncett St. Mary, Norfolk, 1846; bishop 
 of Natal, 1853. The views which he ex¬ 
 pressed in his Commentary on St. Pauls 
 Epistle to the Romans (London, 1861), 
 aroused attention because of his state¬ 
 ments regarding the Atonement and the 
 doctrine of endless punishment. The fol¬ 
 lowing year he put forth the first part of 
 his work entitled, The Pentateuch and the 
 Book of Joshua Critically Examined , which 
 produced a profound sensation, for it ex¬ 
 pressed the conclusion that much of their 
 contents were unhistorical. Legal pro¬ 
 ceedings were brought against him for his 
 alleged heresies, and he was deposed and 
 excommunicated by the metropolitan of 
 Capetown, but these proceedings were set 
 aside by the law officers of the crown, and 
 he kept his position, with its salary. 
 Though ostracised by the religious world, 
 he was extraordinarily popular with the 
 colonists, who admired his character and 
 ability, and flocked to hear him preach. 
 He was a devoted friend of the Zulus, and 
 did a great work among them. In the face 
 of popular feeling he defended their cause, 
 and denounced the action of the colonists 
 against them and their “ rebel chief.” See 
 his Life by Rev. Sir George W. Cox (Lon¬ 
 don, 1888), 2 vols. 
 
 • 
 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, b. at Ottery, 
 St. Mary, Oct. 21, 1772; d. at Highgate, 
 July 25, 1834. As a poet and critic his 
 productions have given him a place among 
 the great creative minds of his age. But 
 it is as a Christian philosopher that he de¬ 
 serves special mention in a work like this. 
 “ In this department of thought,” says Dr. 
 G. L. Prentiss (Schaff-Herzog: Encyclope¬ 
 dia , vol. i., p. 507), “ he was without a rival 
 in his generation, and his influence was 
 alike profound and far-reaching. Having 
 fought his own way, through much error 
 and doubt, to the full light of truth, he 
 strove to guide other minds to the same 
 light by showing, to use his own words, 
 that Christianity, ‘ though not discover¬ 
 able by human reason, is yet in accordance 
 with it; that link follows link by necessary 
 consequence; that religion passes out of 
 the ken of reason, only when the eye of 
 reason has reached its own horizon, and 
 that faith is then but its continuation, even 
 as the day softens away into the sweet 
 twilight, and twilight, hushed and breath¬ 
 less, steals into the darkness.’ As a phi¬ 
 losopher, he was a power, rather than a 
 system maker; and his power was exerted 
 almost as much in conversation as by his 
 
Col 
 
 ( 200 ) 
 
 Col 
 
 writings. When he came upon the stage, 
 the mind of England was fast-bound in the 
 systems of mechanical thought and empir¬ 
 icism, which ruled the last century. Locke 
 and Paley were the oracles of popular wis¬ 
 dom. A subtle rationalism was every¬ 
 where at work, sapping the ancient founda¬ 
 tions in morals and religion. Coleridge 
 undertook, at first almost single-handed, 
 to reassert the claims of a spiritual philos¬ 
 ophy. In order to do this, he laid the ut¬ 
 most stress upon the difference in kind 
 between reason and understanding, a dis¬ 
 tinction familiar already to German 
 thought, and as old, indeed, as Aristotle. 
 A careful statement of his views on this 
 point may be found in Aids to Reflection, 
 the most mature and complete of his fc 
 works. He also revived the Platonic 
 
 doctrine of ideas; that is, of the arche¬ 
 typal forms, or eternal verities, in the 
 divine mind. Upon these two points his 
 battle with the dominant systems largely 
 hinged. His philosophical method and 
 opinions were greatly influenced by Kant, 
 of whom he was an ardent admirer. He 
 owed much, also, to Schelling and Jacobi. 
 Of Hegel he seems to have known nothing. 
 
 I Iis writings, while full of seeds of the 
 highest thought and the noblest wisdom, 
 are yet disciplinary, rather than doctrinal; 
 they contain no fully developed system. 
 For this very reason they are, perhaps, 
 even the better fitted to aid inquiring 
 minds, especially youthful minds, in the 
 search for truth, and in solving the deep 
 problem of existence, both earthward and 
 heavenward. His religious temper and 
 sympathies are indicated by his fondness 
 for such divines as Luther, Hooper, Leigh¬ 
 ton, Down, Baxter, Jeremy Taylor, and 
 Bunyan. The writings of Archbishop 
 Leighton, and Pilgrim s Progress, were 
 his especial delight. As a theologian, he 
 revered the Fathers of the Reformation, 
 and accepted heartily the catholic doctrines 
 of faith, substantially as contained in the 
 ancient creeds and in the great Protestant 
 symbols. His orthodoxy has been warmly 
 impugned, particularly in reference to in¬ 
 spiration and the atonement. It can hardly 
 be denied, that, in the reaction from what 
 he called bibliolatry, he sometimes ex¬ 
 pressed himself incautiously, to say the 
 least, on the question of inspiration. With 
 regard to the atonement, whatever may 
 be said about certain passages, the general 
 tone of his later writings favors the con¬ 
 clusion that he was in substantial accord 
 with the teachings of the Reformed 
 churches on this subject. In general, it 
 may be said that he anticipated, and fur¬ 
 nished pregnant hints on, the best way of 
 meeting most of the objections to revealed 
 
 truth, which have been raised by the 
 skeptical science and speculation of the 
 last fifty years. Whatever his faults and 
 imperfections, whether as a man or an au¬ 
 thor, Coleridge must still be regarded as 
 the most original, profound, and many- 
 sided Christian thinker who has lived in 
 England in the nineteenth century.” See 
 The Complete JVorks of Coleridge, edited 
 with an introduction by Professor W. G. 
 T. Shedd, 7 vols (N. Y., 1854; with index 
 vol., 1884). 
 
 • 
 
 Colet, John, one of the “ Reformers be¬ 
 fore the Reformation;” b. in London, 
 1466; d. there, 1519. He was made dean of 
 St. Paul's, in 1505, and was active in his 
 efforts to suppress many evils that had 
 grown up by lax discipline. This, with 
 his opposition to many of the practices of 
 the Roman Church, made him the victim 
 of persecution, from which he barely es¬ 
 caped martyrdom He founded St. Paul’s 
 School in 1512. See Seebohm: The Oxford 
 Refor?ners of 14Q8 (London, 1869); Life, by 
 J. H. Lupton (London, 1887). 
 
 Coligny {ko-leen'ye), Gaspard de, French 
 admiral and Huguenot martyr; b. at Cha- 
 tillon-sur-Loing, in the department of Loi- 
 ret, Feb. 16, 1519; murdered in the mas¬ 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew, in Paris, Aug. 
 24, 1572. Of noble family, he was early 
 introduced at court, and served with brav¬ 
 ery under Francis L, in Italy. In 1552 he 
 was made admiral by Henry II. After a 
 brave defense of St. Quentin, in 1557, he 
 was compelled to surrender, and was taken 
 a prisoner to the Netherlands. When he 
 returned to France he espoused the Prot¬ 
 estant faith and became their most prom¬ 
 inent leader. Through the enmity of the 
 Guises, aided by the bigoted queen-dow¬ 
 ager, he was among the victims of the hor¬ 
 rible massacre of Protestants, Aug. 24, 
 1572. (See France,Reformed Church of.) 
 Baird: History of the Rise of the Huguenots 
 in France (N. Y., 1S79), 2 vols.; Besant: 
 Lifeof Coligny{ London and N ew Y ork, 1879). 
 
 Collation, (1) the giving of a benefice 
 by a bishop, either as a patron, or as a gift 
 which has come to him by lapse. (2) The 
 spare meal, on days of abstinence, of bread 
 and fruit, without meat. (3) The practice 
 instituted by St. Benedict in his monastery 
 of reading from the lives or Collationes of 
 the Fathers. 
 
 Collect, a short form of prayer in the 
 liturgies of the Roman Catholic and the 
 Anglican Churches. See Liturgy. 
 
 Collegiate Churches, (1) In the Roman 
 
Col 
 
 ( 201 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 Church, a church served by canons, reg¬ 
 ular or secular. (2) There are several 
 collegiate churches in England served by a 
 dean and a body of canons. (3) A number of 
 churches, connected in one corporation be¬ 
 longing to the Reformed (Dutch) Church 
 in New York City, are called the “ Colle¬ 
 giate Church.” The term is used in a few 
 other instances of this kind in our country. 
 
 Collegia Pontificia {papal colleges), insti¬ 
 tutions for the training of Roman priests 
 for missionary service in “heretical” 
 countries. A German college was founded 
 at Rome, by Loyola, in 1552. Gregory 
 XIII. established several for other coun¬ 
 tries. An “ American college ” was open¬ 
 ed in 1854. The students in these insti¬ 
 tutions are bound by the most solemn ob¬ 
 ligations to go wherever sent by their su¬ 
 periors. 
 
 Collins, Anthony. See Deists. 
 
 Cologne, the seat of a bishopric since 
 the fourth century, and always a prominent 
 city in the religious history of Germany. 
 The relics preserved in its churches are 
 among the most highly prized in the Ro¬ 
 man Church. One of its archbishops, 
 Hermann, favored the Reformation, and 
 another, Gebhard II., openly embraced 
 Protestantism, and was deposed. Serious 
 differences between the Archbishop of Co¬ 
 logne and the Prussian Government have 
 several times arisen of late years. The 
 cathedral is one of the finest in the world. 
 It was begun in 124S, and not completed 
 till 1880. 
 
 Colors. “The artificial colors named 
 in the Bible are purple, blue, scarlet and 
 vermilion. The first three were used in 
 the vestments of the Levitical priests, and 
 the curtains of the tabernacle. Purple 
 robes were worn by kings and other high 
 officers. Scarlet also was a color affected 
 by the rich and luxurious. Babylonian 
 idols were sometimes enrobed in garments 
 of purple and blue. The Phoenicians for 
 the most part seem to have provided the 
 materials for coloring; but the Egyptians 
 displayed the most skill in compounding 
 and applying them. Besides the artificial 
 colors just mentioned, the Bible recognizes 
 as natural colors—in addition to white— 
 black, red, yellow and green; though 
 sometimes without a sharp discrimination 
 in case of the last two. It is not to be 
 supposed that the common people in Israel 
 ordinarily indulged themselves in garments 
 of many colors. It was rather a sign of 
 wealth and distinction. Imitating the 
 luxurious habits of foreign nations is a 
 
 frequent subject of censure on the part of 
 the prophets.”— Bissell: Biblical Antiq¬ 
 uities, p. 88. 
 
 Colos'se or Colos'sae, a small town, 
 twelve miles above Laodicaea, situated near 
 the great road which led from Ephesus to 
 the Euphrates. The Church here was 
 probably the smallest to which St. Paul sent 
 any of his letters. Philemon and Onesimus 
 lived here. It was also the home of Archip- 
 pus and Epaphras, the latter of whom 
 probably founded the church at Colossae 
 while Paul was at Ephesus (a. d. 54-57). 
 
 Colossians, Epistle to. See Paul. 
 
 Columba, St., a remarkable Irish mis¬ 
 sionary; b. in County Donegal, 521; d. at 
 Iona, 597. He is best known as “ The 
 Apostle of the Piets, or the Western Isles.” 
 With almost incredible zeal he prosecuted 
 his work of propagating the Christian faith 
 in Ireland and Caledonia, and made con¬ 
 verts in great numbers. He founded many 
 religious houses that were subordinate to 
 the mother-house at Iona. See Reeves’ 
 ed. of Adamnan’s (abbot of Iona, 679) Life 
 (1857, new ed. by Skene, with Eng. trans. 
 Edinburgh, 1871). 
 
 Columban'us, one of the most learned 
 and eloquent of the many missionaries 
 whom Ireland sent forth to the continent 
 during the dark ages, was b. in Leinster 
 about 545; d. in Bobbio, 615. Educated 
 at the monastery of Bangor, with twelve 
 companions, when in his forty-fifth year, 
 he passed over to France and founded the 
 monasteries of Annegray, Luxeuil, and 
 Fontaine. His adherence to the Irish rule 
 for calculating Easter, involved him in 
 controversy with the French bishops, and 
 this, with his open rebuke of the vices of 
 the Burgundian court, led to his expulsion 
 from France. He withdrew to Switzerland 
 and then to Italy, where he founded the 
 monastery of Bobbio, in which he remained 
 until his death. He was a man of wide 
 learning. The order of the Columbans 
 merged in that of the Benedictines in the 
 beginning of the eighth century. 
 
 Combefis, Francois, a learned Domin¬ 
 ican monk; b. 1605; d. in Paris, 1679. His 
 life-work was the restoration of the texts 
 of the works of the Fathers. His full and 
 frank account of the Monotheletic contro¬ 
 versy did not please the authorities at 
 Rome. 
 
 Comenius (properly Komensky), the last 
 bishop of the Church of the Bohemian 
 Brethren; b. in Moravia, 1592; d. in Am- 
 
Com 
 
 ( 202 ) 
 
 Com 
 
 cJ^ 
 
 sterdam, 1670. Expelled from Bohemia in 
 1624, with others of his faith, he settled 
 (1627) in Lissa, Poland. Driven from here, 
 in 1654 he found a home in Amsterdam. He 
 was prominent as a leader and preacher 
 among his people, and wrote many volumes 
 which had a wide circulation. 
 
 Commendam, a living or parish com¬ 
 mended by the Crown to the care of a 
 clergyman, while destitute of a pastor. 
 Livings, as a rule, were held in connnendam 
 by those bishops whose sees were of little 
 value. The practice was abolished by ' 
 statute in the Church of England in : 
 1836. 
 
 i 
 
 Commerce among the Hebrews was re¬ 
 stricted, as they were not a sea-faring peo 
 pie. They, however, carried on consider¬ 
 able trade with foreign countries. (1 Kings 
 v. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 17; Acts xii. 20.) Joppa, 
 the modern Jaffa , was the port of Jerusa¬ 
 lem, and had a maritime trade of some ex¬ 
 tent. Oil was exported to Egypt (Hos. 
 xii. 1), and fine linen and ornamental 
 girdles, of domestic manufacture, were 
 sold to the merchants. (Prov. xxxi. 24.) 
 The internal trade of the Jews was much 
 promoted by the annual festivals held at 
 Jerusalem. The exchangers carried their 
 traffic even into the temple enclosure, 
 (John ii. 14; Matt. xxi. 12.) 
 
 I 
 
 Commination, the “ denunciation of 
 God’s anger and judgments against sin¬ 
 ners;” an office in the liturgy of the Church 
 of England, pronounced on Ash-Wednes- 
 day. It was omitted in the American 
 Prayer-book, but it is ordered to be used 
 at the end of the Litany on Ash-Wednes- 
 day. 
 
 Commu'nicatio Idiom'atum,a dogmatical 
 term designating the relations of the attri¬ 
 butes of the human and divine natures in 
 the one person of Christ. For the Luther¬ 
 an development of this doctrine see Chris- 
 tology. 
 
 Com'modus, Roman emperor (180-192). 
 Profligate in character, he let the Chris¬ 
 tians within the empire enjoy peace, simply 
 because he was indifferent to all religion. 
 Irenseus says that Christians were em¬ 
 ployed even in the imperial household, 
 but the laws against them were unrepealed, 
 and some suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Common Life Brethren. See Brethren 
 of the Common Life. 
 
 Common Life, Brethren of. See 
 Brethren of the Common Life. 
 
 Common Prayer. See Liturgy; Prayer- 
 Book. 
 
 Common Prayer, Book of. So called 
 because it instructs us to pray for all men 
 in common, “ all sorts and conditions of 
 men,” and because it is designed for the 
 use of all descriptions of worshipers, 
 “ high and low, rich and poor, one with 
 another.” 
 
 The English Book of Common Prayer is 
 founded upon the ancient Service-books of 
 the Catholic Church, of which there were 
 many (Antipkonale, Breviary , Gradual , 
 Manual , A/issal, Ordinal , Pic, Sacrament- 
 arj); and the principles on which it is so 
 founded are set forth in the preface to the 
 book The first beginnings of the English 
 Prayer-book may be said to date from 1542, 
 when it was decided in Convocation to re¬ 
 move the names of popes and of Becket 
 from the Alissal, and also that a chapter 
 of the Bible should be read in English at 
 morning and evening services. In 1544 
 the revised Litany was put forth. The first 
 Book of Common Prayer was issued in 
 1549. ^ was ordered to be first used on 
 
 Whitsunday of that year. “ The principal 
 differences,” says Mr. Procter in his his¬ 
 tory of the Common Prayer, “ between the 
 first Prayer-book of Edward VI. and that 
 now in use are as follows:— Alatins and 
 Evensong began with the Lord’s Prayer and 
 ended with the third Collect; the Litany was 
 placed after the Communion Office ; in 
 some early editions it was added as a sep¬ 
 arate sheet at the end of the volume; there 
 was no rubric to direct its use as a part of 
 the Morning Prayer; the address to the 
 Virgin Mary, which had been retained in 
 Henry's Litany, was omitted, together 
 with the similar invocations of the angels 
 and patriarchs, The Communion Service 
 began with an Introit, or Psalm, sung as the 
 minister was proceeding to the altar; the 
 Commandments were not read, the prayers 
 differed from our present form, but chiefly 
 in their arrangement; the name of the Vir¬ 
 gin was especially mentioned in the praise 
 offered for the saints; the Consecration in¬ 
 cluded a prayer for the sanctification of the 
 elements with the Holy Spirit and the 
 Word; water was mixed with the wine: the 
 words used in delivering the elements to 
 the communicants were only the first 
 clauses of those now used. The sign of the 
 cross was retained twice in the consecra¬ 
 tion of the elements, as it was also in Con¬ 
 firmation and Matrimony, and in the Visita¬ 
 tion of the Sick, if the sick person desired 
 to be annointed; a form of exorcism, and 
 anointing, and the trine immersion were 
 still used in Baptism; the water in the font 
 was ordered to be changed once a month at 
 
 
Com 
 
 ( 203 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 least ; in the Burial Service prayer was 
 offered for the deceased person, and an in- 
 troit, collect, epistle, and gospel were ap¬ 
 pointed for a communion at a burial.” The 
 original preface beginning, “ There was 
 never anything by the wit of man,” etc., 
 forms the second preface in our present 
 book. The treatise “ Of Ceremonies ” was 
 at the end of the Prayer-book. 
 
 But this book, while it displeased the 
 Roman Catholic party, headed by Bonner, 
 also displeased the extreme Reformers, 
 such as Hooper, who were more and more 
 influenced by the foreign Reformers. The 
 result was the Second Book of Edward VI ., 
 published in 1552, a book much less like 
 the old Service-books, and more in accord 
 with the views of the Continental Reform¬ 
 ers. In this book were first added the in¬ 
 troductory sentences in the Morning and 
 Evening services, followed by the Exhor¬ 
 tation, Confession, and Absolution. Some 
 most important changes were made in the 
 Communion Service. 
 
 In the second book the order was ar¬ 
 ranged as it is now. In the Administra¬ 
 tion, the words “ Take and eat this,” etc., 
 were substituted for those previously used. 
 Certain ceremonies were omitted in bap¬ 
 tism, as were the prayers for the dead in 
 the burial service. The treatise “ Of Cer¬ 
 emonies ” was transferred from the end of 
 the Prayer-book to the beginning. 
 
 In the reign of Queen Mary the Roman 
 Catholic service was restored; in that of 
 Elizabeth, the second book of Edward 
 again took its place (1559). In the Com¬ 
 munion Service the two sentences of the 
 first and second books of Edward were 
 both restored, and ran as now. A few ad¬ 
 ditions were made, e. g., the Occasional 
 Prayers ( q. v.) and some alterations in the 
 Lectionary (q. v. ). 
 
 The next epoch in the history of the Pray¬ 
 er-book was the Hampton Court Confer¬ 
 ence, in 1604. The alterations made then will 
 be found in the account of the Conference. 
 In 1637 came Laud’s unfortunate attempt 
 to enforce the Prayer-book on Scotland. 
 (Scotland.) In 1643 the English Prayer- 
 book was abolished by Parliament (Di¬ 
 rectory), but restored in 1662, and once 
 more revised at the Savoy Conference. 
 The present preface, “ It hath been the 
 wisdom,” etc., was added then. This is the 
 last revision which has taken effect until 
 the alteration of the Lectionary in 1871. 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. See Lit¬ 
 urgy. 
 
 Common Service of the Lutheran 
 Church. See Liturgy. 
 
 Communion. See Lord’s Supper. 
 
 Communion of the Dead. See Dead, 
 
 Communion of. 
 
 Communion of Saints, an expression in 
 the third article in the Apostles’ Creed. It 
 signifies that all Christians everywhere 
 have fellowship with God, with each other 
 on earth, and with the saints at rest. 
 Christ, whose life they have within them, 
 is the Lord both of the living and of the 
 dead; and, as Bishop Pearson writes, “ If 
 I have communion with a saint of God, 
 as such, while he liveth here, I must still 
 have communion with him when he is de¬ 
 parted hence; because the foundation of 
 that communion cannot be removed by 
 death.” 
 
 Communism, “ the reorganizing of so¬ 
 ciety, or the doctrine that it. should be 
 reorganized, by regulating property, in¬ 
 dustry, and the sources of livelihood, and 
 also the domestic relations and social mor¬ 
 als of mankind. Socialism, especially the 
 doctrine of a community of property, or 
 the negation of individual rights in prop¬ 
 erty.”— Burton. The communistic charac¬ 
 ter of the early Church of Jerusalem (Acts 
 ii. 44, 45) has been the source of much dis¬ 
 cussion. It certainly cannot be used to 
 prove that communism is an essential ele¬ 
 ment of Christian life. In its relation to 
 principles of political and national econ¬ 
 omy, it simply illustrates what has often 
 been shown, that communities that have 
 practiced communism, according to relig¬ 
 ious principles, have prospered. See Nord- 
 hoff: Communistic Societies of the United 
 States (New York, 1874); T. D. Woolsey: 
 Communism and Socialism. (New York, 
 1880.) 
 
 Competentes. See Catechism. 
 
 Completorium, the last of the canonical 
 hours of prayer. See Canonical Hours. 
 
 Complutensian Polyglot. See Polyglot. 
 
 Compostella, Order of Knights of St. 
 James. See Military Orders. 
 
 Comte Auguste. See Positivism. 
 
 Conant, Thomas Jefferson, D. D. 
 (Middlebury College, 1844), Baptist; b. at 
 Brandon, Vt., Dec. 13,1802; was graduated 
 at Middlebury College, Vt., 1823; professor 
 of languages in Colby University, 1827- 
 33; in Hamilton Theological Institute, 
 1835-51; of Hebrew and biblical exegesis 
 in Rochester Theological Seminary, 1851— 
 57; engaged in the service of the American 
 Bible Union, 1857-75, and edited and pre- 
 
Con 
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 pared their revision of the New Testament 
 (1871) and part of the Old. 
 
 Conception, Feast of the, a festival of 
 the Roman Catholic Church, celebrated 
 Dec. 8, in honor of the immaculate concep¬ 
 tion of the Virgin Mary. See Immaculate 
 Conception. 
 
 Conclave (literally, a place that may be 
 locked with a key), a name applied both 
 to the place where the cardinals meet 
 for the election of a new pope, and also to 
 the assembly itself. The election to the 
 papacy must take place in the city where 
 the last pontiff’s death occurred. As many 
 deal cellules as there are cardinals are 
 built, with lodges and places for the con¬ 
 clavists, i. e., personal attendants, who 
 shut themselves in to wait on and serve 
 the cardinals. These little chambers have 
 each their number, and as the figures are 
 drawn at hazard, it often happens that car¬ 
 dinals of different factions lodge near one 
 another. The cellules are made up during 
 the nine days of the ceremony of the pope’s 
 funeral, during which time anybody may 
 go into the conclave and see them; they 
 are hung on the outside with green serge 
 or camlet, and over each are the arms of 
 the cardinal who lives in it. They all 
 open on a corridor. The day after the 
 pope’s burial—that is, the tenth after his 
 death—the cardinals, having heard the 
 Mass of the Holy Ghost, go in procession, 
 two by two, to the conclave, there to re¬ 
 main shut out from the world until a pope 
 is elected. Strict precautions are taken 
 that no communications shall pass between 
 them and the outer world; the object of 
 this confinement is that the election may 
 be free and unbiased. They all meet in 
 the chapel every day, morning and even¬ 
 ing, for a “scrutiny,” which is done by 
 writing their suffrages in little billets, and 
 putting them in a chalice that stands upon 
 the altar; when all are put in, two cardi¬ 
 nals are chosen by the rest to read out the 
 names, and keep an account of the number 
 for each; and this is done until two-thirds 
 join for the same person. Popes are 
 usually chosen after this manner, but there 
 are two other methods: acclamation, or 
 quasi-inspiration, where all the cardinals 
 cry out with one voice; compromise , where 
 the election is entrusted to a small com¬ 
 mittee. On one occasion, in 1799, at the 
 election of Pius VII., the conclave was 
 confined six months before the election was 
 completed. During the conclave each car¬ 
 dinal is allowed but two servants, or three 
 at most, and this extension is only permit¬ 
 ted to princes, or as a particular privilege. 
 —Benhara: Diet, of Religion, 
 
 Concord, Formula of, the last of the six 
 symbolical books of the Lutheran Church, 
 adopted in 1580. It consists of two parts, 
 the Epitome, and the Solid Repetition and 
 Declaration, each containing twelve arti¬ 
 cles. See Schaff: Creeds of Christendom , 
 vol. i., 258-340. 
 
 Concordat is an agreement between the 
 pope, as representing the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and a temporal sovereign, with 
 reference to the rights of the Church with¬ 
 in the territory of the latter. These agree¬ 
 ments have played an important part in 
 the history of Europe. 
 
 Concubine. Among the Hebrews this 
 term denoted a lawful wife of inferior 
 rank. There was no such difference be¬ 
 tween the children of wife and concubine 
 as our illegitimacy implies. They were 
 regarded as a supplementary family to that 
 of the wife. The concubine could not be 
 arbitrarily cast away (Ex. xxi.7-9; Deut. 
 xxi. 10, 11), and she was protected by the 
 law of Moses. Christ restored the original 
 law of marriage (Gen. ii. 24; Matt. xix. 5; 
 1 Cor. vii. 2); and concubinage is ranked 
 with fornication and adultery. 
 
 Externally, marriage and concubinage 
 were equal, according to the Roman law, 
 as, even for marriage, nothing was re¬ 
 quired but the agreement of the contract¬ 
 ing parties. It was, however, only by 
 regular marriage that the wife obtained the 
 rank of the husband, and her children were 
 legitimate. This form of concubinage still 
 exists among the Germans in what is 
 known as morganatic marriages between 
 persons of different rank, e. g. ,a prince 
 and a commoner. By this union the wife 
 has no claim to the husband’s name or 
 property, but the children may take a 
 third of their father’s estate if he leaves 
 no lawful children. It was not until the 
 fifth century that the Church condemned 
 concubinage. Up to the sixteenth century 
 the enforcement of celibacy led to much 
 concubinage among the clergy. The Coun¬ 
 cil of Trent (1543-63), by its regulations 
 regarding marriage, forbade all illicit rela¬ 
 tions on the part of the laity as well as 
 the clergy. Among Protestants concubin¬ 
 age has always been condemned, and made 
 the ground of Church discipline. 
 
 Condignity and Congruity. Terms used 
 by the schoolmen to express their pecul¬ 
 iar opinions relative to human merit and 
 deserving. 
 
 The Scotists maintained that it is possible 
 for man, in his natural state, so to live as 
 to deserve the grace of God, by which he 
 1 may be enabled to obtain salvation, this 
 
Con 
 
 ( 205 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 natural ftness (congruitas ) for grace being 
 such as to oblige the Deity to grant it. 
 Such is the merit of congruity. 
 
 The Thomists , on the other hand, con¬ 
 tended that man, by the Divine assistance, 
 is capable of so living as to merit eternal 
 life, to be zvorthy (condignus ) of it in the 
 sight of God. In this hypothesis, the 
 question of previous preparation for the 
 grace which enables him to be zvorthy is 
 not introduced. This is the merit of con- 
 dignity .—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Cone, Spencer Houghton, D. D., b. at 
 Princeton, N. J., April 30, 1785; d. in New 
 York, Aug. 28, 1855. For several years 
 he was a successful actor, but in 1812 be¬ 
 came a journalist, and then, in 1815, en¬ 
 tered the ministry of the Baptist Church, 
 officiating as chaplain of Congress, 1815-16. 
 He was pastor of the Baptist church in 
 Alexandria, D. C., 1816-23; of the Oliver 
 Street church, New York, 1823-41; and of 
 the First Baptist church in that city from 
 1841 until his death. He was prominent in 
 organizing the American and Foreign 
 Bible Society (1836), and the American 
 Bible Union (1850), and held the position 
 of president in both societies. See Memoir 
 by his sons (N. Y., 1857). 
 
 Conference. I.—This name is used to 
 designate a meeting to discuss differ¬ 
 ences of opinion. Two remarkable confer¬ 
 ences of this kind in England, the Hamp¬ 
 ton Court and the Savoy, are described 
 under their respective heads. 
 
 II.—In the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 in America there are four synods or judi¬ 
 catories, styled conferences. (1) The 
 Quarterly Conference of each circuit or sta¬ 
 tion consists of the “traveling and local 
 preachers, exhorters, stewards, and class- 
 leaders of the circuit or station. The 
 presiding elder, or, in his absence, the 
 preacher-in-charge, is president. The reg¬ 
 ular business of the Quarterly Conference 
 is to hear complaints, and to receive and 
 try appeals, to superintend the interests of 
 Sunday-schools, to license local preachers, 
 to appoint stewards.” ( Discipline .) 
 
 (2) The Annual Conferencexs, composed of 
 all the ministers in a certain territory, and 
 presided over by one of the bishops. It 
 takes cognizance of ecclesiastical matters, 
 collects the church statistics, and in its 
 annual minutes publishes an account of the 
 same, and gives special attention to all 
 mission work within its bounds. It in¬ 
 quires regarding the character of each 
 preacher, and elects and ordains deacons 
 and elders. A certified copy of the minutes 
 is sent to the General Conference. ( Disci¬ 
 pline ■, sec. 73-86.) 
 
 (3) The General Conference , which meets 
 once in four years, is composed of minis¬ 
 terial and lay delegates, in the proportion 
 of one ministerial for every forty-five 
 members of each Annual Conference, and 
 two lay for each Annual Conference. They 
 deliberate together, but vote separately, if 
 so demanded by a third of either order. 
 The conference has full power to make 
 rules and regulations for the church, pro¬ 
 vided they do not alter, in essentials, its 
 doctrines and polity. Any restriction, ex¬ 
 cept in relation to doctrine, may be changed 
 by a vote of two-thirds of the General Con¬ 
 ference, if ratified by three-fourths of the 
 members of the Annual Conferences. The 
 sessions of the General Conference are 
 presided over by a bishop. (Discipline , sec. 
 63-72.) 
 
 (4) The District Conference is composed 
 of the traveling and local preachers, the 
 exhorters, the district stewards, and one 
 Sunday-school superintendent, and one 
 class-leader from each pastoral charge in 
 the district. It meets once or twice a year, 
 and is usually presided over by the presid¬ 
 ing-elder of the district. It has a general 
 superintendence of local church interests, 
 and may be discontinued if its members 
 and the quarterly conferences see fit. 
 
 III.—The Wesleyans of England and 
 other countries have annual conferences,at¬ 
 tended by all the ministers; and the name is 
 used to designate the annual meetings of 
 various religious bodies having a Congre¬ 
 gational polity. The Roman Church al¬ 
 lows pastoral conferences, but they must 
 be under the entire control of the ordinar- 
 iat. 
 
 Confession of Faith. See Creed. 
 
 Confession of Sins. Roman Catholic 
 writers attempt to prove that private or 
 auricular confession dates back to the ear¬ 
 liest days of the Christian Church. Protes¬ 
 tants claim that there is no authority for 
 compulsory private confession, and that 
 its practice, as known in the Roman Church, 
 sprang from the monastic life. Leo the 
 Great first officially recognized and con¬ 
 firmed private confession as a legal institu¬ 
 tion, and the Synod of Liege (710) decreed 
 that every member of the Roman Church 
 should confess at least once a year to the 
 priest .of the parish. 
 
 Confirmation, “an ecclesiastical term, de¬ 
 noting the laying on of hands, in the admis¬ 
 sion of baptized persons to the enjoyment 
 of full Christian privileges. The antiquity 
 of this ceremony is, by all the older writ¬ 
 ers, carried as high as the apostles, and 
 founded upon their example and practice. 
 
Con 
 
 ( 206 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 In the primitive church the ceremony was 
 performed immediately after baptism, if 
 the bishop were present at the solemnity. 
 Among the Greeks, and throughout the 
 East, it still accompanies baptism, but the 
 Roman Catholics make it a distinct and in¬ 
 dependent sacrament.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Confucius, a famous Chinese philos¬ 
 opher; b. B. C. 551, in the kingdom of Lu, 
 now' called the Province of Shantung, of 
 an ancient and noble family. His father, 
 Sholiam-he, had a considerable office in 
 the kingdom of Shum, but he died when 
 his son w r as three years old. The widow, 
 though very poor, encouraged her son in 
 his love of reading, and his great ability 
 and solid judgment got him considerable 
 reputation from his very youth; and being 
 a mandarin, and employed in the govern¬ 
 ment of the kingdom of Lu, he soon 
 made it appear how important it was that 
 the kings themselves should be philos¬ 
 ophers, or make use of philosophers as 
 their ministers. The knowledge of morals 
 and politics, whereof he was a master, 
 made him much esteemed in the govern¬ 
 ment of the State and the establishment of 
 laws; and young men came in crowds to 
 hear his lectures. On his mother’s death, 
 w'hen he was twenty-four, he retired for 
 three years to mourn for her, and his ex¬ 
 ample is still followed. Yet, notwith¬ 
 standing his care, his prince’s court was 
 much disordered by several young ladies 
 sent by the king of Shi to effeminate the 
 monarch of Lu, and make him neglect the 
 care of his kingdom. Confucius, finding 
 the king would not listen to his advice, 
 quitted his place and the court, and re¬ 
 tired to the kingdom of Shun, where he 
 taught moral philosophy with such extraor¬ 
 dinary applause that he soon had 3,000 
 scholars; and of these, seventy-tw T o sur¬ 
 passed the rest in learning and virtue: for 
 the seventy-turn the Chinese still cherish 
 special veneration. He divided his doc¬ 
 trine into four parts, and his scholars into 
 so many classes, or schools. The first or¬ 
 der was of those who studied to acquire 
 virtue; the second, of those who learned 
 eloquence and the art of reasoning; in the 
 third the government of the State and the 
 duty of magistrates w r ere dealt with; the 
 fourth was taken up wholly with noble 
 discourses of all that concerned morals. 
 This great man w r as extraordinarily mod¬ 
 est, declaring openly that he was not the 
 first inventor of this doctrine—that he only 
 collected it out of his predecessors’ writ¬ 
 ings, especially those of the kings of Yao 
 and Shun, who lived above 500 years be¬ 
 fore his time; and he used to say there 
 -was a very holy man in the western lands, 
 
 called Sifam Zen Shimguin. He died b. c. 
 478. His tomb at Shantung is held in 
 deep respect. It is walled-in like a medi¬ 
 aeval town. This philosopher has been 
 held in such veneration in China, for above 
 2,000 years, that none can come to the 
 quality of a mandarin without passing as 
 doctor in the teaching of Confucius. Each 
 town has a palace consecrated to his mem¬ 
 ory, and when any officers pass before it 
 they quit their palanquin, and go some 
 way afoot, to show their honor for his 
 memory. The fronts of these fine build¬ 
 ings have his great titles in golden letters, 
 as, To the Great Master , the Famous , the 
 Wise King of Learning; and, in fact, the 
 veneration amounts to worship. 
 
 The teaching of Confucius took for its 
 ultimate end the promotion of tranquillity, 
 and he taught that this was to be done 
 through the faithful performance of all 
 duties. He laid down laws for social in¬ 
 tercourse, and made all government a pa¬ 
 ternal despotism. He was certainly one 
 of the finest and noblest of heathen teach¬ 
 ers—a man of practical wisdom rather 
 than a solver of hard questions or a pro¬ 
 found thinker. The intense conservatism 
 of the Chinese character has hitherto re¬ 
 fused to accept any other text-book than 
 his writings, but probably, as the nation 
 is, in spite of itself, forced to fall in with 
 the other civilizations of the world, the 
 influence of Confucius will wane.—Ben- 
 ham: Dictionary of Religion. See Legge: 
 The Religions of China , Confucianism and 
 Taoism , compared with Christianity^ London, 
 1880); also Life , by same author (London, 
 1886). 
 
 Congregatio de Auxiliis Divinae Gratiae, 
 the name given the commission formed by 
 Pope Clement VIII., in 1598, to examine 
 Molina’s ( q. v. ) work, Concordia Liberi Ar- 
 bitrii cu?n Gratia. This book had been the 
 cause of a bitter dispute between the 
 Dominicans and Jesuits. The former de¬ 
 clared that it was semi-Pelagian in its 
 teachings. It was this discussion that led 
 the pope to order the commission. After 
 three months and eleven meetings, nine of 
 the eleven members condemned the book 
 in strong terms. A second examination 
 had the same result. The Jesuits did all 
 in their power to sustain Molina, and the 
 pope ordered a debate to take place be¬ 
 tween the two parties. For years the de¬ 
 bate continued at various times, and was 
 finally brought to a close, in 1607, by Paul 
 V., the successor of Clement, who ordered 
 that both parties should have the privilege 
 of teaching as they pleased, so long as 
 they did not accuse each other of heresy. 
 It was a victory for the Jesuits, and the 
 
Con 
 
 ( 207 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 history of the Congregatio played an im¬ 
 portant part in the Jansenist controversy. 
 
 Congregation, (1) Biblical Usage , a name 
 given the Hebrews, regarded in their collec¬ 
 tive capacity as a “ holy” community, gath¬ 
 ered in sacred assembly composed of the 
 home-born Israelites. Settlers, only if cir¬ 
 cumcised, were admitted to its privileges. 
 (Ex. xii. 19.) Each Israelite was a member of 
 a /muse; the family was a collection of hous¬ 
 es; the tribe , a collection of families; the 
 congregation , a collection of tribes. The 
 congregation was a national parliament, with 
 legislative and judicial powers. The con¬ 
 vocation was restricted to religious meet¬ 
 ings. (Lev. xxiii.) Each house, family, 
 and tribe had its head; these representa¬ 
 tive heads were “ the elders ” or “ princes. ” 
 Moses selected seventy elders by God’s 
 appointment, to share the burden of gov¬ 
 ernment with him. (Num. xi. 16.) The 
 sounding of the two silver trumpets was 
 the signal for the whole body of the people 
 assembling at the door of the tabernacle, 
 which was there called “ the tabernacle of 
 the congregation,” the mo'eed, lit. place of 
 meeting. (Num. x. 2-4.) The princes were 
 convened with only one trumpet. The 
 people were bound to abide by the acts 
 of their representatives. (Josh. ix. 18.) 
 In later times the Sanhedrim council 
 (answering to Moses’ seventy ) represented 
 the congregation. Synagogue , which orig¬ 
 inally applied to the assembly, came to 
 mean the place of worship.—Fausset: Bible 
 Cyclopedia. 
 
 (2) Ecclesiastical Usage. With the growth 
 of priestly authority the power of the 
 congregation in the Roman Church is 
 now very slight. The Reformation re¬ 
 stored, in part, the system of the early 
 enurch among Protestants. The principle 
 of the independent authority of the congre¬ 
 gation has been most fully developed 
 among denominations who hold to the Con¬ 
 gregational polity in government. (See 
 Congregationalists and Baptists.) In 
 the Roman Church the term Congregation 
 is applied (1) to committees of cardinals 
 appointed by the pope to expedite the 
 business of the curia. (2) To communities 
 bound by monastic vows for various pur¬ 
 poses. In Scotland the name “ Lords of 
 the Congregation ” is given to the leading 
 parties who subscribed to the First Cov¬ 
 enant at Edinburgh, Dec. 3, 1557. The 
 title came from the frequency with which 
 the word “ congregation ” was mentioned. 
 
 Congregationalism is a form of church 
 life, distinguished by its combination of the 
 two principles of the self-government of 
 the local churches, and the obligation and 
 
 privilege of sustaining relations of fellow¬ 
 ship and communion with churches of like 
 faith and order. For further information 
 see Congregationalists. 
 
 Congregationalists. It is in the book of 
 the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles 
 that follow, that Congregationalists find 
 the warrant for their system of church 
 government and fellowship. In its histor¬ 
 ical development they trace the beginnings 
 of a distinct denominational existence from 
 the days that gave birth to English Puri¬ 
 tanism. Out of the agitation and protest 
 against prevalent ungodliness that marked 
 the period of what is known as the Eng¬ 
 lish Reformation, came influences that gave 
 impetus in Great Britain to the growth of 
 Presbyterianism, and gave birth to Con¬ 
 gregational churches. However much the 
 polity of the former may have affected and 
 shaped the history of the latter up to the 
 present century, they have worked out 
 their views of polity along entirely distinct 
 lines. 
 
 There are good reasons for calling Rob¬ 
 ert Browne ( q. v.) the founder of English 
 Congregationalism. Educated at Cambridge 
 University, his mind was early turned to 
 the evils that had crept into the Church of 
 England through its alliance with the State, 
 and the acceptance of the theory that all 
 who had been baptized were in its com¬ 
 munion. Learning that there were those 
 like-minded in Norfolk, who might be 
 led into the views which he had reached 
 through earnest prayer and meditation, 
 he joined them about 1580, and here, 
 in the formation of a church of which 
 he became pastor, he developed many of 
 the distinctive principles of Congregation¬ 
 alism. Only those who gave evidence of 
 a renewed life he deemed worthy of church 
 fellowship, and, where such believers saw 
 fit to uni J te, they were competent to dis¬ 
 charge the duties and enjoy the privileges 
 of a church. In his protest against the 
 parish system, he went so far as to assert 
 that communion should be withheld from 
 any who were connected with it. This un¬ 
 charitable position was sufficient, joined 
 with the views which he disseminated 
 regarding church government, to arouse 
 the opposition of Puritans and hierarchists 
 alike. The flame of persecution became 
 so hot that Browne and his little company 
 concluded “ that the Lord did call them 
 out of England,” and in the autumn of 
 1581 they emigrated to Middelburg, in Zea¬ 
 land. It was here that Browne published 
 several works, which show how clearly he 
 recognized the fundamental ideas upon 
 which Congregationalism rests. Under 
 Christ as the supreme head, the members, 
 
Con 
 
 ( 208 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 joined by mutual covenant in the local 
 church, controlled their affairs, and elected 
 their office-bearers—pastors or elders and 
 deacons—from among themselves. In the 
 matter of fellowship, it provided for synods 
 and councils, “ for redresse and deciding 
 of matters which cannot wel be otherwise 
 taken vp;” or “ when the weaker churches 
 seeke helpe of the stronger.” 
 
 It is not strange, when we consider the 
 times and circumstances, combined with 
 the lack of training and education on the 
 part of those who formed this early Con¬ 
 gregational Church, that it became distract¬ 
 ed and divided on matters of discipline, 
 and was finally disbanded. Browne re¬ 
 turned to England, worn by labor, disap¬ 
 pointment, and persecution; and broken, 
 it would appear, both in body and mind, 
 accepted the refuge offered him in the care 
 of an obscure parish of the Established 
 Church, bestowed through the influence of 
 a relative. 
 
 Henry Barrowe and John Greenwood, 
 after a long imprisonment, were executed, 
 April 6, 1593. During their confinement 
 in the Fleet prison they had written tracts, 
 printed at Dordrecht, in which, while ear¬ 
 nestly upholding the views disseminated 
 by Browne, they pointed out what seemed to 
 them the dangers of a practically democratic 
 form of government, and advised the adop¬ 
 tion of the Presbyterian form of elder¬ 
 ship, by which the direct control of the 
 church should be in the hands of a select 
 body of the members. 
 
 A church on this basis was formed in 
 London, but, after suffering the most bit¬ 
 ter persecutions, many of its members mi¬ 
 grated to Amsterdam with Francis John¬ 
 son, pastor, and Henry Ainsworth, teacher. 
 The attempt to combine the aristocratic 
 with the democratic form of government 
 was not altogether happy in its results, 
 and it has been well said that “ It grad¬ 
 ually made itself obvious that,whatever the 
 respective merits of Congregationalism 
 and Presbyterianism when separate, the 
 two systems are ill-fitted to work happily 
 together, at the same time and in the same 
 church.”— H. M. Dexter. Ainsworth be¬ 
 came the leader of the more purely Con¬ 
 gregational party, which seceded from the 
 church which, under Johnson, became Pres¬ 
 byterian in everything but name. 
 
 When John Robinson, with the members 
 of the Scrooby church, came to Amster¬ 
 dam, in 1608, they found the church there 
 in such a condition that they decided to re¬ 
 move to Leyden. Robinson sided with 
 Ainsworth and his party,but he by no means 
 favored a democracy that did not accept 
 the controlling influence of those in author¬ 
 ity. It was a part of his company that 
 
 sailed in the Mayflower for the shores of 
 the New World in 1620. He hoped, with 
 the remaining members of his church, to 
 join the colony at Plymouth, but died in 
 Leyden, in 1625, before they left. 
 
 Those who suffered under the policy 
 of Laud in the reign of Charles I. were 
 Puritans and not Separatists. It was not 
 until the time of the civil war that Con¬ 
 gregationalism (Independency) began to 
 take firm root in England. Many churches 
 were formed in London and its vicinity, 
 and in time numbered amongtheir members 
 strong and influential men. Ten or eleven 
 Congregational ministers were in the 
 Westminster Assembly. Cotton, Hooker, 
 and Davenport were invited from New 
 England, but did not deem it best to at¬ 
 tend. Following the Restoration, all the 
 Non conformist bodies passed through days 
 of sore trial. The clouds began to lift 
 after the Revolution of 1688, but it has 
 been through much opposition and trial 
 that English Congregationalism has come 
 to its present prosperous growth. A re¬ 
 cent Year Book reports in England and 
 Wales 4,376 churches, branch churches, 
 and mission stations. Besides these, they 
 have in Scotland 101 churches and stations; 
 in Ireland, 123; Canada, 201; Australia, 
 310; New Zealand, 24; Natal, etc., 26; 
 South Africa, 39; Jamaica, 41; British 
 Guiana, 39; India, 31; China, 2; on the 
 Continent, 4, and in the Channel Islands, 
 11. These aggregate 5,328. 
 
 Congregationalists in the United States. 
 
 When the Mayflower landed its little band 
 of Pilgrims at Plymouth, in 1620, they 
 represented a part of John Robinson's 
 company, and under Elder Brewster 
 continued their organization as a Congre¬ 
 gational Church. Their history finds its 
 source in the north of England, from which 
 Robinson and most of those who followed 
 him, had migrated to Holland, in 1608. 
 At this time there were probably not more 
 than five or six Congregational churches 
 in the world. 
 
 The Puritans, who settled the Massachu¬ 
 setts colony, in 1630, were every way dis¬ 
 tinct from the Pilgrims. Their leaders 
 were men of education and wealth, trained 
 in the management of affairs, who came to 
 the shores of the New World not only to 
 secure freedom from religious persecution, 
 but to build up a fabric of government 
 that would preserve their political as well 
 as spiritual liberties. “They were Pu¬ 
 ritans,” says Dr. H. M. Dexter, “ but not 
 Separatists, and they had a very distinct 
 prejudice against the Plymouth men. 
 They left the English Channel with a vague 
 notion that, somehow, they were going to 
 
Con 
 
 ( 209 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 reproduce the Church of England here, in 
 that purified and beatific state for which they 
 had long been contending at home in vain. 
 But when they came on shore they were 
 confronted with the facts that they had no 
 church, and no bishop to arrange properly 
 that they should have one, to ordain its 
 pastor, and generally to bless the move¬ 
 ment. So that precisely that happened to 
 them which John Robinson had foreseen 
 and predicted when he had said to his own 
 departing company, * There will be no 
 difference between the unconformable (i. e., 
 the merely Non-conformist Puritan) minis¬ 
 ters and you, when they come to the prac¬ 
 tice of the Ordinances out of the kingdom.’ 
 To have a church it was necessary for the 
 Mattapan and Salem and Shawmut men to 
 make one for themselves, which, with 
 some help, besought by themselves from 
 the Plymouth men, they did. And so they, 
 too, had a Congregational Church and 
 churches, and became Congregationalists.” 
 —Jackson: Did. of Religion, p. 190. 
 
 From this point the history of the de¬ 
 velopment of Congregationalism in this 
 country, until early in the present century, 
 is an integral part of the social, political, 
 and religious life of New England, es¬ 
 pecially in the Commonwealths of Mas¬ 
 sachusetts and Connecticut. The same 
 dominant influences in the Massachusetts 
 Colony, that sought to keep the control of 
 public affairs in the hands of a privileged 
 class, worked in the direction of a church 
 government, that, while nominally Congre¬ 
 gational, was strongly leavened with Pres¬ 
 byterianism. The elder Governor Win- 
 throp sympathized with Cotton, who 
 thought it would be disastrous to trust the 
 conduct of affairs in the hands of the 
 people. “ Democracy,” he declared, “ I 
 do not conceive that ever God did ordain 
 as a fit government, either for church or 
 commonwealth.” The history of church 
 trials in those days shows how little op¬ 
 portunity was given for the exercise of in¬ 
 dependence upon the part of local churches 
 and their members. The relations of the 
 churches to the State were such that im¬ 
 portant matters pertaining to their inter¬ 
 ests, ecclesiastical and theological, were 
 frequently brought into the General Courts 
 for discussion and legislation. The com¬ 
 mission of twelve ministers who, with four 
 lay deputies, framed the Saybrook Plat¬ 
 form in 1708, was created by the Connect¬ 
 icut Assembly; and, after making a report 
 of its labors, that General Court, without 
 referring the matter to the forty Congre¬ 
 gational churches then existing in the 
 colony, declared “ their great approbation 
 of such an happy agreement, and do ordain 
 that all the churches within this govern¬ 
 
 ment that are or shall be thus united in 
 doctrine, worship, and discipline, be, and 
 for the future shall be, owned and establish¬ 
 ed by law.” 
 
 The strong influence which the English 
 system of a national church had upon the 
 minds of the New England ministers in 
 working out their views of ecclesiastical 
 order is seen in the history of what is 
 known as the Half-Way Covenant. This 
 was “ a system under which the local 
 church, as a covenanted brotherhood of 
 souls renewed by the experience of God’s 
 grace, was to be merged in the parish; and 
 all persons of good moral character, living 
 within the parochial bounds, were to have, 
 as in England and Scotland, the privilege 
 of baptism for their households, and of ac¬ 
 cess to the Lord’s table.” This “ parish 
 way ” was the source of many evils that, 
 from the beginning, were discerned by John 
 Davenport and others, but it was in time 
 generally adopted; and not until the wave 
 of spiritual life that swept over the 
 churches in the “ Great Awakening,” under 
 the leadership of Whitefield, and the elder 
 Edwards, did the opposition to the Half- 
 Way Covenant plan become strong enough 
 to do away with it. 
 
 The trend of events that culminated in 
 the Revolution, the formation of the Re¬ 
 public, and the separation altogether of 
 Church and State, were calculated to de¬ 
 velop and strengthen the principles that 
 underlie the Congregational polity, viz., 
 the independence of each local church, and 
 the obligation and privilege of fellowship 
 with sister churches. It was not until 
 some time after the tide of emigration be¬ 
 gan to flow westward, early in the present 
 century, that any effort was made to 
 organize Congregational churches outside 
 of New England. In 1801, a “ Plan of 
 Union ” was arranged between the Gen¬ 
 eral Association of Connecticut, and the 
 Presbyterian General Assembly, regard¬ 
 ing the formation of churches in new 
 regions. This plan was unsatisfactory in 
 its working, and was abrogated by a Con¬ 
 vention of Congregationalists held at Al¬ 
 bany in 1852. A glance at the following 
 table will show how rapidly the churches 
 of the Congregational order have increas¬ 
 ed since that time. 
 
 Churches. Members. Ministers. 
 
 1760.530......(41 churches vacant). 
 
 1845.1,471 165,287.1,412 
 
 1848.1,867.177,668.1,612 
 
 (No returns for 1849.) 
 
 1859.2,571.250,452.2,544 
 
 1869.3,043.330,391.3,278 
 
 1879.3,674.382,920.3,585 
 
 1889.4,569.475.6o8.4>4°8 
 
 Doctrinally , Congregationalists have 
 emphasizedthe'principle that the Scriptures 
 
Con 
 
 ( 210 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 are the only authoritative rule of faith and 
 practice. Each church adopts its own 
 creed, and is bound by no other symbol, 
 but, among general standards,the Westmin¬ 
 ster Confession and the Savoy Confession 
 have had the widest acceptance in the past. 
 As the outcome of a prevalent feeling that 
 these ancient confessions failed to fully 
 represent the beliefs of the churches, the 
 National Council at St. Louis, in 1880, took 
 measures for the appointment of a com¬ 
 mittee of representative ministers, who pre¬ 
 pared and reported what is known as “ the 
 Creed of 1883,” which reads as follows: 
 
 I. We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, 
 Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and 
 invisible; 
 
 And in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who is of 
 one substance with the Father; by whom all things 
 were made; 
 
 And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, 
 who is sent from the Father and Son, and who together 
 with the Father and Son is worshiped and glorified. 
 
 II. We believe that the Providence of God, by 
 which he executes his eternal purposes in the govern¬ 
 ment of the world, is in and over all events; yet so that 
 the freedom and responsibility of man are not impaired, 
 and sin is the act of the creature alone. 
 
 III. We believe that man was made in the image of 
 God, that he might know, love, and obey God, and 
 enjoy him forever; that our first parents by disobedience 
 fell under the righteous condemnation ofGod; and that 
 all men are so alienated from God that there is no sal¬ 
 vation from the guilt and power of sin except through 
 God’s redeeming grace. 
 
 IV. We believe that God would have all men return 
 to him; that to this end he has made himself known, 
 not only through the works of nature, the course of his 
 providence, and the consciences of men, but also 
 through supernatural revelations made especially to a 
 chosen people, and above all, when the fullness of time 
 was come, through Jesus Christ his Son. 
 
 V. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and 
 New Testaments are the record of God’s revelation of 
 himself in the work of redemption; that they were 
 written by men under the special guidance of the Holy 
 Spirit; that they are able to make wise unto salvation; 
 and that they constitute the authoritative standard by 
 which religious teaching and human conduct are to be 
 regulated and judged. 
 
 VI. We believe that the love of God to sinful men 
 has found its highest expression in the redemptive work 
 of his Son; who became man, uniting his divine nature 
 with our human nature in one person; who was tempt¬ 
 ed like other men, yet withoutsin; who, by his humilia¬ 
 tion, his holy obedience, his sufferings, his death on the 
 cross, and his resurrection, became a perfect Redeemer; 
 whose sacrifice of himself for the sins of the world de¬ 
 clares the righteousness of God, and is the sole and suffi¬ 
 cient ground of forgiveness and of reconciliation with 
 him. 
 
 VII. We believe that Jesus Christ, after he had 
 risen from the dead, ascended into heaven, where, as 
 the one Mediator between God and man, he carries 
 forward his work of saving men; that he sends the Holy 
 Spirit to convict them of sin, and to lead them to re¬ 
 pentance and faith; and that those who through renew¬ 
 ing grace turn to righteousness, and trust in Jesus Christ 
 as their Redeemer, receive for his sake the forgiveness 
 of their sins, and are made the children of God. 
 
 VIII. We believe that those who are thus regen¬ 
 erated and justified grow in sanctified character 
 through fellowship with Christ, the indwelling of the 
 Holy Spirit, and obedience to the truth; that a holy 
 life is the fruit and evidence of saving faith; and that 
 the believer’s hope of continuance in such a life is in the 
 preserving grace of God. 
 
 IX. We believe that Jesus Christ came to establish | 
 
 among men the kingdom of God, the reign of truth and 
 love, righteousness and peace; that to Jesus Christ, the 
 Head of this kingdom, Christians are directly responsi¬ 
 ble in faith and conduct; and that to him all have im¬ 
 mediate access without mediatorial or priestly interven¬ 
 tion. 
 
 X. We believe that the Church of Christ, invisible 
 and spiritual, comprises all true believers, whose duty 
 it is to associate themselves in churches, for the main¬ 
 tenance of worship, for the promotion of spiritual 
 growth and fellowship, and for the conversion of men; 
 that these churches, under the guidance of the Holy 
 Scriptures and in fellowship with one another, may de¬ 
 termine—each for itself—their organization, statements 
 of belief, and forms of worship; may appoint and set 
 apart their own ministers, and should cooperate in the 
 work which Christ has committed to them for the fur¬ 
 therance of the gospel throughout the world. 
 
 XI. We believe in the observance of the Lord’s 
 Day as a day of holy rest and worship; in the ministry 
 of the Word; and in the two Sacraments which Christ 
 has appointed for his Church; Baptism, to be adminis¬ 
 tered to believers and their children, as the sign of 
 cleansing from sin, of union to Christ, and of the impar- 
 tation of the Holy Spirit; and the Lord’s Supper, as a 
 symbol of his atoning death, a seal of its efficacy, and 
 a means whereby he confirms and strengthens the spir¬ 
 itual union and communion of believers with himself. 
 
 XII. We believe in the ultimate prevalence of the 
 kingdom of Christ over all the earth; in the glorious 
 appearing of the great God and our Saviour Jesus 
 Christ; in the resurrection of the dead; and in a final 
 judgment, the issues of which are everlasting punish- 
 ment and everlasting life. 
 
 The following instrumentalities are 
 recognized among Congregationalists in 
 furtherance of the obligation of fellowship: 
 (1) Ecclesiastical councils composed of 
 delegates, as a rule, from neighboring 
 churches, who advise and assist in the or¬ 
 ganization of new churches, in the ordina¬ 
 tion, settlement, and dismission of pastors, 
 and, in cases of difficulty, offer such advice 
 as they deem wise. (2) The union of 
 Congregational ministers of the same 
 neighborhood in associations, meeting at 
 stated times during each year, for fraternal 
 intercourse and professional improvement. 
 Students who desire to enter the ministry 
 are usually examined by these associations, 
 and if approved are accepted by the 
 churches. More .and more, membership 
 in these bodies is recognized as orderly 
 proof of good standing in the Congrega¬ 
 tional ministry. (3) The churches are affili¬ 
 ated in conferences, which, under differ¬ 
 ent plans, are represented by delegates 
 in state bodies, meeting once a year. 
 (4) The Triennial National Council, com¬ 
 posed of delegates, appointed on a careful 
 basis of enumeration, from all the Con¬ 
 gregational churches of the country. 
 This Council was formed atOberlin in 1871, 
 and has met at New Haven in 1874, Detroit 
 in 1877, St. Louis in 1880, Concord, N. H., 
 in 1883, Chicago in 1886, and Worcester, 
 Mass., in 1889. 
 
 In educational, benevolent, and mission¬ 
 ary activities, Congregationalists have 
 taken an honorable position. The Univer¬ 
 sities, Colleges, and Seminaries founded 
 
Con 
 
 ( 211 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 and fostered by their care, are among the 
 oldest and most widely known in the land. 
 Besides cooperating with other Christians 
 in sustaining Bible, tract, Sunday-school, 
 temperance, and kindred organizations, 
 they work especially through seven benev¬ 
 olent societies. 
 
 These are (i) The American Board of 
 Commissioners for Foreign Missions, es¬ 
 tablished in 1810. In its twenty-two mis¬ 
 sions there are ninety-three stations where 
 missionaries reside, and 1,023 out-stations 
 where preaching is statedly maintained. 
 Five hundred and eight missionaries from 
 the United States are now employed. 
 Three hundred and sixty organized 
 churches have a membership of over 33,- 
 000. Over 7,500 pupils of both sexes are 
 in the higher schools, and, including the 
 common schools, 43,838 are receiving 
 Christian instruction. The annual income 
 of the society is over $600,000. 
 
 (2) The American Home Missionary 
 Society, organized in 1826. It has aided to 
 establish more than 5,000 churches, a large 
 proportion of whom have come to self- 
 support. Its annual receipts are not far 
 from $550,000 in cash and $70,000 in sup¬ 
 plies. 
 
 (3) The American Missionary Associa¬ 
 tion, organized in 1846. This society was 
 originally formed to aid the slave, and, 
 since emancipation, has engaged in labors 
 in the South among the negroes and the 
 mountain whites ; in the West, among 
 the Indians ; and in the Pacific States, 
 among the Chinese. The “ Daniel Hand 
 Fund ” of over $1,000,000, is in the care of 
 this society. 
 
 (4) The American College and Education 
 Society aids Christian colleges to become 
 self-sustaining, and assists young men to 
 secure a course of education for the Chris¬ 
 tian ministry. In this way it has aided 
 about 7,500 young men. 
 
 (5) The American Congregational Union 
 renders assistance in the erection of 
 churches and parsonages. 
 
 (6) The Congregational Sunday-school 
 and Publishing Society, but recently or¬ 
 ganized, has been very effective in its field 
 of labor. 
 
 (7) The New West Education Commis¬ 
 sion seeks to promote Christian civiliza¬ 
 tion in Utah and adjoining States by organ¬ 
 izing and sustaining Christian schools. It 
 has over 3,000 pupils in its schools, about 
 one-third of whom are Mormons. 
 
 Seven theological seminaries are under 
 the care of Congregationalists in the United 
 States: these are Andover, opened in 1808; 
 Bangor, 1816; Yale, 1822; Hartford (form¬ 
 erly East Windsor),1834; Oberlin,i838; Chi¬ 
 cago, 1858; Pacific (at Oakland, Cal.), 1869. 
 
 It is a cause for gratitude among Con¬ 
 gregationalists that the spirit of fellowship 
 among the churches is more and more 
 bringing them into sympathy with organiz¬ 
 ed efforts in home and foreign missionary 
 work. An International Council, to be 
 held for the first time in London, July, 
 1891, will represent a grand total of 10,000 
 Congregational churches. 
 
 Literature. —R. Browne: A Booke which 
 sheweth the Life and Manners of all True 
 Christians and howe vnlike they are vnto 
 Turkes and Papistes, and Heathen Folke. 
 Also the Pointes and Partes of all Diuinitie, 
 etc. (Middelbvrgh, 1582); H. Barrowe and 
 J. Greenwood: A Trve Description, out of 
 the Word of God, of the Visible Church 
 (Dort, 1589); H. Barrowe: A Brief Dis- 
 couerie of the False Church , etc. (Dort, 1590); 
 F. Johnson and H. Ainsworth: A True 
 Confession of the Faith, and Hvmble Ac¬ 
 knowledgment of the A legeance, which wee hir 
 Maiesties Subjects falsely called Brownists 
 doo houldtowards God , etc. (1596): F. Johnson 
 and H. Ainsworth: An Apologie or Defense 
 of such True Christians as are commonly 
 (but unjustly') called Brozvnists (Amsterdam, 
 1604); J. Robinson : A Justification of 
 Separation from the Church of England, etc. 
 (1610; in Works, London, 1851); J. Robin¬ 
 son: A Lust and Necessarie Apologie of cer¬ 
 tain Christians, no lesse contumeliously then 
 conmionly called Brownists or Barrowists, 
 etc. (1625; in Works, London, 1851); R. 
 Mather: Church-Govermnent and Chtirch- 
 Covenant discussed, in an Answer of the 
 Elders , etc. (London, 1643); J. Cotton: The 
 Keyes of the Kingdom of Heaven, and Power 
 thereof, etc. (London, 1644; 4th ed., Boston, 
 1852); T. Weld: A Brief Narration of the 
 Practices of the Churches in New England, 
 etc. (London, 1645; London, 1647) ; W. 
 Bartlet, Ichnographia; or, a Modell of the 
 Primitive Congregational Way , etc. (Lon¬ 
 don, 1647); T. Hooker: A Survey of the 
 Summe of Church-Discipline , etc. (London, 
 1648); A Platform of Church - Discipline 
 gathered out of the Word of God, and agreed 
 upon by the Elders and Messengers of the 
 Churches assembled in the Synod at Cam¬ 
 bridge , etc. (Cambridge, 1649 ; Boston, 
 1855); S. Stone: A Congregational Church 
 is a Catholike Visible Church , etc. (London, 
 1652); A Declaration of the Faith and Order 
 owned and practised in the Congregational 
 Churches in England , agreed upon , at the 
 Savoy, etc. (London, 1658, 3d ed., 1688); 
 Propositions concerning the Subject of Bap- 
 tism and Consociation of Churches, etc. 
 (Cambridge, 1662); J. Eliot, Communion of 
 Churches: or the Divine Management of Gos¬ 
 pel Churches by the Ordinance of Councils, 
 etc. (Cambridge, 1665); J. Davenport: The 
 Power of Congregational Churches Asserted 
 
 
Con 
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 and Vindicated, etc. (London, 1672) ; I. 
 Chauncy: The Divine Institution of Con¬ 
 gregational Churches, etc., asserted and 
 proved, etc. (London, 1697); I. Mather: 
 The Order of the Gospel, professed and prac¬ 
 tised by the Churches of New Englandjusti¬ 
 fied, etc. (Boston, 1700); A Confession of 
 Faith owned and consented to at Say brook, 
 etc. (New London, 1710); S. Mather: An 
 Apology for the Liberties of the Churches of 
 New England , etc. (London, 1738); G. 
 Punchard: A View of Congregationalism , 
 etc. (Salem, 1840, 4th ed., Boston, 1856); 
 G. Punchard: History of Congregationalism, 
 etc. (Salem, 1841, 4th ed., greatly enlarged, 
 Boston, i860); R. Vaughan: Congregation¬ 
 alism viewed in relation to Modern Society, 
 etc. (London, 1841); E. Pond: A Manual 
 ■of Congregationalism (Portland, 1848; Ban¬ 
 gor, 1859); The Plan of Union of 1801 be¬ 
 tween Congregationalists and Presbyterians, 
 and Reasons why it should be abandoned 
 (New York, 1852); J. W. Wellman: The 
 Church Polity of the Pilgrims (Boston, 
 1857); J. E. Roy: A Manual of the Princi¬ 
 ples, etc., of the Congregational Churches 
 (Chicago, 1869); H. M. Dexter: Congrega¬ 
 tionalism: What it is; Whence it is; How it 
 works; why it is better than any other polity, 
 etc. (Boston, 1865, 5th ed., 1879); The 
 Church Polity of the Pilgrims the Polity of 
 the R T ew Testament, etc. (Boston, 1870); L. 
 Bacon: The Genesis of the New England 
 Churches (New York, 1874); H. M. Dexter: 
 The Congregationalism of the last Three 
 Hundred years as seen hi its Literature, etc. 
 (New York, 1880); G. Punchard: Congre¬ 
 gationalism in America from 1629 to 1879 
 (Boston, 1880); H. M. Dexter: A Hand- 
 Book of Congregationalism (Boston, 1880); 
 G. T. Ladd : The Principles of Church 
 Polity, etc. (New York, 1882); A. H. Ross: 
 A Pocket Manual of Congregationalism 
 (Chicago, 1883); R. W. Dale: A Manual 
 of Congregational Principles (London, 
 1884); G. Huntington: Outlines of Congre¬ 
 gational History (Boston, 1885) ; A. H. 
 Ross: The Church Kingdom, etc. (Boston, 
 1887). 
 
 Conrad of Marburg. See Konrad of 
 Marburg. 
 
 Conscience. The word is derived from the 
 Latin conscientia (consciousness), but was 
 not used either by Greeks or Romans in a 
 religious sense. It is not found in the Old 
 Testament, and was never used by our 
 Lord. As employed by Paul, “It is the 
 inborn sense of right and wrong, the moral 
 law written on our hearts, which judges of 
 the moral character of our motives and ac¬ 
 tions, and approves or censures, condemns 
 or justifies accordingly. (Rom. ii. 15.) This 
 
 universal tribunal is established in the 
 breast of every man, even the heathen. It 
 may be weakened, perverted, stupefied, de¬ 
 filed, and hardened in various ways, and its 
 decisions are more or less clear, just, and 
 imperative according to the degree of 
 moral culture. (John viii. 9; Acts xxiii. 
 1; xxiv. 16; Rom. ix. 1; 1 Tim. i. 5.)”— 
 Schaff: Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Consecration. This term means to set 
 apart for holy uses. In the old Testament 
 it refers to both persons and things. In 
 its ecclesiastical use it is applied to 
 churches, bishops, and the elements in the 
 Lord’s Supper. In the Anglican church 
 the custom is still retained of consecrating 
 burying - grounds. Even in the Roman 
 Church the rite of consecration of church 
 edifices is commonly designated as a 
 “ dedication,” and this is the term used in 
 the Methodist Episcopal and other Protes¬ 
 tant denominations in setting-apart build¬ 
 ings for divine service. 
 
 Consensus, (1) Genevensis, a confession 
 of faith drawn up by Calvin in 1551, for 
 the purpose of uniting the Swiss churches 
 with regard to predestination. It never 
 gained symbolical authority beyond Ge¬ 
 neva. (2) Tigurinus, drawn up by Calvin in 
 1549, f° r the purpose of effecting a union 
 among the Swiss Reformed churches with 
 regard to the doctrine of the Lord’s Supper. 
 It was adopted by the churches of Zurich, 
 Geneva, St. Gall, Schaffhausen, the Gri- 
 sons, Neuchatel, and Basel, and was favor¬ 
 ably received elsewhere. See Schaff : 
 Creeds, vol. i, pp. 471, sqq. 
 
 Consilia Evangelica is a term used in 
 the Roman Church to designate such moral 
 counsels as are not obligatory as precepts 
 of the law, but are advised in order to gain 
 perfection. These “counsels of perfec¬ 
 tion ” are based upon Matt. xxv. *21; Luke 
 xvii. 10; 1 Cor. vii. 10, 25; Rev. xiv. 21, 
 and are applied to the three monastic vows 
 of chastity (celibacy), poverty, and obedi¬ 
 ence to an ecclesiastical superior. Protes¬ 
 tants do not admit of any such distinction. 
 See Supererogation. 
 
 Consistory is the name given in the 
 Roman Catholic Church to the assembly 
 of cardinals, convoked and presided over 
 by the pope. In the Lutheran Church it 
 denotes a “ mixed board of ecclesiastical 
 and lay officers, generally appointed by 
 the sovereign of the country.” In the Re¬ 
 formed Church, Dutch and German, the 
 consistory is the lowest church court, 
 composed of the minister, elders and dea¬ 
 cons of the congregation. 
 
 4 
 
( 213 ) 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, 
 
Con 
 
 ( 214 ) 
 
 Con 
 
 Consolamentum. See Cathari. 
 
 Constance, The Council of, held in the 
 city of Constance from 1414 to 1418, con¬ 
 stituted itself the highest authority in the 
 Church; condemned to death the reformers 
 Huss and Jerome, of Prague, expelled the 
 three rival popes, John XXII., Gregory 
 XII., and Benedict XIII., and elected 
 Martin V. as the legitimate successor of 
 St. Peter. See Hefele: Historv of Coun¬ 
 cils , Eng. trans. 
 
 Constantine the Great (274-337). In the 
 progress of his military career he gained a 
 victory at Milvian Bridge, near Rome (312), 
 that made him the sole emperor of the 
 West. It was just before this battle that the 
 incident told by Eusebius occurred,which is 
 said to have caused his conversion. This 
 was the appearance of a flaming cross in the 
 sky at noonday, with the motto, “ By this 
 conquer.” “What he did as the founder 
 of the complex political system, which ex¬ 
 ists among all civilized nations down to 
 the present day, and what he did as the 
 first Christian emperor, had results of the 
 most enduring and far-reaching kind. As 
 to Christianity, the historically significant 
 fact is not his personal acceptance of it. 
 It is rather that, by his policy as a states¬ 
 man, he endowed the new religion for the 
 first time with that instrument of worldly 
 power which has made it—whether for 
 good or evil, or for both, is a subject of 
 much discussion—the strongest social and 
 political agent that affects the destinies of 
 the human race.”— IV. B. Smith in Ency. 
 Britannica , s. v. ; E. L. Cutts: Constan¬ 
 tine the Great (N. Y., 1881). 
 
 Constantinople, formerly Byzantium, 
 derives its name from Constantine the 
 Great, who removed the seat of the East¬ 
 ern Empire here in 330. It was contin¬ 
 ually convulsed by factions and religious 
 dissensions. General ecclesiastical coun¬ 
 cils were held here in 353, 381, 680, 869. 
 Since 1453 Constantinople has been a Mo¬ 
 hammedan city, and the centre of Moslem 
 power and culture. In recent years Prot¬ 
 estantism has been officially recognized as 
 one of the religions of the empire. It is 
 the seat of Robert College, an institution 
 that has already exerted a strong Christian 
 influence. For the Church Councils which 
 have been held there see Councils. 
 
 Constantinopolitan Creed. See Nicene 
 Creed. 
 
 Consubstantiation is a term used to des¬ 
 ignate a theory of the Holy Eucharist, cur¬ 
 rent in the Middle Ages. It is closely 
 
 allied to Transubstantiation (which see), 
 the distinction between the two doctrines 
 being marked by the difference between 
 “con” and “trans.” According to the 
 latter, the bread and wine of the Sacrament 
 are, by the consecration of the priest, 
 changed into the substance of the flesh of 
 Christ. According to the former view, the 
 bread and the wine and our Lord’s body 
 and blood become united in one substance. 
 
 Some writers have applied this term to 
 the dogma of the Real Presence taught by 
 the Lutheran Church, but that doctrine 
 clearly and strenuously denies any and 
 every change in the elements, although 
 holding that, in the reception of these, there 
 is, at the same time, a partaking of, or a 
 communion with, the Saviour’s glorified 
 humanity. Lutheran writers have always 
 and everywhere repudiated the term Con- 
 substantiation and the theory which it is in¬ 
 tended to express. 
 
 Convent denotes a society of monks or 
 nuns in one establishment, with its rules, 
 etc., and the members of the assembly en¬ 
 titled to vote and administer government. 
 
 Conventicle, in the primitive Church, 
 meant any gathering for religious worship. 
 In the reign of Charles II. it was used in a 
 contemptuous way to designate the meet¬ 
 ings of dissenters, which at the time were 
 forbidden by law. 
 
 Conventicle Act, an act passed by Parlia¬ 
 ment in 1664, prohibiting the meeting of 
 dissenters under heavy penalties. The act 
 was revived in 1670, but repealed by the 
 Toleration Act, May 24, 1689. 
 
 Convention, in the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church of America, is the name for the 
 Church Synod. 
 
 (1) The General Convention meets once 
 in three years. This consists of two houses 
 —viz., the House of Bishops, which “when 
 there shall be three or more, shall, when¬ 
 ever General Conventions are held, forma 
 separate house, with a right to originate 
 and propose acts,” etc. But in case of 
 there not being three or more bishops, 
 “ any bishop attending a General Conven¬ 
 tion shall be a member ex officio , and shall 
 not vote with the clerical deputies of the 
 diocese to which he belongs. The other 
 house is that of clerical and lay deputies, 
 consisting of a representation of clergy and 
 laity, not to exceed four of each for a dio¬ 
 cese, chosen by the convention of the dio¬ 
 cese they represent.” (2) Diocesan Con¬ 
 ventions are held annually in each diocese. 
 They consist of all the clergy, and a lay 
 representative from each parish in union 
 
Con 
 
 ( 215 ) 
 
 Cop 
 
 with the convention, and are presided over 
 by the bishop. 
 
 Conversion ( a turning torvards or about; 
 Latin conversio), “ denotes the act in which 
 the soul, estranged from God, turns back 
 to him, in order that it may share afresh in 
 his grace. It is a return , because man re¬ 
 enters his former position toward God, 
 which he had lost by the fall. It is also a 
 turning - from, because former sins are 
 abandoned (Acts xiv. 15), and, again, a 
 change of mind. (Acts xxvi. 20.) By nature 
 the ‘ slave of sin,’ and, therefore, a ‘child 
 of wrath’ (Eph. ii. 3), and ‘dead’ (Eph. 
 ii. 1; Col. ii. 13), he is renewed in the 
 spirit of his mind, and puts on 4 the new 
 man, which, after God, hath been created 
 in righteousness and holiness of truth.’ 
 (Eph. iv. 24.) But how can this radical 
 change be made ? Not by his own unaided 
 will (John xv. 5), nor any more without 
 his will. (Acts iii. 19; 2 Pet. iii. 9.) The 
 condition, therefore, is the divine aid; and 
 so repentance is a gift of God (Acts xi. 18; 
 Phil. ii. 13), and, therefore, something to 
 be thankful for. Yet every Christian 
 knows that he has not been forced to re¬ 
 pent; rather he has earnestly desired the 
 altered life. In this work of God, there¬ 
 fore, the human and the divine acts stand 
 side by side, and both must be equally 
 recognized, not the one at the expense of 
 the other.”— Burger. Calvinists have gen¬ 
 erally maintained that grace works irresist¬ 
 ibly in the elect, while Arminians deny 
 this, at the same time asserting that grace 
 is the source of all spiritual good. See 
 Regeneration. 
 
 Convocation, an assembly of the bishops 
 and clergy of the Church of England, 
 summoned by the metropolitan arch¬ 
 bishops of Canterbury and York, pursuant 
 to a royal writ, while Parliament is in ses¬ 
 sion. It is composed of two houses—the 
 Upper, which consists of the bishops; and 
 the Lower, of the lesser dignitaries. Pre¬ 
 vious to the time of Henry VIII. the action 
 of the convocation was very important. In 
 this body originated, in 1870, the move¬ 
 ment for the Anglo-American Bible revis¬ 
 ion. 
 
 Convulsionists, the name given to a 
 fanatical sect of Jansenists who sprang up 
 in France about 1730. They first met in 
 the church-yard of St. Medardus, in a 
 suburb of Paris, around the tomb of a cer¬ 
 tain Francis of Paris, who died in 1727, 
 and was reputed very holy. Many miracles 
 were said to have taken place here. The 
 fanaticism of the people broke forth into 
 strange physical contortions and convul¬ 
 
 sions. The crowds that gathered were so 
 great that in 1732 the king ordered the 
 gates of the cemetery shut. Jansenism was 
 brought into great disrepute by the final 
 outcome of this excitement. See Jansen¬ 
 ists. 
 
 Conybeare, William John, b. 1815; d. 
 at Weybridge, Eng., 1857; educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. In connec¬ 
 tion with the Rev. J. S. Howson he pub¬ 
 lished the Life and Letters of St. Paul , 2 
 vols., which has had a large sale in this 
 country. 
 
 Cook, Charles, the founder of Method¬ 
 ism in France and Switzerland; b. in Lon¬ 
 don, 1787; d. at Lausanne, 1858. He 
 began his work in France in 1816, and his 
 earnest evangelistic labors were followed 
 by revivals and the gathering of many 
 small societies, some of whom joined the 
 Reformed Church, and others remained in¬ 
 dependent. 
 
 Cooke, Henry, D. D., b. in County Lon¬ 
 donderry, Ireland, 1788; d. at Belfast, 
 1868. A graduate of Glasgow University, 
 he was ordained in 1808. After successful 
 pastorates elsewhere, he was called to Bel¬ 
 fast in 1829, where he remained until his 
 death. He was elected professor of sacred 
 rhetoric and president of the Assembly’s 
 College at Belfast in 1847. He was dis¬ 
 tinguished for his eloquence and learning, 
 but he is best known as the champion of 
 Orthodoxy against Arianism in the Irish 
 Church. His influence in this direction 
 was every way remarkable. See J. L. 
 Porter: Life and Times of Henrv Cooke, 
 D. D. (new ed. Belfast, 1875). 
 
 Cookman, George Grimston, a Meth¬ 
 odist preacher, famed for his eloquence; 
 b. in England, 1800; lost at sea in the 
 steamship President, 1841. He came to 
 this country in 1825, and began his min¬ 
 istry first in Philadelphia. His reputation 
 as a pulpit and platform orator soon ex¬ 
 tended. In 1838 he was elected chaplain 
 of Congress. His farewell sermon at the 
 Capitol, a short time before he set sail 
 from New York, never to be heard from 
 again, was a wonderful display of orator¬ 
 ical power. A few sermons and a volume 
 of Speeches (N. Y., 1841) are his only pub¬ 
 lished remains. 
 
 Cope, a long cloak worn over the sur¬ 
 plice, or alb, and fastened at the neck by 
 an ornamental clasp. It was worn, until 
 quite recently, in the English Church by 
 bishops in parliament, by canons at cor¬ 
 onations and other state occasions. 
 
Cop 
 
 ( 216 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 Copping (Coppin, Copyn), John, a Con¬ 
 gregational layman of Bury St. Edmunds, 
 who was hanged June 5, 1583, for “ dis¬ 
 persing of Brownes (Robert) bookes and 
 Harrisons bookes.” He suffered impris¬ 
 onment for seven years, and with a fel¬ 
 low-prisoner, Thacker, was condemned to 
 death for circulating books adverse to 
 the Church of England. See Dexter: 
 Congregationalism as seen in its Literature 
 (N. Y., 1880), pp. 208-210. 
 
 Copts, the name given to those Chris¬ 
 tians in Egypt who, for more than eleven 
 centuries, have held the patriarchal chair 
 of Alexandria, and have been the dominant 
 sect. The term is a corruption of the 
 name “ Egypt,” pronounced in Greek 
 fashion. When the Arabs conquered that 
 country they applied the name “ Ghubt” to 
 all the nations who strove to preserve their 
 religion and nationality. The Coptic 
 language is the old Egyptian written in 
 Greek letters, and largely mixed with 
 Greek. But it is no longer a vernacular 
 tongue; the natives speak Arabic, and 
 Coptic is only used, like Latin in the 
 Roman Church, in the performance of 
 Divine Worship. Out of the 5,000,000 
 population of Egypt at present, probably 
 the Copts form a tenth. 
 
 They are directly descended from the 
 Monophysites, through their founder, 
 Jacob-el-Baradoi, whose zeal in preaching 
 that doctrine was so overpowering that the 
 condemnation of it at Chalcedon was not 
 able to put it down in Egypt. The Em¬ 
 peror’s edicts went forth against it, but the 
 Monophysites nicknamed the orthodox 
 Melekites , i.e. “ disciples of the king,” and 
 were, in turn, called Jacobites , a name by 
 which they are still known. So bitter was 
 the hatred between the two sides that the 
 Monophysites welcomed the Saracen in¬ 
 vasion as a means of delivering them from 
 persecution. The Arabs, in return, put 
 them in possession of the Christian 
 churches. But when the Moslems had 
 gained full mastery of the country, and be¬ 
 gan, according to their wont, to proselytize 
 vigorously, some of the Copts fell away 
 from the faith, and the rest were, and have 
 been since, much persecuted. Though 
 comparatively few in numbers, they have a 
 large body of clergy, elaborately organized. 
 They have also many monasteries, some 
 dating from the very earliest times. Their 
 head is styled “ Patriarch of Alexandria,” 
 and is regarded as the successor of St. 
 Mark. He is always taken from among 
 the monks. Next to him is the abuna of 
 the Abyssinian Church, residing at Gondar. 
 During the Abyssinian War of 1867, it was 
 stated by one of the correspondents that 
 
 this ecclesiastic appeared in camp with a 
 basket, offering eggs for sale. The clergy, 
 as a body, are very poor, and very igno¬ 
 rant. Though they recite Coptic, most of 
 them do not understand it, and their 
 knowledge of the Bible is confined to the 
 Gospels and a few Psalms. Many support 
 themselves by begging, some by thieving, 
 and they are much given to drinking. 
 
 Three liturgies are in use, that of St. 
 Basil on fast days, of St. Cyril in Lent, 
 and of St. Gregory on festivals. The ser¬ 
 vice is very long and elaborate. As al¬ 
 most the whole of it is performed standing, 
 the congregation are provided with crutch¬ 
 es to lean upon. Most of the churches are 
 dirty and dilapidated. There are four 
 fasting seasons, which are observed with 
 extreme strictness. One remarkable 
 feature of the ritual is the practice of 
 unction, which the priests administer, not 
 only, as in the Roman Catholic Church, to 
 the dying, but also when giving absolution. 
 They have adopted circumcision, probably 
 in deference to Mahomet. The oldest 
 church is at Cairo. It dates from the sixth 
 century, and is built over a grotto in which 
 our Lord is alleged to have been kept by 
 his mother during their residence in Egypt. 
 Much has been done of late years to raise 
 the condition of the Coptic Church. Some 
 have tried proselytism, others have taken 
 measures for training Coptic preachers. 
 Tbe movement was one in which the late 
 Archbishop Tait took much interest.— 
 Benham: Dictionary of Religion. See 
 Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt , by A. J. 
 Butler (London, 1884), 2 vols. 
 
 Cor. See Measures. 
 
 Coran. See Mohammed. 
 
 Cor'ban ( offering ), the Hebrew name for 
 a gift or thing consecrated to God, es¬ 
 pecially in fulfillment of a vow. (Mark vii. 
 11.) Under pretence that what they had 
 was thus consecrated to God, there were 
 those who denied the request of parents, 
 although they never intended it to pass out 
 of their possession. 
 
 Cordeliers ( cora wearers ), a name given 
 in France to the strictest branch of the 
 Franciscans, on account of the girdles of 
 knotted cord which they wore. 
 
 Cordova, a Spanish city, in which (1) a 
 famous synod was held in S52, that, by an 
 influential minority, upheld the fanatical 
 zeal of the monks and others, who stirred 
 up the resentment of the Mohammedans, 
 and thus gained the honor of martyrdom. 
 (2) In qSo a school was founded here which 
 
Cor 
 
 ( 217 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 became one of the most famous in Europe. 
 It was the principal seat of the Arabian 
 study of Aristotle. 
 
 Corea. The peninsula of Corea, lying be¬ 
 tween Japan and China, has a total area of 
 82,000 square miles, and a population of 
 10,528,937. “ In religion the primitive 
 
 fetichism and worship of the spirits of air, 
 earth, and heaven, popularly prevails over 
 all other cults. 
 
 “ Though Buddhism from A. D. 352- 
 1392 prevailed, it is now supplanted by 
 Confucianism. Priests and monks are not 
 allowed in walled cities, and nearly the 
 only remnants of the once dominant faith 
 are mountain monasteries, from which 
 
 frontier, guarding the passes and coast, 
 and otherwise to isolate Corea from out¬ 
 side influences, bloody inquisitions and 
 persecutions, and the outlawry and decap¬ 
 itation of nine French priests, in 1866, con¬ 
 verts multiplied. The pressure of Russia, 
 Japan, France, and the United States, with 
 bloody reprisals by the three latter na¬ 
 tions, became too great for the hermit na¬ 
 tion, and in 1876, the Japanese, and in 
 1882, the Americans, secured treaties and 
 commerce.”— IV. E. Griffis in Jackson’s 
 Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. 
 
 American Presbyterians opened the first 
 Protestant mission at Se'oul, in 1884. The 
 American Methodist Episcopal Church has 
 a strong force in this interesting field, and 
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 precious literary treasures may yet come 
 forth, and certain colossal statues of Bud¬ 
 dha, hewn out of natural rock. Practically 
 the people are without a strong religion 
 and are waiting for one. It is often sup¬ 
 posed that Christianity was introduced by 
 soldiers of the Japanese invading armies of 
 1592-97, but of this there is no proof. In 
 1777 a coterie of students, who had re¬ 
 ceived from Peking through the tribute- 
 bearers some books from the Jesuit fathers 
 there, were converted to Roman Christian¬ 
 ity. They multiplied so fast that, in 1794, 
 a Chinese, and in 1836, a French mission¬ 
 ary priest, secretly entered the country, and 
 a powerful church was formed. Despite 
 all governmental efforts, by desolating the 
 
 already (1890) several scores of converts 
 have been received into organized church¬ 
 es. The Roman Catholics claim many 
 thousands of converts. The government 
 has established a hospital, medical school, 
 and college of liberal arts, under American 
 teachers. 
 
 Corinth, the capital of Achaia, was one 
 of the most famous cities of Greece. It 
 was beautifully situated on an isthmus, 
 which connects the peninsula of Morea 
 with the Greek mainland. In the rear of 
 the city was a rocky mountain, called Acro- 
 Corinth, rising abruptly to the height of 
 2,000 feet, upon the summit of which was 
 a temple of Venus. Corinth had two sea- 
 
Cor 
 
 ( 218 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 ports, Cenchrese, on the Gulf of yEgina, 
 and Lechaeum, on the Gulf of Corinth. 
 Through these important commercial 
 routes it gained great wealth and influ¬ 
 ence, but its immorality was notorious, 
 even in the heathen world. Destroyed by 
 the Romans, b. c. 146, it was restored and 
 rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and regained 
 much of its former splendor and prosperity. 
 Paul visited Corinth three times. About 
 A. d. 53 he spent a year and a half here, 
 during which time he probably wrote the 
 two Epistles to the Thessalonians (Acts 
 xxiii. 11); then between 54 and 57 (1 Cor. 
 xvi. 7; 2 Cor. xii. 13, 14; xiii. 1), and the 
 three winter months from 57 to 58, during 
 which he wrote the Epistle to the Romans. 
 (Acts xx. 2, 3; comp. 1 Cor. xvi. 6; Rom. 
 xvi. 1.) He wrote two epistles to the 
 Christians at Corinth. The site of this 
 once proud and dissolute city is now oc¬ 
 cupied by the miserable little village of 
 Gortho. 
 
 Corinthians, Epistles to the. See 
 Paul. 
 
 Corporal, (1) a small square linen cloth 
 laid upon the larger one which covers the 
 Lord’s table, and upon which the elements 
 are placed for consecration. The origin 
 of its use was a primitive rule that conse¬ 
 cration should be performed only on linen. 
 (2) The cloth used to cover the remnants 
 of the consecrated elements. The word is 
 derived from the Latin corpus , “ a body,” 
 and is symbolical of the linen shroud in 
 which our Lord’s body was wrapped. 
 
 Corpus {body) Catholicorum {of the Cath¬ 
 olics ), and Corpus Evangelicorum {of the 
 Evangelicals ), terms which came into use 
 about the close of the seventeenth century, 
 designating the Roman Catholic and Prot¬ 
 estant States of Germany, respectively. 
 The head of the former was the elector of 
 Mayence, and that of the latter the elector 
 of Saxony, even after that house became 
 Roman Catholic, the control, however, 
 resting in the Dresden privy council, 
 which was Protestant. Both bodies dis¬ 
 appeared with the dissolution of the Ger¬ 
 man Empire in 1806. 
 
 Corpus Christi, a festival of the Church 
 of Rome, observed on the first Thursday 
 after Trinity Sunday, in honor of the doc¬ 
 trine of the Eucharist. It was instituted 
 by Pope Urban IV., in 1264, and is still 
 celebrated as one of the greatest feasts of 
 the Church. The special ceremony of the 
 day consists in carrying the Sacrament in 
 procession, with the singing of appropriate 
 psalms and hymns. 
 
 Corpus Doctrinae, a name which German 
 Protestants applied in the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury to various collections of doctrinal 
 statements. The first of these, compiled 
 by C. P. Philippicum (Leipzig, 1560), con¬ 
 tained the principal doctrinal and confes¬ 
 sional statements of Melanchthon. Other 
 collections were made, but they lost their 
 importance when the Formula Concordice 
 {q. v.) was produced and accepted as the 
 Corpus Doctrince of the Lutheran Church. 
 
 Correspondences. See Swedenborg. 
 
 Cosmas and Damianus, brothers, who 
 came from Arabia to Cilicia, where they 
 practiced their profession as physicians, 
 and labored to advance the Christian faith. 
 They suffered martyrdom in 303, in the per¬ 
 secution under Diocletian. They were 
 reverenced in the Middle Ages as the pa¬ 
 tron saints of physicians and druggists. 
 They are commemorated by the Roman 
 Church on Sept. 27. 
 
 Costume. See Clothing Among the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Cotton, John, a noted Puritan; b. at 
 Derby, Eng., 1585; d. at Boston, Mass., 
 1652. A graduate of Cambridge Univer¬ 
 sity, he was vicar for twenty years of St. 
 Botolph’s, Boston, Lincolnshire. He was 
 cited by Laud for not kneeling at the sac¬ 
 rament, and fled to America. He landed 
 at Boston, Sept. 4, 1633, and in the same 
 year (Oct. 17) was ordained teacher of the 
 First Church there. His position was a 
 commanding one in the early history of 
 New England. He was a prolific writer. 
 See Dexter: Congregationalism as seen in 
 its Literature; Cotton Mather: Magnolia 
 Christi Americana (Hartford, 1855), vol. i., 
 pp. 252-286. 
 
 Council. In an ecclesiastical sense, an 
 assembly of bishops, with clergy attendant 
 on them, convened to decide questions be¬ 
 longing to religion and ecclesiastical dis¬ 
 cipline. A council is called General when 
 all the bishops of Christendom meet, if 
 there be no lawful cause for absence; it is 
 also called CEcumenical , from the Greek 
 oikotimene , which signifies “ the habitable 
 earth.” A National Council is the meeting 
 of the prelates of a kingdom, or province, 
 under a patriarch or primate. A Provin¬ 
 cial Council is held by the bishops of that 
 diocese, under a Metropolitan. The word 
 Synod , which in Greek and Latin signifies 
 ‘‘a council,” is applied to the assemblies 
 of the clergy of a diocese, under the 
 authority of their bishop. The precedent 
 for such assemblies is found in the fifteenth 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 219 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 chapter of the Acts, where it is related 
 that a council was convened about the 
 question of keeping the Law. And though 
 it may be said that this was an application 
 of the newly-converted churches of the 
 Gentiles to the mother-church, from 
 whence their faith was derived, yet, inas¬ 
 much as not only the apostles, elders, and 
 brethren at Jerusalem, but St. Paul and 
 Barnabas, whose work lay in remote pla¬ 
 ces, had a share in the discussion, it may 
 properly be called a council. 
 
 While Roman Catholics count twenty, 
 Protestants allow but six General Councils. 
 But even concerning these twenty there 
 are divergences of opinion in the Roman 
 Church, for while the Gallican Church 
 accepts the whole of the Council of Con¬ 
 stance, Rome only receives the last ses¬ 
 sions. We have before us a list of Pro¬ 
 vincial Councils, numbering not less than 
 1,442. The twenty General Councils, recog¬ 
 nized by the Roman Church,are the follow¬ 
 ing. We note, as shortly as possible, the 
 subjects of their deliberations: 
 
 (1) Nice , A. D. 325.—Called by Constan¬ 
 tine to determine the Arian controversy, 
 and attended by 318 bishops; it drew up 
 the Nicene Creed. (Creeds; Homoousion; 
 Athanasius; Arius; Niclea.) This coun¬ 
 cil declared that the Son was begotten of 
 the Father from all eternity, and is of one 
 substance with the Father. A vivid ac¬ 
 count of this great council, and of the 
 principal members of it, is given in Dean 
 Stanley’s Eastern Church. 
 
 (2) Constantinople .—In his zeal against 
 Arius, Apollinaris had denied that our 
 Lord had a real human soul, asserting, in 
 fact, that the Divinity supplied its place. 
 (Apollinarians.) And Macedonius \q. v.) 
 had carried Arianism on to a denial of the 
 personality of the Holy Ghost. This coun¬ 
 cil was called, in 381, by Theodosius the 
 Great, to examine these questions. It re¬ 
 affirmed and enlarged the Nicene Creed 
 (Creeds), and declared “ the true body 
 and reasonable soul ” of Christ. Constan¬ 
 tinople was recognizedas the second Metro¬ 
 politan see, and arranged Oriental affairs 
 without reference to the West. By the 
 canons 2-6 of this council the rights of 
 Metropolitans were enlarged. 
 
 (3) Ephesus .—Called to settle the Nesto- 
 rian Controversy. (Nestorians; Cyril.) 
 About 200 bishops were present. The 
 decision on the word Theotokos (q. v.) was 
 an affirmation of the truth that our Lord, 
 being God and man, is “not two, but one 
 Christ;” that he is indivisible, and his two 
 natures, from his conception in the womb, 
 inseparable. 
 
 (4) Chalcedon, A. D. 451.—Subject, the 
 Eutychian controversy. (Eutychians.) 
 
 The council affirmed that Christ, being 
 one Person, is yet of two distinct natures, 
 inseparable, but unmixed. This council 
 sanctioned the Patriarchal and Metropol¬ 
 itan constitution of the Catholic Church. 
 The legates of the Pope of Rome, Leo, 
 had the presidency, but the council de¬ 
 clared Constantinople on an equality with 
 Rome, in spite of Leo’s protests. 
 
 (5) Second Council of Constantinople, A. D. 
 553.—Called by the Emperor Justinian to 
 put an end to the troubles and divisions 
 occasioned by the “ Three Chapters ” 
 (Monophysites), and also to the Origen- 
 istic controversy. 
 
 (6) Third Council of Constantinople , A. D. 
 680.—Known as the Council in Trullo, be¬ 
 cause held in the chamber called Trullus. 
 (Monothelites. ) 
 
 ( 7 ) Second Council of Nice , A. D. 787.— 
 (Iconoclastic Controversy. ) This coun¬ 
 cil, besides its decision on the Iconoclast 
 question, forbade the election of bishops 
 by princes, and enjoined that candidates 
 for bishoprics should be examined in the 
 Psalms, Gospels, Pauline Epistles, and 
 Canon Law. 
 
 (8) Fourth Council of Constantinople .— 
 We come here to a dispute between the 
 Roman and Greek Churches, for there are 
 really two councils: the first, held in 869, 
 is rejected by the Greek Church; the sec¬ 
 ond, held in 879, is rejected by the Roman. 
 (Photius; Filioque Controversy.) 
 
 (9) First Later an Council. —So called be¬ 
 cause held in the Church of St. John 
 Lateran, at Rome, a. d. 1122. By this 
 time the papal claims were at their height. 
 The great question of the day was the 
 Investitures ( q. v.). The council decided 
 it, and confirmed the Concordat of Worms. 
 
 (10) Second Lateran, A. D. 1139, of one 
 thousand bishops. An endeavor to restore 
 the unity of the Church, which was now 
 broken by the schisms of East and West. 
 Arnold of Brescia condemned. (Arnold- 
 ISTS.) 
 
 (11) Third Lateran, 1179, enforced eccle¬ 
 siastical discipline, and anathematized the 
 Albigenses (q. v.). 
 
 (12) Fourth Lateran, A. D. 1215, set forth 
 and sanctioned the whole scheme of papal 
 doctrine and polity formulated by Innocent 
 III., in seventy decrees. Permutation of 
 Punishment, Indulgences, Works of Super¬ 
 erogation, and Transubstantiation were 
 decreed; new Orders were forbidden, the 
 extirpation of heretics was demanded, and 
 fresh crusades were set on foot against the 
 Moslems and Albigenses. 
 
 (13) Lyons, a. d. 1245, to determine the 
 quarrel between Pope Innocent IV. and the 
 Emperor Frederick II. The emperor, 
 having been excommunicated by Pope 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 220 ) 
 
 Cou 
 
 Gregory IX. in 1239, had next year carried 
 war to the gates of Rome. Innocent now 
 demanded his dethronement, which was 
 pronounced. In consequence, Louis IX. 
 of France, and many French and other 
 bishops, broke with the pope, and this 
 council is not received by the Gallican 
 Church. 
 
 (14) Second of Lyons , A. D. 1274, passed 
 decrees upon the election of the pope by 
 the Conclave of Cardinals; restricted the 
 Mendicant Orders to four. The Greek 
 Emperor, Michael Palteologus, sought for 
 union with the Latin Church; the council 
 recognized the Primacy, but retained the 
 Greek Creed and Liturgy. But the hope 
 of union was defeated, and in 1282 both 
 sides uttered fresh anathemas. 
 
 (15) Vienne (Gaul), 1311.—Suppression 
 of the Templars ( q . v. ). 
 
 (16) Constance , 1414-18.—More than 150 
 high dignitaries and 1,800 of the clergy 
 attended. The last sessions, under Pope 
 Martin V., are received as the sixteenth 
 council by Rome, the whole by France. 
 Martyrdom of Huss {q. v.). 
 
 (17) Basle , A. D. 1431.—Called to recon¬ 
 cile the Hussites, and to reform abuses. 
 Reaffirmed the claim of the Council of 
 Constance to be above the pope. The first 
 twenty-five sessions only are received by 
 Rome. Pope Eugene IV. adjourned the 
 council to Ferrara, then to Florence, but 
 the majority remained at Basle, and the 
 councils mutually excommunicated each 
 other. Basle deposed Eugene and elected 
 another pope, but without avail, and the 
 council gradually died out. At Florence, 
 fresh articles of reunion with the Greek 
 Church were framed, but without avail. 
 
 (18) Fifth Later an, 1512-18.—Convoked 
 by Julius II. Useless attempts at Church 
 reform were made. A concordat between 
 Pope Leo X. and Francis I. was adopted, 
 repealing the Pragmatic Sanction. (Con¬ 
 cordat.) 
 
 ■(19) Trent , called by Paul III., May 22, 
 1542; after long delay, was at length for¬ 
 mally opened on Dec. 13, 1545. The first 
 session ended Jan. 7, 1546; it was trans¬ 
 ferred to Bologna from March 12, 1547, to 
 Sept. 17, 1549; resumed at Trent, May 1, 
 1551, till April 28, 1552, when it was sus¬ 
 pended for ten years. The first papal leg¬ 
 ates were Del Monte (afterward Pope Julius 
 III.), Corvinus, and Reginald Pole. The 
 votes were taken, not by nations, as at 
 Basle, but by numbers. The Protestants 
 refused to join it; the Italian bishops were 
 by far the most numerous, and were often 
 violently opposed by the Spanish and 
 French. The objects were declared to be 
 discipline, peace, and the extermination of 
 heresy. In 1546 the Decrees on the Canon 
 
 on Tradition were passed. The next De¬ 
 crees were on Original Sin, Justification, 
 and the Sacraments (in 1547), the Eucharist, 
 Penance, etc. (1551)- The result was the 
 triumph of the Ultramontane party. 
 (Trent.) 
 
 (20) The Vatican, 1869-70, by which the 
 dogma of the infallibility of the pope was 
 declared. (Papal Infallibility; Vatican.) 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. The best 
 collection of documents regarding the 
 councils is that of Mansi, 31 vols., now 
 reprinting in Berlin. The best history of 
 the councils is that of Hefele(Berlin, 1855, 
 2d ed., 1873; partial English translation, 
 Edinburgh, 1871-76), 2 vols. 
 
 Court and Legal Proceedings Among the 
 Hebrews. “ Justice was administered by lo¬ 
 cal judges, generally of the Levitical class, 
 as presumably skilled in the law, and they 
 exercised their office under the sanction of 
 the supreme authority, to which there was 
 liberty to appeal, and whose sentence was 
 final. This supreme authority was claim¬ 
 ed or asserted sometimes by the priest¬ 
 hood, sometimes by the princes of the 
 congregation,sometimes by the Sanhedrim, 
 and even sometimes, though illegally, by 
 the king. The rule, according to which 
 judgment was in every case to be given, 
 must be found written in the law, which 
 was ever regarded as the standard of all 
 authority. The judges referred to were 
 termed ‘ elders;’ and their institution 
 dates from the time of the sojourn of the 
 children of Israel in the wilderness, when 
 Moses, by suggestion of Jethro and at the 
 command of the Lord, selected and set 
 apart seventy of the chief men of the 
 tribes to assist him in administering the 
 affairs of the congregation. They were, 
 when appealed to, to ‘ judge righteously 
 between every man and his brother;’ to 
 have ‘ no respect to persons,’ or any fear 
 of man, only of God; and to bring any mat¬ 
 ter to Moses that was ‘ too hard ’ for 
 them. (Deut. i. 16, 17.) These judges 
 had the power of inflicting corporal chas¬ 
 tisement, exacting fines, and even of pass¬ 
 ing sentence of death in capital offences, 
 such severity being regarded as required 
 of them at the hands of the holy God who 
 dwelt in the midst of them. In primitive 
 times the judges held sittings in an open 
 place of the city daily, heard cases and de¬ 
 cided disputes at the moment of their oc¬ 
 currence, and effect was given, on the spot, 
 to their verdict. It was not till the days 
 of David and Solomon that a national sys¬ 
 tem of judicial administration was organ¬ 
 ized, and in the reign of the former the 
 number of judges over the land amounted 
 to six thousand, all of the tribe of Levi 
 
Cou 
 
 ( 221 ) 
 
 Cov 
 
 (i Chron. xxiii. 4), and they were regard¬ 
 ed as responsible to the king. (1 Kings 
 xxii. 27.) 
 
 “Among the Jews, eventually, there were 
 three kinds of tribunals, each with its prov¬ 
 ince clearly defined: (1) Petty Courts of 
 three judges, with only civil jurisdiction, 
 including cognizance of such crimes as in¬ 
 volved a pecuniary penalty; (2) Provincial 
 Sanhedrims of twenty-three judges, with 
 jurisdiction, as well, in crimes of a more se¬ 
 rious nature; and (3) the Great Sanhedrim 
 {q. v .), with supreme authority over the 
 whole nation. In these courts the king 
 had no authority; nor did he even appoint 
 the judges, that being the privilege of the 
 people. The Petty Courts were consti¬ 
 tuted to determine a particular case, and 
 were then dissolved, two judges being ap¬ 
 pointed, one by each party, and these two 
 naming a third. Townships consisting of 
 a hundred and twenty families possessed a 
 Provincial Sanhedrim, which was some¬ 
 times of temporary and sometimes of per¬ 
 manent institution. 
 
 “As justice was administered according to 
 the law, any well-educated Jew was eli¬ 
 gible to be a judge, provided he were 
 otherwise qualified. To be a member of a 
 sanhedrim he required to be a man of tried 
 judgment and integrity, as well as knowl¬ 
 edge and general ability. No man who 
 did not earn his living by some useful in¬ 
 dustry or calling could be a judge, such as 
 caterers for mere pleasure, gamblers, and 
 usurers; nor any man who was not humane 
 as well as just in his dealings with other 
 people, such as slave-dealers; nor any one 
 who had been guilty of seduction, nor one 
 who had in any way an interest in the suit. 
 A judge must, before all, be a modest man, 
 and in good repute with his neighbors, as 
 well as a general favorite in the commu¬ 
 nity. 
 
 “No conviction could be obtained without 
 witnesses, and two was the legal number 
 required. Evidence was not given on oath, 
 but the penalty of false witness-bearing 
 was severe, and on the witness it devolved 
 to take the lead in executing sentence on 
 the offender. An oath was sometimes re¬ 
 sorted to where no witness, or where only 
 imperfect evidence, could be had, and by 
 means of it an accused person could clear 
 himself of suspicion. Of oaths there were 
 two kinds—one in which Jehovah was 
 merely taken to witness, and one in which 
 imprecation was also involved. The oath 
 was administered by raising the hand, and 
 also by putting the hand under the thigh 
 of the person to whom a promise was 
 made (Gen. xxiv. 2), or by dividing a vic¬ 
 tim and passing between or distributing the 
 pieces. (Gen. xv. 10, 17; Jer. xxxiv. 18.) 
 
 It was sometimes taken before the altar. 
 (1 Kings viii. 31.) ‘ Casting the lot ’ was 
 
 also resorted to at times, but very rarely.’' 
 —Bagster: Bible Helps . See Benny: The 
 Criminal Code of the Jews (London, 1880). 
 
 Court, Antoine, the “ Restorer of Prot¬ 
 estantism in France;” b. at Villeneuve-de- 
 Berg, in Vivarais, 1696; d. in Lausanne, 
 1760. He was the child of peasant parents, 
 who were members of the Reformed 
 Church. He was eight years old when the 
 Camisard revolt was suppressed in blood, 
 and nineteen when Louis XIV. issued the 
 decree that all who professed the Reformed 
 faith should be treated as heretics. From 
 early youth, he cherished the purpose to 
 deliver his people from their persecutions. 
 To this end, he encouraged orderly action 
 in the establishment of conferences and 
 synods, and the careful training of pastors. 
 For fifteen years he labored in Languedoc, 
 Vivarais, and Dauphiny. The meetings 
 which he held in “ the desert ” were first 
 attended by very few, but in time they in¬ 
 creased to great gatherings. The attempts 
 of Louis XV. to destroy the Protestant 
 faith were in vain. Many pastors lost their 
 lives, and a price was set upon the head of 
 the great reformer. He retired to Lausanne, 
 and there established a theological school, 
 which sent forth all the pastors of the Re¬ 
 formed Church of France till the time of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Covenant, “ an agreement or mutual 
 obligation, contracted deliberately and with 
 solemnity. (1) Theological use. God’s 
 covenant with men signifies his solemn en¬ 
 gagement. (Gen. xvii. 14; Ex. xxxiv. 10; 
 Deut. iv. 13; Isa. lix. 21.) The Hebrew 
 word for covenant (‘ to cut ’) has reference 
 to the cutting animals in two, and passing 
 between the parts, in ratifying a covenant. 
 (Gen. xvii. 14; Jer. xxxiv. 18.) The term 
 ‘ the covenants,’ in Rom. ix. 4, refers to 
 the various promises made to Abraham 
 and the other patriarchs. The most im¬ 
 portant use of the word is, however, in re¬ 
 lation to the two great dispensations, which 
 are distinguished as the Old and New, or 
 as the Covenant of the Law and the Cove¬ 
 nant of the Gospel. The former was made 
 with the children of Israel, through Moses, 
 and rested much in the outward ceremo¬ 
 nies and observances which the law enjoined 
 (meats and drinks, and divers washings, 
 and carnal ordinances). The new covenant 
 was made through Christ, sealed by his 
 own blood, and secures to every believer 
 the blessings of salvation and eternal life 
 (comp. Ex. xx. 24; Gal. iii. 15, 17; Heb. 
 viii. 6, sqq.'). The titles ‘ Old and New 
 Testaments ’ arose from the inaccurate 
 
Cov 
 
 ( 222 ) 
 
 Cow 
 
 rendering in the Latin Vulgate of the word 
 ‘ covenant ’ ( diatheke) by testamentum. It 
 would be a decided gain if the correct titles 
 could be used. In the revised version of 
 the New Testament the word covenant is 
 everywhere the translation of diatheke in 
 the text, with testament in the margin (e. g ., 
 Matt. xxvi. 28). But the American revisers 
 (Classes of Passages x.) prefer that ‘ the 
 word “ testament ” be everywhere changed 
 to “ covenant” without an alternate in the 
 margin, except in Heb. ix. 15-17.’ ”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. , vol. i. p. 562. (2) The term 
 “ covenant ” is used, by Baptists and Con- 
 gregationalists, to denote the agreement 
 entered into by the members of individual 
 churches. It follows the confession of faith. 
 (3) “A covenant of salt ” expressed a per¬ 
 petual covenant , in the sealing or ratification 
 of which salt was used. (Num. xviii. 19; 
 2 Chron. xiii. 5.) 
 
 Covenanters. See Scotland, Church of. 
 
 Coverdale, Miles, “ an eminent English 
 divine, was b. in Yorkshire in 1488. He 
 was educated at Cambridge by the Augus¬ 
 tin friars, and, becoming an Augustin monk, 
 was ordained at Norwich. He appears, 
 however, to have soon changed his relig¬ 
 ious opinions, and to have devoted himself 
 earnestly to the work of the Reformation. 
 Being abroad in 1532, he assisted Tyndale 
 with his translation of the Scriptures, and 
 three years afterwards appeared his own 
 translation of the Bible, with a dedication 
 by himself to Henry VIII. This was the 
 first English Bible sanctioned by royal 
 authority, as, indeed, it was the first com¬ 
 plete translation of the Bible printed in 
 the English language. The Psalms of this 
 translation are those still used in the Book 
 of Common Prayer. In 1538 Coverdale, 
 with the consent of King Henry VIII., 
 and with the permission of Francis I., 
 went to Paris to superintend another Eng¬ 
 lish edition of the Scriptures—his reason 
 for going to Paris being that paper and 
 workmanship were there cheaper and bet¬ 
 ter than in England. The Inquisition, 
 however, notwithstanding the royal license 
 of Francis, interfered, seized the whole 
 impression, consisting of 2,500 copies, and 
 condemned them to the flames. But, through 
 the cupidity of one of their executive offi¬ 
 cers, who sold a considerable number of 
 the heretical books to a haberdasher as 
 waste paper, some copies were saved and 
 brought to London, along with the presses, 
 types, etc., which had been employed in 
 printing them. Several of the workmen, 
 also, came over to London, and Grafton 
 and Whitchurch, the noted printers of that 
 day, were thus enabled to bring out in 1539, 
 
 under Coverdale’s superintendence, the 
 Great Bible , commonly called Cranmer's 
 Bible , on account of that prelate having 
 written a preface to it. In 1551 he was 
 appointed to the see of Exeter, the duties 
 of which high ecclesiastical office he dis¬ 
 charged with great zeal, until the accession 
 of Mary in 1553, when he was ejected, and 
 thrown into prison, from which he was 
 only released after two years’ confinement, 
 on the earnest intercession of the King of 
 Denmark, whose interest was evoked by 
 his chaplain, Coverdale’s brother-in-law, 
 and on the condition that he should leave 
 the country. He went to Denmark, and 
 subsequently to Geneva, where he assisted 
 in producing the Geneva Translation of the 
 Scriptures (1557-60). On the accession of 
 Elizabeth he returned to England, but cer¬ 
 tain notions concerning ecclesiastical cere¬ 
 monies, imbibed at Geneva,operated against 
 his preferment in the Church; and it was 
 not until 1564 that he was collated to the 
 rectory of St. Magnus, London. Owing 
 to age and infirmities, he resigned this liv¬ 
 ing in 1566, and died about two years 
 afterwards. Coverdale was the author of 
 several tracts designed to promote the 
 Reformation, and made various transla¬ 
 tions from the works of the continental re¬ 
 formers. The tri-centenary of the issue 
 of his Bible was celebrated throughout the 
 English Church, Oct. 4, 1835, and medals 
 were struck in honor of the occasion.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Cowl (Lat. cticulla), the hood which 
 the monk draws over his head, and which, 
 by entirely covering all but his face, pre¬ 
 vents him from seeing anything but what 
 is in front of him. As the hood was thus 
 the most characteristic part of the monk’s 
 dress, the phrase “ taking the cowl” came 
 ’to mean entering the monastic life. 
 
 Cowles, Henry, D. D., b. at Norfolk, 
 Conn., April 24, 1803; d. at Janesville, 
 Wis., Sept. 6, 1881. After his graduation 
 at Yale University, in 1826, he studied 
 theology, and from 1828 to 1835 was en¬ 
 gaged in missionary labor in Ohio. From 
 1835 to 1843 he was professor, first of 
 Latin and Greek, and then of Hebrew, in 
 Oberlin College. In 1843 he became edi¬ 
 tor of The Oberlin Evangelist , which place 
 he occupied until 1863, when he began the 
 preparation of his Commentaries , which ex¬ 
 tended to sixteen volumes, and were com¬ 
 pleted in 1881 (D. Appleton & Co., pub¬ 
 lishers). 
 
 Cowper, William, one of the chief re¬ 
 ligious poets of England, b. in Hertford¬ 
 shire, Nov. 15, 1731; d. at East Dereham, 
 
Cox 
 
 ( 223 ) 
 
 Cra 
 
 Norfolk, April 25, 1800. In connection 
 with his friend, John Newton, Cowper was 
 the first author of the famous Olney Hymns 
 (! 779 )* See his Life by Southey (1833). 
 
 Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, D. D., LL. 
 D. (Kenyon College, Gambier, O., 1868), 
 Protestant Episcopal, bishop of Western 
 New York; b. at Mendham, N. J. ,May 10, 
 1818; was graduated at the University of 
 the City of New York, 1838, and at the 
 General Theological Seminary in the same 
 city, 1841; rector at Hartford, Conn., 1842; 
 at Baltimore, Md., 1854; in New York 
 City (Calvary Church), 1863; bishop, 1865. 
 He is the editor of the American reprint of 
 the Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1885- 
 87), 9 vols., and the author of several 
 volumes of poems and prose. He has 
 been a leader in the opposition to the 
 publication of any text of the Bible except 
 the Authorized Version, by the American 
 Bible Society. 
 
 Cramp-rings were finger-rings which in 
 former times were blessed on Good Fri¬ 
 day by the English sovereign, and then 
 worn as a sure protection against cramp 
 and epilepsy. 
 
 Cranmer, Thomas, “ one of the chief re¬ 
 formers of the English Church, and the 
 first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 was b. at Aslacton, in the county of Not¬ 
 tingham, on the 2d of July, 1489. He was 
 descended from an old Norman family, 
 which is said to have come into England 
 with William the Conqueror. In his four¬ 
 teenth year he went to Jesus College, 
 Cambridge, of which he was elected a fel¬ 
 low in 1510. He devoted himself diligently 
 to the study of the learned languages, and 
 also to the study of Scripture. His mind 
 seems to have been early interested in the 
 writings of Erasmus, Luther, and Le 
 Fevre, and especially in their interpreta¬ 
 tions of Scripture. In his twenty-third 
 year he married, and so lost his fellowship; 
 but his wife dying about a year after mar¬ 
 riage, he was restored to it by his college. 
 In 1523 he was appointed lecturer on theol¬ 
 ogy. In 1528, during the prevalence of the 
 sweating-sickness in Cambridge, he retired 
 with two pupils to Waltham Abbey; and 
 Henry VIII., in company with Gardiner 
 and Fox, afterward bishops of Winchester 
 and Hereford, happening to be in the 
 neighborhood, the event proved a turning- 
 point in the life of Cranmer. The king was 
 then seriously concerned about his divorce 
 from Catharine of Aragon, and, in conversa¬ 
 tion on the subject with Gardiner and Fox, 
 Cranmer suggested that the question 
 should be ‘ tried according to the Word of 
 
 God.’ Fox having mentioned this sugges¬ 
 tion to the king, he was greatly pleased, 
 and from this time Henry never lost sight 
 of Cranmer. He was asked to reduce his 
 suggestion to writing, and to have it sub¬ 
 mitted to the European universities. After 
 this he was appointed Archdeacon of Taun¬ 
 ton, and one of the royal chaplains. He 
 was also sent to Rome on a special em¬ 
 bassy about the divorce, but met with lit¬ 
 tle success. Subsequently, he was dis¬ 
 patched to the emperor on the same errand, 
 and while in Germany he married a second 
 time, a niece of the German divine, Osian- 
 der. This took place in 1532; and shortly 
 afterward, on the death of Archbishop 
 Warham, he was recalled to fill the vacant 
 see. Under his auspices, Henry’s divorce 
 was speedily carried through, and he mar¬ 
 ried the king to Anne Boleyn, on the 28th 
 of May, 1533. In Anne’s subsequent dis¬ 
 grace, and again, in the affair of Anne of 
 Cleves, the archbishop took a part not 
 very creditable to him. His position was, 
 no doubt, a difficult one; but his character 
 was naturally pliable and timid, rather than 
 resolved and consistent. The same spirit 
 characterizes the measures of religious re¬ 
 form which were promoted by him. On 
 the one hand, he joined actively with Henry 
 in restricting the power of the pope, and 
 in suppressing the monasteries; but, on the 
 other hand, he was no less active in perse¬ 
 cuting men like Frith, Forrest, and others, 
 who, on matters of religious faith, were 
 disposed to advance further than himself 
 or the king. He did what he could, how¬ 
 ever, to resist the reactionary movement 
 which took place in 1539, an d which is 
 known by the institution of the ‘ Six Ar¬ 
 ticles.’ He was also instrumental in pro¬ 
 moting the translation and circulation of 
 the Scriptures. On Henry VIII.’s death, 
 Cranmer was appointed one of the regents 
 of the kingdom, and, along with Latimer 
 and others, largely contributed to the ad¬ 
 vance of the Protestant cause during the 
 reign of Edward. He assisted in the com¬ 
 pilation of the service-book, and the articles 
 of religion. The latter are said to have 
 been chiefly composed by him. He was 
 also the author of four of the homilies. 
 
 “On the accession of Mary, he was com¬ 
 mitted to the Tower, along with Latimer 
 and Ridley. In March, 1554, they were 
 removed to Oxford, and confined there in 
 the common prison, called the Bocardo. 
 Latimer and Ridley bore their cruel fate 
 with magnanimous courage; but the spir¬ 
 it and principles of Cranmer temporarily 
 gave way under the severity of his suf¬ 
 ferings. He was induced, in the hope of 
 saving his life, to sign no fewer than six 
 recantations; but his enemies were de- 
 
Cre 
 
 ( 224 ) 
 
 Cre 
 
 termined to be satisfied by nothing short of 
 his death. On the 21st of March, 1556, he 
 suffered martyrdom, as his fellow-reform¬ 
 ers had done, opposite Balliol College. His 
 courage returned at the end, and he died 
 protesting his repentance for his unworthy 
 weakness in changing his faith, and showed 
 an unexpected fortitude in the midst of the 
 flames.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. See Hook: 
 Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury 
 (1868); Life of Cranmer, by Gilpin (1784), 
 Todd (1831), and Le Bas (London, 1833; 
 reprinted in New York, 1835). 
 
 Creation. The Scriptures teach that 
 God is the Author of all existence. “ In 
 the beginning God created the heavens 
 and the earth.” In the account given of 
 creation in the first two chapters of Gen¬ 
 esis, the six days “are not necessarily six 
 literal days, but may be, and are probably, 
 periods of indefinite length. The question 
 is not what God could do (for one hour or 
 one minute would suffice for his omnip¬ 
 otence), but in what manner he usually 
 works. That the word ‘ day ’ is often 
 used in a wider sense is evident from such 
 expressions as the 4 day of the wicked,’ 
 the ‘day of grace,’ the ‘day of judg¬ 
 ment.’ To God a thousand years are as 
 one day. (Psa. xc. 4; 2 Pet. iii. 8.) The 
 narrative itself indicates such a wider use 
 of the word; for the sun, that luminary 
 which determines the solar day, was not 
 created before the fourth day, and 
 the seventh day, which represents the 
 period of divine rest or preservation, 
 has no evening. (Gen. ii. 4.) For 
 a profound, scholarly handling of this 
 matter, see Taylor Lewis’s Special Intro¬ 
 duction to the first chapter of Genesis , partii., 
 pp. 131—135, in Lange’s Commentary on 
 Genesis (and his Six Days of Creation). 
 He says: ‘ It is not any duration, but the 
 phenomenon, the appearing itself, that is 
 called day.’ The Bible and divine nature 
 and revelation, being the products of one 
 and the same God, cannot contradict each 
 other, and various attempts have been 
 made to harmonize the Mosaic cosmogony 
 with modern geology and astronomy by 
 able Christian scientists (such as Prof. 
 Guyot, Principal Dawson, and others), but 
 it should be kept in mind that the Bible 
 does not intend to teach science, but re¬ 
 ligion and the way of salvation. The 
 great truths taught by Moses in the first 
 two chapters of Genesis are obvious, and 
 independent of all science, as Guyot says: 
 A personal God, calling into existence by 
 his free, almighty will , manifested by his 
 word , executed by his Spirit , things which 
 had no being; a Creator distinct from his 
 creation; a universe, not eternal , but 
 
 which had a beginning in time; a creation 
 successive —the six days; and progressive — 
 beginning with the lowest element, mat¬ 
 ter, continuing by the plant and animal 
 life, terminating by man, made in God’s 
 image, thus marking the great steps 
 through which God, in the course of ages, 
 has gradually realized the vast organic 
 plan of the cosmos we now behold in its 
 completeness, and which he declared to be 
 very good, —these are the fundamental spir¬ 
 itual truths which have enlightened men 
 of all ages on the true relations of God to 
 his creation and to man. To understand 
 them fully, to be comforted by them, re¬ 
 quires no astronomy or geology. To de¬ 
 part from them is to relapse into the cold, 
 unintelligent fatalism of the old pantheistic 
 religions and modern philosophies, or to 
 fall from the upper region of light and 
 love infinite into the dark abysses of an 
 unavoidable skepticism.”—Schaff: Bible 
 Dictionary , s. v. 
 
 The account of creation given upon the 
 recently discovered Assyrian tablets is 
 fragmentary and confused, but is interest¬ 
 ing in its coincidences with Genesis, which 
 are sufficient to indicate its origin from 
 Hebrew tradition. 
 
 Creationism is a technical term for a 
 theory concerning the origin of the human 
 soul. “ It derives not only the soul of 
 Adam, but every rational soul, directly 
 from God, though not by way of emanation 
 in a Gnostic or pantheistic sense, but by 
 an act of creation; and supposes that the 
 soul is united to the body at the moment 
 of its generation, or afterward. It differs 
 from traducianism or generationism , so 
 called, which teaches that the soul is prop¬ 
 agated, together with the body, through 
 the process of generation, from age to age, 
 and from the theory of preexistence , which 
 assumes that each soul descends from an¬ 
 other world, and a previous mode of ex¬ 
 istence, into the body, to leave it again at 
 the close of its earthly pilgrimage.”—Mc- 
 Clintock and Strong: Encyclopedia , s. v. 
 Creationism is held by most Roman Cath¬ 
 olic and Reformed theologians, although 
 many hesitate to affirm any theory on this 
 subject. 
 
 Credence Table, a small side-table where 
 the bread and wine are placed before their 
 consecration. As a separate article of 
 furniture it dates in England from after 
 the Reformation. 
 
 Creeds (from credo, I believe), are def¬ 
 inite summaries of what is believed. The 
 word is peculiar to Christianity, although 
 men speak also of their political creed, 
 
Cre 
 
 ( 225 ) 
 
 Cre 
 
 their scientific creed, and so forth. They 
 are always designed for public use, and 
 are standards of faith and practice. They 
 may be of any length and of any form. 
 They may represent the distinctive tenets 
 of a separate communion, or the common 
 faith of the Catholic Church. Sometimes 
 they contain only the essentials of salva¬ 
 tion. Sometimes they cover the entire 
 body of Christian doctrine. In one case 
 they are restricted to brief and popular 
 statements of belief for general instruc¬ 
 tion. In another they include elaborate 
 theological expositions, and are made the 
 standard of public teaching. Some have a 
 polemic import, being intended to meet 
 disputed points, settle controversy, and 
 guard against error; others have an irenic 
 and apologetic character, exhibiting the 
 harmony of doctrines confessed with the 
 consensus of Christendom. Some serve as 
 a basis of association or bond of union. 
 
 Precise, dogmatic definitions are a natural 
 result of subjecting to human thought the 
 teachings of Christ and his apostles. Con¬ 
 flict with error may be in some instances 
 the occasion for creeds, and these may 
 mark the climax of successive controver¬ 
 sial epochs ; but there would have been 
 creeds if there had been no controversies 
 and no external occasion. They are the 
 crystalline reflex of the thought of the 
 Church, the expression of her vital faith, 
 the pulse of her spiritual life. The death¬ 
 like torpor of the Middle Ages was attend¬ 
 ed by controversies, but it produced no 
 creeds. Creeds thus become significant 
 features—“ milestones and finger-boards 
 in the history,” both of Christian doctrine 
 and life. 
 
 While some of them have proceeded di¬ 
 rectly from the general consciousness of 
 the Church, others were brought forth by 
 oecumenical or particular synods, or by a 
 company of divines commissioned by ec¬ 
 clesiastical or civil rulers, and some, even, 
 by a single individual, their symbolical 
 character arising from the formal sanction 
 of the Church, or any branch of it. In 
 churches of the Congregational polity no 
 creed has authority except that formally 
 adopted by the individual congregation, 
 having, as a rule, been prepared by its 
 pastor. 
 
 Throughout the whole Protestant branch 
 of the Church, creeds or confessions are 
 subordinated to the Scriptures, these alone 
 possessing authority. It is the distin¬ 
 guishing principle of Protestantism that 
 the Bible is the sole rule of faith and life. 
 Its authority is divine and absolute. That 
 of the creed is human and conditioned. 
 The Bible is the rule, the creed is the faith 
 which a church believes to be contained in 
 
 the rule, the symbol embracing the tenets 
 which the body it represents draws from 
 the Scriptures. The Roman Catholic, as 
 well as the Greek Church, assigns tradition, 
 or the teaching of the Church, a coordi¬ 
 nate authority with the Scriptures. Hence, 
 the creeds accepted by either are infallibly 
 correct and unalterable. 
 
 Viewing creeds in the light of an approx¬ 
 imate expression of revealed truth, an ex¬ 
 hibit of the doctrines held by a particular 
 church, or the testimony of a certain age, 
 Protestants claim the right of revising 
 their respective confessions. A wider 
 range of Christian experience, a fuller 
 flood of light bursting from the inexhaust¬ 
 ible Scriptures, or marked revolutions in 
 human thought, may require a restate¬ 
 ment or modification of certain doctrines. 
 While this may be deprecated, as produc¬ 
 ing an inordinate multiplication or un¬ 
 happy diversity of creeds, their number 
 and diversity arise more from detail or 
 mode of statement than from difference on 
 cardinal doctrines, and they reveal an in¬ 
 herent consensus in essentials, as well as 
 a dissensus in truths of minor import. 
 They show Christianity to be unchanging 
 in substance, while in forms of thought 
 and expression it is adaptable to every 
 age, and to every variety of culture. 
 
 Plausible objections to creeds are some¬ 
 times voiced. They conflict, it is charged, 
 with liberty of investigation and interpreta¬ 
 tion; they are instruments of intolerance,, 
 they do violence to conscience, they re¬ 
 flect on the adequacy of Scripture. But 
 these objections bear only against the mis¬ 
 use of creeds where there is no State 
 Church, and everyone has perfect confes¬ 
 sional freedom; no one who proposes* to 
 be a teacher in any communion can prop¬ 
 erly object if he is required to conform h'is 
 teaching to the tenets of that communion. 
 The laity, as a rule, do no more than pro¬ 
 fess their agreement v/ith the simplest for¬ 
 mula of vital truths. Experience teaches 
 that creeds are a necessity. Every man 
 who has principles gives utterance to them; 
 and every association, secular or religious, 
 which stands for anything, will, in some 
 way or other, make formal declaration of 
 what it holds. Sects rejecting creeds have 
 been organized, but they have invariably 
 and inevitably been moved to set up some 
 sort of a platform to distinguish them from 
 all others. And this is a creed. There 
 can be no Christian organization without 
 one. 
 
 An important question connected with 
 confessions is the form of their subscrip¬ 
 tion, namely, quia or qua terms , “ because 
 they agree with Scripture,” or, “ so far as 
 they agree with Scripture.” The former 
 
Cre 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 implies that a person believes the doctrine 
 of the creed to be in full accord with the 
 Scriptures; the latter form of subscription 
 can be made to any creed, by any one who 
 claims to believe the Scriptures. It 
 amounts simply to an evasion. 
 
 The earliest creeds grew, undoubtedly, 
 out of the summary of Christian truths 
 inculcated on catechumens, and professed 
 by them at baptism. The baptismal for¬ 
 mula, “ in the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” which 
 declared and sealed their faith, embodied, 
 gradually, additional clauses for the exclu¬ 
 sion of heretical views which had arisen. 
 “The rule of faith” was, in the early 
 Church, committed to memory, not to 
 writing. It was viewed as confidential, 
 and, forming a part of the baptismal ordi¬ 
 nance, it was kept secret, along with the 
 celebration of the sacraments, to guard 
 against profanation and misconstruction. 
 Thus, a considerable divergence in the 
 forms of the confession came to prevail in 
 various localities, there being a typical 
 difference between the creeds of the East¬ 
 ern and those of the Western Church. 
 
 The present form of the so-called Apos¬ 
 tles’ Creed cannot be traced beyond the 
 close of the fifth century, and is, there¬ 
 fore, more recent than the Nicene Creed, 
 which, though developed from an earlier 
 Palestinian formula, received its final form 
 from the first and second CEcumenical 
 Councils, A. D. 325 and 381, the Latin 
 Church, at a later date, adding the Fil- 
 ioque. 
 
 With these two is generally classified 
 the so-called Athanasian Creed, a product, 
 probably, of the fifth century, the three 
 constituting the Catholic, or CEcumenical, 
 symbols, which (with the exception of the 
 Filioque), having enjoyed for ages the 
 unanimous consent of the entire Church, 
 “ have far greater authority than those 
 which have been received only by partic¬ 
 ular churches.” 
 
 No other creeds obtained prior to the 
 Reformation. That outburst of new life 
 in the Church produced new confessions of 
 faith in various countries. The first of 
 these was the Augsburg Confession, pre¬ 
 pared by Melancthon in consultation with 
 Luther, and presented by the Lutheran 
 States at the Diet of Augsburg.A. D. 1530. 
 This not only became the fundamental 
 symbol of the Lutheran Church, but it was 
 the beginning of “ the clearly recognized 
 life of the Evangelical Protestant Church.” 
 “ It struck the key-note to other evan¬ 
 gelical confessions,” says Dr. Schaff, 
 “ and strengthened the cause of the Refor¬ 
 mation everywhere.” 
 
 The great work of this learned author, 
 
 Creeds of Christendom (Harper & Broth¬ 
 ers, N. Y.), classifies this subject as fol¬ 
 lows: The CEcumenical Creeds, the Creeds 
 of the Greek Church, the Creeds of 
 the Roman Church, the Creeds of the 
 Evangelical Lutheran Church, the Creeds 
 of the Evangelical Reformed Churches: (1) 
 of Switzerland, (2) of France and the 
 Netherlands, (3) of Germany, (4) of Bohe¬ 
 mia, Poland, and Hungary, (5) the Angli¬ 
 can Articles of Religion, (6) the Presby¬ 
 terian Confessions of Scotland, (7) the 
 Westminster Standards, and the Creeds of 
 Modern Evangelical Denominations. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Creighton, Mandell, LL. D. (Glasgow, 
 1884; Harvard, 1886), D. C. L. (Durham, 
 1885), Church of England; b. at Carlisle, 
 Eng., July 5, 1843; graduate of Oxford, 
 1867; vicar of Embleton, Northumberland, 
 1875; Dixie professor of ecclesiastical his¬ 
 tory, Cambridge, 1884. He is the author 
 of A History of the Papacy D tiring the Pe¬ 
 riod of the Reformation (London, 1882-87), 
 4 vols., and other historical works. 
 
 Cres'-cens, Paul’s companion at Rome, 
 who had gone to Galatia when Paul wrote. 
 (2 Tim. iv. 10.) According to the Apostolic 
 Constitutions, he preached the gospel in 
 Galatia. 
 
 Crete, a large island midway between 
 Syria and Malta, now called Candia. (Acts 
 xxvii. 7-21; Titus i. 5.) 
 
 Crispin and Crispianus, two brothers of 
 a noble family, who, about the end of the 
 third century, went to Gaul to labor for 
 the conversion of the pagans. They lived 
 at Soissons, and supported themseives at 
 their trade as shoemakers, and it was here 
 they suffered martyrdom. They appear 
 to have been very successful missionaries, 
 and are commemorated by the Roman 
 Church on Oct. 25, and venerated as the 
 patron saints of the shoemakers. 
 
 Crosby, Howard, S. T. D. (Harvard, 
 1859), LL. D. (Columbia, 1872), Presbyte¬ 
 rian; b. in New York City, Feb. 27,1826; was 
 graduated at New York University, 1844; 
 professor of Greek in that institution, 1851, 
 and at Rutgers College, New Brunswick, 
 N. J., 1859; pastor of the Fourth Avenue 
 Presbyterian Church, New York City, 
 1863. Dr. Crosby has taken an active 
 part in philanthropic and educational re¬ 
 forms, and has written much on subjects 
 pertaining to biblical literature. 
 
 Crosier, or Crozier, is the title given to 
 the official staff of an archbishop, which 
 
Cro 
 
 ( 227 ) 
 
 Cro 
 
 has a cross-head, and so is distinguished 
 from the “pastoral staff ” of bishops and 
 abbots, the head of which is curved, and 
 resembles that of a shepherd’s crook. 
 
 Cross. This word has so thoroughly 
 acquired the meaning of two lines forming 
 angles with each other, that it is difficult 
 to realize that it does not mean this of ne¬ 
 cessity. The most ancient cross was a 
 stake to which the malefactor was fastened; 
 the arms and feet were either tied with 
 cords or nailed to the wood, or he was im¬ 
 paled upon it. Sometimes, for despatch, 
 persons were crucified on trees. There 
 are several instances of this kind of exe¬ 
 cution: the Emperor Tiberius, when pro- 
 consul in Africa, thus executed the priests 
 of Saturn who crucified children. The 
 other crosses, which were made of two 
 pieces of wood, were of two sorts; one of 
 them was like our X, or a saltire in her¬ 
 aldry, and was called Crux Dccussata. It 
 is that which we call St. Andrew’s Cross. 
 Another, Crux Commissa , sometimes 
 known as St. Anthony’s Cross, was made 
 like a T, one of the pieces of wood being 
 set upright, and another being joined 
 crosswise to it upon the top. The third 
 sort, Crux Immissa , had the cross-piece of 
 wood somewhat below the top of that 
 which stood perpendicularly, and this, ac¬ 
 cording to the received belief of Christen¬ 
 dom, was the kind of cross upon which 
 the Saviour died for the sins of the world. 
 
 It was long before the cross became the 
 formal and official sign of Christianity; but 
 when crucifixion as a criminal punishment 
 was abolished by Constantine, this grad¬ 
 ually took place, and as such, the three 
 forms of its use which have existed for 
 many centuries, and exist now, are (1) the 
 public (*. e. liturgical) or private marking 
 of the cross with a manual gesture, or the 
 impressing of it on dedicated objects, 
 known as the Sign of the Cross; (2) the 
 material cross of marble, stone, metal, or 
 wood, used for devotional purposes, from 
 the large churchyard cross or village or 
 market cross, through the smaller ones of 
 church altars and chancel screens, to the 
 little “pectoral crosses,” originally the 
 mark of an ecclesiastic, but now worn in¬ 
 discriminately; (3) the crucifix, being the 
 same cross bearing the Divine Figure. 
 Our second section may be briefly dis¬ 
 missed: from the earliest times the cross 
 has been used in all such ways as have 
 been described. Constantine, for instance, 
 set up large crosses in the public places of 
 Constantinople; nor are altar-crosses of 
 much later date. The Sign of the Cross, 
 however, requires a little notice. To be¬ 
 gin with, it is of the most primitive antiq¬ 
 
 uity. In the Church of England it is only 
 prescribed to be used in Baptism, but it is 
 used by some at Holy Communion, as 
 well as privately, its object being “ to re¬ 
 mind a Christian of his profession.” This 
 custom is spoken of by Tertullian at the 
 beginning of the third century (de Cor. 
 Mil., iii.), and his words show that it was 
 then a perfectly familiar thing. Cyril, 
 Chrysostom, Augustine, and our own 
 Venerable Bede, all testify to the practice. 
 When used simply for such a purpose, 
 and not as a symbol of party, and there¬ 
 fore of division, the practice is defended 
 by the words of Hooker, in the Eccl. 
 Polity, V., lxv. 9, 10, 11. There are two 
 black-letter Festivals of the Cross in the 
 English Prayer-book:—( a ) the Invention 
 (Finding) of the Cross, May 3, on which 
 is commemorated the alleged discovery of 
 the true cross, on the site of the Crucifix¬ 
 ion, by the Empress Helena in 326. She 
 came to Jerusalem, so runs the story, at 
 the age of seventy, bent on finding the site 
 of the Passion, the heathens having done 
 what they could to hide it by throwing 
 stones and rubbish over it, as well as by 
 building a temple to Venus on Calvary. 
 But one aged Jew was found, an antiquary, 
 who possessed some historical memoirs 
 which his ancestors had left him, and by 
 the help of these the site was found. It 
 was a regular custom among the Jews to 
 make a great hole on the site of an execu¬ 
 tion, and to cast into it everything con¬ 
 nected with the act. Accordingly, the 
 empress had the whole spot excavated, 
 and at a great depth the crosses were 
 found. One of the most exhaustive dis¬ 
 sertations on this story is that of Cardinal 
 Newman, in his Essays on Ecclesiastical 
 Miracles; it is, however, shown in the 
 Church Quarterly for July, 1881 (xii. 560), 
 that the legend is but a transfer, and that 
 at second-hand, of an earlier myth. The 
 festival dates from the eighth century, 
 and is not generally observed on this day 
 by the Eastern Church, which substitutes 
 the Apparition of the Cross to Constantine, 
 near Rome, in 312; the Coptic branch of 
 this Church has the Invention on March 
 6, and the Ethiopic on May 4. In Eng¬ 
 land, though it remains as a “ black-letter 
 day,” its offices were discarded at the 
 Reformation; the Sarum Epistle and Gos¬ 
 pel were Gal. v. 10-12; vi. 12-14, and John 
 iii. 1-15. 
 
 (h) The Exaltation of the Cross, or 
 “ Holy Cross Day,” Sept. 14. This is 
 connected with the former feast, the Exal¬ 
 tation commemorated being, at first, that of 
 the cross, when Constantine, in 335, ded¬ 
 icated the church which he built at Jerusa¬ 
 lem in honor of the Invention, and the 
 
Cru 
 
 ( 228 ) 
 
 Cru 
 
 feast being found in the fifth century; but 
 more attention was afterward paid to the 
 second Exaltation, in 629, of the same 
 cross, when recovered from the hands of 
 the Persian invaders. The Eastern Church 
 observes the Invention also on this day, 
 and further commemorates the Apparition 
 again. In England, the feast, like that of 
 the Invention, was removed at the Refor¬ 
 mation, and remains only as a “ black-let¬ 
 ter day.” As such, with the Invention 
 and most others, it first reappeared on 
 Queen Elizabeth’s Calendar of 1561, and 
 King James’s Prayer-book of 1604. The 
 Sarum Epistle was the same as for the In¬ 
 vention, the Gospel, John xii. 31-36.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Cruden, Alexander, the author of the 
 famous Concordance that bears his name; 
 b. at Aberdeen, May 31, 1701; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, Nov. 1. 1770. Soon after graduating 
 at Marischal College, he revealed the in¬ 
 sanity that cast a shadow over all his life. 
 He settled in London as a bookseller and 
 corrector of the press, and in 1737 issued 
 his Concordance , which has since that time 
 passed through innumerable editions. 
 While his insanity was the cause of great 
 eccentricities of conduct, his life was that 
 of a humble and devout Christian. See 
 his Memoir by Blackburn (10th London 
 ed., 1824, reprinted in New York). 
 
 Crusades. The mediaeval wars between 
 the Christian nations of Western Europe 
 and the Mohammedans, and so called either 
 as being Wars of the Cross (Lat. crux; old 
 Fr. crois ), or because all who were en¬ 
 gaged in them wore the badge of the cross 
 on their arms. 
 
 (1) The system of pilgrimages to the 
 scenes of our Lord’s life and death had 
 been in existence almost, if not quite, 
 from the beginning of Christianity, but 
 especially so since the persecutions had 
 ceased, and the Church had come into 
 favor with the imperial power of Rome. 
 From that time Christians began to Visit 
 the holy places in large numbers, travel¬ 
 ing together for the sake of safety and so¬ 
 ciety. Pilgrim caravans were encouraged 
 by some of the emperors, such as Justin¬ 
 ian, and provision was made for entertain¬ 
 ing them hospitably at the public expense. 
 They became so common that every large 
 city in France and Italy provided itself 
 with a hospital or hotel in Jerusalem or its 
 neighborhood, for its own citizens when 
 on their visits there. In a. d. 614 Chosroes 
 L, the Persian invader of the Roman Em¬ 
 pire in the East, took Jerusalem, and 
 slaughtered its inhabitants. A few years 
 
 later (a. d. 629), the Emperor Heraclius 
 
 ! .!• 
 
 recovered it from the hands of the Per¬ 
 sians; but it only remained seven years in 
 the hands of the Christians, for the forces 
 of Mahomet were now spreading them¬ 
 selves all over the East, and in a. d. 637 
 Jerusalem was compelled again to surren¬ 
 der to the Caliph Omar. 
 
 For about four centuries the caliphs and 
 their successors kept possession of Judaea 
 and Jerusalem. During that period pil¬ 
 grimages still continued to be made, but 
 under what restrictions there is no history 
 to tell us. About the beginning of the 
 eleventh century, however (a. d. ioio), 
 Hakim, the founder of the Druses of the 
 Lebanon, destroyed the churches, and en¬ 
 deavored to destroy the Holy Sepulchre 
 itself. He was a fierce persecutor of the 
 Christians, and died a dark and mysterious 
 death in the year 1021. Under his succes¬ 
 sor the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was 
 once more rebuilt, but in a. d. 1077 the 
 city itself passed into the possession of 
 the Turks. This was the period when 
 many influences combined to originate the 
 crusades, among them the following: 
 
 (2) There was a Very widely diffused 
 opinion, about the time when a thousand 
 years had elapsed from our Lord’s first 
 advent, that he was on the eve of appear¬ 
 ing a second time, and that the millennium 
 was about to begin. In consequence of 
 this opinion, pilgrimages grew in number 
 and frequency, although their danger had 
 increased greatly under Turkish rule. 
 Pilgrims were not admitted to the Holy 
 City at all without the payment of a by- 
 zant (i. e., about twenty shillings) for each 
 person; and very often, when the money 
 had been paid, they were refused admis¬ 
 sion, unless some powerful European no¬ 
 ble was among them to protect them. 
 Some of the hardships which the Christians 
 had thus to undergo are illustrated by the 
 account given of the pilgrimage under¬ 
 taken by Robert, Duke of Normandy, the 
 father of William the Conqueror, in a. d. 
 1035. He set off from home with a train 
 of knights and barons, but walked barefoot, 
 as a pilgrim, with a staff and wallet. For 
 greater humiliation, he sent his attendants 
 forward, and followed by himself in their 
 path. But on his way through Asia Minor 
 he was taken so ill that he was compelled 
 to use a litter, on which he was carried by 
 four Mohammedans, who seem to have 
 treated him with inhumanity, for he sent a 
 message home by a returning pilgrim, 
 whom he met on the way, in these words: 
 “ Tell my people thou hast met me where 
 I was borne of devils to Paradise.” On 
 coming to the gates of Jerusalem, he found 
 a great crowd of poor pilgrims, unable to 
 meet the expense of the fee exacted by the 
 
Cru 
 
 ( 229 ) 
 
 Cru 
 
 Mohammedans for their entrance. For all 
 of these he paid the byzant demanded, and 
 then visited the holy places himself with 
 devotion and reverence, dying shortly 
 afterward of poison, at Nicaea, on his re¬ 
 turn to Europe. 
 
 (3) At this time, also, the Turks were 
 exciting the fear, as well as the hatred, of 
 Christians; for they were spreading their 
 dominion in the most alarming manner. 
 All over Asia and Africa the sign of the 
 crescent had supplanted the sign of the 
 cross; churches were destroyed, bishops 
 murdered, and Christianity all but exter¬ 
 minated wherever they went. Having se¬ 
 cured Cyprus, Candia, Sicily, and the 
 southern coast of Italy, they extended 
 their conquests to Spain, and even in¬ 
 vaded the south of France. It seemed as 
 if they would, before long, secure Rome 
 itself, and found a Western Empire, such 
 as had been known under the Roman em¬ 
 perors, but with the religion of Mahomet. 
 
 (4) There was one special pilgrimage 
 which excited the commiseration of Chris¬ 
 tendom. The German Bishops of Mainz, 
 Bamburg, Ratisbon, and Utrecht set off in 
 1064, followed by seven thousand persons, 
 of all ranks in society, and including, 
 among others, Ingulph, English Secretary 
 to William the Conqueror. In the follow¬ 
 ing year two thousand survivors alone re¬ 
 turned to their homes, reduced to poverty 
 and misery by the cruelty of the Moham¬ 
 medans. 
 
 While these circumstances were all pre¬ 
 paring the way for the Crusades, an indi¬ 
 vidual arose capable of giving them point 
 and application, and of taking the lead in 
 avenging the wrongs of Christian pilgrims. 
 A weakly, unimpressive-looking man made 
 his appearance at Jerusalem as a pilgrim 
 in 1094. He had been a soldier, but had 
 retired from the army; and, seen to be 
 leading a secluded life at Amiens, had be¬ 
 come known among his neighbors as Peter 
 the Hermit. Arriving at Jerusalem at the 
 time when the Turks were in full posses¬ 
 sion of the city, his spirit was roused 
 within him at the sight of the sepulchre of 
 Christ in the hands of Antichrist, and at 
 seeing the antichristian crescent raising 
 its head where the cross had such claims to 
 ascendancy. He found that extortion and 
 cruelty were decimating the Christians who 
 came to offer their penitence and their 
 prayers, that the churches lately rebuilt 
 were again despoiled, and that nothing but 
 insult and violence could be expected from 
 the infidels. He consulted the patriarch 
 of Jerusalem, and concerted with him a 
 plan for securing the aid of European kings, 
 bishops, and peoples. Then, with an elo¬ 
 quence which excited all Europe, not only 
 
 to religious fervor, but to alarm, as the 
 real power and character of the Moham¬ 
 medans were understood, he called all the 
 countries of the West to the rescue, and 
 vast armies of volunteers appeared, who 
 styled themselves the armies of the Lord. 
 
 The first outburst which Peter’s elo¬ 
 quent exhortations, and his denunciation of 
 Mohammedanism aroused, resulted in an 
 expedition of an impatient, and, therefore, 
 disorganized character. An army of eighty 
 thousand men started under his leadership, 
 but, for want of proper arrangements, it 
 was reduced to one-third by death and de¬ 
 sertion on its way through Hungary, and 
 nearly the whole of the remainder perished 
 under the walls of Nicaea. But this dear- 
 bought experience led to a regular and 
 efficient force being sent out, under the 
 generalship of Godfrey of Boulogne; his 
 brother, Baldwin; Hugo the Great, brother 
 of the King of France; and Robert, son of 
 William the Conqueror. The number of 
 their armies amounted to a hundred and 
 fifty or two hundred thousand, and this is 
 called the First Crusade. Nicaea, Laodicea, 
 and Antioch were taken, Christian rule was 
 established in several important places, and 
 the Holy City was recovered. Godfrey 
 was crowned king of Jerusalem, and at his 
 death, a year afterward, his brother Bald¬ 
 win was elected to succeed him. But the 
 kingdom of Jerusalem was a mere garrison 
 in an enemy’s country. 
 
 St. Bernard, in 1147, endeavored to 
 arouse the spirit of Europe to support the 
 Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, and a 
 second expedition went forth. But treach¬ 
 ery led to its failure, and only a small 
 remnant returned to Europe. In 1187 the 
 Holy City was given up to Saladin, and 
 has never since been recovered from the 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 In the Third Crusade (a. D. 1187-92) 
 Richard Coeur-de-Lion and Saladin were 
 the most conspicuous personages. The 
 Emperor of Germany, the King of France, 
 and the King of England united their forces 
 for the invasion of Palestine; but jealous¬ 
 ies and divisions arose, and everything 
 was ultimately left to Richard. If personal 
 bravery could have effected the object in 
 view, it would not have remained unac¬ 
 complished. As it was, however, the ex¬ 
 pedition ended in leaving the Holy City, as 
 before, in the hands of the Mohammedans. 
 
 Four other crusades were undertaken, 
 in 1203, 1228, 1244, and 1270 respectively, 
 the last two of which were led successively 
 by the good and brave St. Louis and by 
 Edward of England, afterward Edward I. 
 None, after the first, achieved any real tri¬ 
 umph; and, as far as the direct object for 
 which they were undertaken is concerned, 
 
Cry 
 
 ( 230 ) 
 
 Cum 
 
 all of them must be regarded as total and 
 signal failures. On the other hand, it has 
 been pointed out that if the Christian war¬ 
 riors had not taken their arms into Moham¬ 
 medan Asia, Christian Europe might have 
 been brought under slavery. What the 
 “ Garden of the East” has become under 
 the barbarous rule of Mohammedanism is 
 an indication of what our less fertile Europe 
 would have become under the same dead¬ 
 ening influence. The Crusaders were also 
 the pioneers of commerce, since they open¬ 
 ed up an extended intercourse between na¬ 
 tion and nation. They helped to diffuse 
 knowledge, and to make known those high¬ 
 ways of travel which have proved so great 
 an advantage to subsequent ages. — Ben- 
 ham: Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 Crypt, a vault or subterranean chamber. 
 As a part of a church it had its origin in the 
 subterranean chapels known as confes- 
 sionesy erected around the tomb of a mar¬ 
 tyr or the place of his martyrdom. These 
 were first built under the altar, and in the 
 Germanic Church architecture extended 
 under the choir, and were sometimes so ex¬ 
 tensive as to form a subterranean church, 
 and often were used as places of interment 
 for bishops and archbishops. 
 
 Crypto-Calvinists, a name given to Me- 
 lanchthon and his followers, who were in 
 substantial accord with Calvin in his views 
 regarding the eucharist. Luther laid stress 
 upon the doctrine of the ubiquity of Christ’s 
 body in the Supper. This difference of 
 opinion between the great reformers did 
 not disturb their relations, but the two 
 views precipitated a controversy that made 
 serious trouble and divisions. See Schaff’s 
 Creeds of Christendom, vol. i., pp. 279-285. 
 
 Cubit. See Measures. 
 
 Cudworth, Ralph, D. D., Church of 
 England; b. at Aller, Somersetshire, 1617; 
 d. at Cambridge, June 26, 1688. A graduate 
 and fellow of Cambridge 1639; master of 
 Clare Hall, 1645-54: master of Christ’s 
 College, 1654; professor of Hebrew, 1645 
 till death. The work by which his name 
 is remembered is The True Intellectual Sys¬ 
 tem of the Universe: Wherein all the Reason 
 and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted and 
 its Iffipossibility Demonstrated (London, 
 1678). Cudworth was one of the Cam¬ 
 bridge Platonists (y. v.). 
 
 Culdees. See Celtic Church. 
 
 Cumberland Presbyterian Church, The. 
 Nominally considered, the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian Church is distinguished from 
 
 other Presbyterian bodies by the term 
 “ Cumberland.” The name came to be 
 applied from geographical and historical 
 reasons. The region of territory lying in 
 the States of Kentucky and Tennessee, be¬ 
 tween Green River on the north and the 
 Tennessee ridge south of Nashville not 
 many miles, and reaching the Tennessee 
 River on the west, was called Cumberland, 
 in the early settlement of the country. In 
 this region this church originated. Its 
 first presbytery was named Cumberland, 
 and so was its first synod. The steps lead¬ 
 ing to these events may be briefly stated in 
 what follows: 
 
 When the vast wilderness, afterward 
 formed into the States of Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, was settled by white men from 
 Virginia and the Carolinas, among the first 
 immigrants into this fertile land were min¬ 
 isters and members of the Presbyterian 
 Church. They built houses for homes, 
 for schools, and for churches. They be¬ 
 lieved in morality, education, and good 
 order. They were probably a better edu¬ 
 cated class of people than most other new 
 settlers, but they held the theological 
 views of strict Calvinists. The character of 
 the preaching of these pioneers was formed 
 from the stern articles of faith found in the 
 third chapter of the Westminster Confes¬ 
 sion of Faith, and in similar places in that 
 symbol. As a matter of history, there was 
 little spiritual life or church progress 
 manifested, and as late as 1796, congrega¬ 
 tions which had been formed in “ Cumber¬ 
 land,” and other regions, by people from 
 the sea-board on the east, had received few 
 additions to membership from the openly 
 wicked and unbelieving world around them. 
 
 The Rev. James McGready of North 
 Carolina, who became famous in after 
 times, was actually preparing for the min¬ 
 istry for years before he was really con¬ 
 verted. In his pastorate in North Caro¬ 
 lina, he became deeply impressed with the 
 necessity of a spiritual revival, and to this 
 end he preached with great power the ex¬ 
 perimental doctrines of the gospel, so that 
 much interest was awakened. After a 
 time, he was induced to follow some of his 
 parishioners who removed to Kentucky, 
 then already a State. He was, in 1796, 
 settled over Gasper River, Red River, and 
 Muddy River churches in Logan County. 
 Here he preached with Zealand great clear¬ 
 ness of view T s, and his Scriptural exposi¬ 
 tion of man’s lost estate, the necessity of 
 the new birth, the witness of the Spirit, 
 and a consciousness of conversion, led to 
 a general revival of spiritual religion 
 throughout the Cumberland country. This 
 began in 1797 and continued to 1800, and 
 even beyond that date. William Hodge, 
 
Cum 
 
 ( 231 ) 
 
 Cum 
 
 William McGee, Samuel Me Ado w, and 
 John Rankin, ministers in the Presbyterian 
 Church in that country, sympathized heart¬ 
 ily in the revival work and greatly aided 
 its progress. Infidelity was very common 
 in the land, and worldliness was very gen¬ 
 eral in the church. These men boldly at¬ 
 tacked the evils thus existing, not with the 
 high doctrines of eternal election and repro¬ 
 bation such as had been usually proclaimed 
 by Presbyterian ministers of that age, but 
 with the practical teachings of repentance 
 for sin, and faith in Christ for pardon and 
 salvation. Vice, immorality, religious in¬ 
 difference, as well as open unbelief, were 
 exposed in strong light, and the denuncia¬ 
 tions of Bible truth laid against them. 
 
 The result of these very earnest labors 
 was a most gracious work of the Holy 
 Spirit, in answer to fervent prayer con¬ 
 nected therewith. Many persons, who 
 had been for years members in fair stand¬ 
 ing in churches, became convinced that 
 they were unconverted, and sought and 
 obtained acceptance with Christ. Scores 
 upon scores of ungodly people were led to 
 embrace religion, and the awakening be¬ 
 came general, so that in all the region of 
 Cumberland the cry arose, “ Send us 
 preachers! send us preachers!” But col¬ 
 lege-bred preachers could not be had in 
 sufficient numbers to supply the great de¬ 
 mand. The Transylvania presbytery was 
 induced by the voices of the people to en¬ 
 courage a number of men who were sound 
 in faith, intelligent in the Scriptures, and 
 upright in life, and, moreover, gifted in 
 speech, to present themselves for the mis¬ 
 sion work needed in this new country. 
 Alexander Anderson, Finis Ewing and 
 Samuel King answered the providential 
 call, and soon proved themselves to be 
 highly efficient in promoting the revival, 
 and in building up the church. Anderson 
 lived but a short while, and yet it is said 
 of him that his spirit flamed forth in pow¬ 
 er as a true evangel of God. These men 
 were licensed by the Transylvania presby¬ 
 tery, but when receiving their authority 
 to preach they adopted the Westminster 
 Confession of Faith, with the exception of 
 the idea or doctrine of fatality, which they 
 understood to be taught in the third chap¬ 
 ter of that book. There was a party in the 
 presbytery, led by Thomas B. Craighead, 
 which bitterly opposed the whole pro¬ 
 cedure of the revival party, and the two 
 parties were popularly known as “ the re¬ 
 vival party,”and “the anti-revival party.” 
 
 In 1802, the Transylvania presbytery 
 was divided, and the southern portion, in¬ 
 cluding the Cumberland country, was call¬ 
 ed Cumberland Presbytery. The revival 
 preachers, and the young men under them 
 
 belonged to this new presbytery, but there 
 were several opposers of the revival also 
 in this body. Serious disputes arose be¬ 
 tween the opposing parties, and the work 
 was greatly hindered. Anderson, Ewing 
 and King were ordained to the whole 
 work of the ministry, but this act was 
 seriously opposed by the Craighead party. 
 Complaints were made before the Ken¬ 
 tucky Synod against the proceedings of 
 the Cumberland Presbytery. Let it be 
 borne in mind that all these events were 
 occurring in the Presbyterian Church 
 among men possessing all the rights and 
 prerogatives bestowed by the constitution 
 of that church. A commission, appointed 
 by the Synod, proceeded to review the 
 action of Cumberland Presbytery, and de¬ 
 clared that action null and void, and pro¬ 
 hibited the presbytery from further ec¬ 
 clesiastical exercise as a court of the 
 church. The revival party composed the 
 majority of the presbytery, and it was 
 greatly aggrieved by the edict of the com¬ 
 mission, which was considered, under 
 Presbyterian government, clearly unjusti¬ 
 fiable and oppressive. The revival party 
 formed themselves into a council to con¬ 
 sult on all matters connected with the 
 welfare of the churches, but they exercised 
 for the time no ecclesiastical functions, 
 and united to secure a redress of grievances 
 before the Synod of Kentucky, and the 
 General Assembly. In the meantime, 
 these earnest men of God continued to 
 preach the gospel with large measures of 
 success. They extended their labors into 
 distant neighborhoods, and reaped rich 
 harvests. Robert Bell, Thomas Calhoun 
 and Robert Donnell, as exhorters or lay 
 preachers, were sent by the council into 
 Alabama, in 1807-1809, and they preached 
 there with much success. 
 
 The members of the council sought re¬ 
 lief from the action, which they honestly 
 believed to be unjust and unwarranted, 
 and leading men in the Presbyterian Church 
 sustained their view of the matter. Ef¬ 
 forts were made with patience and due re¬ 
 spect from year to year, both before the 
 Synod and the Assembly, but those efforts 
 seem not to have been acceptable in form, 
 and were technically rejected. As late as 
 the fall of 1809, an adjustment of difficul¬ 
 ties was sought. Discouragement had set¬ 
 tled upon the hearts of McGready, Hodge, 
 and McGee, and they went off to their sev¬ 
 eral fields. Seeing that there was no hope 
 of reconciliation with the Synod, Finis 
 Ewing and Samuel King met at the house 
 of Ephraim McLean, a licentiate, in Ken¬ 
 tucky, and those three men went to the 
 home of the venerable Samuel McAdow, 
 in Dickson county, Tennessee, where, after 
 
Cum 
 
 ( 232 ) 
 
 Cum 
 
 most earnest and protracted prayer to God 
 for guidance, they organized an independ¬ 
 ent presbytery called Cumberland, on the 
 fourth day of February, 1810. The first of¬ 
 ficial act of the presbytery was the ordina¬ 
 tion of McLean. The presbytery met in 
 March following, and received a number of 
 young men under its care for the ministry. 
 It met twice more before the year closed, 
 and it was evident that the Holy Spirit was 
 with them. They began with three men, 
 and not one congregation. At their fifth 
 meeting (1S11), they had eight congrega¬ 
 tions. William McGee, a regular graduate 
 of college, soon joined them, and other 
 strong men came to them in rapid succes¬ 
 sion. 
 
 The new organization naturally and pop¬ 
 ular ly came to be called the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian Church, before they named 
 themselves in form. In October, 1813, 
 Cumberland Presbytery met at the Beech 
 Church, Sumner County, Tennessee, and 
 divided itself into three presbyteries, Nash¬ 
 ville, Logan, and Elk, and at once formed 
 a general Synod, termed Cumberland. 
 Thus in three and a half years the very small 
 •body grew into living proportions. At 
 this first meeting, Finis Ewing, William 
 McGee, Robert Donnell, and Thomas Cal¬ 
 houn were appointed a committee to pre¬ 
 pare a Confession of Faith, and at the 
 meeting of Synod at Suggs’ Creek Church, 
 Wilson Count}', Tennessee, 1814, the com¬ 
 mittee presented a modification of the 
 Westminster Confession, which was care¬ 
 fully considered and adopted. Thus and 
 then, and not till then, were the Cumber¬ 
 land Presbyterians really separated from 
 the Presbyterian Church by permanent in¬ 
 dependency. There had all along been a 
 desire and even hope of reunion. They 
 claimed that it was not their fault that the 
 reunion never occurred; but they could 
 return only on honorable conditions. 
 
 From this period there was great activity 
 on the part of the growing body of the 
 young church’s ministers. They not only 
 proclaimed the gospel in Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, but extended their labors into 
 Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, Mis¬ 
 sissippi, and Alabama. Many special mis¬ 
 sionaries were sent to the Indian tribes 
 east, south, and west of the body of the 
 Church, and in 181S two presbyterial 
 boards of missions were organized to sup¬ 
 port mission work in all quarters. A Wo¬ 
 man's Board of Missions in the Logan 
 presbytery sent R. D. Morrow as mission¬ 
 ary to the frontier settlements in Missouri, 
 in 1819. In 1820 regular work was begun 
 among the Choctaw' and Chickasaw' Indians 
 in Mississippi. There are now two pres¬ 
 byteries among the Indians in Indian Ter¬ 
 
 ritory. The spirit of the first two genera¬ 
 tions of these men w r as apostolic and he¬ 
 roic. Difficulties did not daunt them, op¬ 
 position did not stop them. They had a 
 pioneer life, and they were equal to the 
 Master’s demands by the Master’s grace 
 upon them. Thousands of souls were con¬ 
 verted in a single year’s service, as re¬ 
 ported to Synod. Their doctrines were 
 broad and evangelical, their style of preach¬ 
 ing was fervid, direct, and scriptural, and 
 toward all Christian people they were lib¬ 
 eral and fraternal. They built largely for 
 God’s spiritual kingdom, while often leav¬ 
 ing other churches to gather the entire 
 fruits of extensive revivals. 
 
 When the church was but sixteen years 
 old (1826), its first college was established 
 at Princeton, Kentucky, previous to which 
 time its probationers had to use whatever 
 of providential opportunity might arise for 
 education. Cumberland Synod grew vig¬ 
 orously, and, in 1S28, it w r as divided into 
 four synods, Columbia, Green River, 
 Franklin, and Missouri, and the first Gen¬ 
 eral Assembly was constituted at Prince¬ 
 ton, Kentucky, May, 1829. There were 
 then eighteen presbyteries, of which six¬ 
 teen w r ere represented in the Assembly by 
 sixteen ministers and nine ruling elders. 
 From 1829 to 1842, there was, according to 
 McDonnold’s History , a period of great em¬ 
 barrassments and struggles, yet of much 
 valuable progress. Churches w'ere plant¬ 
 ed in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Louisiana, Tex¬ 
 as, and in many places in States already oc¬ 
 cupied. Sumner Bacon, a Cumberland 
 Presbyterian, w'as the first Protestant w r ho 
 preached in the Mexican province of Texas, 
 whither he went in 1S2S. ,R. O. Watkins, 
 still living, was the first Protestant preach¬ 
 er ordained on Texas soil. In 1830 the 
 church’s first paper, the Religious and Lit¬ 
 erary Intelligencer , was started, since which 
 time a number of weekly papers have been 
 published, and the Assembly now owns the 
 Cumberland Presbyterian, a large weekly 
 paper, besides a quarterly Review, and a 
 full series of Sabbath-school papers for all 
 grades of workers and scholars. In 1845 
 the Assembly organized and had chartered 
 boards of missions and publications; the 
 former being at St. Louis, Mo., and the lat¬ 
 ter at Nashville, Tenn. Since then, a board 
 of ministerial relief, of education, of the 
 women’s foreign missionary work, and a 
 branch board of church extension, have all 
 been organized and are in working order. 
 The Board of Missions is doing admirable 
 work at home and abroad. The principal 
 foreign mission is in Japan. The Board of 
 Publication is enlarging its operations in 
 every useful line of books and periodicals. 
 There are papers published by individuals 
 
Cum 
 
 ( 233 ) 
 
 Cur 
 
 indifferent parts of the church. The Wo¬ 
 men’s Foreign Mission Board is a decided 
 success, and so may it be said of the other 
 boards. 
 
 This church entered early into the great 
 reformatory movements of the century, 
 and has kept a steady course of advocacy 
 of all these to the present hour. There 
 are at present ten colleges under the care 
 of the church: three in Tennessee, two in 
 Illinois, two in Missouri, two in Texas, 
 and one in Pennsylvania, with seminaries 
 and academies in many places, and others 
 projected. The principal institution of 
 learning is Cumberland University, at Leb¬ 
 anon, Tennessee, having departments of 
 literature, theology, law, and engineering, 
 and special courses amounting to ten lines 
 of instruction. 
 
 It is well to remark that the church was 
 notdividedby the greatCivil Warof 1861-65, 
 and that its work is harmonious and pro¬ 
 gressive, North and South. In 1882-83, the 
 General Assembly having submitted the 
 question of a thorough revision of the Con¬ 
 fession of Faith to two separate but co¬ 
 operative committees, the presbyteries 
 voted upon their work, after the assembly 
 had itself carefully revised the work of the 
 committees, and it was ratified by an al¬ 
 most unanimous vote. It was a grave 
 movement, but nothing was ever done with 
 more harmony and satisfaction. The 
 present statistics of the church are as fol¬ 
 lows: Presbyteries, 120; Ordained minis¬ 
 ters, 1,595; Probationers for the ministry, 
 479; Congregations, 2,689; Additions to 
 church(1889) 18,086; Total communicants, 
 160,1S5; in Sunday-school, 90,647; Contri¬ 
 butions (1889), 8650,234.00. Besides, it is 
 to be recorded that the church, after the 
 war, set apart its colored members in a 
 separate church, which has now, in round 
 numbers, 380 preachers, 200 candidates for 
 the ministry, 22 presbyteries, 5 synods, 1 
 General Assembly, and 15,000 communi¬ 
 cants. There are Cumberland Presbyte¬ 
 rian presbyteries in twenty-two States and 
 the Indian Territory, at least, reaching 
 from Pennsylvania to California. Some of 
 the most heroic labors have been performed 
 in the Pacific States. The last ten years 
 have been a period of most systematic, 
 substantial growth, particularly in the 
 matters of church buildings, pastoral effi¬ 
 ciency and permanency, and the develop¬ 
 ment of a powerful evangelistic quality. 
 Two young men have had in their meet¬ 
 ings thousands of professions of faith with¬ 
 in ten years, and many other evangelists 
 have been at work with success. Not less 
 than forty Cumberland Presbyterian evan¬ 
 gelists have labored in such work over all 
 the States, beginning as far east as North 
 
 Carolina and Pennsylvania, and reaching 
 to the Pacific Ocean. The revival tide of 
 1800 is yet spreading along the wide shores 
 of our vast American population. 
 
 M. B. De Witt, 
 
 Editor Sunday-school Department, Cumber¬ 
 land Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Cumming, John, D. D., National Scot¬ 
 tish Church; b. in the parish of Fintray, 
 Aberdeenshire, Nov. 10, 1807; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, July 5, 1881. From 1833 until his 
 death he was pastor of the Scotch Church, 
 Covent Garden, London. He gained a wide 
 reputation as an expounder of prophecy 
 and the opponent of Romanism. He pub¬ 
 lished several volumes of discourses treat¬ 
 ing upon these themes. 
 
 Cummins, George David, D. D., Re¬ 
 formed Episcopal; b. near Smyrna, Kent 
 Co., Del., Dec. 11, 1822; d. at Lutherville, 
 near Baltimore, Md., June 26, 1876. After 
 graduating at Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
 Pa., in 1841, he first entered the ministry 
 of the Methodist Church, but in 1845 
 changed to the Episcopal. After holding 
 honored pastorates in Washington, Balti¬ 
 more, and Chicago, he was elected in 1866 
 assistant bishop of Kentucky. In 1873 he 
 aided in the establishment of the Reformed 
 Episcopal Church, and was its first bishop. 
 See Reformed Episcopal Church. 
 
 Cuneiform Writing. “ The cuneiform or 
 ‘ wedge-shaped ’ system of writing takes 
 its name from the wedge-like form of its 
 characters, which were once extensively 
 used over Western Asia. It has sometimes 
 been called ‘ arrow-headed ’ from the sup¬ 
 posed resemblance of the several strokes 
 which compose a character to the head of 
 an arrow. The characters were originally 
 hieroglyphics, each denoting an object or 
 idea, and, like the Chinese, were gradually 
 corrupted into the forms we see on the 
 Assyrian monuments. They were invented 
 by the primitive Accadian population of 
 Chaldea, who spoke an agglutinative lan¬ 
 guage, and were borrowed from them by 
 their Semitic conquerors, the Babylonians 
 and Assyrians.”— E/icy. Britannica , s. v. 
 
 Curate “(from the Latin curare , to take 
 care of), properly a presbyter who has the 
 cure of souls within a parish. The term 
 curate is used in this general sense in cer¬ 
 tain rubrics of the Anglican Prayer-book, 
 in which it is applied equally to rectors and 
 vicars as to perpetual curates. In a more 
 limited sense, it is applied in the Church 
 of England to the incumbent of a parish 
 who has no endowment of tithes, as dis¬ 
 tinguished from a perpetual curate, who 
 
Cur 
 
 ( 234 ) 
 
 Cyp 
 
 has an endowment of small tithes, which 
 are for that reason sometimes styled vica¬ 
 rial tithes. The term ‘ curate ’ in the pres¬ 
 ent day is almost exclusively used to sig¬ 
 nify a clerk who is assistant to an incum¬ 
 bent; and a clerk in deacon’s orders is 
 competent to be licensed by a bishop to the 
 office of such assistant curate. The con¬ 
 sequence of this misuse of the term 
 ‘ curate ’ has been that the title of ‘ per¬ 
 petual curate ’ has fallen into desuetude in 
 the Anglican Church.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Curate, Perpetual. See Curate. 
 
 Curia Romana is the name given to the 
 entire body of officials which together 
 forms the papal government, and through 
 whom all communications are carried on 
 between the Holy See and Foreign Powers. 
 See Cardinal. 
 
 Cush, ‘‘theeldest son of Ham, from whom 
 seems to have been derived the name of 
 the Land of Cush , which is commonly ren¬ 
 dered by the Septuagint and by the Vul¬ 
 gate, Ethiopia. The locality of the land 
 of Cush is a question upon which eminent 
 authorities have been divided; for while 
 Bochart maintained that it was exclusively 
 in Arabia, Schulthess and Gesenius held 
 that it is to be sought for nowhere but in 
 Africa. Others again, such as Michaelis 
 and Rosenmiiller, have supposed that the 
 name Cush was applied to tracts of coun¬ 
 try both in Arabia and Africa—a circum¬ 
 stance which would be easily accounted for 
 on the very probable supposition that the 
 descendants of the primitive Cushite tribes 
 emigrated across the Red Sea from the one 
 continent to the other. The existence of 
 an African Cush cannot reasonably be 
 questioned, though the term is employed 
 in Scripture with great latitude, sometimes 
 denoting an extensive but undefined coun¬ 
 try (Ethiopia), and at other times one par¬ 
 ticular kingdom (Meroe). It is expressly 
 described by Ezekiel as lying to the south 
 of Egypt, beyond Syene ; Mizraim and 
 Cush (i. e., Egypt and Ethiopia) are often 
 classed together by the prophets; the in¬ 
 habitants are elsewhere spoken of in con¬ 
 nection wdth the Lubim and Sukkiim, 
 which were certainly nations of Africa, 
 for they belonged to the vast army with 
 which Shishak, king of Egypt, ‘ came out’ 
 against Rehoboam, king of Judah; and, 
 finally, in the ancient Egyptian inscrip¬ 
 tions, the country to the south of Egypt is 
 called Keesh, or Kesh. Though there is 
 a great lack of evidence to show that the 
 name of Cush was ever applied to any 
 part of Arabia, there seems no reason to 
 doubt that a portion of the Cushite race 
 
 did early settle there. In the fifth century 
 the Himyarites, in the south of Arabia, 
 were styled by Syrian writers Cushaeans 
 and Ethiopians. By modern scholars the 
 name Cushitic has been adopted as the des¬ 
 ignation of the early non-Semitic language 
 of Babylonia; and the reasoning of Canon 
 Rawlinson goes to show that there was a 
 close connection between Babylon and 
 Egypt.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Cuthbert, St., a famous monk, b. in the 
 north of England in the beginning of the 
 seventh century; d. at Fame, 687. He 
 was first a monk at Melrose, and then, for 
 twelve years, prior of the monastery of 
 Lindisfarne. In 676 he withdrew to the isl¬ 
 and of Fame, from which retirement he ac¬ 
 cepted the bishopric of Hexham. After two 
 years, his health failing, he again returned 
 to Fame, where he died. His life, written 
 by Bede, is full of wonderful stories of 
 miracles wrought by his saintly life and 
 power. His remains were said to have the 
 power of working miracles. His corpse 
 was brought to Lindisfarne, and the monks 
 vowed never to desert it. True to their 
 vow, when the monastery was taken by the 
 Danes (S75), the monks, in their flight, car¬ 
 ried the remains with them in all their 
 wanderings, until they found a resting- 
 place at Durham (992). See his Life by A. 
 C. Fryer (London, 1881). 
 
 Cutty-stool, the stool or seat of repent¬ 
 ance in the old Scotch kirks, placed in a 
 conspicuous position, and painted black, on 
 which offenders against chastity sat during 
 three Sabbath services, professing repent¬ 
 ance, and receiving the minister’s rebukes. 
 
 Cuyler, Theodore Ledyard, D. D. 
 (Princeton, 1S66), Presbyterian ; b. at 
 Aurora, N.Y., Jan. 10, 1S22; was graduated 
 at Princeton College, 1S41; and Theological 
 Seminary, 1S46; pastor of the Third Pres¬ 
 byterian Church, Trenton, 1S49; °f r ^ e 
 Market Street Reformed Church, N. Y. 
 City, 1S53; and of the Lafayette Avenue 
 Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, 1S60; re¬ 
 signed this long and eminently successful 
 pastorate, 1S90. He is the author of sev¬ 
 eral volumes that have had a wide circula¬ 
 tion, but it is as a prolific contributor to 
 leading religious papers that he is best 
 known. Dr. Cuyler has won honorable 
 distinction for his fearless and earnest 
 advocacy of the cause of temperance. 
 
 Cyprian, St., was born in or near Car¬ 
 thage, about the year 200, and became fa¬ 
 mous as a teacher of rhetoric in that city. 
 He did not embrace Christianity until 
 somewhat late in life. At his baptism, he 
 
Cyp 
 
 ( 235 ) 
 
 Cyr 
 
 took, in addition to his former name, Cyp¬ 
 rian Thascius, that of Caecilius, who had 
 influenced his conversion, and who after¬ 
 ward, on his death-bed, left his wife and 
 children in Cyprian’s charge. The latter 
 was soon ordained to the offices of deacon 
 and presbyter; and three years later, when 
 the see of Carthage fell vacant, he was 
 unanimously elected bishop by the people, 
 though five presbyters were opposed to the 
 election. Cyprian endeavored, after his 
 consecration, to reform abuses which had 
 long existed within the diocese; but after 
 two years the persecution under Decius 
 forced him to take refuge at a place not far 
 off, where he remained for fourteen 
 months. During this time he kept up a 
 constant communication with the Church, 
 encouraging his people to hold fast their 
 faith, and not to renounce it, as many did, 
 with the prospect of beingallowed,when the 
 storm was over, to return to the Church. 
 
 Upon his return to the city, in 251, he 
 summoned a council to decide the question 
 as to the method of dealing with the pen¬ 
 itent apostates known as “the Lapsed,” 
 and with Libellatics —those- who, by pay¬ 
 ment, had obtained false certificates of hav¬ 
 ing sacrificed to the gods. The most ex¬ 
 treme views were taken. Some were for 
 re-admitting them immediately, others for 
 refusing them finally. Cyprian took a 
 middle view, that of re-admission after a 
 lengthened penance, and this view became 
 eventually that of the whole Christian 
 Church. Great disorders were at this time 
 caused by the Novatian Schism (</. v .), 
 against which Cyprian had to write much 
 whilst he was fighting another evil that tor¬ 
 mented his flock. For at this time the 
 plague was raging throughout the Roman 
 Empire, and Cyprian devoted himself to 
 nursing the sick, burying the dead, and 
 encouraging those who were faint-hearted. 
 In 253 he was engaged in a controversy 
 with the bishops of Numidia concerning 
 baptism by heretics, in which he maintained 
 that the sacrament should be re-adminis¬ 
 tered to those who had not been baptized 
 by a member of the Church. Stephen, the 
 Bishop of Rome, combated this opinion, 
 and indeed broke off communion with the 
 African Church; but Cyprian held his 
 ground, acknowledging the honor due to 
 the bishop of so great a city as Rome, but 
 not acknowleding any po*ver of the bishop 
 over himself. In 257 Valerian set on foot 
 a persecution of the Christians, and Cyp¬ 
 rian was brought before the Proconsul 
 Paternus. He declared himself a Chris¬ 
 tian and a bishop, steadily refused to sacri¬ 
 fice, or to disclose the names of his clergy; 
 whereupon he was banished with Pontius 
 to Curubis, a place at some distance from 
 
 Carthage. Here he remained for a year, 
 in communication with his flock, until the 
 arrival of a new proconsul, Galerius; he 
 was then commanded to remain in his gar¬ 
 dens near Carthage. Thence he was taken 
 for his trial to a place about four miles 
 from the city, on Sept. 13, 258. He again 
 refused to sacrifice, in spite of earnest en¬ 
 treaties from the magistrate, and was final¬ 
 ly condemned, as being “ a ringleader in 
 impiety against the gods of Rome, and 
 having resisted the attempts made by the 
 emperors to reclaim him.” He was con¬ 
 demned to be beheaded, and the sentence 
 was carried out at once, in the presence of 
 his sorrowing people. His works are pub¬ 
 lished in Clark’s Ante-Nicene Christian Li¬ 
 brary. They comprise about eighty Epis¬ 
 tles and some Discourses, “ On the Van¬ 
 ity of Idols,” on “ Virginity,” “ On the 
 Lapsed,” “ On the Unity of the Church,” 
 “ On the Lord’s Prayer,” “ On Mortality,” 
 etc., etc. Lactantius calls him “ the first 
 eloquent Christian writer.” His manner 
 is formed on that of Tertullian, but is not 
 so rough and violent. But his works are 
 chiefly valuable for the light which they 
 throw on the government and belief of the 
 Church of his day.—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Cyprus, a large fertile island of the Med¬ 
 iterranean Sea, 150 miles long, and from 
 fifty to sixty miles broad. It was early 
 colonized by the Phoenicians, and in the 
 Old Testament is known as Chittim or Kit- 
 tim. (Num. xxiv. 24; Ezek. xxvii. 6.) The 
 gospel was preached there at an early day. 
 (Acts xi. 19.) Barnabas and Mnason were 
 natives of Cyprus. (Acts vi. 36; xxi. 16.) 
 Sergius Paulus, proconsul of the island, 
 was converted by Paul on his first mis¬ 
 sionary tour. (Acts xiii. 7.) Cyprus came 
 under the control of the English Govern¬ 
 ment in 1878. The excavations made 
 there by General Cesnola have been of 
 great interest. See Cesnola: Cyprus: its 
 Ancient Cities , Tombs, and Temples (N. Y., 
 1877); Loher: Cyprus (N. Y., 1878).' 
 
 Cyre'ne, the chief city of Cyrenaica (now 
 Tripoli ), in North Africa, noted for its 
 commerce and intellectual activity. It was 
 the centre from which the gospel went 
 forth into all that region. (Acts xi. 20; xiii. 
 1.) Simeon who bore the cross was of 
 Cyrene. (Luke xxiii. 26.) Many Cyrenians 
 were present at Pentecost. (Acts ii. 10; vi. 
 9.) The city was destroyed by the Saracens 
 in the fourth century. 
 
 Cyrenius. See Quirinius. 
 
 Cyril, St., “bishop of Alexandria, was 
 
Cyr 
 
 ( 236 ) 
 
 Cyr 
 
 one of the most energetic but least amiable 
 of the Church fathers. The date of his 
 birth is not known. He was educated by 
 the fanatical monks of Nitria, with whom 
 he lived for five years, and who probably 
 inspired him with that fiery, intolerant, and 
 ignorant zeal which characterized him 
 through life. Subsequently, he went to 
 Alexandria, where he became a presbyter, 
 and on the death of his uncle, Theophilus, 
 412 a. d. , obtained the episcopal see. The 
 Alexandrian Jew’s, who were numerous 
 and wealthy, were the first to feel the 
 fierceness of his religious hate. Some 
 Christian blood having been shed by them 
 in a city tumult, Cyril put himself at the 
 head of a rabble of zealots, attacked the 
 Jewish quarter of Alexandria, destroyed 
 the houses, and banished the inhabitants. 
 Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, having 
 drawn up an accusation against Cyril, was 
 attacked in the streets by 500 monks, who 
 had come up from the deserts of Nitria, at 
 the call of their old companion, eager for 
 the work of destruction. One of these 
 monks having fallen in the skirmish, his 
 corpse was carried in procession to the 
 high church of Alexandria, where Cyril de¬ 
 livered a sanguinary discourse, gave the 
 dead monk the name of TJiaumasius , and 
 pronounced him a martyr and a saint. 
 But perhaps the most barbarous deed w'ith 
 Avhich this persecutor of heretics and hea¬ 
 then had to do, was the murder of the 
 heathen maiden Hypatia ( q . v.), the daugh¬ 
 ter of the mathematician Theon. Theod- 
 oret gravely accuses him of instigating 
 the Alexandrian populace to this horrid 
 act. But the most important historical 
 event in his career was his controversy 
 with Nestorius ((/. v.). All the worst feat¬ 
 ures of his disposition appeared in this 
 broil. Even the gentle Neander overflow’s 
 with pious wrath, and pursues Cyril 
 through sixty pages of his Church History 
 with the fiercest epithets. In the midst of 
 unquietudes, which he himself had largely 
 occasioned, he died, 444 a. I). Cyril’s nu¬ 
 merous writings consist of commentaries, 
 treatises, homilies, epistles, etc. See 
 Neander: Church History . ” — Chambers: 
 Cyclopedia. 
 
 Cyril Lucar, a Greek patriarch of Con¬ 
 stantinople; b. 1568 or 1572 in Candia 
 (Crete), then a prominent seat of Greek 
 scholarship. His fame rests upon the ef¬ 
 forts which he made to introduce into the 
 Greek Church the doctrines of the Re¬ 
 formed (Calvinistic) churches. He stud¬ 
 ied for a time at Geneva, and was in full 
 sympathy with the Protestant Reforma¬ 
 tion. He aroused the implacable enmity 
 of the Jesuits, and his views met with 
 
 great opposition within his own church. 
 A synod was convened at Constantinople 
 to try him in 1638, but before it completed 
 its labors, he was seized by a band of Jan¬ 
 issaries, under orders from the govern¬ 
 ment, and strangled to death. He pub¬ 
 lished a Confession of Faith in sympathy 
 with the views of the Reformers. In 1628 
 he presented the famous uncial, codex 
 Alexandrinus (codex A.), to Charles I. of 
 England 
 
 Cyril, St., “bishop of Jerusalem, an em¬ 
 inent Church father; was born at Jerusa¬ 
 lem about 315 a. D. , and ordained a deacon 
 in 334, a presbyter in 345, and on the death 
 of Maximus in 351, was elected bishop of 
 his native city. His metropolitan was the 
 Arian bishop, Acacius of Caesarea, with 
 whom he was soon engaged in hot conflict 
 concerning, originally, the rights of his 
 office, but ultimately their differences of 
 doctrine. Acacius accused Cyril, before a 
 council hastily ‘ got up ’ at Caesarea, in 
 358, of selling the treasures of his church 
 in a time of famine to feed the poor ! 
 Strange to say, Cyril was deposed for do¬ 
 ing this praiseworthy action. He now ap¬ 
 pealed to a larger synod, which was held 
 at Seleucia. This synod restored him to 
 his office; but once more, through the per¬ 
 severing hostility of Acacius, he was de¬ 
 posed by a council assembled at Constan¬ 
 tinople in 360. On the death of the Em¬ 
 peror Constantius, he was again restored 
 to his episcopate in 362. Soon after, his 
 old enemy, Acacius, died, but Cyril was 
 immediately involved in new difficulties. 
 After considerable strife, Cyril was ban¬ 
 ished, by order of the Emperor Valens, in 
 367; nor did he return till the emperor’s 
 death in 378. He died in 386. 
 
 “Cyril’s writingsareextremely valuable, 
 not on account of their vigor, profundity, 
 or beauty, but on account of their theol¬ 
 ogy. They consist of twenty-three treat¬ 
 ises, eighteen of which are addressed to 
 catechumens, and five to the newly bap¬ 
 tized. The former are for the most part 
 doctrinal , and present to us, in a more com¬ 
 plete and systematic manner than the 
 writings of any other father, the creed of 
 the Church; the latter are ritual , and give 
 us a minute account of baptism, chrism, 
 and the Lord’s Supper. Their style is 
 simple and unattractive.” — Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Cyrillus and Methodius, “ the apostles 
 of the Slavs. In the sixth, and more espe¬ 
 cially in the eighth, century, the Slavs pen¬ 
 etrated across the Danube and the Balkan, 
 into Macedonia and the adjoining countries 
 and took permanent possession. Toward 
 
Cyr 
 
 ( 237 ) 
 
 Dam 
 
 the close of the eighth century they were 
 Christianized from Thessalonica, in which 
 place Greek civilization, stimulated by the 
 influx of the Slav element, burst into a 
 fresh bloom. It was also from Thessalo¬ 
 nica that the conversion of the Slavs out¬ 
 side the Greek Empire was effected. Cy- 
 rillus and Methodius were born there in 
 the first half of the ninth century.”— Vogel. 
 See his art. in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. for par¬ 
 ticulars of the life and services of these 
 Greek missionaries. 
 
 Cyrus the Great, founder of the. Persian 
 Empire. In 538 b. c. he took Babylon, by 
 diverting the course of the Euphrates into 
 another channel, and entering the city by 
 the dry bed during a feast, at which the 
 Babylonians were reveling, as foretold in 
 Isa. xxi. 5; xliv. 27; Jer. 1 . 38; li. 57. He 
 finally fell in a battle against the Massage- 
 teae. After the capture of Babylon he 
 treated with regard the religious senti¬ 
 ments of the Hebrews, and restored to 
 them some political and social rights, and 
 in various ways proved their deliverer 
 from bondage. His tomb is still shown 
 on the plain of Murgab, north of Persep- 
 olis. See Assyria. 
 
 13 . 
 
 Da Costa, Isaak, b. in Amsterdam, 1798; 
 d. there, i860. He belonged to a wealthy 
 and influential family of Portuguese Jews, 
 but embraced the Christian faith in 1821. 
 He was a brilliant poet and did a noble 
 work as a Christian apologist, especially in 
 opposing the Tubingen school. The Four 
 Witnesses, an important work from his pen, 
 was translated into English by D. Scott 
 (London, 1851). 
 
 Da'gon (fsh), the national god of the 
 Philistines. The most famous temples of 
 Dagon were at Gaza and Ashdod. The 
 former was destroyed by Samson (Judg. 
 xvi. 23-30), the latter by Jonathan in the 
 Maccabaean wars. Dagon was represented 
 with the face and hands of a man and the tail 
 of a fish (1 Sam. v. 5), the fish part being a 
 sign of fruitfulness. Dagon corresponds 
 to the Syrian female divinity, Atargatis, or 
 Derceto, and is probably the same as the 
 Assyrian fish-god, Odakon. 
 
 D’Ailli. See Ailli. 
 
 Dale, James Wilkinson, D. D., Presby¬ 
 terian; b. in New Castle Co., Del., Oct. 
 16, 1812; d. in Media, Penn., April 19, 
 1881. A graduate of the University of 
 Pennsylvania (1831), and Andover Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, he was agent of the Bible 
 
 Society of Philadelphia for seven years, and 
 pastor, from 1845 to 1876, of Presbyterian 
 churches at Ridley, Media, and Wayne. 
 His reputation rests upon the elaborate 
 works which he published in defence of 
 pedobaptism : Classic Baptism (Phila., 
 1867) ; Jtidaic (1871) ; Johannic (1872) ; 
 Christie and Patristic (1874). 
 
 Dale, Robert William, D. D. (Yale, 
 1877), LL. D. (Glasgow, 1883), Congrega- 
 tionalist; b. in London, Dec. 1, 1829; was 
 graduated at the University of London, 
 1853; since 1853 has been pastor of Carrs’- 
 lane Church, Birmingham, first as associate 
 pastor with John Angell James, and after 
 1859 as s °l e pastor. Among his published 
 works are: Life of John Angell James (Lon¬ 
 don, 1861; 5th ed., 1862); The Jewish Tem¬ 
 ple and the Christian Church (1865; 7th ed., 
 1886); The Atonement (1875, 9 th ed., 1883); 
 Nine Lectures on Preaching (1877; 5th ed., 
 1886); Epistle to the Ephesians (1882; 4th 
 ed., 1886); The Laws of Christ for Common 
 Life (1884; 3d ed., 1886); Lmpressions of 
 Australia (1889). 
 
 Dalmanu'tha, a town near Magdala, on 
 the Sea of Galilee. (Mark viii. 10; Matt, 
 xv. 39.) It is probably identical with *Ain- 
 el Barideh , two miles from Tiberias, near 
 the shore. 
 
 Dalma'tia, a mountainous country on the 
 eastern shore of the Adriatic, visited by 
 Titus. (2 Tim. iv. 10.) 
 
 Dalmatic, the dress worn by the Roman 
 Catholic deacon in the administration of 
 the Eucharist. It is a white robe, reach¬ 
 ing down to the knees, and having two 
 longitudinal stripes behind. In the Greek 
 Church is is called colobium , and is covered 
 with a multitude of small crosses. Tt de¬ 
 rives its name from the province of Dal¬ 
 matia, where they were first made. 
 
 Damas'cus the capital of Syria, and one 
 of the oldest cities in the world,' occupies 
 a site of singular beauty in a beautiful and 
 fertile plain on the Eastern side of the An- 
 tilibanus range, fifty-seven miles east from 
 the seaport of Beyrout. According to Jo¬ 
 sephus, it was founded by Uz, a grandson 
 of Shem. It was visited by Abraham 
 (Gen. xiv. 15; xv. 2), and David conquered 
 it after a bloody war. (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6.) 
 After various alliances, both for and against 
 Israel (1 Kings xv. 18, 20; 2 Chron. xvi. 3), 
 it was taken by Tiglath-pileser, and the 
 prophecy of Isaiah fulfilled. (Isa. xvii. 1-3.) 
 Conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 
 b. c. , it became a Roman province in 63 
 b. c. In A. D. 634 the city fell into the 
 
Cop 
 
 ( 238 ) 
 
 Cor 
 
 hands of the Mohammedans, who have ever 
 since held it. The most important event 
 connected with its history is the conver¬ 
 sion of St. Paul. (Acts ix. 1-25.) Tradi¬ 
 tion marks as the spot where this event 
 occurred a place on the direct road from 
 Jerusalem, some five miles distant from 
 the city, whose minarets can be clearly 
 seen. After the conversion of St. Paul 
 Christianity gained adherents in the city, 
 and it became the seat of a bishop, but for 
 centuries past it has been a “ hot-bed of 
 Mohammedan fanaticism.” In i860 the 
 Moslem population arose against the 
 Christians, and massacred about 3,000 
 adult males, while thousands died of 
 
 dria. He held views similar to those of 
 Sabellius. 
 
 Damiani (da-me-a'-nee), or Damianus, 
 Peter, cardinal and bishop of Ostia, b. at 
 Ravenna, 1007; d. at Faenza, 1072. He 
 belonged to the order of Benedictines. 
 Stirred with indignation against the vices 
 that had crept into the Church, and existed 
 among the clergy, he wrote powerfully 
 against them, but his MSS. were taken 
 from him, and suppressed. He was an 
 earnest advocate of flagellation as a means 
 of penance. A leader among the monks, 
 and devoted to an austere life, the people 
 looked upon him as possessing the power 
 
 THE PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 
 
 wounds and famine. Since 1843 the United 
 Presbyterian Church of America and the 
 Presbyterian Church of Ireland have 
 united in sustaining a mission, with church 
 and schools, at Damascus. The London 
 Society for the conversion of the Jews 
 maintain a mission there. See Porter: 
 Five Years in Damascus (1855). 
 
 Damasus is the name of two popes. 
 Damasus I. (366-384) was a native of 
 Rome. He was an earnest opponent of 
 Arianism, and a warm friend of Jerome, 
 whom he induced to undertake a new 
 translation of the Bible. See Popes. 
 
 Damianus, d. 601; patriarch of Alexan- 
 
 of working miracles. He was sent on im¬ 
 portant missions by both Pope Nicholas 
 II., and Alexander II. His complete 
 works were collected and published by 
 Cajetan (Rome, 1606). 
 
 Damien, Father (properly Joseph 
 Deveuster), Roman Catholic; b. at Treme- 
 loo, near Louvain, Belgium, Jan. 3, 1840; 
 d. at Kalawao, Molokai, April 15, 1889. 
 He was connected with the missionary 
 congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
 and Mary at Louvain, Feb. 2, 1859; and in 
 1863 sailed for the Sandwich Islands, 
 where he labored as a missionary in dif¬ 
 ferent places until 1873, when he settled on 
 the lepers’ island of Molokai. He gave 
 
( 239 ) 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
Dam 
 
 ( 240 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 himself to temporal and spiritual efforts in 
 behalf of the miserable sufferers here iso¬ 
 lated fromthe world, until 1883,when he was 
 struck down by the loathsome disease, and 
 even then toiled on until death brought re¬ 
 lease. See his Life and Letters (London, 
 Catholic Truth Society, 1889). 
 
 Damnation. See Punishment, Future. 
 
 Dan. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Dance. Among the Hebrews the dance 
 was an expression of joy or gratitude, and 
 at an early period was usually religious in 
 its character. (Ex. xv. 20; 2 Sam. vi. 14.) 
 Sometimes it accompanied secular festiv¬ 
 ities (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13; Matt. xi. 17), but 
 dancing by men and women together was 
 unknown. As in Egypt at the present 
 time, dancing was mostly done by women 
 alone. 
 
 Dancers, a sect of wild enthusiasts who 
 first appeared on the Lower Rhine in 1374. 
 Half naked, and with frantic exertion men 
 and women would join hands in their pub¬ 
 lic worship, and dance until exhausted or 
 falling in convulsions. The mania spread 
 rapidly, and was stamped out with dif- I 
 ficulty. It broke out again at Strasburg 
 in 1418. The victims of the mania were 
 taken to the Chapel of St. Vitus at Rotes- 
 tein, where mass was celebrated for them: 
 hence our name for the disease “ St. Vitus’s 
 Dance ” ( chorea ). 
 
 Daniel (Gods Judge ) “ was one of the 
 princes of the royal family of Judah. He 
 was made a eunuch in the palace of the 
 king of Babylon, and rose to be chief of 
 the wise men, and ‘ ruler over the whole 
 province of Babylon.’ Carried captive at 
 the age of from twelve to eighteen, in the 
 fourth year of Jehoiakim (eight years before 
 Ezekiel), he prophesied during the whole 
 period of the Captivity, and even two years 
 after the Return. He did not accompany 
 the Jews back to Jerusalem, but died in 
 exile when more than ninety years of age. 
 
 In b. C. 603 he interpreted Nebuchadnez¬ 
 zar’s dream, which brought him into notice. 
 Twenty-three years later, the Three Chil¬ 
 dren were, in his absence, saved from the 
 fiery furnace. Ten years afterward he in¬ 
 terpreted the king’s second dream, and 
 acted as viceroy during the seven years of 
 that monarch’s madness. He lived in re¬ 
 tirement during the reign of Belshazzar, 
 who preferred younger counsellors, till the 
 writing on the wall called him forth (b. c. 
 538). Afterward he was promoted to the 
 highest post of government by Darius, 
 which he retained under Cyrus (536), thus 
 
 serving under three dynasties—the Chal¬ 
 dean, the Median, and the Persian.”—“ Ox¬ 
 ford ” Teacher's Bible. 
 
 Daniel, Book op, “consists of two distinct 
 volumes, the prophecies of the latter being 
 synchronous with some of the historical 
 events narrated in the former: e. g ., the 
 first vision occurred in the first year of Bel¬ 
 shazzar (b. c. 555); the second in 553; the 
 third in the first year of Darius (538); the 
 last in the third of Cyrus (534). The his¬ 
 torical part (chaps.ii. 4 to vii.) is in Chaldee; 
 the prophetical in Hebrew. In the former, 
 Daniel is spoken of in the third person, in 
 the latter in the first; but he is believed to 
 have been the author of both portions. 
 Our Lord speaks of him as a prophet. (Matt, 
 xxiv. 15.) An allusion is made to him in 
 Heb. xi. 33, 34; and his language is adopted 
 in the Revelation of John the Divine, which 
 is the counterpart of his book in the New 
 Testament. Chap. ii. predicts the course of 
 the Five Great Empires of the world, which 
 should succeed each other in supremacy— 
 viz., the Babylonian, Persian, Grecian, Ro¬ 
 man, and Christian. In chap. vii. the four 
 worldly empires, under the figure of four 
 beasts, are viewed in their religious aspect. 
 In chap. viii. is predicted the struggle be¬ 
 tween the Persian and Grecian powers, and 
 the rise of the corrupting influence of An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes (“the little horn”), 
 which prepared the way for the final over¬ 
 throw of the Jews by the Romans. Then 
 follow the precise prophecies regarding 
 the Messiah. In seven weeks (forty-nine 
 years) the city would be rebuilt; in sixtv- 
 two weeks (434 years) Christ would begin 
 his ministry, and in the middle of one week 
 (three and a half years) he would be cut 
 off. Chap. x. foretells the opposition of 
 the Persian power to the restoration of the 
 Jews; while chap. xi. more minutely pre¬ 
 dicts the history of the four Persian kings, 
 that of Alexander and his successors, till 
 the conquest of Syria by Rome, followed 
 by a forecast of the growth of the supremacy 
 of Christ’s kingdom to the end of the world. 
 This book is the first of a series of apoc¬ 
 alyptic writings, which culminate in the 
 Revelation of John the Divine. It has 
 exercised far greater influence on Christian 
 theology than any other writing of the Old 
 Testament, depicting, as it does, not merely 
 the advent of the Messiah, but the effect 
 and influence of his human existence upon 
 the whole future of the human race. 
 Hence, Daniel’s writings are not forewarn¬ 
 ings of coming events, or divine threats of 
 punishment, neither are they strictly pro¬ 
 phetic; but they have a far wider range, 
 disclosing the philosophy of history, both 
 sacred and profane, revealing to the Jews 
 
Dan 
 
 ( 241 ) 
 
 Dan 
 
 the great mission destined for them in the 
 regeneration of mankind. Thus, with 
 Ezekiel, the latter portion of the Book of 
 Daniel forms the connecting link between 
 the prophecies of the Jewish dispensation 
 and the more universal revelation of 
 Christ and his followers. This tradi¬ 
 tional interpretation (which dates back 
 as far as the Second Book of Esdras 
 and the Epistle of Barnabas) is rejected 
 by some modern commentators, because 
 it is thought to lose sight of the cyclic 
 development of history; so that the divine 
 utterance, which has its first fulfillment in 
 one period, receives a further and more 
 complete one in the corresponding part of 
 some other period. According to them, the 
 four empires are, the Babylonian, Median, 
 Persian, and Greek; while the fifth (the 
 Christian), striking the feet of the compos¬ 
 ite image, crushed the foundations of them 
 all (viz. heathen mythology), and prepared 
 the way for its own supremacy over all 
 future dominions. Each of these has its 
 antitype in the Christian era—Babylon in 
 Rome, Media in Byzantium, Persia, with 
 its divided power, in the Teutonic races, 
 while the great northern nations may 
 hereafter rival the conquests of Alexander 
 —all these being eventually superseded in 
 the triumph of Christ’s second Kingdom, 
 as the former empires were by his first ad¬ 
 vent. In this way the Book of Daniel is 
 both a prophecy and a revelation. 
 
 “ Date and Authorship. —No doubt was 
 expressed as to the authorship of Daniel, 
 or as to the reality of the events narrated 
 in the book, until the fourth century A. D., 
 when Porphyry denied the truth of the 
 prophecies concerning Antiochus Epiph- 
 anes (in whose reign he supposed the work 
 to have been written), while affirming 
 the historical accuracy of the preceding 
 ones. A considerable number of modern 
 German critics have rejected the whole 
 book as spurious, on the ground that the 
 earlier chapters record miracles surpassing 
 belief, and that the prophetic portion rep¬ 
 resents historic events in such minute de¬ 
 tail as to preclude the possibility of its 
 being written before these events. These 
 objections are founded on a disbelief in 
 miraculous power and in prophetic inspi¬ 
 ration; and those who advanced them as¬ 
 sign the composition of the book to the 
 period between b. c. 170 and 164. But it 
 is impossible to believe that an impostor 
 would have written what professed to be 
 one continuous book partly in Chaldee 
 and partly in Hebrew, intermingled with 
 Greek words. The tone of the whole is 
 thoroughly Eastern, and the Jewish tradi¬ 
 tion is most reasonable, that each historical 
 event was recorded at the time it happen¬ 
 
 ed, and each vision also, by Daniel him¬ 
 self: that these documents were conveyed, 
 with other sacred works, from Babylon to 
 Jerusalem, at the time of ‘ the Return,’ 
 and that they (as well as the Visions of 
 Ezekiel) were put together in their later 
 form by the ‘ Great Synagogue.’ Dr. 
 Pusey says, 4 that neither its language, nor 
 its historical references, nor its doctrines, 
 imply any later date than that of Daniel 
 himself; but that, contrariwise, the char¬ 
 acter of its Hebrew exactly fits with the 
 period of Daniel, that of its Chaldee ex¬ 
 cludes any later period: that the minute, 
 fearless touches, involving details of cus¬ 
 toms, state institutions, history, belong to 
 a contemporary,’ etc. 
 
 “ Canonicity. —This was never doubted 
 until the last two centuries, though the 
 exceptional nature of the book caused it to 
 be isolated by the Jewish canonists, who 
 hesitated to give it a place among the 
 prophets, but arranged it with the Baby¬ 
 lonish documents between Esther and Ne- 
 hemiah. Its popularity in early times was 
 so great that large additions and alterations 
 were introduced into the LXX. version, 
 which became entirely discredited, and 
 was superseded by that of Theodotion. 
 The latter, as well as the Vulgate, retained 
 the principal additions, which are relegated 
 to the Apocrypha in the English Bible; 
 and the old LXX. was long totally lost, and 
 only discovered and published in the last 
 century.”—“Oxford” Teachers Bible. See 
 Barnes: Notes (N. Y., 1853); Speaker’s 
 Com. (N.Y.,1876); Zockler.in Lange’s Com. 
 English translation (N. Y., 1877); Pusey 
 (London, 1854); J. G. Murphy (1884); R. 
 P. Smith (1886). 
 
 Daniel, Apocryphal Additions to. See 
 Apocrypha. j 
 
 Dante ( ddn'ta ), Alighieri, b. at Flor¬ 
 ence, 1265; d. at Ravenna, 1321. The po¬ 
 litical career of this remarkable man is too 
 intricate for mention here. It is. as a 
 Christian poet that his name occupies a 
 foremost place in the line of genius. His 
 immortal work, the Divina Commedia , ex¬ 
 presses such views of religion and the 
 Church that he has been numbered among 
 the forerunners of the Reformation. To 
 use his own words, “ The subject of the 
 whole work, taken literally, is the state of 
 souls after death regarded as a matter of 
 fact ; taken allegorically, its subject is 
 man, in so far as, by merit or demerit in 
 the exercise of free-will, he is exposed to 
 the rewards or punishments of justice.” 
 The literature on the life and works of 
 Dante is enormous. The first complete 
 American translation of the Comjnedia. 
 
4 
 
 Dar ( 242 ) Dav 
 
 was that of Longfellow (Boston, 1867), 3 
 vols. 
 
 Darboy, Georges, archbishop of Paris; 
 b. at Fayl-Billot, in Haute-Marne, Jan. 16, 
 1813; put to death by the Communists, in 
 Paris, May 27, 1S71. He was an earnest 
 and independent thinker, and did all that 
 he could to suppress the Jesuits and other 
 religious orders within his diocese. Dur¬ 
 ing the Franco-Prussian war he was untir¬ 
 ing in his efforts to assist the sick and 
 wounded. He would not forsake his post 
 when the city came into the control of the 
 Commune. He was arrested as a hostage, 
 April 4, 1S71, and confined in the prison at 
 Mazas, and then in La Roquette, where he 
 was shot. He died with words of blessing 
 and forgiveness upon his lips. 
 
 Darbyites. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 Daric. See Money. 
 
 Dari'us, the name of several kings men¬ 
 tioned in the Old Testament. 
 
 (1) Darius the Mede (Dan. v. 31, etc.), 
 41 the son of Ahasuerus ” (ix. 1). He slew 
 Belshazzar, and became king of the Chal- 
 daeans at sixty-two years of age, and was 
 the immediate predecessor of Cyrus. His 
 name does not appear in profane history. 
 
 (2) Darius, son of Hystaspes, the found¬ 
 er of the Perso-Aryan dynasty, b. c. 521- 
 486. Inscriptions, as well as the Bible 
 record, show that he was a pious man and 
 had a prosperous reign. 
 
 (3) Darius the Persian (Neh. xii. 22), the 
 antagonist of Alexander the Great: he 
 reigned from b. c. 336 to 330. 
 
 Daub, Karl, German theologian; b. at 
 Cassel, March 20, 1765; studied at Mar¬ 
 burg, and in 1794 was appointed profes¬ 
 sor of theology at Heidelberg, where he d., 
 Nov. 22, 1836. His name will be remem¬ 
 bered as the founder of the speculative 
 school of theology. 
 
 D’Aubigne. See Merle d’Aubigne. 
 
 Davenport, John, Congregationalist; b. 
 at Coventry, Eng., 1597; d. at Boston, 
 Mass., March 15, 1670. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and at the age of nineeten be¬ 
 gan to preach in London. As rector of St. 
 Stephen’s he was recognized as a man of 
 piety and learning. He was among those 
 who “ fell under the notice and anger ” of 
 Laud. In 1633 he went to Amsterdam, 
 and became colleague with Mr. Paget. In 
 1635 he returned to England, and became 
 interested in the emigration of a company 
 of Puritans to New England. Davenport 
 
 arrived in Boston in the summer of 1637, 
 and in the following spring, with Eaton, 
 Hopkins, and others, started a new colony 
 at Quinnipiac (now New Haven, Conn.). 
 He was pastor here for thirty years. Dis¬ 
 satisfied with the condition of affairs grow¬ 
 ing out of the union of the New Haven 
 colony with the Connecticut colony, in 
 16G7 he accepted an invitation to become 
 pastor of the First Church in Boston. His 
 name will ever be held in honor as one of 
 the Puritan founders of the New Haven 
 colony, and a man of marked ability, both 
 as a scholar and leader of secular and 
 ecclesiastical affairs. He wrote but little. 
 See list in Dexter : Congregationcilistn as 
 seen in its Literature , Appendix. 
 
 David {beloved), the youngest son of 
 Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, was b. in Beth¬ 
 lehem, 1085 B. C. He was anointed king of 
 Israel in the place of Saul, by the prophet 
 Samuel, while engaged as a shepherd in 
 his father’s fields. (1 Sam. xvi. 13.) It is 
 probable that neither David nor his friends 
 realized at the time the full significance of 
 his anointing. Returning to his shepherd 
 life, he is sent for by Saul to soothe his 
 troubled mind by his skillful playing upon 
 the harp. The lad gained favor in the 
 sight of Saul, who made him one of his 
 armor-bearers, and requested his father to 
 allow him to remain at his court. (1 Sam. 
 xvi. 21-23.) Returning home after a time 
 —Josephus says “a few years”—we read 
 the story of his famous contest with Go¬ 
 liath. He had changed so much that Saul 
 did not recognize, in the slayer of the Phi¬ 
 listine giant, the player upon the harp. (1 
 Sam. xvii. 55.) While Saul finally kept his 
 promise, and gave David his daughter, 
 Michal, in marriage, his jealousy was kin¬ 
 dled into furious hate, and he sought to 
 kill him. David fled first to Gath, and then 
 into the wilderness, where he became the 
 head of a motley crowd, who, for various 
 reasons, had sought this place of hiding. 
 (1 Sam. xxii. 1,2.) The death of Saul and 
 his sons, at the battle on Gilboa, opened 
 the way for David to come to the throne. 
 In Hebron he was anointed for the second 
 time as king of Judah, where he reigned 
 for seven and a half years. At the death 
 of Ishbosheth and Abner, he was chosen 
 king over united Israel, and was again 
 anointed. (2 Sam.'v. 3.) Under his adminis¬ 
 tration of affairs the nation rapidly ad¬ 
 vanced in power and wealth. Having gain¬ 
 ed possession of Jerusalem, he made it the 
 capital of the kingdom, and hither the ark 
 was brought, and the ordinances of religion 
 sustained. He then formed the design to 
 erect a magnificent temple for the worship 
 of Jehovah, a service which fell to the let 
 
Dav 
 
 ( 243 ) 
 
 Day 
 
 of Solomon. (2 Sam. vii.) During these 
 years of prosperity, he committed sins 
 which brought forth harvests of evil which 
 even repentance did not destroy. His 
 criminal conduct toward Bathsheba and 
 Uriah involved him in trouble from which 
 he never escaped, and was followed by 
 terrible family trials. (2 Sam. xiii. 14, 
 29.) The rebellion of Absalom shadow¬ 
 ed his last days with unutterable sorrow; 
 but in the midst of these afflictions he re¬ 
 veals the trust and hope of a heart stayed 
 upon God for strength and salvation. His 
 farewell address to the leaders of the na¬ 
 tion is full of the spirit of humility and 
 pious wisdom. (2 Sam. xxii., xxiii.) He 
 died b. C. 1015, and was buried in the 
 44 City of David.” (1 Kings ii. 10.) “ David 
 was a type of Christ. They both inherited 
 their kingdoms after suffering. And David, 
 as the ruler over temporal Israel, was a 
 forerunner of the Son of David, who was 
 to reign over the spiritual Israel forever. 
 (Matt. i. 1; ix. 27; xii. 23, etc.) When 
 David is spoken of as a man after God’s 
 4 own heart ’ (1 Sam. xiii. 14; Acts xiii. 
 22), reference is obviously intended to his 
 general character and conduct, and not to 
 every particular instance of it. As he was 
 human, he was imperfect; and when he 
 sinned God punished him, and that with 
 great severity. But he was remarkable 
 for his devotion to God’s service, and he 
 kept himself from idols. He established 
 the government of Israel, and extended its 
 dominion to the full extent of the promise 
 to Abraham, and left a compact and united 
 empire, stretching from Egypt to Lebanon, 
 and from the Euphrates to the Mediterra¬ 
 nean.”—Schaff: Bible Dictionary. For the 
 life and character of David, as revealed in 
 • his poetry, see Psalms. See W. M. Tay¬ 
 lor: David , King of Israel (N. Y., 1875; H. 
 E. Stone, London and N. Y., 1888). 
 
 David, St., the most eminent of Welsh 
 saints; d. probably in 544. The story of 
 much of his life rests upon tradition. 
 From his youth he was of devout spirit 
 and an earnest student of the Bible. He 
 early began to preach, and among the mon¬ 
 asteries which he founded was one at 
 Menevia, his birthplace, where the cathe¬ 
 dral of St. David’s now stands. Here 
 many disciples gathered about him and he 
 won distinction for piety and theological 
 learning. Retiring in disposition, it was 
 with difficulty he was constrained to at¬ 
 tend the synod at Brefi, which met in 519, 
 to suppress the Pelagian heresy. He 
 proved so valiant a champion of the faith 
 that not long after he was elected primate 
 of Britain. At first he declined, but ac¬ 
 cepted on the condition that the seat of the 
 
 archbishopric should be removed from 
 Caerleon to Menevia. He called a second 
 synod that was so successful in its attack 
 upon Pelagianism that it was known as the 
 “ Synod of Victory.” His primacy was 
 marked by vigorous growth, and his saint¬ 
 ly life by devotion and apostolic zeal. 
 
 David, Christian. See Moravians. 
 
 David George. See Joris. 
 
 Davidists, disciples of David Joris. See 
 Joris. 
 
 Davidson, Andrew Bruce, D. D., Free 
 Church of Scotland; b. in Scotland about 
 1840; he was ordained in 1863, and the 
 same year became professor of Hebrew 
 and Old Testament exegesis, New College, 
 Edinburgh. He was a member of the Old 
 Testament Revision Company. He is the 
 author of A Commentary on Job (Edinburgh, 
 vol. i., 1862); An Introductory Hebrew Gram- 
 mar (1874; 4th ed., 1881); The Epistle to the 
 Hebrews ( 1882); Job (Cambridge, 1884). 
 
 Davies, Samuel, b. in New Castle Co., 
 Del., 1724; d. at Princeton, 1761. He was 
 a very eloquent and successful Presbyte¬ 
 rian minister. In 1753 he visited Great 
 Britain and collected a large sum for 
 Princeton College. He succeeded Jon¬ 
 athan Edwards in 1759 as president of that 
 institution. An American edition of his 
 sermons was published in 1851 (N.Y.), with 
 Memoir by Albert Barnes. 
 
 Day. The Hebrews reckoned their day 
 from evening to evening, probably from 
 their use of a lunar calendar. “ The Sab¬ 
 bath was the only day with a name: the 
 others were simply numbered. The day 
 was divided into morning , noon , and night 
 (Psa. lv. 17), and also into six unequal 
 parts, which were again subdivided : (1) 
 Dazun, subdivided into gray dawn and 
 rosy dawn; (2) Sunrise; (3) The heat- of the 
 day , about 9 o’clock (1 Sam. xi. 11; Neh. 
 vii. 3, etc.); (4) The two noons (Gen. xliii. 
 16); (5) The cool (lit. wind) of the day, before 
 sunset (Gen. iii. 8) ; (6) Evening. The 
 phrase ‘ between the two evenings ’ of 
 Exod. xii. 6; xxx. 8, probably means 4 be¬ 
 tween the beginning and end of sunset.’ 
 Hours are first mentioned in the Bible in 
 Dan. iii. 6, and hence were probably of 
 Babylonian origin. The Jews got their 
 first sun-dial from Babylon. (2 Kings xx. 
 11.) In our Lord’s time the division was 
 common. (John xi. 9.) The third, sixth, 
 and ninth hours were devoted to prayer. 
 The Jews, before the captivity, divided the 
 night into three watches, from sunset to 
 
Day 
 
 ( 244 ) 
 
 Dea 
 
 midnight (Lam. ii. 19), from midnight to 
 cock-crow (Judg. vii. 19), from cock-crow 
 to sunrise (Exod. xiv. 24). In the New 
 Testament, mention is made of four 
 watches, because the Greek and Roman 
 division was then adopted. The word 
 ‘ day’ is used figuratively, and rather for 
 a period than for a set time; thus, a day of 
 ruin (Job. xviii. 20), the day of Christ 
 (John viii. 56), the Judgment-day (Joel i. 
 15). The days of creation were creative 
 days, stages in the process, but not days 
 of twenty-four hours each.”—Schaff-Her- 
 zog: Ency., s. v. 
 
 Day, Jeremiah, D. D., LL. D., a pres¬ 
 ident of Yale College; b. at New Preston, 
 Conn., Aug. 3, 1773; d. at New Haven, 
 Conn., Aug. 22, 1867. He was graduated 
 at Yale in 1795, and in 1801 was elected pro¬ 
 fessor of mathematics and natural philos¬ 
 ophy. In 1817 he entered upon his duties 
 as president, and continued in this office 
 until 1846. He wrote a series of mathe¬ 
 matical text-books. His influence over the 
 young men who were in the college during 
 the long period of his administration was 
 remarkable. 
 
 Day’s Journey, a distance mentioned in 
 Gen. xxxi. 23; Ex. iii. 18; Luke ii. 44. It 
 marked the average space that would be 
 traveled on camel or horseback in a day, 
 ordinarily a distance of twenty-five to 
 thirty miles. 
 
 Daysman. At the time the Bible was 
 translated a common meaning of the word 
 was that of “ umpire,” one who shall act 
 as arbitrator at an appointed day. 
 
 Day-spring, the first dawning of the light 
 (Job. xxxviii. 12; Luke i. 78). 
 
 Day-star or Morning-star (2 Peter i. 
 19), a figurative expression denoting the 
 light which shines on the soul of the be¬ 
 liever, and reveals the inner spiritual mean¬ 
 ing of the truth. 
 
 Deacon (servant). As the title of an office 
 this name was first given to the seven men 
 who were appointed to serve tables, and 
 thus relieve the apostles, so that they could 
 give themselves more fully to the work of 
 the ministry. They were set apart by 
 prayer, and the laying-on of hands. (Acts 
 vi. 1-6.) Two of these men, Stephen and 
 Philip, afterward labored as evangelists. 
 The qualifications and duties of the office 
 of deacon are laid down in Acts. vi. 1-6, 
 and 1 Tim. iii. 8-12. The churches of 
 Christendom give very different mean¬ 
 ings and functions to this office. (1) In 
 
 the Church of England and the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church of the United States they 
 form one of the three sacred orders, as in 
 the Greek and Roman Churches. (2) In 
 the Lutheran Church the “ diaconus ” is 
 merely the title of an assistant clergyman, 
 or chaplain of subordinate rank. (3) In the 
 Dutch and German Refor?ned churches the 
 deacons have special care of the contribu¬ 
 tions for the poor, and also provide for 
 the support of the ministry. The Presby¬ 
 terian Church recognizes the office, but in 
 practice its duties in caring for the tem¬ 
 poralities of the Church are often given 
 in charge of the lay elders or the board of 
 trustees. (4) In the Congregational churches 
 the office of deacon is very important, and 
 takes the place of lay elders in the Pres¬ 
 byterian churches. (5) In the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church the deacons constitute an 
 order in the ministry. They are elected 
 by the annual conferences and ordained by 
 the bishop. Their duties are: “ (1) toad- 
 minister baptism and to solemnize matri¬ 
 mony. (2) To assist the elder in adminis¬ 
 tering the Lord’s Supper. (3) To do all 
 the duties of a traveling preacher.” They 
 must exercise their office for two years 
 before they are eligible for the office of 
 elder. Local deacons may become elders 
 after preaching four years. 
 
 Deaconesses. The English word “ dea¬ 
 coness ” is derived from the Greek word e 
 diakonos , meaning servant or helper. The 
 idea may be traced back to the second 
 chapter of Genesis, in which woman is 
 called by the noblest of titles, a help. 
 
 (1) Deaconesses in the Apostolic Church .— 
 The first deaconess called by the name 
 e diakonos is Phoebe. Nearly all author¬ 
 ities agree that the proper translation of 
 the celebrated passage, Romans xvi. 1, 
 should be, “ Phoebe, ... a deaconess,” 
 instead of “ Phoebe, . . . a servant.” The 
 revisers of the New Testament have re¬ 
 tained the word “ servant ” in the text, but 
 have given Phoebe her due in the margin, 
 where they call her a “ deaconess.” Ow¬ 
 ing to several like unfortunate translations 
 of the words e diakonos and e guni 
 (woman), it is difficult to prove that the 
 Order of deaconesses is apostolic, but the 
 New Testament is exceedingly reticent 
 concerning all details of ecclesiastical or¬ 
 ganization. 
 
 (2) Deaconesses in the Early Church .— 
 There is no doubt as to the existence of the 
 order in very early times. Pliny the 
 Younger, governor of Bithynia, in his 
 celebrated letter concerning the Chris¬ 
 tians to the Emperor Trajan, a. d. 107, 
 speaks of two deaconesses, whom he calls 
 “ ministrae ; ” while Tertullian, Origen, 
 
Dea 
 
 ( 245 ) 
 
 Dea 
 
 Basil, Chrysostom, and many others, fre¬ 
 quently mention deaconesses, calling them 
 e diakonos, or using, later, the feminine 
 form, e diakonissa. Chrysostom lived in 
 the last half of the fourth century. He 
 was much interested in the order, and had 
 many devoted friends among deaconesses. 
 Among his writings are seventeen letters 
 addressed to Olympias, a lady of wealth 
 and rank, who for many years was a dea¬ 
 coness in Constantinople. 
 
 The early Church, like its great Founder, 
 reckoned the care of the poor a religious 
 service, and this was, undoubtedly, the 
 first work of the deaconesses, as it was 
 •certainly the first work of deacons, accord¬ 
 ing to the sixth chapter of Acts. As the 
 organization of the Church became more 
 complicated, the duties of deaconesses in¬ 
 creased. The women of the Church were 
 •secluded from the ministrations of the 
 deacons in many countries where Chris¬ 
 tianity was preached, and in all countries 
 there were duties pertaining to the sick 
 and destitute that only women could 
 do. 
 
 Thus the order increased rapidly in im¬ 
 portance, and the duties of the deacon¬ 
 esses became more numerous. They in¬ 
 structed female and youthful catechumens 
 in the doctrine of the Church, and when 
 the looked-for time came that these cate¬ 
 chumens were to be baptized, they ren¬ 
 dered needed assistance at that ceremony, 
 which was often longer and more formal 
 than the simple baptism of the modern 
 Church. Another sad duty became theirs 
 when it was found that women more easily 
 than men could gain access to those im¬ 
 prisoned for their faith, and especially 
 those soon to receive a martyr’s crown. 
 Deaconesses are especially mentioned as 
 visiting such, and administering to them 
 the consolations and encouragements of 
 the Gospel. Later, we find them doing 
 regular systematic church visitation, and 
 bringing personal womanly influence to 
 bear in every possible way in gaining con¬ 
 verts to the new faith. 
 
 Deaconesses were at first ordained with 
 solemn ceremony, by the laying-on of the 
 hands of the bishop, or some ecclesiastical 
 authority. We find, however, in later 
 times, nearly as much of a battle raging 
 around this question as at the present 
 time, some of the councils bitterly de¬ 
 nouncing it as allied to the ceremonies by 
 which heathen priestesses were consecrat¬ 
 ed. Others declared that the early custom 
 of laying-on of hands was only a benedic¬ 
 tion, and not for ordination. The facts are, 
 probably, that the sharp distinctions be¬ 
 tween benediction and ordination did not 
 exist in very early times as they did a few 
 
 centuries later, and as they do at the pres¬ 
 ent time. 
 
 In early times a great number of women 
 were found in the ranks of the deaconess 
 order. Even women of wealth and noble 
 birth are mentioned as applicants. A single 
 church in Constantinople had, at one time, 
 forty deaconesses pushing its work, and a 
 smaller church in the same city had six of 
 these assistants. But from the time of 
 Constantine down, the order declined, 
 doubtless because of the spirit of monasti- 
 cism that had invaded the Church. The 
 Eastern or Greek Church was not so early 
 affected by this spirit as was the Western 
 or Latin, and we are therefore not sur¬ 
 prised to find that while in the Western 
 Church the Order became extinct in the 
 sixth century, in the Eastern it lingered 
 until the twelfth. 
 
 (3) Deaconesses of the Reformation. — 
 
 With the Reformation came an effort to 
 again establish the order in the Church. 
 In the Bohemian and Anabaptist churches 
 deaconesses arose informally; and in the 
 Netherlands special legislation in their 
 favor was almost effected. In 1851 the 
 tide turned, and they were formally disap¬ 
 proved. In a Puritan church in Amster¬ 
 dam, however, we find an “ ancient widow ” 
 acting as deaconess as late as 1606. In 
 England, also, the Puritans heartily ap¬ 
 proved of deaconesses, but in spite of 
 ecclesiastical approval the order did not 
 flourish. 
 
 (4) Deaconesses of the Modern Church .— 
 To Theodore Fliedner belongs the honor 
 of having brought again into prominence 
 the primitive order of deaconesses, after 
 an almost total lapse of a thousand years. 
 He earnestly believed in the scripturalness 
 of the order. He perceived that women 
 had a special gift for service, and was 
 greatly impressed with the need of such 
 service in Germany, and these convictions 
 worked out gradually into the Kaiserswerth 
 Deaconess System, so called because its 
 headquarters are at Kaiserswerth, on the 
 Rhine. The beginning of his great system 
 of work was very simple, and though he 
 was opposed by many Protestants, and all 
 Romanists,his work gradually grew. There 
 was soon an urgent demand for trained 
 nurses and other deaconesses and they 
 were sent far and near. The king and 
 queen became patrons of the institution, 
 and money was liberally given. Schools 
 and reformatories were opened, also or¬ 
 phanages, lunatic asylums, and servant 
 girls’ training schools. A farm, a drug 
 store, bakeries, and bath-houses were add¬ 
 ed, indeed all things necessary to an im¬ 
 mense establishment. This institution has 
 now (1S90) an income of $1,000,000 yearly. 
 
Dea 
 
 ( 246 ) 
 
 Dea 
 
 Florence Nightingale and Agnes Jones 
 received much of their training at Kaisers¬ 
 werth, though they were never deacon¬ 
 esses. 
 
 The Kaiserswerth deaconesses are large¬ 
 ly made up from the lower classes of 
 German women. They serve a probation 
 of three or four months, and are afterward 
 received, promising to remain five years. 
 There is nothing rigid about this promise, 
 however, and it is understood that urgent 
 family calls shall take precedence of it. 
 This work is by no means confined to 
 Kaiserswerth. There are twenty - five 
 “Affiliated Houses” scattered over not 
 only Germany, but Italy, England, Asia 
 Minor, Syria, Northern Africa, and even 
 America; besides these there are many 
 stations where the work is carried on in a 
 smaller way. The property held in all 
 these centres of work is owned by an as¬ 
 sociation with headquarters at Kaisers¬ 
 werth. 
 
 Pastor Fliednerdied in 1864, but his wife 
 and son-in-law carry on the work. 
 
 There are other deaconess establish¬ 
 ments in Europe, all later than, and all 
 largely modeled after, the Kaiserswerth 
 establishment. In Paris, in 1841, Rev. 
 Antoine Vermeil founded the Mother- 
 House which in turn has its affiliated 
 houses and stations. In 1842 Pastor Har¬ 
 ter founded a Mother-House at Strasburg, 
 and, very soon after, Pastor Germond 
 founded the St. Loup Mother-House in 
 Switzerland. Other institutions are found 
 at Riehen, near Basle, and at Zurich. 
 
 In 1874 the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 in Germany established a deaconess in¬ 
 stitution, which has one hundred and ten 
 deaconesses under its auspices, with 
 stations at Frankfort, Berlin, Hamburg, 
 Zurich and St. Gallens. 
 
 There are now (1890) 7,500 deaconesses, 
 of all denominations, in Germany. 
 
 About twenty-five years ago several 
 deaconess institutions were started in 
 England. Like those on the Continent 
 they were largely patterned after Kaisers¬ 
 werth. Some of them are in the “ Low 
 Church ” or supported by Non-conformists. 
 The celebrated Deaconess House founded 
 at Mildmay by the Rev. William Penne- 
 father, has at present one hundred deacon¬ 
 esses. Mr. Pennefather was pastor in the 
 Established Church, but his deaconesses’ 
 work was undenominational. 
 
 There are some eight or ten “ High- 
 Church ” Episcopal deaconess institutions 
 in England, but none of them are in a very 
 flourishing condition. 
 
 In 1849 Pastor Fliedner, in response to 
 frequent calls from America, sent four 
 deaconesses to Pittsburg, Pa., to establish 
 
 a Mother-House in connection with the 
 German Hospital in that place. The out¬ 
 look for this venture was for a time most 
 promising, but for some reason the num¬ 
 ber of deaconesses decreased instead of 
 multiplying. 
 
 In 1864 there was a deaconess organiza¬ 
 tion in the Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 Since that date there have been various 
 centres for the order in that denomination, 
 but they have not flourished, and their 
 deaconesses now number less than twenty. 
 
 In 1887 a deaconess organization was 
 formed in Philadelphia under the auspices 
 of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. A 
 magnificent gift from Mr. John D. Lanke- 
 nau, has enabled this denomination to 
 build a beautiful Home for Deaconesses 
 which they have named the Mary J. 
 Drexel Deaconess House in s onor of Mr. 
 Lankenau’s wife. There are in this in¬ 
 stitution twenty-five deaconesses, fifteen of 
 whom have been licensed, leaving ten pro¬ 
 bationers. 
 
 The Presbyterians and Congregational- 
 ists of America are becoming interested in 
 the movement, as indicated by strongly 
 commendatory resolutions in synods and 
 councils. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church has 
 moved with more energy in this work than 
 any other denomination in our country. 
 In the spring of 1888 the General Con¬ 
 ference authorized the establishment of an 
 Order of Deaconesses. The recognition 
 and organization of this order in the de¬ 
 nomination was doubtless due to the fact 
 that a Home for women who were in¬ 
 formally called “ deaconesses ” had been in 
 successful operation in Chicago for nearly 
 a year, under the management of Rev. J. 
 S. Meyer and his wife, Lucy Rider Meyer. 
 
 This denomination requires the women, 
 preparing for the deaconess work, to pass 
 two years in study and practical work, after 
 which they are licensed by the conference 
 in which they work. This denomination has 
 three licensed deaconesses and sixty proba¬ 
 tioners in various stages of preparation for 
 license. So rapidly has this work grown 
 that there are now Homes in Chicago, Cin¬ 
 cinnati, Minneapolis, New York, Boston, St. 
 Louis, Detroit, Colorado Springs, Phila¬ 
 delphia, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Washing¬ 
 ton, D. C. They have not confined them¬ 
 selves to the home fields. 
 
 Through the efforts of Bishop J. M. 
 Thoburnand others, there are now, in India, 
 Deaconess Homes in Muttra, Calcutta, and 
 Lucknow, and two others projected, one to 
 be located in Tokio, Japan, and the other 
 in Nankin, China. 
 
 The deaconess of this denomination 
 takes no vows and is free to leave the or- 
 
Dea 
 
 ( 247 ) 
 
 Ded 
 
 der at any time during her probation, or 
 after. No discredit or dishonor attaches 
 to her in any way if she marries, or for any 
 reason leaves the work. She is under no 
 restrictions or special directions except 
 such as is immediately connected with her 
 work. If she has any property, it is her 
 own unless she chooses to give it, or a 
 part of it, to the cause. 
 
 All deaconesses in all countries wear 
 uniforms which differ in color and make, 
 but there is absolute uniformity in the mat¬ 
 ter of support. All work without salary, 
 content with such support as may be fur¬ 
 nished them and a small sum of pocket 
 money each month. They are promised 
 the best of care in times of sickness, and a 
 sure support in old age. 
 
 The work of the deaconess is to simply 
 supplement the work of the pastor. They 
 are to care for the sick and suffering, dis¬ 
 tribute such clothing and supplies as may 
 be sent them for the poor, care for the 
 children, visit the prisoners, and, in short, 
 do “ whatsoever their hands find to do.” 
 
 E. E. H. 
 
 Dead, Baptism for the. Among some 
 ancient heretical parties the custom pre¬ 
 vailed of vicarious baptism. When an un¬ 
 baptized convert died they baptized a liv¬ 
 ing person in his stead. This practice 
 they justified by a perverted interpretation 
 of 1 Cor. xv. 29. 
 
 Dead, Communion of the. In the an¬ 
 cient Church the practice prevailed of ad¬ 
 ministering the Eucharist before burial, in 
 the case of those who, by sudden death, 
 were prevented from receiving it. For a 
 time, it was the custom to place a small 
 piece of bread in the mouth of the corpse. 
 Later it was simply laid on his breast, and 
 buried with the body. The Third Council 
 of Carthage forbade the superstition, but 
 traces of it are found in the Greek Church 
 in the days of Chrysostom. 
 
 Dead, Prayers for the. See Purga¬ 
 tory. 
 
 Dean, (1) a presbyter appointed to pre¬ 
 side as the bishop’s deputy over a division 
 of his diocese. (2) The chief officer of a 
 cathedral. 
 
 Death is spoken of in the Scriptures in 
 three senses: (1) Physical death, the separa¬ 
 tion of soul and body, in which the spirit 
 takes its flight (Eccl. xii. 7), and the body 
 returns to dust. (Gen. iii. 19; Eccl. iii. 20.) 
 (2) Spiritual death, the result of sin alien¬ 
 ating the soul from God. (1 John i. 5.) All 
 men are dead in trespasses and sins. (Eph. 
 
 ii. 1, 5; Col. ii. 13; comp. Luke xv. 32.) (3) 
 The second or eternal death. (Rev. xx. 14; 
 xxi. 8.) Those who overcome (Rev. ii. 11), 
 and are partakers of the “ first resurrec¬ 
 tion ” shall not suffer from it. (Rev. xx. 6.) 
 Death is the penalty of Adam’s transgres¬ 
 sion, but Christ has destroyed its power 
 over those who are quickened by his divine 
 life. To the believer, death is a falling 
 asleep in Jesus (1 Thess. iv. 14), and an 
 entering into eternal rest and blessedness. 
 (Rev. xiv. 13.) 
 
 Deb'orah, (1) the nurse of Rebekah. 
 (Gen. xxxv. 8.) (2) A judge and prophetess. 
 Through her influence Barak led Israel 
 into battle against the Canaanites, and 
 completely routed them. The triumphal 
 song, in which Deborah celebrates the vic¬ 
 tory, is remarkable for its beauty and sub¬ 
 limity. All that we know of this heroic 
 woman is found in Judges iv. and v. 
 
 Decalogue. See Ten Commandments. 
 
 Decap'olis (ten cities ), a region near the 
 Sea of Galilee, probably on both sides of 
 the Jordan. It is noticed three times in 
 the Bible. (Matt. iv. 25; Mark v. 20; vii. 
 31.) The ten cities, according to Pliny, 
 were Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella, 
 Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Ra- 
 phana, Damascus. They were rebuilt by 
 the Romans, b. c. 65. All but six are now 
 deserted, and Damascus is the only one of 
 any importance. 
 
 Decius, Roman Emperor (249-251). He 
 issued the edict in 250 against the Chris¬ 
 tians, that was followed by the most bitter 
 persecution. Multitudes were martyred, 
 among them, Origen. See Persecutions. 
 
 Decretals, letters from the popes of Rome 
 deciding ecclesiastical law. 
 
 Decretals, Isidorian. See Pseudo-Is- 
 idorian Decretals. 
 
 Decretum, Gratiani. See Canon Law. 
 
 Dedication, “ a religious ceremony by 
 which a person, place, or thing was set 
 apart for the service of God, or a sacred 1 
 use. (Num. vii; 2 Sam. viii. 11; 1 Kings 
 viii.) Cities, walls, gates, and private 
 houses were thus dedicated. (Neh. xii. 27.) 
 The practice of consecration was very com¬ 
 mon among the Jews, and was suited to 
 the peculiar dispensation under which they 
 lived.”—Schaff: Bible Did. The “ Feast of 
 the Dedication ” was instituted to com¬ 
 memorate the purging of the temple and 
 the rebuilding of the altar, under Judas 
 
Maccabseus. It is referred to in John x. 
 22. The feast lasted eight days, and the 
 Hallel (Psa. cxiii to cxviii), was sung every 
 day. The modern Jews keep it on Dec. 12. 
 See Consecration. 
 
 Deems, Charles Force, b. D. (Ran- 
 dolph-Macon College, Ashland, Va., 1850), 
 LL. D. (University of North Carolina, 
 Chapel Hill, 1877); b. at Baltimore, Md., 
 Dec. 4, 1820; was graduated at Dickinson 
 College, Carlisle, Pa., 1839; professor of 
 logic and rhetoric, University of North 
 Carolina, 1842-45; of chemistry, Randolph- 
 Macon College, Virginia, 1845-46; Pres¬ 
 ident of Greensborough Female College, 
 1850-55; since 1866 has been pastor of the 
 Church of the Strangers, New York City. 
 He founded the American Institute of 
 Christian Philosophy, 1881, of which he 
 has since been the President. He is the 
 author of a Life of Jesus (New York, 1872; 
 new ed., 1880; The Gospel of Common-Sense, 
 as Contained in the Canonical Epistle of 
 fames (1889), and other volumes. 
 
 Defender of the Faith, a title given to 
 the sovereigns of England. It was orig¬ 
 inally conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII., 
 for his work against Luther. After the 
 pope deposed Henry, he deprived him of 
 the title, but Parliament restored it by spe¬ 
 cial act. 
 
 Defensor Matrimonii, an officer in the 
 Roman Catholic Church, whose duty it is 
 to prevent, if possible, the granting of 
 divorces in matrimonial suits. The law 
 which governs their action is found in the 
 bull Dei Miseratione of Benedict XIV. 
 (I74i)- 
 
 Degradation, in the ancient church, de¬ 
 noted the punishment by which the offender 
 was removed from a higher to a lower 
 office. Before the twelfth century it was 
 an act that deprived the condemned of all 
 clerical dignities. Those stripped of their 
 orders were turned over to the secular 
 court for punishment, or confined in monas¬ 
 teries for the rest of their life. A degraded 
 priest was publicly stripped of his vest¬ 
 ments by the bishop, and his head was 
 shaved to obliterate the mark of the ton- 
 sure. 
 
 Degrees, Songs of. See Psalms. 
 
 Dei Gratia (by the grace of God). This 
 expression, first used by St. Paul, was 
 early adopted by the bishops as successors 
 of the apostles, and then by the clergy 
 generally. By the Frankish emperors, 
 and afterward by persons of high rank, it 
 
 was employed to express that it was by- 
 God’s will they held their exalted position. 
 
 Deism represents the views of those 
 who believe in the existence of God, but 
 deny that he has made any revelation of 
 himself beyond that afforded by reason and 
 the works of nature. There are so-called 
 Deists who deny the providence of God in 
 the affairs of men, while some find in ihe 
 Scriptures the highest expression of moral¬ 
 ity, and others deny the immortality of the 
 soul and impugn the character of Christ. 
 
 Deism had its rise in the seventeenth 
 century, out of the strifes of parties in the 
 Church of England, and the intellectual 
 ferment of thought that was aroused by 
 the philosophical principles suggested by 
 Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke. For an out¬ 
 line of the views held by the Deists, prop¬ 
 erly so called, see Herbert of Cherbury; 
 Blout, Charles ; Collins, Anthony; 
 Woolston, Thomas; Tindel, Matthew; 
 Chubb, Thomas; Bolingbroke. 
 
 Delitzsch, Franz, Ph. D., D. D., German 
 Lutheran theologian; b. at Leipzig, Feb. 
 23, 1813, of Hebrew descent; d. there, 
 March 4, 1890. He studied at Leipzig and 
 became privat-docent , 1842; ordinary pro¬ 
 fessor of theology at Rostock, 1846; at 
 Erlangen, 1850; Leipzig, 1867. His ac¬ 
 quirements were profound in biblical and 
 post-biblical Hebrew, and he was often 
 called “ the Christian Talmudist.” Deeply 
 interested in the welfare and conversion of 
 the Jews, from 1S63 he edited a paper hav¬ 
 ing this object in view, and translated the 
 New Testament into Hebrew (London, 
 1877; 8th ed. 1889). In 1880 he reorganized 
 the “ Institutum Judaicum,” and in 1886 
 opened a school for the training of mis¬ 
 sionaries among the Jews. His commen¬ 
 taries on the Old Testament are of great 
 value. The complete list of his works, 
 down to 1886, is given in the Encyclopedia 
 of Living Divines , edited by Schaff and 
 Jackson (New York, 1887). Among his 
 works that have since appeared in transla¬ 
 tions are: Commentary on Genesis (Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1888); Psalms ( London, 1887-89), 3 
 vols.; A Day in Capernaum (New York, 
 1887); Behold the Man ! (New York, 1889). 
 Delitzsch was a remarkable example of 
 fruit-bearing even into old age. 
 
 De Koven, James, D. D., prominent as a 
 leader of the High-Church party in the 
 Episcopal Church; b. at Middletown, 
 Conn., Sept. 19, 1831; d. at Racine, Wis., 
 March 19, 1879. From 1859 to the time 
 of his death he was warden of Racine Col¬ 
 lege. He was elected bishop of Illinois in 
 1875, but failed of confirmation on account 
 
Del 
 
 ( 249 ) 
 
 Dem 
 
 of his extreme High-Church views. He 
 was an earnest and able preacher, devout 
 in spirit and life. 
 
 Deluge. See Noah. 
 
 Demarest, David D., D. D. (College of 
 New Jersey, 1857), Reformed (Dutch); b. 
 in Harrington, N. J., July 30, 1819; was 
 graduated at Rutgers College, New Bruns¬ 
 wick, N. J., 1837, and at the Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary there, 1840. Pastor of Re¬ 
 formed Church, Flatbush, N. Y., 1841; 
 Brunwick, N. J., 1843; Hudson, N. Y., 1852. 
 Since 1865 professor of pastoral theology 
 and sacred rhetoric in the Theological 
 Seminary of New Brunswick. He is the 
 author of History and Characteristics of the 
 1Reformed Dutch Church (New York, 1856), 
 3 ed.; Practical Catechetics (1882). 
 
 Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria from 
 189 to 231. He appointed Origen succes¬ 
 sor to Clement (203) in the catechetical 
 school, when the latter resigned his place 
 as teacher. He also sent him on an im¬ 
 portant and successful mission to the 
 Roman Governor of Arabia. Ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal jealousies aroused the enmity of 
 Demetrius, and wher Origen was ordained 
 priest in Caesarea, he accused his former 
 friend of heresy, and excommunicated him 
 (231). See Origen. 
 
 Demission, the term used in the Presby¬ 
 terian Church of Scotland for the resigna¬ 
 tion of a minister. 
 
 Demiurge. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Demon (Greek, daimon), incorrectly 
 rendered “ devil” in the Authorized Ver¬ 
 sion, is a spirit of the kingdom of darkness. 
 Demons are spoken of in the Gospels as 
 having power to afflict men, both with dis¬ 
 ease and spiritual pollution. They “be¬ 
 lieve ” the power of God, “ and tremble” 
 (James ii. 19); they recognize the Lord as 
 the Son of God (Matt. viii. 29; Luke iv. 
 41), and acknowledge the power of his 
 name used in exorcism (Acts xix. 15), and 
 look forward with terror to the coming 
 judgment. (Matt. viii. 29.) The name is 
 given several times, in a general sense, to 
 heathen deities. (Acts xvii. 18; 1 Cor. x. 
 20.) Josephus defines demons to be the 
 spirits of the wicked. 
 
 Demms, Charles Rudolph, D. D., a 
 distinguished Lutheran minister; b. at 
 Miihlhausen, Thuringia, April 10,1795; d. 
 in Philadelphia, Sept. 1, 1863. In early 
 life a soldier, he was wounded in the bat¬ 
 tle of Waterloo, and on his recovery 
 
 studied for the ministry. In 1818 he came 
 to this country, and from 1825 to 1859 he 
 was pastor of St. Michael’s and St. Zion’s 
 churches, Philadelphia. He edited a Ger¬ 
 man edition of Josephus , with copious and 
 learned notes. 
 
 Demoniacal Possession. “ The demo¬ 
 niacs of Scripture are persons described as 
 possessed of a demon—an evil spirit—so 
 that their will and reason are overborne, 
 and they are plunged in a state of lunacy. 
 This condition is sometimes associated 
 with dumbness (Matt. ix. 32), blindness 
 (Matt. xii. 22), and epilepsy (Mark ix. 17- 
 27). It is generally associated with symp¬ 
 toms of mania (Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1- 
 5), and the expression ‘ to have a demon,’ 
 is frequently taken as the equivalent of 
 the expression ‘ to be mad.’ Hence, it 
 has been suggested that what is called 
 possession by a demon is simply insanity, 
 and a mere brain disease, accompanied, 
 sometimes, by other bodily diseases. In 
 favor of this view it has been urged that 
 our Lord accommodated himself to the 
 prejudices of his hearers when he spoke as 
 though he were expelling demons. It is 
 known that mad people cannot be reasoned 
 out of their delusions. A direct appeal 
 along the line of the delusions would be 
 the wisest and kindest way of saving the 
 afflicted lunatics. Thus, it is said that Christ 
 cured mad people who thought themselves 
 possessed by demons, by influencing their 
 own insane minds through a command to 
 the supposed demons to depart. On the 
 other hand, it is argued that the narrative 
 says nothing of any such accommodation. 
 It is plain, simple, and straightforward; 
 and it records the events referred to as if 
 the possession were real, and not a subject 
 of insane hallucination. Furthermore, it 
 is observed, we do not know the limits 
 and powers of the inhabitants of the spir¬ 
 itual world. There is nothing in experi¬ 
 ence to contradict the idea of actual de¬ 
 moniacal possession. We do not know 
 whether insanity and disease, even in the 
 present day, may not be in some way con¬ 
 nected with Satanic influence.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. 
 
 Dempster, John, D. D., an eminent 
 Methodist minister and theological teacher; 
 b. Jan. 2, 1794, at Florida, N. Y.; d. in 
 Chicago, Nov. 28, 1863. It was not until 
 his conversion at a Methodist camp¬ 
 meeting in 1812 that he began a system¬ 
 atic course of study. He entered the 
 ministry in 1816, and in 1845 he was a 
 laborious itinerant preacher. From 1845 
 to 1854 he was professor in the Biblical 
 Institute, Newbury, Vt., and Concord, 
 
Den 
 
 ( 250 ) 
 
 Des 
 
 N. H.; and 1855 to 1863 in Garrett Biblical 
 Institute, Evanston, Ill. The organization 
 and building up of these theological sem¬ 
 inaries was the great work of his life. 
 
 Denarius. See Money. 
 
 Denis, St., acording to tradition the 
 apostle of France, and first bishop of Paris; 
 suffered martyrdom in the third century. 
 Having made many converts in Paris, he 
 was brought before the Roman governor 
 with two other Christians, and after cruel 
 tortures they were beheaded. The tradi¬ 
 tion is that their bodies, which were thrown 
 into the Seine, were taken up by a pious 
 woman, and interred near the place of their 
 martyrdom. On this spot, in 636, King 
 Dagobert founded the abbey of St. Denis, 
 which grew to be one of the richest and 
 most important in the kingdom. 
 
 Denmark. Christianity was first intro¬ 
 duced into the country by Willibrord, a 
 missionary from Rome, about 700. In 
 1536 the Reformation brought in a change 
 that established the Danish (Lutheran) 
 Church. The Romish bishops were de¬ 
 posed, and the property of the Church in¬ 
 corporated with that of the Crown. By the 
 constitution of 1849, complete toleration is 
 granted to those of every religious faith. 
 Denmark is divided into seven dioceses 
 (besides those in the West Indian colonies), 
 in charge of bishops nominated by the 
 king. Most of the population are con¬ 
 nected with the Lutheran Church. 
 
 Deposition, (1) in the Roman Church, 
 is the depriving of a priest of his official 
 privileges and functions, but not of orders. 
 It can be inflicted by any diocesan bishop. 
 (2) In the Presbyterian Church, any minis¬ 
 ter found guilty of immoral and scandal¬ 
 ous conduct, or of preaching or publish¬ 
 ing doctrines contrary to the standards of 
 the church, maybe deposed by the church- 
 courts. In the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church deposition is the same as degrada¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Deprivation is the taking away from an 
 ecclesiastic any benefice or other spiritual 
 preferment which he may hold. 
 
 Deputatus, the name for an acolyte in 
 the Greek Church. See Acolyte. 
 
 Dervish, a name derived from a Persian 
 word meaning “a door-sill.” It is applied 
 to a party of Mohammedan monks who gain 
 a living by begging from door to door. 
 They live together in communities, under 
 the headship of a sheik, and are bound by 
 
 oaths of poverty, chastity, and humility. 
 They are permitted, however, under some 
 circumstances, to marry. Every Friday 
 and Tuesday they gather in the presence 
 of their leader, and to the music of a 
 flute they turn round with great swift¬ 
 ness, in imitation of their founder, who, 
 after continuing this exercise for fourteen 
 days, received the revelation of the order. 
 This strange dance, when held in pub¬ 
 lic each week, draws great crowds, who 
 witness it with deep interest and solemnity 
 of demeanor. The Dervishes are divided 
 into two classes, the “ dancers ” and the 
 “ howlers.” Persons of high rank often 
 belong to the former, but if they attain to 
 full membership they have to undergo 
 1,001 days of menial service, after which 
 they receive a woolen belt set with a magic 
 stone, the rosary with the ninety-nine 
 names of God, and the taj (white cap). The 
 “howling” Dervishes, either in line or 
 ring, sway themselves backward and for¬ 
 ward, shouting “ There is no God but 
 God,” until they sink exhausted to the 
 ground. Some dervishes wander through 
 the country performing tricks of legerde¬ 
 main. As a class they are held in awe by 
 the people, and feared by the officials. 
 
 De Sacy. See Sacy, De. 
 
 De Sales. See Sales, De. 
 
 Des Cartes, Rene, a famous French 
 philosopher; b. at La Haye, in Touraine, 
 March 30, 1596; d. at Stockholm, Feb. 11, 
 1650. He was connected with the army for 
 a time, and during the later part of his 
 life traveled extensively. The year before 
 he died he made his home in Stockholm, at 
 the invitation of Queen Christina. 
 
 “ In pursuance of the principle de o?tini- 
 bus est dubitandum (‘ you shall doubt about 
 everything’), Des Cartes arrived at his 
 cogito ergo sum (‘ I am, because I think’) 
 as an ultimate fact of consciousness which 
 cannot be doubted. From this point of 
 primary unity between thought and being 
 —the corner-stone of the ontological evi¬ 
 dence of the existence of God—he devel¬ 
 oped a system of unmitigated dualism. In 
 man, for instance, soul and body touch 
 each other only at one single point, the 
 pineal gland of the brain, and animals are 
 mere machines.”— Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 The philosophy of Des Cartes attracted 
 wide attention, and was accepted by many 
 leaders of the Gallican Church, while con¬ 
 demned by the Jesuits. Superseded by 
 the theories of Newton, Hobbes, and 
 Locke, his views in recent times have 
 found expression only through Leibnitz, 
 Wolff, etc. 
 
Des 
 
 ( 251 ) 
 
 Dia 
 
 Desert, Church of the. See Cami- 
 sards; Huguenots. 
 
 Destructionists. See Annihilationism. 
 
 Determinism, the name given those the¬ 
 ories of the human will, according to which 
 it is absolutely determined by external or 
 internal motives not belonging to it, and 
 which, therefore, denies its freedom. 
 
 Deutero-Canonical. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Deuteronomy. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Deutsch, Emanuel Oscar Menahem, an 
 eminent Oriental scholar; b. 1829, at Prus¬ 
 sian Silesia; d. at Alexandria, 1873. He 
 studied at Berlin, and from 1855 until his 
 death was assistant in the library of the 
 British Museum. He published an article 
 on the Talmud in 1867 that gave him a wide 
 reputation as a scholar. 
 
 Devay, MatyAs Biro, a Hungarian re¬ 
 former; d. about 1547. In 1529 he went 
 to Wittenberg, and was with Luther for a 
 year and a half. Upon returning home, he 
 preached and wrote in favor of the doc¬ 
 trines of the Reformation. He was twice 
 imprisoned. The last time he was kept in 
 prison for nearly three years (1531 to 1534). 
 After his release he settled at Sarvar 
 under the protection of a powerful Hun¬ 
 garian nobleman. Here he published a 
 grammar with extracts from Luther’s cate¬ 
 chism, the first book printed in Hungary. 
 Driven into Switzerland by the invasion of 
 the Turks, he became acquainted with 
 Zwingli’s views of the Lord’s Supper, and 
 adopted them. 
 
 Development of Doctrine. A term used 
 to express (1) the opinion that while Chris¬ 
 tianity is fully contained in Christ and the 
 New Testament, yet there is a progressive 
 unfolding and clearer understanding of its 
 truth, as time goes on. This theory is held 
 by most Protestants. (2) Cardinal New¬ 
 man, just before leaving the Church of 
 England for that of Rome, published his 
 celebrated Essay on the Development of 
 Christian Doctrine , in which he argued that, 
 by the continuity of its historical record, 
 and the development of doctrine from the 
 apostolic times within its pale, the Roman 
 Catholic Church must be the true Church. 
 (3) Some rationalists hold that, in time, 
 Christianity will be superseded by a relig¬ 
 ion of humanity, in which the Bible will no 
 longer hold its place as the rule of faith 
 and conduct. 
 
 Development, Scientific. See Evolution. 
 
 Devil. See Satan. 
 
 Devotion, a fervent exercise of the pri¬ 
 vate and public offices of religion, or a 
 temper and disposition of the mind rightly 
 affected with such exercises. The litera¬ 
 ture of books of devotion is very exten¬ 
 sive, but they should never be used as 
 a substitute for the Bible. “A spirit of 
 devotion is one of the greatest bless¬ 
 ings, and the want of it one of the great¬ 
 est misfortunes, which a Christian can 
 experience.” 
 
 Dewid, St. See St. David. 
 
 De Wette. See Wette, De. 
 
 DeWitt, Thomas, D. D., b. at Kingston, 
 N. Y., Sept. 13, 1791; d. in New York City, 
 May 18, 1874. He was a graduate of Union 
 College, 1808, and the New Brunswick 
 Theological Seminary, 1812. He was pas¬ 
 tor of the Reformed Dutch churches at 
 Hopewell and New Hackensack, N. Y., 
 1812-1825; and of Hopewell alone until 
 1827. He then became one of the pastors 
 of the Collegiate Church in New York City, 
 where he continued until his death. He 
 edited The Christian Intelligencer , 1831- 
 1843. Honored and beloved, he exerted a 
 marked influence in the life of the city, and 
 was a favorite pastor and preacher. 
 
 Dexter, Henry Martyn, D. D. (Iowa Col¬ 
 lege, Grinnell, la., 1865), S. T. D. (Yale, 
 1880), Congregationalist; b. at Plympton, 
 Mass., Aug. 13,1821; was graduated at Yale 
 College, 1840, and at Andover Theological 
 Seminary, 1844; became pastor at Man¬ 
 chester, N. H., 1844; in Boston, 1849, but 
 since 1867 has been editor of the Congrega¬ 
 tionalist, , having been previously connected 
 with the paper since 1851. Among the 
 volumes he has published are: Congrega- 
 tionalistn (Boston, 1865, 5th ed., 1879); As 
 to Roger Williams (1876); The Congrega¬ 
 tionalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, 
 as Seen in its Literature (New York, 1880); 
 The True Story of John Smyth , The Se- 
 Baptist (1881). 
 
 Diab'olus. See Satan. ! 
 
 i 
 
 Diaconium means, sometimes, the place 
 at the rail of the altar, where the deacons 
 were accustomed to sit in the ancient 
 church, also the building adjoining the 
 church, in which the sacred vessels and 
 vestments were kept; the ecclesiastical 
 book which contained the rules of the office 
 of deacon in the Greek Church, and that 
 part of the public prayers which the dea¬ 
 cons recited. 
 
Dia 
 
 ( 252 ) 
 
 Dim 
 
 Dian'a, a goddess whose temple at Eph¬ 
 esus was one of the wonders of the world. 
 (Acts xix.) The image was regarded as an 
 object of peculiar sanctity, and was believed 
 to have fallen down from heaven. 
 
 Diaspora', a term used to denote the dis¬ 
 persion of the Jews through the Roman 
 world. (James i. 1; Pet. i. 1.) See Cap¬ 
 tivity. 
 
 Diates'saron, the name given to the at¬ 
 tempts made to combine the four gospels 
 in one narrative. See Harmony of the 
 Gospels; Tatian. 
 
 Dick, John, D. D., an eminent Scotch 
 theologian; b. in Aberdeen, Oct. 10, 1764; 
 d. in Glasgow, Jan. 25, 1833. He was con¬ 
 nected with the Secession Church, and after 
 a pastorate at Slateford, near Edinburgh, 
 he was settled over the Grayfriars Church, 
 Glasgow. In 1819 he was elected profess¬ 
 or of theology in the seminary of the Se¬ 
 cession Church. He prepared Lectures on 
 Theology , which became a favorite text¬ 
 book, and was republished in this country 
 with a biography. 
 
 Dick, Thomas, LL. D., a well-known 
 writer on themes pertaining to Christian 
 philosophy; b. at Dundee, Scotland, Nov. 
 
 24, 1774; d. at Edinburgh, July 29, 1857. 
 He entered the ministry of the United 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotland, but after 
 a service of two years (1803-1805) retired, 
 and devoted the rest of his long life to 
 teaching and literary labors. His first book, 
 published in 1825, The Christian Philos¬ 
 opher: or , the Connection of Science with 
 Religion , met with great success. Some of 
 his best-known works treat of the subject 
 of astronomy. They are written in a clear 
 and popular style, and have had a large 
 circulation. There are two American edi¬ 
 tions of his works. 
 
 Dickinson, Jonathan, an eminent Pres¬ 
 byterian minister, and the first president of 
 Princeton College; b. at Hatfield, Mass., 
 April 22, 16S8; d. at Elizabeth, N. J., Oct. 
 
 7, 1747. After graduating at Yale College 
 (1706), he was settled at Elizabeth. He 
 took a prominent part in theological dis¬ 
 cussion, and was active in forming new 
 churches. Although a strong advocate of 
 Calvinism, he opposed the binding author¬ 
 ity of creeds. He was interested in the 
 •work among the Indians, and aided David 
 Brainerd in many ways. Having taken a 
 prominent part in founding Nassau Hall 
 (Princeton College), he was elected its 
 first president, but died before the close of 
 his first year of service. His writings are I 
 
 mostly an exposition of Calvinistic views 
 of doctrine. 
 
 Didache'. See Teaching of the Apos¬ 
 tles. 
 
 Diderot, Denis. See Encyclopaedists. 
 
 Didymus, called “ the Blind;” b. in Al¬ 
 exandria, 308; d. there, 395. Although 
 blind from his fourth year, he became one 
 of the most learned men of his time. He 
 was a prolific writer, and a director of the 
 catechetical school of Alexandria. 
 
 Dies Irae, the name given to the opening 
 words of a famous Latin hymn of the Mid¬ 
 dle Ages. It was probably written by 
 Thomas of Celano in the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. Many hundreds of 
 translations have been made into various 
 languages. The best English translations 
 are by Alford, Trench, Cole, and Dix. The 
 hymn is still sung in the Roman Catholic 
 Church at funerals. 
 
 Diet, the assembly of the States of Ger¬ 
 many, which shared, in most cases, with 
 the emperor the rights of sovereignty. It 
 consisted of three colleges, which met and 
 voted separately: (1) electors; (2) the 
 princes, temporal and spiritual; (3) the 
 free imperial cities. The emperor could 
 not change the united action of the Diet. 
 Among the Diets of importance were that 
 at Worms ( 1521), which condemned Luther; 
 Spires (1529), in which the protest of six 
 Lutheran princes originated the name 
 “ Protestant;” Augsburg ( 1530), where the 
 famous Augsburg Confession was present¬ 
 ed; Augsburg (1555), where the “ Relig¬ 
 ious Peace of Augsburg ” was concluded, 
 and the civil relations of the Lutherans 
 regulated. 
 
 Dillmann (Christian Friedrich) Au¬ 
 gust, Ph. D. (Tubingen, 1846), D. D. 
 (Leipzig, 1862), Evangelical Lutheran; b. 
 at Illingen, Wiirtemburg, April 25, 1823; 
 became privat - docent of Old Testament 
 exegesis there in 1852; professor extraor¬ 
 dinary of theology, 1S53; professor of the 
 Oriental languages at Kiel, 1S54; professor 
 of theology at Giessen, 1S64 ; at Berlin, 
 1869. In biblical and Ethiopic scholarship 
 he has gained a great reputation, Among 
 the most noted of his publications are his 
 Cofnmentaries on the Hexateuch (Leipzig, 
 1S75-S6), 3 vols., and Job (1869). 
 
 Diman, Jeremiah Lewis, D. D., b. at 
 Bristol, R. I., May 1, 1831; d. at Prov¬ 
 idence, R. I., Feb. 3,1SS1. He was graduat¬ 
 ed at Brown University, Providence, 1S51 
 
Dio 
 
 ( 253 ) 
 
 Dio 
 
 After studying theology at Andover, Mass., 
 and then in Europe at Halle and Berlin, he 
 was ordained as pastor of the Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, at Fall River Mass., 1856- 
 60. From 1860-64 he was pastor at Brook¬ 
 line, Mass. In 1864 he entered upon the 
 duties of the professorship of history and 
 political economy in Brown University, 
 where he remained until his death. He 
 was a ripe scholar and eloquent preacher. 
 Two books, made up of his lectures and ser¬ 
 mons, were published after his death: The 
 Theistic Argument and Orations and Essays. 
 
 Diocese. Constantine the Great divided 
 the Roman Empire into four dioceses, each 
 of which was subdivided into several prov¬ 
 inces. The term diocese was then adopted 
 to denote the great patriarchal divisions of 
 the Church, but in the early part of the 
 fourth century it passed into its present 
 use as designating a single bishopric, and 
 thus took the place of the earlier name of 
 parochia. 
 
 Diocletian Persecution. Diocletian was 
 Emperor of Rome from about 284 to 305. 
 In the early part of his reign he paid little 
 attention to the Christians. An edict was 
 promulgated that all those connected with 
 the army who would not sacrifice at the 
 festivals in honor of the gods should be de¬ 
 prived of their dignity. The refusal of 
 Marcellus, a centurion at Tangier, and 
 others, to obey this order, gave an excuse 
 to the enemies of the Christians to insti¬ 
 gate the persecution, in which Galerius, 
 who held the rank of Caesar, was most 
 prominent. Twice the emperor’s palace 
 was set on fire and the charge laid to 
 the Christians. In this and other ways 
 the rage of Diocletian was kindled, and he 
 engaged with furious hate in the work of 
 destroying and torturing all who avowed 
 their faith in Christ. Numbers gave up 
 their copies of the Sciiptures (afterwards 
 called Tradiiores ), and sacrificed to the 
 idols, but multitudes remained faithful and 
 suffered martyrdom. The persecution 
 continued after the abdication of Diocle¬ 
 tian (305). Galerius, stricken with a loath¬ 
 some disease, finally issued an edict per¬ 
 mitting the Christians to worship in peace. 
 The persecution lasted for ten years, and 
 Gibbon estimates the number of those who 
 were martyred at 2,000. 
 
 Diodati, John, b. at Geneva, 1576; d. 
 there in 1649. He was professor of He¬ 
 brew in Geneva, 1597; of theology in 1609, 
 and resigned in 1645. He was a delegate 
 to the Synod of Dort, and in 1607 publish¬ 
 ed a translation of the Bible into Italian, 
 with annotations, which is still used to 
 
 some extent. He translated the Bible into 
 French and also Sarpi’s History of the Coun- 
 cil of Trent. Of his theological works his 
 Annotations upon the Bible was translated 
 into English. 
 
 Diodo'rus, presbyter of Antioch, conse¬ 
 crated bishop of Tarsus 378; d. in 394. 
 He has been called “ the father of biblical 
 interpretation.” As a priest and monk of 
 Antioch he conducted the affairs of the 
 Church with such discretion that he was 
 made bishop of Tarsus. He wrote many 
 commentaries in which he discarded the al¬ 
 legorical for a more literal and grammat¬ 
 ical interpretation. He is the founder of 
 the cosmological argument for the exist¬ 
 ence of God, and he opposed the doctrine 
 of everlasting punishment. John (Chrys¬ 
 ostom) and Theodore (of Mopsuestia) were 
 among his pupils. 
 
 Diogne'tus, The Epistle to, “ one of the 
 most precious relics from Christian antiq¬ 
 uity, hardly equalled, either in spirit or 
 form, by any other work from the post- 
 apostolic age. The extraordinary charm 
 which it exercises springs from the noble 
 simplicity of a faith which grasps the di¬ 
 vine truth of Christianity as an inner ex¬ 
 perience, and from the perfect classical 
 education, which, in bold and striking but- 
 fully harmonious expressions, bears wit¬ 
 ness to this fact. His theological stand¬ 
 point is that of the transition when faith 
 and knowledge, though still essentially one, 
 are just about to break away from each 
 other. The epistle was first published by 
 H. Stephanus (Strasburg, 1592).”— Dr. 
 Semisch in Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., vol. 1., 
 p. 641.) An English translation of the 
 epistle is in the Ante-Nicene Library, 1., p. 
 303 (Edin., 1868). 
 
 Diony'sius the Areopagite, an Athenian 
 eminent for his literary attainments, and a 
 member of the Areopagus. Converted to 
 Christianity (Acts xvii. 34), according to 
 Eusebius, he was the first bishop of 
 Athens, and tradition says that he suffered 
 martyrdom there. His name has prom¬ 
 inence in history because of the attempt of 
 a writer in later times to pass his produc¬ 
 tions upon the Christian world as from the 
 pen of the Areopagite. These treatises on 
 The Heavenly and Ecclesiastical Hierarchies 
 and The Names of God were quoted with 
 marked effect against the Severians. Crit¬ 
 ical examination has clearly shown that they 
 must be of much later date than the first 
 century. Probably they are not of earlier 
 date than the fifth century. 
 
 Dionysius of Alexandria, a pupil of Ori- 
 
Dio 
 
 ( 254 ) 
 
 Dis 
 
 gen, succeeded Heraclas in 232 as director 
 of the catechetical school, and in 247 as 
 bishop. He was the friend and correspond¬ 
 ent of the leading bishops and theologians 
 of his time and, with a naturally gentle and 
 kind temper, he acted the part of a media¬ 
 tor in the controversies growing out of the 
 schism of Novatian, and other matters. 
 Only fragments of his works have come 
 down to us. 
 
 Dionysius, bishop of Corinth (170). He 
 was distinguished for piety, learning, and 
 eloquence. He wrote letters, fragments 
 of which were preserved by Eusebius. 
 
 Dionysius Exig'uus, a Scythian by birth, 
 and abbot of a monastery at Rome, where 
 he died about 556. He gained a great 
 reputation for profound learning. The 
 work by which he is best known is a col¬ 
 lection of canons and decretals, and his 
 Cyclus Paschalis , which is the basis of the 
 Christian chronology. 
 
 Dios'corus. See Ephesus, Robber 
 Council of. 
 
 Diptychs, originally, tablets folded in 
 two leaves, upon which were written the 
 names of persons, living or dead, who were 
 entitled to have their names mentioned in 
 the prayer preceding consecration, from 
 having rendered some special service to 
 the Church. They are still in use in the 
 Greek Church. 
 
 Directory of Worship, (1) a set of rules 
 for worship drawn up to take the place of 
 the Book of Common Prayer by the West¬ 
 minster Assembly of Divines, in 1643. 
 (2) The Presbyterian Church in the 
 United States has a Directory of Worship 
 adopted by the General Assembly in 1821. 
 
 Discalcea'ti, or Barefooted Monks and 
 Nuns, is the common name of the relig¬ 
 ious orders whose members wear only san¬ 
 dals or nothing. 
 
 Dirge, a hymn of mourning for the 
 dead. The word is derived from Dirige , 
 Domine , nos , the opening words of the 
 antiphon in the Roman Catholic service for 
 the dead. 
 
 Disciples, The, or Christians. Thomas 
 Campbell (1763-1854), a devout and schol¬ 
 arly Seceder minister, was recognized in 
 Ireland as a man of influence and liberality 
 by his leadership in a movement before the 
 Synods of Belfast and Glasgow, in the in¬ 
 terests of Christian Union. Manifesting 
 his liberal spirit in Pennsylvania in 1807, 
 
 by inviting to the Communion table mem¬ 
 bers of different religious bodies, he 
 brought upon himself the censure of the 
 Presbytery of Chartiers, and of the Synod 
 to which he appealed his case, for not ad¬ 
 hering to the “ Secession Testimony.” 
 After submitting for a time, he withdrew, 
 announcing to the Synod that he abandoned 
 “all ministerial connection” with it, and 
 intended to be “ utterly unaffected by its 
 decisions.” Continuing to plead for Chris¬ 
 tian Union, he attracted much attention, 
 and men and women of liberal minds gath¬ 
 ered about him. When he announced on a 
 special occasion to a general assembly of 
 his friends, as a rule to be followed, 
 “ Where the Scriptures speak we speak, 
 and where the Scriptures are silent we are 
 silent,” his words were received by his 
 hearers with great enthusiasm, and their 
 deliverance from human standards was ac¬ 
 complished. Under his leadership, a relig¬ 
 ious association was formed in the fall of 
 1809, bearing the name of the “ Christian 
 Association of Washington,” declaring that 
 it existed “ for the sole purpose of pro¬ 
 moting simple, evangelical Christianity, 
 free from all mixture of human opinions 
 and inventions of men.” About this time, 
 Thomas Campbell wrote and published a 
 Declaration and Address , which was far 
 in advance of the thought of his times. 
 The present views and purposes of the 
 people known as Disciples are nowhere 
 else more strongly, or more comprehen¬ 
 sively stated in such brief space. We will, 
 therefore, make some extracts from this 
 document. Addressing “ all his brethren 
 in all the churches,” by which he meant all 
 the evangelical bodies, he said: “Dearly 
 beloved brethren, why should we deem it 
 a thing incredible that the Church of 
 Christ in this highly favored country, 
 should resume that original unity, peace, 
 and purity which belong to its constitution, 
 and constitute its glory ? Or, is there any¬ 
 thing that can be justly deemed necessary 
 for this desirable purpose, but to conform 
 to the model, and adopt the practice of the 
 primitive Church, expressly exhibited in 
 the New Testament ? Whatever alterations 
 this might produce in any, or in all, of the 
 churches, should, we think, be deemed 
 
 neither inadmissible, nor ineligible. 
 
 With you all, we desire to unite in the 
 bonds of an entire Christian unity—Christ 
 alone being the head , the centre; his word 
 the rule , and explicit belief of and manifest 
 conformity to it in all things the terms." 
 It was proposed by him that all Christians 
 of every name “come fairly to original 
 ground upon clear and certain premises, 
 and take up things just as the apostles left 
 them, that thus disentangled from the ac- 
 
Dis 
 
 ( 255 ) 
 
 Dis 
 
 cruing embarrassments of intervening 
 ages, we may stand with evidence upon 
 the same ground on which the Church 
 stood at the beginning.” The Disciples 
 continue to insist upon this as the imme¬ 
 diate duty of believers. 
 
 Alexander Campbell, the son of Thomas 
 Campbell, who had been attending college 
 in Glasgow, Scotland, joined his father in 
 Washington County, Pennsylvania, in Oc¬ 
 tober, 1809, in time to read the Declaration 
 and Address , as it was going through the 
 press. The son approved of the document, 
 and it was not many years before he was 
 the leader in the movement which it in¬ 
 augurated. In studying the Scriptures 
 with open minds, both father and son, as 
 well as others of their little body, soon be¬ 
 came convinced that the ordinance of bap¬ 
 tism involves the immersion of a believer 
 in Christ, and, nothing doubting, they 
 promptly carried out their convictions. 
 This change of views occurred in 1812. 
 
 They soon gave up the doctrine of re¬ 
 generation by the Holy Spirit before faith 
 to make faith possible, and preached the 
 gospel as the power of God to renew the 
 heart through faith. Regeneration by re¬ 
 ceiving the word of truth, not regeneration 
 to make its reception possible, was their 
 thought. This, together with their protest 
 against sectarian divisions in the Church 
 of Christ, led to antagonisms with other 
 religious bodies. Notwithstanding this 
 fact, Alexander Campbell’s great ability 
 being recognized, he was constantly urged 
 to preach at different points for Baptist 
 churches, which he frequently did. As a 
 result, the church at Brush Run, Pa., of 
 which he and his father were members, 
 united with the Baptist Redstone Associa¬ 
 tion in 1812. The preaching of Alexander 
 Campbell being calm and argumentative, 
 and directly opposed to everything in the 
 way of miraculous and rhapsodical expe¬ 
 riences, soon stirred up opposition in the 
 minds of those who gloried in the expe¬ 
 riences that characterized the revival meet¬ 
 ings of that time. 
 
 In 1823 Alexander Campbell started the 
 Christian Baptist at Bethany, West Va., a 
 monthly which he continued under this 
 name for seven years. He then began the 
 Millennial Harbinger , which he edited till 
 within a few years of his death—in 1866. 
 By his able editorials, his views spread 
 rapidly in the Baptist body. The lines 
 became closely drawn. There was much 
 discussion. Then came a division. The 
 Mahoning Association in Ohio gradually 
 went over to the views of the Campbells. 
 Formal divisions began in 1827, and con¬ 
 tinued in different States for several years, 
 and so the people known as the Disciples 
 
 of Christ became a separate religious body, 
 and grew exceedingly. 
 
 In common with other religious bodies 
 regarded as evangelical, the Disciples find 
 in the Bible a revelation from God. In it 
 they discover that God sent his Son, 
 Jesus Christ, into the world to reveal the 
 Father, and, finally, to die for all men, and 
 so make salvation possible to all. That he 
 who thus came and died for sinners is “ the 
 Christ, the Son of the living God,” they 
 regard as the central truth of the New 
 Testament — the foundation truth of the 
 Church. They, therefore, teach the deity 
 as well as the humanity of Christ. They 
 also believe in the divinity and personality 
 of the Holy Spirit, through whose inspira¬ 
 tion the Word of God came to men, and 
 who is promised as a perpetual Comforter 
 to them that believe in Christ. They see 
 in the New Testament the doctrine of 
 election, but it is not the election of 
 sinners to a life of faith; but the election 
 of believers to life everlasting through 
 a faithful endurance to the end. The 
 doctrine of the perseverance of the saints 
 is with them the doctrine of the perse¬ 
 verance of them that persevere. They 
 see in the Bible the doctrine of divine 
 sovereignty, but it is a sovereignty that 
 leaves the sovereign free to determine to 
 deal with men in view of their foreseen 
 conduct—their acceptance or non-accept¬ 
 ance of the truth which they possess—not 
 a sovereignty that necessitates uncondi¬ 
 tional election. But their plea is practical 
 rather than doctrinal. 
 
 “ The original preaching of the gospel 
 was not an exposition of a system of doc¬ 
 trines, but the presentation of a Divine 
 Person as the object of faith and love. 
 Who Jesus was, what he had done for 
 man’s salvation, why we should trust in 
 and submit to him as our Lord and Saviour, 
 the terms on which he would receive sin¬ 
 ners, these formed the subject of apostolic 
 preaching. When they had thus preached, 
 they called on their hearers to submit to 
 Jesus, and as many as voluntarily accepted 
 him as the Christ, the Son of God, and 
 were willing to renounce all other lord- 
 ships and walk in his commandments, were 
 at once admitted, through baptism, into 
 Christian fellowship.” 
 
 These words, from the pen of Isaac Er- 
 rett, LL. D., the late editor of the Chris¬ 
 tian Standard, of Cincinnati, O., well set 
 forth the practical character of the best 
 teaching among the Disciples. 
 
 As a rule, their churches partake of the 
 Lord’s Supper every Lord’s Day. While 
 they do not receive into church fellowship 
 any who are not immersed, they do not 
 debar Christians of other religious bodies 
 
Dis 
 
 ( 256 ) 
 
 Div 
 
 from uniting with them in honoring the 
 Lord in this institution—though there are 
 not a few of their number that express 
 doubts about the scripturalness of this lib¬ 
 erality. 
 
 While they apply to themselves the 
 names, Disciples of Christ, and Christians, 
 and speak of the whole people as the 
 Church of Christ, they do not by any 
 means claim that they are the only disci¬ 
 ples of Christ, or Christians, in the world; 
 or that they constitute the whole Church 
 of Christ on the earth. They are to be 
 distinguished from another people called 
 “ Christians,” nicknamed “New Lights” 
 —a people of Unitarian tendencies. 
 
 As to church government, the Disciples 
 are Congregational, each church settling 
 its own affairs. The New Testament eld¬ 
 ers, deacons, ministers, and evangelists, 
 find a place, but officers not known to the 
 New Testament are not recognized. 
 
 The Disciples number about 700,000. 
 They have a Foreign Christian Missionary 
 Society, with headquarters in Cincinnati, 
 O. It has missionaries in India, Japan, 
 China, Asia Minor, Denmark, and in other 
 foreign countries. There are, also, a Gen¬ 
 eral Christian Missionary Convention, with 
 headquarters in the same city, and a Chris¬ 
 tian Woman’s Board of Missions, with 
 headquarters in Indianapolis, Ind., besides 
 State societies in most of the States of the 
 Union. They have about forty institutions 
 of learning — universities, colleges, and 
 other schools. Their religious weeklies 
 contain abundant evidence of their aggres¬ 
 sive and progressive character, and of their 
 rapid increase. Their chief thought is a 
 return to the teaching of the New Testa¬ 
 ment in its letter and spirit, as a sufficient 
 rule of faith and life, without the aid of 
 human standards that too often misrepre¬ 
 sent the Word of God. By the way of such 
 a return they see the only open way to 
 Christian Union. 
 
 See Memoirs of A . Campbell , by Dr. 
 Robert Richardson; Christian Baptism: Its 
 Antecedents and Consequents , by A. Campbell; 
 Declaration and Address, by Thomas Camp¬ 
 bell; Evenings with the Bible: New Testa¬ 
 ment Studies , by Isaac Errett, LL. D. 
 (Standard Publishing Co., Cincinnati, O). 
 
 H. McDiarmid. 
 
 Discipline. See Church Discipline. 
 
 Discipline, Book of, in the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, is a small volume re¬ 
 vised and published after the meeting of 
 the General Conference. (See Confer¬ 
 
 ence). It contains six parts: I. Origin, 
 Doctrine, and Rules; II. Government of 
 the Church; III. Administration of Disci¬ 
 pline; IV. Educational and Benevolent 
 Institutions; V. Temporal Economy; VI. 
 Ritual of the Church. 
 
 Dispensation signifies, in the Roman 
 Church, the authority of the pope to do or 
 leave undone something which otherwise 
 is not allowed. This right of dispensation 
 in difficult cases, especially of marriage, 
 has been a source of great influence and 
 revenue. The bishops have this power only 
 in a few and unimportant cases. 
 
 Dispersed. See Captivity. 
 
 Dissenter is properly used only of those 
 who dissent from the doctrine or order of 
 an established church. In England the 
 word is synonymous with Non-conformist. 
 
 Distaff Day, the day after the Epiph¬ 
 any, so called because on that day weav¬ 
 ing was resumed after the close of the 
 Christmas Festival. 
 
 Divination. See Magic. 
 
 Divorce. The separation between man 
 and wife was at one time a rare thing with 
 the ancient Romans. It was only allowed, 
 apparently, on account of unfaithfulness, 
 and there were strict formalities to be ob¬ 
 served, showing how sacred the law of mar¬ 
 riage was regarded. But with the growth 
 of luxury came laxity of principle, and di¬ 
 vorce for frivolous reasons became com¬ 
 mon. It seems that it was even thus among 
 the Jews. Though Moses, for the hardness 
 of their hearts, allowed the husband to give 
 “ awriting of divorcement,” there is no act¬ 
 ual mention of such instruments being 
 used before the days of Isaiah. In Jere¬ 
 miah, and also in Malachi, they are spoken 
 of as not uncommon. Our Saviour dis¬ 
 allowed them all, except on the score of 
 adultery. But a question has arisen in the 
 ChristianChurchwhether.even in this case, 
 a full divorce is warrantable. That a sepa¬ 
 ration as to living together is allowable is 
 plain, but it is not so plain whether, when 
 a husband has parted from his wife for un¬ 
 faithfulness, she is at liberty to marry 
 again. St. Augustine confesses that the 
 question is not clearly determined by the 
 words of our Saviour. The Greek Church 
 allows this, and it has been allowed by the 
 laws of Christian emperors ( e. g ., Constan¬ 
 tine), nor did the Council of Florence, 
 though the Roman Canon Law” is different, 
 regard this difference as a sufficient reason 
 to hinder the coalition of the Eastern and 
 
 Disciplina Arcani. See Arcani, Disci- 
 PLINA. 
 
Div 
 
 ( 257 ) 
 
 Doc 
 
 Western churches. The Roman Church, 
 however, is most strict in its rules: the 
 very fact that marriage is made a sacrament 
 necessitates such strictness, and the broad 
 principle is laid down that “no human 
 power can dissolve the bond of marriage 
 when ratified and consummated between 
 baptized persons.” If two unbaptized per¬ 
 sons have married, and one afterward be¬ 
 come Christian, and the other refuses to 
 live peaceably, and without insult to the 
 Christian religion, this marriage may be 
 dissolved. So may that contracted by per¬ 
 sons who afterward agree to take up the 
 monastic life. 
 
 In Protestant countries, where the relig¬ 
 ious bodies have come more under the civil 
 powers, these powers claimed the right of 
 regulating marriage and divorce.. In Eng¬ 
 land the old law remained for a long time; 
 in other lands legislation on this subject 
 soon began. Then in England, about a 
 century and a half after the Reformation, 
 the law was altered so that divorce for 
 proved adultery was to be granted by Act 
 of Parliament in each separate case, while 
 judicial separations were pronounced by 
 the ecclesiastical courts. But this law was 
 felt to be unsatisfactory, for, by making 
 divorce possible only through the spending 
 of a very large sum of money, it was per¬ 
 missible to the rich and not to the poor. 
 A celebrated sentence of Justice Maule, in 
 which he bitterly satirized the existing law, 
 had a great effect on public opinion, and in 
 1857 a new Divorce Court was established, 
 with jurisdiction over all such matters. 
 Divorce was made possible for adultery of 
 the wife, and for adultery, with certain 
 other offenses, of the husband, and judicial 
 separation was allowed for cruelty, or two 
 years’ desertion. Divorce might be fol¬ 
 lowed by re-marriage. In other countries 
 facilities for divorce are much greater; in¬ 
 compatibility of temper, and even mutual 
 consent, are held to be admissible grounds. 
 The result has been to lower the moral 
 tone to such a terrible extent as to create a 
 reaction toward better things.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Dr. Theodore D. Woolsey, in his article 
 on Divorce (Schaff-Herzog: Ency., p. 649), 
 says: “ Nowhere is the problem of divorce 
 so poorly solved, or so charged with 
 danger, as in the United States. It is cer¬ 
 tainly ?.n alarming fact that the ratio of 
 divorce to marriage is as one to ten, or 
 even greater, in some States; and that in 
 another State it has sunk, within twenty 
 years, from the ratio of one to fifty-one 
 down to the ratio of one to twenty-one. 
 Happily, these and similar indications of 
 a greater ratio than is elsewhere known 
 are now exciting the attention of many 
 
 Christian people.” The work of the Di¬ 
 vorce Reform League has done much in 
 the last few years to enlighten the public 
 regarding the evils that threaten the life of 
 the family by the increase of divorces under 
 the laws that now prevail in the different 
 States. See Marriage. 
 
 Dix, Morgan, S. T. D. (Columbia Col¬ 
 lege, New York, 1S62), D. C. L. (Univer¬ 
 sity of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., 1885) 
 Episcopalian; b. in New York City, Nov. i, 
 1827; was graduated at Columbia College, 
 1848, and at the General Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, 1852; assistantminister of St. Mark’s, 
 Philadelphia, 1853; and of Trinity Church, 
 New York, 1855; assistant rector of Trin¬ 
 ity, 1859; rector, 1862. Among his pub¬ 
 lished volumes are a Manual of the Chris¬ 
 tian Life (New York, 1857,16th thousand 
 1864); Memoir of John A. Dix [his father], 
 (1883), 2 vols.; The Gospel and Philosophy 
 (1886); Christ at the Door of the Heart, and 
 other Sermons (1887); Seven Deadly Sins 
 (1888). 
 
 Doane, George Washington, D. D., 
 LL. D., b. May 27, 1799, in Trenton, N. J.; 
 d. at Burlington, N. J., April 27, 1859. 
 He was graduated at Union College, N. Y., 
 1818, and was admitted to holy orders 
 1821. He was elected Protestant Episco¬ 
 pal Bishop of New Jersey in 1832. He 
 was a tireless worker, and wrote much on 
 controversial subjects. He is the author of 
 several hymns that are well known: among 
 them are “ Softly now the light of day,” and 
 “ Thou art the way: to thee alone.” 
 
 Docetae, a branch of the Gnostics which 
 “ held that Christ had no real body or hu¬ 
 man soul. His earthly manifestation in 
 human form was a phantasm, a mere ap¬ 
 pearance without substance or reality. 
 Hence they were called Docetae, from the 
 Greek verb dotted, which means to ap¬ 
 pear, to seem to be. According to this class 
 of the Gnostics, Christ’s whole earthly life 
 was an illusion. He was not born, nor did 
 he suffer or die.”—Hodge: Sys. Theology, 
 vol. ii, p. 400. This theory had its origin 
 chiefly in the conception of matter as the 
 cause of evil. The Docetae contended that 
 Christ as a divine being could never have 
 been united to what was earthly and there¬ 
 fore impure. This sect flourished near 
 the close of the second century. 
 
 Doctor {teacher), (1) The “doctors of 
 the law ” mentioned in the New Testament 
 (Luke v. 17; Acts v. 34, etc.), also called 
 “ scribes,” were learned expounders of the 
 law of Moses and the traditions of the eld¬ 
 ers. As a rule they were Pharisees, and 
 
 0 
 
Doc 
 
 ( 258 ) 
 
 Doe 
 
 were addressed as Rabbi {master). They 
 received presents but no salary from their 
 pupils. (2) The now usually honorary de¬ 
 gree of Doctor of Divinity was given in the 
 Middle Ages only to those who had passed 
 the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and 
 master, and was bestowed by the chancel¬ 
 lor of the university in the name of the 
 pope. Protestants who bore this title in 
 the seventeenth century were addressed 
 as “ Your excellency.” The most famous 
 of the mediaeval teachers received degrees 
 to which were affixed terms expressing 
 some quality of scholarship in which they 
 were preeminent. 
 
 Doctors of the Church. The following 
 Fathers received this title in a distinctive 
 sense: (Greek) Athanasius, Basil, Chrysos¬ 
 tom, and Gregory of Nazienzen; (Latin) 
 Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory the Great, 
 and Jerome. In the Roman Church the 
 title is also given to Anselm of Canter¬ 
 bury, St. Bernard, Bonaventura, Francis 
 of Sales, Hilary of Poitiers, Isidore of Se¬ 
 ville, John of Damascus, Leo the Great, 
 (Alphonso de) Liguori, Peter Chrysologus, 
 and Peter Damiani. 
 
 Doddridge, Philip, D. D., an eminent 
 dissenting minister and writer; b. in Lon¬ 
 don, June 26, 1702; d. at Lisbon, Oct. 26, 
 1751. He early entered the ministry, and 
 was first settled at Kibworth in 1723. In 
 1729 he entered upon his duties as teacher 
 of the school at Northampton, where he 
 continued to preach, and train students for 
 the ministry until declining health com¬ 
 pelled him to seek relief in a milder climate. 
 He died at Lisbon, and was buried in the 
 English graveyard. Dr. Doddridge was 
 a prolific author of hymns, some of which 
 still continue to find favor. His best- 
 known work is The Rise and Progress of Re¬ 
 ligion in the Soul (1745). 
 
 Dods, Marcus, D. D. (Edinburgh, 1872), 
 Free Church of Scotland ; b. at Belford, 
 Northumberland, Eng., April 11,1834; was 
 graduated at Edinburgh, 1S54, and studied 
 theology at New College in the same city, 
 (1854-58); pastor, from 1864 to 1889, of Ren- 
 field Free Church, Glasgow, when he be¬ 
 came professor of New Testament exe¬ 
 gesis in New College, Edinburgh. Among 
 his published works are: The Prayer that 
 Teaches to Pray (Edinburgh, 1863, 6th ed., 
 18S9) ; Mohammed , Buddha , and Christ 
 (1877); The Parables of our Lord (3 series, 
 1883—85); An Introduction to the New Tes¬ 
 tament (1888); The First Epistle to the Corin¬ 
 thians (1889). 
 
 Do'eg. See Aiiimelech. 
 
 Doellinger (dol-ling-er), Johann Joseph 
 Ignatius, Ph. D. (Vienna and Marburg, 
 1873), IT D. (Oxford, 1881), LL. D. (Ox¬ 
 ford and Edinburgh, 1873), the famous 
 theologian, and the leader of the “ Old 
 Catholic ” movement, was b. in Bamberg, 
 Bavaria, Feb. 28, 1799; d. in Munich, Jan. 
 10, 1890. He received priestly orders in 
 1822, and became chaplain of the diocese of 
 Bamberg. His treatise on The Doctrine of 
 the Eucharist came out in 1826; and in that 
 year he was invited to lecture on church 
 history before the University of Munich. 
 The substance of these discourses was 
 printed in one volume that appeared in 1828, 
 and in another more elaborate, ten years 
 later. In 1845 he began to give attention 
 to politics, and went into the Bavarian 
 Parliament as a representative of the Uni¬ 
 versity of Munich. Four years after this, 
 in the Diet of Frankfort, he voted for the 
 total separation of Church and State; and 
 in 1861 he delivered a series of lectures 
 advocating the abandonment of its tem¬ 
 poral power by the Holy See. Up to this 
 time he had published Origins of Christian¬ 
 ity; The Refor 7 nation: Its Interior Develop¬ 
 ments and Effects; 1 'he Religion of Mo ha 771- 
 77 ied; A Sketch of Luther; Paga 7 iism a 7 id 
 Judaism; and Christianity in the Church. 
 And these were followed by Papal Lege 7 ids 
 of the Middle Ages (1863) and A History of 
 the Religious Sects of the Middle Ages (1870). 
 
 Dr. Doellinger obtained wide fame by his 
 opposition to the decrees of the Vatican 
 Council, and, in particular, to that one de¬ 
 claring the infallibility of the pope when 
 addressing the Church ex cathedra on 
 questions of faith and morals. He pub¬ 
 lished on this subject the pamphlets, 
 A Few Words on the Bifallibility Address, 
 and The New By - Laws of the Cou 7 icil 
 (1870), and he was believed to be one of 
 the authors of the Janus , one of the most 
 important works published against papal 
 infallibility. As he emphatically declined 
 to submit to the decrees of the Vatican 
 Council, he was, on April 17, 1871, form¬ 
 ally excommunicated by the Archbishop of 
 Munich. On July 29, 1871, he was elected 
 rector of the University of Munich, receiv¬ 
 ing fifty-four out of sixty-three votes cast. 
 He took a leading part in the Old Catholic 
 congresses of Munich (1S71) and Cologne 
 (1872). In the former he showed himself 
 opposed to the measures adopted by the 
 majority for effecting a permanent eccle¬ 
 siastical organization of the Old Catholics; 
 in the latter, he was elected chairman of 
 a special committee on the reunion of the 
 Christian Churches, a subject to which for 
 years he devoted especial attention. For 
 a long time he was a member of the first 
 Chamber of the Bavarian Diet. In 1873 
 
Dog 
 
 ( 259 ) 
 
 Dol 
 
 he was appointed president of the Royal 
 Academy of Science. His last work, pub¬ 
 lished in 1889, 2 vols., was a history of the 
 ethical controversies in the Roman Catho¬ 
 lic Church since the sixteenth century, pre¬ 
 pared in connection with Professor Reusch. 
 See Old Catholics. 
 
 Dogma. In its orginal meaning dogma 
 from Gr. dokein , “ to seem,” signified that 
 which seemed true to any one. It finally 
 came into use to denote the opinions ex¬ 
 pressed by philosophers, and then gained 
 the sense of authoritative decrees. Both 
 in the LXX. and the New Testament it is 
 used with reference to decrees issued by 
 the State (Dan. ii. 13; iii. 10; Luke ii. 1), 
 and in Acts xvi. 4 to the decrees passed by 
 the Council of Jerusalem and also for the 
 Mosaic decrees. (Col. ii. 14; Eph. ii. 15.) 
 Dogma, as employed in the writings of 
 Protestant theologians has been defined as, 
 "“a truth of faith , derived from the 
 authority of the Word and Revelation of 
 God; a positive truth, therefore—positive, 
 not merely by virtue of the positiveness 
 with which it is laid down, but also by 
 virtue of the authority by which it is 
 sealed.”— Martensen. 
 
 Dogmatics is the science which treats 
 of Christian doctrine, and is, therefore, an¬ 
 other term for systematic theology. As 
 to the sources from which dogmatics draws 
 its chief materials, the Roman Catholic 
 and Protestant churches radically differ. 
 Evangelical theologians contend that the 
 Bible alone is the source from which we 
 derive our religious beliefs. On this basis 
 of a Divine revelation , the truth of Chris¬ 
 tianity is assumed independently of all spec¬ 
 ulation, and theological investigation is 
 confined to the elucidation and under¬ 
 standing of this accepted Word of God. 
 Outside the Scriptures there is no ultimate 
 authority for religious beliefs. The 
 Roman Catholic Church holds an entirely 
 different position from this. It claims, 
 through an abiding inspiration continued 
 to its living head, that the decisions of 
 councils, and the official utterances of the 
 pope have an authority as infallible as 
 that of the apostles. “ The Protestant 
 theology, on the other hand, declares that 
 only that religion is genuine which can be 
 shown to be apostolic. Protestantism re¬ 
 gards Christianity as a gospel of free 
 grace offered to all men alike; the Roman 
 Catholic theology regards it as a new law, 
 an authoritative, external authority to 
 which all must bow, with a hierarchy en¬ 
 dowed with power to settle, once and for 
 all, the precepts of the faith. It makes no 
 appeal to inward conviction, but rests all 
 
 on the external canon. It, therefore, sup¬ 
 plements the teaching of the New Testa¬ 
 ment by tradition , i. e., the handing down 
 through all time of the manner in which 
 succeeding ages received the Gospel, and 
 the form in which they held it.” 
 
 In Germany, especially, it must be ad¬ 
 mitted that Protestant dogmatics received 
 into its contents much of the traditional 
 material of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 This led to criticism which, under the form 
 of rationalism, “ rejected the doctrine of 
 the inspiration of Scripture; it denied that 
 Scripture is itself a divine revelation: it 
 accepted Scripture only as the first, the 
 most authentic, and consequently the most 
 authoritative testimony to the divine rev¬ 
 elation in Christ. By degrees its own posi¬ 
 tion became perfectly clear; it assumed 
 human reason as the highest norm for re¬ 
 vealed truths ( D . F. Strauss ), a self-con¬ 
 tradiction which must lead to the denial 
 of all revelation, that is, out of Christian¬ 
 ity. The lasting result, however, of the 
 rationalistic criticism, was the distinction 
 between a purely scriptural dogmatics de¬ 
 veloped into an independent branch of the 
 theological system, under the name of 
 Biblical Theology, and the whole sum of 
 Christian truth, such as it has grown up 
 from Scripture in Christendom during a 
 period of nearly two thousand years.”— 
 J. Kostlin . The literature of this subject 
 is enormous. Some of the more impor¬ 
 tant titles are given in Schaff - Herzog: 
 Ency., vol. I, pp. 654-656. 
 
 Literature. —Roman Catholic: Mohler 
 (1832), Perrone (1835). Lutheran: Me- 
 lanchthon (1521), Chemnitz (1592), Knapp 
 (1827), Martensen (1849), Thomasius (1853), 
 Luthardt (18G5). Reformed: Turretin 
 (1682), Witsius (1687), Pictet (1696), Eb- 
 rard (1851), Muller (1870), Dorner (1879). 
 Anglican: Hooker (1594), Pearson (1659), 
 Bull (1685), Harold Browne (1850). Scotch: 
 Hill (1821), Dick (1833), Chalmers (1849). 
 American: Edwards (Works, 1809), Dwight 
 (1818), Hodge (1872), Dabney .(1874), 
 Strong (1887), Shedd (1889). 
 
 Dogs were regarded with contempt by 
 the Jews, as an unclean animal. (Ex. xxii. 
 31; Deut. xxiii. 18; Rev. xxii. 15.) Al¬ 
 though numerous in the cities, they prowl 
 about and pick up their living in the 
 streets, but are not kept in the houses. 
 The Eastern people to this day can apply 
 no stronger opprobrious epithets than in 
 the use of the word “ dog.” 
 
 Dolcino, the successor of Segrarelli as 
 the leader of the Apostolic Brethren or 
 Dulcinists (1300); b. in the diocese of 
 Novara. Attempts were made to arrest 
 
Dom 
 
 ( 260 ) 
 
 Don 
 
 him, but it was not until 1307 that he was 
 defeated and burned. He was a well- 
 meaning religious enthusiast, but fanatical 
 and ill-balanced in mind. 
 
 Dominic, St. See Dominicans. 
 
 Dominicans, the first order of Preaching 
 Friars , founded by Domingo de Guzman, 
 who was b. in Old Castile in 1170, and d. 
 at Bologna, Aug. 6, 1221. Dominic was 
 made a canon in 1194, and afterward sub¬ 
 prior of the chapter of Osman. While 
 here he labored with success among the 
 Mohammedans who lived in that region. 
 Visiting the south of France in 1204, he 
 became interested in plans for the con¬ 
 version of the Albigenses. Little progress 
 was made in this work, but an asylum for 
 girls was founded at Prouille, where 
 Dominic and his followers found refuge 
 until presented with a house at Toulouse. 
 When, under the directions of Innocent III., 
 a crusade was declared against the Al¬ 
 bigenses, Dominic and his associates were 
 active in seizing and convicting heretics. 
 It was at this time that he began to plan 
 the organization of an order of preaching 
 monks. They adopted the rules of St. 
 Augustine, which enjoined poverty and the 
 severest restrictions. The order did not 
 grow rapidly until after 1219, when the 
 possession of property in every form was 
 renounced, and the members were to seek 
 their living by begging. From this time 
 forward the Dominicans increased rapidly. 
 “ Christendom,” says Dean Milman “ was 
 overspread with a host of zealous, active, 
 devoted men, whose function was popular 
 instruction. They were gathered from 
 every country, and spoke, therefore, every 
 language and dialect. In a few years, 
 from the sierras of Spain to the steppes of 
 Russia, from the Tiber to the Thames, 
 the Trent, the Baltic Sea, the old faith in 
 its fullest mediaeval, imaginative, inflexible 
 vigor was preached in almost every town 
 and hamlet.” In 1425 by order of Martin 
 V. they were again permitted to hold 
 property. With the increase of wealth 
 the Dominicans began to exercise great in¬ 
 fluence, both in art and education. They 
 gained a strong foothold in the University 
 of Paris and other seats of learning, and 
 became the earnest opponents of the 
 Franciscans in the discussions that were 
 waged between the Thomists and the 
 Scotists regarding points of historical, 
 scientific, and theological difference. 
 Among the eminent men who have be¬ 
 longed to the order are found the names 
 of St. Thomas Aquinas, Savonarola, Las 
 Casas, Albertus Magnus, Tauler, Cardinal 
 Cajetan, etc. Four popes, sixty cardinals, 
 
 and over eight hundred bishops have come 
 from the ranks of the Dominicans. In 
 Paris the order early received the name of 
 Jacobins, from the fact that their monastery, 
 founded there in 1218, was in the Rue St. 
 Jacques. An order of nuns was also es¬ 
 tablished by St. Dominic, that followed the 
 strict Dominican rule. It is a matter of 
 historic interest that the dogma of the im¬ 
 maculate conception, up to the time of its 
 promulgation in 1854, had always been op¬ 
 posed by the Dominicans. 
 
 Dominica in Albis, the first Sunday after 
 Easter. 
 
 Dominical Letter, a letter (one of the 
 first seven in the alphabet) which is used in 
 ecclesiastical almanacs to represent Sunday. 
 
 Dominicale, either a linen veil worn at 
 communion by women, or a fair linen 
 cloth, in which they received the bread, 
 instead of the hand. This custom is still 
 seen in the north of Italy. 
 
 Domitian, Roman emperor, 81-96. Dur¬ 
 ing his reign many Christians suffered 
 martyrdom. It would appear that he per¬ 
 secuted the Christians only as he thought 
 they were politically dangerous, and not 
 because of their peculiar religious opinions. 
 
 Donation of Constantine, an alleged im¬ 
 perial edict, by which Constantine the Great 
 is said to bestow Rome and Italy on the 
 Papacy. The forgery, which for a long 
 time was accepted as true, was committed 
 about the middle of the eighth century. It 
 was fully exposed by Laurentius Valla 
 (1440). 
 
 Donatists. The persecution of the Chris¬ 
 tians in the time of Diocletian developed 
 an intense loyalty to their faith that led 
 many to detest in the strongest manner 
 those who surrendered their Bibles to the 
 secular authorities. They called such 
 traditores. This feeling was carried so far 
 that it was condemned by Mensurius, bish¬ 
 op of Carthage. This only added fuel to 
 the flame. As a synod was about to open 
 at Cirta in 395, Secundus, primate of Nu- 
 midia, asked that inquiry be made if there 
 were any traditores in the assembly. The 
 investigation implicated most of the bish¬ 
 ops, and cast suspicion upon Secundus 
 himself, who then dropped the matter, but 
 sent a warning to Mensurius and his arch¬ 
 deacon, Caeclianus, who was in sympathy 
 with him. Upon the death of Mensurius 
 (311) Caeclianus was at once elected bishop, 
 without waiting for the coming of the Nu- 
 midian bishops, or asking Secundus to con- 
 
Don 
 
 ( 261 )' 
 
 Dor 
 
 secrate him to the office. A synod was 
 called, and Caeclianus refusing to appear, 
 it proceeded to elect Majorinus bishop of 
 Carthage, and upon his death soon after 
 (313), Donatus became his successor. 
 
 This was the beginning of the schism 
 which for so long a time distracted the 
 churches of North Africa. At first the 
 country people and many bishops favored 
 the claims of Donatus. Caeclianus was, 
 however, recognized by the authorities of 
 the Church outside of Africa. Constantine 
 the Great refused his protection to the 
 Donatists, but finally consented to appoint 
 a board of bishops to examine the merits 
 of the controversy. Donatus was deposed, 
 but his followers refused to submit. They 
 asked to have the case reopened, which 
 was done, but the commission again gave 
 a verdict in favor of Caeclianus. Appealing 
 directly to the emperor, Constantine sum¬ 
 moned Caeclianus and his accusers to 
 Milan (316), and again the decision was 
 against the Donatists. They still refused 
 to submit, and after Constans succeeded 
 his father, he treated them with great se¬ 
 verity. The Donatists, by the aid of a 
 fanatical party known as Circumcelliones , 
 aroused a tumult, that was suppressed by 
 • severe measures in 345. The death of 
 Caeclianus did not heal the schism, although 
 Constans made strenuous efforts to gain 
 the good-will of the Donatists, most of 
 whom were very poor, by promises of 
 financial assistance. Donatus was able to 
 arouse a strong opposition, and with the 
 help of the Circumcelliones armed resistance 
 was made. This uprising was soon put 
 down. Donatus was deposed and banished, 
 and the churches closed. When Julian 
 came to the throne he ordered them to be 
 reopened, and their bishops were rein¬ 
 stated. For a short time they used their 
 power in retaliating upon their enemies, 
 but the successors of Julian enforced the 
 law against them. Internal dissensions 
 broke out that weakened them more than 
 the attacks of opponents. The party which 
 held to the most extreme views of the sect, 
 upon an attempt to depose their leader, 
 Maximianus, convened a synod and elected 
 him bishop. During this period of dissen¬ 
 sion, Augustine began his attacks upon the 
 sect. A disputation was held in Carthage 
 (411), at the close of which the imperial 
 commissioner decided against the Dona¬ 
 tists. In 414-15 they were deprived of 
 civil rights, and forbidden to assemble for 
 worship. Remnants of the sect existed as 
 late as the seventh century, when the 
 country was overrun by the Saracens. 
 
 Donne, John, D. D., a celebrated divine 
 and admired poet of his times; b. in Lon¬ 
 
 don, 1573; d. March 31, 1631. Educated 
 at Oxford, and reared in the Roman Cath¬ 
 olic Church, after careful consideration he 
 united with the English Church. A secret 
 marriage with the niece of the Lord Chan¬ 
 cellor, whom he was serving as secretary, 
 incensed his wife’s relatives, as well as 
 Queen Elizabeth, and he was thrown into 
 prison. He gained the good-will of James 
 I., under whose patronage he wrote The 
 Tseudo-Marlyr. After long hesitation, he 
 was finally ordained about 1615. From this 
 time forward, until his death, he labored 
 with great diligence in and about London. 
 He has been called the “ Great Poet 
 Preacher” of the Church of England. His 
 Sermons , with a Life by Izaak Walton, were 
 published in 1640. 
 
 Donnell, Robert, one of the early lead¬ 
 ers of the Cumberland Presbyterian 
 Church; b. in Guilford County, N. C., 
 April, 1784; d. in Athens, Ala., May 24, 
 1854. Without the advantages of an early 
 education, but revealing peculiar gifts, he 
 was encouraged by the “ Council ” of the 
 Cumberland Presbytery, in 1806, to under¬ 
 take the work of an evangelist. In 1811 
 he became connected with the recently or¬ 
 ganized Cumberland Presbyterian body, 
 and soon became a leader in the denomina¬ 
 tion. He published Thoughts on Various 
 Subjects ( Nashville, last ed. 1880). See his 
 Life by Lowry (Nashville, Tenn., 1867). 
 
 Donnellan Lectures, six lectures given 
 annually in the Chapel of Trinity College, 
 Dublin. They are provided by a legacy 
 of Miss Anne Donnellan, given in 1794, 
 “ for the encouragement of religion, learn¬ 
 ing, and good manners.” Many well- 
 known works have come from this founda¬ 
 tion, among others Dr. Graves’s Lectures on 
 the Pentateuch ; Magee: On Prophecy , etc. 
 
 Doolittle, Justus, Presbyterian; b. at 
 Rutland, N. Y., June 23, 1824; d. at Clin¬ 
 ton, N. Y., June 15, 1880; was graduated at 
 Hamilton College, 1846, and Auburn Sem¬ 
 inary, 1849; from 1849 to 1869 and from 
 1872 to 1873, missionary in China, at Foo¬ 
 chow, Tientzin, and Shanghai. He pub¬ 
 lished The Social Life of the Chinese (New 
 York, 1865), 2 vols.; Vocabulary and Hand¬ 
 book of the Chinese Language , Romanized in 
 the Mandarin Dialect (1872-73), 2 vols. 
 
 Dora, Sister (Dorothy Wyndlow Pat- 
 tison); b. at Hauxwell, Yorkshire, Jan. 16, 
 1832; d. at Walsall, South Staffordshire, 
 Dec. 24, 1878. Her father was rector of 
 Hauxwell, and by inheritance a man of 
 wealth. From a sincere desire to help 
 those who were in suffering, his daughter 
 
Dor 
 
 ( 262 ) 
 
 Dow 
 
 left the comforts of her father’s home, and 
 after an experience of three years in teach¬ 
 ing, in 1864 she joined the Church of Eng¬ 
 land “ Sisterhood of the Good Samaritans.” 
 In 1865 she was sent to the Cottage Hos¬ 
 pital at Walsall, where she labored with 
 wonderful success until 1876, when she 
 was compelled, on account of illness, to 
 give up the work. Her wonderful skill, 
 courage, and devotion won the admiration 
 and love of all who were brought in contact 
 with her. Her life reads like a romance, 
 and is a beautiful and touching revelation 
 of service in the name of the Master. See 
 her Life by Margaret Lonsdale (Boston, 
 1880). 
 
 Dorcas Society, a name taken from the 
 Christian woman, mentioned in Acts ix. 36, 
 who was a kind friend of the poor, and was 
 restored to life by Peter. Societies organ¬ 
 ized to look after and prepare clothing for 
 the poor have been fifty called Dorcas So¬ 
 cieties. 
 
 Dorner, Isaac August, D. D., an eminent 
 German divine and theologian; b. at Neu- 
 hausen, June 20, 1809; d. at Wiesbaden, 
 July 8, 1884. He studied at the University 
 of Tubingen (1827), where, in 1835, he be¬ 
 came professor extraordinary of theology. 
 In this year he began the publication of his 
 great work, the History of the Development 
 of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ . 
 From 1839 to 1843 he was professor at the 
 University of Kiel, where he wrote his 
 treatise upon The Foundation Ideas of the 
 Protestant Church. In 1843 he was called 
 to the chair of theology at Konigsberg, in 
 1847 to Bonn, in 1853 to Gottingen, and in 
 1862 became professor and consistorial 
 councilor at Berlin. Dr. Philip Schaff 
 (Living Divines , p. 58) says: “ Dr. Dor¬ 
 ner was one of the profoundest and most 
 learned theologians of the nineteenth cen¬ 
 tury, and ranks with Schleiermacher, Ne- 
 ander, Nitzsch, Julius Muller, and Richard 
 Rothe. He mastered the theology of 
 Schleiermacher, and the philosophy of He¬ 
 gel, appropriated the best elements of both, 
 and infused into them a positive evangel¬ 
 ical faith and a historical spirit. The cen¬ 
 tral idea of his system was the divine-hu¬ 
 man personality of Christ, as the highest 
 revealer of God, the perfect ideal of hu¬ 
 manity, and the Saviour from sin and death. 
 His theology is preeminently Christolog- 
 ical, and his monumental history of Chris- 
 tology will long remain the richest mine of 
 study in that department.” Dr. Dorner 
 visited the United States in 1873, as a del¬ 
 egate to the meeting of the Evangelical Al¬ 
 liance held in New York. In the long list 
 of his publications, besides those already 
 
 mentioned, is A System of Christian Doc¬ 
 trine (English translation, Edinburgh, 1880- 
 82), 4 vols. 
 
 Dorothea, (1) a Christian maiden, mar¬ 
 tyred in the persecution of Diocletian. (2) 
 A Prussian lady who, at the age of forty- 
 four, and the mother of nine children, de¬ 
 voted herself to an ascetic life (1394). After 
 her death many miracles were reported at 
 her grave, and she was popularly regarded 
 as the patron saint of Prussia. 
 
 Dort, Synod of, the largest synod ever 
 held within the bounds of the Reformed 
 churches. It was convened by the States- 
 General at Dort (Dordrecht), Nov. 13,. 
 1618, and adjourned May 9, 1619. The 
 leaders on the Arminian side were Simon 
 Episcopius, professor at Leyden, John of 
 Barneveld, and Hugo Grotius. At the 
 head of the Calvinists was Prince Maurice, 
 of Orange. The synod had its origin in 
 the charge of disloyalty brought against 
 the Arminians, or Remonstrants, because of 
 the action of Grotius and Barneveld in con¬ 
 cluding a twelve years’ truce with Spain, 
 in 1609. The discussion led to an open 
 religious and political conflict between the 
 two parties. “ The canons of the Synod 
 of Dort are infralapsarian, and do not ex¬ 
 press the deepest and ultimate conclusion 
 of the Calvinistic system. The synod 
 ignored the spirit of union embodied in the 
 Second Helvetic Confession, and incorpo¬ 
 rated the old predestinarianism into its can¬ 
 ons.”— Heppe. See Schaff: Creeds of Chris¬ 
 tendom, vol. i, pp. 508, sqq. (N. Y., 1881). 
 
 Dositheus, an impostor who claimed 
 to be the Messiah. He had but a small 
 following, but the sect lived on as late as 
 the sixth century. The peculiarity of his 
 teaching was the stress laid upon the legal 
 observance of the Sabbath. 
 
 Douai, or Douay, a town of France, in 
 the department of Le Nord, on the Scarpe. 
 In the Middle Ages it was a place of some 
 commercial importance. Here, in 1568, 
 William Allen founded a seminary for the 
 education of Roman Catholic priests who 
 were preparing for missionary service in 
 England. It became the headquarters of 
 Roman Catholic Englishmen living on the 
 Continent, and owing to their intrigues 
 after the Huguenot troubles, the college 
 was removed to Rheims, in 1578, but in 
 1593 was again established at Douay. The 
 town is best known as the place where the 
 Old Testament of the so-called Douay Bible 
 was printed in 1602. See Bible, p. 109. 
 
 Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric Methodist 
 
Dow 
 
 ( 263 ) 
 
 Dre 
 
 preacher; b. at Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 
 1777; d. at Georgetown, D. C., Feb. 2, 
 1834. He commenced his labors as an 
 itinerant preacher in 1798, but was dropped 
 by his conference for leaving his appoint¬ 
 ment, and going to Europe on what he 
 conceived to be a special mission. From 
 this time he preached independent of ec¬ 
 clesiastical authority. Riding on horse¬ 
 back from forty to fifty miles, he often 
 spoke four or five times in a day. He was 
 eccentric in dress, manner, and speech, but 
 his native ability and eloquence won many 
 listeners and converts. See Dealings of 
 God, Man , and the Devil , as exemplified in 
 the Life of L. Dow , with his Writings (N. 
 Y. 1854, new ed. 1875). 
 
 Dowling, John, Baptist ; b. in Sussex, 
 Eng., May 12, 1807: d. at Middletown, N. 
 Y., July 4, 1878. For many years he was 
 pastor of the Berean Baptist Church in 
 New York City. He is best known by 
 his History of Romanism (1845, new ed. 
 1871). 
 
 Doxology, a hymn of glorification to 
 God. It originally consisted of the words 
 found in Luke ii. 14. Additions were early 
 made to it, first in the Greek Church and 
 then in the Latin, probably by Hilary, 
 Bishop of Poitiers (d. 366), and in the fifth 
 century what is known as the Doxologia 
 major read as follows: “ Glory to God on 
 high, and on earth peace to men of his good¬ 
 will. We praise thee, we bless thee, we 
 worship thee, we glorify thee, we give 
 thanks to thee for thy great glory. O 
 Lord God, heavenly king, God the Father 
 Almighty: O Lord, the only-begotten Son, 
 Jesus Christ; O Lord God, Lamb of God, 
 Son of the Father, that takest away the 
 sins of the world, have mercy upon us; 
 Thou that takest away the sins of the world, 
 receive our prayer; Thou that sittest at the 
 right hand of the Father, have mercy upon 
 us; For thou alone art holy, thou only, 
 Jesus Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art 
 most high in the glory of God the Father. 
 Amen.” 
 
 Down to the twelfth century this Dox¬ 
 ology was used alone by the bishops and 
 by the priests at Easter. It is still, to 
 some extent, in use among the Lutherans, 
 and in the English version it is regularly 
 employed in the service of the Episcopal 
 Church. The Doxologia minor consisted 
 at first of the words, Gloria Patri et Filio 
 et Spiritui Sancto in scecala sceculorum , to 
 which, growing out of the Arian contro¬ 
 versy, was added, “ as it was in the begin¬ 
 ning, is now, and ever shall be, world with¬ 
 out end.” This was used at the end of 
 each hymn. The term “doxology” is 
 
 used also to designate certain passages of 
 glorification found in the Scriptures, and 
 the verse or verses sung at the opening or 
 close of religious services. The most 
 familar is the stanza which closes both the 
 Morning and Evening hymns of Bishop 
 Ken, “ Praise God from whom all bless¬ 
 ings flow.” 
 
 Drachma. See Money. 
 
 Dream. “ The revelation of God’s will 
 in drea? 7 is is characteristic of the early and 
 less perfect patriarchal times (Gen. xxviii. 
 12; xxxi. 24; xxxvii. 5-10)—to Solomon 
 (1 Kings iii. 5), in commencing his reign; 
 the beginnings of the New Testament dis¬ 
 pensation (Matt. i. 20; ii. 13, 19, 22); and 
 the communications from God to the rulers 
 of the heathen-world powers, Philistia, 
 Egypt, Babylon (Gen. xx. 3; xl. 5; xli. 1); 
 Elihu (Job xxxiii. 15; Dan. ii.; iv. 5, etc.). 
 The dream form of revelation is that most 
 appropriate to those oiitside the kingdom of 
 God. So the Midianite (Judg. vii. 13); Pi¬ 
 late’s wife. (Matt, xxvii. 19.) But it is the 
 Israelites,Joseph and Daniel, who interpret; 
 for heathendom is passive, Israel active, 
 in Divine things, to the glory of the God of 
 Israel. Dreams were a frequent means of 
 imposture and idolatry. (Deut. xiii. 1-3; 
 Zech. x. 2.) The dream form of revelation 
 is placed below that of prophecy , and even 
 divination. (Num. xii. 6; Joel ii. 28; 1 Sam. 
 xxviii. 6.) ‘Trances’ and ‘visions’ are 
 mentioned in the Christian church, but not 
 dreams. Whilst God has acted, and can 
 act, on the mind in a dream (wherein the 
 reason and judgment are dormant, but the 
 sensations and imaginations active and un¬ 
 controlled by the judgment), his higher 
 mode of revelation is that wherein the un¬ 
 derstanding is active and conscious; con¬ 
 sequently the former mode appears more 
 in imperfect stages of the development of 
 God’s scheme than in the advanced stages.” 
 —Fausset: Bible Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Drelincourt ( dra-lin-cour ), Charles, Re¬ 
 formed Church of France; b. at Sedan, 
 July 10, 1595; d. Nov. 3, 1669, at Charen- 
 ton, near Paris, where he had been pastor 
 since 1620. He was a prolific writer, but 
 is now remembered by his Christian's De¬ 
 fence Against ; the Fear of Death (1651), 
 which, in its English translation, has passed 
 through more than a score of editions. It 
 was to the edition of this work, published 
 in 1705, that De Foe attached, in the intro¬ 
 duction, his fiction of Mrs. Veal , in which 
 he makes that lady to return from the dead 
 to recommend the work of Drelincourt. 
 
 Dress. See Clothing, 
 
Dri 
 
 ( 264 ) 
 
 Dru 
 
 Driver, Samuel Rolles, D. D. (by decree 
 of Convocation, 1883), Churchof England; b. 
 at Southampton, Oct. 2, 1846; was graduat¬ 
 ed at Oxford, 1869; succeeded Dr. Pusey as 
 regius professor of Hebrew and canon of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, 1882. He was a 
 member of the Old Testament Revision 
 Company. Among his published works are: 
 A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in He¬ 
 brew (Oxford, 1874, 2d ed., 1S81); Isaiah 
 (New York, 1S8S). 
 
 Druidism, the name generally given to 
 the religious system of the ancient Gauls 
 and Britons. The word Druid, one form 
 or other of which is used in early Celtic 
 records to designate a class of priests cor¬ 
 responding to the Magi or wise men of the 
 ancient Persians, is of uncertain etymology. 
 The derivation from the Greek drus , an 
 oak, though as old as the elder Pliny, is 
 fanciful. The Druids, as the religious 
 guides of the people, were put under a se¬ 
 vere course of training for their duties. 
 They were taught orally, and the president 
 of the order had supreme authority. They 
 believed in the immortality of the soul. 
 Groves of oak were their chosen retreat, 
 and whatever grew on that tree was 
 thought to be a gift from heaven, especially 
 the mistletoe. In spite of their boasted 
 civilization, many of their rites were bar¬ 
 barous in the extreme. In mechanics they 
 attained to no mean skill, since the ponder¬ 
 ous megalithic remains of Britain and 
 France could have been set up only by 
 them. Stone circles, like Stannis and Cal- 
 lernish, were ancient temples, once sur¬ 
 rounding groves sacred to Druidism. After 
 long and severe conflicts, this semi-barba¬ 
 rous faith disappeared before the advance 
 of Christianity. 
 
 Drummond, Henry, Free Church of 
 Scotland, layman; b. at Stirling, Scotland, 
 in 1852; studied at Edinburgh; became pro¬ 
 fessor of natural history and science in the 
 Free Church College, Glasgow, 1S79. He 
 is the author of Natural Law in the Spir¬ 
 itual World (London and New York, 1883, 
 23d ed., 1888); Tropical Africa (1888). 
 
 Druses, a peculiar Syrian sect who in¬ 
 habit the ranges of Lebanon, and from the 
 Mediterranean are scattered as far east as 
 Damascus. They are under Turkish rule, 
 but enjoy considerable political freedom. 
 With the Mohammedans they hold that 
 there is no god but God, but they assert 
 that he is unknowable and has revealed 
 himself to man by incarnations. The last 
 of these incarnations, and the only one that 
 will ever again occur, is that of Hakim, 
 the third of the Fatimite caliphs, who was 
 
 born at Cairo in 985. Hakim was a mis¬ 
 erable tyrant, whose cruel disposition 
 found vent in the murder of thousands of 
 victims, and in the oppression of Chris¬ 
 tians and Jews, whom he compelled to 
 wear garbs that should distinguish them 
 from Mohammedans. He belonged to the 
 Batiniya, an extreme sect of the Shiites. 
 In 1040 one of his principal adherents, 
 Ismael Darasi, appeared in the mosque of 
 Cairo and announced that Hakim was Al¬ 
 lah incarnated. A riot followed this mes¬ 
 sage, and Darasi fled to Damascus and 
 there sought to gain disciples among the 
 mountaineers. Another favorite of Ha¬ 
 kim, Hamsa, in a more quiet way, in the 
 outskirts of Cairo, taught the incarnation 
 of his master. He gained adherents, but 
 in time a fresh revolt broke out and he es¬ 
 caped with difficulty, and, soon after (1044), 
 Hakim was killed. Meanwhile Darasi 
 had gathered converts to the new faith 
 among the Druses. A quarrel with Ham¬ 
 sa, who had joined the Druses, ended in 
 the assassination of Darasi. From this 
 time Hamsa became the leader of the sect, 
 and wrote the books of doctrine which, like 
 their rites, were long kept a profound se¬ 
 cret. They believe that Hakim is still the 
 source and channel of all knowledge and 
 grace. They look for his second advent, 
 when he will distribute rewards and pun¬ 
 ishments. They believe that there is al¬ 
 ways the same number of people living in 
 the world, and they also hold the doctrine 
 of transmigration of souls. For a long pe¬ 
 riod the relations between the Maronites 
 and Druses were comparatively amicable, 
 but since 1840 the increased power of the 
 Druses has been the cause of constant 
 feuds. An attack by the Maronites on a 
 Druse village was the beginning of the 
 terrible massacre, in i860, of Christians 
 at Damascus and throughout Syria. Earl 
 of Carnarvon: Recollections of the Druses of 
 the Lebanon (1880). See Maronites. 
 
 Drusil'la, the third daughter of Herod 
 Agrippa (Acts xii.), who was first married 
 to Azizus, the king of Emesa, and after¬ 
 ward to Felix, procurator of Judaea. She 
 was present when Paul was brought be¬ 
 fore Felix at Caesarea. (Acts xxiv. 24.) 
 According to Josephus, she perished with 
 her son Agrippa in the eruption of 
 Vesuvius (79 A. d.). 
 
 Druthmar, Christian, a learned monk 
 who lived about the middle of the ninth 
 century. While in the monastery at 
 Stavelo, in the diocese of Liege he pre¬ 
 pared a famous commentary on the Gospel 
 of Matthew. Laying stress upon the his¬ 
 torical sense, and following true exeget- 
 
Dua 
 
 ( 265 ) 
 
 Dun 
 
 ical principles he appears to have rejected 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation. 
 
 Dualism is the name given to a philosoph¬ 
 ical theory according to which existence 
 in all forms is based on two principles con¬ 
 trary to each other. This condition of 
 opposition is seen in good and evil, God 
 and the world, spirit and matter, soul and 
 body. This theory in its crudest form 
 was held by the Manichseans, and it exert¬ 
 ed a marked influence upon the thought 
 and life of the early centuries of Christian¬ 
 ity. The opposite of dualism is monism. 
 
 Duchobortzi, a Russian sect which orig¬ 
 inated about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. Their doctrinal views appear to 
 be in substantial accord with those of the 
 Russian Church, but are developed in a 
 form of mysticism marked by singular 
 fancies. They refuse to take oaths or to 
 serve in the army. They discard sacra¬ 
 ments, liturgies,and the priesthood. They 
 first arose among the Molokans, and suf¬ 
 fered persecution from Catherine II. 
 Alexander I. granted them toleration, and 
 they were permitted to settle near the Sea 
 of Azov. In consequence of disputes that 
 arose through the influence of an impostor, 
 named Kapustine, they were transferred, in 
 1837, to the Caucasus. 
 
 Duchowny Christians. See Molokani. 
 
 Duff, Alexander, D. D.; b. near Mou¬ 
 lin, Perthshire, Scotland, April 25, 1806; 
 d. in Edinburgh, Feb. 12, 1878. After 
 graduating at the University of St. An¬ 
 drew’s, where he came under the influence 
 of Dr. Chalmers, he was licensed to preach 
 in 1829, and at the age of twenty-three was 
 appointed missionary to India, the first 
 sent out to that country by the Church of 
 Scotland. On the passage he was ship¬ 
 wrecked, and it was eight months before 
 he arrived at Calcutta. In the face of 
 much opposition he laid the foundations of 
 a school in which the Hindoo scholars, 
 through the English language, were taught 
 the Scriptures,and given a knowledge of the 
 sciences. Along these lines of instruction 
 he labored for spiritual results, and among 
 the converts were young men of promise, 
 whose lives have been, in many cases, em¬ 
 inently useful. Ill-health compelled Duff 
 to return home in 1834, but his visit proved 
 providential in the great interest which his 
 earnest appeals created for the cause of 
 missions. At the disruption of the Scot¬ 
 tish Church in 1843, he cast in his lot with 
 the Free Church. Compelled to relinquish 
 the mission property, he laid the founda¬ 
 tions of a new school. His work was 
 
 abundantly prospered. In 1850 he again 
 returned to Scotland, and the following 
 year he was elected chairman of the Gen¬ 
 eral Assembly. He visited the United 
 States, and here, as in his native land, his 
 addresses made a deep impression by their 
 fervid eloquence and power. After his 
 return to India he labored with his accus¬ 
 tomed vigor until 1864, when, broken in 
 health, he retired from active service, and 
 spent the remainder of his life in Scotland. 
 In 1867 he was appointed professor of 
 evangelistic theology in the Free Church, 
 and in many ways he interested himself, as 
 strength permitted, in the cause of Christ, 
 at home and abroad. See his Life , by 
 George Smith (Edinburgh and N. Y., 18S0). 
 
 Dulcinists. See Dolcino. 
 
 Dulia. See Adoration. 
 
 Du Moulin, Pierre, a celebrated contro¬ 
 versialist of the French Protestant Church, 
 b. at Buhy, Oct. 16, 1568; d. at Sedan, 
 March 10, 1658. Educated at Paris, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and Leyden, in 1559 he became 
 pastor at Charenton, and chaplain to Cath¬ 
 arine of Bourbon. The efforts made, 
 through the influence of the pope, to se¬ 
 cure the conversion of this princess to the 
 Roman faith, led to a vigorous controversy, 
 which Du Moulin sustained, in behalf of 
 Protestantism, with great ability. Several 
 universities—among them that at Leyden 
 —urged him to fill their chair of theology, 
 but he would not leave his church at Paris. 
 For many years he was an intimate adviser 
 of James I., of England, and some of his 
 controversial works were written at his 
 request. In 1620, while absent from Paris, 
 he learned that it would not be safe for him 
 to return. He accepted the professorship 
 of theology at Sedan, where he spent the 
 rest of his life in teaching and writing. 
 
 Duncan, John, LL. D., a Scotch Orient¬ 
 alist; b. at Gilcomston, near Aberdeen, 
 1796; d. in Edinburgh, Feb. 26, 1870. He 
 was graduated at Marischal College, Aber¬ 
 deen, and studied divinity in Edinburgh, 
 receiving his license in 1825. In 1831 he 
 was settled in Glasgow; became a mission¬ 
 ary to the Jews in Pesth, 1840; professor 
 of Oriental languages, New College, Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1843. He is remembered for the 
 remarkable influence which he exerted in 
 the spiritual inspiration of his pupils. See 
 his Life, by David Brown (Edinburgh, 1872); 
 and his Colloquia Peripatetica (1870; 5th ed. 
 1879). 
 
 Dunkers, or Tunkers, “a sect of American 
 Baptists, originating in Germany. The 
 
Dun 
 
 ( 266 ) 
 
 Dup 
 
 
 
 name, as its second form indicates, is a 
 nickname, meaning dippers , from the Ger¬ 
 man ttinken, to dip. From the first, the 
 members recognized no other name than 
 ‘Brethren.’ The founder of the sect was 
 Alexander Mack, of Schwartzenau, who, 
 along with one or two companions, was led 
 to adopt anti-paedobaptist views, about the 
 year 1708. It had scarcely assumed organ¬ 
 ized existence in Germany, when its mem¬ 
 bers were compelled, by persecution, to 
 take refuge in Holland, from which they 
 emigrated to Pennsylvania in small com¬ 
 panies, in the years between 1720 and 1729. 
 Their first community was established at 
 Germantown, not far from Philadelphia, 
 and other settlements were gradually form¬ 
 ed in New England, Maryland, Virginia, 
 Ohio, and Indiana. In the early history of 
 the sect the sexes dwelt apart; and mar¬ 
 riage, while not forbidden, was discour¬ 
 aged. Similarly, while the holding of 
 private property was not absolutely pro¬ 
 hibited, a certain community of goods was 
 established and maintained by the volun¬ 
 tary action of the members, and it was 
 considered unlawful to take interest for 
 money. These features have now disap¬ 
 peared; but in other respects the sect re¬ 
 tains much of its original character. Every 
 member has the right to exhort, and take 
 part in the religious services, and for a 
 considerable period no special provision 
 was made for the conduct of worship. 
 There is now, however, a recognized un¬ 
 paid ministry of bishops and teachers. 
 There are, also, deacons and deaconesses. 
 In baptism trine immersion is used. The 
 Lord’s Supper is observed in the evening 
 only, and connected with it are the lavipe- 
 dium> or ceremonial feet-washing, and the 
 apostolic ‘ love-feasts.’ Putting a literal 
 interpretation on James v. 14, they prac¬ 
 tice the anointing with oil for the healing 
 of the sick, and many of them will not 
 adopt any other means of recovery. They 
 resemble the Quakers in their plainness of 
 speech and dress, and their refusal to take 
 oaths, or to serve in war. Their number, 
 which at one time was estimated at 30,000, 
 has very considerably declined, and the 
 latest account states it at less than 8,000. 
 An early offshoot from the general body 
 of Dunkers were the Seventh-Day Dunk- 
 ers, whose distinctive principle, as their 
 name imports, was that the seventh day, 
 and not the first day, of the week was the 
 true Sabbath, intended to be perpetually 
 and universally observed. Their founder 
 was Conrad Beissel, one of the first em¬ 
 igrants, who established a settlement at 
 ‘ Ephrata,’ about fifty miles from Philadel¬ 
 phia, in 1773. This branch of the sect has 
 almost died out.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Duns Scotus, one of the most famous 
 and influential of the scholastics of the four¬ 
 teenth century. The place and time of his 
 birth are uncertain. He became a member 
 of the order of Franciscans in early life, and 
 studied at Oxford, where he became pro¬ 
 fessor of theology and drew crowds of stu¬ 
 dents. In 1304 he removed to Paris, and 
 repeated there his great success as a 
 teacher. Against Thomas Aquinas he de¬ 
 fended the immaculate conception of the 
 Virgin. In his famous discussions with 
 Aquinas, he held the doctrine of “ the ab¬ 
 solute freedom of the will, from whose 
 spontaneous exercise he derived all moral¬ 
 ity.” He was a realist in philosophy. His 
 acuteness won for him the name of Doctor 
 Subtilis. In 1308 he was called to Cologne 
 to oppose the heresies of the Beguin breth¬ 
 ren, where he suddenly died. Besides com¬ 
 mentaries on the Bible and Aristotle, he 
 wrote other books, a chief edition of which 
 was edited by Luke Wadding, 12 vols- 
 (Lyons, 1639). The controversy between 
 the Scotists and Thomists was carried on 
 with much bitterness by the rival orders of 
 the Franciscans and Dominicans. 
 
 Dunstan, St., archbishop of Canterbury, 
 b. at Glastonbury, 924; d. May 19, 988. 
 He was educated by Irish monks, and King 
 Edmund made him abbot of Glastonbury 
 and treasurer of his kingdom. During the 
 reign of Edred (946-955), he seems to have 
 been the real head of affairs. Besides his 
 character as a statesman, he is described 
 as a reformer of the Saxon clergy, and a 
 worker of miracles. See Hook: Lives of 
 the Archbishops of Canterbury. 
 
 Dunster, Henry, first president of Har¬ 
 vard University; b. in England; d. at Scit- 
 uate, Mass., Feb. 27, 1659. Educated at 
 Emanuel College, Cambridge, he emi¬ 
 grated to New England, where he was made 
 president of the college just established at 
 Cambridge (1640). He discharged the 
 duties of his office with great acceptance 
 for fourteen years, when he became con¬ 
 vinced that the doctrine of paedobaptism 
 was not contained in Scripture, and as this 
 view was not shared by the governing au¬ 
 thorities, he deemed it best and wise to 
 resign his position. He removed to Scit- 
 uate, where he was engaged in the work 
 of the ministry until the time of his death. 
 He was an excellent scholar, and aided in 
 revising the version of the Psalms by 
 Eliot, Wilde, and Mather. See Jeremiah 
 Chaplin: Life of Henry Dunster (Boston, 
 1872). 
 
 Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Philippe, 
 bishop of Orleans, and eminent for his 
 
Dup 
 
 ( 267 ) 
 
 Dur 
 
 pulpit eloquence; b. at St. Felix, Savoy, 
 Jan. 3, 1802; d. at Laincey in Loiret, Oct. 
 11, 1878. He was ordained priest in 1825, 
 and at the Revolution (1830) was almoner 
 to the Dauphin. In 1841 he became one 
 of the professors of theology at the College 
 of the Sorbonne, and in 1849 Bishop of Or¬ 
 leans. He was a member of the French 
 Academy, and earnestly opposed the dogma 
 of papal infallibility. Among his works 
 one of the most important is L'Education 
 (Paris, 1855-1857), 3 vols. He wrote se¬ 
 verely against the Life of Jesus by Renan, 
 his former pupil. 
 
 Dupin ( dii-pan ), Louis Ellies, Jansenist; 
 b. in Paris, June 17, 1657; d. there, June 6, 
 1719. Educated at Paris, he became pro¬ 
 fessor of philosophy in the College of 
 France there, 1686, but was removed on 
 account of his action as a Jansenist, in op¬ 
 posing the bull Unigenitus. He took an 
 active interest in the attempted union be¬ 
 tween the Greek and Latin, also the An¬ 
 glican and Gallican, churches. His great 
 work was: A Ne%v History of Ecclesiastical 
 Writers (original French ed., Paris, 1686- 
 1714, 47 vols.; Eng. trans., London, 1693- 
 1707, 17 vols.). 
 
 Du Plessis-Morney, Philip, a prominent 
 leader of the French Protestants; b. at 
 Buhy, Normandy, Nov. 5, 1549. Study 
 and travel gave him an excellent educa¬ 
 tion. A pamphlet, in which he described 
 the Spanish oppression in the Netherlands, 
 brought him under the condemnation of 
 the Roman Catholics, and he barely es¬ 
 caped death in the massacre of Aug. 24, 
 1572. He fled to England, and engaged in 
 literary work and diplomatic service that 
 was now and then exchanged for service in 
 the army. He became an intimate friend 
 and adviser of Henry of Navarre, and was 
 instrumental, after the death of the Duke 
 of Guise, in bringing about a reconciliation 
 between that monarch and Henry III. 
 Appointed governor of Saumur, he gained 
 permission to found a university there. 
 When Henry succeeded to the French 
 throne he was unsuccessful in dissuading 
 him from changing his religion, but gained 
 certain edicts protecting the Protestants. 
 In 1598 he published abookon the Institu¬ 
 tion of the Lord j Supper, opposing the 
 Mass. A plan on the part of the Jesuits 
 to bring about a public discussion of the 
 tenets of the work was arranged in such a 
 way that an unfair advantage was taken of 
 Du Plessis-Morney, in giving him only a 
 few hours in which to prepare a reply to 
 the assertions of his opponents. Late in 
 life he wrote The Mystery of Iniquity , an 
 attack on the papacy. When the religious 
 
 war broke out afresh in 1621, he retired to 
 his estates, La Foret-sur-Sevre, where he 
 died, Nov. 11, 1623. 
 
 Durand, William, of St. Pou^ain, one 
 of the most remarkable of the schoolmen 
 of the fourteenth century; d. 1332. He was 
 called Doctor Resolutissimus , from the ear¬ 
 nestness with which he asserted that there 
 is no human authority above the human 
 reason. Breaking with the schools of 
 Anselm and Aquinas, he made man the 
 centre of his theology, and the Scriptures 
 a help to gain a better life, by instruction 
 in good works. He denied that the sacra¬ 
 ments had any inherent efficacy, but held 
 that they were only conditions of grace. 
 Along this line his views prepared the way 
 for the Reformation. A number of his 
 works, in manuscript, are preserved in the 
 National Library in Paris. 
 
 Durbin, John Price, D. D., a Methodist 
 preacher famed for his eloquence; b. in 
 Bourbon County, Kentucky, 1800; d. in 
 New York City, Oct. 17, 1876. From 1834 
 to 1845 he was president of Dickinson Col¬ 
 lege. From 1850 to 1872 he was secretary 
 of the Missionary Society of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. He wrote Observations 
 in Europe (N. Y., 1844), 2 vols., and Obser¬ 
 vations in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Asia 
 Minor (N. Y., 1845), 2 vols. See his Life 
 by J. A. Roche (N. Y., 1889). 
 
 Durham Cathedral. In 995 Bishop 
 Ealdhun, fleeing from the Danes, came to 
 Durham and built a stone church to en¬ 
 shrine the remains of St. Cuthbert (q. v.), 
 which he brought with him. On the site 
 of this church, Bishop Carileph, in 1093, 
 began the present magnificent cathedral, a 
 Romanesque structure in the form of a 
 Latin cross, to which additions continued 
 to be made till about 1500. It thus exhib¬ 
 its the gradual changes of style between 
 these periods. It is 507 by 200 feet, with 
 a central tower 214 feet high and two west 
 towers, 138 feet high. Extensive'restora- 
 tions were undertaken in the last century, 
 and it was not finished until 1840. The 
 site of the cathedral is one of the most im¬ 
 posing in England, standing, as it does, 
 sheer upon the face of the cliff above the 
 river Wear. 
 
 Durie, or Dury, John, Protestant; b. in 
 Edinburgh, 1596; d. at Cassel, Germany, 
 Sept. 26, 1680. Most of his life was spent 
 on the Continent, and was devoted to the 
 cause of Church union, which he urged in 
 every possible way. He acted as chaplain 
 to Charles I. and to Mary, and was a mem¬ 
 ber of the Westminster Assembly of Di- 
 
Dut 
 
 ( 268 ) 
 
 Dwi 
 
 vines. See Schaff-Herzog: Encv.; Diet. 
 Nat. Biog ., s. v. 
 
 Dutch. See Holland Reformed 
 Church. 
 
 Duvergier. See Port Royalists. 
 
 D. V. ( Deo Volente ), “ God willing.” 
 
 Dwight, Timothy, eminent as a theolo¬ 
 gian, preacher, and teacher; b. in North- 
 
 remained until his death. His influence as 
 a teacher and preacher was remarkable. 
 In 1818 he published a volume of sermons 
 under the title of Theology Explained and 
 Defended , which met with great favor both 
 in this country and Great Britain. His 
 other works are 'Travels in New England 
 (1822), 4 vols.; Ser?nons on Miscellaneous 
 Subjects (1828), 2 vols. The well-known 
 hymn, “ I love thy kingdom, Lord,” was 
 from his pen. Dr. Dwight’s mother was a 
 daughter of Jonathan Edwards, and his 
 
 DURHAM CATHEDRAL. 
 
 ampton, Mass., May 14, 1752; d. at New 
 Haven, Jan. 11, 1817. He was graduated 
 at Yale College in 1769, where he held a 
 tutorship from 1771 to 1777, when he re¬ 
 signed, and for more than a year acted as 
 chaplain in the Revolutionary army. From 
 1783 to 1795 he was principal of an academy 
 at Greenfield Hill, Conn. While here he 
 published two elaborate poems, The Con¬ 
 quest of Canaan (1785), and Greenfield Hill 
 (1794). In 1795 he entered upon the duties 
 of the presidency of Yale College where he 
 
 views were in substantial accord with those 
 of his illustrious grandfather. See Sprague: 
 Annals of the American Pulpit , and Memoir 
 prefixed to his System of Theology. 
 
 Dwight, Sereno Edwards, son of Pres¬ 
 ident Dwight; b. at Greenfield, Conn., May 
 18, 1786; d. at Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1850. 
 After graduating at Yale College in 1803, 
 he taught there as tutor in 1S06-10, and 
 then practiced law for five years. Enter¬ 
 ing the ministry in 1S16 he was pastor of 
 
Dwi 
 
 ( 269 ) 
 
 Eas 
 
 the Park Street Congregational Church, 
 Boston, 1817-26. Resigning on account of 
 impaired health, he taught in New Haven 
 for a time, until he became president of 
 Hamilton College, N. Y,, 1833-35. His 
 best-known work was The Hebrew Wife , 
 an argument on the lawfulness of marriage 
 with a deceased wife’s sister, published in 
 1836. He wrote a Life of his great-grand¬ 
 father, Jonathan Edwards, introductory to 
 his edition of Edwards’s works (N. Y., 
 1830). See Select Discourses , with Memoir , 
 by W. T. Dwight (1851). 
 
 Dwight, Timothy, D. D. (Chicago The¬ 
 ological Seminary, Ill., 1869), LL. D. 
 (Harvard, 1886), Congregationalist; b. at 
 Norwich, Conn., Nov. 16,1828; was graduat¬ 
 ed at Yale College, 1849; studied at Yale Di¬ 
 vinity School; tutor in the college, 1851- 
 55; studied at Bonn and Berlin, 1856-58, 
 and became professor of sacred literature 
 in the Divinity School, 1858; president of 
 Yale University, 1886. He was a member 
 of the New Testament Bible Revision 
 Company. 
 
 Dykes, James Oswald, D. D. (Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1873), Presbyterian; b. at Port 
 Glasgow,near Greenock, Scotland, Aug. 14, 
 1835; was graduated at Edinburgh Univer¬ 
 sity, 1854; studied theology at New Col¬ 
 lege, Edinburgh, 1854-58, and at Heidel¬ 
 berg and Erlangen, 1856; pastor at East 
 Kilbride, County Lanark, Scotland, 1859; 
 co-pastor of Free St. George’s, Edinburgh, 
 1861; in Australia on account of health, 
 1864-67; pastor of Regent’s Square Pres¬ 
 byterian Church, London, 1869; principal 
 of English Presbyterian Theological Col¬ 
 lege, London, 1889. He is the author of: 
 Fro?7i Jerusale?7i to Antioch (London, 1875); 
 Abraham (1877); The Law of the Ten 
 Words (1884); The Gospel According to 
 Paul (1888), and other volumes. 
 
 K. 
 
 Eadie, John, D. D., born at Alva, Scot¬ 
 land, May 9, 1810; d. at Glasgow, June 3, 
 1876. From 1835 until the time of his 
 death he was pastor of a Presbyterian 
 church in Glasgow. For thirty-three years 
 he filled the professorship of biblical liter¬ 
 ature in the theological seminary of the 
 United Presbyterian Church. During these 
 years he wrote extensively. His com¬ 
 mentaries on Ephesia7is (1854), Colossia7is 
 (1856), Philippians (1859), Galatia7is (1869), 
 and First Thessalonians (1877), met with a 
 favorable reception. He was a member of 
 the New Testament company of revisers. 
 
 Eadward.or Edward III., the Confess¬ 
 
 or, king of the Anglo-Saxons; b. 1004; 
 d. 1066. He dedicated Westminster Ab¬ 
 bey in 1065. For sketch of his life see 
 Green: Short Histo7'y of the English People\ 
 Freeman: History of the Norman Conquest 
 (vol. ii.). 
 
 East, Praying toward the. This custom 
 of the early Church has been explained in 
 many ways. The most prominent reason 
 given is that as “ the rising sun was the 
 symbol of Christ, the Sun of Righteous¬ 
 ness; and, since people must worship 
 toward some quarter of the heavens, they 
 chose that which led them to Christ by sym¬ 
 bolical representation.” (Tertullian, Apol. 
 i. 16.) This practice has been revived by 
 some of the extreme ritualists of the Epis¬ 
 copal Church. 
 
 Easter, the greatest festival of Chris¬ 
 tendom, observed in commemoration of 
 the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ. 
 According to Bede, the name is derived 
 from Eostre, a Saxon goddess, whose fes¬ 
 tival was celebrated in the spring, from 
 whence April was called Eostur-77ionath. 
 Its ancient name was Pascha (i. e., Pass- 
 over), the “ Pascha of the Resurrection.” 
 The first Christians naturally observed the 
 Jewish festivals with a new interpretation 
 in accord with their faith, and in this spirit 
 the ancient Passover brought to mind 
 Christ as the Paschal Lamb and the first- 
 fruits from the dead. It was not until 
 after apostolic times that this festival be¬ 
 came an instituted observance of the Chris¬ 
 tian Church. A long and bitter contro¬ 
 versy was waged, between Christians of 
 Jewish and Gentile descent, as to the date 
 of the festival, the Jewish Christians, in 
 accord with their early training and educa¬ 
 tion, holding that the fast should come to 
 an end on the evening of the fourteenth 
 day of the moon, celebrated the Easter 
 festival immediately, without regard to 
 the day of the week. The Gentile Chris¬ 
 tians, free from Jewish traditions, insisted 
 upon commemorating Friday as the date of 
 the Crucifixion, so that the Easter festival 
 always came upon the first day of the week. 
 The controversy was finally settled by the 
 Council of Nicaea (325), which decided that 
 Easter should always be the Sunday near¬ 
 est to the calculated anniversary of the 
 actual Resurrection, “ being determined 
 by the Paschal moon, the full moon next 
 after or upon March 21. The earliest 
 date, therefore, for Easter Day is March 
 21, and latest, April 25.” During many 
 centuries much discussion arose as to 
 the proper date. The present reformed 
 calendar is in use in the Western Church, 
 while the unreformed calendar is made 
 
Eas 
 
 ( 270 ) 
 
 Ecc 
 
 the basis of calculation in the Eastern 
 Church. The festival is celebrated by 
 elaborate services in the Roman and Epis¬ 
 copal churches, and is more and more ob¬ 
 served by Christians of every name. 
 
 Eastern Church, formerly designated 
 the Greek Church, in distinction from the 
 Western (or Latin) Church. The name is 
 now given to Eastern Christendom, and 
 includes, besides the Greek Church, the 
 Arminian Church, the Nestorians, the 
 Jacobites, and the Copts and Abyssinians. 
 See Greek Church. 
 
 E'bal ( stone ), a mountain opposite Mt. 
 Gerizim. At their base they are separated 
 by a narrow valley, some 500 feet wide, in 
 which lies the town of Shechem.* From 
 Ebal the curse of the law was pronounced. 
 (Deut. xxvii. 13.) The summits of Ebal 
 and Gerizim are a mile and a half apart, 
 but repeated experiments have shown that 
 the voice can be heard from one mountain 
 to the other, and in the valley below. See 
 Gerizim and Shechem. 
 
 Ebel, Johannes Wilhelm, a German 
 mystic and theosophist; b. in 1784 at Pas- 
 senheim; d. at Hoheneck, in Wiirtemburg, 
 in 1861. His pronounced evangelical views 
 aroused opposition early in his ministry. 
 This continued after he was chosen pastor 
 of the Old Town Church at Konigsberg in 
 1816. Having adopted the views of 
 Schonherr, (y. v.) his position was made 
 the excuse for a bitter persecution. He 
 was accused with others of founding a sect 
 which held secret meetings and advocated 
 principles of an immoral tendency. In the 
 most arbitrary and illegal manner he was 
 suspended by the consistory in 1835. This 
 action led to a long criminal suit. Ebel 
 was acquitted from the charge of founding 
 a new sect, but condemned for wrong teach¬ 
 ing, and deposed from the ministry. His 
 name will live as a noble man and eloquent 
 teacher, the victim of theological hatred 
 and processes of law that would not now be 
 possible in Germany. See Life of Ebel by 
 J. I. Mombert (N. Y., 1882). 
 
 Ebionites, a sect of heretics which sprang 
 up near the close of the second century. 
 The best authorities agree that the name is 
 probably from the Hebrew word meaning 
 “ poor.” Like most of the early Christians, 
 they were in lowly circumstances and what 
 may have been a term applied in derision 
 became an accepted name. Probably, at 
 first, all Judaizing Christians were known 
 as Ebionites, and on this account the early 
 history of the heretical sect bearing the 
 name is very imperfect and uncertain. 
 
 Origen says that many of them were in 
 every respect Jews in belief, but accepted 
 the moral teachings of Jesus, while others 
 deemed his birth miraculous, and held that 
 the spirit of an angel or archangel, possibly 
 of Adam, was incorporated in his human 
 nature. They believed that the Mosaic 
 law was obligatory upon all, and that Jeru¬ 
 salem was to be the city of God. St. Paul 
 they looked upon as unworthy of confi¬ 
 dence, and the Gospel of St. Matthew was 
 the only book of the New Testament they 
 received. The sect disappeared toward 
 the close of the fourth century. 
 
 Ebrard (Johannes Heinrich), August, 
 D. D., Reformed; b. at Erlangen, Jan. 18, 
 1818; d. there, July 23, 1888. Educated at 
 Erlangen and Berlin, he was professor of 
 theology at Zurich, 1844-47; at Erlangen, 
 1847-61, and in 1875 became pastor of the 
 French Reformed Church there. He was 
 a prolific writer under several pseudonyms. 
 Among his works that were translated into 
 English are, The Gospel History (1842, Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1863); Apologetics (trans., 1886-87), 
 3 vols. 
 
 Ecbatana. The modern Hamadan, a town 
 in Persia at the foot of the Elwend Mount¬ 
 ains, is the site of the magnificent city of 
 Ecbatana, the summer residence of the 
 Persian kings from the time of Darius 
 Hystaspis to the Greek conquest. This 
 was probably the place where the roll was 
 found containingCyrus’s decree for rebuild¬ 
 ing the temple at Jerusalem. It is often 
 mentioned in the Apocrypha, but only once 
 in the Bible. (Ezra vi. 2.) 
 
 Ecce Homo (behold the man), the name 
 given to pictures that represent the suffer¬ 
 ing Saviour as described in John xix. 5. 
 
 Ecclesia. See Church. 
 
 Ecclesiastes (The Preacher), “called in 
 Hebrew Koheleth, is generally supposed 
 to have been written by Solomon at the 
 close of his life, after his lapse (1 Kings 
 xi. 1-13), and to contain the expression of 
 his penitence. He holds himself up as a 
 warning to others: from its title, some 
 suggest that he delivered it in public. It 
 is a narrative of the attempts of a worlding, 
 in various ways, to find happiness. He 
 alternates between study, pleasure, sensu¬ 
 ality, refinement, luxury, misanthropy, 
 construction, mechanical skill, book-mak¬ 
 ing. All are unsatisfying, and leave a 
 void; the conclusion being that everything 
 is vain and empty but the fear of God, and 
 that subservience to him is the only per¬ 
 fect freedom. * Wisdom’ is here used in the 
 
Ecc 
 
 ( 271 ) 
 
 Ede 
 
 modern sense, viz. possession of knowledge. 
 The canonicity of this book is acknowledged 
 by Jews and early Christian writers; but the 
 former did not rank it among the poetical 
 books, the greater part of it being prose. 
 Both the age and the authorship of this 
 book are controverted. By the intermixt¬ 
 ure of the Hebrew with Aramaic words it 
 is thought to belong to the same period as 
 the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, with 
 which its subject-matter seems to accord; 
 e. g. , the expression of misery under a 
 tyrannical government, sudden vicissitudes 
 of fortune, the tone of despondency, the 
 moral and religious declension, and the 
 condition of literature—all seem to in¬ 
 dicate a state of things more like that sub¬ 
 sequent to the return from the Captivity 
 than that of the golden age of Solomon. 
 The attempts, however, to fix its date 
 have, so far, manifested very little unanim¬ 
 ity.”—“Oxford” Bible Helps. See Intro¬ 
 ductions, by Bleek, Keil, Horne, etc.; Lock- 
 ler in Lange; Plumptre, 1881; Authorship 
 of Ecclesiastes, Wright, 1883; Bradley, 1885. 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. See Church 
 History. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Polity. See Church Gov¬ 
 ernment. 
 
 Ecclesias'ticus. See Apocrypha, p. 41. 
 
 Eck, Johann Maier von, the most prom¬ 
 inent adversary of Luther, b. at Eck, Nov. 
 13, i486; d. at Ingolstadt, Feb. 10, 1543. 
 The son of a peasant who had risen to the 
 office of village bailiff, he studied first at 
 Heidelberg and then at Tubingen, where he 
 took his degree as master of arts in 1501. 
 His reputation as a scholar gained for him 
 the chair of theology in the University of 
 Ingolstadt in 1510. When the ninety-five 
 theses of Luther appeared, Eck, who had 
 previously been on friendly terms with 
 him, prepared and privately circulated 
 (i5i8)a manuscript criticism of them. This 
 opened the discussion that culminated in 
 the great disputation at Leipzig in 1519. 
 For four days Eck disputed with Carlstadt, 
 on the doctrines of divine grace and good 
 works, and for ten days with Luther, con¬ 
 cerning the temporal and spiritual power 
 of the pope, purgatory, penance, etc. The 
 verdict was not altogether favorable to Eck, 
 and from this time he opposed Luther with 
 a bitter spirit. He secured a papal bull 
 against Luther’s writings, but at Leipzig 
 and other places the people would not allow 
 its publication. He was prominent in the 
 Augsburg Diet of 1530, and in the confer¬ 
 ences at Worms (1540) and at Ratisbon 
 41541). Noisy and self-assertive, with 
 
 considerable skill in dialectics, he was a 
 man of little scholarly ability. 
 
 Eckhart, the most remarkable of the 
 German mystics of the fourteenth century 
 (1260-1329). He belonged to the Domin¬ 
 ican order and was prior of Erfurt for a 
 time. In 1302 he taught in the College 
 of St. Jacques in Paris, and in 1308 he set¬ 
 tled at Strasburg as vicar for the grand 
 master of his order. It was here that he 
 became acquainted with the Brethren of the 
 Free Spirit; and when, sometime after, he 
 was summoned to Frankfort as prior of the 
 Dominican monastery, his preaching 
 aroused the suspicion of his superiors. 
 From this time on he was bitterly assailed 
 and brought to trial for heresy. He was 
 condemned by the pope, but after protest¬ 
 ing his willingness to recant any error into 
 which he had fallen, a bull was issued that 
 treated his case with great leniency. He 
 died before this reached him. His writings 
 were again formally condemned in 1430. 
 He is generally called Meister Eckhart. 
 
 Eclecticism is the name given to the 
 method by which a selection and combina¬ 
 tion is made from various systems of phi¬ 
 losophy, as may suit personal preference. 
 This method lacks unity and consistency, 
 and is without scientific value. In recent 
 times, the name Eclectics has been given to 
 those connected with the Church of Eng¬ 
 land who refuse to give in their adhesion 
 to any party, but prefer to be at liberty to 
 hold such opinions as they deem best. 
 
 Ecthesis. See Monothelites. 
 
 Ecuador, The Republic of, has a pop¬ 
 ulation of about eleven hundred thousand, 
 two hundred thousand of whom are half- 
 civilized Indians. The bulk of the civil¬ 
 ized population is of mixed white, negro 
 and Indian blood. They are all nom¬ 
 inally Christians, but the Indians, among 
 whom active mission work was once car¬ 
 ried on, have relapsed into heathenism. 
 The Roman Catholic Church is the State 
 Church, and other denominations are ex¬ 
 cluded. 
 
 Edersheim, Alfred, Ph. D., D. D., an 
 eminent biblical scholar; b. of Jewish par¬ 
 ents at Vienna, March 7, 1825; d. at Men¬ 
 tone, France, March 16, 1889. He studied 
 at Vienna and Berlin, and in 1843 entered 
 the New College, Edinburgh. In 1S49 
 became minister of the Free Church, Old 
 Aberdeen, where he remained until ill- 
 health compelled him to seek a home at 
 Torquay, in the south of England, where 
 he gathered a congregation and built a 
 
Ede 
 
 ( 272 ) 
 
 Edr 
 
 church. In 1875 he took orders in the 
 Church of England. After acting as curate 
 at Loders, Dorsetshire, from 1876, he re¬ 
 moved to Oxford in 1883, where he was 
 engaged in literary and professional work 
 until the last year of his life. From 1880 
 to 1S84 he was Warburtonian lecturer at 
 Lincoln’s Inn, London. He was a prolific 
 writer and among his best-known works 
 are: The History of the Jewish Nation from 
 A. D. 70-312 (Edinburgh, 1857); The Life 
 and Times of Jesus the Messiah (1883, 2d ed. 
 18S6); Prophecy and History in Relation to 
 the Messiah (1885); The History of Israel 
 frojn the Sacrifice on Carmel to the Death of 
 John (1885); Jesus the Messiah (abridgment 
 of Life and Times , 1890). 
 
 Edes'sa, an ancient city in the north of 
 Mesopotamia. Christianity was early in¬ 
 troduced here. In 216 it became a Roman 
 colony, and at one time more than three 
 hundred monasteries are said to have been 
 within its walls, and its theologians took 
 a prominent part in the Arian and other 
 controversies. The city, after many vicis¬ 
 situdes of fortune, fell into the hands of 
 the Mohammedans, and the Christian 
 churches were used as mosques. There 
 is still a small Armenian Christian popula¬ 
 tion and it is the seat of a Greek archbishop 
 and an Armenian bishop. 
 
 Eddy, Richard, S. T. D. (Tufts, 1883), 
 Universalist; b. at Providence, R. I., June 
 21, 1828. Entered the ministry in 1851, 
 and since i88r has been in Melrose, Mass. 
 He is the author of Universalism in A??ier- 
 ica : A History (Boston, 1884-86), 2 vols. 
 
 Eden (probable origin of the name is 
 found in the Assyrian idinu , from Accadian 
 edin , plain), (1) the home of our first 
 parents before their fall. Its exact loca¬ 
 tion is unknown, although several theories 
 have been advocated. Many eminent au¬ 
 thorities place “ the garden of Eden east¬ 
 ward ” in the highlands of Armenia, or in 
 the valley of the Euphrates. (2) A region 
 conquered by the Assyrians (2 Kings xix. 
 12; Isa. xxxvii. 12), probably the same as the 
 Eden of Ezek. xxvii. 23: identified by some 
 as near the modern Balis in Mesopotamia. 
 
 Edict of Nantes. See Huguenots; 
 Nantes. 
 
 Edict of Worms. See Luther; Worms. 
 
 Edification ( building-up ), a New Testa¬ 
 ment term used in comparing the Church 
 and the Christian believer to a house or 
 temple. (1 Cor. iii. 9; Eph. ii. 21.) A 
 Christian may be said to be edified when 
 
 character is built on Christ (Eph. ii. 20; 
 Col. ii. 7), and enlarged by the means of 
 grace (Acts xx. 32; 1 Thess. v. 11), and 
 filled with the Holy Ghost. (1 Cor. iii. 17.) 
 To edify others there should be love, 
 spiritual conversation, forbearance, faith¬ 
 fulness, benevolent exertions, and uni¬ 
 formity of conduct. 
 
 Edom (red), called also Idum.ea and 
 Seir. It extended as far north as the Dead 
 Sea, and south to the Gulf of Akabah, and 
 eastward from the valley of the Arabah 
 to the desert of Arabia, being about 125 
 miles long and thirty miles wide. The coun¬ 
 try is mountainous, but the soil in the nar¬ 
 row valleys and on the mountain terraces 
 bears a luxuriant growth of trees, flowers, 
 and grass. Its first inhabitants were the 
 Horites (dwellers in caves). They were 
 driven out by the Edomites, who were 
 sometimes called “children of Seir.” (2 
 Chron. xxv. 11, 14.) These descendants 
 of Esau perpetuated the enmity with the 
 descendants of Jacob. They opposed the 
 passage of Israel through their country 
 when they came from the wilderness 
 (Num. xx. 20, 21), but finally permitted 
 them to go through their eastern border. 
 (Deut. ii. 28, 29.) Conquered by Saul (1 
 Sam. xiv. 47), and by David (2 Sam. viiu 
 14), they revolted against Solomon, (r 
 Kings xi. 14.) They were in vassalage to 
 Judah, until they again revolted and se¬ 
 cured their independence in the reign of 
 Jehoram. (2 Kings viii. 20-22.) In the 
 time of the Maccabees the Edomites were 
 defeated by Judas Maccabseus, and were 
 compelled by their conquerors to adopt 
 the Mosaic Law. Antipater, the father of 
 Herod the Great, who secured the govern¬ 
 ment of Judaea, b. c. 47, was an Edomite. 
 The prophecies of the desolation that 
 should overtake the descendants of Esau 
 and their country have been literally ful¬ 
 filled. (Jer. xlix. 17, 18.) The ruins of 
 thirty towns, within a few days’ journey 
 from the Red Sea, attest their former 
 greatness and present desolation. See E. 
 H. Palmer: Desert of the Exodus (1871); 
 Badeker: Palesiina and Syria. 
 
 E'domites. See Edom. 
 
 Ed'rei ( strength , stronghold ), the name 
 of the second capital of Bashan. It was 
 in the territory of Manasseh, on the east 
 of Jordan. (Num. xxxii. 33.) Its ruins cov¬ 
 er a circuit of three miles, and consist 
 of remains of temples, churches and 
 mosques. It was an important city up to 
 the seventh century of the Christian era. 
 Now known as Edhra, it has a population 
 of about 500. 
 
Edu 
 
 ( 273 ) 
 
 Edw 
 
 Education, among the Hebrews, con¬ 
 sisted mainly in religious training in the 
 home and in public worship. (Deut. iv. 9; 
 vi. 6-20.) The priests could read and 
 write, and there were educated men 
 among the laity, such as the historians of 
 the Judges and Kings, the surveyors of 
 Canaan (Josh, xviii. 8, 9), and the foreign 
 ministers of state. (2 Kings xviii. 26.) 
 Mention is made of “ schools of the proph¬ 
 ets,” where certain young men were 
 trained for the prophetic office. (1 Sam. 
 xix. 20; 2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 7, 15.) The syn¬ 
 agogue-system of worship was developed 
 during the captivity, and instruction, by 
 authorized teachers, was given to the 
 young. The learning of a trade was made 
 imperative on every boy. Girls, as a rule, 
 received very little education beyond the 
 rudiments. The ideal of the Hebrew wife 
 (Prov. xxxi. 10-31) did not lay stress upon 
 the learning of the schools. 
 
 Edwards, Bela Bates, D. D., Congre- 
 gationalist ; b. in Southampton, Mass., 
 July 4, 1802; d. at Athens, Ga., April 20, 
 1852. He was graduated at Amherst College 
 in 1824, and at Andover Theological Sem¬ 
 inary in 1830. In 1837 he was appointed 
 professor of Hebrew in the Andover Sem¬ 
 inary, and in 1848 associate professor of 
 sacred literature. He was editor of The 
 American Quarterly Review from 1828 to 
 1842. He founded The American Quarterly 
 Observer in 1833, which was soon after¬ 
 ward united with The Biblical Repository , 
 of which he was editor until 1838. From 
 1844 to 1852 he was the senior editor of 
 The Bibliotheca Sacra. He aided in the 
 compilation of a large number of impor¬ 
 tant works. An able scholar, gifted as a 
 writer, skillful as a teacher, and eloquent 
 as a preacher, he crowded the years of his 
 life with useful service. See Memoir, in¬ 
 cluding discourses and essays, by E. A. 
 Park (Boston, 1853), 2 vols. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, the most eminent 
 American divine and metaphysician; b. in 
 East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703; d. at 
 Princeton, N. J., March 22, 1758. His 
 father was pastor of the Congregational 
 Church at East Windsor for morethansixty- 
 three years, and his mother, a woman of 
 remarkable gifts, was the daughter of Sol¬ 
 omon Stoddard, who, for nearly fifty-seven 
 years (1672-1729), was pastor of the Con¬ 
 gregational Church in Northampton, Mass. 
 He was the fifth child and only son in a 
 family of eleven children. The influences 
 in this cultured home circle aided in the 
 development of his precocious intellect, 
 and at the age of thirteen he had gained a 
 good knowledge of Latin, Greek, and He¬ 
 
 brew, and was prepared to enter Yale Col¬ 
 lege, where he was graduated with the high¬ 
 est honors of his class, in 1720. Early in his 
 college course he studied Locke on the Hu- 
 man Understanding , a book which, he says, 
 afforded him “ far higher pleasure than 
 the most greedy miser finds, when gather¬ 
 ing up handfuls of silver and gold from 
 some newly-discovered treasure.” 
 
 When but a child his mind was much ex-- 
 ercised upon the doctrine of the divine 
 sovereignty; and in his eighth or ninth 
 year he tells us that he experienced “ two- 
 remarkable seasons of awakening.” It was- 
 probably about the time of his graduation 
 from college that he united with his father’s 
 church at East Windsor. Returning to 
 New Haven, he spent two years in pursu¬ 
 ing theological studies, and in 1722 was li¬ 
 censed to preach. From the summer of 
 1722 until April of the following year, he 
 supplied the pulpit of a small Presbyterian 
 church in New York. Declining their call 
 to a permanent settlement, he filled a tu¬ 
 torship at Yale for two years, and in Feb., 
 1727, was ordained pastor of the Congre¬ 
 gational Church at Northampton, Mass. 
 The same year he was married to Sarah 
 Pierrepont, the daughter of Rev. James 
 Pierrepont, an eminent minister of New 
 Haven, and one of the founders of Yale. 
 She was a woman of rare personal graces 
 and intellectual gifts, and proved an ef¬ 
 ficient helpmeet of her husband. From 
 the time when, a lad of nine years, he com¬ 
 posed a letter on materialism, he had fre¬ 
 quently given evidence of his power as a 
 writer, and while in New York he penned 
 the first of his Resolutions , that are still ad¬ 
 mired for their beauty of diction as well 
 as their deep spiritual significance. His 
 pastorate at Northampton, for the first two 
 years, was as colleague of his venerable 
 maternal grandfather. He at once gained 
 reputation as a preacher of commanding 
 influence. Without the aid of physical ad¬ 
 vantages, his intense moral earnestness, 
 expressing thought in the severest logical 
 and intellectual form often swept every¬ 
 thing before him. The stories still extant 
 of the influence which he sometimes ex¬ 
 erted over congregations seem almost in¬ 
 credible. In 1734-35, and also in 1740-41, 
 his parish shared largely in the revivals of 
 religion which spread through a great part 
 of New England, and both by his pen 
 and public services he did much to give 
 wise direction in these periods of intense 
 spiritual thoughtfulness. But this eminent 
 servant of God was not to escape the dis¬ 
 cipline of trial and disappointment. Fol¬ 
 lowing the revival period of 1740-41 there 
 came a reaction, marked by gross viola¬ 
 tions of morality in thought and practice 
 
Edw 
 
 ( 274 ) 
 
 Ege 
 
 in some of the homes of his parish. The 
 reading of what he deemed impure liter¬ 
 ature especially aroused his condemnation. 
 With fearless courage he uttered his con¬ 
 victions and admonitions, with a plainness 
 that offended and alienated some influen¬ 
 tial families. Under the terms of what 
 was known as the “ Half-way Covenant,” 
 his grandfather, Stoddard, had permitted 
 unconverted persons to partake of the 
 Lord’s Supper. Edwards had become con¬ 
 vinced, with other leading ministers of his 
 time, that this was wrong. True to his 
 convictions, while realizing the opposition 
 it would meet, he took a firm stand against 
 this practice. The controversy ended by 
 the ejectment of Edwards from the pastor¬ 
 ate, which he had held for over twenty- 
 three years. 
 
 His reputation as a preacher and writer 
 had crossed the Atlantic, and he was urged 
 to enter upon ministerial service in Scot¬ 
 land; but he finally accepted a call to be¬ 
 come pastor of a small Congregational 
 church at Stockbridge, Mass., and mis¬ 
 sionary among the Housatonic tribe of 
 Indians. It was in this secluded spot that 
 he prepared his great Essay on the Human 
 Will , a work that has received unstinted 
 praise from the most eminent scholars. 
 Dr. Chalmers recommended it to his pu¬ 
 pils “ more strenuously ” than any other 
 “ book of human composition,” and it was 
 this work that won from Sir James Mack¬ 
 intosh the reference to “ his power of 
 subtle argument, perhaps unmatched, cer¬ 
 tainly unsurpassed, among men.” 
 
 From his wilderness study and labor 
 among the Indians, Edwards was called to 
 the presidency of the college at Princeton, 
 N. J., in 1757. With great personal reluc¬ 
 tance he accepted the position, and was 
 inaugurated Feb. 16, 1758. The week fol¬ 
 lowing he was inoculated for the small¬ 
 pox; a fever ensued, and he died on the 
 22d of March. 
 
 The collected works of Edwards were 
 published at Worcester, Mass., 1809, in 
 eight volumes. Another edition, edited 
 by his relative, Dr. Sereno E. Dwight, was 
 published in 1830. This edition, with an 
 Essay on his Genius and Writings , by 
 Henry Rogers, in two volumes, appeared 
 in London (1840). The principal works of 
 Edwards are: Religious Affections (1746); 
 Life of Brainerd (1749); Freedom of the 
 Will (1754); Gods Last End in the Creation 
 of the World (1755); Original Sin (1758); 
 Nature of Virtue ( 1788). See, also, A. V. 
 G. Allen: Jonathan Edwards ( Boston, 1889). 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, the Younger, son 
 of the preceding; b. at Northampton, 
 Mass., May 26, 1745; d. at Schenectady, 
 
 N. Y., Aug. 1, 1801. He was graduated at 
 Princeton College in 1765; studied theol¬ 
 ogy with Dr. Joseph Bellamy, 1765-66; 
 tutor at Princeton for two years. In 1769 
 he accepted the pastorate of a church in 
 New Haven, Conn. Here he remained for 
 twenty-six years. In 1796 he became pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational church in Cole- 
 brook, Conn., where he remained until 
 1799, when he was elected president of 
 Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. Here 
 he remained until his death. Dr. Samuel 
 Miller, of Princeton, says, “ The son 
 greatly resembles his venerable father in 
 metaphysical acuteness, in ardent piety, 
 and in the purest exemplariness of Chris¬ 
 tian deportment.” “ The son,” says Dr. 
 Park, “ like the father, was a tutor in the 
 college where he had been a student; was 
 first ordained over a prominent church in 
 the town where his maternal grandfather 
 had been the pastor; was dismissed on ac¬ 
 count of his doctrinal opinions; was after¬ 
 ward the minister of a retired parish; was 
 then president of a college, and died at the 
 age of about fifty-five years, soon after his 
 inauguration.” (See art. in Schaff-Herzog.') 
 Dr. Edwards edited his father’s writings, 
 and contributed many articles for the press. 
 Among his published discourses the most 
 celebrated are the three On the Necessity 
 of the Atonement , and its Consistency with 
 Free Grace in Forgiveness. They form the 
 basis of what is known as the “Edwardean 
 theory ” of the atonement. Edwards was 
 a remarkable philologist as well as theolo¬ 
 gian. He received the degree of D. D. 
 from Princeton College. Edwards’s works 
 were published at Andover, 1842, 2 vols., 
 with Memoir by Tryon Edwards. 
 
 Edwards, Justin, D. D., b. in West- 
 hampton, Mass., April 25, 1787; d. at Vir¬ 
 ginia Springs, July 23, 1853. He was pas¬ 
 tor at Andover, Mass., 1812-28; secretary 
 of the American Society for the Promotion 
 of Temperance, 1829-36; president of the 
 seminary at Andover, 1837-42; secretary 
 of the American and Foreign Christian 
 Union, 1842 until his death. He pub¬ 
 lished a work on the Sabbath , and wrote 
 many tracts that had a large circulation. 
 See Life and Labors of the Rev. Justin 
 Edzuards , D. D. t by W. A. Hallock (N.Y., 
 1856). 
 
 Egede, Hans, the first missionary to the 
 Greenlanders; b. at Senjen, in the north 
 of Norway, Jan. 31, 1686; d. on the island 
 of Falster, Nov. 5, 175S. While pastor at 
 Waagen he became interested in the his¬ 
 tory of Greenland and the condition of its 
 heathen population. With the cooperation 
 of prominent bishops he resigned his par- 
 
Egi 
 
 ( 275 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 ish in 1717, and, having gained some 
 knowledge of the Greenland tongue, form¬ 
 ed a company to trade with that country, 
 and, with his family, sailed in 1721. In the 
 face of many obstacles and privations, he 
 succeeded, finally,in making many converts, 
 and forming stronger commercial rela¬ 
 tions with Denmark. Ill-health compelled 
 his return home in 1736, and he was made 
 principal of the seminary at Copenhagen, 
 where students were prepared for the mis¬ 
 sion work in Greenland. He 
 wrote a book on the natural 
 history of Greenland. His 
 son, Paul Egede, who lived in 
 that country until 1740, pre¬ 
 pared a grammar of the lan¬ 
 guage. The Danish mission 
 work is still continued there. 
 
 Eginhard, or Einhard, b. 
 about 770 in Franconia; d. at 
 Seligenstadt, March, 14, 844. 
 
 Educated at the court of 
 Charlemagne under Alcuin, 
 he was appointed secretary to 
 the emperor, and superintend¬ 
 ent of public buildings. Some 
 have conjectured that his wife, 
 
 Emma, was the daughter of 
 Charlemagne. This marriage 
 was dissolved about 815, and 
 Eginhard, having been ordain¬ 
 ed as a priest, retired to the 
 monastery of Seligenstadt, on 
 the Main. He wrote a life of 
 Charlemagne which has proved 
 invaluable to historians of this 
 period. Collected editions of 
 his works have been edited by 
 Teulet (Paris, 1840-43); Eng¬ 
 lish translation of the Life of 
 Charlemagne, by W. Glaister 
 (London, 1877), and S. E. Tur¬ 
 ner (New York, 1880). 
 
 Eg'lon ( calf ), a king of Moab 
 ^ who, with the aid of the Am¬ 
 monites and Amalekites, sub¬ 
 jugated Israel and kept them 
 in bondage eighteen years. He 
 was killed by Ehud, and his 
 people destroyed. (Judg. iii. 
 
 12-30.) 
 
 Egypt, a country in the northeast of 
 Africa, extending from latitude 31 0 36' to 
 24 0 6' N., that is, from the Mediterranean 
 to the first cataract of the Nile. The ledge 
 at this cataract interrupts navigation, and 
 makes a natural boundary between races 
 and languages. 
 
 A T ames .—Egypt is only the English form 
 of the Greek Aigyptos. The ancient Egyp¬ 
 
 tians called themselves Kemi, or people 
 of the black land, referring to the color 
 of their fertile soil. The common biblical 
 name of the country is Mizraim, a dual 
 form suggesting the two great natural di¬ 
 visions of the country, the narrow valley 
 of the Nile, south of Heliopolis, which is 
 five miles N. E. of Cairo, and the broad 
 Delta to the north. The former part is 
 known as Upper Egypt, the latter as Lower 
 Egypt. 
 
 Nattiral features. — Herodotus said of 
 old, “ Egypt is the gift of the Nile,” and 
 that is true, for rain is almost unknown, 
 and wherever the Nile water goes there is 
 fertility, but beyond that, both east and 
 west, there is desert sand. The average 
 width of the Nile valley, above the Delta, 
 is six miles. The entire area under culti¬ 
 vation, in 1882, was computed at 8,410 
 square miles. The Nile is very generous 
 
( 276 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 to Egypt; it has deposited a soil from thir¬ 
 ty-three to thirty-eight feet deep—at the 
 head of the Delta nearly fifty feet deep. 
 Even one who is familiar with the fertility 
 of our western prairies is amazed at the 
 productiveness of Egypfc, if he visits it in 
 the harvest season of a good year; but a 
 “bad Nile,” that is, a Nile which does not 
 rise to the due height, means a bad year. 
 One foot’s deficit in the inundation causes 
 a loss of ten millions of dollars. 
 
 The Nile determines the seasons for 
 Egypt, which are three,—the water sea¬ 
 son, when the great river rises and pours 
 its red flood over the country, extending 
 from June to September; the garden sea¬ 
 son, when the crops are planted and tend¬ 
 ed , including from October to January; and 
 the harvest season, stretching from Febru¬ 
 ary to May. 
 
 Plants and Animals .—The lotus and the 
 papyrus were prominent in old Egyptian 
 life. The lotus was the favorite flower at 
 banquets. It was worn in garlands, carried 
 in the hand, and used to ornament the 
 table. It was a kind of water-lily. It is 
 mentioned in Job xl. 21, 22 (R. V.). The 
 papyrus was a sedge. Its pith was cut 
 into strips, and these were laid horizontally 
 and covered crosswise with a second layer, 
 and then the two were pasted together, 
 and subjected to heavy pressure, and the 
 result was the Egyptian paper. It is 
 probably referred to in 2 John 12. A 
 coarser kind was made into boats (Ex. ii. 
 3, R. V. margin; Is. xviii. 2, R. V., etc.), 
 baskets, and the like. The plant is extinct 
 in Egypt, but is still found in Palestine. 
 Our word paper comes from papyrus. 
 
 Two characteristic animals deserve 
 special mention from the prominent men¬ 
 tion of them in the Bible—the crocodile 
 and the hippopotamus. The crocodile was 
 formerly found nearly to the sea, though 
 now mostly confined to Upper Egypt. 
 One of the divinities of Egypt was the 
 crocodile-headed Sabak. Job xli. has a 
 graphic description of the crocodile under 
 the name of ‘ ‘ the leviathan. ” The hippopot¬ 
 amus which appears to have formerly been 
 common north and south has been gradual¬ 
 ly driven southward until it is now rare 
 even in Nubia. It is portrayed as “ the chief 
 of the ways of God ” in Job xl., where it is 
 called “ behemoth.” Hunting the crocodile 
 and the hippopotamus were favorite sports 
 in ancient Egypt, as many a monument 
 shows. 
 
 Population .—The census of 1882 gave a 
 population for Egypt Proper of 6,811,44s. 
 It appears to have been somewhat greater 
 in ancient times. 
 
 Origin .—The shape of the skull, the 
 grammar of the language, the fact that the 
 
 Egy 
 
 oldest and noblest works are found to the 
 north, and the genealogical record of 
 Genesis x., are some of the indications of 
 an Asiatic origin for the Egyptians; while 
 the similarity of many of the customs and 
 utensils depicted upon the monuments to 
 those still used upon the Zambesi and the 
 Niger indicate an African element. The 
 stock has been vastly modified and shaped 
 by its surroundings. This influence of 
 the country upon the people is illustrated 
 by what has taken place amongst the cat¬ 
 tle. These have been many times ex¬ 
 terminated by murrain, and replaced by 
 foreign breeds, but the new-comers have 
 invariably, after a few generations, taken 
 on the type seen upon the monuments. 
 
 Chronology .—The chronology of Ancient 
 Egypt has been the subject of measureless 
 dispute. One point of contest has been 
 whether all the dynasties and reigns re¬ 
 corded in Egyptian lists were real, and an¬ 
 other more important issue has been 
 whether they were all successive, or par¬ 
 tially contemporaneous; but with the prog¬ 
 ress of discovery in the memorials of old 
 Egyptian life, scholars are coming more 
 and more to recognize living persons back 
 of the names, and to agree that the dy¬ 
 nasties and reigns were successive. 
 
 As to the historic reality of the reigns, 
 amongst many others all the Pharaohs, 
 from the twentieth to the thirty - eighth 
 of the seventy-five who are mentioned in 
 the Alydos tablet, are already otherwise 
 known to us, and investigation is frequently 
 bringing another name out upon the solid 
 ground of fact. Bearing upon the ques¬ 
 tion of successive or contemporaneous 
 reigns, we have evidences like these: annals 
 of many other Egyptians besides the Pha¬ 
 raohs, whose lives overlap many of the 
 reigns, and extensive lists of the sacred 
 bulls, with the length of their lives. Some 
 would also attach, great weight to the as¬ 
 tronomical records of the monuments. 
 Indeed, instead of being required to deduct 
 for contemporaneous reigns, we seem 
 rather to need to make additions for omit¬ 
 ted ones. In the eighteenth dynasty, for 
 example, there appear to have been several 
 sovereigns whose religious heresies caused 
 them to be struck out of the accepted lists. 
 
 The indications are that the ancient Pha¬ 
 raohs had as long reigns as modern sover¬ 
 eigns, those of England for example. Con¬ 
 siderations like these appear to carry the 
 beginning of the Egyptian monarchy back 
 to a time considerably earlier than 3,000 
 b. c. Lepsius puts the commencement of 
 the reign of the first king at 3,892 b. C. 
 Boockh’s date, 5,702 b. c., and Poole’s. 
 2,717 b. c., may be taken as extremes. 
 
 Religion .—Herodotus said that it was 
 
( 277 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 Egy 
 
 easier to find a god than a man in Egypt; 
 it may be added that their religion in its 
 later forms was as gross as it was poly¬ 
 theistic, for it deified a multitude of 
 animals, from the bull down to the snake. 
 To reduce the vast Egyptian pantheon al¬ 
 together to system would be a herculean 
 task; but two great myths stand out promi¬ 
 nent, that of Ra, the sun-god, and his fam¬ 
 ily, and that of Osiris and his family. The 
 latter myth is similar to the former, but 
 more elaborate. 
 
 The great divinities of Egypt are divin¬ 
 ities of light, and their foes are the powers 
 of darkness. Thoth, the moon-god, is one 
 of the most interesting of the divinities. He 
 is “ the distributer of time ” and the god 
 of art and learning. One is reminded that 
 our word moon comes from md, to meas¬ 
 ure, and that it was known as “ the meas¬ 
 urer, the ruler of days and weeks and sea¬ 
 sons.” Ptah, “the opener” who reveals 
 hidden beauty, the artist-god, was identified 
 by the Greeks with Hephaistos (Latin, Vul¬ 
 can.) Athor or Hathor, “lady of the dance 
 and mirth,” was,in like manner, thought by 
 the Greeks to be the same with Aphrodite 
 (Latin, Venus). 
 
 The Egyptian religion was not, it should 
 be said, altogether so polytheistic as it 
 seems, for the same god often had differ¬ 
 ent names in different places; and in the 
 more remote ages we meet with such sub¬ 
 lime recognitions of the unity of God as 
 this: “ Thou art alone, and the millions of 
 beings come from thee.” This fact led M. 
 de Rouge to infer, it would seem fairly, 
 that the religion of Egypt was originally 
 pure monotheism. The old Egyptians had 
 also a sublime faith in immortality. “ Life 
 everlasting” is one of the few inscriptions 
 upon the fragment in the British Museum 
 of the wooden coffin of King Mykerinos, 
 builder of the third pyramid. The embalm¬ 
 ing of the body was the result of the faith 
 in a hereafter. The body must be kept so 
 that, as from time to time the soul came 
 back to earth from its home with the bless¬ 
 ed, it might never miss its familiar taber¬ 
 nacle. 
 
 Their maxims made religion a matter of 
 daily life. Here are specimens: “Give 
 thyself to God; keep thyself continually 
 for God.” “ Thou art now come to man’s 
 estate, . . . but never do thou forget the 
 painful labor which thy mother endured; 
 nor all the salutary care which she hath 
 taken of thee.” “ If thou art a wise man, 
 bring up thy son in the love of God.” 
 
 Character .—When we turn to the charac¬ 
 ter of the old Egyptians we find a striking 
 contrast to the higher and older teachings 
 of their faith. Brugsch says—and his tes¬ 
 timony is the more valuable from his ad¬ 
 
 miration for the race—“ hatred, wrong, 
 cunning, intrigue, combined with a senti¬ 
 ment of pride, contradiction, and perver¬ 
 sity, added to avarice and cruelty—such is 
 the long series of those hereditary faults 
 which history reveals to us among the 
 Egyptians, by unnumbered examples in 
 the course of centuries.” Rawlinson says: 
 “ In morals, the Egyptians combined an 
 extraordinary degree of theoretic perfec¬ 
 tion with an exceedingly lax and imper¬ 
 fect practice.” 
 
 Civilization .—The most remote ages of 
 Egyptian civilization known to us are its 
 highest. The men who built the pyramids 
 had made great progress in agriculture 
 and mechanics, in art and science. They 
 had a decimal notation, and a year of 365 
 days, divided into twelve months. They 
 used a variety of bright colors. 
 
 Jewel-pointed drills and bronze saws ap¬ 
 pear to have been employed upon the pyr¬ 
 amids, and the angles of their bases are so 
 perfect that one 'does not see how they can 
 have been measured without the telescope. 
 
 So closely are the blocks of stone in the 
 Queen’s Chamber, in the heart of the great 
 pyramid, united, that one must look care¬ 
 fully to find the joints. 
 
 The “ chief of the three ” great pyr¬ 
 amids, that of Khufu, was originally 481 
 feet high, and 755 feet wide, and contained 
 6,848,000 tons of masonry. It is now 454 
 feet high and 750 feet wide. It covers 
 nearly thirteen acres. It was cased with 
 polished stones “ so skillfully joined that 
 they appeared like one block from the 
 base to the top.” The pyramids were 
 tombs designed to secrete the embalmed 
 body against all search. 
 
 The Sphinx appears to have been repair¬ 
 ed by Khufu, and is now supposed to be 
 older than the first dynasty. The height 
 from the pavement, on which the forepaws 
 rest, to the crown of the head, is given as 
 66 feet, the width of the mouth, 7 feet 7 
 inches. It faces the east, and appears to 
 have been connected with the sun-god— 
 Ra. Maspero terms it a work of. “ finished 
 art,” and “ the most ancient statue known.” 
 
 The “ rock temple ” is a simple, majestic 
 structure of limestone and alabaster and 
 red granite. It is believed to have been 
 connected in its purpose with the Sphinx. 
 Mariette discovered it in 1853, and found 
 in it nine statues of Khefren, the builder 
 of the second pyramid. 
 
 The fidelity to nature of the most ancient 
 art of Egypt is very striking, particularly 
 when contrasted with its later convention¬ 
 ality. Every visitor to the Hall of the 
 Ancient Empire in the Boulak Museum of 
 Cairo (just transferred to Gizeh), must 
 have remarked this characteristic. It is 
 
( 273 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 Egy 
 
 beautifully exemplified in the Village Sheik, 
 a wooden statue probably 5,000 years old, 
 which Brugsch takes for an introductory 
 picture to his history of Egypt. That 
 statue equally illustrates the artist’s mas¬ 
 tery of difficulties, for thematerial is knotty, 
 and in several pieces that are held together 
 with square pegs. 
 
 In that primeval empire the Egyptian 
 had a written language, mostly express¬ 
 ed in beautiful pictorial characters, known 
 as hieroglyphics, meaning, literally, 
 “ sacred carvings.” By-and-by, more ab- 
 
 Political System. — The king was su¬ 
 preme. He was “ the visible god of his 
 subjects”—but he was also a man, so he 
 worshiped himself. The country was di¬ 
 vided into nomes, or provinces, and each 
 nome had its capital, its governor, and its 
 tutelary deity. The judges were priests. 
 All judicial proceedings were in writing, 
 that nothing might excite or prejudice the 
 mind of the judge. The laws were of re¬ 
 markable excellence, largely justifying the 
 saying attributed to Bossuet, “ Egypt was 
 the source of all good government. ” There 
 
 APPROACH TO THE PYRAMIDS. 
 
 breviated forms, known as hieratic or 
 priestly, came to be used in many writ¬ 
 ings, and in the ninth century B. c. the still 
 more curtailed characters, called demotic 
 or popular, were introduced, chiefly in 
 social and commercial intercourse. The 
 trilingual inscription in hieroglyphic, de¬ 
 motic, and Greek, upon the stone that was 
 discovered at Rosetta in 1799, gave to 
 Champollion the key to the long-locked 
 mystery of the hieroglyphics. Upon the 
 sculptured stone and the delicate papyrus 
 the Egyptian recorded a literature second 
 to none in antiquity for extent and variety. 
 
 was no caste. The tomb of many a noble¬ 
 man bears the inscription, “ His ancestors 
 were unknown people;” but the nation was 
 divided into classes, of which the priestly 
 was at the head; next came the soldier 
 class; at the foot was the great mass of the 
 common people, despised and spoken of 
 with opprobrious epithets. 
 
 History .—The history of Egypt will be 
 noticed with special reference to its con¬ 
 nection with the Bible and the kingdom 
 of God. 
 
 Periods .—Egyptian history may be con¬ 
 veniently divided into ten periods. 
 
Egy 
 
 ( 279 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 I. The Old Empire, including the first 
 eleven dynasties. The pyramids were built 
 in this period, those of Gizeh (“ the great 
 pyramids ”) in the fourth dynasty. 
 
 II. The Middle Empire—the twelfth dy¬ 
 nasty, which introduced the obelisk.* Its 
 Pharaohs all bear the name of Usertesen, 
 or of Amenemhat. They excel in art, en¬ 
 terprise, and war. 
 
 III. The Hyksos period. The Hyksos, 
 or Shepherd Kings, appear to have been 
 an Asiatic and Semitic race that invaded 
 Egypt and were its dominant power for 
 
 Hyksos is 1708 b. c., Lepsius’, 1591, Wil¬ 
 kinson’s, 1520. The comparatively modern 
 date of the close of this long period is ex¬ 
 act—525 b. c. 
 
 The greatest Pharaohs of this period 
 bear the name of Thothmes and Amenho- 
 tep, both of the eighteenth dynasty, and 
 Rames^s, of the nineteenth and twentieth 
 dynasties. Other noted names, later on, are 
 Sheshonk, of the twenty-second dynasty 
 (biblical, Shishak); Taharka (biblical, Tir- 
 hakah), of the twenty-fifth dynasty; Pse- 
 methek (Greek, Psammetichus), and Ne- 
 
 THE GREAT PYRAMID, SPHINX, AND ROCK TEMPLE. 
 
 some five centuries. The age of Abra¬ 
 ham and that of Joseph are now commonly 
 thought to have fallen in this period. 
 
 IV. The New Empire. This begins 
 with the eighteenth dynasty and the expul¬ 
 sion of the Hyksos, and extends through 
 the twenty-sixth dynasty. With the be¬ 
 ginning of this period we approach definite¬ 
 ness of date, the differences between the 
 estimates of different Egyptologists being 
 no longer millenniums, but only centuries. 
 Mariette’s date for the expulsion of the 
 
 * Maspero says that small ones, about three feet 
 high, are found in tombs as early as the fourth dynasty. 
 
 kau (biblical, Necho), and Apries (biblical, 
 Hophra), all three of the twenty-sixth dy¬ 
 nasty. This period takes in the oppres¬ 
 sion of Israel in Egypt, its exodus, and 
 all the time of its history down to the re¬ 
 turn of the exiles from Babylon under 
 Zerubbabel. 
 
 V. The Persian Rule. This includes 
 the twenty-seventh dynasty and those that 
 follow, as far as the thirty-first, the first 
 and last being Persian. It terminates with 
 the welcome of Alexander as the deliverer 
 from the yoke of Persia, and the found¬ 
 ing of Alexandria by him in 332 b. 
 
( 28 o ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 Egy 
 
 VI. The Greek Rule. During this period 
 fifteen Ptolemies sat on the throne. It ex¬ 
 tends to b. c. 30. 
 
 VII. The Roman. The defeat of Antony 
 and Cleopatra at Actium, in 31, led to the 
 incorporation of Egypt into the Roman 
 Empire the following year. It continued 
 to be a province of Rome until the division 
 of the empire, a. d. 395. 
 
 VIII. The Byzantine, in which Egypt 
 was a part of the Eastern Empire. This 
 extends to A. D. 640. 
 
 IX. The Mohammedan. ’Amr Ibn el- 
 ’Asi, better known as Amru, general of 
 the great Omar, made an easy conquest of 
 Egypt in 640. From that time the country 
 has been nominally under Mohammedan 
 control. 
 
 X. The British occupation. The defeat 
 of Arabi Bey, by General Wolseley in 1882, 
 led to the occupation of Egypt by a British 
 force. The British flag is never displayed 
 outside the barracks, but Britain is the 
 power behind the throne, so that a new 
 period in Egyptian history may be said to 
 have begun with this occupation. 
 
 Connection with Hebrew History .—Only 
 the more prominent points of connection 
 between Egyptian and Hebrew history will 
 be noted. These points will be mentioned 
 in chronological order. 
 
 In the third, or Hyksos, period, Egyptian 
 and Hebrew history begin to touch each 
 other. In the early part of that period 
 Abraham visited Egypt. The record of 
 that visit in Gen. xii. gives us the earliest 
 biblical mention of Egypt. The obelisk of 
 Heliopolis was already erected, and the 
 pyramids were old and the Sphinx very old. 
 A tomb of the twelfth dynasty, which 
 was a little before Abraham’s time, repre¬ 
 sents the approach of a Semitic chief with 
 his family to an Egyptian governor some¬ 
 what as we may imagine Abraham to have 
 come. The Asiatic origin of the race then 
 dominant in Egypt would render them 
 more friendly to strangers from their own 
 ancestral region. The list of Abraham’s 
 possessions when he was in Egypt (Gen. 
 xii. 16) does not mention horses. That 
 corresponds with the absence of the horse 
 from the earlier monuments. 
 
 The biblical history of Joseph has very 
 interesting illustrations from the Egyptian 
 records. The Tale of Two Brothers,an Egyp¬ 
 tian novelette, strikingly reminds one of 
 Joseph’s temptation. In that tale the wife 
 of the elder brother tempts the younger, 
 but he resists the temptation, whereupon 
 she slanders him to her husband. The 
 husband fails to kill his brother, and so 
 kills his wife. The Egyptian narrative is 
 evidently independent of the biblical one, 
 but they coincide in their delineation of 
 
 the lustful woman and the chaste young 
 man. 
 
 The famine in Joseph’s day is illus¬ 
 trated by the following inscription from 
 a tomb that appears to date from about his 
 time: “ I collected corn as a friend of the 
 harvest God. I was watchful at the time of 
 sowing, and when a famine arose, lasting 
 many years, I distributed corn to the city 
 each year of famine.” 
 
 On, or Heliopolis, where Joseph found 
 his wife,was a magnificent university city of 
 ancient Egypt. Its chief work to-day is its 
 beautiful obelisk, the oldest (save possibly 
 one fragment) in the world. It is pleasant 
 to think that the eye of Joseph often rested 
 upon that obelisk, and that it would sug¬ 
 gest to him dear thoughts of wife and home. 
 
 Joseph located his father and brothers 
 in Goshen. In 1885 M. Naville found, as 
 he thought, conclusive evidence identifying 
 that district with the region just southeast 
 of Zakazik, which is now the great cotton 
 mart of the Delta. In the time of Joseph 
 it does not appear to have been an organ¬ 
 ized province with a capital, “but prob¬ 
 ably a kind of waste land, sufficiently 
 watered to produce good pasturage; thus 
 it was a district which might be assigned 
 to foreigners without despoiling the in¬ 
 habitants of the country.” 
 
 If, as is now thought, Joseph’s career 
 was in the reign of Apepi, the last Hyksos 
 king, we have some glimpses, though tan¬ 
 talizing, it must be owned, of his sovereign. 
 We find him acknowledging but one god— 
 Set, the destroyer, the god of darkness— 
 save as, out of compliment to the reviving 
 native Egyptian power at Thebes, he con¬ 
 sents to honor Ra. We have his name 
 chiseled in black granite sphinxes of un¬ 
 surpassed vigor; best of all, M. Naville 
 found at Bubastis, just outside of Zakazik 
 in 1888, two colossal red granite Hyksos 
 heads, which, from an inscription found 
 near by, are thought by some to afford por¬ 
 trait faces of Apepi at different periods of 
 life. At all events, they probably give us 
 the type of face of the mysterious Hyksos 
 kings. 
 
 Tell-el-Amarna, the ancient Khuenaten 
 on the Nile, is one of the most recent of 
 the witnesses that throw light on Bible 
 times. Its testimony relates to an era be¬ 
 tween Joseph and the oppression. The 
 remains at this point had long been seen to 
 be, next to those of Thebes, the most ex¬ 
 tensive in Egypt; but it was reserved for a 
 peasant, searching for nitrous earth for a 
 fertilizer, to gain the clew that is leading 
 to the revelation of the astonishing value 
 of these remains to historical knowledge. 
 At the annual meeting of the Victoria In¬ 
 stitute in July, 1S89, Professor Sayce gave 
 
( 28l ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 Egy 
 
 a report of his visit to the spot. After 
 hearing that report, M. Naville declared the 
 discovery the greatest of the century. Pro¬ 
 fessor Sayce found evidence of a predom¬ 
 inant Semitic influence in the reign of 
 Amenophis IV. of the eighteenth dynasty. 
 There were extensive royal archives in the 
 cuneiform or Babylonian characters. It 
 appeared that the courts of Egypt and 
 Mesopotamia were connected by marriage. 
 One Dadu, or David, who may have been a 
 Hebrew, was guardian of the king’s daugh¬ 
 ter. A description of Palestine was found, 
 which throws light on biblical names and 
 sites. One city of Southern Palestine that 
 had an Egyptian garrison was known as 
 Urusalim. This was probably none other 
 than Jerusalem. There were five letters 
 from a king of Babylon, whose reign is 
 known from Assyrian discoveries to have 
 been about 1430 b. c. This confirms the 
 previous belief as to the date of Amenophis 
 IV. These archives prove that Israel was 
 not then in Palestine, and corroborate the 
 belief that the exodus did not take place 
 till the time that has been of late so com¬ 
 monly assigned to it. They also strongly 
 favor the longer period of 430 years for Is¬ 
 rael’s sojourn in Egypt, rather than the 
 shorter one of 215 years. This Amenophis 
 IV., or Khuenaten, has long been famous 
 in Egyptian history for rejecting the vast 
 national pantheon, and paying worship to 
 the sun-god alone. This conduct brought 
 down on him the odium of heresy, and led 
 to the erasure of his name from the list of 
 sovereigns, but, like many another whose 
 name has been cast out as evil, he deserves 
 special honor. Possibly the presence of 
 monotheistic Israel may have had some¬ 
 thing to do with the religious belief of the 
 king. At all events, facts like those that 
 have been mentioned indicate that the 
 Semitic Hebrews would enjoy peace and 
 favor under such a sceptre. 
 
 The Tell-el-Amarna find is being diligent¬ 
 ly studied by Egyptologists, and it is prob¬ 
 able that its testimony is far from being all 
 in. This is one of many illustrations cited 
 in this article of the rapid growth of our 
 knowledge of ancient Egypt. So far as 
 current discoveries go, old Egypt is the 
 newest of the nations; and the most care¬ 
 ful statement of to-day may need revision 
 T to-morrow. 
 
 The oppression of Israel appears to have 
 taken place in the reign of Rameses II. 
 His is the most famous name in Egyptian 
 history, and he is the best known to us of 
 all the Pharaohs. He was a great con¬ 
 queror—master of Asia as far as the lower 
 Euphrates—he was a still greater builder. 
 Thothmes III. is his rival in war, but none 
 of the Pharaohs will compare with him 
 
 in works of sculpture and architecture. 
 These monuments of his wealth and pow¬ 
 er, many of them colossal in size, cover 
 the country, and are almost countless. 
 
 Some of the illustrations of this article 
 suggest the grandeur of his works. The 
 temple hewn out of the rock at Aboo Sim- 
 bel was his creation. The colossi are 66 
 feet high, and the temple extends into the 
 rock 180 feet. Aboo Simbel is in Nubia, 
 and it shows the extent and might of his 
 sway that he should have executed such a 
 work so far up the Nile. Brugsch terms 
 it “ the most sublime of all dwellings made 
 for the gods.” 
 
 In “Luxor Restored” the magnificent 
 gateway was his work. Notice the lofty 
 cedar flag-masts, the colossi, and the obe¬ 
 lisks. One of the obelisks still stands 
 there; it is over 70 feet high, but is half 
 buried in sand. Its companion is in Paris. 
 The pylon, or portal proper, was adorned 
 with sculptured pictures illustrating his 
 victories. 
 
 The execution of these stupendous works 
 laid crushing burdens on his kingdom. Dur¬ 
 ing his long reign of sixty-seven years the 
 light-heartedness of the old Egyptian life 
 fled forever. His wars were chiefly to 
 augment the vast number of slaves, whose 
 piteous story may still be read upon the 
 monuments. There they are—their backs 
 branded with the hot iron—toiling under- 
 the lash of the merciless taskmasters! 
 Thus Israel labored when Pharaoh and 
 his people “ set over them taskmasters 
 to afflict them,” and made their lives bit¬ 
 ter with hard bondage in mortar and in 
 brick. 
 
 The Egyptian Exploration Fund has 
 identified one of the two store-cities that 
 Israel built during this oppression, namely, 
 Pithom. Its ruins lie seven miles west of 
 Ismalia. It was largely composed of mag¬ 
 azines for grain, similar to those depicted 
 upon the monuments. The taxes of an¬ 
 cient Egypt were levied in kind, and all 
 employees of the Crown were paid in the 
 same manner, so vast storehouses were 
 necessary to keep the government proper¬ 
 ty. The massive walls of the storehouses 
 at Pithom are built of large sun-dried 
 bricks. In some of the bricks the mud is 
 strengthened by being mixed with chopped 
 straw: in others there is no straw. Some 
 find here a result of the refusal of Pha¬ 
 raoh’s taskmasters to give to the Israelitish 
 brickmakers straw. This location of Pi¬ 
 thom lays, probably forever, Brugsch’s 
 theory that the route of the exodus was 
 along the narrow tongue of land between 
 the Serbonian bog and the Mediterranean, 
 and the attempt, so far a£ it went along 
 with that theory, to account for the de- 
 
( 282 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 Egy 
 
 struction of Pharaoh’s host without any¬ 
 thing supernatural. 
 
 The world had long been familiar with 
 the sculptured features of Rameses II., 
 but it was destined to a more intimate ac¬ 
 quaintance with him. In 1881 his mummy 
 itself, with that of many another hero and 
 heroine of Pharaonic times, was discovered 
 in a chamber far within the everlasting 
 rock in the gloomy desert west of Thebes. 
 It was wrapped in linen finer than the 
 finest India muslin, and bore an inscrip¬ 
 tion telling how it had been deposited 
 
 and successor of Rameses II. No record 
 that certainly refers to this event has been 
 found hitherto in Egypt. The ancient na¬ 
 tions did not love to dwell upon their disas¬ 
 ters. 
 
 The legislation of Moses shows a re¬ 
 markable correspondence to the institutions 
 of the country where his people had dwelt 
 so long. The distinction between clean and 
 unclean animals, and the requirement that 
 all offerings should be without blemish, and 
 the prescription of linen for the priestly 
 dress are but a few of the many features 
 
 TEMPLE OF ABOO SIMBEL. 
 
 there for security in a time of invasion. 
 It was wonderfully well preserved: the 
 form was tall and stalwart, the features 
 told of an imperious soul, and the age ap¬ 
 peared to be upward of eighty. It is kept 
 in the great museum of Gizeh. 
 
 By a wonderful Providence Moses was 
 trained in the very palace of the oppressor 
 of his people. Thus he became “ learned 
 in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” and 
 gained a great element of his preparation to 
 be the deliverer and lawgiver of his nation. 
 
 The exodus appears to have taken place 
 in the weak reign of Menephtah, the son 
 
 of the ritual which closely resemble those 
 of Egypt. The justice and humanity of 
 Israel’s moral code had been largely antic¬ 
 ipated by Egyptian precepts that were very 
 old in the days of Moses—those of Ptah- 
 hotep for instance, who lived in the fifth 
 dynasty, and whose work is accepted as 
 “ the most ancient book of the world.’’ 
 
 The great Israelitish idea of the unity 
 of the Supreme Being was not, as we 
 have seen, foreign to Egyptian thought. 
 On the other hand, the differences be¬ 
 tween the Egyptian and the Israelitish 
 systems were equally striking. The sub- 
 
( 283 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 lime monotheism of the Mosaic law is no¬ 
 where lost, or even obscured, in polytheism; 
 and no bull or other animal is tolerated as 
 the representative of the Unseen Power. 
 Magic and all that is akin to it, although 
 prevalent in Egypt, is sternly forbidden. 
 The correspondences and the differences 
 between the religions of Israel and Egypt 
 are best explained on the ground of a 
 divine superintendence of the mind of the 
 great Hebrew lawgiver, which guided him 
 in his selections and rejections, and re¬ 
 vealed to him, in its original purity, lofty 
 truth that had almost been lost sight of 
 in the land of his birth. Still more clearly 
 
 ‘Egy 
 
 ing down the conquered Hebrews with a 
 colossal club, while beside him are long 
 rows of embattled shields, each bearing the 
 name of a vanquished city.” 
 
 Taharka (biblical, Tirhakah), the con¬ 
 temporary of Hezekiah, is termed in the 
 Bible “ King of Ethiopia.” He came from 
 Ethiopia, but was of the line of Khuenaten, 
 the so-called heretic. He made himself 
 master of Egypt about 700 b. c., and dis¬ 
 puted the pathway of the advancing Sen¬ 
 nacherib. The Bible records the miraculous 
 destruction of the Assyrian host. This was 
 as truly a deliverance to Egypt as to 
 Judah. Herodotus has handed down the 
 
 :-rr- -\:j 
 
 spilt 
 
 LUXOR RESTORED. 
 
 is the divine superiority of the religion of 
 Israel to that of Egypt seen in the charac¬ 
 ters which it produced out of a wayward 
 race: of such moral excellence Moses him¬ 
 self is an illustrious example. There must 
 have been a “power making for righteous¬ 
 ness” in Israel, to which Egypt, with all 
 her theoretic moralities and noble senti¬ 
 ments, was a stranger. 
 
 Sheshonk I.—the Shishak of the Bible— 
 was the contemporary of Solomon’s later 
 years, and of the earlier part of Reho- 
 boam’s reign. The Bible tells us that he 
 harbored the fugitive Jeroboam, and sub¬ 
 sequently captured and spoiled Jerusalem. 
 The monuments represent him as “ strik- 
 
 Egyptian version of what appears to be the 
 same event in the story of the field-mice 
 who gnawed quiver and bow and shield- 
 band so effectually in a single night that 
 the invading army fled in terror. But 
 Taharka’s relief was only temporary. 
 Sennacherib’s son, Esar-haddon, and his 
 grandson, Assur-banipal, in succession in¬ 
 vaded and conquered Egypt. Thebes was 
 itself taken after great slaughter, and two 
 obelisks were carried, as trophies, to Nin¬ 
 eveh. Then was fulfilled, at least in part, 
 the burden of Egypt, recorded in Isa. xix. 
 
 Nekan (biblical, Necho) conquered Josiah 
 and took Jerusalem. He has the honorable 
 fame of having sent forth an expedition 
 
( 284 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 that circumnavigated Africa; but as Ta- 
 harkahad measured strength with Assyria, 
 so he did with the new power of Babylon, 
 and with a similar fate, for he suffered a 
 disastrous defeat by Nebuchadnezzar at 
 Carchemish. 
 
 The limits of this article make it im¬ 
 possible to mention all the less important 
 Pharaohs whose careers touch the biblical 
 record. 
 
 Only one more will be individually no¬ 
 ticed, and that is Apries (biblical, Hophra). 
 During his reign Jerusalem was taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and, a little later, a large 
 company of Jewish fugitives sought refuge 
 in Egypt, taking the prophet Jeremiah 
 with them. They found a temporary asy¬ 
 lum at Tahpanhes, as many of their nation 
 had been doing no doubt, in the troublous 
 years that preceded Jerusalerii’s downfall. 
 Here the prophet poured forth predictions 
 against Pharaoh and Egypt and his own 
 perverse nation. Pharaoh Hophra was to 
 be given into the hand of his enemies; 
 Nebuchadnezzar was to set up his throne 
 on the “ pavement” (Jer. xliii. 9, margin 
 of Revised Version), “at the entry of 
 Pharaoh’s house,” and the Jews were to 
 suffer heavy woes. Herodotus tells how 
 Apries, that is, Hophra, was strangled by 
 his own subjects; and Josephus records 
 Nebuchadnezzar’s invasion, and his re¬ 
 moval of the fugitive Jews to Babylon. 
 
 In 1886 M. Petrie identified Tahpanhes 
 with Defenneh, which lies a little west of 
 the Suez Canal and south of Lake Menzaleh, 
 on the camel route of immemorial antiquity 
 from Egypt to Palestine. On the first 
 evening of his arrival at the place, he was 
 startled to hear it called by the natives, 
 “ Kasrel Bint el Gehudi,” thatis, “ the Pal¬ 
 ace of the Jew’s daughter.” He takes this 
 to be a reminiscence of the fact recorded 
 in the Bible that Johanan took the daugh¬ 
 ters of King Zedekiah with him in his 
 flight to Tahpanhes. He found there, in 
 front of the palace, a great open-air plat¬ 
 form or pavement of brickwork. That 
 pavement he believes to have been the spot 
 where Jeremiah uttered the prophecy re¬ 
 ferred to above, and accompanied it with 
 a graphic illustrative act. 
 
 He accounts for the Greek names that 
 appear in the Hebrew writings after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem by the mingling 
 of Jew with Greek at Tahpanhes. Three 
 cylinders bearing inscriptions of Nebuchad¬ 
 nezzar found their way to the Boulak 
 Museum some years ago. There are indi¬ 
 cations that these came from Defenneh, and 
 so point to Nebuchadnezzar’s presence 
 there, and the fulfillment of Jeremiah’s 
 prophecy. 
 
 Since M. Petrie’s visit a seal has been 
 
 Egy 
 
 bought in Cairo, bearing an inscription in 
 Hebrew characters, similar to those of the 
 seventh century, b. c. The translation of 
 the inscription is, “ To the prosperity of 
 Jeremiah.” There is reason to suppose 
 that this, too, came from Defenneh, and it 
 may have belonged to the great prophet. 
 
 During the reigns of the earlier Ptol¬ 
 emies, Alexandria became the metropolis 
 of the world in wealth, splendor, and cul¬ 
 ture. In the reign of Ptolemy Philadephus, 
 Manetho wrote his history of Egypt. This 
 work has of late risen in the esteem of 
 Egyptologists, as more and more of its 
 statements have received confirmation from 
 the ancient records. 
 
 In the same reign the Hebrew Script¬ 
 ures were translated into Greek, in the 
 version called the Septuagint. 
 
 Edfou illustrates, for the most part, the 
 beautiful architecture of the Ptolemaic 
 period. 
 
 Connection of Egyptian and Christian His¬ 
 tory .—During the reign of Augustus, our 
 infant Lord was taken down into Egypt for 
 safety. This journey into the country 
 that had oppressed his nation may be taken 
 as an illustration of his forgiving spirit, 
 and a prophecy of his own peaceful con¬ 
 quest of that land. 
 
 In the reign of Nero, according to tradi¬ 
 tion, the gospel was carried into Egypt by 
 Mark. At all events its entrance was very 
 early, and its progress rapid. 
 
 The prevalence of Christianity drew 
 down cruel and repeated persecution upon 
 the Egyptian converts, but as it had been 
 with the Jewish Church in Egypt under 
 the Pharaohs, so it was with the Christian 
 under the Casars; “ the more they afflict¬ 
 ed them the more they multiplied and 
 grew.” Egypt gave to the world some of 
 the most illustrious of the church fathers. 
 Justin Martyr was converted on the sea¬ 
 shore near Alexandria; and Athenagoras, 
 Origen, Clement of Alexandria, and Atha¬ 
 nasius are some of the other immortal 
 names in Egyptian Christianity. 
 
 Philse was adorned both by the Ptolemies 
 and the Caesars. 
 
 In the reign of Marcus Aurelius (a. d. 
 161-180), the luster of Alexandrian learn¬ 
 ing came to rival that of the days of the 
 Ptolemies; and the Church, true to her 
 spirit, appropriated to her own beneficent 
 mission whatever was helpful in the cul¬ 
 ture about her. A large number of our 
 choicest manuscripts of the Bible appear 
 to have come from Alexandria, amongst 
 them the Alexandrine of the British 
 Museum. 
 
 The old paganism lingered on, with fitful 
 outbursts of life, to the reign of Justinian 
 (527-565 a. D.). 
 
Egy 
 
 ( 285 ) 
 
 Meanwhile, Christianity itself had be¬ 
 come debased. The command to be “ not 
 of the world ” was interpreted to enjoin 
 asceticism, and the Egyptian deserts be¬ 
 came full of monks and nuns. During 
 the reign of Valens (364-378 A. D.), it 
 was said that there were, at Oxyryn- 
 chus alone, 10,000 monks and 20,000 
 nuns. 
 
 Most of the period of more than a mil¬ 
 lennium, in which the crescent has ruled 
 Egypt, offers little attraction to the Chris¬ 
 tian student; but a better day is dawning 
 
 Egy 
 
 affirms the humanity of Christ to have 
 been absorbed into his divinity; and their 
 religion has degenerated largely into form¬ 
 alism, and their priesthood is, as a class, 
 ignorant and far from exemplary, but they 
 are the most intelligent part of the popula¬ 
 tion. The United Presbyterian Mission was 
 begun in Nov., 1854, and has been favored 
 with the services of a little company of 
 Christian men and women of rare devotion, 
 whose work the Lord has delighted to own. 
 Some of the principal statistics of the report 
 for 1888-89 are appended, and that the rapid 
 
 TEMPLE OF EDFOU. 
 
 on that land, most of all through modern 
 missionary effort. 
 
 The mission of the United Presbyterian 
 Church of North America deserves partic¬ 
 ular mention and praise. Its special field 
 is among the Copts. These number some 
 300,000. They are, above all other modern 
 Egyptians, the lineal descendants of the 
 ancient stock, and their liturgical language 
 is related to the old Egyptian somewhat as 
 Italian to Latin. As early as the fourth 
 century more than one translation of the 
 Bible was made into their tongue. They 
 fell off into the Monophysite heresy, which 
 
 growth of the mission may be appreciated, 
 the corresponding figures for a period ten 
 years earlier, so far as they are accessible, 
 are put in a parallel column. 
 
 Stations. 100 39 
 
 Churches. 26 7 
 
 Communicants.2,624 947 
 
 Pupils in Sunday-schools.4,825 1,249 
 
 “ week-day schools....5,701 1,893 
 
 Money contributed by na¬ 
 tives.$27,802 $13,064 
 
 In these ten years the population has in¬ 
 creased but 25 per cent. 
 
( 286 ) 
 
 Egy 
 
 No. foreign workers. 27 
 
 “ native “ .198 
 
 Theological students. 13 
 
 Self-supporting church. 1 
 
 Of the week-day pupils, 1,170 were Prot¬ 
 estants, 3,328 Copts, 771 Mohammedans, 
 143 Jews, 96 Greeks and Roman Catholics. 
 This diverse patronage illustrates the gen¬ 
 eral recognition of the excellence of their 
 schools. One cannot pay the most cursory 
 visit to Egypt without meeting touching 
 proofs of the good work done, far and wide, 
 by this noble mission. Seven Mussulmen 
 
 Egy 
 
 May that wish speedily prove prophetic, 
 and may the second part of the ancient 
 word, whose first part has been so abun¬ 
 dantly fulfilled, likewise come to pass— 
 “ the Lord shall smite Egypt; he shall 
 smite and heal it.” 
 
 Recent Authorities: Brugsch: Egypt 
 Under the Pharaohs , 2 vols.; Rawlinson: 
 Ancient Egypt, 2 vols.; Wilson: Egypt of the 
 /W/(Miss Edwards’s edition); Renouf: Re¬ 
 ligion of Ancient Egypt; Maspero: Egyptian 
 Archceology; Sharpe: History of Egypt 
 (takes in its modern history down to Mo- 
 
 PHILyE—ARTIST’S VIEW, OR VIEW MAGNIFICENT. 
 
 were baptized by the missionaries in 1888. 
 
 Recent political changes in Egypt have 
 been favorable to her best interests. The 
 presence of the British has diminished in¬ 
 justice and oppression, and promoted relig¬ 
 ious liberty. 
 
 On July 24, 1882, just after Arabi had fled 
 from Alexandria, Mr. Gladstone expressed 
 the wish in Parliament, “ that it may yet be 
 given to Egypt to achieve in the future less 
 perhaps of glory, but yet possibly more 
 happiness than she did once achieve, when 
 in a far-off and almost forgotten time she 
 was the wonder of the ancient world.” 
 
 hammedan conquest) ; Mariette : Monu¬ 
 ments of Upper Egypt (Dickeman’s edi¬ 
 tion); Lane: Modern Egyptians (Poole’s edi¬ 
 tion); Petrie: Pyramids and Temples of 
 Gizeh. Memoirs of Egypt Exploration 
 Fund, especially the volumes on Pithom , 
 Tanis (Part ii. includes Defenneh ), and 
 Goshen. (This Fund deserves hearty sup¬ 
 port.) Of more popular works, Robinson: 
 Pharaohs of the Bondage and the Exodus , 
 and Egypt in the “ Story of the Nations ” 
 series, may be mentioned. Of histories 
 with a broader range that treat of Egypt, 
 The Ancient History of the East by Lenor- 
 
Eic 
 
 ( 287 ) 
 
 Eli 
 
 mant and Chevallier (2 vols.), is excellent, 
 and Fisher’s Outlines of Universal History 
 has an admirable epitome. Sayce’s Fresh 
 Light from the Monuments treats largely of 
 Egypt. J. L. Ewell. 
 
 Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried, b. 1752; 
 d. at Gottingen, 1827. He was appointed 
 professor of Oriental languages at Jena in 
 1775, and professor of theology at Gotting¬ 
 en in 178S. “ His historical writings have 
 
 now fallen into oblivion; but his works on 
 biblical criticism, though their rationalistic 
 tendency has been completely overthrown, 
 are still acknowledged to contain many 
 happy views and profound investigations.” 
 —Bertheau in Schaff-Herzog: Encv ., vol. 
 i., p- 7 11 - 
 
 Einhard. See Eginhard. 
 
 Einsiedeln, or Maria Einsiedeln, a fa¬ 
 mous Benedictine monastery in Switzer¬ 
 land, and place of pilgrimage. It is the 
 custodian of a black image of the Virgin, 
 and, according to the legend, Mary herself 
 and the angels came down from heaven on 
 Sept. 14, 948, and consecrated the chapel 
 in which the image is preserved. The 
 monastery is about twenty - five miles 
 southeast of Zurich, and it is estimated 
 that it is now visited by 150,000 pilgrims 
 annually. 
 
 E'lam {age), a country inhabited by de¬ 
 scendants of Shem, and called after his son, 
 Elam. (Gen. x. 22.) It was bounded on the 
 north by Assyria and Media, east by Media 
 and Persia, and south by the Persian Gulf. 
 The city of Susa was its capital. A power¬ 
 ful nation in the time of Abram (Gen. 
 xiv. 9), it was conquered by the Assyri¬ 
 ans (Isa. xxii. 6), but afterward regained 
 its independence. Jeremiah mentions it 
 among the doomed nations. (Jer. xlix. 
 34-39.) After the fall of Babylon it was 
 absorbed by the Persian, then by the Syro- 
 Macedonian, and, finally, by the Parthian, 
 Empire. 
 
 E'lath, or E'loth (/wj), a seaport town 
 of the Edomites, at the northern end of the 
 Gulf of Akabali, the eastern arm of the 
 Red Sea. In their exodus from Egypt the 
 Israelites passed by it. (Deut. ii. 8.) Con¬ 
 quered by David (2 Sam. viii. 14), it was 
 from Elath and Ezion-geber that Solomon 
 sent his ships to Ophir. (1 Kings ix. 26, 
 28.) Retaken by the Edomites (2 Kings 
 viii. 20), it was never in the possession of 
 Israel again, except for a short period in 
 the reign of Uzziah. (2 Kings xiv. 22; 2 
 Chron. xxvi. 2.) Under the Romans it was 
 a place of some commercial importance. 
 
 Stanley identifies Elath with the modern 
 Akaba, a town consisting of a few wretched 
 houses, and an old fortress occupied by 
 Turkish troops. 
 
 Elcesaites. See Elkesaites. 
 
 Elder. The term elder was one of exten¬ 
 sive use as an official title among the He¬ 
 brews and the surrounding nations. It 
 had reference to various offices. (Gen. 
 xxiv. 2; 1. 7; 2 Sam. xii. 17; Ezek. xxvii. 
 9.) See Presbyter; Presiding Elder; 
 Conference. 
 
 Elect, Election. See Predestination. 
 
 Elements, the materials used in the sac¬ 
 raments. Water is the element of baptism, 
 bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper. 
 
 Eleu'therus,pope, 177-193. According to 
 Beda: Hist. Eccl., iii. 25, and the Liber Pon- 
 tificalis, the British king, Lucius, wrote to 
 Eleutherus that he was ready to accept 
 Christianity as soon as teachers were sent 
 to him. If such a letter was sent, it could 
 not have met with response, since the Celt¬ 
 ic and not the Roman Church engaged in 
 missionary labor among the Britons. 
 
 Elevation of the Host. See Mass. 
 
 E'li {ascent), successor of Abdon as high- 
 priest and judge of Israel (1 Sam. ii. 11) 
 for forty years. (1 Sam. iv. 18.) The de¬ 
 struction of his house for the sins of his 
 two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, was ful¬ 
 filled twenty-seven years after it was pre¬ 
 dicted by Samuel. (1 Sam. ii. 11; iii.; iv.) 
 
 Elig'ius, b. at Chatelat, near Limoges, 
 about 588; d. at Noyon, Nov. 30, 658 or 
 659. He accumulated a fortune in Paris 
 at his trade as a goldsmith, and gained 
 the signal favorof King Clotaire, and after¬ 
 ward of his son and successor, Dagobert. 
 Coming under the influenceof Columbanus, 
 he devoted himself with great earnestness 
 to works of piety. He purchased hundreds 
 of young Saxons that were brought to Paris 
 and sold as slaves, and gave them their 
 freedom, and also founded several monas¬ 
 teries and churches. In 640 he was made 
 bishop of Noyon,and ruled his diocese with 
 courage and austerity. At the Synod of 
 Chalons (644) and in that of Orleans(65o), he 
 was the recognized leader. After his death 
 miracles were reported as taking place at 
 his grave, and he was honored by the peo¬ 
 ple as a saint. His Life was written by his 
 friend,Audoenus; but,as found in D’Arch- 
 ery: Spicilegimn ii., 76-123; has evidently 
 been very much changed. Some sermons 
 
Eli 
 
 ( 288 ) 
 
 Eli 
 
 ascribed to him in Bibl. Max. Patr., xii, pp. 
 300-332, are evidently of a later period. 
 
 Eli'jah (my God is Jehovah), or Elias (the 
 Greek form of the name), one of the great¬ 
 est of the prophets, a native of Gilead, and 
 called the “ Tishbite,” the name probably 
 indicating his birthplace. (1 Kings xvii. 1.) 
 His introduction in the Bible narrative is 
 singularly abrupt. He appears as a mes¬ 
 senger to the wicked Ahab, and prophesies 
 a drought of three years in the land of 
 Israel. Seeking refuge at the brook 
 Cherith, he is miraculously fed by ravens. 
 From thence he goes to Zarephath, where 
 both himself and the widow’s family, in 
 whose home he had found a hiding-place, 
 are cared for by the Lord, and the dead son 
 of the widow restored to life. After the 
 famine had continued nearly the predicted 
 time, Elijah again encounters Ahab. The 
 prophet meets the priests of Baal upon the 
 heights of Carmel, and, in answer to his 
 prayer, fire falls from heaven and consumes 
 his sacrifice. With the consent of Ahab, 
 the four hundred and fifty discomfited 
 prophets of Baal are slain. Elijah prays 
 for rain, and then runs before the chariot 
 of Ahab, sixteen miles across the plain, to 
 the entrance of Jezreel. (1 Kings xviii.) 
 Worn and depressed by the mental and 
 physical strain of these exciting incidents, 
 the threats of Jezebel produced such de¬ 
 spondency that Elijah flees into the “ wil¬ 
 derness,” and prays for death. The ap¬ 
 pearance of an angelic messenger gives 
 fresh courage,and hegoes on to Sinai where 
 the power and goodness of God are reveal¬ 
 ed to him in a wonderful vision. (1 Kings 
 xix. 9-18.) Having anointed Elisha to be 
 prophet in his place, he retires from active 
 service until about six years later, when he 
 suddenly appears and denounces both 
 Ahab and Jezebel for what they had done 
 to Naboth. His last public appearance 
 was to Ahaziah, whose death he predicted. 
 (2 Kings i. 3.) “ Elijah’s life was thus one 
 
 of bold, sudden appearances and disappear¬ 
 ances in a gallant struggle against the mad 
 idolatry that was working the ruin of the 
 northern kingdom. Where he was and 
 what he was doing, during the long inter¬ 
 vals of his public ministry, we can only 
 conjecture. His departure out of life was 
 in keeping with the whole previous tenor 
 of it. His sheepskin mantle, rolled up into 
 a rod, smote a path for himself and for 
 Elisha across Jordan. A chariot of fire 
 and horses of fire parted the two prophets, 
 and the Tishbite went up in a storm into 
 the sky. This, however, does not quite 
 end his biography. Second only to Moses, 
 who also was strangely snatched away 
 not far from the same locality, Moses and 
 
 Elijah came back together to meet our 
 Lord, transfigured on Hermon. The abun¬ 
 dance and boldness of the miracles ascribed 
 to Elijah bring no suspicion upon the nar¬ 
 rative when it is considered that the true 
 religion was in such desperate straits.”— 
 Dr. P. D. Hitchcock in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency., vol. i., p. 714. See Stanley: History 
 of the Jewish Church , vol. ii., p. 321. F. 
 W. Krummacher: Elijah the Tishbite; W. 
 M. Taylor: Elijah the Prophet. 
 
 E'lim (trees), the second station of Israel 
 after crossing the Red Sea. (Exod. xv. 27; 
 Num. xxiii. 9.) It had twelve springs and 
 seventy palm-trees, and is identified by 
 most travelers with Wady Gharandel, which 
 is a pleasant spot with water and palms. 
 
 Eliot, John, “ the apostle to the In¬ 
 dians;” Congregationalist; b. in the county 
 of Essex, England, in 1604; d. at Roxbury, 
 Mass., May 20, 1690. He was educated at 
 Cambridge, and came to New England in 
 1631. He was settled over the church at 
 Roxbury in the following year, and con¬ 
 tinued in that relation until his death, a 
 period of nearly sixty years. He became 
 interested in missionary work among the 
 Indians, and learned their language that he 
 might preach to them. The first Indian 
 church was organized at Natick in 1660. 
 He gained a wonderful influence over the 
 savages, who at first opposed his labors; 
 and in 1661 he published the New Testa¬ 
 ment in the Indian language, and three 
 years later the entire Bible. His work at¬ 
 tracted much interest in England, and he 
 was aided by the famous Long Parliament. 
 Humble, devout, and tireless in his efforts, 
 his life was one of peculiar usefulness. 
 
 St* Eli'sha ( God is salvation), the disciple and 
 successor of Elijah. He was a native of 
 Abel-meholah (l Kings xix. 16), where 
 Elijah found him ploughing, and conse¬ 
 crated him as prophet by throwing his 
 mantle over him. Leaving the oxen in the 
 field, he became the faithful follower of his 
 great master. The conditions under which 
 these eminent prophets fulfilled their life- 
 work were in accord with their distinctive 
 temperaments. The stern message of 
 Elijah becomes an earnest but tender ad¬ 
 monition in the counsels which Elisha gave 
 to kings and disciples alike, as they sought 
 his prophetical aid. His miracles were full 
 of gracious blessing. He heals the impure 
 waters (2 King^ii. 19-22), renders palata¬ 
 ble the food of the sons of the prophets (iv. 
 38-41), helps a poor widow (iv. 1-7), and 
 restores to a poor boy the axe which had 
 fallen into the water (vi. 1-7). A few loaves, 
 by his blessing, feed many (iv. 42-44); and 
 
Eli 
 
 (289) 
 
 Ely 
 
 when the child promised the Shunammite 
 dies, he restores it to life. By his prophetic 
 power the Syrian commander is defeated, 
 Naaman cured, and Gehazi stricken with 
 leprosy; and, when dying, he predicted to 
 Hazael that he would come to the throne, 
 and bring ruin upon Israel (viii. 7-15). The 
 strange fact is recorded, that a year after 
 his burial a dead man was accidentally 
 placed in the tomb, and the moment his 
 body touched that of the prophet he came 
 to life. “ In sublime intellectual power 
 Elisha was not equal to his predecessor; 
 but in him the grace of God shows its ten¬ 
 der and solicitous care for the smallest 
 events. His miracles approach nearest to 
 those of the Saviour, in which the fullness 
 of divine grace revealed itself. He who 
 sees deeds of supernatural power in the 
 saving life of Christ will not deny them to 
 his type in the Old Testament.”— Orelli. 
 See Stanley: Hist. Jewish Church, vol. ii., 
 PP- 353 - 364 - 
 
 Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, b. in Pres- 
 burg in 1207; d. at Marburg, Nov. 19, 
 1231. Betrothed to Louis IV., landgrave 
 of Thuringia when but four years of age, 
 she was educated in the court circle; but 
 worldly pleasures had little attraction for 
 her, and she early devoted herself to works 
 of charity and devotion. Married at four¬ 
 teen, she gained the cooperation of her 
 husband in her labors of Christian love. 
 After his death, which occurred while 
 making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 efforts, instigated by his brother, were 
 made to deprive her of the regency. She 
 was driven for a time from her estates, 
 but they were restored to her again, and 
 she was enabled to devote herself to labors 
 among the poor. Giving her wealth to 
 charitable purposes, she performed the 
 most menial services among the sick and 
 suffering. She was canonized by Gregory 
 IX., four years after herdeath. Her life fur¬ 
 nished the materials for Chas. Kingsley’s 
 poem, the Saint's Tragedy. 
 
 Elkesaites, a school in the Jewish Chris¬ 
 tian Church, which held doctrines tinged 
 with Gnosticism. 
 
 ^ Ellicott, Right Rev. Charles John, 
 Church of England; b. at Whitwell, near 
 Stamford, April 25, 1819; was graduated at 
 Cambridge, 1841; professor of divinity, 
 King’s College, London, 1848-1860; Hul- 
 sean professor of divinity, Cambridge, 
 1860-1861; dean of Exeter, 1861-1863; 
 since 1863 lord bishop of Gloucester and 
 Bristol. He was chairman of the British 
 New Testament Revision Committee, 1870- 
 1881. He is the author of several works, 
 
 but the best known and most valuable are 
 his Life of our Lord (London, i860); and 
 his commentaries on Galatians (1854, 2d 
 ed., 1859); Ephesians (1855, 5th ed., 1884); 
 Philippians , Colossians, and Philemon (1857, 
 5th ed., 1888); TJiessalonians (1858, 4th ed., 
 1880); Pastoral Epistles (1858, 5th ed., 
 1883); First Corinthians (1887). 
 
 Elliott, Charles, D. D., b. at Glencon- 
 way, Ireland, May 16, 1792; d. at Mount 
 Pleasant, la., Jan. 6, 1869. He was a 
 licensed Methodist local preacher when he 
 came to the United States in 1815. For a 
 time he was engaged in mission work 
 among the Wyandotte Indians at Upper 
 Sandusky, and was presiding elder in the 
 Ohio Conference, and professor of lan¬ 
 guages in Madison College, Uniontown, 
 Penn. For a long time he was the editor 
 of different Methodist religious news¬ 
 papers. From 1857 to 1867, with the ex¬ 
 ception of four years, he was professor of 
 biblical literature, and president of the 
 Iowa Wesleyan University. He wrote a 
 history of the division of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church in 1844 on the question 
 of slavery, but his most important work 
 was the Delineation of Roman Catholicism 
 (N. Y., 1841), 2 vols. 
 
 Ellis, William, Congregationalist; b. in 
 London, Aug. 29, 1794; d. at Hoddesdon, 
 England, June 25, 1872. He began his 
 missionary labors in the South Sea Islands 
 in 1816, where he labored until 1823, when 
 he removed to Hawaii, and aided in the 
 translation of the Bible into the language 
 of the islands. From 1832 to 1839, he acted 
 as traveling agent in England of the Lon¬ 
 don Missionary Society. In 1853 he was 
 sent out to Madagascar, to reestablish the 
 missions there after the period of fearful 
 persecution. He was very successful in 
 this work. He published the Martyr 
 Church of Madagascar (1839); Three Visits 
 to Madagascar (1858); Madagascar Revisited 
 (1867). 
 
 E'loth. See Elath. 
 
 Ely. The Cathedral Church of Ely 
 owes its foundation (about 673) to St. Eth- 
 eldreda, the queen abbess of the monastic 
 institution which bore her name. St. Ethel- 
 dreda’s church was raised on the ruins of 
 one which had previously existed, and had 
 been destroyed in the wars between East 
 Anglia and Mercia. For two centuries it 
 remained in the odor of sanctity, till, about 
 870, it was laid in ruins by the Danes. A 
 hundred years later it was rebuilt, and a 
 century after that, Ely became the scene 
 of the last gallant resistance that was offer- 
 
Ely 
 
 ( 290 ) 
 
 Emb 
 
 ed by Englishmen, under Hereward “ the 
 Wake,” to William the Conqueror. It was 
 gradually built up by the labor of succeed¬ 
 ing ages; and the features of constructive 
 art, which were piled upon each other 
 in all the happy harmony of incongruous 
 details, only heighten the picturesqueness 
 of the mass. In the nave and transepts 
 are found the hand of the Norman. These 
 were planned and carried out by Abbot 
 Simeon, who died in 1093, and Abbot Rich¬ 
 ard, whose successor, Hervey, became the 
 first Bishop of Ely in 1109, under whom 
 the western transept was commenced, the 
 two upper stages of which, together with 
 the western tower, are examples of the 
 Transition period, and were built, under 
 Bishop Riddell and William the English¬ 
 man, between 1169 and 1185. In the porch 
 and presbytery is to be seen the perfection 
 of the Early English style. Bishop Eus¬ 
 tace (1197-98) is said to have “ built from 
 the foundation the new Galilee of the 
 church of Ely, toward the west, at his own 
 cost.” Some say that the work is too fine 
 for so early a period, and that the “ Galilee 
 toward the west ” meant the northern half 
 of the western transept (now lost); but Sir 
 Gilbert Scott inclines to the idea that it 
 
 was the present western porch. It 
 was called by its builders the Galilee , 
 because, as Galilee was, of all the 
 Holy Land, the position most remote 
 from Jerusalem, so is this part of the 
 building farthest removed from the 
 sanctuary. In the thirteenth century 
 Bishop Hugh de Northwold (1234-52) 
 carried out the magnificent extension 
 of the eastern arm of the church, with 
 its unusually lofty triforium story. 
 In the fourteenth century were built 
 the Lady-chapel and the central octa¬ 
 gon. The foundation-stone of the 
 former was laid in 1321 by the sub¬ 
 prior, Alan de Walsingham. The 
 octagon was built to replace the cen¬ 
 tral tower, which had fallen soon after 
 the commencement of the Lady- 
 chapel. It is unique in its design 
 among English mediaeval buildings; 
 both it and the Lady-chapel are pure 
 specimens of the Decorated style, and 
 were designed by Walsingham, to 
 whom, also, we owe the beautiful 
 stall work. The chapels of Bishop 
 Alcock (1488), and Bishop West 
 (1534), are in the Late Perpendicular 
 style. 
 
 In 1843 Dean Peacock set on foot 
 a movement for the restoration of the 
 cathedral, which was commenced in 
 1845, under the guidance of Sir Gil¬ 
 bert Scott; and in 1873, after an out¬ 
 lay of ^70,000, a great festival was 
 held on the twelve-hundredth anniversary 
 of the foundation of the cathedral. On 
 this occasion Bishop Harold Browne bade 
 farewell to his diocese, having been trans¬ 
 lated to Winchester. 
 
 The income of the See is ^5,500. The 
 cathedral chapter consists of the dean, six 
 canons residentiary, four archdeacons, and 
 twenty-four honorary canons. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion.- 
 
 Emanation denotes a theory, developed 
 most fully by the Neo-Platonists, that the 
 universe was not created by the exercise 
 of conscious will, but proceeds from primal 
 being by an involuntary process or emana¬ 
 tion. See Neo-Platonism. 
 
 Embalming, as practiced by the Egyp¬ 
 tians, was probably learned by the Jews in 
 Egypt. The only cases mentioned in the 
 Old Testament are those of Jacob and Jo¬ 
 seph. In the time of our Saviour it was 
 evidently quite common, and the early 
 Christians adopted the custom very gen¬ 
 erally. 
 
 Ember Days are the Wednesday, Friday, 
 and Saturday after the first Sunday in Lent, 
 
Emb 
 
 ( 291 ) 
 
 Enc 
 
 Whitsunday, Sept. 14, and Dec. 13. The 
 name comes from the ashes (embers) which 
 penitents sprinkled upon their heads as a 
 sign of humiliation. The days were first 
 kept in seeking, through prayer and fasting, 
 for the divine blessing upon the seasons 
 which they represented. 
 
 Embury, Philip, the first Methodist 
 minister in America; b. at Ballygaran, Ire¬ 
 land, Sept. 21, 1728 or 1729; d., Aug. 1775. 
 In 1750 he became a preacher in the Irish 
 Conference, and in 1760 he emigrated to 
 America. In 1766 he organized a clan of 
 Methodists in New York City and began 
 to preach “ first in his own house, then in 
 a hired room, and soon after (1767) in the 
 ‘ Rigging Loft,’ famous as the birthplace 
 of Methodism in New York.” A chapel 
 was built in 1768 on the site of the present 
 John Street Church, and here Embury 
 preached gratuitously until the arrival of 
 the first missionaries sent out by John 
 Wesley. He continued his labors as a 
 local preacher, and organized a society at 
 Ashgrove, the first Methodist Church with¬ 
 in the bounds of the present Troy Confer¬ 
 ence. 
 
 Em'maus (hot springs), a village near 
 Jerusalem, where our Lord made himself 
 known to two of his disciples on the after¬ 
 noon of the day on which he arose from 
 the dead. (Luke xxiv.) Its site is still in 
 dispute. Kubeibeh , a little over seven 
 miles northwest of Jerusalem, has been 
 favored by specialists until recently, when 
 a strong argument is made for Urtds , a 
 poor village about two miles southwest of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 - Emmons, Nathaniel, D. D.; b. in East 
 Haddam, Conn., April 20, 1745; d. at 
 Franklin, Mass., Sept. 23, 1840. After 
 graduating from Yale College in 1767 he 
 studied theology, first with Rev. Nathan 
 Strong, of Coventry, Conn., and then with 
 Rev. John Smalley, of Berlin, Conn. In 
 April, 1773, he was ordained pastor of the 
 Congregational Church in Franklin, Mass., 
 where he continued his active ministry 
 until 1827. He was a prolific writer, and 
 he prepared more young men for the Chris¬ 
 tian ministry than any other private in¬ 
 structor in this country. An indefatigable 
 student and independent thinker, his views 
 made a deep impression upon the minds of 
 his pupils and the churches of Calvinistic 
 faith. The distinctive tenets of Emmons’s 
 system, as given by Prof. Edwards A. Park 
 (Schaff-Herzog: Ency.,vo\. i.,p.72i),are:(i) 
 Holiness and sin consist in free, voluntary 
 exercises; (2) Men act freely under the 
 divine agency; (3) The least transgression 
 
 of the divine law deserves eternal punish¬ 
 ment; (4) Right and wrong are founded in 
 the nature of things; (5) God exercises 
 mere grace in pardoning or justifying pen¬ 
 itent believers through the atonement of 
 Christ, and mere goodness in rewarding 
 them for their good works; (6) Notwith¬ 
 standing the total depravity of sinners, 
 God has a right to require them to turn 
 from sin to holiness; (7) Preachers of the 
 gospel ought to exhort sinners to love God, 
 repent of sin, and believe in Christ imme¬ 
 diately; (8) Men are active, not passive, 
 in regeneration. “ The theological system 
 of Dr. Emmons is often confounded with 
 that of Dr. Samuel Hopkins,” says Prof. 
 Park; “ but Dr. Emmons believed that 
 his views were involved in the system of 
 Dr. Hopkins, rather than added to it.” 
 A collected edition of his works, edited by 
 E. A. Park, was published in 6 vols. (Bos¬ 
 ton, i860), with Memoir. 
 
 Emory, John, a bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church; b. in Queen Anne 
 County, Maryland, April 11, 1789; d. at 
 Reisterstown, Md., Dec. 16, 1835. After 
 successful pastoral service, he was book- 
 agent and editor at New York from 1824 to 
 1832. He founded The Methodist Quarterly 
 Review, and in 1832 was elected bishop. 
 He was one of the organizers of Dickinson 
 College, and wrote several pamphlets on 
 controversial subjects. 
 
 Encratites ( abstinents) is not the name of 
 a distinct sect, but denotes certain views 
 of asceticism enjoining abstinence from 
 flesh-meat, wine, marriage, etc. These 
 views, before the Christian era, had been 
 promulgated in India, and were favored by 
 the Essenes, the Pythagoreans, and many 
 Gnostics. 
 
 Encyclical Letters were circular letters 
 which in early times were sent by one 
 church to the churches of a certain circuit, 
 but which are now sent exclusively by the 
 pope to the bishops of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Encyclopaedia of Theology, “ a branch 
 of theological science of comparatively re¬ 
 cent origin. Its aims are to furnish: (1) a 
 sketch of the different branches of theology 
 in their organic connection and relations 
 with each other, showing the fitness of 
 the various branches to theological science 
 as a whole, and the relative importance of 
 these branches; and (2) a plan of theolog¬ 
 ical study, showing the order in which the 
 topics should be taken up, and indicating 
 the best methods of study, and necessary 
 books and helps of all kinds. This second 
 
End 
 
 ( 292 ) 
 
 branch, including the practical application 
 of Encyclopaedia, is generally called Meth¬ 
 odology, and the whole science taken to¬ 
 gether is called by the double name Ency¬ 
 clopedia and Afethodology. Of these, Ency¬ 
 clopaedia is the objective side, the outline 
 of the science itself; Methodology is the 
 subjective side, having reference to the 
 work of the student qf the science.” See 
 art. and literature of subject in McClintock 
 and Strong: Ency., vol. iii., pp. 189, 190. 
 The best modern works on this subject 
 are in German by Hagenbach (1833) and 
 Reischle (1889): The Theological Encyclo¬ 
 pedia and Methodology of Hurst and Crooks 
 (New York, 1885) is based on these 
 works. 
 
 Endeavor, Christian. See Christian 
 Endeavor, Young People’s Society of. 
 
 Encyclopedists, a name given to the 
 editors and contributors of the famous 
 Encyclope'die des Sciences , des Arts et des 
 Metiers , edited by Diderot and D’Alembert 
 (Paris, 1751-65), 17 vols.; Suppl. (1776-77), 
 4 vols. While the dogmas and polity of 
 the Roman Catholic Church were accepted 
 and defended, Christian faith was, for the 
 most part, treated from a rationalistic 
 standpoint, and the entire spirit of the 
 work was destructive and skeptical in its 
 treatment of religion. The opposition to 
 its sale, aroused by the efforts of the Jes¬ 
 uits and others, had a tendency to increase 
 the influence of the work. 
 
 Endor, Witch of. See Saul. 
 
 Energumens ( energoumenoi , “possessed 
 by an evil spirit ”). In the early Church 
 those who were thought to be under the in¬ 
 fluence of evil spirits, but who, in our day, 
 would be treated as insane, were not per¬ 
 mitted to enter the church to engage in 
 worship, but could stand in the porch and 
 listen to the singing and prayers. If quiet, 
 they were allowed to come within the 
 church, and hear the sermon and receive 
 the blessing of the bishop. They were 
 placed in the care of exorcists, who brought 
 them their food, and, having laid hands 
 upon them, prayed for them. Upon their 
 recovery they were at once restored to 
 full membership. 
 
 Enge'di ( fountain of the kid ), a small 
 town about a mile from the west shore of 
 the Dead Sea, near the foot of the moun¬ 
 tainous cliffs of the region. It was also 
 called Hazezon-Tamar,//^ city of palm trees. 
 (Gen. xiv. 7.) Here David found a hiding- 
 place from Saul. (1 Sam. xxiii. 29.) It is 
 now known as Ain Jidy , near which is a 
 
 Eng 
 
 thermal spring, below which, ruins indicate 
 the site of the ancient city. 
 
 England, Church of. The earliest in¬ 
 habitants of England that appear in history, 
 known as the “ Britons,” were pagans,, 
 and the Druids were their ministering; 
 priests. They were partially Christian¬ 
 ized soon after the Apostolic Age. There 
 are many and various traditions respect¬ 
 ing the missionary work in Britain of apos¬ 
 tolic men, such as Joseph of Arimathzea,. 
 whose name is so closely connected with: 
 Glastonbury ; but especially a persistent 
 tradition points to a visit of St. Paul to that 
 country, at some time between his libera¬ 
 tion from his first imprisonment at Rome, 
 which took place in the year 63, and his; 
 martyrdom, which occurred in a. d. 68- 
 The traditions of early Christian times de¬ 
 clare it almost certain that when St. PauL 
 was set free he carried out his long-formed 
 plan of going from Rome to Spain. (Rom. 
 xv. 24, 28.) The writer of a very early doc¬ 
 ument (a. d. i 50-170), known after its dis¬ 
 coverer, the great scholar, Muratori, as the 
 “ Muratorian Fragment,” cites the Acts of 
 the Apostles as the work of an eye-witness, 
 but adds that Luke does not record “ the 
 journey of Paul from Rome to Spain,” as 
 if the actual performance of that journey 
 was a fact well known to the Christian 
 world, as it may well have been, since the 
 writer may have been a grandson of one 
 who had been contemporary with the apos¬ 
 tle. St. Chrysostom expressly states that 
 “ after his residence in Rome, the apostle 
 departed to Spain.” It is probable that,, 
 after spending some time in Spain, the 
 apostle visited adjacent countries, such as- 
 France, where Trophimus, the unintention¬ 
 al cause of his last troubles at Jerusalem 
 (Acts xxi. 29), became bishop of Arles,, 
 in the ecclesiastical province of which pa¬ 
 triarchal archbishopric Britain was, in the 
 early Christian days, included; and there 
 is nothing improbable in the supposition 
 that Trophimus may have received a visit 
 from St. Paul before they started on the 
 apostle’s last missionary work (2 Tim. iv. 
 20), and have carried him over to Britain 
 to lay the foundation of a church there. 
 Less than thirty years (a. d. 96) after St. 
 Paul’s martyrdom, St. Clement, his fellow- 
 laborer (Phil iv. 3), writes that the apostle 
 preached “ both in the east and in the 
 west,” and that, having taught righteous¬ 
 ness to the whole world, he came to the 
 extreme limit of the west ” (Clem., 1 Cor. 
 v.), that expression being exactly the one 
 which was used to signify Spain, France, 
 and Britain (Theodoret, Eh Hot hens xxvi. 
 881); and the Britons being regarded as in¬ 
 habitants of the furthest extremity of the 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 293 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 
 world— ultimos orbis Britannos (Horace: 
 Odes , i. xxxv. 29)—by generations which 
 little dreamed of the great continents that 
 lay further west. 
 
 St. Paul may, however, have found 
 Christianity already known in Britain, for 
 there were, doubtless, Christians among 
 the Roman army of occupation, and the 
 early Christians were ever desirous of re¬ 
 ceiving over converts to their religion. As 
 early as a. d. 47, a lady named Pomponia 
 Graecina, the wife of Aulus Plautius, who 
 was viceroy in Britain to the Emperor 
 Claudius, was accused, on her return to 
 Rome, of practising a “ foreign supersti¬ 
 tion ” unauthorized by the Roman law 
 (Tacit. Ann. xiii. 32), and this was almost 
 certainly Christianity. Gildas, also (a. d. 
 560), the earliest historian of England, tells 
 his readers that the sun of Christianity 
 arose in this land about the time when 
 Queen Boadicea was defeated by the Ro¬ 
 mans, which was in the year 62 or 63. 
 
 But if there were Christians in Britain 
 in the earliest ages of Christianity, it is 
 also certain that they were organized into 
 one or more spiritual communities; for 
 there is no record of any converts to Chris¬ 
 tianity in the apostolic period, or near to 
 it, in which the persons so converted were 
 not formed into a church, a society aiming 
 to continue in the fellowship and doctrine 
 of the apostles, and to carry out their sys¬ 
 tem of devotion. (Acts ii. 42.) Hence, as 
 we should expect, early Christian writers 
 refer to the Christianity of Britain in their 
 own time as to an organized system of relig¬ 
 ion which had been growing long enough 
 to be well rooted in the land. Eusebius 
 bears testimony to the existence of an epis¬ 
 copal ministry in Britain. Within his time 
 there were three British bishops who ap¬ 
 peared among those who assembled at the 
 Council of Arles, in France, in a. d. 314, 
 and these are expressly called the bishops 
 of certain see£—London, Caerleon, and 
 York—and are mentioned by name in an 
 almost contemporary record. St. Athana¬ 
 sius, in his Synodal Epistle, tells the 
 Emperor Jovian that there were also Brit¬ 
 ish bishops at the Council of Nicsea (a. d. 
 
 ^325). In short, the evidence for the exist¬ 
 ence of an early organized Christianity in 
 the first five centuries is so abundant and 
 definite that the most trustworthy and 
 critical of modern historical writers, such 
 as Bishop Stubbs and Mr. Haddan, are 
 able to print it, with references and dates, 
 and in the original languages, and it ex¬ 
 tends over many pages of their great work 
 (Haddan and Stubbs: Councils , and Ecclesi¬ 
 astical Documents relating to Great Britain 
 and Ireland). 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Period (a. D. 450-1070). 
 
 —The Roman army of occupation was final¬ 
 ly removed from Britain in the year 411. 
 While Britain formed part of the Roman 
 Empire, some mixture of race, and more 
 of habits, had taken place, and the Romans 
 left many marks of influence behind them. 
 The civilization of the Britons was Roman 
 civilization. Their Christianity was also 
 Roman in its form—that form being then 
 of the type of the Byzantine or Easter.* 
 Church, which characterized Roman Chris¬ 
 tianity in the first ages. In illustration of 
 this latter fact some sculptures may be re¬ 
 ferred to which were discovered a few years 
 ago in the Church of St. Nicolas at Ipswich, 
 in which the ornamental portions were dis¬ 
 tinctly Byzantine, while some Greek words, 
 such as Theos and naos (“ God ” and “ tem¬ 
 ple ”), were introduced into the inscriptions. 
 The refined Romans were soon succeeded 
 in Britain by three uncivilized and heathen 
 tribes of Germans—the Jutes, the Saxons, 
 and the Angles or English; and the name 
 of Englishmen, which these German tribes 
 bore in common among themselves, pres¬ 
 ently became the common name of the 
 mixed race which dwelt within the four 
 seas. 
 
 After about a century of painful national 
 struggles the Britons were subdued; the 
 fighting portion of them being driven back 
 step by step into the highlands of Wales 
 and Cornwall, and the non-fighting portion 
 reduced to the condition of slaves. It was 
 much as when the Israelites took posses¬ 
 sion of the Holy Land, leaving some of the 
 aboriginal Canaanites in the southwest, to 
 be afterwards known as Philistines, and in 
 the northwest as Phoenicians—the people 
 of Tyre and Sidon. But during the contest 
 between the German invaders and the Cel¬ 
 tic aborigines a considerable amalgamation 
 of the conquering army and the conquered 
 nation was taking place; and this became 
 extended over a much larger surface of the 
 country on the establishment of peace, and 
 the consequent addition to the numbers of 
 the foreigners that followed. In the end a 
 mixed nation was formed in the body of the 
 island, composed of an aristocracy and 
 mercantile class, in which the foreign ele¬ 
 ment predominated, and a much larger 
 number of farmers and working people, 
 who were necessarily longer in amalgamat¬ 
 ing with their conquerors. In Wales and 
 Cornwall the fugitive fighting men com¬ 
 bined with the original mountaineers of 
 those parts to form comparatively inde¬ 
 pendent nations. The mixed nation took 
 the general name of Englishmen, and be¬ 
 came the ancestors of the English nation of 
 modern history. 
 
 The records of the Church among this 
 mixed population are very bare during the 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 294 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 greater part of the sixth century., although 
 authentic and comparatively full details 
 have been handed down respecting the dio¬ 
 ceses of Llandaff and St. Davids, and other 
 portions of the Western Highlands where 
 no great change had taken place. We may, 
 however, pass over here the justly vener¬ 
 ated names of St. David, St. Asaph, St. 
 Columba, St. Kentigern, and St. Patrick, 
 which are all noticed in their respective 
 places, and come shortly to the close of the 
 sixth century. For a while the power of 
 German heathenism so predominated that 
 the few native or British clergy who were 
 left alive were driven from their churches, 
 and often—perhaps mostly—assumed the 
 hermit life, doing what they could for the 
 few Christians around them, and for the 
 conquerors also, though little was to be 
 done for the conversion of the rough and 
 warlike soldiers, who looked with contempt 
 on those whom they had conquered and 
 enslaved. The bishops of the British 
 Church retired with the rest of the clergy, 
 hopeless of maintaining their positions. 
 Theonas and Thadiorus, Bishops of Lon¬ 
 don and York, are heard of in their retreats 
 in Wales, whither they had fled in a. d. 
 587, and others came out of their retire¬ 
 ment to meet St. Augustine in confer¬ 
 ence. 
 
 The ancient Church of the land was thus 
 so much depressed by the English con¬ 
 quest that it was all but lost sight of, and 
 the mission which St. Gregory desired to 
 undertake, and which St. Augustine actual¬ 
 ly did undertake, was a mission to convert 
 Britain anew to Christianity. (Augustine, 
 St., of Canterbury.) It did indeed be¬ 
 come so far an independent movement that 
 for a time there was an “ Anglo-Saxon” 
 Church of England, as it has been called 
 by later ages, side by side with the old 
 “ British ” Church of the same country. 
 But the two Churches gradually amalga¬ 
 mated as the two races—the conquered Cel¬ 
 tic race and the conquering German race— 
 amalgamated; and although the more 
 ancient of the two Churches maintained 
 and still maintains a kind of partial inde¬ 
 pendence through the differences of race 
 and language in the four dioceses of Wales, 
 yet the Christianity of the whole country 
 south of the Cheviots became henceforth 
 consolidated into the one “ Church of Eng¬ 
 land,” divided in a short time into the 
 archiepiscopal provinces of Canterbury 
 and of York; these latter being composed 
 of dioceses which followed in their bound¬ 
 aries the political divisions of the seven 
 kingdoms into which England was now 
 parcelled off. 
 
 For a time each of the seven kingdoms 
 of the Saxony Heptarchy had one bishop 
 
 only. Thus there was a bishop of North¬ 
 umbria, a kingdom which stretched from 
 the Tweed to the Humber, including the 
 northwestern as well as the northeastern 
 counties; a bishop of Mercia, which in¬ 
 cluded the whole Midland country, from 
 the border of Wales to the eastern coast, 
 and from Chester to Hertfordshire and 
 West London; a bishop of the kingdom of 
 Kent; a bishop of Wessex, or the West 
 Saxons, taking in the people of Berks, 
 Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Devon, and Corn¬ 
 wall; a bishop of Sussex, or the South 
 Saxons, the people of Sussex and Surrey; 
 a bishop of Essex, or the East Saxons, the 
 people of Essex, Middlesex, and part of 
 Herts; and a bishop of East Anglia—Nor¬ 
 folk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and the Isle 
 of Ely. Yet this was not a rule without 
 exceptions, for in the kingdom of Kent 
 there was a see at Rochester as well as at 
 Canterbury. This plan of making each 
 kingdom a see was soon found, however, 
 to be unsuitable to the spiritual necessities 
 of the Church. Kingdoms grew too large 
 and populous for dioceses, and then the 
 latter were subdivided; as, for example, 
 the one great diocese of Mercia was divided 
 before the seventh century into the five 
 dioceses of Lindsey, Leicester, Lichfield, 
 Hereford, and Worcester; while that of 
 Northumbria became divided during the 
 same period into the four dioceses of York, 
 Lindisfarne, Hexham, and Whithern; and, 
 long before the Norman Conquest, the 
 great diocese of Wessex, or Winchester, 
 became divided into the four dioceses of 
 Winchester, Ramsburv, Wells, and Credi- 
 ton. Notices of this subdivision of Chris¬ 
 tian England will be found at the proper 
 references. Although, therefore, there are 
 some historical traces of the modern dioc¬ 
 esan system of the Church of England, 
 even in the Romano-British period, yet the 
 system, as it has since existed in the medi¬ 
 aeval and the modern periods, may rather 
 be said to have been originated in the 
 Anglo-Saxon period. 
 
 The sees thus established remained sub¬ 
 stantially the same until the reign of Henry 
 VIII., who added a few more out of the 
 spoils obtained from the suppression of 
 the monasteries. The bishops were nom¬ 
 inally elected, as they still are, by the 
 cathedral chapters; but the Crown always 
 influenced, and generally monopolized, the 
 appointment. Parish churches were prob¬ 
 ably as many in number as at the begin¬ 
 ning of the present century, whilst nearly 
 every monarch of the days before the Con¬ 
 quest founded some monastery. Thus, 
 Westminster Abbey was founded by Ed¬ 
 ward the Confessor, Waltham by Harold, 
 St. Alban’s by Offa; while King Edgar is 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 295 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 said to have founded forty-eight religious 
 houses during his sixteen years’ reign. 
 
 The old English, generally known as the 
 Anglo-Saxon Church, professed, in a coun¬ 
 cil held a. d. 680, the tenets taught by the 
 first five General Councils. To these was 
 added, in 787, the sixth council. Purgatory, 
 prayers for the dead, auricular confession, 
 were all recognized; but not so transub- 
 stantiation. The celibacy of the clergy was 
 the cause of a very severe struggle in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Church. 
 
 The Norman Conquest was followed by a 
 large advance in the power of the papacy. 
 The Conqueror was far enough from yield¬ 
 ing any of his rights or prerogatives, and 
 he suffered no ecclesiastical interference 
 without his sanction; but some of the Acts 
 made by him became, in the days of less 
 powerful rulers, instruments in papal 
 hands to be used for their purposes. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, from the reign of Henry I. to 
 John, the papal power steadily grew. 
 Archbishop Anselm refused to render hom¬ 
 age to Henry I. for his bishopric, and the in¬ 
 vestiture struggle ended virtually in papal 
 victory. (Investitures.) The civil wars 
 of Stephen caused both him and Matilda to 
 seek ecclesiastical aid. Henry II., in spite 
 of his energy, was worsted in the contest 
 with Becket; the Constitutions of Claren¬ 
 don proved inoperative; and the murder of 
 the Primate turned popular opinion alto¬ 
 gether to the side of the clergy. The sub¬ 
 mission of King John, when he laid his 
 crown at the feet of Cardinal Pandulf, 
 and declared himself a vassal of the Holy 
 See, was the culmination. From that time 
 the papal power began to decline in Eng¬ 
 land. During the long reign of Henry III. 
 the papal exactions caused a feeling of bit¬ 
 ter hostility. In the reign of Edward I. the 
 people looked tranquilly on while the 
 clergy were plundered. In that of Edward 
 III. was passed the Statute of Praemunire, 
 restraining the exercise of patronage by 
 Roman pontiffs, and forbidding appeals to 
 Rome. (Pr^munire.) Meanwhile, a feel¬ 
 ing was also rising against the doctrinal sys¬ 
 tem of Rome, which found eloquent expres¬ 
 sion in the person of Wycliffe. (Wycliffe. ) 
 It was estimated by some that in the days 
 of Henry IV. his followers, known as Lol¬ 
 lards, amounted to half the population of 
 England. The king, who closed with any 
 means by which to bolster up his usurpa¬ 
 tion Pf the crown, bought the help of the 
 . powerful ecclesiastics by persecuting the 
 Lollards, and in 1440 passed the act de 
 Hereiico Comburendo. But all this strength¬ 
 ened the growing feeling towards the 
 coming Reformation, which the scandal 
 caused by the great Papal Schism (q. v.) 
 further augmented. The great change of 
 
 the sixteenth century will be considered 
 under the head of Reformation. Its prin¬ 
 ciples may be said to have reached their 
 fullest national and legal recognition at the 
 close of the reign of Edward VI. All sub¬ 
 sequent ecclesiastical legislation was direct¬ 
 ed, not to further innovation in doctrine 
 or ritual, but to maintain the settlement 
 already made against the adherents of Rome 
 on one side, and advanced innovation on 
 the other. 
 
 With the death of Edward came a reac¬ 
 tion. Mary, acceding to the throne at a 
 time when it was still held to be the duty 
 of the nation to look to the civil ruler for a 
 creed, and to expect him to enforce com¬ 
 pliance with it, at once reversed her broth¬ 
 er’s policy; the acts of the preceding reign 
 touching religion were repealed; the doc¬ 
 trine of transubstantiation was reaffirmed; 
 the married clergy were all ejected from 
 their livings, and the reconciliation of Eng¬ 
 land with the Holy See was pronounced by 
 Cardinal Pole at Westminster, before the 
 Queen and the two Houses of Parliament, 
 kneeling to receive it. Then began perse¬ 
 cution. The prominent Reformers fled be¬ 
 yond sea; but before the end of the reign 
 three hundred persons had perished in the 
 flames, and thereby England was utterly 
 alienated from Rome. 
 
 Elizabeth restored the Reformed Church 
 to its previous position; 178 clergy, only, 
 refused to take the oath of the Royal Su¬ 
 premacy, and the Act of Uniformity (1559) 
 restored the Book of Common Prayer. 
 This settlement reaches the close of the 
 first section of the Reformation period. It 
 defined the position of the Church in rela¬ 
 tion both to Rome and the religious bodies 
 on the Continent which had broken off 
 from that communion. In the first place 
 the episcopal succession was retained. In 
 the renewal of the Act of Supremacy, in 
 which the Queen was styled “ Supreme 
 Governor,” it was declared that clergy and 
 laity alike were subject to Law, passed by 
 Convocation and Parliament, and enforced 
 by the Crown. The Prayer-book, though 
 substantially agreeing with the second book 
 of Edward VI., yet indicated a desire to 
 find a mode of agreement with those who 
 loved the ancient system. (Common Pray¬ 
 er.) And the Thirty-nine Articles, though 
 they bore a provisional character, and had 
 not the all-round completeness of the Prot¬ 
 estant Continental Confessions, were 
 framed with the same desire of concilia¬ 
 tion. They began with rehearsing the 
 faith held in common by all Christendom 
 (i.-v.), then defined the “ Rule of Faith,” 
 and, in contradiction to the Council of 
 Trent, appealed to Holy Scripture, thereby 
 taking up boldly the fundamental principle 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 296 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 of the Reformation, while the ancient 
 creeds were reasserted (vi.-viii.). Next, 
 the two great doctrines of Justification by 
 Faith and Predestination were considered, 
 the language of Calvin being used, but 
 guarded and modified by appeals to Script¬ 
 ure generally (ix.-xviii.). Next, the 
 nature and authority of the Church, the 
 sacredness of the ministry, and the grace 
 of the Sacraments are all asserted (xix.- 
 xxxvi.); after which the relations of the 
 Crown, the Church, and the individual are 
 defined. But now it appeared that there 
 were two parties within the Reformed 
 Church of England. There were those 
 who, having freed themselves from papal 
 tyranny, desired to follow the cautious, 
 statesmanlike policy of Cranmer, rather 
 than the hot zeal of partisans, and to con¬ 
 ciliate opponents rather than to cast off all 
 connection with the past; and there were 
 those who, in the exercise of private judg¬ 
 ment, hated any approximation to the 
 Church of Rome, and craved fuller liberty 
 of action and opinion. These are known 
 as Puritans ( q . v.). Their objections 
 seem to have been at first confined to 
 points of ceremonial and discipline; but 
 Elizabeth, bent on preserving as much 
 as was left of the ancient order, was uni¬ 
 formly opposed to them, and the High 
 Commission Court,in which her supremacy 
 was represented, took stringent measures 
 against them. Hence the practice be¬ 
 gan of holding separate meetings for relig¬ 
 ious worship, in which we have the origin 
 of Nonconformity. The essential principle 
 underlying this opposition was Calvinism, 
 the very essence of which was inconsistent 
 with the preservation of the ancient basis 
 of Church doctrine and order. It met the 
 excommunication of Rome with an equally 
 intolerant rejoinder, and substituted indi¬ 
 vidual consciousness for the sacraments 
 and ministry. The Puritans were as far 
 removed as the bitterest of their antag¬ 
 onists from any idea of toleration. 
 
 The first attack which was made against 
 Calvinism in the Church was the move¬ 
 ment known as Arminianism. (Arminians.) 
 But whereas in Holland, its native coun¬ 
 try, Arminianism took latitudinarian shape 
 in its revolt against the narrow view of 
 
 Election,” in England those who were 
 called Arminians by their opponents, 
 though they repudiated this title, were 
 those who opposed to the Calvinistic tenet 
 the assertion of the Catholic Church as to 
 sacraments conveying grace to all who ac¬ 
 cepted them. The greatest writer against 
 the anti-Catholic view was Hooker, whose 
 name stands in the front rank of Church 
 divines. (Hooker.) Somewhat in advance 
 of him in view was Andrewes, a better the¬ 
 
 ologian, so far as patristic learning went, 
 and Laud, a clever and indefatigable ad¬ 
 ministrator. In these men we have the 
 founders of the great Anglo - Catholic 
 school, a school which has lived on, and 
 has created the most permanent Anglican 
 theology. This school included such di¬ 
 vines as Jeremy Taylor (a name which 
 such a great critic as Coleridge pronounced 
 to be a rival of Shakespeare), Hall, Pat¬ 
 rick, Ken, B ram hall, Wilson, Pearson, 
 Thorndike, Bull, Pusey; poets, like George 
 Herbert, Wordsworth, Keble; the greatest 
 of English Church historians, Jeremy Col¬ 
 lier; laymen, such as Boyle, Evelyn, Rob¬ 
 ert Nelson, Gladstone, Beresford Hope. 
 It, more than any other influence at that 
 time, prevented the Church of England 
 from becoming a Calvinistic sect, affirm¬ 
 ing, as it did, that the sacraments are not 
 mere acts of man, nor empty signs, nor 
 acted prayers, but are verily outward chan¬ 
 nels conveying inward grace. Unhappily, 
 however, errors of judgment mingled 
 themselves with the holy aspirations, the 
 learning, and the zeal which marked the 
 rise of this great school. It was learned; 
 it had to defend the position of the Church 
 against the skillful Jesuit controversialists; 
 and a style of writing resulted which was 
 not adapted for popular reading, but suited 
 the learned only. The half-educated liked 
 it, probably, least of all. The utterly un¬ 
 learned took a line not unlike that of the 
 “ Northern Farmer”: 
 
 “I thowt a said whot a owt to ’a said an* I coom'd 
 awaay.” 
 
 Those who could read and think for 
 themselves, but yet knew not enough to 
 enter into intricacies and balance conflicting 
 arguments, were at sea with learned disqui¬ 
 sitions, and, therefore, were more at home 
 with The Saint's Pest and Pilgrim's Prog¬ 
 ress. Moreover, the Church suffered heav¬ 
 ily for its alliance with the Crown, an alli¬ 
 ance to be traced to all the traditions of 
 past ages, which held that the national re¬ 
 ligion followed the national government, 
 an opinion held as firmly by Presbyterians 
 as by Churchmen. The fulsome dedica¬ 
 tions, such as Bacon’s of The Advancement 
 of Learning, and in Spenser’s Faerie Queene , 
 were regarded as right and proper, and the 
 translators’ preface to the Bible of 1611 
 does not escape the taint, though, as a mat¬ 
 ter of fact, it was written by a Puritan. 
 The result was, that the Catholic view of 
 the Church became inextricably mixed up 
 with an unpopular and decaying political 
 creed, though the present position of this 
 school in England is sufficient to show that 
 it does not rest upon Court favor, and that 
 its doctrine and discipline do not depend 
 upon law courts and arbitrarily wielded 
 
( 297 ) 
 
 Eng 
 
 Eng 
 
 civil power. But, through the cause vve 
 have named, it was regarded then as one 
 with the Stuart State policy, and, in conse¬ 
 quence, it shared the Stuart fall. When 
 the Civil War broke out, the bishops were 
 expelled from the House of Lords (1641),. 
 and in 1643 episcopacy itself was abolished. 
 The direction of religion was vested in the 
 Westminster Assembly (q. v.), the Di¬ 
 rectory was substituted for the Prayer- 
 book, 3,000 clergy were turned out of 
 their churches and homes, and Archbishop 
 Laud was beheaded. 
 
 But the triumphant Calvinistic party 
 began to decay in the very hour of its tri¬ 
 umph. It broke up into antagonistic 
 schools; the Independents, the strongest 
 of the new “ sectaries,” put forth a the¬ 
 ory, not only of religious toleration, but of 
 recognized religious diversity, a theory le¬ 
 gitimately belonging to Congregationalism, 
 but hateful to the Presbyterians. Logical 
 Calvinism, however, never took hold of 
 the average English mind. It had been 
 adopted in the struggle for political lib¬ 
 erty; but, that struggle ended, it stood 
 forth in the nakedness of its hard and ruth¬ 
 less dogmatism, and Englishmen turned 
 away, shuddering. At the Restoration, 
 the Church at once returned to its former 
 place, to the joy of the nation; so entire 
 was the reaction against the dogmatic yoke 
 of the Puritans. It is wonderful to read 
 how quietly this Restoration took place. 
 But a change at once became visible in the 
 tone of the Church teaching. The formu¬ 
 laries and principles remained as before, 
 but the Church was leavened by the ad¬ 
 mixture of new thought. Men like Falk¬ 
 land and Hyde had been conscientious sup¬ 
 porters of the Parliament against the king 
 in the early days of this conflict; but they 
 remained firm supporters of the Church, 
 and it was their love of the Church which 
 now led them to join the Royal cause. 
 These men represent a party, who, by 
 joining the school of Andrewes and Laud, 
 removed its more stiff and rigid features, 
 and led it to views of larger comprehen¬ 
 siveness. To these must be added the 
 Cambridge Platonists (Whichcote), whose 
 endeavor to reconcile reason and faith was 
 another blow struck at Calvinistic dogma¬ 
 tism. That dogmatism had provoked a 
 reaction utterly irreligious. (Hobbes.) 
 Whichcote stands as a representative of a 
 school, not numerous, at least for many 
 years, yet influential, which, while it held 
 firmly to a supernatural faith, also recog¬ 
 nized human intellect and allotted it its 
 rightful place. Consequently, the theology 
 of the later Stuart days is more moderate 
 in tone than that of the earlier. The High- 
 Church Jeremy Taylor wrote the Liberty of 
 
 Prophesying; Bramhall, the friend of Laud 
 and the favorite of Strafford, declined to 
 pronounce the nullity of Presbyterian Or¬ 
 ders; Sanderson, the author of the Preface 
 to the Prayer-book of 1662, professed him¬ 
 self a disciple of the moderate Hooker. 
 
 Another attempt to conciliate the Non¬ 
 conformists (Savoy Conference) failed, 
 but this was not owing to the rigidness of 
 the prelates. The Act of Uniformity of 
 1662 was the work of Parliament, which, 
 in its Royalist zeal, saw nothing but evil 
 in the recent Calvinistic rule. It must be 
 remembered that many holders of benefices 
 had been intruded into the places of the 
 true possessors. But the expulsion of 
 2,000 ministers on St. Bartholomew’s-Day, 
 1662, for refusing to assent to everything 
 contained in the Book of Common Prayer, 
 certainly deprived the Church of many a 
 faithful and earnest preacher. The Cor¬ 
 poration, Conventicle, Five-Mile, and 
 Test Acts (see each under its head) were 
 all blows leveled at Nonconformity. In 
 1678, in consequence of Oates’s plot, Ro¬ 
 man Catholics were excluded from Parlia¬ 
 ment. Charles II. made several endeavors 
 after toleration, but Parliament defeated 
 them, in fear that they were intended to 
 favor Romanism. It is true, indeed, that 
 toward the end of this reign a more gen¬ 
 erous spirit toward trivial diversities was 
 beginning to show itself, and this feeling 
 was plainly seen when the Nonconform¬ 
 ists made common cause with the Church 
 against James II.’s ill-starred attempt to 
 force popery on the nation. 
 
 The expulsion of James, however, was 
 not effected without some loss to the 
 Church and to religion. The former sepa¬ 
 ration of the Nonjurors was now followed 
 by the setting of Whigs on the episcopal 
 thrones, who were thus placed in a position 
 of. hostility to the parochial clergy, who, 
 whilst—like Sancroft and Ken—they had 
 no sympathy with Rome, could not forego 
 their conscientious adherence to the prin¬ 
 ciples of the ancient monarchy. This dif¬ 
 ference boded ill for the scheme of compre¬ 
 hension which was once more brought for¬ 
 ward. The Prayer-book was revised under 
 a commission appointed by the king, the 
 Puritans being led by Baxter; the altera¬ 
 tions made were perfectly moderate, and 
 some of the additions were much to be de¬ 
 sired. But the Lower House of Convoca¬ 
 tion rejected this proposed book, and it 
 was therefore abandoned; and the proposal 
 for reconciliation has never since been 
 authoritatively renewed. Nor was this the 
 whole of the trouble which came upon the 
 Church through the Nonjuring division. 
 The seceders were men of deep piety, and 
 the Church, even on that account, could ill 
 
 / 
 
Eng 
 
 ( 298 ) 
 
 t 
 
 Eno 
 
 afford to lose them. The eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury was, not unnaturally, marked by an in¬ 
 crease of worldliness, of selfish ease, and 
 sloth. There was learning, but a want of 
 spiritual earnestness; and in many districts 
 the people were left almost in heathenism. 
 The preaching of Wesley and Whitefield did 
 much to remedy this evil. It was a call to 
 new life; and, whilst it led the way to a 
 large separation, it more than compensated 
 for that by reviving religious life in the 
 Church. The successive rise of the Evan¬ 
 gelical Party , of the Oriel School , and of the 
 Tractarian Party will be told under their 
 respective titles. 
 
 Such is an outline of the history of the 
 Church of England. It now only remains 
 for us to survey it as it at present exists. 
 It consists of the clergy and laity of the two 
 provinces of Canterbury and York; those 
 provinces containing thirty-four dioceses, 
 and being conterminous with the fifty-two 
 counties of England and Wales, supple¬ 
 mented by the adjacent islands. It is es¬ 
 sentially an episcopal body, the theory of 
 its constitution being that its corporate 
 continuance and its spiritual life are both 
 dependent upon the office of bishop. The 
 corporate continuance of the Church is 
 thus identified with an unbroken succession 
 of bishops. Great care has always been 
 taken to keep up this succession, and also 
 to preserve the records upon which the 
 proof of it depends. Every bishop is con¬ 
 secrated by at least three who are already 
 bishops, and thus the lines of succession by 
 which he is connected with the bishops of 
 former ages are almost innumerable. So 
 well, too, have the evidences of his spirit¬ 
 ual genealogy been preserved, that every 
 bishop is able to trace the name of his own 
 immediate episcopal ancestor back to the 
 Reformation without a break; from the 
 Reformation back to the Norman Conquest 
 with similar certainty; from the Conquest 
 to the time of St. Augustine’s mission (a. d. 
 600) with almost equal accuracy; and from 
 the sixth century to the Apostolic Age with 
 an amount of certainty such as can be 
 shown in few successions of sovereigns at 
 much more recent periods. Thus Anglican 
 bishops, like the bishops of other Catholic 
 Churches, claim to be “ successors of the 
 apostles,” in an historical as well as in a 
 spiritual sense. 
 
 The spiritual life of the Church is also 
 considered to be dependent upon the epis¬ 
 copate, because it is maintained by minis¬ 
 terial acts, and no ministry is recognized 
 but one in which the ministers are ordained 
 by bishops. Every bishop is also regarded 
 as the centre of spiritual authority within 
 the range of his diocese, he being the chief 
 pastor, and the parochial clergy his deputy 
 
 pastors. The principle of the Episcopal 
 ministry is thus assumed to be: (1) that a 
 bishop alone can give that authority and 
 power to a person which will make him a 
 minister of the Church; and (2) that a min¬ 
 ister so ordained can only exercise his of¬ 
 fice lawfully within a certain sphere or 
 “ cure of souls ” committed to him by the 
 chief pastor of the diocese. This principle 
 is carefully provided for and guarded by 
 the Ordination Services of the Prayer- 
 book, and by the issue of formal docu¬ 
 ments, such as “ Letters of Orders ” and 
 of “ Institution,” and by acts and cere¬ 
 monies connected with admission to a bene¬ 
 fice. 
 
 Statistics. —The clergy of the Church of 
 England number about 23,000, consisting- 
 of 2 archbishops, 32 bishops, 30 deans, 80 
 archdeacons, 130 canons of cathedral and 
 collegiate churches, 14,000 parochial clergy 
 with benefices, rectors, and vicars, 6,000 
 parochial clergy without benefices, stipend¬ 
 iary curates, and about 3,000 other clergy, 
 many of whom engage voluntarily in paro¬ 
 chial work. The exact proportion of the 
 laity to the gross population cannot be 
 ascertained, but cannot differ very greatly 
 either way from one-half of the whole. 
 
 Incotne and Expenditure. —The pecuniary 
 resources of the Church of England are 
 partly derived from ancient and modern 
 endowments, and partly from a constantly 
 kept-up voluntary system ; they are ex¬ 
 pended chiefly on the maintenance of the 
 clergy, the education of children, the char¬ 
 itable relief of the poor, the building and 
 maintenance of churches and foreign mis¬ 
 sions.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 English Bible Versions. See Bible. 
 
 E'noch ( initiated ). The only one of this 
 name mentioned in the Old Testament, of 
 special interest, is the son of Jared, and the 
 father of Methuselah. (Gen. v. 18, 21-24.) 
 We are told that “he walked with God,” 
 and after this life of divine communion and 
 companionship, at the age of three hundred 
 and sixtv-five years, “ he was not, for God 
 took him,” entering at once upon the joys 
 of a blessed immortality without suffering 
 the ordinary dissolution of the body. (Gen. 
 v. 18-24.) “ There is only one reference 
 
 in the Bible (Jude 14) to Enoch as a 
 prophet, but an Apocryphal book called 
 after him, was well known to the early 
 fathers. It was then lost to the knowledge 
 of Europe, except in fragments, until 
 Bruce, in 1773, brought from Abyssinia 
 three manuscript copies containing the 
 complete Ethiopic translation. Archbishop 
 Lawrence made an English translation of 
 the book, which was the basis of various 
 
Eno 
 
 ( 299 ) 
 
 Eph 
 
 subsequent editions, which were rendered 
 comparatively worthless when, in 1851, 
 Dr. Dillmann published a new edition of 
 the Ethiopic text, and, in 1853, a German 
 translation. ‘ The book consists of a series 
 of revelations, supposed to have been given 
 to Enoch and Noah, which extend to the 
 most varied aspects of nature and life, and 
 are designed to offer a complete vindica¬ 
 tion of the action of Providence.’ It was 
 never received by the Jews nor by the 
 fathers as inspired. The authorship and 
 date are unknown.”—Schaff: Bible Dic¬ 
 tionary. 
 
 Enoch, Book of. See above. 
 
 Eon. See Era; Gnosticism. 
 
 Epaon, The Council of, was held in 517 
 
 panying picture shows in the foreground a 
 part of the ruins of the great theatre (Acts 
 xix. 29), and beyond, the plain and the out¬ 
 look toward the harbor and sea. Ephesus 
 was visited by Paul on his second mission¬ 
 ary tour (Actsxviii. 19-21), and the church 
 here was distinguished by having the great 
 apostle “ for its founder, St. John for its 
 counsellor, and Timothy for its bishop.” 
 It was here that A polios was instructed by 
 Aquila and Priscilla, and St. John spent his 
 last years, and probably wrote his gospels 
 and epistles. On his second visit Paul 
 dwelt in Ephesus from two to three years 
 (Acts xix.), and preached with great suc¬ 
 cess. The third oecumenical council, which 
 defined the doctrines of the Church against 
 Nestorius, met at Ephesus. The site of 
 the once populous and magnificent city is 
 now occupied by a squalid Turkish village. 
 
 SITE OF EPHESUS. 
 
 in a town of Burgundy, whose site is now 
 unknown. It was attended by twenty-four 
 bishops, who passed forty canons, mostly 
 of a disciplinary character. See Mansi: 
 Con. Coll. , viii. 
 
 Eparchy (the Greek word for province'). 
 In ecclesiastical usage it denotes a prov¬ 
 ince governed by a metropolitan. In the 
 Russian Church a bishop is called an 
 eparch. 
 
 Ephesians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Eph'esus, the most important commer¬ 
 cial city of Asia Minor. It was situated on 
 a fertile plain, through which ran the river 
 Cayster, just before it empties into the sea, 
 with mountains on three sides, and the 
 Icarian Sea on the west. The accom- 
 
 In apostolic times the most remarkable 
 building in Ephesus was the Temple of 
 Diana, one of the Seven Wonders of the 
 World. It was built of the purest marble, 
 and was 425 feet in length and 220 feet in 
 breadth. The roof was supported by 127 
 marble columns 60 feet high. This mag¬ 
 nificent structure was destroyed by the 
 Goths when they ravaged the city, 262 A.D.; 
 and it was not until 1869 that its remains 
 were brought to light by Mr. J. T. Wood, 
 who spent eleven years, from 1862 to 1874, 
 in exploring the site of the ancient city. 
 See Wood: Discoveries in Ephesus (London 
 and Boston, 1877); Conybeare and How- 
 son: Life of St. Paul , ii., 80 sqq. (Am. ed.); 
 Farrar: St. Paul. 
 
 Ephesus, Councils of, are eight in num¬ 
 ber, but only two are of special interest; 
 
Eph 
 
 ( 300 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 (1) The third CEcumenical Council, a. d. 
 431 (June 22 to Aug. 31), which condemned 
 the heresy of Nestorius that Christ had 
 two persons as well as two natures. Cyril 
 of Alexandria presided. Nestorius was 
 present, but, when cited, refused to appear, 
 as the Syrian bishops, upon whom he de¬ 
 pended for support, had been delayed. 
 Cyril waited sixteen days, and although 
 word was sent that the absent bishops 
 were not far away, he declined to wait 
 longer, and Nestorius was condemned and 
 deposed. (2) The so-called Robber Council. 
 This name was given on account of the 
 brutal and overbearing manner in which 
 the council, under the lead of Dioscurus 
 of Alexandria, restored Eutyches ( q. v .), 
 who had been deposed by the Synod of 
 Constantinople (448). The decisions of 
 this council were reversed by the Council 
 of Chalcedon. See Hefele : Hist, of the 
 Councils , vol. ii.; Schaff: Ch. Hist., vol. ii.; 
 Milman: Latin Christianity , vol. i., p. 286. 
 
 Ephesus, The Seven Sleepers of. This 
 early legend relates that seven Ephesian 
 youths of noble birth, during the persecu¬ 
 tion of Decius (249-257), hid in a cave, 
 which was sealed up by the authorities. 
 The young men fell into a slumber which 
 continued for 187 years, when, some of the 
 stones at the entrance being removed, they 
 ■were awakened by the rays of light. Send¬ 
 ing one of their number into the city to 
 buj^ bread, his strange appearance and the 
 ancient coin which he offered in payment 
 for the food aroused curiosity. The magis¬ 
 trates, with the bishop, visited the Seven 
 Sleepers, but no sooner had he given his 
 blessing than they expired. This legend is 
 found in the Koran. 
 
 Eph'od, a vestment worn by the Jewish 
 high-priest over the meil, or second (pur¬ 
 ple) tunic. It consisted of two shoulder- 
 pieces, one covering the back, the other 
 the breast and upper part of the body. 
 Two onyx stones, set in gold, fastened it 
 on the shoulders, and on each of the stones 
 were engraved the names of six tribes, 
 according to their order. The material of 
 which the ephod was wrought was ex¬ 
 tremely costly and magnificent, “gold, blue, 
 purple, crimson, and fine twined linen.” 
 An ephod, or something like it, was worn 
 by others besides the priests. David ap¬ 
 peared in one when the ark was brought 
 back to Jerusalem (2 Sam. vi. 14), and refer¬ 
 ence is made to its use under other circum¬ 
 stances. (Judges viii. 27; xvii. 5; xviii. 17.) 
 
 E'phraim. See Tribes. 
 
 E'phraem Sy'rus, one of the most 
 
 prominent fathers of the Syrian Church, 
 and a prolific ecclesiastical writer. The 
 real story of his life has become so mingled 
 with legendary accounts that it is difficult 
 to separate them. Horn in the early part 
 of the fourth century, he was educated by 
 Bishop Jacob, oT Nisibis.and accompanied 
 that prelate to the Council of Nicaea (325). 
 In 363 he removed to Edessa, then famous 
 for its schools of learning, and joining him¬ 
 self to the anchorites, in a cave outside 
 the city, he devoted himself to study and 
 writing. He spoke and wrote constantly 
 against idolaters and heretics of all kinds, 
 especially Arians, Sabellians, etc. He died 
 about 378. Of the existing works of 
 Ephraem only a part are in the original 
 Syrian text; the rest are in Greek, Latin, 
 Armenian, and Slavic translations. 
 
 Epicte'tus, a celebrated Stoic; b. in Phry¬ 
 gia. He was first a slave in Rome, but 
 gained his freedom, and became a teacher 
 of the Stoic philosophy. In a. d. 90 he was 
 expelled from the city with other Stoics, 
 and settled at Nicopolis, where he con¬ 
 tinued to teach until his death. His max¬ 
 ims were preserved by his disciples. They 
 inculcated the principle of self-denial ; 
 “ to renounce, to endure, and not to set 
 the mind upon anything beyond the power 
 of the individual to attain, being the points 
 chiefly insisted upon.” His teachings had 
 a marked influence on Marcus Aurelius. 
 See F. W. Farrar: Seekers After God (N.Y., 
 1885). 
 
 Epicureanism, a system of philosophy 
 originating with Epicurus (342-270 B. C.), 
 who taught at Athens. He taught that 
 happiness is the only true aim of life, and 
 that this consists in peace of mind spring¬ 
 ing from virtue. His scheme of morality 
 put no restraint on the passions, and 
 recognized no divine.law of responsibility. 
 The result has been that those who have 
 accepted the system have often become 
 shameless sensualists. 
 
 Epipha'nius, St., was b. early in the 
 fourth century at Bezandirke, a village of 
 Palestine, and probably was of Jewish 
 parentage. Educated among the monks, 
 after spending some years of his youth in 
 Egypt under Gnostic influences he re¬ 
 turned to Palestine, and in time became 
 the head of a monastery, which he founded 
 near his native place. In 367 he was made 
 bishop of Salamis, the metropolis of Cy¬ 
 prus. Devoted to the interests of monas- 
 ticism, and fanatical in his purpose to de¬ 
 stroy what he judged heresies, he openly 
 denounced Origen and his followers, and 
 contended against them with fierce energy. 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 3d ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 Under frivolous pretexts he proceeded, in 
 old age, to Constantinople, and attacked 
 Chrysostom. He was a prolific writer, 
 and a man of considerable learning. A few 
 of his works are preserved, but their chief 
 value is their quotations. 
 
 Epiphany, or Manifestation of Christ 
 to the Gentiles, one of the oldest Chris¬ 
 tian festivals, observed on the 6th of Jan¬ 
 uary. In the East, where it was first 
 celebrated, it was associated with the man¬ 
 ifestation and voice of the Holy Spirit at 
 the time of Christ’s baptism, and for this 
 reason it was made a special occasion for 
 the baptism of catechumens. In the West, 
 the day was associated with the visit of the 
 Magi, and it was never a day for baptism. 
 It was in connection with the Epiphany 
 that the romance was started, in the twelfth 
 century, that the Wise Men were three 
 kings, named Melchior, Gaspar, and Bal¬ 
 thazar. The festival, as now celebrated in 
 Episcopal churches, commemorates not 
 only the visit of the Magi but the manifes¬ 
 tation of Christ at his baptism and in his 
 first miracle. Coming the twelfth day 
 after Christmas it is also called Twelfth 
 Day. 
 
 Episcopacy, the government by bishops 
 in the Church. The origin and functions 
 of the office have been discussed under the 
 head of Bishop, and this article will be 
 confined to a brief statement of the views 
 held on the subject by different denomina¬ 
 tions of Christians in which the office of 
 bishop exists. (1) The Roman Catholic 
 Church defined its position, as regards the 
 episcopacy, at the Council of Trent in 
 canon sixth: ‘ If any one saith that in the 
 Catholic Church there is not a hierarchy 
 instituted by divine ordinance, consisting 
 of bishops, priests, and deacons, let him 
 be anathema.” The Roman Church holds 
 that the bishops are the immediate succes¬ 
 sors of the apostles. The pope, or bishop 
 of Rome, is the head of the hierarchy of 
 bishops, and the successor of St. Peter 
 (Matt. xvi. 18, 19), who was the first bishop 
 of Rome. The majority of Roman Cath¬ 
 olics accept the Vatican Decrees, which 
 give the pope supreme authority, and lim¬ 
 it the prerogative of the bishops. This 
 is the ultramontane view, as opposed to 
 the moderate, or Gallican opinion, which 
 asserts an independent divine right on the 
 part of each bishop. (2) The Eastern 
 Church holds to the divine origin of the 
 episcopacy, but regards the pope as a 
 usurper, and denies the right of any bishop 
 to have supreme authority in the Church. 
 (3) The Old Catholics and the Jansenisis, 
 while holding extreme views on the divine 
 
 origin and authority of the episcopacy, re¬ 
 fuse allegiance to the pope. (4) The Church 
 of England and the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the United States hold that bish¬ 
 ops are the successors of the apostles, and 
 superior to priests and deacons. The High- 
 Church view regards episcopacy as essen¬ 
 tial to the existence of the Church, and 
 accepts the doctrine of apostolic succession 
 and the transmission of grace by the im¬ 
 position of hands. The Lozcj and Broad 
 Church party, accepting the episcopate as 
 representing the best and most efficient 
 form of church polity, do not regard it as 
 indispensable, or the only form of govern¬ 
 ment founded on scriptural authority. 
 They generally accept the view that in the 
 New Testament reference is made only to 
 two orders of the ministry—presbyters 
 and deacons, and that the episcopate was 
 developed from the first of these orders. 
 (5) The Reformed Episcopal Church says, in 
 its Declaration of Principles, that “ It ad¬ 
 heres to episcopacy, not as of divine right, 
 but as a very ancient and desirable form of 
 church polity.” (6) The bishops of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church are elected by 
 the General Conference for life. The limits 
 of their authority are defined in the Book 
 of Discipline. They act as general super¬ 
 intendents of the work of the Church, and 
 perform all episcopal functions, while 
 claiming no superiority over their breth¬ 
 ren. The Methodist episcopacy was insti¬ 
 tuted by Wesley. After vainly seeking the 
 ordination of preachers to America by the 
 Bishop of London, he personally ordained 
 Thomas Coke, LL. D., and Richard What- 
 coat and Thomas Vasey as superintendents 
 of the work in America. Dr. Coke ordained 
 Francis Asbury,in 1784, the first bishop of 
 the Methodist Church. (7) The Moravian 
 Church is in form episcopal, its bishops 
 claiming direct descent from those of the 
 old Church of Bohemia. They recognize 
 the ordination of other denominations as 
 valid, and admit presbyters at once into 
 their ministry. (8) The Lutheran Church , for 
 the most part, discards the episcopacy. The 
 church in Sweden has bishops. Their 
 claim to apostolic succession, like that of 
 the bishops of the Lutheran Church of 
 Denmark, is not generally admitted. (9) 
 The Evangelical Association and the Church 
 of the United Brethren have bishops elected 
 for stated periods, and not for life. (10) 
 The Reformed Churches hold that there are 
 but two orders of the ministry—presbyters 
 and deacons. The term bishop as used in 
 the New Testament they regard as identical 
 with presbyter. 
 
 Episcopal Church, The American. The 
 first services of the reformed Church of 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 302 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 England, within the territory now forming 
 the United States, were held on the shores 
 of the Bay of San Francisco in the year 
 1579. Francis Fletcher, priest and preach¬ 
 er of the expedition of Sir Francis Drake 
 in the Golden Hind , in which the globe 
 was circumnavigated, records in I'he 
 World Encotnpassed the use of the Church’s 
 prayers on the eve, or else on the feast of 
 St. John Baptist, June 24, at which savages 
 and sailors formed the congregation of 
 worshipers, and the motley crew of the 
 great buccaneer besought their Godin be¬ 
 half of the simple natives attracted to their 
 solemn services, that he would “ open their 
 blinded eyes to the knowledge of him, and of 
 Jesus Christ, the salvation of the Gentiles.” 
 For six weeks these English visitors re¬ 
 mained on the coast of California while 
 repairing the Golden Hind, and during 
 all this while the services of the Church 
 were maintained. Thus was the land of 
 gold at its first discovery consecrated to 
 the service of God by men of the English 
 race, and members of England’s Church. 
 
 Later, on the Atlantic coast, at Raleigh’s 
 ill-fated colony in North Carolina on the 
 13th of August, the Ninth Sunday after 
 Trinity, 1587, Manteo, an Indian chieftain 
 who had been twice in England, received 
 holy baptism in accordance with the forms 
 of the English Church; and on the follow¬ 
 ing Sunday Virginia Dare, daughter of 
 Ananias and Eleanor Dare, and grand¬ 
 daughter of the Governor of the colony, 
 John White, the first Christian born in 
 Virginia, was christened according to the 
 same forms. 
 
 In the summer of 1605, the expedition 
 under the command of Waymouth, which 
 had “ put to sea in the name of God ” on 
 Easter-day, was off the coast of Maine, and 
 at the daily prayers of the churches then 
 maintained in every voyage of discovery, 
 trade, or settlement, the Indian visitors of 
 the captain were present from time to 
 time, “ who behaved themselves very 
 civilly, neither laughing nor talking all the 
 time.” 
 
 On the Third Sunday after Trinity, June 
 21, 1607, the first Sacrament was adminis¬ 
 tered at Jamestown, Virginia, by the faith¬ 
 ful priest, Robert Hunt, A. M., who went 
 forth on the Church’s mission to the New 
 World in Newport’s Expedition, at the 
 request, and with the special approval, of 
 Bancroft, the Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 This sacrament was administered, and the 
 daily prayers of the Church were said 
 morning and evening, in the rude church 
 described by Captain John Smith, in his 
 “Advertisements” dedicated to Arch¬ 
 bishop Abbot, in which for a while the 
 worship of the Church was maintained till 
 
 the more substantial church—“ a homely 
 thing like a barne, set upon cratchets, cov¬ 
 ered with rafts, sedge and earth ”—was 
 built. This in time gave place to a more 
 fitting structure of cedar, sixty feet by 
 twenty-four, with chancel, altar, pulpit, 
 and baptismal font, in which De la Warr, 
 the pious governor, worshiped in almost 
 regal pomp and state, and the Indian 
 maiden, Pocahontas, received holy bap¬ 
 tism at the hands of Alexander Whitaker, 
 the apostle to the Indians, and was after¬ 
 ward married to John Rolfe. 
 
 At the North, there had been founded a 
 colony with its church and clergyman, at 
 the mouth of the Sagadahoc on the coast of 
 Maine. Sailing from Plymouth. England, 
 on Trinity Sunday, May 31, 1607, this 
 colony, of which George Popham was the 
 head, celebrated its landing and its final 
 choice of a settlement with the Church’s 
 services and sermons by Richard Seymour, 
 the faithful priest who accompanied this 
 expedition to our shores. Here again, and 
 as was always the case at these settlements 
 undertaken by the members of the Church 
 of England, the savages were invited to 
 attend the services of the Church, and in 
 the annals of this colony special note is 
 made of the presence, at matins and even¬ 
 song, on the Eighteenth Sunday after 
 Trinity, of “ Nahanada and his wife, and 
 Skidwarres, with the Basshaboes brother, 
 and one other, called Amerquin, a Sagamo.” 
 These, the president took to “ the place 
 of public prayers, which they were at both 
 morning and evening, attending it with 
 great reverence and silence.” Thus was 
 the New England coast the scene of the 
 Church’s services and sacraments thirteen 
 years before the coming to Plymouth of 
 the Leyden Puritans to found the New 
 England theocracy. 
 
 Special efforts were made in Virginia, 
 not alone for providing the services of the 
 Church for the settlers, but also for the 
 conversion of the Indians to Christ. There 
 could be no greater mistake than to sup¬ 
 pose that faithful priests were wanting in 
 these days of early settlement, or that the 
 labors of these self-denying men were con¬ 
 fined to those of their own race. At the 
 meeting in “ the Quire of the Churche ” at 
 Jamestown, of the first elective legislative 
 body convened on this continent, which 
 took place on Friday, July 30, 1619, the 
 sessions, which were opened by the solemn 
 services of the Church, were largely oc¬ 
 cupied with the consideration of means for 
 the better provision of clergy for the 
 colony, and for the Christianizing and 
 civilizing of the Indians. The projected 
 Universityat Henrico,and the Indian school 
 at Charles City were richly endowed with 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 303 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 land, and were most liberally provided 
 with instructors, and with every thing req¬ 
 uisite for the work of Christian education. 
 The gifts of pious Churchmen of all class¬ 
 es and conditions poured in upon this In¬ 
 stitution, of which Mr. George Morpe, a 
 gentleman of family and fortune, was made 
 the head. A royal “ brief” called for con¬ 
 tributions to further this work of evan¬ 
 gelizing the western world, from all the 
 parishes of England and Wales. One of 
 the Virginia clergy, Mr. Thomas Bargrave, 
 a nephew of the Dean of Canterbury, 
 who came over in 1618, at his death in 
 1621 left his library, valued at one hundred 
 marks, or seventy pounds sterling, to the 
 College; thus anticipating the act of the 
 young minister of Charlestown, Mas¬ 
 sachusetts, who, a few years later, left his 
 books to the infant College at Cambridge, 
 and thus gained a name and remembrance 
 wherever “ Harvard ” College is known. 
 The rising of the Indians, and the mas¬ 
 sacre of the colonists in March, 1622, gave 
 a death-blow to the first efforts made in 
 America for the establishment of a Uni¬ 
 versity, and it was years before the at¬ 
 tempt was renewed, and William and Mary 
 College, chartered toward the close of the 
 seventeenth century, became the first 
 Church College of the western world. 
 
 There were Churchmen even among the 
 Plymouth Puritans, and the attempt they 
 made to keep the Christmas-feast with the 
 sports of the mother-land was ruthlessly 
 crushed by the magistrate. Churchmen 
 abounded in Maine, in New Hampshire, 
 and were first on the ground at Boston and 
 Charlestown, and later, in Rhode Island. In 
 the middle and southern colonies the 
 Church grew apace, and on the organiza¬ 
 tion of the Venerable Society for the Prop¬ 
 agation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 
 in the year 1701, through the exertions of 
 Thomas Bray, D. D., who had been the 
 commissary of the Bishop of London, in 
 Maryland, there were supplied, as were 
 needed at different points on the continent, 
 the ministrations of missionaries selected 
 and sent out from home. The list of these 
 “ missioners ” comprises the names of 
 many men whose lives and labors have 
 their record on high, as well as in the last¬ 
 ing remembrance of the parishes they 
 founded and the services they rendered, 
 both to Europeans and savages on the At¬ 
 lantic coast. The first of these mission¬ 
 aries was the celebrated George Keith, 
 who was a convert from Quakerism, and 
 whose labors extended from New Hamp¬ 
 shire to Caratuck, in North Carolina. 
 From the numbers of devoted men who 
 gave their lives to the work of evangeliz¬ 
 ing the colonies, one, the Rev. Thomas 
 
 Thompson, after years of faithful labor in 
 New Jersey, was the first to offer himself 
 for the foreign missionary work; and, giv¬ 
 ing up his home and cure of souls in our 
 land, went forth as a herald of the cross to 
 the coast of Africa, and lived and died a 
 missionary to the Guinea negroes, nearly 
 a half-century before the great societies of 
 modern days had their birth. 
 
 In North Carolina, the Rev. Clement 
 Hall traveled on his mission tours thou¬ 
 sands of miles, and brought hundreds to 
 holy baptism, and to the new life of repent¬ 
 ance and faith. In Connecticut the cause 
 of the Church received a new impulse 
 when, on the day after the annual “ Com¬ 
 mencement ” of Yale College—founded by 
 the liberality of a Churchman for whom it 
 was named—the head of the Institution 
 and six of its most prominent “ fellows,” 
 “ tutors,” and graduates, presented to the 
 trustees a paper declaring that “ some of 
 us doubt the validity, and the rest of us 
 are more fully persuaded of the invalidity 
 of the Presbyterian ordination, in oppo¬ 
 sition to Episcopal.” The public discus¬ 
 sion following this bold step resulted in 
 the resignation of Rector Cutler, Tutor 
 Brown, Samuel Johnson (formerly tutor 
 and pastor of West Haven), and James Wet- 
 more (pastor of North Haven), “ persons 
 of figure, ” by the admission of their oppo¬ 
 nents; “ of considerable learning,” and 
 “of a virtuous and blameless conversa¬ 
 tion; ” who soon after proceeded to Eng¬ 
 land for the ordination they coveted. In the 
 decade following this memorable declara¬ 
 tion, more than one in ten of the graduates 
 of Yale who entered the ministry followed 
 the example of Cutler, Johnson, Brown, 
 and Wetmore, in conforming to the 
 Church. The “ Connecticut apostacie,” 
 as Chief-Justice Sewall, of Massachusetts, 
 styles it in his Diary , occasioned great ap¬ 
 prehension among the ministers and mem¬ 
 bers of the “standing order” in New 
 England. 
 
 At Boston, John Checkley (afterward 
 M.A.), of Oxford, Eng., and missionary of 
 the Venerable Society at Providence, R. I., 
 for many years, was tried, imprisoned, and 
 fined for publishing, as an appendix to Les¬ 
 lie’s Short and Easy Method with the Deists , 
 a “ Discourse concerning Episcopacy,” 
 also from the pen of Leslie, with occa¬ 
 sional additions and changes, designed to 
 apply the arguments of the author to the 
 objections and case of the New England 
 Independents. The Puritan magistracy, 
 by an “ order of Council,” ordered an in¬ 
 dictment of this book, as “ reflecting on 
 the ministers of the gospel established in 
 this Province, and denying their Sacred 
 Function and the holy Ordinances of Re- 
 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 304 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 ligion, as administered by them.” Refused 
 the privilege of speaking in his own de¬ 
 fense, a “heavy judgment” was entered 
 against Checkley in the lower court; and 
 an appeal, in which Checkley delivered his 
 famous speech in defense of the exclusive 
 validity of Episcopal Ordination and Sacra¬ 
 ments, the jury found, “ specially,” that 
 “ if this book , entitled, l A Short and Easy 
 Method with the Deists ,’ containing in it a 
 ‘ Discourse concerning Episcopacy ’ (pub¬ 
 lished, and many of them sold, by the said 
 Checkley), be a false and scandalous Libel , 
 then we find the said Checkley guilty of all 
 and every Part of the Indictment (except¬ 
 ing that supposed to traduce and draw into 
 dispute the undoubted Right and Title of 
 our Sovereign Lord, King George, to the 
 Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, 
 and the Territories thereto belonging). But 
 if the said Book, containing a Discourse 
 concerning Episcopacy as aforesaid, be 
 not a false and scandalous Libel, then we 
 find him not guilty.” The Justices were 
 men of sterner stuff than these befogged 
 jurymen, and the “ Sentence of the Court ” 
 pronounced the “ Discourse concerning 
 Episcopacy ” to be “a false and scandal¬ 
 ous Libel.” Checkley was, therefore, fined 
 “ Fifty pounds to the King,” and compelled 
 to pay the costs of this prosecution— 
 “ standing committed until this sentence 
 be performed.” Such was the answer of 
 the Puritan establishment to the arguments 
 of the Church’s champion. A war of pam¬ 
 phlets followed, only ceasing when the 
 graver questions of the introduction of 
 bishops into the colonies aroused an even 
 fiercer controversy, and gave occasion to 
 even more bitter invective from those who 
 would deprive the Church of the right 
 freely accorded in America to every other 
 religious organization. Churchmen were 
 now daily “distrained” for “rates” due 
 for the support of the ministers of the 
 “ standing order.” The Rev. William 
 Gibbs, of Simsbury, Conn., writes to the 
 Venerable Society from “ Hartford Gaol,” 
 where he had been confined on an execu¬ 
 tion for the costs in an unsuccessful suit 
 for his rate collected, but not paid over, 
 by the Independents of New Cambridge. 
 “ Meantime,” writes Dr. Johnson, of Strat¬ 
 ford, “ many of our people are frequently 
 persecuted and imprisoned for their rates 
 to dissenting teachers, which they have 
 never been in any stipulation with.” In 
 1750 the Rev. Ebenezer Punderson writes: 
 “ In Branford and Cohasset they have, in 
 the most violent manner, been distressing 
 and imprisoning the members of the 
 Church of England.” The Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, the excellent Seeker, writes: 
 “ These sort of complaints come by every 
 
 ship, almost; there are now some ministers 
 of the Church of England in prison on ac¬ 
 count of these persecutions from the Dis¬ 
 senters.” 
 
 The Church had been introduced into 
 New York on the surrender of New Am¬ 
 sterdam to the English Crown. In Phil¬ 
 adelphia the “ Church party” had asserted 
 its rights to toleration; and a Church, in 
 which from the first were held abundant 
 services, was erected in time to give place 
 to the noble Christ Church—the very cra¬ 
 dle of the independent American Church. 
 In Maryland, Churchmen formed a part of 
 the “ Pilgrims of Maryland,” who, under 
 Calvert, colonized this province and estab¬ 
 lished themselves at St. Mary’s in 1634. 
 The “ Protestant Catholics,” as these faith¬ 
 ful and resolute Churchmen styled them¬ 
 selves, had a chapel at St. Mary’s, and 
 constant services, even from the first, 
 when there was no priest of their own 
 communion to minister to them. Later, 
 the clergy of the mother-land came to this 
 province, and the toleration granted, by a 
 king in communion with the Church of 
 England, to the Roman Catholic settlers of 
 Maryland was, necessarily and agreeably to 
 the very words of the royal patent, extended 
 to the Church to which rightly belongs the 
 praise of this act of comity rather than to 
 those to whom it was granted as a special 
 boon. In Virginia, with the growth of the 
 colony, the Church grew. Clergy from 
 England and from the Virginian College of 
 William and Mary, supplied the numerous 
 parishes, and both Indians and negroes 
 profited by their ministrations. In New 
 York the labors of the missionaries of the 
 Venerable Society among the Mohawks 
 were productive of lasting results; and 
 while the Indian Bible of John Eliot’s 
 pious labors is to-day in an unknown ana 
 unused tongue—a costly curiosity, remand¬ 
 ed to libraries—The Mohawk Prayer-book, 
 with the portions of Scripture contained 
 therein, prepared and published by the mis¬ 
 sion-priests of the English Church, is still 
 in use in frequent reissues from the press, 
 and has moulded the Christian life of suc¬ 
 cessive generations of Indians, reclaimed 
 from idolatr}’ - and from their savage estate. 
 
 In South Carolina, the labors of the mis¬ 
 sionaries among the Yemasees were pro¬ 
 ductive of great results, while in North 
 Carolina the services of the clergy were 
 both abundant and far-reaching for good. 
 It was in Georgia that both John and 
 Charles Wesley labored—the former in 
 Christ Church parish, Savannah, and the 
 latter at Frederica. While in Savannah, 
 John Wesley, who established the weekly 
 Eucharist in his Georgia parish, was suc¬ 
 ceeded by the great evangelist, George 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 Whitefield, who, after most devoted ser¬ 
 vice in continuing the daily prayers and 
 frequent additional services established 
 by Wesley, built and endowed, under the 
 Church's auspices, the first Orphan House 
 on the continent. Even in Florida, and 
 what is now the State of Alabama, the 
 mission-priests of the Church of England 
 penetrated, and established their services. 
 Among the missionaries who deserve spe¬ 
 cial mention for long and faithful labor, we 
 may instance the Rev. George Ross, of 
 Delaware, whose term of service extended 
 over a half-century, and whose son was a 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence; 
 the Rev. John Talbot, of New Jersey, 
 whose praise was in all the churches; the 
 Rev. Evan Evans, D. D., of Philadelphia, 
 through whose care the Church in Penn¬ 
 sylvania grew fast and strong; the Rev. 
 Commissary, John Blair, of North Caro- 
 lina, full of labors and success; the Rev. 
 Alexander Garden, of South Carolina, a 
 commissary of the Bishop of London, and 
 an earnest stickler for the Church’s order; 
 the Rev. James McSparran, D. D., of Nar- 
 ragansett, R. I., who, both by his life and 
 literary work, adorned the Church of which 
 he was a member; and the Rev. Thomas 
 Bradbury Chandler, D. D., of New Jersey, 
 who, with the Rev. East Apthorp, of Mas¬ 
 sachusetts, the Rev. William Smith, D. D., 
 provost of the College and Academy of 
 Philadelphia, the Rev. John Beach, of 
 Connecticut, the Rev. Charles Inglis, 
 D. D., afterward first Bishop of Nova Sco¬ 
 tia, and the Rev. Samuel Seabury, D. D., 
 first Bishop of Connecticut, were foremost 
 in defense of the Church’s right to the 
 Episcopate, and by pamphlets, treatises, 
 and newspaper articles, served to keep this 
 subject before the public view. 
 
 At the beginning of the War of the Revo¬ 
 lution there were in the colonies not far 
 from two hundred and fifty clergymen of 
 the Church of England. It is a matter of 
 record that fully two thousand “ clerks in 
 holy orders” of the Anglican communion 
 had lived and labored on American soil, 
 from the date of Francis Fletcher’s minis¬ 
 trations on the California coast in 1579, to 
 the time of the breaking out of the struggle 
 for independence. 
 
 The Church in the middle and southern 
 colonies was the church of the wealthy, 
 the cultivated, the refined. It was the 
 church of the representatives of royalty, 
 even in New England. Those who sought 
 political prominence in the provincial 
 assemblies, or coveted the rich offices in 
 the gift of the Crown; those who had sup¬ 
 plemented the defects of transatlantic 
 education and training at the ancient uni¬ 
 versities; the younger members of noble 
 
 families who had sought homes and for¬ 
 tunes in the new world; those who had 
 traveled abroad, and, in short, all who 
 maintained a close connection with the 
 court and Crown of the mother-land were 
 naturally adherents of the established 
 religion of England, and disposed to fur¬ 
 ther its growth and standing in America. 
 Besides these, a large number of the grad¬ 
 uates of the Puritan colleges of Harvard 
 and Yale, in being brought in contact with 
 the works of Anglican theology stored in 
 the libraries of these institutions, had be¬ 
 come converts to the Church, and were 
 most zealous in their devotion to their new 
 belief. There was lacking but the presence 
 of Bishops in America to bring into the 
 Church numbers who feared to cross the 
 ocean for Orders, or who felt that without 
 the prelatical order there could not be in 
 America that perfect oversight of matters 
 of discipline, and that full administration 
 of the Church’s rules and rites which they 
 desired. It is a matter of history, that at 
 the opening of the Revolutionary War the 
 prospects of the Church were full of prom¬ 
 ise. It was, without doubt, the leading 
 religious body in the land. 
 
 The war, in bringing about a direct is¬ 
 sue with the Crown, divided the Church. 
 Many of the clergy of English birth, and 
 all of English ordination, felt resting upon 
 them the binding obligation of their ordi¬ 
 nation vows, and gave in their adhesion to 
 the royal cause. Their parishioners, in 
 many cases, followed their lead. It is a 
 noticeable fact that in the colonies where 
 the Church had been established and the 
 clergy were independent of foreign con¬ 
 trol, the clergy generally espoused the 
 popular cause. The stipendiaries of the 
 Venerable Society, on the other hand, were 
 generally loyalists. Still, the great body, 
 both of clergy and laity, were identified 
 with the patriotic party. It could not be 
 otherwise, when the vestries of Virginia, 
 and the other colonies where the Church 
 was established had been fighting the bat¬ 
 tles and establishing the principles of the 
 Revolution for one hundred and fifty years. 
 We are not surprised, then, to learn that 
 the first prayer in Congress fell from the 
 lips of a priest of the Church; that the 
 most conclusive arguments in defence of 
 the American people were prepared by 
 clergymen of the Church, such as William 
 Smith and Thomas Coombe of Philadelphia; 
 that Bass, afterward first Bishop of Massa¬ 
 chusetts and New Hampshire, was dis¬ 
 missed from the service of the Venerable 
 Society for his ready compliance with the 
 requirements of the insurrectionary assem¬ 
 bly of the province; that Parker, of Trin¬ 
 ity, Boston, who succeeded to the Massa- 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 306 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 chusetts Episcopate, was among the first to 
 adapt the Prayer-Book Services to the new 
 order of things; that Provoost, first Bishop 
 of New York, was a leader on the side of 
 freedom, and personally took part in the 
 strife; that Croes, first Bishop of New Jer¬ 
 sey, was a non-commissioned officer in the 
 war; that William White, first Bishop of 
 Pennsylvania, was a chaplain of Congress 
 in the darkest hours of the American 
 cause; that Madison, first Bishop of Vir¬ 
 ginia, and Griffith, first Bishop-elect of the 
 Old Dominion, and Washington’s rector 
 and personal friend, and Charles Minn 
 Thrustin, who gathered the patriots of 
 Frederick County, Virginia, within the 
 walls of his church for council, and Muh¬ 
 lenberg, of Shenandoah, who exchanged 
 the surplice for the soldier’s garb, and 
 Robert Smith, first Bishop of South Caro¬ 
 lina, who served as a soldier in the war, 
 were each and all leaders in the cause of 
 * American freedom. In South Carolina fif¬ 
 teen out of the twenty clergy adhered to the 
 American side. In Virginia, Maryland, 
 Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, the 
 proportion fell but little short of that at 
 the South. 
 
 It is not to be wondered at that by far 
 the greater part of those who signed the 
 Declaration of Independence were Church¬ 
 men; that Washington was a life-long wor¬ 
 shiper at the Church’s altars; that John 
 Jay, William Samuel Johnson, Patrick 
 Henry, Francis Hopkinson, Henry Lau¬ 
 rens, Lord Stirling, Anthony Wayne, the 
 Pinckneys, the Randolphs, and others of 
 equal or less note, were all Churchmen. 
 Even Benjamin Franklin was a nominal 
 Churchman, and his testimony to the value 
 of the Prayer-Book is most interesting; 
 while Thomas Jefferson, the author of the 
 Declaration of Independence, was also, at 
 the time of its composition, an attendant 
 on the services of the Church in which he 
 was brought up, and with which he always 
 maintained an outward connection. 
 
 The close of war found the Church at its 
 lowest ebb. The clergy had been scattered, 
 the churches were closed, or had been 
 converted to other uses, and the connec¬ 
 tion of the American Churchmen with the 
 Mother-Church of England had been sun¬ 
 dered. There were those who thought 
 upon Zion, and mourned to see her in the 
 dust. In 1783 ten clergymen met at Wood¬ 
 bury, Conn., and on the Feast of the An¬ 
 nunciation, March 25, chose the excellent 
 Samuel Seabury, D. D., Oxon., to go first 
 to England, and then, if necessary, to 
 Scotland, to secure the coveted Episcopate, 
 without which the New England Church¬ 
 men felt that all efforts for the organiza¬ 
 tion of the Church would be futile. In 
 
 Maryland, under the leadership of the able 
 William Smith, formerly president of the 
 College and Academy of Philadelphia, and 
 then in charge of Washington College, 
 Chestertown, measures for organization 
 had been taken by the clergy, and at an 
 informal meeting of three clergymen the 
 title of The Protestant Episcopal Church had 
 been given to the revived body, heretofore 
 known as the Church of England in Amer¬ 
 ica. In 1784 the Church in Pennsylvania, 
 under the leadership of William White, 
 organized on the plan advocated prior to 
 the announcement of peace by the rector 
 of Christ Church and St. Peter’s. Phila¬ 
 delphia, which provided for the admission 
 of the laity into the councils of the Church. 
 In Virginia, where, at the beginning of the 
 war, the legislature had taken in hand the 
 revision of the Prayers of the Church, by 
 directing the omission of the State suppli¬ 
 cations, the clergy met in council, and 
 took measures for the preservation of the 
 Church’s temporalities, as well as adopted 
 resolutions respecting the limitation of 
 Episcopal power when Bishops should bc 
 obtained. 
 
 In South Carolina the preliminary Con¬ 
 vention, while recognizing the existence 
 and need of the three orders of the minis¬ 
 try, stipulated that, for the present, no 
 Bishop should be settled in the State. 
 
 The first general meeting of the repre¬ 
 sentatives of the Churches in the respective 
 States grew out of a suggestion made by 
 Dr. Abraham Beach, of New Brunswick, 
 N. J., in a letter addressed to the Rev. 
 William White, of Philadelphia, and at a 
 later date in one sent to the Rev. Samuel 
 Provoost, the patriot-rector of Trinity 
 Church, New York. In connection with a 
 meeting at New Brunswick of the “ Cor¬ 
 poration for the Relief of Widows and 
 Orphans of Clergymen of the Church of 
 England,” in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 and New York, this primary and informal 
 meeting was held on the nth of May, 17S4. 
 Laymen as well as clergymen were present, 
 and a Committee of Correspondence was 
 appointed “ for the purpose of forming a 
 continental representation of the Episcopal 
 Church, and for the better management of 
 its other concerns.” Agreeably to this ac¬ 
 tion, there met in NewYork, on the 6th of 
 October, 1784, a “ Convention of Clergy¬ 
 men and Lay Deputies of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church in the United States of 
 America.” Of the New England States, 
 Massachusetts and Rhode Island and 
 Connecticut were represented by a single 
 clerical deputy respectively. New York 
 sent six clergymen and three laymen; New 
 Jersey, a single clergyman with three 
 laymen; Pennsylvania was represented by 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 307 ) 
 
 Epi 
 
 
 three clergymen and four laymen; Dela¬ 
 ware by two clergymen and a single lay¬ 
 man; and Maryland by one clergyman, the 
 celebrated Dr. William Smith. The Rev. 
 Mr. Griffith, of Virginia, was present, 
 though unaccredited, the clergy of Vir¬ 
 ginia “ being restricted by laws yet in 
 force,” and, consequently, not “at liberty 
 to send delegates, or consent to any altera¬ 
 tion in the order, government, doctrine, or 
 worship of the Church.” Fifteen clergy¬ 
 men and eleven of the laity composed a 
 body which framed the “ fundamental 
 principles ” underlying the general ecclesi¬ 
 astical constitution of the American Church 
 which, with slight modifications, has existed 
 for a hundred years, and more. It was 
 provided in these “ Fundamental Prin¬ 
 ciples” that there should be a meeting “ of 
 the Episcopal Church” in a “ General Con¬ 
 vention; that there should be a represen¬ 
 tation of the Episcopal Church in each 
 State” by deputies “consisting of clergy 
 and laity;” that the “Church shall main¬ 
 tain the doctrine of the gospel as now held 
 by the Church of England; and shall ad¬ 
 here to the Liturgy of said Church, as far 
 as shall be consistent with the American 
 Revolution, and the Constitutions of the 
 respective States;” that a “ Bishop, duly 
 consecrated and settled,” shall be “a 
 member of the Convention ex officio\ ” that 
 the clergy and laity “ shall deliberate to¬ 
 gether, but vote separately;” that “the 
 concurrence of both orders shall be neces¬ 
 sary for the validity of a vote;” and assign¬ 
 ing a date for the first meeting. Before 
 that meeting, on the 14th of November, 
 1784, in an “ upper room ” in Aberdeen, 
 Scotland, Samuel Seabury received conse¬ 
 cration to the Episcopal office at the hands 
 of the Bishops of the Church in Scotland, 
 and early the following year was enthusi¬ 
 astically welcomed to his see. The New 
 England Churches, accepting at once the 
 services of Seabury, and sympathizing with 
 his more pronounced Churchmanship, were 
 not represented in the Convention of the 
 Churches in the Middle and Southern 
 States, which met in Philadelphia in Sep¬ 
 tember and October, 1785. At this Con¬ 
 vention of the Churches of seven States, 
 represented by sixteen clergymen and 
 seven laymen, the revision of the Prayer- 
 Book was undertaken; a draft of a constitu¬ 
 tion was proposed; and a plan adopted for 
 obtaining the consecration of Bishops from 
 England. The liturgical alterations pro- 
 f'osed, for they were never adopted by the 
 American Church, contemplated the omis¬ 
 sion from the Apostles’ Creed of the article 
 “ he descended into hell,” and the removal 
 of the Nicene and Athanasian symbols. 
 
 I he Articles of Religion were reduced to 
 
 twenty. A preface, chiefly the work of 
 Dr. William Smith, was prefixed to the 
 proposed Prayer-Book. The Offices were 
 abbreviated, a service for the Fourth of 
 July, and one for a Day of Thanksgiving 
 were set forth, and numerous verbal 
 changes in prayers and psalter were intro¬ 
 duced. But the “ Proposed Book” proved 
 unsatisfactory, and even its tentative use 
 was confined to a few. It soon sank into 
 obscurity, and has only been brought into 
 notice in our day by its adoption as the 
 service-book of the “ Reformed Episcopal 
 Church.” 
 
 Two Conventions were held in 1786, at 
 the second of which, in accordance with the 
 wish of the English prelates, the omitted 
 articles in the Apostles’ Creed and the 
 Nicene Creed were restored. The testi¬ 
 monials of Drs.'White and Provoost, Bish- 
 ops-elect, were signed, and on the 4th of 
 February, 1787, they received the Episco¬ 
 pate at Lambeth Chapel, at the hands of 
 the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, 
 and the Bishops of Bath and Wells and 
 Peterborough. 
 
 The minds of Churchmen now turned 
 toward union; and at the second Conven¬ 
 tion of 1789, after the full recognition of 
 Seabury’s Episcopate and the modification 
 of the ecclesiastical Constitution in the di¬ 
 rection of a fuller recognition of the Epis¬ 
 copal office and power, Bishop Seabury 
 and deputies from the churches in Massa¬ 
 chusetts and Rhode Island and Connecti¬ 
 cut attended, acceded to the amended con¬ 
 stitution, and the Convention thus became 
 “General,” and, representing the churches 
 in all the States, resolved itself into its two 
 houses—the one of Bishops, and the other 
 of Deputies, effecting and completing its 
 organization, as it has continued for a 
 hundred years. The Prayer-Book, as in 
 use for the first century of the Church’s 
 independent existence, was adopted, and 
 the Church, fully organized, began its 
 united and aggressive life. 
 
 The number of Bishops in the English 
 line of succession, requisite for the canon¬ 
 ical transmission of the Episcopal office, 
 was speedily completed by the consecration 
 of Dr. James Madison as Bishop of Vir¬ 
 ginia, at Lambeth Chapel, September 19, 
 1790; and on the 17th of September, 1792, 
 there occurred the first American consecra¬ 
 tion, that of Dr. Thomas John Claggett.first 
 Bishop of Maryland, at which, by the pres¬ 
 ence of Seabury, with White, Provoost, 
 and Madison, the English and Scottish 
 lines of succession were forever blended, 
 so that every American Bishop can trace 
 his spiritual lineage to the Scottish College 
 through Seabury, or to the English Arch¬ 
 bishops and Bishops through Provoost. 
 
* 
 
 Epi ( 30S ) Epi 
 
 The beginning of the present century 
 found the Church depressed and in a pre¬ 
 carious condition. The consecration of the 
 apostolic Richard Channing Moore to the 
 Episcopate of Virginia, and the admission 
 to the Episcopal office of John Henry 
 Hobart for New York, and Alexander Viets 
 Griswold for the Eastern Diocese, compris¬ 
 ing all New England save Connecticut, 
 marked the period of the Church’s revival 
 in each of these localities. The founding 
 of the General Theological Seminary, and 
 the organization of the Domestic and 
 Foreign Missionary Society of the Church 
 in 1820-1S21, and the adoption by the 
 Church in 1835 of the principle that each 
 baptized member of the Church is, by vir¬ 
 tue of baptism, a member of the Church’s 
 missionary organization, marked a new 
 epoch. The rapidly developing West was 
 the scene of the labors first of the great¬ 
 hearted Philander Chase, who founded two 
 dioceses, and two seminaries of the higher 
 learning, and later of the apostolic Kem¬ 
 per, who lived to see the whole territory 
 of the United States under direct Episcopal 
 oversight. Schools of culture were founded 
 at Hartford, Conn., at Geneva, N. Y., and 
 later at various points in the West and 
 South, and the number of the Schools of 
 theology was multiplied. 
 
 The Foreign Missionary work received 
 anew impulse when Dr. Horatio Southgate 
 was sent as a missionary Bishop to Turkey, 
 and Dr. William J. Boone to China, and 
 Dr. John Payne to Cape Palmas, Africa. 
 The* Church’s work in Greece flourished, 
 and still later the Church and a Bishop 
 were placed in Hayti and in Mexico, while 
 in the home-field Bishops were provided 
 for all quarters of the land. 
 
 The “ Oxford movement" attracted no 
 little attention and following, and the in¬ 
 creased beauty of churches and of ritual 
 served to commend the Church to increas¬ 
 ing numbers flocking to her communion. 
 
 The celebrated Episcopal trials of the 
 brothers Onderdonk, one the Bishop of 
 New York, and the other the Bishop of 
 Pennsylvania, and of Bishop Doane of New 
 Jersey, resulting in the suspension for 
 years of the two former, and the acquittal 
 of the latter, are remembered now rather 
 as the sad proofs of partisan unscrupulous¬ 
 ness, seeking to destroy those in high posi¬ 
 tions who failed to commend themselves 
 to its narrow standards of belief and 
 practice. Certainly the revulsion of feel¬ 
 ing which finally pervaded the whole 
 Church in the case of each of these calum¬ 
 niated men will go far to convince the un¬ 
 prejudiced mind of their innocence of 
 much, if not of all, that was laid to their 
 charge. 
 
 The Civil W T ar produced only a tempo¬ 
 rary disruption of the Church, and with the 
 welcoming of peace both North and South 
 came together at once. The Bishop of 
 Alabama, consecrated during the forced 
 suspension of intercourse between the two 
 sections of the country, was received 
 among his Episcopal brethren without 
 question, and the reunited Church entered 
 at once upon a career of development un¬ 
 precedented, and indicating a phenomenal 
 growth in the time to come. During the 
 little more than a century of its inde¬ 
 pendent, autonymous existence the Amer¬ 
 ican Church has extended over the entire 
 country; and with its seventy-two Bishops, 
 its more than four thousand clergy, its 
 half-million of communicants, its abound¬ 
 ing charities, its great missionary and edu¬ 
 cational advances, its culture, its history, 
 its conservatism, and its esprit du corps , it 
 seeks to be the American Church—the 
 Church of the future, broad, tolerant. 
 Catholic, and instinct with the life and love 
 of Christ. 
 
 William Stevens Perry, 
 
 Bishop of Iowa. 
 
 Literature. — For the general history 
 consult Bishop Perry: History of the Amer¬ 
 ican Episcopal Church, 1587-1883, 2 vols. 
 (Boston, 1SS5); Anderson : History of the 
 Church of England in the Colonies ana 
 Foreign Dependencies of the British Empire, 
 3 vols. (London, 1846, 1848, 1856, 2d ed., 
 rearranged and enlarged, i2mo, 1S56) ; 
 S. Wilber force: Histoiy of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church of A merica (London, 1S46); 
 Hawkins: Historical Notices of the Missions 
 of the Church of England in the North 
 American Colonies (London, 1845); Updike: 
 History of the Episcopal Church in Narra- 
 gansett, R. /. (New York, 1847); Bolton: 
 History of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 in the County of. Westchester (New York, 
 1855). For original sources vide Perry’s 
 Historical Collections of the American Colo¬ 
 nial Church (privately printed), vol. i., 
 Virginia, 1S71 ; vol. ii., Pennsylvania, 
 1872; vol. iii., Massachusetts, 1873; vol. 
 iv., Maryland, 1878; vol. v., Delaware, 
 1878; Perry : fournals of the General 
 Conventions, 1S05-1835, 3 vols. (Svo, 1874); 
 Perry: Historical Notes and Documents Il¬ 
 lustrating the Organization of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church in the United States of 
 America (Svo, 1874); Hawks and Perry: 
 Documentary History of the Church in Con¬ 
 necticut, 2 vols. (1863-64); Perry: Church¬ 
 man's Year Book (1S70-1S71), 2 vols. 
 (Hartford) ; Perry : Connection of the 
 Church of England with Early American 
 Colonization (Portland, Me., 1863); Bishop 
 White: Memoirs of the Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal Church in the United States (three 
 
Epi 
 
 ( 309 ) 
 
 Era 
 
 editions, Phila., 1820, New York, 1836, 
 edited by the Rev. Francis Lister Hawks; 
 New York, 1880, edited by the Rev. B. F. 
 De Costa); Dalcho: Historical Account of 
 the Prot. Epis. Church in South Carolina 
 (Charleston, 1820). The legislation of the 
 Church is embodied in the Journals of Gen¬ 
 eral Convention (triennially, 1789-1889). 
 The Journals of the Preliminary and Gen¬ 
 eral Conventions, 1785-1814, were published 
 in 1814 by Beozen of Phila., edited by 
 Bishop White. Those from 1785 to 1835 
 were published, by order of the Conven¬ 
 tion, in eight volumes, and were edited 
 by Bishop Perry. Bishop Perry has also 
 published three editions of the Handbook 
 of the General Convention (New York, 1874, 
 1877, 1880). 
 
 Episcopal Church, The Protestant. 
 See Episcopal Church, American. 
 
 Episcopal Church, Reformed. See Re¬ 
 formed Episcopal Church. 
 
 Episcopius, Simon, a celebrated Armin- 
 ian theologian, b. in Amsterdam, 1583; d. 
 there, 1643. He studied at Leyden, and in 
 the fierce controversies of the time soon 
 distinguished himself as a leader of the 
 Arminian party. In 1612 he succeeded 
 Gomarus as professor of theology at Ley¬ 
 den. He was accused of Socinianism by 
 the orthodox party, who bitterly opposed 
 him. At the Synod of Dort he was con¬ 
 demned, with others, and banished from 
 the country. He lived for a time at Brus¬ 
 sels, where he wrote his Confessio{ 1622) and 
 afterward at Paris and Rouen. He re¬ 
 turned to Holland in 1626, where he be¬ 
 came pastor of the Remonstrant Church in 
 Amsterdam, and in 1634 professor of the¬ 
 ology in the Arminian Seminary in that 
 city. During these years he published 
 his principal works. See Calder: Memoirs 
 of Simon Episcopius (N. Y., 1837). 
 
 Epistles, a name applied to the apostolic 
 letters in the New Testament. See history 
 and literature under separate epistles or 
 authors. 
 
 Era, or t£ra, a word which Spanish 
 authors introduced into chronology, to ex¬ 
 press the beginning of some extraordinary 
 change, as of reigns, etc. It comes from 
 AEra, a tribute imposed on Spaniards by 
 the Emperor Augustus, 39 b. c., under the 
 consulship of L. Marcus Censorius and C. 
 Calvisius Sabinus, about the year 715 of 
 Rome. It was used in Spain till about 
 1383, and in Portugal till 1415, when the 
 years of Jesus Christ were substituted in 
 its place. Other famous eras in chronology 
 
 are the Roman era, A. u. c., dating from 
 the building of the city, corresponding to 
 753 b. c.; that of Nabonassar, correspond¬ 
 ing to 747 b. c., used by the ancient Per¬ 
 sians and astronomers; that of the Greek 
 Seleucidse, 312 b. c., when Seleucus Nica- 
 nor settled in Syria, twelve years after the 
 death of Alexander the Great; the Chris¬ 
 tian, dating approximately from the birth 
 of Christ; the Diocletian, and the Jewish. 
 The date of an era is fixed upon by the gen¬ 
 eral consent of a nation or community. 
 The Greeks were the first to adopt the sys¬ 
 tem of eras; their Olympiads were periods 
 of four years, the first Olympiad dating 
 776 b. c. The Jews did not use an era 
 until the time of the Maccabees, and then 
 they adopted that of the Seleucidae, dating 
 from 312 b. c. But the Jews now use an 
 era of their own, dating from the Creation, 
 which they place in 3761 b. c. 
 
 The Christian era begins upon the 1st of 
 January after the birth of our blessed 
 Saviour, which is commonly fixed to Dec. 
 25th, and 754 years after the building of 
 Rome, in the consulship of Lentulus and 
 Calpurnius Piso. This is, probably, not 
 the exact year of our Lord’s birth. But, 
 for practical purposes, this date has been 
 generally accepted throughout Christen¬ 
 dom. The Venerable Bede uses it in his 
 history. This era has sometimes been 
 called the Dionysian , from the fact that 
 Dionysius Exiguus was the first advocate 
 and proposer of it. Research has made it 
 probable that our Lord’s birth really took 
 place four years earlier than the received 
 era; therefore, in our Reference Bibles the 
 birth of Christ is marked “ b. C. 4.” 
 
 The Diocletian era is called the key of 
 Christian chronology: this period begins at 
 the first year of Diocletian’s reign, which 
 falls in with Aug. 29th, a. d. 284. This 
 computation is made good by the author¬ 
 ities of Theophilus and St. Cyril, archbish¬ 
 ops of Alexandria, of St. Ambrose, of 
 Dionysius Exiguus, and others. This era 
 is still used by the Copts in Egypt, and 
 was in general use throughout the West 
 of Europe until the introduction of the 
 Christian era. 
 
 The Era of Constantinople , called, also, 
 the Byzantine era; it reckons from the Cre¬ 
 ation, which it places in 5508 b. C. It was 
 formerly in use in the Eastern Empire, 
 and is still used by the Albanians. 
 
 The Hegira, the Mussulman era, dating 
 from Mohammed’s flight from Mecca in 
 622. 
 
 In the sixteenth century it was found 
 that the calendar founded by Dionysius 
 Exiguus upon that of Augustus was de¬ 
 fective, owing to the solar year consisting 
 of 365 days, five hours, forty-nine minutes, 
 
Era 
 
 ( 3 ™ ) 
 
 Ers 
 
 instead of 365 days, six hours, as had been 
 reckoned. Consequently, the calendar had 
 fallen ten days wrong, and the vernal equi¬ 
 nox fell on the nth instead of the 21st of 
 March. Consequently, Pope Gregory XIIL. 
 ordered that 1582 should consist of 355 
 days only, and that a year ending a century 
 should not be bissextile, with the exception 
 of that ending every fourth century. Thus, 
 1700 and 1S00 were not leap-years, nor will 
 1 goo be so, though 2000 will. All the 
 Western European countries gradually 
 adopted this New Style before the end of 
 the sixteenth century, except Great Britain, 
 which did not accept it until 1751. In Rus¬ 
 sia, and the East generally, the Old Style 
 is still retained.—Benham: Diet . of Relig¬ 
 ion. See Calendar. 
 
 Erasmus, Desiderius, the most brilliant 
 scholar of his age; b. at Rotterdam, 1465; 
 d. at Basel, 1536. He studied at Paris and 
 in Italy, and early won distinction as a 
 classical scholar and editor. He taught 
 five years at Cambridge, England, and then 
 returned to the continent, having “ a fame 
 which has never been surpassed in the an¬ 
 nals of letters.” In 1516 the most impor¬ 
 tant of all his many works appeared. It 
 was an edition of the New Testament with 
 a Latin translation, and had a very large 
 circulation. In 1518 he published the Col- 
 loquia Familiaria which contains “ the 
 keenest sarcasm and wittiest sallies against 
 conventual life, fasting, pilgrimages, and 
 the w r orship of saints.” These and other of 
 his writings aided in opening the way for 
 the Reformation. When the crisis came 
 he failed to appreciate the spiritual signif¬ 
 icance of the moment. He soon broke with 
 the Reformers, and opposed Luther with a 
 bitterness which increased until he urged 
 the authority and duty of the Church to 
 punish heretics with death. He continued 
 to write against ecclesiastical abuses, which 
 aroused the opposition of many high in 
 authority, but he kept the friendship of the 
 pope, and he declined the offer of a car- 
 dinalship not long before his death. See 
 art. by Stahelin in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Erastianism. See Erastus. 
 
 Eras'tus, Thomas, a learned physician 
 and theologian; b. in Switzerland, 1524; 
 d. at Basel, 1583. He was a disciple of 
 Zwingli, and an earnest defender of his 
 views regarding the Lord’s Supper and 
 church polity. While professor of medi¬ 
 cine at Heidelberg he strenuously, but 
 Avithout avail, opposed the action of the 
 Calvinistic party which secured the adop¬ 
 tion of a Presbyterian form of church gov¬ 
 ernment and discipline. Erastus Avas the 
 
 first to suffer under the neAv discipline, 
 being excommunicated on a charge of la¬ 
 tent Unitarianism. He Avas restored five 
 years after. A posthumous Avork from his 
 pen Avas published in 1589. In the form of 
 theses he denied “ that excommunication 
 is a divine ordinance, that the Church has 
 any pOAver to make laAvs or decrees, and to 
 inflict pains and penalties of any kind, that 
 the sins of professing Christians are to be 
 punished by pastors and elders, instead of 
 the civil magistrate, etc. The book at¬ 
 tracted much attention, and Avas attacked 
 by Beza. It Avas translated into English in 
 1659, and again in 1S44 by R* Lee: and its 
 vieAvs Avere adopted by a distinct party in 
 the Westminster Assembly, headed by Sel- 
 den, Lightfoot, Coleman, and Whitelocke. 
 Since that time, the doctrine of the State su¬ 
 premacy in ecclesiastical causes generally 
 goes under the name of Erastianism: 
 though in its broad sense, and Avide appli¬ 
 cation, this doctrine is by no means due to 
 Erastus.”— G. V. Lechler in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency., vol. i., p. 755. 
 
 Eremite. See Anchorites. 
 
 Ernesti, Johann August, the founder of 
 the grammatico-historical school of theol¬ 
 ogy and philosophy; b. at Tennstadt, in 
 Thuringia, 1707; d. at Leipzig, in 1781. 
 He Avas professor of classical literature at 
 Leipzig (1742), of rhetoric (1756), and of 
 theology (1758). His principal theological 
 Avork is his Institutio Interpret is jV. T. 
 (1761), which Avas translated and published 
 in the Biblical Cabinet (Edinburgh 1S34). 
 In this volume he contended that the sense 
 of the Scriptures should be sought by the 
 same methods that are applied in the study 
 of uninspired literature. 
 
 Errett, Isaac, Disciple; b. in NeAv York 
 City, Jan. 2, 1S2.0; d. Dec. 19, 18SS, at 
 Terrace Park, near Cincinnati, Ohio. From 
 1840 to 1S71 he held prominent pastorates. 
 He Avas associated Avith Alexander Camp¬ 
 bell ( q. v.) in editing The Millennial Har¬ 
 binger, and from 1866 Avas editor-in-chief 
 of The Christian Standard, the denomina¬ 
 tional organ of the Disciples. He Avas the 
 author of: Walks about Jerusalem: a 
 Search after the Landmarks of Primitive 
 Christianity (Cincinnati, 1S72, 5 *h ed. 
 1884); Talks to Bereans (1875, 4th ed. 
 1SS4); Evenings with the Bible (1885), 3 
 A r ols., and other Avorks. 
 
 Erskine, Ebenezer, founder of the Seces¬ 
 sion Church (formed of dissenters from the 
 Church of Scotland); b. at Dryburgh, June 
 22, 16S0; d. at Stirling, June 2, 1754 - He 
 Avas educated at Edinburgh, and in 1703 
 
Ers 
 
 ( 3 11 ) 
 
 Esc 
 
 was settled as minister at Portmoak, where 
 he remained for twenty-eight years, and 
 gained a great reputation for eloquence 
 and ability as a preacher. About 1720 
 Erskine became interested in a controversy 
 which arose over the views expressed by 
 Edward Fisher in a book called the Marrow 
 of Modern Divinity. The volume was con¬ 
 demned by the General Assembly as con¬ 
 taining unscriptural doctrines, but Erskine 
 with twelve other ministers signed a paper 
 defending its positions. The discussion 
 waxed bitter, especially over the matter 
 of the rights of parishioners to elect their 
 own ministers. Erskine, who had become 
 minister of the West Church, Stirling, :n 
 1731, strenuously upheld the side of pop¬ 
 ular rights against the decisions of the 
 General Assembly. He and three other 
 ministers were finally deposed in 1740, and 
 soon after they formed the Associate Pres¬ 
 bytery that was the beginning of the Seces¬ 
 sion Church. In 1747 they became divided 
 in regard to the nature of the oath to be 
 administered to burgesses. Erskine stood 
 with the “ Burgher” section, on the side 
 of tolerance, refusing to make non-sub¬ 
 scription a term of communion. He taught 
 theology, and continued to preach to large 
 congregations in Stirling up to the time of 
 his death. The Burgher and Anti-Burgher 
 parties were reunited in 1S20, and the Se¬ 
 cession Church united with the Relief 
 Synod in 1847, and formed the United 
 Presbyterian Church. See Life and Diary 
 of Ebenezer Erskine , by Donald Fraser 
 (1831); Historical Sketch of the Origin of the 
 Secession Church (Edinburgh, 1.S48). 
 
 Erskine, Thomas, b. in Edinburgh. Oct. 
 13, 1788; d. there, March 20, 1870. He.was 
 educated as a lawyer, but soon after enter¬ 
 ing his profession he succeeded to the 
 family estate at Linlathen, near Dundee, 
 where he retired, and spent his life in the 
 care of his estate and congenial literary 
 labors. He became deeply interested in 
 theological studies, and expressed views in 
 opposition to the current Scotch theology. 
 He held that the only proper criterion of 
 the truth of Christianity is “ its conformity 
 or nonconformity with man’s spiritual nat¬ 
 ure, and its adaptability or non-adapta¬ 
 bility to man’s universal and deepest spir¬ 
 itual needs. The incarnation of Christ 
 was the necessary manifestation to man 
 of an eternal sonship in the divine nat¬ 
 ure, apart from which those filial quali¬ 
 ties which God demands from man could 
 have no sanction.” Scriptural faith is 
 “a certain moral or spiritual condition 
 which virtually implied salvation, because 
 it implied the existence of a principle of 
 spiritual life possessed of an immortal 
 
 power. This faith could be properly awak¬ 
 ened only by the manifestation, through 
 Christ, of love as the law of life, and as 
 identical with an eternal righteousness, 
 which it was God’s purpose to bestow on 
 every individual soul.”— Ency. Brit. 
 These views were sharply criticised, but 
 they found favor among prominent think¬ 
 ers, like Carlyle, Irving, Stanley, and oth¬ 
 ers. John McLeod Campbell and Frederick 
 Denison Maurice gained from him their 
 conceptions of the atonement, which have 
 had such influence upon contemporary 
 religious thought. 
 
 JP'E’ sar-had'don (Assyr. Ashur-ach-iddina ), 
 son and successor of Sennacherib, was king 
 of Assyria, B. C. 681-668. His reign was 
 marked by great achievements. He built 
 magnificent palaces in Nineveh, Calah, and 
 Babylon, which he subjugated, b. c. 680. 
 Manasseh was king of Judah when Esar- 
 haddon began to reign, and outlived him. 
 While the name of Manasseh appears in a 
 list of western kings tributary to Esar-had- 
 don, he does not seem to have engaged in 
 any hostilities with Judah. It was prob¬ 
 ably Asur-banipal, the son of Esar-haddon, 
 who carried Manasseh captive to Babylon. 
 (2 Chron xxiii. 11.) See Assyria; Esau; 
 Edom; Jacob. 
 
 Eschatology literally and properly 
 means the doctrine concerning the last 
 things, those which are embraced in the 
 de'nouement of the history of the world 
 and of the Church. The whole creation 
 moves to what is supposed to be a far-off 
 goal. The events comprehended in the 
 consummation of the present dispensation 
 are in themselves necessarily veiled from 
 our eyes. They not only lie in the future, 
 but the sphere in which they will take 
 place is in some respects certainly different 
 from the present, and this will give them 
 a unique character. Experience, too, can¬ 
 not here, as in the great doctrines of theol¬ 
 ogy and soteriology, reflect any clear light; 
 and even Revelation, although very explicit 
 on the cardinal phenomena, becomes ob¬ 
 scure on their concomitant details. 
 
 The Scriptures teach continually and 
 emphatically: (1) The visible advent of our 
 Lord as the necessary and supreme com¬ 
 pletion of his office and the glorious 
 apocalypse of his person. The vision of 
 the coming of the Son of Man in great 
 power and glory stands ever before the 
 Church as its most sublime and cheering 
 prospect. (2) The import and object of 
 the parousia is the universal judgment. A 
 final retributive judicial dispensation is a 
 postulate of the moral sense cf mankind. 
 It is guaranteed by the faith in the justice 
 
Esc 
 
 ( 312 ) 
 
 Esc 
 
 of God. It is continually held forth by 
 Scripture as the office of the Redeemer, 
 the Head of the race, whose peculiar rela¬ 
 tion to God as well as to man gives him 
 unique and absolute fitness for this func¬ 
 tion. The basis of judgment will be the 
 law under which men had respectively 
 their probation. All of them, whether 
 limited to the light of nature reflected 
 through conscience, or, under the economy 
 of Moses revealed through him from heav¬ 
 en, or under the effulgence of the Gospel, 
 fall properly under the supreme judicial au¬ 
 thority of the Mediator, Jesus Christ, from 
 whom, as the light of the world even before 
 his incarnation, have ever streamed all the 
 rays that have illuminated the minds of 
 men. All the relations of God to the creat¬ 
 ure are mediated through his eternal Son. 
 Therefore he has been appointed judge of 
 the quick and the dead. 
 
 (3) As a prerequisite to the judgment 
 the resurrection of the dead will take place. 
 In order to be judged for the deeds done 
 through the body, the complete personal¬ 
 ity, the body reunited with the proper soul, 
 a renewed union adapted to a new sphere, 
 
 t must stand before the Judge. This is a 
 doctrine derived purely from Revelation. 
 It is an inscrutable mystery, yet a funda¬ 
 mental truth, whose denial is pronounced 
 inconsistent with belief in the Bible and 
 subversive of salvation. (1 Cor. xv. 1-14.) 
 Reason is, indeed, as incapable of denying 
 it as it is of discovering this future fact. 
 “ Why should it be thought a thing incred¬ 
 ible for God to raise the dead?” Its 
 postulate of a final judgment points beyond 
 the sphere of natural phenomena, and at 
 least helps to prepare the mind for accept¬ 
 ing the resurrection when revealed. 
 
 The question arises. Whether the good 
 and the wicked will rise simultaneously ? 
 The perspective of prophecy seems to 
 group them together, as is the case with 
 other events occurring at long intervals. 
 St. Paul clearly foreshadows a chronolog¬ 
 ical order, with an undefined interval sepa¬ 
 rating the resurrection of Christ from those 
 that are Christ’s at his coming, and this 
 event again from the third tagma , the end 
 or final goal with which the general resur¬ 
 rection coincides. Such phrases as “ the 
 resurrection of the just” and “the first 
 resurrection,” and the distinction recog¬ 
 nized in the expressions, “ resurrection 
 from the dead ” and “ resurrection of the 
 dead,” have a significant if not decisive 
 bearing on the interpretation of 1 Cor. xv. 
 23 /• 
 
 (4) The result of the judgment will be 
 the assignment of the righteous to eternal 
 joy. A life hid with Christ in God, begun 
 upon earth, will attain its perfected holi¬ 
 
 ness and glory in heaven. The fruits of 
 the Spirit, gradually ripening here, will 
 there appear in full consummation. Earthly 
 imagery is inadequate to express those 
 spiritual conceptions which are proper to a 
 state of glory, and it has not entered into 
 man’s heart to conceive what God has laid 
 up for his own; but the redeemed may con¬ 
 fidingly anticipate perfect freedom from 
 sin, from pain and sorrow, from toil, con¬ 
 flict and temptation, from perplexity, 
 doubt and fear. They will also enjoy a 
 height of mental and moral development 
 transcending the loftiest earthly aspira¬ 
 tions, and with this a realization of the im¬ 
 port of redemption that is not possible 
 under present limitations. 
 
 The perfection of bliss follows from the 
 perfection of the whole man. The fellow¬ 
 ship of the most exalted creatures will be 
 a marked feature of heaven, kindred spirits 
 finding a perennial feast in each other. 
 And higher than any other form of blessed¬ 
 ness will be the beatific vision of God, an 
 unclouded communion of life and love with 
 God in the face of Jesus Christ through the 
 Holy Ghost, the Lamb in the midst of the 
 throne being the light of that temple, the 
 mediating cause and centre of all blessed¬ 
 ness. 
 
 (5) By contrast with the nature of the 
 blessed, some conceptions can be formed 
 of the doom of those consigned by the 
 righteous Judge to hell. The Scriptures 
 furthermore employ the most horrible im¬ 
 agery to exhibit the sufferings of those who 
 die in their sins. Cut off from every bless¬ 
 ing, excluded from God and from all holy 
 beings; the craving of depraved passions 
 intensified, yet seeking in vain for gratifica¬ 
 tion; in dire distress, with no possibility of 
 alleviation; conscious of an accumulation 
 of sin, failure, disgrace, and loss, the re¬ 
 morse of conscience burning like a fire that 
 supplies its own fuel; with the direct puni¬ 
 tive inflictions of a just and angry God— 
 such are the elements of unutterable 
 wretchedness endured by those who reject¬ 
 ed the great salvation. The terms of 
 Scripture leave no doubt that the punish¬ 
 ment of the wicked goes on forever. And 
 reason, though staggering under its con¬ 
 templation, offers no valid objections to this 
 doctrine of Revelation. 
 
 (6) While the souls of the righteous and 
 the wicked are disembodied, their state 
 before the resurrection cannot be the de¬ 
 finitive stage of human development. 
 Hence theologians speakof an intermediate 
 state, concerning which nothing definite 
 has been revealed, but many human specu¬ 
 lations have been invented. According to 
 some, the process of sanctification, left in¬ 
 complete at death, advances to perfection. 
 
Esc 
 
 ( 3i3 ) 
 
 Ess 
 
 According to others, all dying unregener¬ 
 ate will have a second probation, which an¬ 
 other theory limits to the heathen, to in¬ 
 fants, and all others who are supposed not 
 to have had the offer of salvation in this 
 world. To this state belongs also the 
 Roman Catholic doctrine of purgatory, 
 which holds that those having died in the 
 Church undergo purification through dis¬ 
 ciplinary sufferings and the intercessions 
 and offerings of the faithful on earth. 
 
 (7) Connected with Eschatology is also 
 the doctrine of a millennium, variously un¬ 
 derstood. The day of the Lord is viewed 
 by many as a dispensation, an aeonic day or 
 period, with its morn and its eve, corre¬ 
 sponding with the glorious assumption of 
 the kingdom by the Son and his surrender 
 of it, completed, to the Father, a millennial 
 age in which the Church will, with her 
 Lord, exchange the via crucis for the via 
 lucis. Some think that the millennium will 
 antedate the Advent. 
 
 (8) Another element embraced in the last 
 things is the doctrine of Antichrist, a con¬ 
 crete personal incarnation of the opposition 
 to Christ. The conflict with the papacy in 
 the Reformation led to the belief that the 
 pope was Antichrist, an idea which found 
 its way into some Protestant confessions. 
 From his portraiture by the Scriptures it 
 seems clear that Antichrist will represent, 
 not exclusively irreligious or anti-relig¬ 
 ious forces, but, as the name indicates, he 
 will be the counterpart of the true faith 
 and the true Redeemer. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 For the Eschatology of the Old Testa- 
 tament see Oehler: Old Testament Theology 
 (Eng. trans., edited by Day, New York, 
 1883); for the New Testament, see Weiss: 
 Biblical Theology of the Nezv Testament 
 (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1882-83), 2 vols. 
 
 A very full history and bibliography of the 
 subject is given in Alger: Doctrine of a 
 Future Life (10th ed., Boston, 1878); for 
 recent works see C. M. Mead: The Soul 
 Here and Hereafter (1879); Dorner: The 
 Future State (trans. Newman Smyth, New 
 York, 1883); E. D. Morris: Is there Salva¬ 
 tion after Death? (1887); A. Hovey: Biblical 
 Eschatology (Philadelphia, 1888) ; James 
 Fyfe: The Hereafter (London, 1889). 
 
 Escorial, a famous monastery situated 
 about thirty miles northwest of Madrid. 
 At the time of its erection it was the most 
 magnificent building of the kind in the 
 world. Built by Philip II. in honor of St. 
 Lorenzo, it was constructed in the form of 
 a gridiron, in allusion to the instrument of 
 his martyrdom. The Escorial was begun : 
 in 1563, and finished in 1584. It was in¬ 
 tended to serve as a palace, royal mauso¬ 
 leum, and monastery. 
 
 Esdrae'lon. See Jezreel. 
 
 Es'dras. See Apocrypha, Old Testa¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Ess, Leander (properly Johann Hein¬ 
 rich; the other is his name as a Benedict¬ 
 ine monk); b. at Warburg, Feb. 15, 1772; 
 d. at Affolderbach, in the Odenwald, Oct. 
 13, 1847. He entered a Benedictine con¬ 
 vent in 1790; was ordained priest in 1796; 
 became professor of theology at Marburg 
 in 1812; retired to private life, 1822. 
 In connection with his cousin, Karl Ess, 
 he brought out a translation of the New 
 Testament in 1807, of which more than half 
 a million copies were distributed by a 
 Roman Catholic Bible Society that was 
 suppressed in 1817. He translated the Old 
 Testament, which was published in 1836, 
 and a first edition of the entire Bible in 
 1840. These labors, in connection with aid 
 rendered the British Foreign Bible Society, 
 brought him into trouble with the Roman 
 Church authorities. His library, purchased 
 at the suggestion of Dr. E. Robinson, is 
 now in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York City. 
 
 Essence (Latin, essentia , from esse, to be) 
 denotes the very being of anything, where¬ 
 by it is what it is. 
 
 Essenes, The, an obscure sect that ex¬ 
 isted at the time of Christ’s appearance, 
 but is not mentioned in the New Testa¬ 
 ment. Their origin, according to Josephus, 
 was contemporaneous with that of the 
 Pharisees and Sadducees, but their relation 
 to Judaism is still in doubt. They lived in 
 separate communities under a kind of 
 monastic rule, and practised the laws of 
 Levitical purity and command with great 
 strictness. They practiced sun-worship to 
 some extent, denied the resurrection of the 
 body, but believed in the immortality of the 
 soul, and held that Fate is the director of 
 the events of life. “Essenism,” says Light- 
 foot, “exercised very little influence on 
 Christianity. In its practical bearing, it 
 was diametrically opposed to the apostolic 
 teaching. The only real similarity between 
 Essenism and Christianity lay in the com¬ 
 mon element of true Judaism. Nationally, 
 however, the Essenes occupy the same po¬ 
 sition as that to which John the Baptist 
 was personally called. They mark the 
 close of.the old, the longing for the new, 
 but in this case without the promise. At 
 a later time traces of Essenism appear in 
 the Clementines.” See the full and impor¬ 
 tant treatise on this subject, by Lightfoot: 
 St. Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to 
 Philemon (London, 1875). 
 
Est 
 
 ( 314 ) 
 
 Eth 
 
 Esther. “ The book called by Esther’s 
 name contains an episode in the history of 
 those Israelites who did not return from 
 captivity, and it shows their moral decline. 
 Having chosen to remain in a heathen land, 
 Mordecai and his family accommodate 
 themselves to their adopted nationality till 
 their lives are imperiled. His kinswoman, 
 Esther, being constrained to compete for a 
 position in the harem of a heathen monarch, 
 Mordecai charges her to conceal her na¬ 
 tionality and religion for temporal ag¬ 
 grandizement. Although God’s providence 
 never forsakes his people, and in answer 
 to their prayers deliverance is wrought, 
 his name remains secret among them. 
 The contrast throughout between the tone 
 of Mordecai and Daniel under similar cir¬ 
 cumstances, and the inferiority of the 
 former to his contemporaries, Ezra and 
 Nehemiah, are very marked. The inci¬ 
 dent is supposed to have its historical po¬ 
 sition between the sixth and seventh chap¬ 
 ters of Ezra, and Ahasuerus is conjectured 
 to have been Artaxerxes, though some see 
 in him a stronger resemblance to the ef¬ 
 feminate Xerxes, and place the events 
 which this book records in the later years 
 of his reign. 
 
 “ It is impossible to identify Esther with 
 any queen mentioned in profane history, 
 and it is most probable that she was a 
 favorite concubine to whom that title was 
 accorded. The author of the book is un¬ 
 known, but was most probably Mordecai, 
 as no one else could well possess such 
 minute knowledge of the names of Haman’s 
 family, as also of that of Esther, and the 
 domestic details of the palace of Shushan, 
 as is shown in this narrative. It has been 
 attributed to Ezra, who may have brought 
 it with him from Babylon to Jerusalem, 
 and added it to the Canon. It was written in 
 Hebrew, though additions were made to it 
 in Greek by the LXX. The feast of Purim 
 remains to this day as an evidence of the 
 truth of the story; and the book has been 
 always esteemed Canonical both by Tews 
 and by Christians.”—“ Oxford ” Bible 
 Helps . See G. Rawlinson in the Speaker's 
 Commentary; F. W. Schultz, in Lange's 
 Co?nmentary; and Introductions to the O. 
 T., by Bleek, Keil, etc. 
 
 Eternal Life. See Immortality. 
 
 Eternal Punishment. See Punishment, 
 Future. 
 
 Ethelbert, king of Kent (560-616); d. 
 616. He married Bertha, a daughter of 
 the king of Paris. She was allowed to 
 practice her religion as a Christian princess, 
 but it was not until the coming of Augus¬ 
 
 tine in 596 that Ethelbert was converted, 
 and established Christianity among the 
 hitherto pagan Saxons. He founded the 
 see of Canterbury (602), and that of 
 Rochester (604), and prepared the first 
 written Saxon laws. 
 
 Ethics may be defined as the science of 
 moral conduct, or the doctrine of human 
 character. It is a philosophical inquiry into 
 the facts and laws of the moral sense, the 
 principles and the end of human obligation, 
 thegroundsfor thedistinction which enjoins 
 certain kinds of action and forbids others, 
 the ultimate authority which makes it in¬ 
 cumbent upon man to obey a certain law 
 01 follow a certain end. It differs from 
 the theoretical sciences in discussing not 
 merely what is, but what ought to be, and 
 discriminating the right from the wrong in 
 the actual facts of conduct. It is, at the 
 same time, interconnected (1) with psy¬ 
 chology, which treats of mental processes, 
 often with reference to their ethical bear¬ 
 ing. Ethical systems are wont to be 
 grounded in a certain philosophy of the 
 mind, and some have even defined Ethics 
 as “ a branch of the wider science that 
 deals with the spiritual constitution of 
 man.” (2) With sociology, the development 
 of customs and institutions. Science must 
 trace the historic relation of moral ideas 
 and practices to social customs and polit¬ 
 ical and religious institutions. (3) Other 
 cognate subjects are free-will, fate, mate¬ 
 rialism, theology. Theories of morals are 
 largely determined by these. Man acts in 
 pursuance of his beliefs. Character is the 
 outcome of thought. 
 
 The results of investigation are classified 
 into three schools : the Intuitional, the 
 Utilitarian, and the Historical. Antagonis¬ 
 tic as are these different general theories, 
 the first two sometimes approach each 
 other and flow into each other, and the 
 same may be said of the last two. 
 
 According to the Intuitional school 
 the apprehension of the moral good or 
 evil, the conception which recognizes cer¬ 
 tain types of character or conduct as bet¬ 
 ter than others, lies immediately within 
 the soul. Moral discriminations, like the 
 reasoning power, are native in the mind, 
 whose action in this sphere is unique, in 
 that it discovers a distinct element not fur¬ 
 nished by the mere exercise of reasoning. 
 A natural moral faculty apprehends in¬ 
 tuitively the absolute distinction between 
 right and wrong. Independent of experi¬ 
 ence, irrespective of any observed ten¬ 
 dency to produce certain consequences, it 
 spontaneously discriminates in actions a 
 quality called moral, just as by taste we de¬ 
 tect the quality of beauty in objects, and this 
 
Eth 
 
 ( 315 ) 
 
 Eth 
 
 discrimination is accompanied by a feeling 
 of obligation, and in the case of personal 
 or voluntary actions, by a sense of approval 
 or condemnation. The existence and the 
 authority of the moral law have their seat 
 and spring in the soul. Primal and immu¬ 
 table principles of conduct are stamped 
 upon the human constitution. 
 
 While the Intuitionalists agree on this 
 general theory, they differ in various par¬ 
 ticulars, especially in relation to the final 
 ground of the authority of moral ideas. 
 Having these ideas, whence comes the 
 sense of obligation underlying them, the 
 concept of oughtness ? Wherefore these 
 authoritative averments of conscience ? 
 One view finds the final ground in God’s 
 appointment. By the sovereign exercise 
 of his will God decrees right as right and 
 wrong as wrong, and he has made con¬ 
 science the reflex of his authority. An¬ 
 other finds it in the nature of things, and 
 therefore in the very being of God as the 
 executive of the moral universe. Some 
 speak of “the eternal fitness ” of things, 
 and hold virtue to consist in conformity 
 with this fitness; and some identify virtue 
 with benevolence. Among the representa¬ 
 tives of Intuitionalism are Clarke, Cud- 
 worth, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Reid, 
 Stuart, IvIcCosh, Whewell. Its greatest 
 expositor was, doubtless, Bishop Butler, 
 Avho asserted: “ Had conscience power, as 
 it has manifest authority, it would abso¬ 
 lutely rule the world.” Kant spoke of 
 “ the starry heaven above and the moral 
 law within” as the two things that “ fill the 
 mind with an ever new, an ever rising ad¬ 
 miration and reverence.” This great met¬ 
 aphysician makes conscience the practical 
 reason which lays down absolute or un¬ 
 conditional laws. Its categorical impera¬ 
 tive prescribes a principle of conduct irre¬ 
 spective of desire or an ulterior end. 
 
 In the Utilitarian scheme utility is made 
 the criterion or standard of duty. Instead 
 of native impulses pointing out moral dis¬ 
 tinctions, and an immediate spontaneous 
 judgment in man enforcing their observ¬ 
 ance, these distinctions are the result of 
 observation and experience. Virtue and 
 vice are differentiated by calculation, not 
 by intuition. Moral ideas are derived or 
 developed from a series of rational proc¬ 
 esses. They are grounded in the desire 
 for the chief good. The proper test of 
 virtue is the happiness, pleasure, profit, 
 well-being, to which it leads. It is a means 
 to an end. Instead of ultimate it is medi¬ 
 ate, and its adaptedness to secure the high¬ 
 est good gives to it its value, its moral 
 quality. 
 
 Various subdivisions are comprehended 
 under this scheme. With some the quality 
 
 of good or evil in things is determined 
 wholly by the agreeable or disagreeable 
 results. The sovereign motives of conduct 
 are pain and pleasure. It is for these alone 
 to determine conduct. “ Ought ” and 
 “duty” are pestilent intruders into hu¬ 
 man speech. Others hold that the su¬ 
 preme good is moral perfection as well as 
 happiness, that the highest end to which all 
 the laws of conduct are subordinate is 
 ethical. Thus Utilitarianism allows also 
 a place to religious sanctions. 
 
 One class of Utilitarians are called Egoist¬ 
 ic Hedonists, or Eudaemonists, because 
 they hold the supreme end to be individual 
 happiness. With some this is the syno¬ 
 nym of sensual enjoyment—with all it is 
 extreme selfishness. The maximum of in¬ 
 dividual pleasure is the end of personal 
 existence. Others are called Universalist- 
 ic Hedonists, or Altruists. Their creed is 
 the common good—the greatest good of 
 the greatest number—the happiness of 
 mankind. Not each for himself, but each 
 for all, is the cardinal principle of moral¬ 
 ity. And an altruism which makes the 
 interest of humanity the chief concern, 
 it is claimed, is superior to the disinte**- 
 ested benevolence of the Intuitional school. 
 The most famous Utilitarians are Locke, 
 Hume, Paley, Bentham, Mill, and Bain. 
 
 A theory radically distinct from all those 
 grouped under the two general systems is 
 the application of the evolutionary hypoth¬ 
 esis to moral conduct. It is styled by its 
 friends the Historical or Scientific theory. 
 “ The intuitions of a moral faculty,” says 
 Herbert Spencer, “ are the slowly organ¬ 
 ized results of experience received by the 
 race.” Conscience is the product of ma¬ 
 terial combinations, nerve forces and nerve 
 shocks, accumulated and transmitted 
 through past generations. What is called 
 morality is, accordingly, “ simply the me¬ 
 chanical result of a process material in its 
 origin, utilitarian in its blind aims, neces¬ 
 sary in its unfolding stages, and involun¬ 
 tary in the sentiments and judgments 
 which it finally reaches.” 
 
 Ancient ethical speculations . bore un¬ 
 doubtedly the Utilitarian stamp, but they 
 were again differentiated by the question 
 of the highest good; Plato and Aristotle 
 holding it to be “ the perfect development 
 of a man’s self inmora)and intellectual ex¬ 
 cellence,” while Epicurus formulated a 
 system which makes his own pleasure the 
 moral end of each individual. 
 
 The ethical instructions of Christ are in¬ 
 comparable, and rest upon his immediate 
 authority. The primitive Church was dis¬ 
 tinguished by its high moral ideas and 
 practice. The asceticism which arose with 
 Monasticism prevented a normal develop- 
 
Eth 
 
 ( 316 ) 
 
 Euc 
 
 ment of ethical principles. Scholasticism 
 reared a sytem based on the seven cardi¬ 
 nal virtues in contrast wkh the seven car¬ 
 dinal sins. The Reformers ascribed ethi¬ 
 cal as well as doctrinal authority to the 
 Scriptures alone, and comprehended in the 
 several commandments of the decalogue 
 the whole compass of human duty. The 
 pioneers in the scientific treatment of the 
 subject are Grotius, Mosheim, Buddeus, 
 and Crusius. 
 
 Among the more important ethical writ¬ 
 ings are Sedgwick : Methods of Ethics ; 
 Outlines of the History of Ethics; Kant: 
 Groundzvork of the Metaphysics of Morals; 
 Critique of Practical Reason ; Spencer: 
 Data of Ethics; Martineau: Types of Ethical 
 Theory; Martensen : Christian Ethics; 
 Dorner: System of Christian Ethics; Lut- 
 hardt: History of Christian Ethics before the 
 Reformation. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Ethiopia. See Abyssinian Church. 
 
 Ethnarch, the governor of a province 
 who governed the people according to their 
 national laws. This term was especially 
 > used to denote the Jewish rulers after they 
 came under subjection to the Roman em¬ 
 peror. 
 
 Ettwein, John, an eminent bishop of 
 the Moravian Church; b. at Freudenstadt, 
 in Wiirtemburg, June 29, 1721; d. at Beth¬ 
 lehem, Pa., Jan. 2, 1802. He became a 
 Moravian in 1739, an d was ordained in 
 1746. In 1754 he came to America as a 
 traveling evangelist and missionary to the 
 Indians, among whom he labored with great 
 zeal, and prepared a dictionary and phrase- 
 book in the Delaware language. While 
 the army hospital, in the War of the Revo¬ 
 lution, was at Bethlehem in 1776 and 1777, 
 Ettwein acted as its chaplain. He repre¬ 
 sented the Moravians in their relations 
 with the government. Consecrated bishop 
 in 1784, he founded in 1787 the “ Society 
 of the United Brethren for Propagating the 
 Gospel among the Heathen,” an organiza¬ 
 tion still doing efficient work. 
 
 Euchelaion is the “ prayer oil ” consecrat¬ 
 ed by seven priests, and used in the Greek 
 Church for the unction of the sick. It is 
 considered one of the seven sacraments of 
 the Church, but, unlike the extreme unction 
 of the Roman Church, it is not confined to 
 cases of mortal illness. 
 
 Euchites, or “ Praying People,” so 
 called from their regarding prayer as the 
 one means of their salvation. Neander 
 says that they had their origin in Syrian 
 Monachism. The sect propagated itself 
 
 from the second half of the fourth century 
 down to the sixth, and in its after-effects 
 even to later times. “They were called 
 sometimes after the names of those who 
 at different times were their leaders—Lam- 
 petians, Adelphians, Eustathians, and 
 Marcianists; sometimes after various 
 peculiarities supposed to be observed in 
 them — Euchites, Messalians (from the 
 Chaldee) on account of their theory about 
 constant inward prayer; also Choreutes 
 from their mystic dances; Enthusiasts, on 
 account of the pretended communications 
 which they received from the Holy Spirit. 
 They discarded all manual labor as being 
 a disturbance to their state of inward pray¬ 
 er; and were the first mendicant friars. 
 Their fundamental principle was that e ,r ery 
 man brings into the world an evil spirit, 
 under whom he lives, and that, though 
 baptism might clip away the earlier sins, 
 the root yet remained, and that the new 
 sins which would constantly germinate 
 could only be overcome by true inward 
 prayer. They looked on themselves as 
 exalted far above other Christians, because 
 they believed themselves to be recipients 
 of special spiritual communion, and they 
 therefore thought the outward ordinances 
 of the Church a matter of indifference for 
 them; yet they joined in the celebration of 
 the Lord’s Supper in order that they might 
 be considered members of the Catholic 
 Church. They considered fire as the 
 creative principle of the universe. It was 
 difficult to get any clue to their doctrines, 
 as they thought it right to conceal from 
 ordinary men, yet enslaved by sin, the 
 higher truths, until their senses were 
 spiritualized to receive them. Flavian, 
 bishop of Antioch (about 381) managed to 
 enter into a conference with Adelphius, 
 their superior, pretending to agree with 
 him, and thus enticed him to a confession, 
 which he made use of against Adelphius 
 and his whole sect: The first public action 
 taken against them was at the Synod of 
 Sida, in Pamphylia, in 383. They were 
 many times condemned in various dioceses: 
 one important condemnation was issued at 
 Constantinople in 427, which was confirmed 
 at the Council of Ephesus, in 431. A book 
 called Asceticon , by one of their body, was 
 produced at this council and condemned; 
 it was almost their only literary produc¬ 
 tion. 
 
 In the eleventh century, in the Greek 
 Church, there was a numerous sect under 
 the name of Euchites, or Enthusiasts, who 
 believed in one perfect original Being, from 
 whom they derived two sons, the good and 
 evil principle, the relation between whom 
 seems to have constituted—according as it 
 inclined one way or the other, to an absolute , 
 
Euc 
 
 ( 317 ) 
 
 Eus 
 
 or to a relative dualism—a main difference, 
 and, indeed, the ground of two several 
 parties in this sect. To this same distinc¬ 
 tion may be referred the main difference 
 between the Bogomiles and the Catharians 
 (Novatians), of whom the Euchites may 
 be called the precursors.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Euchologion, the name given in the 
 Greek Church to books on liturgy and 
 rituals. 
 
 Eudaemonism. See Epicureanism. 
 
 Eudocia, wife of the Emperor Theo¬ 
 dosius; b. at Athens, she was early brought 
 to Rome, and under the training of her 
 father, a learned sophist, she developed 
 remarkable intellectual powers. Capti¬ 
 vated by her varied accomplishments the 
 emperor was married to her in 421. In 
 later years differences arose between them, 
 and she was divorced, and lived in Pales¬ 
 tine. She was devoted to works of piety 
 and charity. She was a writer of consid¬ 
 erable merit both in poetry and prose. 
 
 Eugenius, the name of four popes. The 
 first of this name was pope during the quar¬ 
 rel between the Eastern and Western 
 Churches concerning Monothelitism. “ He 
 was a weak character, and in order to es¬ 
 cape the fate of his predecessor, Martin I., 
 he deferred to the wishes of the emperor, 
 and made a compromise with the heretical 
 Pyrrhus, patriarch of Constantinople, on 
 the basis that Christ had neither one or 
 two wills, but three.” He d. in 657. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Eunomians, an Arian sect of the fourth 
 century, named from Eunomius, who was 
 b. at Dacora, in Cappadocia, and d. there 
 about 392. He was a pupil of Aetius in 
 Alexandria, and accompanied this Arian 
 leader to the Council at Antioch in 358, 
 where he was ordained deacon. He was 
 made bishop of Cyzicus in 360. The ex¬ 
 pression of extreme Arian views aroused 
 fierce opposition, and he was soon deposed 
 from his office. He then placed himself at 
 the head of the Anomoeans, who were there¬ 
 after known as Eunomians. His doctrine 
 ooncerning Christ was that he was a created 
 Being, of a nature unlike that of God, and 
 that the Son of God did not substantially 
 unite himself to the human nature, but only 
 by virtueof hisoperations. The HolySpirit, 
 he said, was the first among the created nat¬ 
 ures, formed according to the command of 
 the Father, by the agency of the Son; which 
 Spirit, as being first after the Son, has re¬ 
 ceived, indeed, the power to sanctify and to 
 
 teach, but wants the divine creative power. 
 Eunomius was the first who discontinued 
 baptism in the name of the Trinity, sub¬ 
 stituting words which made it a baptism in 
 the name of the Creator, and into the death 
 of Christ. — Benham: Did. of Religion . 
 The Eunomian heresy was condemned by 
 the Council of Constantinople, and the 
 sect, torn by internal divisions, finally dis¬ 
 appeared. The writings of Eunomius 
 were held in high esteem by his party. 
 Only fragments of them now remain. 
 
 Eu'nuch ( bed-keeper\ This class of cas¬ 
 trated males is still employed in Eastern 
 courts, as attendants in charge of harems. 
 There were many in ancient Rome and in 
 Greece during the Byzantine period. The 
 soprano singers in the Sistine chapel are 
 eunuchs. Jealous, intriguing, shameless, 
 they are peculiarly liable to melancholy, 
 and many commit suicide. The word 
 “eunuch” is used by Christ (Matt. xix. 
 12) in three senses: (1) Of those incapac¬ 
 itated from birth; (2) of those who had 
 been mutilated; (3) of those who abstained 
 from marriage that they might give more 
 exclusive attention to the interests of the 
 kingdom of heaven. 
 
 Euphrates, the largest river in western 
 Asia. It rises from two chief sources in 
 the mountains of Armenia, both of which 
 flow toward the west or southwest, and 
 unite about long. 39 0 . Winding along the 
 borders of Syria, and skirting the Arabian 
 desert, it joins the Tigris in Lower Baby¬ 
 lonia, and empties into the Persian Gulf. 
 Its length is 1,780 miles, and it is naviga¬ 
 ble for small vessels 1,200 miles from its 
 mouth. The river overflows its banks 
 when the snows on the Armenian mount¬ 
 ains melt, and between the first of March 
 and early May it sometimes rises twelve 
 feet above its ordinary level. In ancient 
 times dykes and canals were constructed 
 at great expense, to prevent the waste of 
 soil and furnish irrigation. The Euphrates 
 is named as one of the rivers of Eden (Gen. 
 ii. 14), called “ the great river.” (Gen. 
 xv. 18; Deut. i. 7.) It was the eastern 
 boundary of the Promised Land (Deut. xi. 
 24; Josh. i. 4), and is referred to in proph- 
 ecy (Jer. xiii. 4-7; xlvi. 2-10; li. 63), and 
 in Revelation (x. 14; xvi. 12), and is often 
 spoken of as “ the river.” The natives 
 call it the Frat . 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea; b. near the 
 close of the third century, probably in Pal¬ 
 estine; d. at Caesarea, 340. After his or¬ 
 dination as a presbyter he taught in a school 
 at Caesarea, and aided Pamphilus in liter¬ 
 ary work. This friendship had a marked 
 
^Erzrum) ^2 
 
 I 
 
 IX 
 
 4^6 
 
 ^8“ 
 
 -fourceSlQe 
 
 L^SiSSBSIf 
 
 ,rn jfc^ > th. Ms 1 
 
 cyj r^gw^tgv^m J,, m «,£ 
 
 *- «^£Ks»a~' Tfe**) **MalHt •* 
 
 fjw^asaaBg ^y^fc 1 m oiu^mp -% 
 
 ^/!%>fso urce or ,)'■ 4 j $gj (i^©>1 
 
 .. Tigris h\J ’y ^^SW^m&LnJLrlemitctfL, y 
 
 am. ^3 vi cw • fip 
 
 2. |8B|EP*K^«s«hMr 
 
 125 - «W»@s8Sb-. 
 
 W/S 
 
 
 ?3,essri$ 
 
 LOor'&a) 
 
 £^fe&is 
 
 4/ 
 
 7, e ugfn a) Jlas el Ain) *. 
 
 sriBi 
 
 &h 
 
 ;aie Spauta or 
 Marcianos 
 i.Urumia^ 
 
 o'* -\T 
 
 brer or 
 •ejte) 
 
 
 \TtcCka7i s 
 laecas) 
 
 Tiphsah / 
 
 (AlDer) V 
 
 1 
 
 .MS- 
 
 NINEVEH 
 
 ^(jiosul) 
 
 *0 V Sink ara 
 <f\ •*. / Sinjar < 
 
 (Klilrnuv- ^ Xa'isS 0 ' 
 JLhabur) /&< 
 
 ^ gggj 
 
 2/ C archernisTi «? 
 
 CKarfciaia) ~ 
 
 Chubru 
 
 £ 
 
 
 / Mesetoi .^. 
 QBinrTi(iy f ^ 
 A (Kala Sh£rgaf)) 
 
 Yrbel 
 
 
 -%$h 
 
 38 
 
 Ecbatana, 
 
 orAchmetlia) 
 
 At t: 
 
 d 
 
 iReholtoth, ^ 
 
 J^RahaBcOi.) Pehoboth 0 
 
 CA ^ *p(£Deir^ 
 
 dfTakrit 
 
 , BkJiiBehistim 
 x Bagistane 
 (Belli sum) 
 
 21 
 
 r«. 
 
 01 alt us 
 X» 
 
 
 <mis3H« 4 ^r<!5> rv 
 
 Samba? 
 
 M- 
 
 ^ .A B ^kffS^y^\Seleu4iia 
 
 plain of S^inaJC \ 
 
 B **YLo N \|> ** 
 
 Susa. 
 Shushanl 3 
 
 32 
 
 TPATERED BTTHK 
 
 EUPHRATES and TIGRIS 
 
 Cu-.„ 
 
 (ILuta 
 
 C Jl A\ la 
 
 Cvbatd \ 
 
 D JEj -A. 
 
 'rechi A 
 
 \ V- 0 >^aaiui)^ 4 V^ipe or) 
 « o V _\.4 rn pa ninS 
 
 '•Xelassours 
 TTr of the Ch aldveso 
 
 Jv f| 
 ^usia n.§j 
 
 '^AasraJ 
 
 ^teSgSgSI 
 
 |S£L 
 
 ■. >c-\ 
 
 Cere dons 
 
 -© i- 
 
 *’**. (Jeiel SeniAe)Kf|| 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 
 0 50 100 200 
 
 J. T oter TXodem names are written thus (Basrab) 
 
 L_il° _ _ 4 I 2 
 
 Gratae < 
 
 4 *. 
 
 ^6 
 
 ( 3 iS ) 
 
Eus 
 
 ( 3i9 ) 
 
 Eut 
 
 influence upon his life, and introduced him 
 to the study of the works of Origen. After 
 the martyrdom of Pamphilus, in the last 
 persecution of Diocletian, and the restora¬ 
 tion of peace (313), he was made bishop of 
 Caesarea. He soon became involved in the 
 Arian controversy, and attempted to shield 
 Arius from the fierce storm of persecution 
 that had risen against him. At the Coun¬ 
 cil of Nicaea(325) he sought to bring about 
 a reconciliation between the contending 
 parties, but failed. His own position was 
 intermediate, and based upon the views of 
 Origen. He contended to the last against 
 the term honiodusion — of the same sub¬ 
 stance—but in the interests of peace, and 
 at the dictation of the emperor, finally sub¬ 
 scribed to the Nicene creed. His efforts 
 at reconciliation won the friendship of Con¬ 
 stantine, for whom he had an inordinate 
 admiration, as shown in his Life of the 
 emperor. Among his numerous works the 
 most important is his Ecclesiastical History , 
 in ten books. For a more extended account 
 of his life and opinions, see Schaff: Church 
 Hist., ii. 872-879; Dorner: Hist, of the 
 Person of Christ. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Emisa; d. about 
 360. He was an intimate friend of the Em¬ 
 peror Constantius, and a man of great 
 learning, and an able preacher. After his 
 appointment as bishop the hostility of the 
 ignorant populace was aroused against 
 him because of his astronomical knowl¬ 
 edge, and he fled first to Laodicea, ami 
 from there to Antioch, where he spent the 
 rest of his life. Only fragments of his nu¬ 
 merous writings have been preserved. 
 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia, reported to be 
 related, on his mother’s side, to the Em¬ 
 peror Julian. To this connection was prob¬ 
 ably due his rapid rise to episcopal honors. 
 A contemporary and friend of Eu.sebius of 
 Cresarea, he was outspoken in his sympa¬ 
 thy with Arius. His views appear to have 
 been in substantial accord with those of 
 his namesake. His active opposition to 
 Athanasius led to his temporary banish¬ 
 ment from his see, but he regained the 
 confidence of Constantine : and was selected 
 to administer baptism to the emperor in 
 his last illness. He died at Constantino¬ 
 ple in 342. 
 
 Eusebius, bishop of Samosata, one of 
 the great leaders of the orthodox church 
 during its contest with Arianism in the 
 latter half of the fourth century; d. in 380. 
 During the reign of Valens, he traveled 
 through Syria Phoenicia,and Palestine,dis¬ 
 guised as a soldier, preaching and conse¬ 
 crating priests. Banished to Thrace in 
 
 373. he was in exile until the death of 
 Valens, 378. Not long after his return, 
 while laboring to reorganize the Syrian 
 Church, he was killed at Dolica by a tile 
 thrown from the roof of a house by an Arian 
 woman. 
 
 Eustathius of Antioch, first bishop of 
 Berrhoea (Syria), and then of Antioch; d. 
 at Philippi, 337. He earnestly opposed 
 the Arians in the Council of Nicaea, and 
 when they came into power he was deposed 
 in 331. Of his writings only a work against 
 Origen is extant: Bibl. Max. Patr. , xvii. 
 
 Eustathius, bishop of Sebaste, Armenia, 
 from 350; d. 380. He changed so often 
 from orthodoxy to different phases of 
 Arianism that he was condemned by several 
 synods. He introduced monasticism in 
 Armenia, Pontus, and Paphlagonia, and 
 organized an ascetic party, called the Eusta- 
 thians, that was condemned by the synod 
 of Gangra (about 360), and soon disap¬ 
 peared. 
 
 Eutychianism. See Eutyches. 
 
 Eutyches, the founder of the Eutychians, 
 abbot and presbyter of Constantinople in 
 the fifth century. In the Council of Ephesus 
 he earnestly opposed the Nestorians. 
 “ They were accused of teaching that the 
 divine nature was not incarnated in, but 
 only attendant on, Jesus, being superadded 
 to his human nature after the latter was 
 completely formed. In opposition to this, 
 Eutyches went so far as to affirm that after 
 the union of the two natures, the human 
 and divine, Christ had only one nature, 
 that of the incarnate Word, and that, there¬ 
 fore, his human body was essentially dif¬ 
 ferent from other human bodies. In this 
 he went beyond Cyril and the Alexandrine 
 school generally, who, although they ex¬ 
 pressed the unity of the two natures of 
 Christ so as to almost nullify their duality, 
 yet took care verbally to guard themselves 
 against the accusation of in any way cir¬ 
 cumscribing or modifying his real and true 
 humanity. It would seem, however, that 
 Eutyches differed from the Alexandrine 
 school chiefly from inability to express his 
 meaning with proper guardedness, for 
 ! equally with them he denied that Christ’s 
 i human nature was either transmuted or 
 absorbed in his divine nature.”— Eitcy. 
 Britannica , vol. viii., p. 724. At a council 
 held at Constantinople in 448, Eutyches 
 was accused of heresy and deposed and ex¬ 
 communicated. In the following year a 
 council convened at Ephesus, and largely 
 attended by Egyptian monks, restored him 
 to his office and deposed his chief oppo- 
 
Eva 
 
 ( 320 ) 
 
 Eva 
 
 nents, Eusebius, bishop of Dorylseum, who 
 had accused him, and Flavian, who presided 
 at the council that excommunicated him. 
 The proceedings of the Council at Ephesus 
 were annulled two years afterward by a 
 council which met at Chalcedon and “ de¬ 
 clared that th6 two natures were united in 
 Christ, but without any alteration, absorp¬ 
 tion, or confusion.” Eutyches was banish¬ 
 ed by the emperor, and died in exile. In 
 the sixth century a monk by the name of 
 Jacob brought together the various parties 
 into which the Eutychians had divided, and 
 formed the Jacobite Church which still has 
 a considerable following in Armenia, 
 Egypt, and Ethiopia. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance. See Alliance, 
 Evangelical. 
 
 Evangelical Association,an ecclesiastical 
 body which, in polity and faith, is nearly 
 identical with the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. Its founder, Jacob Albright, an 
 unlettered but devout man, left the Luther¬ 
 ans, and, having connected himself with 
 the Methodists, began to preach in 1796. 
 A company of his followers ordained him 
 as a minister in 1803, and as the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church did not extend its labors 
 among the Germans, the congregation 
 gathered through his labors formed them¬ 
 selves into a separate denomination. A 
 conference was organized in 1807, and Al¬ 
 bright was elected bishop, and instructed 
 to prepare articles of faith and discipline. 
 The name finally adopted by the organiza¬ 
 tion is that of “ The Evangelical Associa¬ 
 tion of North America.” Bishops are 
 elected by the general conference, and pre¬ 
 siding elders by the annual conferences. 
 The itinerant system is practiced, and in 
 doctrine they are Arminian. At first they 
 labored exclusively among the Germans, 
 but more recently English congregations 
 have been organized. There are now 22 
 conferences, 1,523 ministers, and 113,871 
 church members. It has a conference in 
 Germany with 8,000 members, and carries 
 on a mission in Japan. A Biblical Institute 
 at Naperville, Ill., and the Northwestern 
 University at Plainfield, Ill., are under the 
 charge of the denomination. The Book 
 Concern at Cleveland is prosperous, and 
 publishes several papers in German and 
 English. 
 
 Evangelical Union. In 1841, the Rev. 
 James Morison, a minister of the United Se¬ 
 cession Church,was deposed for holding an- 
 ti-Calvinistic views regarding faith, the 
 work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and the 
 extent of the atonement. His father and 
 two other ministers having been deposed 
 
 for holding similar views, they formed the 
 Evangelical Union. The organization has 
 extended until it numbers upwards of a 
 hundred churches. They adhere to the 
 Congregational form of government. Doc- 
 trinally they are in sympathy with the 
 views held by the Cumberland Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church of the United States. See 
 Ferguson: History of the Evangelical Union 
 (Glasgow, 1876). 
 
 Evangelist. “ The constitution of the Ap¬ 
 ostolic Church included an order or body 
 of men known as Evangelists. The meaning 
 of the name, ‘ the publishers of glad tid¬ 
 ings,’ seems common to the work of the 
 Christian ministry generally, yet in Eph. 
 iv. 2, the * evangelists ’ appear on the 
 one hand after the ‘ apostles ’ and ‘ proph¬ 
 ets;’ on the other before the ‘pastors’ 
 and ‘ teachers.’ This passage, accordingly, 
 would lead us to think of them as stand¬ 
 ing between the two other groups—sent 
 forth as missionary preachers of the Gospel 
 by the first, and as such preparing the way 
 for the labors of the second. The same in¬ 
 ference would seem to follow the occur¬ 
 rence of the word as applied to Philip in 
 Acts xxi. 8. It follows, from what has been 
 said, that the calling of the evangelist is 
 the proclamation of the glad tidings to 
 those who have not known them, rather 
 than the instruction and pastoral care of 
 those who have believed and been bap¬ 
 tized. It follows, also, that the name de¬ 
 notes a work rather than an order. The 
 evangelist might or might not be a Bish¬ 
 op-Elder or a Deacon. The apostles, so 
 far as they evangelized (Acts viii. 25; xiv. 
 7; 1 Cor. i. 17), might claim the title, 
 though there were many evangelists who 
 were not apostles. Theodoret describes 
 the evangelists as travelling missionaries. 
 The account given by Eusebius, though 
 somewhat rhetorical and vague, gives 
 prominence to the idea of itinerant mis¬ 
 sionary preaching. If the Gospel was a 
 written book, and the office of the evangel¬ 
 ists was to read or distribute it, then the 
 writers of such books were preeminently 
 the Evangelists. In later liturgical lan¬ 
 guage the word was applied to the reader 
 of the Gospel for the day.”—Smith: Diet, 
 of the Bible. 
 
 Evangelistary, a name given the chuich- 
 book containing the portions of the Gos¬ 
 pels appointed to be read in the Commun¬ 
 ion service. 
 
 Evans, Christmas, a Baptist preacher 
 of Wales, famous for his eloquence: b. at 
 Ergaiswen on Christmas-Day, 1766 ; d. 
 July 14, 1S3S. The son of a shoemaker, 
 
Eve 
 
 ( 321 ) 
 
 Evo 
 
 he was early compelled to work as a day 
 laborer. He learned to read after he was 
 converted, at the agfe of seventeen. He en¬ 
 tered the ministry in 1790, and preached 
 for two years at Lleyn, and from there 
 went to the Isle of Anglesea, where his 
 salary, most of the time, was but ^17. 
 In 1826 he removed to Tonyvelin, and in 
 1833 to Caernarvon. His power as an 
 illustrative preacher won him the title of 
 the “ Welsh Bunyan.” His power over 
 his audiences was often wonderful. 
 
 Eve, “ the name given in Scripture to the 
 first woman. The account of Eve’s cre¬ 
 ation is found in Gen. ii. 21, 22. Various 
 explanations of this narrative have been 
 offered. Perhaps that which we are chiefly 
 intended to learn from it is the foundation 
 upon which the union between man and 
 wife is built, viz., identity of nature and one¬ 
 ness of origin. Through the subtlety of the 
 serpent, Eve was beguiled into a violation 
 of the one commandment which had been 
 imposed upon her and Adam. The differ¬ 
 ent aspects under which Eve regarded her 
 mission as a mother are seen in the names 
 of her sons. The Scripture account of 
 Eve closes with the birth of Seth.”—Smith: 
 Did. of the Bible. Different interpreta¬ 
 tions of this narrative have found defend¬ 
 ers. Philo considered it allegorical, and 
 in this view was followed by the Alexan¬ 
 drian fathers. Others hold to a poetical 
 interpretation; and still others to a myth¬ 
 ical view which makes the story a mere 
 dramatic conception. See W. Robertson 
 Smith’s art. “ Eve,” in Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Evidences, Christian. See Apolo¬ 
 getics. 
 
 E'vil-Mero'dach, son and successor of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and 
 reigned b. c. 561-560. He released Jehoia- 
 chin, king of Judah, from prison after a 
 captivity of thirty-seven years, and gave 
 him a position of honor and personal inti¬ 
 macy. (Jer. lii. 31-34.) After a reign of 
 two years, he was murdered by his brother- 
 in-law, Neriglissar, who succeeded him. 
 
 Evolution. The general idea expressed 
 in the word “evolution” is that of a pro¬ 
 gressive change of phenomena under the 
 continuous operation of secondary causes. 
 It will be seen hereafter that this concep¬ 
 tion is entirely independent of any partic¬ 
 ular theory as to the nature of secondary 
 causes, and that it is entirely consistent 
 with that doctrine of divine immanence 
 which finds in the divine will the only effi¬ 
 cient causation in nature, recognizing what 
 are called secondary causes as only con¬ 
 
 venient symbols to express the method and 
 order of divine activity. 
 
 A characteristic example of such a series 
 of changes as may properly be called 
 evolution is to be found in the growth of 
 the individual plant or animal from its 
 primitive condition of a single protoplasmic 
 cell to the complexity of its adult condi¬ 
 tion. On a larger scale, the origin of 
 primary and secondary planets from a prim¬ 
 itive nebula, as explained by the nebulaij 
 theory, is a case of the evolution of a planet¬ 
 ary system. That the majority of the 
 phenomena of the physical universe fall 
 within the scope of the law of continuity 
 has long been the universal belief of 
 scientific men. The only question in this 
 generation has been whether there are any 
 exceptional phenomena which lie outside 
 the realm of secondary causation, and are 
 explicable only by the assumption of 
 isolated and processless interpositions of 
 creative power. The thoughtful mind, 
 surveying the gradual but constant prog¬ 
 ress with which science has annexed one 
 after another of the seemingly most law¬ 
 less and capricious phenomena of nature to 
 the realm of the law-governed, must feel 
 that there is a tremendous presumption 
 against any such exceptions. 
 
 The most important scientific contro¬ 
 versy of this century has been waged upon 
 the question of one of these supposed ex¬ 
 ceptions. The word “ evolution ” is often 
 employed, and will be employed in the re¬ 
 mainder of this article, in a restricted sense, 
 with reference to that particular question. 
 That the introduction of new individuals 
 in the animal and vegetable kingdoms is a 
 purely natural process, lying completely 
 within the scope of secondary causation, 
 none can doubt. But geology has made 
 known the fact that the present species of 
 animals and plants have existed for a 
 period which is very shoit in comparison 
 with the duration of the earth; and that 
 these species were preceded by other 
 species, more and more dissimilar to them, 
 in periods of more and more remote antiq¬ 
 uity. Have these new species, from time 
 to time, been introduced by a process of 
 descent with modification, so that the ori¬ 
 gin of a species is only the birth of indi¬ 
 viduals varying from the parent stock ? or 
 must the origin of a species be sought in 
 the interposition of a creative fiat whereby 
 one, two, or more individuals appeared 
 without any generative process whatever ? 
 The former of these alternatives is what is 
 understood as the theory of evolution, and 
 is at present almost universally adopted by 
 scientific men. 
 
 Two principles of fundamental impor¬ 
 tance in relation to this question are hered 
 
Evo 
 
 ( 322 ) 
 
 Evo 
 
 ity and variation. The term heredity 
 expresses the familiar fact that offspring 
 resemble their parents, while the term va¬ 
 riation expresses the equally familiar fact 
 that offspring are never exactly like their 
 parents or exactly like each other. Evi¬ 
 dently, if new species are produced by de¬ 
 scent with modification, it must be by the 
 occasional occurrence of great variations, 
 or by the progressive accumulation of 
 small variations. It appears, however, 
 within the comparatively short period in 
 which plants and animals have been stud¬ 
 ied by civilized man, that variations are 
 generally small in amount, and oscillatory 
 rather than progressive, so that the aver¬ 
 age character of a species appears to be 
 substantially constant from generation to 
 generation. But it would obviously be a 
 tremendous logical saltus to conclude, from 
 the fact that the character of a species re¬ 
 mains apparently changeless for a few cen¬ 
 turies, in which the conditions of life re¬ 
 main substantially uniform, that it would 
 suffer no change in the lapse of geological 
 ages, and when exposed to the direct and 
 indirect effect of the geographical and cli¬ 
 matic changes which geology reveals. 
 
 If the existing fauna and flora are the 
 modified descendants of earlier faunas and 
 floras—if the present condition of organic 
 nature is the result of a growth—then 
 traces of such derivation—marks of growth 
 —ought to reveal themselves in the char¬ 
 acters of various living species, and in the 
 relations of living species to each other, 
 and to time and space. Do such growth- 
 marks exist? Unquestionably: organic nat¬ 
 ure is full of them. Within the limits of 
 the present article it is impossible to give 
 any adequate idea of the immense mass of 
 the evidence. That evidence can be appre¬ 
 ciated only by those who have attained 
 some considerable proficiency in biolog¬ 
 ical science. In the present article little 
 more can be attempted than an inventory 
 of the principal classes of facts from which 
 the evidence is drawn. 
 
 One of these classes of facts is seen in 
 the homology of structure preserved in 
 organs appropriated to widely different 
 uses. The arm of man, the fore paw of 
 the quadruped, the wing of bat and bird 
 and pterodactyl, the flipper of seal and 
 whale and ichthyosaurus, the pectoral fin 
 of the fish—all have a structure essentially 
 identical. It can certainly not be asserted 
 that this plan of structure is the only one 
 admissible for those various functions, nor 
 is it clear that it -is the best plan; for, in 
 other branches of the animal kingdom, we 
 have organs for prehension, walking, fly¬ 
 ing, and swimming, constructed on totally 
 different plans. 
 
 Still more striking, perhaps, is the ev¬ 
 idence afforded by rqdimentary organs— 
 organs which, in particular species, are 
 more or less imperfectly developed and 
 functionless, while in allied species they 
 are well developed and functional. Such 
 cases are of continual occurrence in every 
 group of the organic kingdoms, and in con¬ 
 nection with every system of organs. A 
 striking example is seen in the wings of 
 some beetles which never fly, folded up 
 under wing-covers immovably soldered to¬ 
 gether. The theory of evolution gives to 
 such organs a perfectly intelligible mean¬ 
 ing, making them most important records 
 of the method of creation. To say, on the 
 other hand, that the Deity specially cre¬ 
 ated flightless and useless wings, concealed 
 under immovable wing-covers, for the sake 
 of conformity to the coleopterous arch¬ 
 etype, is, to say the least, not a very sat¬ 
 isfactory explanation. 
 
 If the existing species have been derived 
 from earlier ones by descent with mod¬ 
 ification, it might be expected that resem¬ 
 blances to those earlier forms would often 
 be exhibited in the larval and embryonic 
 stages of existing species, which are lost 
 in the adult stage of those species; and, 
 since there has been, in general, a progress 
 from lower to higher forms in the course 
 of geological time, it might, accordingly, be 
 expected that there would often be a re¬ 
 semblance between the immature stages of 
 higher forms and the mature condition of 
 lower allied forms. There would thus be 
 often a triple correspondence between the 
 embryological, the taxonomic, and the pa¬ 
 leontological series — the developmental 
 stages of later and higher forms, recalling 
 the adult condition of earlier and lower 
 forms. The larva of a crab resembles a 
 lobster, the latter being a representative 
 of a group lower in rank and earlier in or¬ 
 igin. An embryonic stage in the develop¬ 
 ment of the heart and the great trunks of 
 the blood-vessels in mammals resembles 
 the permanent condition of the fish; and 
 the neck of the embryonic mammal is 
 pierced with slits like the gill-slits of a 
 shark. Multitudinous such correspond¬ 
 ences may be traced. In many cases, how¬ 
 ever, traces of ancestral character in em¬ 
 bryos and larvae are masked by adaptive 
 modifications, having reference to the con¬ 
 ditions of life in which the immature forms 
 are placed. 
 
 The general order of paleontological 
 succession is eminently in accord with the 
 theory of evolution. The life of the ear¬ 
 liest periods exhibits a comparative paucity 
 of ordinal types, a conspicuous absence of 
 the highest orders, and a general facies 
 markedly different from that of to-day. In 
 
Evo 
 
 ( 323 ) 
 
 Evo 
 
 •successive periods we find a continual in¬ 
 crease in the number and diversity of 
 ordinal types, the accession of higher or¬ 
 ders, and a continual approximation to 
 the facies of the present. Early types 
 often exhibit a remarkably generalized 
 character, and are followed by allied forms 
 specialized in different directions, as if the 
 descendants of a common stock, exposed 
 to different conditions, had varied in di¬ 
 vergent directions. Thus the ancient ga¬ 
 noid fishes seem to have given rise, on the 
 one hand, to teleost fishes, and, on the oth¬ 
 er, to amphibia and reptiles. In some cases 
 the record of succession is so complete as 
 to suggest probable genealogies of fam¬ 
 ilies and genera. The numerous corre¬ 
 spondences between paleontology, taxon¬ 
 omy, and embryology have been already 
 referred to. It is now universally recog¬ 
 nized that the old idea of geological periods 
 sharply limited by epochs of universal 
 extermination and new creation is entirely 
 false. There have, undoubtedly, been 
 epochs of comparatively rapid change in 
 fauna and flora, alternating with epochs of 
 comparative stability, these epochs of 
 rapid change in the facies of organic nat¬ 
 ure corresponding, in general, with the 
 epochs of greatest geographical change; 
 but there is no reason to believe in any 
 universal extermination since the first in¬ 
 troduction of life. 
 
 The facts of geographical distribution 
 also correspond, in general, with the idea of 
 evolution. The range of a species is usual¬ 
 ly continuous, as if the species had spread 
 from some centre of origin until stopped 
 by geographical barriers, climate, or com¬ 
 petition of more powerful rivals. Appar¬ 
 ent exceptions usually admit of ready ex¬ 
 planation, as in the case of northern plants 
 on the Alps and other mountains of Europe 
 and America, whose presence is readily ex¬ 
 plained by the migrations attendant upon 
 the glacial period. The range of genera is 
 usually more extensive than that of spe¬ 
 cies, but is generally either actually con¬ 
 tinuous, or capable of being made contin¬ 
 uous by geographical or climatic changes 
 within the bounds of geological probabil¬ 
 ity. The range of the most comprehen¬ 
 sive groups, as sub-kingdoms and classes, 
 whose origin must have antedated the pres¬ 
 ent distribution of sea and land, is generally 
 world-wide. When the facts of geological 
 distribution are viewed in connection with 
 those of geological succession, a striking 
 generalization is reached, which is emi¬ 
 nently in accord with the theory of ev¬ 
 olution. That generalization is expressed 
 in the words of A. R. Wallace: “ Every 
 species has come into existence coincident 
 both in time and space with a pre-existing 
 
 closely allied species.” There can be no 
 doubt of the general truth of this proposi¬ 
 tion, though there are exceptions which 
 are inexplicable in the present state of our 
 knowledge. This law is most conspic¬ 
 uously illustrated in the comparison of the 
 quaternary with the recent mammalian 
 faunas of the respective continents. Aus¬ 
 tralia was the land of marsupials, and 
 South America the land of edentates, in 
 the quaternary, as at present—species 
 being changed, but family and ordinal 
 types persisting. Nor is this local persist¬ 
 ence of certain types to be explained tele¬ 
 ologically, as due to some peculiar adapta¬ 
 tion of these types to climate and other 
 conditions. So far is it from being the 
 case that marsupials are especially and ex¬ 
 clusively adapted to the climate of Austra¬ 
 lia, the animals introduced from Europe 
 thrive so well as to threaten the extermi¬ 
 nation of the native fauna. 
 
 The indefiniteness and uncertainty of zo¬ 
 ological and botanical classification bears 
 strongly in favor of evolution. Paradox¬ 
 ical as it may seem, it is in the genera best 
 known, and in the faunas and floras of 
 countries most thoroughly explored, that 
 the discrimination of species is most diffi¬ 
 cult. While species are founded on sol¬ 
 itary specimens brought home by explorers 
 of distant lands, species appear clearly 
 marked and invariable. But, when hun¬ 
 dreds or thousands of specimens can be 
 examined, the result is often that the bound¬ 
 aries of the species seem to be lost in a 
 haze of indefinite variation. Nor is it alone 
 in the discrimination of species that such 
 indefiniteness exists. Probably at present 
 no two zoologists could agree on a scheme 
 of sub-kingdoms, classes, sub-classes, or¬ 
 ders, and sub-orders for the animal king¬ 
 dom, unless such agreement was reached by 
 a compromise analogous to those of pol¬ 
 itics. Groups which appear well defined 
 in their typical forms, blend on their con¬ 
 fines like the colors of the spectrum. 
 
 It is safe to say that the more thoroughly 
 any one studies the various aspects and 
 relations of organic nature the more strong¬ 
 ly will he be impressed with the accordance 
 between the phenomena and the theory of 
 evolution. Derivation by continuous mod¬ 
 ification, not creation by occasional and dis¬ 
 connected fiats—nomogenesis, not thauma- 
 togenesis—is suggested alike to the zool¬ 
 ogist and the botanist, the embryologist 
 and the paleontologist. 
 
 The stock objection to evolution is found 
 in the alleged absence of gradational forms 
 between species, and between more com¬ 
 prehensive groups. As has been already 
 explained, this objection, in the sweeping 
 and unqualified form in which it is often 
 
Evo 
 
 ( 324 ) 
 
 Evo 
 
 stated, is false. The thorough student of 
 zoology, botany, or paleontology knows 
 that there is far more of gradation in the 
 organic kingdoms than is generally sup¬ 
 posed. It is, however, true that the 
 majority of existing species seem to have 
 pretty definite boundaries; and in geolog¬ 
 ical history many groups seem to make a 
 sudden advent, with no recognizable trace 
 of ancestry. The force of this objection 
 is, however, much less than at first ap¬ 
 pears. Close series of gradational forms 
 between existing species ought to be 
 found only very exceptionally, if the theory 
 of evolution is true. If we have two close¬ 
 ly related species,^ and B , it is not likely 
 that one of them is descended from the 
 other, but both of them are probably de¬ 
 scended from some extinct species, C. More 
 or less gradational forms must some time 
 have existed between C and A , and between 
 C and B , but not between A and B. As for 
 the lack of fossil remains of gradational 
 forms connecting extinct species, when the 
 imperfection of the geological record is 
 duly considered, the wonder will be, not 
 that so few, but that so many, gradational 
 forms have come to light. Those groups 
 of animals which are destitute of a some¬ 
 what indurated skeleton are, in general, 
 unrepresented by fossils. The large num¬ 
 ber of fossil species represented only by a 
 single fragmentary skeleton—in some 
 cases by a fragment of a lower jaw—il¬ 
 lustrate impressively what an infinitesimal 
 fraction of the ancient populations of the 
 globe has been preserved, even in the case 
 of groups possessing well-developed skel¬ 
 etons. The epochs of greatest geograph¬ 
 ical change in any particular region, and 
 therefore of most rapid evolutionary 
 change, are apt to be marked by strati- 
 graphical unconformity, and a complete 
 hiatus in the record. If a history of the 
 United States had nine out of every ten 
 leaves torn out, and the chapters on the 
 Revolution and the Civil War entirely 
 lost, the reader would find in many places 
 an abrupt and inexplicable transition, 
 where the missing leaves, if they could 
 be restored, would make a continuous and 
 intelligible progress. This illustration is 
 an inadequate, rather than an exaggerated, 
 representation of the imperfection of the 
 geological record. 
 
 Attention has thus far been called to the 
 phenomena of organic nature which sug¬ 
 gest the general idea of evolution; but 
 nothing has been said in regard to the 
 agencies by which evolutionary changes 
 are effected. Since individual variation 
 must be the means of the origination of 
 new species, it is evident that a complete 
 explanation of organic evolution must in¬ 
 
 volve an explanation of the principles of 
 heredity and variation. The ingenious 
 speculation which has been directed to that 
 mystery has hitherto hardly accomplished 
 more than to render darkness visible. 
 The direct influence of external conditions 
 may be, to some extent, a factor in evolu¬ 
 tionary change, but it is apparently not the 
 most important one. By far the most im¬ 
 portant contribution to the explanation of 
 the method of organic evolution is the 
 theory of “natural selection,” proposed by 
 Darwin and Wallace in 1858, and expounded 
 with wonderful ability in Darwin’s epoch- 
 making book, The Origin of Species. 
 
 The theory of natural selection is exceed¬ 
 ingly simple. It bases itself on the fa¬ 
 miliar principles of heredity and variation, 
 and on the tendency of all organic beings 
 to multiply in a geometrical series. Since 
 this tendency to geometrical increase un¬ 
 questionably exists, vastly more individ¬ 
 uals of every species are produced than can 
 possibly survive to maturity and propagate. 
 By the attacks of enemies and the compe¬ 
 tition of rivals, by the scarcity of food and 
 the inclemency of climate, every Individual 
 is exposed to a multiplicity of perils 
 throughout its existence, from the earliest 
 moment of its germ-life to its death. This 
 is what Darwin has felicitously called, “the 
 struggle for life.” Whatever may be the 
 known or unknown causes of variation, it 
 is certain that the individuals of any gen¬ 
 eration are not exactly alike. Presumably, 
 some of them will prove better adapted 
 than others to succeed in the struggle for 
 life. The individuals whose variations are 
 thus favorable will be, in general, those 
 that will survive to maturity and propagate. 
 They will be “ naturally selected.” By the 
 principle of heredity, it may be expected 
 that their peculiarities will be in greater or 
 less degree inherited by their descendants. 
 
 It is evident that this principle of natural 
 selection must be sometimes a conserv¬ 
 ative, and sometimes a progressive force. 
 In a stationary condition, when the char¬ 
 acter of a species is in harmony with its 
 environment, the effect of natural selec¬ 
 tion will be to keep the species true to the 
 ancestral type, checking the tendency to 
 variation in ever}'' direction. But, when 
 any change in climate or in any other of the 
 conditions of life throws a species out of 
 harmony with its environment, so that a 
 change in the character of the species would 
 be an improvement, natural selection be¬ 
 comes a progressive force, favoring those 
 individuals that vary in the desirable’direc- 
 tion, rather than those which remain true 
 to the ancestral type. Thus variation, 
 which is ordinarily oscillatory, becomes at 
 times progressive. It is needless to remark 
 
Evo 
 
 ( 325 ) 
 
 Evo 
 
 that this result of the theory exactly accords 
 with the history of life as revealed by pa¬ 
 leontology. Periods of stability of geo¬ 
 graphical conditions and permanence of 
 specific type, appear to have alternated 
 with periods of geographical change and 
 relatively rapid modification of species. 
 
 That natural selection is a complete ex¬ 
 planation of the process of organic evolu¬ 
 tion probably no one believes. Indeed, 
 that claim was never made by Darwin him¬ 
 self. But that it is by far the most impor¬ 
 tant contribution to the theory of evolution 
 which has thus far been made is certain. 
 
 It is needless to remark that the discov¬ 
 ery of the principle of natural selection has 
 vastly strengthened the evidence for the 
 doctrine of evolution in general. However 
 conspicuous are the growth-marks which 
 we have pointed out as existing in organic 
 nature, men could easily mistake their sig¬ 
 nificance, in the absence of any known 
 cause by which variation (confessedly 
 oscillatory in all our ordinary experience 
 of living forms) could at times be made 
 progressive. The principle of natural 
 selection tends to supply precisely this 
 lack. Even though we believe that prin¬ 
 ciple inadequate for the complete solution 
 of the problem, the fact that there has been 
 discovered an agency,ever present in nature, 
 whose tendency is unquestionably in the 
 required direction, renders it easy to be¬ 
 lieve that other agencies may be hereafter 
 discovered ,by which the agency already dis¬ 
 covered may be adequately supplemented. 
 
 When the publication of Darwin’s great 
 work first attracted attention to the subject 
 of evolution, the discussion assumed, in 
 many cases, a theological character. Many 
 of the most prominent advocates of the 
 theory were bitter assailants of Christian¬ 
 ity; and the majority even of intelligent 
 Christians regarded the theory as more or 
 less decidedly inimical to Christian belief. 
 It was, however, very early perceived by 
 a number of able theologians that the theory 
 of evolution has no necessary connection 
 with the atheistic philosophy with which 
 some of its defenders have associated it; 
 and it is now generally conceded that there 
 is no incompatibility between a belief in 
 evolution and a belief in Christianity. If it 
 is true that Darwin and Huxley, among the 
 prominent early champions of evolution, 
 were agnostics, it is no less true that Gray 
 was an evangelical Christian. Although 
 the theological opposition to the theory of 
 evolution has well-nigh died out, it may 
 still be desirable to say a few words in re¬ 
 gard to those points on which there has 
 been supposed to be a conflict between 
 evolution and Christianity. 
 
 The anatomical and physiological re¬ 
 
 semblances between man and other mam¬ 
 mals are so complete that it is scarcely 
 possible to avoid the conclusion that man 
 can constitute no exception to the general 
 law of evolution. The question then arises 
 whether a belief in the evolutionary origin 
 of man is consistent with such a recogni¬ 
 tion of man’s spiritual nature as forms the 
 basis of ethics and religion. The study of 
 comparative psychology is so exceedingly 
 difficult that it is not easy to formulate 
 precisely the psychological difference be¬ 
 tween man and brute. While the present- 
 ative and representative powers appear to 
 be much the same in man and the higher 
 members of the brute creation, there seems 
 no satisfactory evidence of the presence, in 
 brutes, of the powers of abstraction and in¬ 
 tuition, and of self-determining will. It is, 
 however, not necessary to dogmatize on 
 this difficult question. Ethics and religion 
 have a sound basis in the facts of human 
 psychology, as given in consciousness, 
 whatever opinions may be held in ontology, 
 biology, and comparative psychology. The 
 inalienable belief of freedom and responsi¬ 
 bility lays upon every soul the solemn im¬ 
 perative of moral obligation, independently 
 of any particular opinions as to man’s 
 similarity or dissimilarity to the brutes in 
 faculty, essence, and origin. That every 
 individual man now living has come into 
 existence by a process essentially evolu¬ 
 tionary, is unquestionable. No change 
 need be made in our conception of man’s 
 nature and destiny, by the belief that the 
 origin of the first human beings was due 
 to the same natural process. If a thorough¬ 
 ly spiritualistic philosophy is to be main¬ 
 tained, it is probably necessary to hold the 
 special creation of each human spirit, since 
 traducianism tends strongly toward mate¬ 
 rialism. The spiritualist can maintain that, 
 in the case of the earliest, precisely as in 
 the case of the latest, human individual, a 
 spirit was created when a suitable body 
 had been evolved. 
 
 The acceptance of the theory of evolu¬ 
 tion brings no new difficulties in the inter¬ 
 pretation of the Mosaic narratives of 
 Creation. On no literal interpretation can 
 the Elohistic narrative, in Genesis i. 1— 
 ii. 3, be reconciled with the Jehovistic nar¬ 
 rative, in Genesis ii. 4-25. Nor can any in¬ 
 terpretation which gives a strictly chrono¬ 
 logical signification to the “days” of the 
 former narrative be satisfactorily harmo¬ 
 nized with the well-attested facts of geology. 
 The Bible is a record, by inspired men, of 
 a progressive revelation of religious truth. 
 The theology of to-day has outgrown the 
 belief that those men were, by their in¬ 
 spiration, rendered omniscient, or qualified 
 to communicate encyclopedic knowledge. 
 
Evo 
 
 ( 326 ) 
 
 Exc 
 
 The first chapter of Genesis is best under¬ 
 stood as a sublime psalm, in which God is 
 celebrated as the Creator of all things, the 
 “ days ” being merely poetic drapery. The 
 second chapter of Genesis is an allegory, in 
 which God is set forth as the providential 
 establisher of human society and civiliza¬ 
 tion. Neither requires any reconciliation 
 with scientific beliefs. 
 
 The belief that the theory of evolution 
 is atheistic has arisen from a false phi¬ 
 losophy of the relation between God and 
 the universe. Nature has been conceived 
 of as a self-supporting system, with self- 
 enforcing laws, subject to modification by 
 occasional divine interposition. This false 
 philosophy recognizes no divine activity in 
 the operations of nature, finding a mani¬ 
 festation of God only in the supernatural— 
 the miraculous. Every advance of science 
 which has extended the domain of natural 
 law into some territory formerly held as 
 belonging to the supernatural, has accord¬ 
 ingly been denounced as atheistic. A true 
 philosophy must recognize the immanence 
 of God, and his immediate efficiency in all 
 natural processes. “ In him we live and 
 move and have our being.” Nature has 
 no existence apart from the continuous 
 energy of the divine will. Natural laws 
 are only statements of the habitual order 
 of the divine action. God is no less the 
 Creator of all things, if the creative fiat 
 has manifested itself through a long series 
 of evolutionary changes. The doctrine of 
 evolutionsimply extends, inourconception, 
 the scope of natural law; and, if natural 
 law is the expression of the order and 
 method of the activity of divine will, there 
 is surely nothing atheistic in such exten¬ 
 sion. Thereby are we led, rather, to a 
 larger and more reverent appreciation of 
 those majestic creative plans, wherein the 
 end has been comprehended from the be¬ 
 ginning, and whose fulfillment has pro¬ 
 ceeded through countless ages in contin¬ 
 uous development. 
 
 The literature of the subject is immense. 
 A very few titles of important works are 
 here given for the convenience of the stu¬ 
 dent: Darwin: On the Origin of Species by 
 Means of Natural Selection: or, the Preserva¬ 
 tion of Favored Races in the Struggle for 
 Life; Wallace: Contributions to the Theory 
 of Natural Selection; Mivart: On the Gene¬ 
 sis of Species; Darwin: The Descent of Man, 
 and Selection in relation to Sex; Gray: Dar- 
 winiana; Schmid: The Theories of Dar¬ 
 win, and their relation to Philosophy, Relig¬ 
 ion, and A/orality; Conn: Evolution of To¬ 
 day; McCosh: The Religious Aspect of 
 Evolution; Le Conte: Evolution, and its Re¬ 
 lation to Religious Thought; Wallace: Dar¬ 
 winism . William North Rice. 
 
 Ewald, Georg Heinrich August, an 
 eminent Oriental scholar; b. Nov. 16, 1803, 
 in Gottingen; d. there, May 4, 1875. After 
 studying at the University of Gottingen 
 and teaching for some time, he became 
 professor in the university in 1827. In 
 1837, he, with six other professors, was 
 expelled for signing a protest against the 
 revocation of the liberal constitution of 
 1833. In 1838 he was called to Tubingen, 
 where he taught for ten years, when he 
 returned to Gottingen (1848), and remained 
 there till 1866, when he was excluded from 
 the faculty of philosophy for refusing to 
 take the oath of allegiance to the King of 
 Prussia. He was still allowed his salary 
 and permitted to lecture, but his attacks 
 against the government were so bitter that 
 this privilege was finally withdrawn. Dur¬ 
 ing these years, while as a citizen he was 
 so radical and earnest in expressing his po¬ 
 litical views, he was with patient industry 
 and wonderful insight pursuing his studies 
 in Oriental language and criticism. “ His 
 Hebrew grammar inaugurated a new era 
 in Hebrew learning; and Hitzig, in his 
 preface to Isaiah, calls the author the sec¬ 
 ond founder of the science of the Hebrew 
 language. His History of Israel, in spite 
 of errors of judgment and unreasonable 
 dogmatism, must long remain the standard 
 work in its line, and always a storehouse 
 of the most patient research. He was in¬ 
 defatigable as lecturer, and equally so as 
 author. Whatever department he devoted 
 himself to, he threw an almost vehement 
 enthusiasm into it.” — Dr, Bertheau in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency, 
 
 Ewing, Finis, one of the founders of the 
 Cumberland Presbyterian Church; b. in 
 Bedford Co., Va., July 10, 1773; d. at 
 Lexington, Mo. .July 4, 1841. His oppor¬ 
 tunities in youth were limited, but after 
 his conversion he showed great natural 
 ability, and in 1802 was licensed to preach 
 by the Cumberland presbytery. In 1S10, 
 with two others, he formed the presbytery 
 out of which grew the Cumberland Pres¬ 
 byterian Church. 
 
 Excommunication. In the period of the 
 New Testament two kinds of excommuni¬ 
 cation were employed among the Jews. 
 The milder form is referred to in Luke vi. 
 22, and that which was more severe in 
 John ix. 22; xii. 42; and xvi. 2. Excom¬ 
 munication, as practiced by the Christian 
 Church, was instituted by our Lord (Matt, 
 xviii. 15-18), and was commanded by Paul. 
 (1 Tim. i. 20; 1 Cor. v. 2-5, 11; Tit. iii. 
 10.) In the early Church grave sins were 
 punished by excommunication, and only 
 after a severe course of penitence were. 
 
Exe 
 
 ( 327 ) 
 
 Exe 
 
 any restored to spiritual privileges. Later, 
 in the Roman Church, two kinds of excom¬ 
 munication developed. The minor ex¬ 
 cluded the condemned from the sacraments 
 only; the major excluded from the mass, 
 from burial in consecrated ground, and 
 even from intercourse with other Chris¬ 
 tians. The aid of the State was invoked 
 and obtained in the enforcement of this 
 punishment. While the Roman Church 
 still treats the canon law as valid theoret¬ 
 ically, its enforcement is practically mod¬ 
 ified as regards excommunication pro¬ 
 nounced by the pope, since his action is no 
 longer sustained by the State. The major 
 excommunication, when it is now pro¬ 
 nounced, consigns the condemned to end¬ 
 less perdition unless he repents. Among 
 Protestants excommunication is simply an 
 act of church discipline, exercised in the 
 hope that the offender may repent of his 
 sin and be restored to fellowship. See 
 Church Discipline. 
 
 Exegesis is the technical term for the 
 exposition of any writing, but it is used 
 especially and mainly of the interpretation 
 of the Scriptures. It has been distinguish¬ 
 ed from hermeneutics as practice from 
 theory. The latter was formerly applied 
 to the task of ascertaining the truth of a 
 passage, the former to the exposition of 
 the truth discovered, the explanation of its 
 scope and bearing on doctrine and morals. 
 Exegesis at present generally includes both 
 the science and art of elucidating Holy 
 Writ, and even textual and higher criti¬ 
 cism which deal with the integrity of the 
 text, its composition, date, authorship, etc. 
 
 The books of the Bible are not inherent¬ 
 ly obscure or abstruse. Candid and de¬ 
 vout readers find them quite intelligible 
 and satisfactory on all matters affecting 
 salvation or duty, but written in ancient 
 languages, using symbolical phraseology 
 to which the modern mind is a stranger; 
 addressed to individuals or communities 
 under peculiar conditions, treating of 
 usages long forgotten, and of races that 
 have passed away, drawn up, too, by 
 authors of widely divergent characteristics, 
 it becomes the task of exegesis to bring 
 out clearly the original import and intent 
 of these compositions, and to transfer their 
 meaning into the modes of thought and 
 forms of expression which prevail at the 
 present day. 
 
 Considerable diversity of theory and 
 practice has prevailed in this as in all 
 other departments of human thought. 
 Different theories of inspiration have 
 necessarily affected interpretation. Some 
 have regarded it proper to comprehend as 
 much as possible in the letter of the Scrip¬ 
 
 tures, and some have too much curtailed 
 its contents. Some have attached a two¬ 
 fold sense to the sacred text, the literal*' 
 and the spiritual; some a threefold, the 
 grammatical, the moral, and the mystical; 
 and some have held to a sevenfold or even 
 an infinite sense, no number of interpreta¬ 
 tions exhausting the significance of a 
 passage. Some have held all books and 
 all parts of equal value, and some have 
 taught just the opposite. Some have 
 magnified the difference between the Bible 
 and other books, and some have minimized 
 it. The Roman Catholics hold the past 
 teachings of the Church to be coordinate 
 with the canonical Scriptures, and allow 
 no interpretation in conflict with these; 
 while Protestants hold that the Scriptures 
 are the only fountain of truth, and allow 
 universal freedom of private judgment. 
 
 A great contrast is exhibited between the 
 sure word of prophecy and the human ex¬ 
 positions of it. There has been much 
 misinterpretation, and even scholars have 
 often carried things into the Scriptures 
 which they claimed to have derived from 
 them, perverting and darkening the divine 
 testimony by means of their exegesis. 
 
 The history of exegesis dates back to the 
 formation of a Canon, about the time of 
 Ezra. Its first form was that of oral com¬ 
 ments on the Mosaic law, applying it to 
 practical relations. The rabbinical inter¬ 
 pretation was almost wholly allegorical, 
 an arbitrary system carried to its greatest 
 length by Philo, who maintained a double 
 sense, one literal and simple, the other 
 figurative and spiritual. The Hellenist 
 Jews even attempted to reconcile by this 
 means the teachings of pagan philosophy 
 with Hebrew prophecy. 
 
 The Alexandrian Christian Fathers 
 adopted this allegorical method, seeking 
 everywhere a hidden sense. The school 
 of Antioch employed the more sober and 
 rational method, called the grammatico- 
 historical, which accepts the verbal sense 
 according to the ordinary conditions and 
 limitations of human speech. During the 
 Middle Ages philological studies were 
 neglected, and the Scriptures were inter¬ 
 preted either according to ecclesiastical 
 tradition or in the most arbitrary allegor¬ 
 ical fashion. The- revival of classical 
 studies and the Reformation combined to 
 give a fresh and powerful impulse to exe¬ 
 gesis; the former supplying the means for 
 determining the simple force of the letter, 
 the latter for directing its spiritual applica¬ 
 tion. The polemical interests which fol¬ 
 lowed called forth anew and developed 
 dogmatical interpretation, in which the 
 leading or distinctive doctrines of different 
 branches of the Church respectively con- 
 
Exe 
 
 ( 328 ) 
 
 Exe 
 
 trol the exposition of Holy Writ. With the 
 reaction against dogmatism in the eight¬ 
 eenth century, the grammatico-historic 
 method came again to the front, and since 
 then this field of theological science has 
 been cultivated by many of the most illus¬ 
 trious scholars of Germany and England. 
 
 Accepting the Bible as an inspired hu¬ 
 man record of a supernatural revelation, 
 recognizing, on the one hand, the law of 
 development in the successive books, and, 
 on the other, the principle that Scripture 
 itself is the interpreter of Scripture, it is un¬ 
 doubtedly indispensable to a correct under¬ 
 standing of it that the student primarily 
 and faithfully follow the laws of all human 
 composition, interpret according to the 
 rules of language, and consider the whole 
 historic situation under which a sacred 
 composition originated, including what is 
 called psychological exegesis—everything 
 that can be known of the author’s individ¬ 
 uality, mental attitude, experience, aim, 
 and whatever may, consciously or uncon¬ 
 sciously, have affected him when writing. 
 The interpreter must, so far as possible, 
 project himself into the mind and feelings 
 of the writer, must be capable of “ a spir¬ 
 itual, sympathetic insight.” Underneath 
 the outward form lies the truth of God. It 
 was written by men moved by the 
 Holy Ghost, and it is illogical to con¬ 
 clude that an adequate interpretation 
 of it is attainable without the influ¬ 
 ence of the same power. Upon the 
 ordinary gifts of scholarship must be 
 superinduced the help of God’s Spirit. 
 
 The greatest expositors of the Scrip¬ 
 tures are, undoubtedly, Chrysostom, 
 Jerome, Luther, Calvin, Calov, Beng- 
 el, Meyer, Ewald. 
 
 Literature. — Westcott : Introduc¬ 
 tion; Farrar: History of Interpreta¬ 
 tion; Immer: Hermeneutics; Weiss: 
 Introduction to the New Testament. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Exemption, a technical term in ec¬ 
 clesiastical law, denoting the trans¬ 
 ference of a person or institution 
 from the jurisdiction of the superior 
 nearest to them to that of one higher 
 or special. This law is illustrated in 
 the history of monastipism. Origi¬ 
 nally the monks were under the juris¬ 
 diction of the bishop, but in time 
 single monasteries and then entire 
 orders placed themselves immedi¬ 
 ately under the authority of the pope. 
 
 Many bishoprics are controlled direct¬ 
 ly by the pope, and not by the arch¬ 
 bishops, and some priests are exempt 
 from obedience to their immediate 
 superior. 
 
 Exercises, Spiritual, a term used by 
 Roman Catholics to denote certain exer¬ 
 cises in meditation and mortification, partly 
 as a penance, partly as a preparation for 
 the Lord’s Supper, ordination, etc. It is 
 practiced both by priests and laymen, gen¬ 
 erally under the direction of a confessor. 
 
 Exeter Cathedral. The Church of St. 
 Peter was founded at Exeter in 932, for the 
 Benedictine monks; but the monastery had 
 suffered much from the Danes in the tenth 
 and eleventh centuries. Leofric is said to 
 have been a great benefactor to his cathe¬ 
 dral, but of this Saxon church, which occu¬ 
 pied part of the site of the present cathe¬ 
 dral, no vestige remains. The “ chronicon ” 
 of the Church of Exeter assigns to William 
 Wavelwast, a nephew of the Conqueror, 
 who became bishop in 1107, the honor of 
 rebuilding the cathedral. Of that structure 
 we have remaining the north and south 
 towers, forming the transepts of the pres¬ 
 ent church, and some traces in the chapels 
 of St. Andrew and St. James, and in the 
 southeast door leading into the cloisters. 
 Wavelwast laid the foundation in 1112, but 
 it was not completed till 1206, in the epis¬ 
 copacy of Marshall. Six bishops occupied 
 this cathedral, and during the siege of 
 
 EXETER CATHEDRAL. 
 
Exi 
 
 ( 329 ) 
 
 Eze 
 
 Exeter by King Stephen, in 1136, it was 
 much damaged. 
 
 Bishop Bruere built the chapter-house 
 in the thirteenth century. To him are at¬ 
 tributed the unique misereres , probably the 
 earliest in the kingdom. Bishop Peter 
 Quivil (1280) began the transformation of 
 the Norman cathedral to the Decorated 
 style, and it was finished in the last year of 
 Bishop Grandisson (1369), leaving it, ex¬ 
 cept in a very few details, much as it 
 stands at present. In 1859 the nave was 
 fitted for public worship, and in 1870 a 
 complete restoration was commenced, un¬ 
 der the care of Sir Gilbert Scott. The in¬ 
 come of the see is ,£4,200. The cathedral 
 chapter consists of the dean, four canons 
 residentiary, three archdeacons, twenty- 
 four prebendaries, and four priest-vicars. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Exile. See Captivity. 
 
 Exodus, Book of. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Exodus of Israel. It is accepted by 
 scholars generally that the Pharaoh in the 
 time of the Exodus was Menephthah I., 
 the son of Rameses II., the Pharaoh of 
 the oppression, and the date of this great 
 event, b. C. 1317, on the 15th of the first 
 month, Abib or Nisan, our April. Where 
 the crossing took place is still a matter 
 under discussion. According to Arab 
 tradition the crossing was a few miles 
 south of Suez, where the sea is about ten 
 miles broad. This view, on account of 
 the many difficulties and objections that 
 can be raised, is little favored, and the 
 same is true of the theory of Brugsch that 
 makes the passage, not over the Red Sea 
 at all, but through the Serbonian bog, near 
 the Mediterranean. Two other theories 
 find most substantial arguments in their 
 favor: (1) That which places the crossing 
 at the head of the gulf, near or north of 
 Suez, where the channel is less than a mile 
 wide; (2) that which places it at Lake 
 Tinsah. There are geological proofs that 
 the sea has retreated, and it is quite pos¬ 
 sible that “ the tongue of the Egyptian 
 sea” may have formerly extended to the 
 lake. This view, its advocates think, is 
 confirmed by the recent discovery of 
 Pithom and Rameses, the treasure cities of 
 Egypt. Further explorations may decide 
 this disputed question. For the after-route 
 of Israel see Wilderness of the Wander¬ 
 ing. 
 
 Exorcism, the act of expelling evil spir¬ 
 its by the use of adjurations, accompanied 
 with certain ceremonies. In the records of 
 almost every nation we discover traces of 
 
 this custom. The New Testament gives 
 us incidents in which Christ, and after him 
 the apostles, cast out, or exorcised, evil 
 spirits. Very early in the history of the 
 Christian Church it was the custom to 
 pronounce a formula of exorcism over can¬ 
 didates for baptism. To pronounce an 
 adjuration in the name of Christ was con¬ 
 sidered of the utmost efficacy in expelling 
 evil spirits. Exorcists, as a class, are men¬ 
 tioned but once in the New Testament. 
 They appear to have been regarded as 
 possessing a special gift or power. In 
 later times they were reckoned among the 
 minor orders of clergy. The ancient rite 
 of exorcism at baptism is still retained in 
 the ritual of the Roman Church, and also 
 a form of service for the exorcising of pos¬ 
 sessed persons. 
 
 Expiation. See Atonement. 
 
 Extreme Unction (the rite of anointing 
 the dying with oil), one of the seven sacra¬ 
 ments of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The ceremony must be performed by a 
 priest, and the oil must be olive oil, conse¬ 
 crated by the bishop. The Greek Church 
 calls the sacrament Euchelaion. See 
 Euchelaion. 
 
 Eze'kiel, “ one of the four greater 
 prophets. He was the son of a priest 
 named Buzi. The Rabbis absurdly iden¬ 
 tify Buzi with Jeremiah. Another tradi¬ 
 tion makes Ezekiel the servant of Jeremiah. 
 Unlike his predecessor in the prophetic 
 office, who gives us the amplest details of 
 his personal history, Ezekiel rarely alludes 
 to the facts of his own life, and we have to 
 complete the imperfect picture by the col¬ 
 ors of late and dubious tradition. He was 
 taken captive in the captivit)^ of Jehoia- 
 chin, eleven years before the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. He was a member of a 
 community of Jewish exiles who settled 
 on the banks of the Cliebar, a ‘ river ’ or 
 stream of Babylonia. It was by this river, 
 ‘ in the land of the Chaldseans,’ that God’s 
 message first reached him (i. 3). His call 
 took place ‘ in the fifth year of King Jehoia- 
 chin’s captivity,’ B. C. 595 (i. 2), ‘ in the 
 thirtieth year, in the fourth month.’ The 
 latter expression is very uncertain. It now 
 seems generally agreed that it was the 
 thirtieth year from the new era of Nab- 
 opolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, who 
 began to reign b. c. 625. The use of thks 
 Chaldee epoch is the more appropriate as 
 the prophet wrote in Babylonia, and he 
 gives a Jewish chronology in ver. 2. The 
 decision of the question is the less impor¬ 
 tant, because in all other places Ezekiel 
 dates from the year of Jehoiachin’s cap- 
 
Eze 
 
 ( 330 ) 
 
 Ezr 
 
 tivity (xxix. 17; xxx. 20, et passim). We 
 learn from an incidental allusion (xxiv. 18) 
 — the only reference which he makes to 
 his personal history—that he was married, 
 and had a house (viii. 1) in his place of 
 exile, and lost his wife by a sudden and 
 unforeseen stroke. He lived in the high¬ 
 est consideration among his companions in 
 exile, and their elders consulted him on all 
 occasions (viii. 1; xi. 25; xiv. 1; xx. 1, 
 etc.). The last date he mentions is the 
 twenty-seventh year of the captivity (xxix. 
 17), so that his mission extended over 
 twenty-two years, during part of which 
 period Daniel was probably living, and 
 already famous. (Ezek. xiv. 14; xxviii. 3.) 
 He is said to have been murdered in Baby¬ 
 lon by some Jewish prince whom he had 
 convicted of idolatry, and to have been 
 buried in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad, 
 on the banks of the Euphrates. The tomb, 
 said to have been built by Jehoiachin, was 
 shown a few days’ journey from Bagdad. 
 But, as Havernick remarks, ‘ by the side 
 of the scattered data of his external life, 
 those of his internal life appear so much 
 the richer.’ He was distinguished by his 
 stern and inflexible energy of will and char¬ 
 acter; and we also observe a devoted ad¬ 
 herence to the rites and ceremonies of his 
 national religion. Ezekiel is no cosmopo¬ 
 lite, but displays everywhere the peculiar 
 tendencies of a Hebrew educated under 
 Levitical training. The priestly bias is 
 always visible. We may also note in Eze¬ 
 kiel the absorbing recognition of his high 
 calling, which enabled him cheerfully to 
 endure any deprivation or misery, if there 
 by he might give any warning or lesson to 
 his people (iv.; xxix. 15, 16, etc.), whom he 
 so ardently loved (ix. 8; xi. 13). His pre¬ 
 dictions are marvellously varied. He has 
 instances of visions (viii.-xi), symbolical 
 actions (as iv. 8), similitudes (xii., xv), 
 parables (as xvii.), proverbs (as xii. 22; 
 xviii. 1 sq.), poems (as xix.), allegories (as 
 xxiii., xxiv.), open prophecies (as vi., vii., 
 xx., etc.). The depth of his matter , and 
 the marvellous nature of his visions, make 
 him occasionally obscure. Hence, his 
 prophecy was placed by the Jews among 
 the ‘ treasures,’ those portions of Script¬ 
 ure which (like the early part of Genesis 
 and the Canticles) were not allowed to be 
 read till the age of thirty. The Jews class¬ 
 ed him in the very highest rank of proph¬ 
 ets. Of the authenticity of Ezekiel’s 
 prophecy there has been no real dispute, 
 although a few rash critics have raised 
 questions about the last chapters, even 
 suggesting that they might have been writ¬ 
 ten by a Samaritan, to incite the Jews to 
 suffer the cooperation in rebuilding the 
 Temple. The book is divided into two 
 
 great parts—of which the destruction of 
 Jerusalem is the turning-point; chapters 
 i.-xxiv. contain predictions delivered be¬ 
 fore that event, and xxv.-xlviii. after it, as 
 we see from xxvi. 2. Again, chapters 
 i.-xxxii. are mainly occupied with cor¬ 
 rection, denunciation, and reproof, while 
 the remainder deal chiefly in consolation 
 and promise. A parenthetical section in 
 the middle of the book (xxv.-xxxii.) con¬ 
 tains a group of prophecies against seven 
 foreign nations, the septenary arrange* 
 ment being apparently intentional. Haver¬ 
 nick divides the book into nine sections, 
 distinguished by their superscriptions, as 
 follows: I. Ezekiel’s call, i.-iii. 15. II. 
 The general carrying out of the commis¬ 
 sion, iii. 16-vii. III. The rejection of the 
 people because of their idolatrous worship; 
 viii.-xi. IV. The sins of the age rebukeq 
 in detail, xii.-xix. V. The nature of the' 
 judgment, and the guilt which caused it, 
 xx.-xxiii. VI. The meaning of the now 
 commencing punishment, xxiv. VII. God’s 
 judgment denounced on seven heathen 
 nations, xxv.-xxxii. VIII. Prophecies, 
 after the destruction of Jerusalem, con- 
 cerning the future condition of Israel, 
 xxxiii.-xxxix. IX. The glorious consum¬ 
 mation, xl.-xlviii. There are no direct 
 quotations from Ezekiel in the New Tes¬ 
 tament, but in the Apocalypse there are 
 many parallels and obvious allusions to* 
 the later chapters (xl.-xlviii).” — Smith:: 
 Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 E'zion-Ga'ber, or Ge'ber {giant's back¬ 
 bone ), a city on the Red Sea, near Elath. 
 It was the last station of Israel before 
 entering the wilderness of Zin. (Num. 
 xxxiii. 35; Deut. ii. 8.) Solomon had. a 
 naval station here (1 Kings ix. 26 ; 2 
 Chron. viii. 17), and also Jehoshaphat. 
 (1 Kings, xxii. 48.) Its site remains un¬ 
 known. 
 
 Ezra. “ Ezra was the son of Seraiah, and 
 was probably born at Babylon. He was a 
 ‘ Scribe ’ (Ezra vii. 6), who went up to Je¬ 
 rusalem with the second body of return¬ 
 ed captives. He speaks of himself as the 
 author of the book which bears his name 
 (vii. 27, 28; viii. 1, etc.). It consists of 
 two portions, with a considerable interval 
 between the two. The first gives the re¬ 
 turn of the captives in the time of Cyrus 
 (b. C. 536), and the rebuilding of the Tem¬ 
 ple, interrupted by the Samaritans, but 
 renewed at the preaching of Haggai and 
 Zechariah. Some portions of this book are 
 in Chaldee. The second part relates the 
 second immigration of exiles in the reign 
 of Artaxerxes Longimanus (b. c. 457 ). 
 with Ezra himself, and his reformation of 
 
 
Fab 
 
 ( 33i ) 
 
 Fai 
 
 the people. The whole period extends 
 over seventy-nine years (from 536 to 457).” 
 —“ Oxford ” Bible Helps. 
 
 K. 
 
 Faber, Frederick William, D. D.; b. 
 at Calverly, Eng., June 28, 1814. He was 
 educated at Oxford, and there came under 
 the influence of John Henry Newman. He 
 was ordained priest in the Church of Eng¬ 
 land in 1839. After traveling in Europe for 
 four years he became rector of Elton. In 
 1845 he united with the Roman Catholic 
 Church, toward which his sympathies had 
 turned for some time. He founded a relig¬ 
 ious society in Birmingham, and in 1849 
 was placed at the head of the Oratory of St. 
 Philip Neri, in London, where he remained 
 until his death, Sept. 26, 1863. He was a 
 prolific writer on religious subjects, but 
 his fame rests upon his beautiful hymns, 
 some of which have been adopted by the 
 Church Universal. The final edition of 
 the author, which appeared in 1861, con¬ 
 tained 150 hymns. Among the best known 
 are: “ O Gift of Gifts, O Grace of Faith;” 
 “ Hark, Hark, my Soul;” “O Paradise, O 
 Paradise.” Faber was a prolific writer of 
 prose works that are now of little value. 
 See Life and Letters , by J. E. Bowden 
 (Lond., 1869). 
 
 Fabian, pope (236-250). According to a 
 tradition, given by Eusebius, he chanced 
 to be present when the election was made 
 after the death of Anteros, and was unani¬ 
 mously chosen because a dove came down 
 from heaven and rested upon his head. 
 Little is known of his reign. 
 
 Fairbairn, Andrew Martin, D. D. (Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1878; Yale, 1889), Congregational- 
 ist; b. near Edinburgh, Nov. 4, 1838 ; 
 studied at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ber¬ 
 lin (under Dorner, 1866-67); became pastor 
 at Bathgate, Scotland, 1861; at Aberdeen, 
 1872; principal of Airdale (Congregational 
 Theological) College, Bradford,Eng.,1877, 
 and of Mansfield College, Oxford, 1886. 
 He is the author of: Studies in the Philos¬ 
 ophy of Religion and History (London, 1876); 
 Studies in the Life of Christ (1880, 5th ed., 
 1885); The City, of God (1883, 2d ed., 1885); 
 Religion in History and in Life of To-day 
 (1884, 2d ed., 1885). 
 
 Fairbairn, Patrick, D. D., an eminent 
 Scotch theologian and writer; b. at Hally- 
 burton, Berwickshire, Scotland, Jan. 28, 
 1805; d. at Glasgow, Aug. 6, 1874. After 
 a long pastoral experience he was elected 
 (1853) professor of theology in the Theo¬ 
 logical College at Aberdeen, and in 1856 
 
 became principal and professor of system¬ 
 atic theology and New Testament exege 
 sis in the Free Church Theological College 
 at Glasgow. Principal Fairbairn was a 
 leading spirit in the organization of the 
 Free Church. He was a member of the 
 Old Testament Revision Company. He 
 wrote: The Typology of Scripture (Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1845-47, 2 vols., 6th ed., 1880); 
 Ezekiel: Exposition , with New Translation 
 (1851); Prophecy (1856, 2d ed., 1866); The 
 Pastoral Epistles of St. Paul (1874); Pas¬ 
 toral Theology (1875, posthumous). For 
 biographical sketch see his Pastoral Theol¬ 
 ogy. He edited The Imperial Bible Dic¬ 
 tionary (Lond., 1867, 2 vols., 4th ed., 1876). 
 
 Faith. The primary signification of this 
 word is “ trust.” It is defined as follows 
 by Dr. Henry B. Smith ( System of Chris¬ 
 tian Theology , pp. 540, 541) : “ (a) In a 
 loose popular sense. Faith is belief in any 
 truth on any ground, (b) In a general and 
 somewhat abstract sense, it is belief in 
 what is beyond the sphere of the senses. 
 
 (c) It is belief, on the ground of testimony,, 
 in what we have not ourselves seen or 
 known—belief on the ground of authority. 
 
 (d) More particularly, in a general script¬ 
 
 ural usage, Faith is trusting in God’s testi¬ 
 mony—receiving all that God has revealed 
 to us. Roman Catholics say, ‘ It is belief 
 in God’s testimony, as witnessed by the 
 Church.’ It merits grace, of congruity, 
 through the sacraments; being * formed* 
 by love, it is directly meritorious, and ac¬ 
 cumulates merits, (e) The special sense 
 of Faith, the sense in which it is used in 
 the doctrine of justification (among Prot¬ 
 estants) is, the receiving, resting in, and 
 trusting upon Christ. Not mere abstract 
 truth, but Christ is its object. It is not 
 merely relying upon what God has testified 
 in regard to all truth, but trusting in and 
 receiving Christ as our Saviour—relying- 
 upon him. As such, (1) It is an act of the 
 whole soul—not of the intellect, nor will, 
 nor sensibilities alone, but of all combined. 
 The whole soul goes out in the act of faith 
 in Christ. Faith is one of the most con¬ 
 crete of acts, yet in direct consciousness is 
 an act perfectly simple. (2) It includes in 
 germ all other graces. It does this because 
 it is an energy of the whole mind: ‘ work- 
 eth by love.’ (Gal. v. 6.) It involves re¬ 
 pentance—‘ Show faith by works.’ (James 
 ii. 18.) (3) It is itself a holy act, involv¬ 
 
 ing trust and love, yet it is not as holy that 
 it is the means of justification, but as being 
 the act in which we receive Christ. (4) 
 Thus it is properly called the instrumental 
 cause of justification. The meritorious 
 ground is Christ. Faith is not the highest 
 of the virtues, but love is. Justification 
 
Fai 
 
 ( 332 ) 
 
 Fam 
 
 is not without works, yet not by works; 
 not without love, yet not by love; not 
 without assent, yet not as though the as¬ 
 sent were meritorious.” 
 
 “ The object of Faith,” says Schoberlein 
 (Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., vol. i., p. 796), ‘ ‘ can¬ 
 not be seen by the eyes, nor can it be. 
 grasped by the understanding; it belongs 
 to the realm of the invisible, the spiritual, 
 the divine. (Heb. xi. 1, 6; 1 Pet. i. 8; 2 
 Cor. v. 16; John xx. 29.) But this invis¬ 
 ible, spiritual, divine, is not something 
 unknowable; it proves itself to the inner 
 man. The absolute object of faith is the 
 revelation of God to mankind, originating 
 in his love, and making his holiness man¬ 
 ifest; and the centre of this revelation, the 
 true fulfilment in relation to which all 
 preceding preparations are only accommo¬ 
 dations to the susceptibility of the race 
 (Luke xxiv. 25, 26; Heb. i.), is the incarna¬ 
 tion of God in Christ. Faith, in the abso¬ 
 lute sense of the word, is, therefore, a per¬ 
 sonal and spiritual union with Christ, 
 through which we become one with him, 
 as he is one with the Father. This union 
 with Christ man cannot accomplish by his 
 own efforts; God himself must awaken the 
 new life in his soul. (John vi. 29; 1 Cor. 
 ii. 5.) It is the Holy Spirit who works the 
 faith in the heart; and the means by which 
 he does this is the preaching of the Word 
 of God, the preaching of the grace of Christ. 
 (Rom. x. 17; 1 Cor. i. 21.) But the soul 
 can prepare itself for the coming of the 
 new life by abandoning all confidence in 
 itself and in the world, and by breaking all 
 the selfish instincts under which it labors; 
 and when, by repentance, it has made itself 
 a fit receptacle for the work of the Holy 
 Spirit, that movement of the heart will fol¬ 
 low which is the faith—the faith by which 
 sins are forgiven (Acts xxvi. 18), and man 
 is made just before God. (Rom. iii. 26; 
 v. 1; Gal. iii. 24.)” 
 
 Faith, Articles of. See Creed. 
 
 Faith, Confession of. See Creed. 
 
 Faith, Rule of. See Regula Fidei. 
 
 Fakir (Arabic , poor man), the name given 
 a class of Hindoo mendicants. They have 
 existed in India from a very early period, 
 and now number some two millions. They 
 seek to excite pity by self-inflicted tor¬ 
 tures, and, in times past, have proved a 
 dangerous element in society by their mad 
 fanaticism. The English government has 
 put a stop to some of their worst prac¬ 
 tices, but they are still dreaded, if not re¬ 
 spected, by the people. They seek the 
 reoutation of “ saints,” but it is doubtful 
 
 if there is any religious sentiment in their 
 action. 
 
 Fal'ashas {exiles), an industrious and 
 peaceable people, numbering not far from 
 one hundred and fifty thousand, living in 
 Abyssinia. They are probably descend¬ 
 ants of proselytes to Judaism, and their re¬ 
 ligious beliefs and practices are a mixture 
 of Judaism and Paganism. There is evi¬ 
 dence that they were early converted to 
 Judaism. They practice circumcision, 
 fast every Monday and Thursday, and also 
 every new moon and on the passover. 
 They keep the Sabbath with such outward 
 strictness that they will not even put on 
 their clothes that day. They keep most 
 of the Jewish festivals, but join with them 
 many rites that are Pagan. Every newly 
 built house must be sprinkled with the 
 blood of sheep or fowl before it is habi¬ 
 table, and,a woman guilty of unchastity has 
 to undergo purification by leaping into a 
 flaming fire. Monasticism exists among 
 them, and their priests are not permitted 
 to marry a second time. No one can be¬ 
 come a priest whose father or grandfather 
 has eaten bread with a Christian. They 
 believe that the souls of the dead dwell in 
 a place of darkness until the third day. 
 Prayers are offered for the dead, and they 
 are formally lamented for seven days. 
 They now number about 100,000. 
 
 Fall of Man. See Sin. 
 
 False Decretals. See Canon Law. 
 
 Familiar Spirits (from the Latin farnil- 
 iaris, a household servant). These spirits 
 were believed to be at the service of the 
 necromancers, by which they divined and 
 wrought their spells. (Lev. xx. 27; Deut. 
 xviii. 11; 1 Sam. xxviii. 7, 8, and other 
 places.) 
 
 Familiars of the Inquisition, the name of 
 the officers who arrested suspected per¬ 
 sons. They were often men of rank, and 
 the name was given because they were 
 connected with the inquisitor’s family. 
 They were granted special spiritual priv¬ 
 ileges. See Inquisition. 
 
 Familists, or “ Family of Love,” a sect 
 which arose in the Netherlands in the mid¬ 
 dle of the sixteenth century. It was found¬ 
 ed by an Anabaptist, named Henry Nich¬ 
 olas, a native of Amsterdam, who had be¬ 
 come implicated in the insurrections, and 
 fled to Emden in 1533. From thence he 
 came to England during the reign of Ed¬ 
 ward VI., and in 1555 he started this sect. 
 Their tenets were that there is no true 
 
Fan 
 
 ( 333 ) 
 
 Fas 
 
 — 
 
 knowledge of Christ except in their com¬ 
 munity, and that as Moses is the prophet 
 of hope, and Christ the prophet of faith, 
 so is Henry Nicholas the prophet of love. 
 They were extreme Antinomians, and im¬ 
 morality was very common among them. 
 This sect is often confused with that of 
 David Joris (Joris, David), who was a 
 Dutch Anabaptist, with whom Nicholas 
 was intimate. The sect was at first pop¬ 
 ular in England, but they soon began to be 
 considered dangerous, both to civil order 
 and to morality and religion, so in 1560 
 Queen Elizabeth ordered an investigation 
 into the matter, which resulted in the proc¬ 
 lamation issued “against the sectaries of 
 the Family of Love.” Severe measures 
 were also taken against them under James 
 I., and the sect disappeared.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religiori. See John Rogers: The 
 Displaying of a horrible Sect naming them¬ 
 selves the Family of Love (London, 1579). 
 
 Fanaticism, Fanatics (Lat. fanum, tem¬ 
 ple). A fanatic was originally one who 
 spent his time in assisting in the services 
 of the temples, so as to cut himself off from 
 all worldly employments. The name is 
 now applied to one whose zeal in religious 
 matters is allowed to outrun his judgment, 
 and who works himself into a state of ex¬ 
 citement, which'he believes will be pleasing 
 to God. As a rule, fanaticism is a kind of 
 monomania, produced by a diseased imag¬ 
 ination. In ancient times the diviners of 
 oracles were known as fanatics.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Farel, Guillaume, reformer; b. at Far- 
 eaux, near Gap, in Dauphiny, 1489; d. at 
 Neuchatel, Sept. 13, 1565. He studied in 
 Paris, and while teaching there avowed 
 Lutheran views and went to Metz (1521), 
 and remained there until persecution com¬ 
 pelled him to seek refuge in Basel (1523), 
 where he gained the friendship of QEcolam- 
 padius. Through the efforts of Erasmus, 
 whom he had compared to Balaam, he was 
 driven from Basel, and for the next eight 
 years preached through southeast France 
 and the west of Switzerland. In 1532 he 
 began the work in Geneva which intro¬ 
 duced the Reformation into that city. 
 Through his efforts Calvin stopped at 
 Geneva in 1536. After they were driven 
 from the city, in 1538, Farel lived for the 
 most part at Neuchatel and Metz. Impet¬ 
 uous and often rash in action, he was elo¬ 
 quent and efficient in establishing the re¬ 
 formed faith in France and Switzerland. 
 There is no collected edition of his works. 
 
 Farmer, Hugh, a learned Dissenting 
 minister; b. near Shrewsbury, Eng., 1714; 
 
 d. at Walthamstow, Essex, Feb. 6, 1787. 
 He was pastor at Walthamstow for forty 
 years, and in the latter part of his life 
 preached and lectured in London. His 
 principal works are treatises on (1) Our 
 Lord's Temptation (1761), in which he con¬ 
 tended that it was real and subjective; (2) 
 on the New Testament Demoniacs (1775), 
 holding that they were persons suffering 
 from mental and physical diseases; (3) on 
 Miracles (1771). See his Life by Dobson, 
 (London, 1805). 
 
 Farnovians, the followers of Stanislaus 
 Farnovius, or Farnowski (d. 1615), a Pole 
 who studied at Heidelberg, and became 
 the leader of a Unitarian party that united 
 with the Socinians not long after his death. 
 
 Farrar, Venerable Frederick William, 
 D. D. (Cambridge, 1873), F. R. S., Church 
 of England; b. in Bombay, India, Aug. 7, 
 1831; B. A., Cambridge, 1854; elected fel¬ 
 low of Trinity College; became assistant 
 master in Harrow School, 1854; head¬ 
 master of Marlborough College, 1871; rec¬ 
 tor of St. Margaret’s, Westminster, Lon¬ 
 don, and canon, 1876; archdeacon, 1883. 
 He is the author of: Seekers after God (Lon¬ 
 don, 1869, 2d ed., 1877); L'he Witness of 
 History to Christ (1871, 3d ed., 1875) ; The 
 Life of Christ 2 vols., 38th ed., 1880); 
 Eternal Hope (1878, 12th ed., same year); 
 L'he Life and Work of St. Paul (1879,2 vols., 
 
 18th thousand, 1881); Mercy and fudg- 
 ment: Last Words on Christian Eschatology 
 (1881, 2d ed., 1882); Early Days of Chris¬ 
 tianity (1882, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1884); Messages 
 of the Books: Discourses and Notes on the 
 New Testament (1884) ; The History of 
 Interpretation (Bampton lectures, 1886); 
 Every-day Christian Life (sermons, 1887); 
 Solomon: His Life and Times (1887); Lives 
 of the Fathers (London and N. Y., 1889, 2 
 vols.); Epistle to the Hebrews (1889); The 
 Gospel According to St. Luke (1890). 
 
 Farthing. See Money. 
 
 Fasting. Among the Hebrews there 
 was but one divinely appointed public fast 
 —that of the day of Atonement. (Lev. xvi. 
 29; xxiii. 27; Num. xxix. 7.) Days of pub¬ 
 lic fasting were, however, frequently pro¬ 
 claimed in times of national calamity, and 
 when there was special call for the confes¬ 
 sion of national sins. (Judg. xx. 26; 1 Sam. 
 vii. 6 ; 1 Kings xxi. 27 ; 2 Chron. xx. 3.) 
 At the time of the Babylonish captivity 
 four other fasts were instituted, to which 
 has been added the fast of Esther. (Esther 
 iv. 16.) At present the Jewish calendar 
 contains twenty-two fast days, in addition 
 to the six mentioned. It was their custom, 
 
Fas 
 
 ( 334 ) 
 
 Fel 
 
 also, to fast on Monday and Thursday of 
 each week, for the reason that, according 
 to tradition, Moses received the tables of 
 the law on Mount Sinai on Thursday, and 
 came down on Monday. The Jews, when 
 they fast at present on the day of Atone¬ 
 ment, wear a white shroud and cap, and 
 the fast is called “the white fast.” On 
 other days black is worn, and they are 
 called “ black fasts.” 
 
 Fasting in the Christian Church. The 
 practice of fasting is of early date. (Acts 
 xiii. 2; xiv. 23; xxvii. 9; 2 Cor. vi. 5.) In 
 the Roman and Greek Churches fasting is 
 observed with great strictness. The mem¬ 
 bers of the Roman Church in the United 
 States observe as fasting days every day 
 in Lent except Sunday, the Ember days, 
 the vigils of Pentecost, Assumption, All 
 Saints, and Christmas. In the Protestant 
 churches fasting is not obligatory, but is 
 recommended as a Christian duty. 
 
 Fatalism, the doctrine of irresistible 
 necessity, not as the result of the inevi¬ 
 table laws of the Creator, but as the result 
 of his arbitrary power. While it bears a 
 strong likeness to the extreme views of 
 predestination held by some Calvinists, it 
 reaches its complete expression in the 
 calm submissiveness which marks the fa¬ 
 naticism of Mohammedanism. 
 
 Fathers of the Church, certain early 
 writers of the Christian Church, although 
 the term is applied to the patriarchs, to the 
 rabbins, and to other distinguished and 
 venerable men. For the Latin Church the 
 line of the fathers closes with Gregory I. 
 (d. 604); for the Greek Church, with John 
 of Damascus (d. 754). Protestants do not 
 accept the authority of any writer out of 
 the sacred canon as final in matters of doc¬ 
 trine and discipline. The High-Church 
 party of the Church of England give great 
 prominence to the authority and views of 
 the orthodox up to and including the 
 Nicene period. 
 
 Fausset, Andrew Robert, Church of 
 England; b. at Silverhill, County Ferma¬ 
 nagh, Ireland, Oct. 13, 1821; was graduated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin, 1843; became 
 rector of St. Cuthbert, York, Eng., 1859. 
 Among his publications are a translation 
 of BengeFs Gnomon (Edinburgh, 1857), 5 
 vols., and of Vinet's Homiletics (London, 
 1858); Vols. iii., iv., and vi. of a Critical , 
 Experimental , and Practical Commentary 
 (with Jamieson and Brown, 1868); Horce 
 Psalmicce (1877, 2( J ed. 1885); The Eng¬ 
 lishman's Critical and Expository Bible 
 Cyclopcedia (1879, 2d ed., 1887); Exposi¬ 
 
 tory Commentary on the Book of Judges 
 
 Feast of Asses, a festival of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, which was kept at Rouen 
 and other cities in France, to commemorate 
 the flight into Egypt. A young woman, 
 riding on an ass, with a child in her arms, 
 was conducted to the church, and followed 
 by the bishop and clergy. A sermon was 
 preached, and a ludicrous hymn in praise 
 of the ass was sung. The festival, with 
 others of a similar character, was finally 
 suppressed in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Feast of Fools, a festival celebrated in 
 many countries during the Middle Ages. 
 The young people played the chief parts, 
 choosing one of their number to act the part 
 of bishop or archbishop of fools, as he 
 was called. They were permitted to make 
 a mock of the most sacred services, and 
 often engaged in indecent songs and dances. 
 
 Feasts. See Festivals. 
 
 Featly, Daniel, D. D., b. at Charlton, 
 Oxfordshire, March 15, 1582; d. at Chel¬ 
 sea, April 17, 1645. He became rector, 
 first of Lambeth, then of Acton. He was 
 a member of the Assembly of Divines in 
 1643, and was the last Episcopal member 
 who remained in it. He wrote The Dip¬ 
 pers dipt: or, the Anabaptists duckt and 
 plunged over head and ears at a Disputation 
 in Southwark; Mystica Clavis (5th ed., 
 1648), a set of sermons on hard texts; a 
 work on Private Devotion (8th ed., 1676). 
 
 Federal Theology. See Cocceius. 
 
 Felicitas, St., a Roman lady of high 
 rank, a widow, who was martyred, with 
 her seven sons, at Rome, under Marcus 
 Aurelius. She is commemorated July 10. 
 
 Felix, Antonius, a Roman procurator of 
 Judaea in the reign of Claudius (51-62 a. d. ). 
 A slave by birth, he is said to have been 
 set free by the mother of the emperor. 
 Corrupt and cruel, his administration of 
 affairs in Judaea was marked by many law¬ 
 less acts. The apostle Paul, after his ar¬ 
 rest at Jerusalem, was sent to Caesarea, to 
 be judged by Felix, before whom he so 
 reasoned of righteousness, temperance, 
 and judgment to come, that he trembled. 
 For two years he kept Paul in prison, in 
 the expectation that a bribe would be offer¬ 
 ed for his liberty; and when Felix was 
 succeeded by Festus, he left his prisoner 
 bound, thinking it would please the peo¬ 
 ple. Accusations for the misuse of his 
 office were brought against him by prom- 
 
Fel 
 
 ( 335 ) 
 
 Fer 
 
 inent Jews of Caesarea, but through the 
 intercession of his brother, Pallas, he es- 
 caped unpunished. 
 
 Felix is the name of five popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Fencing the Tables, a term given by 
 Scotch Presbyterians to the address made 
 just before the celebration of the Lord’s 
 Supper, that designates the character of 
 those who are permitted to partake of the 
 sacrament. 
 
 Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de 
 La Mothe, one of the most eminent and 
 devout of French divines; b. at the castle 
 of Fenelon, in Perigord, Aug. 6, 1651; d. 
 Jan. 7, 1715, at Cambrey. A brilliant stu¬ 
 dent in youth, and early destined for the 
 ministry, he completed his studies at the 
 seminary of St. Sulpice and took orders in 
 1675. Giving up plans that looked toward 
 a missionary life, he accepted the office of 
 superior of an institution in Paris for the 
 protection and instruction of women con¬ 
 verted from Protestantism. In this posi¬ 
 tion he spent ten years (1675-85) in labor 
 that gave him opportunity for study and 
 writing, and brought him into close rela¬ 
 tion with a circle of choice spirits. It was 
 here that he prepared his well-known work 
 on De FEducation des Filles. In 1685, 
 through the influence of his intimate friend, 
 the great pulpit orator, Bossuet, Fenelon 
 was sent to Poitou, in 1685, to convert the 
 Protestants. He entered upon this work 
 under the condition that the military es¬ 
 cort should be withdrawn and he given the 
 privilege of choosing those who should la¬ 
 bor with him. His mission was attended 
 with some success, but in 1689 he was ap¬ 
 pointed tutor to the heir-apparent, the 
 young Duke of Burgundy, a task which he 
 performed with great faithfulness and 
 ability. The principles on which this mas¬ 
 ter-teacher planned the details of this ser¬ 
 vice are given in his Tele’maque and other 
 writings. During these years the system 
 of religious mysticism promulgated by 
 Molinos near the close of the seventeenth 
 century found, among others, an ardent 
 advocate in Madame Guyon, one of the 
 most remarkable women of her age. Her 
 writings attracted wide attention, and 
 brought her under ecclesiastical censure. 
 The king, as well as the archbishop of 
 Paris and Bossuet, opposed her. Fenelon, 
 to some extent, sympathized with Madame 
 Guyon. In 1695 he was made archbishop 
 of Cambrey, but in time great bitterness of 
 feeling was stirred up against him by Bos¬ 
 suet and other former friends, because of 
 ffiis attitude toward Madame Guyon and 
 
 her doctrines. He was finally banished 
 from court and condemned at Rome (1699). 
 Accepting the papal decision, the remain¬ 
 der of his life was spent quietly in his dio¬ 
 cese of Cambrey. By works of charity 
 and good-will he won the hearts of Prot¬ 
 estants as well as those of his own commu¬ 
 nion. He was known by all as “ the good 
 archbishop,” and his influence through 
 an extensive correspondence was extended 
 far beyond the bounds of his see. The 
 rare beauty of his character, and the ten¬ 
 der devotion that marked his personal life 
 and found exquisite expression in his 
 writings, has made his memory fragrant to 
 Christians of every name. Among his 
 works that have been translated are: Tele- 
 ?nachus (new ed., London, 1883); Education 
 of a Daughter; Counsels to those Living in the 
 World; Spiritual Letters to Men; Spiritual 
 Letters to Women; Spiritual Progress : or , 
 Lnstructions in the Divine Life in the Soul; 
 Existence of God. See his Life , by H. L. 
 Lear (London, 1876, 3d ed., 1884). 
 
 Fergusson, David, one of the early 
 Scotch reformers; d. in 1598. From 1560 
 he was appointed by the Parliament min¬ 
 ister at Dunfermline, the seat of a royal 
 palace. He here preached the reformed 
 faith at great personal sacrifice. He be¬ 
 came prominent as an ecclesiastical leader, 
 and had great influence over the king. 
 Fergusson published two tracts in his life¬ 
 time, on controversial subjects, which met 
 the hearty approval of John Knox. 
 
 Ferrar, Nicholas, a clergyman of the 
 Church of England: b. in London, Feb. 22, 
 1592; d. Dec. 2, 1637. He was ordained 
 deacon by Laud, while bishop of St. Da¬ 
 vids, in 1626, but never proceeded to 
 priest’s orders. “ His life was one of de¬ 
 vout asceticism, and he devoted his means, 
 which were ample, to pious uses. His 
 house was like a monastery, in which he 
 scrupulously observed the hours, sleeping 
 on the floor, and rising atone in the morn¬ 
 ing. He provided a free school in his 
 neighborhood, and regularly taught in it.” 
 See his Life , by his brother and Dr. Jebb 
 (Cambridge, 1855). 
 
 Ferrara-Florence, Council of. The op¬ 
 position of the Council of Basle to the pope 
 and curia led to a breach. At the sug¬ 
 gestion of the pope (Eugenius IV.) the 
 papal minority left Basle and met at Fer¬ 
 rara, Jan. 8, 1438. In March, a large del¬ 
 egation came from the Eastern Church to 
 discuss the project of union. The princi¬ 
 pal subjects of debate were, the procession 
 of the Holy Spirit ( Filioque ), the dogma 
 of purgatory, etc. Little progress was 
 
Fer 
 
 ( 336 ) 
 
 Fic 
 
 made toward union. The Eastern del¬ 
 egates were guests of the pope, and, as he 
 had no money, he appealed to the bankers 
 of Florence. They demanded that the 
 council should be transferred to Florence. 
 Some of the Eastern members returned 
 home, but the council was opened at Flor¬ 
 ence in Feb., 1439, an d in July of that year 
 an act of union was signed by thirty-three 
 Greek and a hundred and fifteen Latin dig¬ 
 nitaries. The union thus accomplished did 
 not meet general approval, and amounted 
 to nothing. Several of the Greek eccle¬ 
 siastics who signed the act were punished, 
 and in 1472 the Greeks formally renounced 
 the union. See Milman: Latin Christian¬ 
 ity, vol. viii., pp. 14-48. 
 
 Ferrara, Renata, the daughter of Louis 
 XII. of France, and wife of Hercules of 
 Este, Duke of Ferrara; b. 1510; d. 1575. 
 Through the influence of Margaret of Na¬ 
 varre she accepted evangelical views of 
 truth. Her literary acquirements attract¬ 
 ed wide attention in Italy, but she was 
 true to her religious convictions, and in 
 the face of bitter opposition received into 
 the palace Calvin and other evangelical 
 ministers. After the death of her husband 
 she returned to France, where she made 
 profession of the Reformed faith. 
 
 Ferris, Isaac, D. D., LL. D., b. in New 
 York, Oct. 3, 1799; d. at Roselle, N. J., 
 June 16, 1873. After graduating from 
 Columbia College in 1816, he was pastor 
 of Reformed Dutch churches: New Bruns¬ 
 wick, N. J., 1821-24; Albany, 1824-36; 
 New York (Market Street), 1836-54. From 
 1852-70 he was Chancellor of the New York 
 University. He did much to increase the 
 prosperity of the University, and in all the 
 positions which he held as pastor, preacher, 
 and professor, he was highly esteemed. 
 He delivered the address at the jubilee of 
 the American Bible Society in 1866. 
 
 Festivals of the Jews. The festivals of 
 the Jews, instituted before the exile, are: 
 (1) The Seventh Day, or the Sabbath; (2) 
 The Feast of Trumpets, or New Year; 
 (3) The Day of Atonement; (4) The Feast 
 of Tabernacles, and the Feast of Pentecost. 
 In addition to these, each seventh year 
 was observed as sabbatical; and after seven 
 times seven years the Feast of Jubilee was 
 observed. (Ex. xxiii. 10-17; Lev. xxii. 25; 
 Num. xxviii. 29; Deut. xvi.) 
 
 After the exile other festivals were 
 added to those instituted by Moses. Zech- 
 ariah mentions the Feast of Esther, or 
 Purim; that of the Dedication of the Tem¬ 
 ple on its restoration by Judas the Macca- 
 bee, and that of Wood-offering, at which 
 
 offerings of wood were brought for the use 
 of the Temple. 
 
 Fetichism (from the Portuguese fetisso, 
 feiti^o, magic, charm) denotes the worship 
 rendered to objects of nature or art, an¬ 
 imate or inanimate. In the eyes of the 
 savage people where this superstition pre¬ 
 vails, anything to which magical power 
 is ascribed may be a fetish. A pebble, a 
 piece of wood, or a plant may become the 
 idol. If it does not favor his wishes, the 
 worshiper often punishes the fetish, if it 
 is an animate object, and destroys it if it is 
 an inanimate object. This form of religion 
 was first discovered by the Portuguese 
 among the negroes of West Africa. It has 
 since been found to exist among savages 
 in America, Australia, and Siberia. 
 
 Feuillants, originally a branch of the 
 Cistercian order. They became an inde¬ 
 pendent congregation through the efforts 
 and reforms instituted by Jean de la Bar- 
 riere (b. 1544; d. 1600). 
 
 Few, Ignatius A., D. D., LL. D., an 
 eminent minister of the Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Church South; b. in Augusta, Ga., 
 April 11, 1789; d. in Athens, Ga., Nov. 
 28, 1845. He was the founder and first 
 president of Emory College, Oxford, Ga. 
 
 Fiacre, a saint of Gaul, who d. 670. He 
 is the patron of gardeners, who celebrate 
 his festival on August 30. 
 
 Fichte (Jih'-teh), Johann Gottlieb, b. 
 at Rammenau, in Upper Lusatia, May 19, 
 1762; d. in Berlin, Jan. 27, 1814. His early 
 life was environed by adverse condi¬ 
 tions. Through the kindness of Baron 
 von Miltiz he was enabled to begin a course 
 of study, which he continued with earnest¬ 
 ness after the death of his benefactor left 
 him dependent on his own efforts. “ His 
 first strong intellectual impression he re¬ 
 ceived from the writings of Lessing. 
 Afterward, in the course of his mental 
 development, he successively moved from 
 the freethinking of Lessing to the detcr- 
 minism of Spinoza, and, again, from the 
 determinism of Spinoza to the criticism of 
 Kant. In Kant’s limitation of causality 
 to the world of phenomena he found the 
 starting-point for his own philosophy— 
 that audacious deduction of both nature 
 and God from the human ego, as to whose 
 true character (atheism or not) people still 
 disagree.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. Fichte 
 became professor of philosophy at Jena in 
 1794, and in the following year published 
 his most important work, Science of Knowl¬ 
 edge. In 1799 he published a little essay 
 
Fie 
 
 ( 337 ) 
 
 Fil 
 
 “ On the Grounds of our Faith in the Divine 
 Government of the World,” in which he 
 took the position that the moral order of 
 the world is God, and that there is no other 
 God. This assertion was followed by a 
 discharge from the duties of his professor¬ 
 ship. He then removed to Berlin, where 
 great audiences gathered to hear his lect¬ 
 ures. “ He took great pains to clear up 
 his relation to religion, especially to Chris¬ 
 tianity. In some points he succeeded. It 
 is evident that he was very far from'con- 
 sidering Christianity a mere code of mo¬ 
 rality; he recognized it as an agency of 
 much deeper significance in the history of 
 the human race. But the incarnation, for 
 instance, seems to have been to him noth¬ 
 ing more than a typical representation of 
 what takes place in every man when he is 
 converted. Of the historical facts on which 
 Christianity rests he seems to have grasped 
 the typical signification only.”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. His collected works were 
 published at Bonn (1834-46), 11 vols. 
 
 Field, David Dudley, D. D., b. in East 
 Guilford, Conn., May 20, 1781 ; d. at 
 Stockbridge, Mass., April 15,1867. He was 
 graduated at Yale in 1802, and in 1804 be¬ 
 came pastor of the Congregational Church 
 at Haddam, Conn. After a service of fif¬ 
 teen years he accepted a call to Stock- 
 bridge, Mass. Here he remained eighteen 
 years, when he was recalled, in 1837, to 
 his old parish at Haddam, where he re¬ 
 mained until his final retirement from the 
 ministry in 1S51. Dr. Field was a vigor¬ 
 ous preacher and faithful pastor. He wrote 
 several volumes of local history. His 
 name has become widely known through 
 the distinguished career of his sons: Cyrus 
 W., of Atlantic cable fame; Dr. Henry M., 
 editor of The Evangelist; David Dudley, 
 the eminent lawyer, and Stephen J., asso¬ 
 ciate justice of the Supreme Court of the 
 United States. 
 
 Field, Henry Martin, D. D. (Williams 
 College, 1862), Presbyterian; b. at Stock- 
 bridge, Mass., April 3,1822; was graduated 
 at Williams College, 1838, and at East Wind¬ 
 sor Hill (now Hartford) Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, 1841; was pastor in St. Louis, 1842- 
 1847; at West Springfield, Mass., 1850-54; 
 since 1854 has been editor and proprietor 
 of The A T ew York Evangelist. He is the au¬ 
 thor of : Summer Pictures from Copenhagen 
 to Venice ( 1859); From the Lakes of Killar- 
 neyto the Golden Hor?i (1876); From Egypt to 
 fapan (1877); On the Desert [Sinai] (1883); 
 Among the Holy Hills [Palestine] (1884); 
 The Greek Islands and Turkey after the 
 War (1885); Old Spain and New Spain 
 (1888); Gibraltar (1888); Bright Skies and 
 
 Dark Shadows: a narrative of Travels in 
 the Southern States (iSgo). 
 
 Field, Richard, a distinguished Anglican 
 divine and writer; b. in Hempstead, Hert¬ 
 fordshire, Oct. 15, 1561; d. Nov. 21, 1616. 
 He was chaplain in ordinary to Elizabeth 
 (1598), and became dean of Gloucester in 
 1610. His fame rests upon his work en¬ 
 titled, Of the Church , Five Bookes, by Rich¬ 
 ard Field, D. D. (1606-1610). This work 
 was republished by the Ecclesiastical His¬ 
 tory Society, 4 vols. (Cambridge, 1847). 
 
 Fifth Monarchy Men, the name given 
 enthusiasts in Cromwell’s time who said 
 that Christ was about to come personally 
 to reign on earth, and establish a “Fifth 
 Universal Monarchy.” Until that time his 
 saints were to administer the affairs of 
 government, and no individual should be 
 allowed to rule any kingdom. See Neal: 
 History of the Puritans; Carlyle: Cromwell. 
 
 Fiji Islands, a group of about three hun¬ 
 dred islands in the South Pacific Ocean; 
 discovered in 1643, and annexed to Great 
 Britain in 1874. The efforts of missionaries 
 among these islanders have been greatly 
 blest. The English Wesleyans began work 
 here in 1835, and have carried it on with in¬ 
 creasing success ever since. Roman Catholic 
 priests, who first came in 1846, have made 
 many converts. Cannibalism and polygamy 
 have been given up, except by a few moun¬ 
 tain tribes, and there are at present over 
 fourteen hundred schools and nine hundred 
 churches. The present population is about 
 120,000, including some 2,000 whites. Miss 
 Cumming says, in her At Home in Fiji 
 (1881), “ I often wish that some of the 
 cavillers who are forever sneering at Chris¬ 
 tian missions could see something of their 
 results in these islands.” Besides Miss 
 Cumming’s work, see S. E. Scholes: Fiji 
 and Friendly Isles (1882); Williams and 
 Calvert: Fiji and Fijians (London and New 
 York, 1858). 
 
 Filioque Controversy. The Apostle’s 
 Creed has simply, “and in the Holy 
 Ghost;” the Nicene Creed added to this 
 the words, “ who proceedeth from the 
 Father.” The Latin Church, without the 
 sanction of an oecumenical council, and 
 without consultation with the Greek 
 Church, added ( Filioque ), “and the Son.” 
 The Greek Church objected to this in the 
 strongest terms, and the two churches 
 have always found that any attempt at re¬ 
 union has proved futile, because of the 
 difference of opinion growing out of the 
 use of this word. 
 
 The third Council of Toledo(58g) allowed 
 
Fin 
 
 ( 33S ) 
 
 Fin 
 
 this addition for the first time. When 
 Charlemagne came to the throne it was gen¬ 
 erally accepted by the Western Church, 
 and the council held at Aix-la-Chapelle 
 sanctioned its use. Charlemagne asked 
 Pope Leo III. to formally incorporate the 
 Filioquc with the Creed, but he declined to 
 do this, although he admitted the correct¬ 
 ness of the doctrine. The Greek Church 
 took a more decided attitude of hostility to 
 the use of the word, and the Council of 
 Constantinople anathematized it. Bene¬ 
 dict VIII., in 1014, used the word in con¬ 
 nection with the Creed at the crowning of 
 Henry II. 
 
 “ The doctrine in whose statement the 
 word Filioquc was destined to play so 
 prominent a part is called the ‘ Procession 
 of the Holy Ghost.’ The term comes from 
 John xv. 26, in which Christ speaks of the 
 Spirit of truth who ‘ proceedeth from the 
 Father.’ Inasmuch as nothing is said in 
 this passage or in any other of the ‘double 
 procession,’ and defends its position, not 
 only by an appeal to the text of Scripture, 
 and to the original form of the Nicene 
 Creed, but also to the ‘monarchy’ of the 
 Father as the sole fountain, root, and cause 
 of the deity. It distinguishes sharply be¬ 
 tween the eternal metaphysical procession 
 of the Sprit from the Father alone, and the 
 temporal mission of the Spirit, by the Father 
 and the Son. (John xiv. 26; xvi. 7.) The 
 former belongs to the trinity of essence, the 
 latter to the trinity of revelation, and begins 
 with the day of Pentecost. The Latin Church 
 defends the double procession on the 
 grounds of the double mission of the Spirit, 
 and the essential unity of the Son with the 
 Father, so that if the Spirit proceed from 
 the essence of the Father, he must also 
 proceed from the essence of the Son, be¬ 
 cause they have the same essence. The 
 Greek patriarchs declined to attend the 
 Vatican Council of 1S70, on the ground of 
 the heresy of the Latin Church upon this 
 point. 
 
 “ A compromise was suggested from the 
 writings of John of Damascus, to say that 
 the Spirit proceeds from the Father, through 
 the Son. This was accepted by the confer¬ 
 ence held at Bonn (August 1875), between 
 the Old Catholics, Orientals, and Anglo- 
 Catholics, in which the Filioquc was sur¬ 
 rendered as an unauthorized addition to 
 the Creed.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Finland. The earliest mention of the 
 Finns refers to their passion for piracy and 
 plunder. In the twelfth century, King 
 Eric the Saint, of Sweden, made war upon 
 them, and with their partial conquest 
 sought to establish Christianity at the 
 point of the sword. The great majority of 
 
 the people remained heathen even after 
 1300, when further conquests brought them 
 under the control of Sweden. The Luther¬ 
 an ministers who entered the country after 
 the Reformation, found themselves on mis¬ 
 sionary ground. At the present time, 
 ninety-eight per cent, of the population, 
 numbering upward of two millions, belong 
 to the Lutheran Church. In 1809 the 
 country came under Russia, but the largest 
 measure of ecclesiastical liberty is per¬ 
 mitted. Finnish is the official and common 
 language. 
 
 Finley, James B., one of the most dis¬ 
 tinguished of the early pioneers of Meth¬ 
 odism; b. in North Carolina, July 1, 1781: 
 d. at Cincinnati, Sept. 6, 1856. He was 
 remarkable in his power to reach and in¬ 
 fluence the great crowds that gathered at 
 camp-meetings. Six years of his life were 
 spent in successful labor among the Indians 
 at Upper Sandusky. During the forty-five 
 years of his laborious ministry, he was 
 eight times elected as delegate to the Gen¬ 
 eral Conference. 
 
 Finnan, an Irishman by birth, and monk 
 at Iona. He was made bishop of Lindis- 
 farne, 652, and d. there, Aug. 31, 661. He 
 was a very successful missionary: conse¬ 
 crated Caedmon, and baptized Peada, King 
 of Mercia, and Siegbert, King of the East 
 Saxons. He belonged to the Culdee 
 Church and strongly opposed the Roman 
 ritual. See Bede: Hist. Eccl. iii. 21-25. 
 
 Finney, Charles G., Congregationalist, 
 a great and successful revivalist preacher; 
 b. at Warren, Conn., Aug. 29, 1792; d. at 
 Oberlin, O., Aug. 16, 1875. His early life 
 was spent in Western New' York, and w r as 
 without religious training. He w r as a law¬ 
 yer at the time of his conversion in 1821. 
 Feeling an immediate call to preach, he 
 left his profession, and in 1824 v r as licens¬ 
 ed as a preacher. From this time his evan¬ 
 gelistic work was carried on until i860, 
 when the infirmities of age compelled him 
 to retire. Both in this country and Eng¬ 
 land, his labors were followed by revivals 
 in v r hich thousands professed conversion. 
 For a time he was pastor in New York City, 
 and in 1S35 he went to Oberlin, where he 
 labored as professor of theology, pastor,and 
 college president(iS52). Duringthese years 
 he still continued his evangelistic w r ork a 
 portion of the time. He was noted for his 
 clear, logical method and statement of 
 truth. His appeals v r ere directed to the 
 conscience rather than the affections, and 
 they often produced intense feeling. At 
 one time his methods aroused much crit¬ 
 icism and opposition even from revival 
 
Fir 
 
 ( 339 ) 
 
 Fis 
 
 preachers like Dr. Keecher and Mr. Net- 
 tieton, but this passed away. His influence 
 as a teacher was marked. His Lectures on 
 Revivals (1S35) passed through many edi¬ 
 tions, and his Lectures on Theology (1840) 
 are well known. Other volumes are: Sys¬ 
 tematic Theology , 2 vols. (1846); Autobiog¬ 
 raphy (1876); Gospel Themes (1S76). See his 
 Life by G. F. Wright (New York, 1S90). 
 
 Fire, Baptism of. “ Fire, or flame, is 
 used in a metaphorical sense to express 
 excited feeling and divine inspiration. (Psa. 
 xxxix. 3; Jer. xx. 9.) The influences of 
 the Holy Ghost are compared tofire(Matt. 
 iii. 11); and the descent of the Holy Spirit 
 was denoted by the appearance of lambent 
 flames or tongues of fire. (Acts ii. 3.) The 
 angels of God also are represented under 
 the emblem of fire. (Psa. civ. 4.) These are 
 the more benign applications of the figure, 
 in the sense of warmth, activity, and illu¬ 
 mination.”—McClintock and Strong: Ency. 
 
 Fire-Worship. See Parseeism. 
 
 First-Born. “ That some rights of 
 primogeniture existed in very early times 
 is plain, but it is not so clear in what they 
 consisted. They have been classed as: ( a ) 
 authority over the rest of the family; (b) 
 priesthood; (c) a double portion of the in¬ 
 heritance. Under the Law, in memory of 
 the Exodus, the eldest son was regarded 
 as devoted to God, and was in every case 
 to be redeemed by an offering not exceed¬ 
 ing five shekels, xvithin one month from 
 birth. If he died before the expiration of 
 thirty days, the Jewish doctors held the 
 father excused, but liable to the payment if 
 he outlived that time. (Ex. xiii. 12-15; xxii. 
 29; Num. viii. 17; xviii. 15, 16; Lev. xxvii. 
 6.) This devotion of the first-born was 
 believed to indicate a priesthood belonging 
 to the eldest sons of families, which, being 
 set aside in the case of Reuben, was trans¬ 
 ferred to the tribe of Levi. The eldest son 
 received a double portion of the father’s 
 inheritance (Deut. xxi. 17), but not of 
 the mother’s. Under the monarchy the 
 eldest son usually, but not always, as ap¬ 
 pears in the case of Solomon, succeeded 
 his father in the kingdom. (1 Kings i. 30; 
 ii. 22.) The male first-born of animals was 
 also devoted to God. (Ex. xiii. 2, 12, 13; 
 xxii. 29; xxxiv. 19, 20.) Unclean animals 
 were to be redeemed with the addition of 
 one-fifth of the value, or else put to death; 
 •or, if not redeemed, to be sold, and the 
 price given to the priests. (Lev. xxvii. 13, 
 27, 28.)”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 First-Fruits, “ among the Hebrews, were 
 oblations of part of the fruits of the harvest. 
 
 consecrated to God as an acknowledgment 
 of his sovereign dominion. In this sense 
 of special consecration to God, it is, that 
 the regenerate are called “ a kind of first- 
 fruits of his creatures.” (James i. 18.) It 
 may mean, also, that the first Christians 
 were converted as an earnest of the future 
 conversion of the whole world. There was 
 another sort of first-fruits which was paid 
 to God. When bread was kneaded in a 
 family, a portion of it was set apart and 
 given to the priest or Levite who dwelt in 
 the place. If there were no priest or Le¬ 
 vite there, it was cast into the oven, and 
 consumed by the fire. These offerings 
 made a considerable part of the revenues 
 of the priesthood. (Lev. xxiii.; Ex. xxii. 
 29; 2 Chron. xxiii. 18; Num. xv. 19, 20.) 
 
 “ The first-fruits of the Spirit are such 
 communications of his grace on earth as 
 fully assure us of the full enjoyment of 
 God in heaven. (Rom. viii. 23.) Christ is 
 called the first-fruits of them that slept; 
 for, as the first-fruits were earnests to the 
 Jews of the succeeding harvest, so Christ 
 is the first-fruits of the resurrection, or the 
 earnest of a future resurrection; that as he 
 rose, so shall believers also rise to happi¬ 
 ness and life. (1 Cor. xv. 20.) 
 
 “ First-fruits are mentioned in ancient 
 writers as one part of the Church revenue. 
 
 “ First-fruits in the Church of England 
 are the profits of every spiritual benefice 
 for the first year, according to the valua¬ 
 tion thereof in the king’s book.”— Hend. 
 Buck. 
 
 Fisch, George, D. D., b. at Nyon, 
 Switzerland, July 6, 1814; d. at Vallorbes, 
 Switzerland, July 3, 1881. He studied 
 theology at Lausanne, and was pastor of 
 a church,at Vevay for five years. In 1846 
 he became colleague to Adolphe Monod, 
 of the Free Church in Lyons, whom he 
 succeeded. In 1S55 he was called to Paris, 
 as the colleague of Pressense. He took a 
 prominent part in the Synod of 1849, which 
 formed the union of the Evangelical 
 Churches of France, and from 1863 until 
 the time of his death he was president of 
 the synodal commission which directs 
 the work of the Free Churches. He was 
 one of the founders of the Evangelical Al¬ 
 liance, and was a prominent delegate at 
 the Conference held in New York in 1873. 
 
 Fish, Henry Clay, Baptist; b. at Hal¬ 
 ifax, Vt., Jan. 27, 1820; d. in Newark, 
 N. J., Oct. 2, 1877. A graduate of Union 
 Theological Seminary, New York City, 
 1845, he was for five years pastor at Som¬ 
 erville, N. J., and from 1850 until his 
 death, pastor of the First Baptist Church 
 of Newark. He was an able and success- 
 
Fis 
 
 ( 34<J ; 
 
 Fla 
 
 
 ful minister, and in the midst of earnest 
 pastoral labors prepared several volumes: 
 Primitive Piety Revived (1855) [20,000 cop¬ 
 ies sold in two years]; History and Repos¬ 
 itory of Pulpit Eloquence (1856); Pulpit 
 Eloquence of the Nineteenth Century (1857); 
 Handbook of Revivals (1874); Bible Lands 
 (1876). 
 
 Fish. The Fish is a symbol of almost 
 universal occurrence in the painting and 
 sculpture of the primitive Church. Like the 
 Dove or the Lamb, it is used in more than 
 one sense; and its non-scriptural or an- 
 agrammatic meaning is, perhaps, the most 
 popular at the present day. The Greek 
 ichthys, “ a fish,” is formed from the initials 
 of the words, Icsus Christos , Theoil Uibs, 
 Sote'r , “ Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Saviour.” 
 Tertullian is the first writer who refers to 
 the acrostic in connection with the symbol. 
 See Smith and Cheetham: Diet. Chris. 
 A ntiquities. 
 
 Fisher, John, bishop of Rochester; b. 
 at Beverly, Yorkshire, in 1459; beheaded 
 at Tower Hill, June 22, 1535. He was a 
 graduate of Cambridge, where he after¬ 
 ward became the first professor of divinity. 
 Made bishop of Rochester in 1504, he was 
 among the favorites of Henry VIJ.I., until 
 he refused to join the other bishops in ac¬ 
 ceding to his requests in the matter of his 
 divorce. A pretext was found for bringing 
 him to trial for treason in failing to expose 
 the so-called Maid of Kent, whom he knew 
 to be an impostor. He refused to acknowl¬ 
 edge the validity of the king’s marriage to 
 Anne Boleyn. and denied his supremacy 
 as head of the Church. This led to his 
 further trial and execution. He bitterly 
 opposed the Reformation. A learned man, 
 of inflexible will and honesty of purpose, 
 his death “ was a sad tragedy.” See his 
 Life , by John Lewis (London, 1855), 2 vols.; 
 and by T. E. Bridgett (London and New 
 York, 1888). 
 
 Fisher, George Park, D. D. (Brown 
 University, 1866; Edinburgh University, 
 1886), LL. D. (Princeton, 1879), Congrega- 
 tionalist; b. at Wrentham, Mass., Aug. 10, 
 1827; was graduated at Brown University, 
 1847, and at AndoverTheological Seminary, 
 1851; became professor of divinity (college 
 preacher) in Yale University, 1854; profess¬ 
 or of ecclesiastical history, 1861. He is 
 the author of : Essays on the Supernatural 
 Origin of Christianity (New York, 1865, 
 4th ed., 1887); Life of Benjamin Silliman 
 (1866), 2 vols. (n. e., Philadelphia, 1877, 
 1 vol.); The Refort 7 iation (New York, 1873, 
 n. e., 1883); The Beginnings of Christianity 
 (1877, n. e., 1886); Faith and Rationalism 
 
 (1879); Discussions in History and Theology 
 (1S80); The Christian Religion (1882); 
 Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief 
 (1883); Outlines of Universal History (1885); 
 History of the Christian Church (1887); The 
 Nature and Method of Revelation (1890). 
 
 Fisk, Pliny, b. in Shelburne, Mass., 
 June, 1792; d. at Beyrout, Oct. 23, 1825. 
 He was a graduate of Middlebury College 
 and Andover Seminary, and entered the 
 American Board of Missions in 1818. He 
 was an enthusiastic missionary, and will 
 be remembered as one of the founders of 
 the missionary station at Beyrout. 
 
 Fisk, Wilbur, D. D., first president of 
 Wesleyan University; b. in Brattleboro’, 
 Vt., Aug. 31, 1792; d. at Middletown, 
 Conn., Feb. 22, 1839. He was graduated 
 at Brown University, and entered the min¬ 
 istry of the Methodist Church in 1818. 
 From this time on until his death he was 
 intimately connected with the educational 
 interests of that denomination. “ As a 
 preacher, few surpassed him in eloquence, 
 none in fervor. As a teacher, he had that 
 highest of all qualities, the power to kin¬ 
 dle the enthusiasm of his pupils. Take 
 him for all in all, he was a man of rare 
 symmetry of character, moral and intel¬ 
 lectual.”—McClintock and Strong: Ency. 
 Among his works are: The Calvinistic Con¬ 
 troversy (1837); Notes of Travels in Europe 
 (1838); Sermons and Lectures on Universal- 
 ism, and Reply to Pierpont on the Atonement. 
 See his Life , by Prof. George Prentice 
 (Boston, 1890). 
 
 Five-Mile Act, an oppressive statute 
 passed in the seventeenth year of Charles 
 II., 1665. It obliged Nonconformist teach¬ 
 ers, who refused to take the non-resistance 
 oath, not to come within five miles of any 
 corporation where they had preached since 
 the Act of Oblivion (unless they were trav¬ 
 eling), under the penalty of forty pounds, 
 or liability to imprisonment for six months. 
 See Neal: Hist, of Puritans, ii., p. 255 sqq .; 
 Green: Hist, of Eng. People , iii., 375 sq. 
 (Harpers’ ed.). 
 
 Five Points of Calvinism. These are the 
 five doctrines controverted between the 
 Calvinists and Arminians, viz., predestina¬ 
 tion, extent of the atonement, grace, free¬ 
 will, and final perseverance. They were 
 defended by the Synod of Dort (161S, 1619) 
 in answer to the Five Articles which the 
 Arminians put forth in 1610. See Cal¬ 
 vinism. 
 
 Flagellants, the name given to bands of 
 fanatics which appeared in Europe from 
 
Fla 
 
 ( 341 ) 
 
 Fie 
 
 the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. 
 The preaching of Anthony of Padua(1210) 
 gi e impetus to the custom of self-flagella¬ 
 tion as a form of penance, by the formation 
 of a fraternity who went about singing and 
 scourging themselves. In 1260-61 large 
 numbers in the city of Perugia, stirred by 
 the exhortations of a hermit named Rainer, 
 as if moved by a common impulse, formed 
 processions, and, marching through the 
 streets singing psalms, lacerated their 
 bodies with leathern thongs. Many jour¬ 
 neyed through Lombardy into Provence, 
 and some went as far as Rome. For a 
 time, as the spirit of the movement seem¬ 
 ed favorable to morality, it was not resisted 
 by the Church authorities; but as soon as 
 the Flagellants were suspected of disloyalty 
 to the supremacy of Rome, they were bit¬ 
 terly opposed by the priests. The sect 
 again arose during the dreadful plague 
 years of 1347-49. By their fierce flagella¬ 
 tions they hoped to appease the divine 
 anger, and prepare for the end of the 
 world, which they thought was near at 
 hand. The movement spread through 
 Germany, and extended as far as Denmark 
 and England, although no converts were 
 made in Britain. They marched from town 
 to town, only tarrying for a day in a 
 place. They sang psalms, until halted at 
 some square, church-yard, or field. Re¬ 
 moving their shoes and stockings, they 
 formed a circle, and, while lying down, the 
 leader stepped over each one, and with the 
 touch of a whip bade them arise. Then 
 the flagellation began, until the blood 
 trickled from the wounds. The ceremony 
 closed with a collection, and the reading 
 of a letter from Christ, which an angel 
 had brought to earth, commending the pil¬ 
 grimages of the Flagellants. The people 
 soon tired of the burden of their support. 
 Clement issued a bull against them in 
 1349, which hastened their suppression. 
 In 1398 a band in Genoa, which claimed 
 special direction from Christ and the Virgin 
 Mary, attempted to revive the strange 
 fanaticism, but they were stopped by Bon¬ 
 iface IX., who executed one of their num¬ 
 ber. They were condemned by the Coun¬ 
 oil of Constance in 1414. See Cooper: Fla¬ 
 gellation and the Flagellants (London, 1872). 
 
 Flavel, John, an eminent English Non¬ 
 conformist minister; b. in Worcestershire 
 about 1627; d. in Exeter, June 26, 1691. 
 He studied at Oxford and was curate, first 
 of Deptford, and then at Dartmouth. In 
 1656 he was deprived of his living by the 
 Act of Uniformity. Supported by wealthy 
 friends, he preached privately, in secluded 
 places. Flavel wrote a large number of 
 books on practical religion, some of which 
 
 have been published in this country by the 
 American Tract Society, among them 
 his Fountain of Life; Method of Grace; On 
 Keeping the Heart , etc. His entire Works, 
 published in London (1820), 6 vols., contain 
 a memoir. 
 
 Flavian, Jpishop of Constantinople (447- 
 449), eminent for his piety. He earnestly 
 opposed the Eutychian heresy, and for this 
 was deposed in 449, and died soon after, 
 while on his way into exile at Epipa, in 
 Lydda. After the heresy was suppressed 
 his remains were brought back and buried 
 at Constantinople. See Eutychians. 
 
 Flechier {Jld-she-a '), Esprit, bishop of 
 Nismes, famed for his funeral orations; b. 
 near Avignon, June 10, 1632; d. at Mont¬ 
 pellier, Feb. 16, 1710. He studied theology 
 under the Jesuits at Paris. He was or¬ 
 dained in 1673, and in 1685 he went to con¬ 
 vert the Protestants in Poitou and Brit¬ 
 tany; and, on his return, was made bishop 
 of Lavaur, and, two years later, of Nismes. 
 It was during his episcopate that the Edict 
 of Nantes was revoked; but Flechier en¬ 
 deavored to carry out his orders in as mild 
 a form as possible, and was beloved both 
 by Catholics and Protestants. A collected 
 edition of his works was published at 
 Nismes (1782), 10 vols. See his Life , by 
 A. Delacroix (Paris, 1865), 2 vols. 
 
 Fleetwood, John, probably the assumed 
 name of an author of a Life of Christ , very 
 popular in the last century, but without 
 critical value. Two other volumes are 
 attributed to him: The Christian Prayer- 
 book (1772), and the Christian's Dictionary 
 ( 1773 )- 
 
 Fleetwood, William, a very learned 
 English prelate, and famous as a preacher; 
 b. in London, Jan. 21, 1650; d. at Totten¬ 
 ham, Middlesex, Aug. 4, 1723. Educated 
 at Cambridge, he became canon of Wind¬ 
 sor, 1702; bishop of St. Asaph, 1706, and 
 of Ely, 1714. His Complete Works were 
 published at Oxford (1854), 3 vols. 
 
 Flesh “ is used, figuratively, for every¬ 
 thing living (Gen. vi. 13, 17, 19); some¬ 
 times mankind (Gen. vi. 12); sometimes 
 the body as distinguished from the soul or 
 spirit. (Col. ii. 5; 1 Pet. iv. 6.) In a the¬ 
 ological sense ‘the flesh’ is the natural 
 man, including the unrenewed will and 
 mind, moving in the world of self and 
 sense only. (Rom. vii. 5; viii. 1, 5, 9; Gal. 
 v. 17, 19; Eph. ii. 3.) Self-imposed ordi¬ 
 nances gratify the flesh, i. e., self, whilst 
 seemingly mortifying it.”—Schaff: Bible 
 Dictionary, 
 
Fie 
 
 ( 342 ) 
 
 Foi 
 
 Fletcher, John William, b. Sept. 12,1729, 
 at Nyon, Vaud; d. atMadeley, Aug. 14,1785. 
 About 1755 he joined the Methodist So¬ 
 ciety, and in 1757 took orders in the Church 
 of England, and became rector of Madeley. 
 His saintly life and diligent pastoral labors 
 endeared him to the poor and distressed, 
 and won the reverence and esteem of 
 
 9 
 
 many who were at first opposed to him. 
 He was an advocate of Wesley’s doctrine 
 of Perfection, and wrote in its defense. 
 Southey, in his Life of Wesley, says: “ No 
 age or country has ever produced a man 
 of more fervent piety or more perfect 
 charity.” The relation of Wesley and 
 Fletcher was that of strong and helpful 
 friendship. 
 
 Fletcher presided over Lady Hunting¬ 
 ton’s College at Trevecca, Wales, from 1768 
 to 1771. He was a very strong Arminian in 
 his theological views, and most of his pub¬ 
 lished works were directed against Calvin¬ 
 ism, and grew out of controversies with 
 Topladyand Mr. Richard Hill. An edition 
 of his works is published by the Methodist 
 Book Concern, New York, and they have 
 found a large sale in the Methodist Church. 
 See his Life , by Luke Tyerman (New York, 
 1882). 
 
 Fleury, Claude, Roman Catholic; b. in 
 Paris, Dec. 6, 1640; d. there, July 14, 1723. 
 Educated for the law, he became a priest 
 and was ordained in 1672, and from this 
 time till his death was connected with the 
 court in various positions as a tutor and 
 spiritual confessor. He was a prolific 
 writer, but his principal work is his Eccle¬ 
 siastical History (Paris, 1691), 20 vols. 
 Eng. trans. by Cardinal Newman (in part) 
 (Oxford, 1842-44), 3 vols. 
 
 Fliedner, Theodor, D. D., an eminent 
 philanthropist; b. at Epstein, near Wies¬ 
 baden, Jan. 21, 1800, and d. at Kaisers- 
 werth, Oct. 4, 1864. After completing his 
 studies, he became pastor of a small Prot¬ 
 estant church at Kaiserswerth, on the lower 
 Rhine. The failure of a silk manufactory 
 weakened the financial strength of his con¬ 
 gregation to such an extent that in the 
 spring of 1822 he went away to solicit 
 funds to carry on his work. He met with 
 good success, and in the following year he 
 visited Holland and England and secured a 
 permanent endowment for his church. It 
 Avas at this time that he decided to organize 
 schools and other benevolent institutions 
 for the sick and poor. In 1835 he gave 
 shelter, in a little summer-house in his gar¬ 
 den, to a poor woman just discharged from 
 prison, who wished to reform. A friend of 
 his wife was engaged to look after this ser¬ 
 vice and Avas called a deaconess. The cases 
 
 of need multiplied and the number of help¬ 
 ers Avas increased. This suggested the 
 order of deaconesses for the sick poor. 
 His great hospital work Avas started Avith 
 one table, some broken chairs, and other 
 Avell-Avorn articles of furniture. He trav¬ 
 eled far and near soliciting funds to carry 
 on his benevolent Avork, and in 1849 visit¬ 
 ed the United States. King William of 
 Prussia and his Queen became deeply in¬ 
 terested in his labors and gave him gener¬ 
 ous assistance. At his death over four 
 hundred deaconesses Avere connected Avith 
 the establishment at KaisersAverth and its 
 branches. In 187S the number of institu¬ 
 tions in Germany, SAvitzerland, France, 
 Scandinavia, Russia, and Austria was fifty- 
 two , and the number of sisters nearly four 
 thousand, laboring at eleven hundred sta¬ 
 tions. See his Life , translated by Miss 
 WinkAvorth (London, 1867), and Life by G. 
 Fliedner (Kaiserswerth, 1886). 
 
 Flood. See Noah. 
 
 Florence, Council of. See Ferrara- 
 Florence, Council of. 
 
 Florian, a Roman Catholic saint and 
 martyr. While a soldier in the armyof Dio¬ 
 cletian, he confessed his faith as a Chris¬ 
 tian and Avas droAvned in the river Enns. 
 Later his body Avas taken to Rome, and in 
 1183 Pope Lucius III. presented them to 
 King Casimir of Poland. He thus became 
 the patron saint of Poland. His day falls 
 on the 4th of March. 
 
 Fo-ism. China is the birthplace of the 
 oldest institutions known in history. It 
 Avas an ancient nation before Athenian in¬ 
 fluence or Roman conquest began. The 
 religion of this Avonderful people has taken 
 a threefold form: (1) The State religion,' 
 Confucianism (Confucius); (2) Tao - ism 
 ((/. v .); and (3) Fo-ism, or Chinese Bud¬ 
 dhism. The name Fo is the first syllable of 
 Foe-t’a=Buddha. It is of later date than 
 either of the others, and, in fact, OAves its 
 origin to their failure. One of them had 
 succeeded in imparting form to Chinese 
 society, but it Avas altogether secularist, 
 and tended continually to ignore everything 
 invisible. The other Avas mystic and wild 
 in its imaginations, becoming more and 
 more a system of demonology. It Avas 
 Avhile brooding sadly over the deficiencies 
 of these religious systems that the Emperor 
 Ming-te, about a. d. 60, is said to have 
 seen a A’ision of a gigantic and glorious 
 figure. Consulting his ministers of State 
 upon it, they bade him seek over the Avest- 
 ern mountains for the interpretation. A 
 deputation was accordingly sent, Avhich re'- 
 
Foi 
 
 ( 343 ) 
 
 Foo 
 
 turned accompanied by a Hindu teacher, 
 who brought with him a collection of sacred 
 books and a portrait of Sakya - Mouni. 
 (Buddhism.) And thus Buddhism gained 
 a footing in China, though it has never dis¬ 
 placed the old religion. Some monarchs 
 patronized, others persecuted, it as a foreign 
 religion. But the growing intercourse with 
 India was favorable to the growth of Bud¬ 
 dhism, which culminated with the fall of the 
 Mongol dynasty in 1368. But the tran¬ 
 scendentalism which characterizes the Bud¬ 
 dhism of India forms no part of the Fo-ism 
 of the Chinese. There was probably no 
 room for it in the matter-of-fact worldly 
 sharpness of the Chinese character. The 
 only genuine devotees are the monks and 
 mendicants. The rest of the professors are 
 expected to confide in some particular 
 Buddha, to reverence the books, to abstain 
 from gross vice, to support the monks. 
 The devotees of Fo recognize the excel¬ 
 lence of the Confucian moralitv, but hold 
 Fo superior to Confucius, as being an 
 object of worship. Unlike other forms 
 of Buddhism, Fo-ism has no regular 
 graduated hierarchy, and though, as we 
 have said, a worship of Fo is recog¬ 
 nized, it is of a shadowy character, almost 
 impalpable. Ethical writings are devoid 
 of reference to his personal rule, and there 
 are no precepts on duties owed to him. 
 When the Buddhist monk is called to his 
 devotions by the sound of the wooden bell, 
 he utters the aspiration that “all living 
 creatures may become enlightened; ” there 
 is no address to the Supreme, no sympathy 
 even with good in the struggle against evil. 
 Yet China is studded with Fo-ist temples, 
 in which the colossal forms of Buddha and 
 two attendants are almost always seen; 
 many of these, however, are in ruins, and 
 the offerings are most meagre. Flowers 
 and perfumes are offered to him. But, 
 generally speaking, it is not the Buddha of 
 India, Sakya-Mouni. He is superseded by 
 Amitabha, or Ometo (i. e. ‘ 1 Infinite Light ”), 
 who is held to be a more perfect Buddha 
 than Sakya-Mouni, who is thought to have 
 retired into deep abstraction. To Amitabha, 
 enthroned for ever on a lotus, the Fo-ist 
 looks for deliverance from evil, and hopes 
 to enter into his paradise. The history of 
 this change of deities is obscure, but there 
 seems strong reason to believe that the 
 Christian missions in the seventh and fol¬ 
 lowing centuries had much to do with it. 
 Fo-ism is a flexible creed, and when Chris¬ 
 tian preachers — Latins, Nestorians, and 
 others—dared to plant their missions in 
 Peking, the speculation which they excited 
 in the Chinese mind seems to have led to 
 a considerable adoption of Christian phra¬ 
 seology and some mingling with the ancient 
 
 faith. The same thing showed itself some 
 years later in the case of the Taeping Re¬ 
 bellion. Some of the descriptions of 
 Amitabha’s paradise are apparently bor¬ 
 rowed from the Book of Revelation (see 
 Christ and other Masters, by Hardwick, vol. 
 ii., p. 102), only the central thought of the 
 New Testament is omitted altogether— 
 namely, the primary necessity of holiness 
 of heart and life as the condition of blessed¬ 
 ness. Thus, whereas faith in Amitabha is 
 declared to be absolutely necessary to him 
 who will be delivered from evil, and the 
 phraseology seems clearly to echo parts 
 of St. Paul’s Epistles, there is no hint 
 of faith resulting in repentance or good 
 works: the monks of Fo-ism are said, 
 indeed, to surpass their pupils in the 
 puerility of their superstitions and the 
 immorality of their lives.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. 
 
 Font, the vessel containing water for 
 baptism. It was at first a cistern built 
 below the level of the floor, and reached 
 by steps. Later, vases of stone were used, 
 elevated three or four feet from the floor. 
 It was usually octagonal in form, with a 
 mystical reference to the eighth day as the 
 day of our Lord’s resurrection. In the 
 Western Church the material used was, as 
 a rule, stone; but sometimes porphyry or 
 marble. In the Eastern Church wood or 
 metal was commonly used. 
 
 Fontevraud, Order of, a religious order 
 both of men and women founded by Rob¬ 
 ert of Arbresle in 1093, under the name of 
 Paupercs Christi. The separation between 
 the two sexes was strict, and the rules en¬ 
 forced perpetual silence, and total absti¬ 
 nence from flesh and wine. This order 
 flourished up to the time when it was dis¬ 
 solved by the Revolution. 
 
 Foot-washing was one of the most ob¬ 
 ligatory of the rites of Eastern hospitality. 
 (Gen. xviii. 4; Judg. xix. 21; 1 Sam. xxv. 
 41.) The washing of the feet of the dis¬ 
 ciples by the Saviour, after the Last Sup¬ 
 per (John xiii. 1-17), and his command “ to 
 wash one another’s feet” has given rise to 
 singular customs that still exist in the 
 Roman and Greekchurches and among the 
 Dunkers and Winebrennarians. On the 
 Thursday before Easter the Czar of Rus¬ 
 sia, the Emperor of Austria, and the Kings 
 of Spain, Portugal, and Bavaria wash the 
 feet of twelve beggars, and the pope on 
 the same day sprinkles water on the feet 
 of thirteen poor men robed in white tunics 
 and seated in the Clementine Chapel. The 
 ceremony is intended to illustrate Chris¬ 
 tian humility. See Dunkers. 
 
 \ 
 
For 
 
 ( 344 ) 
 
 Fox 
 
 Fortunatus, Venantius, bishop of Poi¬ 
 tiers ; b. about 530 at Treviso; d. at Poi¬ 
 tiers, 609. His fame rests upon his rep¬ 
 utation as the last great poet before the 
 time of Charlemagne. Two of his hymns, 
 translated by Neale, are found in Schaff’s 
 Christ in Song (N. Y., 1869). 
 
 Foster, John, the distinguished essayist; 
 b. at Halifax, Yorkshire, Sept. 17, 1770; d. 
 at Stapleton, near Bristol, Oct. 15, 1843. 
 In his youth he was a wool weaver, but at 
 the age of seventeen he united with a Bap¬ 
 tist church and began to study for the min¬ 
 istry. He was pastor of several small 
 churches. While at Downend he wrote 
 the Essays which won for him the reputa¬ 
 tion of being “ one of the most profound 
 and eloquent writers England has pro¬ 
 duced.” His principal work is Essays on 
 Decision of Character. The latter part of 
 his life was entirely devoted to literary 
 pursuits. See Ryland: Life and Corre¬ 
 spondence of J. Foster (Boston, 1846); W. W. 
 Everts: Life and Thoughts of /. Foster 
 (N. Y., 1849). 
 
 Foster, Randolph Sinks, D. D. (Ohio 
 Wesleyan University, Delaware, O., 1S53), 
 LL. D. (the same, 1858), Methodist Episco¬ 
 pal bishop; b. at Williamsburg, Claremont 
 Co., O., Feb. 22, 1820. He studied at 
 Augusta College, Ky., and entered the 
 ministry of the Methodist Church in 1S37. 
 After laboring in Ohio until 1850, he was 
 transferred to the New York Conference; 
 became president of the Northwestern 
 University at Evanston, Ill., in 1856; re¬ 
 turned to the pastorate in i860; became pro- 
 lessor in Drew Theological Seminary, 
 Madison, N. J.,in 1868; president in 1870, 
 and in 1872 was elected a bishop. He is 
 the author of: Christian Purity (New York, 
 1851); Ministry for the Times (1S 5 2); Be¬ 
 yond the Grave{ 1S79, many editions); Studies 
 in Theology (188G). 
 
 Fox, George, the founder of the Society 
 of Friends; b. at Drayton, Leicestershire, 
 in July, 1624; d. in London, Nov. 13, 1690. 
 The child of devout Christian parents, his 
 early years were marked by religious ex¬ 
 periences of peculiar intensity. Appren¬ 
 ticed to a shoemaker who also dealt in wool 
 and cattle, he remained in this service till 
 his nineteenth year. Under a deep convic¬ 
 tion of the sin of a life of mere selfish'pleas- 
 ure and enjoyment, he broke away from 
 home ties, and intercourse, as far as possi¬ 
 ble, with young and old. Perplexed and 
 distressed, he wandered to many places, 
 hoping to find spiritual relief and guidance. 
 About 1646 he began to receive further 
 “ revelations.” When in deep solicitude as 
 
 to the possibility of his salvation, he says: 
 “ Christ opened to me how he was tempted 
 by the same devil, and overcame him anil 
 bruised his head, and that through him 
 and his power, light, grace, and spirit, I 
 should overcome also: I had confidence in 
 him; so he it was that opened to me, when 
 I was shut up and had no hope or faith. 
 Christ, who had enlightened me, gave me 
 his light to believe in; he gave me hope 
 which he himself revealed in me; and he 
 gave me his spirit and grace, which I found 
 sufficient in the deeps and in weakness.” 
 We find here the underlying principle or 
 element of his instruction when he began to 
 preach in 1647, viz., that the way of salva¬ 
 tion is found by giving earnest heed to the 
 inner light—the light of Christ, which is 
 the God-given heritage of the seeking soul. 
 
 Fox soon made many converts in the 
 neighborhood of Dukinfield and Manches¬ 
 ter. It was in 1648 that he received the 
 “ revelations ” which forbade him to take 
 off his hat to any person, and to abstain 
 from the ordinary civilities of greeting, and 
 use only the pronouns “ thou ” and “ thee ” 
 in speaking to individuals of whatever rank. 
 Bold in his denunciation of what he con¬ 
 sidered false doctrines, he was placed un¬ 
 der frequent arrest, and suffered imprison¬ 
 ment in many places. The term “ Quaker ” 
 was first applied to Fox and his followers, 
 about 1650, it is said, by a certain justice, 
 because “ they bade the people tremble at 
 the word of the Lord.” In prison or at 
 liberty Fox was indefatigable in laboring 
 with pen and voice. He visited Barbadoes 
 and America, where he attended, in 1672, 
 the Yearly Meeting at Newport, R. I. In 
 1677 and 1684 he visited his followers in 
 Holland and Germany. The last years of 
 his life were spent in London. Fox was an 
 enthusiast, and sometimes carried beyond 
 bounds in action and expression, but the 
 verdict of history, as found in the study of 
 his life and labors, condemns the cruel rid¬ 
 icule of Macaulay, and corroborates the 
 statement that he was “ valiant in asserting 
 the truth, bold in defending it, patient in 
 suffering for it, immovable as a rock.” 
 His Journal is the most interesting and 
 widely known of his writings. Sir James 
 Mackintosh has said that “ it is one of the 
 most extraordinary and instructive narra¬ 
 tives in the world, which no reader of com¬ 
 petent judgment can peruse without rever¬ 
 ing the virtue of the writer.” See Bickley: 
 Fox and the Early Quakers (London, 1884); 
 F. S. Turner: The Quakers (London, 1S89). 
 See Friends. 
 
 Fox (or Foxe), John, the author of the 
 famous Book of Martyrs, was b. at Boston, 
 Lincolnshire, 1517; d. in London, April 
 
Fra 
 
 ( 345 ) 
 
 Fra 
 
 15. 1587* He was graduated at Oxford in 
 1543, and elected a fellow of Magdalen Col¬ 
 lege. Two years after this he became a 
 convert to Protestantism, and was expelled 
 from his college on account of his heresy. 
 During the reign of Mary he retired to the 
 continent, but returned on the accession of 
 Elizabeth, and was appointed prebend of 
 Salisbury Cathedral. He wrote numerous 
 controversial works, but his name is im¬ 
 mortalized by the Book of Martyrs , which 
 he spent eleven years in preparing for the 
 press. Elizabeth ordered the book placed 
 in all the colleges, chapels, and halls of the 
 clergy, throughout the kingdom. It con¬ 
 tains many errors of statement, but its in¬ 
 fluence has been great, and it has passed 
 through a great number of editions. 
 
 France, Ecclesiastical History and 
 Statistics. See Gallican Church. 
 
 France, Reformed Church. See Hugue¬ 
 nots. 
 
 Francis, St., the founder of the order of 
 the Franciscans; b. at Assisi, 1182; d. 
 there, Oct. 4, 1226. As a youth he was 
 pleasure-loving, but generous toward the 
 poor. He led the life of a soldier for a 
 time, and was taken captive in a campaign 
 against Perugia, and lay in prison for a 
 year. In his twenty-fifth year, after re¬ 
 covery from a severe illness, the entire 
 current and purpose of his life was changed. 
 Calling poverty “ his bride,” after a season 
 of solitude he visited Rome, and cast in 
 his lot with the poorest class, and found 
 service in attending the lepers in the hos¬ 
 pital at Gubbio. His friends tried to draw 
 him from his lowly and menial service, but 
 he returned to Assisi, firm in his determi¬ 
 nation to preach the doctrines of penitence 
 and self-sacrifice. Other young men joined 
 him, and in 1210, with ten others, he lived 
 a hermit life near the Portincula Church at 
 Assisi, which had been restored through 
 his efforts. He prepared a set of rules, 
 containing the ordinary monastic vows, but 
 placing special emphasis on the vow of 
 poverty. Visiting Rome, he gained the 
 verbal approval of Innocent III. Not long 
 after, he was joined by Clara of Assisi, the 
 foundress of the order of Clarisses. This 
 brought his work into greater prominence. 
 In 1212 he sent out the members of his 
 order, two by two, on far extended preach¬ 
 ing tours. Those sent among the Moham¬ 
 medans were martyred, and he decided to 
 go and preach to them himself He was 
 detained in Spain by sickness, and com¬ 
 pelled to return home. The order grew 
 rapidly in Italy, and as early as 1219 it 
 numbered many thousands. The brethren 
 
 were sent to almost every known country'. 
 In 1221 the order gained a foothold in 
 Germany, and Francis visited Egypt, and 
 even preached before the Sultan. By r a 
 bull of 1223 Honorius III. gave official 
 sanction to the order, and Francis was ap¬ 
 pointed its first general. The following 
 year he resigned the office, and retired to 
 Assisi, where he died. See his life by Mrs. 
 Oliphant (1868); and translation of St. 
 Bonaventura’s Life of St. Francis , by Miss 
 Lockhart (1868, 3d ed., 1890).. 
 
 Francis of Paula, St. ,b. at Paula, Naples, 
 1416; d. at Plessis-les-Tours, France, April 
 2, 1507. In early life he became famous as 
 a hermit, and he endeavored to outdo St. 
 Francis himself in austerity of life. He 
 gained followers, and became head of the 
 order called Minims, on account of their 
 professed humility. 
 
 Francis of Sales, St., b. at Sales, Savoy’ 
 1567; d. at Lyons, Dec. 28, 1622. Against 
 the will of his parents, he became a priest 
 in 1591, and soon gained fame as a mis¬ 
 sionary among Protestants. He was very 
 influential in the reaction that set in soon 
 after the Reformation, and Roman Catholic 
 writers assert that more than seventy thou¬ 
 sand Protestants returned to the Roman 
 Church through his efforts. He became 
 bishop of Geneva in 1602. Extracts from 
 his Spiritual Letters, in English, were pub¬ 
 lished in London, 1871. See his Life , by 
 H. L. Sidney Lear (London, 1882). 
 
 Francis Xavier. See Xavier. 
 
 Franciscans, one of the principal orders 
 of Mendicant or Preaching Friars, named 
 from their founder, St. rrancis of Assisi 
 ( q . v.). The rules first laid down by St. 
 Francis were very' strict, especially in the 
 enforcement of the vow of poverty. The 
 relaxations, which were finally' sanctioned 
 by r decrees of the popes and general 
 usage, were strongly opposed by r some of 
 the members, and these struggles brought 
 about divisions in the order. “ Since the 
 time of Leo X. and his Union bull, these 
 divisions have been reduced to three—the 
 Observants, the Conventuals, and the Cap¬ 
 uchins, all of whom belong to the first 
 order of the Franciscans; and they are the 
 survivals of a much more numerous divis¬ 
 ion. The Observants are supposed to 
 keep the rule of Francis with some strict¬ 
 ness, and they take the first rank among 
 Franciscans; their minister-general has pre¬ 
 eminence. The Conventuals follow the 
 rule of Francis with certain relaxations, 
 permitted by' successive popes. Their gen¬ 
 eral has to De confirmed by’ the great min- 
 
Fra 
 
 ( 34U ) 
 
 F're 
 
 istcr-general, but otherwise they are inde¬ 
 pendent. Since 1528 the Capuchins have 
 had an independent general under the min¬ 
 ister-general.”— Ency. Britannica , vol. ix. 
 p. 698. (See Capuchins.) 
 
 The Franciscan nuns were founded by 
 Clara of Assisi. Of noble birth (1193), she 
 left her home and found refuge under the 
 protectioh of Francis at the Portiuncula, 
 where she was joined by three of her sis¬ 
 ters and other ladies, and founded the 
 order, which spread rapidly. Like the 
 friars, they have divisions of varying sti ict- 
 ness of rule. Another of the Franciscan 
 orders is known as the Tertiaries. They 
 consist of lay brethren and sisters in the 
 monasteries, and also of men and women 
 who live in society outside, who have 
 taken the third rule. This rule was adapt¬ 
 ed to meet the wants of those who wish to 
 live a higher religious life, but whose cir¬ 
 cumstances would not permit them to en¬ 
 ter the monastic. Among the distinguished 
 theologians who have belonged to the 
 Franciscans are found the names of Hales, 
 John Duns Scotus, and William of Ocean. 
 See Francis, St. 
 
 Francke, August Hermann, a distin¬ 
 guished German philanthropist; b. at Lii- 
 beck, 1663; d. at Haile, 1727. After com¬ 
 pleting his thelogical studies he developed 
 great devotion and deep piety. His views 
 did not meet with approval from the author¬ 
 ities, and he was compelled to give up his 
 work as a lecturer at Leipzig, and soon 
 after he was driven from his pulpit at 
 Erfurt In 1691 he was appointed profess¬ 
 or of Oriental languages at Halle, and 
 was permitted to hold his pietistic opin¬ 
 ions without further opposition. In the 
 autumn of 1695 he received an orphan into 
 his home. The number soon increased, 
 and in 1698 the foundations of the orphan 
 asylum were laid, which gave shelter to 
 over two thousand children before the 
 death of Francke. Departments of indus¬ 
 trial work and training have been added, 
 and it is now one of the greatest publish¬ 
 ing establishments of Germany. This was 
 the first orphan asylum, and is still one of 
 the greatest in the world. See R. Brown: 
 A. H. Francke and the Orphanage at Halle 
 (Philadelphia, Am. S. S. Union, 1884). 
 
 Frankfurt Concordat. See Concordat. 
 
 Frankfurt, The Council of, a synod of 
 great importance, held at Frankfurt-on-the- 
 Main, 794. It was convened by Charle¬ 
 magne, and attended by three hundred 
 bishops. Among the fifty - six canons 
 adopted by the council was one condemn¬ 
 ing Felix and Elipandus, the propagators 
 
 of the Adoption heresy, and another con¬ 
 demning the second Council of Nicjea and 
 the worship of images. 
 
 Franks, the name of powerful confeder¬ 
 ate German tribes who established them¬ 
 selves in the Roman Empire in the fifth 
 century. Crowding the Goths into the 
 southern part of France they established a 
 kingdom, and entered into alliance with the 
 clergy of the Roman Church. The first 
 dynasty, known as the Merovingian, was 
 ruled by Clovis; the second, the Carlovin- 
 gian, was named after Charles Martel. His 
 grandson was Charlemagne, under whom, 
 in 800, the Roman Empire was restored. 
 It was known as the “ Holy Roman Em¬ 
 pire,” and existed until 1806, when the 
 changes brought about by Napoleon put an 
 end to it. 
 
 Fraternity, “ the name of associations in 
 the Roman Catholic Church which pursue 
 special religious and ecclesiastical pur¬ 
 poses, observe corresponding statutes and 
 religious exercises, and are endowed with 
 indulgences, and sometimes with other 
 privileges. Among the purposes to which 
 fraternities are devoted are the nursing of 
 the sick, support of the poor, the practice 
 of a special devotion to some part of the 
 Roman Catholic worship, the veneration 
 of a particular saint,etc.”—McClintock and 
 Strong: Ency. 
 
 Frederick III., The Pious, Elector of the 
 Palatinate, 1559-76. He united with the 
 Lutheran Church in 1549. In the contro¬ 
 versy that broke out between the Lutheran 
 and Reformed theologians he finally es¬ 
 poused the cause of the Calvinists, and 
 exerted great influence in advancing the 
 interests of the Reformed Church, both in 
 France and the Netherlands. The Heidel¬ 
 berg Catechism was prepared under his 
 special oversight. 
 
 Frederick III., The Wise, Elector of 
 Saxony, was b. at Torgau, Jan. 17, 1463, 
 and d. at Lochau, May 5, 1525. He was 
 the founder of the University of Witten¬ 
 berg, and appointed Luther and Melanch- 
 thon as professors. He did not commit 
 himself to the Reformation, but in many 
 ways shielded Luther from harm. It was 
 at his suggestion that Luther was removed 
 to the Wartburg after the Diet of Worms. 
 
 Free Congregations (Friends of Light, 
 Protestant Friends), an organization of 
 German rationalists who have formally 
 seceded from the State Church. In 1844 a 
 hundred and thirty theologians and about 
 five hundred laymen, at a meeting at Cor- 
 
Fre 
 
 ( 347 ) 
 
 Fre 
 
 then, listened to addresses from their lead¬ 
 ers, which openly rejected the doctrines of 
 hereditary sin, atonement, the trinity, and 
 the divinity of Christ. Wislicenus, then 
 pastor at Halle, took even a more advanced 
 rationalistic stand than this. The author¬ 
 ities interfered at this, and he separated 
 from the Established Church and organized 
 a Free Congregation at Halle. Other con¬ 
 gregations were formed, which in 1847 were 
 combined with the German Catholics. In 
 1868 there were a hundred and twenty-one 
 Free Congregations in Germany,with about 
 twenty-five thousand members. There are 
 congregations in Philadelphia, St. Louis 
 and Hoboken. They fraternize with all 
 classes of freethinkers. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland. See Scot¬ 
 land, Free Church of. 
 
 Freemantle, Rev. The Honorable Wil¬ 
 liam Henry, Church of England; b. at 
 Swanbourne, Buckinghamshire, Dec. 12, 
 1831; educated at Oxford. Ordained in 
 1856, he became rector of St. Mary’s, Bry- 
 anstone Square, London, 1866-83; fellow 
 and tutor of Balliol College, Oxford, since 
 1882; Bampton lecturer in 1883. He is 
 the author of: The Doctrine of Reconciliation 
 to God through Jesus Christ (1870); The Gos¬ 
 pel of the Secular Life (1882); The World 
 as the Subject of Redemption (Bampton Lec¬ 
 tures, 1885). 
 
 Free Religious Association, organized at 
 Boston, Mass., May 30, 1867. The object 
 of the Association, as declared in its con¬ 
 stitution, is to emancipate religion from 
 sectarian limits, encourage the scientific 
 method in the study of theology, and per¬ 
 mit the utmost freedom of personal opin¬ 
 ion. Mr. O. B. Frothingham was the first 
 president. The leaders in this movement 
 are prominent freethinkers, and the Index , 
 of Boston, is its organ. 
 
 Free-Spirit Brethren. See Brethren of 
 the Free Spirit. 
 
 Freethinkers, a name applied to those 
 who deny the truth of revealed religion. 
 It was first used to designate the deists of 
 England. More recently the term has be¬ 
 come a synonym for rationalism and infi¬ 
 delity. See Deism; Rationalism. 
 
 Free-Will Baptists. The first church of 
 this denomination was organized at New 
 Durham, N. H., in 1780, by Benjamin 
 Randell, a convert of George Whitefield. 
 They baptize by immersion, but are open 
 communionists. In doctrine they are Ar- 
 minians, and their church government is 
 
 intermediate between the Congregational 
 and the Presbyterian. The churches are 
 independent organizations, the members of 
 which are governed by elders and deacons. 
 There is no court of appeal from their de¬ 
 cisions. The Quarterly Meeting is com¬ 
 posed of two or more ministers who vol¬ 
 untarily unite together. The Yearly Meet¬ 
 ings are composed of two or more Quar¬ 
 terly Meetings, and the General Conference 
 is composed of delegates from the Yearly 
 Meetings, and is called together triennially. 
 These associations are simply advisory in 
 their relation to each other. The Free- 
 Will Baptist Foreign Mission Society was 
 organized in 1833, and has been especially 
 successful in its work in India. A Home 
 Mission Society was formed in 1834, and 
 an Education Society in 1840. Hillsdale 
 College, in Michigan, and Bates College, 
 in Maine, are sustained by this denomina¬ 
 tion. They have a publication house lo¬ 
 cated at Boston, Mass., from which is 
 published the Morning Star , a weekly 
 paper. They now number 82,686 members 
 and have 1,531 churches and 1,314 minis¬ 
 ters. 
 
 Frelinghausen, Johann Anastasius, a 
 German hymn writer and a prominent 
 leader of the Pietistic movement in Ger¬ 
 many; b. at Gandersheim, near Wolfen- 
 biittel, in Hanover, Dec. 2, 1670; d. at 
 Halle, Feb. 12, 1739. He studied theology 
 with Francke, the founder of the Orphan 
 House at Halle, and married his only 
 daughter. He was an active and efficient 
 teacher and pastor, and wrote several 
 works on theology. Many of his hymns 
 still find a place in German hymn-books. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Hon. Theodore, an emi¬ 
 nent Christian statesman, was born at 
 Franklin, N. J., March 2S, 1787; and d. at 
 New Brunswick, N. J., April 12, 1861. 
 From 1817 to 1S29 he w T as attorney-general 
 of New Jersey, and served for one term in 
 the Senate of the United States. In 1839 
 he became chancellor of the University of 
 the City of New York, and in 1S50 he ac¬ 
 cepted the presidency of Rutgers College, 
 New Brunswick, N. T., where he remained 
 until his death. His character and influ¬ 
 ence are seen in the fact that at different 
 times he was president of the American 
 Bible Society, the American Tract Society, 
 and the American Board of Commissioners 
 for Foreign Missions. See Memoir, by T. 
 W. Chambers, D. D. (N. Y., 1861). 
 
 French Prophets were Camisards who 
 visited England in 1706, and announced the 
 speedy establishment of Christ’s King- 
 I dom. For a time they gained the adher- 
 
Fri 
 
 ( 348 ) 
 
 Fri 
 
 ence of several distinguished men, but 
 their fanatical zeal soon involved them in 
 failure and disgrace. 
 
 French Protestantism. See France, 
 Protestantism in. 
 
 French Reformed Church. See Hugue¬ 
 nots. 
 
 Friendly Islands were discovered by Tas¬ 
 man in 1643, but were named by Capt. 
 Cook. The first attempt to introduce 
 Christianity was made in 1797. Of the ten 
 missionaries, three were murdered, and 
 the rest were robbed and left in a suffer¬ 
 ing condition. They finally, in 1800, took 
 passage in a ship sailing to New South 
 Wales. In 1822 the Wesleyan Missionary 
 Society sent a missionary to the Islands. 
 Others followed in 1825-27. Converts 
 were made; the Chief of the island of Li- 
 fuka became a believer, schools were 
 opened, and in 1834 a great religious re¬ 
 vival extended to many of the islands. 
 King George Tubou was an active Chris¬ 
 tian worker. One of the last reports gave 
 ’ 126 churches, 8,200 members, and 17,000 
 attendants in worship. In 1869 they raised 
 $1,500 for missionary purposes. 
 
 Friends, The Society of, a religious 
 body, commonly known by the name of 
 “ Quakers,” founded in 1646 by George 
 Fox, the son of a Leicestershire weaver, 
 whose tenets stand in the strongest antag¬ 
 onism to what we may call external 
 worship, and who, it has been well said, 
 offer the remarkable spectacle of a Chris¬ 
 tian body “without a creed, a liturgy, a 
 priesthood, or a sacrament.” The name 
 Quakers was given to the Friends by Ger- 
 vase Bennett, a magistrate, on Fox exhort¬ 
 ing him to tremble at the Word of God. 
 Fox was only twenty-two when he com¬ 
 menced to preach his doctrines. Amongst 
 these, he taught that preaching, to be effect¬ 
 ual, must come from the direct operation 
 of the Holy Spirit on the soul, and that, 
 therefore, it was not necessary to have a 
 separate order of men educated for the 
 ministry, but that the humblest person, 
 whether male or female, who had an inward 
 call from the Spirit of God, was qualified 
 for the office of a Christian preacher. He 
 abandoned all the ceremonies which the 
 Reformation had allowed to survive, even 
 the rites of baptism and the celebration of 
 the Lord’s Supper, holding them as out¬ 
 ward signs which had in them the danger 
 of gradually coming to be regarded as pos¬ 
 sessing in themselves the saving power 
 which they were meant only to represent. 
 He allowed no prescribed form of devotion, 
 
 saying that the silent converse of the soul 
 is as acceptable a worship to God as the 
 utterance of prayer and praise. He opposed 
 all adornment of places of worship, the use 
 of music in the praise of God, and the ob¬ 
 servance of fasts, whether national or pri¬ 
 vate. As regards other matters, there is 
 ample evidence that Fox and his early col¬ 
 leagues, as a body, held firmly what are 
 commonly understood as the fundamental 
 truths of the Gospel, which are set forth 
 with great clearness in a letter on Christian 
 doctrine addressed to the Governor of Bar- 
 badoes in 1671. At a somewhat later pe¬ 
 riod the writings of Renn and Barclay gave 
 a more dogmatic form to the principles of 
 the Society. 
 
 The Friends profess to endeavor to carry 
 out the admonitions of the New Testament 
 in a literal and practical sense, and to ob¬ 
 serve the spirit of Christ’s teaching in all 
 the relations of life. Thus, in obedience 
 to the injunction not to swear , they refuse 
 to take an oath in a court of justice; to love 
 our enemies they consider involves a denun¬ 
 ciation of all war, and consequently refuse 
 to take military service; not to render honor 
 to each other was carried out by ignoring 
 the usual complimentary salutations and 
 honorary titles, and by addressing every 
 individual by the Christian name, and the 
 singular pronouns “thee” and “thou.” 
 They also adopted great simplicity of dress 
 and manner, and refused to join in any 
 frivolous amusement, such as cards, danc¬ 
 ing, etc., even discouraging music and art. 
 These points were formerly general, and 
 even carried to great extremes; but of late 
 years considerable change has been observ¬ 
 able in the practice of the Society in these 
 respects, especially amongst the younger 
 members. The greater portion of these 
 now speak and dress plainly and unobtru¬ 
 sively, but otherwise like other people; and 
 quite recently the Yearly Meeting author¬ 
 itatively withdrew the customary insistence 
 upon “ plainness of speech, behavior, and 
 apparel,” leaving such matters to the con¬ 
 science of individual members, whilst art 
 and literature are no longer frowned upon. 
 
 Whilst professing to bring all questions 
 to the test of the Holy Scriptures, the Di¬ 
 vine authority of which is fully acknowl¬ 
 edged, Friends believe that the help of the 
 same Spirit who inspired them is needful 
 for their right understanding, and that, 
 moreover, the light of the Spirit truly 
 shines in the heart of man, and if heeded, 
 and its teaching humbly obeyed, is a pres¬ 
 ent guide and director to him. This doc¬ 
 trine of the “ Inward Light,” which they 
 believe is given to all men—heathen as well 
 as Christian—in sufficient measure, is their 
 central, cardinal, and principal doctrine. 
 
Fri 
 
 ( 349 ) 
 
 Fri 
 
 In their public worship, therefore, they 
 wait in silence for the immediate influence 
 of the Spirit on the heart, allowing those to 
 engage in preaching or prayer—both men 
 and women—who really believe themselves 
 called of God to do so, and give evidence, 
 acceptable to their brethren, of true spirit¬ 
 ual gifts, as well as of sincerity and Chris¬ 
 tian consistency. They allow at such meet¬ 
 ings no stated reading, even of the Script¬ 
 ures, and formerly these were never read 
 at all in their public worship; but of late, 
 in many meetings, the practice of publicly 
 reading a portion of Scripture at the com¬ 
 mencement of the meeting is adopted. 
 They do not, however, consider themselves 
 to be dependent upon any audible ministry 
 whatever, regarding the silent worship of 
 the assembled members, if so it be, as a 
 quite normal state of things—as equally 
 acceptable to God, and equally beneficial to 
 those who can engage in it. They attach 
 no peculiar sanctity to one day more than 
 another,'regarding the Sabbath as a Jewish 
 institution done away with by Christianity, 
 and all days alike, as claimed by the Son of 
 Man; but they consider it in accordance 
 with the Divine will to give up one day 
 out of seven to public worship and to the 
 good of others, as well as to rest and medi¬ 
 tation. 
 
 The discipline of the community of 
 Friends is much the same as the Presby¬ 
 terian. They have three gradations of 
 meetings: Monthly Meetings , composed of 
 the congregations from a definite circuit, 
 who choose Elders to watch over the minis¬ 
 try, and Overseers to attend to the education 
 of the children of such members as are in 
 humble circumstances, to the provision for 
 the poor, and to various other duties. At 
 these meetings marriages are sanctioned, 
 previous to their ratification in public wor¬ 
 ship—the Friends holding marriage to be 
 “ not a mere civil compact, but a Divine 
 ordinance, and that it is the prerogative of 
 God alone to join persons in that solemn 
 covenant, and the interference of a priest is 
 an assumption altogether unwarranted by 
 Holy Scripture, or the example of the 
 primitive Church.” Quarterly Meetings are 
 held to receive general reports from the 
 monthly meetings, and to hear appeals 
 from their decisions; and the Yearly Meet¬ 
 ing has the general superintendence of the 
 Society in the whole of a particular coun¬ 
 try, that held in London comprehending the 
 whole of Great Britain. Formal discipline 
 or organization was, at its inception, con¬ 
 sidered inconsistent with their own princi¬ 
 pal tenet by many of the earlier Friends, 
 and much resisted by Story and others. 
 
 From their rise till the Revolution, the 
 Friends were much persecuted, except dur¬ 
 
 ing a brief period of Charles II.’s reign, 
 when Fox obtained some indulgence for his 
 followers. These early persecutions were 
 largely connected with their refusal to 
 swear, and to acknowledge ecclesiastical 
 supremacy by the payment of tithes and 
 Church-rates; but no doubt were consider¬ 
 ably increased by the obtrusive manner in 
 which some of them “ testified ” against 
 “ man-ministry ” and respect to human au¬ 
 thorities. There can be no question that 
 some of the excesses of the earlier members 
 —as Nayler and others—were really due to 
 disorder of mind, caused by excitement, in 
 an age peculiarly given to religious fanat¬ 
 icism.* Since 1688 the Friends have bene¬ 
 fited by the Toleration Act. In 1S33 the 
 British Legislature recognized the objec¬ 
 tion of Friends to taking oaths, and the 
 simple affirmation of a Friend has since that 
 time been accepted in place of it. This, 
 the legal recognition of their marriages, 
 and other privileges, have been won solely 
 by the power of passive resistance, and are 
 a singular proof of the efficacy of it. 
 
 By the year 1652 the Society of Friends 
 had spread through all the northern coun¬ 
 ties, and by the time of the Restoration 
 there were meetings not only throughout 
 Great Britain and Ireland, but in the West 
 Indies and British America. They are 
 more numerous now in America than in 
 England. The founding of the colony of 
 Pennsylvania by William Penn induced 
 many of the British Friends to emigrate 
 thither, and the free institutions of the New 
 World favored the increase of the Quaker 
 communities in other States also. Like 
 other bodies, they have been somewhat 
 weakened by division or secession; indeed, 
 their leading tenet was peculiarly likely to 
 lead to great differences of view, and there 
 can be little doubt that some of the earlier 
 and stricter Friends placed the inward 
 teaching of the Spirit in reality above that 
 of the Scriptures themselves. This doc¬ 
 trine of the “ Inward Light” was pushed 
 to excess in the earlier part of the present 
 
 * James Nayler had formerly been an officer in 
 Cromwell’s army, a fact which increased the fury of 
 his Puritan persecutors. At an early stage of his dis¬ 
 order he was remonstrated with, and finally disowned 
 by Friends for his excesses, and was punished in the 
 most barbarous and torturing manner, to which death 
 would have been preferable, both at London and Bris¬ 
 tol, bearing his sufferings with unexampled fortitude. 
 For a full account of them see Sewell’s History 0/ 
 Friends, and also Seyer’s History 0/ Bristol. At a 
 later period, when Nayler returned to his right mind, 
 he himself recanted his errors, expressed deep repent¬ 
 ance for his excesses, was received again by his friends 
 into full communion, and died in perfect peace. Noth¬ 
 ing can be more distressing than to read how men who 
 chiefly needed the kind care of a judicious physician 
 were tortured in a manner worthy of the Inquisition; 
 while in New England, not only male but female Friends 
 were actually hung by the Puritans for returning after 
 banishment. 
 
Fri 
 
 ( 350 ) 
 
 Fri 
 
 century by Elias Hicks, a very popular 
 minister in the United States, and a man of 
 remarkable powers. He ultimately em¬ 
 braced—if he had not held them all along 
 —- Unitarian views, which were widely 
 spread amongst other American Friends; 
 and the result of the controversy which 
 could not but arise upon such a vital point, 
 was a great schism, about one-half of the 
 body in America seceding, and being known 
 as Hicksite Friends, holding Arian views, 
 and the remainder being known as Ortho¬ 
 dox Friends. The reaction against the 
 Hicksites was carried too far, in the opinion 
 of some of the stricter of the Orthodox 
 Friends, and the result was a second small 
 secession, who followed John Wilbur, and 
 who adhere more closely than the main 
 body to the peculiarities and original tenets 
 of the founders of the Society. In England 
 Friends were almost unanimously ortho¬ 
 dox, and the Hicksite controversy excited 
 great alarm. Isaac Crewdson, an acknowl¬ 
 edged minister of Manchester, published a 
 small book called The Beacon , containing 
 extracts from the writings of older Friends, 
 of which many could be cited placing the 
 “ Inward Light” apparently above the au¬ 
 thority of Scripture, and pointing out their 
 dangerous tendency. Such a course pro¬ 
 voked retorts, in which many joined who 
 Uvere as orthodox as Crewdson and his 
 party, but who resented the implied cen¬ 
 sure brought upon their predecessors. This 
 controversy—known amongst Friends as 
 The BeacoJi controversy, from the title of 
 Crewdson’s publication — also grew in 
 sharpness, and the result was that all over 
 the United Kingdom a considerable num¬ 
 ber of Friends left the Society. This seces¬ 
 sion, however (about 1836), was merely of 
 individuals, who mostly joined other Chris¬ 
 tian bodies, and never became a separate 
 communion. The body in England, so far 
 as know'n, is now not only uniformly ortho¬ 
 dox, but in practice, as pointed out above, 
 has approximated perceptibly in many 
 points to that of other Christians, especial¬ 
 ly in regard to greater recognition of the 
 desirability of audible ministry, and the 
 partial use of the Scriptures in public wor¬ 
 ship. In at least one large mission con¬ 
 ducted by Friends (at Bristol) even hymns 
 are employed, as at ordinary mission-halls; 
 and although the Friends would not con¬ 
 sider such a meeting as one of their own, 
 still such practice marks a change, which 
 in the early part of the present century it 
 would have been impossible to foresee. 
 This change is distinctly traceable to the 
 controversy here briefly described, and 
 gives it considerable importance in the his¬ 
 tory of the Society. 
 
 The number of Friends in Great Britain 
 
 and Ireland is about 18,000, to which should 
 be added about 5,000 regular attendants of 
 their worship, though not formally in mem¬ 
 bership, which is guarded somewhat strict¬ 
 ly. There are small communities in the 
 south of France, Germany, Norway, etc. 
 They are most numerous in America, 
 where they number 80,000, and the total 
 number in the whole world is not far from 
 127,000. They have at no time exceeded 
 200,000 in total numbers, and nothing is 
 more remarkable than the extraordinary 
 influence in religious, social, and even po¬ 
 litical life exercised by so small a body. Ow¬ 
 ing to their rejection of any paid ministry, 
 they are not able to “ organize ” foreign 
 missions on any large scale, but of late 
 years an association has been formed by 
 some members, which supports missions in 
 Madagascar, worked in harmony with the 
 London Missionary Society; one in Pales¬ 
 tine conducted by Theophilus Waldemeir, 
 one of the captives rescued by our country 
 from King John of Abyssinia, and in India. 
 They have also some mission work in 
 Japan, and even in Constantinople. What 
 they do is very thoroughly done. Their 
 principle is that all should be done for love, 
 and nothing for payment; and ministers 
 who are led to engage in any service from 
 home, are entertained freely by other 
 Friends, or have their wants supplied. 
 Their home mission work, however, is 
 very large, and very practical in character, 
 especially as regards their Sabbath-schools. 
 —Benham: Dictionary of Religion. 
 
 The Friends in the United States provide 
 that all of their number shall have the ad¬ 
 vantages of a good practical education. 
 They have colleges at Haverford, Penn., 
 Richmond, Ind., Wilmington, O., and Os- 
 kaloosa, Io., and one for young women at 
 Bryn Mawr, Penn. The Hicksites (so 
 called), are a branch of the Friends found 
 only in America, with a membership of 
 about twenty-five thousand. They have 
 a flourishing college for both sexes at 
 Swarthmore, near Philadelphia. (See 
 Hicks, Elias.) 
 
 Literature. — George Fox: Journals 
 (London, 1694; Phila., 1852); Robert Bar¬ 
 clay: An Apology for the True Christianity , 
 etc. (Amsterdam, 1676, 12th ed., 1855, 
 Philadelphia); William Sew r ell: History 
 of the People called Quakers (London. 
 1722); William Penn: Select Works (Lon¬ 
 don, 1771) ; John Woolman : Journal 
 (1775, ed. with preface by J. G. Whit¬ 
 tier, Boston, 1871); Thomas Evans: Ex¬ 
 position of the Faith of the Friends ; James 
 Bowden : History of Friends in America 
 (London, 1850); Charles Evans, M. D.: 
 Friends in the Seventeenth Century (Phila., 
 1875); Frances Anne Budge: Annals of the 
 
 
Fri 
 
 ( 351 ) 
 
 Ful 
 
 Early Friends (London, 1877). For history 
 of the Hicksites, see Elias Hicks: Extem¬ 
 poraneous Discourses (Phila., 1825); Journal 
 (N. Y., 1832); Letters^ N. Y., 1834); Samuel 
 M. Janney : History of Friends (Phila., 
 1859-67). 4 vols. 
 
 Friends of God, the name of a body of 
 mystics which sprang up in Western Ger¬ 
 many during the fourteenth century. They 
 never organized a sect, but held com¬ 
 munication through letters and personal 
 intercourse. They lived simple, devout 
 lives, and protested earnestly against the 
 corruptions that had crept into the Church. 
 John Tauler was their great preacher, and 
 Nicholas of Basel their most prominent 
 leader. See Neander: Church History , v. 
 380; Milman: Latin Christianity , viii. 399. 
 
 Friends of Light. See Free Congre¬ 
 gations. 
 
 Frith, John, an English reformer and 
 martyr; b. at Sevenoaks, Kent, about 1503; 
 d. at'the stake, 1533. He was educated at 
 Oxford, and became acquainted with Tyn- 
 dale, through whose influence he espoused 
 the cause of the Reformation. He was 
 imprisoned, but escaped, and retired to 
 the Continent. After an absence of two 
 years he returned to England, and engaged 
 in a discussion with Sir Thomas More, in 
 which he denied the doctrine of purgatory, 
 efficacy of papal indulgences, and the doc¬ 
 trine of transubstantiation. He was im¬ 
 prisoned at Newgate, and finally tried, 
 condemned, and burned at Smithfield. His 
 writings are published in vol. iii. of the 
 Writings of the Brit. Fathers (London, 
 Rel. Tract Soc.). 
 
 Frumentius. See Abyssinian Church. 
 
 Fry, Elizabeth, an eminent philanthro¬ 
 pist; b. near Norwich, Eng., May 21, 1780; 
 d. at Ramsgate, Oct. 13, 1845. Her father, 
 John Gurney, was a Quaker. Engaging in 
 manners, and thoughtful of the welfare of 
 the poor, she was skeptical, and took little 
 interest in the subject of religion until 
 brought under the influence of the preach¬ 
 ing of William Savery, an American Quak¬ 
 er. At the age of twenty she married 
 Joseph Fry, a wealthy merchant of Lon¬ 
 don. In the spirit of a noble consecration, 
 she entered upon an enlarged career of 
 usefulness. As early as 1813 her attention 
 was called to the miserable condition of 
 the female prisoners in Newgate. Through 
 personal visitation and preaching, she ac¬ 
 complished a great work of moral refor¬ 
 mation, and ministered to their necessities 
 of body and mind. A school and indus¬ 
 
 trial department were opened within the 
 prison. Through her efforts similar im¬ 
 provements were made in other penal 
 establishments. She also visited the pris¬ 
 ons of France, Belgium, Germany, and 
 Holland, and sought to interest the author¬ 
 ities in their reform. Besides her labors in 
 this direction,"she was deeply interested in 
 the abolition of slavery, and actively en¬ 
 gaged in the work of furnishing libraries 
 of religious and instructive reading for the 
 use of British sailors, both in the marine 
 and naval service. In the midst of her 
 great public labors, she carefully reared a 
 large family. Her Memoirs , with Extracts 
 from her Jo^irnals and Letters , edited by her 
 two daughters, were published in 1847. 
 
 Fulda, Monastery of, one of the most 
 remarkable institutions of its kind, found¬ 
 ed under Benedictine rule in 744 by Sturm, 
 a pupil of St. Boniface, the apostle of Ger¬ 
 many. It was richly endowed by Pepin 
 and Charlemagne, and became the centre 
 of German learning and progress. It was 
 not destroyed at the Reformation, but its 
 wealth was lost, and its influence has 
 waned since that time. 
 
 Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe, in Africa; 
 b. at Telepte, in North Africa, in 468; d. 
 at Ruspe, Jan. 1, 533. He was made bishop 
 in 508, and two years later banished from 
 Africa by the Vandal king, Thrasimund 
 (who was an Arian), to Cagliari, Sardinia. 
 In 523 he was allowed to return. He was 
 recognized as one of the strongest oppo¬ 
 nents of the Arians. See his works in 
 Migne: Pat. Lat. LXV. 
 
 Fulke, William, D. D., a famous Puri¬ 
 tan divine; b. in London, 1538; d. at Den- 
 nington, Suffolk, Aug. 28, 1589. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and in 1578 was 
 elected Master of Pembroke Hall and Mar¬ 
 garet professor of divinity. “ In force of 
 argument he was one of the ablest divines 
 of his time, and one of the principal oppo¬ 
 nents of the Roman Church.” He was a 
 prolific writer. 
 
 Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist 
 divine and theologian, b. at Wicken, Cam¬ 
 bridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1754; d. at Kettering, 
 May 7, 1815. The son of a small farmer, 
 his early educational advantages were lim¬ 
 ited. In his seventeenth year he united 
 with the Baptist Church at Soham, and 
 soon developed such gifts as a speaker 
 that he was called to its pastorate. In 1782 
 he removed to Kettering, where he came 
 into close relation with Drs. Ryland, Hall, 
 and other prominent ministers. While at 
 Soham he began the theological studies 
 
Ful 
 
 ( 352 ) 
 
 Fur 
 
 which were embodied in his treatise pub¬ 
 lished under the title, The Gospel Worthy 
 of all Acceptance. This work sought to 
 counteract hyper - Calvinistic views then 
 prevalent. It involved him in discussions 
 that covered a period of nearly twenty 
 years; but the ultimate result was the gen¬ 
 eral acceptance of the fundamental principle 
 which he advocated, “ that all may apply 
 for the gospel, confidently expecting to re¬ 
 ceive its benefits.” Another of his princi¬ 
 pal works, The Gospel its Own Wittiess, is 
 an able criticism of Deism. The attacks 
 made upon this volume by Toulmin and 
 Kentish led to the preparation of The Cal¬ 
 vinistic and Socinian Systems Examined, 
 which Robert Hall pronounced his great¬ 
 est work. Fuller was a man of deep relig¬ 
 ious convictions and profound intellectual 
 vigor. His friend and biographer (Dr. 
 Ryland) called him, “the most judicious 
 and able theological writer that ever be¬ 
 longed to the Baptist denomination.” Not 
 only was he a great theologian, but as one 
 of the founders of the Baptist Missionary 
 Society, and secretary from its organiza¬ 
 tion in 1792, until his death in 1815, his 
 name must be enrolled among the ablest 
 leaders and workers in the cause of mis¬ 
 sions. His Complete Works {Am. ed., 1833, 
 2 vols.), with memoir by his son, were 
 published under the direction of Dr. Ry¬ 
 land (London. 1816). 
 
 Fuller, Richard, D. D., an eminent Bap¬ 
 tist minister; b. in Beaufort, S. C., April 
 22, 1804; d. in Baltimore, Oct. 20, 1876. 
 He was graduated at Harvard (1824), and 
 became a successful lawyer. Converted 
 under the preaching of the revivalist, 
 Daniel Baker, in 1831, he joined the Bap¬ 
 tist Church and began to preach in his na¬ 
 tive place. He was called to the pastorate 
 of the Seventh Baptist Church, in Balti¬ 
 more, in 1847, where he labored until his 
 death. The fame of his eloquence drew 
 large congregations. He published: Letters 
 on the Roman Chancery ( Balt., 1840); Bap¬ 
 tism and Communion (Balt., 1849), and many 
 sermons. SeeCuthbert: Life of R. Fuller, 
 (N. Y. 1879). 
 
 Fuller, Thomas, the Church historian, 
 was born in 1608, at Aldwinckle, in North¬ 
 amptonshire, of which place his father was 
 the clergyman. He went in 1620 to Queen’s 
 College, Cambridge, and became M. A. in 
 1628. He was ordained, and in 1638 be¬ 
 came prebendary of Salisbury. Here he 
 wrote his first literary work, a poem which 
 is now forgotten. From Salisbury he went 
 to Dorset, becoming rector of Broadwind- 
 sor. While here he married, but his wife 
 soon died. In 1640 he wrote his first prose 
 
 work, The Holy War: a History of the Cru¬ 
 sades, and in the same year became member 
 of the Convocation at Westminster. Two 
 years after appeared his Holy and Profane 
 State. He had given great offence to the 
 Puritans by a sermon which he had preach¬ 
 ed at the Abbey; now, refusing to take an 
 oath to the Parliament, except on certain 
 reservations, he joined the king’s party at 
 Oxford, where he managed in the pulpit to 
 disgust the Royalists as much as he had 
 the Roundheads. However, he obtained a 
 chaplaincy in the royal army, and employed 
 his leisure time, while travelling through 
 the country, in collecting materials for his 
 future work, The Worthies of England. In 
 1648 the Earl of Carlisle presented him to 
 the rectory of Waltham. Here he imme¬ 
 diately set about the quaintest of all his 
 writings, Palestine. He managed to pass 
 the “ Triers,” and continued his ministerial 
 functions during the Commonwealth. In 
 1656 he wrote his Church History of Britain, 
 to which was appended the History of Cam¬ 
 bridge and of Waltham Abbey. In 165S he 
 was presented to the living of Cranford, in 
 Middlesex, and was within sight of a 
 bishopric at the Restoration, when he died 
 in 1661. He was buried at Cranford. 
 
 The chief characteristics of Fuller’s writ¬ 
 ings are their quaintness and humor, which 
 show themselves in every page—indeed, 
 in almost every line. His works are very 
 voluminous, but never grow tedious. 
 Wherever the reader opens one there is al¬ 
 ways something to instruct and amuse. 
 He is rarely satirical, and the little satire 
 he shows is never bitter, but always good- 
 natured. He has been compared to Jeremy 
 Taylor and Edmund Burke, but in some 
 points is very unlike both. See a very 
 brilliant essay upon his life and works by 
 Mr. Henry Rogers.—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. 
 
 ' Funk, Isaac Kaufmann, D. D. (Witten¬ 
 berg College,Springfield, O., 1S82), Luther¬ 
 an (General Synod); b. at Clifton, Greene 
 County, O., Sept. 10, 1S39; was graduated 
 at Wittenberg College, i860; entered the 
 ministry, 1S61; pastor in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 1S65-72; associate editor of the Christian 
 Radical , Pittsburg, Pa., 1872-73; editor of 
 the Union Advocate, New York, 1873-75; 
 of the Metropolitan Pulpit, 1876, and Com¬ 
 plete Preacher, 1877, combined in Homi¬ 
 letic Monthly, 1878, now called Homiletic 
 Review. He is the head of the well-known 
 firm of Funk & Wagnalls, founded in 1S77. 
 
 Furness, William Henry, D. D. (Har¬ 
 vard, 1847), LL. D. (Columbia, 18S7), Uni¬ 
 tarian; b. in Boston, Mass., April 20, 1802; 
 was graduated at Harvard College, 1S20; 
 
Fun 
 
 ( 353 ) 
 
 Gal 
 
 pastor of the First Unitarian Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, Philadelphia, 1825, where 
 he remained until his retirement in 1875. 
 He has published several volumes treating 
 upon the life and work of Jesus. Among 
 them are : Remarks on the Four Gospels 
 (Philadelphia, 1835); Jesus and His Biog¬ 
 raphers (1838); A History of Jesus (1850, 
 2d ed., Boston, 1853); Thoughts on the Life 
 and Character of Jesus of Nazareth (Boston, 
 1859); The Veil Partly Lifted, and Jesus 
 Becoming Visible (1864); The Unconscious 
 Truth of the Four Gospels (Philadelphia, 
 1868); Jesus (1871); The Power of Spirit 
 Manifested in Jesus of Nazareth (1877); 
 The Story of the Resurrection Told Once 
 More (1885). He also translated Schenkel’s 
 Character of Jesus Portrayed (Boston,1866), 
 2 vols. 
 
 Funeral. See Burial. 
 
 Future Punishment. See Punishment, 
 Future. 
 
 Future State. See Eschatology. 
 
 a. 
 
 Gab'batha {platform), the name of a 
 place, called also “ the pavement,” where 
 the judgment seat or bema was situated, 
 from which Pilate delivered our Lord to 
 death. (John xix. 13.) The judgment hall 
 was the Praetorium, on the western hill of 
 Jerusalem, and the Gabbatha was probably 
 a tessellated pavement outside the hall. 
 
 Ga'briel {champion of God), the angelic 
 messenger sent to explain to Daniel the 
 vision of the ram and he-goat (Dan. vii.), 
 and the prediction of the Seventy Weeks. 
 (Dan. ix. 21-27.) He announced the birth 
 of John the Baptist to his father Zacha- 
 rias (Luke i. 11), and that of the Messiah 
 to the Virgin Mary. (Luke i. 26.) In the 
 Book of Enoch he is described as one of 
 the four great archangels. The Targum 
 speaks of him as the angel who smote the 
 host of Sennacherib. The Mohammedans 
 regard him with peculiar reverence as the 
 medium of divine revelation. They call 
 him the “Holy Spirit” and “Spirit of 
 Truth.” 
 
 Gad, “ properly ‘ the Gad,’ with the ar¬ 
 ticle. In the A. V. of Isa. lxv. 11, the 
 clause ‘ that prepare a table for that 
 troop ’ has in the margin, instead of the 
 last word, the proper name ‘ Gad,’ which 
 evidently denotes some idol worshipped 
 by the Jews in Babylon, though it is im¬ 
 possible positively to identify it. Th'at 
 Gad was the deity Fortune, under whatever 
 
 outward form it was worshipped, is sup¬ 
 ported by the etymology, and by the com¬ 
 mon assent of commentators.” — Smith: 
 Bible Did. 
 
 Gad. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Gad'ara, a strong city situated near the 
 river Hieromax, east of the sea of Galilee, 
 over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and 
 sixteen Roman miles distant from each of 
 those places. Josephus calls it the capital 
 of Peraea. A large district was attached 
 to it. Gadara itself is not mentioned in 
 the Bible, but it is evidently identical with 
 the “ country of the Gadarenes.” (Mark v. 
 1; Luke viii. 26, 37.) Dr. William M. 
 Thomson identifies the spot where the 
 miracle occurred with Chersa or Kersa, on 
 the eastern shore of the sea of Galilee, on 
 the slope of a hill only a few feet from the 
 water’s edge. 
 
 Galatia, a Roman province in the central 
 part of Asia Minor. It is bounded north 
 by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, east by Pon- 
 tus, south by Cappadocia and Lycaonia, 
 and west by Phrygia. It became a Roman 
 province in the year 25 b. c. Paul visited 
 the country twice—on his second and on 
 his third missionary tours. (Acts xvi. 6; 
 xviii. 23.) 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Gale, Theophilus, a learned Noncon¬ 
 formist writer; b. in Devonshire in 1628; 
 d. at Newington in 1678. A graduate of 
 Oxford and a fellow of Magdalen College, 
 he refused to submit to the Act of Uni¬ 
 formity, and lost his fellowship and the 
 cure at Winchester which he held. As 
 tutor to the son of Lord Wharton he trav¬ 
 eled on the continent for a time, when he 
 became assistant pastor to a congregation 
 in Holborn. Among his most important 
 works are: The Cozirt of the Gentiles , “ an 
 argument that the great heathen philos¬ 
 ophies of Plato, etc., were corruptions of 
 the original revelations of Divine truth to 
 the Jewish people; ” The True Ldea of Jan¬ 
 senismThe Anato?ny of Lnfidelity, etc. 
 
 Gal'ilee. See Palestine. 
 
 Galilee, Sea of, a lake named from the 
 district or province of Galilee. It was 
 also called the sea of Chinnereth (Num. 
 xxxiv. 11); the lake of Gennesaret (Luke 
 v. 1), from the plain of that name on its 
 northwestern shore; the sea of Tiberias, 
 from the city of that name (John vi. 1), and 
 the sea. (Matt. iv. 15.) The lake is an ex¬ 
 pansion of the Jordan, and is twelve and a 
 
( 354 ) 
 
 SEA OF GALILEE, FROM THE HOT SPRINGS OF TIBERIAS, 
 
Gal 
 
 ( 355 ) 
 
 Gal 
 
 half miles long, and at no point over eight 
 miles wide. Its surface is 682 feet below 
 the level of the Mediterranean. It is en¬ 
 closed on all sides by steep mountains, 
 except on the northwest, where it is allu¬ 
 vial. “ The sea is remarkable for its 
 shoals of fish, for the violence of its sud¬ 
 den thunder-storms, and for the hot 
 springs along its shores. The neighbor¬ 
 hood of the lake is also peculiarly subject 
 to volcanic disturbances.”— Porter. Of the 
 nine or more populous cities which stood 
 upon its shore, all are now in ruins and 
 deserted, with the exception of Tiberias. 
 
 Galile'o. See Inquisition. 
 
 Gall, The Monastery of St., is situated 
 on the Steinach in Switzerland. It was 
 founded by St. Gall, an Irish monk, in the 
 seventh century. At one time it had a re¬ 
 markable library, and its monks were fa¬ 
 mous as transcribers. In 1798 its estates 
 were confiscated, and its territory formed 
 into a bishopric. 
 
 Gallaudet, Thomas H., b. at Philadel¬ 
 phia, Dec. 10, 1787; d. at Hartford, Sept. 
 9, 1851. After graduating at Yale College 
 and Andover Seminary he became interest¬ 
 ed in the subject of deaf-mute instruction, 
 and interested others in laying the founda¬ 
 tion of an institution in Hartford. He 
 visited Europe and studied the methods 
 there in use. Upon his return in April, 
 1817, he opened a school with seven pupils. 
 With indomitable zeal he labored on with 
 great success, untilfailing strength compel¬ 
 led him to resign the principalship of the 
 school, in 1830. His name will always be 
 held in honor as the founder of deaf-mute 
 instruction in the United States. 
 
 Gallican Church. The circumstances of 
 the foundation of the Gallican Church are 
 unknown, and it is doubtful whether it 
 was of Greek or Asiatic origin. A letter 
 quoted by Eusebius, written in the second 
 century, is the first reliable account of 
 Christianity in Gaui, and tells of the per¬ 
 secutions which the Christians suffered 
 under Marcus Aurelius, at Lyons, the 
 chief missionary city of the province, and 
 the See of the bishop. During this perse¬ 
 cution, Pothinus, bishop of Lyons, suffered 
 martyrdom when ninety years of age, and 
 the names of many others are recorded. 
 Among the survivors was Irenaeus, who 
 was presbyter in Lyons, and who was 
 probably the author of the above-named 
 letter. During the persecution he was in¬ 
 defatigable in his exertions to help his 
 brethren, and was commissioned by some 
 who were in prison to take a letter from 
 
 them to the bishop of Rome; it contained 
 a protest against the heresies which were 
 creeping into the Church, and which so 
 shocked Irenaeus that, on returning from 
 Rome to Lyons, he devoted himself heart 
 and soul to contesting the false doctrines. 
 He was appointed bishop of Lyons in the 
 place of Pothinus, and was therefore in a 
 better position for carrying out the task he 
 had set himself. Many of his works have 
 perished, but those which are still extant 
 mark him out as the greatest theologian of 
 the early Church. The persecution served, 
 as usual, to promote the cause of the 
 Church, but the Christians remained a mi¬ 
 nority until the time of Constantine, when 
 Christianity became the established re¬ 
 ligion. It was adopted by numbers who 
 had hitherto been pagans, but the new con¬ 
 verts brought it down in some degree 
 toward their own level, and it lost some of 
 the life and energy which had marked it 
 during the persecution. As a remedy for 
 this state of things, some of the earnest- 
 minded Christians, foremost among whom 
 was St. Martin, introduced monasticism 
 into Gaul. But a deadly danger threatened 
 the nations which lay on the borders of the 
 Empire. They had received the faith from 
 Arian missionaries, and therefore rejected, 
 more or less, the Perfect Divinity of our 
 Lord. There was, therefore, a gulf be¬ 
 tween them and the orthodox Christians, 
 and this proved disastrous to some of the 
 Gothic States, and, as Gibbon has shown, 
 went far to prepare the way for the Ma¬ 
 hometan invasion of Spain. It appears 
 clear that the invasion of Gaul by the 
 Frank king, Clovis, heathen though he 
 was, was on the invitation of the Catholic 
 bishops, who believed that there was less 
 danger to be apprehended for the Church 
 from him than from heretical patrons. 
 That invasion was the beginning of the 
 kingdom of the Franks. It was speedily 
 followed by the conversion of King Clovis, 
 at the close of the fifth century, through 
 the influence of his wife Clotilda, herself 
 a Christian. In his warlike zeal for the 
 cause of the Church he defeated the Arians 
 in battle at Poitiers, and he not only gave 
 lands for the maintenance of churches, but 
 invited foreign missionaries to preach to 
 the people. Toward the close of this dy¬ 
 nasty the Moslem invasion, by way of 
 Spain, threatened to overwhelm Christen¬ 
 dom, but was beaten back by the hand of 
 Charles Martel, at Tours, in 732. No 
 further invasion took place from that time, 
 and at the accession of Charlemagne the 
 power of the Church was greatly increased. 
 He realized the fact that the State would 
 be strengthened and civilized by an alli¬ 
 ance with the Church, and he organized 
 
Gal 
 
 ( 356 ) 
 
 Gal 
 
 the ecclesiastical system so carefully that 
 after his death the Church’s influence con¬ 
 tinued to extend itself on all sides, though 
 his enormous empire fell to pieces. All 
 through the changes which took place, 
 Church government remained the same; 
 the country was divided into 120 bishop¬ 
 rics, which were contained in eighteen 
 provinces, each of these being under the 
 rule of an archbishop. The pope became 
 possessed of almost unlimited power 
 through the general confusion in the State, 
 and the clergy, as a whole, realized that 
 by maintaining a union with him they 
 would best advance the cause of the 
 Church. After the death of Charlemagne 
 succeeded a period of inactivity, in which 
 the religious zeal which had characterized 
 its predecessor seemed to be dying out, 
 and this lasted till the eleventh century. 
 Toward the close of that century, the suf¬ 
 ferings undergone by pilgrims in the East 
 originated the first Crusade (Crusades), 
 the cause of which induced men who had 
 hitherto been only fighting one against the 
 other to take up arms against a common 
 enemy. The Crusades, which lasted at 
 intervals until the end of the thirteenth 
 century, gave a large accession of power 
 to the popes and to the Church, while the 
 power of the nobles was declining through 
 the amount which they expended on war. 
 With the end of the Holy Wars the papal 
 power began to decline, owing partly to 
 the increase of power of the French Gov¬ 
 ernment, the advanced civilization of the 
 laity, and the degeneracy of the clergy; 
 and the conduct of Philip the Fair, who 
 took advantage of his own influence to 
 bring contempt on, and finally to cause the 
 death of, Pope Boniface VIII., brought 
 matters to a crisis. The successors of 
 Boniface, who had now taken up their res¬ 
 idence at Avignon, were remarkable for 
 the voluptuousness of their lives, and the 
 Church’s influence grew weaker year by 
 year, especially after their return to Rome, 
 when the French clergy appointed a pope 
 of their own to remain at Avignon, and the 
 schism thus occasioned lasted from 1378 to 
 1417, and was terminated by a council held 
 at Constance, which deposed both popes, 
 and appointed Martin V. over the whole 
 Church. The power of the papacy con¬ 
 tinued to decline, and the right of nom¬ 
 inating bishops, besides other privileges, 
 was transferred to the French Crown. 
 Among the earnest-minded clergy the 
 need for reformation was strongly felt, and 
 the first attempt to effect it was made by a 
 few men in the south of France, under 
 Peter Waldo. The persecutions which 
 they suffered compelled them to escape to 
 Piedmont, where they were little able to 
 
 influence the religion of their country, and 
 their opinions were accordingly disregard¬ 
 ed, as harmless to all but themselves. 
 
 Only when the Reformed doctrines which 
 originated in Germany began to spread 
 was there any considerable movement in 
 France in the same direction, when the 
 Huguenots first began to excite alarm in 
 the'Church. (Huguenots.) Under Henry 1 
 II. the Protestant doctrines were allowed 
 to spread, but after his death the contest 
 between the Houses of Guise and Bourbon, 
 which was as much political as religious, 
 changed the whole nature of the struggle. 
 On the minds of the people the Reformed 
 Religion took little hold, and the atrocious 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572, was 
 a deadly blow to the Huguenots; but the 
 turning point of the contest was the decis¬ 
 ion of Henry of Navarre to become a Ro¬ 
 man Catholic, an act which destroyed the 
 Protestant hope of ascendancy. A small 
 proportion of the population still remained 
 Protestant, and Henry protected them by 
 the Edict of Nantes, securing toleration 
 for them. But in an evil hour for France 
 this Edict was revoked by Louis XIV., in 
 1685. Meanwhile the Order of the Jesuits 
 under Ignatius Loyola ( q . v .) had arisen, 
 pledged to obey implicitly the will of the 
 pope. The Jesuits were looked upon with 
 anger and suspicion by men of all religions. 
 Not only Protestants, but Catholics were 
 arrayed against them; for their unqualified 
 submission to the Vatican implied enmity 
 to the ancient liberties of the Church and 
 the nation. They were in constant conflict 
 with the divines of the Sorbonne, who ac¬ 
 cused them of treason toward the State; 
 and on the murder of Henry III. by the 
 monk Clement, such a storm of popular 
 fury was raised against the order that they 
 were banished from France. Henry IV., 
 however, who at heart was a skeptic 
 (“ Paris is well worth a mass ” was the 
 phrase which truly summed up his mo¬ 
 tives), favored the Jesuits from motives of 
 policy, and selected one for his confessor, 
 and, the practice being kept up during the 
 reigns of his successors, the influence of 
 the order was greatly increased. Event¬ 
 ually such influence resulted in much evil 
 to the Church and nation; for the high aims 
 which had characterized the founders of 
 the movement gave way in their succes¬ 
 sors to the desire to increase their own 
 power, and even the popes, whom they pro¬ 
 fessed to obey, had to give way to them and 
 conciliate them. Their controversy with 
 the Jansenists (q . v.), lasted till far into 
 the eighteenth century, and resulted in the 
 pope’s censure of the Jansenist doctrines, 
 though these were, nevertheless, far from 
 being exterminated. The Jansenists had 
 
 
Gal 
 
 ( 357 ) 
 
 Gal 
 
 effected a reformation in the convents and 
 other religious houses throughout France, 
 and the Jesuits found a moans of showing 
 their animosity by persecuting the Sister¬ 
 hoods and destroying their houses. In re¬ 
 turn an adherent of the Jansenists publish¬ 
 ed anonymously the Provincial Letters , 
 which became exceedingly popular, and 
 dealt a severe blow to the Jesuits. (Pas¬ 
 cal.) Besides the Jesuits, there were 
 others whose zeal was as great as theirs, 
 but far higher in motive, and who en¬ 
 dured all kinds of hardships in the en¬ 
 deavor to stir up a revival of religious 
 feeling in France. Francis de Sales was 
 one of these, and was said to have convert¬ 
 ed seventy thousand Calvinists to the 
 Church of Rome, besides having carried 
 out a reformation of the religious orders. 
 Scarcely less famous than he was St. Vin¬ 
 cent de Paul, the founder of so many re¬ 
 ligious institutions in France. (Vincent.) 
 The reign of Louis XIV. saw the power of 
 the Gallican Church increase, and in pro¬ 
 portion the pope’s authority was dimin¬ 
 ished. The king claimed the right of ap¬ 
 pointment to vacant sees, and this being 
 refused, he caused a series of articles to be 
 drawn up limiting the papal power in 
 France, and declaring it should be con¬ 
 trolled by the Church’s ordinances, and by 
 canons and local customs. Here we have 
 the origin of what is known as “ Gallican- 
 ism,” the tendency towards Nationalism, 
 as opposed to papal centralization ; the 
 same tendency, in fact, as was shown by 
 men like Gardiner, in England, who, while 
 holding Romish doctrines firmly, were also 
 zealous for national independence. The 
 opposite tendency is known as Ultramon- 
 tanism (y. v.). We have noted in the 
 article on Bossuet, how that great prel¬ 
 ate, while earnest on behalf of a Christen¬ 
 dom united under Rome, yet was jealous 
 lest the unity should be corrupted into 
 tyranny. He declared that the pope had 
 no deposing power over monarchs, and, 
 indeed, no control over temporal affairs; 
 that the authority of the pope is not above 
 that of general councils, and that his de¬ 
 cisions require confirmation from the 
 Church. This last proposition would now 
 be reckoned heresy, after the Vatican De¬ 
 crees of 1870. Louis XIV. was fortunate 
 in his clergy, two of whom (Bossuet and 
 Fenelon) stand in the first place among 
 French ecclesiastics. The doctrine of 
 “ Quietism,” which was put forward by 
 Fenelon in one of his books, and in which 
 he had numerous followers, was condemn¬ 
 ed as unsound mysticism by a papal brief, 
 which was, however, only issued in accord¬ 
 ance with the threats of the king. As Cal¬ 
 vinism and Jansenism had been repressed, 
 
 so now was Quietism ( q . v.) by King Louis, 
 who cared little for theological discus¬ 
 sions, but was entirely under the control 
 of his Jesuit Ministers, and was also much 
 influenced by Madame de Maintenon. Un¬ 
 der their rule the religion of the Court, 
 and, to a certain extent, of the people, be¬ 
 came cold and formal, wanting in fervor, 
 though the services were conducted with 
 elaborate ritual. Thus it became hollow and 
 unmeaning, and it is no wonder that after 
 the king’s death the people freed themselves 
 from the restraint, and cast off even the out¬ 
 ward show of religion. But that which did 
 most to bring about the downfall of the 
 Church was the growth of the different 
 schools of philosophy of Voltaire,Rousseau, 
 D’Alembert and others, all of whom held 
 Christianity in contempt, though they 
 used different methods of expressing their 
 hatred. Through all classes of people in¬ 
 fidelity spread, and a great number of the 
 bishops and clergy were skeptics, though 
 they felt bound to preach against the 
 progress of science, a manifest hypocrisy 
 which brought religion into further con¬ 
 tempt. At the close of the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury the downfall came. The Jesuits were 
 suppressed by a papal bull in 1773, under 
 the compulsion of Louis XV. When the 
 tremendous revolution of 1789 came, the 
 clergy were compelled to form part of the 
 National Assembly, where, being outnum¬ 
 bered, they were forced to consent to meas¬ 
 ures which destroyed the little power that 
 still remained to them; tithes were abol¬ 
 ished, Church lands confiscated, the mon¬ 
 asteries dissolved, and the clergy required 
 to take an oath of fidelity to the Constitu¬ 
 tion, which now proposed a redistribution 
 of dioceses to coincide with the depart¬ 
 ments. The confusion into which all was 
 plunged by the Reign of Terror put a stop 
 to all such plans. When this was over 
 there came a reaction, and Napoleon fos¬ 
 tered this by seeking a reconciliation with 
 Rome. It was a difficult matter to carry 
 out, for many of the clergy were strongly 
 opposed to a compromise, while the army 
 were determined that the clergy should 
 have no favor shown them. A Concordat 
 was, nevertheless, drawn up and signed, 
 and, in accordance with its conditions, 
 public worship was renewed, and the 
 Church reestablished. The restoration 
 of the Bourbons gave hopes to the Jes¬ 
 uits and the Ultra-Papalists ; and Lamen- 
 nais, a Breton priest, published an es¬ 
 say on religious indifference, denouncing 
 all compromise, and “ Gallicanism ” as a 
 spurious form of religion. (Lamennais.) 
 It had the effect of strengthening the Ul¬ 
 tramontane spirit among the clergy im¬ 
 mensely, and Pope Leo XII. regarded him 
 
Gal 
 
 ( 358 ) 
 
 Gar 
 
 as a new St. Bernard or Dominic. When 
 the Revolution of 1830 came, Lamennais 
 and others of like opinions (Lacordaire, 
 Montalembert) threw themselves into it, 
 with the design of combining papal author¬ 
 ity with democratic opinions. But they 
 found little favor as their views developed, 
 and ever since the Church has remained in 
 opposition to republicanism, withapparent- 
 ly little hope of becoming reconciled. The 
 present relations of the Church and civil 
 power in France are strained apparently as 
 far as they can be. The clerical party are 
 in a minority; Acts attacking them as in¬ 
 structors of the young are passed on every 
 occasion, and men who glory in unbelief 
 have more than once been appointed Min¬ 
 isters of Public Worship. But the French 
 clergy were, probably, never more exem¬ 
 plary in personal life, and there are some 
 signs, in the midst of all the conflict, of 
 aspirations after a better state of things. 
 
 Belonging to the Gallican Church and 
 her dependencies there are now eighteen 
 archbishoprics, viz., Aix, Albi, Algiers, 
 Auch, Avignon, Besan5on, Bordeaux, 
 Bourges, Cambray, Chambery, Lyons, 
 Paris, Rheims, Renues, Rouen, Sens, Tou¬ 
 louse, Tours; and seventy-two bishoprics. 
 The parochial clergy, about 42,000 in num¬ 
 ber, comprise cure's cantonaux (the minis¬ 
 ters of the chief places in each canton),* 
 and desservants , who serve the other 
 churches in the canton. They are, how¬ 
 ever, substantially the same as the cures, 
 and each in his own locality is called “ M. 
 le Cure,” only the cure proper has to be 
 appointed by the bishop, with the approval 
 of the Government; the desservant is the 
 nominee of the bishop alone. The stipend 
 of a cure, which is paid by the State, is 
 from 1,200 to 1,500 francs a year, and the 
 commune provides him a house, rent-free. 
 The churches are under a conseil de fab- 
 rique .—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Gallican Confession, The, was adopted 
 at Paris in 1559, by the first national synod 
 of the Reformed Church of France. Pre¬ 
 vious to the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes (1685), every minister and new 
 member of a congregation had to subscribe 
 to it. The Reformed Church now gives a 
 general assent to it in a brief summary of 
 faith. See Schaff: Creeds of Christendom , 
 vol. i., pp. 490, sqq. 
 
 Gallicanism denotes that spirit of nation¬ 
 ality, which, within the Church of France, 
 developed a peculiar set of customs, privi¬ 
 leges, maxims, and views, especially with 
 respect to her relations to Rome.— Mather. 
 
 * Each arrondisseinent is divided into cantons, con¬ 
 taining from ten to twenty communes. 
 
 Games. The notices in the Scriptures of 
 the pastimes of Hebrew youth are very few. 
 They enjoyed music, song, and dancing. 
 (Psa. xxx. 11; Jer. xxxi. 13.) There are 
 references that show that among the men 
 the lifting of heavy stones (Zech. xii. 3), 
 target-shooting (1 Sam. xx. 20), and ball¬ 
 throwing (Isa. xxii. 18), were common 
 amusements. Public games were frowned 
 upon. The erection of a theatre and am¬ 
 phitheatre at Jerusalem, by Herod, in¬ 
 creased the hatred of the Jews against 
 him. St. Paul’s Epistles abound in illus¬ 
 trations taken from the Grecian athletic 
 contests, which he may have witnessed dur¬ 
 ing his first visit to Corinth. 
 
 Gangra, Council of, held at an uncer¬ 
 tain date in the fourth century. Its object 
 was to confirm decrees already passed 
 against the Eustathians (q. v.). The coun¬ 
 cil has always been a source of embarrass¬ 
 ment to the Roman Catholic Church, since 
 it recommended marriage for priests. 
 
 Garden. “The term ‘garden,’ when 
 used in the Scriptures, refers not to a 
 place where vegetables were raised for the 
 support of life, but to one planted with 
 flowers, shrubs, and ornamental as well as 
 fruit-bearing trees, intended to minister 
 especially to the enjoyment of life. They 
 were not often found in connection with 
 private houses, unless they were those of 
 the rich, and persons in high station. (2 
 Kings xxv. 4; Esther 1. 5.) Such gardens 
 in the Occident are called ‘ parks.’ The 
 ‘ Garden of Eden,’ in which our first par¬ 
 ents were put, seems to have been princi¬ 
 pally a garden of this kind; and doubtless 
 the memorable spot known as the ‘ garden 
 of Gethsemane,’ was originally such, al¬ 
 though now marked only by a few gnarled, 
 struggling olive-trees. These places were 
 well fitted for quiet meditation and prayer, 
 and for the burial of those beloved. (1 
 Kings xxi. 18; Matt. xxvi. 36; John xix. 41.) 
 Previous to the exile they were the favor¬ 
 ite resort of idolaters too, who sought 
 their shade and retirement for the celebra¬ 
 tion of forbidden rites. (2 Kings xvi. 4; Isa. 
 i. 29.)”—Bissell: Biblical Antiquities. 
 
 Gardiner, Frederic, D. D., Episcopalian; 
 b. at Gardiner, Me., Sept. 11, 1822. Edu¬ 
 cated at Bowdoin College (1S42), he served 
 in the ministry from 1S45 to 1856, when he 
 became professor of the literature and in¬ 
 terpretation of the Scripture at the Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, Gambier, O.; in 1868 he 
 accepted a professorship in the Berkeley 
 (Episcopal) Divinity School, Middletown, 
 Conn., where he remained until his death, 
 July 17, 1S89. He wrote a Commentary on 
 
Gar 
 
 ( 359 ) 
 
 Gau 
 
 the Epistle of St. Jude (1856); The Life of 
 Our Lord in the Words of the Gospels (1871); 
 The Commentary on Leviticus in the Lange 
 series (1876); The Old and New Testaments 
 in Their Mutual Relations (1885), and other 
 works. 
 
 Gardiner, James, Col., b. in Scotland, 
 1688; killed at the battle of Prestonpans, 
 Sept. 21, 1745. The story of his early life 
 of dissipation, and his remarkable conver¬ 
 sion, is told in Doddridge’s Life of Col. 
 Gardiner , which has had a wide sale. 
 
 Gardiner, Stephen, bishop of Win¬ 
 chester, and Lord Chancellor of England; 
 b. at Bury St. Edmunds, in 1483; d. Nov. 
 12, 1555. Educated at Cambridge, he be 
 came very proficient in civil and canon law. 
 He was made bishop by Henry VIII., 
 whom he aided in seeking to obtain from 
 the pope the divorce of Catherine of 
 Aragon, and received his chancellorship 
 from Queen Mary. He was opposed 
 to the Reformation, but did not favor 
 the extreme measures which were re¬ 
 sorted to in the persecution of the Prot¬ 
 estants. 
 
 Garnet, Henry Highland, D. D., a well- 
 known colored clergyman; b. at Newmar¬ 
 ket, Md., April 15, 1815; d. at Monrovia, 
 Liberia, Feb. 13, 1882. He was born in 
 slavery, but by the escape of his father re¬ 
 ceived an education in the North. He was 
 graduated at the Oneida Institute in 1840, 
 and, after receiving a license from the pres¬ 
 bytery of Troy, became pastor of a church 
 in Troy in 1842. For many years he was 
 settled in New York, and was recognized 
 as a leader among the colored people, and 
 a preacher of marked ability and eloquence. 
 He was appointed Minister to Liberia by 
 President Garfield, in June, 1881. 
 
 Gasparin, Agenor, Comte de, an em¬ 
 inent layman of the French Protestant 
 Church; b. in Orange, France, July 12, 
 1810; d. at Geneva, May 8, 1871. He was 
 for a time interested in politics, but soon 
 became engrossed in the study of religious 
 subjects. In 1846 he published, Christianity 
 and Paganism. The last twenty - three 
 years of his life were spent in Geneva, 
 where he delivered many lectures. He 
 was an earnest opponent of slavery, and 
 wrote two volumes upholding the cause of 
 the North in the struggle for freedom: 
 Eng. trans., A?nerica before Europe (N. Y., 
 1862). His wife, Madame Gasparin, was 
 the author of several books, of which her 
 Near and Heavenly Horizons (N. Y., 1864), 
 and Human Sadness (Boston, 1864), have 
 been translated. 
 
 Gataker, Thomas, a member ot the West¬ 
 minster Assembly of Divines; b. in Lon¬ 
 don, 1574; d. at Rotherhithe, 1654. Edu¬ 
 cated at Cambridge; preacher at Lincoln’s 
 Inn in 1601, and rector of Rotherhithe, 
 1611. He was a learned author, and pre¬ 
 pared a work on Transubstantiation; Anno¬ 
 tations on Isaiah and Jeremiah, etc. His 
 first book, Of the Nature and Use of Lots 
 (1619), was written to vindicate the lawful¬ 
 ness of games of chance, and to condemn 
 the use of “ divinatory or consultory lots.” 
 He edited several classics.. 
 
 Gate. “One of the most conspicuous 
 and important features of an eastern city 
 was its gates. Although directly connected 
 with the walls, they formed a peculiar 
 structure by themselves. Their material 
 was mostly wood or stone, or wood heav¬ 
 ily armored with metal. The Bible speaks 
 of gates of both brass and iron. (Psa. cvii. 
 16; Acts xii. 10.) Gates were often two¬ 
 leaved, and provided with heavy locks and 
 bars. (1 Sam. xxiii. 7; Isa. xlv.) In some 
 instances there were two gates, with an 
 open space between them. This was the 
 case at Mahanaim, where David awaited 
 the issue of the battle with Absalom. A sen¬ 
 tinel kept watch on the tower over the first 
 gate. A warder with his attendants guard¬ 
 ed the gate below. King David himself 
 was in the open space between the two 
 gates. (2 Sam. xviii. 24.) This space was 
 used for a great variety of purposes.”— 
 Bissell: Biblical Antiquities. 
 
 Gath ( wine-press ), one of the five cities 
 of the Philistines. (Josh. xiii. 3.) It was 
 the home of Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4); hither 
 the ark was carried, and David sought ref¬ 
 uge. (1 Sam. v. 8; xxi. 10-15.) Fortified by 
 Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 8), it was probably 
 destroyed before the time of the later 
 prophecies, as it is not mentioned among 
 the royal cities. Its inhabitants were call¬ 
 ed Gittites. (Josh. xiii. 3.) Porter, War¬ 
 ren, and Conder identified it with Telles- 
 Safiy 15 miles south of Ramleh. 
 
 Gauden, John, b. at Mayfield, in Essex, 
 1605; d. at Worcester in 1662. Educated 
 at Cambridge; rector in Berkshire, and 
 then at Booking; he sided with the royal¬ 
 ists, and at the Restoration became chap¬ 
 lain to Charles II.; bishop of Exeter, 1660, 
 and of Worcester, 1662. He is famous as 
 the reputed author of a remarkable work, 
 Eikon Basilike: or y the Portraiture of his 
 Sacred Majestie in his Solitudes and Suffer¬ 
 ings , which appeared in 1648. It is an ac¬ 
 count of the life of Charles I., from 1640- 
 48, and is written in the first person. Mr. 
 Green and others think it is the work of 
 
Gau 
 
 ( 3^0 ) 
 
 Gel 
 
 Gauden, while many scholars of repute as 
 earnestly contend that it was written by 
 the king. It seems still to be an open 
 question. Gauden was a member of the 
 Savoy Conference. 
 
 Gaul. See Gallican Church. 
 
 Gautama. See Buddhism. 
 
 Gavazzi {ga-vat-see ), Alessandro, Free 
 Christian Church of Italy; b. of Roman 
 Catholic parents, March 21, 1809; d. at 
 Rome, Jan. 9, 1889. He became professor in 
 the college of Caravaggio, at Naples, 1829, 
 and after entering the priesthood was a 
 popular preacher. When Pius IX. changed 
 his liberal policy, under the influence of 
 the Jesuits, Gavazzi came to England, and 
 renounced the Roman Church. His after¬ 
 life was devoted, to a great extent, to 
 lecturing in Great Britain and America on 
 the evils of the papal system. He was a 
 friend of Garibaldi, and one of the organ¬ 
 izers of the Free Italian Church (1870), 
 and a professor in its theological college in 
 Rome (1875). He was the author of: 
 Memoirs (London, 1851); Orations (1852); 
 Recollections of the Last Four Ropes (1859); 
 No Union with Rome: an Antieirenicon 
 (1871) ; The Priest in Absolution (1877). 
 See Father Gavazzi s Life and Lectures (New 
 York, 1853). 
 
 Geddes, Janet. The purpose of Arch¬ 
 bishop Laud to introduce the English litur¬ 
 gy into Scotland met with universal pro¬ 
 test. The Sunday that the dean of 
 Edinburgh attempted to read it in the 
 Cathedral Church (July 23, 1637), it is said 
 that Janet Geddes, who kept a green-stall 
 near by, misunderstanding some phrase, 
 cried out, “ Villain, dost thou say mass 
 at my lug ?” (ear) and hurled the stool 
 upon which she had been sitting, at the 
 dean’s head. A riot was precipitated, and 
 the people marched through the streets, 
 shouting, “ A pope ! a pope ! Antichrist ! 
 the sword of the Lord, and of Gideon !” 
 This popular uprising proved the death¬ 
 blow of the liturgy in Scotland. An at¬ 
 tempt has been made to prove that the 
 name of the heroine of this incident was 
 Barbara Hamilton. 
 
 Gehen'na is a Greek word, translated 
 “ hell ” in the authorized version of the 
 New Testament. It is employed in dis¬ 
 tinction from “hades” to represent the 
 place of the wicked. The word is the Greek 
 representative of the Hebrew for “the 
 valley of Hinnom.” This spot was adeep, 
 narrow gien to the south of Jerusalem, 
 where idolatrous Jews offered their chil¬ 
 
 dren to Molech. (Jer. vii. 31, 32; xix. 2-6; 
 2 Kings xxiii. 10.) Gehenna, on account 
 of its ever-burning fires, became especially 
 the image of the place of everlasting pun¬ 
 ishment. 
 
 Geikie, Cunningham, D. D. (Queen’s 
 University, Kingston, Canada, 1871), 
 Church of England ; b. in Edinburgh, 
 Scotland, Oct. 26, 1824; educated at Queen’s 
 College, Toronto. He was pastor of Pres¬ 
 byterian Churches at Halifax, N. S., 1851- 
 54; Sunderland, Eng., 1860-67; London, 
 1867-73. 1876 he took orders in the 
 
 Church of England, and from that year 
 until 1879 was curate of St. Peter’s, Dul¬ 
 wich; rector of Christ Church, Paris, 
 1879-81; and since 1885 has been vicar of 
 St. Martin-at-Palace, Norwich. He is the 
 author of: Entering on Life: a Book for 
 Young Men (London, 1874); The Great ana 
 Precious Promises: or , Light Beyond (1875); 
 The English Reformation (1875); The Life 
 and Words of Christ (1876) [many edi¬ 
 tions]; Old Testament Characters (1877); 
 Hours with the Bible (1880-85), 6 vols. 
 
 Geiler, Johann, distinguished German 
 preacher; b. near Schaffhausen, 1445; d. at 
 Strasburg, 1510. From 1478 until the 
 close of his life he was preacher of the ca¬ 
 thedral at Strasburg. Geiler was one of 
 the first to “ throw off the yoke of scholas¬ 
 ticism, and to give to the sermon a freer 
 course, a greater life, a deeper impressive¬ 
 ness.” He found his texts often in the 
 most out-of-the-way places, but sought to 
 bring their lessons into close relation with 
 the every-day life and thought of the peo¬ 
 ple. Several collections of his sermons 
 are still extant. 
 
 Gelasius I., Pope, succeeded Felix III. 
 (or II.) in 492. His pontificate was most¬ 
 ly taken up with a correspondence between 
 him and the Eastern Church under Euphe- 
 mius, patriarch of Constantinople, con¬ 
 cerning Acacius, whom Felix had excom¬ 
 municated. Gelasius died, 496. His writ¬ 
 ings, several of which still exist, express 
 views very difficult to reconcile with those 
 of his successors. Thus, he rebukes the 
 Manichaeans for communion in one kind, 
 and speaks of the bread and wine as so re¬ 
 maining after consecration. See Milman: 
 Lat. Christ ., i. 235. One of the chief 
 works attributed to him is his Sacrament¬ 
 ary {q. v.). 
 
 Gellert, Christian F urchtegott, b. 1715; 
 d. at Leipzig, 1769. He studied theology 
 at Leipzig, and became professor extraor¬ 
 dinary there in 1751. He was a versatile 
 writer and his Fables was one of the most 
 
Gem 
 
 ( 36i ) 
 
 Gen 
 
 
 popular books in Germany during the last 
 century. He wrote many hymns that were 
 translated into most of the languages of 
 Europe. One of his hymns, “ Jesus lives, 
 and I with him,” is found in many English 
 hymn-books. 
 
 Gem. See Precious Stones. 
 
 Gemara. See Talmud. 
 
 Genealogy of Jesus Christ. “The New 
 Testament gives us the genealogy o’f but 
 one person, that of our Saviour. The fol¬ 
 lowing propositions will explain the true 
 construction of these genealogies : (1) 
 
 They are both the genealogies of Joseph, 
 i. e., of Jesus Christ, as the reputed and 
 legal son of Joseph and Mary. (2) The gen¬ 
 ealogy of St. Matthew is, as Grotius most 
 truly and unhesitatingly asserted, Joseph’s 
 genealogy as legal successor to the throne 
 of David. St. Luke’s is Joseph’s private 
 genealogy, exhibiting his real birth, as 
 David’s son, and thus showing why he was 
 heir to Solomon’s crown. The simple 
 principle that one evangelist exhibits that 
 genealogy which contained the successive 
 heirs to David's and Solomon’s throne, 
 while the other exhibits the paternal stem 
 of him who was the heir, explains all the 
 anomalies of the two pedigrees, their 
 agreements as well as their discrepancies, 
 and the circumstance of their being two at 
 all. (3) Mary, the mother of Jesus, was in 
 all probability the daughter of Jacob, and 
 first cousin to Joseph, her husband. But 
 besides these main difficulties, as they have 
 been thought to be, there are several 
 others which cannot be passed over in any 
 account, however concise, of the geneal¬ 
 ogies of Christ. The most startling is the 
 total discrepancy between them both and 
 that of Zerubbabel in the O. T. (1 Chron. 
 iii. 19-24.) In this last, of seven sons of 
 Zerubbabel, not one bears the name, or 
 anything like the name, of Rhesa or Abiud; 
 and of the next generation not one bears 
 the name, or anything like the name, of 
 Eliakim or Joanna, which are in the cor¬ 
 responding generation in Matthew and 
 Luke. Rhesa is in fact not a name at all, 
 but it is the Chaldee title of the princes of 
 the Captivity. It is very probable, there¬ 
 fore, that this title should have been placed 
 against the name of Zerubbabel by some 
 early Christian Jew, and thence crept into 
 the text. If this be so, St. Luke will then 
 give Joanna as the son of Zerubbabel. 
 But Joanna is the very same name as Han- 
 aniah, the son of Zerubbabel, according to 
 1 Chron. iii. 19. In St. Matthew this gen¬ 
 eration is omitted, In the next generation 
 we identify Matthew’s Ab-jud (Abiud) 
 
 with Luke’s Juda, and both with Hodaiah 
 of 1 Chron. iii. 24, by the simple process 
 of supposing the Shemaiah of 1 Chron. iii. 
 22 to be the same person as the Shimei of 
 ver. 19. The next difficulty is the differ¬ 
 ence in the number of generations between 
 the two genealogies. St. Matthew’s divis¬ 
 ion into three fourteens gives only 42, 
 while St. Luke, from Abraham to Christ 
 inclusive, reckons 56; or, which is more to 
 the point (since the generations between 
 Abraham and David are the same in both 
 genealogies), while St. Matthew reckons 28 
 from David to Christ, St. Luke reckons 43, 
 or 42 without Rhesa. But the genealogy 
 itself supplies the explanation. In the sec¬ 
 ond tessaro-decade, including the kings, we 
 know that three generations are omitted— 
 Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah—in order to re¬ 
 duce the generations from 17 to 14; the 
 difference between these 17 and the 19 of 
 St. Luke being very small. So in like 
 manner it is obvious that the generations 
 have been abridged in the same way in the 
 third division to keep to the number 14. 
 Another difficulty is the apparent deficien¬ 
 cy in the number of the last tessaro-decade, 
 which seems to contain only 13 names; but 
 the explanation of this is, that either in the 
 process of translation, or otherwise, the 
 names of Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin have 
 got confused and expressed by the one 
 name Jechonias. The last difficulty of 
 sufficient importance to be mentioned here 
 is a chronological one. In both the gene¬ 
 alogies there are but three names between 
 Salmon and David—Boaz, Obed, Jesse. 
 But, according to the common chronology, 
 from the entrance into Canaan (when Sal¬ 
 mon was come to man’s estate) to the birth 
 of David, was 405 years, or from that to 
 500 years and upwards. Now, for about an 
 equal period, from Solomon to Jehoiachin, 
 St. Luke’s genealogy contains 20 names. 
 Obviously, therefore, either the chronol¬ 
 ogy or the genealogy is wrong. It must 
 suffice here to assert that the shortening 
 the interval between the Exodus and Da¬ 
 vid by about 200 years,' which brings it to 
 the length indicated by the genealogies, 
 does in the most remarkable manner bring 
 Israelitish history into harmony with 
 Egyptian, with the traditional Jewish date 
 of the Exodus, with the fragment of Edom- 
 itish history preserved in Gen. xxxvi. 
 21-39, and with the internal evidence of the 
 Israelitish history itself. A careful com¬ 
 parison of the tables shows that the whole 
 number of generations from Adam to 
 Christ, both inclusive, is 74, without the 
 second Cainan and Rhesa.”—Smith: Diet . 
 of the Bible. 
 
 General, the name given to the head of 
 
Gen 
 
 ( 362 ) 
 
 Geo 
 
 Roman Catholic Orders. They are usually 
 elected for a fixed term, but in the Society 
 of Jesus for life. They have certain spe¬ 
 cial privileges, such as the granting of 
 absolution in reserved cases, and they sit 
 in general synods as judges, and subscribe 
 its decrees. They are not allowed, on pain 
 of excommunication, to bestow any office, 
 or remit any punishment, at the request of 
 any person outside the order, no matter 
 how exalted may be their position. The 
 Benedictine Order has no general, but 
 most of the congregations have, which are 
 connected with it. 
 
 General Assembly. See Assembly, Gen¬ 
 eral. 
 
 Genesis. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Geneva. The connection of the life-work 
 of Calvin with this city is of peculiar in¬ 
 terest. Through his influence, and those 
 associated with him in Christian labor, 
 Geneva became a stronghold of Protestant¬ 
 ism, and great changes were wrought in 
 the life of the people. It was from Gene¬ 
 va that the Calvinistic doctrines spread 
 through the countries in which it exerted 
 so mighty an influence. At the present 
 time the State Church of Geneva is ration¬ 
 alistic. A considerable part of the popu¬ 
 lation is Roman Catholic. There is a Free 
 Church, which is evangelical, and there 
 are some Old Catholics. 
 
 Geneva Bible, The. See Bible, p. 109. 
 
 Genevieve, St., patroness of Paris; b. 
 about 419 at Nanterre; d. in Paris, 512. She 
 is said to have predicted the invasion of 
 the Huns, and when the army of Attila ap¬ 
 peared before the city she sustained the 
 courage of the people by her prayers and 
 the assurance, which came true, that the 
 attack would avail nothing (451). Under 
 her direction the first church was built over 
 the tomb of St. Denis. Her remains were 
 placed in the chape?bearing her name, now 
 known as the Pantheon or Eglise St. Gene¬ 
 vieve. 
 
 Gennadius, patriarch of Constantinople 
 (1453-59), and one of the most prolific 
 writers of his age. He accompanied, in 
 1438, the Emperor Johannes to the Coun¬ 
 cil of Ferrara-Florence, as an imperial 
 councilor, and exerted his influence in 
 favor of the projected union of the Greek 
 and Latin Churches. After his return to 
 Greece, however, he became very active 
 in opposition to this plan. He was made 
 patriarch of Constantinople by Mohammed 
 II., but he found the position irksome, 
 
 and after a few years he abdicated (1459) 
 and retired to a monastery in Macedonia, 
 where he died. He was the last great 
 representative of Byzantine learning, and 
 is said to have written more than one 
 hundred books. His confession of faith, 
 given in a Turkish translation, to Moham¬ 
 med II., in the form of a dialogue between 
 a Turk and a Christian, etc., is found in 
 Migne: Pat. Gr. CLX. See Schaff: Creeds 
 of Christendom, i. 46. 
 
 Gennes'aret,SEAOF. See Galilee, Sea of. 
 
 Genuflectentes ( kneelers ), the name given 
 to the third order of catechumens in the 
 ancient Church. They knelt in the church 
 while special prayers were offered for 
 them, before receiving imposition of hands 
 and the minister’s benediction. 
 
 Genuflection, the act of bending the knee 
 in prayer, as a sign of adoration or rever¬ 
 ence. 
 
 Geoffrey ( jef’re ) of Monmouth, the 
 noted English chronicler; b. at Monmouth 
 early in the twelfth century; d. 1154. He 
 was archdeacon of Monmouth, and in 1152 
 bishop of St. Asaph. His fame rests upon 
 his Chronicon sive Historia Britonum . The 
 work is a mixture of fabrications and tra¬ 
 ditions; but it has proved a rich mine— 
 especially to the poets. 
 
 George, St., the patron saint of England; 
 said to have been born in Cappadocia, of 
 noble Christian parents. He rose to em¬ 
 inence as a soldier under Diocletian, and 
 when that emperor entered upon the work 
 of persecuting the Christians, George made 
 public confession of his faith, and resigned 
 his commission. Arrested and put to tor¬ 
 ture, he met death by martyrdom at Nico- 
 media, April 23, 303. Among other legends 
 connected with his life, that of hisslaying 
 the dragon is the best known. His name 
 became popular in England from the time 
 of Richard Coeur de Lion, who is said to 
 have successfully invoked his aid in the 
 first crusade, but it was not until the time 
 of Edward III. that he was made patron 
 of the kingdom. His day is celebrated 
 April 23. 
 
 George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ans- 
 bach; b. at Onolzbach, March 4, 1484; d. 
 there, Dec. 17, 1543. He was one of the 
 first to espouse the cause of the Reforma¬ 
 tion, and no other German prince did more 
 than he to secure its success. He was an 
 intimate friend of Luther. 
 
 George of Polentz, b. in Saxony, 1478; d. 
 
Geo 
 
 ( 363 ) 
 
 Ger 
 
 at Balga, near Konigsberg, April 28, 1550. 
 He studied canon law in Italy, and in 1519 
 was appointed bishop of Sambia. In the 
 summer of 1523 he allowed the doctrines 
 of the Reformation to be preached in the 
 cathedral at Konigsberg, and near the close 
 of the year joined the adherents of Luther. 
 
 George, Duke of Saxony, b. at Dres¬ 
 den, Aug. 24, 1471; d. there, April 17, 1539. 
 Through education and political influences 
 he opposed the Reformation; but in spite 
 of his efforts his people and his family 
 accepted the evangelical doctrines. 
 
 Gerhardt ( ger-hart ), Paul, the greatest of 
 German hymn-writers; b. at Grafenhaini- 
 chen, March 12, 1607; d. at Liibben, June 
 7, 1676. He was educated at the Witten¬ 
 berg University, and became preacher of 
 the Church of St. Nicolai, Berlin, in 1657. 
 Refusing to subscribe to edicts which he 
 thought looked to the union of the Luther¬ 
 an and Reformed Churches, he was dis¬ 
 missed, and in 1667 made archdeacon of 
 Liibben, where he spent the rest of his 
 life. Among his hymns that have been 
 translated into English, the best known is, 
 “ O Sacred Head, now wounded.” See 
 Life , by Wildenhahn (Basel, 1844, Eng. 
 trans., Philadelphia, 1881). 
 
 Ger'izim, a mountain of Ephraim, oppo¬ 
 site Ebal, from which blessings were pro¬ 
 nounced as the curses were from Mount 
 Ebal. (Deut. xi. 29; Josh. viii. 30-35.) It 
 has an elevation of 800 feet above the val¬ 
 ley in which lies the village of Ndblns 
 (Shechem). It was the scene of the parable 
 of the trees and brambles. (Judg. ix. 7-21.) 
 Here was the site of the Samaritan temple 
 referred to by the woman at the well. 
 (John iv. 20.) There is a remnant of the 
 Samaritan sect still living at N&blus, who 
 make the annual paschal sacrifices on 
 the summit of Gerizim, according to the 
 rules found in Exod. xii. The Samaritan 
 tradition that it is the place where Abra¬ 
 ham offered Isaac is not sustained by the 
 best authorities. See Moriah; Ebal. 
 
 German Catholics. As the result of pro¬ 
 tests against certain doctrines and practices 
 of the Roman Catholic Church, the first 
 German Catholic congregation was formed 
 at Breslau in 1845. They took an extreme 
 rationalistic position, and soon lost the 
 sympathy of the better class of people. In 
 1848 they numbered about sixty thousand 
 members, but they have now dwindled to 
 a few congregations. 
 
 German Re/ormed Church. See Reform¬ 
 ed Church, German. 
 
 German Translations of the Bible. See 
 
 Bible, under subhead (13) Versions in 
 Other Modern Languages. 
 
 Germany. According to the census of 
 1875, there were, in the German Empire, 
 26,718,823 Protestants, 15,371,227 Roman 
 Catholics, 520,575 Jews, 100,608 Dissent¬ 
 ers, and 16,127 of no religion stated. In 
 Southern Germany the Roman Church 
 prevails; in Northern, the Evangelical. 
 Bavaria, Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine are 
 predominantly Roman Catholic; Schleswig- 
 Holstein, Mecklenburg, Hanover, Bran¬ 
 denburg, and Saxony are almost wholly 
 Protestant. The control of religious af¬ 
 fairs is left to the different states, but the 
 Emperor of Germany, as the King also of 
 Prussia, is at the head of the Evangelical 
 Church of Prussia. 
 
 Germanus, St., one of the most distin¬ 
 guished of French prelates; b. at Auxerre 
 about 380. He studied law at Rome, and 
 gained a great reputation as an orator and 
 an advocate. He was military governor of 
 his native district, and after his election as 
 bishop he devoted himself to his duties 
 with intense zeal. He twice visited Brit¬ 
 ain and was successful in his mission to 
 destroy the Pelagian heresy, and led the 
 Britons in a victorious assault against the 
 Piets and Scots. He d. at Ravenna, July 
 31, 448, and was buried at Auxerre. 
 
 Gerson, Jean Charlier, one of the most 
 eminent scholars of his day, and a founder 
 of Gallicanism; b. at Gerson, in the diocese 
 of Rheims, Dec. 14, 1363; d. at Lyons, 
 July 12, 1429. He studied under Peter 
 d’Ailli at Paris, whom he succeeded as 
 Chancellor of the University. Asa theolo¬ 
 gian he denounced scholasticism, and ear¬ 
 nestly opposed the fanaticism that ran riot 
 in the party of the Flagellants. He was 
 prominent in the Councils of Pisa (1409), 
 and Constance (1414), and earnestly sought 
 to heal the schism between the rival popes, 
 Gregory and Benedict, by seeking the res¬ 
 ignation of both. Through his influence 
 the doctrine of the Supremacy of the 
 Church over the popes, in matters of faith 
 and discipline, was asserted. His con¬ 
 demnation of the assassins of the Duke of 
 Orleans aroused the hatred of the Duke 
 of Burgundy, and he sought refuge first in 
 Bavaria, where he spent some years in 
 literary work, but finally retired to a con¬ 
 vent of Celestine monks at Lyons, where 
 he died. Besides his works on the papal 
 schism and against papal infallibility, he 
 wrote various religious and theological 
 treatises. The Imitation of Christ was at 
 one time falsely ascribed to him. 
 
Ges 
 
 ( 364 ) 
 
 Gid 
 
 Gesenius Wilhelm, best known in this 
 country as a Hebrew lexicographer; b. in 
 Nordhausen, Feb. 3, 1785; d. at Halle, 
 Oct. 23, 1842. He was educated at Helm- 
 stadt and Gottingen, and after teaching at 
 Gottingen for a time he was called to Halle, 
 where he spent the remainder of his life. 
 His Hebrew Lexicon was published in 1810- 
 1812, and his Grammar in 1813. The Eng¬ 
 lish translations of the Lexicon by Tregel- 
 les (1846-52), and Edward Robinson(1855), 
 and that of the Grammar , by Moses Stuart 
 (1826), T. J. Conant (1839), and B. Davies 
 (London, 1869), ed. by E. C. Mitchell (An¬ 
 dover, 1881), on the basis of the 22d edi¬ 
 tion of the original, have given this work 
 a wide circulation. Gesenius wrote a 
 Commentary on Lsaiah and several other 
 volumes. He belonged to the rationalistic 
 school, and for a longtime was considered 
 its leading representative at Halle. 
 
 Gesta Romanorum, a collection of anec¬ 
 dotes, generally with a moral attached, 
 turning them into parables. The title is 
 from the fact that the greater part of the 
 stories begin with the words, “ There was 
 an Emperor of Rome,” etc. These were 
 used by the mediaeval preachers in their 
 sermons. The anecdotes are all fictitious. 
 We are told that there was an emperor of 
 Rome “ named Cyrus,” and many of these 
 emperors did impossible things. Some of 
 the stories are worthless and even repul¬ 
 sive, but some are excellent, and are the 
 germs of classical pieces of modern liter¬ 
 ature; e. g. y the story of the caskets, which 
 Shakespeare has wrought into the Mer¬ 
 chant of Venice . They probably date from 
 the thirteenth century.— Benham . 
 
 Gethsem'ane, “ a small ‘farm’ (A. V. 
 ‘ place;’ Matt. xxvi. 36; Mark xiv. 32), 
 situated across the brook Kedron (John 
 xviii. 1), probably at the foot of Mount Ol¬ 
 ivet (Luke xxii. 39), to the N. W., and 
 about one-half or three-quarters of a mile 
 (English) from the walls of Jerusalem. 
 There was a ‘ garden,’ or rather orchard, 
 attached to it, to which the olive, fig, and 
 pomegranate doubtless invited resort by 
 their hospitable shade. And we know 
 from the Evangelists Luke (xxii. 39) and 
 John (xviii. 2), that our Lord ofttimes re¬ 
 sorted thither with his disciples. Accord¬ 
 ing to Josephus, the suburbs of Jerusalem 
 abounded with gardens and pleasure- 
 grounds. But Gethsemane has not come 
 down to us as a scene of mirth; its inex¬ 
 haustible associations are the offspring of 
 a single event—the Agony of the Son of 
 God on the evening preceding his Passion. 
 A modern garden, in which are eight ven¬ 
 erable olive-trees, and a grotto to the 
 
 north, detached from it, and in closer con¬ 
 nection with the Church of the Sepulchre 
 of the Virgin,arepointed out by the Latins as 
 the true Gethsemane. Against the contem¬ 
 porary antiquity of the olive-trees, it has 
 been urged that Titus cut down all the trees 
 round about Jerusalem. The probability 
 would seem to be that they were planted 
 by Christian hands to mark the spot; un¬ 
 less, like the sacred olive of the Acropolis, 
 they may have reproduced themselves.”— 
 Smith: Did. of the Bible. Dr. Thomson and 
 others think this site is too near the city 
 and the highway, and place the garden in 
 a secluded vale further to the northeast. 
 
 Ghetto, or Getto, the Italian form of a 
 Hebrew word meaning “ separation,” or 
 “seclusion.” It designated that quarter 
 of Rome in which the Jews were alone per¬ 
 mitted to live. This rule was enforced, 
 first by Pius IV. in 1569, and was not abol¬ 
 ished until 1847, by Pius IX. 
 
 Ghibellines. See Guelf. 
 
 Giants. Scripture history first mentions 
 giants in Gen. vi. 4, where they are called, 
 (1) Nephilim. In Gen. xiv. 5, they are 
 named (2) Rephaim. Og, king of Bashan, 
 was of this race. (Deut. iii. 11.) (3) The 
 
 Anakun (Num. xiii. 28, 32, 33; Deut. ii. 
 10), destroyed by Joshua. (Josh. xi. 22; 
 Judg i. 20.) (4) The E?nim are mentioned 
 
 in Deut. ii. 10; and (5) the Zamzummim , in 
 Deut. ii. 20, 21. 
 
 Gibbons, James, D. D., Roman Catholic 
 cardinal; b. at Baltimore, Md., July 23, 
 1834. He was ordained priest in 1861, and 
 became assistant pastor of the cathedral at 
 Baltimore, 1865; consecrated bishop, 1868; 
 made archbishop of Baltimore, 1877; and 
 in 1886 was consecrated cardinal. He is 
 the author of, The Faith of our Fathers 
 (New York, 1874). Trans, into several 
 languages. 
 
 Gib'eon, a city of the Hivites, about six 
 miles north of Jerusalem. It is identified 
 with the present el-Jib , a small village in 
 the midst of ancient ruins. At the eastern 
 base of the hill upon which it stands is a 
 spring of water which flows into a reser¬ 
 voir, which is thought to be the “ Pool of 
 Gibeon.” Gibeonmade aleague with Joshua 
 and secured his aid when attacked by the 
 Canaanites. (Josh. ix.; x.) Here the tab¬ 
 ernacle remained for many years (2 Chron. 
 i. 3, 4), and its people helped to build the 
 walls of Jerusalem after the Captivity. 
 (Neh. iii. 7.) 
 
 Gid'eon, “ a Manassite, youngest son of 
 
Gie 
 
 ( 365 ) 
 
 Gif 
 
 Joash, of the Abiezrites, an undistinguish¬ 
 ed family who .lived at Ophrah, a town 
 probably on the west of Jordan (Judg. vi. 
 15), although its exact position is unknown. 
 He was the fifth recorded Judge of Israel, 
 and, for many reasons, the greatest of 
 them all. When we first hear of him he 
 was grown up and had sons (Judg. vi. 11; 
 viii. 20), and from the apostrophe of the 
 angel (vi. 12) we may conclude that he had 
 already distinguished himself in war 
 against the roving bands of nomadic rob¬ 
 bers who had oppressed Israel for seven 
 years, and whose countless multitudes 
 (compared to locusts, from their terrible 
 devastations, vi. 5) annually destroyed all 
 the produce of Canaan, except such as 
 could be concealed in mountain fastnesses 
 (vi. 2). It was probably during this dis¬ 
 astrous period that the emigration of Elim- 
 elech took place. (Ruth i. 1, 2.) When the 
 angel appeared, Gideon was threshing 
 wheat with a flail in the wine-press, to 
 conceal it from the predatory tyrants. His 
 call to be a deliverer, and his destruction 
 of Baal’s altar, are related in Judg. vi. 
 After this begins the second act in Gid¬ 
 eon’s life. Clothed by the Spirit of God 
 (Judg. vi. 34; comp. 1 Chron. xii. 18; Luke 
 xxiv. 49), he blew a trumpet, and was 
 joined by Zebulun, Naphtali, and even the 
 reluctant Asher. Strengthened by a doub¬ 
 le sign from God, he reduced his army of 
 32,000 by the usual proclamation. (Deut. 
 xx. 8; comp. 1 Macc. iii. 56.) By a second 
 test at ‘ the spring of trembling ’ he again 
 reduced the number of his followers to 
 300. (Judg. vii. 5, sq.) The midnight at¬ 
 tack upon the Midianites, their panic, and 
 the rout and slaughter that followed are 
 told in Judg. vii. The memory of this 
 splendid deliverance took deep root in the 
 national traditions. (1 Sam. xii. n; Psa. 
 Ixxxiii. 11; Isa. ix. 4; x. 26; Heb. xi. 32.) 
 After this there was a peace of forty years, 
 and we see Gideon in peaceful possession 
 of his well-earned honors, and surrounded 
 by the dignity of a numerous household 
 (viii. 29-31). It is not improbable that, 
 like Saul, he had owed a part of his popu¬ 
 larity to his princely appearance. (Judg. 
 viii. 18.) In this third stage of his life 
 occur alike his most noble and his most 
 questionable acts, viz., the refusal of the 
 monarchy on theocratic grounds, and the 
 irregular consecration of a jeweled ephod, 
 formed out of the rich spoils of Midian, 
 which proved to the Israelites’a temptation 
 to idolatry; although it was, doubtless, in¬ 
 tended for use in the worship of Jehovah.” 
 —Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 Gieseler ( %ee-zeh-ler ), Johann Karl Lud¬ 
 wig, one of the most distinguished writers 
 
 on Church history ; b. at Petershagen, 
 March 3, 1793; d. at Gottingen, July 8, 
 1854. He studied at Halle, and was ap¬ 
 pointed professor of theology at Bonn, 
 1819, and at Gottingen in 1831. His great 
 work is his Church History , which still con¬ 
 tinues to hold a high place among scholars. 
 Of the three English translations, the 
 latest is that of H. B. Smith and Miss 
 Mary Robinson (New York, 1857-81), 5 
 vols. 
 
 Gifts (Gr. charismata ). The new Testa¬ 
 ment uses this term to express powers 
 and graces bestowed on Christians by the 
 Holy Ghost. These gifts are described as 
 of two kinds—ordinary and extraordinary. 
 The ordinary are those shared by all 
 Christians: wisdom, understanding, coun¬ 
 sel, spiritual strength, knowledge, true 
 godliness, holy fear; they are given abun¬ 
 dantly or sparingly, according to the faith 
 of the recipient. With these may be class¬ 
 ed the “ fruits of the Spirit,” enumerated 
 in Gal. v. 22, 23, viz., “ love, joy, peace, 
 long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, 
 meekness, temperance.” To these have 
 been added by theologians three others, 
 viz., patience, modesty, chastity. The ex¬ 
 traordinary gifts of the Spirit were, for the 
 most part, confined to the earliest ages of 
 the Church. It would appear to have been 
 a common thing in the apostles’ time for 
 newly baptized converts to receive, with 
 the laying on of the apostles’ hands, the 
 power to speak in other tongues, or to in¬ 
 terpret them, the gift of prophecy, heal¬ 
 ing, and of the discerning of spirits. The 
 Scripture teaching on these miraculous 
 gifts will be found in the words of St. Paul 
 in 1 Cor. xii. 14. He declares that all gifts 
 come from the Spirit; that they are “ given 
 to every man t o profit withal," and that the 
 Spirit divideth “ to every man severally 
 as he will.” Hence, there is no ground for 
 vanity or boasting on the part of the re¬ 
 cipients. Moreover, he declares in 1 Cor. 
 xiii. that these miraculous gifts, although 
 excellent in themselves, yet, without the 
 gift of love, are of no account whatever. 
 Love is the first and chief of the ordinary 
 gifts of the Spirit, and is greater than all 
 the extraordinary gifts. Of these latter, 
 St. Paul shows that prophesying is the 
 greatest: “ Desire spiritual gifts, but 
 
 rather that ye may prophesy;” declaring 
 at the same time, how it is greater than the 
 gift of “ speaking with tongues.” It is to 
 be noted that the gift of tongues is “a sign 
 not to them that believe, but to them that 
 believe not;” while “ prophesying serveth 
 not for them that believe not, but for them 
 which believe;” or, in other words, proph¬ 
 esying is for the “ edification, exhortation. 
 
Gih 
 
 ( 366 ) 
 
 Gil 
 
 and comfort ” of the Church. The notion 
 that the gift of tongues was for the pur¬ 
 pose of converting foreign nations, is now 
 held by few expositors. Rather, we may 
 suppose, it was an overpowering influence 
 of spiritual zeal, intelligible to those who 
 were filled with divine love, and to them 
 only. (See Farrar’s St. Paul, chapter v.) 
 It is a very difficult question to decide 
 when the extraordinary gifts ceased to be 
 bestowed on Christians. 
 
 Instances are mentioned in Eusebius v. 
 7, where he quotes Irenaeus to prove that 
 miraculous gifts, including even raising 
 from the dead, existed in his day (a. d. 
 161-180). Again, in Eusebius vi. 9, the 
 historian records that many miracles were 
 performed by Narcissus, A. D. 211-217. 
 But the mention of such an individual 
 seems to show that the majority of Chris¬ 
 tians did not then possess this power. In 
 all ages people have laid claim to a pos¬ 
 session of miraculous power, but in such 
 instances the evidence has not been suffi¬ 
 cient to place the matter beyond doubt. 
 In other cases gross deception has been 
 practiced. One test by which to try such 
 claims to miraculous gifts is mentioned by 
 Irenaeus in the above passage, and by 
 Apollonius, a writer who lived a few years 
 later, viz., Is gain made by such manifes¬ 
 tations of miraculous power? Apollonius, 
 in Eusebius v. 18, accuses the Phrygian 
 heretics of receiving presents on such oc¬ 
 casions, and thereby convicts them of im¬ 
 posture, while Irenaeus attests the gen¬ 
 uineness of the miraculous powers exer¬ 
 cised by the faithful from the fact that no 
 gain nor profit was made: “ As they had 
 received freely from Christ, so,” says he, 
 “ ought they to give freely.” In conclu¬ 
 sion, it may be remembered that it has 
 only been in great crises in the history of 
 God’s people that miraculous gifts have 
 been bestowed in any abundance, e. g. , in 
 the deliverance from Egypt, in the troub¬ 
 lous times of Elijah and Elisha, and at 
 the rise of Christ’s Kingdom upon the 
 earth; and it is also to be observed that in 
 the passage above cited, they are distinct¬ 
 ly placed beneath gifts and graces which 
 yet and permanently remain.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. For the alleged restora¬ 
 tion of the Gift of Tongues, see Cath¬ 
 olic Apostolic Church. 
 
 Gi'hon ( fountain or stream), (1) the 
 name of the second of the four rivers of 
 Eden. (Gen. ii. 13.) It is identified by 
 some scholars with the Nile. (2) A place 
 not far from Jerusalem where Solomon was 
 proclaimed king. (1 Kings i. 33-45.) Ma- 
 nasseh built a wall on the north side of 
 Gihon, and Hezekiah stopped its upper 
 
 water-courses. (2 Chron. xxxii. 30; xxxiii. 
 14.) The exact site of these streams is 
 still a matter of discussion. 
 
 Gilbert of Sempringham, b. at Sempring- 
 ham, Lincolnshire, England, about 1083; 
 d. there, Feb. 4, 1189. He was the found¬ 
 er of the order called the Gilbertines or 
 Sempringenses, for whom he prepared 
 rules. The monasteries which he founded 
 numbered 700 male and 1,500 female in¬ 
 mates. The order possessed twenty-five 
 monasteries when suppressed by Henry 
 VIII. 
 
 Gilbo'a, a mountain-range on the eastern 
 side of the plain of Esdraelon, rising over 
 the city of Jezreel (comp. 1 Sam. xxviii. 4 
 with xxix. 1). It is only mentioned in 
 Scripture in connection with one event in 
 Israelitish history, the defeat and death of 
 Saul and Jonathan by the Philistines. (1 
 Sam. xxxi. 1; 2 Sam. i. 6;xxi. 12; 1 Chron. 
 x. 1, 8.) No doubt can be entertained of 
 the identity of Gilboa with the ridge which 
 stretches eastward from the ruins of Jez¬ 
 reel. The mountain is now called Jebet 
 FAkAa; the village, fclbdn. 
 
 Gildas, surnamed Sapiens, or “ The 
 Wise,” is said to have been born in Wales 
 early in the sixth century. He was a 
 monk. The place of his education is un¬ 
 certain. He spent seven years in France, 
 and then went to Ireland, where he did 
 much for the Church; he then returned to 
 England, and became an earnest preacher 
 of the Gospel. The monks of the old 
 monastery of St. Gildas de Ruys, in Brit¬ 
 tany, say that he spent his last days there; 
 but English writers aver that he died near 
 Glastonbury in 570. So much difference 
 of opinion exists about his history that one 
 can determine nothing with certainty about 
 him or his works. He wrote a history, de 
 Cala?nitate , Excidio, et Conquestu Britannice, 
 which is valuable as being the only informa¬ 
 tion we have of those times. It is divided 
 into two periods, the one extending from 
 the first Roman invasion to the close of the 
 fourth century or revolt of Maximus, the 
 other from that revolt to his own days.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Gil'ead. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Giles, St., b. in Greece, 640; d. before 
 725 in a monastery on the Rhone. He lived 
 a hermit’s life in Provence for many years, 
 and while there was discovered in the for¬ 
 est by the King, Wamba (Flavius), while 
 caring for the hind—upon whose milk the 
 saint subsisted—which had been wounded 
 by the king’s dogs and had sought refuge 
 
Gil 
 
 ( 367 ) 
 
 Gir 
 
 in his cave. The king desired St. Giles to 
 attend upon him at his court. He did so 
 for a short time and then returned to the 
 forestand founded a monastery. His rep¬ 
 utation for sanctity spread far and near, 
 and many miracles were ascribed to him. 
 He once declined treatment for an accident¬ 
 al lameness, saying that he needed the 
 discipline of suffering, and for this is hon¬ 
 ored as the patron saint of cripples. In art 
 he is pictured as an old man, at whose feet 
 is a hind wounded by an arrow through its 
 neck. He has churches in all parts of 
 Europe, and his day is commemorated 
 Sept. 1. His relics are in St. Sernin’s, 
 Toulouse. 
 
 Gilfillan, George, a popular Scottish re¬ 
 ligious writer; b. at Comrie, Perthshire, 
 Scotland, Jan. 30, 1813; d. Aug. 13, 1878. 
 He studied at Glasgow University, and in 
 1836 was ordained pastor of a Secession 
 congregation at Dundee. Among his 
 works the best known is Bards of the Bible. 
 As a lecturer and preacher he was both ed¬ 
 ifying and eloquent. 
 
 Gil'gal {rolling), (1) the name of the 
 first station of the Israelites after crossing 
 the Jordan. It was here the twelve stones 
 were set up, and here the tabernacle re¬ 
 mained until removed to Shiloh. (Josh iv. 
 19, 20; xviii. 1.) At Gilgal Samuel judged, 
 and Saul was made king. (1 Sam. vii. 16; 
 x. 8; xi. 15.) (2) The Gilgal mentioned in 
 
 Elijah’s time was probably in the range of 
 mountains north of Bethel. (2 Kings ii. 2.) 
 Which of the places mentioned became the 
 seat of idolatry is still uncertain. 
 
 Gill, John, an eminent Baptist minister 
 and learned Rabbinical scholar; b. at Ket¬ 
 tering, Northamptonshire, in 1697; d. at 
 Camberwell, Oct. 14, 1771. He was self- 
 educated, and in 1719 became pastor of the 
 Baptist congregation at Horsleydown, near 
 London, where he continued for fifty-three 
 years. An extreme Calvinist, he was a 
 profound scholar and theologian. Dr Gill’s 
 most important work was his Exposition of 
 the Old and New Testament , an edition of 
 which, in 9 vols., was published with Me- 
 ?noir ( Phila., 1811-19). 
 
 Gillespie, George, one of the four com¬ 
 missioners sent from the Church of Scot¬ 
 land to the Westminster Assembly, in 
 1643; b. at Kirkcaldy, Jan. 21, 1613; d. 
 there, Dec. 17, 1648. He wrote: The Eng¬ 
 lish Popish Ceremonies obtruded upon the 
 Church of Scotland (1637); Assertion of the 
 G overnment of the Church of Scotland (1641); 
 Aaron's Rod Blossoming: or, the Divine Or¬ 
 dinance of Church-Government Vindicated 
 
 (1646). This was his ablest work. Al¬ 
 though the youngest member of the West¬ 
 minster Assembly, he was recognized as 
 one of its strongest debaters. An edition 
 of his works, with Memoir by Hethrington, 
 was published in Edinburgh (1844-46), 2 
 vols. 
 
 Gillett, Ezra Hall, D. D., b. at Colches¬ 
 ter, Conn., July 15, 1823; d. in New York, 
 Sept. 2, 1875. He was graduated at Yale 
 College (1841), and Union Theological 
 Seminary (1844), and became pastor in 1845 
 of a Presbyterian church in Harlem, which 
 he served until 1868, when he accepted the 
 chair of political economy and history in 
 the University of New York. He was the 
 author of: The Life and Times of fohn Muss 
 2 vols. (1861); History of the Presbyterian 
 Church in the United States, 2 vols. (1864); 
 God in Human Thought and Moral System 
 (1875). 
 
 Gilpin, Bernard, “ Apostle of the 
 North;” b. at Kentmere Hall, Westmore¬ 
 land, in 1517; d. at Houghton-le-Spring, 
 Durham, March 4, 1583. A graduate and 
 fellow of Oxford, he became vicar of Nor¬ 
 ton, Durham, 1552. This positionhe soon 
 resigned, and having come into sympathy 
 with the views of the reformers he was 
 accused of heresy, and narrowly escaped 
 martyrdom through the influence of his 
 great-uncle, Bishop Tonstall. Under Eliza¬ 
 beth he declined the bishopric of Carlisle. 
 As rector of Houghton, he was active in 
 philanthropic and benevolent labors, and 
 gained a great influence over his people. 
 See his Life, by William Gilpin, with intro¬ 
 duction by Edward Irving (Glasgow, 1824). 
 
 Girdle, “ an essential article of dress in 
 the East, and worn both by menand women. 
 The common girdle was made of leather 
 (2 Kings i. 8; Matt. iii. 4), like that worn 
 by the Bedouins of the present day. A 
 finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. xiii. 1; 
 Ezek. xvi. 10), embroidered with silk, and 
 sometimes with gold and silver thread 
 (Dan. x. 5; Rev. i. 13; xv. 6), and fre¬ 
 quently studded with gold and precious 
 stones or pearls. The manufacture of 
 these girdles formed part of the employ¬ 
 ment of women. (Prov. xxxi. 24.) The 
 girdle was fastened by a clasp of gold or 
 silver, or tied in a knot so that the ends 
 hung down in front, as in the figures on the 
 ruins of Persepolis. It was worn by men 
 about the loins. (Isa. v. 27; xi. 5.) The gir¬ 
 dle of women was generally looser than 
 that of the men, and was worn about the 
 hips, except when they were actively en¬ 
 gaged. (Prov. xxxi. 17.) The military gir¬ 
 dle was worn about the waist : the sword 
 
1368) 
 
 Gir 
 
 Glo 
 
 or dagger was suspended from it. (Judg. 
 iii. 16; 2 Sam. xx. 8; Psa. xlv. 3.) Hence 
 girding up the loins denotes preparation 
 for battle or for active exertion. In times 
 of mourning, girdles of sackcloth were 
 worn as marks of humiliation and sorrow. 
 (Isa. iii. 24; xxii. 12.) In consequence of 
 the costly materials of which girdles were 
 made, they were frequently given as pres¬ 
 ents. (1 Sam. xviii. 4; 2 Sam. xviii. 11.) 
 They were used as pockets, as among the 
 Arabs still, and as purses, one end of the 
 girdle being folded back for the purpose. 
 (Matt. x. 9 ; Mark vi. 8.) The abnit , or 
 girdle worn by the priests about the close- 
 fitting tunic (Ex. xxviii. 39; xxxix. 29), is 
 described by Josephus as made of linen so 
 fine of texture as to look like the slough of 
 a snake, and embroidered with flowers of 
 scarlet, purple, blue, and fine linen. It 
 was about four fingers broad, and was 
 wrapped several times round the priest’s 
 body, the ends hanging down to the feet. 
 The ‘ curious girdle ’ (Ex. xxviii. 8) was 
 made of the same materials and colors as 
 the ephod, that is of ‘ gold, blue, and pur¬ 
 ple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen.’ 
 Josephus describes it as sewn to the breast¬ 
 plate. After passing once round, it was 
 tied in front upon the seam, the ends hang¬ 
 ing down.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible . 
 
 Gir'gashites, a tribe of the Canaanites 
 who inhabited the region east of the sea of 
 Galilee, whence the name of the city of 
 Gergesa. (Gen. xv. 21.) 
 
 Git'tites. See Gath. 
 
 Gladden, Washington, D. D. (Roanoke 
 College, Va., 1884), LL. D. (University 
 of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 1881), Con¬ 
 gregationalism b. at Pottsgrove, Penn., 
 Feb. 11,1836. He was graduatedat Williams 
 College, Mass., 1859, and has held pastor¬ 
 ates at Brooklyn, N. Y., i860; Morrisania, 
 N. Y., 1861; North Adams, Mass., 1866- 
 71; Springfield, Mass., 1875; and since 
 1883, Columbus, O. Among his published 
 works are: Plain Thoughts on the Art of 
 Living (1868); Workingmen and their Em¬ 
 ployers (1876); Being a Christian (1876); The 
 Lord s Pray er (1881); The Young Men and the 
 Churches (1885); Burning Questions (1890). 
 
 Glass. From mural paintings represent¬ 
 ing the process of glass-blowing, we know 
 that the manufacture of glass was carried 
 on by the Egyptians as early as the time 
 of the patriarchs. The Hebrews were 
 probably familiar with this invention, al¬ 
 though it is mentioned but once in the 
 Old Testament (Job xxviii. 17), where it is 
 translated in the A. V. “ crystal,’ but in 
 
 the R. V. “ glass.” The mirrors referred 
 to in 1 Cor. xiii. 12; 2 Cor. iii. 18, etc., 
 were not made of glass, but metal. 
 
 Glass, John, b. in Fifeshire, Sept. 21, 
 1695; d. at Dundee, 1773. While minister 
 of the parish of Tealing, he was deposed 
 by the General Assembly of the Church of 
 Scotland, because of the publication of a 
 book in which he maintained that an Es¬ 
 tablished Church was contrary to the Script¬ 
 ures. He gathered a congregation, which 
 adopted a voluntary and independent form 
 of government. Members of this church, 
 with others in sympathy with his views, 
 are known in Scotland as Glassites, but in 
 this country they are called Sandemanians 
 ( q . v.). His works were published in Edin¬ 
 burgh (1761, 2d ed., Perth, 1782), 5 vols. 
 
 Glebe (, church-land ), in ecclesiastical law, 
 is the land devoted to the maintenance of 
 the incumbent of a church. Originally, the 
 assigning of such land was an absolute 
 necessity, for no church could be regularly 
 consecrated without it. 
 
 Gloria in Excelsis. See Doxology. 
 
 Gloria Patri. See Doxology. 
 
 Glosses, Bible. “With the decay of 
 learning and originality during the Dark 
 Ages grew the necessity for making, and the 
 custom of transcribing on manuscript cop¬ 
 ies of the Vulgate, various notes, explan¬ 
 atory or otherwise, of the text. Ultimately, 
 collections of these glosses, or sets of 
 glosses, came to be made. They are dis¬ 
 tinguished as either marginal or interlinear. 
 The most famous collection of glossae 
 marginales was that made by Walafridus 
 Strabus in the ninth century: it consists of 
 notes grammatical, historical, and theolog¬ 
 ical, culled from the writings of Augustine, 
 Ambrose, Jerome, Gregory, Isidore, Bede, 
 Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, with additions 
 by himself. The interlinear glosses (which, 
 as a rule, were not so full as the marginal) 
 were sometimes theological, but more gen¬ 
 erally purely philological. A somewhat 
 important collection of interlinear glosses, 
 belonging to the former class, was made 
 by Anselm of Laon (1117). The philo¬ 
 logical glosses have considerable value to 
 the linguistic student, especially those 
 which originated in Germany during the 
 Carlovingian period. Some interlinear ver¬ 
 nacular translations of portions of the 
 Bible into the Anglo-Saxon in the ninth 
 and following centuries have also been 
 recently reprinted.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Gloucester, a cathedral city of England, 
 

 (369) 
 
Gna 
 
 ( 370 ) 
 
 Gno 
 
 situated on the Severn, 107 miles northwest 
 of London. The cathedral dates from the 
 eleventh century, and represents several 
 different eras of ecclesiastical architecture. 
 It is 427 feet in length, and 154 in width; 
 the height of the central tower is 223 feet. 
 Its beautiful cloisters form a large square. 
 It was formerly the church of a Benedict¬ 
 ine abbey, and was converted into a ca¬ 
 thedral in 1541. The present income of the 
 diocese of Gloucester is ^5,000. 
 
 Gnat, a troublesome insect, akin to the 
 mosquito, and very common in hot coun¬ 
 tries. It is mentioned in Matt, xxiii. 24, 
 where the Revised Version properly reads 
 “ strain out.” 
 
 Gnostics derived their name from the 
 extraordinary religious knowledge ( gndsis ) 
 which they claimed to possess. The term 
 is not the name of any one particular sect, 
 but rather of a number of sects who all ac¬ 
 cepted certain main principles, but differed 
 from one another on particular points, each 
 sect following its own founder. Said to 
 have been originally propagated by Simon 
 Magus, Gnosticism spread through the 
 greater part of Christendom, rising to its 
 greatest height about the middle of the 
 second century, and lasting almost to the 
 end of the fourth century. It was more a 
 distinct religious system than a heresy, but 
 its acceptance of some of the fundamental 
 doctrines of Christianity made it a source 
 of great trouble to the Church. It had 
 some good effects, however, in causing the 
 Faith to be more carefully examined and 
 more clearly defined. 
 
 St. Paul is supposed to refer to Gnos¬ 
 ticism when he speaks, in his Epistle to 
 Timothy, of “the opposition of science 
 ( gndsis ) falsely so called ” (1 Tim. vi. 20), 
 and of “fables and endless genealogies” 
 (1 Tim. i. 4); and again, in the Epistle to 
 the Colossians, of “ philosophy and vain 
 deceit.” (Col. ii. 8.) 
 
 Our knowledge of the system is derived 
 from the works of its opponents, as no 
 Gnostic writings have come down to us. It 
 may be described as a combination of the 
 notions of ancient philosophy, Magian 
 theories, Judaism, and Christianity. In it 
 the Oriental hypotheses concerning the 
 origin of evil, and the speculations of Plato 
 and of Philo of Alexandria, were blended 
 with the Christian doctrine of Redemption; 
 and the resulting systems became very 
 popular with those who had become weary 
 of philosophy, but who ) r et could not bring 
 themselves to receive the Christian faith. 
 
 The great home of Gnosticism was 
 Egypt, particularly Alexandria. The found¬ 
 ers of its numerous sects were almost all 
 
 either Africans or Asiatics. The most re¬ 
 nowned were: 
 
 I. Asiatics: 
 
 1. Saturninus, who flourished at the begin¬ 
 
 ning of the second century. 
 
 2. Bardesanes, under Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 3. Marriott, under Antoninus Pius. 
 
 4. Tatian (founder of the Encratites), in the 
 
 middle of the second century. 
 
 5. Cerinthus, at the end of the second cen¬ 
 
 tury. 
 
 II. Africans: 
 
 1. Basilides, under Hadrian and Antoninus 
 
 Pius. 
 
 2. Carpocrates, under Hadrian. 
 
 3. Valentinus, under Antoninus Pius, 
 
 The Ebionites, a Judaizing sect, are also 
 usually included amongst the Gnostics. 
 (Ebionites.) The main points of the Gnos¬ 
 tic system were substantially as follows: 
 
 1. Affecting the Doctrine of the Trinity — 
 
 That there was one Eternal and Supreme 
 
 Deity, from whom emanated a graduated 
 series of existences called y£ons; which 
 JEons were to be regarded as manifesta¬ 
 tions of particular attributes of the Deity, 
 and together constituted the Pleroma, or 
 Fullness of the Godhead. Their number 
 was variously given, Valentinus fixing it 
 at thirty, Basilides at 365. 
 
 2. Affecting the Doctrine of the Resurrec¬ 
 tion — 
 
 That matter was essentially evil, the 
 world and all material things having been 
 created by a fallen dEon (or, according to 
 some, by an evil power who had existed 
 from all eternity). As a deduction from 
 this, they denied the resurrection of the 
 body, considering the body as a prison 
 formed by the Demiurge, or fallen creator, 
 for the confinement of the soul. 
 
 3. Affecting the Doctrine of the Incarna¬ 
 tion — 
 
 The above also led to erroneous views 
 concerning our Lord Jesus Christ. They 
 could not believe that a divine nature could 
 unite with a material (and therefore evil) 
 body. Accordingly two solutions of the 
 difficulty were proposed: 
 
 a. That Christ was human , but not divine , 
 that he was merely a man, on whom the 
 divinity descended at his baptism in the 
 form of a dove, leaving him before the 
 Crucifixion. This view was held by the 
 Ebionites, Basilidians, Carpocratians, and 
 Cerinthians. 
 
 b. That Christ was divine, but not human; 
 that his Body was not material, but— 
 
 (1) An unsubstantial phantom, which 
 only seemed to be human. 
 
 This was the view of Saturninus, the 
 Encratites, and Marcionites, and they were 
 hence called Docetce , from a Greek word 
 meaning “ to seem.” 
 
 (2) Formed of heavenly elements, like 
 those of the angels who appeared to men. 
 
Goa 
 
 ( 371 ) 
 
 God 
 
 This was the opinion of Bardesanes and 
 Valentinus. 
 
 4. Affecting the Doctrine of the Redemp¬ 
 tion — 
 
 That Christ’s mission was not to die for 
 sin, but to impart \o m.ax\. a. knowledge oi his 
 heavenly origin, and to instruct him how 
 to regain his lost condition. Those who 
 attained this knowledge were saved. Salva¬ 
 tion was the result, not of a sacrifice , but 
 of gnosis. 
 
 The rules of life deduced from the fore¬ 
 going principles were of two opposite kinds: 
 
 a. The followers of Bardesanes and 
 Saturninus, and the Ebionites, Encratites, 
 and Marcionites considered it their duty to 
 resist the influence of the Demiurge by 
 mortifying the body. They condemned 
 marriage, and practised the greatest aus¬ 
 terities. 
 
 b. The Basilidians, Valentinians, Carpo- 
 cratians, and Cerinthians, on the other 
 hand, regarding themselves as possessing 
 saving “ gnosis,” held that all actions were 
 indifferent. They therefore indulged in 
 all kinds of various practices and disgust¬ 
 ing immoralities, which were doubtless the 
 cause of many of the charges brought 
 against the early Christians. 
 
 The Cerinthians also taught the doctrine 
 of a millennium to be passed in sensual 
 pleasures. 
 
 The Gnostics, as a rule, rejected the Old 
 Testament, as given under the influence of 
 the Demiurge. They usually accepted 
 the New Testament, excepting, in some 
 cases, the Epistles of St. Paul. They all 
 made use of apocryphal books and spu¬ 
 rious gospels which supported their views. 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. On the 
 general subject see Church Histories of 
 Neander, Schaff, etc. 
 
 Goad, a pole about eight feet long, shod 
 at the larger end with a piece of iron, with 
 which the ploughshare was freed from 
 clods and earth. The smaller end was 
 fitted with a sharp spike, with which the 
 cattle were urged in their labor. The goad 
 is still used in Palestine. 
 
 Goat. There are several species of goat 
 in Palestine; but the most common kind 
 have very long, hanging ears. It was a clean 
 animal, according to the Jewish law. Its 
 milk was used for food (Prov. xxvii. 27); 
 the hair was manufactured into various 
 articles (Exod. xxv. 4), and the skin made 
 into bottles. (Josh. ix. 4.) The wild goat 
 was the ibex, or mountain goat, of the 
 Arabs. 
 
 The scapegoat was one of the two goats 
 offered on the day of atonement. (Lev. 
 xvi.) 
 
 Gobat ( go-ba ), Samuel, missionary in 
 Abyssinia, and bishop of Jerusalem; b. at 
 Cremine, Bern, Switzerland, Jan. 26, 1799; 
 d. at Jerusalem, May 11, 1879. Having 
 studied in the mission-house at Basel, in 
 1823 he visited Paris and London, and 
 learned Arabic, ALthiopic, and Amharic. 
 In 1826 he was sent by the London Mis¬ 
 sionary Society to labor in Abyssinia, but 
 was not able to enter that field until 1830; 
 and, meanwhile, engaged in work in Egypt 
 and Syria. Returning to Europe in 1834, 
 he superintended, from 1839 to 1841, the 
 translation of the Bible into Arabic. In 
 1846 he became bishop of Jerusalem, and 
 was very successful in founding schools 
 and other religious institutions in Jerusa¬ 
 lem, Bethlehem, Jaffa, and other points in 
 Palestine. He wrote A Journal of Three 
 Years in Abyssinia (London, 1847). See 
 his Life , first published at Basel (1884; 
 Eng. trans. New York, 1885). 
 
 God. It is a self-evident proposition 
 that a belief in the existence of a Superior 
 Being or Beings must be the basis of all 
 religion, properly so called. Any move¬ 
 ment of the soul after improvement, after 
 that which satisfies its longings, must have 
 its basis in such a belief in some form. 
 The two great principles of religious be¬ 
 lief which have prevailed in the world are 
 Polytheism and Monotheism— i. e.> the be¬ 
 lief in “ gods many and lords many,” 
 which characterized heathenism; and that 
 in One Supreme Self-existent Being, 
 which is at the very foundation of every 
 form of Christianity. Outside these we 
 have the negation which, it cannot be de¬ 
 nied, has, and always has had, its profess¬ 
 ors, which declares “ There is no God,” 
 or else which says, “We have no knowl¬ 
 edge of such a one.” (Agnostic.) 
 
 When we come to examine into the 
 grounds of belief in Deity, we first of all 
 have a right to say that this belief is in 
 possession of the field. However we ac¬ 
 count for it, it is unquestionably the fact 
 that all over the world, as far as history 
 takes us back, mankind have alwa)^s be¬ 
 lieved in God, and have entered into spec¬ 
 ulations to know more of him. Hindoos, 
 and Chinese philosophers, Egyptians, 
 Greeks, Latins, gave themselves with 
 eagerness to the inquiry. The epoch of 
 the coming of Christ found one people— 
 the Jews—strenuously asserting that there 
 is only one God, and that worship of other 
 gods is a hateful superstition. The relig¬ 
 ion which Christ preached affirmed this 
 doctrine, and the civilized world has ac¬ 
 cepted it; and thus, as we have said, the 
 belief in God is in possession. Man is nat¬ 
 urally a religious being—a God-worship- 
 
God 
 
 ( 372 ) 
 
 God 
 
 per—however he came to be so; and the 
 fact is of tremendous significance, that the 
 existence of God should thus belong, as it 
 were, to the consciousness of humanity at 
 large. 
 
 Christianity, however, came into direct 
 conflict with many of the popular religious 
 beliefs current at its birth, and thus, when 
 its doctrine of one God was called in ques¬ 
 tion, it became necessary to offer reasons 
 for such belief. In this controversy the 
 strongest point was, there can be little 
 doubt, the Christian doctrine of sin and of 
 God’s attitude in regard to it. It seems so 
 natural to us now to believe that, if there 
 be a God, he must be a just and moral 
 Being, that we are in danger of forgetting 
 that this conception is almost, if not en¬ 
 tirely, confined to the line of Jewish and 
 Christian revelation. To an ancient hea¬ 
 then the matter by no means appeared 
 in this light: his gods, as represented to 
 him, were swayed far more by vindictive, 
 selfish, and other personal feelings, than 
 by moral motives. No man could be cer¬ 
 tain that he w r as not innocently offending 
 some deity, even in striving to propitiate 
 some other, and thereby entailing misery 
 and misfortune on himself for the rest of 
 his life; and the awful problem, which for 
 a while held Job powerless in its grasp, of 
 reconciling the justice of God with the 
 misfortunes of a righteous man, could 
 never have confronted a pagan at all, for 
 the simple reason that any necessity that 
 his deities should act righteously would 
 not have entered his conceptions. Only a 
 few of the rarest spirits of antiquity had 
 made any approach to ideas clearly taught 
 in the Hebrew Bible. But when the truth 
 was once clearly stated, as it was by the 
 early Christians, it appealed at once to the 
 conscience of men. The Christians gave 
 their arguments against the old gods; 
 heathenism strove, under the form of Neo- 
 Platonism, to reconstruct a new basis on 
 which to rest itself, but it failed, and gave 
 place to deep skepticism. Thenceforth the 
 warfare of Christianity was not with Poly¬ 
 theism, but with Negation and Unbelief. 
 
 The earliest argument adduced by 
 Christian apologists was that of the con¬ 
 science —“ Belief in God is an opinion im¬ 
 planted in the nature of men.” Cardinal 
 Newman says that the belief in God pre¬ 
 sents more intellectual difficulties than any 
 other belief, and yet is ascertain to him as 
 the certainty of his own existence. This 
 is, in fact, making a belief in God a part of 
 the moral consciousness; and probably this 
 may be regarded as a view accepted by the 
 general voice of mankind. The conviction 
 is in man. His consciousness of himself 
 involves the consciousness of a power 
 
 which is not himself, which has an object¬ 
 ive existence. The very consciousness of 
 imperfection involves belief in a perfection 
 which must exist, above and beyond all 
 things. We can conceive the existence of 
 a perfect Being; and such conception could, 
 not be if there were no ground for it. This 
 is known as the Ontological argument—the 
 cognizance of an existence outside of our¬ 
 selves. The arguments of the great School¬ 
 men come to the same thing: “ My reason 
 had a beginning, therefore it must have had 
 an external Author;” “ I feel myself to be 
 an accountable beiifg, therefore there must 
 be One superior to me who can reward 
 and punish, otherwise my existence would 
 be a contradiction.” 
 
 Akin to this is the Costnological argument 
 —that which starts from the sequences and 
 effects in the universe. Whatever is must 
 either have a cause or be self-existent. The 
 world is every hour showing signs that it 
 is not self-existent; change follows change, 
 producing fresh phenomena. This argument 
 has been lately much strengthened by the 
 modern discovery of what is called the 
 “ dissipation of energy,” which involves 
 as a necessary consequence the fact that 
 the present constitution of things cannot 
 have lasted from eternity, but must have 
 had a beginning in time. Otherwise, “ the 
 great clock must have run down ” an eter¬ 
 nity ago. Hence we are led back step by 
 step to an ultimate cause of all things, 
 whose self-existence is thus demonstrated. 
 Paley carried this principle another step. 
 The order, he contended, and arrangement 
 of the universe, and the adaptation of 
 means to ends, all prove that a wise and 
 benevolent Intelligence created the world. 
 This is the substance of his Natural The¬ 
 ology —the teleological “ argument from de¬ 
 sign.” Of late, however, with increased 
 knowledge and greater development of 
 moral sensibility, this has been objected to, 
 on the ground of the multiplicity of cir¬ 
 cumstances which mar the happiness of the 
 creation. Not only earthquakes, famines, 
 pestilences, recur again and again, but an¬ 
 imals prey on and torture each other. “ I 
 think the watch argument unanswerable,” 
 said a late celebrated divine, alluding to the 
 opening passage in Paley, where he sup¬ 
 poses a man seeing a watch for the first 
 time and tracing out the design of the 
 maker. “ But the watch keeps bad time,” 
 was the retort of a pupil of the speaker; 
 “ wouldn’t it be easy to prove that the 
 devil made the world, on Paley’s lines?” 
 The retort is not a sound one, and yet 
 there is a measure of truth in it. There is 
 little doubt that the sterner and apparently 
 cruel facts of Nature do press with awful 
 force upon many minds, which are thereby 
 
God 
 
 ( 373 ) 
 
 God 
 
 deterred from believing in a benevolent 
 Creator: and even Mr. Mill, who held that 
 there were many apparent tokens of design, 
 adaptation, and even benevolence, was him¬ 
 self brought to the conclusion that the 
 power of a Being who had given such 
 proofs of good-will, must be limited by con¬ 
 ditions over which he had insufficient con¬ 
 trol, to account for the phenomena. There 
 can be no doubt that Paley’s view of Nature 
 was a very imperfect and partial one; and 
 the difficulty is not removed by modern 
 ideas respecting the work of “general 
 laws,” as is sometimes maintained. It 
 would rather appear that, as regards the 
 Christian Revelation and its view of these 
 problems, the difficulty has mainly arisen 
 from an altogether partial and imperfect 
 view of its field and its scope, which has 
 been too much, in popular teaching, con¬ 
 fined to man himself. It is said that the 
 contradictions and difficulties of which we 
 have spoken find their explanation in this 
 Revelation, which declares that through 
 certain causes mankind has become alien¬ 
 ated from its Creator, and thereby has be¬ 
 come subject to sorrow and pain. (Sin.) 
 But the Christian believes that God has re¬ 
 stored mankind to a knowledge of himself 
 through Christ, who came into the world 
 for the purpose of revealing the nature and 
 character of God. He revealed God as the 
 Father, which involves the great truth of 
 the theologian—“ God is Love.” This is 
 true. But it is too commonly taught as if 
 man alone required such a remedial and 
 elevating agency: it has been proclaimed 
 in thousands of pulpits that “ man alone is 
 out of joint ” with the purposes of Crea¬ 
 tion, and that all other creatures “ fulfil the 
 end of their being.” If this were so, there 
 would be no reply to the argument of Mill 
 and others; for the moral difficulty arises 
 precisely from our being unable to see any 
 moral cause for, or end in, so much phys¬ 
 ical suffering as prevails in the animal 
 world around us. But such is not the 
 teaching of the Revelation itself. This 
 tells us plainly that the whole Creation also 
 does groan and travail in pain together— 
 the fact is not blinked; and that it also waits 
 for the adoption and redemption — the 
 promise to it also is not withheld. How¬ 
 ever such words are understood, their 
 weight is obvious; and in a far wider and 
 fuller recognition of them than has been 
 usual must be found the Christian answer 
 to such difficulties as these. 
 
 Thus we have seen that, as the ages 
 rolled on, it became a necessity of the case, 
 and must still remain so, for current con¬ 
 ceptions of God to be modified and per¬ 
 fected according to the needs of the time. 
 The fulness of perfection cannot be seen by 
 
 any finite being; each one will see that 
 which presents itself to his eye. Imperfect 
 conceptions are not imperfect because they 
 are partial, but because they ignore or 
 deny the perfect. Agnosticism and Mani- 
 chaeism were distortions of Christian truths. 
 The half-awakened mind of mediaevalism, 
 peopling the unknown world with imagi¬ 
 nary dangers, multiplied mediators and in¬ 
 tercession, until God seemed too far remov¬ 
 ed to be within the hearing of his creatures. 
 The Reformation was in very truth a res¬ 
 toration of the one God to his place as the 
 centre of all true theology. But the pop¬ 
 ular views of earthly government then in 
 vogue showed themselves in a notion of 
 God, which, in declaring his sovereignty, 
 ignored his Fatherhood and compassion. 
 This was the basis of Calvinism. In revolt 
 from it came the Socinian theory that our 
 knowledge of God is imperfect, but suffi¬ 
 cient for practical purposes, and that mo¬ 
 rality is the way of salvation. The inquiries 
 and speculations, set on foot by the sixteenth 
 century revolt against traditional opinion, 
 will probably last until the end of time. 
 (Deism; Pantheism.) There can be little 
 doubt that the crude language of many 
 theological authorities, of more than one 
 school, seemed to present God as if sepa¬ 
 rate and apart from his own creation, as if, 
 having once made it and “ordained ” laws 
 for it, it might henceforth go on in a fashion 
 without him, really Divine power and au¬ 
 thority being only henceforth to be seen in 
 miracle or other special intervention. This 
 subtle practical atheism was entirely for¬ 
 eign to the Hebrew, to whose mind God 
 spoke in the thunder and whispered in the 
 wind: but how far it had permeated much 
 of very “ orthodox” theology it would be 
 easy to show. The reaction to the Pan¬ 
 theistic view, that God and the Universe 
 were one and the same—God the All, of 
 which every man or thing was but a part— 
 was natural. But, on the whole, Christian 
 theology has probably gained from it, in 
 learning to see everywhere and in every¬ 
 thing the manifestation of Divine energy, 
 acting in the present, and bringing the In¬ 
 finite presence home to the very next 
 neighborhood of men—as close to their 
 actual bodies, as the Divine and Holy 
 Spirit could draw nigh to their inmost souls. 
 
 It should further be pointed out that 
 even the Agnosticism of modern days has 
 also helped to correct current conceptions 
 of God, and to give to them in some re¬ 
 spects more worthy forms. As an argu¬ 
 ment against any real knowledge of God, 
 the Agnostic argument is very simply an¬ 
 swered. The great leader of this school 
 (Mr. Spencer) has himself shown, and it 
 has been shown by physicists again and 
 
God 
 
 ( 374 ) 
 
 God 
 
 again, that the Unknowable confronts us 
 finally, at every point of investigation, in 
 the physical world itself. The Energy 
 that surrounds us, the simplest piece of 
 Matter we take in our hands, alike abso¬ 
 lutely baffle our comprehension at the last; 
 we not only cannot know what they really 
 are, but cannot even grasp any conception 
 of their ultimate reality. Mr. Spencer 
 himself ( First Principles') very fairly de¬ 
 monstrates this, and the demonstration can 
 be carried much farther. But we never¬ 
 theless can know and do know very much 
 about the physical universe, and this 
 knowledge is real and true knowledge so 
 far as it goes. We know very much, and 
 may learn yet much more, of the modes 
 and manifestations and finite relations of 
 the Unknowable, in their various forms. 
 Precisely in the same way, therefore, an 
 Agnostic is bound in consistency to admit, 
 that though in essence or ultimate Reality 
 we cannot find him out, yet we may know 
 much about the Infinite God, provided only 
 there be such an one to know, as Mr. Spen¬ 
 cer practically admits, and that he chooses 
 to be known of us. Yet there is much in the 
 Agnostic argument that is of service, and is 
 indeed little more than grave and just re¬ 
 buke to a coarse familiarity of detail and 
 precision of statement which a truer rever¬ 
 ence for God could never have tolerated. 
 Divines have written pages about what God 
 “ could ” or “ could not ” or “ must ” do, 
 and what he “ must be,” as freely as if the 
 Divine Being were altogether such an one 
 as ourselves. Some protest against this was 
 needful; and even in less gross matters 
 than these, it may be hoped that Agnostic 
 criticism has already produced a tone of 
 more reverent caution and humility. To 
 take but one instance: Mr. Spencer himself 
 has protested in strong terms against cer¬ 
 tain affirmations made respecting the “ per¬ 
 sonality” of God, a doctrine essential to 
 the very heart of a Christian, or to the 
 Christian life. But in a recent article he 
 has explained this protest in a somewhat 
 unexpected way; stating that whereas he 
 had been understood to mean that the In¬ 
 scrutable Power (the term which he prefers 
 to use) was a Being in some sense “ below ” 
 Personality, his meaning rather was that 
 what attributes such a Being possessed 
 must be infinitely “above” all that we 
 know as such, as much so as the Infinite is 
 above the Finite in all other things. In 
 such language there is something to be 
 learned, which in the end may bring real 
 gains to Christian theology. 
 
 Finally, it should be observed in regard 
 to those means by which God may be 
 known, that those who most profoundly 
 study in the comparative manner the pro¬ 
 
 gressive advances of the idea of God in 
 history, will also be most profoundly struck 
 with the amazingly distinct and advanced 
 standpoint, at all times, of the Hebrew and 
 Christian revelation. Even at a time when 
 the other deities recognized in the world 
 were themselves conceived of as sunk in 
 sensuality and selfishness, the Hebrew was 
 taught of one God, who loved righteous¬ 
 ness and hated iniquity, and who would 
 judge the deeds of sinful men; he was even 
 so penetrated with that idea, that the mis¬ 
 fortunes of good men, instead of being to 
 him a fate to be borne in sullenness or 
 stoicism, as by a heathen, were an awful 
 moral problem, to be faced somehow, and 
 wrestled out in anguish of spirit as a fun¬ 
 damental one. It is needless to trace the 
 same amazing superiority in further detail; 
 but it should be noted that, since the Script¬ 
 ures have been collectively in possession 
 of the Church, they have ever stood far 
 above such historical advances as have 
 been above briefly reviewed. They have 
 never affirmed the irreverently familiar 
 declarations of some theologians concern¬ 
 ing the Divine essence and attributes; they 
 have borne continuous testimony against 
 the banishment of God from his own “ com¬ 
 mon ” world, which to them is ever full of 
 his holy presence; they have witnessed for 
 ages of liis long-suffering love; and all that 
 is true in Agnosticism has stood “ written ” 
 in them for centuries; they first taught to 
 man the limitations to his knowledge im¬ 
 posed upon him by the conditions of his 
 own intellect. It can hardly be doubted 
 that our children will know even more of 
 God than we do, and will form yet more 
 worthy conceptions of him, and will find 
 more in the Scriptures themselves than we 
 are able to find. But when it is so, they 
 will, like ourselves, find that it is all in 
 these Scriptures, plainly written for them; 
 as we in our time have found, according to 
 the capacity given to us. Qualities like 
 these are absolutely unique; but they are 
 simple and every-day facts concerning the 
 Christian Scriptures. Such facts will be 
 weighty to every really thoughtful and im¬ 
 partial man, and will dispose him at least 
 to examine with interest, and care, and re¬ 
 spect, on its own merits, what those Script¬ 
 ures affirm concerning “ what may be 
 known ” of him, whom they nevertheless 
 clearly allege will ever be past finding out. 
 (See, further, Trinity; Holy Ghost; 
 Creeds.) —Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 For recent literature see: Systems of 
 Theology by Hodge, Van Oosterzee, Dorner, 
 Foster, Buel, Strong, etc.; Flint: Theism 
 (Edinburgh,1877); Diman: The Theistic Ar¬ 
 gument (Boston, 1881); Harris: The Phil¬ 
 osophical Basis of Theism (New York, 1883). 
 
God 
 
 ( 375 ) 
 
 Goo 
 
 Godet, Frederic (Louis), D. D. (Basel, 
 1868), Reformed; b. at Neuchatel, Swit¬ 
 zerland, Oct. 25, 1812. After completing 
 his theological studies at Bonn and Berlin, 
 under Neander, he was first assistant pas¬ 
 tor at Valangin, 1837; tutor of the Crown- 
 Prince of Prussia from 1838 to 1844; in the 
 pastorate, 1845-66; from 1850 to 1873, pro¬ 
 fessor of exegetical and critical theology in 
 the theological school at Neuchatel, and 
 since that time has filled the same chair in 
 the independent faculty of the Church in 
 that city. He is the author of a Commen¬ 
 tary on the Gospel of St. John (1863-65), 
 2 vols.; 3d ed. (1881-85), translated by 
 President Timothy Dwight (New York, 
 1886), 2 vols.; Luke (1871), Eng. trans. 
 revised by John Hall (New York, 1881); 
 Romans (1879-80), Eng. trans. revised by 
 T. W. Chambers (New York, 1883); Lec¬ 
 tures in Defense of the Christian Faith (Ed¬ 
 inburgh, 1881) ; Old Testament Studies 
 (Oxford, 1875; 3d ed., 1885); New Testa¬ 
 ment Studies (London, 1876; 6th ed., 1885). 
 
 Godfathers and Godmothers. See Spon¬ 
 sors. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, the leader of the 
 first Crusade; b. in Belgium, about 1060; 
 d. in Jerusalem, July, 1100. In 1095, at 
 the head of eighty thousand infantry and 
 ten thousand horsemen, he marched for 
 the Holy Land. After many adventures, 
 they arrived at Jerusalem, and took the 
 city in July, 1099, after a siege of five 
 weeks. He was elected king, but lived to 
 reign only a single year. Tasso has im¬ 
 mortalized him in his Jerusale?n Delivered. 
 H is piety, valor, and skill have given his 
 name the first position among the Cru¬ 
 saders. 
 
 Gog and Ma'gog (Ezek. xxxviii. 2). Ma¬ 
 gog was the name of one of Japheth’s sons. 
 (Gen. x. 2.) It was the general name of 
 the country and people in the district north 
 of the Caucasus. The name of their king 
 was Gog, and the hostility that existed 
 between them and Israel suggested their 
 association with Antichrist. (Rev. xx. 8.) 
 
 Go'lan, a city of Bashan, and one of the 
 three cities of refuge east of the Jordan. 
 (Deut. iv. 43.) Some explorers place it 
 ten or twelve miles northeast of the sea 
 of Galilee, but the exact site is unknown. 
 
 Gold. This precious metal, while often 
 mentioned in the Scriptures, was not coin¬ 
 ed until after the time of David. Its use 
 among the Hebrews was very common. 
 The furniture and utensils of the Temple 
 were overlaid with gold. It was largely 
 
 used in the manufacture of personal orna¬ 
 ments and insignia of office. Several 
 places are mentioned where gold was 
 found—as Ophir (Job xxviii. 16), Arabia 
 (2 Chron. ix. 14), Sheba (Ezek. xxvii. 22). 
 
 Golden Legend, a collection of legends 
 of the saints compiled by the Dominican, 
 Jacobus de Voraigne, in the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury. It is without historical value, but 
 throws much light on the superstitions of 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 Golden Number, in chronology, that 
 number which indicates the year of the 
 cycle of the moon, which cycle is equal to 
 nineteen Julian years. “ It is called the 
 Golden Number because in old calendars it 
 was written in letters of gold on account 
 of its great utility in ecclesiastical computa¬ 
 tions, especially in fixing the time of 
 Easter.” 
 
 % 
 
 Golden Rose, an ornament made of 
 wrought gold and set with gems. After 
 being blest by the pope with much cere¬ 
 mony, on the fourth Sunday in Lent, it is 
 sent as mark of peculiar favor to some 
 church, community, or person. It is diffi¬ 
 cult to trace the origin of this custom, but 
 it appears to be as old as the time of 
 Gregory the Great. If in any particular 
 year no one is thought worthy to receive the 
 rose, it is preserved in the Vatican. 
 
 Gomarus, Francis, b. at Bruges, 1563; 
 d. at Groningen, 1641. He studied at 
 Cambridge, Oxford, and Heidelberg, and 
 after preaching some years at Frankfort he 
 was appointed professor of divinity at Ley¬ 
 den in 1594. He resigned this position 
 (1611) because Vorstius was elected as suc¬ 
 cessor of A-rminius, and in 1614 became 
 professor of theology at Saumur, and in 
 1618 professor of divinity and Hebrew at 
 Groningen. He was present at the Synod 
 of Dort in 1618, and was the leader of the 
 Calvinistic party which secured the expul¬ 
 sion of the Arminians from the Reformed 
 Church. “ He was a man of great learn¬ 
 ing, and very bigoted in his views.” His 
 collected works were published in Amster¬ 
 dam, 1645. See Arminianism. 
 
 Go'mer ( perfect ), (1) the eldest son of 
 Japheth, supposed to be the progenitor of 
 the ancient Cimmerians, and of the present 
 Celtic peoples of Europe. (2) The woman 
 married by Hosea as described in his pro¬ 
 phetic vision (i. 3). 
 
 Gomor'rah. See Sodom. 
 
 Good-Friday, the Friday before Easter, 
 
Goo 
 
 ( 37 ^ ) 
 
 Gor 
 
 observed by a very large part of Christen¬ 
 dom as the anniversary of the passion and 
 death of Christ. In the early Church it was 
 kept as a day of the strictest fasting and 
 humiliation. At the present time the Greek 
 and Roman churches celebrate the day with 
 strict severity. In the latter, the officiating 
 clergy wear black garments, the altar is 
 stripped, the candles are not lighted, and 
 the usual Communion is omitted. 
 
 Goodness of God denotes “ both the ab¬ 
 solute perfection of his own nature, and his 
 kindness manifested to his creatures. Good¬ 
 ness is essential to God, without which he 
 would not be God. (Ex. xxxiii. 19; xxxiv. 
 6, 7.) Goodness belongs only to God; he 
 is solely good (Matt. xix. 17), and all the 
 goodness found in creatures is only an 
 emanation of the divine goodness. He is 
 the chief good, the sum and the substance 
 of all felicity. (Psa. cxliv. 2, 15; xxv. 7; 
 Ixxiii. 25; iv. 6, 7.) There is nothing but 
 goodness in God, and nothing but goodness 
 comes from him. (1 John i. 5; James i, 13, 
 14 .)"—GilL 
 
 Goodell, William, D. D., b. at Temple¬ 
 ton, Mass., Feb. 14, 1792; d. in Phila¬ 
 delphia, Feb. 18, 1867. He was graduated at 
 Dartmouth College, 1817, and at Andover 
 Seminary, 1820. Under commission from 
 the American Board he sailed for Beyrout 
 in 1822. He remained here until 1828, 
 when all of the missionaries were compelled 
 to leave Syria. In 1831 he founded a new 
 mission among the Armenians of Constan¬ 
 tinople, where he labored with great fidelity 
 and success until 1865. He was a man of 
 rare gifts of mind and heart, and greatly 
 beloved. He translated the Bible into 
 Armeno-Turkish. See Forty Years in the 
 Turkish Empire: or. Memoirs of Rev. Wil¬ 
 liam Goodell , D. D ., by E. D. G. Prime. 
 
 Goodwin, John, a learned Arminian di¬ 
 vine and controversialist; b. in Norfolk, 
 1 593 » d. 1665* Educated at Cambridge, he 
 became vicar of St. Stephen’s, London, in 
 1633, but was ejected for writing against 
 the Presbyterians (1645), and then restored 
 by Cromwell, whose favor he gained by 
 two tracts: Right and Might Well Met , 
 which justified the action of the army 
 against Parliament, and The Obstructors of 
 fustice , in defence of the High Court of 
 Justice that condemned Charles I. At the 
 Restoration he was deprived of his living, 
 and his writings were publicly burned. He 
 has been called the “ Wiclif of Methodism.” 
 Wesley republished his work on Justifica¬ 
 tion. Opponents to his views, like Dr. 
 Owen, acknowledge his great learning and 
 ability. 
 
 Goodwin, Thomas, an eminent Puritan 
 divine of the seventeenth century; b. at Rol- 
 lesby, Norfolk, Oct. 5, 1600; d. in London, 
 Feb. 23, 1679. A graduate and fellow of * 
 Cambridge, he was licensed as a preacher 
 of the University in 1625, and three years 
 later became lecturer and vicar of Trinity 
 Church. Dissatisfied with the Act of Con¬ 
 formity, he resigned his preferments and 
 retired to London. In 1639 he became 
 pastor of a little company of refugees and 
 English merchants at Arnheim, Holland. 
 On the breaking out of the Rebellion he 
 returned to England where, after minister¬ 
 ing some years to an Independent congre¬ 
 gation in London, he was elected president 
 of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he re¬ 
 mained until the Restoration. He was a 
 member of the Westminster Assembly. 
 His published works consist chiefly of his 
 sermons. 
 
 Gopher-wood, the material of which the 
 ark was constructed. (Gen. vi. 14.) It 
 was probably the cypress, an exceedingly 
 durable wood, which abounded in Syria, 
 and was very commonly used in shipbuild¬ 
 ing. 
 
 Gorham Case. In 1847 the Rev. G. C. 
 Gorham was presented by the Lord Chan¬ 
 cellor to the living of Brampford Speke, in 
 Devon; but the bishop of Exeter, Dr. Phil- 
 potts, then almost the only decided High- 
 Churchman on the bench, refused to insti¬ 
 tute him, on the ground that he was un¬ 
 sound in doctrine in denying that regener¬ 
 ation is in all cases wrought by baptism. 
 Mr. Gorham appealed to the law, and in 
 1849 Sir Herbert J. Fust, Dean of the 
 Court of Arches, decided against him, on 
 the ground that Baptismal Regeneration is 
 undoubtedly the doctrine of the Church of 
 England. Mr. Gorham then appealed to 
 the Privy Council, and the case having 
 been again argued, judgment was given on 
 March 8, 1850, reversing the decision of 
 the court below, on the ground that a dif¬ 
 ference of opinion had existed among the 
 Reformers, and ever since among English 
 Churchmen. This judgment (which gave 
 rise to much subsequent controversy) 
 proceeded on the assumption that the court 
 had no jurisdiction or authority to settle 
 matters of faith, or to determine what 
 ought in any particular to be the doctrine 
 of the Church of England; “ the duty ex¬ 
 tends only to the consideration of that 
 which is by law established to be the doc¬ 
 trine of the Church of England, upon the 
 true and legal construction of her articles 
 and formularies.” The two archbishops 
 acquiesced in this judgment; the bishop of 
 London did not. Mr. Gorham was, in con- 
 
Gor 
 
 ( 377 ) 
 
 Got 
 
 sequence, admitted to the vicarage. The 
 excitement led to the secession of a few 
 eminent men from the Church, among 
 them, two of the Wilberforces and Arch¬ 
 deacon Manning. The general result of 
 the controversy, however, was a pretty 
 general agreement that the judgment of the 
 Dean of Arches correctly embodied the doc¬ 
 trine of the Anglican Church concerning 
 the sacrament of baptism.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Gorton, Samuel, b. at Groton, Eng., 
 about 1600; d. in Warwick, R. I., 1677. 
 He was a linen-draper by trade, but be¬ 
 coming deeply interested in religious dis¬ 
 cussions, and seeking full liberty, he em¬ 
 igrated to Boston in 1636. He soon made 
 trouble by his peculiar views, and from 
 Plymouth was banished for heresy. With a 
 few followers he went to Rhode Island; but 
 his opinions were still obnoxious, and from 
 Aquidneck he went to Providence and from 
 there to Shawomet, where he purchased 
 land from the Indians (1642). In 1643 with 
 ten of his sect he was tried in Boston for 
 heresy, and sentenced to prison at hard labor 
 in chains. He was released in the follow¬ 
 ing spring, but ordered to leave the colony 
 within fourteen days. He sailed for Eng¬ 
 land, but returned in 1648 with an order 
 from the Earl of Warwick to the Massa¬ 
 chusetts magistrates that they should not 
 again disturb the colony at Shawomet. 
 “ They contemned a clergy and all outward 
 forms, held that by union with Christ be¬ 
 lievers partook of the perfection of God; 
 that Christ is both human and divine, and 
 that heaven and hell have no existence save 
 in the mind.” 
 
 This sect soon died out. See Life of 
 Samuel Gorton (Boston 1848). 
 
 Go'shen. See Egypt. 
 
 Gospel (from the Anglo-Saxon god-spell , 
 good tidings) is the English equivalent 
 of the Greek euaggelion , which signifies 
 “glad” or “good tidings.” The term is 
 used to designate the four biographies of 
 our Lord by Matthew, Mark, Luke and 
 John. Of these four Canonical Gospels, 
 the first three were probably written be¬ 
 tween A. D. 60 and 70, and the last toward 
 the close of the first century. Each Gos¬ 
 pel has its own characteristics, but that of 
 John, by its deep and sublime unfolding 
 of the “ heart of Christ,” supplements the 
 others in a peculiar manner. “ The argu¬ 
 ments for the genuineness of the Gospels,as 
 varied as they are convincing, are such as 
 these: (i)The direct testimonies of writers 
 in the second century and later; (2) the 
 quotations found in the writings of the 
 
 authors known as the Fathers; (3) ancient 
 translations, as the Itala and Peshito, dat¬ 
 ing from the second century; (4) the atti¬ 
 tude of heretic and heathen opponents,who, 
 like Celsus (180), did not call in question 
 the genuineness of the records, although 
 they denied the credibility of a part of their 
 contents. Basilides, a Gnostic heretic, 
 knew the Gospel of John as early as 125, 
 and Marcion, another Gnostic, about 150, 
 made use of a mutilated Gospel of Luke. 
 The language in which the Gospels were 
 written was the Greek, with the probable 
 exception of Matthew, written in Hebrew; 
 and there can be little doubt that we now 
 have, with the exception of a few readings, 
 the documents as they left the hands of 
 the writers.”—Schaff: Bible Did. A large 
 number of Apocryphal Gospels , of late and 
 obscure origin, are rejected as spurious. 
 See Apocrypha of the New Testament, 
 p. 42. 
 
 Gospeller, a name given (1) to the follow¬ 
 ers of Wycliffe as distributers of the Bible; 
 (2) Evangelists; (3) The reader of the gos¬ 
 pel at the altar during communion service; 
 (4) Of those in England during the six¬ 
 teenth century who professed to be great 
 readers of the Bible and went about 
 preaching. 
 
 Gotama. See Buddhism. 
 
 Gothic Architecture. This name was 
 given in contempt, to the style so desig¬ 
 nated, by partisans of the Classical style of 
 architecture, who meant it to signify “ bar¬ 
 barous;” but it has been universally adopt¬ 
 ed to express the whole range of mediaeval 
 architecture. There was an attempt made 
 to get rid of the implied slur by using the 
 word “ Pointed ” instead, but this never 
 gained ground, and is repudiated by the 
 best authorities. Mr. J. H. Parker, in 
 fact, declares it a misnomer, inasmuch as 
 he includes round-headed arches. He 
 
 gives the following as convenient epochs 
 of the successive Gothic styles: 
 
 Early Norman 1060—1090 
 
 Norman.. 1090—1160 
 
 Transition .... 1160—1195 
 Early English. 1x89—1272 
 Transition.. .. 1272—1300 
 
 Decorated.... 1300—1377 
 
 Transition_1360—1399 
 
 Perpendicular 1377—1547 
 Late, or Debased, to end 
 of 17th century. 
 
 Gottschalk, a monk, and the originator 
 of the predestination controversy in the 
 ninth century; b. at or near Mentz about 
 806; d. in the monastery of Hautvillers, 
 867. In early life an earnest student of 
 Augustine and Fulgentius, he came in con¬ 
 flict with the authorities of the Church by 
 the promulgation of his views on predes¬ 
 tination. After varied wanderings he 
 reached Mayence while the general Diet 
 
Got 
 
 ( 378 ) 
 
 Goz 
 
 was sitting, and laid his views before a 
 synod of German bishops convened by 
 Rabanus, who had already accused the 
 monk of heresy. Gottschalk charged Ra¬ 
 banus with semi-Pelagianism, but his doc¬ 
 trines were condemned, and in the spring 
 of 849 Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, 
 called a synod of French bishops, who or¬ 
 dered his paperg to be burnt. He was 
 cruelly scourged, and shut up in the mon¬ 
 astery at Hautvillers. On his deathbed 
 he was offered the sacrament on condition 
 that he should recant, butjie refused. 
 
 Goths, Conversion of. After the occu¬ 
 pation of the Lower Danube by the Goths, 
 in the third century, they made frequent 
 raids into the Roman territory, and among 
 the prisoners taken by them were Chris¬ 
 tians. Their life and teachings won the 
 regard of those with whom they were 
 brought in contact, and the number con¬ 
 verted to Christianity became so great 
 that a Gothic bishop appeared at the Coun¬ 
 cil of Nice (325). The great missionary 
 among the Goths was Ulphilas (y. v.), who 
 was sprung from one of their captive fam¬ 
 ilies. He was made bishop in 348. The 
 persecutions of Athanaric, the West Goth, 
 compelled Ulphilas to seek refuge in the 
 Roman territory in 355; and having settled 
 at Nicopolis, in Moesia, he carried on his 
 work through missionaries, whom he train¬ 
 ed for upwards of thirty-three years. Af¬ 
 ter the division of the nation, Fritigern, 
 Athanaric’s rival, espoused the cause of 
 the Christians. From 370 the whole terri¬ 
 tory was open to Christian missionaries. 
 After the capture of Rome by the Goths, 
 in 378, they were substantially Christian, 
 and Arian in faith. Even Athanaric con¬ 
 fessed himself a Christian. The conver¬ 
 sion of the West Goths followed the occu¬ 
 pation of Spain (456), and of the East 
 Goths after they were absorbed with other 
 nations in Italy. 
 
 Gouge, William, an eminent Puritan di¬ 
 vine; b. in Stratford Bow, Eng., 1575; d. in 
 London, 1653. He was a graduate of Cam¬ 
 bridge and a fellow of King’s College .where 
 for some time he was lecturer on logic and 
 philosophy. He was ordained in 1608 and 
 was minister of St. Ann’s, Blackfriars, 
 London, for forty-five years. In 1643 he 
 was appointed a member of the Westmin¬ 
 ster Assembly,inwhich he took a prominent 
 part, and assisted in the preparation of the 
 Westminster Confession of Faith. Among 
 hispublished works the most important are: 
 The Whole Armor of God (1616); Domestic 
 Duties (1622). His last work, finished just 
 before his death, was a Commentary on the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews. See Neal: History 
 
 of the Puritans; Reid: Mem. of Westmin¬ 
 ster Divines (1811); Life, by his son, pre¬ 
 fixed to his Works (1665). 
 
 Gough, John Bartholomew, the fa¬ 
 mous temperance orator; b. at Sandgate, 
 Kent, Eng., Aug. 22, 1817; d. in Philadel¬ 
 phia, Feb. 18, 1886. In early life he came 
 to this country, and under the stress of 
 poverty and temptation, when but a young 
 man, he formed intemperate habits, from 
 which he was rescued by the kind efforts 
 of Christian friends. From 1843 until the 
 time of his death he labored earnestly in 
 behalf of the cause of temperance, and for 
 many years was the most popular lecturer 
 in the United States. See his Autobiography 
 and Personal Recollections { 1869); Temper¬ 
 ance Lectures (1879); Sunlight and Shadow; 
 or, Gleanings fro?n my Life-work (1881); 
 Platform Echoes (1886). 
 
 Goulburn, Very Rev. Edward Meyrick, 
 D. D. (Oxford, 1856), D. C. L. (Oxford, 
 1850), b. in England, 1818; was educated 
 at Eton and studied at Oxford; ordained 
 deacon in 1842 and priest in 1843; curate of 
 Holywell, Oxford, 1841-50; head-master 
 of Rugby, 1850-58; one of her majesty’s 
 chaplains and incumbent of St. John’s, Pad¬ 
 dington, London, 1859—66; dean of Nor¬ 
 wich, 1866; resigned in the year 1889. He 
 wrote: The Resurrection of the Body (Bamp- 
 ton Lectures of 1850); Introduction to the 
 Devotional Study of the Holy Scriptures 
 (London, 1854, 10th ed., 1878); Thoughts on 
 Personal Religion (1862, 17th ed., 1885); 
 The Pursuit of Holiness (1869, 5th ed., 
 1873); The Holy Catholic Church (1873, 2d 
 ed., 1875); The Administration of the Lords 
 Supper (1875, 2d ed., 1875); Everlasting 
 Punishment (1880, 2d ed., 1880); Thoughts 
 on the Liturgical Gospels for the Sundays 
 (1883), 2 vols.; Three Counsels of the Divine 
 Master for the Spiritual Life( 1888), 2 vols. 
 
 Gourd, “ the plant mentioned in Jonah 
 iv. 5-10, the identification of which has 
 given rise to so much discussion. It is 
 now believed to have been what is called 
 the Bottle Gourd, or by botanists the 
 Cucurbita, which has large leaves, is of 
 rapid growth, and is used for shading ar¬ 
 bors, as may still be seen in gardens about 
 Sidon. The Wild Gourd, mentioned in 2 
 Kings iv. 39, is understood to be the colo- 
 cynth, which sends out very long tendrils 
 and bears a great quantity of fruit. It is 
 used as a medicine, and is bitter and dras¬ 
 tic.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 
 Go'zan. Originally the name of a city, it 
 was later applied to a district of Mesopo¬ 
 tamia. (2 Kings xvii. 6; xviii. n; 1 Chron. 
 
Gra 
 
 ( 379 ) 
 
 Gra 
 
 v. 26; Isa. xxxvii. 12.) It was probably 
 identical with the Gauzanitis of Ptolemy, 
 and was watered by the Habor, the modern 
 Khabour, a branch of the Euphrates. 
 
 Graal, or Grail, the Holy, the name giv¬ 
 en to the dish or shallow bowl from which 
 Christ is said to have eaten the paschal lamb 
 at the Last Supper. Among the legends of 
 mediaeval times was one that affirmed that 
 Joseph of Arimathaea, after the Supper,took 
 it from the upper room, and when Christ’s 
 body was taken from the cross drops of 
 blood that trickled from his wounds were 
 received in it. Joseph carried it to Britain, 
 where it worked many miracles. Lost by 
 an unworthy descendant, it was sought for 
 by King Arthur’s knights. Sir Galahad 
 alone possessed the qualities of personal 
 purity that enabled him to find it. This 
 legend is curiously intermingled with the 
 mystery of the eucharist in the romances 
 of the Middle Ages. It probably was orig¬ 
 inated by Walter Map in the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury. Tennyson has made it the subject of 
 one of his idyls. 
 
 Grace (the English equivalent of the 
 Greek word, charis). There are various 
 senses in which this word is used in Script¬ 
 ure, but the general idea of it, as it relates 
 to God, is his free favor and love. As it 
 respects men, it implies the happy state of 
 reconciliation and favor with God wherein 
 they stand, and the holy endowments, 
 qualities, or habits of faith, hope, love, 
 etc., which they possess. Divines have 
 distinguished grace into common or general, 
 special or particular. Common grace, if it 
 may be so called, is what all men have, as 
 the light of nature and reason, convictions 
 of conscience, etc. (Rom. ii. 4; 1 Tim. iv. 
 18.) Special grace is that which is peculiar 
 to Christians. They are, by God’s favor, 
 chosen out of the world, redeemed, par¬ 
 doned, justified. (Rom. viii. 28-30.) This 
 grace so bestowed becomes the principle of 
 life, and brings forth good works in those 
 to whom it is given. Consequently the 
 apostle exhorts to “ growth in grace ”—that 
 is, to progress in the divine life. Such 
 growth discovers itself by an increase of 
 spiritual light and knowledge; by the re¬ 
 nunciation of self, and dependence on 
 Christ ; by growing more spiritual in 
 duties; by being more humble, submissive 
 and thankful ; by rising superior to the 
 corruptions of our nature, and finding the 
 power of sin more weakened in us; by be¬ 
 ing less attached to the world, and possess¬ 
 ing more of a heavenly disposition.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. “ The design 
 of grace is the perfection of man, and his 
 glorification in heaven. The reward he 
 
 will there receive will be in consequence 
 of works of faith; but he will receive it on 
 the basis of grace, and from the hands of 
 grace. ”— Lange. 
 
 Gradual, a sentence from the psalms 
 sung in the communion office after the 
 reading of the Epistle,as the deacon ascends 
 the steps of the altar to read the Gospel. 
 The name comes from the Latin gradus, 
 a step. The term is also applied to other 
 parts of the service that are chanted from 
 the steps of the chancel or the ambo. 
 
 Graham, Isabella, worthy of remem¬ 
 brance as “ a pioneer in woman’s work for 
 woman in America;” b. in Lanark, Scot¬ 
 land, July 29, 1742; d. in New York, July 
 27, 1814. She married, in 1765, Dr. Gra¬ 
 ham, a surgeon in the English army, with 
 whom she went first to Canada and then to 
 Antigua, where he died. Returning to her 
 native land, she taught for a time at Paisley 
 and Edinburgh. Through the advice of 
 Dr. Witherspoon, her old pastor at Paisley, 
 who had become the president of Princeton 
 College, she came to New York and estab¬ 
 lished a successful school for young ladies. 
 She organized in 1796 the New York Mis¬ 
 sionary Society for the Indians, and in 1797 
 aided in founding the society for the relief 
 of widows with young children. In other 
 ways she actively engaged in Christian and 
 philanthropic labor. See Life and Letters, 
 by Dr. Mason (her pastor, London, 1838); 
 Life of Isabella Graham, Tract Society, N. 
 Y., by Mrs. Bethune, her daughter and the 
 mother of Dr. Bethune. 
 
 Grant, Asahel, M. D., b. in Marshall, 
 N. Y., Aug. 17, 1807; d. at Mosul, Persia, 
 April 24, 1844. He was practicing medi¬ 
 cine in Utica, N. Y., when he became in¬ 
 terested in the work of foreign missions, 
 and was sent out by the American Board 
 in 1835 to labor among the Nestorians of 
 Persia. He gained the confidence of the 
 Persian officials and was enabled to do much 
 for the people among whom he spent the 
 last years of his life. He published The 
 Nestorians; or. The Lost Tribes. See Laurie: 
 Grant and The Mountain Nestorians (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1856). 
 
 Grapes, the fruit of the vine. The soil 
 and the climate of Palestine are peculiarly 
 suited to the growth of the vine. Single 
 clusters of grapes in vineyards a little west 
 of Jerusalem grow to such size that it is 
 impossible for one person to carry them 
 safely. They were dried as raisins, and 
 boiled down into a syrup called dibs (He¬ 
 brew honey). It was this honey of grapes, 
 and not bees’ honey, that Jacob sent down 
 
Gra 
 
 ( 33o ) 
 
 Gre 
 
 to Egypt (Gen. xliii. 11), and which the 
 merchants of Tyre traded in. (Ezek. xxviii. 
 17.) The Hebrew law forbade the gathering 
 of grapes until the vine was three years 
 old (Lev. xix. 23), and it was required that 
 some should be left on the vines and ground 
 for the poor to gather and eat in the vine¬ 
 yard. (Lev. xix, 10.) 
 
 Grasshopper, a species of locust (render¬ 
 ed “ locust ” in 2 Chron. vii. 13). They 
 were sometimes used for food. (Lev. xi. 
 22.) Singly they were very feeble, but in 
 great numbers exceedingly destructive. 
 (Num. xiii. 33; Isa. xl. 22; Amos. vii. 1.) 
 
 Gratian, Roman emperor, ascended the 
 throneinthe West in375; in the East, 378; d. 
 383. Under the influence of Ambrosius he 
 was extremely intolerant in making Cathol¬ 
 icism dominant. In 376 he forbade all her¬ 
 etics toassemble forany religious purposes, 
 confiscated their church property, and gave 
 their buildings to the control of the Cath¬ 
 olics. In 377 all officers of the Catholic 
 Church were exempted from personal 
 taxes and municipal services. Two years 
 before his death’he chose Theodosius as 
 his co-regent, and pagans were treated 
 with the same severity as heretics. Those 
 who apostatized from Christianity to pa¬ 
 ganism were not permitted to make wills. 
 Sacerdotal privileges and all State support 
 were withdrawn from pagans, and the prop¬ 
 erty of pagan temples confiscated. 
 
 Gratian, a monk of the Camaldolensian 
 order, and famous as the author of that 
 corpus decretorum or decretum which bears 
 his name. He lived in the middle of the 
 twelfth century. See Canon Law. 
 
 Gratry, Father, b. at Lille, March 30, 
 1805; d. at Montreux, near Lausanne, Feb. 
 7, 1872. After studying at Paris he en¬ 
 tered the convent of Buchenberg in the 
 Vosges, where he remained until the revo¬ 
 lution of 1830, when the convent was dis¬ 
 solved. He was professor of theology and 
 philosophy in the seminary at Strasburg 
 (1830-42), and in the Stanislas College, 
 Paris (1842-47). He reestablished the or¬ 
 der of the Oratorians in 1852, and from 
 1878 lectured in the Sorbonne. He wrote 
 four letters against the doctrine of papal 
 infallibility while the Vatican Council was 
 in session, but accepted the dogma after it 
 was promulgated. His writings, devo¬ 
 tional and philosophical, had considerable 
 Influence. 
 
 Graven Images. See Idolatry. 
 
 Graves, Richard, D. D., b. 1763; d. 
 
 1829; Dean of Ardagh, and Regius Profess¬ 
 or of Divinity in Trinity College, Dublin. 
 Among other theological books, that on the 
 Pentateuch (Donnellan Lectures, 1797-1801) 
 is still regarded as a standard work. 
 
 Greece. In 1879, out °f a population of 
 1,679,775, a very large majority belonged 
 to the Orthodox Greek Church. At this 
 time there were only 16,084 persons be¬ 
 longing to other churches, and most of 
 these were Roman Catholics. The country 
 is divided into eleven archbishoprics and 
 thirteen bishoprics, whose salaries are paid 
 by the State. The lower clergy receive no 
 pay, but live upon the fees which they re¬ 
 ceive for prayers, consecrations and other 
 services. The Greek Church is the strong¬ 
 est power in the nation, and it has been al¬ 
 most impossible for Protestant missions 
 to gain a foothold. The American Church 
 Missionary Society still supports the 
 school that was founded by Dr. Hill. The 
 Southern Presbyterian Church has two 
 missionaries and a fine church building at 
 Athens, and there is a Baptist mission. 
 The name of the Rev. Dr. Jonas King, 
 who died in 1869 (see art.), is most prom¬ 
 inent in the missionary service accom¬ 
 plished in Greece. 
 
 Greek Church, a branch of the Eastern 
 Church (y. v.). Its separation from the 
 Mother-Church took place in the eleventh 
 century, after a long struggle, since known 
 as the Filioque Controversy ( q . v .). To 
 the article of the Council of Constantinople, 
 which declared that the Holy Ghost “ pro- 
 ceedeth from the Father,” the Western 
 Church added “and the Son,” and the 
 words gradually came to be used in service. 
 In the ninth century Pope Leo III. was ap¬ 
 pealed to, and commanded the disuse of 
 the words, and a second Council of Con¬ 
 stantinople confirmed his decree; and the 
 matter would have been allowed to rest, 
 but for the jealousy which existed between 
 Rome and Constantinople, on account of 
 which the former revived the use of the 
 words. The Greek Church resisted, and 
 in 1053 Pope Leo IX. excommunicated the 
 patriarch of Constantinople, and all others 
 who refused to accept the Roman doctrine. 
 The Patriarch Michael Cerularius, hoping 
 to reverse the sentence, invited legates 
 from the pope to come to Constantinople 
 to negotiate for peace. They came accord¬ 
 ingly, but, entering the Church of St. 
 Sophia, they repeated the pope’s sentence 
 of excommunication, laid the sentence on 
 the altar, and returned to Rome. This took 
 place on June 16th, 1054, from which time 
 the final separation of East and West may 
 be said to date. The patriarch summoned 
 
Gre 
 
 (33i) 
 
 Gre 
 
 a council, and in his turn pronounced ex- 
 communication against the pope, with the 
 support of about a thousand bishops and 
 other clergy. Attempts were several times 
 made to effect a reconciliation, but without 
 success. The Greek Church of the present 
 day remains in doctrine and ceremonial 
 almost entirely as it was at the time of its 
 separation. The chief points of difference 
 from the Roman Church are the omission 
 of the “ Filioque ” from the Nicene Creed, 
 and the denial of the papal supremacy. 
 The doctrine of the Trinity and of the In¬ 
 carnation and life of Christ are exactly the 
 same as those of the Western Church, and 
 the Greeks follow the Romans with regard 
 to the belief in Purgatory and in the Seven 
 Sacraments. They hold the Blessed Virgin 
 and the saints in much reverence, and great 
 importance is attached to the sacred pict¬ 
 ures, or icons , which abound in their 
 churches, houses, and streets. Beyond the 
 Nicene Creed there are no doctrinal tests. 
 The ceremonial of the Greek Church is 
 more elaborate than that of any other, and 
 the number of its services is remarkable; 
 sermons are almost unknown. Threefold 
 immersion is practised in Baptism, the 
 Communion is administered to infants, and 
 in both kinds, and prayer is made standing. 
 In other points there is little difference 
 from the ritual of the Roman Church. The 
 secular priests are obliged to marry once, 
 but not more than once. Monasteries and 
 convents are very numerous, and the monks 
 are under severe discipline. Many Chris¬ 
 tians spend their lives in wandering from 
 one monastery to another in their pilgrim¬ 
 age, and are always hospitably received. 
 The largest .nd most famous of these build¬ 
 ings is Troitsa, which has numbers of 
 churches and a university within its walls. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 Greek Language. See Hellenistic 
 Greek. 
 
 Greek Versions. See Bible, p. 105. 
 
 Greeks, in Scripture, are distinguished as 
 either Greeks by lineage (Acts xvi. 1; 
 xviii. 4), or else Gentiles, as opposed to the 
 Jews. (Rom. ii. 9, 10; Gal. iii. 28.) “ Gre¬ 
 cians ” were foreign-born Jews. (Acts vi. 1; 
 xi. 20.) The Greeks and Jews first came 
 in contact when the Tyrians sold the Jews 
 to the Greeks. (Joel iii. 6.) 
 
 Green, Ashbel, D. D., LL. D., an influ¬ 
 ential minister of the Presbyterian Church; 
 b. at Hanover, N. J., July 6, 1762 ; d. at 
 Philadelphia, May 19, 1848. After graduat¬ 
 ing from Princeton in 1783 he was con¬ 
 
 nected with the college for a time, and 
 then became pastor of the Second Presby¬ 
 terian Church in Philadelphia (1787-1812). 
 He was one of the founders of the Prince¬ 
 ton Seminary, and president of the College 
 (1812-22). He was editor of the Christian 
 Advocate , published in Philadelphia (1822- 
 1834). He was a recognized leader, and 
 the part which he took in the trial of 
 Albert Barnes, and in other ways, did 
 much to bring about the division of the 
 Presbyterian denomination in 1837. His 
 Life , begun by himself, was completed by 
 J. H. Jones (New York, 1849). 
 
 Green, William Henry, D. D. (Prince¬ 
 ton College, 1857), LL. D. (Rutgers Col¬ 
 lege, New Brunswick, N. J.,1873), Presby¬ 
 terian; b. at Groveville, near Bordentown, 
 N. J., Jan. 27, 1825 ; was graduated at 
 Lafayette College, Easton, Penn., 1840, and 
 at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1846; 
 from 1846 to 1849 he acted as instructor in 
 Hebrew in the seminary, and from 1849 to 
 1851 was pastor of the Central Presbyterian 
 Church, Philadelphia, when called to the 
 chair of Oriental and Old Testament litera¬ 
 ture in Princeton Seminary, which he has 
 since filled. He was chairman of the Amer¬ 
 ican Old Testament Revision Company, 
 and has published : A Grammar of the 
 Hebrew Language (1861, 4th ed., 1885); 
 Moses and the Prophets (1883); The Hebrew 
 Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical 
 Hypotheses concerning the Pentateuch (1885). 
 
 Gregorian Tones, ancient melodies which 
 are named from Gregory the Great. He 
 wrought so entire a change in the church 
 music that a large part of the ancient 
 music is called by his name. 
 
 Gregory Illuminator, the apostle of Ar¬ 
 menia; b. about 257, at Valarshabad, in 
 the province of Ararat, Armenia; d. in the 
 wilderness of Manyea, in the province of 
 Taran, 332. He received a Christian edu¬ 
 cation at Caesarea, Cappadocia, and on his 
 return he was the means of converting 
 King Teridates III. and many other of his 
 countrymen. After his consecration as 
 bishop of Armenia, that country was the 
 first in which Christianity was adopted as 
 the religion of the State. The year pre¬ 
 vious to his death he lived as a hermit in 
 the wilderness. 
 
 Gregory, St., surnamed Thaumaturgus 
 (the miracle-worker)\ b. at Neo-Caesarea, 
 near the close of the second century; d. 
 about 270. Of a noble and wealthy heathen 
 family, he studied civil law, but was con¬ 
 verted (about 231) by Origen, and became 
 his pupil. When he returned to Cappa- 
 
Gre 
 
 ( 382 ) 
 
 Gre 
 
 docia, some five years later, it was his de¬ 
 sire and purpose to live a solitary life, but 
 the urgent requests of Origen and others 
 prevailed, and he was consecrated bishop 
 of his native town (about 240). This office 
 he filled with great ability and zeal for 
 some thirty years. It is said that at his 
 death there were only seventeen persons 
 in the city who had not embraced Chris¬ 
 tianity. He took an active part in the 
 doctrinal controversies of the time, and 
 was himself accused of Sabellianism. 
 See his Life , by Victor Ryssel (Leipzig, 
 1S80). 
 
 Gregory, St., of Nazianzus, one of the 
 four great fathers of the Eastern Church; 
 b. about 329, at Nazianzus, Cappadocia. 
 His father was bishop of the diocese, and 
 his mother, whose influence over him was 
 very great, was a woman of remarkable 
 gifts and devotion. He studied at Caesarea, 
 Alexandria, and Athens, and at the latter 
 place formed a friendship with Basil. His 
 natural inclinations favored a life of schol¬ 
 arly retirement and religious devotion, but 
 the progress of events made this impos¬ 
 sible. The Emperor Constantius sought 
 to impose a semi-Arian formula upon the 
 bishops. The aged father of Gregory 
 yielded to the threats of the emperor, but 
 the monks of his diocese raised such a 
 commotion that it was only quelled by the 
 most active efforts of his son. Not long 
 after, he was ordained to the priesthood, 
 and in 372 he was made bishop of Sasima. 
 He appears to have given little attention 
 to this small and retired diocese, but for 
 some time still aided his father at Nazian¬ 
 zus, after whose death (374), he went to 
 Seleucia in Isauria. His fame as a learned 
 disciple of Origen and Athanasius led the 
 orthodox party at Constantinople, now in 
 great extremity, to seek his assistance. 
 He came to Constantinople, much against 
 his will, about 379. His ability and elo¬ 
 quence soon gathered great congregations, 
 and he proved a noble defender of the faith. 
 From his famous five discourses on the 
 Trinity, he is supposed to have received the 
 surname of “ Divine.” After Theodosius 
 came to Constantinople and expelled the 
 Arians, Gregory was made bishop. This 
 promotion developed in some quarters a 
 jealousy which he made an occasion for re¬ 
 tirement from his office. The rest of his 
 life was spent at Nazianzus and on his 
 estates at Arianzus, where he devoted him¬ 
 self to literary pursuits. Most of his poet¬ 
 ical pieces were composed in these years. 
 His writings consist of orations, letters, and 
 poems. The best edition of his works is 
 that of the Benedictines (Paris, 1778-1840). 
 His Life by Ullmann (1825), was translated 
 
 into English by G. F. Coxe(i857). Selec¬ 
 tions from his works in vol. vi. of The 
 Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1890). 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa, St., a Greek Church 
 father, and the younger brother of Basil 
 the Great; b. in Cappadocia about 332; d. 
 about 395. Educated under the guidance 
 of his famous brother, he entered the 
 Church at an early age and held the office of 
 reader. After wavering in purpose for a 
 time, he was finally ordained bishop of 
 Nyssa, about 372, by his brother Basil. 
 He opposed the Arian heresy with such 
 vigor that through the influence of the 
 party then dominant under the Emperor 
 Valens, he was driven into exile (375) from 
 which he returned after the edict of Gratian 
 in 378. At the great oecumenical council 
 held at Constantinople in 381, he was an 
 acknowledged leader among the champions 
 of the orthodox faith. In many ways his 
 ability and eloquence found recognition in 
 special services. A strict trinitarian, his 
 views were in sympathy with Origen re¬ 
 garding the doctrine of final restoration. 
 He was the author of a work on the Crea¬ 
 tion, several theological treatises, letters, 
 sermons, etc. 
 
 Gregory of Tours, b. at Arverna, 540; d. 
 at Tours, 594. Of noble descent he was 
 chosen bishop of Tours in 573, and showed 
 great ability in the conduct of his diocese. 
 Besides a work on miracles, he wrote a 
 History (Annates Francorum), which is the 
 most important source of the history of 
 Gaul in the sixth century. 
 
 Gregory the Great, the first pope of that 
 name, was b. at Rome, about 540; d. there, 
 March 12, 604. Of a noble family, he 
 studied law, and in his thirtieth year was 
 elected praetor urbanus (571-574). The 
 death of his father deepened his religious 
 convictions, and giving up his fortune to 
 pious purposes he joined the Benedictines. 
 He was soon appointed abbot of his mon¬ 
 astery, and entrusted with important nego¬ 
 tiations by the papal court. He was sent 
 to Constantinople by Pelagius II., where he 
 remained for three years. Upon the death 
 of Pelagius (590), Gregory was unanimous¬ 
 ly elected pope. He sought in every way 
 to escape the honor, but having ascended 
 the papal throne he discharged his duties 
 with extraordinary vigor. The aggres¬ 
 sions of the Lombards were checked, 
 ecclesiastical discipline enforced, the lit¬ 
 urgy of the Church developed, and the 
 Roman dogmas strengthened. He was the 
 originator of the system of sacred music 
 known as “ Gregorian.” There are many 
 editions of his works. 
 
Gre 
 
 ( 383 ) 
 
 Gri 
 
 Gregory VII., or Hildebrand, b. about 
 1015, at Soano, Tuscany; d. at Salerno, 
 May 25, 1085. Of humble origin, he was 
 educated at a monastery in Rome. In 1046 
 he became chaplain to Gregory VI., whom 
 he followed into his exile in Germany. 
 After the death of Gregory he retired to 
 Clugny, where he gained a reputation for 
 learning, and was frequently sent to the 
 imperial court on ecclesiastical business. 
 A friendship formed with Bruno, bishop 
 of Toul, about the time he became pope 
 under the title of Leo IX. (1049), gave him 
 the position of cardinal and deacon, and he 
 was entrusted with important missions. 
 The Roman people desired to elect him 
 pontiff on the death of Leo IX., but he de¬ 
 clined the honor. He took an active part 
 in the election of popes Victor II., Stephen 
 IX., Nicholas II., and Alexander II. Dur¬ 
 ing their brief reigns the influence of Hilde¬ 
 brand was predominant. Upon the death 
 of Alexander II. (1073), he acquiesced in the 
 universal demand of the people, and was 
 ordained to the priesthood, and a few days 
 afterwards consecrated pope by the title of 
 Gregory VII. From this time forward he 
 employed all the resources at his command 
 to establish the supremacy of the Church 
 over the state, and the supremacy of the 
 pontifical power within the Church. In 
 1075 he called a council at Rome which 
 forbade kings and princes from further 
 giving the investure of sees and abbeys by 
 conferring the ring and crosier. Henry 
 IV. disregarded the command, and ap¬ 
 pointed bishops as before. The summons 
 of Gregory, calling the king to Rome to an¬ 
 swer for his conduct, was met with haughty 
 defiance. Henry called together a Diet of 
 the Empire, attended by many bishops and 
 abbots, who declared Gregory deposed. 
 Gregory at once summoned a council at the 
 Lateran, and excommunicated Henry. By 
 the law of the empire, if this sentence were 
 not removed within a year his throne and 
 all its rights were forfeited. The readiness 
 of his Saxon subjects to carry out the plan 
 compelled the emperor to yield. In mid¬ 
 winter he journeyed to Canossa, in Lom¬ 
 bardy, to seek the pope’s pardon. For 
 three days Gregory kept him waiting in the 
 snow of the courtyard before meeting him 
 and absolving him. Henry at once began 
 to plot revenge. The papal excommuni¬ 
 cation was renewed (107S), but in the wars 
 that followed he was successful. Again 
 and again he pushed his arms to the gates 
 of Rome, and in the spring of 1084, through 
 the treachery of some of the nobles of the 
 city, he gained an entrance. Gregory 
 sought refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, 
 while Guibert was made pope under the 
 title of Clement III. After his coronation 
 
 Henry returned to Germany. Released by 
 Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke, who 
 had hastened to his relief, Gregory ex¬ 
 communicated both Henry and Clement. 
 Feeling that his position was insecure at 
 Rome, in May, 1804 he placed himself under 
 Robert’s protection at Salerno, where he 
 died the following year. 
 
 Greswell, Edward, a learned writer on 
 Chronology and on Gospel Harmony; b. 
 1797; d. at Oxford, Eng., 1869. He was 
 vice-principal of Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford, at the time of his death. His 
 works have received the highest commen¬ 
 dation. 
 
 Grey Friars. See Franciscans. 
 
 Griesbach, Johann Jakob, an eminent 
 textual critic of the New Testament; b. at 
 Butzbach, Hesse-Darmstadt, Jan. 4, 1745; 
 d. at Jena, March 24, 1812. He was edu¬ 
 cated at Tubingen, Halle, and Leipzig; and 
 after traveling ^extensively on the conti¬ 
 nent and in England, he returned to Halle 
 in 1772, where he was made professor two 
 years afterward. In 1775 he accepted a 
 call to Jena, where he spent the remainder 
 of his life. His labors mark the beginning 
 of a new era in the textual study of the 
 Greek New Testament. Of the many edi¬ 
 tions of Griesbach’s text, the first appeared 
 at Halle in 1774-75: principal ed., Halle 
 and London, 1796, 1806, 2 vols.; Leipzig, 
 1803-1807, 4 vols. He published several 
 critical works. “ In theology, Griesbach 
 took a position midway between the con¬ 
 servative and radical schools.” 
 
 Griffen, Edward Dorr, an eloquent pul¬ 
 pit orator, and president of Williams Col¬ 
 lege; b. Jan. 6, 1770, at East Haddam, 
 Conn.; d. at Newark, N. J., Nov. 8, 1837. 
 He was graduated at Yale College in 
 1790, and studied theology with Dr. Ed¬ 
 wards, afterward president of Union Col¬ 
 lege. He was called to the pastorate (in 
 1794) of the Congregational Church at 
 Farmington; but the council, twice called, 
 would not ordain him on account of his 
 views on baptism and the doctrines of 
 grace. He accepted a call to New Hart¬ 
 ford, Conn., in 1795, where his labors were 
 greatly blessed. In 1801 he became col¬ 
 league of Dr. McWhorter, in the First 
 Presbyterian Church in Newark, and pas¬ 
 tor in 1807. At the founding of Andover 
 Seminary he was called to the chair of pul¬ 
 pit eloquence in 1809; accepted the pastor¬ 
 ate of Park Street Church, Boston, in 1811; 
 returned to Newark, 1815, as pastor of 
 the Second Church, and in 1821 was elect¬ 
 ed president of Williams College, where 
 
Gri 
 
 ( 384 ) 
 
 Gro 
 
 he remained till 1836. As a pulpit orator 
 he had a great reputation. He published: 
 Lectures Delivered in Park Street Church 
 (Boston, 1813) ; The Extent of the Atone¬ 
 ment (N. Y., 1819); his Sermons , with Me¬ 
 moir of his Ldfe , by Dr. Sprague. See 
 Cooke: Recollections of E. D. Griffen (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1866). 
 
 Griffis, William Elliot, D. D. (Union 
 College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1884), Con¬ 
 gregationalism b. in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 Sept. 17, 1843; was graduated at Rutgers 
 College, New Brunswick, N. J., 1869, and 
 at Union Theological Seminary, New York 
 City, 1877; pastor of the First Reformed 
 Church, Schenectady, N. Y., 1877, and 
 since 1886 of the Shawmut Congregational 
 Church, Boston, Mass. He was in the 
 educational service of the Japanese Gov¬ 
 ernment, 1871-74, and is the author of sev¬ 
 eral volumes on Japan and Corea. The 
 best known are: The Mikado's Em fire (New 
 York, 1876; 4th ed., 1885); Corea , the Her¬ 
 mit Nation (1882; 2d ed., 1885). He has 
 also written a Life of Co??imodore Matthew 
 Calbraith Perry (1886) ; The Lily Among 
 Thorns [a study of the Song of Solomon] 
 .(1889). 
 
 Grindal, Edmund, archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury, wasb. at St. Bees in 1519. He studied 
 at Oxford under Bishop Ridley, to whom 
 he became chaplain in 1552. The reign of 
 Queen Mary he spent in exile at Strasburg 
 and Frankfort. On his return to England 
 he became Master of Pembroke College, 
 and soon after bishop of London. He 
 showed himself a warm partisan of the 
 Reformation, but was anxious to bring 
 peace to the Church. Nicholas Gallais, a 
 French writer, in a letter to Grindal, 
 speaks of him as working against the Ana¬ 
 baptists, and states that he “ kept the rash 
 and innovating within bounds, repressed 
 the insolent and refractory, humbled the 
 proud, protected the innocent, appeased 
 quarrels and disputes, and made himself a 
 veritable Irenaeus and peacemaker." Grin¬ 
 dal was preferred to the archbishopric of 
 York, and in 1575 succeeded Parker at 
 Canterbury. He found the diocese in a 
 very unsatisfactory state. A good account 
 of it may be found in the notes of a visita¬ 
 tion held a year and a half before Grindal’s 
 translation to the primacy. Parker says 
 that about sixty parishes had, little or no 
 religious teaching. Grindal accordingly 
 exerted himself to encourage the revival 
 of preaching, and to restore to the Church 
 a learned and faithful ministry. Queen 
 Elizabeth ordered him to stop the meet¬ 
 ings for “ prophesyings.” He refused, and 
 was suspended. She even contemplated 
 
 his deposition. He died in 1583. His 
 writings, which are unimportant, are pub¬ 
 lished by the Parker Society.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Grosseteste, Robert, the greatest scholar 
 of his age, and sometimes called “ The 
 Harbinger of the Reformation;” b. about 
 1175; d. at Buckden, Oct. 9, 1253. He was 
 made bishop of Lincoln in 1235, and at 
 once began a work of reform. He insisted 
 that the religious houses should provide 
 suitable clergy for the parishes from which 
 they drew their support. At first he was 
 an earnest supporter of the papal author¬ 
 ity, but the action of Innocent IV. in giv¬ 
 ing some of the richest benefices in Eng¬ 
 land to Italians, who drew their revenues 
 but never entered the country, aroused his 
 indignation. Visiting Rome for the pur¬ 
 pose of securing a greater control over the 
 monasteries which were free from the 
 jurisdiction of the bishops, he was so 
 deeply impressed with the abuses prevail¬ 
 ing at the papal court that, at a council 
 held at Lyons in 1250, he declared in a ser- 
 * mon, with fearless courage, that the Ro¬ 
 man pontiff and his court “ was the foun¬ 
 tain and origin of all the evils of the 
 Church.” The work of the priest he said, 
 did not consist merely in “ celebrating the 
 mass, but in teaching the living truth.” 
 He refused to obey the pope, who had 
 asked that his nephew, Fredric di Lav- 
 agna, should be appointed a canon of Lin¬ 
 coln. Some writers state that Grosseteste 
 was excommunicated by the pope, but the 
 great honor which was shown at his burial 
 seems to disprove this. Matthew Paris, in 
 hisjjchronicles, says: “ He was the open re- 
 buker of both the pope and the king, cen¬ 
 sor of prelates, corrector of monks, in¬ 
 structor of clerks, an unwearied examiner 
 of the books of Scripture, a crusher and 
 despiser of the Romans.” Although Ed¬ 
 ward I. made the request, he was never 
 canonized. See Life of Grosseteste by 
 Pegge (London, 1793), Lechler (Leipzig, 
 1867), and Perry (London, 1871). 
 
 Grotius, Hugo, an eminent Dutch states¬ 
 man and theologian; b. at Delft, April 10, 
 1583; d. at Rostock, Aug. 29, 1645. In 
 youth he was a prodigy of learning, and at 
 twenty-three was advocate-general of Hol¬ 
 land. He espoused the cause of the Ar- 
 minians, and took an active part in the 
 theological controversies of his time. 
 When the Gomarists (Calvinists) gained 
 control of affairs he was condemned (1619) 
 to life-imprisonment. He finally escaped 
 to France, where he received a pension 
 from Louis XIII., and remained until the 
 enmity of Richelieu compelled him to seek 
 
Gro 
 
 ( 3S5 ) 
 
 Gui 
 
 refuge in Sweden. After spending ten 
 years under the kind protection of Queen 
 Christina, permission was granted him to 
 return to his native land, but death over¬ 
 took him on his journey thither. His 
 works are numerous, and treat of theol¬ 
 ogy, jurisprudence, history, and literature. 
 “ Grotius was an Arminian, but disclaimed 
 Pelagianism, and, in his Defense of the 
 Catholic Faith Concerning the Satisfaction of 
 Christ against Socinus (1617), denied any 
 leanings toward Socinianism. Departing 
 from the strict Anselmic theory, he sub¬ 
 stituted, in place of a real satisfaction on 
 the part of Christ, a divine acquittal for 
 Christ’s sake. In Christ’s death, which 
 satisfied God’s majesty, and exhibited 
 his detestation of sin, he saw a terri¬ 
 ble example of punishment, designed to 
 deter man from sin.”— Hagenbach . See 
 Motley: John of Barneveld, vol. ii. chap, 
 xxii. 
 
 Grove. “A word used in the A. V., 
 with two exceptions, to translate the mys¬ 
 terious Hebrew term, Asherah, which is not 
 a grove, but probably an idol or image of 
 some kind. (See Asherah. ) It is also prob¬ 
 able that there was a connection between 
 this symbol or image, whatever it was, and 
 the sacred symbolic tree, the representation 
 of which occurs so frequently on Assyrian 
 sculptures. (2) The two exceptions noticed 
 above are Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6 
 (margin). In the religions of the ancient hea¬ 
 then world, groves play a prominent part. 
 In the old times, altars only were erected to 
 the gods. It was thought wrong to shut up 
 the gods within walls, and hence, as Pliny 
 expressly tells us, trees were the first tem¬ 
 ples; and from the earliest times groves are 
 mentioned in connection with religious wor¬ 
 ship. (Gen. xii. 6, 7; xiii. iS; Deut. xi. 30; 
 A. V. ‘plain.’) The groves were generally 
 found connected with temples, and often 
 had the right of affording an asylum. Some 
 have supposed that even the Jewish Tem¬ 
 ple had an enclosure planted with palm and 
 cedar (Psa. xcii. 12, 13) and olive (Psa. lii. 
 8), as the mosque which stands on its site 
 now has. This is more than doubtful; but 
 we know that a celebrated oak stood by the 
 sanctuary at 'Shechem. (Josh. xxiv. 26; 
 Judg. ix. 6.) There are in Scripture many 
 memorable trees: e.g. , Allon-bachuth (Gen. 
 xxxv. 8), the tamarisk in Gibeah (1 Sam. 
 xxii. 6), the terebinth in Shechem (Josh, 
 xxiv. 26) under which the law was set up; 
 the palm-tree of Deborah (Judg. iv. 5), the 
 terebinth of enchantments (Judg. ix. 37), 
 the terebinth of wanderers (Judg. iv. 11), 
 and others. (1 Sam. xiv. 2; x. 3, sometimes 
 ‘plain’ in A. V.) This observation of 
 particular trees was, among the heathen, 
 
 extended to a regular worship of them.”— 
 Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 Grundtvig, Nicolai Frederik Severin, 
 b. at Udby, on the Island of Sealand, Sept. 
 8, 1783; d. in Copenhagen, Sept. 2, 1872. 
 While a teacher at Copenhagen, from 1809 
 to 1822, he gained reputation as a poet and 
 historian. A few published sermons and his 
 View of the Worlds Chronicle revealed his 
 power as a religious writer. In 1821 he be¬ 
 came pastor at Praestoe, and the following 
 year chaplain of the Church of our Saviour 
 at Copenhagen. From this time he became 
 a recognized leader of religious thought. 
 He sternly opposed the rationalistic opin¬ 
 ions then prevalent, and was an earnest ex¬ 
 ponent of Churchly views. His position and 
 teaching brought him into conflict with 
 both the civil and ecclesiastical authorities, 
 and he was suspended. An influential 
 party sympathized with him and was. 
 known as “ Grundtvigians.” In 1839 
 became pastor of the Varton in Copenha¬ 
 gen where he remained until his death. 
 His principal theological work was True 
 Christianity. A collection of sermons, the 
 Sunday Book , had a wide circulation, as did 
 a Hymn-book which he prepared. His in¬ 
 fluence was very great upon the religious 
 life of his countrymen. 
 
 Guelf and Ghibelline were the German 
 names first used, it is said, as a battle-cry 
 at Weinsberg (1140). They represented, on 
 the one side the princes with their efforts 
 for independence, and on the other the 
 emperor with his assertion of authority. 
 Transferred to Italy, the names were given 
 to the adherents of the emperor (the Ghib- 
 ellines) and the supporters of the claims 
 of the pope (the Guelfs). This distinction 
 was carried into all the rivalries and con¬ 
 flicts where these forces were brought in 
 contact. 
 
 Guido of Arezzo, a Benedictine monk, cel¬ 
 ebrated for the improved methods which 
 he introduced of teaching church music. 
 He wrote two books on this subject about 
 the year 1028, and is said to have named 
 the six notes of the gamut from the hymn: 
 
 UT queant taxis, 
 
 RE -son are fibris, 
 
 MI -ra gestorum, 
 
 FA-muti tuorum, 
 
 SOh-ve polluti, 
 
 FA-bii reatum. 
 
 Guilds (A. S. gildan , to pay) were orig¬ 
 inally associations in towns intended to pro¬ 
 mote the common weal, and resembling 
 modern “Friendly Societies.” They were 
 the real germs of municipal corporations. 
 Then arose religious guilds, of which there 
 
Gui 
 
 ( 336 ) 
 
 Gut 
 
 were several in the Middle Ages, for the 
 performance-of works of mercy,and carrying 
 on religious services. The revenues of 
 these guilds were seized by Henry VIII. 
 at the time of the dissolution of the mon¬ 
 asteries. The revival of religious guilds 
 in our own time is one of the results of 
 the High Church in England. The first 
 was established in 1851, the Guild of St. 
 Alban of Birmingham, which consisted 
 entirely of communicants of the Church of 
 England, and may be regarded as a type 
 of such institutions. The official report 
 says of it: 
 
 The Objects of the Guild are —(1) To assist 
 the clergy in maintaining the Catholic faith, 
 and to spread a knowledge of the true doc¬ 
 trines of the Church, especially those hav¬ 
 ing reference to the Holy Trinity, the 
 Incarnation and Atonement of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, and the graces conferred in 
 and by the Sacraments. (2) To oppose 
 latitudinarianism, rationalism, and infidel¬ 
 ity- (3) To support the independence in 
 spiritual matters of the Church of England, 
 and all Churches in communion with her. 
 (4) To revive and maintain a religious ob¬ 
 servance of all the Offices of the Church, 
 by promoting the public administration of 
 Holy Baptism, Confirmation, frequent 
 Communion, regular attendance at daily 
 prayer, and a proper observance of fasts, 
 festivals, and commemorations. (5) To 
 assist the clergy in parochial and mission 
 work without encroaching upon their spe¬ 
 cial duties, and to uphold their proper 
 spiritual authority. (6) To support the 
 clergy in the promotion of decency, or¬ 
 der, and reverence in public worship. (7) 
 To aid in the building, endowment, and 
 decoration of churches, the foundation 
 and maintenance of religious schools, and 
 in other beneficent designs. (8) To en¬ 
 courage the practice of piety, virtue, and 
 charity; to teach the ignorant, assist the 
 weak, succor the distressed, console the 
 afflicted, relieve the poor, visit the sick, 
 and help to bury the dead. (9) To pro¬ 
 mote unity in the Church. 
 
 The honorary works carried on by the 
 different branches and members are chiefly 
 the following: A home for destitute or 
 orphan boys ; schools of various kinds— 
 especially night and Sunday classes; clubs, 
 guilds, and institutes for the young; visit¬ 
 ing the sick and distressed; choirs, choir¬ 
 training, and the formation of church music 
 societies; special services in churches; lay 
 missions; the Christian burial of the dead, 
 burial societies, etc., the development of 
 the guild life.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 Many guilds have been organized in con¬ 
 nection with Episcopal Churches in the 
 United States. 
 
 Guizot' (ge-zo'), Francois Pierre Guil¬ 
 laume, b. at Nimes, Oct. 4, 1787; d. at 
 Val-Richer, Sept. 12, 1874. Of Huguenot 
 parentage, he was educated at Paris and 
 Geneva. From 1840 until the abdication 
 of Louis Philippe in 1848, he was Minister 
 of Foreign Affairs, having previously 
 (1832-36) been Minister of Public Instruc¬ 
 tion. His great historical works, the His¬ 
 tory of Civilization in Europe (1828). and 
 History of Civilization in France (1830), are 
 helpful in the study of church history. 
 After his retirement from public life he 
 wrote largely on themes connected with 
 religion, and was the leader of the Reform¬ 
 ed Church in France. See his Life , by 
 his daughter, Madame De Witt (London 
 and Boston, 1880). 
 
 Gurnall, William, an English clergy¬ 
 man; b. at Lynn, 1616; d. at Lavenham, 
 1679. His fame rests upon a popular book 
 on practical divinity: The Christian in Com¬ 
 plete Armor; or, A Treatise on the Saint’s 
 War with the Devil , etc., founded on Eph. 
 vi. 6-20. Published in 1655, it has appear¬ 
 ed in many editions. A new edition ap¬ 
 peared in 1865, with Introduction by 
 Bishop Ryle. 
 
 Gurney, Joseph John, an eminent phi¬ 
 lanthropist; b. at Earlham Hall, near Nor¬ 
 wich, Eng., Aug. 2, 1788; d. Jan. 4, 1847. 
 He became a minister among the Friends 
 in 1818. A man of large wealth, he aided 
 many benevolent enterprises and was es¬ 
 pecially interested with his sister, Mrs. 
 Fry, in the work of prison reform. With 
 Clarkson, Wilberforce, and his brother-in- 
 law, T. Fowell Buxton, he labored to 
 abolish the slave-trade. He was also an 
 earnest advocate of the cause of temper¬ 
 ance. Among the tracts and books which 
 he published are: Essays on the Evidences, 
 Doctrines, and Practical Operations of Chris- 
 tianity (1827); History, Authority, and Use 
 of the Sabbath (1831). See Memoirs of J. J. 
 Gurney, by Braithwaite (1854). 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus Association, which 
 has many branches in Germany, was orig¬ 
 inated by Dr. Grossmann, of Leipzig, in 
 1832. It has for its object the strengthen¬ 
 ing of Protestant interests, especially in 
 those sections of Germany where the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic population and influence are 
 predominant. It has done much in aiding 
 needy individuals and weak congregations. 
 Its organ is Bote des evangelise hen Vereins 
 der Gustav-Adolf-Stiftung, Darmstadt. 
 
 Guthlac, St., presbyter, and hermit of 
 Crowland; b. 674; d. 714. Of noble birth, 
 he won fame in early youth by his prowess 
 
Gut 
 
 ( 387 ) 
 
 Gyr 
 
 in leading a band of his soldiers against the 
 Britons. Converted in his twenty-fourth 
 year, he entered the monastery at Repton. 
 From here he went to Crowland, a wild 
 and desolate island which lay to the south 
 of Lincolnshire. Tradition relates many 
 conflicts which he had in this solitary 
 place with demons. His fame spread 
 and many flocked to him. The island 
 was finally reclaimed and brought under 
 cultivation. On the site of his cell and 
 oratory, King Ethelbald erected a monas¬ 
 tery. 
 
 Guthrie, Thomas, an eminent Scottish 
 preacher, editor and philanthropist; b. at 
 Brechin, July 12, 1803; d. at St. Leonard’s- 
 on-Sea, Feb. 24, 1873. Educated at the 
 University of Edinburgh, he was licensed 
 as a minister of the Church of Scotland in 
 1S25. In 1830 he entered upon the duties 
 of his first charge at Arbirlot, and after 
 seven years’ service became colleague pas¬ 
 tor of Old Grayfriars, Edinburgh, where 
 he remained until 1840, when he was chosen 
 minister of St. John’s Church in the same 
 city. In these years his fame as a pulpit 
 orator attracted crowded congregations. 
 He was an earnest supporter of the move¬ 
 ment that resulted in the Disruption(i842) 
 and organization of the Free Church. 
 Deeply interested in the welfare of the 
 poor, his efforts in opening ragged schools 
 met with great success. Besides these 
 labors, after ill-health compelled him to 
 retire from the active work of the minis¬ 
 try, he edited for some time the Sunday 
 Magazine. His published volumes of ser¬ 
 mons have had a large sale in the United 
 States. See his Autobiography and Life in 
 2 vols. (N. Y., 1876). 
 
 Giitzlaff, Karl Friedrich August, Ger¬ 
 man missionary in China; b. at Pvritz, 
 near Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia, July 8, 
 1803; d. at Hong Kong, China, Aug. 9, 
 1851. He was educated at the missionary 
 institutes of Berlin (1821) and Rotterdam 
 (1823), and was sent to Batavia in 1826. 
 In 1828 he went to Singapore, and then to 
 Bangkok; in 1834 he became secretary to 
 the British minister. In 1841 he establish¬ 
 ed at Hong Kong, in connection with the 
 American missionary, Roberts, a society 
 for propagating the gospel in China 
 through trained native preachers. His 
 great labors and influence won him the 
 title of “ the Apostle of China." Besides 
 works in Chinese, he wrote: Journal of 
 Three Voyages Along the Coast of China 
 (London, 1834); China Opened (1838), 2 
 vols.; Life of Taou-Kwang , late Emperor of 
 China (1852). See his Life (anonymous) 
 (Berlin, 1851). 
 
 Guyon {gi-on ), Jeanne Marie Bouvier 
 de LA Mothe, famous for her advocacy of 
 the Quietistic mysticism of the seventeenth 
 century; b. at Montargis, France, April 16, 
 1648; d. at Blois, June 9, 1717. The child 
 of noble and wealthy parents, she was ed¬ 
 ucated in the Ursuline convent at Montar¬ 
 gis, and early entered upon a life of relig¬ 
 ious devotion. The year following the 
 removal of her family to Paris (1663), she 
 was married to a gentleman of the court, 
 M. Guyon. Seeking spiritual counsel of 
 a Franciscan priest, he said to her, “Ac¬ 
 custom yourself to seek God in your heart, 
 and you will not fail to find him.” From 
 this day (July 22, 1668) she dated her con¬ 
 version. The death of one of her children 
 deepened her devotion, and she inspired 
 others with her fervor. For a period of 
 six years she was often in great darkness 
 of mind, but through the discipline of sor¬ 
 row and works of love and charity, she 
 came into an experience of ecstatic fervor 
 and feeling that was accompanied by fre¬ 
 quent visions and revelations. After the 
 death of her husband (1676), her mystical 
 teachings brought her under the condem¬ 
 nation of the Church authorities. She re¬ 
 fused to enter a convent, and was com¬ 
 pelled to change her residence frequently. 
 In 1686 she was confined in a convent at 
 Paris for eight months. Her correspond¬ 
 ence and friendship with Fenelon led to the 
 examination of her writings, in which Bos- 
 suet acted an important part. After the 
 trial she made a formal recantation, but 
 still continued to teach her mystical views, 
 until confined at Vincennes, and at the Bas- 
 tile in 1698, where she remained until 1702. 
 Banished to Blois, her last days were spent 
 in the home of her son. She belonged to the 
 school of Quietists, who laid great stress 
 upon the inner life and the union of the 
 soul with God. Holding that entire sanc¬ 
 tification is possible in this world, she dis¬ 
 paraged, to some extent, the external ob¬ 
 servances of religion and the authority of 
 the Church, and for this reason suffered 
 much persecution. Madame Guyon was a 
 charming writer, and many of her poems 
 are known to English readers through 
 Cowper’s translations. See Upham: Life , 
 Religious Experiences and Opinions of Mad- 
 ai?ie Guyon (New York, 1847). 
 
 Gyrovagi, or “ circuit wanderers,” is 
 the name given to certain monks in the 
 early days of monasticism, who led a va¬ 
 grant life, and proved themselves only 
 worthless mendicants. Augustine and 
 Cassianus wrote against them, and they 
 were condemned by several synods. They 
 did not entirely disappear until the Bene¬ 
 dictine rule was generally adopted. 
 
Hab 
 
 ( 388 > 
 
 Hag 
 
 H. 
 
 Hab'akkuk {embracing), one of the twelve 
 minor prophets. He lived in the time of 
 Jehoiakim, or Josiah, but the date and place 
 of his birth are unknown, as are also the 
 particulars of his life. 
 
 Prophecy of, “ contains (1) the proph¬ 
 et’s complaint against the corrupt state of 
 society (i. 2-4); (2) the divine answer, 
 announcing an irruption of the Chaldaeans 
 (i. 5—11); (3) the prophet’s complaint of 
 the unscrupulous greed and fierceness of 
 the Chaldaeans (i. 5-17); (4) the divine an¬ 
 swer, promising their destruction (ii. 4-20); 
 and (5) the prophet’s response to these two 
 divine announcements in a magnificent ode 
 commemorating the majesty of God (iii.). ” 
 — Volck. This chapter has been pronounc¬ 
 ed “ unequaled in majesty and splendor 
 of language and imagery.” 
 
 Hackett, Horatio Balch, D. D., LL. D., 
 b. at Salisbury, Mass., Dec. 27, 1808; d. at 
 Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 2, 1875. He was 
 a graduate of Amherst College (1830) and 
 Andover Theological Seminary (1833). 
 After studying in Germany, he served for 
 four years as professor of Latin in Brown 
 University, and then (1S39) accepted the 
 professorship of biblical literature in the 
 Newton Theological Institution. In 1870 
 he became professor of New Testament 
 Greek in Rochester Theological Semi¬ 
 nary. His career as a teacher was one 
 of marked usefulness. Beloved and faith¬ 
 ful in all the relations of life, he was rec¬ 
 ognized as one of the best scholars and 
 exegetes our country has produced. He 
 f was a member of the New Testament com¬ 
 pany of the American Bible Revision Com¬ 
 mittee. Most of his published works con¬ 
 sist of translations and additions. . With 
 Prof. Ezra Abbot he edited the American 
 edition of Smith’s Bible Dictionary (N. Y., 
 1868-70), 4 vols. See G. H. Whittemore: 
 Memorials of //. B. Hackett (Rochester, 
 1876). 
 
 Ha'dad, the name of a Syrian divinity, 
 and also of two Edomite kings (Gen. xxxvi. 
 35; xxxvi. 39), a son of Ishmael (1 Chron. 
 i. 30), and a contemporary of Solomon. 
 (1 Kings xi. 14-22). The last-mentioned, 
 who was of royal blood, fled as a child to 
 Egypt at Joab’s defeat of the Edomites. 
 He married the daughter of Pharaoh, and 
 at David’s death made an attempt to re¬ 
 conquer his native land. 
 
 Ha'dad-Rimmon, or Ha'dar-Rimmon, 
 the name given to a locality which wit¬ 
 nessed the death of Josiah (2 Kings xxiii. 
 29), whose memory was honored by songs 
 
 of lamentation. The location was probably 
 at the site of the modern Rummane, in the 
 plain of Jezreel. The name of the town, 
 Hadad-Rimmon, was, no doubt, originally 
 the name of a deity, Hadad and Rimmon 
 being both the names of gods. 
 
 Ha'des signifies “ the lower world,” and 
 is probably derived from a, not, and 
 idein , to see, but it is somewhat doubtful 
 (Liddell and Scott: Lexicon ). It is the 
 equivalent of the Hebrew Sheol , translated 
 in the Authorized Version variously “hell,” 
 “ the pit,” “ the grave,” but in the Revised 
 Version left in the original form. The 
 central thought of the word is not Punish¬ 
 ment, though it often includes that, but it 
 is Death. Gehenna, on the other hand, al¬ 
 ways stands for the punishment of the 
 wicked, and Tartarus may be taken as an 
 equivalent for the same word. Hades, 
 therefore, means that unknown world into 
 which the dead depart—that which hides 
 them from our eyes, and leaves us with 
 the blank feeling of sorrow. Into Hades 
 Christ descended at his death. No one 
 may dogmatize beyond what is written. 
 He went into the unknown, and wherever 
 he went he carried light.—Benham: Did . 
 of Religion . See Hell; Purgatoryl 
 Eschatology. 
 
 Ha'drach is mentioned only in Zech. ix. 
 1. The connection seems to indicate that it 
 was the country in which Damascus was 
 situated, or a neighboring locality. 
 
 Haeretico, Comburendo de, an act pass¬ 
 ed in the reign of Henry IV. against the 
 Lollards, by which bishops were allowed 
 to arrest and imprison all preachers of 
 heresy, or owners of heretical books; and 
 a refusal to abjure, or a relapse after ab¬ 
 juration, enabled them to hand over the 
 heretic to the secular power to be com¬ 
 mitted to the flames, without waiting for 
 the consent of the crown.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. This act was repealed under 
 Charles II. 
 
 Haetzer, or Hetzer, Ludwig, Anabap¬ 
 tist; b. at Bischofszell, near St. Gall, 
 Switzerland, about 1500. He was educated 
 at Freiburg, in Breisgau; embraced the 
 Reformation, and joined the Zwinglian 
 party, but afterward becamealeader among 
 the Anabaptists. He was expelled from the 
 cities of the Reformed faith, and finally be¬ 
 headed for bigamy at Constance, Feb. 3, 
 1529. 
 
 Ha'gar (flight), an Egyptian bondwoman 
 who, at the suggestion of Sarah, who was 
 barren, became a secondary wife to Abra- 
 
Hag 
 
 ( 339 ) 
 
 Hai 
 
 ham. After the birth of her child she was, 
 however, treated very harshly by Sarah. 
 Twice she fled, and the second time did not 
 return. (Gen. xvi.; xxi.) Paul, in an alle¬ 
 gory (Gal. iv. 25), makes Hagar the type 
 of the law and its bondage. 
 
 Hagarites, or Hagarenes, descendants 
 probably of Hagar, although they are dis¬ 
 tinguished from the Ishmaelites. They 
 dwelt in northern Arabia. The trans-Jor- 
 danic tribes made war against them in the 
 reign of Saul. (1 Chron. v. 10.) 
 
 Hagenau, Conference of, was called by 
 Charles V. to bring about a plan of union 
 between the Roman Catholics and Protes¬ 
 tants. The conference lasted from June 12 
 to July 16, 1540, but effected nothing be¬ 
 yond an arrangement to meet in Worms in 
 the autumn of the same year. The Roman 
 Catholics were represented by the papal 
 nuncio, Morone, and the theologians, Eck, 
 Faber, and Cochlaus; and the Protestants 
 by Brenz, Capito, Osiander, Cruciger, and 
 Myconius. The friends of Luther did not 
 think it safe for him to attend, and Melanch- 
 thon was sick. 
 
 Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf, an eminent 
 church historian, and representative of the 
 mediation theology of Germany; b. in 
 Basel, March 4, 1801; d. there, June 7, 
 1874. He studied for a year at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Basel, and then at Bonn and Ber¬ 
 lin, where he came under the influence of 
 Neander and Schleiermacher. In 1823 he 
 returned to Basel, where he was soon ap¬ 
 pointed professor of theology, and gained 
 a wide influence as a preacher. His posi¬ 
 tion was intermediate between the old su¬ 
 pernaturalists and the rationalists, but in 
 later years he “ laid an increasing stress 
 upon the independent objective reality of 
 Christian facts, and emphasized the con¬ 
 fessions of the Church.” His Lehrbuch der 
 Dogmengeschichte (1840), Eng. translation 
 revised and enlarged by Dr. H. B. Smith, 
 was published in N. Y., 1861, 2 vols. His¬ 
 tory of the Church in the Eighteenth and 
 Nineteenth Centuries , trans. by Dr. Hurst, 
 I2 vols. (N. Y., 1869). 
 
 Hag'gadah, the name given by the rab¬ 
 bis and in the Talmud to the traditions and 
 legends, etc., used in the interpretation of 
 the law. Many of these stories are amus¬ 
 ing and interesting, but they are not held 
 as authoritative by the best rabbins. This 
 method of interpretation stood in contrast 
 to the Halakha , which was strictly legal 
 and full of casuistic distinctions. 
 
 Hag'gai, the first of the minor proph¬ 
 
 ets who prophesied after the Captivity. 
 Nothing is known of his parentage or life. 
 He prophesied in the second year of the 
 reign of Darius, or 520 E. C. 
 
 The Prophecy of, “is an exhortation 
 to complete the temple, work upon which 
 had been begun in 534 b. c., but discon¬ 
 tinued by a decree of Cyrus, and a proph¬ 
 ecy of the blessing of the Lord which 
 would follow its completion. It consists 
 of four parts: the first (i. 1-15) attributes 
 the curse resting upon the people to their 
 listlessness in leaving the temple unfin¬ 
 ished, while they dwelt in ‘ paneled houses,’ 
 and exhorts them to begin work; the sec¬ 
 ond (ii. 1-9) predicts for the new temple a 
 glory greater than that of Solomon; the 
 third prophecy (ii. 10-19) urges them to 
 greater activity, in view of the curse to be 
 escaped, and the blessing to ensue; and 
 the fourth (ii. 20-23) promises victory 
 over the heathen, and an abiding glory to 
 Zerubbabel. Haggai, like Zechariah and 
 Malachi, the two other prophets after the 
 Captivity,does not equal the earlier proph¬ 
 ets in language and poetry.”— Delitzsch . 
 
 Hagiog'rapha (from two Greek words 
 signifying “ holy ” and “ writings ”), a term 
 used bv the Jews to denote that division 
 of the Old Testament which contained the 
 Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Ezra, the Song of 
 Solomon, Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, the 
 Books of Chronicles, Lamentations, and 
 Nehemiah. See Canon. 
 
 Hahn, Johann Michael, b. at Altdorf, 
 Wiirtemburg, Feb. 2, 1758; d. at Sindling- 
 en, Wiirtemburg, 1819. The son of a 
 peasant, in early life he was brought under 
 the influence of the writings of Boehme 
 and Oetinger. His public ministrations 
 drew large congregations. He laid stress 
 on the doctrine of sanctification, in opposi¬ 
 tion to the overestimate, as he deemed, of 
 the doctrine of justification as held by 
 Lutherans generally. He was frequently 
 rebuked by the ecclesiastical authorities, 
 and left his native town many years before 
 his death. His views were widely dis¬ 
 seminated through his books and address¬ 
 es, and are held by many in Wiirtemburg, 
 who are called Michelians. They have 
 never formed a sect or separated from the 
 State church, but they meet frequently, 
 and twice a year in convention. 
 
 Hair, “ among the Hebrews, was regard¬ 
 ed as an ornament of the man, if not worn 
 too long. From time to time it was clip¬ 
 ped; but in consequence of a vow it was 
 suffered to grow. (Num. vi. 5.) To pluck 
 off the hair (Ezek. ix. 3), and let it go di¬ 
 sheveled (Lev. x. 6; A. V. ‘ uncover your 
 
Hal 
 
 ( 390 ) 
 
 Hal 
 
 heads ’), or cut it off, was a sign of sor¬ 
 row (Jer. vii. 29), and of captivity. (Isa. vii. 
 20.) A bald head was an object of mock¬ 
 ery. (2 Kings ii. 23.) The young people 
 curled their hair (Song of Solomon v. 2, 
 marg.), or made it into locks. (Judg. xvi. 
 13, 19.) Both sexes anointed the hair 
 profusely with ointments. (Psa. xxiii. 5; 
 Matt. vi. 17.) For a woman to have her 
 head shorn or shaven was regarded as a 
 shame. (1 Cor. xi. 6; cf. ver. 15.) Gray 
 hair was an ornament of the aged. (Prov. 
 xx. 29.)”— Riietschi. 
 
 Ha'lah, a city or district of Media, upon 
 the river Gozan, to which, among other 
 places, the captive Israelites were carried 
 by the Assyrian kings. (2 Kings xvii. 6; 
 xviii. 11; 1 Chron. v. 26.) It is now gen¬ 
 erally identified with a province in the 
 northwest of Gaulonitis, called Chalcitis 
 by Ptolemy, near the Khabour . 
 
 Halakha. See Haggadah. 
 
 Haldane, Robert, was b. in London, 
 Feb. 28, 1764; d. in Edinburgh, Dec. 12, 
 1842. After a brief service in the navy he 
 came into the inheritance of a large prop¬ 
 erty, and in 1786 he settled upon his estate 
 at Airthrey. In 1793 he became deeply in¬ 
 terested in the subject of religion, and from 
 this time forward devoted his property and 
 services to the advancement of Christianity. 
 Within fifteen years he distributed three 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars for char¬ 
 itable purposes, and during his life he edu¬ 
 cated three hundred young men for the 
 ministry. In 1816 and 1817 he was at 
 Geneva and Montauban. At Geneva he 
 lectured to the theological students in the 
 university upon the Epistle to the Romans. 
 These expositions were published and were 
 quite popular. He was the author of 
 \ T olumes on Evidence and Authority of 
 Revelation , and On the Inspiration of 
 Scripttire. Active in all the church move¬ 
 ments of Scotland, his life was a noble ex¬ 
 ample of consecrated gifts and earthly 
 position. 
 
 Hale, Edward Everett, S. T. D. (Har¬ 
 vard University, 1879), Unitarian; b. in 
 Boston, Mass., April 3, 1822. After gradu¬ 
 ating at Harvard in 1839, he studied theol¬ 
 ogy; pastor at Worcester from 1846 to 1856, 
 and since that time, of the South Congrega¬ 
 tional (Unitarian) Church, Boston. He 
 edited The Christian Examiner (1857—1S63); 
 Old and New , a magazine (1870-1875); and 
 since 1886, Lend a Hand. Among the 
 many volumes he has published are: The 
 Man Without a Country (1863); Ten Times 
 One is Ten (1870); In His Name (1874); 
 
 Life of Washington (1887); History of the 
 United States (New York, 1888). 
 
 Half-Communion, a term used when 
 only the bread is given at the Communion, 
 as in the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Half-Way Covenant, a plan adopted by 
 the Congregational churches in New Eng¬ 
 land, between i657and 1662, by which bap¬ 
 tized persons were permitted to enter into 
 membership with the Church in such a way 
 that their children could receive baptism, 
 and they enjoy all other privileges but 
 that of partaking of the Lord’s Supper. 
 See Congregationalism. 
 
 Hall, Gordon, the first American mis¬ 
 sionary to Bombay; b. at Tolland, Mass., 
 April 8, 1784; d. of cholera, Bombay, 
 March 20, 1826. After graduating from 
 Williams College in 1808 he studied theol¬ 
 ogy, and was ordained as a missionary in 
 1813. For thirteen years he labored with 
 great diligence and success in Bombay. 
 Just before his death he completed the re¬ 
 vision of the Mahratta version of the New 
 Testament. He was among the first mis¬ 
 sionaries sent out by the American Board 
 C. F. M. His Memoir was written by H. 
 Bardwell (Andover, 1834). 
 
 Hall, Newman, LL. B. (London Univer¬ 
 sity, 1855), Congregationalist; b. at Maid¬ 
 stone, Kent, May 22, 1816. After grad¬ 
 uating at the University of London (1841), 
 he was pastor of the Albion Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, Hull, 1842-54, and from 
 that time has held his present charge in 
 London. He has written many tracts and 
 volumes of religious meditation and sug¬ 
 gestion. The tract, Come to Jesus (London, 
 1846), has had a circulation of upwards of 
 3,000,000copies in some twenty languages; 
 the little volume, My Friends, Follow Jesus y 
 has been distributed to the extent of 250,- 
 000 copies. 
 
 Hall, John, D. D. (Washington and Jef¬ 
 ferson College, Washington, Penn., 1S66), 
 LL. D. (Princeton College, 18S5, and same 
 year by Washington and Lee University, 
 Lexington, Va.), Presbyterian; b. in Coun¬ 
 ty Armagh, Ireland, July 31,1S29. He was 
 graduated at the Roy r al College and the 
 General Assembly’s Theological College 
 at Belfast, and began to preach in 1S49. 
 For three years he labored as the “ stu¬ 
 dent’s missionary ” in the west of Ireland. 
 In 1852 he became pastor of the First Pres¬ 
 byterian Church at Armagh, and in 1S5S 
 collegiate pastor of Mary Abbey, Dublin. 
 From Dublin he was called, in 1S67, to the 
 pastorate of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian 
 
Hal 
 
 ( 391 ) 
 
 Hal 
 
 Church, New York City, where he has 
 since remained. He is the author of 
 
 Papers for Home Reading (1871); Gods 
 Word Through Preaching (1875, Lyman 
 Beecher Foundation, Yale Divinity School); 
 A Christian Home: How to Make and How to 
 Maintain It (1883), etc. 
 
 Hall, John Vine, b. at Diss, Norfolk, 
 Eng., March 14, 1774; d. at Maidstone, 
 Sept. 22, i860. He was an earnest and el¬ 
 oquent advocate of total abstinence. He 
 is best remembered as the author of a tract 
 entitled The Sinner's Friend (1821). Dur¬ 
 ing his lifetime this tract was printed in 23 
 languages and 1,268,000 copies were dis¬ 
 tributed. His autobiography, edited by 
 his son, Rev. Newman Hall, of London, 
 has had a large circulation. 
 
 Hall, Joseph, a learned and eloquent di¬ 
 vine of the Church of England; b. July 1, 
 1574; d. at Hingham, near Norwich, Sept. 
 8, 1656. He was a graduate of Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge, and after serving as 
 rector, first at Halstead, Suffolk, and then 
 at Waltham Holy Cross, he was made dean 
 of Worcester (1617), and in 1627 bishop of 
 Exeter. He was accused by Laud of pu¬ 
 ritanical views, but proved his loyalty to 
 the Church of England in the publication 
 of his Episcopacy by Divine Right Asserted 
 (1640). With eleven other bishops he was 
 condemned by the Long Parliament, and 
 suffered imprisonment in the Tower for six 
 months. After his release he was depriv¬ 
 ed of the revenues of his see, but a small 
 allowance was granted him by Parliament. 
 The last years of his life were spent in re¬ 
 tirement at Hingham. Bishop Hall was a 
 man of devout character, His prolific pen 
 produced many works of a controversial 
 as well as devotional character. The Con¬ 
 templations upon the]V. Testament (1612—15); 
 Meditations and Vows (1624), and Explica¬ 
 tion of all the Hard Texts of the whole Divine 
 Scripture (1634), are his principal practical 
 writings. See his Life , by John Jones 
 (London, 1826). 
 
 Hall, Robert, one of the greatest among 
 pulpit orators; b. at Arnsby, near Leicester, 
 May 2, 1764; d. at Bristol, Feb. 21, 1821. 
 His father was pastor of the Baptist church 
 at Arnsby. In extreme youth he developed 
 precocious intellectual power, and when 
 but nine years of age he had read and re¬ 
 read Edwards’s On the Will , and Butler’s 
 Analogy. He attended for a time a school 
 at Northampton, conducted by Dr. Ryland, 
 and after studying theology with his father 
 he entered (1778) the academy at Bristol 
 for the preparation of students for the Bap¬ 
 tist ministry. From here he went to Aber¬ 
 
 deen, where he was graduated with high 
 honors at King’s College in 1785. During 
 the last two years of his college course he 
 had assisted Dr. Evans at the Broadmead 
 Chapel, Bristol, in his vacations, and when 
 he returned to that city, and taught in the 
 academy, his pulpit ministrations attracted 
 crowded audiences. His theological views 
 were the source of differences that led him 
 to leave Bristol, and accept in 1790 the pas¬ 
 torate of a Baptist church in Cambridge. 
 The intellectual stimulus of the university 
 town aroused to their best endeavor his re¬ 
 markable gifts. For fifteen years he 
 preached with marvelous power to the cul¬ 
 tivated congregations that gathered to hear 
 him. Many of his sermons were published 
 during these years, among them, Christi¬ 
 anity Consistent with the Love of Freedom , 
 and An Apology for the Freedom of the Press . 
 Two attacks of insanity caused him to re¬ 
 sign his pastorate at Cambridge in the 
 spring of 1806. Within a short time he 
 accepted a call to a small congregation at 
 Leicester, where he labored for twenty 
 years. On the death of Dr. Ryland he was 
 invited to return to Bristol (1826), where, 
 under the burden of increasing physical 
 disability, he labored until the close of his 
 life. See Gregory: Works of Robert Hall, 
 with Memoir (London, 6 vols., New York, 
 4 vols.); John Greene: Reminiscences of 
 Robert Hall (London, 1832); E. Paxton 
 Hood: Life (New York, 1881). 
 
 Hallel {praise). Psalms cxiii.-cxviii. were 
 so called because each of them begins with 
 Hallelujah. They were sung in the temple 
 on the first of the month, and at the feasts 
 of Dedication, Tabernacles, Weeks, and the 
 Passover. The “hymn” sung by our Lord 
 and his disciples at the close of the Last 
 Supper was the second part of the Hallel 
 (Psa. cxv.-cxviii.). 
 
 Hallelu'jah braise ye Jehovah ). This 
 word is found at the beginning, or close, 
 or both, of many Psalms. It was chanted 
 on solemn days of rejoicing, and as an ex¬ 
 pression of joy and praise it has been 
 adopted by the Christian Church. 
 
 Halley, Robert, an eminent Congrega¬ 
 tional preacher and scholar; b. at Black- 
 heath, near London, Aug. 13, 1796; d. at 
 Arundel, Surrey, Aug. 18, 1876. He re¬ 
 ceived an excellent classical education, and 
 after a brief pastorate at St. Neats, Hun¬ 
 tingdonshire, he became in 1826 classical 
 tutor at Highbury College, London. In 
 1839 he accepted the pastorate of a church 
 in Manchester, where he labored with 
 growing distinction until 1857, when he ac- 
 i cepted the chair of theology and the prin- 
 
Hal 
 
 ( 392 ) 
 
 Ham 
 
 cipalship of New College, London, where 
 he remained for fifteen years. He pub¬ 
 lished lectures On the Sacraments and Bap¬ 
 tism, and a History of Puritanism and Non - 
 confor?nity in Lancashire . As a platform 
 speaker he was remarkable for his elo¬ 
 quence and power. 
 
 Hallock, William Allen, prominent 
 from his connection with the American 
 Tract Society, of which he was the first 
 secretary, a position which he filled with 
 marked fidelity for forty-five years. He 
 was editor of the American Messenger for 
 many years, and prepared a large number 
 of tracts for the press. He was b. in 
 Plainfield, Mass., June 2, 1794; d. in New 
 York City, Oct. 2, 1SS0. He was educated 
 at Williams College (1819), and Andover 
 Theological Seminary (1822). His con¬ 
 nection with the American Tract Society 
 began in 1825. 
 
 Ha'math {fortress ), a city and province of 
 Upper Syria. It was originally a Canaanite 
 colony (Gen. x. 18), but was afterward 
 taken by the Syrians. In the time of 
 Hezekiah it was captured by the Assyrians 
 (2 Kings xiv. 25-28), and “ men from 
 Hamath ” were settled there in place of the 
 Israelites. During the Middle Ages it was 
 the capital of an independent State. The 
 population is now about thirty thousand. 
 This place is not to be confounded with 
 that belonging to the tribe of Naphtali. 
 (Josh. xix. 35.) Four stones inscribed 
 with hieroglyphics, probably of Hittite 
 origin, have been found here. 
 
 Hamel. See Bajus. 
 
 Hamilton, James, D. D., an eloquent 
 preacher and eminent Presbyterian divine; 
 b. at Paisley, Scotland, Nov. 27, 1S14; d. 
 in London, Nov. 24, 1867. He became 
 pastor of the National Scotch Church, Re¬ 
 gent’s Square, London, in 1841, where he 
 remained until his death. His fame as a 
 pulpit orator attracted large audiences, and 
 he was the author of several volumes that 
 had a wide circulation. Sixty-four thou¬ 
 sand of his Life in Earnest were sold be¬ 
 fore 18 5 2. Hew rote: Royal Preacher (1S 51J; 
 The Light Upon the Path ; The Prodigal 
 Son (1866). See his Life, by William Ar- 
 not (N. Y., 1S71). 
 
 Hamilton, Patrick, Scotch Reformer 
 and martyr; b. 1504; d. 152S. He was the 
 son of Sir Patrick Hamilton, and of Cath¬ 
 arine Stewart, daughter of Alexander, 
 Duke of Albany, second son of James II. 
 He took the degree of M. A. at Paris, in 
 T520, where he studied, and adopted the 
 
 views first of Erasmus, but afterward of 
 Luther. On returning to Scotland he 
 came under suspicion for recommending 
 his pupils to read Tyndall’s translation of 
 the New Testament. Hamilton fled to 
 Germany, but came back in a short time, 
 and openly preached the doctrines of the 
 Reformation. He was summoned before 
 Archbishop Beatoun, in 1528, on charge of 
 heresy. The chief charge against him was 
 that he affirmed,“ that man is not justified 
 by works, but by faith; that it is not law¬ 
 ful to worship images, nor to pray to the 
 saints, and that it is lawful to all men that 
 have souls to read the Word of God.” He 
 was condemned and burned on the day of 
 his trial, Feb. 29, 1528, before the gate of 
 St. Salvador’s College. His death gave 
 an impetus to the Reformation that made 
 Scotland a country of Protestants. 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William, b. in Glasgow, 
 March 8, 1788; d. in Edinburgh, May 6, 
 1856. He was the son of a professor in 
 the University of Glasgow, and was there 
 educated, until he went as a Snell exhi¬ 
 bitioner to Balliol College, Oxford. Here 
 he amply fulfilled all the high hopes which 
 his friends had formed of him, and went 
 out in first-class honors in 1812. Next 
 year he became a member of the Scottish 
 bar, but seems to have had little practice. 
 In 1821 he was appointed to the professor¬ 
 ship of Modern History in the University 
 of Edinburgh, and having but little work 
 arising out of that post, he gave himself 
 diligently to his studies and speculations. 
 It was not, however, till 1829 that he was 
 induced to publish any results of these. 
 On the pressing invitation of the editor of 
 the Edinburgh Review, he wrote a critique 
 on Cousin’s Cours de Philosophic , publish¬ 
 ed the previous year, in which that writer 
 ha.d developed his theory of the Infinite. 
 The review made Hamilton well known, 
 not only in England, but on the Continent, 
 and from that time he became a regular 
 contributor to the Edinburgh. In 1836 he 
 found his right place, being elected to the 
 professorship of Logic and Metaphysics in 
 his university. His lectures from this 
 chair were taken down in shorthand, at 
 least the later ones, by admiring students, 
 and were published after his death, under 
 the editorship of Professors Mansel and 
 Veitch, in4 vols. His reputation was now 
 at its height, and his influence upon those 
 who sat at his feet was unbounded. In 
 1843 his health began to fail, and this hin¬ 
 dered him in the work in which he was en¬ 
 gaged, of preparing his writings for the 
 press. Consequently death found this 
 task uncompleted. His position in the 
 history of philosophy is still a matter of 
 
Ham 
 
 ( 393 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 keen controversy. The late Dean Mansel, 
 one of his editors, in his famous Bamptun 
 Lectures of 1858, brought into great prom¬ 
 inence Hamilton’s doctrine concerning the 
 limitation of positive thought. This 
 thought, he contended, lay between the 
 contradictory poles of the infinite and the 
 absolute, and was therefore in a conditioned 
 sphere, beyond which the mind is not ca¬ 
 pable of moving. He repudiated all the 
 German pursuers of the absolute, treated 
 with contempt Coleridge’s doctrine of the 
 reason, and recommended Nescience as the 
 starting point of philosophy. The philos¬ 
 opher has a legitimate sphere, he said, in 
 examining what are the limits of the hu¬ 
 man intellect, but the infinite prohibits all 
 further advances. Unhappily, most of the 
 vast questions arising out of this problem 
 are only hinted at by him, and only a frag¬ 
 ment was produced of the great treatise 
 which he had planned. But it has been 
 said that he leaves no room for any ethical 
 conception of the Infinite Being. The nes¬ 
 cience for which Sir William Hamilton 
 contended was the nescience which the 
 opponents of Socrates contended for when 
 they accused him of bringing in new gods, 
 because he said that there is a Divine 
 teacher who speaks to the souls of men. 
 When he declared that if the gods did 
 wrong and encouraged wrong they were no 
 true gods, he was contending for fellow¬ 
 ship with the Absolute, and striving to get 
 beyond the “Conditions” of the under¬ 
 standing, into the domains of a Reason 
 which is higher than it. The Aristotelians 
 of the Middle Ages further declared that 
 nothing can be known of God but what is 
 revealed by an infallible authority. Hume 
 and Voltaire, accepting that doctrine, had 
 rejected the authority; and had logically, 
 therefore, pronounced themselves atheists. 
 And there are many who, professing to ac¬ 
 cept Hamilton’s theory of the uncondi¬ 
 tioned, declare that any knowledge of 
 God is hopeless, and on that ground rest 
 their doctrine of Agnosticism. (Agnos¬ 
 tic; God.) We have here the greatest 
 question of our times, and the contro¬ 
 versy is even now being earnestly pur¬ 
 sued.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 Hamilton: Works; Mansel: Limits of 
 Religious Thought and Philosophy of the 
 Conditioned; McCosh: Scottish Philosophy , 
 Lect. 57. 
 
 Ham'math (hot springs ), a fortified city 
 in Naphtali. (Josh. xix. 35.) It is probably 
 identical with Hamtndm or “warm springs,” 
 about one mile south of Tiberias. Its 
 waters are hot and sulphurous, and too 
 nauseous to drink, but are considered very 
 efficacious for medicinal purposes. The 
 
 walls of an old town have been found in the 
 vicinity of the baths. 
 
 Handel, George Frederick, “ one of the 
 greatest names in the history of music 
 generally, is absolutely paramount in that 
 of English music ” (Ency. Britannica)] b. in 
 Halle, Prussia, Feb. 24, 1684; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, April 13, 1759. From early years he 
 showed remarkable gifts as a musician, and 
 after studying in Berlin, Hamburg, and 
 Italy, he was chapel-master to the elector 
 at Hanover from 1709 to 1712, when he 
 settled in England. It was here that he 
 composed the wonderful oratorios upon 
 which his fame rests. 
 
 Handicrafts Among The Hebrews. In 
 
 later times it was made the duty of parents 
 to see that every boy learned a trade. 
 The most celebrated rabbis earned their 
 living by some handicraft. Some trades 
 Avere considered more honorable than 
 others. The weaver, barber, tanner, ful¬ 
 ler, etc., could not become high-priest or 
 king. Tradesmen of like craft, then as 
 now, congregated in the same locality. 
 
 Hands, Laying on of. See Imposition 
 of Hands. 
 
 Han'nah, wife of Elkanah of Ramathaim- 
 Zophim. (1 Sam. i. 1, 2.) In answer to 
 prayer she was given a son, Samuel. Her 
 wonderful song of praise at his birth is 
 given in 1 Sam. ii. 1-10. The name Han¬ 
 nah is a favorite among the Hebrews and 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 Haph'tarah, plural Haphtaroth, were 
 the selections from the prophets read in 
 the synagogue on the Sabbath and festival 
 days, in connection with passages from the 
 law. 
 
 Haran, (1) the name of Terah’s youngest 
 son. (Gen. xi. 26.) (2) The place on the 
 
 road from Ur of the Chaldees where Terah 
 stopped with his sons, Abram and Nahor, 
 and grandson, Lot. Terah died there (Gen. 
 xi. 31, 32), and Nahor made it his home, - 
 while Abram and Lot moved to Canaan. 
 (Gen. xii. 4, 10.) It is generally identified 
 with the modern Haran , and is situated on 
 the river Belik about fifty miles north of 
 where it flows into the Euphrates. It was 
 at one time a place of some commercial 
 importance. (Ezek. xxvii. 25.) It is now a 
 small Arab village. The reputed tomb of 
 Terah is shown within the ruined walls. 
 
 Harbaugh, Henry, D. D., a divine of the 
 German Reformed Church, widely known 
 by his writings on the heavenly life and 
 
Har 
 
 ( 394 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 the state of the sainted dead. Of Swiss 
 descent, he was b. near Waynesborough, 
 Penn., Oct. 28, 1817; d. at Mercersburg, 
 Penn., Dec. 28, 1867. After graduating at 
 Franklin and Marshall College he was 
 pastor of the Reformed Church, Lewisburg, 
 Penn. (1843), Lancaster (1850), and Leb¬ 
 anon (i860). In 1863 he was elected pro¬ 
 fessor of theology at Mercersburg. For 
 seventeen years he was editor of the Guard¬ 
 ian , and the last year of his life of the Mer¬ 
 cersburg Review. Besides his works on the 
 Future Life he wrote the Life of Michael 
 Schlatter (1857),and Fathers of the Reformed 
 Church in Europe and America (Lancaster, 
 1857), 2 vols. 
 
 Hardwick, Charles, Church of England; 
 b. at Slingsby, Yorkshire, Sept. 22, 1821; 
 killed by a fall while ascending the 
 Pyrenees, near Bagneres de Luchon, Aug. 
 18, 1859. He was a fellow of Cambridge; 
 professor of theology in Queen’s College, 
 Birmingham (1853); divinity lecturer at 
 Cambridge (1855), and archdeacon of Ely 
 (1859). He wrote: A History of the Articles 
 of Religion (Cambridge, 1851, new ed., 
 1859); dl History of the Christian Church (I. 
 MiddleAges; II. Reformation; Cambridge, 
 1853-56), 2 vols., 3d ed. revised by W. 
 Stubbs (London, 1872). His most elabo¬ 
 rate treatise, and best known, although left 
 unfinished, was, Christ and other Masters: 
 An Historical Inquiry into some of the Chief 
 Parallelisfns and Contrasts between Chris¬ 
 tianity and the Religiotis Systems of the An¬ 
 cient World (London, 1855-57), 4 parts; 3d 
 ed., with memoir, by F. Proctor (1873), 
 1 vol. 
 
 Hardy, Robert Spence, an eminent Wes¬ 
 leyan missionary and Buddhist scholar; b. 
 at Preston, Lancashire, July 1, 1803; d. at 
 Headingly, Yorkshire, April 16, 1868. For 
 twenty-three years he was a missionary in 
 Ceylon, and afterward labored in the 
 ministry in England. He wrote: The Brit¬ 
 ish Government and the Idolatry of Ceylon 
 (1841); Eastern Monachism: An Account of 
 the Origin, Laws, Discipline, Sacred Writ¬ 
 ings, etc., of the Order of Mendicants, founded 
 by Goiama Buddha (1850); A Manual of 
 Buddhism in its Modern Development, trans¬ 
 lated from Singhalese MSS. (1853, 2( 1 ed., 
 1S80); The Legends and Theories of the 
 Buddhists Compared with History and Science 
 (1867, 2d ed., 1881). These works are 
 standard. 
 
 Hare, Augustus William, best known to 
 American readers by the Memorials of a 
 Quiet Life. He was b. in Rome, Nov. 17, 
 1792; d. there, Feb. 19, 1834. After grad¬ 
 uating with distinguished honors at New 
 
 College, Oxford, where for a time he was 
 a fellow, he became rector of the secluded 
 country parish of Alton-Barnes. With 
 singular devotion he gave himself to the 
 work of ministering among his people, and 
 in every way proved himself a model 
 country minister. In connection with his 
 brother Julius he edited Guesses at Truth, 
 and published Sermons to a Country Con¬ 
 gregation (6th ed. London, 1845), 2 vols. 
 See Memorials of a Quiet Life, by A. J. C. 
 Hare. 
 
 Hare, Julius Charles, a prominent and 
 influential English theologian; b. Sept. 13, 
 1795, at Herstmonceux, Sussex; d. there, 
 Jan. 23, 1855. He was educated at the Char¬ 
 ter House school and at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge,where, having won distinguish¬ 
 ed honors, he became a fellow in 1S18. In 
 1834 he was appointed rector of Herst¬ 
 monceux, and later archdeacon of Lewis 
 and chaplain to the Queen. He was the 
 intimate friend of Thomas Arnold, Bunsen, 
 and other distinguished scholars, and col¬ 
 lected a private library of some twelve 
 thousand volumes. He was the sturdy 
 champion of Protestantism during the time 
 of the Tractarian ( q. v.) movement. His 
 ablest theological work is The Mission of the 
 Comforter, with Notes (1876, republished in 
 Boston). The Contest with Rome (1842) 
 gave his views in the controversy with Ro¬ 
 manism and Puseyism. The Victory of 
 Faith is a series of eloquent and instructive 
 sermons. See Memorials of a Quiet Life , 
 by A. J. C. Hare (London, 1872). 
 
 Harmonists. See Rappists. 
 
 Harmony of the Gospels. The four Gos¬ 
 pels differ in style, in order of arrange¬ 
 ment, and in some degree, also, in the cir¬ 
 cumstances narrated. But there is run¬ 
 ning through them the great unity of 
 spirit, which represents the Saviour as the 
 tender, loving Guide of his disciples, sym¬ 
 pathizing with their sorrows and with the 
 sorrows of mankind. The Gospels are 
 portraits of the One Person from different 
 points of view, but have so much in com¬ 
 mon that we recognize the unity. This is 
 the Harmony of the Gospels to which it is 
 evident that all real importance attaches. 
 But it is also natural that Christian writers 
 from early times should have endeavored 
 to construct a life of Christ in chronolog¬ 
 ical sequence. They have only in part 
 succeeded. Two only of the four Evan¬ 
 gelists give the history of our Lord's child¬ 
 hood, and they select different incidents of 
 it. The one gives the visit of the wise 
 men and the flight into Egypt, the other 
 the announcement to the shepherds and 
 
Har 
 
 ( 305 ) 
 
 Har 
 
 the presentation in the Temple. The 
 closer the details are studied, the more it 
 seems probable that the materials needed 
 for an absolute chronological order have 
 been purposely withheld. But an approx¬ 
 imation has been arrived at, and the course 
 of the Saviour’s life year by year can be 
 traced with considerable accuracy. The 
 first attempt which we know of to construct 
 a Harmony was made in the third century 
 by Ammonius, who divided the Gospel 
 into sections for the purpose. The num¬ 
 bers which mark these Ammonian sections 
 are found in the margin of many of the 
 ancient MSS. of the New Testament. In 
 the next century Eusebius, the historian, 
 drew up his “ Canons,” in which the Am¬ 
 monian sections are so distributed as to 
 show in a tabular form what portions of 
 the other Evangelists correspond to that 
 Gospel which stands first in order in each 
 section. (See Bishop Wordsworth’s Greek 
 Testament, vol. i., pp. 27-35.) Among 
 modern writers the best harmonists are 
 Griesbach, De Wette, Rodiger, Clausen, 
 Greswell, Isaac Williams, Tischendorf. 
 See Archbishop Thomson’s masterly essay 
 on the Gospels in Smith’s Bible Dictionary. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. Among the 
 Harmonies published in this country are 
 those by Robinson, Strong, and Gardiner. 
 
 Harms, Claus, German Evangelical; b. 
 at Fahrstedt, Schleswig-Holstein, May 25, 
 1778; d. in Kiel, Feb. 1, 1855. He was 
 educated at the University of Kiel, and 
 after serving as assistant pastor at Luden 
 from 1806, was transferred to Kiel in 1816, 
 Avhere he spent the rest of his honored life. 
 He was a noble champion of evangelical 
 faith, and an earnest opponent of the prev¬ 
 alent rationalism of his time. Besides his 
 writings on’this subject, he composed many 
 hymns, some of which have found a place 
 in German hymn-books. 
 
 Harms, Georg L. D. Theodor, a Ger¬ 
 man Lutheran pastor, whose success as a 
 pastor, evangelist, and organizer of parish 
 work was remarkable. He was b. May 5, 
 1808, in Walsrode, Llineburg, and d. at 
 Hermannsburg, Nov. 14, 1865. After com¬ 
 pleting his studies at the University of Got¬ 
 tingen, he spent several years as a tutor, 
 when he accepted the position of assistant 
 pastor to his father over the church at 
 Hermannsburg. With intense ardor of soul 
 he gave himself to his work. He won the 
 love of all classes by his earnest sympathy 
 and self-denying labors. A revival followed 
 his preaching, such as North Germany had 
 never witnessed before. In the pulpit he 
 was eloquent and interesting, and heart 
 and conscience moving. As the result of 
 
 his efforts the life of the community was 
 wonderfully changed. In 1849 he founded 
 a seminary for the training of missionaries. 
 The school was very successful. He estab¬ 
 lished a missionary magazine in 1854, 
 which, with many volumes of his sermons, 
 had a wide circulation in Germany. 
 
 Harnack, (Karl Gustav), Adolf, Ph. D. 
 (Leipzig, 1873), Lie. Theol. (Leipzig, 1874), 
 D. D. (hon., Marburg, 1879), German Prot¬ 
 estant; b. at Borpat, Livonia, Russia, May 
 7, 1851; studied theology there and in 
 Germany, and was appointed professor of 
 church history at Leipzig, 1876; Giessen, 
 1879; Marburg, 1886; Berlin, 1889. He 
 published: Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte 
 des Gnostizis??nis (Leipzig, 1873); Die Zeit 
 des Ignatius und die Chronologie der A ntio- 
 chenischen Bischofe (1878); Das Monchtttm , 
 seine Ideale und Geschichte (Giessen, 1881, 
 3d ed., 1886); Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschi- 
 chte (Freiburg im Br., 1886-87, 2 vols., 2d 
 ed., 1888); Grundriss der Dog?nengeschichte 
 (1889); Das Neue Testament um das Jahr 
 200 (1889), etc. 
 
 Harper, William Rainey, Ph. D. (Yale 
 College, New Haven, Conn., 1875), Bap¬ 
 tist layman; b. at New Concord, O., July 
 26,1856; was graduated at Muskingum Col¬ 
 lege, New Concord, O., 1870; principal of 
 the preparatory department of Denison Uni¬ 
 versity, Granville, O., 1876-1879; profess¬ 
 or of Hebrew and the cognate languages 
 in the Chicago Baptist Union Theological 
 Seminary, 1879—1886; since 1886 professor 
 of Semitic languages in Yale University. 
 He is widely known as the author of sev¬ 
 eral text-books on the Hebrew language, 
 and the editor of Hebraica and Old-Testa- 
 ment Student. 
 
 Harp. See Music Among the Hebrews. 
 
 Harris, Samuel, D. D. (Williams College, 
 Williamstown, Mass., 1855), LL. D. (Bow- 
 doin College, Brunswick, Me., 1871), Con¬ 
 gregationalism b. at East Machias, Me., 
 June 14, 1814; was graduated at Bowdoin 
 College, 1833, and at Andover Theological 
 Seminary, 1838; in pastorates at East 
 Machias, Me., 1834-41; Conway, Mass., 
 1841-51, and at Pittsfield, Mass, 1851-55, 
 when he became professor of systematic 
 theology in the Bangor Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, 1855-67; president of Bowdoin Col¬ 
 lege, 1867-71; since 1871 Dwight professor 
 of systematic theology in Yale Theological 
 Seminary, New Haven, Conn. He is the 
 author of: Zacchetts: The Scriptural Plan of 
 Beneficence (1844); Christ's Prayer for the 
 Death of his Redeemed (1863); The Kingdom 
 of Christ on Earth (1874); The Philosophical 
 
Har 
 
 ( 30 ) 
 
 Hav 
 
 Basis of Theism (New York, 1883); Self- 
 Revelation of God (1887). 
 
 Hartranft, Chester David, D. D. (Rut¬ 
 gers College, New Brunswick, N. J., 1876), 
 Congregationalist; b. at Frederick, Penn., 
 Oct. 15,1S39; was graduated at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Pennsylvania, 1861, and at the New 
 Brunswick (N. J.), Theological Seminary, 
 1S64; was pastor at South Bushwick, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., 1864-66, and New Bruns¬ 
 wick, N. J., 1866-78; from 1878 professor 
 of biblical and ecclesiastical history, in the 
 Hartford (Congregational) Theological 
 Seminary, and since 1888 president of the 
 same. 
 
 Harvest, among the Hebrews, began in 
 Palestine about the middle of April. On 
 the sixteenth day of this month a handful 
 of ripe ears was offered before the Lord as 
 the first-fruits, and it was then lawful to 
 put the sickle to the corn. (Lev. xxiii. 9- 
 14.) The barley was first gathered at the 
 time of the festival of the Passover, and 
 the harvest closed with the ingathering 
 of w'heat at the festival of Pentecost. 
 (Exod. xxiii. 16.) Hired reapers were 
 usually employed, and maidens bound the 
 sheaves, while the owner of the field with 
 his children assisted in storing them away. 
 The harvest was a season of great rejoicing, 
 and the corners of the field, as well as any 
 forgotten sheaf, were left for the poor to 
 gather. The end of the world is described 
 under the figure of a harvest. (Matt. xiii. 
 30 . 39 -) 
 
 Hase, Carl August von, Lutheran; b. 
 at Steinbach, Saxony, Aug. 25, 1800; d. at 
 Jena, Jan. 3, 1S90. He studied theology 
 at Leipzig and Erlangen. In 1830 he was 
 appointed professor of theology at Jena 
 and filled the chair until 1883, when he was 
 retired as professor ejneritus. Among his 
 works are: Life of Jesus (1829, 5th ed., 
 1S65; Eng. trans. by J. F. Clarke, Bos¬ 
 ton, 1881); History of the Christian Church 
 (1S34, nth ed., 1886; Eng. trans. from 
 the 7th ed., by Wing and Blumenthal, New 
 York, 1856); Miracle Plays and Sacred 
 Dramas (1858, Eng. trans. London, 1880). 
 
 Hastings, Thomas, Mus. Doc. (Uni¬ 
 versity of New York, 1858); b. in Wash¬ 
 ington, Conn., Oct. 15, 1784; d. in New 
 York, May 15, 1S72. His life was devoted 
 to the improvement of church music, and 
 he compiled many volumes of tunes, and 
 wrote a large number of hymns, some of 
 which have been widely used. He began 
 liis work as a teacher in Oneida County, 
 N. Y., 1806; removed to Troy, 1S17; Utica, 
 1S23; and New York City, 1S32. His 
 
 hymns are found chiefly in his Spiritual 
 Songs (New York, 1831-1833); Mother's 
 Hymn-Book (1834); Christian Psalmist 
 (1836); D evotional Hymns and Poems (18 50); 
 and Church Melodies (1858), in which publi¬ 
 cation he was assisted by his son, the Rev. 
 Dr. T. S. Hastings, now president of Union 
 Theological Seminary. 
 
 Hatch, Edwin, D. D. (University of 
 Edinburgh, 1883), Church of England; b. 
 at Derby, Eng., Sept. 4, 1835; d. at Oxford, 
 Nov. 10, 1889. He was educated at Pem¬ 
 broke College,Oxford; was graduated B. A., 
 1857; M. A., 1867; was ordained deacon, 
 1858, and priest, 1859; professor of classics 
 in Trinity College, Toronto, Can., 1859- 
 1866; vice-principal of St. Mary’s Hall, 
 Oxford, Eng., 1867, and, in addition, rector 
 of Purleigh, 1883; secretary to the boards 
 of faculties, 1S84, and reader in ecclesias¬ 
 tical history,Oxford. As Bampton lecturer, 
 1SS0, he produced a work on The Organiza¬ 
 tion of the Early Christian Churches (Lon¬ 
 don, 1881), which received the highest 
 praise of scholars. He also wrote: Essays 
 in Biblical Greek (1889); Grinfield Lectures 
 (18S2-1884); and The Growth of Church Ln- 
 stitutions (1887). See Memorials , edited by 
 his brother (1890). 
 
 Hattemists, a Dutch sect, founded by 
 Pontianus van Hattem, who was deposed 
 from his pastorate in Zealand in 1683, and 
 died in 1706. Hattem was a disciple of 
 Spinoza, and his doctrines were a develop¬ 
 ment of mystical pantheism. The sect was 
 suppressed by the Dutch Government in 
 * 733 - 
 
 Hauge, Hans Nielsen, a famous Nor¬ 
 wegian revivalist; b. on the Hauge farm, 
 Smaalenene County, Norway, April 3, 
 1771; d. on the Bredtvedt farm, Aker 
 County, March 29, 1S24. The son of a 
 peasant, and limited in his education, he 
 gained a knowledge of the Bible that 
 enabled him, with his peculiar gifts, to enjer 
 upon an evangelistic work which was at¬ 
 tended with a great religious awakening. 
 His followers were called “ Haugians,” or 
 “ Readers.” His teachings were distaste¬ 
 ful to the rationalistic church authorities, 
 and he was imprisoned in 1S04, and held 
 for trial until 1S14. When he was released 
 his health was broken, but the influence 
 of his words and life had permeated the 
 nation. See his Life , by A. Chr. Bang 
 (Christiania, 1874); and Belsheim (Christi¬ 
 ania, 1S81). 
 
 Hauran. See Bashan. 
 
 Havelock, Henry, Sir, the Christian 
 
Hav 
 
 ( 397 ) 
 
 Hay 
 
 soldier; b. at Bishop-Wearmouth, Sunder¬ 
 land, April 5, 1795; d. at Lucknow, India, 
 Nov. 25, 1857. Entering the British army 
 as second lieutenant (1815), he went to 
 India in 1823. He served with honor in 
 the Afghan war (1840-1842), and was made 
 adjutant-general in 1S54. It was in the 
 Sepoy rebellion (1857) that his military 
 genius was most successfully displayed. 
 Under his leadership Lucknow was taken 
 by assault, but within three days after the 
 capture of the city he died of disease 
 brought on by over - exertion. General 
 Havelock was an earnest, devout Christian. 
 His wife was a daughter of the eminent 
 missionary Dr. Marshman, and not long 
 after his marriage he united with the Bap¬ 
 tist denomination. “ For more than forty 
 years,” he said to Sir James Outram in his 
 last moments, “ I have so ruled my life, 
 that when death came, I might face it with¬ 
 out fear.” See Marshman: Alemoirs of Sir 
 Henry Havelock. 
 
 Haven, Erastus Otis, D. D., a bishop 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church; b. in 
 Boston, Mass., Nov. 1, 1820; d. at Salem, 
 Oregon, Aug. 2, 1881. After graduating 
 from the Wesleyan University in 1842, he 
 followed the profession of teaching until 
 1848, when he entered the ministry. He 
 was professor in the University of Michi¬ 
 gan, 1853-56: editor of Zion's Herald , Bos¬ 
 ton, 1856-63; president of the University 
 of Michigan, 1863-69; of the Northwestern 
 University, Evanston, Ill., 1869-72; cor¬ 
 responding secretary of the board of edu¬ 
 cation of the M. E. Church, 1872-74; 
 chancellor of the Syracuse University, 
 1874. He was elected bishop in 1880. 
 He filled the important positions to which 
 he was called with marked ability. Among 
 his published works are: Young Alan 
 Advised ( 1855); Rhetoric for Schools, Colleges, 
 and Private Study (1869). 
 
 Haven, Gilbert, D. D., a bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church; b. near Bos¬ 
 ton, Sept. 19, 1821; d. at Malden, Mass., 
 Jan. 8, 1880. He was a graduate of the 
 Wesleyan University (1846), and taught 
 several years. In 1851 he joined the New 
 England Conference, and filled prominent 
 appointments from the first. In 1861 he 
 was made chaplain of the Eighth Mass. 
 Regiment, the first commissioned chap¬ 
 lain after the breaking out of the war. 
 From 1867 to 1872 he was the efficient edi¬ 
 tor of Zion's Herald , Boston, when he was 
 elected bishop. He was a man of rare in¬ 
 tellectual gifts, the earnest friend of the 
 colored race, and the champion of freedom 
 everywhere. He wrote two volumes of 
 travels: Pilgritn's Wallet; Our Next Door 
 
 Neighbor: Recent Sketches of Alexico (1S74); 
 National Sermons (1869). 
 
 Havergal, Frances Ridley, one of the 
 best known and beloved of religious 
 writers; b. at Astley, Eng., Dec. 14, 1836; 
 d. at Caswell Bay, Swansea, South Wales, 
 June 3, 1879. The daughter of a clergy¬ 
 man of the Church of England, she received 
 the advantages of a classical education, and 
 studied Greek and Hebrew that she might 
 read the Bible in the original. While her 
 pen was busy in writing the little volumes 
 and poems that have had so wide a circula¬ 
 tion, she was actively engaged in Christian 
 service in many ways. The best-known 
 of her poetical works are: Ministry of 
 Song; Under the Surface; Under the Shadozo. 
 Among her prose writings are: My King 
 (1877); Kept for the Master's Use (1879). 
 See Memorials by her sister (New York, 
 1880). 
 
 Hav'ilah. See Eden. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. See Sandwich Isl¬ 
 ands. 
 
 Hawes, Joel, D. D., b. Medway, Mass., 
 Dec. 22, 1789; d. at Gilead, Conn., June 5, 
 1867. He was graduated at Brown Uni¬ 
 versity (1813), and studied at Andover. 
 He was called to the pastorate of the First 
 Congregational Church at Hartford, Conn., 
 in 1818, where he remained until his death. 
 He was a man of strong intellect, great 
 devotion, and indefatigable in labor. The 
 most widely circulated of his published 
 writings is: Lectures to Young Men on the 
 Fortnation of Character (1828). See his Life , 
 by E. A. Lawrence (Hartford, 1873). 
 
 Hawks, Francis Lister, D. D., LL. D., 
 Episcopalian; b. at New Berne, N. C., 
 June 10, 1792; d. in New York City, Sept. 
 26, 1866. He was graduated at the Univer¬ 
 sity of North Carolina, 1815, and gained 
 eminence at the bar. Entering the ministry 
 in 1827, he served churches in New Haven, 
 New York, Philadelphia, New Orleans, 
 and Baltimore. As historiographer of his 
 Church he published: Contributions to the 
 Ecclesiastical History of the United States 
 (New York, 1836-1840); and Documentary 
 History of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 in Connecticut (1863-1864), 2 vols. He was 
 an eloquent preacher, and versatile as a 
 writer. See memorial by E. A. Duyckinck 
 (1871). 
 
 Haygood, Atticus Greene, D. D. (Em¬ 
 ory College, Oxford, Ga., 1870), LL. D. 
 (Southwestern University, Georgetown, 
 Tex., 1884), Methodist Episcopal Church 
 
Haz 
 
 ( 398 ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 South; b. at Watkinsville, Ga., Nov. ig, 
 1S39; was graduated at Emory College, Ox¬ 
 ford, Ga., 1859; entered the ministry, and 
 from 1870 to 1875 was Sunday-school secre¬ 
 tary of the M. E. Church South; president 
 of Emory College, 1876-1884; agent of the 
 “ John F. Slater Fund,” 1885-1S90; in 1890 
 elected bishop. He is the author of: Ottr 
 Children (1876); Our Brother in Black 
 (1S81); Sermons and Speeches (1883). 
 
 Haz'ael {God sees), an officer of the king 
 of Syria, whose accession to the throne was 
 revealed to Elijah. (1 Kings xix. 5.) This 
 fact was told him long afterward when he 
 came to consult Elisha regarding the re¬ 
 covery of his master from sickness. (2 
 Kings viii. 7-15.) Although, at the time, 
 he professed the utmost abhorrence of the 
 course of action that Elisha foretold he 
 would be guilty of, the following day he 
 murdered Benhadad, and ascended the 
 throne. (2 Kings viii. 7-16.) He waged a 
 cruel and successful war against Judah and 
 Israel, but all of his conquests were lost 
 during the reign of his son and successor. 
 (2 Kings xiii. 25.) 
 
 Ha'zor {enclosure), the name of several 
 cities, the chief of which was the city of 
 King Jabin, destroyed by Joshua (Josh. xi. 
 1, 10, 11) given to Naphtali (xix. 36), and 
 retaken by the Canaanites. (Judg. iv. 2.) 
 It was fortified by Solomon (1 Kings ix. 15), 
 and its people were carried away into cap¬ 
 tivity by Tiglath-pileser. The site of the 
 city has long been in dispute, but the Pales¬ 
 tine Memoirs give good reasons for locat¬ 
 ing it at Khurbet Harrah , two and a half 
 miles southeast of Kadesh, where the re¬ 
 mains of ancient walls, towers, and a for¬ 
 tress have been found. 
 
 Heart of Jesus, Society of. See Jesus’ 
 Heart, Society of. 
 
 Heathen. “ This term (from heath, one 
 who lives on the heaths, or in the woods, 
 like pagans, i. e., villagers) is applied in 
 the English Bible to all idolaters, or to all 
 nations except the Jews. (Psa. ii. 1.) It 
 now denotes all nations except Christians, 
 Jews, and Mohammedans.”—Schaff: Bible 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Heave-Offerings. See Offerings. 
 
 Heaven. The primary meaning of the 
 word in Scriptural language is the sky over¬ 
 head, and this is the meaning both of the 
 Hebrew shamaim, from shami , “ the high,” 
 and of the English word—that which is 
 heaved , lifted up. Hence the word came to 
 mean, not only the vast space overhead, 
 
 but the unseen, mysterious world whence 
 the glory of the Creator proceeds, the 
 glory of life and light. So the prophet 
 calls heaven God’s throne, and our Lord 
 repeats the phrase. (Matt. v. 34.) Hence 
 the bow in the cloud, and the pillar of 
 cloud and fire were known as symbols of 
 the watchfulness and care of God. And 
 Christ at his Incarnation “ came down from 
 heaven.” The Christian Revelation gave 
 a fuller and more complete idea. Heaven 
 means, in St. Paul’s writings, “where 
 Christ is,” let that place be where it may. 
 Even when his presence is realized amongst 
 us, we are in heaven, we are its citizens. 
 (Phil. iii. 20.) “ Heaven lies about us in 
 
 our infancy,” says the poet (Wordsworth: 
 Ode 071 l 7 )imortality), and so far as we carry 
 about with us the hearts of little children, 
 pure and simple and trustful, we are en¬ 
 compassed with heaven. But such faith 
 and purity rest upon the knowledge that 
 Christ lives incarnate, therefore heaven is 
 a place no less than a state. The fullest 
 heaven is the place where he is seen and 
 adored by saints and angels, where he is 
 ever making intercession. (See Eph. i. 23; 
 Heb. iv. 14; ix. 24.) While St. Paul be¬ 
 lieved himself to be already a citizen of 
 heaven, he none the less looked forward to 
 that perfect consummation and bliss when 
 he should be with Christ, and look upon 
 him. Hence we cannot resolve the Script¬ 
 ural heaven into a mere idea, which, under 
 the name of “ spiritual,” becomes an un¬ 
 reality. Such works as Beyond the Gates, 
 however fanciful, and therefore needing 
 the greatest caution in reading, do not go 
 beyond the truth in holding a close relation 
 between the natural and spiritual body. In 
 that eternal and everlasting glory the soul 
 will find its true home and rest, and not 
 lose its identity, even when former things 
 are passed away.—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. See Baxter: Saint's Everlasting 
 Rest ; John Howe: 7 'he Blessedtiess of the 
 Righteous 0pe7ied ; Harbaugh: Heave7i; or, 
 the Sainted Dead, 3 vols. (Philadelphia, 
 1848). These works have passed through 
 many editions. 
 
 Heber, Reginald, a distinguished mis¬ 
 sionary bishop and hymn writer; b. at 
 Malpas, Eng., April 21, 1783; d. at Trich- 
 inopoly, India, April 3, 1826. When quite 
 young he wrote poems of merit, and the 
 year after entering Oxford (1803) he gained 
 the prize for a poem entitled Palestine. In 
 1804 he was fellow of All Souls, and in 
 1807 he became rector of Hodnet. His 
 labors here were very successful. In 1815 
 he delivered the Bampton lectures on the 
 Perso7iality and Office of the Christia7i Com¬ 
 forter, and soon after (1S17) was made can- 
 
Heb 
 
 ( 399 ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 on of St. Asaph, and, in 1822, preacher at 
 Lincoln’s Inn. In the same year he was 
 elected bishop of the see of Calcutta. With 
 intense zeal and great ability he labored 
 thereuntil the time of his sudden death. 
 Among his best-known hyms are “ From 
 Greenland’s Icy Mountains;” “ Holy, holy, 
 holy, Lord God Almighty.” Heber was a 
 High-Churchman in his views, but kind and 
 liberal in spirit. See his Life, by his widow 
 (London and New York, 1830), 2 vols. 
 Chambers: Bishop Heber and Indian Mis¬ 
 sions (London, 1846). 
 
 Hebrew Poetry. “ Hebrew life and his¬ 
 tory supply no motive for epic poetry, and 
 the Hebrew character has no faculty for 
 dramatic poetry; so that the literature, as a 
 consequence, contains no epic poem, and 
 no properly dramatic composition. The 
 poetry is, therefore, either lyric or gnomic, 
 i.e ., subjectively emotional or sententiously 
 didactic; the former belonging to the active 
 or stirring, and the latter to the reflective 
 or quiet periods of Hebrew history. The 
 reason of this is to be found in the intense 
 individuality of the Hebrew temper, and 
 its incapacity to transcend the range of 
 what impresses itself in this or that light, 
 on the individual sense or conscience. It 
 does not rise above itself, so as to oversee 
 itself and conceive an epic; it does not go 
 outside of itself, so as to seize and construe 
 another mood and compose a drama; it can, 
 alike in its passionate and reflective mo¬ 
 ments, only express the feelings, views, 
 and purposes that arise in connection with 
 events and experiences of real practical 
 interest. It limits itself, moreover, to the 
 concrete, and neither abstracts nor system¬ 
 atizes; it at most only gives instances. It 
 is quick to see and strong to feel, but it is 
 always in the presence of personal inter¬ 
 ests, which, however, are apprehended as 
 eternal ones, and are such as for the time 
 fill the mind and shut out all else in the 
 universe. Whether expressed in lyric or 
 gnome, Hebrew poetry rises in the con¬ 
 science and terminates in action. For He¬ 
 brew thought needs to go no higher, since 
 therein it finds and affirms God; it seeks 
 to go no further, for therein it compasses 
 all being, requiring, therefore, no epic and 
 no drama to work out its destiny. How¬ 
 ever individualistic in feature, as working 
 through the conscience, it yet relates itself 
 to the whole moral world; and, however it 
 may express itself, it beats in accord with 
 the pulse of eternity. The lyric expres¬ 
 sion of this temper we find in the Psalms, 
 the Song of Solomon, and the Lamenta¬ 
 tions of Jeremiah, and the gnomic in 
 the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, 
 while the book of Job, which is only dra¬ 
 
 matic in form, is partly lyric and partly 
 gnomic. 
 
 “Hebrew rhythm is peculiar,and consists 
 not, as with us, in the rise and fall of ac¬ 
 cent, or rhythm of the sound, but in a cer¬ 
 tain so-called parallelism of clauses, or 
 rhythm of the sense. By the word ‘ paral¬ 
 lelism ’ is understood an arrangement of 
 two or more sentences side by side. This 
 is done in three ways. There may be a 
 synonymous , an antithetic , or a synthetic 
 parallelism, according as there is a same¬ 
 ness, a contrast, or a further expression of 
 the thought. 
 
 “(1) The simplest and by far the most 
 common form of parallelism is the synony¬ 
 mous. Here the same thought is repeated 
 with a change of language, e. g., Psalm 
 xvi. 6: 
 
 * The lines are fallen unto me in pleasant places; 
 Yea, I have a goodly heritage.’ 
 
 “ (2) In the antithetic form of parallelism, 
 a truth is given first positively and then 
 negatively, or two opposite states are put 
 in contrast, e. g. , Psalm i. 6: 
 
 * For the Lord knoweth the way of the righteous; 
 But the way of the ungodly shall perish. ’ 
 
 “( 3 ) Synthetic parallelism carries the 
 thought of the first clause further, and ex¬ 
 pands it, adding new meanings, explaining 
 the contents, or deducing consequences, 
 e. g ., Isa. i. 5, 6: 
 
 ‘ The Lord hath opened mine ear, 
 
 And I was not rebellious, nor turned away back. 
 
 I gave my back to thesmiters. 
 
 And my cheeks to them that plucked off the hair : 
 I hid not my face from shame and spitting.’ 
 
 “ The verse requires at least two mem¬ 
 bers, which must, by such parallelism, be 
 knit into unity; and the distich or couplet 
 is, in general, to be regarded as its ground- 
 form, although there are some verses 
 which have three (Psa. vii. C), four (Psa. 
 v. 10), five (Psa. xi. 4), and even six (Song 
 of Solomon iv. 8), members. Three epochs 
 have been noted in the history of Hebrew 
 poetry, coincident respectively with the 
 days (a) of Moses, (b) of David and Sol¬ 
 omon, and (F) of the Exile. 
 
 “ ( a ) The Mosaic Period. —To this period 
 belong the song of the Red Sea(Exod. xv.), 
 Psa.xc., and Deut. xxxii. and xxxiii.; and 
 these supply the primordial forms respect¬ 
 ively of the hymn, the elegy, and the 
 prophecy of the after poetry. 
 
 * ‘ {!)) The Period of David and Solomon. — 
 This is the golden age of Hebrew poetry, 
 at once in the lyric and gnomic forms of it; 
 and the transition from the age preced¬ 
 ing is represented by the song of Debo¬ 
 rah (Judg. v.), and that of Hannah. (1 Sam. 
 ii.). In the Psalms of David the religious 
 passion of the Hebrew finds its richest and 
 
Heb 
 
 ( 400 ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 fullest expression, just as his wisdom 
 does in the Proverbs of Solomon. These 
 are the compositions of men who, while 
 truly inspired by God, were heart and soul 
 in fullest accord vvith the Hebrew spirit; 
 but one set of them, as in the Psalms, 
 gave utterance to it as it glowed in the 
 heart, and the other, in the Proverbs, for 
 instance, as it reflected itself in life and 
 experience, with more breadth of view, 
 but less intensity of passion. 
 
 4 4 (c) The Period of the Exile. —Under Da¬ 
 vid’s successors the religious life begins 
 to decay, and therewith the spirit that 
 inspired the poetry: only under Jehosha- 
 phat.in 2 Chron. xx., and under Helekiah, 
 in 2 Chron. xxix., do we see some faint 
 gleams of its original aspirations. When 
 admonished, however, in the school of 
 affliction, the Hebrews begin to turn to the 
 Lord, and hope for his coming; once more 
 the harp is taken down again, and attuned 
 to the new situation. Soon again the situ¬ 
 ation changes, and what poetry survives is, 
 alike in matter and form, but a shadowy 
 echo of earlier inspirations.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. See Isaac Taylor: The Spirit 
 of Hebrew Poetry (London, 1861); Introduc¬ 
 tion to Perowne’s translation and notes on 
 the Psalms (Andover, 1876). 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the. “ Of the 
 Hebrews, to whom this epistle was ad¬ 
 dressed, we know nothing, except what 
 we gather from the epistle itself. Evi¬ 
 dently they were Christians of Jewish 
 descent, and of some standing. But in 
 consequence of persecution at the hands 
 of their Jewish brethren—amounting, it 
 would appear, to threatened excommuni¬ 
 cation from the Jewish Church—they were 
 in danger of making shipwreck of their 
 faith in Christ, and had need of the exhor¬ 
 tation to hold fast their confidence, stead¬ 
 fast to the end. There is some reason to 
 presume, from the characterizations it con¬ 
 tains, that the epistle was not a general 
 one; blit that it was addressed to a special 
 community, though where, it seems impos¬ 
 sible with any certainty to determine. 
 Except Italy (chap. xiii. 24), there is no 
 mention of any locality from the beginning 
 to the end of the epistle; and the reference 
 to it leaves us uncertain whether it was 
 written to or from Italy. Jerusalem, Rome, 
 Antioch, Alexandria, have been severally 
 fixed upon as the likely seat of the com¬ 
 munity in question; but all that can be 
 concluded with any show of probability in 
 the matter, is that it consisted of Hellen¬ 
 istic Jews, i. e., Jews of the Dispersion 
 who spoke Greek, and that it was located 
 in the East, somewhere out of Palestine, 
 certainly beyond the immediate environs of 
 
 Jerusalem. It is just possible, however, 
 that the epistle may, after all, be a general 
 one, seeing the situation characterized is 
 of a nature not inapplicable to several Tew- 
 ish communities gathered together from 
 different centres of the Jewish Dispersion, 
 all of whom were more or less in danger 
 of falling away from the faith under perse¬ 
 cution from their Jewish brethren. 
 
 44 The occasion, object , and argument of the 
 epistle. —The occasion of writing it was the 
 pressure of persecution, of a nature tanta¬ 
 mount to a challenge to renounce the cross 
 of Christ, and which it was feared these 
 Hebrews would too readily do, to the ex¬ 
 tent even of denying it altogether, and so, 
 to their own ruin, crucifying the Son of 
 God afresh—the alternative being either 
 crucifixion 7vith Christ, or the crucifixion 
 
 Christ. Therefore the object of writing 
 it was to exhort and encourage them to 
 endure whatever persecution and reproach 
 they might have to face, as being pre-ap- 
 pointed to test and prove their divine son- 
 ship, and as the invariable, inevitable 
 allotment of all believing men, of all the 
 children of the Father in heaven. Its ob¬ 
 ject was hortatory (chap. xiii. 22); and its 
 Jewish-Christian readers were exhorted 
 not to give up their faith in Christ, and 
 their hope in his promise, as if, in enter¬ 
 taining this faith and hope, they might 
 forfeit their interest in the benefits of the 
 covenant of God with their fathers. For 
 the new covenant in Christ gave them all 
 that the old covenant offered, so that with 
 it they had in actual possession what the 
 old covenant only guaranteed, and that in 
 mere type and promise. The old covenant 
 was abolished, or rather merged, in the 
 new; and if the glory of the new was as 
 yet unrevealed, the greatness of the 
 Founder and his work was pledge suffi¬ 
 cient that his Church, like himself, would 
 enter into its glory when its sufferings 
 were complete like his. Let them hold 
 fast, therefore, by their faith, and not hope 
 the less, but the more, that they had to 
 suffer for it. Their suffering for it was the 
 test and triumph of their faith in it. And 
 they were called to suffer 4 without the 
 gate,’ like their Lord before them. To be 
 rejected of their brethren for Christ’s sake 
 was the very 4 reproach of Christ ’ which 
 they were called to face when they em¬ 
 braced his gospel. The argument on which 
 the author bases his contention that the 
 Christian dispensation surpasses and 
 supersedes the Jewish is threefold, and is 
 founded on the threefold superiority of the 
 Head of the former over the heads of the 
 latter, that Jesus is superior—first, to 
 angels (chaps, i.-ii.); secondly, to Moses 
 (chaps, jii.-iv, 13); and thirdly, to the high- 
 
 A 
 
Heb 
 
 ( 4oi ) 
 
 Heb 
 
 priest of the Jewish dispensation (chaps, 
 iv. 14-xii. 29). 
 
 “ Its authorship .—The question of the 
 authorship of this epistle has been long a 
 puzzle with critics, and it is to this day un¬ 
 certain who the real author was. On one 
 point only are the critics as good as agreed 
 —namely that it was not written by Paul. 
 The reasons for this conclusion appear to 
 be three—first, that by many early Chris¬ 
 tian writers it is not classed among Paul’s 
 epistles, but is ascribed by some to Barna¬ 
 bas; secondly, that it*is not written in Paul’s 
 style; and thirdly, that though the truths 
 taught are the same, they are presented in 
 this epistle in lights and relations different 
 from those in which they are presented in 
 the Pauline writings, the dominating, per¬ 
 vading idea in it being quite peculiarly the 
 Priesthood of the Son. The authorship of 
 Barnabas is held to be as questionable as 
 that of Paul, and some modern critics are 
 inclined to accept the opinion of Luther, 
 founded on Acts xviii. 24, that the epistle 
 Was the work of Apollos. Nevertheless, 
 the epistle may still be reckoned Pauline 
 in a secondary sense. Though not written 
 by Paul, and though composed in a style 
 of language, and reasoned out on lines dif¬ 
 ferent from the style and method of Paul, 
 it advocates an essentially Pauline Chris¬ 
 tian truth. It is a true support of Paul’s 
 great doctrine of faith; and it seems to 
 have been written by a disciple of that 
 apostle, or at least by a Christian teacher 
 of Paul’s school of thought, rather than by 
 one of the stamp of James, Peter, or John. 
 
 “ Contents .—God has revealed himself 
 through his Son, who is placed above the 
 angels (chap. i. 1-4). He is proved to be 
 in name and dignity above the angels (5— 
 14); earnest heed, therefore, to be given 
 to his words (chap. ii. 1-4). The world to 
 come is subject to the Son, who was made 
 perfect by suffering (5-18). Jesus has 
 greater glory than Moses, seeing he is the 
 son over the house of God, while Moses 
 was but a servant within it (chap. iii. 1-6). 
 They who hold fast their faith in him enter 
 into God’s rest, which Israel failed to do 
 under Moses (chaps, iii. 7-iv. 13). Jesus 
 is a sympathizing high-priest—a priest, as 
 called of God, and sympathizing, as taken 
 from among men (chaps, iv. 14-v. 10). 
 The Hebrews are rebuked for their short¬ 
 coming, and warned against falling away 
 (chaps, v. 11-vi. 20). Jesus an high-priest 
 after the order of Melchisedec, and what 
 that involves (chap. vii). Jesus is a min¬ 
 istering priest of the true tabernacle, 
 which the Lord pitched, and not man, i. e., 
 the heavens (chap. viii. 1-6). The old 
 covenant and the new contrasted (7-13). 
 The Levitical and the Melchisedec minis¬ 
 
 tries contrasted (chap. ix. 1-14). The Mel¬ 
 chisedec ministry and the new covenant 
 together (chaps, ix. 15-x. 18). The He¬ 
 brews are exhorted to avail themselves of 
 the privileges of the new covenant (19-25). 
 If they apostatize, there will be no hope for 
 them (26-31). If they maintain their faith, 
 it will carry them through (32-39). In¬ 
 stances are given of the triumph of faith, 
 and its acceptability with God (chap. xi). 
 The Hebrews are encouraged to endure by 
 Christ’s example (chap. xii. 1-13). They 
 are exhorted to peace and holiness (14-17). 
 The two economies are contrasted, so as to 
 strengthen their faith (18-29). General 
 exhortations follow, and salutations (chap, 
 xiii).” — Bagster : Bible Helps. See De- 
 litzsch : Co?n?nentary (Eng. trans., Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1870); Commentaries of A. B. 
 Davidson (1882): Keil (1885). 
 
 Hebrews, Name and History. See Is¬ 
 rael; Jews. 
 
 He'bron, “ a city of Judah (Josh. xv. 
 54), situated among the mountains (Josh, 
 xx. 7), twenty Roman miles south of Jeru¬ 
 salem, and the same distance north of 
 Beer-sheba. Hebron is one of the most 
 ancient cities in the world still existing; 
 and in this respect it is the rival of Damas¬ 
 cus. It Avas built, says a sacred writer, 
 ‘ seven years before Zoan in Egypt’(Num. 
 xiii. 22), and was a well-known town when 
 Abraham entered Canaan 3,780 years ago. 
 (Gen. xiii. 18.) Its original name was Kir- 
 jath-Arba(Judg. i. 10), ‘the city of Arba;’ 
 so called from Arba, the father of Anak, 
 and progenitor of the gigantic Anakim. 
 (Josh. xxi. 11; xv. 13, 14.) The chief in¬ 
 terest of this city arises from its having 
 been the scene of some of the most striking 
 events in the lives of the patriarchs. Sarah 
 died at Hebron; and Abraham then bought 
 from Ephron the Hittite the field and cave 
 of Machpelah, to serve as a family tomb. 
 (Gen. xxiii. 2-20.) The cave is still there; 
 and the massive walls of the Haram or 
 mosque, within which it lies, form the most 
 remarkable object in the whole city. Abra¬ 
 ham is called by Mohammedans, El-Khulil , 
 ‘ the Friend,’ i. e., of God; and this is the 
 modern name of Hebron. Hebron now 
 contains about 5,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 some fifty families are Jews. It is pict¬ 
 uresquely situated in a narrow valley, 
 surrounded by rocky hills. The valley 
 runs from north to south; and the main 
 quarter of the town, surmounted by the 
 lofty walls of the venerable Haram , lies 
 partly on the eastern slope. (Gen. xxxvii. 
 14; comp, xxiii. 19.) About a mile from 
 the town, up the valley, is one of the largest 
 oak-trees in Palestine. This, say some, is 
 
H eg 
 
 ( 4«2 ) 
 
 Hel 
 
 the very tree beneath which Abraham 
 pitched his tent, and it still bears the name 
 ofthe patriarch.”—Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 Hegel {ha'-get), Georg Wilhelm Fried¬ 
 rich, a famous German metaphysician; b. 
 at Stuttgart, Aug. 27, 1770; d. in Berlin, 
 Nov. 14, 1831. He studied theology at 
 Tubingen, 1788-93; and became a private 
 tutor, first at Bern, 1793-96, and then at 
 Frankfort, 1797-1801. In 1801 he was ap¬ 
 pointed lecturer on philosophy at Jena, and 
 acted as co-editor with Schelling of the 
 Kritische Journal der Philosophie. From 
 1808 to 1816 he was director of the Agidien 
 Gymnasium at Nuremberg; became pro¬ 
 fessor of philosophy at Heidelberg, 1816, 
 and from 1818 at Berlin. “ In accordance 
 with his method of moving from a position 
 through its negation to the mediation of this 
 contradiction, Hegel treats the idea first as 
 logic, then as nature, and finally as spirit. 
 Then, again, he treats the idea as spirit 
 first under the form of religion, then under 
 the form of art, and finally under the form 
 of philosophy, religion being the lowest and 
 most imperfect form of spiritual life. To 
 this verdict no objection has been raised in 
 Germany: on the contrary, it has been al¬ 
 lowed to establish itself quietly there in 
 the mind of modern education as a self-evi¬ 
 dent truth. Quite otherwise, when, in his 
 Philosophy of Religion, Hegel came to 
 analyze the relation between the religious 
 idea and the actually existing religions. 
 Here, the right wing of his pupils, Daub, 
 Markeinecke, Hotho, Rothscher, Rosen- 
 kranz, etc., declared that he had demon¬ 
 strated the existence of the most perfect 
 harmony between philosophy and Chris¬ 
 tianity, between the Prussian State and the 
 Protestant Church; while the left wing, 
 D. F. Strauss, L. Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, 
 Arnold Ruge, etc., protested that he had 
 dissolved thehistorical foundation of Chris¬ 
 tianity into mythology, and its moral con¬ 
 tents into delusions. Of course, only one 
 of these parties can be right, but they could 
 be both wrong.”—Jackson: Did. of Relig¬ 
 ious Knowledge, s.v. The following works of 
 Hegel have beentrans. into English: Sub¬ 
 jective Logic, by Sloman and Wallon (Lon¬ 
 don, 1855); Philosophy of History, by Sibree, 
 (1857); Philosophy of Fine Art, by B. 
 Bosanquet (1886); Philosophy of State and 
 History, by G. S. Morris (Chicago, 1887), 
 and selections in Journal of Speculative 
 Philosophy , by W. T. Harris, i.-v. (St. 
 Louis, 1867-71). See Edward Caird: Hegel 
 (London, 1883); A. Seth: Hegelianism and 
 Personality (1887); J. M. Sterrett: Studies in 
 Hegels Philosophy of Religion (New York, 
 1889, German ed. 18 vols. Berlin, 1832- 
 1840). 
 
 Hegesippus, frequently called the 
 “ Father of Church History,” was b. early 
 in the second century. Fragments of his 
 works have been preserved by Eusebius in 
 his Ecclesiastical History. Very little is 
 known of his life. 
 
 Hegira (Arab, flight), the year 662. So 
 called by the Mahometans because in this 
 year Mahomet fled from Mecca to Medina. 
 They reckon time from this date. See 
 Mohammed. 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism. This was a form 
 of instruction drawn up in 1562 by order of 
 Frederick III., Elector of the Palatine, for 
 the use of the Reformed Church in his 
 dominions. The authors of it were Caspar 
 Olivianus, Court Preacher at Heidelberg, 
 and Zacharias Ursinus, Professor of Sys¬ 
 tematic Theology in the University. They 
 took as the basis of their work the cate¬ 
 chisms of Calvin, Mosheim, Lasky, and 
 Bullinger; tJie draft was laid before the 
 Heidelberg Convention, and unanimously 
 accepted and adopted throughout the Palat¬ 
 inate, though beyond that it had many ad¬ 
 versaries. It contains 129 questions, and 
 is divided into three parts, the first of 
 which concerns the misery of man conse¬ 
 quent on sin; the second, redemption from 
 that state; the third, gratitude for that re¬ 
 demption. The Count Palatine, the Duke 
 of Wiirtemburg and Baden, severely criti¬ 
 cised it, and, after several refusals, Fred¬ 
 erick III. met them at a theological confer¬ 
 ence at Maulbronn, in 1564. The catechism 
 was again fiercely attacked at Augsburg, in 
 1566, and the Elector even threatened with 
 deposition; but he nobly defended it,and the 
 matter was dropped. In 1588 it was also 
 adopted in the Netherlands, and is still the 
 recognized standard of the Dutch Reformed 
 Church, both in Holland and America, 
 where a tercentenary festival was held in 
 its memory in 1863. This catechism was 
 the model on which the Westminster 
 Divines framed the Shorter Presbyterian 
 Catechism. It has been translated into al¬ 
 most all European and some Eastern lan¬ 
 guages.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Helena, St., mother of Constantine the 
 Great. Some contend that she was of a 
 noble family, but older authorities say that 
 she was the daughter of a shepherd or inn¬ 
 keeper. Gloucester in England, Naissus 
 in Upper Moesiaand Drepanum on the Gulf 
 of Nicomedia claim to be her birthplace. 
 Rome, Venice, and the monastery of Haut- 
 villiers, near Rheims, claim to possess her 
 remains. Very little, it will be seen, is 
 known of her life, but she will be remem¬ 
 bered as a Christian whose influence was 
 
Hel 
 
 ( 403 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 great over the son whose name holds so 
 high a place in history. 
 
 Hell. “ (1) In the Old Testament , the He¬ 
 brew word for ‘ hell ’ is skeol, to which 
 ‘ hades,’ in the New Testament corre¬ 
 sponds. Our modern word ‘ hell ’ is not 
 the equivalent for sheol; for, while we as¬ 
 sociate with 1 hell ’ endless suffering, the 
 Hebrew associated with sheol merely ideas 
 of terror and repulsiveness, arising mainly 
 from the mystery and uncertainty which 
 attended the life after death, (cf. Job xi. 8; 
 Prov. i. 12; Isa. xxxviii. 10.) (2) In the 
 
 New Testa?nent , ‘ hell ’ is the translation, 
 in the authorized version, of three words 
 in Greek— Hades , Gehenna , and 'Tartarus. 
 Hades has already been considered. Ge¬ 
 henna was properly the ‘ hell ’ of Hebrew 
 conception, and is uniformly so rendered 
 in the revised version. The rebellious 
 angels, and the finally impenitent of men 
 are cast into it. (Matt. v. 22; Luke xii. 5.) 
 Once the word “ Tartarus ” is employed (2 
 Pet. ii. 4), and also rendered ‘ hell.’ It 
 is noticeable that neither Paul nor John 
 uses either Hades, Gehenna, or Tartarus; 
 and, also, that, of the twelve recurrences 
 of Gehenna, eleven are in our Lord’s 
 speeches. Scripture mercifully hides the 
 condition of the lost, and, by example, 
 forbids prurient curiosity. The way of 
 life is luminous from earth to heaven; the 
 way of death is lost in darkness.”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency ., vol. ii., pp. 961-962. See 
 Gehenna; Hades; Sheol; Punishment, 
 Future. 
 
 Hellenists, The, included those Greeks, 
 and others of foreign birth, who had ac¬ 
 cepted the Jewish religion, and those Jews 
 . who, through education, travel and res¬ 
 idence, had adopted the language and cus¬ 
 toms of the Greek people. “ Thus the 
 body of Hellenists stood as the connecting 
 link between the exclusive and self-centred 
 Hebrews in Palestine and the outer world 
 of civilized heathendom: and in so far were 
 the means of educating the former in higher 
 literary and artistic tastes, in broader and 
 more generous sympathies, and generally 
 in that idea of a Universal Church which 
 was eventually to spring from their midst.” 
 Many of the first converts at Jerusalem 
 were Hellenists (Acts vi.), as was also 
 Saul of Tarsus. 
 
 Helvetic Confessions. (1) First Helvetic 
 Confession. —This was framed by a conven¬ 
 tion of delegates which began its sessions 
 at Basel, Jan. 30, 1536. The Confession 
 was first drawn up in Latin and translated 
 into German, and adopted as a standard of 
 doctrine in March, 1536, 
 
 (2) The Second Helvetic Confession was 
 
 written by Bullinger. The first Confession 
 did not give general satisfaction, because 
 it was thought to lean too much to Luther¬ 
 an views. By the year 1578 the revised 
 Confession had received the sanction of 
 the Swiss Cantons, and had been approved 
 by the Reformed Churches of Poland, 
 Hungary, Scotland, and France. 
 
 Helvetic Consensus. The severe form 
 in which the doctrine of absolute election 
 was stated by the Synod of Dort (1618-19) 
 produced a reaction in France, where the 
 Protestants were surrounded by Roman 
 Catholics. The liberal views of Amyraut 
 and other French divines found much fa¬ 
 vor both in France and Switzerland. In 
 the latter country there was aroused an 
 active opposition, however, that resulted 
 in the establishment of a formula obliga¬ 
 tory upon all teachers and ministers. It 
 consists of a preface and twenty-six can¬ 
 ons, and gives a clear statement of the dif¬ 
 ference between strict Calvinism and the 
 French school at Saumur. The formula 
 never gained authority outside of Switzer¬ 
 land, and it has finally fallen into entire 
 disuse. 
 
 Henderson, Alexander, a celebrated 
 minister of the Church of Scotland; b. in 
 Fifeshire, in 1583; d. in Edinburgh, Aug. 
 19, 1646. After graduating from St. An¬ 
 drews (1599), he taught philosophy in that 
 university until 1612, when he was settled 
 over the church at Leuchars. His settle¬ 
 ment met with great opposition. Within 
 a short time, through the influence of a 
 sermon of Robert Bruce, he gave up Epis¬ 
 copacy for Presbytery. He was summoned 
 before the High Commission, but dis¬ 
 missed with severe admonitions. His 
 people very soon esteemed him highly 
 and the eighteen years spent at Leuchars 
 were of great profit to them. He took a 
 very prominent part in the opposition that 
 was aroused against the efforts of Charles 
 I. and Laud to impose books of ecclesias¬ 
 tical order, ordination, and Common Pray¬ 
 er upon the Scottish Church. The Remon¬ 
 strance of the Nobility , etc., was from his 
 pen. In 1640 he was appointed rector of 
 Edinburgh University, and from this time 
 on was leader of the Covenanters. He 
 was prominent in the Westminster Assem¬ 
 bly, and sought to reconcile the King and 
 Parliament. His last service was a dis¬ 
 cussion with Charles regarding the abol¬ 
 ishment of prelacy in England. Worn out 
 with his labors, he returned to Edinburgh 
 from his visit to the king at Newcastle, 
 and died eight days afterward. See his 
 Life, by McCrie: Miscellaneous Writings , 
 
Hen 
 
 ( 404 ) 
 
 Hen 
 
 
 and Life and Times , by Aiton (Edinburgh, 
 1836). 
 
 Henderson, Ebenezer, an eminent mis¬ 
 sionary and biblical scholar; b. at Dunferm¬ 
 line, Scotland, Nov. 17, 1784; d. at Mort- 
 lake, Surrey, May 16, 1858. Before 
 
 completing his theological studies he de¬ 
 termined to enter upon missionary service, 
 and proposed to go to India. Difficulties 
 arose that led him with his companion, 
 Mr. Patterson, to go to Denmark, and from 
 this time, for twenty years, he labored in 
 the north of Europe. He was sent to Ice¬ 
 land in 1814 by the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and to Russia in 1819. In 
 1826 he was appointed President of the 
 Missionary College at Hoxton, and in 1830 
 professor of theology and biblical litera¬ 
 ture at Highbury College. He was famil¬ 
 iar with a large number of languages, and 
 hi« reputation as a biblical critic was equal 
 to any man of his time in Great Britain. 
 See his Life , by T. S. Henderson (London, 
 
 1859). 
 
 Hendrix, Eugene Russell, D. D. (Emory 
 College, Oxford, Ga., 1878), LL. D. (Uni¬ 
 versity of Missouri and University of 
 North Carolina, both in 1888), Methodist 
 Episcopal Church South; b. at Fayette, Mo., 
 May 17, 1847; was graduated at Wesleyan 
 University, Middletown, Conn., 1867, and 
 at Union Theological Seminary, New York 
 City, 1869; in the pastorate from 1869 to 
 1878; president of Central College, Fayette, 
 Mo., 1878-86; bishop, 1886. He is the au¬ 
 thor of Around The World (Nashville, 
 Tenn., 1878, 5th ed., 1882). 
 
 Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm, an emi¬ 
 nent Lutheran leader and theologian; b. at 
 Frondenberg, Oct. 20, 1802; d. in Berlin, 
 May 28, 1869. His early education was 
 under the care of his father, a minister of 
 the Reformed Church, and principal of a 
 Young Ladies’ Institute. Entering the 
 university at Bonn in 1819, he won distinc¬ 
 tion as a scholar. While a tutor at Basel, 
 the discipline of sorrow and ill-health di¬ 
 rected his attention to the spiritual revela¬ 
 tion of the Bible. He became an earnest 
 advocate of orthodox faith, as found in the 
 Augsburg Confession. He joined the 
 faculty of Berlin in 1824, and became pro¬ 
 fessor extraordinarius in theology in 1826, 
 and two years later full professor. He 
 founded the Evangelical Church Journal , 
 which he edited for forty-two years. He 
 opposed the rationalists with intense zeal 
 and earnestness, and exerted a deep in¬ 
 fluence over his pupils. Among his works 
 are: Commentaries on many books of the 
 Bible, and treatises— Concerning the Relation 
 
 of the Inner Word to the Outer , and Concern¬ 
 ing Pietism , Mysticism , and Separatism. 
 See English translations in Clark's Theo¬ 
 logical Library. 
 
 Henot'ikon, a compromise or “ instru¬ 
 ment of union,” drawn up by Acacius, pa¬ 
 triarch of Constantinople, and issued by 
 the -Emperor Zeno in 482. Its purpose 
 was to bring about a reconciliation between 
 the Monophysites (<7. v. )and the Orthodox. 
 Neither party was satisfied with its terms. 
 In the East it was made obligatory on all 
 bishops and teachers. In the West it was 
 anathematized by Felix II., and under Jus¬ 
 tin it fell into disuse without being formally 
 repealed. 
 
 Henry IV. (1553-1610), king of France,, 
 was born in the castle of Pau in 1553. His 
 mother, a noble Christian woman, brought 
 him up as a Calvirtist. He was in Paris at 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but his 
 life was spared on his making a profession 
 of Catholicism. He escaped from the 
 court in 1575, and from this time became 
 the acknowledged leader of the Hugue¬ 
 nots. After the death of Henry III. he 
 was recognized as king of France by a 
 portion of the army. In order to gain the 
 support of the Roman Catholics he again 
 abjured the Protestant faith and entered 
 the Roman Church. From this time on„ 
 while favoring Roman Catholics at home, 
 his foreign policy was so evidently favor¬ 
 able to the Protestants that the opposing 
 party saw that their only hope was in his 
 death. He was assassinated at Paris by 
 Francis Ravaillac, a former Jesuit. 
 
 Henry VIII., of England. See Eng¬ 
 land, Church of. 
 
 Henry, Matthew, an eminent Noncon¬ 
 formist divine and commentator; b. Oct. 28, 
 1662, at Broad Oak, Flintshire; d. June 22, 
 1714, at Nantwich. He first began the 
 study of law, but following the desire of 
 his heart, he entered the ministry in 16S7 
 and became pastor of a dissenting church 
 in Chester, where he remained until 1712, 
 when he accepted a call to Hackney, and 
 died the week following his settlement 
 there. His fame rests upon his well-known 
 Exposition of the Old and New Testaments. 
 As a devotional commentary it has long 
 held a foremost place, and has had a wide 
 circulation. Among his other works are: 
 Scripture Catechism ; Inquiry into the Nat¬ 
 ure of Schism, and Sermons. His Miscella¬ 
 neous Works, in 2 vols., were published in 
 New York, 1855. This contains a memoir^ 
 
 Henry, Philip, father of Matthew Hen- 
 
Her 
 
 ( 405 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 ry, was b. in 1631; d. in 1696. He was 
 graduated at Oxford, and in 1659 was pre¬ 
 sented with the living of Worthenbury. 
 He refused to assent to the Act of Uni¬ 
 formity, and gave up his parish, making 
 his home for the most part at Broad Oak, 
 where he died. “ He was a man of re¬ 
 markable purity of life and consistent con¬ 
 duct, of piety and humility.” Bishop 
 Words worth says he “ could nowhere find 
 Nonconformity united with more Christian 
 graces than in him.” His Memoir , written 
 by his son, was published in the latter’s 
 Miscellaneous Works (N. Y., 1855, 2 vols.), 
 and separately by the Tract Society, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Herac'leon. See Gnostics. 
 
 Herbert, George, a quaint and reverent 
 poet, whose life was so exemplary that he 
 was known as the “ holy George Her¬ 
 bert ;” b. at Montgomery, Wales, April 3, 
 1 593 i d* at Bemerton, Eng., in 1633. He 
 was educated at Cambridge, and in 1626 
 was made prebendary of Layton, and in 
 1630 rector of Bemerton. His fame rests 
 upon his poems: The Temple: Sacred Foetus 
 and Private Ejaculations (Cambridge, 1631). 
 Coleridge edited his complete works (Lon¬ 
 don, 1846). 
 
 Herd, Herdsman. A chief part of the 
 wealth of the Hebrews was in herds and 
 flocks. The position of herdsman was 
 honorable, and they often held high office 
 in the State. (1 Sam. xxi. 7; 1 Chron. xxvii. 
 29.) The prophet Amos was a herdsman 
 of Tekoah. (Amos i. 1.) 
 
 Herder, Johann Gottfried, a German 
 theologian and preacher; b. 1744; d. at 
 Weimar, 1803. He was educated at Konigs- 
 berg. In 1767 he began to preach in Riga, 
 where, since 1764, he had taught in the 
 cathedral school. He attracted large audi¬ 
 ences, and also won reputation as a writer. 
 In 1771 he was appointed court-preacher and 
 superintendent at Biickeburg. While here 
 he published the theological works, “which 
 made a deep impression, and established it 
 as an axiom in biblical exegesis, that the 
 Bible is not simply a doctrinal code, a dog¬ 
 matical system, but a whole literature, 
 which must be viewed in the light of its 
 time, its place, and its historical surround¬ 
 ings, in order to be fully understood.”— 
 ( Werner in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. ,vol. ii., p. 
 974.) In 1776 Herder became court- 
 preacher at Weimar, where he continued to 
 write important philosophical and theolog¬ 
 ical works. His Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 
 and his Ideas towards a Philosophy of the His¬ 
 tory of Mankind, are those best known. An 
 
 edition of his works was published .in Ber¬ 
 lin (1877), 3 2 vols. 
 
 Hereford Cathedral, situated in the town 
 of Hereford, on the left bank of the Wye, 
 was founded 825, rebuilt, 1030, burned by 
 the Welsh, 1055, again rebuilt, 1079-1115. 
 The great western tower fell, 1786. The 
 cathedral is three hundred and forty-two 
 feet long. There have been two modern 
 restorations—1842 and 1863. The income 
 of the see of Hereford is ^4,200. 
 
 Heresy (Gr. haircsis, choice) signifies 
 a personal choice of opinions contrary to 
 the general teaching of the Church and the 
 Holy Scriptures. It is universally agreed 
 that the fact of holding an erroneous opin¬ 
 ion does not make a man a heretic: he may 
 have been brought up in it, and not dis¬ 
 cerned his error, or may hold it in invinci¬ 
 ble ignorance. That heresies of a funda¬ 
 mental character, because subversive of 
 Christian truth, and therefore necessarily 
 of Christian morals, have existed in the. 
 Church from the beginning, we have Script¬ 
 ural evidence to show. In the days of the 
 apostles there were the Judaizers, who 
 denied the sufficiency of the Gospel; the 
 Nicolaitans (Rev. ii.), Hymenceus and Phile- 
 tusiy Tim. ii. 17), Simon Magus, Cerinthus. 
 The tenets of the principal heresiarchs who 
 have denied the orthodox faith will be 
 found under their respective names. But 
 the following table will be found useful as 
 a general classification of the principal 
 points concerning which men have departed 
 from cardinal doctrines of the Catholic 
 faith: 
 
 I. —Regarding the Creation, and the Origin of 
 
 Evil. 
 
 The Gnostics and the Manichaeans denied that God 
 was maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things vis¬ 
 ible and invisible; affirming that matter is eternal and 
 evil in its own nature. 
 
 II. — Regarding the Trinity. (See Ath. Creed, 
 
 v. 3-28.) 
 
 The Montanists denied the Trinity in Unity, and Di¬ 
 vided the Substance, affirming th & separate personality 
 of the Son, and regarding Montanus himself as a Para¬ 
 clete. They were charged with Tritheism , i. e., hold¬ 
 ing the Trinity, but denying the Unity. 
 
 The Psilanthropist Monarchians (Theodotus, Arte- 
 mon, Paul of Samosata), with the Ebionites, Carpo- 
 cratians, and the Arians, denied by implication the 
 Unity in Trinity, affirming that God the Father is the 
 only God without the distinction of persons; thus hold¬ 
 ing the Unity, but denying the Trinity. 
 
 The Macedonians excluded the Holy Ghost from the 
 Godhead, and so denied the Trinity, though they ac¬ 
 knowledged the Father and the Son. 
 
 The Patripassian Monarchians (Praxeas, Sabellius, 
 Noetus), with the Photinians, agreed with the Psilan¬ 
 thropist Monarchians in rejecting the distinction of Per¬ 
 sons in the Godhead. They denied that there is One 
 Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another 
 of the Holy Ghost, and confounded the Persons; 
 affirming that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are only 
 manifestations of one and the same Person, performing 
 different functions as Creator, Redeemer, and Inspirer. 
 

 Her 
 
 ( 406 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 III.— Regarding the Person of Christ. (See Ath. 
 
 Creed, v. 29-48.) 
 
 (a) The Divine Nature. 
 
 Arius denied that Christ was begotten of His Father 
 before all Worlds; that He is Very God of Very God, 
 of one substance with the Father; that the Godhead of 
 the Son and of the Holy Ghost are one, their glory 
 equal, their majesty co-eternal with the Godhead, the 
 Glory and the Majesty of the Father; and that the Son 
 and Holy Ghost are uncreate, eternal, and almighty. 
 He affirmed that Christ was made out of nothing by the 
 Father, and was only the highest of created beings. 
 (Council of Nicaea, a. d. 325.) 
 
 The Semi-Arians also denied the co-equal and co¬ 
 eternal Godhead of Christ; but they allowed that he 
 is, in a sense, of one nature with the Father, affirming 
 that “ the Son is like the Father in all things, accord¬ 
 ing to the Scriptures (Synod of Rimini, a. d. 359.) 
 
 The Acacians went beyond Arius, and affirmed that 
 “the nature of Christ is different from that of the 
 Father .” 
 
 The Aetians went beyond the Acacians, and affirmed 
 that “ Christ is unlike the Father both in Nature 
 and Will." (Synod of Antioch, a. d. 361.) 
 
 The Psilanthropist Monarchians, with the Ebionites 
 and Carpocratians, denied that Christ was anything 
 more than man. 
 
 (b) The Human Nature. 
 
 Valentinus denied that Christ partook of the Nature 
 of the Virgin, i. e., that he was Incarnate of the Virgin 
 Mary and Man of the substance of his mother. 
 
 Tatian denied that Christ was Perfect Man, affirming 
 that his body was of peculiar, heavenly texture, and 
 not a real human body. 
 
 Mani, and all others who were Docetae, in like man¬ 
 ner denied that Christ is Perfect Man. 
 
Her 
 
 ( 407 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 Apollinaris denied that Christ is Perfect Man, of a 
 reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting, affirming 
 that the human nature in Christ has not the reasonable 
 human soul. As Arius denied that he is of the same 
 nature with God, Apollinaris denied that he is of the 
 same nature with man. 
 
 The Monophvsites, who said that Christ had but one 
 nature, and the Monothelites, who said that he has but 
 one will, though they admitted the original perfection 
 of Christ’s human nature, denied its present perfection. 
 
 (c) The Union of the Two Natures. 
 
 Cerinthus and Basilides denied the perfect and eternal 
 union, affirming that Christ the Son ofthe Father dwelt 
 in the Man Jesus only from the Baptism till the Cruci¬ 
 fixion. 
 
 Nestorius (or his followers in his name) denied the 
 Unity of Person in Christ, and made him out to be two, 
 not one Christ. He not only distinguished the natures, 
 but divided them. (Council of Ephesus, a. d. 430.) 
 
 Eutyches and his followers, the Monophysites and 
 Jacobites, denied that Christ now exists in two whole 
 and perfect natures, though they admitted that he was 
 originally of them, in which they differed from Apol¬ 
 linaris. They regarded Christ as one altogether, by 
 confusion of substance, and did not distinguish the nat¬ 
 ures. (Council of Chalcedon, a. d. 451.) Nestorius 
 divided the Natures, Eutyches confounded them; 
 whereas the Catholic doctrine is that we ought to dis¬ 
 tinguish but not to divide them. 
 
 IV.—Regarding the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Arius had, by implication, denied that the Holy 
 Ghost is Lord, when he denied that the Son is Lord. 
 
 The Macedonians denied the Godhead of the Holy 
 Ghost, i. e., that he is the Lord, and the Giver of Life; 
 but some of them also denied his Personality, affirming 
 that the name Holy Ghost denotes no more than an in¬ 
 fluence proceeding from the Father. (Council of Con¬ 
 stantinople, A. D. 381.) 
 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. See Church 
 Histories; Lardner: History of the Heretics 
 of the First Two Centuries (London, 1780). 
 
 Hermas, the name of a book known 
 under the general name of The Shepherd ; 
 held in high esteem by the early Church 
 and quoted by Irenseus, Clement of Alex¬ 
 andria, Origen, etc. There is little doubt 
 but that it was the work of a writer named 
 Hermas, the brother of Bishop Pius (139- 
 154). Uhlhorn (Schaff-Herzog: Fncy.,\ ol. 
 ii., p. 977) says of its contents: ‘ The book 
 contains a number of visions, according to 
 Hermas. Their intent is to arouse Her¬ 
 mas, and the Church through him, to repent¬ 
 ance. The time of repentance is limited, 
 and will soon be at an end. The uniform¬ 
 ity of style stamps the whole as one com¬ 
 position. The author divides the book 
 into two parts: an aged woman explaining 
 the visions of the first part, an angel those 
 of the second. The visions contain revela¬ 
 tions, commandments (to believe in the 
 one God, practice alms, avoid falsehood 
 and fornication, etc.), and similitudes. 
 Hermas was neither a Judaizing Christian, 
 nor an intense Paulinian, but a member of 
 the orthodox Church of his day.” Dean 
 Stanley calls the book “ the Pilgrim’s Prog¬ 
 ress of the Church of the second century.” 
 See trans. of Hermas in Am. ed. of The 
 Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1890). 
 
 Hermeneutics was formerly used in dis¬ 
 tinction from Exegesis, as the science of a 
 subject is distinguished from its practical 
 application, but the two terms are now em¬ 
 ployed interchangeably. See Exegesis. 
 
 Hermog'enes, a heretic who lived near 
 the close of the second century. He was 
 a painter by profession. He held that 
 matter, in itself evil, was eternal. Tertul- 
 lian wrote a treatise against his views. 
 In all other respects Hermogenes was 
 sound in the faith, and he put forward his 
 theory of the eternity of matter to recon¬ 
 cile the goodness of God with the existence 
 of evil. 
 
 Her'mon, the southern and highest point 
 of the Anti-Lebanon range. It is forty 
 miles northeast of the sea of Galilee, and 
 about 11,000 feet above the valley of the 
 Jordan. The snow on the summit of the 
 mountain condenses the vapors that float 
 above it in the summer, and from these 
 clouds abundant dews descend, while 
 the surrounding country is parched, and 
 the skies cloudless. There are many rea¬ 
 sons for the supposition that it was the 
 scene of the Transfiguration. 
 
 Her'od, “the name of a family which 
 rose to power in Judea during the period 
 which immediately preceded the complete 
 destruction of the Jewish nationality. The 
 family was of Idumean descent; but, 
 though alien in blood, was Jewish in relig¬ 
 ion, the Idumeans having been conquered 
 and converted to Judaism by John Hyr- 
 canus, 130 B. c. The most remarkable 
 rulers of the name are four in number— 
 Herod the Great,Herod Antipas, and Herod 
 Agrippa I. and II. (fpr the last two, see 
 Agrippa). (i) Herod the Great. He was 
 the second son of Antipater, who was ap¬ 
 pointed procurator of Judea by Julius 
 Caesar, 47 b. c. At the time of his father’s 
 elevation, Herod, though only fifteen years 
 of age, was made governor of Galilee, and 
 afterward of Coele-Syria; and finally he 
 and his elder brother were made joint- 
 tetrarchs of Judea; but he was soon dis¬ 
 placed by Antigonus, the representative of 
 the Asmonean dynasty, and forced to flee 
 to Rome, where he obtained, through the 
 patronage of Antony, a full recognition of 
 his claims, together with the title of King 
 of Judea, 40 b. C. Several years elapsed, 
 however, before he succeeded in establish¬ 
 ing himself in Jerusalem. On the fall of 
 Antony, he managed to secure a continu¬ 
 ance of favor from Augustus, from whom 
 he not only obtained a confirmation of his 
 title to the kingdom, but also a considerable 
 accession of territory, 31 b. c. From this 
 
Her 
 
 ( 408 ) 
 
 Her 
 
 time till his death his reign was undis¬ 
 turbed by foreign war; but it was stained 
 with cruelties and atrocities of a character 
 almost without parallel in history. Every 
 member of the Asmonean family, and even 
 those of his own blood, fell in succession, 
 a sacrifice to his jealous fears; and in the 
 latter years of his life, the lightest shade 
 of suspicion sufficed as the ground for his 
 wholesale butcheries, which are related in 
 detail by Josephus. Of these, the one with 
 which we are best acquainted is the 
 slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem. The 
 one eminent quality by which Herod was 
 distinguished was his love of magnificence 
 in architecture, and the grandeur of the 
 public works executed under his direction. 
 
 Even by these, however, he alienated the 
 Jews, who ascribed them all to his Gentile 
 leanings, and to a covert design of sub¬ 
 verting the national religion. Herod mar¬ 
 ried no fewer than ten wives, by whom he 
 had fourteen children. He died of a loath¬ 
 some disease at the age of seventy, after a 
 reign of thirty-seven years. (2) Herod 
 Antipas , son of Herod the Great by his 
 wife Malthace, a Samaritan, was originally 
 designed by his father as his successor; 
 but, by the final arrangements of the will 
 of Herod the Great, Antipas was named 
 tetrarch of Galilee and Perea. He divorced 
 his first wife, the daughter of Aretas, king 
 of Arabia Petrea, in order to marry Hero- 
 dias, the wife of his half-brother Philip— 
 
 FAMILY OF THE HERODS. 
 
 (From Lewin’s Life and Epistles of Saint Paul.) 
 
 Antipater, of Idumcea. 
 m. Cypros. 
 d. b. c. 48. 
 
 I 
 
 tire 
 
 Phasael. HEROD the GREAT. Joseph. 
 (“ Herod the king,” Matt. ii. 1.) 
 d. b. c. 4. 
 
 jnarried. 
 
 Pheroras. Salome. 
 
 d. A. D. 10 . 
 
 Doris. MARIAMNE, 
 dau. of Alexander 
 the Asmoncean. 
 Antipater. 
 d. B. c. 4* 
 
 Pal 
 
 as. Phaedra. 
 
 Mariamne, Malthace. 
 dau. of Simon, d. B. C. 4. 
 
 Cleopatra. Elpis. 
 
 Phasael. Roxana. 
 
 Philip. 
 
 (Matt. xiv. 3.) 
 m. Herodias. 
 
 Salome. 
 (Matt. xiv. 6.) 
 
 7 K. I. Herod-Philip. 
 2. Aristobulus. 
 
 I I I II 
 
 Aristobulus. Alexander. Herod. Salampso. Cypros. 
 m. Bernice, m. Glaphyra. 
 d. b. c. 6. d. B. c. 6. 
 
 HEROD-PHILIP, 
 Tetrarch of Trachonitis. 
 (” Philip,” Luke iii. 1.) 
 ?n. Salome. 
 d, A. D. 33. 
 
 Tigranes. Alexander. 
 
 I 
 
 1 lgranes, 
 
 K. of Armenia. 
 
 Alexander, 
 
 K. of Cilicia. 
 
 ARCHELAUS, 
 Ethnarch of Judaea. 
 (Matt. ii. 22.) 
 Deposed A. D. 6. 
 
 ANTIPAS, 
 Tetrarch of Galilee. 
 (“ Herod the Tetrarch,’ 
 Matt. xiv. 3.) 
 m. 1. dau. of Aretas. 
 
 2. Herodias. 
 Deposed a. d. 40. 
 
 Olympia. 
 
 AGRIPPA I., 
 
 K. of Judaea. 
 (“Herod the King,” 
 Acts xii.) m. 
 m. Cypros, 
 dau. of Salampso. 
 
 Herod, Aristobulus. 
 
 K. of Chalcis. nt. Jotape. 
 
 d. a . D. 48. 
 
 1. Mariamne. 2. Bernice. 
 
 d. A. D, 
 
 Herodias. 
 (Matt. xiv. 3.) 
 m. 1. Philip. 
 2. Antipas. 
 
 Mariamne. 
 m. Antipater, 
 
 44. 
 
 I. 
 
 Aristobulus. Bernice. Hyrcanus. 
 
 Drusus. AGRIPPA II., 
 
 K. of Trachonitis. 
 (" King Agrippa,” 
 Acts xxv.) 
 d. A. D. 99. 
 Last of the Herods 
 
 I. 
 
 Bernice. 
 
 (Acts xxv. 13.) 
 m. 1. Marcus. 
 
 2. Herod of Chalcis. 
 
 3. Polemo. 
 
 m 
 
 Mariamne. 
 
 , 1. Archelaus. 
 2. Demetrius. 
 
 Drusilla. 
 (Acts xxiv. 24.) 
 m. 1. Azizus. 
 
 2. Felix. 
 
 I 
 
 Agrippa. 
 
Her 
 
 ( 409 ) 
 
 Hew 
 
 an incestuous connection, against which 
 John the Baptist remonstrated, and was, in 
 consequence, put to death. It was during 
 a visit of Herod Antipas to Jerusalem for 
 the purpose of celebrating the passover that 
 our Lord, as having been a resident of his 
 tetrarchate, was sent before him by Pilate 
 for examination. At a later time he made 
 a journey to Rome, in the hope of obtain¬ 
 ing the title of king; but he not only failed 
 in this design, but, through the intrigues 
 of Herod Agrippa, was banished to Lug- 
 dunum (Lyons), where he died in exile.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopedia. The main source of 
 historical information regarding the Hero- 
 dian family is Josephus. 
 
 Hero'dians, a political party among the 
 Tews, who favored the Roman government. 
 They united with the Pharisees in seeking 
 to destroy Christ. (Matt. xxii. 16; Mark 
 iii. 6; xii. 13.) 
 
 Hero'dias, the granddaughter of Herod 
 the Great. She married her uncle Herod 
 Philip, and afterward lived, during her 
 first husband’s lifetime, with his brother, 
 Herod Antipas. It was this criminal con¬ 
 nection that John the Baptist denounced at 
 the cost of his life. (Matt. xiv. 3-10.) 
 After the banishment of Antipas to Lyons 
 Herodias followed him into exile. 
 
 Herrnhut, a town in Saxony, some fifty 
 miles from Dresden, founded by Zinzen- 
 dorf, in 1722, for the Moravian Brethren, 
 who are sometimes called Herrnhutters. 
 See Moravians. 
 
 Hervey, James, in his time a very popu¬ 
 lar religious writer; b. near Northampton, 
 Feb. 26, 1714; d. at Weston-Favell, Dec. 
 25, 1758, where he had been rector since 
 1750. He was a college friend of Wesley 
 at Oxford, and for a while sympathized 
 with him, but finally adopted Calvinistic 
 views. Of his volumes he is remembered 
 now mostly from the singular title of one 
 of them, Meditations among the Tombs. 
 An edition of his works, with memoir, was 
 published in London (1797), 7 vols. 
 
 Herzog, Johann Jacob, D. D., b. at Ba¬ 
 sel, Sept. 12, 1805; d. at Erlangen, Sept. 
 30, 1882. Educated at Basel and Berlin, in 
 1830 he became a licentiate in theology, and 
 in 1838 was appointed professor of histor¬ 
 ical theology at Lausanne, where he re¬ 
 mained until 1845. In 1847 he became 
 professor of church history at Halle, and 
 from there, in 1854, went to Erlangen, 
 where he lectured as professor of theology 
 until 1877, when he was retired upon a 
 pension. Dr. Herzog published several 
 
 important volumes,but his fame rests upon 
 his editorship of the Real-Encyklopadie fur 
 Protestantische Theologie u. Kirche. This 
 storehouse of religious knowledge has be¬ 
 come well known in this country through 
 the Religious Encyclopedia , edited by Dr. 
 Philip Schaff (New York, 1884, 2d ed., 
 1887), 3 vols., which is based upon the 
 great work of Dr. Herzog. 
 
 Hesychasts (Gr. hesychia , stillness), a 
 sect of Greek Quietists, or mystics, that 
 flourished in the monastery of Mount 
 Athos in the fourteenth century. “ They 
 believed that all perfection lay in contem¬ 
 plation, and in the elevation and abstrac¬ 
 tion which were the result. They also held 
 that there is Divine light hidden in the 
 soul, the same as that which encircled the 
 Saviour on Mount Tabor, and capable of 
 being communicated; and, therefore, retir¬ 
 ing into a dark cell, fixed their eyes on 
 their navels until, as they imagined, the 
 light beamed forth.”—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. Their chief opponent was Bar- 
 laam (y. v. ); but after a fierce conflict, 
 which was carried on through several syn¬ 
 ods, the Hesychasts were triumphant, but 
 died out in a short time. 
 
 Heusser, Mrs. Meta, a popular German 
 hymn and song writer; b. 1797; d. 1876. 
 She was the daughter of a Swiss pastor, 
 and spent her life at Hirzel, a beautiful 
 village in sight of Mount Righi and the 
 Lake of Lucerne. Her husband was an 
 eminent physician, and the care of a large 
 household was laid upon her; but she 
 found time to indulge her love for song 
 and poetry in words that she gave to the 
 world only after earnest solicitations. 
 Koch, in his History of Ger?nan Hym- 
 nology , ©alls her “ the most eminent and 
 noble among all the female poets of the 
 whole Evangelical Church. Her poems flow 
 freely from the fresh fountain of a heart 
 in constant, holy communion with God.” 
 
 Hewit, Nathaniel, prominent in the 
 temperance agitations in the early part of 
 this century; b. at New London, Conn., 
 Aug. 28, 1788; d. at Bridgeport, Conn., 
 Feb. 7, 1867. He was graduated at 
 Yale College in 1808, and, after serving as ' 
 pastor at Plattsburg, N. Y., and Fairfield, 
 Conn., he acted as agent of the American 
 Temperance Society. In 1830 he was call¬ 
 ed to the pastorate of the Second Congre¬ 
 gational Church, Bridgeport. Owing to 
 theological differences of opinion, that 
 brought him into opposition to prominent 
 ministers in the Congregational order, he 
 became pastor of a Presbyterian church, 
 formed by members of his old parish. 
 
 \ 
 
Hey 
 
 ( 4io ) 
 
 Hie 
 
 Heylyn, Peter, church historian; b. at 
 Burford, near Oxford, 1600; d. in London, 
 1662. He studied at Oxford, where he 
 gave lectures on history and geography. 
 An upholder of Laud, he was appointed 
 chaplain to Charles I. in 1629, who made 
 him prebend, and afterward subdean of 
 Westminster, and gave him several liv¬ 
 ings. These he lost at the Restoration, 
 and he again became subdean of West¬ 
 minster. He was a voluminous writer, 
 and in his controversial works he attacked 
 the Presbyterians with great bitterness. 
 The most important of these is the Aerius 
 Redivivus; or, History of the Presbyterians , 
 containing the Beginnings and Successes of 
 that Active Sect , their Opposition to Monarch¬ 
 ical and Episcopal Government, etc. (from 
 1536 to 1647). One of his best works is, 
 Eccles. Restaurata: The History of the Ref¬ 
 ormation of the Church of England (from 
 Edward VI. to 1566). 
 
 Hezeki'ah ( strength of Jehovali), a pious 
 king of Judah, the son and successor of 
 the apostate Ahaz. He ascended the 
 throne about 426 B. C., and died 698 B. C. 
 He abolished idol worship, and broke in 
 pieces the brazen serpent of Moses, which 
 the people superstitiously worshiped. (2 
 Kings xviii.) The temple was repaired 
 during his reign, and the Passover cel¬ 
 ebrated with great solemnity. (2 Chron. 
 xxix; xxx.) In his wars with the Philis¬ 
 tines he regained what his father had lost, 
 and he rebelled against Assyria. (2 Kings 
 xviii. 7, 8.) When Sennacherib invaded 
 his kingdom, Isaiah assured him of the 
 divine assistance, and the Assyrian host 
 was defeated and put to flight. (2 Kings 
 
 xix. 6-35; Isa. xxxvii.) In answer to 
 prayer, his life was prolonged. (2 Kings 
 
 xx. 1-10.) The ostentatious display of 
 his wealth to the ambassadors of the Baby¬ 
 lonian king brought upon him the divine 
 displeasure. (2 Kings xx. 17.) He collected 
 some of the Proverbs of Solomon. (Prov. 
 xxv. 1.) 
 
 Hicks, Elias, a prominent leader of the 
 society of Friends: b. at Hempstead, L. I., 
 March 19, 1748; d. in Jericho, L. I., Feb. 
 27, 1830. Without the advantages of edu¬ 
 cation, at the age of twenty-seven he began 
 his career as a minister among the Friends. 
 It was, to a large extent, through his in¬ 
 fluence that the more liberal element of the 
 society of Friends, in the Yearly Meeting 
 at Philadelphia in 1827, seceded from the 
 more conservative party, and were known 
 as Hicksites. He published: Observations 
 on Slavery (N. Y., 1811); Journal of Relig¬ 
 ious Life and Labors (N. Y., 1832). See art. 
 Friends. 
 
 Hicksites. See Hicks and Friends. 
 
 Hid'dekel. See Tigris. 
 
 Hierap'olis, a city of Phrygia. It is men¬ 
 tioned but once in the Bible. (Col. iv. 13.) It 
 was the seat of a council, held in 173 under 
 the presidency of Apollinarius, which con¬ 
 demned the Cataphryges, a Montanist sect. 
 
 Hierarchy, a term ** most commonly used 
 in ecclesiastical language to denote the ag¬ 
 gregate of those persons who exercise 
 authority within some branches of the 
 Christian Church—the patriarchate,episco¬ 
 pate, or entire threefold order of the clergy. 
 Thus in form of government the Roman 
 Church may be said to be a hierarchical 
 monarchy, the Greek in some sense a patri¬ 
 archal oligarchy, and the Anglican an 
 episcopal aristocracy.” 
 
 Hieroglyphics, “one of the earliest modes 
 of representing visibly the words or ideas 
 already orally expressed. For many cen¬ 
 turies the key to these representations was 
 altogether unknown; but a piece of granite 
 found near Rosetta by the French army in 
 1798, and now in the British Museum, con¬ 
 tains a decree in honor of Ptolemy Epiph- 
 anes (204 B. C.), written in hieroglyphics, 
 with a Greek translation alongside. Also 
 the shaft of an obelisk brought to England 
 from Philse in the S. of Egypt contains a 
 hieroglyphic inscription of its dedication to 
 the gods by Ptolemy Physcon and Cleo¬ 
 patra (146 B. C.), and at the base a Greek 
 inscription. Champollion, by comparing 
 the Greek names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, 
 with the hieroglyphics corresponding, 
 made out letter by letter. Young and others * 
 have perfected the transcription of Hebrew 
 and the Egyptian hieroglyphic. Thus the 
 derivation from Egyptian of many of the 
 Hebraized words in Exodus is proved, con¬ 
 firming its having been written by one in 
 such circumstances as Moses was. The 
 hieroglyphics originally were picture writ¬ 
 ing, but in the form handed down to us on 
 oldest monuments they are phonetic, with 
 occasionally an accompanying picture of 
 the object, in order to make the group of 
 hieroglyphic letters which form the word 
 more intelligible. Thus to the names of 
 individuals the figure of a man is attached; 
 such characters are called deter?ninatives. 
 The initial of the Egyptian (^ 4 hom) for 
 eagle is A, so an eagle became the repre¬ 
 sentative of A; a lion (Egyptian Zabo) is 
 L; an owl (iJ/owlad), M, etc.”—Fausset : 
 Bible Cyclopedia. See art. by R. S. Poole: 
 Ency. Brit., vol. xi., 794-809, and the great 
 dictionary of Heinrich Brugsch (Leipzig, 
 1867-82), 7 vols. 
 
Hie 
 
 ( 4ii ) 
 
 Hig 
 
 Hieronymus. See Jerome, St. 
 
 High-Church, a name applied to the 
 party, in the Church of England and the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church of America, 
 which lays much stress upon ritual observ¬ 
 ances and the traditions of the fathers. 
 They hold extreme views regarding the 
 apostolic origin of ministerial orders and 
 the nature of the sacraments. 
 
 High Places. “ From the earliest times 
 it was the custom among all nations to erect 
 altars and places of worship on lofty and 
 conspicuous spots. To this general custom 
 we find constant allusion in the Bible (Isa. 
 lxv. 7; Jer. iii. 6; Ez. vi. 13; xviii. 6; Hos. 
 iv. 13), and it is especially attributed to the 
 Moabites. (Isa. xv. 2; xvi. 12; Jer. xlviii. 
 35.) Even Abraham built an altar to the 
 Lord on a mountain near Bethel (Gen. xii. 
 7, 8; cf. xxii. 2-4; xxxi. 54), which shows 
 that the practice was then as innocent as it 
 was natural; and although it afterwards 
 became mingled with idolatrous observ¬ 
 ances (Num. xxiii. 3), it was in itself far 
 less likely to be abused than the consecra¬ 
 tion of groves. (Hos. iv. 13.) It is, how¬ 
 ever, quite obvious that if every grove 
 and eminence had been suffered to become 
 a place for legitimate worship, especially 
 in a country where they had already been 
 defiled with the sins of polytheism, the ut¬ 
 most danger would have resulted to the 
 pure worship of the one true God. It was 
 therefore implicitly forbidden by the law 
 of Moses (Deut. xii. 11-14), which also 
 gave the strictest injunction to destroy 
 these monuments of Canaanitish idolatry 
 (Lev. xxvi. 30; Num. xxxiii. 52; Deut. 
 xxxiii. 29), without stating any general 
 reason for this command, beyond the fact 
 that they had been connected with :.uch as¬ 
 sociations. The command was a prospect¬ 
 ive one, and was not to come into force 
 until such time as the tribes were settled 
 in the promised land. Thus we find that 
 both Gideon and Manoah built altars on 
 high places by Divine command (Judg. vi. 
 25, 26; xiii. 16-23), and it is quite clear 
 from the tone of the book of Judges that 
 the law on the subject was either totally 
 forgotten or practically obsolete. It is 
 more surprising to find this law absolutely 
 ignored at a much later period, when there 
 was no intelligible reason for its violation 
 —as by Samuel at Mizpeh (1 Sam. vii. 10), 
 and at Bethlehem (xvi. 5); by Saul at Gil- 
 gal (xiii. 9) and at Ajalon (? xiv. 35); by 
 David (1 Chron. xxi. 26); by Elijah on 
 Mount Carmel (1 Kings xviii. 30); and by 
 other prophets. (1 Sam. x. 5.) The expla¬ 
 nations which are given are sufficiently un¬ 
 satisfactory; but it is at any rate certain 
 
 that the worship in high places was organ¬ 
 ized and all but universal throughout 
 Judaea, not only during (1 Kings iii. 2-4), 
 but even after, the time of Solomon. The 
 convenience of them was obvious, because, 
 as local centres of religious worship, they 
 obviated the unpleasant and dangerous ne¬ 
 cessity of visiting Jerusalem for the cele¬ 
 bration of the yearly feasts. (2 Kings 
 xxiii. 9.) Many of the pious kings of Judah 
 were either too weak or too ill-informed to 
 repress the worship of Jehovah at these 
 local sanctuaries; while they of course en¬ 
 deavored to prevent it from being contam¬ 
 inated with polytheism. At last Hezekiah 
 set himself in good earnest to the suppres¬ 
 sion of this prevalent corruption (2 Kings 
 xviii. 4, 22), both in Judah and Israel (2 
 Chron. xxxi. 1); although, so rapid was 
 the growth of the evil, that even his sweep¬ 
 ing reformation required to be finally con¬ 
 summated by Josiah (2 Kings xxiii.), and 
 that, too, in Jerusalem and its immediate 
 neighborhood. (2 Chron. xxxiv. 3.) After 
 the time of Josiah we find no further men¬ 
 tion of these Jehovistic high places.”— 
 Smith; Diet . of the Bible. 
 
 High-Priest. “ The high-priest was tne 
 spiritual head and representative of the 
 theocratic people before Jehovah. In him 
 was concentrated the mediatorship between 
 God and the people, and in him the people 
 could draw nigh to God. As in his person 
 the people was represented, his sin-offer¬ 
 ing and that of the congregation, which 
 
Hil 
 
 ( 412 ) 
 
 Hil 
 
 * 
 
 was to be brought for certain sins, as pre¬ 
 scribed in Lev. iv., were the same. His 
 sin was the people’s sin (Lev. iv. 3), and 
 God’s good-will towards the high-priest 
 also belonged to the people. The high- 
 priest was in the midst of a holy people, 
 
 ‘ the saint of the Lord.’ (Psa. cvi. 16.) In 
 him the highest degree of purity had to be 
 found, and only in exceptional cases (Lev. 
 xxi. 1-6) could he defile himself; otherwise 
 he had to avoid everything whereby he 
 could be defiled. He had even to keep 
 away from his dead father or mother (xxi. 
 10-12). His wife was to be a virgin of his 
 own people (xxi. 14). Aaron’s consecra¬ 
 tion to the priesthood was in connection 
 with that of his sons and the priests gen¬ 
 erally. (Exod. xxix.; Lev. viii.) The rit¬ 
 ual commenced by washing Aaron and his 
 sons before the tabernacle of the congre¬ 
 gation. Aaron was then invested with the 
 sacred garments, and anointed with the 
 holy oil, which was prepared according to 
 Exod. xxx. 22-25. Aaron’s successor was 
 not anointed, but received only the high- 
 priest’s garments. Without these gar¬ 
 ments, the high-priest was only a private 
 person, who could not represent the peo¬ 
 ple, and incurred the penalty of death by 
 appearing before Jehovah without them. 
 (Exod. xxviii. 35.) His dress was peculiar, 
 and passed to his successor at his death. 
 The articles of his dress consisted of the 
 following parts: (1) The breeches , or draw¬ 
 ers, of linen, covering the loins and 
 thighs. (2) The coat , a tunic, or long shirt. 
 (3) The girdle , also of linen; these three 
 articles he had in common with the other 
 priests. Over these parts he wore (4) the 
 robe or cphod, being all of blue. The skirt 
 of his robe had a remarkable trimming of 
 pomegranates in blue, red, and crimson, 
 with a bell of gold between each pome¬ 
 granate alternately. The bells were to give 
 a sound when the high-priest went in and 
 came out of the holy place. (Exod. xxviii. 
 35.) Over the robe came (5) the ephod , one 
 part of which covered the back, and the 
 other the front; upon it was placed (6) the 
 breastplate. The covering of the head was 
 (7) the mitre, or upper turban, which was 
 different from (8) the bonnet. The mitre had a 
 gold plate, engraved with “ Holiness to the 
 Lord,” fastened to it by a ribbon of blue. 
 For the functions to be performed annu¬ 
 ally on the day of atonement, dresses of 
 white linen were prescribed. (Lev. xvi. 4.) 
 The office of the Old Testament priesthood 
 was twofold—that of mediatorship, and 
 that of a teacher or messenger of the Lord. 
 (Mai. ii. 7.) The functions of the high- 
 priest were the same as those of the com¬ 
 mon priests. He had oversight over the 
 service of the temple and the temple treas¬ 
 
 ury. (2 Kings xxii. 4 sq.) The succession 
 in the high-priesthood was probably regu¬ 
 lated in the manner of the right of succes¬ 
 sion—that the first son, provided there 
 were no legal difficulties, succeeded his 
 father, and in case he had died already, his 
 oldest son followed. The number of high- 
 priests, from Aaron to Phannias, was, 
 according to Josephus ( Antt ., xx. 10), 
 eighty-three, viz., from Aaron to Solo¬ 
 mon, thirteen; during the temple of Solo¬ 
 mon, eighteen; and fifty-two in the time 
 of the second temple. Aaron was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Eleazar (Num. xx. 28), who was 
 followed by Phinehas. (Judg. xx. 28.) Who 
 the successors of Phinehas were till the 
 time of Eli, we do not know. To enter into 
 the different theories of who they were, or 
 were not, is not our object. From Shal- 
 lum, the father of Hilkiah, the high-priest 
 in Josiah’s reign, we can again follow up 
 the succession of high-priests. According 
 to Josephus, Hilkiah was followed by 
 Seraiah, who was killed by Nebuchadnezzar 
 at Riblah. (2 Kings xxv. 18 sq.). His son 
 was Jehozadak, who went into the captivity 
 (1 Chron. v. 41; A. V., vi. 15), and who 
 was the father of Jeshua, who opens the 
 series of high-priests in Neh. xii., which 
 ends with Jaddua, who was high-priest in 
 the time of Alexander the Great. Jaddua 
 was followed by Onias I., his son, and he 
 again by Simon I., the Just; then followed 
 Onias II.,, Simon II., Onias III. The last 
 high-priest was Phannias, who was ap¬ 
 pointed by lot by the Zealots. (Josephus: 
 War, iv. 3, 8.) With him the Old Tes¬ 
 tament high - priesthood ignominiously 
 ended .”—Delitzsch in Herzog: Real Ency., 
 trans. in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Hilary, St. , born at Poitiers, was convert¬ 
 ed, with his wife and daughter, to Christi¬ 
 anity. He was consecrated bishop of his 
 native place about 354. He was a great 
 champion for the Catholic doctrine against 
 the Arians; and Saturninus, the Arian 
 bishop of Arles, procured his banishment 
 into Phrygia. In 359 he was called to the 
 Council of Salonica, where he bravely up¬ 
 held his belief, and he also pressed for a 
 public conference with the Arians in pres¬ 
 ence of the emperor, but they persuaded 
 him to send their enemy back to Gaul. 
 Upon his arrival at Poitiers, in 360, he con¬ 
 vened several councils for restoring the 
 ancient belief, and in his zeal for the Catho¬ 
 lic faith went to Italy in 364 and denounced 
 Auxentius, bishop of Milan, as an Arian, 
 to the Emperor Valentinian, who ordered 
 a conference between Hilary and Auxen¬ 
 tius, in presence of ten other bishops; to 
 this, Auxentius, after much demurring, was 
 obliged to agree, and, thus pressed, hede- 
 
Hil 
 
 ( 413 ) 
 
 Hip 
 
 dared his belief in the Divinity of our Lord. 
 Hilary suggested to the emperor that his 
 profession was without sincerity; but he, 
 tired of the dispute, would listen no longer, 
 and ordered Hilary to leave Milan. He 
 returned home, and died in 367. His fes¬ 
 tival is kept on Jan. 14. His works are: 
 Twelve Books on the Trinity , begun in 346, 
 and finished in his exile; a Treatise on 
 Synods , written during his banishment in 
 359 ; Three Discourses to Constantins on 
 Arianism\ and commentaries on St. Mat¬ 
 thew and part of the Psalms; but these are 
 mostly copied from Origen and Augustine. 
 The best edition of his works is that pub¬ 
 lished by the Benedictines in 1693.—Ben- 
 ham: Did. of Religion. See the Church 
 Histories of Neander, Milman, Schaff, etc., 
 and Dorner’s History of the Doctrine of the 
 Person of Christ. 
 
 Hilda, St., a Saxon lady of the royal 
 family of Northumbria. Converted to 
 Christianity in the reign of King Edwin, she 
 became abbess of the monastery of Heortea 
 (Hartlepool) in 650. She founded the 
 abbey of Whitby where she died in 6S0. 
 
 Hildebrande. See Gregory VII. 
 
 Hildegarde, St., b. 1098; d. 1178. She 
 founded the monastery of Rupertsberg. 
 She received prophetical visions, which 
 were approved by the pope, and her influ¬ 
 ence, especially in the German Church, was 
 very great. She wrote several treatises, 
 and a collection of her letters was pub¬ 
 lished at Cologne in 1566. 
 
 Hill, Rowland, a very popular but eccen¬ 
 tric minister of the Church of England; b. 
 at Hawkestone, Aug. 23, 1744; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, April 11, 1833. While a student at 
 Cambridge he was brought into sympathy 
 with Wliitefield and the Calvinistic Method¬ 
 ists. He preached before receiving a 
 license, and it was with great difficulty that 
 he secured ordination in the Episcopal 
 Church. Having come into a considerable 
 inheritance, he built Surrey Chapel, Lon¬ 
 don, in 1728, and continued to preach there 
 to large audiences up to the time of his 
 death. He was a man of great wit, and he 
 did not spare the use of this gift in the pul¬ 
 pit. In the Arminian controversy he held 
 to the Calvinistic side, and wrote several 
 bitter pamphlets against John Wesley, 
 which he lived to regret, and suppressed 
 as far as he could. See his Life , by Sid¬ 
 ney (London, 1833,4th ed., 1844); Memoirs, 
 by W. Jones (London, 2d ed., 1844); and 
 Memorials, by Sherman (London, 1851). 
 
 Hillel, a famous Jewish rabbi. Accord¬ 
 
 ing to the Talmudists he was b. of a poor 
 Davidic family about the year 75 B. c..and 
 probably d. about 4 b. c. He came to 
 Palestine to study the Law, and was a 
 pupil of Shemaiah and Abtalion. Accord¬ 
 ing to tradition he became a very paragon 
 of learning. He was the head of a school 
 rival to that of his contemporary Shammai, 
 and their opposition was the cause of many 
 fierce quarrels. In later years he was 
 president of the sanhedrin. See Histories 
 of the fews, by Ewald, vol. v., pp. 14-28; 
 Stanley, vol. iii., 499-512; Farrar: Life of 
 Christ , vol. ii., excursus iii. 
 
 Hincmar, bishop of Laon in the ninth 
 century. He received his office through 
 the influence of his uncle, Hincmar of 
 Rheims. Opposing the king, and taking 
 the part of the pope in his contention with 
 the French Church, he was deposed by the 
 Synod of Douzi (871), presided over by his 
 uncle. He was taken prisoner and blinded 
 by order of the king. Pope John VIII. re¬ 
 stored him, and gave him half of the bishop¬ 
 ric’s revenue. He died in 882. A few of 
 his letters are found in Simmond’s edition 
 of Hincmar of Rheims. 
 
 Hincmar of Rheims, famous for his learn¬ 
 ing, Avas b. about 806; d. at Epernay, 882. 
 Educated in the monastery of St. Denis, he 
 was an intimate friend of Charles the Bald, 
 and became archbishop of Rheims in 845. 
 A strenuous advocate of the rights of the 
 French Church, he administered his diocese 
 with great firmness, and took an active 
 part in the theological contnwersies of his 
 time. He was driven from Rheims not long 
 before his death by the Normans. One of 
 his best books is Annals of Rheims. 
 
 Hinnom, Valley of. See Gehenna. 
 
 Hinton, John Howard, a famous Baptist 
 preacher; b. at Oxford, Eng., 1791; d. at 
 Bristol, 1873. Educated at the University 
 of Edinburgh, he Avas long recognized as 
 one of the most able and scholarly preach¬ 
 ers in London. He wrote a work on the 
 History and Topography of the United States 
 (N. Y., enlarged edition, 1853), and also 
 The Harmony of Religious Truth and 
 Human Reason (1832); Treatise on Man's 
 Responsibility. — James Hinton, his son (d. 
 1875), Avas the foremost aural surgeon in 
 London, and Avrote a series of remarkable 
 Avorks: Man and His D welling-place ( 185S) ; 
 Life in Nature (1871); The Mystery of Pain, 
 Philosophy and Religion ( 1832). See his Ldfe 
 and Letters (London, 1S78, 4th ed., 1881). 
 
 Hippo Regius, the present Bona in Al¬ 
 geria, Avas the seat of tAvo councils (393 and 
 
Hip 
 
 ( 4i4 ) 
 
 Hit 
 
 426), the former of which has historical in¬ 
 terest because it gave the first express def¬ 
 inition of the New Testament Canon as it 
 now stands. Augustine was bishop of 
 Hippo from 396 to 430. 
 
 Hippol'ytus, adistinguished ecclesiastical 
 writer of the third century, of whose life 
 little is known; b. in the second part of the 
 second century; d. about the year 240. 
 He was a pupil of Irenaeus and familiar 
 with every department of Greek learning. 
 As bishop of Portus and a member of the 
 Roman presbytery, he was very influential 
 in guiding theological opinions at a critical 
 period in the history of the Roman Church. 
 Since the discovery of his great work, The 
 Refutation of all Heresies , at Mount Athos 
 in the year 1842, his name has become more 
 prominent among the fathers of the third 
 century. Besides this work we have frag¬ 
 ments of commentaries on several books of 
 the Old Testament, and on Matthew and 
 Luke: an important historical work, the 
 Chronicle , and other fragments of a con¬ 
 troversial and doctrinal character. His 
 works are translated in Am. ed. of The 
 Ante-Nicene Fathers (New York, 1890). 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., LL. D., an 
 eminent American scientist; b. at Deerfield, 
 Mass., May 24, 1793; d. at Amherst, Feb. 
 27, 1864. In early life he suffered from ill- 
 health, but he secured a good education. 
 From 1821 to 1825 he was pastor of the 
 Congregational church at Conway, when 
 he accepted the professorship of natural 
 theology at Amherst College. In 1845 he 
 was elected president of the college and 
 filled the position for ten years. He be¬ 
 came widely known through his geological 
 researches. In addition to several text¬ 
 books he wrote, The Religion of Geology 
 and its Connected Sciences (1851), and Re¬ 
 ligious Truths Illustrated from Science 
 ( 1857 ). 
 
 Hitchcock, Roswell Dwight, LL. D., 
 Presbyterian; b. at East Machias, Me., 
 Aug. 15, 1817; d. at Fall River, Mass., 
 June 16, 1887. He was graduated at Am¬ 
 herst College in 1836, and studied theology 
 in Andover Theological Seminary, 1838-39, 
 and in Germany. From 1839—42 he was 
 tutor in Amherst College; pastor of the 
 First Cong.Church, Exeter, N. H. ,1845-52; 
 professor of natural and revealed religion 
 in Bowdoin College, Me., 1852-55. He 
 then (1855) accepted the professorship of 
 church history in Union Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, New York City, which connection he 
 retained until his death. From 1880 he 
 was president of the seminary. He pub¬ 
 lished; Life of Edward Robinson (N, Y., 
 
 18C3); Complete A nalysis of the Bible (1869); 
 Hymns and Songs of Praise (with Drs. 
 Schaff and Eddy) (1878); Socialism (1879); 
 Carmina Sanctoru?n (1885). Dr. Hitchcock 
 was a ripe scholar, a teacher of peculiar in¬ 
 terest in the class room, and a preacher of 
 original and incisive power of thought. 
 
 Hittites, The, “ were formerly confused 
 with the small tribes of Canaan; but re¬ 
 cently it has been shown that they formed 
 a powerful empire in the days of the pa¬ 
 triarchs. Long before the rise of the Assyr¬ 
 ian, Babylonian, and Persian monarchies 
 they held sway over much of the territory 
 subsequently conquered by those powers. 
 Their dominion extended as far as the bor¬ 
 ders of Egypt in the southwest, eastward 
 to Mesopotamia, and northward above the 
 limits of Syria, and beyond the Taurus 
 Mountains. Traces of the great Hittite 
 empire have been discovered in inscrip¬ 
 tions scattered over Asia Minor. There 
 appear to have been at least two capitals— 
 a northern one at Hamath, cn the Orontes, 
 and a southern one at Zoan, on the confines 
 of Egypt. From the name of one of their 
 cities in the south of Canaan, Kirjath- 
 Sepher—-which means ‘Book-Town’— 
 taken in connection with the Hittite in¬ 
 scriptions, it has been inferred that the 
 Hittites were a literary people; or, at all 
 events, that they were acquainted with the 
 art of writing, and, perhaps, generally ad¬ 
 vanced in civilization far beyond the con¬ 
 dition of the nomadic patriarchs who led 
 their flocks up and down in their territory, 
 just as the Bedouins of to-day keep up 
 their simple, primitive life outside the 
 culture of the towns. The Hittites were 
 sufficiently powerful to engage in serious 
 military expeditions with the Egyptians, 
 who describe them on their stone monu¬ 
 ments under the name of Khetai. The 
 Assyrians have also preserved records of 
 the same power. They were probably not 
 allied to the Canaanite races, but were a 
 Turanean race, from the highlands of Cen¬ 
 tral Asia; therefore their empire appears 
 as the outcome of the first of those west¬ 
 ward migrations of Asiatic peoples, which 
 were afterwards seen in such a movement 
 as that of the invasion of the Roman em¬ 
 pire by the Huns.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 
 “ Of the religion of the Hittites we know 
 little. Ashima is mentioned (2 Kings xvii. 
 30) as a god of Hamath. At Ibreez we have 
 a figure of the great Hittite god, Sandan— 
 a god of agriculture. At Boghaz Keui 
 are found nearly twenty figures of male 
 and female deities. The Syrian god, Adad, 
 or Hadad, may have been originally Hit¬ 
 tite. With the softened aspirate, we seem 
 to have the name in Hadoram, son of King 
 
Hit 
 
 ( 415 ) 
 
 Hod 
 
 Toi of Hamath, another form of whose 
 name is given (2 Sam. viii. 10) as Joram; 
 the writer in 1 Chron. xviii. 10, choosing 
 a form meaning, ‘ Adad is exalted,’ rather 
 than one meaning, ‘ Jehovah is exalted.’ It 
 is remarkable, however, that, on the Assyr¬ 
 ian monuments, the element Jehovah en¬ 
 ters into the name of the King Jaubihid, 
 who also is called Ilu-bihid. This, how¬ 
 ever, belongs to a late period, when the 
 Syrians were replacing the Hittites.”— 
 William Hayes Ward: art. “ Hittites,” in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. ii., p. 937. See 
 Wright: Empire of the Hittites; Perrot and 
 Chipez: History of Art in Sardinia, Judea, 
 Syria, and Asia Minor, vol. ii. 
 
 Hitzig ( hits'-ig ), Ferdinand, Protestant; 
 b. at Hauingen, Baden, June 23, 1807; d. 
 at Heidelberg, Jan. 22, 1875, where he had 
 been professor since 1861. A learned and 
 bold critic, he belonged to the rationalistic 
 school of Strauss and Schenkel. His most 
 valuable work is a commentary on Isaiah 
 (Heidelberg, 1833). 
 
 Hi'vite. See Canaan. 
 
 Hoadly, Benjamin, bishop of Winches¬ 
 ter; b. at Westerham, Kent, Nov. 14, 1676; 
 d. at Winchester, April 17, 1761. He en¬ 
 tered Catharine Hall, Cambridge, in 1691, 
 where he became tutor. He was ordained, 
 and in 1701 was appointed lecturer of St. 
 Mildred, in the Poultry, and in the next 
 year rector of St. Peter-le-Poer. Queen 
 Anne, in 1714, presented him to the living 
 of Streatham. On the accession of George 
 I. he became bishop of Bangor. In 1717 
 he preached a sermon from the text, “ My 
 kingdom is not of this world,” in which he 
 argued that the best way to refute Roman 
 Catholics and Dissenters was to show that 
 Christ had not delegated his powers to any 
 ecclesiastical authorities. This sermon led 
 to the famous Bangorian Controversy. 
 Hoadly afterward became, in succession, 
 bishop of Hereford (1721), Salisbury (1723), 
 and Winchester (1734). 
 
 Hoadly was the most prominent of those 
 clergymen, of whom there were so many 
 during the eighteenth century, who adopted 
 views more or less inclined to Unitarianism 
 and Rationalism. This can be seen by his 
 works: A Plain Account of the Sacrament; 
 Discourses on the Terms of Acceptance. He 
 also wrote on the Measure of Obedience to 
 the Civil Magistrate, and Reasonableness of 
 Conformity to the Church of England .— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. The sermon 
 of Bishop Hoadly which led to the Bangor¬ 
 ian Controversy was an earnest plea for 
 toleration, without regard to church con¬ 
 nections. The discussion became so fierce 
 
 that the convocation of 1717 was prorogued 
 by the crown, and did not sit again till 1852. 
 An edition of Hoadly’s works, with a Life, 
 was published in London, 1773, 3 vols. 
 
 Hobart, John Henry, D. D., Protestant 
 Episcopal bishop of New York; b. in Phila¬ 
 delphia, Sept. 14, 1775; d. at Auburn, Sept. 
 10, 1830. He was graduated at Princeton 
 in 1793, and entered upon his active minis¬ 
 terial life in 1798. After serving several 
 parishes he became assistant minister of 
 Trinity, New York, and in 1799 was chosen 
 secretary of the House of Bishops. He 
 was elected assistant bishop of New York 
 in 1811, and bishop in 1816. The General 
 Theological Seminary of New York was 
 largely founded through his efforts, and in 
 1821 he was made professor of pastoral 
 theology and pulpit eloquence. He was 
 one of the first Protestants that ever 
 preached in Rome, and while in Italy he 
 made effective appeals in behalf of the Wal- 
 denses. He wrote several volumes. See 
 Memoir, by Schroeder (New York, 1833). 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas, b. at Malmesbury, 
 Wiltshire, April 5, 1588; d. at Hardwick 
 Hall, Devonshire, Dec. 4, 1679. He was a 
 graduate of Magdalen College, Oxford, 
 and after acting as tutor in several noble 
 families, in 1637 he entered upon a life of 
 literary activity, first in Paris (1641-54), 
 then in London, and at Hardwick Hall. 
 His chief works in English are: Humane 
 Nature (London, 1650); Leviathan; or, the 
 Matter, For?ne and Power of a Co?n?non~ 
 wealth. Ecclesiastical and Civill (1651); 
 Liberty and Necessity (1654); Behemoth; or, 
 an Epitome of the Civil Wars of England 
 from 1640 to 1669 (1679, new ed., 1889). 
 He wrote much in Latin. A complete ed. 
 of his works appeared in London (1839-45), 
 11 vols. An enemy alike of liberty and re¬ 
 ligion, his utilitarian and deistical views 
 were presented with great vigor, and are 
 still reproduced to some extent in the ma¬ 
 terialistic thought of the present day. 
 
 Hodge, Archibald Alexander, D. D. 
 (College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1862), 
 LL. D. (Wooster University, Wooster, 
 O., 1876), eldest son of Dr. Charles Hodge; 
 b. at Princeton, N. J., July, 1823. He was 
 graduated at Princeton College, 1841, 
 and at the Theological Seminary, 1847; 
 missionary of the Presbyterian Board at 
 Allahabad, India, 1847-50; in the pastorate 
 at Lower West Nottingham, Md., 1851-55; 
 at Fredericksburg, Va., 1855-61; Wilkes- 
 barre, Pa., 1861-64. In 1864 he became pro¬ 
 fessor of didactic and polemic theology in 
 the Western (Presbyterian) Theological 
 Seminary, Allegheny, Penn., and since 1878 
 
Hod 
 
 ( 416 ) 
 
 Hoi 
 
 has been professor of didactic and polemic 
 theology in Princeton Seminary. He is 
 the author of: Outlines of Theology (i860, en¬ 
 larged ed., 1878); The Atonement (1868); 
 Com?nentary on Confession of Faith (1869); 
 Presbyterian Forms (1876, 2(1 ed. rewritten, 
 1S82); Life of Charles Hodge (1880). 
 
 Hodge, Charles, D. D.,LL. D., one of the 
 most eminent theologians of modern times; 
 b. Dec.18,1797,in Philadelphia; d. inPrince- 
 ton, N. J., June 19, 1878. He was graduated 
 at Princeton, and studied at the Seminary 
 with which the labors of his life were iden¬ 
 tified. He was appointed professor of bib¬ 
 lical and Oriental literature in 1822 and 
 lived to complete fifty years of service in 
 connection with the Seminary. In 1825 he 
 founded the Biblical Respository and Prince¬ 
 ton Review , and was its editor for forty 
 years. From 1840 he filled the chair of 
 didactic theology and New Testament exe¬ 
 gesis. He was a voluminous author, and 
 wrote several commentaries, but his great 
 work is the Systematic Theology in 3 vols. 
 (New York, 1871-73). He was an earnest 
 polemic and the sturdy advocate of histori¬ 
 cal Calvinism, but “ a man of warm affec¬ 
 tion, of generous impulses, and of John-like 
 piety.” See his Life, by his son, Dr. A. A. 
 Hodge (New York, 1880). 
 
 Hohenlohe - Waldenburg, Alexander, 
 Prince of, b. 1794; d. 1849. He was or¬ 
 dained as a Roman Catholic priest in 1816, 
 and labored with much assiduity in differ¬ 
 ent parts of Bavaria. He met a peasant, 
 Martin Michl, who professed to heal the 
 sick by faith and prayer, and following his 
 directions the prince-priest began to work 
 miraculous cures. Great excitement fol¬ 
 lowed, but the authorities interfered and 
 the pope declined to recognize the miracles. 
 In 1825 he retired to Hungary, and in 1844 
 was made bishop in partibtis , but was ex¬ 
 pelled by the revolutionists in 1848. 
 
 Holland. “ The inhabitants of Holland 
 enjoy full religious as well as political 
 liberty. Not only is the free profession of 
 his religious opinions guaranteed to every 
 one by the constitution, the same protec¬ 
 tion is accorded to all the various ecclesias¬ 
 tical bodies; all the adherents of the differ¬ 
 ent creeds have equal civil and political 
 rights, and equal claims to public offices, 
 dignities and appointments, and all denom¬ 
 inations possess perfect freedom of admin¬ 
 istration in everything relating to their 
 religion and its exercise. In the northeast 
 the Protestant creed greatly preponderates, 
 and the majority of the Roman Catholics 
 are found in the south, while both are 
 fairly represented in the central provinces. 
 
 In the last fifty years there has been, tak¬ 
 ing the entire population, a steady increase 
 in the number of Protestants and Jews, 
 and a corresponding decrease of Roman 
 Catholics. The various denominations are 
 subsidized by the state. The total thus 
 expended in 1887 was ,£65,654.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. The number of Protestants 
 in Holland is not far from 2,500,000, and 
 of Roman Catholics 1,500,000. 
 
 Holy, Holiness (Ex. xv. ii; Lev. xxvii. 
 14). “ Holiness, or perfect freedom from 
 
 sin, and immaculate purity are distinguish¬ 
 ing attributes of the divine nature. (Isa. vi. 
 3.) These words in their primitive mean¬ 
 ing imply a separation or setting apart from 
 secular and profane uses to sacred and di¬ 
 vine uses. They sometimes denote the 
 purity of the angelic nature (Matt. xxv. 31); 
 the comparative freedom from sin which 
 results from the sanctification of the human 
 heart, as in the case of Christians (Heb. 
 iii. 1; Col. iii. 12); and the consecrated 
 character of things (Ex. xxx. 25; Lev. xvi. 
 4) and places. (Ex. iii. 5.) The conception 
 of God as holy was characteristic of the 
 religion of the Old Testament. While the 
 nations of antiquity were attributing to the 
 divine Being human passions and human 
 sins, the Hebrews alone held firmly to the 
 idea of God as absolutely holy.”—Schaff: 
 Bible Diet. 
 
 Holy Fire, a ceremony symbolizing the 
 resurrection of Christ, observed in the 
 Greek and Roman churches on the Satur¬ 
 day following Good Friday. On Good 
 Friday the lights in the church are extin¬ 
 guished, and on the following day they are 
 re-lit by a fire kindled by sparks from a flint. 
 
 Holy League, a name often applied to 
 political alliances formed in the sixteenth 
 century, which had little or nothing to do 
 with religious affairs. The Holy League, 
 formed in 1576 between the pope, Philip of 
 Spain, etc., had for its purpose the sup¬ 
 pression of the Reformation in France. 
 
 Holy Office (. sanctum officium ), a term 
 applied to the Inquisition, the spiritual 
 court of the Roman Catholic Church. See 
 Inquisition. 
 
 Holy of Holies, or the Most Holy 
 Place. See Temple. 
 
 Holy Oil. See Chrism. 
 
 Holy Place. See Temple. 
 
 Holy Roman Empire, “the name given 
 to the German Empire under the Emperor 
 
Hoi 
 
 ( 417 ) 
 
 Hod 
 
 Otho I., who was crowned at Rome by- 
 Pope John XII. (962), and who then be¬ 
 came king of Italy and emperor of Rome. 
 The glory of the empire ended with Fred¬ 
 erick II. (1212-1250), till it was partially 
 revived by the Austrian House of Haps- 
 burg.”— Cassell’s Cvc. See Bryce: Holy 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Holy Spirit, “ the third person of the 
 Trinity, whose office-work it is to sanctify, 
 or make holy, the people of God. The 
 personality of the Holy Spirit is implied in 
 the baptismal formula and in the apostolic 
 benediction. As the Father and the Son 
 are real persons, so must the Holy Spirit 
 be also, thus joined with them in the sol¬ 
 emn initiatory rite of the Church. The 
 believer is baptized into the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost, three equally distinct persons. In 
 the apostolical benediction, ‘ The grace of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of 
 God, and the communion of the Holy 
 Ghost, be with you all ’ (2 Cor. xiii. 13), 
 the same distinct personality appears. In 
 numerous instances personal acts and at¬ 
 tributes are ascribed to the Holy Spirit. 
 He speaks (Acts xxviii. 25); he speaks ex¬ 
 pressly (1 Tim. iv. 1); he teaches (Luke 
 xii. 12); he shall reprove or convince the 
 world of sin (John xvi. 8); he helps our in¬ 
 firmities, making intercession for the saints 
 (Rom. viii. 26, 27); he may be grieved. 
 (Eph. iv. 30.) What can be more striking 
 than the statement (Acts xiii. 2), ‘ The 
 Holy Ghost said, Separate me Barnabas 
 and Saul for the work whereunto I have 
 called them ’ ? So in the letter of the coun¬ 
 cil at Jerusalem (Acts xv. 28), ‘ For it 
 seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us, 
 to lay upon you no greater burden than 
 these necessary things.’ 
 
 “The Holy Spirit is sent from the Father, 
 in the name of the Son. He is also said to 
 be sent by the Son from the Father. ‘ He,’ 
 said Jesus (John xv. 26), * shall testify of 
 me.’ Again (xvi. 13): * He shall not speak 
 of himself, but whatsoever he shall hear, 
 that shall he speak; and he will show you 
 things to come, fie shall glorify me, for 
 he shall receive of mine, and shall show it 
 unto you.’ No language can be framed to 
 indicate personality more explicitly and 
 literally than this.”—Smith : Diet, of the 
 Bible. See Hagenbach: Hist, of Doctrine, 
 sections 44, 93; Theologies of Hodge, H. B. 
 Smith, Foster, Strong, etc. 
 
 Holy Water denotes water blessed by a 
 priest or bishop for religious purposes. 
 The use of water as a symbol of purity was 
 prescribed in many ways by the Jewish 
 law, and adopted by the early Christian 
 
 Church. In the Roman Church, holy water 
 is made of pure spring water with a slight 
 admixture of salt. The Greek Church con¬ 
 siders the use of salt an unauthorized cor¬ 
 ruption. Protestants consider the use of 
 holy water as unscriptural and supersti¬ 
 tious. 
 
 Holy Week is the last week in Lent, in 
 which the Church commemorates Christ’s 
 Death and Burial. Its observance is men¬ 
 tioned by Irenaeus in the second century.. 
 In Episcopal churches, special lessons,, 
 epistles and gospels having reference to 
 our Lord’s Passion, are appointed for every 
 day. In the Roman Church the week is 
 observed with great strictness. Holy Week 
 is commemorated by many Lutheran 
 churches. 
 
 Holzhauser. See Bartholomites. 
 
 Homilarium, the name given to collec¬ 
 tions of sermons, taken from the works of 
 the fathers. These were often read in the 
 churches when the preacher for any reason 
 was unable to deliver a sermon of his own. 
 The most famous work of the kind was the 
 one prepared under the direction of Charle¬ 
 magne. 
 
 Homiletics is the science which treats of 
 the preparation, classification, and best 
 methods of delivering sermons. It is. 
 sometimes called “ sacred rhetoric.” 
 
 Homily, “ in the early Church, designat¬ 
 ed the addresses at private gatherings for 
 Christian worship, and especially the exhor¬ 
 tation with which the leader followed the 
 Scripture-reading. Later it was applied to 
 public discourses addressed to believers, 
 in distinction from the public proclamation 
 of the gospel to the unconverted. In the 
 Western Church the terms ‘ sermon ’ and 
 ‘ homily ’ were at first used interchange¬ 
 ably; but in time each came to designate a 
 special kind of discourse. The sermon was 
 a discourse developing a definite theme; 
 the homily pursued the analytical method, 
 and expounded a paragraph, or verse of 
 Scripture.”— Christ lieb. 
 
 Honorius is the name of four popes and 
 an antipope. See Popes. Honorius I. 
 (625-683) sided, in the Monothelitic contro¬ 
 versy, with the Monothelites and was anath¬ 
 ematized by the sixth oecumenical coun¬ 
 cil (680). The fact that a pope had been a 
 heretic was the cause of great discussion in 
 connection with the adoption of the doc¬ 
 trine of papal infallibility. 
 
 Hood, Edward Paxton, English Con- 
 
Hoo 
 
 ( 4i8 ) 
 
 Hoo 
 
 gregationalist ; b. in Westminster, Lon¬ 
 don, Dec. iS, 1820; d. in Paris, June 13, 
 1885. For many years he was a preacher 
 in London, and at the time of his death was 
 pastor of Falcon Square Independent Chap¬ 
 el. He prepared a large number of vol¬ 
 umes for the press, largely devoted to mis¬ 
 cellaneous information and homiletic in¬ 
 struction. His La?nps,Pitchers, and Trump¬ 
 ets (1867) has had a large circulation in the 
 United States. 
 
 Hook, Walter Farquhar, b. in Wor¬ 
 cester, March 13, 1798; d. at Chichester, 
 Oct. 20, 1875. He was educated at Oxford; 
 ordained in 1821; vicar of Leeds from 1837 
 to 1859, when he was appointed dean of 
 Chichester. In the course of twenty-two 
 years he built twenty-one churches, and in 
 various ways showed great vigor in exec¬ 
 utive affairs. He wrote several volumes, 
 among them, A Church Dictionary (i2thed., 
 1872); An Ecclesiastical Biography (1845- 
 52), 8 vols.; Lives oJ~the Archbishops of Can¬ 
 terbury (1860-76), 12 vols. 
 
 Hooker, Richard, one of the most power¬ 
 ful and valued writers of the Church of 
 England, was born at Heavitree, near 
 Exeter, according to Walton in 1553, but 
 according to Wood about Easter-tide, 1554. 
 His parents were not rich, and he was des¬ 
 tined for a trade; but his schoolmaster dis¬ 
 cerned more than ordinary talent in the 
 boy, and his uncle, John Hooker, then 
 Chamberlain of Exeter, brought him under 
 the notice of Jewell, Bishop of Salisbury, 
 who got him admitted in 1567 to Corpus 
 Christi College, Oxford, where he settled 
 on him a pension, which, with a subsidy 
 from his uncle, enabled him to live com¬ 
 fortably. In 1571 he lost both his patron 
 —Bishop Jewell—and his pension; but two 
 other friends were raised up for him in Dr. 
 Cole, the president of his college, and Dr. 
 Sandys, bishop of London, who sent his 
 son Edwin to him as a pupil at Oxford. In 
 1577 he was elected a fellow of his college, 
 and two years later deputy-professor of 
 Hebrew. In 1581 he was ordained, and 
 was appointed to preach at Paul’s Cross. 
 The next year he made an imprudent mar¬ 
 riage with Joan, the daughter of Mr. John 
 Churchman, with whom he lodged on first 
 coming to London; Wood says “ she was 
 a clownish, silly woman, and withal a mere 
 Xantippe.” His marriage forced him to 
 give up his fellowship, and he maintained 
 himself as well as he could till the end of 
 1584, when he was presented to the rectory 
 of Drayton-Beauchamp, in Buckingham¬ 
 shire. The way in which he submitted 
 himself to the ordering of his wife was 
 both amusing and pathetic. He seems, in¬ 
 
 deed, to have had no will of his own, either 
 in the choice of a spouse or in the manage¬ 
 ment of his household. He tended the 
 sheep in his paddock whilst his servant 
 dined or helped his wife in household 
 duties, or he diligently rocked his little 
 one’s cradle at her bidding,when his friends 
 desired his company to enter into philo¬ 
 sophical disputations. 
 
 Still, it may be questioned whether the 
 good man’s meekness and patience were 
 natural to him. They seem rather to have 
 been acquired by a hard struggle with a 
 really impetuous disposition. He was, 
 certainly, not as childishly ignorant of 
 human nature and of the ordinary business 
 of life as his biographers appear to have 
 imagined him. Judging from his works, 
 he must have been quick to observe and 
 shrewd to judge, although it is quite pos¬ 
 sible for a man to have one character as 
 an author and another as a man of the 
 world. 
 
 At Drayton-Beauchamp he was visited 
 by his old pupil, Edwin Sandys, who 
 represented Hooker’s poverty to his father, 
 now become archbishop of York, and 
 through his influence he was made Master 
 of the Temple in 1585. At this time Walter 
 Travers was Afternoon Lecturer at the 
 Temple, and he, having been ordained by 
 the Presbytery at Antwerp, was warmly 
 attached to the Geneva divinity; this he 
 wanted to introduce into the Temple, and 
 it brought him into frequent collision with 
 Hooker, whom he often opposed in his 
 sermons, and who naturally retaliated, so 
 that it was said, “The forenoon sermon 
 spake Canterbury, and the afternoon, Gen¬ 
 eva.” Archbishop Whitgiftat length caused 
 Travers to be silenced by the High Com¬ 
 mission. He appealed to the Privy Coun¬ 
 cil without effect, and then brought the 
 matter before the public. Hooker pub¬ 
 lished an answer, which was inscribed to 
 the archbishop, and procured him as much 
 reverence and respect from some as it did 
 neglect and hatred from others. In order, 
 therefore, to undeceive and win these lat¬ 
 ter, he entered upon his famous work, 
 The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity , and laid 
 the foundation and plan of it while he was 
 at the Temple. But he found this no fit 
 place to carryout his design, and he there¬ 
 fore entreated the archbishop to remove 
 him to some quieter post. In 1591 he was 
 presented to the living of Boscombe, in 
 Wiltshire, and in the same year made preb¬ 
 endary of Netherhaven, in Salisbury 
 Cathedral, and also subdean. While at 
 Boscombe he finished four books, which 
 were printed in 1594. In 1595 Queen 
 Elizabeth presented him to the rectory of 
 Bishopsbourne, near Canterbury, where 
 
Hoo 
 
 ( 419 ) 
 
 Hop 
 
 he spent the remainder of his life. Here 
 the innocency and sanctity of his life were 
 so remarkable that many turned out of 
 their road to see him; he lived a life of 
 study, attending diligently to his duties as 
 parish priest. He died in 1600, in the 
 forty-sixth year of his age. He published 
 the fifth volume of his great work in 1597. 
 The remaining three did not appear till 
 after his death. These are thought to be 
 imperfect, but there can be no doubt of 
 their authenticity. — Benham : Diet, of 
 Religion. The most complete edition of 
 Hooker’s Works was by Gauden (London, 
 1662); the best by Keble (Oxford, 1836), 4 
 vols. This edition has his Life , by Walton, 
 an English classic. 
 
 Hooker, Thomas, b. at Marfield, Eng., 
 July 7 . 1586; d. at Hartford, Conn., July 
 7, 1647. He was educated at Cambridge 
 University, where for some time he was a 
 fellow. In 1626 he became assistant min¬ 
 ister of Chelmsford. Faithful to the dic¬ 
 tates of his conscience, he was silenced in 
 1630 for nonconformity. He soon after 
 went to Holland. The emigration of the 
 Puritans from England to New England 
 was increasing, and he decided to go with 
 a company of old friends as their pastor. 
 He arrived in Boston in the summer of 
 1633, and remained with the Massachusetts 
 colony until 1635, when with most of the 
 members of his church he emigrated to 
 Hartford. He was an eloquent preacher 
 and faithful pastor, but his name will be 
 known to posterity especially as the author 
 of the Constitution of the Connecticut 
 Colony — the first written Constitution 
 adopted by the suffrages of a people. 
 
 Hooper, John, an English bishop and 
 one of the martyrs in Queen Mary’s reign; 
 b. in Somersetshire about 1495; d. at the 
 stake, Feb. 9, 1555, in Gloucester. A grad¬ 
 uate of Oxford, he was converted to the 
 views of Luther and compelled to flee for 
 safety to Switzerland, where he came into 
 friendly relations with Bullinger. On the 
 accession of Edward VI. he returned to 
 England and in 1550 was elected bishop of 
 Gloucester. Cranmer, the archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and Ridley, bishop of London, 
 for some time refused to consecrate him be¬ 
 cause he would not conform in all points to 
 the ritual. In 1552 he was appointed bish¬ 
 op in cotmnendam of Worcester. Upon the 
 accession of Mary, he was arrested and 
 committed to prison. At his trial he re-* 
 fused to recant his opinions in favor of 
 clerical marriage and of divorce, and 
 against the Mass. Sentenced to die at the 
 stake, he met his death with firm courage. 
 His works have been published both by 
 
 the Parker Society (Cambridge, 1843-52), 
 2 vols.; and by the Religious Tract Society, 
 1 vol. 
 
 Hopkins, John Henry, D. D., D. C. L. 
 (Oxford), Protestant-Episcopal bishop of 
 Vermont; b. in Dublin, Ireland, Jan. 30, 
 1792; d. at Rock Point, Vt., Jan. 9, 1868. 
 He was ordained in 1823, and after holding 
 pastorates in Pittsburg and Boston, he was 
 elected bishop of Vermont in 1832. He 
 was a zealous High-Churchman. He wrote 
 a Vindication of Slavery and Refutation of 
 Milner's End of Controversy 2 vols. (1854). 
 
 Hopkins, Samuel, “ the theologian from 
 whom the Hopkinsians or Hopkinsian Cal¬ 
 vinists take their name, was b. at Water- 
 bury, Conn., on Sept. 17, 1721. About his 
 fifteenth year he entered Yale College,where 
 he was graduated in 1741; he afterward 
 studied divinity at Northampton with Jona¬ 
 than Edwards, and in 1743 he was ordained 
 pastor of the church at Housatonic (now 
 Great Barrington), Mass. There, in the 
 midst of a small settlement of only thirty 
 families, he labored for six and twenty 
 years, preaching, studying, and writing, 
 until in 1769 he was dismissed from his 
 office on the alleged ground of want of 
 funds for his support. He next began to 
 preach in Newport R. I., where, in 1770, 
 he was settled as pastor of a small congre¬ 
 gation, and where, with an interval from 
 1776 to 1780, caused by the occupation of 
 the British, he continued to labor until 
 about the close of the century. In 1799 he 
 had an attack of paralysis from which he 
 never wholly recovered; but he continued 
 to preach occasionally, and with unimpaired 
 mental vigor, almost until his death, which 
 occurred on Dec. 20, 1803. To him belongs 
 the honor of having been one of the first to 
 stir up and organize political action against 
 slavery; and to his persistent though bit¬ 
 terly opposed efforts, are chiefly to be at¬ 
 tributed the law of 1774, which forbade the 
 importation of negroes into New England, 
 as also that of 1784, which declared that all 
 children of slaves born after the following 
 March should be free. He was the author 
 of numerous pamphlets, addresses, and ser¬ 
 mons; and he also published, among other 
 memoirs, those of Jonathan Edwards,Susan¬ 
 nah Anthony, and Mrs. Osborne. But his 
 distinctive theological tenets are chiefly to 
 be sought in his important work, the System 
 of Theology , which, published in 1791, has 
 had an influence hardly inferior to that ex¬ 
 ercised by the writings of Edwards himself. 
 They may be summed up as follows:—(1) 
 God is the efficient c'ause of all the volitions 
 of the human heart, whether these be good 
 or evil; (2) the guilt of Adam’s first sin 
 
Kop 
 
 ( 420 ) 
 
 Hor 
 
 lies upon Adam alone; moral corruption 
 consists exclusively in the opposition offer¬ 
 ed by the human heart to the doing of that 
 which it is really and fully capable of do¬ 
 ing; (3) all virtue or true holiness consists 
 in disinterested benevolence; (4) all sin 
 consists in selfishness; (5) reconciliation 
 and redemption are fundamentally distinct; 
 the former opens the gate of mercy, the 
 latter applies to individuals Christ’s saving 
 benefits; (6) effectual calling consists in a 
 willingness to allow himself to be saved, 
 produced in the heart of the sinner by God; 
 (7) although the righteousness of Christ is 
 the sole ground of the sinner’s justification, 
 yet is that righteousness not imputed; (8) 
 repentance is prior in point of time to the 
 exercise of faith in Christ.”— Ency. Britan- 
 nica. The latest and best edition of his 
 works was published in Boston, 1852, 3 
 vols; with biographical sketch by Profess¬ 
 or Park, of Andover. 
 
 Hopkinsianism. See Hopkins, Samuel. 
 
 Hor, Mount, (i) called by the Arabs 
 Jebel Neby Harun , “ the mountain of the 
 prophet Aaron,” is midway between the 
 Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. Here 
 the Israelites tarried between Kadesh 
 (Num. xx. 22; xxxiii. 37) and Zalmonah 
 (Num. xxxiii. 41), when they were jour¬ 
 neying “ by the way of the Red Sea to 
 compass the land of Edom.” (Num. xxi. 4.) 
 Here Aaron died. (Num. xx. 24-29; Deut. 
 xxxii. 50.) The mountain, which is as- 
 cended^by a steep path, has two peaks, on 
 the eastern one of which is shown the 
 tomb of Aaron, a small building surmount¬ 
 ed by a white dome. It has two cham¬ 
 bers. The lower one is entirely dark, and 
 contains what purports to be the tomb. 
 The summit of the mountain is some 4,800 
 feet above the sea. (2) A mountain be¬ 
 tween the Mediterranean and “ the en¬ 
 trance of Hamath ” (Num. xxx. 7, 8), still 
 unidentified. 
 
 Ho'reb. See Sinai. 
 
 Horne, George, an eminent English 
 bishop and commentator; b. at Otham, 
 Kent, 1730; d. at Bath, 1792. Educated 
 at Oxford, he became president of Magda¬ 
 len College in 1768; vice-chancellor of the 
 University, 1776; dean of Canterbury, 1781, 
 and Bishop of Norwich, 1790. “ In 1760 
 
 he entered into a controversy with Dr. 
 Kennicott on the text of the Hebrew Bible, 
 which the latter wished to collate with a 
 view to a new English version. Horne op¬ 
 posed this on the ground that skeptics and 
 heretics, who are ever busy in finding im¬ 
 aginary corruptions in the text of Scrip¬ 
 
 ture, would be yet more emboldened to 
 cavil and criticise.” In 1776he published a 
 Commentary on the Psalms that had engaged 
 his attention for twenty years. He wrote 
 Letters on Infidelity in answer to Hume. 
 
 Horne, Thomas Hartwell, D. D., b. in 
 London, Oct. 20, 1780; d. there, Jan. 27, 
 1862. He was educated at Christ’s Hos¬ 
 pital, and then for a time was a barrister’s 
 clerk. In 1819 he was admitted to holy 
 orders, and for some years was assistant 
 librarian at the British Museum. He be¬ 
 came a Prebendary of St. Paul’s in 1831, 
 and two years later rector of St. Edmund 
 the King and St. Nicholas Aeons, Lon¬ 
 don. He was the author of An Introduc¬ 
 tion to the Critical Study and Knowledge of 
 the Holy Scriptures , one of the best known 
 and most famous books of its class. The 
 Bibliographical Appendix is pronounced by 
 scholars the best of its kind in our lan¬ 
 guage. 
 
 Horologium, the name of an office-book 
 of the Greek Church, corresponding to the 
 Latin breviary. 
 
 Horseley, Samuel, a learned English prel¬ 
 ate; b. in London, 1733; d. at Brighton, 
 Oct. 4, 1806. Educated at Cambridge, he 
 became curate in 1758 to his father at 
 Newington Butts, whom he soon succeed¬ 
 ed as rector. He was fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and besides writing many scientif¬ 
 ic books he edited the complete works of 
 Isaac Newton in 1775. A criticism tvhich 
 he wrote of Dr. Priestley’s History of the 
 Conniptions of Christianity led to a contro¬ 
 versy which brought out his Seventeen Let¬ 
 ters to Dr. Priestley , which did much to stay 
 the increasing influence of Socinianism. 
 In 1781 he was appointed archdeacon of 
 St. Albans, and in 1788 bishop of St. 
 David’s; of Rochester in 1793; of St. Asaph 
 in 1803. He was considered one of the 
 greatest pulpit orators of his time. He 
 wrote, among other works,a Commentary on 
 Hosea; Psalms Translated from the Hebrew; 
 Biblical Criticism of Fourteen Historical 
 Books of the Old Testament; his Sermons 
 complete in 1 vol. (London, 1839). 
 
 Hort, Fenton John Anthony, D. D. 
 (Cambridge, 1875), Church of England; b. 
 in Dublin, April 23. 1S2S; was graduated 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1850; or¬ 
 dained deacon, 1854; priest, 1856; fellow of 
 Trinity College, 1852-57, and of Emmanuel 
 College since 1872; divinity lecturer of 
 Emmanuel College, 1872-7S, and Hulsean 
 professor of divinity in 1878. He was one 
 of the original members of the New Testa¬ 
 ment Company of the Anglo-American Bible 
 
Hos 
 
 ( 42i ) 
 
 Hos 
 
 Revision Committee. The great work by 
 which he is well known was his joint edi¬ 
 torship with Bishop Westcott of The New 
 Testament in the Original Greek: A Revised 
 Text , with Introduction and Appendix 
 (London 1881), 2 vols. (smaller ed. of text, 
 1885, repub. New York). 
 
 Hose'a, “ son of Beeri, and first of the 
 minor prophets, as they appear in the A. V. 
 Time. —This question must be settled, as 
 far as it can be settled, partly by reference 
 to the title , partly by an inquiry into the 
 •contents of the book. For the beginning of 
 Hosea’s ministry the title gives us the 
 reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, but limits 
 this vague definition by reference to Jero¬ 
 boam II., king of Israel; it therefore yields 
 a date not later than b. c. 783. The pict¬ 
 ures of social and political life which 
 Hosea draws so forcibly are rather appli¬ 
 cable to the interregnum which followed 
 the death of Jeroboam (782-772), and to 
 the reign of the succeeding kings. It seems 
 almost certain that very few of his proph¬ 
 ecies were written until after the death of 
 Jeroboam (783); and probably the life, or 
 rather the prophetic career, of Hosea ex¬ 
 tended from 784 to 725, a period of fifty- 
 nine years. Place. —There seems to be a 
 general consent among commentators that 
 the prophecies of Hosea were delivered in 
 the kingdom of Israel. Tribe and Parent¬ 
 age. —Tribe quite unknown. The Pseudo- 
 Epiphanius, it is uncertain upon what 
 ground, assigns Hosea to the tribe of Issa- 
 char. Of his father, Beeri, we know ab¬ 
 solutely nothing. Order in the Prophetic 
 Series. —Most ancient and mediaeval inter¬ 
 preters make Hosea the first of the proph¬ 
 ets. But by moderns he is generally as¬ 
 signed the third place. It is, perhaps, 
 more important to know that Hosea must 
 have been more or less contemporary with 
 Isaiah, Amos, Jonah, Joel, and Nahum. 
 Division of the Book. —It is easy to recog¬ 
 nize two great divisions, which, accord¬ 
 ingly, have been generally adopted: (1) 
 chap. i. to iii.; (2) iv. to end. The sub¬ 
 division of these several parts is a work of 
 greater difficulty: that of Eichhorn will be 
 found to be based upon a highly subtle, 
 though by no means precarious,-criticism. 
 (1) According to him the first division 
 should be subdivided into three separate 
 poems, each originating in a distinct aim, 
 and each after its own fashion attempting 
 to express the idolatry of Israel by images 
 borrowed from the matrimonial relation. 
 The first, and therefore the least elaborate 
 of these is contained in chap, iii., the sec¬ 
 ond in i. 2—11, the third in i. 2-9, and ii. 1- 
 23. These three are progressively elabo¬ 
 rate developments of the same reiterated 
 
 idea. Chap. i. 2-9 is common to the sec¬ 
 ond and third poems, but not repeated with 
 each severally.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Hoshe'a {Godis Help ), the last anci best 
 of the kings of Israel. (2 Kings xv. 30.) 
 He attempted to form an alliance with 
 Egypt, which angered the king of Assyria, 
 who marched against Samaria, and after a 
 siege of three years took it and carried the 
 people away into Assyria. (2 Kings xvii. 
 1-6; Hos. xiii. 16; Mic. i. 6.) 
 
 Hospitality, “ kindness exercised in the 
 entertainment of strangers. This virtue, 
 we find, is explicitly commanded by, and 
 makes a part of the morality of, the New 
 Testament. Thus we are expressly ex¬ 
 horted by an apostle, ‘ Be not forgetful 
 to entertain strangers; for thereby some 
 have entertained angels unawares,’ refer¬ 
 ring, no doubt, to Abraham and Lot, who, 
 in the exercise of this virtue, were sur¬ 
 prised by the visits of angels. The obli¬ 
 gations to this duty arise from the fitness 
 and reasonableness of it. It brings its own 
 reward. (Acts xx. 35.) It is expressly 
 commanded by God. (Lev. xxv. 35, 38; 
 Luke xvi. 9; xiv. 13, 14; Rom. xii.; Heb. 
 xiii. 1, 2; 1 Pet. iv. 9.) We have many 
 striking examples of hospitality on divine 
 record: Abraham (Gen. xviii. 1-8), Lot 
 (Gen. xix. 1-3), Job (xxxi. 17-22), the 
 Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 8-10), the hos¬ 
 pitable man mentioned in Judges (xix. 16- 
 21), David (2 Sam. vi. 19), Obadiah (1 
 Kings xviii. 4), Nehemiah (Neh. v. 17, 
 18), Martha (Luke x. 38), Mary (Matt, 
 xxvi. 6, 13), the primitive Christians (Acts 
 ii. 45, 46), Priscilla and Aquila(Acts xviii. 
 26), Lydia (Acts xvi. 15), etc. Lastly, 
 what should have a powerful effect on our 
 minds is the consideration of divine hos¬ 
 pitality. God is good to all, and his tender 
 mercies are over all his works. His sun 
 shines and his rain falls on the evil as well 
 as the good. His very enemies share of 
 his bounty. He gives liberally to all men, 
 and upbraids not; but especially we should 
 remember the exceeding riches of his 
 grace in his kindness toward us through 
 Jesus Christ. Let us lay all these consid¬ 
 erations together and then ask ourselves 
 whether we can find it in our hearts to be 
 selfish, parsimonious, and inhospitable.”— 
 Brown: Ency. 
 
 Hospitallers. See Military Orders. 
 
 Hospitals, humane institutions for the 
 poor, sick and crippled, are the special 
 outgrowth of the Christian religion. From 
 the beginnings of Christianity the duty of 
 such service was inculcated, and hospitals 
 
Hos 
 
 ( 422 ) 
 
 Hou 
 
 were erected as soon as the early Church 
 was recognized by the State. Jerome (340 
 -420), built a hospital at Bethlehem; and 
 Fabiola, a convert of his, founded the first 
 institution of the kind in Rome. Basil the 
 Great (330-339) built a very complete 
 hospital at Caesarea with accommodations 
 for lepers. We learn of hospitals in Gaul 
 from the fifth century, and in Germany 
 from the eighth. They were generally 
 dedicated to the Holy Spirit, and the sym¬ 
 bol of a dove was represented on the 
 fa5ade, or some other con¬ 
 spicuous part of the build¬ 
 ing. The principal hospi¬ 
 tal in Rome is thus desig¬ 
 nated, and in Denmark sev¬ 
 eral rich institutions, in 
 which worthy poor people 
 are cared for, are called 
 “ Dove Brethren Hospi¬ 
 tals.” 
 
 Host. See Mass. 
 
 Hottentots. The first 
 missionary among this de¬ 
 graded race was George 
 Schmidt, a Moravian, who 
 began his labors with the 
 aid of an interpreter in 
 1737. He was successful, 
 but was compelled to give 
 up his work by the inter¬ 
 ference of the Dutch East 
 India Company. In 1792 
 the mission was resumed 
 in the face of great oppo¬ 
 sition. In 1806 the colony 
 came under the British 
 government, and since that 
 time the mission work has 
 gone steadily forward. 
 
 Several societies are now 
 represented in this field, 
 and great good has been 
 accomplished. 
 
 Hours, Canonical. See 
 Canonical Hours. 
 
 the ground floor, and sometimes contain 
 only one apartment. Sometimes a smalt 
 court for the cattle is attached; and in 
 some cases the cattle are housed in the 
 same building, or the people live on a 
 raised platform, and the cattle round them 
 on the ground. (1 Sam. xxviii. 24.) The 
 windows are small apertures high up in 
 the walls, sometimes grated with wood. 
 The roofs are commonly but not always 
 flat, and are usually formed of a plaster of 
 mud and straw laid upon boughs or rafters; 
 
 House. “ Among the 
 people of the East a tent 
 is regarded as a house, but the distinc¬ 
 tion between a permanent dwelling and 
 a temporary shelter had an early origin. 
 The houses of the rural poor in Egypt, as 
 well as in most parts of Syria, Arabia, and 
 Persia, are for the most part mere huts of 
 mud, or sunburnt bricks. In some parts 
 of Palestine and Arabia, stone is used; and 
 in certain districts, caves in the rock are 
 used as dwellings. (Amos v. II.) The 
 houses are usually of one story only, viz., 
 
 HOUSETOP. 
 
 and, upon the flat roofs, tents or “ booths ” 
 of boughs or rushes are often raised to be 
 used as sleeping-places in summer. The 
 difference between the poorest houses and 
 those of the class next above them is great¬ 
 er than between these and the houses of 
 the first rank. The prevailing plan of 
 Eastern houses of this class presents, as 
 was the case in ancient Egypt, a front of 
 wall, whose blank and mean appearance is 
 usually relieved only by the door, and a.. 
 
Hou 
 
 ( 423 ) 
 
 Hov 
 
 few latticed and projecting windows. 
 Within this is a court with apartments 
 opening into it. Over the door is a pro¬ 
 jecting window with a lattice more or less 
 elaborately wrought, which, except in 
 times of public celebrations, is usually 
 closed. (2 Kings ix. 30.) An awning is 
 sometimes drawn over the court, and the 
 floor strewed with carpets on festive oc¬ 
 casions. The stairs to the upper apart¬ 
 ments are in Syria usually in acorner of the 
 court. Around part, if not the whole, of 
 the court is a veranda, often nine or ten 
 feet deep, over which, when there is more 
 than one floor, runs a second gallery of like 
 depth with a balustrade. Bearing in mind 
 that the reception-room is raised above the 
 level of the court, we may, in explaining 
 the circumstances of the miracle of the 
 paralytic (Markii. 3; Luke v. 18), suppose, 
 (1) either that our Lord was standing under 
 the veranda, and the people in front in the 
 court. The bearers of the sick man as¬ 
 cended the stairs to the roof of the 
 house, and taking off a portion of the 
 boarded covering of the veranda, or re¬ 
 moving the awning, in the former case let 
 down the bed through the veranda roof, or, 
 in the latter, down by way of the roof, and 
 deposited it before the Saviour. (2) An¬ 
 other explanation presents itself in con¬ 
 sidering the room where the company 
 were assembled as the ‘ upper chamber,’ 
 and the roof opened for the bed to be the 
 true roof of the house. (3) And one still 
 more simple is found in regarding the 
 house as one of the rude dwellings now to 
 be seen near the sea of Galilee, a mere 
 room ten or twelve feet high, and as many 
 or more square, with no opening except 
 the door. The roof, used as a sleeping- 
 place, is reached by a ladder from the out¬ 
 side, and the bearers of the paralytic, un¬ 
 able to approach the door, would thus 
 have ascended the roof, and, having un¬ 
 covered it, let him down into the room 
 where our Lord was. When there is no 
 second floor, but more than one court, the 
 women’s apartments, hareem , harem , or 
 haram , are usually in the second court; 
 otherwise they form a separate building 
 within the general enclosure, or are above 
 on the first floor. When there is an upper 
 story, the Ka’ah forms the most important 
 apartment, and thus probably answers to 
 the ‘ upper chamber,’ which was often the 
 ‘ guest-chamber.’ (Luke xxii. 12; Acts i. 13; 
 ix. 37; xx, 8.) The windows of the upper 
 rooms often project one or two feet, and 
 form a kiosk or latticed chamber. Such 
 may have been the ‘ chamber in the wall.’ 
 (2 Kings iv. 10, 11.) The 4 lattice’ through 
 which Ahaziah fell, perhaps belonged to an 
 upper chamber of this kind (2 Kings i. 2), 
 
 as also the 4 third loft,’ from which Euty- 
 chus fell. (Acts xx. 9; comp. Jer. xxii. 13.) 
 There are usually no special bedrooms in 
 Eastern houses. The outer doors are closed 
 with a wooden lock, but in some cases the 
 apartments are divided from each other by 
 curtains only. There are no chimneys, but 
 fire is made when required with charcoal in a 
 chafing-dish; or a fire of wood might be 
 kindled in the open court of the.house. (Luke 
 xxii. 55.) Some houses in Cairo have an 
 apartment, open in front to the court, with 
 two or more arches, and a railing; and a pil¬ 
 lar to support the wall above. It was in a 
 chamber of this kind, probably one of the 
 largest size to be found in a palace, that 
 our Lord was being arraigned before the 
 high-priest, at the time when the denial of 
 him by St. Peter took place. He 4 turned 
 and looked ’ on Peter as he stood by the fire 
 in the court (Luke xxii. 56,61; John xviii. 
 24), whilst he himself was in the 4 Hall of 
 Judgment.’ In no point do Oriental domestic 
 habits differ more from European than in 
 the use of the roof. Its flat surface is 
 made useful for various household pur¬ 
 poses, as drying corn, hanging up linen, 
 and preparing figs and raisins. The roofs 
 are used as places of recreation in the 
 evening, and often as sleeping-places at 
 night. (2 Sam. xi. 2; xvi. 22; Dan. iv. 29; 
 1 Sam. ix. 25, 26; Job. xxvii. 18; Prov. 
 xxi. 9.) They were also used as places for 
 devotion, and even idolatrous worship. 
 (Jer. xxxii. 29; xix. 13; 2 Kings xxiii. 12; 
 Zeph. i. 5; Acts x. 9.) At the time of the 
 Feast of Tabernacles, booths were erected 
 by the Jews on the tops of their houses. 
 Protection of the roof by parapets was en¬ 
 joined by the law. (Deut. xxii. 8.) Special 
 apartments were devoted in larger houses 
 to winter and summer uses. (Jer. xxxvi. 22; 
 Amos iii. 15.) The ivory house of Ahab 
 was probably a palace largely ornamented 
 with inlaid ivory. The circumstance of 
 Samson’s pulling down the house by means 
 of the pillars may be explained by the fact 
 of the company being assembled on tiers 
 of balconies above each other, supported 
 by central pillars on the basement; when 
 these were pulled down, the whole of the 
 upper floors would fall, also. (Judg. xvi. 
 26.)”—Smith: Diet . of the Bible . See 
 Architecture, Hebrew. 
 
 Hovey, Alvah, D. D. (Brown Univer¬ 
 sity, Providence, R. I., 1856), LL. D. 
 (Denison University, Granville, O., and 
 Richmond (Va.) College, 1876), Baptist; b. 
 at Greene, Chenango Co., N. Y., March 5, 
 1820; was graduated at Dartmouth College, 
 1844, and at Newton Theological Insti¬ 
 tution, Newton Centre, Mass., 1848, with 
 which seminary he hqs been connected 
 
How 
 
 ( 424 ) 
 
 Hoy 
 
 since 1849; assistant teacher of Hebrew, 
 1349-55 ; professor of church history, 
 1853-55; then of theology and Christian 
 ethics since 1855; since 1S68, president. 
 Among his published works are: The State 
 of the Impenitent Dead (1859); The Miracles 
 of Christ as Attested by the Evangelists 
 (1864); Religion and the State (1874); Man¬ 
 ual of Systematic Theology and Christian 
 Ethics (1877, new ed., 1S80); The Gospel of 
 fohn (1885), published in The Complete 
 Commentary on the New Testament, edited by 
 Dr. Hovey, 1881-90 (Phila., 1890), 7 vols. 
 
 Howard, John, “the philanthropist;” 
 b. at Hackney, near London, Sept. 2, 1726; 
 d. at Cherson, on the Black Sea, Jan. 20, 
 1790. When but nineteen he fell heir to 
 an ample fortune by the death of his 
 father. In 1756, the year of the great 
 earthquake at Lisbon, he set sail for that 
 city. On the voyage the vessel was taken 
 by a French privateer, and Howard was 
 imprisoned at Brest. He suffered severe 
 hardships, and the knowledge thus gained 
 of prison life determined him to do all in 
 his power to bring about a reform in prison 
 management. He visited the penal institu¬ 
 tions of Great Britain and the continent, 
 and by persistent efforts brought about a 
 wonderful change for the better. The last 
 five years of his life he spent in seeking to 
 alleviate the suffering caused by the 
 plague. In this, as in his prison work, he 
 incurred risks to life and health with un¬ 
 faltering courage and devotion. He died 
 from the plague, which he caught from a 
 lady whom he tried to cure. “ The fame 
 of Howard is peculiar. He is remembered 
 not so much for his talents as for that de¬ 
 votion to his suffering fellow-men, in 
 which he expended his fortune and his 
 life.” He published a work on the State of 
 Prisons in England and Wales, etc., and an 
 Account of the Principal Lazarettos in 
 Europe, etc. 
 
 Howe, John, “who has been called the 
 Platonic Puritaii, was b. May 17, 1630, at 
 Loughborough, in Leicestershire, to the 
 living of which parish his father had been 
 presented by Laud; d. in London, April 2, 
 1705. He studied both at Cambridge and 
 Oxford, and after preaching for some time 
 at Winwick, in Lancashire, and Great Tor- 
 rington, in Devonshire, he was appointed 
 domestic chaplain to Cromwell in 1656, in 
 which difficult situation his conduct was 
 such as to win praise even from the en¬ 
 emies of his party. At the restoration he 
 returned to Torrington, where the position 
 he had held during the Commonwealth 
 made him an object of close suspicion to 
 the Government. The Act of Uniformity, 
 
 however, ejected him from his parish 
 Aug. 24, 1662, and he wandered about, 
 preaching in secret till 1671, when he was 
 invited by Lord Massarene, of Antrim 
 Castle, in Ireland, to become his domestic 
 chaplain. Enjoying there the friendship 
 of the bishop of that diocese, and liberty 
 to preach in all the churches under his ju¬ 
 risdiction, he wrote his Vanity of Man as 
 Mortal, and began his greatest work, The 
 Good Man the Living Temple of God (1676- 
 1702), which occupies one of the highest 
 places in Puritan theology. In 1675 he 
 was called to be pastor of the dissenting 
 .congregation in Silver Street, London, and 
 went thither in the beginning of 1676. In 
 1677 he published, at the request of Mr. 
 Boyle, The Reconcilableness of God's Pre¬ 
 science of the Sins of Men with the Wisdom 
 of His Counsels and Exhortations ; in 1681, 
 Thoughtfulness for the Morrow ; in 1682, 
 Self-dedication; in 1683, Union Among Prot¬ 
 estants ; and in 1684, The Redeemer s 
 Tears Wept over Lost Souls. In 1685 he 
 was invited by Lord Wharton to travel 
 with him on the continent; and after visit¬ 
 ing the principal cities, he resolved, owing 
 to the state of England, to settle for a time 
 at Utrecht, where he was admitted to sev¬ 
 eral interviews with the Prince of Orange. 
 In 1687 the Declaration for Liberty of Con¬ 
 science induced him to return to England, 
 and at the revolution next year he headed 
 the deputation of dissenting clergymen 
 when they brought their address to the 
 throne. Besides smaller works, he pub¬ 
 lished, in 1693, Carnality of Religious Con¬ 
 tention; in 1694-95, several treatises on 
 the Trinity; in 1699, The Redeemer's Do¬ 
 minion over the Invisible World; and he 
 continued writing till 1705, when he pub- 
 published Patience in Expectation of Future 
 Blessedness." —Chambers: Cyclopcedia. He 
 was one of the most profound of the Puri¬ 
 tan writers. Robert Hall said of him, “ I 
 have learned more from John Howe than 
 from any author I ever read. There is an 
 astonishing magnificence about his concep¬ 
 tions.” See Rogers: Life of John Howe 
 (London, 1836). 
 
 Howson, John Saul, Dean of Chester, 
 b. 1816; d. 1886. Educated at Cambridge; 
 he was appointed principal of Liverpool 
 College, 1849; and dean of Chester, 1887. 
 He is best known as the joint author with 
 W. J. Conybeare of The Life and Epistles 
 of St. Paul. He was also a contributor to 
 Smith’s Diet, of the Bible and the Speaker s 
 Commentary. He was active in establish¬ 
 ing the order of Deaconesses in connection 
 with the Church of England. 
 
 Hoyt, Wayland, D. D. (University of 
 
Hug 
 
 ( 425 ) 
 
 Hug 
 
 Rochester, N. Y., 1877), Baptist; b. at 
 Cleveland, O., Feb. 18, 1838. He was 
 graduated at Brown UniveisLy i860, and 
 at Rochester Theological Seminary, 1868. 
 He has occupied pastorates at Pittsfield, 
 Mass., 1863; Cincinnati, O., 1864; Brook¬ 
 lyn, N. Y., 1867; New York City, 1873; 
 Boston, Mass., 1874; Brooklyn, 1876; 
 Philadelphia, 1882; Minneapolis, Minn., 
 1890. He is the author of Hints and Helps 
 in the Christian Life (1808); Present Lessons 
 from Distant Days (1881); Glea?ns from 
 Paufs Prison (1882); Along the Pilgrimage 
 
 <1885). 
 
 Hughes, John, a distinguished Roman 
 Catholic prelate, and the first archbishop 
 of New York; b. at Annaloghan, Ireland, 
 June 24, 1797; d. in New York City, Jan. 
 3, 1864. He was ordained priest in 1826, 
 and labored in Philadelphia until 1837, 
 when he was appointed assistant bishop of 
 New York. He became bishop in 1842, 
 and in 1851 the see of New York was rais¬ 
 ed to metropolitan rank. He was a ready 
 controversialist, and did all he could to 
 break down the system of public schools, 
 and secure the support of Roman Catholic 
 schools through the public treasury. He 
 established (1841) St. John’s College at 
 Fordham, and laid the corner-stone (1855) 
 of the cathedral on Fifth Avenue, which 
 was dedicated in 1879. No Romanist in 
 this country has ever exerted a more com¬ 
 manding influence. 
 
 Hugo of St. Victor, a famous theologian 
 of the twelfth century; b. about 1097; d. 
 Feb. 11, 1141. He was an intimate friend 
 of Bernard of Clairvaux, and his learning 
 gained him the title of the “ second St. 
 Augustine.” Suffering from ill-health his 
 life was spent in teaching and studious re¬ 
 tirement. His writings are numerous and 
 marked by mystical speculations. 
 
 Huguenots, the name given to the Prot¬ 
 estant party in France in the sixteenth 
 century. The word is supposed to have 
 been derived from the German Eidgenossen , 
 which means ‘‘confederates.” When first 
 it was adopted by the French, it had the 
 form of Eguenots, and was changed later 
 into that of Huguenots. The Huguenots 
 first became conspicuous in France in the 
 reign of Henry II., when a church was 
 established for them in Paris. The acqui¬ 
 sition to their party of Antoine of Bour¬ 
 bon, who afterwards became king of 
 Navarre, gave them fresh influence; but, 
 at the same time, the Cardinal of Lorraine 
 was plotting persecution with which to 
 root them out of the country. The pope 
 issued a bull against the heretics; but so 
 
 powerful had their party become that they 
 dared to refuse to recognize it. Henry 
 was very angry, and by the most severe 
 measures tried to carry out the pope’s 
 orders. The Huguenots, however, appeal¬ 
 ed for help to the Protestants of Germany, 
 and thus began that long, fierce religious 
 struggle, of terrible persecution on the 
 one hand, and self-defence on the other, 
 which for years desolated France, and had 
 a terrible ending in the Massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew in 1572. With the accession 
 of Henry IV. and the publication of the 
 Edict of Nantes, however, the fortunes of 
 the Protestants improved. Though terri¬ 
 bly lessened by the massacre, they rallied 
 again under the toleration they received at 
 the Court. But about the year 1619, in 
 the reign of Louis XIII., fresh quarrels 
 arose between the Huguenots and the Cath¬ 
 olics. The former took up the cause of 
 the Protestants of Bearn, who were sup¬ 
 pressed and deprived of political rights by 
 the Court party, and, as punishment, the 
 Catholic party besieged the town of Ro¬ 
 chelle, which in the last reign had been 
 granted, with some others, to the Protes¬ 
 tants. The Catholics were defeated, and 
 were obliged to sign the Peace of Mont¬ 
 pellier in 1622, in which the Edict of Nantes 
 was confirmed, and the Protestants were 
 allowed to assemble in religious, but not 
 political, meetings. As on previous occa¬ 
 sions, however, these engagements were 
 practically ignored by the Catholic mon¬ 
 arch. The head of the Catholic party at 
 this time was Du Plessis, who soon after 
 obtained a cardinal’s hat, and took the 
 name of Richelieu. From that time he 
 proved a most powerful enemy to the 
 Huguenots, and in 1627 planned a siege of 
 Rochelle, still the Huguenot stronghold. 
 James I. sent a small army to their aid, 
 under the Duke of Buckingham; but it re¬ 
 turned without accomplishing anything. 
 In 1628 Richelieu laid siege to Rochelle, 
 and another expedition was on the point of 
 leaving England, when the Duke of Buck¬ 
 ingham, commander of the troops, was 
 assassinated at Portsmouth. They went 
 across the Channel, fired a few ineffectual 
 shots, and returned. At the end of a year 
 the town yielded, on account of the rav¬ 
 ages that famine had made among the in¬ 
 habitants and defenders. In 1629 De 
 Rohan, the head of the Huguenot party, 
 who had led and governed them with great 
 wisdom, was forced to yield, and from 
 that time they ceased to have any military 
 or political power in the State. To the 
 end of the reign of Louis XIII., and 
 through much of that of Louis XIV., they 
 were allowed considerable liberty of con¬ 
 science, and were accordingly peaceable 
 
Hul 
 
 ( 426 ) 
 
 Hum 
 
 and submissive to the Government. But 
 Louis XIV., from the beginning of his 
 reign, regarded them with dislike, and 
 toward the end of his reign attempted 
 their final and total suppression. Their 
 clergy were forbidden to wear the ecclesi¬ 
 astical habit, or to attend the sick; their 
 professors were not allowed to teach either 
 philosophy or languages; and in 1685, by 
 command of the king, the Edict of Nantes 
 was revoked. This act proved the death¬ 
 blow of the Huguenots in France. Vast 
 numbers of them, probably nearly a mill¬ 
 ion, including some of the most indus¬ 
 trious and skilful of the population, left 
 the country, many settling in London. 
 (Nantes, Edict of.) The rest worshiped 
 in lonely places, but they were subject to 
 the most frightful persecutions, and cap¬ 
 ture exposed their ministers to the fate of 
 being broken on the wheel. In 1787 an 
 Edict of Toleration allowed the registry of 
 Protestant births, marriages, and deaths, 
 and forbade the disturbance of their wor¬ 
 ship. But the mischief had been done, 
 and it is the opinion of all of the best his¬ 
 torians that France has never recovered, 
 in national character and other ways, the 
 loss of so many of the most serious, de¬ 
 vout, and industrious of her citizens. In 
 1802 the Reformed Church was recognized 
 by law.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Several thousands of the Huguenots 
 came to America. They made settlements 
 in New York, in Maryland, Virginia, and 
 South Carolina. The French Church in 
 Charleston is the only one that survives 
 as a distinct congregation. See H. M. 
 Baird: History of the Rise of the Huguenots 
 of France , 1512-74 (New York, 1879), 2 
 vols.; R. L. Poole: The Htiguenots in 
 France after the Revocation (New York, 
 1S74); C. W. Baird: History of Huguenot 
 Emigration to America (New York, 1885), 
 2 vols. 
 
 Hulsean Lectures. The Rev. John 
 Hulse,a graduate of Cambridge, who died 
 in 1789, left a property in trust to the uni¬ 
 versity, the income of which now amounts 
 to about $5,000 a year, that is in part used 
 as the endowment of what is now called 
 the Hulsean Lecturer, “ who has to deliver 
 and publish not less than four sermons, nor 
 more than six, during his year of office, 
 upon Christian evidences, or some diffi¬ 
 culty of Holy Scripture.” 
 
 Hulse, Rev. John. See Hulsean Lect¬ 
 ures. 
 
 Humanists (from the Latin, liter<2 hu- 
 maniores , polite letters), “was the name 
 assumed in the beginning of the sixteenth 
 
 century by a party which, with Erasmus 
 and Reuchlin at its head, was especially 
 devoted to the cultivation of classical lit¬ 
 erature, and which, as not unfrequently 
 happens in the enthusiasm of a new pur¬ 
 suit, was arrayed in opposition to the re¬ 
 ceived system of the schools, not alone in 
 the study of the classical languages, but 
 even in philosophy, and eventually in the¬ 
 ology.”— McClintock and Strong: Ency. 
 See Gieseler: Ch. Hist. iii. 406 sq. ; Kurtz: 
 Ch. Hist. ii. 35, 127; Geiger: Renaissance 
 tind Humanismus (Berlin, 1882). 
 
 Humanitarians, a name applied to those 
 who consider Christ as a mere man, and to 
 those who believe that the human race may 
 attain perfection without superhuman aid. 
 See Positivists. 
 
 Hume, David, “ the philosopher and his¬ 
 torian, was b. at Edinburgh on April 26, 
 1711; d. there, Aug. 25, 1776. His father 
 was the laird or proprietor of the estate 
 of Ninewells in Berwickshire; but David, 
 being the youngest son, had to make his 
 own fortune with no other assistance 
 than an education and the influence of 
 his respectable family. He was educated 
 at home and at the College of Edin¬ 
 burgh. His father designed law as his 
 profession, and he submitted to the initial 
 steps of the proper practical training, but 
 it was not a pursuit to his liking. Desert¬ 
 ing it he experimented on a mercantile 
 house in Bristol, but commerce was not 
 more congenial to him than jurisprudence, 
 and he gave it a very short trial. He now 
 became a musty student, devoting himself 
 to books with no settled practical object 
 before him. He has recorded his suffer¬ 
 ings at this time from despondency and 
 depression of spirits, caused apparently 
 by the effects of monotonous study on the 
 stomach. At 23 years of age he went to 
 France and lived some time in La Fleche, 
 where he describes himself as wandering 
 about in solitude and dreaming the dream 
 of his philosophy. In 1739 he published 
 the first and second books of his Treatise on 
 Hut?ian Natzire —the germ of his philos¬ 
 ophy, and still, perhaps, the best exposition 
 of it, since it has there a freshness and de¬ 
 cision approaching to paradox, which he 
 modified in his later works. Although the 
 dawn of a new era in philosophy, this book 
 was little noticed. It was a work of dem¬ 
 olition. By separating the impressions or 
 ideas created on the thinking mind by an 
 external world from the absolute existence 
 of that world itself, he showed that almost 
 everything concerning the latter was taken 
 for granted, and he demanded proof of its 
 existence of a kind not yet afforded. It 
 
Hum 
 
 ( 427 ) 
 
 Hum 
 
 was thus that he set a whole army of phi¬ 
 losophers at work, either to refute what 
 he had said, or seriously to fill up the 
 blanks which he discovered, and hence he 
 originated both the Scotch and the German 
 schools of metaphysicians. In 1741 and 
 1742 he published two small volumes called 
 Essays, Moral and Political; they were 
 marked by learning and thought, and ele¬ 
 gantly written, but are not among the more 
 remarkable of his works. He felt keenly 
 at this time the want of some fixed lucra¬ 
 tive pursuit, and his longing for independ¬ 
 ence was the cause of a sad interruption 
 to his studious and philosophical pursuits. 
 He was induced to become the companion 
 or guardian of an insane nobleman, and had 
 to mix with the jealousies and mercenary 
 objects of those who naturally gather 
 round such a center. In 1747 he obtained 
 a rather more congenial appointment as 
 secretary to Gen. St. Clair, whom he ac¬ 
 companied in the expedition to the coast 
 of France and the attack on Port l’Orient, 
 the depot of the French East India Com¬ 
 pany; this affair had no important results, 
 but it gave to Hume a notion of actual 
 warfare. Next year he accompanied the 
 general in a diplomatic mission to France, 
 and as he traveled he took notes of his im¬ 
 pressions of Holland, Germany, and Italy, 
 which are published in his Life and Corre¬ 
 spondence. In 1751 he published his In¬ 
 quiry into the Principles of Morals , a work 
 of great originality, and one of the clearest 
 expositions of the leading principles of 
 what is termed the utilitarian system. At 
 the same time he intended to publish his 
 Dialogues concerning Natural Religion , but 
 his friends, alarmed by the skeptical spirit 
 pervading them, prevailed on him to lay 
 them aside, and they were not made pub¬ 
 lic till after his death. In his 35th year 
 he had unsuccessfully competed for the 
 chair of moral philosophy in Edinburgh, 
 and at this period we find him unsuccessful 
 in an attempt to obtain the chair of logic 
 in Glasgow. Next year, in 1752, appeared 
 his Political Discourses. Here again he 
 made an era in literature, for in this little 
 work he announced those principles of po¬ 
 litical economy comprehending the doc¬ 
 trine of free-trade, which it fell to his 
 friend, Adam Smith, more fully r and com¬ 
 prehensively to develop. He was appoint¬ 
 ed at this time keeper of the advocates’ 
 library with a very small salary, which he 
 devoted to a charitable purpose. It was 
 here that, surrounded with books, he 
 formed the design of writing the history of 
 England. In 1754 he issued a quarto vol¬ 
 ume of the History of the Stuarts , contain¬ 
 ing the Reigns of James I. and Charles I ., 
 and presently completed this portion of 
 
 the work in a second volume, bringing it 
 down to the revolution. He then went 
 backwards through the house of Tudor, 
 and completed the work from the Roman 
 period downwards in 1762. While so em¬ 
 ployed he published Four Dissertations: 
 the Natural History of Religion ’ of the Pas¬ 
 sions ; of Tragedy; of the Standard of 
 Taste (1777). Two other dissertations in¬ 
 tended to accompany these were canceled 
 by him after they were printed—they are 
 On Suicide and The Immortality of the Sotil y 
 and were subsequently printed in his 
 works.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. In 1763 
 he went to France as secretary to Lord 
 Hertford’s embassy and was received with 
 distinguished honor by the most eminent 
 French scholars and writers. Returning 
 to Edinburgh in 1769, he there spent the 
 remainder of his life. Hume is an agnos¬ 
 tic who raised difficult questions, but the 
 weakness and falsity of his positions as re¬ 
 lated to matters of Christian philosophy 
 and faith have often been shown. An edi¬ 
 tion of Hume’s Philosophical Works were 
 published in Edinburgh, 1826, 4 vols. See 
 McCosh: The Scottish Philosophy (New 
 York, 1874). 
 
 Humiliati, the name of a religious order 
 confirmed by Innocent III. in 1201. The 
 order became very degenerate, and in 1569 
 Cardinal Borromeo attempted to reform it, 
 but his efforts were repulsed with an at¬ 
 tempt against his life, and in 1571 the 
 order was dissolved by Pius V. A female 
 order of Humiliati, called also the “ Nuns 
 of Blassoni,” was founded by Clara Blas- 
 soni of Milan in 1150, and still exists. 
 
 Humility, “a virtue opposed to pride 
 and, self-conceit, by reason of which a man 
 thinks of himself no more highly than he 
 ought to think (Rom. xii. 3), and places 
 himself in subjection to him to whom he 
 owes subjection. This person is primarily 
 God, so that humility is, first of all, the 
 sense of absolute dependence upon him. 
 In the strict sense of the term, humility is 
 proper only in man’s relations to God, and 
 modesty in man’s relations to man (De 
 Wette). It is not merely the sense of God’s 
 infinitude over against human limitation, 
 but of God’s holiness over against man’s 
 moral deficiency and guilt. Sophocles 
 came nearest to the true conception of 
 humility in classical antiquity. It runs 
 like a thread through all the piety of the 
 Old Testament (Gen. xvii. 1 ; Mic. vi. 8} 
 down to John the Baptist. (Matt. iii. 2.) 
 Christ, although without sin, was imbued 
 with childlike humility (Matt. xix. 17 * 
 John v. 30), and made it a condition of en¬ 
 trance into the kingdom of heaven. (Matt, 
 
Hum 
 
 ( 428 ) 
 
 Hur 
 
 v. 3; xviii. 2.) It must actuate the Chris¬ 
 tian at all times, and remind him to work 
 out his salvation with fear and trembling. 
 (Phil. ii. 12.) Love, which is the pulse- 
 beat of the Christian life, is influenced by 
 it, and held back from the errors of mys¬ 
 ticism and quietism, and converts it into 
 adoring reverence for God, trust in and 
 obedience to him, even in sufferings. (1 Pet. 
 v. 6.) A sham humility betrays itself in 
 its behavior to mankind. (Luke xviii. 13 
 sqq .) It is free from all vain self-conceit, 
 but, at the same time, is conscious of 
 man’s dignity in the sight of God, and may 
 be said to ascend upward on the six steps of 
 patience, meekness, kindness, friendliness, 
 peaceableness, and placability (Arndt )— 
 virtues which the apostles so urgently in¬ 
 sist upon. See the various works on 
 Christian ethics .”—£. Sc/nvarz, trans. in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Encv. 
 
 Humphrey, Heman, D. D., b. in West 
 Simsbury, Conn., March 26, 1779; d. at 
 Pittsfield, Mass., 1859. After graduating 
 at Yale College in 1805, he was pastor of 
 the Congregational church at Fairfield, 
 Conn., then at Pittsfield, Mass., and after¬ 
 ward, for twenty-three years (1823-45), 
 president of Amherst College. He exerted 
 a wide influence in religious and educa¬ 
 tional circles, and wrote extensively. 
 Among the books of which he was author 
 is a Tour in France, Great Britain , and 
 Belgium .. He wrote pamphlets, that had 
 a wide circulation, against slavery and in¬ 
 temperance. 
 
 Hungary. Of its population of 15,509,455, 
 the Roman Catholics claim 1,599,628; the 
 Greek Catholics, 5,133; Armenian Cath¬ 
 olics, connected with the Greek Church, 
 2,589,319; Lutherans, 2,031,243; Calvinists, 
 54,822; Unitarians, 553,641. 
 
 Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of, b. 
 at Stanton Harold, Leicestershire, Aug. 
 24, 1707. Her father was the second Earl 
 Ferrers, and in 1727 she married the ninth 
 Earl of Huntingdon. Circumstances com¬ 
 bined to deepen the religious impressions 
 of early life, and after the death of her 
 husband she took a great interest in the 
 revival movement under Wesley and White- 
 field, and actively aided them. She made 
 Whitefield her chaplain, and he often 
 preached to fashionable audiences in her 
 London home. A large part of her income 
 was spent in building chapels and support¬ 
 ing their ministers. In 1768 she opened a 
 theological seminary at Trevecca, in South 
 Wales, which after her death was removed 
 to Chestnut Herts. In 1779 the prohibition 
 of her chaplains from preaching in the 
 
 Pantheon, a large building in London, com¬ 
 pelled her to take advantage of the Tolera¬ 
 tion Act, and she withdrew from the Church 
 of England. Her chapels were bequeathed 
 to trustees, and most of them are now 
 virtually Congregational churches. Fond 
 of leadership, and imperious in disposition. 
 Lady Huntingdon was a devout, earnest, 
 and self-sacrificing Christian woman. 
 
 Huntington, Rt. Rev. Frederick Dan, 
 S. T. D. (Amherst College, 1855), Episco¬ 
 palian; b. at Hadley, Mass., May 28, 1819; 
 was graduated from Amherst College, 
 Mass., 1839, and at the Divinity School of 
 Harvard University, 1842. He was pastor 
 of a Unitarian church in Boston until 1855, 
 and professor of Christian morals and 
 preacher to Harvard University until i860, 
 when he took orders in the Episcopal 
 Church, and from 1861 was rector of Em¬ 
 manuel Church, Boston, until 1869, when 
 he was consecrated bishop of Central New 
 York. Among his published works are: 
 Lessons on the Parables of our Saviour 
 (1856); Divine Aspects of Huma 7 i Society 
 (i860); The Fitness of Christianity to Man 
 (1878); Ser 77 ions on the Christian Year 
 (1881), 2 vols. 
 
 Hupfeld, Hermann, a great German ex- 
 egete; b. at Marburg, 1796; d. at Halle, 
 1866. In 1843 he became the successor of 
 Gesenius at Halle. “ He did not belong to 
 the strict evangelical school, but he was 
 the friend of a living biblical Christianity, 
 the foe of all impiety, and a strict lover of 
 truth and justice. Tholuck pronounced his 
 funeral oration. His greatest work was 
 the Tra 7 tslation a 7 id Commentary 071 the 
 Psalms (Gotha, 1855-1861). The translation 
 is prosaic, but in textual criticism it is un¬ 
 surpassed among the works on that portion 
 of Scripture.”— Kamphause 7 i in Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency ., vol. ii., p. 1043. He wrote 
 on Genesis , regarding it as the work of an 
 original Elohist, added to by a Jehovist 
 editor. See Memoir , by Riehm (Halle, 
 1867). 
 
 Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester ; 
 b. 1720; d. 1808. In 1765 he was made 
 preacher of Lincoln’s Inn; archdeacon of 
 Gloucester, 1767; bishop of Lichfield, 
 1 775; bishop of Worcester, 1781. He was 
 a polished scholar, and as a writer is best 
 known as editor of Dr. Warburton’s works, 
 1788. 
 
 Hurst, John Fletcher, D. D., LL. D. 
 (both from Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
 Penn., 1S66 and 1877), Methodist; b. at 
 Salem, Md., Aug. 17, 1834; was graduat¬ 
 ed at Dickinson College, 1854 ; studied 
 
Hus 
 
 ( 429 ) 
 
 Hus 
 
 theology at Halle and Heidelberg, 1856- 
 1857; in the pastorate, 1858-66; professor 
 of theology in the Mission Institute at 
 Bremen, 1866-69, and after its removal to 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1869-71; professor 
 of historical theology in Drew Theological 
 Seminary, Madison, N. J., 1871-80, and 
 president from 1873; bishop of the Metho¬ 
 dist-Episcopal Church, 1880. Besides val¬ 
 uable translations, he is the author of: His¬ 
 tory of Rationalism (1866) ; Outlines of 
 Church History (1874, 3d ed., 1880); Short 
 History of the Reformation (1884), etc. 
 
 Huss, John, “an eminent reformer and 
 martyr, the contemporary and friend of 
 Jerome of Prague; b. in 1369, at Hussi- 
 netz,Bohemia; d. at the stake, in Constance, 
 Germany, July 6, 1415. He appeared in 
 Bohemia about the same time that Wycliffe 
 died in England. At first he viewed the 
 doctrines of Wycliffe with disapprobation; 
 but his daily study of the Bible, and the 
 flagrant abuses of the papacy, soon opened 
 his eyes, and he early began to attack even 
 the highest clergy on the scandal of their 
 lives, and the gross corruptions of their 
 system. He was thereupon summoned to 
 Rome, but declined to obey the summons. 
 He felt it his duty, however, to appear be¬ 
 fore the council which was held at Con¬ 
 stance for ‘ the healing of divisions and 
 averting the dangers of Christendom ; ’ 
 and, though lie was provided with a safe- 
 conduct from the Emperor Sigismund, he 
 was arrested soon after his arrival in that 
 city, and was thrown into a dungeon, to 
 which he was speedily followed by his 
 friend Jerome. For a whole year he re¬ 
 mained in his dungeon, heavily ironed, 
 and chained to a beam. At last, on the 7th 
 of June, 1415, he was brought before the 
 council. Recantation or death were the 
 alternatives offered him. ‘ Even suppos¬ 
 ing,’ said a doctor to him, ‘ that the coun¬ 
 cil were to affirm that you had only one 
 eye, when you have in reality two, it 
 would be your duty to agree with it in the 
 assertion.’ 4 So long as God shall pre¬ 
 serve my reason,’ replied Huss, 4 I shall 
 take care not to assert any such thing.’ 
 On the 6th of July, his forty-second birth¬ 
 day, he was ordered to be burned; and the 
 sentence was executed the same day, his 
 ashes being afterward cast into the Rhine. 
 After his death a civil war broke out in 
 Bohemia, in which those who followed 
 the martyr’s doctrines, and who were 
 called Hussites , fought against the Emperor 
 Sigismund, who had violated his safe-con¬ 
 duct to Huss. This war, which is known 
 in history as the Hussite War , lasted till 
 1437. Huss, next perhaps after Wycliffe, 
 is regarded as the most eminent of the re¬ 
 
 formers before Luther. The Hussites still 
 existed in the time of Luther, and were 
 then known as the Bohemian Brethren ."— 
 Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 In regard to the death and character of 
 Huss, Lechler says (Schaff-Herzog: Ency., 
 vol. ii., p. 1045): “Valid ground for the 
 sentence of condemnation, even according 
 to the canons of that day, there was none. 
 Huss denied holding to Wycliffe’s views 
 against transubstantiation, and his views 
 upon the Church he founded upon Augus¬ 
 tine. He then died because he based his 
 reform of the Church upon conscience and 
 Scripture, and not upon ecclesiastical 
 authority. Judged by the canons of law 
 then prevailing, Huss’s death was a judi¬ 
 cial murder. Huss regarded the Scriptures 
 as an infallible authority, and the supreme 
 standard of conduct. The other main sub¬ 
 ject of his teaching was the nature of the 
 true Church, which, with Wycliffe, he de¬ 
 fined to be the body of the elect. Church 
 membership or ecclesiastical dignities were 
 no infallible sign of election. He approved 
 the communion under both kinds to the 
 laity, but did not oppose the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation, as was charged by the 
 council. John Huss was not an original, 
 creative mind. As a thinker he had neither 
 speculative talent nor constructive faculty. 
 In comparison with Wycliffe he is a moon 
 with borrowed light. Nor was he by nat¬ 
 ure a strong character, twice hardened, 
 and keen as steel. Rather was he a feeble 
 and tender spirit, more sensitive than de¬ 
 signed for heroic deed. But with his ten¬ 
 derness there was combined moral tenacity, 
 indomitable constancy, and inflexible firm¬ 
 ness. If we add to these characteristics his 
 purity and humility, his manly fear of 
 God and tender conscientiousness, we 
 have in Huss a man to love and admire. 
 Seldom have the power of conscience and 
 the imperial strength of a faith rooted in 
 Christ asserted themselves in so command¬ 
 ing and heroic a manner.” See Gillett: 
 Life a fid Times of John Huss (Boston, 
 1861), 2 vols. (3d ed., 1870). 
 
 Hussites. See above. 
 
 Husks, in Luke xv. 16, does not mean 
 the outer covering of the ears of corn, but 
 the fruit of the carob-tree, which is com¬ 
 mon in Palestine. It is like a crooked 
 bean-pod, and is filled with brown, glossy 
 seeds, that are used to fatten cattle and 
 swine, and as food for poor people. The 
 carob belongs to the same family as the 
 locust, and some suppose that they were 
 the “ locusts ” upon which John the Bap¬ 
 tist subsisted. Hence, this fruit is often 
 called “ St. John’s Bread.” 
 
Hut 
 
 ( 430 ) 
 
 Hym 
 
 Hutchinson, Anne, was b. in Lincoln¬ 
 shire, Eng., 1591; emigrated to Boston, 
 1634, and murdered by the Indians in 
 Westchester county, New York, in August, 
 1643. She was a woman of masculine 
 vigor of mind, and assertive in proclaim¬ 
 ing her views of doctrine and spiritual ex¬ 
 perience. She opened her house in Boston 
 for weekly meetings, and gathered quite a 
 company of followers. She was excom¬ 
 municated , from Dr. Cotton Mather’s 
 church for preaching antinomian errors, 
 and was ordered by the court to leave the 
 colony. She first went to Rhode Island, 
 where she again came under the ban of the 
 authorities, and finally sought a home in 
 Westchester, near New York. 
 
 Hutchinson, John, Church of England, 
 layman ; b. at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, 
 1674; d. Aug. 28, 1727. Having procured 
 a sinecure position under the Government, 
 with a salary of £200, he devoted himself 
 to study. He gained an extensive knowl¬ 
 edge of natural history, and was well 
 versed in the Hebrew Scriptures. In his 
 book called Moses's Principia , and in other 
 works, he developed peculiar philosophical 
 and philological opinions. He held that 
 the Old Testament should be interpreted 
 typically, and that it contains a complete 
 system of natural history, theology, and 
 religion. Those who sympathized with his 
 views were called Hutchinsonians. They 
 numbered many honored names—Bishops 
 Horne and Horseley, Parkhurst, Romaine, 
 etc. See his Philosophical and Theological 
 Works (London, 3d ed., 1748-49, 12 vols., 
 sup., 1765, with Life> by R. Spearman). 
 
 Hutchinsonians. See above. 
 
 Hutten, Ulrich von, b. at Steckelberg 
 in Hesse-Cassel, April 22, 1488; d. near 
 Zurich, Aug. 19, 1523. At ten years of 
 age he was placed in the monastery of 
 Fulda, but escaped from it and came to 
 Erfurt in 1504. After studying in several 
 universities he was made Doctor of Law 
 at Pavia, in 1517. The assassination of the 
 head of the Hutten family by the Duke of 
 Wiirtemburg, caused by a criminal intrigue, 
 stirred the vengeance of Ulrich, who pub¬ 
 lished a series of satirical pamphlets against 
 the guilty tyrant. They gained him popu¬ 
 larity, and he continued to write in behalf 
 of the freedom of the people from the 
 power of Rome. He favored a union of 
 the German princes against the pope. 
 Hutten joined Franz von Sickingen in his 
 struggle with the Elector of Treves. The 
 failure of their plans caused him to seek 
 refuge in Switzerland, where he died. 
 “ Though often working in unison with the 
 
 Reformers, Ulrich von Hutten was not a 
 Reformer himself; he was only a humorist 
 and a knight-errant.”— Klupfel. 
 
 Hutter ( hoot-ter ) Leonhard, b. at Nel- 
 lingen, near Ulm, Wiirtemburg, 1563; d. 
 at Wittenberg, Oct. 23, 1616, where he was 
 appointed professor of theology in 1596. 
 He was a typical representative of the 
 Lutheran Orthodoxy of the older form. 
 He was a voluminous writer, and his Com¬ 
 pendium Locorum Theologicorum (1610) 
 superseded Melanchthon’s Loci , and has 
 passed through many editions. 
 
 Huz'zab, in Nahum ii. 7, is considered 
 by some the name of a queen of Nineveh. 
 Others take it as a geographical term mean¬ 
 ing “the country of Zab,” or a phrase of 
 speech meaning, “ And it is decreed.” 
 
 Hyacinthe, Father (full name, Charles 
 Jean Marie Augustin HyacintheLoyson), 
 b. at Orleans, France, March 10, 1827. 
 He studied theology in the Seminary of St. 
 Sulpice, Paris, and was ordained to the 
 Roman Catholic priesthood in 1851. He 
 became superior of his order (Dominican), 
 in Paris, and from 1864 to 1869 was metro¬ 
 politan preacher at the cathedral of Notre 
 Dame, and became famous for his pulpit 
 eloquence. In 1869 he published a mani¬ 
 festo against the usurpations of Rome, and 
 after the decree of infallibility was pro¬ 
 nounced he devoted himself to preaching 
 Catholic reform. He married an American 
 lady in 1872, and after preaching at Geneva, 
 Switzerland, five years, he returned to 
 Paris in 1877, and in 1879 opened a f fee 
 church known as the Catholic Gallican 
 Church, which now numbers over one 
 thousand members. He is the author of 
 numerous works, some of which have been 
 translated into English: Catholic Pefor 7 n; 
 Letters , Frag?nents , etc ., introduced by Dean 
 Stanley (London, 1874); Conferences , 1878 
 (London, 1879). 
 
 Hymnology. According to analogy in 
 the use of words, Hymnology is the science 
 pertaining to hymns. But Webster's Dic¬ 
 tionary tells us that this word is employed 
 likewise to signify a treatise on hymns. 
 The same authority applies the term to 
 the body of hymns or sacred lyrics com¬ 
 posed by several authors of a particular 
 country or period, considered with respect 
 to quantity and quality. With this most 
 of our manuals agree. 
 
 Our first duty, therefore, would be to 
 frame a definition having general fitness to 
 the matter in hand: What is a hymn? 
 Here opinions, like the tastes which lie be¬ 
 hind them, vary widely. Worcester says. 
 
Hym 
 
 ( 43i ) 
 
 Hym 
 
 in brief phraseology, it is a divine song, a 
 song of praise. Then it has to follow that 
 
 Prayer is the soul’s sincere desire ” is no 
 hymn. Then the Imperial Dictionary says 
 that a hymn is “ a song or ode in honor of 
 God, or in honor of some deity; a sacred 
 lyric; a song of praise, adoration, or 
 thanksgiving.” Thus we surrender “Just 
 as I am, without one plea.” It becomes 
 evident that no formula is elastic enough 
 to satisfy our ordinary conceptions of what 
 the churches have been singing. 
 
 Nor do the larger encyclopaedias bring 
 us much help. Kitto says that the term 
 signifies “ a song of praise or thanksgiving 
 to God.” At once we wonder what to do 
 with “ How blest the righteous when he 
 dies,” for it has in it neither the name of 
 God nor the mention of gratitude. Smith's 
 Dictionary of the Bible announces that the 
 word occurs in English only twice in the 
 Old Testament and only twice in the New; 
 so'the mistake is made of leaving out two 
 other instances that have to be indicated 
 in a foot-note. It shows the distinction 
 between a hymn and a psalm by stating 
 there is a difference both in form and in 
 spirit, and it makes an excellent suggestion 
 concerning the music, proving that in 
 Greece the eight old tunes which satisfied 
 the exigencies of church use had much to 
 do with changes in later liturgies in re¬ 
 spect to metre. A quiet avoidance of any 
 attempt at definition marks the wisdom of 
 those who compiled that scholarly book. 
 The Schaff-Herzog Ency. makes two efforts 
 in our favor; one of which asserts the in¬ 
 sufficiency of the dictionary definitions, 
 the other of which furnishes one of its own: 
 “ A hymn is a spiritual meditation in 
 rhythmical prose or verse.” Now, al¬ 
 though the whole matter of singing is left 
 out, as well as all suggestion of united or 
 public use, and everything is narrowed 
 down to a thought that is more akin to 
 musing than to music, and to prayer than 
 to praise, we are free to say that this def¬ 
 inition is better than the rest. Most likely 
 it is as good as anything as a formula for 
 flexible employment. 
 
 It is fair to state, moreover, that this 
 writer repudiates the famous criteria given 
 by St. Augustine. In the course of his 
 comment on Psalm lxxii., this venerated 
 father of the Church wrote that hymns 
 were “ praises of God accompanied with 
 singing.” And then he added in terse Lat¬ 
 in: “ If it be praise, and not God’s praise, 
 it is not a hymn; if it be praise and God’s 
 praise, and not sung, it is not a hymn; it is 
 necessary that it should have these three— 
 God, praise, and singing.” A piece of 
 poetry, in many instances, is a meditation 
 when it could not by any classification be 
 
 called a hymn. Dr. Muhlenberg was right 
 when he entered his protest against “ I 
 would not live alway,” as worthy of a 
 place in a hymnal; it is an exquisite poem, 
 but a very poor hymn. 
 
 We turn from this branch of the subject 
 with an abrupt admission that as yet the 
 science pertaining to hymns has not ad¬ 
 vanced enough to draw its lines with much 
 rigidness. A classification of the hymns 
 now in use could be made only with the 
 greatest difficulty, if at all, because the 
 standard is not established, and the terms 
 of competition elude or reject all efforts to 
 restrict them. Several attempts, lately 
 made on both sides of the sea, seeking to 
 test popular estimate and so to fix Chris¬ 
 tian decisions, have failed to command 
 confidence. In one case, a skillful and in¬ 
 telligent critic chose fifty-two English 
 hymnals with one small American; he 
 counted those which contained every or 
 any particular hymn, and decided that all 
 hymns which were found in thirty and up¬ 
 ward of the collections should be consid¬ 
 ered as belonging to the “first rank” in 
 excellence and popularity: all which he 
 found in twenty and in fewer than thirty 
 should be reckoned in the “second rank.” 
 
 The mistake in such a plan lay in the 
 fact that the hymn-books a critic like that 
 would select were, without exception, those 
 which had a circulation almost exclusively 
 in a single denomination of Christians, 
 namely, that of which he was a preacher. 
 Compiled from the same general sources, 
 used by the same class of people, and 
 governed by similar traditions, of course 
 these collections told nearly the same story. 
 
 It illustrates the point well to mention 
 that the hymn chosen as chief, having been 
 found in all but one of the books, appears 
 in every instance with “ All praise to Thee, 
 my God, this night ” for its opening line, 
 while over the whole American continent 
 it is used as Bishop Ken first wrote it, 
 “Glory to Thee, my God, this night.” 
 This shows how a general following of 
 traditional forms controlled the selections. 
 
 Then in our country several of the re¬ 
 ligious newspapers have offered prizes 
 with varying conditions, all designed to 
 evoke the enthusiasms of the people in be¬ 
 half of their favorite lyrics, and constrain 
 a vote as to the worth and popularity of 
 the first fifty among them. 
 
 What makes futile everything of this 
 sort is the fact that newspapers are limited 
 to their own constituency of subscribers; 
 and these belong generally to the same 
 sect, and each sheet is only one out of a 
 hundred in the same denomination, and of 
 the people scarcely a moiety—and possibly 
 these not the most poetical or musical— 
 
Hym 
 
 ( 432 ) 
 
 Hym 
 
 and of the moiety only a portion interested 
 enough to write a letter about it will take 
 part in the competition. The results are 
 therefore meagre and eventually unsatis¬ 
 factory. But from wide observation of 
 such historic tests one might perhaps be 
 venturesome enough to say that, of hymns 
 composed by British authors, “ Rock of 
 Ages, cleft for me,” by Augustus M. Top- 
 lady, who died in 1778, and of American 
 authors’ hymns, “ My faith looks up to 
 Thee,” by Dr. Ray Palmer, who died in 
 1887, would probably constrain the suf¬ 
 frages of the grateful Christendom speak¬ 
 ing the English tongue. 
 
 But now there needs to be added to this 
 assertion some small degree or measure of 
 deprecation. It cannot be said that Top- 
 lady’s hymn has more than the lowest 
 merit as a literary production. The un¬ 
 seemly and almost inextricable confusion 
 of figures mocks rhetoric to the very face. 
 Three things are tossed to and fro till one’s 
 imagination is bewildered. One rock, such 
 as David often found in the wilderness and 
 of which he often spoke in the Psalms, is 
 introduced as “ riven” and thus hollowed 
 out for a place of refuge, into which a soul 
 might run and be hidden. Then another 
 rock is introduced, that of Moses in the 
 passage through the desert, smitten so 
 that water might flow forth as from the 
 fountain of -which Zechariah speaks in his 
 prophecy, opened for sin and uncleanness, 
 where one may wash lest he die. Then 
 that which is not a rock at all is introduced, 
 even the body of our Lord Jesus Christ 
 upon the cross, pierced by the spear of the 
 Roman soldier, so that out of a wounded 
 side of it “ the water and the blood ” 
 might flow. Such a confusion would be 
 enough to explain the many changes which 
 have been made in the form of several of 
 the stanzas. Indeed, two versions of the 
 hymn appear now and then in the same 
 collection; for popular taste and feeling 
 are already in possession of one of four 
 verses and another of three, recognized as 
 being of equal authority, and familiar to 
 the memory of those who prefer what they 
 have learned in the local hymn-books they 
 accept. This favorite hymn has a spiritual 
 power, fascinating and strange even to the 
 verge of mysticism, which passes by the 
 faults of its construction, and bears the 
 soul of a loving believer irresistibly on to 
 God. 
 
 The history of worship in the various 
 churches, as traced in the growth of forms 
 and methods of praise, is very short. It 
 had its real beginning only within a com¬ 
 paratively few years. Previous to the 
 Reformation the hymns were in Latin and 
 Greek, and whatever of music held a place 
 
 in the public services, was of the simplest 
 character. Outside of the cathedrals the 
 people knew nothing of tunes beyond the 
 incantations of an ignorant priesthood, 
 which they heard droning out the masses 
 on the public days. But as soon as the 
 shackles of ecclesiasticism were broken, 
 all the nations started to sing. It was 
 deemed enough for church needs to chant 
 the Psalms as they were found in the 
 Bible. For a hundred years there was al¬ 
 most no hymnology as a science or an art. 
 
 Thomas Sternhold, groom of the robes 
 under Edward VI. of England in the six¬ 
 teenth century, perceived that the court¬ 
 iers were singing to their ladyloves songs 
 which were ribald and indecent; he was 
 brave enough to believe they would use 
 something better if they only found it 
 within reach. Being a devout man withal, 
 he constructed in metre versions of fifty- 
 one psalms, and these he adapted to music, 
 in the expectation that the gallants would 
 prefer religion to indecency; but it is hard¬ 
 ly necessary to say that he was somewhat 
 cruelly disappointed. An ingenuity of wit 
 was able to turn his efforts into new weap¬ 
 ons of ridicule. They called his produc¬ 
 tions “ Geneva jigs,” and put them in 
 company with others they dubbed “ Beza’s 
 ballads,” and made the town ring. 
 
 But the churches were satisfied with 
 “ Sternhold and Hopkins ” for a hundred 
 years more; then came a fresh version, by 
 Thomas Rouse, a member of Parliament, 
 who subsequently had a vote also in the 
 Westminster Assembly; this was publish¬ 
 ed in 1646. Next in order, the version 
 made by Tate and Brady appeared. With¬ 
 in this period poetry was not dead in the 
 hearts of believers; but it was in no one’s 
 thought that what grew into metre or rose 
 into praise should be sung in public, as 
 if worth an admission to equality with 
 David’s Psalms. Isaac Watts was the 
 father of English hymnology. He pub¬ 
 lished his hymns, and defended their use. 
 He put them in prayer-meetings, and he 
 sang them in church at the conclusion of 
 his sermons. This was in the year 1707, 
 and thus all genuine work in this direc¬ 
 tion began with the century. Charles Wes¬ 
 ley almost immediately followed on. And 
 now the history is little more than a cata¬ 
 logue of familiar and beloved names—Ken 
 and Gibbons, Browne and Beddome, Faw¬ 
 cett, the Stennetts, Scott and Olivers, Cow- 
 per and Newton. 
 
 Women also have done fine work in the 
 making of songs for church praise. Miss 
 Anne Steele, Miss Harriet Auber, Mrs. 
 Anna LaetitiaBarbauld are among the eldest 
 of the sisterhood; Miss Frances Ridley 
 Havergal, Miss Charlotte Elliot, Mrs. Cecil 
 
Hyp 
 
 '433 ) 
 
 Hys 
 
 Frances Alexander, Mrs. Elizabeth Payson 
 Prentiss, Mrs. Fanny Crosby Van Alstyne 
 have followed in the gracious succession. 
 Some of these have written voluminously, 
 but all of them have done excellent work 
 on the two sides of the sea. 
 
 It is much to the encouragement and 
 edification of helpful children of God that 
 just one sacred song has made a writer 
 useful and beloved through a lifetime and 
 on into the ages. William Williams gave 
 us “ Guide me, O Thou Great Jehovah;” 
 Augustus M. Toplady gave us “ Rock of 
 Ages;” Edward Perronet gave us “ All 
 Hail the Power of Jesus’ Name;” Mrs. 
 Sarah Flower Adams gave us “ Nearer, 
 my God, to Thee;” Henry Kirke White 
 gave us “ The Lord our God is full of 
 Might.” These names are now as truly 
 immortal as those of Doddridge and 
 Montgomery, Heber and Robert Robin¬ 
 son: they have cheered the singing legions 
 of Jesus Christ. 
 
 It is likely that the project of uniting 
 hymns and tunes together in one volume 
 for the use of congregations has given a 
 fine impulse to the composition of relig¬ 
 ious poetry during the last few years, for 
 the increase in the publication of excellent 
 hymns has been rapid. On both sides of 
 the ocean there have been offered to the 
 churches a host of lyrics of the highest 
 character. Horatius Bonar and Ray Pal¬ 
 mer are in the lead; Thomas Hastings and 
 Thomas Hornblower Gill are alongside; 
 and with these are many authors of orig¬ 
 inal pieces and translations of the best 
 merit. The treasures of Christian song 
 are almost limitless. It cannot be long 
 before hymnology will be able to claim a 
 place among the sciences with a pure and 
 noble classification of its own. 
 
 Charles S. Robinson. 
 
 Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher 
 Theon, and remarkable for her attainments 
 as a scholar, was b. at Alexandria about 
 350 A. D. She became the recognized head 
 of the Neo-Platonic school in that city, 
 and as a teacher attracted a large number 
 of disciples. In the conflicts of opinion that 
 raged in Alexandria, shortly after the 
 accession of Cyril to the patriarchate (412), 
 she identified herself with the party of the 
 prefect Orestes, and thus aroused the 
 hatred of the Nitrian monks. Instigated 
 by them as the adherents of Cyril, a mob 
 of fanatical Christians assailed Hypatia in 
 the streets, and, dragging her from her 
 chariot into an adjoining church, cut her 
 into pieces with oyster shells and burned 
 her. The story of Hypatia is recognized 
 in the legend of St. Catherine. (See Jame¬ 
 son; Sacred and Legendary Art , p. 467.) 
 
 Charles Kingsley made Hypatia the basis 
 of an historical romance. 
 
 Hypostasis (Gr., upostasis , substance or 
 subsistence). In connection with the Trin¬ 
 itarian controversies this word was the 
 occasion of much discussion. Its use in 
 the sense of ousia , essence or substance, 
 gave an advantage to the semi-Arians. 
 The Council of Alexandria (362) finally de¬ 
 fined “ hypostasis ” as synonymous with 
 “ person.” 
 
 Hypostatical Union denotes the union in 
 Christ of the human and divine natures, 
 constituting two natures in one Person. 
 
 Hypothetical, or Conditional Baptism, 
 the form of words, “ If thou art not al¬ 
 ready baptized, N., I baptize thee in the 
 name. ...” It is called hypothetical or 
 conditional , because the rubric states that 
 it is to be used, “ if they who bring the 
 infant to the church do make such uncer¬ 
 tain answers to the priest’s questions as 
 that it cannot appear that the child was 
 baptized with water in the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost.” 
 
 Hypsistarians, heretics in the fourth 
 century. Their views were a strange mixt¬ 
 ure of paganism, Judaism, and Christian¬ 
 ity. They were fire-worshipers, observed 
 the Sabbath, and Jewish regulations re¬ 
 garding the eating of meats, but rejected 
 circumcision, and professed to worship 
 God in accord with the Christians. Greg¬ 
 ory Nazianzen belonged to them before his 
 conversion to Christianity, and it is from 
 him we learn all that is known of the 
 sect. 
 
 Hyrcanus I., a son of Simon Maccabaeus, 
 and king and high-priest of the Jews, 135— 
 105 b. c. During his reign, which was 
 marked by great national prosperity, the 
 party divisions between the Pharisees and 
 Sadducees began to appear. Hyrcanus II., 
 a grandson of above, was made high-pries c 
 by Pompey in 63 b. C. He was put to 
 death, b. c. 30, by Herod, who had married 
 his daughter Mariamne. 
 
 Hystaspes, or Hydaspes, the fictitious 
 author of one of the spurious compositions 
 which were very common in the first cen¬ 
 tury of Christianity. The most remarkable 
 productions of this kind were the Sibylline 
 Books. The Vaticinia Hystaspis is men¬ 
 tioned by Justin, Clement of Alexandria, 
 and Lactantius, as a prophecy of Christ 
 and his kingdom by an old Persian or 
 Median king. 
 
Ibn 
 
 ( 434 ) 
 
 Ign 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibn Ezra. See Aben Ezra. 
 
 Iceland was visited by Celtic monks from 
 Ireland in the latter part of the eighth cen¬ 
 tury. The first European settlers were 
 from Norway. They came about the mid¬ 
 dle of the ninth century, and soon after 
 this were converted from paganism 
 through the influence of missionaries from 
 the mother-country. By the year 1000 
 Christianity was established as the religion 
 of the country. In 1550 the Danish king 
 introduced the Reformation by force of 
 arms. Since 1825 the whole island was 
 placed under the authority of the episcopal 
 see of Rejkyawick. The ministers are paid 
 in part from the revenues of church prop¬ 
 erty, and partly from tithes. 
 
 the Middle Ages, on the part of those who 
 sought to destroy all images used for 
 worship in the churches. (See Image- 
 Worship.) A person who seeks to destroy 
 recognized institutions of any kind is now 
 called an iconoclast. 
 
 Iconos'tasis. A screen used in Greek 
 churches corresponding in position to our 
 altar-rails, but so formed as to conceal the 
 altar from the congregation. Only the 
 clergy are permitted to enter within the 
 space thus hidden, in accordance with the 
 Jewish custom of keeping the Holy of 
 Holies so sacred as only to be entered by 
 the high-priest. The iconostasis is so called 
 because it is adorned with sacred pictures 
 (/cons). — Benham. See Greek Church. 
 
 Idol and Idolatry. The conception of 
 
 1 
 
 ICONIUM. 
 
 Ichthys (Greek ichthys , a fish), an early 
 symbol of Christ. It is formed of the 
 initial letters of the names and titles of the 
 Saviour in Greek: Iesous Christos , Theou 
 Uios . Soter , “ Jesus Christ, the Son of God, 
 the Saviour.” The word “ichthys ” is found 
 on seals, rings, lamps, and tombstones. 
 Tertullian, in writing about this symbol is 
 the first one to refer to the acrostic. 
 
 Ico'nium, the present Koniyeh , situated 
 at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was once 
 a flourishing city, and the capital of Lyc- 
 aonia. Paul visited it three times. (Acts 
 xiii. 5; xiv. 1, 19, 21; xvi.) 
 
 Icon'oclasm ( eikon, image; kldzein , to 
 break), the name which designates the 
 struggle in the Christian Church during 
 
 an idol, as purely an object adored as di¬ 
 vine, is of Jewish origin under the first 
 covenant. The word eidololatreia , idolatry, 
 is first found in the New Testament. (1 Cor. 
 x. 14; Gal. v. 20; 1 Pet. iv. 3; Col.iii. 5.) The 
 reference is, in general, to the worship of 
 false gods among the pagan nations under 
 forms of bodily representation. In the prog¬ 
 ress of Christianity, when such worship was 
 made punishable with death, idolatry took 
 a new form in the worship of bodily repre¬ 
 sentations of deity. See Image-Worship. 
 
 Idumaea. See Edom. 
 
 Ignatian Epistles. See Ignatius of An¬ 
 tioch. 
 
 Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apos- 
 
Ign 
 
 ( 435 ) 
 
 Ign 
 
 tolic Fathers martyred early in the second 
 century, at Rome. He was bishop of An¬ 
 tioch for forty years (67-107). Little is 
 known of his life, and the traditions that 
 have been connected with his name are 
 now generally discredited. 
 
 The writings of this father have been 
 a subject of keen controversy. The trans¬ 
 lation published by Archbishop Wake, and 
 which is easily accessible through Hone’s 
 Apocryphal New Testament, comprised 
 seven epistles, viz., to the Ephesians, the 
 Magnesians, the Trallians, the Romans, 
 the Philadelphians, the Smyrnseans, and 
 to Polycarp. To these have been added 
 six others, and this augmented collection 
 is called by critics, The Epistles of the Long 
 Recension; they were, “ Mary to Ignatius,” 
 “ Ignatius to Mary,” “ To the Tarsians,” 
 “ Philippians,” “ Antiochenes,” “ Hero.” 
 It has, however, been demonstrated that 
 these were forgeries of the end of the 
 fourth century. But a challenge was also 
 raised against the other seven, on the 
 ground that the view of episcopacy, which 
 the writer of them holds, belongs to a later 
 date than the second century. This attack 
 was greatly strengthened by the discovery 
 of a Syriac copy, now in the British Mu¬ 
 seum, which only contains three of the 
 Epistles, viz., to Polycarp, to the Ephe¬ 
 sians, and the Romans, and which was edit¬ 
 ed and published by the late Canon Cureton 
 in 1845. This is known as The Short Re¬ 
 cension. It was eagerly taken up by some 
 scholars, and as eagerly repudiated by oth¬ 
 ers, who maintained that Cureton’s was 
 merely a maimed edition. In consequence, 
 the present learned bishop of Durham, Dr. 
 Lightfoot, who had been engaged in a 
 Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistles, turned 
 aside, and gave many years to “ The Apos¬ 
 tolic Fathers.” In 1885 he published the 
 result of his labors on Ignatius and Poly¬ 
 carp, in three goodly volumes, and it is 
 probably the most learned and exhaustive 
 critical treatise which has appeared in this 
 century. No mystery is left unsolved, 
 and the genuineness of the seven Epistles, 
 or The Middle Recension , is established be¬ 
 yond controversy. 
 
 The central idea of the Epistles of Igna¬ 
 tius may be expressed in the words “ One 
 Faith.” And that with him is the historical 
 Christianity of the Gospel in continual ac¬ 
 tivity in the lives of men. He quotes the 
 New Testament as of equal authority with 
 the Old, prefacing his quotations with “ it 
 is written.” The Eucharist is with him 
 the centre of Christian worship. He is the 
 first writer to use the expression “ Cath¬ 
 olic Church.”—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Ignatius, Loyola, b. in the Castle of 
 
 Loyola, Guipuzcoa, Spain, 1491 ; d. in 
 Rome, July 31, 1556. “ He was a knightly 
 soldier in early life and was severely 
 wounded at the siege of Pamplona. He 
 was brought home to his father’s castle to 
 be cared for. While on his sick-bed he 
 asked for books, and as there were none of 
 the kind at hand most to his taste, he be¬ 
 gan reading the lives of the saints. A com¬ 
 plete change soon appeared in his character 
 and purposes. Renouncing the pursuit of 
 arms, and with it all other worldly plans, 
 he tore himself from home and friends, and 
 repaired to the monastery of Montserrat, 
 and from there retired to a cavern at Man- 
 resa when he drew up the first outline of 
 his famous Exercitia Spiritualia, which is 
 considered a work of divine inspiration by 
 the members of the order he founded. 
 
 “ From Manresa he repaired by Barce¬ 
 lona to Rome, whence, after receiving the 
 papal benediction from Adrian VI., he pro¬ 
 ceeded on foot, and as a mendicant, to 
 Venice, and there embarked for Cyprus and 
 the Holy Land. He would gladly have re¬ 
 mained at Jerusalem, and devoted himself 
 to the propagation of the gospel among 
 the infidels; but not being encouraged in 
 this design by the local authorities, he re¬ 
 turned to Venice and Barcelona in 1524. 
 Taught by his first failure he now resolved 
 to prepare himself by study for the work of 
 religious teaching, and with this view was 
 not ashamed to return, at the age of thirty- 
 three, to the study of the very rudiments 
 of grammar. He followed up these ele¬ 
 mentary studies by a further course, first 
 at the new University of Alcala, and after¬ 
 wards at Salamanca, in both which places, 
 however, he incurred the censure of the 
 authorities by gome unauthorized attempts 
 at religious teaching in public, and event¬ 
 ually he was induced to repair to Paris for 
 the completion of the studies thus repeat¬ 
 edly interrupted. Here again he continued 
 persistently to struggle on without any re¬ 
 sources but those which he drew from the 
 charity of the faithful; and here again he 
 returned to the same humble elementary 
 studies. It was while engaged in these 
 studies that he first formed the pious frater¬ 
 nity which resulted in that great organiza¬ 
 tion which has exercised such influence 
 upon the religious, moral, and social con¬ 
 dition of the modern world. From the 
 close of his residence in Paris, Loyola’s 
 history has been told in the history of his 
 order. See Jesuits.” —Chambers : Cyclo¬ 
 pedia. Loyola was canonized as a saint 
 by Gregory XV., in 1622. 
 
 Ignorantines, a name often given to the 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools, a relig¬ 
 ious fraternity organized in 1683, by Jean 
 
Ihs 
 
 v 436 ) 
 
 Ima 
 
 Baptiste de La Salle, for the education and 
 religious training of the children of the 
 poor. The brethren do not receive holy- 
 orders, but take the vows of chastity, pov¬ 
 erty, and obedience. Its members are 
 found in every part of Europe and in 
 America, Asia, and Africa. 
 
 I. H. S., an inscription found early in 
 the history of the Christian Church, the 
 interpretation of which is doubtful. The 
 most probable explanation is that which de¬ 
 rives it from the first three letters in the 
 Greek for IHSOUS (Jesus); thus IHS be¬ 
 comes I. H. S. The similarity of the Greek 
 S to the Latin S is so near as to make no 
 difficulty in this explanation. 
 
 Image-Worship (Gr. iconolatrio), “ the 
 use, in public or private worship, of graven 
 or painted representations of sacred per¬ 
 sons or things, and especially the exhibi¬ 
 tion of honor, reverence, or worship to or 
 toward such representations. This prac¬ 
 tice, in the various degrees of which it is 
 susceptible, has formed, for many centu¬ 
 ries, so fruitful a subject of controversy 
 among Christians, that we think it expe¬ 
 dient, first, briefly to detail the history of 
 the use of images in Christian worship 
 during the several periods, and secondly, to 
 state summarily the opposite views of this 
 history which are taken by the two great 
 parties into which Christians are divided 
 on this question. 
 
 “ Neither in the New Testament, nor in 
 any genuine writings of the first age of 
 Christianity, can any trace be discovered 
 of the use of statues or pictures in the wor¬ 
 ship of Christians, whether public or pri¬ 
 vate. The earliest allusion to such repre¬ 
 sentations is found in Tertullian, who ap¬ 
 peals to the image of the Good Shepherd 
 as engraved upon the chalices. A very 
 curious pagan caricature of Christianity, of 
 the very same age, lately discovered 
 scratched upon the wall of a room in the 
 palace of the Caesars, which rudely repre¬ 
 sents a man standing in the attitude of 
 prayer, with outstretched hand, before a 
 grotesque caricature of the crucifixion, and 
 which bears the title ‘ Alexamenus wor¬ 
 ships God,’ has been recently alleged by 
 Catholics as an additional indication of at 
 least a certain use of images among the 
 Christians of the second century. The 
 tombs of the Christians in the Roman cata¬ 
 combs, many of which are of a date anterior 
 to Constantine, frequently have graven 
 upon them representations of the dove, of 
 the cross, of the symbolical fish, of the ship, 
 of Adam and Eve, of Moses striking the 
 rock, of Jonas, of Daniel in the lions’ den, 
 of the apostles Peter and Paul, and above 
 
 all, of the Good Shepherd; and those com¬ 
 partments of the catacombs which were 
 used as chapels are often profusely deco¬ 
 rated with sacred representations, the age 
 of which, however, it is not easy to deter¬ 
 mine with accuracy. But whatever opin¬ 
 ion may be formed as to particular in¬ 
 stances, such as these, it is admitted by 
 Catholics themselves (who explain it by the 
 fear of perpetuating the idolatrous notions 
 of the early converts from paganism) that 
 for the first three centuries the use of im¬ 
 ages was rare and exceptional; nor was it 
 until after the establishment of Christianity 
 under Constantine, and particularly after 
 the condemnation of the Nestorian heresy 
 in 430, that statues and pictures of our 
 Lord; of the Virgin Mary, and the saints, 
 were commonly introduced in churches, es¬ 
 pecially in the East and Italy. And yet, 
 even in the fifth century, the practice had 
 already reached a great height, as we learn 
 from the church historian, Theodoret, for 
 the East, and from Paulinus of Nola, for 
 Italy; and in the sixth and seventh centu¬ 
 ries many popular practices prevailed 
 which called forth the condemnation of 
 learned and pious bishops both in the East 
 and in the West. It was usual not only to 
 keep lights and burn incense before the 
 images, to kiss them reverently, and to 
 kneel down and pray before them, but some 
 , went so far as to make the images serve as 
 godfathers and godmothers in baptism, and 
 even to mingle the dust of the coloring 
 matter scraped from the images with the 
 eucharistic elements in the holy commun¬ 
 ion ! This use of images by Christians 
 was alleged as an obstacle to the con¬ 
 version of the Jews, and as one of the 
 causes of the progress of Mohammedanism 
 in the East; and the excesses described 
 above provoked the reaction of iconoclasm. 
 In the Second Council of Nice, 787, the doc¬ 
 trine as to the worship of images was care¬ 
 fully laid down. A distinction was drawn 
 between the supreme worship of adoration, 
 which is called latreia , and the inferior 
 worship of honor or reverence, called dou- 
 leia; and still more between absolute wor¬ 
 ship, which is directly and ultimately ren¬ 
 dered to a person or thing in itself; and 
 relative, which is but addressed through a 
 person or thing, ultimately to another per¬ 
 son or thing represented thereby. The 
 Second Council of Nice declared, first, that 
 the worship to be paid to images is not the 
 supreme worship of latreia , but only the 
 inferior worship of douleia; and, secondly, 
 that it is not absolute , and does not rest 
 upon the images themselves, but relative, 
 that is, only addressed through them, or 
 by occasion of them, to the original which 
 they represent. This explanation of the 
 
Ima 
 
 ( 437 ) 
 
 Imm 
 
 doctrine and the practice was thenceforth 
 generally received; but a strange error in 
 the translation of the Greek acts of the 
 Council of Nice, by which it appeared that 
 the same adoration was decreed by that 
 council to images ‘ which is rendered to the 
 Holy Trinity itself,’ led to a vehement ag¬ 
 itation in France and Germany under 
 Charlemagne, and to a condemnation by a 
 synod at Frankfort of the doctrines of the 
 Council of Nice. But an explanation of 
 this error, and of the false translation on 
 which it was based, was immediately after¬ 
 wards given by the pope; and eventually 
 the Nicene exposition of the doctrine was 
 universally accepted in the Western as well 
 as in the Eastern Church. 
 
 “ At the Reformation the reforming party 
 generally rejected the use of images as an 
 unscriptural novelty, irreconcilable as well 
 with the prohibition of the old law as with 
 that characteristic of ‘ spirit and truth ’ 
 which is laid down by our Lord as specially 
 distinctive of the new dispensation, and 
 they commonly stigmatized the Catholic 
 practice as superstitious, and even idola¬ 
 trous. The Zwinglian, and subsequently 
 the Calvinistic, Churches absolutely and 
 entirely repudiated all use of images for 
 the purposes of worship. Luther, on the 
 contrary, while he condemned the Roman 
 worship of images, regarded the simple use 
 of them even in the church, for the purpose 
 of instruction, and as incentives to faith 
 and to devotion, as one of those adiaphora , 
 or indifferent things, which may be per¬ 
 mitted, although not of necessary institu¬ 
 tion; hence, in the Lutheran churches of 
 Germany and the northern kingdoms, pict¬ 
 ures, crucifixes, and other religious em¬ 
 blems are still freely retained. In the An¬ 
 glican Church the practice is still a subject 
 of controversy. In the Presbyterian 
 Church, and in all the other Protestant 
 communions, images are entirely un¬ 
 known.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Imam', the priest who conducts the reg¬ 
 ular service of the mosque among the 
 Mohammedans. The title is borne by the 
 caliphs as the successors of Mohammed, 
 and the present Sultan assumes it on the 
 ground that the last legitimate caliph, El 
 Mutawakkel, ceded his right in 1517 to 
 Selim I., the first sultan, and his heirs. 
 
 Immaculate Conception of the Virgin 
 Mary. This dogma of the Roman Church 
 was promulgated by Pope Pius IX., on the 
 Feast of the Conception, Dec. 8, 1854, in 
 St. Peter’s, Rome, in these words: “ That 
 the most blessed Virgin Mary, in the first 
 moment of her conception, by a special 
 grace and privilege of Almighty God, in 
 
 virtue of the merits of Christ, was pre¬ 
 served from all stain of original sin.” 
 While this dogma never received the sanc¬ 
 tion of an oecumenical council, it was 
 favored almost without a dissenting voice 
 by the bishops and other dignitaries of the 
 Church, and since the Vatican Council of 
 1870 declared the infallibility of the pope 
 it stands as an infallible declaration. This 
 dogma has no Scripture proof in its favor. 
 While some of the Christian fathers ex¬ 
 empted Mary from actual transgression, 
 they did not teach her exemption from 
 original sin. The mythical stories of the 
 Apocryphal Gospels and the early worship 
 of saints nourished the adoration of Mary, 
 which finally culminated in the dogma of 
 the immaculate conception. See Schaff in 
 Johnson’s Cyclcpcedia and in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency.; Hase: Hand-book of Protestant 
 Polemics (1871). 
 
 Imman'uel, a Hebrew word signifying 
 God with tis. It is used as a distinctive 
 title of the Messiah. (Isa. vii. 14; Matt. i. 
 23.) See Christ. 
 
 Immersion. See Baptism. 
 
 Immortality. The doctrine of Immortal¬ 
 ity holds a very subordinate place in the 
 Old Testament; length of life and worldly 
 prosperity were the promised reward of 
 obedience. But even in the Pentateuch 
 there are not wanting indications of a rev¬ 
 elation, though dim, of a glory to be re¬ 
 vealed, and certainly of the immortality of 
 the soul. Our Saviour’s rebuke to the 
 Sadducees declared that they erred for not 
 perceiving this. (Matt. xxii. 29-33.) The 
 prayer of Balaam (Num. xxiii. 10) is capa¬ 
 ble of no other explanation than that he 
 recognized such a hope. But when we 
 come later, the Psalms of David are dis¬ 
 tinct enough, not only in such verses as 
 Psa. xvi. 8-11, and xxiii. 4-6, but in the 
 whole tenor of the hopes and aspirations 
 they breathe after God. 
 
 This belief was held unfalteringly by 
 wise heathen, and was expressed in the 
 plainest terms by men like Plato and Cicero. 
 The effects of the doctrines of Socrates 
 and Plato appear strongly in the Old 
 Testament Apocrypha; the writers of Ec- 
 clesiasticus and Wisdom had undoubtedly 
 in Alexandria become acquainted with the 
 Platonist philosophy, and the beautiful 
 hopes which they utter must be unques¬ 
 tionably traced to the light which had been 
 thrown for them upon the Old Testament, 
 from the writings of men whom God had 
 been teaching in the far-off heathen lands. 
 The belief is also so widely spread amongst 
 even the most savage races, that it may be 
 
Imm 
 
 ( 438 ) 
 
 Imp 
 
 almost said to belong to the consciousness 
 of humanity. 
 
 When we ask on what grounds such a 
 belief rests, the answer must not be too 
 hastily given. It has been asserted that 
 the very existence of self-consciousness is 
 evidence of indestructible power, that the 
 very ability of “ looking before and after ” 
 is an indication that the soul is not bound 
 to the material form. But to this it may 
 be replied that the soul loses its conscious¬ 
 ness in sleep, in insanity, even through 
 narcotics. Therefore this argument cannot 
 be held of itself convincing. On the other 
 hand, the fact of the dissolution of the 
 body, and the absolute disappearance of all 
 further evidence of the soul’s existence, is 
 no indication at all of its ceasing to be, be¬ 
 cause all physical investigation goes more 
 and more to show that the soul is not a 
 simple bodily function, bound to the brain, 
 as materialists have supposed. All phys¬ 
 ical evidence is against the theory that the 
 soul is a part of the body, and forces the 
 conclusion that it has a peculiar existence 
 of its own. 
 
 Consequently we come to this—that 
 physical investigation is baffled in this 
 question, and we have to fall back upon 
 some other form of evidence. Such evi¬ 
 dence, Christians hold, was given in an¬ 
 cient times by God by his Voice within, 
 and in some cases by outward revelation 
 as well. Men believed in God because he 
 spake to them, and bade them so believe, 
 and they recognized his voice. But the 
 revelation was consummated in the teach¬ 
 ing of Christ, and his resurrection from 
 the dead. We have seen no physical facts 
 that are capable of refuting that; all inves¬ 
 tigation of moral phenomena supports it. 
 (Evidences.) The Christian revelation 
 declares that the soul is immortal, and that 
 the body shall rise from the dead, and be 
 united with the soul again. To deny that, 
 as St. Paul says, is to give up Christianity 
 itself. (1 Cor. xv. 12-17.) Certainly relig¬ 
 ion is worthless without it. (Resurrec¬ 
 tion.) We believe, then, and science, 
 though it could not indeed discover the 
 truth, follows it and acquiesces in it as 
 reasonable, that this present consciousness 
 of ours, though it must be robbed by 
 physical death of its power of present 
 manifestation, shall not be lost. The be¬ 
 lief in a good and faithful Creator assures 
 us that we are made for something better 
 than a short life of threescore years and 
 ten, that the. winding-sheet is not our right¬ 
 ful vesture, and this beautiful world is 
 something better than a great grave. Be¬ 
 cause God is love, because he is good and 
 his works are beautiful, he cannot abandon 
 the noblest of his works, which returns his 
 
 love. In point of fact, those who have any 
 positive faith in a Supreme Being are also 
 believers in immortality; but nevertheless 
 the two questions are quite distinct.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Imputation of Sin. Christians of every 
 name accept the fact that the entire race of 
 mankind participates in the consequences 
 of the sin of Adam. This fact, however, 
 is accounted for on different theories, 
 which are stated as follows by Dr. Charles 
 Hodge (Systematic Theology , vol. ii., pp. 
 192, 193): 
 
 (1) “ That which is adopted by Prot¬ 
 estants generally, as well by Lutherans as 
 Reformed, and also by the great body of 
 the Latin Church, is, that in virtue of the 
 union, federal and natural, between Adam 
 and his posterity, his sin, although not 
 their act, is so imputed to them that it is 
 the judicial ground of the penalty threat¬ 
 ened against him, coming also upon them. 
 This is the doctrine of immediate imputa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (2) “ Others, while they admit that a 
 corrupt nature is derived from Adam by 
 all his ordinary posterity, yet deny, first, 
 that this corruption, or spiritual death, is 
 a penal infliction for his sin; and second, 
 that there is any imputation to Adam’s de¬ 
 scendants of the guilt of his first sin. All 
 that is really imputed to them is their own 
 inherent, hereditary depravity. This is the 
 doctrine of mediate imputation. 
 
 (3) “ Others discard entirely the idea of 
 imputation, so far as Adam’s sin is con¬ 
 cerned, and refer the hereditary corrup¬ 
 tion of men to the general law of propa¬ 
 gation. Throughout the vegetable and 
 animal kingdoms, like begets like. Man 
 is not an exception to that law. Adam, 
 having lost his original righteousness and 
 corrupted his nature by his apostasy, 
 transmits that despoiled and deteriorated- 
 nature to all his descendants. To what ex¬ 
 tent man’s nature is injured by the fall, is 
 left undetermined by this theory. Accord¬ 
 ing to some, it is so deteriorated as to be, 
 in the true scriptural sense of the term, 
 spiritually dead; while, according to oth¬ 
 ers, the injury is little if anything more 
 than a physical infirmity, an impaired con¬ 
 stitution, which the first parent has trans¬ 
 mitted to his children. 
 
 (4) “ Others, again, adopt the realistic 
 theory, and teach that, as generic human¬ 
 ity existed whole and entire in the persons 
 of Adam and Eve, their sin was the sin of 
 the entire race. The same numerical, ra¬ 
 tional, and voluntary substance which act¬ 
 ed in our first parents, having been com¬ 
 municated to us, their act was as truly 
 and properly our act—being the act of our 
 
Imp 
 
 ( 439 ) 
 
 Ind 
 
 reason and will—as it was their act. It is 
 imputed to us therefore not as his, but 
 as our own. We literally sinned in Adam, 
 and consequently the guilt of that sin is 
 our personal guilt, and the consequent 
 corruption of nature is the effect of our 
 own voluntary act. 
 
 (5) “ Others, finally, deny any casual 
 relation, whether logical or natural, wheth¬ 
 er judicial or physical, between the sin of 
 Adam and the sinfulness of his race. Some 
 who take this ground say that it was a di¬ 
 vine constitution, that, if Adam sinned, all 
 men should sin. The one event was connect¬ 
 ed with the other only in the divine purpose. 
 Others say that there is no necessity to 
 account for the fact that all men are sin¬ 
 ners, further than by referring to their lib¬ 
 erty of will. Adam sinned, and other men 
 sinned. That is all. The one fact is as 
 easily accounted for as the other.” 
 
 Imposition of Hands. The ceremony of 
 the laying on of hands for imparting spirit¬ 
 ual gifts and authority is very ancient. It 
 was practised by Jacob (Gen. xlviii. 14), 
 by Moses (Num. xxvii. 18-23 and Deut. 
 xxxiv. 9), by our Lord himself (Mark x. 16), 
 by the apostles (Acts vii. 17, 18; xix. 6), 
 and their successors. (1 Tim. iv. 14; v. 22.) 
 
 Imputed Righteousness signifies the 
 righteousness of Christ attributed to those 
 who are united to him. The obedience and 
 sufferings of Christ are the meritorious 
 ground of redemption. See Justification; 
 Regeneration. 
 
 Inability, in theology, is used to denote 
 want of power to do the will of God. Nat- 
 iiral inability means that one cannot, though 
 he will. Moral inability means that one 
 will not, though he can. This distinction 
 has been the subject of much controversy 
 between Old-school and New-school Cal¬ 
 vinists and between Arminians and Calvin¬ 
 ists. The Old-school deny both natural and 
 moral ability. The New-school affirm that 
 the sinner is naturally able to obey God, 
 but morally unable. Arminians deny nat¬ 
 ural and moral, but assert gracious ability 
 on the part of the sinner to accept Christ, 
 and thus obey God. 
 
 Incarnation. See Christology. 
 
 Incense. The burning of incense as a 
 symbolical act was common in the relig¬ 
 ious rituals of Judaism and Graeco-Roman 
 paganism. At first it was rejected by the 
 Christian Church, but afterward adopted. 
 Mention is made by Evagrius (sixth cen¬ 
 tury) of a golden censer, presented to the 
 church of Jerusalem by Chosroes. The 
 
 use of incense has never been approved by 
 Protestants. 
 
 Independents. See Congregationalists. 
 
 India, Religions of. See Brahminism; 
 BrahmoSomaj; Buddhism; Sikhs. On the 
 general subject of the Indian religions, 
 see A. Barth: Religions of India (Eng. 
 trans., London, 1882). 
 
 India Of the religions of this great 
 empire, Brahminism or Hinduism is the 
 oldest, antedating the coming of Christ 
 several centuries. The following is an 
 approximate division of the population as 
 to religion: 
 
 Hindus.139,000,000 
 
 Mohammedans.40,000,000 
 
 Buddhists. 3,000,000 
 
 Sikhs. 1,000,000 
 
 Christians. 900,000 
 
 Francis Xavier was sent as missionary 
 to India by the king of Portugal in 1541. 
 The first Protestant mission was founded 
 in 1705 by Frederick IV. of Denmark. At 
 the present time thirty-five Protestant so¬ 
 cieties have missionaries in India. These 
 are ordained European and American min¬ 
 isters. In the Bible, India, as a country, 
 “ was the limit of the territories of Ahas- 
 uerus in the East, as was Ethiopia in the 
 West.- The names in Herodotus are simi¬ 
 larly connected. The Hebrew form, Hoddu , 
 is an abbreviation of Honadu , which is 
 identical with the names of the Indies, 
 Hindu or Sindhu , as well as with the an¬ 
 cient name of the country, Hapta-Hendu , 
 as it appears in the Vendidad. The India 
 of the book of Esther is the Punjab, and 
 perhaps Sind, i.e ., the India which Herod¬ 
 otus described as forming part of the 
 Persian empire under Darius, and the 
 India conquered by Alexander the Great. 
 (Esth. i. 8, 9.)”— Young. 
 
 Indians, North American. The Indians 
 are believers in God, or gods, and in the im¬ 
 mortality of the soul. The world to them 
 is full of spiritual existences. “ They 
 fully believe that the red man mortally an- , 
 gered the Great Spirit, which caused the, 
 deluge; and at the commencement of the 
 New Earth it was only through the me¬ 
 dium and interest of a powerful being 
 whom they denominate Wa-wen-a-bo-zho, 
 that they were allowed to exist, and means 
 were given them whereby to subsist, and 
 support life; and a code of religion was 
 more lately bestowed upon them, whereby 
 they could commune with the offending 
 Great Spirit and ward off the approach and 
 ravages of death. This they term ‘ Me-da- 
 wi-win,’ or ‘ Grand Medicine.’ ” As to the 
 
Ind 
 
 ( 440 ) 
 
 Inf 
 
 future the Indian has no fear, or concep¬ 
 tion that his actions here influence his state 
 hereafter. The religious performances in 
 propitiation of the Grand Medicine are 
 often attended by the vilest exhibitions of 
 sensuality, and their religion is entirely di¬ 
 vorced from morality. In recent years 
 earnest efforts have been made to Chris¬ 
 tianize the Indians, and in many cases with 
 marked success. 
 
 Induction is the name given to the cere¬ 
 mony in the Church of England by which 
 the temporalities of a living are conferred 
 on a new incumbent. It is performed at 
 the church door. The inductor appointed 
 by the bishop, having read a legal docu¬ 
 ment, gives the key of the church to the 
 clergyman, who then unlocks the door and 
 tolls the bell in token that he is in posses¬ 
 sion. 
 
 Infallibility of the Pope. This dogma 
 became an article of faith by the decree of 
 the Vatican Council, July 18, 1870, in these 
 words: “ Therefore, faithfully adhering 
 
 to the tradition received from the beginning 
 of the Christian faith, for the glory of God 
 our Saviour, the exaltation of the Catholic 
 religion, and the salvation of Christian 
 people, the Sacred Council approving, we 
 teach and define that it is a dogma divinely 
 revealed that the Roman pontiff when he 
 speaks ex-cathedra —that is, when, in dis¬ 
 charge of the office of pastor and doctor of 
 all Christians, by virtue of his supreme 
 apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine 
 regarding faith or morals to be held by the 
 universal Church, by the divine assistance 
 promised to him in blessed Peter (Luke 
 xxii. 32 )—is possessed of that infallibility 
 \with which the divine Redeemer willed that 
 his Church should be endowed for defining 
 doctrine regarding faith or morals: and that 
 therefore such definitions of the Roman 
 pontiff are irreformable of themselves, and 
 not from the consent of the Church. But 
 if any one—which may God avert!—pre¬ 
 sume to contradict this our definition, let 
 him be anathema.” 
 
 When the vote was first taken in secret 
 session (July 13, 1S70), Coi members being 
 present, 451 bishops voted in the affirma¬ 
 tive, 88 in the negative, 62 with qualifica¬ 
 tions, and over eighty, although present in 
 Rome, abstained from voting. On the 
 evening of the same day the minority, in¬ 
 cluding the most distinguished bishops of 
 the Church, begged the pope to modify 
 the proposed decree. On the 17th of July, 
 56 of the bishops opposed to the dogma 
 asked leave to return home, and, on the 
 evening of the same day, with 60 others of 
 the minority, making the rumors of war an 
 
 excuse, withdrew from Rome. In the pub¬ 
 lic session of July 18, 535 members were 
 present,and all but two voted placet ^Bishop 
 Riccio, of Sicily, and Bishop Fitzgerald, of 
 Little Rock, Ark.), but they changed their 
 vote before the close of the session. The 
 promulgation of the dogma caused the se¬ 
 cession of the “Old Catholics,” led by 
 Dr. Dollinger, and has been the fruitful 
 cause of political conflicts, the end of which 
 is not yet. This dogma arose in the Middle 
 Ages, and, after the Council of Trent, was 
 the source of contention between the Galli- 
 cans and Jesuits. The result of the Vati¬ 
 can Council was the complete victory of 
 the latter party. See Janus: The Pope and 
 the Council (London, 1869); Gladstone: The 
 Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil 
 Allegiance (London, 1874), with history and 
 notes by Dr. Schaff (N. Y., 1875); Glad¬ 
 stone: Vaticanism: An Answer to Reproofs 
 and Replies of Manning, Newman, and 
 others (London, 1875); Schaff: Creeds op 
 Christendom , i. 147-189; ii. 234-2 71. 
 
 Infant Baptism. See Baptism of In¬ 
 fants. 
 
 Infant Communion. The first trace of 
 the custom of giving the elements to young 
 children, and even to infants, is found in 
 Cyprian (third century). The custom of 
 infant communion, following baptism, was 
 universal at that time. Augustine, speak¬ 
 ing of young children, says, “ They are in¬ 
 fants; but they are made partakers of his 
 table that they may have life in themselves. ” 
 (Serm. 74, sec. 7.) By the decrees of coun¬ 
 cils in liturgies and canons, infant commun¬ 
 ion was enjoined for many centuries, but it 
 finally died out in the West, and the Coun¬ 
 cil of Trent removed any obligation for its 
 observance. Abandoned by the Roman 
 Church it is still practiced by the Greek 
 Church, the Nestorians, Armenians, and 
 Maronites, who generally give only the 
 wine, in a spoon or with the finger. The 
 doctrine of infant communion is rejected 
 by all Protestant Churches. See art. in 
 Smith and Cheetham: Diet. Chr. Antiq ., 
 vol. i., 835-837. 
 
 Infant Salvation. Whatever views may 
 have been affirmed by theologians in the 
 past, of the Lutheran and Calvinistic faith, 
 it is now universally held that all infants 
 who die in infancy are saved. Dr. Charles 
 Hodge asserts that this is the “ common 
 doctrine of evangelical Protestants ” (6)'j- 
 tematic Theology , i. 26). 
 
 Infidelity. In a restricted sense, infidel¬ 
 ity denotes the denial of the claims of 
 Christianity as a divine revelation: in a 
 
Inf 
 
 ( 44i ) 
 
 Inn 
 
 wider sense, the rejection of religion gen¬ 
 erally. The forms of modern infidelity 
 have been classified as follows: (1) Athe¬ 
 ism, or the denial of the divine existence. 
 (2) Pantheism, or the denial of the divine 
 personality. (3) Naturalism, or the de¬ 
 nial of the divine government. (4) Spirit¬ 
 ualism, or the denial of the divine redemp¬ 
 tion. See Deism; Pantheism; Spiritual¬ 
 ism; Positivism. 
 
 Infralapsarianism (from infra , after, and 
 lapsus , a fall). According to this doc¬ 
 trine, God, with the design to reveal his 
 own glory, determined: (1) To create the 
 world; (2) to permit the fall of man; (3) 
 to elect from the mass of fallen man a mul¬ 
 titude whom no man could number, as 
 “ vessels of mercy;” (4) to send his Son 
 for their redemption; (5) to leave the res¬ 
 idue of mankind to suffer the just punish¬ 
 ment of their sins. This doctrine is held 
 by Augustinians, and is found in the Cal- 
 vinistic symbolical books. 
 
 Infula (sometimes called mitral) is a cap 
 which, since the sixteenth century, has 
 been worn by the bishops of the Roman 
 and Greek Churches as the insignia of their 
 office. 
 
 Ingathering, Feast of. See Taberna¬ 
 cles, Feast of. 
 
 Ingham, Benjamin, b. in Yorkshire in 
 1712; d. at Aberford in 1772. While a 
 student at Oxford he was a member of the 
 “ Holy Club ” with the Wesleys. After 
 his ordination, he accompanied John Wes¬ 
 ley in his missionary expedition in Georgia. 
 While on the outward voyage he met 
 Moravian bishops, and on his return to 
 England joined the London Society; when 
 he was prohibited from preaching in Epis¬ 
 copal churches, he went through York¬ 
 shire preaching in fields and barns. In 
 1740 Wesley was expelled from the Soci¬ 
 ety, but Ingham remained, and became the 
 head of the Yorkshire Moravians. Having 
 married a sister-in-law of Lady Hunting¬ 
 don, he was brought into close relations 
 with her in religious work. Withdrawing 
 from the Moravians in 1753, he founded a 
 sect in which he took the office of “ gen¬ 
 eral overseer,” or bishop. In 1759 he read 
 the works of Glass and Sandeman, and sent 
 two of his assistants to Scotland to see 
 these leaders. They came back strong 
 Sandemanians ( q. v .). This caused a split 
 in the sect, and only thirteen out of eighty 
 Societies remained faithful to him. The 
 defection probably hastened his death. 
 The sect survives, but only numbers 
 six Societies. See Tyerman: The Ox¬ 
 
 ford Methodists (New York, 1S73, pp. 
 
 57 - 154 )* 
 
 Inheritance. “The Hebrew institutions 
 relative to inheritance were of a very sim¬ 
 ple character. Under the patriarchal sys¬ 
 tem the property was divided among the 
 sons of the legitimate wives (Gen. xxi. 10; 
 xxiv. 36; xxv. 5), a larger portion being 
 assigned to one, generally the eldest, on 
 whom devolved the duty of maintaining 
 the females of the family. The sons of 
 concubines were portioned off with pres¬ 
 ents. (Gen. xxv. 6.) At a later period the 
 exclusion of the sons of concubines was 
 rigidly enforced. (Judg. xi. 1 jf.) Daugh¬ 
 ters had no share in the patrimony (Gen. 
 xxxi. 14), but received a marriage portion. 
 The Mosaic law regulated the succession 
 to real property thus: It was to be divided 
 among the sons, the eldest receiving a 
 double portion (Deut. xxi. 17), the others 
 equal shares; if there were no sons it went 
 to the daughters (Num. xxvii. 8) on the 
 condition that they did not marry out of 
 their own tribe (Num. xxxvi. 6 jf.\ Tob. 
 vi. 12; vii. 13), otherwise the patrimony 
 was forfeited. If there were no daughters 
 it went to the brother of the deceased; if 
 no brother, to the paternal uncle; and, 
 failing these, to the next of kin. (Num. 
 xxvii. 9-11.) In the case of a widow being 
 left without children, the nearest of kin on 
 her husband’s side had the right of marry¬ 
 ing her, and in the event of his refusal the 
 next of kin (Ruth iii. 12, 13); with him 
 rested the obligation of redeeming the 
 property of the widow (Ruth iv. 1 Jf.) y if it 
 had been either sold or mortgaged. If 
 none stepped forward to marry the widow, 
 the inheritance remained with her until her 
 death, and then reverted to the next of 
 kin. The land being thus so strictly tied 
 up, the notion of heirship , as we under¬ 
 stand it, was hardly known to the Jews. 
 Testamentary dispositions were, of course, 
 superfluous. The references to wills in St. 
 Paul’s writings are borrowed from the 
 usages of Greece and Rome (Heb. ix. 17), 
 whence the custom was introduced into 
 Judaea.”—Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 Inner Mission, an agency organized in 
 Germany in 1848 for protmoting the spirit¬ 
 ual and bodily welfare of the destitute and 
 spiritually indifferent. The first impulse 
 to this work came with the success and 
 development of Fliedner’s various charities 
 at Kaiserswertli, but the movement was in¬ 
 augurated by Dr. Wichern, who founded 
 the Rauhe Haus at Hamburg in 1833. The 
 sphere of the efforts of the society that 
 has now won a large constituency includes 
 schools for children and cripples, houses 
 
Inn 
 
 ( 442 ) 
 
 Inn 
 
 
 of refuge, the care of the sick and poor, 
 the conduct of Sunday-schools, the organi¬ 
 zation of Young Men’s Christian Associa¬ 
 tions, the training of servants, city mission 
 work, and other forms of Christian service. 
 Central committees direct trained evangel¬ 
 ists, colporteurs, and helpers. Its mission, 
 as will be seen, includes both physical and 
 spiritual agencies, and it has been the 
 means of great good. 
 
 Innocent, “ the name of thirteen popes, 
 the most remarkable of whom are the fol¬ 
 lowing: 
 
 “ Innocent I., a native of Albano, was 
 elected bishop of Rome in 402. Next to 
 the pontificate of Leo the Great, that of In¬ 
 nocent I. forms the most important epoch 
 in the history of the relations of the see of 
 Rome with the other churches, both of the 
 East and West. Under him, according to 
 Protestant historians, the system of nam¬ 
 ing legates to act in the name of the Ro¬ 
 man bishop in different portions of the 
 Church originated; while Catholics at least 
 admit that it received a fuller organization 
 and development. He was earnest and 
 vigorous in enforcing the celibacy of the 
 clergy. He maintained, with a firm hand, 
 the right of the bishop of Rome to receive 
 and to judge appeals from other churches, 
 and his letters abound with assertions of 
 universal jurisdiction, to which Catholics 
 appeal as evidence of the early exercise of 
 the Roman primacy, and from which Dean 
 Milman infers that there had already 
 * dawned upon his mind the conception of 
 Rome’s universal ecclesiastical supremacy, 
 dim as yet and shadowy, yet full and com¬ 
 prehensive in its outline ’ (Latin Chris¬ 
 tianity , i. p. 87). Innocent I. died in 417. 
 
 “ Innocent III. (Lothario Conti), by 
 far the greatest pope of this name, was b. at 
 Anagni in 1161. After a course of much 
 distinction at Paris, Bologna, and Rome, 
 he was made cardinal; and eventually, in 
 1198, was elected, at the unprecedentedly 
 early age of 37, a successor of Pope Celes- 
 tine III. His pontificate is justly regard¬ 
 ed as the culminating point of the temporal 
 as well as the spiritual supremacy of the 
 Roman see; and it is freely avowed by the 
 learned historian of Latin Christianity , 
 that if ever the great idea of a Christian 
 republic, with a pope at its head, was to be 
 realized, ‘ none could bring more lofty or 
 more various qualifications for its accom¬ 
 plishment than Innocent III.’ (iv. p. 9). 
 Accordingly, under the impulse of his 
 ardent but disinterested zeal for the glory 
 of the Church, almost every State and king¬ 
 dom was brought into subjection. In 
 Italy, during the minority of Frederick II. 
 (son of the Emperor Henry VI., king of 
 
 Italy), who was a ward of Innocent’s, the 
 authority of the pope within his own States 
 was fully consolidated, and his influence 
 among other States of Italy was confirmed 
 and extended. In Germany he adjudicated 
 with authority upon the rival claims of 
 Otho and Philip; and a second time he in¬ 
 terposed effectually in behalf of his ward, 
 Frederick II. In France, espousing the 
 cause of the injured Ingerburga, he com¬ 
 pelled her unworthy husband, Philip 
 Augustus, to dismiss Agnes de Meranie, 
 whom he had unlawfully married, and to 
 take back Ingerburga. In Spain he exer¬ 
 cised a similar authority over the king of 
 Leon, who had married within the prohibit¬ 
 ed degrees. The history of his conflict with 
 the weak and unprincipled John of England 
 would carry us beyond the space at our 
 disposal. If it exhibits Innocent’s character 
 for consistent adherence to principle, and 
 his lofty indifference to the suggestions of 
 expediency in a less favorable point of view 
 than his other similar contests, it at the 
 same time displays in a stronger light the 
 extent of his pretensions and the complete¬ 
 ness of his supremacy. In Norway he 
 exercised the same authority in reference 
 to the usurper Swero. In Aragon he re¬ 
 ceived the fealty of the King Alfonso. 
 Even the king of Armenia, Leo, received 
 his legates, and accepted from them the in¬ 
 vestiture of his kingdom. And, as if in 
 order that nothing might be wanting to the 
 completeness of his authority throughout 
 the then known world, the Latin conquest 
 of Constantinople, and the establishment 
 of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, put an 
 end, at least during his pontificate, to the 
 shadowy pretensions of the Eastern rivals 
 of his power, spiritual as well as temporal. 
 Pursuing consistently the great idea which 
 inspired his entire career, his views of the 
 absoluteness of the authority of the Church 
 within her own dominion were no less un¬ 
 bending than his notion of the universality 
 of its extent. To him, every offence 
 against religion was a crime against society, 
 and, in his ideal Christian republic, every 
 heresy was a rebellion which it was the 
 duty of the rulers to resist and repress. 
 It was at his call, therefore, that the cru¬ 
 sade against the Albigenses was organized 
 and undertaken; and although he can hard¬ 
 ly be held responsible for the fearful ex¬ 
 cesses into which it ran, and although at 
 its close he used all his endeavors to pro¬ 
 cure the restitution of the lands of the 
 young Count of Toulouse, yet it is clear 
 from his letters that he regarded the under¬ 
 taking itself not merely as lawful, but as a 
 glorious enterprise of religion and piety. 
 As an ecclesiastical administrator, Innocent 
 holds a high place in his order. He was a 
 
Inn 
 
 ( 443 ) 
 
 Inq 
 
 vigorous guardian of public and private 
 morality, a steady protector of the weak, 
 zealous in the repression of simony and 
 other abuses of the time. He prohibited 
 the arbitrary multiplication of religious 
 orders by private authority, but he lent all 
 the force of his power and influence to the 
 remarkable spiritual movement in which 
 the two great orders, the Franciscan and 
 the Dominican (y. v. ), had their origin. 
 It was under him that the celebrated fourth 
 Lateran council was held in 1215. In the 
 following year he was seized with his fatal 
 illness, and died in July at Perugia, at the 
 early age of fifty-six. His works, consist¬ 
 ing principally of letters and sermons, and 
 of a remarkable treatise On the Misery of 
 the Condition of Man , were published in 
 two vols. folio (Paris, 1682). It is from 
 these letters and decretals alone that the 
 character of the age and the true signifi¬ 
 cance of the church policy of this extraor¬ 
 dinary man can be fully understood; and 
 it is only from a careful study of them that 
 the nature of his views and objects can be 
 realized in their integrity. However ear¬ 
 nestly men may dissent from these views, 
 no student of mediaeval history will refuse 
 to accept Dean Milman’s verdict on the ca¬ 
 reer of Innocent III., that ‘his high and 
 blameless, and, in some respects, wise and 
 gentle character, seems to approach more 
 nearly than any one of the whole succession 
 of Roman bishops to the ideal light of a 
 supreme pontiff; ’ and that * in him, if ever, 
 may seem to be realized the churchman’s 
 highest conception of a vicar of Christ 
 (Latin Christianity , iv. 277).”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Innocents’ Day, a festival held on Dec. 
 28 to commemorate the massacre of the 
 children at Bethlehem by Herod. Until 
 the fifth century it was connected with the 
 Feast of the Epiphany. In England it was 
 formerly called Childermas Day. 
 
 Inns. In ancient times inns were simply 
 enclosures which afforded some protec¬ 
 tion. The “ khans ” or “ caravansaries ” 
 of later times were large square buildings 
 Containing rooms enclosing an open court. 
 (Jer. ix. 2.) Food was not, as a rule, pro¬ 
 vided for man or beast, as the traveler 
 was expected to carry it with him. An¬ 
 other kind of inn is that mentioned in the 
 parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x. 
 34), which had a keeper, and where per¬ 
 sonal care as well as food could be secured. 
 It was in one of the stables connected with 
 a caravansary that our Lord was born. 
 
 Inquisition, The, a tribunal in the 
 Church of Rome for the trial and punish¬ 
 
 ment of heretics. The first foundation of 
 it was laid by Innocent III. in the year 
 1215, when he commissioned Father Dom¬ 
 inic to judge and deliver to punishment 
 obstinate and relapsed heretics among the 
 Albigenses. The result was that 30,000 
 persons of every age, sex, and condition 
 were massacred. But the Court of the In¬ 
 quisition was not formally established till 
 the Council of Toulouse, under Gregory 
 IX., in 1229. By this council a tribunal 
 was erected in every city, consisting of a 
 priest and three laymen, who were charged 
 with the work of seeking out heretics and 
 denouncing them to the bishops. In 1233 
 Gregory transferred the working of the In¬ 
 quisition from the bishops to the Domin¬ 
 icans, who discharged their functions with 
 great vigor. In 1263 Urban IV. appointed 
 an Inquisitor-General, to whom reference 
 might be made by his subordinates in all 
 cases of doubt; and in 1542 Paul III., 
 alarmed at the spread of Lutheran doctrine, 
 appointed a committee of nine learned men 
 for the reformation of church discipline. 
 This committee was reorganized, and its 
 powers extended by Pius IV. in 1564. The 
 new council consisted of twelve cardinals 
 as Inquisitors-General, and a number of 
 other clergy, called consultors, with a 
 Dominican as commissary, and it had power 
 to appoint provincial inquisitors, and to 
 receive appeals. Princes and rulers were 
 commanded by Pius V. to execute its or¬ 
 ders. Sixtus V., in 1588, further perfected 
 the organization by increasing the numbers 
 of the council, and dividing it into fifteen 
 congregations, to each of which a particular 
 branch was assigned. 
 
 Spain, since 1483, had its own Grand In¬ 
 quisitor, who was nominated by the king, 
 and appointed by the pope. The post was 
 first filled by the famous Tomas de Torque- 
 mada, under whom, in the first eighteen 
 years of the Inquisition, 10,220 prisoners 
 were burnt, and 97,321 imprisoned, exiled, 
 or stripped of their property. The Grand 
 Inquisitor named his own assistants, and 
 from him there was no appeal, except to 
 the king, who was bound by his coronation 
 oath to submit to the laws of the Inquisi¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The prisoners of the Inquisition were 
 never confronted with witnesses, but were 
 imprisoned and tortured to make them con¬ 
 fess and recant their error. The ceremony of 
 pronouncing sentence, called an Auto da Fd 
 (Act of Faith),was solemn and imposing,and 
 was performed in public. A procession was 
 formed of the accused in the order of their 
 guilt: first came those who were to be dis¬ 
 charged, wearing their ordinary dress, and 
 separated from the condemned by a crucifix; 
 then followed the bones and effigies of dead 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 444 ) 
 
 Ins 
 
 heretics, with inscriptions intimating their 
 crimes; and, finally, the condemned, each 
 clad in a yellow garment, called a San Ben¬ 
 ito, decorated with significant emblems. 
 St. Andrew’s crosses marked those who 
 had escaped with their lives, red flames 
 those who were threatened with burning, 
 if again convicted, whilst representations 
 of devils amongst the flames covered the 
 robes of those who were to suffer death. 
 Thus apparelled, the prisoners were led 
 before the Inquisitor, who “reluctantly” 
 handed them over to the secular arm, and 
 delivered them to be burned. The Inquisi¬ 
 tion has been vindicated by the Church of 
 Rome in our own day by the “ Syllabus ” 
 of 1864, which asserts the right of the 
 Church to use both the spiritual and tem¬ 
 poral sword for the reclamation of heretics. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Lea: 
 History of the Inquisition (New York, 1889), 
 3 vols. 
 
 Inspiration. This term means, liter¬ 
 ally, an inbreathing, and is a name for 
 spiritual influence. In theological language 
 it is usually applied to an influence of the 
 divine spirit upon men. The term occurs 
 twice in our older English version, viz: 
 Job xxxii. 8, “ There is a spirit in man, 
 and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth 
 them understanding;” and 2 Tim. iii. 16, 
 “ All Scripture is given by inspiration of 
 God,” etc. In the former case the word 
 “inspiration” is replaced by the literal 
 rendering “breath” in the Revised Ver¬ 
 sion, and in the latter the adjective {theo- 
 pneustos , God-breathed) is more exactly 
 rendered : “ Every Scripture inspired of 
 God is also profitable,” etc. 
 
 In the first passage the conception is 
 that inspiration is a universal fact ground¬ 
 ed in the spiritual nature of man and his 
 kinship of being with God. This is the 
 most comprehensive use of the term. In 
 the second passage inspiration is contem¬ 
 plated with specific reference to that influ¬ 
 ence of God which acted upon the Script¬ 
 ure writers, that is, the writers of the Old 
 Testament, since at that time there was no 
 body of Christian writings which were 
 called “ Scripture.” 
 
 There may be applications of the term 
 “ inspiration” intermediate between these. 
 By it may be denoted an influence of God 
 which has for its end the revelation of 
 himself to men—an influence more special 
 than that which, in virtue of man’s consti¬ 
 tution, God may be said to exercise upon 
 all men, and less special than is supposed 
 when inspiration is made to terminate upon 
 the writing of books. The conception of 
 inspiration turns largely upon the view 
 taken of the primary end which God is 
 
 supposed to be contemplating in inspiring 
 men. The most general sense of the word, 
 which we have noticed, may be left out ot 
 account here, -since theological usage em¬ 
 ploys the term in relation to the revela- 
 tions, truths, or records which are con¬ 
 tained in the Bible. The differences among 
 theologians relate to such questions as 
 these: Does the action of God which is 
 called inspiration have for its primary end 
 the protection of a record of the acts of 
 God in history, or is it, rather, an accom¬ 
 paniment of those revealing acts—a con¬ 
 stituent element in the process of revela¬ 
 tion ? Is inspiration, then, for writing 
 only or chiefly, or for leadership, teaching 
 and other functions as well ? What are the 
 limits of inspiration? If its end is the 
 writing of books, how far are those books 
 to be regarded as infallible records or ex¬ 
 positions of doctrine ? 
 
 In connection with these questions it 
 may be useful to quote the definitions of 
 inspiration which are given by three repre¬ 
 sentative theologians of the present day: 
 “ By the inspiration of Scripture we mean 
 that special divine influence upon the 
 minds of the Scripture writers, in virtue of 
 which their productions, apart from errors 
 of transcription, and, when rightly inter¬ 
 preted, together constitute an infallible and 
 sufficient rule of faith and practice.” (A. 
 H. Strong: Syst. Theol. , p. 95.) 
 
 “ Inspiration is that divine influence by 
 virtue of which the truths and facts given 
 by revelation, as well as other truths and 
 facts pertaining to God’s kingdom, are 
 spoken or written in a truthful and author¬ 
 itative manner.” (H. B. Smith: Int. to 
 Chris. Theol., p. 204.) 
 
 “ Inspiration is the divine communica¬ 
 tion of the permanent truths of the king¬ 
 dom of redemption, in an organic way, to 
 the writers of Scripture, which gives to 
 these writers their unique place in the of¬ 
 fices of this kingdom.” (G. T. Ladd: Doct. 
 of Sac. Scr., ii., 464.) 
 
 It will be seen that the first of these 
 definitions contemplates inspiration as ter¬ 
 minating more upon the production of the 
 book which we call the Bible; the second 
 as terminating more upon the teaching or 
 writing of the truths and facts of God’s 
 kingdom; the third defines the relation of 
 inspiration to the writers, but limits the 
 scope of its action to the permanent truths, 
 etc., and indicates the method as “ organ¬ 
 ic,” that is, historic and progressive. 
 
 In modern times, more especially in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it 
 has been customary to define inspiration as 
 terminating upon the writing of books, 
 and as securing absolute infallibility in 
 these books, not only in teaching, but in 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 445 ) 
 
 Ins 
 
 chronology, geography, science, and the 
 like. This view sometimes went so far as 
 to attribute the very words chosen to the 
 Holy Spirit, and to characterize the writers 
 •as amanuenses. It is now generally ad¬ 
 mitted that these views were extreme, al¬ 
 though a less consistent effort to preserve 
 the same general conception of the sub¬ 
 ject, without carrying it into such minutice , 
 is still made. The gradual abandonment 
 of this type of theory has been chiefly due 
 to biblical criticism, which explores the 
 historical and doctrinal contents of the 
 Bible in a scientific manner and spirit, and 
 which finds the various books to have been 
 largely affected by the human conditions 
 which surrounded their writers. Some re¬ 
 flect the imperfect morality of the times to 
 which they belong; the language of Script¬ 
 ure is conformed to the limited knowledge 
 of science and history which its writers 
 possessed; there are in the biblical books 
 such errors and discrepancies as we should 
 look for in other literatures representing 
 many centuries of time, and originating, 
 chiefly, in an uncritical age. 
 
 Those who accepted these results of 
 criticism can no longer hold to those opin¬ 
 ions of inspiration which make the Bible 
 the direct product of divine agency, and 
 deny to it all traces of human imperfection 
 or mistake. They maintain that the nat¬ 
 ure of the Bible is settled in advance by 
 definition in such theories, and that the 
 theories break down before the facts. In 
 recent times the opinion has become cur¬ 
 rent that theories of inspiration constructed 
 a priori can have little truth or value. 
 The critical study of the Bible itself alone 
 can decide whether it contains errors of 
 chronology and similar imperfections or 
 not. Theology has thus been forced to a 
 new method of approaching the subject. 
 Instead of defining in advance what must be 
 the facts, the effort is made to study im¬ 
 partially the whole range of history and 
 teaching which the Bible presents, and to 
 determine as accurately as possible, by an 
 inductive process, the ways and degrees in 
 which human agencies and limitations have 
 affected the biblical books. The former 
 method was the easier, since it is far sim¬ 
 pler to ignore human factors and to define 
 philosophically what the divine aim in in¬ 
 spiration must have been. The latter 
 method, which approaches the subject from 
 the human side and deals with the ascer¬ 
 tainable concrete facts, has the greater dif¬ 
 ficulty in shaping any formal definition, 
 and is under the necessity of modifying its 
 conceptions and adjusting them to new 
 facts, as investigation proceeds, but has 
 the great advantage of proceeding upon 
 the only method which can commend itself 
 
 to a scientific age or yield any trustworthy 
 results. 
 
 In accord with the spirit and results of 
 biblical science the following suggestions 
 may be made in regard to the construction 
 of a doctrine of the inspiration of the 
 Scriptures: (i) The chief difficulty in fram¬ 
 ing satisfactory formal definitions arises (a) 
 from the fact that the phenomena of Script¬ 
 ure are in the process of investigation, 
 and many questions touching the form, 
 authorship, and historical conditions at¬ 
 tending the origin of some of the biblical 
 books are undetermined. (l>) The great 
 variety of biblical literature, including 
 chronicle, psalmody, history, prophecy, 
 and letters, renders it difficult to frame a 
 brief description which shall be equally 
 appropriate and true of all, and shall satis¬ 
 factorily define the part of divine agency 
 in the production of each. (2) The indis¬ 
 putable spiritual power and the self-evi¬ 
 dencing moral value of the Bible give the 
 impulse, while biblical criticism, impar¬ 
 tially investigating the human conditions 
 affecting the biblical books, sets the limits 
 to the conception of inspiration. The Bible 
 has been held to be inspired because of the 
 practical saving power of the truths and 
 revelations of God of which it is the rec¬ 
 ord; the sense and degree of its inspiration 
 in its various parts must be defined—so 
 far as may be—after the most painstaking 
 study of the book itself, and the fullest pos¬ 
 sible consideration of all its phenomena 
 which lie open to investigation. (3) The 
 question as to the nature and method of the 
 revelation of God contained and recorded in 
 the Bible is a much more comprehensive 
 and important question than that as to the 
 nature and method of the divine influence 
 in the writing of the biblical books. This 
 larger question has risen to such importance 
 in theology,especially in view of skepticism 
 respecting the reality of divine revelation, 
 as to relatively diminish interest in the 
 special question of inspiration. The ques¬ 
 tion of inspiration is a question among 
 Christian theologians; it is chiefly a ques¬ 
 tion of method and degree of divine influ¬ 
 ence; the question of revelation is a ques¬ 
 tion between belief and unbelief; it is a 
 question affecting the truth and perpetuity 
 of the Christian religion. Varying concep¬ 
 tions of inspiration may be held without 
 affecting the practical value and use of the 
 Bible; but with the question of revelation 
 the Bible stands or falls; upon it hinge 
 all the interests of Christian faith. In ac¬ 
 cord with this greater emphasis which is 
 laid in recent times upon the idea and fact 
 of revelation, the defense of the Bible pro¬ 
 ceeds more than formerly upon historical, 
 rather than philosophical lines. Apol- 
 
Ins 
 
 ( 44 ^ ) 
 
 Int 
 
 ogetics seek to prove the fact of a divine 
 revelation enshrined in the Bible, rather 
 than any special theory of the activity of 
 God in the writing of the Bible. The pri¬ 
 mary question is felt to be, whether, and 
 in how far, the Bible is historical, while 
 the determination of the mode or degree of 
 its inspiration is considered a subordinate 
 inquiry. (4) The conception of inspiration 
 should be held in relation to the essential 
 moral and spiritual contents of the Bible, 
 and not merely in relation to its form. In¬ 
 spiration does not terminate upon the pro¬ 
 duction of formally infallible records, but 
 upon the furnishing of men for the com¬ 
 munication of religious truth. (5) Inspira¬ 
 tion applies primarily to men, only second¬ 
 arily to books. It has, therefore, for its 
 object, not merely the writing of books, 
 but includes enlightenment and guidance 
 in teaching, leadership and other functions 
 which the divine Spirit employs for the 
 ends of revelation. (6) Biblical inspiration 
 pertains to that whole course of redemptive 
 history whose product and record is the 
 Bible. It cannot be rigidly limited to 
 those who wrote some part of our canon¬ 
 ical books, except by arbitrary definition. 
 There is no reason to doubt that there 
 were prophets as truly and fully inspired 
 as those whose writings we have, or that 
 other apostles who have not contributed 
 to our canon shared as richly in the prom¬ 
 ised gifts of the Spirit as those whose 
 epistles we possess. 
 
 (7) The object of inspiration is the com¬ 
 munity of believers. Whatever special 
 inspiration is given to chosen leaders or 
 for the ends of writing can be special only 
 in its purpose, not in its nature, or, neces¬ 
 sarily, in its degree. 
 
 In harmony with the distinctions and sug¬ 
 gestions above made, the following defini¬ 
 tions are offered, not as furnishing an ade¬ 
 quate presentation of the subject, but as 
 indicating what the writer deems to be the 
 right point of view and the correct general 
 conception: Inspiration, as properly ap¬ 
 plied to the Bible, is, in general, (a) a name 
 for the influence of God upon men in re¬ 
 vealing himself to them, so far as that proc¬ 
 ess of revelation is traced in the Bible; 
 ( b) more particularly, it is a name for that 
 divine influence upon the leaders and teach¬ 
 ers of the true religion, who were, at once, 
 the chief human agents of the revelation 
 and the chief authors of the Bible, men like 
 Moses, Isaiah, John and Paul; ( c ) in strict 
 application to the biblical writings (the 
 technical sense of the word in theology), 
 inspiration is a name for that guiding and 
 enlightening influence of the divine Spirit 
 upon the biblical writers, which enabled 
 them, in different degrees of fullness and in 
 
 varying forms, to present in their writings 
 accounts, examples, and interpretations of 
 the history and contents of the divine self¬ 
 revelation such as, when taken together 
 and rightly interpreted, constitute an ade¬ 
 quate and authoritative guide to religious 
 faith and conduct. See Wm. Lee: Inspira¬ 
 tion of Scripture; J. J. Given: Revelation , 
 Inspiration , and the Canon: Liber Librorum 
 (anonymous); Alfred Cane: The Inspiration 
 of the Old Testament; R. Jamieson: The 
 Inspiration of Holy Scripture; Inspiration 
 (a clerical symposium); R. F. Horton: In¬ 
 spiration and the Bible; C. Gore: The Holy 
 Spirit and Inspiration (in Lux Mundi); G.T. 
 Ladd: The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture , and 
 What is the Bible ? 
 
 George B. Stevens. 
 
 Inspired, The, the name of a sect which 
 sprang up about 1700, under the influence 
 of the prophets of the Camisards. Driven 
 from France, some of these enthusiasts 
 found a home in Germany, where they made 
 many converts. By the close of the 
 eighteenth century they had congregations 
 in Halle and Berlin and in Hesse, the Palat¬ 
 inate, Wiirtemburg, and Saxony. Their 
 most prominent prophets were E. L. Gru¬ 
 ber and J. F. Rock. In doctrine they did 
 not differ very much from the evangelical 
 churches, but their peculiar views of disci¬ 
 pline and belief in continuous inspiration 
 brought them into antagonism with the 
 Established Church. The Hessian and 
 Prussian governments sought to silence 
 the prophets, and in 1841 about eight hun¬ 
 dred of the sect emigrated to this country 
 and formed a colony at Ebenezer, in the 
 State of N. Y., and afterward in Canada 
 and Iowa (1854). 
 
 Installation is the ceremony by which an 
 ordained minister is put into possession of 
 an ecclesiastical benefice. It also denotes 
 the public and official induction of a minis¬ 
 ter into a new pastoral connection. 
 
 Institution, according to canon law, is 
 the final act by which a person elected by 
 the chapter, or nominated by the govern¬ 
 ment, is appointed by the proper authority 
 to an ecclesiastical benefice. 
 
 Intercession is the act of one who inter¬ 
 poses between parties at variance, with a 
 view to reconciliation. In theological 
 language it refers to the mediatorial work 
 of Christ. “ His Intercession, in its larg¬ 
 est sense, may be said to consist in all his 
 agency, at the right hand of the Father, for 
 the final and complete redemption of man. 
 Whatever he does, on the basis of his sac¬ 
 rifice, now and ever, in the way of media- 
 
Int 
 
 ( 447 ) 
 
 Int 
 
 tion between God and man is comprised in 
 this intercession, taken in its fullest scope. 
 It consists not in words alone, but also in 
 deeds : his succor, his pity, his care, his 
 love for each and all of his followers; his 
 guardianship in the hour of temptation, his 
 aid in our spiritual conflicts, his grace im¬ 
 parted according to our need, the balm of 
 his consolation, his strength in our weak¬ 
 ness, the answers to all prayers put up in 
 his name; all belong to, and make a part 
 of, his intercession.”—Dr. H. B. Smith: 
 Systematic Theology , pp. 483,484. See Isa. 
 liii. 12; Heb. vii. 25; Rom. viii. 34; 1 John 
 ii. i. The intercession of saints as taught 
 by the Church of Rome is not received by 
 Protestants. See Mediator. 
 
 Interdict, a punishment inflicted upon its 
 members, by the Roman Catholic Church, 
 by which they are forbidden the celebration 
 of all services, the sacraments, etc. The 
 pope, the councils, and the bishops alone 
 have the right of pronouncing an interdict. 
 Innocent III. put England under an inter¬ 
 dict in 1208. 
 
 Interim, a provisional arrangement, im¬ 
 posed upon the German reformers by 
 Charles V., until a general council should 
 decide between them and the pope. There 
 were three interims, named after the places 
 from which they were issued, viz., Ratis- 
 bon, Augsburg, and Leipzig. 
 
 Interpretation. See Exegesis; Herme¬ 
 neutics. 
 
 Intinction is the name given the mode in 
 which the Greek Church administers the 
 Eucharist to the laity. The consecrated 
 bread being broken into the wine, both 
 elements are given together in a spoon. 
 Greek writers claim that this custom pre¬ 
 vailed as early as the time of Chrysostom. 
 
 Intonation, the reading of a liturgical 
 service with a musical accentuation and 
 tone of voice. It is practiced in the Roman, 
 Greek, and some Episcopal, churches. 
 
 Introduction is a word used with wide 
 variety of meaning to signify the history 
 of the Scripture writings. This branch of 
 study is divided into two parts: (1) General 
 Introduction, which treats of the original 
 languages of the Bible, its versions, the 
 history and criticism of the text, and the 
 history of the canon: (2) Special Intro¬ 
 duction is confined to the contents, origin 
 and credibility of the separate books. The 
 literature is extensive. See Horne: An 
 Introduction to the Critical Study and 
 Knowledge of the Scriptures (London, 
 
 1818, last edition, 1877); Davidson: An In¬ 
 troduction to the Old Testament (London, 
 1862), 3 vols; Harman: Introduction to the 
 Study of Holy Scripture (N. Y., 1873, 4th 
 ed., 1884); Lumby: A Popular Intro¬ 
 duction to the New Testament (London, 
 1883); Farrar: The Message of the Books 
 (1884). ♦ 
 
 Intuitionists, those who make the basis 
 of faith not an external revelation (whether 
 through the Church, or through the Script¬ 
 ures), but the intuitions and instincts of 
 the soul. The principle underlying this 
 theory has shown itself in all ages; it be¬ 
 longs to a certain class of mind, and some 
 of the early heretics, as well as some of 
 the noblest of teachers, made it their start¬ 
 ing point. Thus not only the Gnostics re¬ 
 garded themselves as “ spiritual,” lifted 
 out of the regions of sensation and verbal 
 teaching by the intuitions of a Divine 
 knowledge imparted to them, but men like 
 Thomas a Kempis felt comforted and 
 strengthened by the conviction that as they 
 retired into religious contemplation, God 
 spoke, as confidentially, to their souls. 
 (Neo - Platonists; Mystics). But In- 
 tuitionism was concreted into a system as 
 a result of the Reformation. That event 
 taught men to challenge all traditional be¬ 
 liefs, and to make themselves sure of their 
 foundations. Not merely the doctrines of 
 the Creeds, but the authority of the Script¬ 
 ures demanded at their hands credentials 
 for their acceptance. And hence followed 
 two lines of thought. There were those 
 who declared that nothing is to be believed 
 which imposes the acceptance of an ex¬ 
 ternal authority; that the Creeds, that the 
 Bible itself, must make way for the re¬ 
 ligion of nature and the teachings of the 
 spirit of man. Such was the teaching of 
 some of the Deists, as Lord Herbert of 
 Cherbury and Tindal. But there were 
 others who accepted the Christian faith as 
 true, on the ground that the human spirit 
 bears witness to it, and approves it to the 
 conscience. This was the line taken by some 
 of the eminent Germans who are lumped to¬ 
 gether under the name of Rationalists. 
 Their views were opposed, accepted, dis¬ 
 criminated by certain writers of Great Brit¬ 
 ain who are sometimes known as Eclectics, 
 the foremost of them being Coleridge. But 
 a new school of Intuitionists has arisen in 
 the nineteenth century, to be accounted for 
 by the altered conditions which are the re¬ 
 sults of fuller historical criticisms and 
 scientific discovery. The believer in the 
 divine authority of the Church and the 
 truth of the Creeds remains as he was in 
 the conviction that from the very nature of 
 the case no questionings can touch these. 
 
Int 
 
 ( 448 ) 
 
 Ire 
 
 But those who deny the binding authority 
 of any external revelation have no such 
 conviction, though those who are religious 
 and desire to see the world made better 
 cannot acquiesce in negations. Hence we 
 have such writers as Emerson and Carlyle, 
 each in his way an Intuitionist of the new 
 school. Carlyle, however, with his his¬ 
 torical instinct, put aside his questionings 
 in pursuit of historic facts; Emerson 
 was religious above all things besides, 
 however dreamy and unpractical. Accord¬ 
 ing to him, it might be said that man is his 
 own teacher, his own Bible, practically 
 his own God.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 See Pantheism. 
 
 Introit, the name given to the anthem 
 which is sung in Roman Catholic Churches 
 at the beginning of the communion service. 
 See Smith and Cheetham: Did. of Chr. 
 Antiq. vol. i., pp. 865-867. 
 
 Invention of the Cross. See Cross. 
 
 Investure. Under the Frankish mon¬ 
 archy the rulers came to claim the right 
 of appointing the bishops. When a bishop 
 died, the insignia of his office were brought- 
 to the palace, and when the king had 
 chosen a successor he invested him with 
 the staff and ring, and received his homage, 
 or oath of fealty. Early in the eleventh 
 century the Roman curia entered upon a 
 conflict with the kings in this matter, and 
 forbade ecclesiastics to accept their offices 
 at the hands of the laymen. In 1068 the king 
 appointed a bishop of Milan by investure, 
 against the wishes of the people, who 
 wished him to be canonically appointed 
 and invested. The following year Gregory 
 VII. denied the right of the king, and com¬ 
 manded the people to oppose all bishops 
 who had been thus appointed by the secu¬ 
 lar power. This opened a struggle which 
 lasted until the Concordat of Worms (1122), 
 which was in favor of the pope. The contest 
 was especially long and bitter in Germany. 
 
 Invocation of Saints. The practice of 
 calling upon the souls of the departed for 
 their intercession and aid found accept¬ 
 ance in the Church about the fourth cen¬ 
 tury. The veneration paid to the martyrs, 
 and the old pagan idea that the spirits of 
 the dead lingered near the place of their 
 burial no doubt favored the growth of this 
 practice. Invocation of saints occurs in all 
 the ancient liturgies, from the eighth cen¬ 
 tury on. See Intercession. 
 
 Ireland. Christianity was introduced into 
 the country in the early part of the fifth 
 century; but the founding of an organized 
 
 Church is generally conceded to be due to 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 At the census of 1881 there were 3,951,- 
 881 Roman Catholics; 635,670 Protestant 
 Episcopalians; 485,503 Presbyterians, and 
 47,669 Methodists. The Roman Catholic 
 Church is under the four archbishops of 
 Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and 
 twenty - three bishops. The Protestant 
 Episcopal Church includes most of the 
 land-holding class. It is under two arch¬ 
 bishops and ten bishops. The Presbyterian 
 Church is confined mostly to Ulster, where 
 the population, to a large extent, is of 
 Scotch descent. In 1880 there were 660 
 congregations and 104,762 communicants. 
 The other Presbyterian bodies number but 
 few adherents. The Methodist Church, 
 formed in 1878 by the Union of the Wes¬ 
 leyan Methodists with the Primitive Wes¬ 
 leyan Methodists, in 1881 had under its 
 care 10 districts and 146 stations. The Con- 
 gregationalists have 21 ministers, and the 
 association of Baptist Churches, 25. The 
 Moravians have 8 congregations. 
 
 Irenaeus, one of the most distinguished 
 writers and theologians of the early Church, 
 was born, probably in Asia Minor, about 
 115; d. in Lyons about 202. He became 
 a presbyter in the Church of Lyons, and 
 after the martyrdom of Pothinus was 
 elected bishop. 
 
 The chief work of Irenaeus is his book, 
 Against Heresies. He saw the Church deeply 
 afflicted by them, and he classified them 
 as a physician would diseases, preparing 
 the remedies with care, that his heretical 
 patients might be healed, whilst they suf¬ 
 fered as little as possible. His five books 
 entitled, A Reftitation and Stibversion of 
 Gnosis, falsely so called, were originally writ¬ 
 ten in Greek, of which the original is lost, 
 except in many quotations of subsequent 
 Fathers; but a Latin quotation has come 
 down to us. The first book is wholly oc¬ 
 cupied with a statement of the various 
 heresies which are confuted in the remain¬ 
 der. Much information concerning ancient 
 Church government is contained in this 
 work. There are many noble sentences well 
 worthy of remembrance, e. g. , “Ever speak¬ 
 ing well of the deserving, and never ill of 
 the undeserving, we attain to the glory of 
 God.” He is also the author of a letter to 
 Florinus, Concer>iing Monarchy, in which 
 he proves that God is not the author of 
 evil; and of another to Blastus, On Schisms, 
 besides a treatise On Knowledge , addressed 
 to the Gentiles, and several “disserta¬ 
 tions.” Irenaeus died in the reign of Seve- 
 rus, in the beginning of the third century. 
 He is generally supposed to have been 
 martyred.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
Ire 
 
 ( 449 ) 
 
 Isa 
 
 Irene, b. at Athens, 752; d. in the Isle of 
 Lesbos, 803. Although of humble parent¬ 
 age she became the wife of Leo IV. in 769. 
 With an insatiable love of power she ruled 
 the Eastern Empire with great vigor from 
 the death of the emperor in 780, until her 
 banishment in 802. She had the eyes of 
 her own son put out in order to make him 
 unfit to reign. By her efforts the icono¬ 
 clasts were defeated and image-worship re¬ 
 established. For this service her name is 
 found among the saints of the Greek 
 Church. She was finally deposed, and died 
 in seclusion and poverty on the Isle of 
 Lesbos. 
 
 Irenical Theology, or Irenics (from 
 eirene , peace), has to do with those truths 
 in which may be found points of agree¬ 
 ment between Christians. Some cherish 
 the hope of ultimate unity and even the 
 organic union of Christendom. There are 
 many hopeful indications that point in this 
 direction. 
 
 Irving, Rev. Edward, “ wasib. in the town 
 of Annan, Scotland, Aug. 15, 1792: studied 
 at the University of Edinburgh, and after 
 completing his curriculum for the ministry 
 became assistant (in 1819) to Dr. Chalmers, 
 then a minister in Glasgow. His sermons 
 did not prove very popular. Chalmers 
 himself was not satisfied. In 1822 Irving 
 received a call to the Caledonian Church, 
 Hatton Garden, London,\yhich he accepted. 
 His success as a preacher in the metropolis 
 was such as had never previously been wit¬ 
 nessed. After some years, however, the 
 world of fashion got tired of Irving; but it 
 was not until his more striking singularities 
 of opinion were developed that fashion 
 finally deserted him. At the close of 1825 
 he began to announce his convictions in re¬ 
 gard to the second personal advent of the 
 Lord Jesus, in which he had become a firm 
 believer, and which he declared to be near 
 at hand. This was followed by the trans¬ 
 lation of a Spanish work, The Co??iing 
 of the Messiah in Ala jesty and Glory , by Juan 
 Josafat Ben Ezra, which professed to be 
 written by a Christian Jew, but was, in 
 reality, the composition of a Spanish Jesuit. 
 Irving’s introductory preface is regarded 
 as one of his most remarkable literary per¬ 
 formances. In 1828 appeared his Homilies 
 on the Sacraments. He now began to 
 elaborate his views of the incarnation of 
 Christ, asserting with great emphasis the 
 doctrine of his oneness with us in all the 
 attributes of humanity. The language 
 which he used on this subject drew upon 
 him the accusation of heresy; he was 
 charged with maintaining the sinfulness of 
 Christ’s nature, but he paid little heed to 
 
 the alarm thus created. He was now deep 
 in the study of the prophecies; and when 
 the news came to London, in the early part 
 of 1830, of certain extraordinary manifesta¬ 
 tions of prophetic power in the w. of Scot¬ 
 land, Irving was prepared to believe them. 
 Harassed, worn, baffled in his most sacred 
 desires for the regeneration of the great 
 Babylon in which he dwelt, branded by the 
 religious public, and satirized by the press, 
 the great preacher, who strove above all 
 things to be faithful to what seemed to him 
 the truth of God, grasped at the new won¬ 
 der with a passionate earnestness. Matters 
 soon came to a crisis. Irving was arraign¬ 
 ed before the presbytery of London in 1830, 
 and convicted of heresy, ejected from his 
 new church in Regent’s Square in 1832, and 
 finally deposed in 1833 by the presbytery 
 of Annan, which had licensed him. His 
 defense of himself on this last occasion 
 was one of his most splendid and sublime 
 efforts of oratory. The majority of his 
 congregation adhered to him, and gradually 
 a new form of Christianity was developed, 
 commonly known as Irvingism, though 
 Irving had really very little to do with its 
 development. Shortly after, his . health 
 failed, and in obedience, as he believed, to 
 the Spirit of God, he went down to Scot¬ 
 land, where he sank a victim to consump¬ 
 tion. He died at Glasgow, Dec. 8, 1834, 
 in the forty-second year of his age. See 
 Carlyle’s Miscellaneous Essays , and Mrs. 
 Oliphant’s Life of Edward Irving (London, 
 1862).”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See chap¬ 
 ter on his life in Carlyle's Re?niniscences y 
 edited by Froude (N. Y., 1881); Catholic 
 Apostolic Church. 
 
 Irvingites. See Catholic Apostolic 
 Church. 
 
 Isaac ( laughter ), the son of Abraham and 
 Sarah. The most significant event of his 
 life occurred in his earlier years. Josephus 
 says that he, Isaac, was twenty-five years 
 old when Abraham led him into the land of 
 Moriah, to sacrifice him. He was a dutiful 
 son, a kind and affectionate husband, and 
 generous and obliging in his relations 
 with friends and neighbors. “ Isaac’s im¬ 
 portance consists mainly in the fact that 
 he was the link extending the blessing 
 of the covenant from Abraham to Jacob. 
 Two sons were born to him late in life 
 (Gen. xxv. 21), and although he preferred 
 the older, Esau, he was deceived into con¬ 
 ferring the blessing upon Jacob, the young¬ 
 er. A feud broke out, in consequence, 
 between the two brothers; but the death 
 of the father, in his hundred and eightieth 
 year, was the occasion of their reconcilia¬ 
 tion. Isaac bowed submissively tothedis- 
 
Isa 
 
 ( 450 ) 
 
 Isa 
 
 pensations of Providence; and, although 
 the weakest of the three patriarchs, he 
 represents the pious fidelity which quietly 
 preserves the inherited blessing.”— Orelli. 
 On the sacrifice of Isaac, see Mozley: 
 Ruling' Ideas in Early Ages, chaps, ii., iii. 
 
 Isaiah, “ the son of Amoz, prophesied in 
 the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and 
 Hezekiah, kings of Judah. He flourished 
 between the years 750 and 700 B. c., was a 
 citizen of Jerusalem, and a man apparently 
 of considerable account in the city. He 
 was married, and had a family, the mem¬ 
 bers of which, as well as himself, had 
 names given to them which were symbol¬ 
 ical of the condition and prospects of the 
 kingdom of Judah at the time, his own 
 name meaning Jehovah the Salvation; his 
 sons’ names being, Immanuel, God with 
 us; Shearjashub, a remnant shall return, 
 or be converted; and Maher-shalal-hash- 
 baz, spoil speedeth, prey hasteneth. In this 
 last name the prophet expresses his sense 
 of impending national calamity, while the 
 others reflect his faith and his hope, how, 
 nevertheless, in the end God would be 
 found to stand by his people, and they by 
 him. 
 
 “Everything is outwardly going well with 
 both the northern and the southern king¬ 
 doms, when the prophet’s eye discovers 
 the signs of coming judgment; and before 
 the end of his ministry the kingdom of the 
 north has fallen, and that of the south is 
 only saved from a similar fate by the inter¬ 
 vention of Providence—the conquest of 
 Samaria being in 721 b. c., and the defeat 
 of Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem in 701. 
 Assyria was the dominant heathen power 
 of the period, and it was bent, in its lust of 
 power, on subjugating all the neighboring 
 nations. Isaiah foresaw that, for their 
 unfaithfulness, the Jewish people, along 
 Avith others, would fall a prey to its rav¬ 
 ages; and that no combination with the 
 rest on their part would save them from 
 the fate in store for them; yet that the 
 Lord would not altogether forsake his peo¬ 
 ple, and that a remnant should return and 
 rebuild Zion. It was nothing to him that 
 the northern kingdom had fallen, or that 
 he saw Assyria gathering its hosts to en¬ 
 compass' and destroy Jerusalem; for the 
 nearer and more formidable the advance of 
 the enemy was, the stronger and more as¬ 
 sured grew his faith that God was with 
 his people, and would interpose to save the 
 remnant of his chosen flock. Isaiah lived 
 to see the fulfillment of his words in the 
 total collapse of the designs of Assyria 
 against the holy city. 
 
 “ In the twenty-seven concluding chap¬ 
 ters of the book we are amid events which 
 
 happened one hundred and fifty years after 
 Isaiah’s death, when Babylon, having suc¬ 
 ceeded to the power and rdle of Assyria, is 
 in turn overthrown by Cyrus to the release 
 from captivity of the chosen people. The 
 question naturally arises, Is this the work 
 of the son of Amoz, and contemporary of 
 Hezekiah ? If so, we must conceive of the 
 prophet projecting himself into the period 
 of the Captivity, describing it as present in 
 elaborate details, and comforting the exiles 
 of that remote age with the prospect of res¬ 
 toration to the home of their fathers—and 
 all this many generations before the trouble 
 had come upon the nation, and even before 
 the Babylonian power had risen into im¬ 
 portance. Only a disbeliever in divine 
 inspiration can deny that such a feat of 
 prophecy is possible. If a prophet can 
 foretell the future at all, it is unreasonable 
 to stumble at the claim to foresee it with 
 an unusual copiousness. Nevertheless, it 
 has been pointed out that in all other cases 
 the Hebrew prophets chiefly concerned 
 themselves with the present condition of 
 the world. Their references to the remote 
 future were few, and principally devoted 
 to the grand Messianic Hope. It was not 
 their function to turn aside from the sins 
 and needs of contemporaries and write as 
 if they belonged to a distant future, filling 
 their pages with details of that future and 
 ignoring the circumstances of their day. 
 Though they did predict, their chief work 
 was not prediction, but preaching in the 
 name of God with regard to the sins and 
 troubles around them. If Isaiah wrote 
 the portion in question he would be more 
 than predicting the future. He would be 
 ignoring the present, and writing as though 
 he were in the midst of the future time, 
 and for the benefit of that time. This 
 would be quite possible as a miracle, for 
 all things are possible with God. But it 
 shows no unbelief in God to say that it is 
 contrary to the custom of prophecy, con¬ 
 trary to the analogy of other prophecies. 
 Besides this consideration, it is urged that 
 the author of the later portion is not a man 
 of the same temper as the author of the 
 earlier ; there is more * copiousness, 
 pathos, and unction ’ about him; but ‘ less 
 fire, energy, and concentration’ than in 
 his predecessor; while his inspiration is 
 founded on a deeper spiritual insight, and 
 his hopes and expectations built upon a 
 different view of the method of salvation. 
 This, as is alleged, appears in the substi¬ 
 tution for the original ideal of a conquer¬ 
 ing prince of the new ideal of a suffering 
 Saviour, bearing and bearing away the sins 
 of the nation. On such considerations, and 
 others, the hypothesis of a second Isaiah 
 is founded, and the combination of the two 
 
Isa 
 
 ( 45i ) 
 
 Isa 
 
 sets of prophecies under one name, along 
 with others of the same stamp, is believed 
 to be due to Ezra, who had, it is presumed, 
 recognized a lineal connection between the 
 later and the earlier prophecies. Some of 
 the prophecies which belong to the later 
 Isaiah, appear among those of the earlier; 
 such, it is alleged, as those contained in 
 chaps, xiii. 2-xiv. 23; xxiv.-xxvii.; xxxiv. 
 and xxxv. On the other hand, the following 
 points are urged in favor of regarding the 
 prophecy as a work of Isaiah: (1) This 
 was the undoubted opinion of Jews and 
 Christians until recent times. (2) It is dif¬ 
 ficult to suppose that so great a work 
 should have been written by an author of 
 whose very existence we know nothing, 
 and then attributed to a predecessor gen¬ 
 erations earlier. Who was the ‘ great 
 unknown ? ’ How is it that we have no 
 trace of him in history or tradition ? He 
 must have been one of the very greatest of 
 the prophets, for his work is unsurpassed 
 by any. (3) It is sometimes the practice 
 of prophets to write of the future which 
 they foresee in vision as though it were 
 present. (4) In regard to style, the ' same 
 plastic genius ’ which we find in Isaiah is 
 said to be seen in this work. (5) The fact 
 that writings of a similar character are 
 found mixed up with the acknowledged 
 prophecies of Isaiah complicates the ques¬ 
 tion by requiring these writings and their 
 place in the collection to be accounted for. 
 Whether we accept the newer view, or 
 still hold to the idea that Isaiah was the 
 author of the prophecy, certain facts re¬ 
 main untouched: (1) The twenty-seven 
 chapters form one unbroken prophecy. 
 (2) This prophecy is evidently inspired by 
 God. It is one of the richest and most 
 exalted portions of the whole Bible. It 
 matters comparatively little whether we 
 know the name of the man who wrote it, 
 since we know the divine Author from 
 whom it sprang. 
 
 “ Divisions of the Book. —These, as al¬ 
 ready said, are in two main divisions, the 
 first of which has been divided into ( a ) the 
 Prelude (chap. i.); if) Prophecies of the ca¬ 
 lamities to come upon Judah (chaps, ii.-v.); 
 ( c ) the Call of Isaiah (chap, vi.); ( d) Prophe¬ 
 cies concerning Immanuel as the consola¬ 
 tion of Israel under Assyrian oppression 
 (chaps, vii.-xii.); ( e ) concerning the fate of 
 Babylon (chaps, xiii.-xiv. 27); if) the Bur¬ 
 dens (chaps, xiv. 28-xxii.); ( g ) Desolation 
 coming on Tyre (chap, xxiii.); (h) concern¬ 
 ing the early days of Return (chaps, xxiv.- 
 xxvii.); (i) the Woes (chaps, xxviii.- 
 xxxiii.); (f) concerning Edom and Israel 
 (chaps, xxxiv.-xxxv.); (k) concerning Sen¬ 
 nacherib (chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix). The sec¬ 
 ond has been divided into three sections 
 
 concerning (a) the true God of Israel, and 
 the false gods of Babylon (chaps, xl.— 
 xlviii.); ( b ) the servant of the Lord (chaps, 
 xlix.-lvii.); {c) Israel after the flesh, and 
 Israel after the spirit (chaps, lviii.-lxvi). 
 
 “ Contents .—First Division, (a) Chap. i. 
 describes the spiritual condition of the 
 people to whom the prophet prophesies, 
 and urges them to penitence, if they would 
 escape God’s judgments. {!>) Chaps, ii.- 
 iv. predict the downfall of the false, and 
 the erection of the true, glory of Israel, as 
 this last appears achieving itself in the way 
 of judgment. Chap. v. denounces a seven¬ 
 fold woe from the Lord on the nation for 
 theirabuse of his gifts, the iniquity of their 
 ways, and their neglect of his vineyard. 
 {c) Chap. vi. gives an account of Isaiah’s 
 vision of the Divine glory, his consecration 
 to his office, and the burden of his commis¬ 
 sion. (d) In chap. vii. Ahaz is cautioned 
 not to league himself with Assyria against 
 the kings of Syria and Israel, and receives 
 a sign in the promised birth of Immanuel. 
 In chaps, viii.-ix. 1-7 Isaiah predicts the 
 triumph of Assyria over Syria and Israel 
 within two years, but that Immanuel will 
 be found to be the defence of Judah. Chaps, 
 ix. 8—x. 4 describe how Israel sins against 
 the Lord more and more, and how the Di¬ 
 vine judgments fall correspondingly heav¬ 
 ier and heavier. Chaps, x. 5-xii. represent 
 Assyria as a mere rod in the hand of the 
 Lord to chastise his people, and predict the 
 reestablishment of the throne of David in 
 Jerusalem with rejoicing, when God’s judg¬ 
 ments have done their work, (e) Chaps, 
 xiii.-xiv. 27 represent the Lord as muster¬ 
 ing his hosts against the pride of the 
 Chaldee, Assyria’s successor, and His ran¬ 
 somed as singing a song of triumph over 
 the fallen foe. if) Chap. xiv. 28-32 cau¬ 
 tions Philistia not to exult over the afflic¬ 
 tion that has come upon the house of Ju¬ 
 dah. Chaps, xv. and xvi. picture in pitiful 
 terms the desolation with which the Lord 
 is about to lay low the pride of Moab. 
 Chap. xvii. denounces the judgments of 
 God on the Syro-Israelitish spoilers of the 
 land of Judah, excepting a small remnant. 
 Chap, xviii. represents the prophet as call¬ 
 ing upon Ethiopia to witness how the Lord 
 has broken the power of Assyria, and 
 Ethiopia as doing homage to him. Chap. 
 
 xix. predicts the judgments of the Lord on 
 Egypt, and the conversion, in consquence, 
 of both it and Assyria to the Lord. Chap. 
 
 xx. represents Isaiah warning the nation 
 against trust in Egypt and Ethiopia by a 
 symbolical action in exhibition of their 
 shameful subjugation to the power of As¬ 
 syria. Chap. xxi. 1-10 represents Isaiah 
 as, for the comfojt of Judah, foreseeing 
 with horror and describing the terrible fate 
 
Isa 
 
 ( 452 ) 
 
 Isa 
 
 of Babylon. Vers. 11-17 contain the judg¬ 
 ment on Edom and Arabia. Chap. xxii. 
 1-14 represents the prophet as lamenting 
 that Jerusalem in her false confidence is 
 blind to the judgments of the Lord, and as 
 threatening greater for this blindness. 
 Vers. 15-25 announce the fall of Shebna, 
 the treasurer and the head of the disorder, 
 with the appointment of a successor, who in 
 his pride of office shall also in turn come to 
 grief, (o-) Chap, xxiii. predicts the deso¬ 
 lation to come on Tyre, her after-revival, 
 and the lapsing of her wealth to the service 
 of the Lord, (/z) Chap. xxiv. pictures the 
 judgments to come on the inhabitants of 
 the earth as preliminary to the glorious 
 establishment of God’s kingdom. Chap, 
 xxv. forecasts the time when the salvation 
 of Zion shall be accomplished in the sight 
 of all nations. Chap. xxvi. is a call to trust 
 in the Lord and wait for him as working 
 salvation by judgment, and as raising his 
 slain ones to life again. Chap, xxvii. re¬ 
 presents the Lord’s judgment-work done, 
 and the Lord as gathering together and 
 keeping watch over his chosen, (z) Chap, 
 xxviii. foresees the doom which the men 
 of Ephraim, compared to drunkards, are 
 bringing down on their heads by their in¬ 
 fatuation, and warns the men of Jerusalem 
 that they too will come under the same 
 scourge, if they with like infatuation make 
 lies their refuge instead of the God with 
 whom alone they should keep covenant, 
 but whose ways they neither see nor un¬ 
 derstand. Chap. xxix. promises to Jeru¬ 
 salem—the lion of the Lord—unexpected 
 deliverance out of threatened destruction, 
 but such a deliverance as shall astonish 
 the nation and give it a rude awakening 
 out of its spiritual delusions. Chap. xxx. 
 is a warning to the people to put no trust 
 in Egypt or any other world power, but to 
 wait for the Lord, who will, without any 
 action even on their part, break Assyria in 
 pieces. Chap. xxxi. is a call to turn from 
 trust in Egypt to trust in the Lord, and see 
 the judgment of the Lord on Assyria. 
 Chap, xxxii. foretells the reign of Imman¬ 
 uel after a season of trouble on the women 
 who are at ease in Zion. Chap, xxxiii. de¬ 
 scribes the dismay with which the Lord by 
 his judgments will paralyze the nations and 
 the ungodly, while it portrays the charac¬ 
 ter and the stronghold of those who will 
 stand secure in the midst of them, (j) 
 Chap, xxxiv. calls upon the nations to mark 
 God’s indignation against them, and espe¬ 
 cially his judgments on the land of Edom. 
 Chap. xxxv. describes in anticipation the 
 joy and blessedness of the time which shall 
 succeed the day of the Lord’s vengeance. 
 ( k) Chap, xxxvi. relates "how the Assyrian 
 army threatens vengeance on Jerusalem, 
 
 and how the matter is reported to Heze- 
 kiah. Chap, xxxvii. relates how Hezekiah 
 in his distress both consults Isaiah and lays 
 the matter before the Lord, and how, as 
 Isaiah predicted, the Assyrians are smitten 
 by the angel of the Lord. Chap, xxxviii. 
 relates how the Lord prolongs Hezekiah’s 
 life, and records Hezekiah’s song of thanks¬ 
 giving. Chap, xxxix. relates how Heze¬ 
 kiah makes a display of his treasures to the 
 messengers of the king of Babylon, and 
 how Isaiah predicts therefrom the Baby¬ 
 lonish captivity. 
 
 “ Second Division.— (a) Ch?n. xl. is a 
 message of comfort to the people in view 
 of the approaching advent of the Lcrd, 
 whose greatness of power and unfathom¬ 
 ableness of wisdom the prophet goes on to 
 magnify. Chap. xli. is a challenge of the 
 Lord to the nations, and a call to his people 
 to judge between him and the gods opposed 
 to him. Chap. xlii. calls attention to the 
 servant of the Lord, his proper function 
 and mode of action, while it rebukes Israel 
 as such for not understanding and resting 
 in God’s salvation-workings in their behalf. 
 Chap, xliii. is an appeal of the Lord to the 
 people to witness that he is their Saviour, 
 and a pledge to work still greater wonders 
 for them, notwithstanding all their sins and 
 short-comings. Chap. xliv. is a call of the 
 Lord to Israel to note how by his doings 
 for them he is persuading the nations of 
 the vanity of their idolatries, and how by 
 restoring them, through Cyrus especially, 
 he is showing them that he alone of all 
 the gods is able to fulfil his word. Chap, 
 xlv. challenges Israel to regard Cyrus as 
 God’s servant, seeing that by him God is 
 bringing about their salvation, and thereby 
 the salvation of the ends of the earth. 
 Chap. xlvi. bids Israel consider how omnip¬ 
 otent their God is, and how helpless the 
 idols of Babylon. Chap, xlvii. is an out¬ 
 burst of exultation over the humiliation of 
 Babylon under the hand of the Lord. 
 Chap, xlviii. summons Israel to acknowl¬ 
 edge the hand of the Lord in their deliver¬ 
 ance, and warns them not to imitate the 
 hardheartedness of their fathers. (/>) 
 Chap. xlix. introduces the prophet of chap, 
 xlviii. 16, as, in the name of the true Israel, 
 bidding away all mistrust and staying him¬ 
 self in the Lord his God, whose purposes 
 will not fail. Chap. I. makes the prophet 
 charge Israel’s captivity to their own sin, 
 and counsels them to accept the fact in the 
 spirit in which it is accepted by him, and 
 they will not be confounded. Chap. li. is 
 a pleading with them to consider and see 
 how the Lord is with them, and how the 
 cup of affliction given them is passing into 
 the hands of their oppressors. Chap. lii. 
 is a call to rejoice, and a picture of rejoic- 
 
Ish 
 
 ( 453 ) 
 
 Isr 
 
 ing, over the return of Israel from captiv¬ 
 ity. Chap. liii. exhibits the servant of the 
 Lord as suffering and sorrow-stricken unto 
 death for the sins of the people, and as 
 thereby making intercession for them. 
 Chap. liv. calls upon Zion to rejoice that 
 the day of the Lord’s anger is past and her 
 heritage established. Chap. lv. is an ex¬ 
 hortation to Israel to accept the proffered 
 salvation and continue loyal to him who 
 redeems her by righteousness. Chap. lvi. 
 ensures the proffered salvation to those 
 only who have regard to justice, but to 
 all such, and describes those who teach 
 otherwise as blind guides and mere self- 
 seekers. Chap. lvii. rejects all who have 
 forsaken the covenant of the Lord, and ac¬ 
 cepts only the humble ones who respect it. 
 (c) Chap, lviii. is the repudiation of all 
 worship that is not, and the approval of 
 worship that is, associated with the prac¬ 
 tice of justice and mercy. Chap. lix. re¬ 
 fers the miseries of the people to their sins, 
 and promises salvation only to such as turn 
 from them. Chap. lx. is a description of 
 the glory that shall shine forth, and the 
 honor that shall come upon Zion after her 
 restoration, when the Lord shall be her 
 light. Chap. lxi. contains the message from 
 the Lord by the prophet to the afflicted in 
 Zion, and enumerates the consequent bless¬ 
 ings. Chap. lxii. expresses the Divine 
 impatience with which the prophet waits 
 for the emancipation of Zion. Chap, lxiii. 
 pictures the Lord as returning from his 
 work of judgment on Edom, which he has 
 thus visited for love to his people. Chap, 
 lxiv. is a supplication to the Lord with 
 confession of sin, and a pleading with the 
 Lord to show mercy. Chap. lxv. gives the 
 Lord’s answer, how he had called his 
 people and they did not respond to him, 
 but that for all that his promises would be 
 fulfilled on the faithful. Chap. lxvi. de¬ 
 scribes the homage God respects, and the 
 character of those whose worship shall be 
 accepted in Zion.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 See Nagelsbach in Lange, Eng. trans. 
 (New York, 1878); J. A. Alexander, 2 vols. 
 (New York, 1846-47, new ed. 1875); The 
 Introductions to the Old Testament of Bleek, 
 Keil, Davidson, and Reuss, and Ewald and 
 Stanley’s Hist, of the Jews. 
 
 Ish'-bo'sheth ( man of shame), son and 
 successor of Saul. Through the advice of 
 Abner he assumed the government, and all 
 of the tribes with the exception of Judah 
 acknowledged him as king. (2 Sam. ii. 8, 
 11.) In the battle at Gibeon the army of 
 Ish-bosheth was defeated, and Abner was 
 soon after killed by Joab, and Ish-bosheth 
 assassinated after a brief reign of two 
 3'ears. (2 Sam. iv. 5-7.) 
 
 Ish'mael ( whom God hears), the son of 
 Abraham by Hagar. The prophecy made 
 to his mother before his birth vividly de¬ 
 scribed his after-career: “ He will be a 
 wild man; his hand will be against every 
 man’s hand, and every man’s hand against 
 him.” (Gen. xvi. 12.) Ishmael was cir¬ 
 cumcised at the age of thirteen (Gen. xvii. 
 25), but was sent away with his mother by 
 Abraham to satisfy Sarah, whose jealousy 
 had been aroused against him. (Gen. xxi. 
 9.) The affecting narrative of his wander¬ 
 ings with his mother and miraculous de¬ 
 liverance from death is given in Gen. xxi. 
 13-20. Having married an Egyptian wo¬ 
 man, his progeny multiplied with great 
 rapidity. (Gen. xxxvii. 25.) With Isaac he 
 joined in interring the remains of his 
 father at the cave of Machpelah. (Gen. 
 xxv. 9.) Ishmael is the progenitor of the 
 roaming Bedouin tribes of the East, noted 
 to this day for their lawless life and rob¬ 
 beries, and the spiritual father of the 
 Mohammedans. The Moslem Arabs say 
 that Ishmael and Hagar lie buried in the 
 Caaba at Mecca. 
 
 Isidore of Seville, a famous ecclesiastic 
 and author of the sixth century: b. 560 at 
 Carthagena, or Seville; d. in the latter 
 city, April 4, 636. Among his works were 
 a kind of ecclesiastical archaeology, treatises 
 on dogmatics and ethics, and a theological 
 encyclopaedia that is still of value to 
 scholars. The “ Isidorian Decretals ” once 
 ascribed to him were long since proved to 
 be forgeries. 
 
 Islam. See Mohammed. 
 
 Israel, Kingdom of. “ (1) The prophet 
 Ahijah, of Shiloh, who was commissioned 
 in the latter days of Solomon to announce 
 the division of the kingdom, left one tribe 
 (Judah) to the house of David, and assign¬ 
 ed ten to Jeroboam. (1 Kings xi. 31, 35.) 
 These were probably Joseph (= Ephraim 
 and Manasseh), Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, 
 Naphtali, Benjamin, Dan, Simeon, Gad, 
 and Reuben ; Levi being intentionally 
 omitted. Eventually, the greater part of 
 Benjamin, and probably the whole of Sim¬ 
 eon and Dan, were included, as if by com¬ 
 mon consent, in the kingdom of Judah. 
 With respect to the conquests of David, 
 Moab appears to have been attached to the 
 kingdom of Israel (2 Kings iii. 4); so much 
 of Syria as remained subject to Solomon 
 (see 1 Kings xi. 24) would probably be 
 claimed by his successor in the northern 
 kingdom; and Ammon, though connected 
 with Rehoboam as his mother’s native land 
 (2 Chron. xii. 13), and though afterwards 
 tributary to Judah (2 Chron. xxvii. 5) was 
 
Isr 
 
 ( 454 ) 
 
 Isr 
 
 at one time allied (2 Chron. xx. 1), we 
 know not how closely or how early, with 
 Moab. The sea-coast between Accho and 
 Japho remained in the possession of Israel. 
 (2) The population of the kingdom is not 
 expressly stated; and in drawing any in¬ 
 ference from the numbers of fighting men, 
 we must bear in mind that the numbers in 
 the Hebrew text are strongly suspected to 
 have been subjected to extensive, perhaps 
 systematic, corruption. Jeroboam brought 
 into the field an army of 800,000 men. (2 
 Chron. xiii. 3.) If in b. c. 957 there were 
 actually under arms 800,000 of that age in 
 Israel, the whole population may perhaps 
 have amounted to at least three millions 
 and a half. (3) Shechem was the first cap¬ 
 ital of the new kingdom (1 Kings xii. 25), 
 venerable for its traditions, and beautiful 
 in its situation. Subsequently Tirzah be¬ 
 came the royal residence, if not the capital, 
 of Jeroboam (1 Kings xiv. 17), and of his 
 successors (xv. 33; xvi. 8, 17, 23). Sama¬ 
 ria, uniting in itself the qualities of beauty 
 and fertility and a commanding position, 
 was chosen by Omri (1 Kings xvi. 24), and 
 remained the capital of the kingdom until 
 it had given the last proof of its strength 
 by sustaining for three years the onset of 
 the hosts of Assyria. Jezreel was probably 
 only a royal residence of some of the Is- 
 raelitish kings. (4) The disaffection of 
 Ephraim and the northern tribes, having 
 grown in secret under the prosperous but 
 burdensome reign of Solomon, broke out 
 at the critical moment of that monarch’s 
 death. It was just then that Ephraim, the 
 centre of the movement, found in Jero¬ 
 boam an instrument prepared to give ex¬ 
 pression to the rivalry of centuries. (5) 
 The kingdom of Israel developed no new 
 power. It was but a portion of David’s 
 kingdom deprived of many elements of 
 strength. Its frontier was as open and as 
 widely extended as before; but it wanted a 
 capital for the seat of organized power. Its 
 territory was as fertile and as tempting to 
 the spoiler, but its people were less united 
 and patriotic. A corrupt religion poisoned 
 the source of national life. These causes 
 tended to increase the misfortunes, and to 
 accelerate the early end of the kingdom of 
 Israel. It lasted 254 years, from b. c. 975 
 to b. c. 721, about two-thirds of the dura¬ 
 tion of its more compact neighbor, Judah. 
 But it may be doubted whether the divis¬ 
 ion into two kingdoms greatly shortened 
 the independent existence of the Hebrew 
 race, or interfered with the purposes which, 
 it is thought, may be traced in the estab¬ 
 lishment of David’s monarchy. (6) The 
 detailed history of the kingdom of Israel 
 will be found under the names of its 
 nineteen kings. A summary view may 
 
 be taken in four periods— (a) b. C. 975— 
 929. Jeroboam had not sufficient force 
 of character in himself to make a lasting 
 impression on his people. A king, but not 
 a founder of a dynasty, he aimed at noth¬ 
 ing beyond securing his present elevation. 
 The army soon learned its power to dictate 
 to the isolated monarch and disunited peo¬ 
 ple. Baasha, in the midst of the army of 
 Gibbethon, slew the son and successor of 
 Jeroboam; Zimri, a captain of chariots, 
 slew the son and successor of Baasha; 
 Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen 
 to punish Zimri; and after a civil war of 
 four years he prevailed over Tibni, the 
 choice of half the people.— (b) B. C. 929— 
 884. For forty-five years Israel was gov¬ 
 erned by the house of Omri. That saga¬ 
 cious king pitched on the strong hill of 
 Samaria as the site of his capital. The 
 princes of his house cultivated an alliance 
 with the kings of Judah, which was ce¬ 
 mented by the marriage of Jehoram and 
 Athaliah. The adoption of Baal-worship 
 led to a reaction in the nation, to the mor¬ 
 al triumph of the prophets in the person of 
 Elijah, and to the extinction of the house 
 of Ahab in obedience to the bidding of 
 Elisha.—(r) b. C. 884-772. Unparalleled 
 triumphs, but deeper humiliation, awaited 
 the kingdom of Israel under the dynasty 
 of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king of Da¬ 
 mascus, reduced Jehoahaz to the condition 
 of a vassal, and triumphed for a time over 
 both the disunited Hebrew kingdoms. 
 Almost the first sign of the restoration of 
 their strength was a war between them; 
 and Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, entered 
 Jerusalem as the conqueror of Amaziah. 
 Jehoash also turned the tide of war against 
 the Syrians; and Jeroboam II., the most 
 powerful of all the kings of Israel, cap¬ 
 tured Damascus, and recovered the whole 
 ancient frontier from Hamath to the Dead 
 Sea. This short-lived greatness expired 
 with the last king of Jehu’s line.—( d ) b. c. 
 772-721. Military violence, it would seem, 
 broke off the hereditary succession after 
 the obscure and probably convulsed reign 
 of Zachariah. An unsuccessful usurper, 
 Shallum, is followed by the cruel Men- 
 ahem, who, being unable to make head 
 against the first attack of Assyria under 
 Pul, became the agent of that monarch for 
 the oppressive taxation of his subjects. 
 Yet his power at home was sufficient to in¬ 
 sure for his son and successor, Pekahiah, a 
 ten-years’ reign, cut short by a bold usurp¬ 
 er, Pekah. Abandoning the northern and 
 transjordanic regions to the encroaching 
 power of Assyria under Tiglath-pileser, 
 he was very near subjugating Judah, with 
 the help of Damascus, now the co-equal 
 ally of Israel. But Assyria, interposing 
 
Iss 
 
 ( 455 ) 
 
 Jac 
 
 summarily, put an end to the independence 
 of Damascus, and perhaps was the indirect 
 cause of the assassination of the baffled 
 Pekah. The irresolute Hoshea, the next 
 and last usurper, became tributary to his 
 invader, Shalmaneser, betrayed the Assyr¬ 
 ian to the rival monarchy of Egypt, and 
 was punished by the loss of his liberty, 
 and by the capture, after a three years’ 
 siege, of his strong capital, Samaria. Some 
 gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained in 
 the land after so many years of religious 
 decline, moral debasement, national degra¬ 
 dation, anarchy, bloodshed, and deporta¬ 
 tion. Even these were gathered up by the 
 conqueror and carried to Assyria, never 
 again, as a distinct people, to occupy their 
 portion of that goodly and pleasant land 
 which their forefathers won under Joshua 
 from the heathen.”—Smith: Diet . of the 
 Bible . See Milman: History of the Jews; 
 Stanley: Hist, of the Jewish Church; Well- 
 hausen’s art. “ Israel,” in Ency . Britan- 
 nica , vol. viii.; W. R. Smith: Old Tes¬ 
 tament in the Jewish Church (New York, 
 1881); the same: The Prophets of Israel 
 (j882); Jews. 
 
 Is'sachar. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Italy. The Roman Catholic Church has 
 265 episcopal dioceses, and 24,980 parishes. 
 With a population of 28,000,000, all are 
 Roman Catholics with the exception of 
 100,000 Greek Catholics, 96,000 Evangel¬ 
 ical Christians, 36,000 Jews, and 25,000 
 Mohammedans. Protestantism is repre¬ 
 sented by the Church of the Waldenses, 
 the Free Italian Church, and by the mis¬ 
 sionary work of the Methodists, Baptists, 
 Presbyterians and Episcopalians. 
 
 Itinerancy is the name given the method 
 of the Methodists, by which the ministers 
 are assigned to churches by the bishops 
 presiding at the annual conferences. By 
 the action of the General Conference of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, held in New 
 York, May, 1888, ministers are allowed to 
 hold the same charge for five years. The 
 itinerancy originated with Wesley who, as 
 early as May, 1746, assigned preachers to 
 certain fields of labor, then, as now, in Eng¬ 
 land called “circuits.” See Methodism. 
 
 Iturae'a (an enclosed region ), “a small 
 province on the northwestern border of 
 Palestine, and at the southeastern base of 
 Hermon, between Trachonitis and Galilee. 
 It derived its name from ‘ Jetur,’ a son of 
 Ishmael. (Gen. xxv. 15; 1 Chron. i. 31; v. 
 19.) This district is now called Jedur, and 
 is about seventeen miles from north to 
 south, by twenty from east to west. The 
 
 greater portion is a fine plain, with a rich 
 and well-watered soil; the substratum is 
 black basalt. The district contains thirty- 
 eight villages, ten of them entirely deso¬ 
 late; the others have a few peasant families 
 living in wretchedness and amid ruins. 
 Philip was ‘ tetrarch of Iturea and of the 
 region of Trachonitis. (Luke iii. 1.)’”— 
 Schaff: Bible Diet. 
 
 Ivo of Chartres, b. about 1040 in the dio¬ 
 cese of Beauvais; d. at Chartres, Dec. 23, 
 1116. He studied philosophy at Paris, and 
 theology at Bee, where he had Lanfrance 
 as a teacher. In 1075 he became director 
 of the monastery of St. Quentin, and bishop 
 of Chartres in 1090. He was prominent in 
 several controversies, the most important 
 of which was that regarding the right of 
 investure. He denounced with equal frank¬ 
 ness the faults and failings of the Roman 
 curia, and the extreme opposition to 
 Paschalis II. The most important of his 
 works are two collections of canons: De¬ 
 ere turn or Decretorum Opus in seventeen 
 books, and Pannormia in eight books. A 
 large number of his letters are preserved 
 which have considerable historical interest. 
 A collected edition of his works (1647) has 
 been reprinted by Migne (except the Pan - 
 nortnia). 
 
 J. 
 
 Jab'bok, now called the Zerka. It rises 
 about twenty-five miles east of the Dead 
 Sea at its north end, and flows into the 
 Jordan about midway between the sea of 
 Galilee and the Dead Sea. It was on its 
 south bank that Jacob wrestled for a bless¬ 
 ing. (Gen. xxxii. 22-24.) It was the 
 northern boundary of Ammon, and separat¬ 
 ed the kingdoms of Sihon and Og. (Num. 
 xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37; iii. 16; Josh. xii. 2; 
 Judg. xi. 13, 22.) 
 
 Ja'cob (heel - holder or supplanter ), or 
 Is'rael (prince of God , or warrior of God), 
 “ the second son of Isaac and Rebekah. He 
 was born with Esau, when Isaac was fifty- 
 nine and Abraham 159 years old, probably 
 at the well Lahai-roi. His history is re¬ 
 lated in the latter half of the book of Gene¬ 
 sis. He bought the birthright from his 
 brother Esau ; and afterwards, at his 
 mother’s instigation, acquired the blessing 
 intended for Esau, by practising a well- 
 known deceit on Isaac. Hitherto the two 
 sons shared the wanderings of Isaac in the 
 South Country ; but now Jacob in his 
 seventy-eighth year was sent from the 
 family home, to avoid his brother, and to 
 seek a wife among his kindred in Padan- 
 aram. As he passed through Bethel, God 
 
Jac 
 
 ( 456 ) 
 
 Jac 
 
 appeared to him. After the lapse of twenty- 
 one years, he returned from Padan-aram 
 with two wives, two concubines, eleven 
 sons, and a daughter, and large property. 
 He escaped from the angry pursuit of La¬ 
 ban, from a meeting with Esau, and from 
 the vengeance of the Canaanites provoked 
 by the murder of Shechem; and in each of 
 those three emergencies he was aided and 
 strengthened by the interposition of God, 
 and in sign of the grace won by a night of 
 wrestling Avith God his name was changed 
 at Jabbokinto Israel. Deborah and Rachel 
 died before he reached Hebron; and it was 
 at Hebron, in the I22d year of his age, that 
 he and Esau buried their father Isaac. 
 Joseph, the favorite son of Jacob, Avas sold 
 into Egypt eleven years before the death 
 
 is best expressed by his name. Jacob Avas 
 he; for he Avas naturally adroit and sly, 
 and thus got the better of the physically 
 stronger, more Avarlike Esau, and the 
 egoistical, calculating Laban. Yet he Avas 
 not sordid in his aims. He sought some¬ 
 thing higher than mere earthly possessions, 
 and so he Avas Israel; for he Avrestled for 
 the divine blessing as the most valuable 
 thing one could have; to Avin it, he sum¬ 
 moned all his energy, and underAvent every 
 deprivation. It Avas the ambition of his 
 life. It is true he Avas far from being per¬ 
 fect. In him the loAver nature Avas in con¬ 
 flict Avith the higher, and often victorious; 
 but, in the course of a life much more 
 troubled than that of his father’s, he Avas 
 purified. He Avas punished by a personal 
 
 Jacob’s well. 
 
 of Isaac; and Jacob had probably exceeded 
 his 130th year Avhen he Avent thither, being 
 encouraged in a di\dne vision as he passed 
 for the last time through Beer-sheba. He 
 was presented to Pharaoh, and dAvelt for 
 seventeen years at Rameses in Goshen. 
 After giving his solemn blessing to Ephra¬ 
 im and Manasseh, and his own sons one 
 by one, and charging the ten to complete 
 their reconciliation Avith Joseph, he died in 
 his 147th year. His body Avas embalmed, 
 carried Avith great care and pomp into the 
 land of Canaan, and deposited Avith his 
 fathers, and his Avife Leah, in the caA r e of 
 Machpelah.”—Smith: Did. of the Bible. 
 
 “ The character of this remarkable man 
 
 experience of the treatment he had gh r en 
 others. The decewer of his father Avas 
 deceiA r ed by Laban and by his OAvn sons. 
 The loAdng God of Jacob Avas by no means 
 blind to the faults of his faA^orite, but he 
 approved his humble, hearty, undaunted 
 desire after sah'ation.”— Orelli , trans. in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., a t o 1 . ii. , p. 1135. 
 
 Jacob’s Well, Avhere Jesus talked Avith 
 the Avomar of Samaria (John iv.), is still 
 identified Avith certainty, as situated one 
 mile and a half to the southeast of the 
 toAvn of Nablus, the ancient Shechem, at 
 the eastern base of Mount Gerizim. The 
 Avell is noAV badly choked and filled Avith 
 
Jac 
 
 ( 457 ) 
 
 . Jac 
 
 the ruins of a chapel that was built to re¬ 
 place one that was in existence in the time 
 of Jerome, and destroyed during the 
 crusades. 
 
 Jacob of Edessa, b. in the middle of the 
 seventh century, at ’Indaba, near Antioch. 
 He studied at Alexandria, and was ap¬ 
 pointed bishop of Edessa in 687, but, owing 
 to disputes with his clergy, resigned in 688, 
 and lived eleven years in the monastery of 
 Eusebona, and then nine years in the 
 monastery of Tell’eda. When his success¬ 
 or in the see of Edessa, Habib, died in 708, 
 he accepted an invitation to resume the 
 office, but died while on the way to Edes¬ 
 sa, June 5. He was proficient in Syriac, 
 Greek and Hebrew, and wrote on theology, 
 history, philosophy and grammar. Many 
 of his works are still preserved in the 
 libraries of London, Paris, Florence and 
 Rome. His Syriac Grammar was edited 
 by Wright (London, 1871). 
 
 Jacob of Misa, also called Jacobellus, 
 from his small stature; b. at Misa, in Bo¬ 
 hemia, in the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century. He became pastor first at Tina, 
 and afterward of the Church of St. Michael 
 in Prague, where he died, Aug. 9, 1459. 
 Having reached the conviction by his 
 studies of the Scriptures and the Fathers, 
 that the withholding of the cup from the 
 laity in the administration of the Lord’s 
 Supper was unwarranted, he defended his 
 views in a public disputation (1414), and 
 soon after began to administer the cup to 
 his parishioners in spite of the remon¬ 
 strances of the bishop and the university. 
 His views were condemned but he was not 
 removed from his pastorate. 
 
 Jacobites, a sect which arose in the 
 East about the year 450. They held the 
 Monophysite doctrine, i. e. , that there is but 
 one nature in Christ, the human nature be¬ 
 ing so absorbed into the Divine that Christ 
 was not perfect man. This heresy was 
 condemned at the Council of Chalcedon in 
 451, and Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexan¬ 
 dria, its originator, deposed. But on the 
 death of the Emperor Marcian, who had 
 taken the side of the orthodox, a Monophy¬ 
 site named Timothy GEluerus, called also 
 “ The Cat,” caused himself to be conse¬ 
 crated patriarch of Alexandria in 457, and 
 ever since the Monophysites have main¬ 
 tained their possession of the patriarchate. 
 Proterius, the orthodox patriarch, was sav¬ 
 agely murdered by the mob. At the same 
 time the Monophysites set up a succession 
 of bishops throughout Palestine, and grad¬ 
 ually outnumbered the orthodox Christians 
 in both countries; they spread rapidly also 
 
 in Armenia. The tenets of the sect were 
 modified somewhat by Timothy, and again 
 about the year 520 by Severus, who taught 
 that the human nature in Christ was not 
 altogether lost, but rather amalgamated 
 with the Divine, retaining certain of its 
 qualities, but still not a perfect human 
 nature. These modifications, however, 
 caused divisions, and the sect was much 
 weakened and depressed in consequence. 
 But a great leader and propagator of their 
 opinions arose in Jacobus Baradoeus, 
 bishop of Edessa (541-578). Principally 
 by his exertions the sect spread rapidly 
 throughout Syria and Egypt, and hence¬ 
 forth they took their name from their great 
 leader, and were called Jacobites. At the 
 conquest of Egypt by the Mahometans they 
 were established as the recognized Chris¬ 
 tian Church of that country; they are 
 known in Egypt also under the name of 
 Copts. At the present time they possess 
 three patriarchates, viz., Alexandria, Anti¬ 
 och, and Armenia. The Church of Abys¬ 
 sinia holds communion with the Coptic 
 Church of Egypt. With the exception of 
 their views regarding the nature of Christ, 
 the Jacobites are in general agreement with 
 the orthodox Eastern Church. See also 
 Eastern Church; Monophysites. —Ben- 
 ham: Diet. of Religion. 
 
 Jacobs, Henry Eyster, D. D. (Thiel 
 College, Carthage, Ill., 1877), Lutheran; 
 b. at Gettysburg, Penn., Nov. 10, 1844; 
 was graduated at Pennsylvania College, 
 Gettysburg, Penn., 1862, and at the Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary in the same place, 1865. 
 Engaged in pastoral work and teaching un¬ 
 til 18S3, and since then professor of sys¬ 
 tematic theology in the Evangelical Luther¬ 
 an Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. Among 
 his published works are: Proceedings of the 
 First Lutheran Diet (edited, 1878); The 
 Book of Concord; or, The Symbolical Books of 
 the Evangelical Lutheran Church (trans. 
 with notes), 2 vols., 1882-83; Meyer’s 
 Commentary on Galatians and Ephesians 
 (trans. New York, 1884). Since 1883 has 
 been editor of Lutheran Church Review. 
 
 Jacobus, Melancthon Williams, D. D., 
 b. at Newark, N. J., Sept. 19, 1816; d. at 
 Allegheny, Penn., Oct. 28, 1S76. He was 
 a graduate of the Colle'ge of New Jersey 
 (1834), and Princeton Theological Semi¬ 
 nary (1838). He was pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn, 1839- 
 50; and, from 1851 till his death, professor 
 of Oriental and biblical literature in the 
 Theological Seminary at Allegheny, Penn. 
 In 1848 he began the publication of a series 
 of Notes on the New Testament, which had 
 a wide circulation, and were republished 
 
Jac • 
 
 ( 458 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 in Edinburgh. He published Notes on the 
 Book of Genesis , 2 vols. (1865). 
 
 Jacopone, Da Todi, the author of the 
 Stabat Mater; b. at Todi, Italy, about 1240; 
 d. in the convent of Collazone, Dec. 24, 
 1306. He studied law, and in early life 
 was altogether devoted to pleasure and his 
 profession. The death of his wife, from 
 the falling of a gallery in a theatre, 
 affected him deeply, and he determined 
 to become a monk. In 1278 he was ad¬ 
 mitted to the Franciscan order of Minor¬ 
 ites. The corruption of the Church led 
 him to compose poems in which he con¬ 
 demned the actions of Pope Boniface VIII. 
 (1294-1303), and he joined a company of 
 nobles, who sought to depose him. 
 Jacopone was arrested and kept in confine¬ 
 ment until the death of Boniface in 1303. 
 He wrote many poems, but his two most 
 important Latin hymns are the Stabat 
 mater dolorosa (“At the cross her station 
 keeping ”), and its companion piece, re¬ 
 cently discovered, Stabat mater speciosa 
 (“ Stood the glad and beauteous mother ”), 
 which depicts the joy of the mother of 
 Jesus at the manger. 
 
 Ja'el {wildgoat), “the wife of Heber, the 
 chief of a nomadic Arab tribe, was a heroine 
 whose patriotic deed Deborah magnified in 
 her triumphant song of victory. (Judg. v. 
 24-26.) In the precipitate flight of the 
 Canaanites, after their defeat by Barak 
 and Deborah, Sisera was induced by the in¬ 
 vitation of Jael to stop in at her tent, whose 
 seclusion might be expected to effectually 
 conceal him. After refreshing himself with 
 buttermilk he fell asleep. While in this 
 condition, Jael took a tent pin, and drove 
 it through his temples. The impassioned 
 eulogy of Deborah expressed the grati¬ 
 tude of the nation for its deliverance from 
 its enemy. Jael’s deed was prompted by 
 patriotic motives, and was a bold act; but 
 the deed was carried out by a resort to 
 treachery, and a disregard of the laws of 
 hospitality. The best treatment of the 
 general subject of the justification of the 
 deed will be found in Mozley’s Ruling 
 Ideas in Early Ages.” — Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency., vol. ii., p. 1138. 
 
 Jahn, Johann, adistinguished Orientalist 
 and critic; b. at Tasswitz, in Moravia, June 
 18, 1750; d. in Vienna, Aug. 16, 1816. He 
 became professor of Oriental languages 
 and exegesis at the gymnasiums of Olmutz 
 in 1784, and in the University of Vienna in 
 1789. A difference of view on exegetical 
 questions from that held by the theolo¬ 
 gians with whom he was associated, com¬ 
 pelled his resignation in 1805, and he was 
 
 made canon of St. Stephen. Of his numer¬ 
 ous works the best known in England and 
 this country is his Biblical Archceology t 
 which has passed through several editions. 
 
 Jains, a numerous and wealthy sect 
 among the Hindus, founded in the fifth or 
 sixth century b. C. , by Vardhamana (usu¬ 
 ally called Maha-viva), a contemporary of 
 Gautama. They differ in almost everything 
 from the Buddhists. By “ the practice of 
 the four virtues—liberality, gentleness, 
 piety, and remorse for failings—by good¬ 
 ness in thought, word, and deed, and by 
 kindness to the mute creation, and even to 
 the forms of vegetable life,” they believe 
 that immortality can be secured, and the 
 soul delivered from the necessity of trans¬ 
 migration. They are almost monotheistic 
 in belief, and reject the Vedas. Their own 
 sacred books, called Agamas, are now writ¬ 
 ten in Sanscrit. They are divided into two 
 parties—the Digambaras , the “sky-clad” 
 {i. e., naked), and the Swetambaras, the 
 “white-robed.” Their founder, Vardha¬ 
 mana, and his early disciples went naked, 
 but this custom has been abandoned, al¬ 
 though the idols in their temples are still 
 represented in a nude state. They worship 
 twenty-four immortal saints. Their priests 
 are celibates, and their widows are not per¬ 
 mitted to remarry. They deny the sacred¬ 
 ness of caste, and the wealth and impor¬ 
 tance of the sect is seen in the magnificent 
 temples and shrines they have erected. 
 See Barth: The Religions of India (London, 
 1881); Fergusson and Burgess: Cave Tei?i- 
 ples in India (London, 1880). 
 
 James, “ (1) the Son of Zebedee. This 
 is the only one of the apostles of whose 
 life and death we can write with cer¬ 
 tainty. Of his early life we know noth¬ 
 ing. We first hear of him A. D. 27, when 
 he was called to be our Lord’s disciple; 
 and he disappears from view A. d. 44, when 
 he suffered martyrdom at the hands of 
 Herod Agrippa I. I. His history. —In the 
 spring or summer of the year 27, Zebedee, 
 a fisherman (Mark i. 20), was out on the 
 sea of Galilee with his two sons, James 
 and John, and some boatmen. He was en¬ 
 gaged in his customary occupation of fish¬ 
 ing, and near him was another boat belong¬ 
 ing to Simon and Andrew, with whom he 
 and his sons were in partnership. Find¬ 
 ing themselves unsuccessful, the occupants 
 of both boats came ashore, and began to 
 wash their nets. At this time the new 
 Teacher appeared upon the beach. At his 
 call they left all, and became, once and for¬ 
 ever, his disciples, hereafter to catch men. 
 For a full year we lose sight of St. James. 
 He is then, in the spring of 28, called to 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 459 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 the apostleship with his eleven brethren. 
 (Matt. x. 2; Mark iii. 14; Luke vi. 13; 
 Acts i. 13.) In the list of the apostles 
 given us by St. Mark, and in the book of 
 Acts, his name occurs next to that of 
 Simon Peter: in the Gospels of St. Mat¬ 
 thew and St. Luke it comes third. It is 
 worthy of notice that with one exception 
 (Luke ix. 28), the name of James is put be¬ 
 fore that of John, and that John is twice 
 described as ‘the brother of James.’ 
 (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. 1.) This would 
 appear to imply that at this time James, 
 either from age or character, took a higher 
 position than his brother. It would seem 
 to have been at the time of the appoint¬ 
 ment of the twelve apostles that the name 
 of Boanerges was given to the sons of 
 Zebedee. The ‘ Sons of Thunder ’ had a 
 burning and impetuous spirit, which twice 
 exhibits itself in its unchastened form. 
 (Luke ix. 54; Mark x. 37.) The first oc¬ 
 casion on which this natural character 
 manifests itself in St. James and his broth¬ 
 er is at the commencement of our Lord’s 
 last journey to Jerusalem, in the year 30. 
 He was passing through Samaria, and 
 * sent messengers before his face ’ into a 
 certain village, ‘ to make ready for him ’ 
 (Luke ix. 52), i. e., in all probability to an¬ 
 nounce him as the Messiah. The Samar¬ 
 itans, with their old jealousy strong upon 
 them, refused to receive him; and in their 
 exasperation James and John entreated 
 their Master to follow the example of 
 Elijah, and call down fire to consume them. 
 At the end of the same journey a similar 
 spirit appears again. (Mark x. 35.) From 
 the time of the Agony in the Garden, A. D. 
 30, to the time of his martyrdom, A. d. 44, 
 we know nothing of St. James, except that 
 after the Ascension he persevered in pray¬ 
 er with the other apostles, and the women, 
 and the Lord’s brethren. (Acts i. 13.) In 
 the year 44, Herod Agrippa L, son of 
 Aristobulus, was ruler of all the dominions 
 which at the death of his grandfather, 
 Herod the Great, had been divided be¬ 
 tween Archelaus, Antipas, Philip, and 
 Lysanias. Policy and inclination would 
 alike lead such a monarch ‘ to lay hands ’ 
 (Acts xii. 1) ‘ on certain of the church; ’ and 
 accordingly, when the Passover of the year 
 44 had brought St. James and St. Peter to 
 Jerusalem, he seized them both. II. 
 Chronological recapitulation .—In the spring 
 or summer of the year 27, James was call¬ 
 ed to beadisciple of Christ. In the spring 
 of 28 he was appointed one of the Twelve 
 Apostles, and at that time probably receiv¬ 
 ed, with his brother, the title of Boanerges. 
 In the autumn of the same year he was ad¬ 
 mitted to the miraculous raising of Jairus’s 
 daughter. In the spring of the year 29 
 
 he witnessed the Transfiguration. Very 
 early in the year 30 he urged his Lord to 
 call down fire from heaven to consume the 
 Samaritan village. About three months 
 later in the same year, just before the final 
 arrival in Jerusalem, he and his brother 
 made their ambitious request through their 
 mother, Salome. On the night before the 
 Crucifixion he was present at the Agony in 
 the Garden. On the day of the Ascension, 
 he is mentioned as persevering with the 
 rest of the apostles and disciples in prayer. 
 Shortly before the day of the Passover, in 
 the year 44, he was put to death. Thus 
 during fourteen out of the seventeen years 
 that elapsed between his call and his death 
 we do not even catch a glimpse of him. 
 (2) James the Son of Alph^us. Matt. x. 
 iii; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13. 
 —(3) James the Brother of the Lord. 
 Matt. xiii. 55; Mark vi. 3; Gal. i. 19.—(4) 
 James the Son of Mary. Matt, xxvii. 56; 
 Luke xxiv. 10; also called the Little. 
 Mark xv. 40.—(5) James the Brother of 
 Jude. Jude i.—(6) James the Brother (?) 
 of Jude. Luke vi. 16; Acts i. 13.—(7) 
 James. Acts xii. 17; xv. 13; xxi. 18; 1 Cor. 
 xv. 7; Gal. ii. 9, 12. (8) James the Ser¬ 
 
 vant of God and of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ. James i. 1. St. Paul identifies for 
 us Nos. 3 and 7 (see Gal. ii. 9 and 12 com¬ 
 pared with i. 19). If we may translate 
 Ioiidas lakobou, Judas the brother, rather 
 than the son of James, we may conclude 
 that 5 and 6 are identical. We may 
 identify 5 and 6 with 3, because we know 
 that James the Lord’s brother had a brother 
 named Jude. We may identify 4 with 3 be¬ 
 cause we know James the son of Mary had 
 a brother named Joses, and so also had 
 James the Lord’s brother. Thus there re¬ 
 main two only, James the son of Alphaeus 
 (2), and James the brother of the Lord (3). 
 Can we, or can we not identify them? 
 This requires a longer consideration. By 
 comparing Matt, xxvii. 56 and Mark xv. 
 40 with John xix. 25, we find that the Vir¬ 
 gin Mary had a sister named like herself, 
 Mary, who was the wife of Clopas, and 
 who had two sons, James the Little and 
 Joses. By referring to Matt. xiii. 55 and 
 Mark vi. 3, we find that a James and a 
 Joses, with two other brethren called Jude 
 and Simon, and at least three sisters, were 
 living with the Virgin Mary at Nazareth. 
 By referring to Luke vi. 16 and Acts i. 13, 
 we find that there were two brethren 
 named James and Jude among the apostles. 
 It would certainly be natural to think that 
 we had here but one family of four brothers 
 and three or more sisters, the children of 
 Clopas and Mary, nephews and nieces of 
 the Virgin Mary. There are difficulties, 
 however, in the way of this conclusion. 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 460 ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 For (1), the four brethren in Matt. xiii. 55 
 are described as the brothers of Jesus, not 
 as his cousins; (2) they are found living as 
 at their home with the Virgin Mary, which 
 seems unnatural if she were their aunt, 
 their mother being, as we know, still alive; 
 (3) the James of Luke vi. 15 is described as 
 the son, not of Clopas, but of Alphaeus; (4) 
 the ‘ brethren of the Lord ’ appear to be 
 excluded from the apostolic band by their 
 declared unbelief in his Messiahship (John 
 vii. 3-5), and by being formally distinguish¬ 
 ed from the disciples by the Gospel-writers 
 (Matt. xii. 48; Mark iii. 33; John ii. 12; 
 Acts i. 14); (5) James and Jude are not 
 designated as the Lord’s brethren in the 
 list of the apostles; (6) Mary is designated 
 as the mother of James and Joses, whereas 
 she would have been called mother of James 
 and Jude, had James and Jude been 
 apostles, and Joses not an apostle. (Matt, 
 xxvii. 46.) The following answers maybe 
 given: Objection 1. — ‘ They are called 
 brethren' Now, it is clearly not necessary 
 to understand adelphoi as ‘ brothers ’ in the 
 nearest sense of brotherhood. It need not 
 mean more than relative. But perhaps 
 the circumstances of the case would lead 
 us to translate it brethren. On the con¬ 
 trary, such a translation appears to produce 
 very grave difficulties. For, first, it intro¬ 
 duces two sets of four first-cousins, bear¬ 
 ing the same names of James, Joses, Jude, 
 and Simon; and, secondly, it drives us to 
 take our choice between three doubt¬ 
 ful and improbable hypotheses as to the 
 parentage of this second set of James, 
 Joses, Jude, and Simon. There are three 
 such hypotheses:— (a) The Eastern hypoth¬ 
 esis, that they were the children of Joseph 
 by a former wife, (b) The Helvidian hypoth¬ 
 esis, that James, Joses, Jude, Simon, and 
 the three sisters, were children of Joseph 
 and Mary, (c) The Levirate hypothesis, 
 that Joseph and Clopas were brothers, and 
 that Joseph raised up seed to his dead 
 brother. Objection 2.—The four brothers 
 and their sisters are always found living 
 and moving about with the Virgin Mary. 
 If they were the children of Clopas, the 
 Virgin Mary was their aunt. Her own 
 husband would appear without doubt to 
 have died at some time between a. d. 8 
 and a. d. 26. Nor have we any rea¬ 
 son for believing Clopas to have been 
 alive during our Lord’s ministry. What 
 difficulty is there in supposing that the 
 two widowed sisters should have lived 
 together, the more so as one of them 
 had but one son, and he was often 
 taken from her by his ministerial duties ? 
 Objection 3.—‘ James the apostle is said to 
 be the son of Alphaeus, not Clopas.’ But 
 Alphaeus and Clopas are the same name. 
 
 Objection 4.—Dean Alford considers John 
 vii. 5, compared with vi. 67-70, to decide 
 that none of the brothers of the Lord were 
 of the number of the twelve. If this 
 verse, as he states, makes ‘ the crowning 
 difficulty ’ to the hypothesis of the identity 
 of James the son of Alphaeus, the apostle, 
 with James the brother of the Lord, the 
 difficulties are not so formidable to be 
 overcome. It is not at all necessary to 
 suppose that St. John is here speaking of 
 all the brethren. If Joses, Simon, and the 
 three sisters, disbelieved, it would be 
 quite sufficient ground for the statement of 
 the Evangelist. Nor does it necessarily 
 follow that the disbelief of the brethren 
 was of such a nature that James and Jude 
 could have had no share in it. Objection 5. 
 —The omission of a title is so slight a 
 ground for an argument that we may pass 
 this by. Objection 6.—There is no improb¬ 
 ability in this objection, if Joses was, as 
 would seem likely, an elder brother of 
 Jude, and next in order to James. Had 
 we not identified James the son of Alphseus 
 with the brother of the Lord, we should 
 have but little to write of him. Of his 
 father, Alphcens or Clopas , we know noth¬ 
 ing, except that he married Mary, the sis¬ 
 ter of the Virgin Mary, and had by her four 
 sons and three or more daughters. It is 
 probable that these cousins, or, as they 
 were usually called, brothers and sisters of 
 the Lord, were older than himself. Of 
 James individually, we know nothing till 
 the spring of the year 28, when we find 
 him, together with his younger brother 
 Jude, called to the apostolate. It is not 
 likely (though far from impossible) that 
 James and Jude took part with their broth¬ 
 ers and sisters and the Virgin Mary, in try¬ 
 ing ‘ to lay hold on ’ Jesus in the autumn of 
 the same year (Mark iii. 21); and it is likely, 
 though not certain, that it is of the other 
 brothers and sisters,without these two, that 
 St. John says, * Neither did his brethren be¬ 
 lieve on him ’ (John vii. 5), in the autumn 
 of A. D. 29. We hear no more of James till 
 after the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. 
 At some time in the forty days that inter¬ 
 vened between the Resurrection and the 
 Ascension the Lord appeared to him. This 
 is not related by the Evangelists, but it is 
 mentioned by St. Paul. (1 Cor. xv. 7.) We 
 cannot fix the date of this appearance. It 
 was probably only a few days before the 
 Ascension. Again we lose sight of James 
 for ten years, and when he appears once 
 more it is in a far higher position than any 
 that he has yet held. In the year 37 oc¬ 
 curred the conversion of Saul. Three 
 years after his conversion he paid his first 
 visit to Jerusalem, but the Christians rec¬ 
 ollected what they had suffered at his 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 46i ) 
 
 Jam 
 
 hands, and feared to have anything to 
 do with him. Barnabas, at this time of 
 far higher reputation than himself, took 
 him by the hand, and introduced him 
 to Peter and James (Acts ix. 27; Gal. i. 18, 
 19), and by their authority he was admit¬ 
 ted into the society of the Christians, and 
 allowed to associate freely with them dur¬ 
 ing the fifteen days of his stay. Here we find 
 James on a level with Peter, and with him 
 deciding on the admission of St. Paul into 
 fellowship with the Church at Jerusalem; 
 and from henceforth we always find him 
 equal, or, in his own department superior, 
 to the very chiefest apostles, Peter, John, 
 and Paul. For by this time he had been 
 appointed (at what exact date we know not) 
 to preside over the infant Church in its 
 most important centre, in a position equiv¬ 
 alent to that of bishop. This preeminence 
 is evident throughout the after-history of 
 the apostles, whether we read it in the 
 Acts, in the Epistles, or in ecclesiastical 
 writers. (Acts xii. 17; xv. 13, 19; xxi. 18; 
 Gal. ii. 9.) The account of his martyrdom 
 is given by Hegesippus. According to the 
 tradition thus recorded, he was thrown 
 down from the Temple by Scribes and 
 Pharisees; he was then stoned, and his 
 brains dashed out by a fuller’s club.”— 
 Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 James, The General Epistle of. “ I. 
 Its Genuineness and Canonicity. — In the 
 third book of his Ecclesiastical History , Eu¬ 
 sebius places the Epistle of St. James, the 
 Second and Third Epistles of St. John, and 
 the Epistle of St. Jude among the disputed 
 books of the N. T. Elsewhere he refers 
 the Epistle to the class of ‘ spurious.’ It 
 is found in the Syriac version, and appears 
 to be referred to by Clement of Rome, 
 Hermas, and Irenaeus, and is quoted by 
 almost all the Fathers of the fourth cen¬ 
 tury; e. g. } Athanasius, Cyril, Gregory 
 Nazianzen, Epiphanius, and Chrysostom. 
 In 397 the Council of Carthage accepted it 
 as canonical, and from that time there has 
 been no further question of its genuineness 
 on the score of external testimony. But at 
 the time of the Reformation the question 
 of its authenticity was again raised, and 
 now upon the ground of internal evidence; 
 the chief objection being a supposed oppo¬ 
 sition between St. Paul and St. James, on 
 the doctrine of Justification. II. Its Author. 
 —The author of the Epistle must be either 
 James, the son of Zebedee, according to 
 the subscription of the Syriac version; or 
 James, the son of Alphaeus; or James, the 
 brother of the Lord, which is the general 
 opinion; or an unknown James. Internal 
 evidence points unmistakably to James the 
 Just as the writer, and we have already 
 
 identified James the Just with the son of 
 Alphaeus. It was written from Jerusalem, 
 which St. James does not seem to have 
 ever left. The time at which he wrote it 
 has been fixed as late as 62, and as early as 
 45. Those who see in its writer a desire 
 to counteract the effects of a misconstruc¬ 
 tion of St. Paul’s doctrine of Justification 
 by Faith, in ii. 14-26, and those who see a 
 reference to the immediate destruction of 
 Jerusalem in v. 1, and an allusion to the 
 name Christians in ii. 7, argue in favor 
 of the later date. The earlier date is advo¬ 
 cated chiefly on the ground that the Epis¬ 
 tle could not have been written by St. 
 James after the Council in Jerusalem, with¬ 
 out some allusion to what was there de¬ 
 cided, and because the Gentile Christian 
 does not yet appear to be recognized. III. 
 Its Object. —The main object of the Epistle 
 is not to teach doctrine, but to improve 
 morality. St. James is the moral teacher 
 of the N. T. There are two ways of ex¬ 
 plaining this characteristic of the Epistle. 
 Some commentators and writers see in St. 
 James a man who had not realized the es¬ 
 sential principles and peculiarities of Chris¬ 
 tianity, but was in a transition state, half- 
 Jew and half - Christian. But there is 
 another and much more natural way of 
 accounting for the fact. St. James was 
 writing for a special class of persons, and 
 knew what that class especially needed. 
 Those for whom he wrote were the Jewish 
 Christians, whether in Jerusalem or abroad. 
 The two objects of the Epistle are: (1) To 
 warn against the sins to which as Jews 
 they were most liable; (2) To console and 
 exhort them under the sufferings to which 
 as Christians they were most exposed. 
 IV. There are two points in the Epistle 
 which demand a somewhat more lengthen¬ 
 ed notice. These are: (a) ii. 14-26, which 
 has been represented as a formal opposi¬ 
 tion to St. Paul’s doctrine of Justification 
 by Faith, and (b) v. 14, 15, which is quoted 
 as the authority for the Sacrament of Ex¬ 
 treme Unction. (a) If we consider the 
 meaning of the two apostles, we see at 
 once that there is no contradiction, either 
 intended or possible. St. Paul was oppos¬ 
 ing the Judaizing party, which claimed to 
 earn acceptance by good works, whether 
 the works of the Mosaic law, or works 
 of piety done by themselves. In opposition 
 to these, St. Paul lays down the great 
 truth that acceptance cannot be earned by 
 man at all, but is the free gift of God to 
 the Christian man, for the sake of the 
 merits of Jesus Christ, appropriated by 
 each individual and made his own by the 
 instrumentality of faith. St. James, on the 
 other hand, was opposing the old Jewish 
 tenet, that to be a child of Abraham was all 
 
Jam 
 
 ( 462 ) 
 
 Jan 
 
 in all; that godliness was not necessary, 
 so that the belief was correct. (b) With 
 respect to v. 14, 15, it is enough to say 
 that the ceremony of Extreme Unction 
 and the ceremony described by St. James 
 differ both in their subject and in their ob¬ 
 ject.”—Smith: Diet of the Bible. See com¬ 
 mentaries of Calvin, Olshausen, Alford, 
 Lange, Dean Scott {Speaker s Commentary, 
 1S82), Schaff (1883), etc. 
 
 James, John Angell, an eminent Eng¬ 
 lish Congregational minister; b. at Bland- 
 ford, June 6, 1785; d. at Birmingham, Oct. 
 1, 1859. Educated at the theological sem¬ 
 inary at Gosport, he was ordained pastor 
 of Carr’s Lane Chapel, Birmingham, in the 
 spring of 1806, and continued in this office 
 until his death. He was a preacher of un¬ 
 usual power, and as a pastor indefatigable 
 in his labors. The collected edition of his 
 writings numbers fifteen volumes. Of his 
 books the best known is The Anxious En¬ 
 quirer after Salvation Directed and Encour¬ 
 aged. See Dale: Life and Letters of John 
 Angell James (London, 1862). 
 
 Janes, Edmund Storer, D. D., LL. D., 
 a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
 b. at Sheffield, Mass., April 27, 1807; d. in 
 New York City, Sept. 18, 1876. He entered 
 the ministry in 1830, and in 1840 was elect¬ 
 ed financial secretary of the American Bible 
 Society, which position he resigned in 1844 
 to accept the office of bishop. With dis¬ 
 tinguished ability and singular fidelity he 
 discharged the duties of the episcopate for 
 thirty-two years. His executive power 
 was combined with a wisdom, gentleness, 
 and devotion that gave him unbounded in¬ 
 fluence in the direction of affairs. See his 
 Life , by Henry B. Ridgeway, D. D. (N. Y., 
 1882). 
 
 Jan'nes and Jambres, spoken of in 2 
 Tim. iii. 8, were two noted magicians of 
 Egypt, who are supposed to have employed 
 their art in deceiving Pharaoh. (Ex. vii. 9- 
 I 3-) 
 
 Jansen, Cornelius, “ a celebrated divine; 
 b. of humble parentage in 1585, at Acquoy, 
 near Leerdam, in Holland, from whom the 
 sect of Jansenists derives its name. He 
 was nephew of the well-known biblical 
 commentator and bishop of Ghent, of the 
 same name. The studies of Jansen were 
 divided between Utrecht, Louvain, and 
 Paris. Having obtained a professorship 
 at Bayonne, he devoted himself with all his 
 energy to scriptural and patristic studies, 
 especially of the works of St. Augustine. 
 From Bayonne, he returned to Louvain, 
 where, in 1617, he obtained the degree of 
 
 doctor, was appointed lecturer on Script¬ 
 ure, and took a prominent part in the affairs 
 of the university, especially in a contest 
 with the Jesuits, on occasion of which he 
 was sent upon a mission to the court of 
 Madrid. In 1630 he was appointed to the 
 professorship of Scripture ; and having 
 distinguished himself by a pamphlet on the 
 war with France, Mars Gallicus, he was 
 promoted, in 1636, to the see of Ypres. In 
 this city he died of the plague, May 6, 1638, 
 just as he had completed his great work, 
 the Augustinus , which proved the occasion 
 of a theological controversy the most im¬ 
 portant, in its doctrinal, social, and even 
 political results, which has arisen since the 
 Reformation.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Jansenism. The Jesuits made every ef¬ 
 fort to suppress the publication of the 
 Augustinus , and when it appeared (1640), 
 its reading was prohibited by the Inquisi¬ 
 tion (1641), and in 1643 by a bull of Urban 
 VIII. The friends of Jansen claimed that 
 the bull did not specify any particular doc¬ 
 trines as heretical, and, therefore, tacitly 
 accepted it. The Jesuits thereupon sub¬ 
 mitted five propositions, which they found 
 sustained in the Augustinus , and which 
 they claimed were heretical. They were 
 as follows: (1) Some commands of God are 
 impossible for just men to perform, even 
 when willing and endeavoring to do so, in 
 accordance with the strength which they 
 at present have; there is also wanting to 
 them that grace by which it may be possible 
 for them to perform them. (2) In the con¬ 
 dition of fallen nature resistance is never 
 made to inward grace. (3) For deserving 
 and meriting reward, in the condition of 
 fallen nature, there is not required in man 
 freedom from necessity, but freedom from 
 compulsion suffices. (4) The Semi-Pela¬ 
 gians allowed the necessity of prevenient 
 grace for single acts, even from the begin¬ 
 ning of faith, and in the first they were 
 heretical, viz., that they held that grace to 
 be such, that the will of man was able to 
 resist it or obey it. (5) It is Semi-Pelagian 
 to say that Christ died, or shed his blood 
 for all men absolutely. Innocent X. con¬ 
 demned the propositions as heretical. The 
 Jansenists again declared their willingness 
 to sign the condemnation, affirming that 
 the propositions in the sense which the 
 Jesuits gave to them were not to be found 
 in the writings of Jansen. The pontifical 
 command that the bull should be subscribed 
 to was followed by a general assembly of 
 the clergy, which declared that the five 
 propositions were to be found in the 
 Augustinus, and that Jansen had perverted 
 the meaning of Augustine. Prominent 
 Jansenists found safety only in hiding, and 
 
Jan 
 
 ( 463 ) 
 
 the Port Royalists (See Port Royal), who 
 claimed that the pope had no right to take 
 the action he had done, were bitterly per¬ 
 secuted. “ Under Clement IX. a com¬ 
 promise with the Jansenists was effected, 
 but this peace proved of short duration. 
 In 1705 Clement XI. issued a bull confirm¬ 
 ing all preceding condemnations of the five 
 propositions. He also, denounced the 
 Moral Reflections on the New Testament by 
 Quesnel as a text-book of undisguised Jan¬ 
 senism. Clement issued in 1713, in the 
 constitution ‘ Unigenitus,’ a condemnation 
 in mass of 101 propositions extracted from 
 the Moral Reflections , which, however, met 
 with great resistance in France. The death 
 of Louis XIV. caused a relaxation of the 
 repressive measures. The regent, Duke 
 of Orleans, was urged to refer the whole 
 controversy to a national council, and the 
 leaders of the Jansenist party appealed to 
 a general council. The party thus formed, 
 which numbered four bishops and many 
 inferior ecclesiastics, was called, from 
 this circumstance, the Appellants. The 
 firmness of the pope, and a change in the 
 policy of the regent, brought them into 
 disfavor. An edict was published, June 
 4, 1720, receiving the bull; and even the 
 parliament of Paris submitted to register 
 it. although with a reservation in favor of 
 the liberties of the Gallican Church. The 
 Appellants for the most part submitted, the 
 recusants being visited with severe penal¬ 
 ties; and on the accession of the new king, 
 Louis XV., the unconditional acceptance 
 of the bull was at length formally accom¬ 
 plished, the parliament being compelled to 
 register it in a lit de justice. From this 
 time forward, the Appellants were rigor¬ 
 ously repressed, and a large number emi¬ 
 grated to the Netherlands, where they 
 formed a community, with Utrecht as a 
 centre. The party still remaining in France 
 persisted in their inveterate opposition to 
 the bull, and many of them fell into great 
 excesses of fanaticism. 
 
 “ In one locality alone, Utrecht and its 
 dependent churches, can the sect be said to 
 have had a regular and permanent organ¬ 
 ization, which dates partly from the forced 
 emigration of the French Jansenists under 
 Louis XIV., partly from the controversy 
 about Quesnel. The vicar-apostolic, Peter 
 Codde, having been suspended by Clement 
 XI. in 1702, the chapter of Utrecht refused 
 to acknowledge the new vicar named in his 
 place, and angrily joined themselves to the 
 Appellant party in France, many of whom 
 found a refuge in Utrecht. At length, in 
 1723, they elected an archbishop, Cornelius 
 Steenhoven, for whom the form of epis¬ 
 copal consecration was obtained from the 
 French bishop Vorlet (titular of Babylon), 
 
 Jap 
 
 who had been suspended for Jansenist 
 opinions. A later Jansenist archbishop of 
 Utrecht, Meindarts, established Haarlem 
 and Deventer as his suffragan sees; and in 
 1763 a synod was held, which sent its acts 
 to Rome, in recognition of the primacy of 
 that see, which the Church of Utrecht pro¬ 
 fesses to acknowledge. Since that time, 
 the formal succession has been maintained, 
 each bishop, on being appointed, notifying 
 his election to the pope, and craving con¬ 
 firmation. The popes, however, have uni¬ 
 formly rejected all advances, except on the 
 condition of the acceptance of the bull 
 Unigenitus; and the act of the Holy See, 
 in defining as of Catholic faith the dog¬ 
 ma of the immaculate conception of the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, was the occasion of 
 a new protest. The Jansenists of the 
 Utrecht Church still number about 5,000 
 souls, and are divided over twenty-five 
 parishes in the dioceses of Utrecht and 
 Haarlem. Their clergy are about thirty 
 in number, with a seminary at Amersfoort. 
 The Jansenist archbishop of Utrecht con¬ 
 secrated a bishop for the Old Catholics.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopaedia. See Old Catho¬ 
 lics; Jansen. 
 
 Januarius, St., bishop of Benevento, de¬ 
 capitated at Puteoli during the persecution 
 of Diocletian. He is the patron saint of 
 Naples, and his head and two phials con¬ 
 taining his blood are kept in a chapel of 
 the cathedral in that city and exhibited 
 twice a year, May 1 and Sept. 19. When 
 the phials are placed within sight of the 
 head the blood, it is averred, becomes 
 liquid and begins to stir. When this 
 miracle takes place it is considered a good 
 omen to the city and people. Thirteen 
 other saints and martyrs bear the name of 
 Januarius. 
 
 Japan. “ The religious beliefs of the 
 Japanese people may be divided under two 
 heads, the Shinto and the Buddhist. By 
 the former is meant the religious belief of 
 the natives, prior to the introduction from 
 abroad of Buddhism and the Confucian 
 philosophy. Shintd means literally “ the 
 way of the gods.” Though often styled by 
 foreign writers a religion, it really is not 
 one. No concise definition of it appears to 
 exist, but the following are some of its 
 leading points: It contains no moral code, 
 the writer, Motoori (a high authority on 
 this subject, born 1730, died 1801), even as¬ 
 serting that in Japan there was no necessity 
 for any system of morals, as every Japan¬ 
 ese acted aright if he only consulted his 
 own heart. He also declared that the whole 
 duty of a good Japanese consisted in obey¬ 
 ing, implicitly and without question, the 
 
(464) 
 
 Jap 
 
 Jap 
 
 commands of the mikado. In Skint 6 , Japan 
 is held to be the country of the gods, and 
 the mikado to be the direct descendant and 
 actual representative of the Sun goddess. 
 In it there also seems to be mixed up a 
 system of hero worship, many renowned 
 warriors and other personages of ancient 
 days being exalted into what we should 
 term demi-gods; thus it inculcates a rever¬ 
 ential feeling toward the dead. By it, too, 
 spiritual agencies are attributed to the ele¬ 
 ments or natural phenomena. The Shintd 
 shrines throughout the country are built in 
 very simple style, being generally con¬ 
 structed of white wood, unadorned by brill¬ 
 iant coloring as in Buddhist temples, and 
 roofed with thatch. Before each shrine 
 stand one or more torii, archways formed 
 of two upright posts with a projecting cross¬ 
 bar laid on their summits, beneath which 
 is a smaller horizontal beam, the ends of 
 which do not project. As its name implies, 
 the torii was originally a perch for the 
 fowls offered to the gods, not as a food, 
 but to give warning of daybreak. This 
 archway gradually assumed the character 
 of a general symbol of Shintd , and the num¬ 
 ber which might be erected in honor of a 
 deity became practically unlimited. The 
 special peculiarity distinguishing the pure 
 Shintd shrines from the Buddhist temples 
 is the absence of images exposed as objects 
 for the veneration of the worshipper; but 
 at the same time, the former nearly always 
 contains some object in which the spirit of 
 the deity, therein enshrined, is supposed to 
 reside. The principal Shintd shrines are 
 those in the department of Watasai, in the 
 province of Ise, known as Ise Dai-jiu-gue 
 (‘ the great divine palaces of Ise ’), and 
 maintained by government. The first Bud¬ 
 dhist images and Sutras were brought to 
 Japan from Corea in the year 552, if we 
 can believe the Nihougi, but it was long 
 before the religion obtained much hold on 
 the people. In the beginning of the ninth 
 century, the priest Kukai "(now better 
 known as Kobo Daishi), compounded out 
 of Buddhism, Confucianism and Shintd , a 
 system of doctrine called Riobu Shintd , the 
 most prominent characteristic of which was 
 the theory that Shintd deities were nothing- 
 more than transmigrations of Buddhist 
 divinities. Buddhism, thus fairly intro¬ 
 duced, ere long obtained complete ascend¬ 
 ency; it became the religion of the whole 
 nation, and held that position until the 
 Sokugawa dynasty of Shogun, when it was 
 supplanted in the intellects of the educated 
 class by the philosophy of Coo He. Its 
 teachings were calculated to awaken man 
 to a sense of his own short-comings, and 
 to cause him to long for perfection: it en¬ 
 couraged belief in a succession of lives and 
 
 transmigration of souls; and the highest 
 reward promised to the true believer was 
 to be absorbed into Buddha and to attain 
 to absolute perfection. Under the Soku¬ 
 gawa family, many grants were made from 
 their treasuries to famous Buddhist tem¬ 
 ples, notably to that of Zojoji in the dis¬ 
 tricts of Shiba, in Yedo, which was endow¬ 
 ed by Iyeyasu himself in the concluding 
 years of the sixteenth century. These 
 grants were, however, withdrawn after the 
 restoration of the mikado in 1868, and 
 Buddhism has been virtually disestablished 
 since Jan. 1, 1874. Many temples are still 
 kept up, but these are maintained by vol¬ 
 untary contributions from the people and 
 from former patrons.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Japan, Christianity in. Christianity was 
 introduced into Japan by Francis Xavier, 
 in 1549. Within two months he made five 
 hundred converts at Yamaguchi, in Naga- 
 to province, and then going to Bungo prov¬ 
 ince he soon after left Japan and died on an 
 island off the coast of China. In 1553 new 
 missionaries came to Japan, and within a 
 few years thousands of converts were gath¬ 
 ered, and the hostility of the Buddhist 
 priests became fiercer and relentless. In 
 1582 three Christian nobles were sent on a 
 mission to the Holy See. The year of 
 their return (1585), Nobunaga, who was 
 friendly to the new faith, was assassi¬ 
 nated, and his successor, Hideyoshi, con¬ 
 cealed his hatred only a short time, and in 
 1587 ordered all the foreign priests to pro¬ 
 ceed to Hirado and leave the country. 
 They did not do this, but continued their 
 labors under the protection of Christian 
 princes. By the bull of Gregory XIII. 
 (dated Jan. 28, 1585,and confirmed by Clem¬ 
 ent III. in 1600), Japan was assigned ex¬ 
 clusively to the Jesuits. In 1590 a party 
 of Franciscans, under the plea that they 
 came as attaches to the embassy, entered 
 the country. They broke their promise 
 made to Hideyoshi that they would not 
 preach, and, suspecting that they were 
 working out political designs, that ruler, on 
 a slight pretext, declared war against 
 Corea, and in 1592 sent an army of a hun¬ 
 dred and fifty thousand men, mostly con¬ 
 verts led by Christian generals, to that 
 island. The following year six Francis¬ 
 cans and three Jesuits were burned to death 
 at Nagasaki. Other Spanish priests came 
 to Japan, and after the death of Hideyoshi, 
 in 1598, the Christian leaders came back 
 from Corea, and in 1600 a hundred Jesuit 
 priests arrived from Europe. Hideyori, 
 the son of Hideyoshi, was defeated in great 
 battle (1600) by Iyeyasu, who issued a de¬ 
 cree of expulsion against the foreign 
 priests. In 1602 large numbers of mis- 
 
Jap 
 
 ( 465 ) 
 
 Jav 
 
 sionaries arrived in the country. The 
 number of Christians at this time has been 
 estimated as high as eighteen hundred 
 thousand. The intrigues of English and 
 Dutch traders increased the hostility of 
 lyeyasu, and a decree was passed, in 1614, 
 declaring the Christian religion dangerous 
 to the state. The churches were destroyed 
 and the Roman priests were arrested and 
 sent out of the country. Those who at¬ 
 tempted to return were seized and put to 
 death. In 1624 the empire was closed 
 against all foreigners, with the exception 
 of the Dutch and Chinese. The native 
 Christians were persecuted with relentless 
 fury, and great multitudes of them fled to 
 China, Formosa, and the Philippines. At 
 length (1637) they rose in rebellion, and 
 for two months held an old castle at Shim- 
 abara, in Kiusiu, against the government 
 troops. The capture of these thirty-seven 
 thousand Christians was followed by their 
 massacre and drowning in the sea, and for 
 a time the hated religion seemed to be 
 stamped out of the empire. 
 
 When, after two centuries and a half of 
 isolation from the outside world, Japan was 
 opened to foreign trade in 1859, it was 
 found that thousands of the native descend¬ 
 ants of the martyrs of the Christian relig¬ 
 ion in the seventeenth century were still 
 believers, and practiced their faith in secret. 
 This gave an advantage to the Roman Cath¬ 
 olic missionaries, who began their labors at 
 Nagasaki and Kanagawa, but the govern¬ 
 ment did not cease its persecutions of 
 these Christians until 1872, and large num¬ 
 bers were imprisoned and exiled to the 
 northern provinces. 
 
 Protestant missions were opened in 1859 
 by the London Missionary Society and 
 four American churches — Reformed 
 (Dutch), Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Bap¬ 
 tist. For ten years only a handful of con¬ 
 verts were gathered, and they held their 
 faith at the risk of their life. The first 
 Protestant Christian Church was organized 
 at Yokohama, in 1872, by the Rev. James 
 Ballagh, of the Reformed (Dutch) Church 
 in America. In 1873 the edicts against the 
 Christians were removed, and since that 
 time the progress of Christianity in Japan 
 makes one of the most interesting and re¬ 
 markable chapters in the history of mis¬ 
 sions. All of the more important Protes¬ 
 tant denominations are represented in the 
 empire. Churches have been organized 
 in the important centres of population and 
 at many points in the interior. The Ro¬ 
 man and Greek communions claim a large 
 following, and the Protestant Missionary 
 Statistics, at the close of 1889, give these 
 figures: 
 
 Foreign Missionaries, 527 (of whom 166 
 
 are married males, 34 unmarried males, 
 and 171 unmarried females); Organized 
 churches, 274; Churches wholly self-sup¬ 
 porting, 153; Baptized adult converts in 
 1889, 5,007; Present membership, 31,181 
 (year before, 25,514); Boys’ boarding 
 schools, 18, with 2,998 scholars; Girls’ 
 boarding schools, 51, with 4,249 scholars; 
 Day schools, 56, with 3,269 scholars; Sun¬ 
 day-schools, 350, with 21,597 scholars; The¬ 
 ological schools, 17, with 275 students; 
 Native ministers, 135; Unordained preach¬ 
 ers and helpers, 409;Colporteurs, 1; Schools 
 for Bible women, 3, with 46 pupils; Bible 
 women, 125; 1 School for nurses, 3 Hos¬ 
 pitals, 9 Dispensaries; Contributions of 
 native Christians for all purposes during 
 1889, 53,503.13 yen. A yen is 76 cents gold. 
 See Griffis: The Mikados Empire (N. Y., 
 1876), and Corea , the Hermit Nation (1882); 
 B. H. Chamberlain: Things Japanese (Lon¬ 
 don, 1890). 
 
 Jarvis, Samuel Farmer, D. D., LL. D. 
 b. at Middletown, Conn., Jan. 20, 1786; d. 
 there, March 26, 1851. After graduating 
 at Yale College (1805), he entered the min¬ 
 istry of the Episcopal Church in 1810. He 
 was in active service in New York until 
 1819, and from 1820 to 1826 in Boston. 
 The nine following years were spent in 
 Europe. In 1835 he accepted the position 
 of professor of Oriental literature in Trinity 
 College, Hartford, Conn. From 1837 to 
 1842 he was rector of the Episcopal Church 
 at Middletown, devoting the remainder of 
 his life to literary work. He published: A 
 Chronological Introduction to the History of 
 the Church (London and New York, 1844); 
 The Church of the Redeemed; or, the History 
 of the Mediatorial Kingdom (Boston, 1850). 
 
 Ja'sher, Book of. Two allusions are 
 found to this work in the Bible; Josh x. 13 
 and 2 Sam. i. 18. It was probably a collec¬ 
 tion of national songs now lost. Several 
 books claiming to be the Book of Jasher 
 have been found to be fraudulent. 
 
 Ja'son, (1) the name of several Jews who 
 were prominent during the period of the 
 Maccabees. (2) A Thessalonian Christian 
 with whom Paul lived at Thessalonica. 
 (Acts xvii. 5-9.) He was probably a rela¬ 
 tion of Paul. (Rom. xvi. 21.) 
 
 Ja'van “designates in Hebrew, as in the 
 other Oriental languages—Syriac, Arabic, 
 Coptic, and Persian—the Greeks, and is 
 derived from ‘ Ionians.’ In the table of 
 nations (Gen. x. 2-4) Javan is mentioned 
 as the son of Japheth, and father of Elishah, 
 Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim. The 
 cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria contain 
 
Jay 
 
 (466) 
 
 Jeh 
 
 the same notices. The Hindoos also call 
 the people of the farthest West Javana 
 (juvenis, young) because the Western na¬ 
 tions were the youngest branches of the 
 Indo-Germanic race. There was also a city 
 of Javan in Arabia, alluded to in Ezek. 
 xxvii. 19.”— Riietschi. 
 
 Jay, William, an English Congregational 
 minister; b. at Tisbury in Wiltshire, May 
 8, 1769; d. at Bath, Dec. 27, 1853. His 
 father who was a stone-cutter and mason, 
 sent him to the Marlborough Academy, a 
 Congregational training-school for the min¬ 
 istry. Before he was sixteen he began to 
 preach, and after some ministerial experi¬ 
 ence he was ordained pastor at Bath, where 
 he labored for nearly sixty-two years. He 
 attracted large congregations, and John 
 Foster styled him the “ Prince of Preach¬ 
 ers.” His published sermons have had a 
 wide circulation, and his Morning and Even¬ 
 ing Exercises are well known. 
 
 Jealousy, The Trial of, is fully describ¬ 
 ed in Num. v. 11-31. 
 
 Jeanne d’Albret ( zhan dal'bra), queen of 
 Navarre, and a devoted adherent of the 
 Reformation; b. in Pau, Jan. 7, 1528; d. in 
 Paris, June 9, 1572. She was the daughter 
 of Henry d’Albret, king of Navarre, and 
 Magaret d’Orleans-Angouleme, sister of 
 Francis I. In 1548 she was married to 
 Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vendome. 
 Their third child became Henry IV. of 
 France. In 1555, by the death of her fa¬ 
 ther, she became queen of Navarre. The in¬ 
 fluence of her mother had early interested 
 her in the cause of the Reformation, and 
 in 1560 she publicly renounced Cathol¬ 
 icism, and, after the death of her husband, 
 she sought the advice of Calvin as her 
 counselor. After the battle of Jarnac, 
 March 13, 1569, and the assassination of 
 Conde, she joined the imperiled cause of 
 the Huguenots, and did all in her power 
 to sustain it. She died in Paris, whither 
 she had gone to attend the marriage of her 
 son with Margaret of Valois. See H. M. 
 Baird: History of the Rise of the Huguenots 
 (1880), 2 vols. 
 
 Je'bus (place trodden down), the ancient 
 name of Jerusalem as known among the 
 Canaanites. (Judg. xix. 10, 11; 1 Chron. xi. 
 4, 5.) Jebus was probably a descendant of 
 Canaan. (Gen. x. 16.) The name, as given 
 to what afterward became the site of Jeru¬ 
 salem, was confined to the southwest hill, 
 ‘‘Mount Zion,” a point of great natural 
 strength in its situation. 
 
 Jeb'usites, the name of the tribe living in 
 
 that part of Canaan about Jebus or Jeru¬ 
 salem, whom the Israelites were command¬ 
 ed to destroy. (Deut. vii. 1; xx. 17.) 
 Their land was allotted to Benjamin, but 
 Jebus or Jebusi successfully resisted Joshua 
 and later attacks. They were finally sub¬ 
 dued by David (2 Sam. v. 6; 1 Chron. xi. 4), 
 who made their stronghold his capital. 
 
 Jehoi'achin ( whom Jehovah has appointed), 
 the son and successor of Jehoiakim, king 
 of Judah. (2 Kings xxiv. 8-16.) He reign¬ 
 ed but three months and ten days, when he 
 was taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 carried to Babylon with the royal family 
 and the chief men of the nation. He re¬ 
 mained in captivity for thirty-seven years, 
 when he was released by Evil-merodach, 
 who placed him at the head of all the cap¬ 
 tive kings. (Jer. lii. 31-34.) 
 
 Jehoi'ada ( whom Jehovah knows), a high- 
 priest of the Jews, and the husband of 
 Jehosheba. He was the guardian of Joash, 
 and having killed Athaliah he wisely di¬ 
 rected the affairs of the young king during 
 his life-time. In honor of his eminent ser¬ 
 vices he was buried “ in the city of David, 
 among the kings.” (2 Chron. xxiv. 16.) 
 
 Jehoi'akim, or Eli'akim, brother and suc¬ 
 cessor of Jehoahaz, king of Judah, was 
 made king by Necho, king of Egypt, at his 
 return from an expedition against Carcbe- 
 mish (2 Kings xxiii. 34-36), b. C. 609. 
 After four years he was defeated by Neb¬ 
 uchadnezzar and compelled to pay tribute 
 to him. Three years afterward he rebel¬ 
 led, but was taken prisoner, and finally 
 permitted to reign as a vassal. His impious 
 career is given briefly in 2 Kings xxiii. 34- 
 xxiv. 6; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 4-8; Jer. xxii. 13- 
 19; xxvi.; xxxvi. 
 
 Jeho'ram, “ (1) son and successor of Je- 
 hoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Kings viii. 16), 
 was b. A. M. 3080, and associated with his 
 father in the kingdom, A. M. 3112. He 
 reigned alone after the death of Jehosha- 
 phat, and d., according to Usher, b. c. 885. 
 His queen, Athaliah, daughter of Omri, en¬ 
 gaged him in idolatry, and other sins, 
 which produced calamities throughout his 
 reign. Jehoram, being settled in the king¬ 
 dom, began his career with the murder of 
 all his brothers, whom Jehoshaphat had 
 removed from public business and placed 
 in the fortified cities of Judah. To punish 
 his impiety, the Lord permitted the Edom¬ 
 ites, who had been subject to the kings of 
 Judah, to revolt. (2 Kings viii. 20, 21; 2 
 Chron. xxi. 8, 9.) He died, and vvas buried 
 in Jerusalem, but not in a royal sepulchre, 
 b. c. 885.”— Calmet, (2) A son of Ahab, 
 
Jeh 
 
 ( 467 ) 
 
 Jeh 
 
 slain by Jehu, b. c. 896-884. (2 Kings i. 
 17.) (3) A priest sent by Jehoshaphat with 
 Elishama to teach Judah, b. c. 900. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, “ (1) son of Asa, a pious 
 and illustrious king of Judah, ascended the 
 throne when aged thirty-five, and reigned 
 twenty-five years. He prevailed against 
 Baasha, king of Israel; and placed garri¬ 
 sons in the cities of Judah and Ephraim, 
 which had been conquered by his father. 
 He demolished the high places and groves, 
 and God was with him because he was 
 faithful. In the third year of his reign he 
 sent officers, with priests and Levites, 
 throughout Judah, with the book of the 
 law, to instruct the people, and God bless- 
 
 by enjoining them to perform punctually 
 their duty. After this, God gave him, in 
 answer to his prayers, a complete triumph 
 over the Moabites, Ammonites, and others, 
 people of Arabia Petraea. 
 
 “ Some time afterward Jehoshaphat, re¬ 
 peating his error, agreed with Ahaziah, 
 the idolatrous king of Israel, jointly to 
 equip a fleet in the port of Ezion-gaber, on 
 the Red Sea, in order to go to Tarshish, 
 and was punished by the loss of his fleet. 
 He died, after reigning twenty-five years, 
 and was buried in the royal sepulchre, 
 b. c. 889. (2 Chron. xxi. 1, etc.; 1 Kings 
 xxii. 42.)”— Calmet. 
 
 (2) Son of Ahilud, who filled the office of 
 recorder or annalist in the courts of David 
 
 VALLEY OF JEHOSHAPHAT. 
 
 Traditional Tombs of Absalom, Jehoshaphat and Zechariah, and Jewish Burying-ground. From a photograph. 
 
 ed his zeal. He was feared by all his 
 neighbors, and the Philistines and Arabi¬ 
 ans were tributaries to him. He built 
 several houses in Judah in the form of 
 towers, and fortified several cities. He 
 generally kept an army, or, more prob¬ 
 ably, an enrolled militia, of a million of 
 men, without reckoning the troops in his 
 strongholds. 
 
 “ Scripture, however, reproaches Jehosh¬ 
 aphat on account of his alliance with the 
 idolatrous Ahab, king of Israel. (1 Kings 
 xxii. 44; 2 Chron. xviii. 35; xix. 1.) Je¬ 
 hoshaphat repaired his fault by the regu¬ 
 lations and good order which he afterward 
 established in his dominions; both as to 
 civil and religious affairs; by appointing 
 honest and able judges, by regulating the 
 discipline of the priests and Levites, and 
 
 (2 Sam. viii. 16, etc.) and Solomon (1 Kings 
 iv. 3). 
 
 (3) One of the priests who(i Chron. xv. 
 24) were appointed to blow trumpets be¬ 
 fore the ark when it was carried from the 
 house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem. 
 
 (4) Son of Paruah, one of the twelve 
 purveyors of King Solomon. (1 Kings iv. 
 J 7.) 
 
 (5) Son of Nimshi, and father of King 
 Jehu. (2 Kings ix. 2, 14.) 
 
 Jehoshaphat, Valley of. a valley men¬ 
 tioned by Joel only, as the spot in which, 
 after the return of Judah and Jerusalem 
 from captivity, Jehovah would gather all 
 the heathen (Joel iii. 2; Heb. iv. 2), and 
 would there sit to judge them for their 
 misdeeds to Israel (iii. 12; Heb. v. 41). 
 
Jeh 
 
 (468) 
 
 J e P 
 
 For many centuries the name has been 
 given to the deep ravine which separates 
 Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives. Both 
 Moslems and Jews believe that the last 
 judgment is to take place there. 
 
 Jeho'vah (he will be), “ a title of the Su¬ 
 preme Being, indicative of the attribute of 
 eternal and immutable self-existence. (Ex. 
 vi. 3.) It is similar in import to the title 
 I AM. (Ex. iii. 14.) In the English Bible 
 it is usually translated ‘ Lord,’and printed 
 in small capitals. It occurs first in the 
 second chapter of Genesis. As distinct 
 from Elohim, it signifies the God of revela¬ 
 tion and redemption, the God of the Jews, 
 while Elohim is the God of nature, the 
 Creator and Preserver of all men.”—Schaff: 
 Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Je'hu, anointed king of Israel (2 Kings ix. 
 6) by a messenger sent by Elisha, in accord 
 with directions previously given by Elijah; 
 he was the divinely used instrument in the 
 destruction of the house of Ahab. Setting 
 out in his chariot for Jezreel he was met 
 by messengers from Joram, sent to ascer¬ 
 tain his designs. When they did not re¬ 
 turn, Joram came to meet Jehu,who charged 
 him with his sins, and then shot him dead. 
 (1 Kings xxi. 1-24.) Jehu then rode on to 
 Jezreel, and by his order the prophecy re¬ 
 garding Jezebel was exactly fulfilled. 
 (1 Kings xxi. 23; 2 Kings ix. 32-37.) He 
 exterminated the family of Ahab, root and 
 branch, and under circumstances of great 
 cruelty slaughtered the priests of Baal. 
 (2 Kings x. 18-28.) Jehu himself was of a 
 tyrannical and ambitious spirit, and fell 
 into idolatrous practices. (2 Kings x. 31.) 
 He reigned twenty-eight years (b. c. 884- 
 856), and was succeeded by his son Jehoa- 
 haz, 
 
 Jeph'thah (whom Goa sets free), a judge 
 of Israel whose tragic history is given in 
 Judges xi., xii. The illegitimate son of 
 Gilead, he was driven out of his father’s 
 house by the legitimate children, and be¬ 
 came the head of a marauding party in the 
 land of Tob in eastern Hauran. When war 
 broke out between Israel and the Ammon¬ 
 ites, the Israelites asked him to become 
 their leader. This position he accepted, 
 and after some negotiations with the Am¬ 
 monites, which failed to secure peace, he 
 fought a battle in which the Ammonites 
 were defeated with great loss of life. On 
 the eve of the battle Jephthah made a vow 
 to dedicate to God, in case of victory, 
 whatever he met first coming to meet him 
 on his return home. This proved to be his 
 daughter, an only child, who came at the 
 head of a triumphal procession to welcome 
 
 him home. Jephthah was sorely afflicted, 
 but the noble daughter was ready to meet 
 the performance of the vow, which took 
 place on the expiration of two months. 
 Not long after this the Ephraimites chal¬ 
 lenged the right of Jephthah to go to war, 
 as he had done, without their consent, 
 against Ammon, and at the head of his 
 army he met and defeated them. He 
 judged Israel six years before his death. 
 
 “ The perplexing question, what Jeph¬ 
 thah did with his daughter, will perhaps 
 never obtain a satisfactory answer. The 
 passage reads thus: ‘ And Jephthah vowed 
 a vow unto the Lord, and said, If thou 
 shalt without fail deliver the children of 
 Ammon into mine hands, then it shall be 
 that whatsoever cometh forth of the doors 
 of my house to meet me, when I return in 
 peace from the children of Ammon, shall 
 surely be the Lord’s, and I will offer it up 
 for a burnt offering.’ (Judg. xi. 30, 31.) An 
 unprejudiced reading of the text leads nat¬ 
 urally to the conclusion that Jephthah 
 offered her up as a burnt sacrifice, but the 
 other opinion, that he devoted his daughter 
 to a life of celibacy, is defended by these 
 arguments: (1) The particle van which in 
 the A. V. is translated ‘and’ (‘and I will 
 offer it up ’) should be translated ‘ or.’ But 
 there is a Hebrew word with that meaning. 
 (2) The emphasis is laid upon ‘ him,’ which 
 is made to refer to the Lord, and the vow 
 is thus interpreted as contemplating two 
 things: (a) a person to be consecrated to 
 Jehovah, and (b) the additional offering of 
 a burnt sacrifice. But such a construction 
 would be a solecism in Hebrew. (3) The 
 ‘ burnt offering ’ has been taken in a spir¬ 
 itual sense, but that is to put an interpre¬ 
 tation upon the word which the Hebrew 
 will not bear. (4) Jephthah could not vow 
 to God a human sacrifice, so abhorrent to 
 him, and so contrary to the whole spirit of 
 the Hebrew religion. (Lev. xx. 2-5; Deut. 
 xii. 31.) But it must be borne in mind 
 that Jephthah was a rude warrior in the 
 semi-barbaric age of the Judges. Celibacy 
 of a voluntary and religious character was 
 unknown in Israel. Jephthah’s daughter, 
 on this supposition, would have been the 
 first and last Hebrew nun. The Jews 
 looked upon the family as a divine ordi¬ 
 nance, and upon the unmarried as a mis¬ 
 fortune, equalled only by that of being a 
 childless wife. It may not be correct to 
 say that each Hebrew woman looked for¬ 
 ward to being the mother of the Messiah, 
 but, at all events, to be a mother was to 
 fulfil the function in society God had de¬ 
 signed for her. A vow of celibacy, there¬ 
 fore, would have been contrary to the spirit 
 of the Jewish religion as much as a vow of 
 bloody sacrifice. The sojourn of Jephthah’s 
 
 % 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 469 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 daughter in the mountains for two months 
 is inconsistent with any such dedication to 
 Jehovah. But if she were to be sacrificed, 
 her home would indeed be filled with too 
 mournful associations, whereas the open 
 air, especially to such a girl, and the soli¬ 
 tude of the hills, would be real aids in pre¬ 
 paring for death. Jephthah’s intense sor¬ 
 row when she came forth to meet him 
 likewise harmonizes with the literal and 
 natural interpretation.”—Schaff: Bible Did. 
 
 Jeremi'ah (appointed by Jehovah} “was the 
 son of Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth (a 
 small village close to Jerusalem). He be¬ 
 gan to prophesy in the thirteenth year of 
 Josiah’s reign, about seventy years after 
 Isaiah’s death, and continued to do so all 
 through the troubled times of the Baby¬ 
 lonian invasion. His utterances were re¬ 
 garded as of evil omen by the rulers of Je¬ 
 rusalem, and he was subjected to cruel per¬ 
 secution. He saw the city besieged and 
 taken, his warnings neglected but fulfilled, 
 his fellow-citizens carried captive, and Je¬ 
 rusalem a heap of ruins; and in an adjoining 
 cave he wrote his Lamentations over it. A 
 remnant rallied round him after the mur¬ 
 der of Gedaliah, and were forbidden by 
 God,'through his mouth, to flee into Egypt; 
 but they accused him of falsehood, and, 
 disregarding the Divine command, carried 
 him with them into that country (xliii.), 
 where, according to Jerome, he was put to 
 death, having prophesied for about forty 
 years. 
 
 “ His prophecies are not in chronological 
 order, but seem to have been re-arranged 
 according to their subjects, viz.: (1) Warn¬ 
 ings to the Jews. (2) Survey of all nations, 
 with an historical appendix. (3) Prediction 
 of brighter days to come, with a similar 
 appendix. (4) Prophecies regarding Egypt. 
 The concluding chapters (from li. 34) are 
 supposed to have been compiled from the 
 later portions of 2 Kings, and may have 
 been added by Ezra. Jeremiah was contem¬ 
 porary with Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Eze¬ 
 kiel, and Daniel. He foretold the precise 
 date of the Captivity, the fate of Zedekiah, 
 the Return of the Jews, the future decay 
 of Babylon, and the fall of many other na¬ 
 tions. He is said to have buried the ark; 
 and he predicted the abrogation of the Law, 
 the inauguration of a spiritual worship, the 
 blessing of the Atonement, the call of the 
 Gentiles through the Gospel, and the final 
 acceptance of the Jews. Bunsen and Ew- 
 ald consider that the prophecies seem to be 
 most naturally grouped together by the 
 recurrence of the formula, “ The word of 
 the Lord came to Jeremiah,” as follows: (1) 
 (Chap, i): An introduction, probably pre¬ 
 fixed to the whole at the final revision. (2) 
 
 (ii-xxi): Probably the roll written by Ba¬ 
 ruch (xxxvi. 32), after the roll read in the 
 ears of Jehoiakim had been burnt by him. 
 (3) (xxii-xxv): Shorter prophecies deliver¬ 
 ed against the kings of Judah and false 
 prophets. (4) (xxv-xxviii): Two great 
 prophecies of the fall of Jerusalem. (5) 
 (xxix-xxxi): The message of comfort for 
 the exiles in Babylon. (6) (xxxii-xliv): 
 The history of the last two years before 
 the capture of Jerusalem, and of Jere¬ 
 miah’s work during that and the subsequent 
 period. (7) (xlvi-li): The prophecies 
 against foreign nations, ending with the 
 great predictions against Babylon. (8) (lii): 
 The supplementary narrative, which is 
 also a preface to the Lamentations. The 
 LXX. translation contains so many differ¬ 
 ences of reading, as well as variations in 
 the arrangement of the chapters, that it 
 would seem to have been made from some 
 other recension of the Hebrew than any 
 now extant; or else the translators endeav¬ 
 ored to make the meaning more plain, and 
 the arrangement more methodical. The 
 genuineness of the book has never been 
 seriously questioned; neither can its dates 
 be doubted. Gesenius conjectures that 
 more than thirty Psalms (v, vi, xiv, xxii- 
 xli, lii—lv, lix-lxxi) were composed by 
 Jeremiah; if so, they are a valuable record 
 of the hymnology of that period.”—“ Ox¬ 
 ford ” Bible Helps. See Commentary of 
 Nagelbach in Lange’s Com.\ History of the 
 Jews , by Ewald and Stanley (ii. 570-622). 
 
 Jeremiah, Epistle of. See Apocrypha, 
 Old Testament. 
 
 Jeremiah, Lamentations of. See Lam¬ 
 entations. 
 
 Jer'icho was situated five miles west of 
 the river Jordan and six or seven miles 
 north of the Dead Sea. The city stood in 
 an oasis of beauty and fertility made by 
 the waters of several springs which gush 
 forth at this point. This garden spot is in 
 strange contrast with the scorched and des¬ 
 olate plain about it. In the times of Joshua 
 it was known as “ the city of the palm- 
 tree ” (Deut. xxxiv. 3), etc. When taken 
 by the Israelites, it was a strongly fortified 
 city and a royal residence. (Josh. ii. 3; vi. 
 2.) After it was conquered by the Romans, 
 they built an excellent road to Jerusalem, 
 and it was fortified by Antony who sold it 
 to Herod who chose it as his winter res¬ 
 idence, and embellished it with palaces. 
 Destroyed by Titus, it was rebuilt by Jus¬ 
 tinian. Again destroyed by the Arabs, it 
 was partially restored on a site near at 
 hand by the Crusaders. The modern Jer¬ 
 icho ( er-Riha ), consists of a group of squalid 
 
J er 
 
 (470) 
 
 Jer 
 
 hovels inhabited by about sixty families, 
 whom the Arabs look upon as a despised 
 race. 
 
 Jerobo'am (whose people is many), (1) the 
 first king of Israel after its separation 
 from Judah. He was the son of Nebat, an 
 Ephraimite, who attracted the attention of 
 Solomon by his superior ability, and was 
 appointed by him to superintend the levies 
 furnished by the house of Joseph. While 
 passing events portended revolution he 
 was met by the prophet Ahijah, in a field 
 near Jerusalem, who, tearing his mantle 
 into twelve pieces, gave him ten, to indi¬ 
 cate that the kingdom was to be dismem¬ 
 bered and he was to rule ten tribes. Flee¬ 
 ing into Egypt to escape from Solomon, he 
 remained there until the death of the king. 
 
 x.-xiii.) (2) The son of Joash, and great- 
 grandson of Jehu: he reigned over Israel 
 with great success for forty-one years. 
 (2 Kings xiv. 23-29.) 
 
 Jerome of Prague, a Bohemian reformer 
 and martyr of noble birth; b. at Prague 
 about 1365; burned at the stake in Con¬ 
 stance, May 30, 1416. He studied at Ox¬ 
 ford, where he was brought under the in¬ 
 fluence of Wycliffe’s writings. Upon re¬ 
 turning to Prague, in 1407, he cooperated 
 with Huss in his plans and views. A few 
 years after this he was suspected of heresy 
 and fled to Vienna, but was put in prison, 
 and released only on the demand of the 
 University of Prague. In October, 1414, 
 when Huss was about to leave Constance, 
 Jerome encouraged him to stand fast, and 
 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
 He was then recalled as the leader of the 
 ten tribes which had revolted. As a mat¬ 
 ter of policy he revived the ancient calf- 
 worship at Bethel and Dan. While of¬ 
 ficiating at the altar in Bethel a nameless 
 prophet appeared from Judah and predicted 
 the birth of King Josiah, who would de¬ 
 stroy that altar and slay its priests upon it* 
 Upon Jeroboam's stretching forth his hand 
 to order the arrest of the prophet, he found 
 that he could not move it. The altar was 
 rent by an unseen power, and Jeroboam had 
 to ask the prophet’s prayer for his restora¬ 
 tion. He still persisted in his calf-worship, 
 and when the Levites refused to obey him, 
 and returned to Judah, he formed a new 
 priesthood without regard to tribal connec¬ 
 tions. He reigned for twenty-seven years. 
 (1 Kings xi. 26-39; xii. 1; xiv. 20; 2 Chron. 
 
 promised him his assistance. In April of the 
 following year he did go to Constance to aid 
 his friend, but was constrained to leave the 
 city the da5 r after his arrival. He was so 
 outspoken in his views that he was recog¬ 
 nized and sent back to Constance in chains. 
 After the death of Huss the council suc¬ 
 ceeded in getting Jerome to retract, on 
 Sept. 10; but the following day he with¬ 
 drew his retraction. The final hearing in 
 his case took place in May, 1416, when he 
 was condemned as a heretic. He died tri¬ 
 umphantly. 
 
 Jerusalem. (1) Historical .—In the earliest 
 existing records of this place it is known 
 as “ Jebus.” At that time it was a strong¬ 
 hold, and was held by its original inhabi¬ 
 tants until long after the conquest of the 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 471 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 country under Joshua. Before the name 
 Jerusalem was finally settled, there was a 
 transition period when both names were 
 used, the one to explain the other. (Josh, 
 xv. 8; Judg. xix. 10; 1 Chron. xi. 4.) Fora 
 full discussion of the meaning of the name, 
 recourse must be had to the lexicons and 
 larger dictionaries: while the question is 
 not beyond dispute scholars are, however, 
 pretty well agreed that it is composed of 
 two Hebrew words, signifying foundation 
 of peace, or, possibly, of security. The name 
 “ Holy City,” as applied to it, is used sev¬ 
 eral times in both the Old and New Testa¬ 
 ments, an interesting fact when we consider 
 that the name given to Jerusalem at present 
 by the Arabic-speaking world is El-Kuds, 
 The Holy. A similar example is found in 
 the designation of Hebron, which the Arabs 
 call l< El Khulil,” The Friend , reference 
 being made to Abraham, who was called 
 “ The friend of God.” Its conquest under 
 David is recorded in 2 Sam. v., after which 
 time he made it his royal residence, where 
 he reigned thirty-three years, having reign¬ 
 ed seven years and a half in Hebron. 
 During the reigns of David and Solomon 
 it rose to the position which it has ever 
 since maintained as one of the most cele¬ 
 brated cities in the world. 
 
 Extensive preparations for building were 
 made by David, but it was left for his son 
 to carry out his designs, and Solomon’s 
 Palace, the House of the Forest of Leba¬ 
 non, his Court House, his House for 
 Pharaoh’s Daughter, and especially his 
 Temple, were most noteworthy among 
 the new structures which adorned the capi¬ 
 tal of his empire. (1 Kings vii.) After the 
 division of the kingdom, which followed at 
 no great interval the death of Solomon, 
 Jerusalem remained the capital of Judah 
 and the residence of its many kings. Its 
 wide reputation for wealth and beauty 
 made it a tempting object of conquest to 
 foreign potentates, and in the fifth year of 
 Rehoboam, b. c. 945, the first great calami¬ 
 ty of the kind overtook it in its capture by 
 Shishak, king of Egypt, who stripped it of 
 all its treasures. (1 Kings xiv.) Scarcely 
 two generations later, b. c. 887, Jehoash, 
 king of Israel, captured it, robbed it of its 
 gold, silver, and sacred vessels, and threw 
 down four hundred cubits of its wall. (2 
 Kings xiv.) Uzziah, who like Solomon 
 was a great builder, repaired the damages 
 which the city sustained in his father’s 
 reign, and added towers and other means 
 of defence. The fortifications were still 
 further strengthened by Hezekiah about 
 b. c. 710, when the Assyrian king, Sennach¬ 
 erib, was approaching Jerusalem. (2 Chron. 
 xxvi; xxxii.) Hezekiah did much, also, tow¬ 
 ard providing the inhabitants with whole¬ 
 
 some water. Only a few years elapsed, 
 however, before an Assyrian army was 
 again at its gates. The city was taken, and 
 its king, Manasseh, carried to Babylon. 
 After a time he was released, and returned 
 to Jerusalem whose gates, walls, and tow¬ 
 ers were strengthened by him. (2 Chron. 
 xxxiii.) In the days of Jehoiakim, about 
 b. c. 600, the city was again captured and 
 plundered, but this time by Nebuchadnez¬ 
 zar, events which were repeated during 
 the reign of his son Jehoiachin. Owing to 
 the revolt of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar 
 and his Chaldean army appeared again be¬ 
 fore the walls, and after a siege protracted 
 to a period of one year, five months, and 
 seven days, characterized both by heroic 
 deeds and terrible suffering, the place was 
 captured, and the temple itself, after the 
 vicissitudes of four and a quarter centuries, 
 was entirely destroyed. This national 
 disaster made such an impression upon the 
 Jews, that it has ever since been com¬ 
 memorated by them on the tenth of the 
 month Ab, corresponding to a part of 
 July and August. For a long period the 
 city lay in ruins, till Cyrus, about b. c. 
 536, gave permission for its rebuilding and 
 likewise for the rebuilding of the temple. 
 The chief care of Zerubbabel, leader of the 
 first company returning from Babylon, was 
 the erection of the temple. Nearly a cen¬ 
 tury later, b. c. 445, by direction of Ar- 
 taxerxes, Nehemiah came back, and to him 
 belongs the honor of rebuilding the walls 
 and towers of the holy city. (Ezra iii.-vii.; 
 Neh. i.-vi.) 
 
 The long interval between the time of 
 Nehemiah and that of Pompey (nearly four 
 centuries) was full of sad events for Jeru¬ 
 salem, interspersed here and there with a 
 gleam of prosperity and joy. In b. c. 320 
 Alexander the Great visited the city and 
 entered the temple. During the years 
 following that date it was many times 
 taken and retaken, pillaged, its temple 
 robbed, its inhabitants slain by thousands, 
 in the bloody wars between the kings of 
 Syria and those of Egypt. The worst form 
 of desecration took place under Antiochus 
 Epiphanes (he died in b. c. 164), who in¬ 
 troduced the Greek style of dress, and 
 ^established a gymnasium in which heathen 
 sports were taught to the Hebrew youth, 
 in order to turn them away from their na¬ 
 tional faith. To help crush out the Jewish 
 religion, he even set up an idol on the holy 
 altar, and caused offerings to be made to a 
 pagan deity. The period of independence 
 which was enjoyed under the Maccabees 
 witnessed the expiring glories of Jerusa¬ 
 lem as the capital of a strictly Jewish 
 nation. Concerning the commotions and 
 upheavals of those ten centuries, it was 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 472 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 nothing less than miraculous that the first 
 temple should have stood so long, or that 
 the second temple was not demolished by 
 some invading foe, or by the fanaticism 
 engendered by internal strife. 
 
 Herod the Great, as king of Judea, be¬ 
 came master of the city in b. c. 37, and the 
 next marked change in its political history 
 
 our Lord and his disciples looked with 
 wonder, and which he prophesied should 
 be utterly thrown down. (Matt. xxiv. 1; 
 Mark xiii. 1; Luke xxi. 5.) Titus would 
 have preserved the temple,even after the 
 greater portion of the city had been laid in 
 ruins, but the fanaticism of the Jews made 
 such an act impossible. In this memo- 
 
 EAST CORNER OF THE SOUTH WALL. 
 
 The Mount of Olives appears on the right, crowned by the Church of the Ascension. From a photograph. 
 
 was its conquest by Titus in a. d. 70. The 
 famous towers, Hippicus, Phasaelus, and 
 Mariamne, his two palaces, and the rebuild¬ 
 ing of the temple on a larger and grander 
 scale than either of its predecessors had 
 been, were Herod’s most important addi¬ 
 tions to Jerusalem. It was upon the 
 “ goodly stones” of this third Temple that 
 
 rable siege four legions (5th, 10th, 12th, 
 and 15th), besides a large body of auxil¬ 
 iaries, were engaged, and the great engines 
 of the Romans, and their military skill as 
 well, were severely taxed before the mass¬ 
 ive walls were finally leveled. The Em¬ 
 peror Hadrian, in A. D. 130, rebuilt the 
 walls and erected a city called ALYia. Capi- 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 473 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 tolina—a name confirmed by the coins of 
 that period—upon this ancient site, but ater- 
 rible rebellion against Rome soon followed, 
 and after that had been suppressed, the 
 Jews were forbidden to set foot within the 
 walls of their holy city—theirs, indeed, no 
 longer. It remained in the hands of the 
 pagans and Christians till A. D. 614, when 
 
 while between these were three others, 
 the largest “ the Tyropoeon,” running di¬ 
 rectly through the city from north to south. 
 These valleys all trend from northwest to 
 southeast. The branch which passed down 
 near the present St. Stephen’s Gate is 
 scarcely perceptible, and only excavations 
 have established its existence and great 
 
 THE CASTLE OF DAVID AND JAFFA GATE. From a photograph. 
 
 it was captured by the Persians, but was 
 soon after restored. In A. d. 637 the fol¬ 
 lowers of Mohammed appeared before the 
 walls, to whom the city yielded, and in 
 whose hands it has remained until the 
 present day, with the exception of nearly 
 one hundred years (a. d. 1100-1187), while 
 the Crusaders were in power. 
 
 (2) At the present tune .—The first view 
 of the city is generally disappointing to the 
 visitor, but if he is a devout person this 
 feeling soon passes away, and he becomes 
 deeply interested in a site where so many 
 thrilling events in sacred history have 
 transpired. Jerusalem is surrounded by a 
 wall from forty to sixty feet in height, 
 which was built by Sultan Suleiman, “ the 
 Magnificent” (1520-1566), about A. D. 
 1542. 
 
 The material is by no means uniform, 
 many parts showing that stones of different 
 periods, some of them very ancient, were 
 used in its construction. The extent of 
 this wall is less than three miles, and its 
 outline is very irregular, owing to the fact 
 that Jerusalem stands on a cluster of hills 
 separated by intervening valleys. On the 
 east of the city is the valley of Jehoshaphat, 
 and on the west and south that of Hinnom, 
 
 depth. The one leading from the Jaffa 
 Gate is nearly obliterated, and the Tyro¬ 
 poeon has been filled to a depth varying 
 from twenty feet at the Damascus Gate to 
 ninety feet at the southwest corner of the 
 temple area. Jerusalem has been destroyed 
 so many times that the city of David and 
 that of Christ’s time are buried under an 
 
 THE SO-CALLED GOLDEN GATE OF JERUSALEM. 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 474 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 accumulation of debris almost incredible 
 in its depth. 
 
 The hill to the west and southwest is 
 Zion, north of that is Akra, and the eastern 
 portion is best described as a prolonged 
 hill divided into sections, of which the 
 centre is Mount Moriah, Ophel being to 
 the south, and Bezetha to the north of it. 
 These five elevations are usually spoken 
 of as five distinct hills, Zion and Moriah 
 being the most conspicuous, Moriah being 
 2,440, Zion 2,540, and the northwest corner 
 of the city 2,580 feet above the level of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The city has four gates, the Jaffa Gate 
 on the west, the Damascus Gate on the 
 north, St. Stephen’s Gate on the east, and 
 Zion Gate on the south. No account is 
 here made of gates that have long been 
 closed, nor is the Dung Gate, in the lower 
 part of the Tyropoeon valley, included, for 
 
 it was necessary to build in this manner 
 for purposes of defence: the phrase in Psa. 
 cxxii. 3, “ a city that is compact together,” 
 is a most significant one. Sanitary matters 
 in the city are in the worst possible condi¬ 
 tion, and during the rainy season inde¬ 
 scribable filth abounds. 
 
 Following the most reliable sources (no 
 absolute data being obtainable), the pres¬ 
 ent population is not far from 45,000 ; 
 Christians of all sects, 8,000; Mohamme¬ 
 dans, 12,000; and the rest Jews. Between 
 1881-1884 several thousand Jews went to 
 Jerusalem to reside, but soon after that the 
 number dwindled to almost nothing, owing 
 to objections to their coming that were 
 raised by the Turkish authorities. There 
 is little wealth in Jerusalem; the houses 
 are poor, many of them squalid, the city is 
 poor, and a large proportion of the inhab¬ 
 itants live in a condition of abject poverty. 
 
 THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY 
 
 the reason that a person can scarcely pass 
 through it on horseback, and it is used 
 only by a few water-carriers and peasant 
 women who bring vegetables to the town. 
 All these gates bear different names among 
 the Arabs, but those are now given by 
 which they are best known among Chris¬ 
 tians. The northeastern portion of the 
 city is known as the Mohammedan quar¬ 
 ter, the southern the Jewish, and all the 
 western portion the Christian; the Arme¬ 
 nians occupying the southern part, or 
 Mount Zion, the Greeks and Latins the 
 northern part, including the holy sepul¬ 
 chre, and the sections lying to the north 
 and west of it. Like most Oriental cities 
 the streets of Jerusalem are very narrow, 
 winding, dingy, many of them being mere 
 lanes in which two loaded animals can 
 scarcely pass each other. In ancient times 
 
 SEPULCHRE. From a photograph. 
 
 The Greek and Latin convents own a large 
 amount of property and they do much for 
 their own poor, and the Jews likewise are 
 aided, many of them being thus kept from 
 actual starvation by funds (“ Haluka,” dis¬ 
 tribution or present ) sent thither by their 
 brethren in the different countries of Eu¬ 
 rope. 
 
 Clustering immediately around the city 
 are many points and objects of interest, 
 among which are the Garden of Gethsem- 
 ane on the east side of the valley of Je- 
 hoshaphat, which cannot be far from the 
 place to which Christ went on the night of 
 his betrayal; below that, the tomb of Absa¬ 
 lom, a curious structure whose age has 
 never been determined; the tomb of Je- 
 hoshaphat; the grotto of St. James (many 
 sepulchral chambers); and the tomb of 
 Zacharias; also the Virgin’s Fountain; En- 
 
J er 
 
 ( 475 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 rogel or Job’s Well; and in the mouth of 
 the Tyropoeon Valley the Pool of Siloam; 
 west of the city are the so-called “ Upper 
 and Lower Pools of Gihon,” and north of it 
 are found the Grotto of Jeremiah, the hill 
 above which has now become famous as 
 the probable site of the crucifixion of our 
 Lord, and still north of that the Tombs of 
 the Kings, where exists a large, flat, circular 
 stone which can be rolled back and forth 
 before the entrance of the tomb, and may 
 well illustrate the “ stone at the door of 
 the sepulchre ” of the gospel narratives. 
 
 Within the city, the Church of the Holy 
 Sepulchre, which has been destroyed and 
 rebuilt several times during its history, 
 occupies the site where Constantine erected 
 a church, the spot having been selected by 
 the Empress Helena. The building has 
 two great domes over the Latin and Greek 
 sections respectively, which are conspic¬ 
 uous objects from many points. Tradition, 
 which is discarded by most modern 
 scholars, makes this the site of the cruci¬ 
 fixion and burial of our Lord. The Mosque 
 of Omar, “ Dome of the Rock,” octagonal 
 inform, one of the finest remains of Arabic 
 architecture in the East, and the Mosque 
 el-Aksa, stand on the temple area, which 
 embraces not far from thirty-six acres. 
 Beneath the dome of Omar, which rises to 
 the height of nearly one hundred feet, the 
 native rock appears, over which the altar 
 in the Jewish temple was built. A large 
 part of the southeastern section of this vast 
 platform is supported on massive pillars, 
 and the cavernous region thus formed is 
 known as “Solomon’s Stables.” It is prob¬ 
 able, however, that this is Herodian work. 
 The supporting wall of this area is, on the 
 west side, exposed, and here is the famous 
 wailing-place of the Jews, where, on their 
 feaSt days and always on Friday, a strange 
 group of men and women may be seen, kiss- 
 
 JEWS’ WAILING-PLACE, 
 
 ing the stones and chanting their lamenta¬ 
 tions over the downfall of their ancient city. 
 
 Very few of the multitude of traditional 
 sites in the city are worthy of a moment’s 
 consideration. The excavations made dur¬ 
 ing the past twenty-five years, and the in¬ 
 vestigations of scholars have settled some 
 important points in its topography, such as 
 the place where the Jewish altar stood, from 
 which the exact position of the Holy of 
 Holies is determined; the site of the Castle 
 of Antonia where Paul was confined; the 
 bridge spanning the Tyropoeon and leading 
 from the temple area to Mount Zion, and 
 the termini of the “ second wall,” without 
 which Christ was crucified. 
 
 Before i860 it was not safe to reside out¬ 
 side the walls of Jerusalem; but since that 
 date, particularly within the past ten years, 
 buildings have multiplied, so that to the 
 west and north there has sprung up a new 
 city. Here are schools, hospitals, and 
 consular residences,many stores and shops, 
 and numbers of private dwellings. In view 
 of the poverty of Jerusalem, this growth 
 is unaccountable; but it is explained by the 
 fact that most of it was accomplished by 
 foreign money. Rents are high, and the 
 safest way of investing money is in build¬ 
 ings. Several hundred travelers from all 
 parts of the world visit Jerusalem every 
 year, and, in addition, 10,000 or 15,000 
 pilgrims. These, aside from the Moham¬ 
 medan pilgrims, come chiefly from Cath¬ 
 olic countries—nearly one-half the number 
 being from Russia. The great Latin, 
 Greek, and Armenian establishments have 
 pilgrim houses that would accommodate a 
 small army; and in these vast apartments 
 the pilgrims are sure of a comfortable 
 sleeping-place free of cost, they themselves 
 providing their own food. At Easter—and 
 especially when the Latin and Greek East¬ 
 ers occur at the same time—the city is 
 packed with strangers, and the crowded 
 streets present, in the variety of costumes 
 and languages, a notable and impressive 
 scene. 
 
 The inhabitants of Jerusalem obtain 
 their water supply chiefly from cisterns, 
 the only other sources being the Virgin’s 
 Fountain, the Pool of Siloam, and Job’s 
 Well. The aqueduct, which formerly 
 brought water to the temple from Solo¬ 
 mon’s Pools, near Bethlehem, has been neg¬ 
 lected by the authorities so that it is of 
 little or no use. The Pool of Hezekiah, 
 within the city, is seldom dry, but the 
 water in it can never be used for drinking 
 purposes. 
 
 Lepers have not for many years past 
 been allowed within the city. In the val¬ 
 ley south of the city there is a leper house, 
 where they find shelter; and in the German 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 476 ) 
 
 colony a hospital for them has been estab¬ 
 lished, supported chiefly by the Moravians, 
 where they receive medical treatment and 
 the kindest attention. No law compels 
 them to enter the hospital, and many pre¬ 
 fer the ancient custom of sitting by the 
 wayside and begging. The form of leprosy 
 known in Jerusalem is not contagious. 
 
 Jerusalem has several printing estab¬ 
 lishments, but no newspaper. The pov¬ 
 erty and ignorance of the people make the 
 necessity very great for schools, missions, 
 hospitals, and charitable institutions of va¬ 
 rious kinds. Montefiore and Rothschild 
 have done much for the poor Jews ; 
 Schneller (German Protestant) has a fine 
 
 J er 
 
 native youth receive a higher education; 
 and the Israelite Alliance has an establish¬ 
 ment where the industrial arts and lan¬ 
 guages are taught to Hebrew youth, and 
 which seems to flourish in spite of the op¬ 
 position it meets with from fanatical Jews 
 —the general characteristic of those in 
 Jerusalem. The order of St. John of 
 Jerusalem (English) established in 1882 
 an eye infirmary, which has been a bless¬ 
 ing to thousands of afflicted people. There 
 are no American missions in Jerusalem, nor 
 in all Palestine. Among the foreign res¬ 
 idents, the Germans form the largest body, 
 and a Lutheran church is maintained by 
 them, where the service is in the German 
 
 POOL OF HEZEKIAH, INSIDE THE JAFFA GATE. 
 
 orphanage for boys ; the Kaiserswerth 
 Deaconesses have a hospital that is mar¬ 
 velous for its neatness, and a flourishing 
 school for girls; the London Society for 
 the Promotion of Christianity among the 
 Jews has a church, an industrial school 
 where young men (Hebrews) are taught 
 various trades while receiving a Christian 
 education, and a school for Jewish boys, 
 and another for Jewish girls; also a well- 
 conducted hospital; the Church Missionary 
 Society has, besides, a church (service is in 
 Arabic) and school, a number of out-sta¬ 
 tions, and is doing a good work; connected 
 with that society is the school on Mount 
 Zion, founded by Bishop Gobat, where 
 
 language. The churches belonging to the 
 other Christian sects—the Greek, Latin, 
 Coptic, Abyssinian, Syrian, Armenian—are 
 interesting, and connected with them are 
 schools of different grades. 
 
 From the voluminous literature relat¬ 
 ing to Jerusalem, a few of the more im¬ 
 portant works are selected: 
 
 For accurate details, the Handbooks of 
 Murray and Baedeker—especially that of 
 the latter—are invaluable; Wilson and 
 Warren: The Recovery of Jerusalem: War¬ 
 ren: Underground Jerusalem ; Palestine 
 Exploration Fund Committee: Our Work 
 in Palestine. The Quarterly Reports of 
 the same society contain many valuable 
 
Jer 
 
 ( 477 ) 
 
 Jer 
 
 papers and discussions on matters pertain¬ 
 ing to the Holy City. In the small vol¬ 
 umes called Records of the Past will be 
 found many documents from the Assyrian, 
 illustrating the conquests of Jerusalem by 
 the Assyrian and Babylonian kings; Besant 
 and Palmer: Jerusalem , the City of Herod 
 and Saladin; C. R. Conder: Tent Work in 
 Palestine. Of older works the most val¬ 
 
 uable is E. Robinson’s Biblical Researches. 
 Other important works are: W. M. Thom¬ 
 son: The Land and the Book (the new edi¬ 
 tion, New York, Harpers, has a different 
 title); G. Williams: The Holy City ; W. H. 
 Bartlett: Walks About Jertisalem ; J. T, 
 Barclay: The Citv of the Great King. 
 
 Selah Merrill. 
 
J er 
 
 (478) 
 
 Jes 
 
 1 ^- 
 
 Jerusalem Chamber, a large hall in the 
 deanery of Westminster, London, famous 
 as the place where the Westminster As¬ 
 sembly met in the seventeenth century, 
 and the English revisers of the Authorized 
 Version in the nineteenth century. The 
 hall is hung with tapestries, and some 
 think that its name is derived from the pic¬ 
 tures of Jerusalem upon them; others sug¬ 
 gest that it is taken from the adjoining 
 sanctuary (“ the place of peace”). See Dean 
 Stanley: Memorials of Westminster Abbey . 
 
 Jesuits. The order of Jesuits, or Society 
 of Jesus, was founded in 1534 by Ignatius 
 Loyola (<7. v .), with the help of Peter Le 
 Fevre, James Lainez, Francis Xavier, Nich¬ 
 olas Bo'badilla, and Rodriguez. Pope Paul 
 III. approved of the plan, and it was au¬ 
 thorized by a bull in 1540. The chief ob¬ 
 jects of the society were: The education of 
 youth, preaching to and instructing grown¬ 
 up people, the confutation and suppression 
 of heresy, and teaching Christianity to 
 heathens by missionaries. The chief differ¬ 
 ences between the Jesuits and the old mo¬ 
 nastic orders were that their society was 
 strictly monarchical, that they did not keep 
 the canonical hours, and therefore had 
 more time for study, and they adopted no 
 particular dress, but simply wore that of a 
 secular priest. The society consisted of 
 four classes. In the lowest class were 
 novices who spent their time in prayer, 
 meditation, and study, for two years, until 
 they became scholastics, and either con¬ 
 tinued their studies, or taught in the 
 schools. The next class was the Coadju¬ 
 tors, some of whom—the Temporal—acted 
 the part of lay-helpers, while the Spiritual, 
 who had been ordained, preached and 
 helped the Professed of the highest class. 
 The candidates had to work ten or twelve 
 years before they reached this last class. 
 From among them was chosen a general, 
 who governed the whole society. The first 
 of these generals was Loyola. He drew 
 up the “ Constitutiones,” or rules of the 
 order, which were published in Rome two 
 years after his death by Lainez, his succes¬ 
 sor as general. They consisted of ten 
 parts, subdivided into chapters, and gave 
 instructions concerning the different or¬ 
 ders, their manner of life, etc. The Jesuits 
 soon spread into other countries, and at 
 the time of Loyola’s death were established 
 in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. 
 About 1561 they began to open schools and 
 colleges in France, where they taught 
 gratis, for which the University attacked 
 them; but it was a common belief that they 
 were formed to destroy Protestantism, so 
 they were allowed to stay, and formed a 
 college in Paris. In the War of the League 
 
 they were opposed to Henry IV., and two 
 of their number attempted to assassinate 
 him. The Parliament of Paris decreed 
 their banishment; but Henry, at the press¬ 
 ing request of the pope, recalled them in 
 1603, and they remained in France till their 
 expulsion in 1764. It is said that Ravaillac, 
 the actual murderer, was instigated by the 
 Jesuits. In Germany they were received 
 with great favor; and in the time of Lainez 
 almost all the German towns of note had a 
 Jesuit College. They first came to Eng¬ 
 land in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and 
 many were executed for conspiring against 
 her. One of the Fawkes conspirators— 
 Garnet—was a Jesuit. A very important 
 part of the history of the Jesuits is their 
 missions. The first attempts were made by 
 Francis Xavier ( q . v.) in the East. But the 
 country where they had most influence was 
 Paraguay. They went to South America 
 after the Spaniards had conquered the coun¬ 
 try, and formed a colony on the banks of 
 the Paraguay and Parana which is said to 
 have included between one and two hun¬ 
 dred thousand Indian converts, whom they 
 governed for a century and a half. In 
 1750, Spain gave up part of her possessions 
 in Paraguay to Portugal, and ordered the 
 Jesuits and their pupils to move to some 
 other part of the Spanish dominions. The 
 Indians rebelled, and some noblemen at¬ 
 tempted to murder the Portuguese king, 
 which was laid to the charge of their con¬ 
 fessors, the Jesuits, who were expelled 
 from the Portuguese territories, and their 
 lands confiscated. 
 
 This example was soon followed by the 
 French. The Jansenists had risen in oppo¬ 
 sition to the society, the Parliament of 
 Paris had never lost its old hostility, and 
 they had also private enemies in the Min¬ 
 ister Choiseul and Madame de Pompadour. 
 An opportunity was soon found for these 
 parties to bring about their object. Father 
 Lavalette, the head of the missions in Mar¬ 
 tinique, speculated in colonial produce; his 
 goods were seized by the English, and he 
 became bankrupt. His French creditors 
 proceeded against the society, condemned 
 them, and in 1764 a proclamation was pub¬ 
 lished by which they were suppressed in 
 France and their property confiscated. 
 
 Three years after, they fell in Spain 
 through the instigation of Choiseul, who 
 persuaded Charles III. that an insurrection 
 which had broken out in Madrid, in 1766, 
 was their work. A decree was made 
 against them, and on March 31st, 1767, 
 they were all commanded to turn out of 
 their homes, were escorted to the coast, 
 and embarked for Italy. They were re¬ 
 fused admittance at several ports; and after 
 being for some months on board, where 
 
Jes 
 
 ( 479 ) 
 
 Jes 
 
 many died, the survivors were landed in 
 Corsica. They were, at the same time, 
 expelled from Spanish America. 
 
 In 1768 the Society was suppressed in 
 the Two Sicilies; but it still remained in 
 the papal dominions and in Sardinia. Pope 
 Clement XIII., who had been their sup¬ 
 porter, died, and Ganganelli was raised to 
 the papal chair. He was begged on all 
 sides to utterly exterminate the society; 
 and in 1773 he issued a bull, in which he 
 said that disputes were always rising up 
 among them, which had compelled the 
 Catholic princes to expel them, and then he 
 declared them suppressed and extinct, and 
 their statutes annulled. The society now 
 remained only in Russia and Prussia; and 
 from the former they were expelled in 1817. 
 
 The Jesuits remained suppressed for 
 about thirty years, but at the beginning of 
 the present century several attempts were 
 made to restore them, in the hope that they 
 might help to bring peace to the countries 
 which were convulsed with revolutions 
 and wars. Several briefs were issued al¬ 
 lowing them to return to the various coun¬ 
 tries; and in 1814 Pius VII. issued a bull 
 solemnly reestablishing the society under 
 the constitutions of St. Ignatius. They 
 now exist in every country, both Protes¬ 
 tant and Roman Catholic, in Europe, but 
 their public institutions are suppressed in 
 France. They have at present thirty-three 
 establishments in England, among which 
 are six colleges, the chief one being at 
 Stonyhurst, near Whitby, in Lancashire. 
 See Jansenists; Loyola. —Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. 
 
 Jesus Christ. Jesus is the personal 
 name and Christ the official title of our 
 Lord. The name “ Jesus ” is derived from 
 a Hebrew word signifying “ to save” or 
 “sent to save” (Matt. i. 21; Luke ii. 11, 
 21), while that of Christ (Gr. Christos ) 
 signifies Anointed , in allusion to the custom 
 of anointing with oil those who were set 
 apart to sacred or regal office. In the New 
 Testament the name Christ is used as 
 equivalent to Messiah (John i. 41), the 
 name given to the promised prophet and 
 king whose coming had long been antici¬ 
 pated. (Acts xix. 4; Matt. xi. 3.) The story 
 of the life, the person, and the work of 
 Christ is so wonderfully told in the Gos¬ 
 pels that it is not necessary to repeat it 
 here. “ Each Gospel has its own charac¬ 
 teristics. Matthew depicts Christ as the 
 promised Messiah and the son of David. 
 Mark portrays him as the Son of God, who 
 established his Messianic mission by mirac¬ 
 ulous deeds. Luke describes him as the 
 Saviour and revealer of truth, sent from 
 God to save and enlighten all peoples. 
 
 John differs very materially from the other 
 evangelists by exhibiting more of the inner 
 life and thoughts of Christ. The other 
 writings of the New Testament are very 
 valuable as witnesses to the truth of the 
 gospel narratives,and their picture of Christ 
 which they presuppose. They corroborate 
 many individual traits, the Acts giving an 
 account of the ascension (Acts. i. 4-11), and 
 an otherwise unrecorded saying of our 
 Lord (xx. 35); while Paul makes a valuable 
 addition to the history of the days succeed¬ 
 ing the resurrection. (1 Cor. xv. 3-8.) 
 The writers of the New Testament agree 
 in their testimony to the reality of the reve¬ 
 lation of God in Christ; and their narrative 
 lays claim to our respect in proportion as 
 it can stand alone, and does not need any 
 illustration from the dull and flickering 
 light of the apocryphal inventions.”— 
 Zockler in Schaff-Herzog: Ency.,s.v. Among 
 the best of the many Lives of Christ written 
 in recent times, are those of Ellicott (i860); 
 S. J. Andrews (1862, 4th ed., 1879); F. W. 
 Farrar (1875); C. Geikie (1877); A. Eders- 
 heim (1883). See Christology; Messiah; 
 Genealogy of Jesus Christ, and other 
 articles. 
 
 Jesus Christ, Three Offices of. As 
 early as the time of Eusebius a threefold 
 office of prophet, high-priest, and king was 
 ascribed to Jesus. “Three passages in 
 the Old Testament are guiding lights 
 (Deut. xviii. 15; Psa. cx. 4; Zech. vi. 13); 
 and this idea of the Threefold Office must 
 be conceded to have strong claims on the 
 score of giving a living impression of 
 Christ’s whole work, in a form at once 
 adapted to popular use, and sufficiently 
 comprehensive. It calls up vivid images 
 of the whole of the Mediator’s functions. 
 We seem to see him as the Great Teacher, 
 imparting words of heavenly truth; as the 
 High-Priest suffering upon the cross, and 
 as our Prince and King ruling in divine 
 majesty.”— H. B. Smith. 
 
 Jesus, Society of the Sacred Heart of, 
 is the society of the Jesuits, only under 
 another name. At the time, near the close 
 of the last century, when the Jesuits were 
 being suppressed, they formed organiza-, 
 tions under other names to propagate their 
 work and doctrines. The most prominent 
 was the Society of the Sacred Heart of 
 Jesus, established in Belgium in 1794. In 
 1798, by request of the pope, they were 
 united with the Baccanarists. A female 
 society, The Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 
 was organized at Paris in 1800, and now 
 numbers over ten thousand. Its object is 
 female education, and its rules are those 
 of the order of Jesuits. 
 
Jet 
 
 ( 43o ) 
 
 Jew 
 
 Jeter, Jeremiah B., D. D., a Baptist 
 minister of great influence; b. in Bedford 
 County, Va., July 18, 1802; d. in Richmond, 
 Feb. 25, 1880. He entered the ministry 
 in 1822, and spent most of his life in Rich¬ 
 mond. 
 
 Jew, The Wandering. The legend of 
 the Wandering Jew appeared first in Eng¬ 
 lish and French literature some time in the 
 thirteenth century. Matthew Paris, an 
 English monk (d. 1259), who lived in the 
 monastery of St. Albans in Paris, tells the 
 story of a certain Cartaphilus who was a 
 doorkeeper in the palace of Pilate, and 
 when Jesus was led out to be crucified he 
 struck him, and said to him, “ Go, Jesus; 
 go on faster,” to which Jesus replied, “ I 
 go, but thou shalt wait till I return.” The 
 tradition was that he was baptized by Ana¬ 
 nias, and assuming the name of Joseph 
 settled in Armenia, where he was living 
 when Paris wrote his Historia Major . The 
 legend appeared in German literature in a 
 small pamphlet published in 1602. Accord¬ 
 ing to this, “ Ahasuerus is the name of the 
 Wandering Jew; and he was a shoemaker 
 in Jerusalem at the time of Christ. When 
 Jesus, on his way to Golgotha, passed by 
 his house, he stopped for a moment, and 
 leaned against the door-post; and when 
 Ahasuerus pushed him aside, and bade him 
 to move on, Jesus said to him, ‘ I will 
 stand here and rest, but thou shalt go on 
 until the last day.’ From that day Ahas¬ 
 uerus found rest nowhere. Wandering 
 about from place to place, he was seen in 
 Spain, Germany, and other places.” 
 
 Jewel, John, bishop of Salisbury, and 
 one of the greatest apologetical writers of 
 the Church of England; b. at Buden, 
 Devonshire, May 22, 1522; d. at Monkton, 
 Farleigh, Sept. 23, 1571. He was graduated 
 at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1540. 
 In 1549 he espoused the cause of the Ref¬ 
 ormation, and for many years he suffered 
 greatly, and spent much time in Europe. 
 On the death of Mary in 1558 he returned 
 to England, and in 1560 was consecrated 
 bishop of Salisbury. In 1562 he published 
 the work upon which his fame rests, Apol¬ 
 ogy of the Church of England. This book 
 was translated into many languages, and 
 found readers in every part of Europe. 
 
 Jewish Christians, Judaizers. When 
 Gentile Christian churches were organized, 
 the hatred of the unconverted Israelites 
 increased, and the question of the real re¬ 
 lation of Judaism to Christianity claimed 
 discussion. This caused a split among the 
 Jewish Christians. Some of them main¬ 
 tained that the whole Law was binding 
 
 upon the converted heathen; others, and 
 they were the majority in the Councils of 
 Jerusalem, that it was binding only upon 
 the Jewish Christians. The minority or¬ 
 ganized a counter-mission to that of Paul, 
 opposed him vigorously, decried him, and 
 strove to bring the Gentile Christians to 
 their views. These were the Judaizers 
 who gave Paul so much trouble. They 
 claimed the countenance of James, and 
 with some show of reason. Exactly when 
 the Jewish Christians were forbidden the 
 temple is not determinable; they would 
 scarcely be tolerated in it down to the de¬ 
 struction of the city. It must have been a 
 trying time for the converts, and many, 
 doubtless, chose to give up the Messiah 
 rather than their people and the old relig¬ 
 ion. The Epistle to the Hebrews, written 
 at this period, gives us a hint of this per¬ 
 plexity. The final separation between 
 Jewish Christianity and Israel may be set 
 down as taking place when Hadrian or¬ 
 dered all Jews to leave Jerusalem. — Uhl- 
 horn; see his art. in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 See Ebionites. 
 
 Jews. We purpose under this head to 
 give a short sketch of the history of the 
 Jews after the destruction of the temple by 
 Titus. About fifty 3’ears after, the Jews 
 murdered nearly five hundred thousand of 
 the Roman subjects, for which they were 
 severely punished by Trajan. They made 
 Jamina the seat of learning and of the re¬ 
 organization of their religious life. About 
 130 one Bar-Cocheba pretended that he was 
 the Messiah, and raised a Jewish army of 
 two hundred thousand, who murdered all 
 the heathen and Christians who came in 
 their way. But he was defeated by the 
 forces of Hadrian. In this year it is said 
 that sixty thousand Jews w r ere slain or per¬ 
 ished. Hadrian then built a city on Mount 
 Calvary, and erected a marble statue of a 
 swine over the gate that led to Bethlehem; 
 no Jew was allowed to enter the city, or to 
 look toward it at a distance, on pain of 
 death. In 360 they began to rebuild their 
 city and temple, but a terrible earthquake 
 killed the workmen and scattered their 
 materials. In the third, fourth, and fifth 
 centuries many of them were harassed and 
 murdered. In the fifth century Babylonia 
 became their centre instead of Palestine. 
 In the sixth century twenty thousand were 
 slain and as many more sold into slavery. 
 In 602 they were severely punished for 
 their horrible massacre of the Christians 
 at Antioch. They fared somewhat better 
 at the time of the rise of Mahomet, for, 
 though expelled from Arabia, they w r ere fa¬ 
 vorably received in Spain and Mau¬ 
 ritania, and also in France under the 
 
Jew 
 
 ( 48i ) 
 
 Jew 
 
 Carlovingian monarchs. In Spain in 700 
 they were ordered to be enslaved, and in 
 the eighth and ninth centuries they were 
 greatly derided and abused, and in some 
 places were made to wear leathern girdles, 
 and ride without stirrups on mules and 
 asses. In France multitudes were burnt. 
 In England in 1020 they were banished, and 
 at the coronation of Richard I. the mob fell 
 upon them and murdered a great many of 
 them; about one thousand five hundred 
 were buried in the palace of the city of 
 York, which they set fire to themselves, 
 after killing their wives and children. In 
 Egypt, Canaan, and Syria the Crusaders 
 greatly harassed them. Provoked with 
 their mad running after pretended Mes¬ 
 siahs, Caliph Nasser scarce left any of them 
 alive in his dominions of Mesopotamia. In 
 Persia the Tartars massacred them in mul¬ 
 titudes. In Spain Ferdinand persecuted 
 them furiously, and in 1349 there was a 
 terrible massacre of them at Toledo. In 
 France in 1253 many were murdered and 
 others banished, but they were recalled in 
 1275. In 1320 and 1330 they were massacred 
 in the Crusades by the fanatic shepherds, 
 who wasted the south of France; in 1358 
 they were totally banished from France, 
 and since then few of them have entered that 
 country. In 1291 Edward I. banished them 
 from England to the number of one hun¬ 
 dred and sixty thousand. In 1348, when 
 the Black Death was raging, the Jews were 
 accused of causing it by polluting the rivers 
 and wells, and they had rendered them¬ 
 selves very unpopular with the Christians 
 by having the control of financial affairs 
 entirely in their hands. Spain and Portu¬ 
 gal likewise banished them, and they took 
 up their abode chiefly in Germany and 
 Italy. At the time of the Reformation the 
 Jews fared somewhat better; they were let 
 alone because Christians were too busy 
 with their own disputes to heed them. But 
 in most European countries they have at 
 different times since then suffered violent 
 persecution and frequent banishment, but 
 in general their present condition is toler¬ 
 able. In Poland, however, which is now 
 their chief residence, they were greatly 
 oppressed even up to present times. In 
 England and the United States they enjoy 
 absolute liberty. In England in 1723 they 
 acquired the right to possess land, and in 
 1 753 they obtained the long-desired per¬ 
 mission of naturalization. Since 1830 civic 
 corporations, since 1833 the profession of 
 advocates, since 1845 the office of Aider- 
 man and of Lord Mayor, and since 1858 ad¬ 
 mission into Parliament have all been ac¬ 
 corded to Jews. In fact, Jews are now, if 
 natural-born subjects, nearly on the same 
 footing with English subjects; their schools 
 
 and places of worship stand much in the 
 position of those of Protestant Dissenters. 
 Before they can hold office in any municipal 
 corporation they must sign a declaration 
 that they will not use their influence so as 
 to injure or weaken the Protestant Church. 
 By Statutes 21 and 22 Viet., c. 49, Jews are 
 excluded from holding the office of guard¬ 
 ians or justices of the United Kingdom, or 
 of Lord High Chancellor, Lord Keeper, or 
 Lord Commissioner of Great Britain or Ire¬ 
 land, or the office of Lord Lieutenant, or 
 deputy, or other chief governor of Ireland, 
 or Her Majesty’s Commissioner to the 
 General Assembly of the Church of Scot¬ 
 land. 
 
 In their religious observances the mod¬ 
 ern Jews adhere as closely to the Mosaic 
 dispensation as their scattered condition 
 will allow. Their service consists chiefly 
 in reading the Law in their synagogues, 
 together with a variety of prayers. They 
 abstain from the meats prohibited by the 
 Levitical Law; they observe the same cere¬ 
 monies as their ancestors at the Passover. 
 They offer prayers for the dead, because 
 they believe in purgatory as a place where 
 the souls of the wicked go, but they limit 
 the time of their remaining there to a year, 
 and they believe that only very few will 
 suffer eternal punishment. All Jews are 
 obliged to live and die in the profession of 
 the following Thirteen Articles, which 
 were drawn up for them about the end of 
 the eleventh century by a celebrated rabbi 
 named Maimonides: 
 
 I. That there is one God, Creator of all things, the 
 first principle of all beings, who is able to subsist and 
 continue his perfections without any part of the Uni¬ 
 verse, but that nothing in the world can maintain their 
 existence without him. 
 
 II. That God is an uncompounded, indivisible essence; 
 but that his unity is different from all other unities. 
 
 III. That God is an immaterial being, and that no 
 corporeal quality, however refined, can possibly make 
 part of his essence. 
 
 IV. That God is eternal, a parte ante as well as a 
 parte post , and that every thing excepting the Deity 
 had a beginning in time. 
 
 V. That God alone ought to be worshipped, and that 
 we ought to adore no other beings either as mediators 
 or intercessors. 
 
 VI. That there have been prophets qualified to re¬ 
 ceive Divine inspiration, and that there may be such for 
 the future. 
 
 VII. That Moses was the greatest prophet that has 
 hitherto appeared, and that the degrees of supernatural 
 light communicated to him were altogether singular, 
 and much above the communications and illapses vouch¬ 
 safed to other prophets. 
 
 VIII. That the law which Moses left them was, all of 
 it, dictated by Almighty God; that there is not so much 
 as a syllable in it not received by inspiration; and that 
 by consequence the traditionary expositions of these pre¬ 
 cepts are entirely a Divine revelation given to Moses. 
 
 IX. That this law is immutable, and that it is lawful 
 neither to add nor diminish. 
 
 X. That God knows all our actions, and governs them 
 according to his pleasure. 
 
 XI. That God rewards the observance and punishes 
 the violation of his Law; that the best reward*- for vir- 
 
Jez 
 
 ( 4S2 ) 
 
 Joa 
 
 tue are reserved for the other world, and that the dam¬ 
 nation of the soul is the deepest punishment. 
 
 XII. That a Messiah will appear, of much more merit 
 and lustre than all the kings before him; that though 
 his coming is delayed, we ought neither to doubt the 
 certainty nor prescribe the time, and much less offer to 
 foretell it from the Scripture. 
 
 XIII. That God will raise the dead at the last period 
 of time, and pass judgment upon all mankind. 
 
 This truth, with the consequences of it, 
 they maintain from Dan. xii. 2: “And 
 many of them that sleep in the dust shall 
 awake; some to everlasting life, and some 
 to shame and everlasting contempt. ”—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Jez ebel ( chaste ), the wife of Ahab, and 
 the daughter of a Zidonian king. (1 Kings 
 xvi. 31.) Educated under the influences 
 of idolatry, she was the means of intro¬ 
 ducing the worship of Baal into Israel. 
 Energetic and unscrupulous, she complete¬ 
 ly swayed the mind of her weak and vacil¬ 
 lating husband. At her own expense she 
 maintained 400 priests of Astarte, while 
 Ahab supported 450 priests of Baal. (1 
 Kings xviii. 19.) She sought to destroy 
 the prophets of Israel (1 Kings xviii. 4), 
 and threatened the life of Elijah. (1 Kings 
 xix. 2.) She plotted the murder of Naboth 
 in order that Ahab might secure his vine¬ 
 yard. (1 Kings xxi. 5.) Surviving Ahab, 
 she had great influence at court under her 
 son, and saw her daughter, Athaliah, mar¬ 
 ried to the king of Judah. (2 Kings viii. 26.) 
 Her doom, as predicted by Elijah, was ful¬ 
 filled to the letter. (2 Kings ix. 30-37.) 
 
 Jezreel, the plain or valley between Gil- 
 boa and Little Hermon, to which the name 
 of Esdraelon has been applied in modern 
 times. It was also applied to the city 
 which Ahab chose for his chief residence. 
 In the neighborhood was a temple and 
 grove of Astarte with 400 priests sup¬ 
 ported by Jezebel. Her seraglio was on 
 the city walls. Whether the vineyard of 
 Naboth was here or at Samaria is doubtful. 
 The site of the city is now occupied by a 
 little village called Zerin. 
 
 Jimenes, Cardinal. See Ximenes. 
 
 Jo'ab (whose father is Jehovah), the eldest 
 of the three sons of Zeruiah, David’s sis¬ 
 ter, and the commander-in-chief of the 
 army. (T Chron. ii. 16; xi. 6.) Joab was 
 a man of courage, but ambitious and re¬ 
 vengeful. He won a brilliant victory at 
 Gibeon over Abner (2 Sam. ii. 1S-24), and 
 at a later period murdered him under cir¬ 
 cumstances (2 Sam. iii. 27) that aroused 
 the indignation of David. When Absalom 
 rebelled, Joab remained true to his master, 
 but, contrary to the express orders of Da¬ 
 
 vid, put Absalom to death with his own 
 hands. His last recorded deed of blood 
 was his treacherous murder of Amasa, 
 whom David had promoted to be his gen- 
 eral-in-chief. In the last years of David’s 
 reign, Joab conspired to place Adonijah on 
 the throne. After Solomon became king, 
 although David had charged him to punish 
 Joab for his crimes, he spared him for a 
 time, but finally had him put to death at 
 the altar of the sanctuary where he had 
 fled for safety, (r Kings ii. 28-34.) 
 
 Joachim, abbot of Floris, a Cistercian 
 monk who claimed to be inspired, said to 
 have been born at Caelicum in 1145; d. 
 1201. After making a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land he became a monk, and after¬ 
 ward abbot of the monastery at Corace in 
 Calabria. From here he retired to the 
 mountain solitudes of Sylae, near Cosenza, 
 where he built the monastery of Floris, and 
 introduced very severe rules. He wrote 
 against Peter Lombard, who maintained 
 that there was but one essence in God, 
 though there were three persons, while 
 Joachim asserted that since there were 
 three persons there must be three es¬ 
 sences. For this and other speculations 
 his writings were condemned by the Fourth 
 Lateran Council. 
 
 Joan, Pope, a fable first related by Ste¬ 
 phen of Bourbon, a French Dominican, 
 who d. in 1261. It found considerable cre¬ 
 dence through its insertion in the Chronicle 
 of Martinus Polonus, a popular text-book. 
 According to this story, Joan reigned for 
 more than two years, and died in 855 from 
 bearing a child while in a procession be¬ 
 tween the Colosseum and the Church of 
 St. Clement. 
 
 Joan of Arc, or Jeanne d’Arc, “ b. at 
 Domremy, in the modern department of 
 Vosges, France, about a. d. 1411; d. at the 
 stake in Rouen, May 30, 1431; the daugh¬ 
 ter of a small French farmer, who, during 
 the wars of Henry VI. of England with 
 France, is said to have rendered the most 
 important services to her country. While 
 employed as a servant at an inn, she fan¬ 
 cied that St. Michael, the tutelary saint of 
 France, had commissioned her to rescue 
 her country from its enemies. After some 
 hesitation, the Dauphin accepted the as¬ 
 sistance of the maiden, who predicted that 
 the siege of Orleans (then invested by the 
 English) would be raised, and that Charles 
 would be invested at Rheims with the 
 crown and sceptre of the Capets. By the aid 
 of Joan, whose enthusiasm and heroism in¬ 
 spired the French soldiery, both these 
 events were brought about. In nine days 
 
Job 
 
 ( 4S3 ) 
 
 Job 
 
 she drovethe English from Orleans, which 
 they had been assailing for nearly seven 
 months. Within two months Charles was 
 crowned at Rheims, Joan standing by his 
 side with the sacred banner she had borne 
 in her hands. At the siege of Compiegne, 
 in the following year, she was captured by 
 the Burgundians, and delivered to the Eng¬ 
 lish, by whom, after the merest pretence 
 of a trial, she was burned as a heretic and 
 witch in the old market-place of Rouen, 
 where her statue now stands. It has been 
 asserted, however, that the story of her 
 martyrdom is fictitious, and that six years 
 after her supposed death she was married 
 to a French knight, Robert des Armoise. 
 Whatever her end, the story both of her 
 life and of her death has furnished a theme 
 for innumerable writers, in both verse and 
 prose. The Joan of Arc of Southey, and 
 the Maid of Orleans of Schiller, in addition 
 to the remarkable Essay by De Quincey, 
 are only samples of the literary composi¬ 
 tions of note which her history has sug¬ 
 gested or inspired.”— CasselFs Ency. 
 
 Job. “ This book, which takes its name 
 from the man, the history and interpreta¬ 
 tion of whose afflictions form the theme of 
 it, has been pronounced ‘ one of the grand¬ 
 est things ever written with pen: grand in 
 its sincerity, in its simplicity, in its epic 
 melody, and repose of reconcilement.’ One 
 perceives in it ‘ the seeing eye, the mildly 
 understanding heart; true eyesight, and 
 vision for all things; sublime sorrow, sub¬ 
 lime reconciliation; oldest choral melody 
 as of the heart of mankind; so soft and 
 great; as the summer midnight, as the 
 world with its seas and stars;’ the whole 
 giving evidence ‘of a literary merit ’ un¬ 
 surpassed by anything ‘ written in the Bible 
 or out of it.’ 
 
 “ (1) Date and Authorship. —The book of 
 Job was for long believed to be one of the 
 oldest books in the world, and to have had 
 its origin among a patriarchal people, such 
 as the Arabs; but it is now pretty con¬ 
 fidently referred to a Jewish author of the 
 age of Solomon or later. The character of 
 the book bespeaks a knowledge and ex¬ 
 perience peculiarly Jewish. The problem, 
 both in the statement and the solution of 
 it, points both to a recent date and to a 
 Jewish origin, although in the treatment 
 there is an overstepping of the limits, both 
 of properly Jewish life and Jewish ideas. 
 It is not a Jew’s book merely, but ‘ all 
 men’s book.' 
 
 “ (2) Subject and Problem. —The book 
 may be regarded as a sublime drama of 
 God's providence and man’s suffering. It 
 is based on a narrative of unparalleled ca¬ 
 lamities. But it consists for the most part 
 
 of dialogue, poetic and passionate, vehe¬ 
 ment in denunciation, keen in satire, sub¬ 
 lime in its higher thoughts. The several 
 characters are true to their individual dif¬ 
 ferences throughout. Job is a righteous 
 man sorely tried, not infallibly patient, but 
 unflinchingly faithful to God, who never¬ 
 theless needs to be rebuked for his pride, 
 while he is honored and rewarded by God 
 for his fidelity. The three -friends repre¬ 
 sent the conventional notion of their age— 
 that suffering is a sure sign of sin. But 
 they have their several rdles. Eliphaz is 
 the prophet of visions and oracles; Bildad 
 is the sage, the pedant of ancient lore, the 
 rabbi of his day, who bases his statements 
 on the dicta of venerable authorities; 
 Zophar is neither a prophet nor a sage, but 
 a common respectable person, yet bigoted 
 and dogmatic. Elihu, on the other hand, 
 is a young man in whose mind a new light 
 is breaking. He is far superior in intelli¬ 
 gence and in heart to the ‘ three comfort¬ 
 ers.’ But he has the pride of his own self- 
 assurance, in spite of his becoming polite¬ 
 ness in addressing his seniors. 
 
 “ The problem of the book is complex. 
 The primary object seems to be to show 
 that God can win, and man can give, dis¬ 
 interested devotion. Thus Satan is an¬ 
 swered when he asks scornfully, ‘ Doth Job 
 serve God for naught?’ Job’s fidelity is a 
 lesson to Satan, and the record of it is a 
 lesson to all cynical disbelievers in truly 
 disinterested service of God, and an en¬ 
 couragement of all attempts to live the 
 higher life in spite of loss and suffering. 
 Here a secondary purpose emerges. The 
 popular notion that suffering is only the 
 punishment of sin has to be refuted, and it 
 is refuted most passionately. But no full 
 explanation of the meaning of adversity is 
 offered. On the contrary, the attempt to 
 solve the mystery is regarded as beyond 
 the scope of human thought. Nevertheless, 
 through all God can be trusted, and in the 
 vision of God the soul of the sufferer finds 
 its rest. Moreover, one end of the afflic¬ 
 tion of the servant of God is discovered in 
 the purging of the vision of God. Thus at 
 the last Job exclaims, ‘ Now mine eye seeth 
 thee.’ 
 
 “ There are three views given of the 
 character of human sufferings; the first, 
 that of Job’s three friends, that they are 
 punitive and corrective; the second, that 
 of the Prologue, that they are probative; 
 and the third, that revealed by the Al¬ 
 mighty, that they are part of a system of 
 things, the secret and scope of which no 
 one knows anything of but himself, being 
 understood only by him ‘ whose way is in 
 the deep, whose path is in the great waters, 
 and whose footsteps are not known.’ This 
 
Joe 
 
 ( 4§4 ) 
 
 Joe 
 
 last is the view which Job in the end ac¬ 
 cepts, and which is by implication the au¬ 
 thor’s also. Traces of this sentiment per¬ 
 vade the book, and it is more or less 
 familiar to all the speakers; but it was 
 matter of mere hearsay till the Lord him¬ 
 self opened Job’s own eyes, as Job himself 
 felt assured he would at length do (chap, 
 xix. 25, et seq.). The object of the appear¬ 
 ance of the Almighty to Job in the end, 
 according to Ruskin, ‘ is to convince Job of 
 his nothingness; and so, when the Deity 
 himself has willed to end the temptation, 
 and accomplish in Job that for which it was 
 sent, he does not vouchsafe to reason with 
 him, still less does he overwhelm him with 
 terror or confound him by laying open be¬ 
 fore his eyes the book of his iniquities. He 
 opens before him only the arch of the day¬ 
 spring and the fountains of the deep, and 
 amidst the covert of the reeds, and on the 
 heaving waves, he bids him watch the 
 kings of the children of pride: “ Behold 
 now Behemoth which I made with thee.”’ 
 
 “ (3) Contents. —The book consists of five 
 parts; (a) the Prologue (chaps, i., ii.); ( b ) 
 a series of Discussions divided into three 
 cycles, all, except the last, of four speeches 
 each (chaps, iii.-xiv., xv.-xxi., and xxii.- 
 xxxi.); (c) that in which Elihu expostulates 
 (chaps, xxxii.-xxxvii.); ( d) that in which 
 the Almighty appears (chaps, xxxviii.- 
 xlii. 1-6); and the Epilogue (chap. xlii. 7- 
 17).”—Bagster: Bible Helps. See Commen¬ 
 taries of Davidson, Delitzsch, Lange; W. 
 H. Green: The Argument of the Book of 
 Job Unfolded. 
 
 Joel. “ Of the author of this book Ave 
 know 7 nothing, except that he belonged to 
 the kingdom of Judah, and lived probably 
 in Jerusalem, and was, perhaps, a priest. 
 His book testifies, too, that he Avas a man 
 of tender feeling, warm enthusiasm, and 
 glowing imagination, and that he possessed 
 a gift, unsurpassed by any other Old Testa¬ 
 ment writer, of clear, vivid, and eloquent 
 expression. We are as much in the dark 
 about the time and circumstances of his 
 life as Ave are about his personal history, 
 seeing there are no data given in the book 
 by Avhich Ave can certainly identify its com¬ 
 position with any single event as occurring 
 at the time in the national history. We can 
 only conclude, as there is no mention in it 
 of Assyria or Babylon, and none of the in¬ 
 ternal controversies Avhich exercise the 
 other prophets from Amos to the Captivity, 
 such as that between the worship of Je¬ 
 hovah and idolatry, that it was not Avritten 
 Avithin the period when the latter proph¬ 
 esied, but must ha\ r e been Avritten either 
 before or after. The manner and purity 
 of the style, and certain A 7 ague allusions to 
 
 early events, as in chap. iii. 7-11, would 
 seem to point to the former conclusion, 
 and the book has accordingly been general¬ 
 ly referred to the time of Joash, a date 
 somewhere betAveen 877 and 857 b. c. On 
 the other hand, recent criticism seeks to 
 assign it to a period later than the Captiv¬ 
 ity, the purity of the style alleged in evi¬ 
 dence of the former view being accounted 
 for as in great part ‘ the fruit of literary 
 culture.’ The grounds adduced in favor 
 of the post-exilian theory are—first, the 
 mention in chap. iii. 1, 2, of the Captivity, 
 the dispersion of the people, and the allot¬ 
 ment of their land to others; secondly, 
 that there is no mention of a king in the 
 land, only ‘of sheikhs and priests;’ and 
 thirdly, that the character of the Avorship 
 prevalent at the time (chaps, i. 9; ii. 14), 
 is, in the regard of recent criticism, of 
 post-exilian origin. But be this as it may, 
 the book is Avritten on the great broad lines 
 of all Hebrew prophecy, and reads us the 
 same great moral lesson Avhich all the 
 other prophetic books do, that from the 
 judgments of God there is no outlet for the 
 sinner except in repentance, and that in re¬ 
 pentance lies the pledge of deliverance from 
 all evil, and the enjoyment of all good. 
 
 ‘ ‘ Divisions. —The occasion of the warning 
 of the prophet in this book is the visitation 
 on the land of a plague of locust-SAvarms, 
 and the occurrence of an all - withering 
 drought; and as this warning, from chap, 
 ii. 18, shoAved signs of proving effectual, 
 the prophet gives reins to his imagination 
 in picturing the blessed time sure to folloAv. 
 Thus the book divides itself into tAvo sec¬ 
 tions of chap. ii. 18, the former ( a ) being a 
 description of the present calamity and a 
 call to repentance and prayer; and the lat¬ 
 ter (b) being a promise from the Lord, Avho 
 has heard the prayer of his people, that he 
 Avill, on the ground of its sincerity, hence¬ 
 forth shed only blessing on them, and re¬ 
 serve all his fury for, and ere long pour it 
 out upon, those that rise up against them. 
 
 “ Contents. —(tf) Chap. i. delineates the 
 double plague of the locusts and the 
 drought, and calls upon the people to 
 humble themselves before the Lord. Chap, 
 ii. 1-17 represents these plagues as fore¬ 
 casts of greater, as calls to repentance, and 
 as effective for this end. ( b ) Chap. ii. 18- 
 27 promises to recompense the people 
 abundantly for all they ha\'e suffered. 
 Vers. 28-32 promise an outpouring of the 
 Spirit, and threaten collateral judgments. 
 Chap. iii. continues the threat of judgment 
 and the promise of blessing.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. See Commentaries on the 
 Minor Prophets, by Henderson (And. ed., 
 1S66; Pusey ed., NeAv York, 1885); Lange 
 
 (1875). 
 
Joh 
 
 (485) 
 
 Joh 
 
 John the Apostle. “ Originally, like his 
 father, Zebedee, a fisherman on the Gali- 
 laean Lake, he became first a disciple of 
 John the Baptist, and then a follower, one 
 of the earliest, of Jesus Christ. He was 
 perhaps the youngest of Christ’s disciples, 
 a youth of an ardent, affectionate nature; 
 and he appears from the first to have won 
 the special love and confidence of'his Lord 
 and Master, being at length specially des¬ 
 ignated as that disciple ‘ whom Jesus 
 loved.’ He was one of the three who were 
 privileged to be present on occasions on 
 which more than usual manifestations were 
 vouchsafed of the Lord’s glory; and it was 
 to his keeping, when he was dying, that the 
 Lord committed his sorrowing mother, as 
 to the one of the twelve that would stand 
 to her in her Son’s stead, and was the likest 
 of them all to himself. After his Master’s 
 death, John appears to have lived princi¬ 
 pally at Jerusalem, probably till the death 
 of Mary, and afterwards to have taken up 
 his residence at Ephesus, somewhere about 
 the year 67 A. d. , and after the death of 
 Paul. Of this city he became virtually 
 bishop, an office which he appears to have 
 held, under various forms of persecution, 
 till his death, which is vaguely conjectured 
 to have taken place somewhere between 
 89 and 120 A. D. He lived to see the rise 
 of the Gnostic heresy, which sought to re¬ 
 solve the facts of the gospel into the mere 
 symbols of a philosophical system; and he 
 died protesting against it as a denial of the 
 incarnation which he had witnessed in the 
 person of his Master. His Gospel, bear¬ 
 ing witness against this heresy, was al¬ 
 most, if not quite, his last legacy to the 
 Church. In Christian art he is represent¬ 
 ed either as writing his Gospel, or as bear¬ 
 ing a chalice from which a poison once 
 given to him to drink seems to issue in the 
 form of a serpent. He is also sometimes 
 represented in a cauldron of boiling oil into 
 which, it was said, he had been thrown, 
 and from which he escaped unhurt.” 
 
 John, the Gospel of. “ The negative 
 critics have made a special attack upon this 
 Gospel, and have attempted to show that it 
 was not known till the second half of the 
 second century after Christ. It is impos¬ 
 sible here to enter into the elaborate argu¬ 
 ments on either side of the question. But 
 it is a remarkable fact that, step by step, 
 the opponents of the genuineness of the 
 Gospel have had to give ground, and con¬ 
 fess an earlier date for the appearance of 
 the Gospel. In the first place, the discov¬ 
 ery of the writings of Hippolytus shows 
 that the Gospel was known to Gnostic 
 heretics by at least as early a date as 125. 
 Then Bishop Lightfoot’s vindication of the 
 
 Ignatian Letters puts it back another ten 
 years, for these letters are soaked through 
 and through with the leading ideas of the 
 fourth Gospel. Moreover, it has been 
 shown that Justin Martyr frequently al¬ 
 ludes to the peculiar ideas of this Gospel. 
 The author of the Epistle to Diognetus, 
 who lived about the time of Justin, evi¬ 
 dently moulds his writings on the thoughts 
 of John. There can be no reasonable doubt 
 that the same man wrote the Gospel and 
 the first Epistle of John; and Polycarp, in 
 his Epistle to the Philippians, quotes from 
 the latter. The Epistle of the Churches of 
 Lyons and Vienne, in the reign of Marcus 
 Aurelius, quotes John xvi. 2. Even Keim, 
 who rejects the Gospel, dates it at 110-117. 
 But that brings it back almost to the time 
 of the apostle. If it was published thus 
 early, it is unreasonable to suppose that so 
 great a work could have come from an un¬ 
 known author, and have been accepted as 
 the composition of the Apostle John. 
 Lastly, the sublime character of the work 
 is its best witness. Here we have the very 
 crown and glory of the Bible. 
 
 “ Date .—This Gospel would appear to 
 have been written at Ephesus, at the in¬ 
 stance, Jerome alleges, of the bishops of 
 the Asiatic churches, with a view to confirm 
 the faith of the Church in the divinity of 
 Christ, of which he was the special witness. 
 Its date must be long after the writing of 
 the other Gospels, and toward the end of 
 the first century. It is one of the latest 
 books of the New Testament—much later 
 than the ‘ Revelation.’ On this calculation 
 it must have been composed after the de¬ 
 struction of Jerusalem. According to the 
 author himself, the aim he had in writing 
 his Gospel was, that its readers ‘ might be¬ 
 lieve that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of 
 God, and that believing they might have 
 life through his name.’ His object is to 
 show that in Jesus Christ the eternal Word 
 became flesh, in order that we might be¬ 
 come partakers of the Divine life revealed 
 in him, which, however, the evangelist is 
 all along careful to show, no one can be¬ 
 come who prefers the darkness to the light. 
 This Gospel has been from of old defined 
 as the spiritual Gospel, because it pre¬ 
 eminently unveils the hidden spiritual 
 principle, or the Divine nature of the per¬ 
 son of Christ. But its great design is to 
 bear witness to the Son of God as having 
 come in the flesh; as, therefore, not an 
 ideal, but a real being, and as, in the reality 
 of that being, the light and life of men. 
 John’s Gospel presupposes the existence 
 and prior circulation of the other three; 
 and whereas the scene of their narratives 
 is mostly laid in Galilee, the scene of his is 
 mostly laid in Judaea, recording as it does 
 
Joh 
 
 ( 436 ) 
 
 Joh 
 
 no fewer than seven visits of the Lord to 
 the capital in the course of his ministry. 
 The style of the Gospel is peculiar, and 
 words, such as ‘ light,’ ‘ life,’ and ‘ truth,’ 
 occur in it which do not occur in the others; 
 or, if they do, without the specialty of 
 meaning and the frequency peculiar to it. 
 Some affect to stumble at this, but there is 
 no occasion; for, as Neander says, this 
 Gospel ‘ could have emanated from none 
 other than that “ beloved disciple ” upon 
 whose soul the image of the Saviour had 
 left its deepest impress.’ Conceiving of 
 Christ as the Incarnate Word, it gives 
 greater prominence to his utterances than 
 his acts, and the latter only in connection 
 with the former. And this Word is uni¬ 
 formly represented as misapprehended by 
 those who hear it, as if the text of the Gos¬ 
 pel were, as indeed some think it is, ‘ the 
 light shineth in darkness, and the darkness 
 apprehended it not.’ ”— Bagster : Bible 
 Helps. See Trench: Life and Character of 
 St. John the Evangelist (London, 1850); 
 Commentaries of Hengstenberg (1863, 
 Eng. trans., 1865); Meyer (6th ed., edited 
 by Weiss, 1880); Godet (1865, translated 
 and edited by President Timothy Dwight, 
 of Yale University, New York, 1S86), 2 
 vols.; Westcott (in Speaker's Commentary , 
 1879); Ezra Abbot: The Authorship of the 
 Fourth Gospel: The External Evidences 
 (1S80). 
 
 John the Baptist, more properly “ the 
 Baptizer ” (Matt. iii. 1), the son of the 
 priest Zacharias and Elizabeth. His birth 
 and work were predicted by the angel Ga¬ 
 briel. (Luke i. 5-15.) For thirty years he 
 lived in solitude, and then began to preach 
 in the wilderness of Judaea, calling men to 
 repentance, and baptizing ail who came 
 making confession of their sins. (Luke iii. 
 S.) The fame of John spread among all 
 classes, and multitudes flocked to hear his 
 words and be baptized. Many thought 
 him to be the Messiah (Luke iii. 15; John 
 i. 20; Acts xiii. 25), but in the spirit of hu¬ 
 mility he rejected all such claims, and 
 pointed to Him whose shoe’s latchet he was 
 not worthy to unloose. (Matt. iii. 11; John 
 i. 27.) His testimony to the divine nature 
 and offices of Christ was full and distinct. 
 (John iii. 28-32.) The brief ministry of 
 John was brought to a close by his impris¬ 
 onment by Herod for his bold arraignment 
 of him for his unlawful connection with 
 Herodias (John iii. 24, etc.), and he was 
 subsequently beheaded in obedience to an 
 oath made to Salome, Herodias’ daughter. 
 (Matt. xiv. 3 sqq.) Christ pronounced 
 John the Baptist the greatest among the 
 prophets. He did no miracle, but he pre¬ 
 pared the way of the Lord, and in his life 
 
 and work exhibited a character of singular 
 courage, humility and self-denial. 
 
 John, the First Epistle General ok. 
 “ Its Authenticity. —The external evidence 
 is of the most satisfactory nature. Eusebius 
 places it in his list of ‘ acknowledged ’ 
 books, and we have ample proof that it was 
 received as the production of the apostle 
 John in the writings of Polycarp, Papias, 
 Irenaeus, Origen, Clement of Alexandria, 
 Tertullian, Cyprian, and there is no voice 
 in antiquity raised to the contrary. On 
 the other hand, the internal evidence for its 
 being the work of St. John, from its sim- 
 larity in style, language, and doctrine, to 
 the Gospel, is overwhelming. The allu¬ 
 sion, again, of the writer to himself is such 
 as would suit St. John the apostle, and 
 very few but St. John. (1 Ep. i. 1.) With 
 regard to the time at which St. John wrote 
 the Epistle there is considerable diversity 
 of opinion. It was most likely written at 
 the close of the first century. Like the 
 Gospel, it was probably written from Eph¬ 
 esus. Lardner is clearly right when he 
 says that it was primarily meant for the 
 churches of Asia under St. John’s inspec¬ 
 tion, to whom he had already orally deliv¬ 
 ered his doctrine (i. 3; ii. 7). The main 
 object of the Epistle does not appear to be 
 that of opposing the errors of the Docetae, 
 or of the Gnostics, or of the Nicolaitans, 
 or of the Cerinthians, or of all of them to¬ 
 gether, or of the Sabians, or of Judaizers, 
 or of apostates to Judaism; the leading 
 purpose of the apostle appears to be rather 
 constructive than polemical. In the in¬ 
 troduction (i. 1-4) the apostle states the 
 purpose of his Epistle. It is to declare 
 the Word of Life to those whom he is ad¬ 
 dressing, in order that he and they might 
 be united in true communion with each 
 other, and with God the Father, and his 
 Son Jesus Christ. The first part of the 
 Epistle may be considered to end at ii. 28. 
 The apostle begins afresh with the doctrine 
 of sonship or communion at ii. 29, and re¬ 
 turns to the same theme at iv. 7. His les¬ 
 son throughout is, that the means of union 
 with God are, on the part of Christ, his 
 atoning blood (i. 7; ii. 2; iii. 5; iv. 10, 14; 
 v. 6) and advocacy (ii. 1)—on the part of 
 man, holiness (i. 6), obedience (ii. 3), pu¬ 
 rity (iii. 3), faith (iii. 23; iv. 3; v. 5), and, 
 above all, love (ii. 7; iii. 14; iv. 7; v. 1). 
 There are two doubtful passages in this 
 Epistle, ii. 23, ‘ but he that acknowledgeth 
 the Son hath the Father also,’ and v. 7, 
 
 ‘ For there are three that bear record in 
 heaven, the Father, the Word, and the 
 Holy Ghost, and these three are one.’ It 
 would appear without doubt that they are 
 not genuine. The latter passage is con- 
 
Joh 
 
 ( 4S7 ) 
 
 Joh 
 
 tained in four only of the 150 MSS. of the 
 Epistle, the Codex Guelpherbytanus of 
 the seventeenth century, the Codex Ra- 
 vianus, a forgery subsequent to the year 
 1514, the Codex Britannicus or Monfortii 
 of the fifteenth or sixteenth century, and 
 the Codex Ottobonianus of the fifteenth 
 century. It is not found in any ancient 
 version except the Latin; and the best edi¬ 
 tions of even the Latin version omit it. It 
 was not quoted by one Greek Father or 
 writer previous to the fourteenth century.” 
 —Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 John, The Second and Third Epistles 
 of. “ Their Authenticity. — These two 
 Epistles are placed by Eusebius in the class 
 of ‘ disputed ’ books, and he appears him¬ 
 self to be doubtful whether they were writ¬ 
 ten by the evangelist, or by some other 
 John. The evidence of antiquity in their 
 favor is not very strong, but yet it is con¬ 
 siderable. Clement of Alexandria speaks 
 of the First Epistle as ‘ the larger.’ 
 [Strom, lib. ii.). Origen appears to have 
 had the same doubts as Eusebius. Diony¬ 
 sius and Alexander of Alexandria attribute 
 them to St. John. So does Irenaeus. In 
 the fifth century they are almost universal¬ 
 ly received. If the external testimony is 
 not as decisive as we might wish, the in¬ 
 ternal evidence is peculiarly strong. Mill 
 has pointed out that of the thirteen verses 
 which compose the Second Epistle, eight 
 are to be found in the First Epistle. The 
 title and contents of the Epistle are strong 
 arguments against a fabricator, whereas 
 they would account for its non-universal 
 reception in early times. The Second 
 Epistle is addressed eklekto kuria. An in¬ 
 dividual woman who had children, and a 
 sister and nieces, is clearly indicated. 
 Whether her name is given, and if so, what 
 it is, has been doubted. According to one 
 interpretation she is ‘ the Lady Electa,’ to 
 another, ‘ the elect Kyria,’ to a third, ‘ the 
 elect Lady.’ The English version is prob¬ 
 ably right, though here too we should have 
 expected the article. The Third Epistle is 
 addressed to Gaius or Caius. We have no 
 reason for identifying him with Caius of 
 Macedonia (Acts xix. 29), or with Caius of 
 Derbe (Acts xx. 4), or with Caius of 
 Corinth (Rom. xvi. 23; 1 Cor. i. 14), or 
 with Caius, bishop of Ephesus, or with 
 Caius, bishop of Thessalonic-a, or with 
 Caius, bishop of Pergamos. He was 
 probably a convert of St. John (Ep. iii. 4), 
 and a layman of wealth and distinction 
 (Ep. iii. 5) in some city near Ephesus. 
 The object of St. John in writing the Second 
 Epistle was to warn the lady, to whom he 
 wrote, against abetting the teaching known 
 as that of Basilides and his followers, by 
 
 perhaps an undue kindness displayed by 
 her toward the preachers of the false doc¬ 
 trine. The Third Epistle was written for 
 the purpose of commending to the kindness 
 and hospitality of Caius some Christians 
 who were strangers in the place where he 
 lived. It is probable that these Christians 
 carried this letter with them to Caius as 
 their introduction. We may conjecture 
 that the two Epistles were written shortly 
 after the First Epistle from Ephesus. 
 They both apply to individual cases of con¬ 
 duct the principles which had been laid 
 down in their fulness in the First Epistle. 
 The title ‘ Catholic ’ does not properly be¬ 
 long to the Second and Third Epistles.”— 
 Smith: Did. of the Bible. See Commen¬ 
 taries of Calvin, Neander (1851, Eng. 
 trans. by Mrs. Conant, 1852); Ebrard, in 
 Olshausen’s Commentary (1859, trans. by 
 W. B. Pope, Edinburgh, i860); Haupt 
 (1869, trans. by Pope, Edinburgh, 1879); 
 B. F. Westcott (1883). See Revelation. 
 
 John is the name of twenty-three popes. 
 See Popes. 
 
 John of Chur, a leader among the Pietists 
 in the latter part of the fourteenth century, 
 who were called “ Friends of God.” The 
 son of a wealthy merchant, he suddenly 
 forsook a life of pleasure-seeking for that 
 of a mystic. He distributed his fortune 
 in benevolence. He regarded suffering as 
 a gift of grace, and deemed that evil sug-» 
 gestions and doubts were to be endured 
 patiently, rather than striven against. He 
 taught that the perfect man “has become 
 one with God when he wants nothing else 
 except what God wills.” It is supposed, 
 from his writings, that Chur, in the canton 
 of the Grisons, Switzerland, was his native 
 place. Seeking a life of retirement, the 
 tradition is that, with two companions he 
 was miraculously led by a black dog to a 
 mountain where he built a chapel, located 
 by some near the Castle Riitberg, in the 
 canton of St. Gall. He died about the 
 year 1380. 
 
 John of Damascus, an eminent theo¬ 
 logian of the early Greek Church; b. at 
 Damascus about the close of the seventh, 
 or the beginning of the eighth, century. 
 On account of his eloquence he received 
 the epithet Chrysorrhoas ( gold-pouring). 
 His father, Sergius, was a Christian, and 
 the son was educated under the care of an 
 Italian monk, whom Sergius had redeemed 
 from a party of captive slaves. About 730 
 he wrote several treatises in favor of 
 image-worship, which the Emperor Leo 
 was seeking to suppress. Leo in revenge, 
 through a forged Wter purporting to come 
 
Joh 
 
 (488) 
 
 Jok 
 
 from John, aroused the anger of the caliph, 
 who ordered the traitor’s right hand to be 
 cut off. According to tradition, his severed 
 hand was miraculously restored by the 
 intercession of the Virgin Mary. Although 
 the caliph, convinced by the miracle, 
 offered to restore John to his former office 
 he decided to forsake the world. Dividing 
 his fortune among his friends and the poor, 
 he retired to the monastery of St. Sabus at 
 Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his 
 life. He is a saint, both in the Roman and 
 Greek Churches. According to Dorner, he 
 “ remains in later times the highest au¬ 
 thority in the theological literature of the 
 Greeks.” He has been styled the “ Father 
 of Scholasticism,” and the “ Lombard of 
 the Greeks.” See J. H. Lupton: St. John 
 of Damascus (London, 1SS2). 
 
 John, Monophysite bishop of Ephesus, 
 flourished in the sixth century. His fame 
 rests upon a church history, in three parts, 
 from the first Roman emperors to 585. A 
 portion of this work was discovered in 
 1853 among some Syriac manuscripts, and 
 ^ edited by Cureton, under the title, Third 
 Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John , 
 Bishop of Ephesus (Oxford, 1853; Eng. 
 trans. by R. Payne Smith, Oxford, i860). 
 
 John of Salisbury, eminent for his attain¬ 
 ments in philosophy and theology; b. 
 about 1120 in Salisbury; d. in France, Oct. 
 25, 11S0. He studied under Abelard, and 
 after his return to England became chap¬ 
 lain and secretary to Theobald, archbishop 
 of Canterbury. He was an intimate friend 
 of Thomas a Becket, and stood in close re¬ 
 lations to the popes and prelates of his time. 
 He was chosen bishop of Chartres in 1176. 
 His complete works were edited, in 5 vols., 
 by Giles (Oxford, 1S4S). 
 
 John, St., of Nepomuk, the patron saint 
 of Bohemia; b. at Pomuk, about 1330. 
 He was a canon of the Cathedral of Prague 
 and Vicar-General of the diocese. He ap¬ 
 pears to have incurred the hatred of King 
 Wenceslaus IV., who caused him to be 
 tortured and thrown into the river Moldau, 
 in March, 1383. Much of his history is 
 involved in obscurity and legendary inci¬ 
 dents. He was canonized by Benedict 
 XII. 
 
 John, Sr., Eve of. This festival was of 
 heathen origin, and refers to the summer 
 solstice, falling on June 24. A Christian 
 interpretation was put upon its symbols; 
 the fire representing baptism. Among 
 Germanic nations the festival was kept by 
 lighting bonfires and dancing about them. 
 Within the last century the observance of 
 
 these festivities has almost entirely passed 
 away. 
 
 John, St., Knights of. See Military 
 Orders. 
 
 Johnson, Herrick, D. D. (Western Re 
 serve College, Hudson, O., 1867), LL. D. 
 (Wooster University, Wooster, O., 1880), 
 
 I Presbyterian; b. near Fonda, Montgomery 
 Co., N. Y., Sept. 21, 1832; was graduated 
 at Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., 1857, 
 and at Auburn (N. Y.) Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, i860. He was pastor at Troy, 
 N. Y., 1860-62; Pittsburg, Penn., 1862-68; 
 Philadelphia, Penn., 1868-74; professor of 
 homiletics and pastoral theology at Au¬ 
 burn, 1874-80; professor of sacred rhetoric 
 since 1880 in the Theological Seminary of 
 the Northwest, Chicago, Ill., and for a 
 time pastor of the Fourth Church in that 
 city. He is the author of: Christianity's 
 Challenge (1882); Plain Talks about the The¬ 
 atre (1883); Revivals : Their Place and Pow¬ 
 er (1883). 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, D. D., first president 
 of King’s (now Columbia) College, New 
 York City; b. in Guilford, Conn., Oct. 14, 
 1696; d. in Stratford, Conn., June 6, 1772. 
 After graduating from Yale College in 
 1714, he entered the Congregational minis¬ 
 try (1720), but in 1723 went to England 
 and received episcopal ordination. He re¬ 
 turned to this country as a missionary of 
 the Church of England, and settled in 
 Stratford, Conn. In 1753 he was chosen 
 president of King’s College. After resign¬ 
 ing this position, in 1763, he spent the re¬ 
 mainder of his life in Stratford. He was 
 an earnest advocate of episcopacy, and 
 wrote a number of works in defence of his 
 opinions. See his Life , by Beardsley 
 (New York, 1S74). 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, b. in Salem, Mass., 
 Oct. 10,1822; d. at North Andover, Mass., 
 Feb. 19,1882. He was graduated at Harvard 
 College, 1S42,and the Divinity School, 1843. 
 In 1853 he became pastor of an Independent 
 Church in Lynn, Mass., when he labored 
 for twenty years. He was never connected 
 with any religious denomination. As an 
 active sympathizer with the anti-slavery 
 agitation, he was widely known, but his 
 fame rests upon a work upon which he was 
 engaged for many years: Oriental Religions 
 and their Relation to Universal Religion, of 
 which India, China, and Persia have ap¬ 
 peared. 
 
 Joktan, “ son of Eber (Gen. x. 25, 30; 1 
 Chron. i. 19), head of the Joktanite Arabs. 
 Ilis settlements were in S. Arabia, ‘ from 
 
Jon 
 
 ( 489 ) 
 
 Jop 
 
 Mesha unto Sephar, a mount of the East ’ 
 (.Zafari, a seaport E. of Yemen; an em¬ 
 porium of trade with Africa and India). 
 The Arab Kahtan, whose sons peopled Ye¬ 
 men or Arabia Felix. Cushites from Ham 
 (Gen. x. 7) and Ludites from Shem (ver. 
 22) were already there, and intermingled 
 with them. The seafaring element was de¬ 
 rived from the Cushites, the Shemites not 
 being seafaring; also the Cyclopean ma¬ 
 sonry and the rock-cut Himyeritic inscrip¬ 
 tions indicate the presence of Cushites. 
 Arab tradition makes J. or Kahtan progen¬ 
 itor of the purest tribes of central and 
 southern Arabia. The Scripture list of his 
 descendants confirms this; almost all the 
 names are certainly connected with this 
 locality: ‘ Almodad (El-Mudad), Sheleph 
 (Sulaf or Silfan), Hazarmaveth (Hadra- 
 maut), etc.”— Fausset. 
 
 Jo'nah {dove), “ one of the Minor Proph¬ 
 ets, was the son of Amittai, who, accord¬ 
 ing to 2 Kings xiv. 25, uttered a prophecy 
 concerning Jeroboam II. The book of 
 Jonah is distinguished from the other pro¬ 
 phetical books by the fact that it is not the 
 prophecy, but the personal experiences of 
 the man, in which the interest centres. 
 In order to escape the divine summons to 
 preach repentance to Nineveh, he embark¬ 
 ed from Joppa for Tarshish, but during a 
 storm was, at his own advice and by the 
 issue of a lot, thrown overboard, and swal¬ 
 lowed by a great fish (i. 17). Three days 
 afterward he was thrown up upon the land, 
 and after a second summons began preach¬ 
 ing to the Ninevites. When both king and 
 people began to repent, Jonah became in¬ 
 dignant at the divine compassion, but was 
 convinced by God of his foolishness by a 
 gourd (iv). Such are the contents of the 
 book; and many have regarded it as an 
 allegory or a poetic myth. The prevailing- 
 view at present among the representatives 
 of modern criticism is, that it was a nation¬ 
 al prophetic tradition designed to serve a 
 didactic aim, and with some elements of 
 historic truth. The historical, view ap¬ 
 peals to the geographical and historical 
 notices in the prophecy; as, for example, 
 the evident accuracy of the description of 
 Nineveh, the fitness of Jonah’s mission at 
 that particular period, when Israel was for 
 the first time coming into contact with As¬ 
 syria, etc. Those who deny the credibility 
 make much of the miraculous story of the 
 great fish, but this very incident is attested 
 by our Lord’s use of it. (Matt. xii. 39; xvi. 
 4; Luke xi. 29.) He here, in the most 
 complete manner, compares himself with 
 Jonah, whose deglutition by the whale typ¬ 
 ified his burial. But Christ was greater 
 than Jonah. The latter escaped only from 
 
 the peril of death: the former overcame 
 death. If this be a right interpretation of 
 our Lord’s words, then the miraculous 
 preservation of Jonah gets its significance 
 from the fact that it happened to him as a 
 prophet. The central purport of the book 
 is not that repentance was preached to the 
 heathen, but that the prophet of God must 
 do whatever the Lord commands; that not 
 even death can frustrate his calling, and 
 that the prophet must leave the fulfilment 
 to God. Following the line of these three 
 thoughts, the book details historical facts 
 which were a prophecy of him in whom the 
 prophetic calling culminated. As for the 
 prophet’s prayer (ii. 3-10), we may say 
 with Luther, that Jonah in the fish’s belly 
 did not utter these words with the mouth, 
 in their present form, but he indicates how 
 he felt, and what the thoughts of his heart 
 were while he was engaged in such a fear¬ 
 ful contest with death. It cannot be proved 
 that the prophet left his work in its present 
 form. The abruptness of the record leads 
 us to suppose that it was originally one of 
 a series of similar accounts. An old Hag- 
 gadah calls Jonah a prophet of Elisha’s 
 school, and it is possible that it originated 
 in one of these schools. Opinion has been 
 divided about the date, some putting it as 
 late as the period of the Maccabees. This 
 view is entirely ruled out by the fact of its 
 reception into the prophetical canon, and 
 there can be no doubt that it was written 
 before the Babylonian captivity. Jonah’s 
 tomb is still shown near the site of ancient 
 Nineveh.”— Volck in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., 
 vol. ii., p. 1197. See Kleinert (in Lange’s 
 Corn., N. Y., 1875); Huxtable (in Speaker's 
 Commentary, N. Y., 1876); Perowne (Lon¬ 
 don, 1882); Stuart Mitchell on Jonah 
 (Phila., 1875). 
 
 Jop'pa, “ the name given in the Greek of 
 the New Testament to a town called in 
 Hebrew, Yafo; modern, Yafa or Jaffa, 
 i. e., beauty. It is situated on the sea-coast 
 of Syria, about thirty-three miles n. w. of 
 Jerusalem, and, according to Stanley, still 
 deserves its name. Joppa is a place of 
 great antiquity. Here, according to the 
 classical myth, it was that Andromeda was 
 chained to the rock, and exposed to the 
 sea-monster; a story that has been sup¬ 
 posed to shadow out, in an obscure way, 
 the early intercourse between Greece and 
 Syria. In sacred history it appears as the 
 port of Jerusalem in the time of David and 
 Solomon, and the place to which the cedars 
 of Lebanon were floated from Tyre for the 
 building of the temple. It was at Joppa 
 that the apostle Peter saw the vision which 
 corrected his Jewish prejudices concerning 
 the Gentiles and the spirit of Christianity. 
 
( 49 ° ) 
 
 Jor 
 
 J or 
 
 In ihe reign of Constantine the Great, Joppa 
 was made a bishop’s see, but it attained its 
 highest prosperity in the times of the cru¬ 
 sades, when it became the principal land¬ 
 ing-place of the warriors of Christendom. 
 In 1799 it was stormed by the French un¬ 
 der Bonaparte, and here was perpetrated 
 his shameful massacre of Turkish prison¬ 
 ers. In 1832 Mohammed Ali made himself 
 master of it; but the Turks, with the assist¬ 
 ance of the British and Austrians, took it 
 from him again in 1S40. Pop. about 12,000 
 (of Avhom 3,700 are Christians and 800 
 Jews). ”—Chambers: Cyclopaedia. 
 
 180 yards broad, and 3 ft. deep; butaiittie 
 way further up it is only 80 yards broad, 
 and 7 ft. deep. From the lake of Tiberias 
 to the Dead Sea the Jordan is crossed by 
 no bridge, although in two or three places 
 there are ruins of bridges. Above the lake 
 of Tiberias is a bridge called Jacob’s 
 Bridge, over which the road from Damas¬ 
 cus to the sea-coast passes. In a number 
 of places the Jordan is fordable; in some, 
 even when the river is in flood. The course 
 of the Jordan was explored by Lieut. 
 Molyneux, an English officer, in Aug., 
 1847, during the dry season; and by Lieut. 
 
 THE JORDAN ON THE ROAD FROM NABULUS (SHECHEM) TO ES-SAL T (RAMOTH-GILEAD . 
 
 Jordan, “ the principal river of Palestine, 
 the bed of which forms a great valley, 
 stretching from n. to s. in the eastern part 
 of the country. The Jordan, deriving its 
 head - waters partly from the eastern 
 branches of the Lebanon mountains, and 
 partly from Mt. Hermon, flows s., and 
 after a course of 150 miles, having passed 
 through the small lake of El Huleh (the 
 waters of Merom) and the lake of Tiberias 
 (sea of Galilee), it falls into the northern 
 extremity of the Dead Sea ( q. v .). The bed 
 of the river varies much in breadth, and its 
 banks are in some places flat; in others, 
 steep. Where it enters the Dead Sea it is 
 
 Lynch, with an expedition sent out by the 
 United States government in April. 1S48, 
 when the river was in flood, and by Mc¬ 
 Gregor in 1S69.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. 
 See Palestine. 
 
 Joris, Johann David, a famous leader 
 among the Anabaptist fanatics of the time 
 of the Reformation. He professed to re¬ 
 ceive divine revelations, and became the 
 head of a party who recognized him as 
 their Messiah. Many were burned at the 
 stake, and others suffered imprisonment 
 rather than renounce their leader. Having 
 accumulated a fortune he removed to Basel 
 
Sur * 
 
 (Tyxe)*- 
 TaLaeTyrus) 
 Baa ehAin 
 
 
 WAbU e’f-Subeibeh 
 or. , 
 frell ell 
 
 £6, 
 
 M??. 
 
 
 
 \'Olakarvdea 
 
 
 Birkeber^R. _ 
 
 „ Sy. in^s —yc Bamas v%»Jl 
 
 ram'sToTrib UjSOAtmiTnrm ZM, > (Caesarea PMHEpyg: 
 
 'Mb'® * * 
 
 
 36 
 
 oSTihui r 
 
 MaisO 
 
 etv 
 
 till® V 
 
 flALma 
 
 kBiut TeMelo 
 
 - Safe’s 
 
 5Ee&£7 
 
 (ELcdefn) 
 
 im 
 
 tub 
 
 s(P v 
 
 -elRlrtteli 
 
 THE 
 
 RIVER JORDAN 
 
 y^AxhxH>) iM^a 
 
 
 ‘$frrn J 
 
 Alma. 
 
 mi. 
 
 
 m 
 
 -^ey sTiihgr 
 
 w*1 
 
 el'Jish/Q 
 (Jeb. Jurrnuh 
 
 yiialir -.„-- 
 
 .Y\JisrBena£Y(rtcub^i 
 
 _ ... / •*«!& 
 
 •""“‘•'"-7s H 
 
 
 ?af£cL 
 
 
 11%, 
 
 ^ * 
 
 *P ctTellS 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Jil'fZ* nrte saret MbA&R TTHB ATtTYJE Jl\ 
 
 KbiKainvw? 
 
 0 U 
 
 'Sgtur 
 
 /- , wst n»-’f, c- v " 
 
 Tabamv %r 
 
 S s« s Ea-Kasir a 
 t< 1 >% (Bazaretli) 
 
 Am 
 
 (s.EX or tibbbias) 
 
 ■Tv 
 
 ■ K'k 
 
 Cihf 
 
 ^ l 
 
 
 o 
 
 XTe in 
 
 (jr*in) 
 
 ' ,a Sulenv%^^ r ' 7 i e ^ ) '- D ^ fl y 
 ^ ZefSto 
 
 V 
 
 JE^fr: 
 
 (Gapercot-loJ 
 
 n% 
 
 * (^Ja^aanira) 
 
 ^TeM Dot?ianXlC^x%X<A *' 
 
 (Dof/varvjPA o'-— 
 
 -AxrabelP , JKSCbatiyelv 
 
 •^o Jorbcu _ _ _ Ml 
 
 ili% 
 
 Ueoisart 
 
 e Z§ete latf °Bt-TaiyibelL 
 *ieitld$s Q 
 
 iTiibakatFtihel (Bella) ^I'.XyWlo li irk e t JfLTaan eh, 
 
 Sanur 0 % 
 
 5 eltXL^yeh.o 
 SaraiHaJ 
 
 Ojebayf.,,^ 
 
 VBettlTTvrii 
 
 ~TFr 
 
 
 Visions orWalrar' 
 lu5\(SltcclieipUv 
 
 Jbffll 
 
 s^oS alpm 
 JabcoVs well 
 t.GeriX'im 
 
 Xulfban 
 
 oXXXXySla T as ail 9 . y^^jy 
 
 v. , -°i'« aC.nfth.-Ooh) •'///«# 
 
 in TasfUZA' ” - 
 
 o JJer’a 
 
 \r-beln 
 
 32°30 
 
 : 
 
 
 1 O 7 t L 
 
 Ajlun.^ 
 
 oA 3 ijar 0 o n 
 
 r-H JSjeferenjyjlTekitty 
 
 " r.y gj$k% - 
 
 ,Suf 
 
 HelimuTVi 
 
 oBiW 
 
 |C’‘i 5 ? 7 >rt JETafkaflta, 
 
 >Jera sir 
 
 )(Gerasa) 
 
 
 r 7 /i< 
 
 OB Hr melt 
 
 
 ;v> 
 
 uiv^Vu" 
 
 
 
 
 
 oSTiihanv 
 O 
 
 AJiMi, JeJielOshi 
 
 
 
 ' s-S alt (I? a to oth* Gil< ad) 
 
 is 
 
 
 ^XlMe z r'dah) 
 
 k'AZa-ra'mlkeh.y 
 
 ss 
 
 fFvCheis 
 
 
 Sn-JAuleTi^ 
 
 , Betttn 0 
 Jil'Tf’h o(B'th.,y 
 
 e $ XoW ).r> XrtTel-el-h ai a , 
 
 “*»> /v i l . nb%Es-SwmraTv 
 
 VI ^ierJ^W-wT^Ky-^r TawakVn- 
 Mhtklvirnas oreb JSur uidul^ e ^^it)sojz/\ 
 
 ^ g> a) ^ (^uoron(ama) ' * 7 ‘ 
 
 O’ v- 7 ? n rn 
 
 Tulett 
 
 (Gfb'^ 
 
 tr.Sannw 
 
 °ErzRar. 
 
 (Je 
 
 
 iTHTial} 
 
 \K.Haj 
 sa % 
 
 1 
 
 ^...^ xj> 
 
 Ijrf ^ 
 
 p- £a?er) 
 
 -KJafere in ~(X PitieTo rest 
 
 (Abil Sh itlini)^y. ^ 
 
 anon) (PI 
 
 jatli-Amr 
 uleljihia) 
 
 TFLHej 
 
 
 /a> 
 
 '—CSe s'hbo'nA- 
 
 36 
 
 ( 491 ) 
 
Jos 
 
 (492) 
 
 Jos 
 
 in 1544, and there played the role of a rich 
 and pious citizen. The deception was not 
 known until after his death. His sect did 
 not die out until nearly a century after his 
 death, which occurred in 1556. 
 
 Jo'seph {he will add), the oldest son of 
 Jacob by Rachel, and his favorite child. 
 The envy of his brothers stirred up their 
 hatred, and they sold him to a caravan of 
 
 his express request, his bones were taken 
 with the Israelites when they left Egypt, 
 and after they had conquered Canaan were 
 deposited at Shechem (Josh. xxiv. 32), 
 within a stone’s throw of Jacob’s Well. 
 Ebers, the eminent Egyptologist, says, 
 “ the whole history of Joseph must be de¬ 
 clared, even in its details, to correspond 
 throughout with the real state of affairs in 
 ancient Egypt.” Most authorities place 
 
 Joseph’s tomb. 
 
 Midianites, by whom he was carried into 
 Egypt. He was then but seventeen years 
 of age. The story of his resistance of 
 temptation, his imprisonment, deliverance, 
 and exaltation to a position next to the 
 throne, his meeting with his brothers, 
 and the filial care of his aged father, is 
 familiar to every Bible reader. Joseph 
 died at the age of one hundred and ten. At 
 
 the Pharaoh of Joseph’s time in the Hyk- 
 sos dynasty. Tradition has singled out 
 Apophis, one of the last of the Shepherd- 
 kings. 
 
 Josephus, Flavius, the Jewish historian; 
 b. at Jerusalem, 37 A. D. Of a noble and 
 wealthy family, he early joined the Phari¬ 
 sees. In 64 he visited Rome to secure the 
 
Jos 
 
 ( 493 ) 
 
 Jos 
 
 release of some priests, whom Felix the 
 Governor had sent there as prisoners. 
 Through the aid of a Jewish actor, named 
 Alityrus, who was a favorite of Nero, he 
 gained access to the Empress Poppaea, and 
 was successful in his mission. He took 
 part in the revolt against the Romans (66), 
 and was chosen governor of Galilee. When 
 Jotapata was captured by the army of Ves¬ 
 pasian, he was taken prisoner, but found 
 favor at the hands of Vespasian because of 
 his prophecy that his captor would gain 
 the empire. Josephus was with Titus at 
 the siege of Jerusalem, and afterward lived 
 in Rome, and under the protection of the 
 emperors studied and wrote. He died 
 during the reign of Trajan. His works are: 
 History of the Jewish War; Jewish Antiq¬ 
 uities ; his Autobiography; and a work 
 against Apion of Alexandria, entitled An¬ 
 tiquity of the Jeivs. 
 
 Joshua (Gr. Jesous, “whence ‘Jesus,’ 
 in the A. V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form 
 of the name is Hoshea, Num. xiii. 8, 16), 
 first the lieutenant, and afterward the suc¬ 
 cessor of Moses, was the son of Nun, of 
 the tribe of Ephraim, and left Egypt along 
 with the rest of the children of Israel at 
 the time of the exodus. In the Pentateuch 
 he is first mentioned as being the victorious 
 commander of the Israelites in their battles 
 against the Amalekites at Rephidim (Ex. 
 xvii. 9-13), and he is represented as having 
 earned further distinction along with Caleb 
 by his calm and courageous demeanor in 
 the midst of the popular tumult caused by 
 the report of the spies. (Num. xiv. 6-9, 
 38.) On the death of Moses he assumed 
 the leadership, to which he had previously 
 been designated by his chief, and the book 
 known by his name is entirely occupied, 
 with details of the manner in which he car¬ 
 ried out the task thus laid to his hand— 
 that of taking possession of the land of 
 Canaan. On the completion of the recon¬ 
 naissance by the two spies, he left Shittim 
 with his army, preceded by the priest- 
 borne ark of the covenant. The Jordan 
 having been miraculously crossed, his first 
 encampment was at Gilgal. Jericho and 
 Ai soon fell into his hands, and the people 
 of Gibeon became vassals. In the neigh¬ 
 borhood of Gibeon the five kings of the 
 Amorites were crushed in a decisive battle, 
 in which the very elements conspired to 
 favor the invader, and (to use the poetical 
 language of the book of Joshua) * the sun 
 stood still, and the moon stayed until the 
 people had avenged themselves upon their 
 enemies.’ The victorious arms of Israel 
 were now directed northward against a 
 league of Canaanite potentates, under the 
 hegemony of Jabin, king of Hazor; antic¬ 
 
 ipating the attack of the enemy, Joshua 
 surprised and crushed them at the waters 
 of Merom, Hazor itself being taken and 
 burnt. Thus far the first twelve chapters of 
 the book of Joshua: the remaining twelve 
 describe the partition of the (conquered and 
 unconquered) country among the twelve 
 tribes, and conclude with a resume of 
 his parting exhortations. At the age of 
 one hundred and ten he died, and was 
 buried in his inheritance in Timnath-serah, 
 in the territory of Ephraim.”— Ency. Bri- 
 tannica. See the Histories of Israel, by 
 Ewald, Stanley, etc. 
 
 Joshua, Book of, “the first of the twelve 
 so-called ‘ Historical Books,’ embracing a 
 period of twenty-five years, is supposed to 
 have been written by Joshua, whose name 
 it bears. It consists of three parts: (1) 
 The conquest of Canaan during the seven 
 years’ war, and destruction of its thirty- 
 one kings. (2) Distribution of the country 
 by lot, and settlement of the tabernacle at 
 Shiloh. (3) Final admonitions, and death 
 of Joshua, which must have been added by 
 one of his survivors. The characteristic 
 feature of the book is that ‘ the Lord drove 
 out the nations before them,’ and that ‘He 
 fought for Israel.’ The conquest opens 
 with the miraculous fall of Jericho, after 
 the renewal of circumcision, and the ap¬ 
 parition of the * Captain of the Lord’s host.’ 
 Then follows a march into the interior, to 
 the primary altar of Abraham at Shechem, 
 where the covenant is renewed by oath 
 and sacrifices; and next the miraculous 
 victory at Beth-horon, and general panic 
 of the heathen inhabitants. It closes with 
 a general assembly at Shiloh (where the 
 tabernacle was permanently fixed), the al¬ 
 lotment of territory to each tribe, and a 
 final renewal of the covenant at Shechem, 
 followed by Joshua’s death. The typical 
 aspect of the history is pointed out in the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, chap. iv. 
 
 “ Date and Authorship. —That the events 
 are recorded by a contemporary is evi¬ 
 denced by such passages as iii. 15, 16; v. 1; 
 the prophetic character of the writer by vi. 
 26; though some later additions to the 
 original are traceable in x. 13; xix. 47; 
 xxiv. 29-33. The expression used of cer¬ 
 tain memorials as remaining ‘ up to this 
 day,’ which occurs fourteen times, does 
 not in any case seem to be inconsistent 
 with the period embraced by the narrative; 
 while it is difficult to imagine that any but 
 a contemporary could have written such 
 passages as vi. 25; and his two addresses 
 (xxiii. and xxiv.), as well as the various 
 records of his intercourse with God, would 
 appear to have been committed to writing 
 by Joshua himself, who is expressly de- 
 
Jos 
 
 ( 494 ) 
 
 Jud 
 
 dared to have written some documents 
 (xxiv. 26). Ewald supposes that the book 
 has undergone five transformations at the 
 hands of successive compilers; but this 
 view has met with little support. Others 
 have tried to discriminate between an Elo- 
 histic and Jehovistic narrative; but this 
 hypothesis is difficult to maintain. The 
 authorship has been variously attributed 
 to Joshua (according to the tradition of the 
 Jews and early Christian writers), Phine- 
 has, Eleazar, one of the elders who sur¬ 
 vived Joshua, Samuel, and Jeremiah; 
 again, some have assigned its date to the 
 time of the Judges, the reign of Josiah, and 
 even to the time after the Babylonish Cap¬ 
 tivity. All these conjectures present far 
 greater difficulties than the old tradition 
 that it is the work of Joshua, who followed 
 the example of Moses by writing the an¬ 
 nals of his own time; a task which seems 
 to have been divinely committed to him on 
 his first appointment as the assistant of 
 Moses. (Exod. xvii. 14.)”—“Oxford” 
 Teacher's Bible. See Fay, in Lange’s Com. 
 (New York, 1872); Crosby: Notes (N. Y., 
 1875); Miss Smiley: The Fulness of Blessing 
 (New York, 1876). 
 
 Joshua, Spurious Book of. This com¬ 
 pilation was made among the Samaritans, 
 but is not recognized by them. The only 
 manuscript copy of it now in existence is 
 in the library at Leyden. 
 
 Josiah, “ the last but four of the kings of 
 Judah, was the son of Amon, whom he 
 succeeded when only eight years old, the 
 people having declared in his favor against 
 the conspirators who had murdered his 
 unworthy father. The circumstances of 
 the regency which must have existed dur¬ 
 ing his minority are not recorded; it is not 
 until his eighteenth year (for 2 Chr. xxxiv. 
 3 cannot be set against the explicit testi¬ 
 mony of 2 Kings xxii.; xxviii.) that he 
 emerges into the light of history, when we 
 find him interested in the repair of the tem¬ 
 ple at Jerusalem. The religious move¬ 
 ment, of which this was a symptom, took 
 more definite shape with the finding by 
 Hilkiah, the high-priest, of a copy of ‘ the 
 book of the law.’ The reasons for believ¬ 
 ing this to have been (substantially at least) 
 the book of Deuteronomy cannot be de¬ 
 tailed here. They were already appreciated 
 by Jerome and Chrysostom, and no very 
 careful examination is required to show 
 that the effect of its perusal was to bring 
 about a religious reformation, which in all 
 its features was in accordance with the 
 prescriptions and exhortations of that re¬ 
 markable composition. On the secular 
 aspects of the reign of Josiah, Scripture is 
 
 almost wholly silent. Thus, nothing is re¬ 
 lated of the great Scythian invasion which, 
 as we know from Herodotus (i. 105), took 
 place at this period, and must have ap¬ 
 proached Judah, being probably alluded to 
 by Zephaniah and Jeremiah. The storm 
 which shook the great world powers was 
 favorable to the peace of Josiah’s king¬ 
 dom; the power of Assyria was practi¬ 
 cally broken, and that of the Chaldeans 
 had not yet developed itself into the ag¬ 
 gressive forms it afterwards assumed. But 
 in the thirty-first year of his reign, Josiah, 
 for some unexplained reason, was rash 
 enough to place himself in the path of 
 Pharaoh-Necho in his military expedition 
 against the king of Assyria; a disastrous 
 encounter took place at Megiddo, in whicii 
 he lost at once his crown and life (aet. 
 39). ”— Ency. Britannica, s. v. 
 
 Jo'tham {Jehovah is upright'), (1) the 
 youngest son of Gideon, and the only mem¬ 
 ber of his family who escaped the massacre 
 of Abimelech at Ophrah. (Judg. ix. 5.) (2) 
 The son and successor of Uzziah, or Aza- 
 riah, king of Judah. (2 Kings xv. 32-38.) He 
 reigned in connection with his father seven 
 years, and for sixteen years as sole ruler. 
 (Comp. 2 Kings xv. 30, 32, 33.) His reign 
 was prosperous and his life pious and ex¬ 
 emplary. (2 Chron. xxvii. 5.) Isaiah 
 prophesied under him. 
 
 Journey. Among Orientals it is the custom 
 to travel in the early morning or evening, 
 resting during the heat of the day, A day’s 
 journey covered 10 to 20 miles (Deut. i. 2); 
 a Sabbath day’s journey was 2,000 paces, 
 or three-quarters of a mile. The term, “ a 
 day’s journey,” as found in the Bible, prob¬ 
 ably means the distance traveled on a par¬ 
 ticular day, and not a definite length. 
 
 Jubilee, Year of, among the Hebrews. 
 See Sabbatical Year. 
 
 Jubilee Year, in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, is an institution observed every 
 twenty-fifth year, from Christmas to Christ¬ 
 mas. During this time plenary indulgence 
 may be obtained by all Catholics on certain 
 conditions. The abuses of this institution 
 have been recognized by those high in 
 authority, but it has not been abrogated. 
 The last ordinary jubilee was observed in 
 1875- 
 
 Jubilees, Book of. See Apocrypha, 
 Old Testament. 
 
 Judaea was the lowermost of the three 
 divisions of the Holy Land. It was that 
 part of Canaan occupied by the captive 
 
Jud 
 
 ( 495 ) 
 
 jud 
 
 exiles on their return from Assyria and 
 Babylonia. The word first occurs in Dan. 
 v. 13 (A. V., “Jewry ”); and the first men¬ 
 tion of the “ province ” of Judaea is in Ezra 
 v. 8, and it is also alluded to in Neh. xi. 3 
 (A. V. “Judah”). In the Apocryphaand 
 the New Testament it is designated as the 
 “ land of Judaea ” and “ Judaea.” It became 
 a portion of the Roman province of Syria 
 after the deposition of Archelaus (a. d. 6), 
 and was governed by a procurator subject 
 to the governor of that country. In a loose 
 sense the name “ Judaea” was sometimes 
 given to the whole country of the Canaan- 
 ites. 
 
 The Hill Country of Judcea (Luke i. 65) 
 was the central ridge of mountains running 
 from north to south through Palestine. 
 
 The Wilderness of Judcea is the wild and 
 desolate region extending from the hill 
 country near Jerusalem, southeast to the 
 Dead Sea, with an average width of fifteen 
 miles. (Matt. iii. 1.) Here John preached, 
 and tradition has placed the scene of the 
 temptation of Christ. 
 
 Ju dah (praise), a name given to the 
 fourth son of Jacob and Leah as an expres¬ 
 sion of his mother’s gratitude. By his 
 energy of character he virtually supplanted 
 his elder brother Reuben. He advised 
 the selling of Joseph into Egypt, and his 
 touching plea before Joseph for Benjamin 
 is an address of singular beauty. (Gen. 
 xxxvii. 26, 27; xliii. 9.) “ In the matter 
 
 of Tamar (xxxviii.) he does not appear in 
 a favorable light; but even then his sense 
 of justice and his inherent nobility came 
 out. These traits characterized his de¬ 
 scendants; and the prophecy of Jacob was 
 fulfilled, according to which the right of 
 primogeniture was given to him by his 
 brethren, and he held the sceptre until 
 Shiloh came. (Gen. xlix. 8-12.)”— v. Orelli. 
 The descendants of Judah occupied the 
 southern section of Canaan, bounded on 
 the east by the Jordan, and the west by the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and extending north to 
 the territory of Benjamin and Dan. (Josh, 
 xv. 1-63.) 
 
 Judah, Kingdom of. See Israel. 
 
 Judah, Tribe of. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Judaizers. See Jewish Christians. 
 
 Judas, or Jude, “ one of the twelve apos¬ 
 tles, carefully distinguished by the evan¬ 
 gelists from Judas Iscariot; called also 
 Lebbaeus and Thaddaeus. (Matt. x. 3; Mark 
 iii. 18; Luke vi. 16; John xiv. 22; Acts i. 
 13.) His surnames, Lebbaeus and Thad¬ 
 daeus, mean the same thing. We know 
 
 nothing about his history before or after 
 his connection with Jesus.” — Sieffert. 
 Tradition is contradictory. According to 
 Abdias he preached in Persia, and was 
 martyred there, while Nicephorus says he 
 died a natural death at Edessa. 
 
 Judas Iscariot, “the son of Simon Iscariot 
 (John vi. 71; xiii.), and one of the twelve 
 apostles; he is enumerated last, with 
 special mention of the fact that he was the 
 betrayer of Jesus. If the now generally 
 accepted explanation of his surname ‘ man 
 of Kerioth ’ (see Josh. xv. 25) be correct, he 
 was the only original member of the apos¬ 
 tolic band who was not a Galilean. (For 
 suggested etymologies of the name see 
 Miner’s Bibl. ReaTworteil , s. v.) The cir¬ 
 cumstances which led to his admission into 
 the apostolic circle are not stated; accord¬ 
 ing to the Fourth Gospel (vi. 64) his 
 treachery had been foreseen by Jesus from 
 the very first, but this is not suggested by 
 the synoptist. The motives by which he 
 was actuated in rendering to the Jewish 
 authorities the petty and base service of 
 enabling them to arrest his Master without 
 tumult have been analyzed by scholars 
 with very various degrees of subtlety and 
 insight. According to some his sole object 
 was to place Jesus in a position in which 
 he should be compelled to make what had 
 seemed to his followers the too tardy dis¬ 
 play of his Messianic power. According 
 to others (and their view seems the best 
 supported by the narrative of the Gospels), 
 he was simply an avaricious and dishonest 
 man, who felt that his opportunities for 
 petty peculation as keeper of the common 
 purse (John xii. 6; xiii. 29) were rapidly 
 disappearing. As regards the effects of his 
 subsequent remorse and the use to which 
 his ill-gotten gains were put, the striking¬ 
 ly apparent discrepancies between the 
 narratives of Matt, xxviii. 3-10 and Acts 
 i. 18, 19 have continually attracted the 
 attention of biblical scholars ever since 
 Papias in his fourth book, of which a frag¬ 
 ment has been preserved, discussed the 
 subject; the probability is that they simply 
 represent divergent traditions, one of 
 which has possibly been colored by the 
 history of Ahithophel. In ecclesiastical 
 legends and in sacred art Judas Iscariot 
 has taken a prominent place, being gener¬ 
 ally treated as the very incarnation of 
 treachery, ingratitude, and impiety.”— 
 Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Judas Maccabaeus. See Maccabees. 
 
 Jude, Epistle of. “ I. Its authorship . 
 —The writer of this epistle styles himself, 
 ver. 1, ‘ Jude the brother of James,’ and 
 
Jud 
 
 ( 49 6 ) 
 
 Jud 
 
 has been usually identified with the apostle 
 Judas Lebbaeus or Thaddseus. (Luke vi. 16.) 
 But there are strong reasons for rendering 
 the words, 4 Judas i/ie sonoi James:’ and in¬ 
 asmuch as the author appears, ver. 17, to 
 distinguish himself from the apostles, we 
 may agree with eminent critics in attribut¬ 
 ing the epistle to another author. The 
 most probable conclusion is that the author 
 was Jude, one of the brethren of Jesus, 
 and brother of James, not the apostle the 
 son of Alphaeus, but the bishop of Jerusa¬ 
 lem. II. Genuineness and canonicity. —Al¬ 
 though the Epistle of Jude is one of the 
 so-called Antilegomena , and its canonicity 
 was questioned in the earliest ages of the 
 Church, there never was any doubt of its 
 genuineness among those by whom it was 
 known. The question was never whether 
 it was the work of 'an impostor, but 
 whether its author was of sufficient weight 
 to warrant its admission into the Canon. 
 This question was gradually decided in its 
 favor. It is wanting in the Peshito, nor is 
 there any trace of its use by the Asiatic 
 churches up to the commencement of the 
 fourth century; but it is quoted as apos¬ 
 tolic by Ephraem Syrus. The earliest 
 notice of the epistle is in the famous Mu- 
 ratorian Fragment (circa A. D. 170). Clem¬ 
 ent of Alexandria is the first Father of the 
 Church by whom it is recognized. Euse¬ 
 bius also informs us (//. E. vi. 14) that it 
 was among the books of Canonical Script¬ 
 ure, of which explanations were given in 
 the Hypotyposes of Clement. Origen refers 
 to it expressly as the work of the Lord’s 
 brother. Of the Latin Fathers, Tertullian 
 once expressly cites this epistle as the 
 Avork of an apostle, as does Jerome. The 
 epistle is also quoted by Malchian, a pres¬ 
 byter of Antioch, and by Palladius, and is 
 contained in the Laodicene (a. D. 363), 
 Carthaginian (397), and so-called Apostolic, 
 Catalogues, as well as in those emanating 
 from the churches of the East and West, 
 with the exception of the Synopsis of Chrys¬ 
 ostom, and those of Cassiodorus and Ebed 
 Jesu. III. Ti 77 ie and place of writing .— 
 Here all is conjecture. The author being 
 not absolutely certain, there are no exter¬ 
 nal grounds for deciding the point; and the 
 internal evidence is but small. Lardner 
 places it between A. D. 64 and 66, Davidson 
 before A. D. 70, Credner, A. D. 80, Calmet, 
 Estius, Witsius, and Neander, after the 
 death of all the apostles but John, and per¬ 
 haps after the fall of Jerusalem. There 
 are no data from which to determine the 
 place of writing. IV. For what readers 
 designed. —The readers are nowhere ex¬ 
 pressly defined. The address (ver. 1) is 
 applicable to Christians generally, and 
 there is nothing in the body of the epistle 
 
 to limit its reference. V. Its object and 
 contents. —The object of the epistle is plain¬ 
 ly enough announced, ver. 3: the reason 
 for this exhortation is given, ver. 4. The 
 remainder of the epistle is almost entirely 
 occupied by a minute depiction of the ad¬ 
 versaries of the faith. The epistle closes 
 by briefly reminding the readers of the oft- 
 repeated prediction of the apostles—among 
 whom the writer seems not to rank himself 
 —that the faith would be assailed by such 
 enemies as he has depicted (vers. 17-19), 
 exhorting them to maintain their own 
 steadfastness in the faith (vers. 20, 21), 
 while they earnestly sought to rescue 
 others from the corrupt example of those 
 licentious livers (vers. 22, 23), and com¬ 
 mending them to the power of God in lan¬ 
 guage which forcibly recalls the closing 
 benediction of the Epistle to the Romans, 
 (vers. 24,25; cf. Rom. xvi. 25-27). This epis¬ 
 tle presents one peculiarity, which, as we 
 learn from St. Jerome, caused its authority 
 to be impugned in very early times—the 
 supposed citation of apocryphal writings 
 (vers. 9, 14,15). The former of these pass¬ 
 ages, containing the reference to the contest 
 of the archangel Michael and the Devil 
 4 about the body of Moses,’ was supposed 
 by Origen to have been founded on a Jew¬ 
 ish work called the 4 Assumption of Moses.’ 
 As regards the supposed quotation from 
 the book of Enoch, the question is not so 
 clear whether St. Jude is making a citation 
 from a work already in the hands of his 
 readers, or is employing a traditionary 
 prophecy not at that time committed to 
 writing. VI. Relation between the Epistles 
 and 2 Peter. —It is familiar to all that the 
 larger portion of this epistle (vers. 3-16) is 
 almost identical in language and subject 
 with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter. 
 (2 Pet. ii. 1-19.) This question is ex¬ 
 amined in the article Peter, Second Epis¬ 
 tle OF.” —Smith: Diet, of the Bible. See 
 Fronmiiller, in Lange’s Com. (Eng. trans. 
 by Mombert, New York, 1867); Alford; 
 T. R. Lumby in Speaker's Commentary (N. 
 Y., 1S81), and Introductions to New Testa¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Judges of Israel. 44 The foundation of 
 Jewish theocratic legislation was laid by 
 Moses, and its regulations were first car¬ 
 ried out in Jehovah’s name by the adminis¬ 
 tration of judges both during the founder’s 
 lifetime and after his decease. These 
 judges were, for the most part, the heads 
 of clans or families, each of whom in times 
 of peace administered justice among his 
 clansmen, and in times of war acted as 
 their military head. In judging their sev¬ 
 eral tribes these functionaries had frequent 
 occasion to refer the matter to Jehovah, 
 
Jud 
 
 ( 497 ) 
 
 Jud 
 
 and this was done by recourse to the sanc¬ 
 tuary and the priests. Thus were the 
 tribes taught to look upon themselves as 
 acting under Jehovah’s instructions, and, 
 in going forth against their enemies, as 
 fighting the battles of the Lord. In the 
 field, however, they proved unable to hold 
 their own against their adversaries, and it 
 was deemed politic, if they were to main¬ 
 tain their integrity among the nations, that 
 they should array themselves under a sin¬ 
 gle chief; and by their election of a king 
 they took rank, to the detriment of their 
 religious life however, among the nation¬ 
 alities of the earth. To Samuel, the seer, 
 belongs the merit of having selected Saul, 
 the son of Kish, as the man under whom 
 they would unite, and of having called him 
 to the leadership of their several hosts. 
 At the same time, by their union with the 
 Canaanites they advanced from the pastor¬ 
 al to the agricultural stage of civilization.” 
 —Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 
 Judges, Book of. “This book is so 
 called, because it contains an account of 
 certain signal deliverances which the Lord 
 wrought out by the hands of ministers so 
 named, and selected for the purpose, when 
 now this tribe of Israel, and now that, was 
 threatened with extinction by the Canaan¬ 
 ites, who had been left in the land. These 
 ministers were of the character of heroes 
 rather than judges, but they are justly 
 named, as it was by them the Lord exe¬ 
 cuted his judgments. There is mention by 
 name of twelve judges in this book, though 
 only six attain special distinction; and they 
 are all rather tribal than national heroes, 
 there being as yet no king in Israel to 
 unite the tribes into one. The account 
 embraces a period of at least three hundred 
 years, covering the time from the death of 
 Joshua to the birth of Samuel, and is not 
 so much a history as a collection of narra¬ 
 tives of events, some of which were con¬ 
 temporaneous. The text of the book, of 
 which the body supplies the examples, is 
 given in chap. ii. 14-23, and there are six 
 cycles of revolt, chastisement, and deliv¬ 
 erance recorded. The story is one through¬ 
 out: the apostasy and consequent affliction 
 of the people, their conversion, deliver¬ 
 ance, and consequent state of peace; and 
 the object of the book is to show that, as 
 often as Israel sins against the Lord, so 
 often does she fall under the power of her 
 enemies, and that, so soon as she returns 
 to her allegiance, so soon will the Lord 
 raise up a deliverer for her; while, at the 
 same time, from the emphasis now and 
 again laid on the fact that there was no 
 king in Israel, a reference is implied to the 
 better state of things to be expected from 
 
 the establishment of the kingdom. The 
 narrative, in its present form, seems to be¬ 
 long to the prophetic period, and date, in 
 the main, from the beginning of the reign 
 of David. Tradition ascribes its origin to 
 Samuel; and in this there is probably a 
 measure of truth.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 See Commentaries by Kiel (1863, Eng. 
 trans. Edinburgh, 1865); Cassel in Lange s 
 Com. (New York, 1872); Hervey in Speak¬ 
 er's Commentary. 
 
 Judgment, Day of. The Old Testament 
 is full of declarations of coming judgments 
 of God, sometimes executed by virtue of 
 prerogative as King, sometimes as one of 
 the works of the promised Messiah. When 
 our Lord declared his kingdom he spoke 
 emphatically of this judgment, and con¬ 
 nected it, not with ideas of abstract justice 
 and retribution, but with his own especial 
 work. He (the Father) hath given him 
 (the Son) authority to execute judgment, 
 because he is the Son of man. It is evi¬ 
 dent that there have been many rehearsals 
 of the great consummating judgment to 
 come. The language of our Saviour re¬ 
 specting the fall of Jerusalem in Matt, 
 xxiv. cannot be taken as other than a pre¬ 
 diction of judgment, and the Book of Rev¬ 
 elation so treats the downfall of imperial 
 Rome. And we need none to tell us that 
 the judgment of God upon sin is a part of 
 the individual experience. But all creation 
 moves to ‘ ‘ one far-off event; ” “ it is groan¬ 
 ing and travailing, waiting for the mani¬ 
 festation of the sons of God.” How far 
 the sublime passage which closes the proph¬ 
 ecy of Matt. xxv. has been realized by 
 human imagination we cannot tell. It is 
 one of the hidden things of God. To some 
 writers that passage has appeared as “ the 
 Great Assize,” the gathering together in 
 one view all who have ever lived on the 
 face of the earth. Pictorial art, as in the 
 great picture of Michael Angelo, has striven 
 to realize it, and it is one of the commonest 
 subjects of elaborate sculpture on cathe¬ 
 dral doors. But the inadequacy of any such 
 attempts becomes to other interpreters an 
 argument against such views, which seem 
 to them, at best, only parables of a truth 
 too tremendous for the intellect or imag¬ 
 ination to grasp. They maintain that the 
 prophecy is a declaration that, as with in¬ 
 dividuals, so with churches and with na¬ 
 tions; they are all gathered before the 
 throne of the Judge. Not only Christians 
 but heathens are judged by him “ because 
 he is the Son of man.” To realize that 
 Christ is the Son of man exalted to the 
 throne of God—this is the foundation of all 
 Christian belief and knowledge. Those 
 who have so realized it can wait for his 
 
Jud 
 
 ( 498 ) 
 
 jul 
 
 second coming, and humbly and prayerful¬ 
 ly await the fulfilment and explanation of 
 the profession that then “ he shall judge 
 the quick and the dead.”—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. See Eschatology. 
 
 Judith. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Judson, Adoniram, the missionary apos¬ 
 tle of Burmah; b. Aug. 9, 1788, at Malden, 
 Mass.; d. on board a vessel off the coast 
 of Burmah, April 12,1850. He was graduat¬ 
 ed at Brown University in 1807. He en¬ 
 tered Andover Seminary the following 
 year, and although deeply interested in the 
 subject of religion, he did not make a pro¬ 
 fession of faith until some months later. 
 His attention was drawn to the need of 
 missionary service, and in 1812 he was or¬ 
 dained and commissioned with four others 
 —Nott, Newell, Hall, and Rice—as a mis¬ 
 sionary to India. He went out under the 
 direction of the American Board, but on 
 the voyage to Calcutta his views in regard 
 to the mode of baptism changed, and he 
 and Mrs. Judson were baptized by immer¬ 
 sion in the Baptist church at Calcutta. 
 His work soon after was done under the 
 care of the American Baptist Missionary 
 Union. The East India Company would 
 not allow him to labor in India, and in 1813 
 he removed to Rangoon, Burmah. Here 
 he labored with characteristic vigor, and 
 became a proficient scholar in the native 
 language. It was six years before he bap¬ 
 tized his first convert in Burmah. During 
 the war of England against Burmah, 1824- 
 26, both Mr. and Mrs. Judson suffered 
 great hardship. For seventeen months he 
 was imprisoned in the jails of Ava and 
 Oung-pen-la, much of the time bound in 
 fetters. But for the heroic devotion and 
 efforts of his noble wife, it is not probable 
 that he would have escaped alive. Worn 
 out with the heavy strain that had been 
 put upon a never robust body, Mrs. Ann 
 Hasseltine Judson died, Oct. 24, 1826. 
 
 In 1830 Judson began to preach to the 
 Karens, and in 1835 he completed the re¬ 
 vision of the Old Testament in the Bur¬ 
 mese language, and in 1837 that of the New 
 Testament. In 1845 he returned for the 
 first time to his native land. On the voy¬ 
 age his second wife, the widow of Dr. 
 Boardman, died at St. Helena. It is seldom 
 that as general interest and enthusiasm is 
 aroused as that which greeted this noble 
 man. In the summer of 1846 he returned to 
 Burmah, having married, not long before, 
 Miss Emily Chubbuck, of Eaton, N. Y., 
 who afterward wrote under the name 
 of “ Fanny Forester.” The remaining 
 years of his life were occupied mostly in 
 editing a dictionary of the Burmese lan¬ 
 
 guage. His health, however, was broken, 
 and he died while making a voyage to the 
 Isle of Bourbon. He lived to see hundreds 
 in Burmah converted to Christ, and his 
 name holds an exalted place in the history 
 of modern missions. See Life and Labors 
 of Adoniram Judson , D. D ., by Francis 
 Wayland; also Life of Adoniram Judson , 
 by his son, the Rev. Edward Judson (1887). 
 
 Juggernaut, a town in Orissa, Bengal, 
 famous as a place of pilgrimages. It is 
 estimated that a million pilgrims visit every 
 year the Hindoo god, Vishnu, whose tem¬ 
 ple is here. This temple was completed 
 in 1198, and its name is a corruption of the 
 Sanscrit word Jaggdnatha — i.e.,“ The Lord 
 of the World.” The image is carved from 
 a block of wood, painted black, and having 
 hideous features. There are two other 
 idols in the temple, Siva, white; and Sud- 
 hadra, yellow. At the festival in March 
 these idols are drawn through the streets 
 on heavy cars. The pilgrims in great 
 crowds follow them, and in their frenzy 
 many throw themselves before the cars, 
 and are crushed to death. In recent years 
 European influence has mitigated to some 
 extent the more cruel and revolting part of 
 this worship. 
 
 Ju'lian, “ surnamed the Apostate , on ac¬ 
 count of his renunciation of Christianity; 
 Roman Emperor 361-363 A. D., was b. at 
 Constantinople, Nov. 17, 331, and was the 
 son of Julius Constantius, the brother of 
 Constantine the Great. His proper name 
 was Flavius Claudius Julianus. He and 
 his brother Gallus, who were too young to 
 be dangerous, were spared when Constan¬ 
 tius II., son of Constantine, massacred the 
 rest of the imperial family. They were, 
 however, removed to a castle in Cappado¬ 
 cia, where they were subjected to a system 
 of rigorous espionage. Julian’s life was 
 very miserable, and the monkish education 
 which he received produced no other re¬ 
 sult than a strong detestation of the 
 religion professed by his tormentors. He 
 was fond of literature and speculation, and 
 he instinctively turned away from the rude 
 asceticism, gloomy piety, and barbarous 
 janglings of Homodusians and Homoiou- 
 sians, to the cheerfulness, refinement, and 
 pure intellectual meditativeness of the old 
 Greek philosophers. Some of his teachers 
 appear to have been (secretly) pagans, for 
 the sudden change in the state religion 
 brought about by Constantine had necessi¬ 
 tated a great deal of hypocrisy, especially 
 among scholars and government officials. 
 At the age of twenty Julian was at heart a 
 disbeliever in the divine origin of Chris¬ 
 tianity. On the death of his brother Gal- 
 
Jul 
 
 ( 499 ) 
 
 Jun 
 
 lus, he was removed by Constantius to 
 Milan, but was subsequently allowed to go 
 to Athens, the home of Greek learning, 
 where he gave himself up to philosophical 
 pursuits, and enjoyed that cultivated soci¬ 
 ety, which he so highly relished. The 
 emperor—though still jealous and sus¬ 
 picious—now conferred on him the title of 
 Caesar, and sent him to Gaul to protect it 
 from the incursions of the Germans. Julian 
 defeated the Alemanni at Strasburg (357 
 A. D.), and compelled the Franks to make 
 peace. His internal administration in Gaul 
 was mild and judicious. His popularity, 
 in consequence, became very great, and 
 when Constantius ordered him to set out 
 for the East, Julian’s soldiers rose in insur¬ 
 rection and proclaimed their favorite em¬ 
 peror, who most reluctantly acceded to 
 their demands. The death of Constantius 
 at Mopsocrene, in Cilicia, Nov. 3, 361 a. d., 
 removed the only obstacle out of his way; 
 and on Dec. 11 he made a triumphal en¬ 
 trance into Constantinople. He now pub¬ 
 licly avowed himself a pagan, but surprised 
 both Christians and pagans by his edict of 
 toleration. Yet he was not absolutely im¬ 
 partial, for he chose most of his officers 
 from the professed followers of the old 
 religion, and compelled the Christians to 
 contribute to the restoration of the heathen 
 temples. In 362 A. d. he made great prep¬ 
 arations at Antioch, in the hope of bring¬ 
 ing the war with the Persians to a success¬ 
 ful termination; and in the following year 
 advanced to Ctesiphon and across the 
 Tigris, but want of provisions and treach¬ 
 ery necessitated his retreat. He was fol¬ 
 lowed and attacked by the enemy, who 
 were repeatedly repulsed, but in one of the 
 engagements he was mortally wounded by 
 an arrow, and died, June 26, 363. Julian 
 was both a great monarch and a great man. 
 His rule, compared with that of many of 
 the so-called Christian emperors, was just, 
 liberal, and humane; and though only 
 thirty-two years of age when he perished, 
 he had composed a great number of ora¬ 
 tions, letters, satires, and even poems 
 (collected and published by Spanheim in 
 1696). Among his last works are his 
 Refutation of the Christian Religion , and 
 memoirs of his German campaigns and his 
 diary. Julian appears to have been more 
 attached to philosophy than religion, and 
 to have more readily apprehended as truth 
 what commended itself to the intellect, 
 than what spoke to the heart. See Nean- 
 der: Ueber den Kaiser Julian; Strauss: Der 
 Rornantiker auf detn Throne der Casaren; also 
 the works of Mangold, Semisch, and Rode 
 (1877) on Julian.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Julius. The name of three popes: Jul¬ 
 
 ius I. ( 337 - 352 ); II. (1503-1513); HI. 
 (1550-1555). See Popes. 
 
 Julius Africanus, Sextus, a great eccle¬ 
 siastical scholar, who flourished early in the 
 third century. He lived in Emmaus (Ni- 
 copolis), in Palestine. His chief work was 
 his Chronographia, a history of the world, 
 beginning with the creation, 5499 b. c., and 
 closing with the third year of the reign of 
 Heliogabalus. Only fragments have come 
 down to us. 
 
 Jumpers, a name given to certain Welsh 
 enthusiasts in the last century, who intro¬ 
 duced into their worship the practice of 
 dancing and jumping. The practice started 
 with the Welsh Methodists, who quoted 
 the passages, “ David danced before the 
 Lord with all his might. . . . Michal saw 
 David leaping and dancing before the Lord 
 (2 Sam. vi. 14-16), and “ Rejoice ye in the 
 day, and leap for joy." (Luke vi. 23.) The 
 jumping usually followed the sermon, and 
 was accompanied by singing, Mr. Wesley 
 thought these people were sincere but ig¬ 
 norant, and having “ little experience of 
 the ways of God or the devices of Satan.” 
 See Tyerman: Life of John Wesley, vol. ii., 
 pp. 480, 481. 
 
 Ju'niper, a shrub of the broom family. 
 It is found in the sandy region of Arabia, 
 northern Africa and Spain, and is very 
 abundant in the desert of Sinai. Growing 
 to a height of about twelve feet it affords a 
 grateful shelter to travelers, who often lie 
 down to rest at mid-day under its shade. 
 The roots of the juniper are quite large, 
 and the Bedouins make an excellent quality 
 of coal from them, which they sell at Cairo 
 and other towns. Sometimes its bitter 
 roots have been used for food. (Job xxx. 4.) 
 
 Junkin, George, D. D., LL. D., a prom¬ 
 inent Presbyterian minister and instructor; 
 b. near Kingston, Pa., Nov. 1, 1790; d. 
 in Philadelphia, May 20, 1868. He was 
 graduated at Jefferson College, and after 
 studying theology under Dr. John M. Ma¬ 
 son, he was pastor successively at Milton 
 and McEwensville, Pa. In 1832 he became 
 president of Lafayette College. He re¬ 
 mained here until 1841, when he accepted 
 the presidency of Miami University. In 
 1844 he returned to Lafayette, and in 1848 
 became president of Washington College, 
 at Lexington, Va. At the breaking out of 
 the f war in 1861 he returned to the North. 
 During his active life Dr. Junkin was prom¬ 
 inent in the councils of the Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church (Old School). He was the ac¬ 
 cuser of Albert Barnes in his famous trial. 
 Among his works are: Treatise on Justifi- 
 
Jus 
 
 (500) 
 
 Jus 
 
 cation (1839); Commentary on the Hebrews 
 (Philadelphia, 1873). 
 
 Justification. The exact signification of 
 the words justification and justified , which 
 occur repeatedly in St. Paul’s Epistles, has 
 been the subject of prolonged controversy. 
 That they imply a state in which the sin¬ 
 ner, by reason of the redemption effected 
 by Christ, is become acceptable to God, 
 is not disputed; but two different views 
 have been taken of the way in which this 
 acceptableness is brought about. These 
 views maybe briefly stated thus:—Theone, 
 that God accounts the sinner to be right¬ 
 eous because the righteousness of Christ 
 is imputed to him; the other, that God 
 makes the sinner righteous by infusing the 
 righteousness of Christ into him. In the 
 former case, the word “ justify ” is used in 
 the forensic sense of “ acquit,” “pronounce 
 guiltless;” and, although the primary sig¬ 
 nification of the Greek verb is “ to make 
 righteous,” yet it is frequently found in 
 Holy Scripture in the sense of accounting 
 or regardmg a person as righteous. Thus, in 
 Luke x. 29 we have, “ He, willing to jus¬ 
 tify himself” — i. e., wishing to make him¬ 
 self out righteous; xvi. 15, “ Ye are they 
 that justify yourselves before men”— i. e., 
 present the appearance of righteous men; 
 vii. 29, “All the people justified God”— 
 i. e., acknowledged God’s justice; xviii. 14, 
 “ This man went down to his house justi¬ 
 fied rather than the other”— i. e., counted 
 righteous before God; Matt. xii. 37, “ By 
 thy words thou shalt be justified”— i. e., 
 acquitted. In all these sentences the word 
 is used in a sense more or less connected 
 with the ideas of acquittal, pardon, accept¬ 
 ance, or approbation— i. e., in a legal or ju¬ 
 dicial sense. And the same is to be observ¬ 
 ed of its use in the Old Testament— e. g ., 
 Deut. xxv. 1; 1 Kings viii. 32; Prov. xvii. 
 15, etc. On the other hand, there is no in¬ 
 stance of its use in Holy Scripture in the 
 sense of “ making righteous.” The usage 
 of the word elsewhere is, therefore, re¬ 
 garded as in favor of the view that the 
 terms justification and to justify , in the 
 Epistle to the Romans, imply the imputa¬ 
 tion of the merits of Christ to the sinner, 
 rather than the mfusion of righteousness 
 into him; and to this view support is said 
 to be given both by detached expressions, 
 and also by the whole course of St. Paul’s 
 argument in the earlier chapters of this 
 epistle. It is stated (iv. 9) that Abraham’s 
 faith was reckoned for righteousness; in^iii. 
 24—26, the remissiofi of sins is equivalent to 
 the act of justifying; while in v. 18 condem¬ 
 nation and justification are opposed to one 
 another. Moreover, St. Paul’s argument is 
 that all have sinned—all, Jews as well as 
 
 Gentiles; all are condemned by a law, the 
 Jews by the Mosaic Law, the Gentiles by 
 the law of nature under which they lived. 
 All, without exception, need release from 
 this condemnation. This cannot be effected 
 by the works of a law, whether of Moses 
 or of nature, because it is through law that 
 the condemnation has passed upon all men. 
 God has revealed the remedy. It is the 
 righteousness of God through faith in Jesus 
 Christ unto all them that believe—that is 
 to say, justification. And justification, be¬ 
 ing thus contrasted with condeitination , 
 must mean pardon for sins committed and 
 deliverance from condemnation incurred: 
 such pardon and deliverance are implied in 
 unputed righteousness, but not in infused 
 or imparted righteousness. St. Paul’s 
 teaching, therefore, appears to be that the 
 justification of the sinner is effected by 
 the imputing to him the righteousness of 
 Christ. 
 
 A further controversy with regard to 
 justification disputes whether the instru¬ 
 ment by which man receives justification 
 from God is faith alone, or faith in con¬ 
 junction with the Christian graces of char¬ 
 ity. It is to be observed that St. Paul’s 
 argument in the Epistle to the Romans is 
 directed against the doctrine that justifica¬ 
 tion could be claimed by merit, through 
 obedience to the Mosaic law. This leads 
 him to the precise statement, “ We reckon 
 that a man is justified by faith apart from 
 the works of the law ” (iii. 28, Rev. Ver.); 
 but the same apostle in his Epistle to Ti¬ 
 tus, iii. 8, in close connection with the 
 words “ justified by his grace,” writes, 
 “ Faithful is the saying, and concerning 
 these things I will that thou affirm confi¬ 
 dently, to the end that they which have be¬ 
 lieved God may be careful to maintain 
 good works.” It is evident that he is not 
 concerned to separate works from faith, 
 except where any claims of merit and 
 worth are founded upon them. The dis¬ 
 tinction is drawn plainly by Hooker, Book 
 v., Appendix, p. 553: “To the imputation 
 of Christ’s death for the remission of sins 
 we teach faith alone to be necessary, 
 whereby it is not our meaning to separate 
 thereby faith from any other quality or 
 duty which God requireth to be matched 
 therewith, but from faith to seclude, in jus¬ 
 tification , the fellowship of worth through 
 precedent works. Nor doth any faith jus¬ 
 tify, but that wherewith there is joined both 
 hope and love. Yet justified we are by 
 faith alone, because there is no man whose 
 works in whole or in particular can make 
 him righteous in God’s sight.” And the 
 homily on salvation, Part I., puts the mat¬ 
 ter thus: “ Faith doth not shutout repent¬ 
 ance, hope, love, dread, and the fear of 
 
Jus 
 
 (501) 
 
 Jus 
 
 God, to be joined with faith in every man 
 that is justified; but it shutteth them out 
 from the office of justifying.” Having re¬ 
 gard on the one hand to St. Paul’s words 
 —Rom. iii. 24, “ Being justified freely by 
 his grace;” ch. iii. 28, “Justified by faith 
 apart from the works of the law;” ch. v. 1, 
 “ Justified by faith;” ch. v. 9, “ Justified 
 by his blood;” and Gal. ii. 16, “ Justified 
 by faith in Christ, and not through the 
 works of the law;” and, on the other hand, 
 to his positive assertion—1 Cor. xiii. 2— 
 that faith is worthless unless conjoined with 
 love, it is concluded that the instrument of 
 justification is faith alone, but such faith 
 only as is productive of good works, or, at 
 least, is capable of producing them where 
 the opportunity is given. Regarding jus¬ 
 tification, then, as the imputation of Christ’s 
 righteousness to the sinner, and faith as 
 the instrument by which the sinner re¬ 
 ceives justification, it is concluded further 
 that justification is the free gift of God, 
 and that its meritorious cause is the atone¬ 
 ment made by Christ—“ Who died for our 
 sins, and rose again for our justification.” 
 Man is put in possession of this free gift 
 through the operation of the Holy Spirit 
 (1 Cor. vi. 11), who is thus the efficient 
 cause of justification. The Church holds 
 that the channels of the conveyance of this 
 gift are those of the ministry of the Word 
 and Sacraments, especially the sacrament 
 of Baptism (see Rom. vi. 4-8)—“ We were 
 buried therefore with him through baptism 
 
 into death.He that hath died is 
 
 justified from sin.” 1 Cor. vi. 11., “But 
 ye were justified in the name of the Lord 
 Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God;” 
 Titus iii. 5, 7, etc., and faith is in the in¬ 
 ternal instrument by which man becomes 
 the “ recipient of God’s bounty.” While, 
 however, we distinguish between the im¬ 
 putation of Christ’s righteousness ”— i. e., 
 justification—and “the infusion of his 
 righteousness ”— i. e., sanctification—such 
 a phrase as “ justification of life ” (Rom. 
 v. 18) makes it plain that, while justifica¬ 
 tion and sanctification are distinct, they are 
 not separate; the making righteous follows 
 on the accounting righteous; where justi¬ 
 fication is accepted, there sanctification will 
 follow. It is hardly necessary to add, 
 after all that has been written on the sub¬ 
 ject, that there is no opposition between 
 St. Paul’s language about justification “ by 
 faith apart from the works of the law,” 
 and that used by St. James, who writes 
 that “ by works a man is justified, and not 
 only by faith.” The two apostles treat the 
 subject from different points of view, and 
 the works spoken of by the latter are not 
 the works of the Law, but works which 
 are the fruits of a lively faith. Both would 
 
 hold that faith, to be justifying faith, must 
 be, not dead, but living and productive.— 
 Benham : Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Justin Martyr, “a father, and, after Ter- 
 tullian, the most distinguished apologist of 
 the Christian church, was a native of Flavia 
 Neapolis, a Roman city erected on the site 
 of the ancient Shechem in Samaria. The 
 date of his birth is variously assigned to 
 the years 89, 113, 114, and 118 A. D. His 
 father, Priscus, was a heathen, and Justinus 
 was educated in the religion of his father. 
 He became an ardent student of the philos¬ 
 ophy of his age, beginning with the school 
 of the Stoics, but finally adhering to that 
 of the Platonists. With the last, as he 
 himself relates, he was in the commence¬ 
 ment highly satisfied; but, as he was one 
 day wandering along the sea-shore, he en¬ 
 countered a man of mild and venerable as¬ 
 pect, who created in Justinus’ mind a de¬ 
 sire for higher knowledge than Plato had 
 reached, referring him to the study of the 
 Jewish prophets, and through them to the 
 great Christian teacher whom they fore¬ 
 told. The result was his conversion to 
 Christianity, at” some date between 119 and 
 140 A. d. After his conversion he retained 
 the garb of a philosopher, but, as a Chris¬ 
 tian philosopher, he strove by his writings 
 and his instructions to bring others to the 
 truth which he had himself discovered. 
 He is said to have been beheaded about the 
 year 165, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 
 because he refused to offer sacrifice to the 
 heathen gods. His death is attributed by 
 the ancients to the enmity and malignant 
 arts of the Cynic philosopher, Crescens. 
 The works of Justinus, although not very 
 voluminous, are highly interesting and im¬ 
 portant. The books ascribed to him with 
 certainty are two Apologies for the Chris¬ 
 tians , the first addressed ‘ to Antoninus 
 Pius,’ the second ‘ to the senate;’ a Dialogue 
 with Tryphon the Jew , which professes to 
 be the record of an actual discussion held 
 at Ephesus. The Address to the Greeks is 
 no longer held to be a genuine work of 
 Justinus.’ The Exhortation to the Greeks , 
 the Letter to Diognetus, and a work On the 
 Monarchy of God , an argument against the 
 polytheism of paganism, and other works 
 once ascribed to him, are certainly spuri¬ 
 ous. The first edition of his works is that 
 of Robert Stephens (Paris, 1551).”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopcedia. English translation of 
 Justin in Clark’s Ante-Nicene Christian 
 Library (Edinburgh, 1867). 
 
 Justinian I., Roman Emperor of the East, 
 from A. d. 527 to 565. Under the leader¬ 
 ship of Belisarius, his armies won many 
 victories in the East. But the great fame 
 
Kaa 
 
 ( 502 ) 
 
 Kan 
 
 of Justinian rests upon his codification of 
 the then existing Roman law, his Institu- 
 tiones, and three other legislative works, 
 Digesta , Codex , and Novella% forming, un¬ 
 der the general name of Corpus Juris Civilis , 
 the Roman law as now received in juris¬ 
 prudence. Justinian was a Christian, and 
 upheld his faith by the most strenuous and 
 often violent methods. In later life he 
 adopted heretical views regarding the per¬ 
 son of Christ. 
 
 PC. 
 
 Kaaba. See Mohammed. 
 
 Ka'desh (En-mish'pat, Ka'desh-Bar'- 
 nea, Mer'-ibah-Ka'desh), a place near the 
 southern boundary line of Canaan. (Num. 
 xxxiv. 4; Josh. xv. 3.) It was on the bor¬ 
 der of Edom (Num. xx. 16); not far from 
 Gerar (Gen. xx. 1), in the desert of Zin 
 (Num. xiii. 17, 26; xx. 14, 16; xxvii. 14; 
 xxxiv. 4; Deut. i. 19, 20), and was distant 
 from Sinai an eleven-days’ journey. (Deut. 
 i. 2.) Kadesh appears to have been the 
 rallying-place of the Israelites during their 
 wanderings. (Deut. i. 46.) Here Miriam 
 died and was buried, and the rock was smit¬ 
 ten for water (Num. xx. 1-21), and here the 
 people gathered .after theirforty years’ wan¬ 
 dering, and prepared for their march to Ca¬ 
 naan. (Num. xx. 1.) The location of Kadesh 
 was long a matter of dispute. Robinson, 
 Porter, and others identified it with 'Ain 
 el Weibeh. In 1842 Rowlands located it at 
 'Ain Qadis, and since that time this site has 
 been accepted by the most eminent author¬ 
 ities. The springs of 'Ain Qadis were re¬ 
 discovered by H. Clay Trumbull, in 1881. 
 As the result of his explorations and study 
 Dr. Trumbull says: “ All the conditions 
 of the Bible-text are met in Qadis , as in 
 no other suggested site. A Wady Qadis, 
 a Jebel Qadis, and an ’Ain Qadis are there. 
 Wady Qadis is an extensive hill-encircled 
 region of sufficient extent to encamp and 
 guard a host like Israel’s. Large portions 
 of it are arable. Extensive primitive ruins 
 are about it. Springs of rare abundance 
 and sweetness flow from under a high cliff. 
 By name and by tradition it is the site of 
 Kadesh. Just north of it is a lofty moun¬ 
 tain, over which is a camel-pass toward 
 Hebron. It lies just off the only feasible 
 route for an invading army from the direc¬ 
 tion of Sinai, or from east of Akabah, and 
 is well adapted for a protected strategic 
 point of rendezvous prior to an immediate 
 move northward. It is at that central posi¬ 
 tion of the southern boundary-line of Ca¬ 
 naan which is given to Kadesh in its later 
 mentions in the Bible-text. Its relations 
 to the probable limits of Edom, and to all 
 the well-identified sites of Southern Canaan, 
 
 and its distance from Mount Sinai, conform 
 tothe Bible record.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 s. v. See Palmer: Desert of the Exodus 
 (London, 1871), vol. ii., chap. 4; Robinson: 
 Biblical Researches in Palestine (Boston, 
 1874), vol. ii. pp. 175, 194: Trumbull: 
 Kadesh-Barnea (New York, 1883). 
 
 Kant, Emmanuel, was b. April 22, 1724, 
 in Konigsberg, in which place he spent his 
 entire life, dying there, Feb. 12, 1804. This 
 great philosopher and metaphysician may 
 be called the father of modern German 
 theology. Germany has always been a 
 home of deep thought and inquiry. Even 
 in mediaeval times it produced the great 
 mystics, such as Tauler. In the sixteenth 
 century it begat the Reformation, and out 
 of the same source, namely, profound medi¬ 
 tation upon things visible and invisible, 
 not as seen through the media of the 
 Church, or of evidences, but through con¬ 
 verse of the personal soul with God. The 
 Church of Rome was obnoxious, as resting 
 its claims on tradition; the seventeenth 
 century Deism of England and France, as 
 resting upon apologetic evidences. So far 
 from Germany rejecting either on religious 
 grounds, it was because each professed a 
 religious object that it was accepted at all. 
 When the claims of each were pronounced 
 insufficient, the attempt was made to find a 
 new ground for faith, namely, the internal 
 reason. Scripture was to be accepted on 
 the ground that it was in harmony with 
 that, not that it came with external proofs 
 in its hands. This is the origin of what is 
 known to us as German Rationalism. 
 
 Kant was born and educated at Konigs- 
 berg, and in 1770 was appointed Professor 
 of Logic and Metaphysics in his university. 
 He was so attached to his native place that 
 he hardly ever left it all his long life, and 
 never to go any distance. He never mar¬ 
 ried. It was not until he was fifty-seven 
 years old that he published the great work 
 which formed the basis of his philosophy, 
 Kritik der Reinen Vernunft (“ Critique of 
 the Pure Reason ”). He is said to have 
 been a splendid lecturer, illustrating from 
 travels, novels, all kinds of literature, with 
 wonderful profusion, and possessed of such 
 humor that he would keep a whole table in 
 a roar, while he preserved his own gravity 
 unshaken. But no sign of humor or light¬ 
 ness appears in his book. He writes with 
 deep gravity, as though cognizant of the 
 serious interest of his subject. It is impos¬ 
 sible to give any kind of conspectus of this 
 great work here. Kant’s philosophy was 
 opposed to that of Hume on one side, and 
 to the later views of Paley on the other. 
 We will quote F. D. Maurice’s admirable 
 summary: “ All three start from the moral 
 
Kan 
 
 ( 503 ) 
 
 Kar 
 
 ground. All three regard speculation, 
 philosophical or theological, as important 
 only for moral ends. Hume lays his ethical 
 groundwork in an easy happiness mainly 
 social, but which permits the amusement 
 of a free exercise of thought to those who 
 like that amusement. To remove impedi¬ 
 ments from this happiness he devotes him¬ 
 self to abstruse philosophy; he sweeps 
 away the doctrine of causality, the belief 
 in miracles, supernatural fears and hopes 
 generally. Paley lays his ethical ground¬ 
 work also in happiness, but not exactly in 
 easy social happiness. The world must be 
 kept in order. The polity of nations must 
 be upheld. There must be a motive violent 
 enough to hinder men from doing mischief. 
 The Will of God, which Hume had thrown 
 aside, is necessary for these purposes. 
 Such a Will must somehow be proved (mir¬ 
 acles Paley thinks the only sufficient proof) 
 to have given laws to man, and to have 
 confirmed those laws with sanctions of fear 
 and hope. Such a Will must somehow be 
 proved (Paley thinks the adaptations of 
 works to different ends a sufficient proof) 
 to have designed our world. Kant is no fine 
 gentleman. He has no special vocation as 
 the protector of drawing-rooms from re¬ 
 proaches of conscience, or fears of the fu¬ 
 ture. Neither does he perceive that it is 
 his function to provide the policeman with 
 those reproaches and fears to assist him in 
 his work. But he has a strong conviction 
 that there is an authority over him, which 
 does not suspend his liberty, but without 
 obedience to which he cannot enjoy his lib¬ 
 erty. The existence of this law for himself 
 and for his kind—for himself as one of a 
 kind—makes morality possible and real 
 for him. He devotes himself to abstract 
 philosophy like Hume, also with a moral 
 end always before him. But the results 
 are different, as the starting-point was 
 different. He accepts all Hume’s pos¬ 
 itive statements so far as they assert the 
 dignity of experience, so far as they make 
 that the key to knowledge. He accepts 
 Hume’s negative statements so far as they 
 show the baselessness of attempts to draw 
 principles out of experience which are not 
 in it. He says more than had ever been 
 said before of the limitation of the human 
 intellect. He says more than had ever been 
 said before of the helplessness of mere 
 speculation. But all this searching criti¬ 
 cism, all this denial lead us at last to the 
 conclusion, adopted without a single theo¬ 
 logical prejudice, arrived at by casting all 
 such prejudices aside, that there are eternal 
 grounds of morality, that they have their 
 basis in an Eternal Being, that conformity 
 with them is the condition of man’s eternal 
 blessedness.” 
 
 The rationalizing arguments for the be¬ 
 ing of a God which had been adduced by 
 the Deists, and which form the basis of 
 Paley’s natural theology, being rejected by 
 Kant, he put forth another, namely, the 
 needs of our moral nature. The sense of 
 responsibility within us necessitates our 
 freedom. Conscience says, You ought, 
 therefore you can. Nevertheless, reason 
 tells us we are not free. How is this diffi¬ 
 culty to be solved—the voice of conscience 
 against the testimony of fact ? It can only 
 be solved by the conclusion that the voice 
 of conscience is the harbinger of the future, 
 that we have instincts which cannot be 
 satisfied with temporal ends. Therefore 
 there must be a life beyond this, and a law 
 in whose light the soul shall find its per¬ 
 fect freedom. This is the doctrine to which 
 the name Transcendentalism has been 
 given. It was taken up and put into Eng¬ 
 lish methods of thought by Coleridge, and 
 is the basis of a great living school of Eng¬ 
 lish divines. Upon this basis Kant pro¬ 
 ceeded to construct his theory of Christi¬ 
 anity. But, setting aside all external 
 authority, as he did, his reconstruction was 
 simply an adaptation to his preconceived 
 ideas, executed by cutting away whatever 
 objective facts stood in its way. The his¬ 
 torical Christ might be true, but was not a 
 necessity; the ideal Christ sufficed, as rep¬ 
 resenting the necessary truth. “ It would 
 be unjust,” says Dr. Matheson in his ex¬ 
 cellent hand-book to the study of German 
 theology, “ to deny that the Kantian phi¬ 
 losophy has great and lasting merits, and 
 has left a claim to the gratitude of all. . . . 
 It has indirectly borne a testimony to the 
 truth of Christianity, for it has shown that 
 the ideas of Christianity are eternal ideas, 
 that the historical framework is the ex¬ 
 pression and embodiment of the deepest 
 instincts of the human heart.”—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Karaites (from the Hebrew Kara , to 
 read or recite), a Jewish sect which, un¬ 
 like the Rabbinites, rejects tradition and 
 strictly adheres to the letter of the Bible. 
 Their founder was Anan, a Babylonish 
 Jew, who flourished about the middle of 
 the eighth century. He accepted only the 
 twenty-four books of the Bible which are 
 in the Jewish canon. He spoke of Christ 
 with great respect as a wise, holy, and God¬ 
 fearing man. The number of Karaite Jews 
 has never been very large. In the Crimea 
 they number about six thousand, and at 
 Damascus, Constantinople, and Jerusalem 
 there are a few families. 
 
 Karens, a race of people found in differ¬ 
 ent parts of Burmah, living in temporary 
 
 
Keb 
 
 ( 504 ) 
 
 Kei 
 
 villages. Drs. Boardman and Judson were 
 the first missionaries who went among 
 them. They found them without any def¬ 
 inite forms of religion and with no priest¬ 
 hood, the slaves of oppressive Burman 
 masters. They received the truth of the 
 gospel gladly. Among the converts was 
 a slave, Kho-Thah-byu, whose freedom 
 had been purchased by the missionaries. 
 He had been a man of desperate and mur¬ 
 derous character, but after his conversion 
 he was indefatigable in his labors to win 
 his people to Christ. In 1882 there were 
 21,889 native church - members, and 432 
 Karen Baptist churches, with ninety-one 
 ordained and 293 unordained preachers. 
 They have a theological seminary at Ran¬ 
 goon with thirty-one students. See King: 
 Life of Boardman; Wayland: Life of fud- 
 son. 
 
 Keble, John, one of the most popular of 
 English sacred poets ; b. at Fairford, 
 Gloucester, April 25, 1792: d. at Bourne¬ 
 mouth, Mar. 29, 1866. He entered Corpus 
 Christi College, Oxford, in 1806 and was 
 made a fellow of Oriel in 1811. While 
 here he was brought into close relation 
 with Arnold, Pusey, Newman, and others 
 whose names have become so widely 
 known. Declining other opportunities in 
 the line of scholarly advancement, he 
 sought ordination and became curate of 
 East Leach and Burthorpe (1823), from 
 which he removed in 1825 to assume the 
 curacy of Hursley, Hampshire, where he 
 became vicar in 1835, and spent the re¬ 
 mainder of his life. From 1831 to 1841 he 
 held the lectureship of poetry at Oxford. 
 
 Keble was prominently connected with 
 the development of the Oxford, or Tracta- 
 rian movement, but it is as a writer of de¬ 
 votional poetry that he is most widely 
 known. His collection of sacred lyrics, 
 published under the title of The Christian 
 Year , appeared in 1827 and attained to 
 great popularity. Between 1827 and 1873, 
 when the copyright expired, a hundred 
 and forty editions had been called for. In 
 1839 Keble published a Metrical Version of 
 the Psalter , and in 1846 a collection of 
 poems for children, entitled Lyra Innocent- 
 ium. He also prepared an edition of the 
 Works of Richard Hooker , published at Ox¬ 
 ford in 1836. A few of Keble’s hymns have 
 found a place in English hymnals. Among 
 them are the well-known “O God of mercy, 
 God of might,” and the beautiful evening 
 song, “ Sun of my soul, thou Saviour 
 dear.” Keble prepared several of the once 
 famous Tracts for the I'itnes , and while in 
 sympathy with the extreme High-Church 
 party, he did not leave the communion of 
 the English Church. Genial and modest 
 
 in spirit, he was an earnest and impressive 
 preacher, and attractive in social inter¬ 
 course. See Tractarianism. 
 
 Ke'dron: See Kidron. 
 
 Keim, Carl Theodor, D. D., rationalis¬ 
 tic theologian and historian; b. at Stutt¬ 
 gart, Dec. 17, 1825; d. at Giessen, Nov. 17, 
 1878. He studied at Tubingen and Bonn, 
 and after teaching a few years he became 
 pastor in Esslingen, Wtirtemburg, 1856—59; 
 ordinary professor of historical theology 
 at the University of Zurich, 1860-73; at 
 Giessen from 1873 until his death. It was 
 as a student and historian of the beginnings 
 of Christianity that he won his great fame. 
 His fesus of Nazareth and the National 
 Life of Israel Zurich, 1867-72, Eng. trans. 
 London, 1873-82), is the most remarkable 
 life of Jesus that has been written, from a 
 rationalistic standpoint. His last work 
 was a series of Essays upon Points Connect¬ 
 ed with Primitive Christianity (Zurich, 
 1878). He was the most learned and emi¬ 
 nent historian of the Reformation in Swa¬ 
 bia. Theologically he belonged to the 
 school of Baur. He rejected the fourth 
 Gospel, but admitted the superhuman char¬ 
 acter of Christ. See sketch of his life by 
 H. Ziegler, prefixed to his Rom und das 
 Christenthum , published posthumously 
 (1881). 
 
 Keith, Alexander, D. D., famous as 
 the author of several works on prophecy; 
 b. at Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, 
 1791; d. in Buxton, Feb. 7,1880. He was 
 ordained as minister of St. Cyrus, Kin¬ 
 cardineshire, in 1816, and in 1824 published 
 his first work, Evidence of the Truth of the 
 Christian Religion , derived from the Literal 
 Fulfihnent of Prophecy. Forty editions of 
 this book were published in the author’s 
 life-time. Among his works are: The Signs 
 of the Times (1832); The Harmony of Proph¬ 
 ecy (1851); History and Destiny of the 
 World and of the Church (1861). In 1843 
 he aided in founding the Free Church of 
 Scotland. He early retired from the active 
 work of the ministry and devoted himself 
 to literary work. 
 
 Keith, George, b. in Aberdeen, Scotland, 
 about 1640; d. in Edburton, Sussex, about 
 1714. In early life he was an ardent 
 Quaker, and was associated with Robert 
 Barclay and George Fox in public discus¬ 
 sions for the defense of the sect. In 1684 
 he was imprisoned in Newgate for preach¬ 
 ing without license, and for refusing to 
 take an oath. Soon after this he sailed for 
 America, and became surveyor-general of 
 East Jersey. Visiting New England in 
 
Kem 
 
 ( 505 ) 
 
 Ken 
 
 1690, he became engaged in disputation 
 with Cotton and Increase Mather. On re¬ 
 turning to Philadelphia he became involved 
 in a doctrinal controversy with his own 
 people, that led to his founding a new sect 
 known as Christian Quakers or “ Keith- 
 ians.” Soon after, he entered the Church of 
 England, and became a missionary in 
 America among the Quakers, many of 
 whom were led by him to renounce their 
 faith. He returned to England in 1706, and 
 was appointed rector of Edburton, where he 
 died. He was a man of wide learning, and 
 wrote several volumes, among them, The 
 Standard of the Quakers Examined; or, An 
 Answer to the Apology of Robert Barclay 
 (1 702). See Tanney’s History of the Friends 
 (Phila. 1867). 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a, the author of the 
 De Imitatione Christi (“ The Imitation of 
 Christ”); b. in 1379 or 1380, at Kempen, 
 forty miles north of Cologne; d. July 26, 
 1471, at Zwolle, in the Netherlands. He 
 was educated at a famous school in Deven¬ 
 ter. In 1400 he entered the Augustine 
 convent at Mount St. Agnes, near Zwolle; 
 was ordained priest in 1413, and became 
 subprior in 1429. His life was uneventful, 
 and found its highest enjoyment in the 
 quiet of the convent cloisters and the culti¬ 
 vation of a mystical type of piety. He 
 wrote a number of works in Latin of a de¬ 
 votional character, but his fame rests upon 
 the De Imitatione Christi. This remark¬ 
 able book of spiritual meditations, next to 
 the Bible, has been more extensively used 
 as a manual of devotion than any other 
 work. Translated into many languages it 
 has passed through innumerable editions. 
 During the seventeenth century a heated 
 discussion arose as to the authorship of 
 the Imitation of Christ. Some ascribed it 
 to the learned chancellor of Paris, John 
 Gerson ( q. v.), others to an abbot of the 
 order of St. Benedict, John Gersen. As 
 to the chancellor, there is no contemporary 
 testimony favoring his claim, and the latter 
 appears to have been a mythical person, 
 brought forward to advance the interests 
 of the Benedictine order. The burden of 
 proof is altogether in favor of Thomas a 
 Kempis. See Kettlewell: The Authorship 
 of the De Ir)iitatione Christi (London, 1877). 
 
 Ken, Thomas, bishop of the Church of 
 England and author of the doxology, 
 “ Praise God from whom all blessings 
 flow ;” b. at Berkhampstead, Hertford¬ 
 shire, July, 1637 : d. at Longleat, March 
 19, 1711. He was a graduate of Oxford, 
 and fellow of Winchester, and prebendary 
 of the cathedral in 1669. He was with 
 Charles II. in his last hours and offered 
 
 him the sacrament, which the king refused, 
 while he respected the man who had faith¬ 
 fully admonished him in days of health 
 and prosperity. He was loyal to James 
 II., but was one of the seven bishops sent 
 to the Tower for refusing to read the 
 Declaration of Indulgence. After the ac¬ 
 cession of William and Mary, he was de¬ 
 prived, in 1691, of his see, and retired to 
 Longleat where he spent the rest of his 
 life. He was a man of devout spirit, and 
 fearless independence. He was the au¬ 
 thor of many well-known hymns; among 
 them are the Doxology, and “ Awake, my 
 soul, and with the sun,” and “ Glory to 
 thee, my God, this night.” Ken’s Poetical 
 Works with Life , by Hawkins, were pub¬ 
 lished in 4 vols., London, 1721; his Prose 
 Works, London, 1838. 
 
 Kendrick, Asahel Clark, D. D. (Union 
 College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1845), LL. D. 
 (Lewisburg University, Lewisburg, Penn., 
 1870), Baptist; b. at Poultney, Vt., Dec. 
 7,1809; was graduated at Hamilton College, 
 Clinton, N. Y., 1831; professor of Greek 
 in Madison University, Hamilton, N. Y., 
 1832-50, and since then has taught in the 
 Rochester(N. Y.) University and the Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary in same city. He was a 
 member of the American Bible Revision 
 Committee (1871-81) and has published 
 valuable translations : Olshausen’s Com¬ 
 mentary (1856-58), 6 vols.; Moll on He¬ 
 brews in Lange series (1868) ; Meyer’s 
 Connnentdry on John (1884). 
 
 Ken'ite {smith), a small tribe belonging 
 to the Midianites. They dwelt in the re¬ 
 gion east of the Gulf of Akabah, between 
 Palestine and Sinai. They are first men¬ 
 tioned in Abraham’s time. (Gen. xv. 19.) 
 Balaam mentions them in his prophecy. 
 (Num. xxiv. 21.) At a later period some 
 of them lived in the northern part of Ca¬ 
 naan (Judg. iv. 11), and some in the ex¬ 
 treme south, near Judah. (Judg. i. 16.) 
 Because of their kindness to Israel while 
 in the wilderness, Saul spared them and 
 allowed them to share in the spoils taken 
 from the Amalekites. (1 Sam. xv. 6; xxvii. 
 10; xxx. 29.) 
 
 Kennicott, Benjamin, an eminent He¬ 
 brew scholar; b. at Totnes, Devonshire, 
 April 4, 1718; d. at Oxford, Sept. 18, 1783. 
 Educated at Oxford, while still an under¬ 
 graduate he published two dissertations: 
 the first on The Tree of Life in Paradise, 
 and the second on The Oblations of Cain 
 and Abel, which were received with such 
 favor that he was made fellow of Exeter 
 College. His great life-work was the prep¬ 
 aration of his Hebrew Bible. Aided by 
 
Ken 
 
 ( 506 ) 
 
 Kid 
 
 large contributions for this purpose, a 
 number of learned scholars labored under 
 his directions in collating Hebrew manu¬ 
 scripts. Nine years were devoted to this 
 work, and Dr. Kennicott published an an¬ 
 nual account of the progress made. His 
 preference for the Samaritan Pentateuch 
 and neglect of the Massorah has been se¬ 
 verely criticised, but his service in textual 
 criticism merits the highest praise. 
 
 Kenosis. See Christology, p. 183. 
 
 Kenrick, Francis Patrick, American 
 Roman Catholic prelate; b. in Dublin, Dec. 
 3, 1797; d. in Baltimore, July 8, 1863. He 
 was educated at the Propaganda, Rome, 
 and came to this country in 1821. He be¬ 
 came coadjutor-bishop at Bardstown, Ky., 
 
 withhold their privileges. This authority 
 is based upon the declaration of Christ to 
 Peter, “ I will give unto thee the keys of 
 the kingdom of heaven,” etc. (Matt. xvi. 
 19.) They make this expression to refer 
 to the government of the Church as admin¬ 
 istered through its spiritual leaders. Ro¬ 
 man Catholics hold that this command gave 
 to Peter an authority above that of the 
 other apostles, while Episcopalians contend 
 that Christ regarded Peter as the represent¬ 
 ative of the apostles. 
 
 Khan. See Inn. 
 
 Kid'ron, or Ke'dron, a small stream, dry 
 in summer but swollen into a torrent in the 
 rainy season. It rises a mile and a half 
 northwest of Jerusalem, strikes the north- 
 
 GORGE OF THE KIDRON, NEAR THE MONASTERY OF MAR SABA. 
 
 1830; full bishop, 1842; archbishop of Bal¬ 
 timore, 1852. In 1859 the pope conferred 
 upon him and his successors the “ primacy 
 of honor,” which places the see of Balti¬ 
 more at the head of the Roman Catholic 
 clergy in the United States. He wrote 
 Theologia Dogmatica (Phila., 1839-40), 4 
 vols., and Theologia Moralis (Phila., 1841- 
 43), 3 vols. These works are in Latin and 
 are in use in all the Roman Catholic semi¬ 
 naries. He published an annotated and re¬ 
 vised translation of the New Testament, 
 and also of several books of the Old Tes¬ 
 tament, which rank among the best of the 
 Roman Catholic versions. 
 
 Keys, Power of the. This is the name 
 given to the authority, claimed by churches 
 of Episcopal polity, to communicate or 
 
 eastern corner of the wall of the city, and 
 passes through a deep gorge in the Valley 
 of Jehoshaphat, between Mount Moriah 
 and Mount Olivet, and continues its course 
 through a wild and dismal channel through 
 the wilderness of Judah, and passing the 
 curious and lonely convent of Mar Saba. 
 Its name, from a Hebrew root signifying 
 “ black,” may refer both to the gloom of 
 the valley through which it runs and the 
 historical associations connected with it. 
 Here Athaliah was executed (2 Kings xi. 16), 
 and the abominations of idol worship were 
 brought and destroyed. (2 Chron. xxix. 16; 
 xxx. 14; 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 6, 12.) The two 
 historic events of deepest interest connect¬ 
 ed with this stream are David’s crossing it 
 on his flight from Jerusalem when Absalom 
 rebelled (2 Sam, xv, 23, 30), and Christ’s 
 
Kil 
 
 ( 507 ) 
 
 Kin 
 
 crossing it on his way to Gethsemane. 
 (Johnxviii. 1; Mark xiv. 26; Luke xxii. 39.) 
 
 Kilham, Alexander, founder of the 
 “ New Connection of Wesleyan Method¬ 
 ists,” often called the “ Kilhamites;” b. 
 at Epworth, Eng., July 10, 1762; d. in 1798. 
 He became an itinerant minister under 
 Wesley in 1785, and was an earnest advo¬ 
 cate of the separation of the Methodists 
 from the Church of England. He was ex¬ 
 pelled from the London Conference in 1796, 
 and with a band of sympathizers formed 
 the “ New Connection.” See Methodism 
 in Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Kilian, St., was born in Ireland about 
 the middle of the seventh century. Im¬ 
 pelled by a strong desire to seek the con¬ 
 version of those in paganism, he visited 
 Franconia with eleven companions in 685. 
 Desiring full authority in his mission he 
 was consecrated bishop in 686 by Pope 
 Conon. Within a short time a large part 
 of the population were converted. Gos- 
 pert, the governor of the province, had 
 married Geila, the wife of his brother, and 
 after his conversion Kilian persuaded him 
 to give her up. In revenge Geila caused 
 Kilian and his companions to be assassinat¬ 
 ed, July 8, 689. According to tradition, 
 Geila, Gosbert and his descendants suffer¬ 
 ed violent death. 
 
 Kimchi, David, a learned Jewish rabbi; 
 b. in 1160; d. about 1240. He was a pro¬ 
 lific writer, and prepared a Hebrew gram¬ 
 mar, which has been used as the basis of 
 nearly all modern works. He wrote a 
 commentary on the Psalms, Genesis, and 
 all the prophetical books. His commen¬ 
 tary on Zechariah was translated into Eng¬ 
 lish by McCaul (London, 1837). 
 
 King, Jonas D. D., b. at Hawley, Mass., 
 July 29, 1792; d. at Athens, Greece, May 
 22, 1869. Graduating at Williams College, 
 1816, and Andover Seminary 1819, he first 
 engaged in home-mission work. From 
 1823 to 1825 he traveled in Egypt and 
 Syria. In 1828 he relinquished the pro¬ 
 fessorship of languages at Amherst Col¬ 
 lege, and went to Greece as a missionary. 
 His labors there were attended with great 
 difficulties, owing to the opposition of the 
 Greek Church. In 1844 he published a 
 book on Mariolatry, which was condemned 
 by the Greek Synod. At their instigation 
 he was brought to public trial. He was 
 condemned to be tried before the felon’s 
 court in Sj’ria. The excitement was in¬ 
 tense, and his life was threatened; but 
 through the efforts of British and Ameri¬ 
 can representatives the trial was post¬ 
 
 poned, and he was permitted to return to 
 Athens and resume his work. He suffered 
 from persecution at different times, but it 
 was not until 1852 that he was again 
 brought to trial. He was condemned to 
 fifteen days’ imprisonment, and to leave 
 the country. He spent one day in prison, 
 and the following day was taken to the 
 police-office, when, falling ill, he was re¬ 
 moved to his home and put under guard. 
 He protested, in the name of the United 
 States, of which he was now the consular 
 agent. In 1854 the king of Greece issued 
 an order freeing Dr. King from the pen¬ 
 alty of exile. He continued his work, in 
 the face of much petty persecution, until 
 the close of his life. He wrote several 
 volumes in Arabic, Greek, and French, 
 and did much in circulating school-books 
 and the Scriptures. See his Memoir (New 
 York, 1879). 
 
 King, Thomas Starr, an eminent Uni¬ 
 tarian minister; b. in New York City, Dec. 
 17, 1824; d. in San Francisco, Cal., March 
 4, 1864. The death of his father, who was 
 a Universalist minister, compelled him to 
 give up an academic course of education. 
 While engaged in business he made such 
 good use of his leisure moments that, in 
 1845, he entered the ministry. In 1846 
 he was settled as pastor of a Universalist 
 church in Charlestown, and from 1848 to 
 i860 over the Hollis Street Unitarian 
 Church in Boston. In i860 he accepted 
 a call to San Francisco, where he labored 
 until his death. His influence in this city 
 in favor of the Union cause at the break¬ 
 ing out of the civil war was very great. 
 He was an eloquent orator and a pleasing 
 writer. Several collections of his lectures 
 and sermons have been printed. He pub¬ 
 lished but one book: The White Hills: 
 Their Legends , Landscapes, and Poetry 
 (1859), but several volumes of his lectures 
 and sermons have appeared since his death. 
 See Afemoir, by E. P. Whipple, in volume 
 of sermons (Boston, 1877). 
 
 Kingdom of Heaven (Gr. the heavens')'. 
 of God. “The former is Matthew’s phrase, 
 the latter Mark’s and Luke’s ; derived 
 from Dan. ii. 44; iv. 26; vii. 13, 14, 27. 
 Messiah’s kingdom, as a whole, both in its 
 present spiritual invisible phase, the gos¬ 
 pel dispensation of grace, and also in its 
 future manifestation on earth in glory, 
 when finally heaven and earth shall be 
 joined. (John i. 51; Rev. xxi.; xxii.) Our 
 Lord’s parables designate several aspects 
 and phases of it by the one common 
 phrase, ‘ the kingdom of the heavens,’ 
 or, ‘ of God, is like,’ etc.”—Fausset: Bible 
 Cyclopedia. 
 

 Kin ( 508 ) Kin 
 
 Kingly Office of Christ. See Jesus 
 Christ, Three Offices of. 
 
 Kings of Israel. “ The name was given 
 in Israel first to Saul, then to David and 
 Solomon, and then to the rulers of Israel 
 and Judah, until the Captivity. The divine 
 plan was that God alone should be king. 
 But provision was made for the natural 
 desire of the people for a king like those 
 of other nations. (Deut. xvii. 14; 1 Sam. 
 viii. 9.) He was to be a native Israelite; 
 was not to multiply horses, nor take the 
 people back to Egypt, nor gather a harem, 
 nor accumulate great treasure; he was to 
 keep a copy of the Law by him, and study 
 it, to fear God, be obedient, humble, and 
 righteous. . . . The kings over the He¬ 
 brews were regarded as the representa¬ 
 tives of God, drawing their power and re¬ 
 ceiving their appointments from him. The 
 kings’ revenues were from crown-lands, 
 flocks, tithes, tributes, customs, presents, 
 trading, spoils of war, and enforced labor. 
 (1 Sam. viii.; 1 Kings xx.; 2 Chron. xxvii.) 
 During life they were surrounded by 
 splendor and signs of honor; after death 
 they were buried in the royal cemetery. 
 (1 Kings ii. 10.)”—Schaff: Bible Dict.,s. v. 
 
 Kings, I. and II. “ These books, like the 
 two preceding, formed originally one, and 
 appear as one in the Hebrew canon. The 
 division into two was the work of the 
 LXX., in which, as in the Vulgate, they 
 are designated severally as the ‘ Third and 
 Fourth Books of Kings ’—the books of 
 Samuel being called the First and Second. 
 They contain, as the title implies, the his¬ 
 tory of the nation under the kings, and the 
 narrative covers a period from its estab¬ 
 lishment under David to the fall of the 
 kingdom of Judah. It commences with the 
 death of David, and the accession of Solo¬ 
 mon, 1015 b. c. , and extends about the year 
 560 B. c. During this time the kingdom 
 falls into two, named respectively Israel 
 and Judah. For their sins both kingdoms go 
 into captivity, first Israel, and then Judah 
 130 years after. It is less a history of the 
 kings themselves than of the theocracy, in 
 which the prophets play a conspicuous and 
 important rdle, as it is according as their 
 words are listened to, or disregarded, that 
 the national fortunes are determined. The 
 author appears to have belonged to this 
 class, but who he was is uncertain. The 
 Talmud assigns the work to Jeremiah, but 
 this is improbable. The author writes 
 after the commencement of the Captivity, 
 and from the place of it, but he draws from 
 documents of an earlier date, and incorpo¬ 
 rates in his account narratives, many of 
 which look as if they proceeded from con¬ 
 
 temporaries. His object, which is didactic, 
 is to show how Israel, on the one hand, 
 because of her apostasy and persistent dis¬ 
 regard of the prophet’s word, fell into 
 deeper and deeper guilt, till she became 
 hopelessly demoralized, and had to be 
 driven from her land; and how Judah, on 
 the other hand, though she too must go 
 into captivity, might, if she repented, and 
 returned to the Lord, yet recover all her 
 forfeited privileges. 
 
 “ Contents. —The history is divided into 
 three parts, and gives an account (a) of the 
 Reign of Solomon, (b) of the Kingdoms of 
 Israel and Judah till the fall of the former, 
 and ( c ) of the Kingdom of Judah after the 
 dispersion of Israel till the captivity to 
 Babylon.” — Bagster: Bible Helps. See 
 Commentaries of Bahr in Lange (1872); 
 Rawlinson in Speaker's Commentary (Lon¬ 
 don, 1873). 
 
 Kingsley, Calvin, D. D., LL. D., a 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
 b. at Annsville, Oneida County, N. Y., 
 Sept. 8, 1812; d. at Beirut, Syria, April 6, 
 1870. After graduating at Allegheny Col¬ 
 lege, Meadville, Pa. (1841), he was ap¬ 
 pointed professor of mathematics in that 
 institution, and with the exception of two 
 years of pastoral service, he remained in 
 this position until 1856. He then became 
 editor of the Western Christian Advocate , 
 which service he continued until elected 
 bishop in 1864. In 1869 he visited China 
 and India on an episcopal tour, and had 
 reached Syria on his homeward journey 
 when he suddenly died. He published: 
 Resurrection of the Human Body (1845) ; 
 A round the World (IS 70). 
 
 Kings'ley, Charles, “ b. at Holne, near 
 Dartmoor, in Devonshire, June 12, 1819; 
 d. at Eversley, in Hampshire, Jan. 23, 
 1875; an English clergyman, from 1846 to 
 his death rector of Eversley, and from 
 1859 to 1869 professor of modern history in 
 the University of Cambridge. He is best 
 known, however, as a social reformer, and 
 as the author of many works of distinguish¬ 
 ed merit, which have a place quite their 
 own in the literature of the nineteenth cen¬ 
 tury. His first work to attract attention 
 was Alton Locke , Tailor and Poet (published 
 in 1850), the object of which was to illus¬ 
 trate, in the form of fiction, the evils of 
 competition and the grievances of the 
 working-classes. In 1851 he published 
 Yeast: A Problem , in which he considered 
 more particularly the condition of the ag¬ 
 ricultural laborers, and advocated what is 
 substantially a system of Christian social¬ 
 ism. The publication of these works gave 
 to Kingsley an audience among social re- 
 
Kir 
 
 ( 509 ) 
 
 Kit 
 
 formers such as is secured by few clergy¬ 
 men of the Church of England, or of any 
 church; but they were exceeded in power 
 by Hypatia ; or , New Foes with an Old Face 
 (1851); Westward Ho; or , the Voyages and 
 Adventures of Sir Amyas Leigh in the Reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth (1853); an d Two Years 
 Ago (1857). He also wrote a dramatic 
 poem, 'The Saints' Tragedy (1846); Androm¬ 
 eda (a long poem in hexameters), and sev¬ 
 eral shorter poems and ballads. Among 
 his other works are: Glaucus ; or, the Won¬ 
 ders of the Shore; The Water-Babies (an ex¬ 
 quisite story for children); and Hereward, 
 the Last of the English. He was also the 
 author of many smaller pieces, of two vol¬ 
 umes of Miscellanies , and of several vol¬ 
 umes of Sermons. He was appointed 
 canon of Chester in 1869, and, shortly be¬ 
 fore his death, canon of Westminster. His 
 Life and Correspondence , edited by his wife, 
 serve to show, not only his devotion and 
 courage and the remarkable earnestness 
 and unselfishness of his life, but also the 
 geniality and kindliness of his spirit, which 
 endeared him to all who knew him.”— Cas¬ 
 sell’s Ency. 
 
 Kirk, Edward Norris, D. D., an eminent 
 preacher and revivalist; b. in New York 
 City, Aug. 14, 1802; d. in Boston, March 
 
 27, 1874. He was graduated at Princeton in 
 1820, and commenced the study of law, but 
 soon decided to enter the ministry. After 
 completing his theological studies, and a 
 brief service as agent of the American 
 Board, he became pastor, in 1828, of a re¬ 
 cently organized Presbyterian church at 
 Albany. He remained here until 1837, 
 when ill-health compelled his resignation. 
 While visiting Europe he represented the 
 Evangelical Alliance, of which he was sec¬ 
 retary. Upon his return he accepted the 
 pastorate, in 1842, of the Mount Vernon 
 Congregational Church in Boston. He 
 preached here until 1871, when he accepted 
 the aid of a colleague. He was eminently 
 successful in his earlier years as a revival¬ 
 ist, and was an effective speaker and faith¬ 
 ful pastor. In later years he was almost 
 entirely blind. He published two volumes 
 of sermons and Lectures on Parables , be¬ 
 sides several small books issued by the 
 American Tract Society. See Life of Ed¬ 
 ward Norris Kirk , by D. O. Mears (1877). 
 
 Kirkland, Samuel, a famous missionary 
 among the Indians; b. in Norwich, Conn., 
 Dec. 1, 1744; d. at Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 
 
 28, 1808. After graduating at the College 
 of New Jersey in 1765, he entered the Con¬ 
 gregational ministry. He labored among 
 the Indians of the Six Nations and served 
 as a chaplain in the Revolutionary War. 
 
 He founded, in 1793, the Hamilton Oneida 
 Academy, from which Hamilton College 
 had its origin. 
 
 Kirk-Session is the lowest ecclesiastical 
 court in the Presbyterian churches of Scot¬ 
 land, consisting of the elders and the minis¬ 
 ter who presides. 
 
 Ki'shon, the present Nabr Mukutta. The 
 upper part, rising on Tabor and Little Her- 
 mon, is dry in summer, but a torrent in 
 winter. Fed by springs at the foot of Car¬ 
 mel, the stream is then perennial in its 
 flow, and, draining the plain of Esdraelon, 
 passes through the plains of Acre and falls 
 into the Mediterranean. In Psa. lxxx. 9, it 
 is called Ki'son. 
 
 Kiss of Peace. In the early Church this 
 form of salutation was in use as an expres¬ 
 sion of Christian affection. (Rom. xvi. 16; 
 
 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12; 1 Thess. v. 
 26; 1 Pet. v. 14.) The kiss of peace was 
 given to all, young and old. Origen and 
 Clement of Alexandria, with others, called 
 attention to some annoyances connected 
 with the custom, and in time certain restric¬ 
 tions were imposed. The custom still sur¬ 
 vives in the Eastern Church, but in the 
 Western it was superseded after the thir¬ 
 teenth century by the use of the “ osculato- 
 rium,” a plate of wood or metal with a 
 figure of Christ on the cross stamped upon 
 it. This was kissed, first by the priest and 
 then by all the people, as a token of their 
 mutual love. The plate is now given only 
 at high mass, and is embraced and not 
 kissed. 
 
 Kitto, John, D. D.; b. at Plymouth, 
 Eng., Dec. 4, 1804; d. at Cannstadt, Wiir- 
 temburg, Germany, Nov. 25, 1854. A fall 
 from a ladder when but thirteen years of 
 age caused total deafness for the rest of his 
 life. His father, who was a mason by 
 trade, was compelled to let his son for a 
 time find shelter in the Plymouth work- 
 house. Here he learned the trade of a 
 shoemaker, and in 1821 was apprenticed to 
 a master who treated him with such cruelty 
 that he was set free from his indentures by 
 judicial action. The gentlemen who were 
 interested in his case were so impressed 
 with his intellectual proficiency that they 
 secured for him the position of assistant 
 librarian at the public library of Plymouth. 
 His love of reading, with these increased 
 opportunities, was fully improved, and he 
 gave special attention to the study of the 
 Bible, and cherished the hope of becoming 
 a missionary. A Mr. Groves, a dentist of 
 Exeter, took him into his family and offer¬ 
 ed to teach him his profession. While 
 
Kli 
 
 ( 5io ) 
 
 Kno 
 
 here (1825) he published Essays and Letters, 
 by John Kitto , which attracted considerable 
 attention. Mr. Groves, who had decided 
 to become a missionary, learning that 
 printers were wanted to go to the foreign 
 stations of the Church Missionary Society, 
 generously paid the expense by which 
 Kitto fitted himself for this work. He was 
 at the Missionary College at Islington, in 
 1825, and from 1827 to 1829 was in the 
 service of the society at Malta, but his 
 health failed, and he became tutor to Mr. 
 Groves’ children during an extended tour 
 through the East. Finding that his deaf¬ 
 ness made it impossible to prosecute mis¬ 
 sionary labors he returned to England, and 
 engaged in the production of the biblical 
 works that have immortalized his name. 
 His Pictorial Bible was published in 1838; 
 History of Palestine , 1843; Daily Bible Il¬ 
 lustrations, 1848-53. The Cyclopcedia of 
 Biblical Literature , which he edited and 
 largely wrote, appeared in 1843-45. He 
 received the degree of D. D. from the Uni¬ 
 versity of Giessen in 1844. See Life of 
 Kitto, by J. E. Ryland (London, 1856), and 
 by John Eadie (Edinburgh, 1857). 
 
 Kling, Christian Friedrich, b. at Alt- 
 dorf, Wiirtemburg, Nov. 4, 1800; d. at 
 Marbach-on-the-Neckar, April, 1861. He 
 studied at Tubingen and Berlin, and spent 
 his life in pastoral duties and as pro¬ 
 fessor of theology at Marburg, 1832, and 
 at Bonn, 1842-49. He was a pupil of 
 Schleiermacher and Neander. He prepared 
 the commentary on the Epistles to the 
 Corinthians for Lange’s Bibelwerk , trans¬ 
 lated in Schaff’s edition of Lange’s Com¬ 
 mentary, N. Y., 1868. He contributed to 
 the leading theological reviews of Ger¬ 
 many, and prepared articles for Herzog’s 
 Encvclopcedia. 
 
 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, a Ger¬ 
 man religious poet ; b. at Quedlinburg, 
 Saxony, July 2, 1724; d. at Hamburg, 
 March 14, 1803. His poetical gifts found 
 early expression, and he planned to write 
 an epic poem. While studying theology 
 at Jena he decided to make the life of 
 Christ his subject. The first three cantos of 
 the Messiah appeared (1748) in the Brem- 
 ische Beitrage, published at Leipzig. They 
 attracted wide attention. In 1751 he went 
 to Copenhagen, where he received many 
 honors, and was given by Frederick V. 
 four hundred thalers. After the death of 
 the king he removed to Hamburg, where 
 he completed his Messiah. “ In a time in 
 which Lutheran orthodoxy had transform¬ 
 ed religion into a mere system of doctrines, 
 Klopstock made people feel that Chris¬ 
 tianity is something more—that it speaks 
 
 as well to the imagination and the senti¬ 
 ment as to the intellect. More especially, 
 he was the singer of the resurrection, and 
 of the coming of the kingdom of heaven; 
 and numerous proofs of the deep impres¬ 
 sion he produced can be found in the 
 German literature.”— Freybe. The most 
 complete edition of his works is that of 
 Herman Schmidlin (Leipzig, 1844-45). 
 The Messiah has been translated into Eng¬ 
 lish. 
 
 Knapp, Albert, an eminent German relig¬ 
 ious poet and hymnologist; b. in Tubingen, 
 July 25, 1798; d. in Stuttgart, June 18,1864. 
 He studied theology in Tubingen. In 1820 
 he became vicar at Feuerbach, and after¬ 
 ward at Gaisburg, and in 1845 was made 
 pastor of St. Leonhard’s Church, Stuttgart. 
 His first poetical work, Christian Poems , 
 was published in 1824. Other volumes 
 appeared at intervals, and altogether con¬ 
 tain over twelve hundred original hymns 
 and poems. He edited a valuable collec¬ 
 tion of hymns: Treasury of Hymns for the 
 Church and Home, and published some 
 biographies. 
 
 Kneeling, Genuflexion, Prostration. 
 Standing was the most common posture 
 in prayer among the Jews (Neh. ix. 2-4; 
 Matt. vi. 5; Luke xviii. 11, 13); but they 
 also knelt (2 Chron. vi. 13; Dan. vi. 10; 
 Ezra ix. 5), and sometimes prostrated 
 themselves. (Num. xiv. 5; Josh. v. 14; 
 1 Kings xviii. 39.) Kneeling or prostra¬ 
 tion was probably the general posture of 
 the early Christians in prayer. See art. 
 “ Genuflexion,” in Smith and Cheetham: 
 Diet, of Christian Antiquities, i. 723 sq. 
 
 Knollys, Hanserd, an eminent English 
 Baptist minister of the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury; b. in Chalkwell, Lincolnshire, 1598; 
 d. in London, Sept. 19, 1691. He was a 
 learned scholar and able preacher, but suf¬ 
 fered much for conscience’ sake. He was 
 educated at Cambridge and received orders 
 in the Episcopal Church. Having changed 
 his views regarding infant baptism, he join¬ 
 ed the Baptists and came to America. 
 After his arrival in Boston he became in¬ 
 volved in an unfortunate controversy with 
 the public authorities. He was the first 
 minister at Dover, N. H. Returning to 
 England in 1641, he formed a Baptistchurch 
 in London. He published: Flaming Fire in 
 Zion (1646) ; Rudiments of the Hebrew 
 Grammar (1648), and his Autobiography 
 (1672). The last work was completed by 
 Kiffin, 1692, and reprinted, 1813. 
 
 Knox, John, b. at Haddington, in East 
 Lothian, 1505; d, at Edinburgh, Nov. 24, 
 
Kno 
 
 ( 5ii ) 
 
 Kor 
 
 1572. He was the son of a small land- 
 owner, and was educated at the grammar 
 school of Haddington, whence he pro¬ 
 ceeded to Glasgow University, and is men¬ 
 tioned among the Incorporati in 1522. 
 There is no mention of his taking any de¬ 
 gree, nor does he appear to have made any 
 mark as a scholar during the years of his 
 education. He was ordained to the priest¬ 
 hood before 1530, and became professor of 
 logic, and tutor in the family of Hugh 
 Douglas, of East Lothian. Hitherto he 
 had adhered to the Romish doctrines in 
 which he had been educated, but about this 
 time Patrick Hamilton, who had been at 
 Wittenberg, and there adopted the Reform¬ 
 ed views, brought them back with him to 
 Scotland, and by degrees Protestantism be¬ 
 gan to make its way. Knox is said to have 
 first heard the Lutheran doctrines from 
 Thomas Guillaume, a disciple of Hamilton, 
 but the most direct influence was exerted 
 over him by George Wishart, to whom he 
 attached himself till Wishartwas seized and 
 burned as a heretic. Knox openly pro¬ 
 fessed himself a Protestant about 1544, and 
 in 1547 was called to officiate as Protestant 
 minister at St. Andrew’s, whither he had 
 fled from the persecution which raged 
 throughout Scotland. His ministry had 
 only lasted a few months when St. An¬ 
 drew’s was attacked by the French fleet; 
 the city capitulated, and Knox, with other 
 Protestant refugees, was condemned for 
 nineteen months to work at the galleys. 
 His health was injured for life by the suf¬ 
 fering which he endured, but he never 
 abandoned the hope of returning to carry 
 on his ministry. He was released early in 
 1549, and, finding that little good could be 
 done in Scotland, he took refuge first in 
 Berwick and afterwards in Newcastle, in 
 both places preaching and working with 
 untiring zeal. His fame having spread 
 southward, he was made Chaplain to Ed¬ 
 ward VI. in 1551, and was afterward offer¬ 
 ed the bishopric of Rochester, which he 
 refused, as being contrary to his principles. 
 During his stay in England, Knox married 
 the daughter of a gentleman of Northum¬ 
 berland, and in 1555 went with her to 
 Dieppe and then to Geneva, where he visit¬ 
 ed Calvin. He undertook the charge of 
 the Protestant church at Frankfurt-on- 
 Main, but hearing in 1559 that the persecu¬ 
 tions in Scotland were abating, he returned, 
 and arrived at a critical time. Some Prot¬ 
 estant preachers were on the point of be¬ 
 ing tried for their lives, and Knox, who 
 had been condemned in the early days of 
 the persecution, was again proclaimed as a 
 heretic. The Queen-Regent was alarmed 
 at the sympathy felt by the people for 
 these clergy, and the trial was put off. 
 
 Knox was appointed minister of the Church 
 of St. Giles, the parish church of Edin¬ 
 burgh, in 1560, and was there during the 
 remaining years of his life. His wife died 
 in the same year. On the accession of 
 Mary Queen of Scots, Knox’s fortitude was 
 put to the test. He preached openly in his 
 own church against the idolatry which a 
 Roman Catholic Sovereign was seeking to 
 force upon Scotland, and spoke in such 
 bold terms on the subject of her marriage 
 that he was sent for to Holyrood to answer 
 for his conduct. The queen desired that 
 in future he would tell her privately of 
 anything that he saw to be wrong, and on 
 his refusal, finding him indifferent to her 
 threats, she tried to conciliate him. Finally 
 he was summoned to trial on a charge of 
 treason, and was only acquitted after a 
 long examination and by a small majority. 
 It was a decided victory for the Protes¬ 
 tants, though in 1564 Knox was forbidden 
 to preach, in consequence of his having 
 given offence by a sermon preached after 
 the queen’s marriage with Lord Darnley. 
 This prohibition, however, lasted only till 
 her fall, in 1567, and the accession of King 
 James. After three years more of active 
 work he was seized in 1570 with a fit of 
 apoplexy, and though he recovered suffi¬ 
 ciently to be able to preach again from time 
 to time, he became gradually worse, and 
 died in 1572.—Benham: Diet . of Religion . 
 See Scotland, Church of; Taylor’s John 
 Knox (N. Y., 1885). 
 
 Ko'hath ( assembly ), the second son of Levi 
 (Gen. xlvi. 11), and founder of the great 
 Kohathite family of the priests. (1 Chron. 
 xxiii. 12.) They were Levites of the high¬ 
 est rank. The Kohathites encamped on 
 the south side of the tabernacle while in 
 the wilderness, and had charge of the ark, 
 table, and other parts of the tabernacle. 
 (Num. iii. 29-31; iv. 2, 34.) They had 
 twenty-three cities assigned them at the 
 conquest. (Josh xxi. 4, 5.) They helped 
 bring the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chron. xv. 
 5), and by their position as leaders not only 
 secured wealth, but served as judges and 
 other officers. (1 Chron. xxiii. 12; xxvi. 20- 
 26.) They acted also as temple-singers. 
 (2 Chron. xx. 19.) See Levites. 
 
 Kohathites. See above. 
 
 Ko'rah, a son of Izhar. (Exod. vi. 18, 21, 
 24.) He was the leader of the rebellion 
 against Moses and Aaron. (Num. xvi.; 
 xxvi. 9; xxvii. 3.) (See Moses.) Jude (v. 
 11) joins Korah with Balaam and Cain in 
 his warnings against false and self-seeking 
 teachers. The children of Korah became 
 prominent in the temple service. 
 
Kor 
 
 ( 512 ) 
 
 Kun 
 
 Ko'rahites, descendants of Korah. Some 
 of them were noted singers. (2 Chron. xx. 
 19.) Eleven of the Psalms have their name 
 (xl., xliv., xlix., lxxxiv., lxxxv., lxxxvii., 
 lxxxviii.). Others of the Korahites were 
 doorkeepers. (1 Chron. ix. 17-19.) One, 
 Mattithiah, was over “ things that were 
 made in the pans ” (1 Chron. ix. 31); prob¬ 
 ably the meat-offerings. 
 
 Koran. See Mohammed. 
 
 Kornthal. See Pietists. 
 
 Krauth, Charles Philip, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent Lutheran divine; b. in Montgomery 
 County, Pa., May 7, 1797; d. in Gettys¬ 
 burg, May 30, 1867. He was ordained in 
 1819; pastor in Philadelphia, 1827; pro¬ 
 fessor of biblical and Oriental literature at 
 Gettysburg, 1833; and at the same time 
 president of Pennsylvania College from 
 1834 to 1850. He was editor of the Evan¬ 
 gelical Quarterly Review from 1850 to 1861. 
 
 Krauth, Charles Porterfield, D. D., 
 LL. D., son of Dr. Charles Philip Krauth 
 (see above); b. at Martinsburg, Va., March 
 17, 1823; d. in Philadelphia, Jan. 2, 1883. 
 He was graduated at the Pennsylvania Col¬ 
 lege, Gettysburg, Pa., in 1839, and at the 
 Lutheran Theological Seminary in the same 
 place. He was pastor at Baltimore, Md., 
 1841-47; Shepherdstown, Va., 1847-4S; 
 
 Winchester, Va., 1848-55; Pittsburg, 1855 
 -59, and of several churches in Philadelphia 
 after 1859; professor of systematic theology 
 in the Lutheran Seminary at Philadelphia, 
 from 1864 until his death; professor of 
 mental and moral science, University of 
 Pennsylvania, from 1S68. In his day “ he 
 was by universal acknowledgment the most 
 accomplished scholar and theologian of the 
 Lutheran Church in the United States.” 
 He was a member of the Old Testament 
 Company of the American Bible Revision 
 Committee. Of his published works the 
 most important is The Conservative Refor¬ 
 mation audits Theology (Phila., 1872). See 
 Memoir , by A. Spaeth. 
 
 Krebs, John Michael, D. D., a prominent 
 Presbyterian minister; b. at Hagerstown, 
 Md., May 6, 1804; d. in New York City, 
 Sept. 30, 1867. He was graduated at 
 Dickinson College (1827), and at Princeton 
 Theological Seminary (1830), when he was 
 called to the pastorate of the Rutgers 
 Street Presbyterian Church, New York 
 City, in which connection he spent his life. 
 He held many positions of official influ¬ 
 ence. 
 
 Krummacher, Friedrich Wilhelm, an 
 
 eloquent German preacher, the son of 
 Friedrich Adolf, an eminent Reformed 
 pastor, was b. Jan. 28, 1796, at Mors on 
 the Rhine; d. Dec. 10, 1868, at Potsdam. 
 Educated at Halle and Jena, he became as¬ 
 sistant pastor at Frankfurt in 1819, and in 
 1823 accepted a call to Ruhrort. Two 
 years later he removed to Barmen, and 
 while here delivered his lectures on Elijah 
 and Elisha, that through translations are 
 so widely known in this country. In 1834 
 he accepted a call to Elberfeld, and while 
 there was called to the chair of theology 
 at Mercersburg, but declined. In 1847 he 
 became successor to Marheinecke in the 
 Trinity Church, Berlin, where he preached 
 boldly against rationalism. He labored 
 here until appointed court chaplain in 1868. 
 He took a deep interest in the organization 
 of the Evangelical Alliance. As a pulpit 
 orator he stood in the front rank, and was 
 an earnest defender of evangelical faith. 
 Among his best-known works, besides his 
 Elijah, are Salomo and Sulamith; The Suf¬ 
 fering Christ; and David , the King of Is¬ 
 rael. See Autobiography , edited by his 
 daughter (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1871). 
 
 Kuenen, Abraham, D. D. (Leyden, 1851), 
 b. at Haarlem, North Holland, Sept. 16, 
 1828; studied at the University of Leyden, 
 1846-51; and since 1851 has been professor 
 of theology there. He belongs to what is 
 known in Holland as the “ modern school 
 of theology,” which is liberal to the verge 
 of rationalism. He is the author of: His- 
 torico-critical Investigation into the Origin 
 and Collection of the Books of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment (1861-65, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1885); (an 
 English trans. of the first two chapters is 
 given by Bishop Colenso in his work on 
 the Pentateuch)', Israel, to the Fall of the 
 Jewish State( London, 1874), 3 vols.; Proph¬ 
 ets and Prophecy in Israel (1877); National 
 Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert 
 Lectures, 1882). 
 
 Kunze, John Christopher, D. D., an 
 eminent Lutheran minister and theologian; 
 b. at Artern, Prussian Saxony, Aug. 4, 
 1744; d. at New York, July 24, 1807. He 
 was educated at Leipzig, and came to this 
 country in 1770 to assume the pastorate of 
 St. Michael’s and Zion’s Lutheran congre¬ 
 gations in Philadelphia. He accepted a call 
 to a Lutheran church in New York in 1774, 
 and aided in founding the University of 
 New York, where he served as regent and 
 professor of Oriental languages and liter¬ 
 ature. He published a Hymn and Prayer 
 Book for the Use of such Lutheran Churches 
 as Use the English Language. This is sup¬ 
 posed to be the first Lutheran English 
 hymn-book ever edited. 
 
Kur 
 
 ( 513 ) 
 
 Lac 
 
 Kurtz (koorts), Benjamin, D. D., b. at 
 Harrisburg, Penn., Feb. 28, 1795; d. at 
 Baltimore, Md., Dec. 29, 1865. He was 
 one of the founders of the Gettysburg 
 Theological Seminary, and edited the Lu¬ 
 theran Observer from 1S33 to 1862. 
 
 Kurtz, Johann Heinrich, D. D. (Ros¬ 
 tock, 1849), Lutheran; b. at Montjoie, near 
 Aachen, Prussia, Dec. 13, 1809. He was 
 educated at Halle (1830), and Bonn (1831- 
 33); became head-master in religion at the 
 Mitau gymnasium, 1835; ordinary profess¬ 
 or of theology in Dorpat University, 1850; 
 professor emeritus, 1870. Since 1871 he 
 has resided at Marburg. Several of his 
 publications have been translated into 
 English, but the great work by which 
 he is best known is his History of the Chris¬ 
 tian Church (latest Eng. translation by J. 
 MacPherson, New York, 1890.), 3 vols. 
 
 Kyrie Eleison, the Greek of “ Lord, have 
 mercy,” a form of prayer which occurs in 
 the ancient Greek liturgies and in the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic mass. It is sometimes called 
 the “ Lesser Litany,” and is retained in the 
 liturgies of some Protestant churches. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labadie (/ a-ba-dee '), Jean DE, the found¬ 
 er of the Labadists; b. Feb. 13, 1610, at 
 Bourg, near Bordeaux; d. Feb. 13, 1674, at 
 Altona. Educated at the Jesuit college at 
 Bordeaux, where he made a special study 
 of the works of Augustine and St. Ber¬ 
 nard, he left his order, in 1639, and en¬ 
 tered upon his career as a preacher. His 
 sermons met with great popular favor, but 
 roused the opposition of the Jesuits. 
 While in retirement at the Carmelite her¬ 
 mitage at Graville, he read Calvin’s Insti- 
 tutiones , and accepted the Reformed faith. 
 Until 1660 he was pastor and professor of 
 theology at Montauban. Strenuous in his 
 efforts to secure a high type of Christian 
 discipleship, his activities led to the ex¬ 
 pression of views that resulted in his dis¬ 
 mission. Removing first to Geneva and 
 then to Middelburg, he formed, in 1666, a 
 secret union with several persons, which 
 became the nucleus of the sect of the Lab¬ 
 adists. Expelled from Middelburg for re¬ 
 fusing to sign the Belgic Confession, he 
 found a refuge with his followers at Her- 
 ford, through the kindness of the countess 
 palatine Elizabeth. They were banished 
 to Altona in 1672, where Labadie died in 
 1674. Many of his writings were translated 
 into German, and widely read by the Pie¬ 
 tists and Moravian Brethren. Upon the 
 breaking out of the war between Denmark 
 and Sweden (1674), the Labadists removed 
 
 to Wiewart in West Friesland. For a time 
 they flourished in the face of strong per¬ 
 secution. The foundation of a colony was 
 laid at Surinam, and an attempt was made 
 to found one at New Bohemia on the Hud¬ 
 son, but both failed, and early in the 
 eighteenth century the sectdied out. They 
 held views similar to the Quakers, and at¬ 
 tached great importance to internal revela¬ 
 tions and the purity of the visible Church. 
 
 Labadists. See above. 
 
 Labarum, the sacred military standard 
 adopted by Constantine after his vision of 
 the cross in the sky with the inscription 
 En Touto Nika, “ In this Conquer.” Euse¬ 
 bius describes it as consisting “ of a long 
 gilded spear, crossed at the top by a bar 
 from which hung a square purple cloth, 
 richly jeweled. At the upper extremity of 
 the spear was fixed a golden wreath encir¬ 
 cling the second monogram formed of the 
 first two letters of the name of Christ.” 
 Fifty soldiers were appointed te protect 
 the standard. 
 
 Laborantes, a name sometimes given to 
 an inferior order of the clergy who had in 
 charge the interment of the dead. They 
 were also known as copiatai, fossarii and 
 lecticarii. 
 
 La Chaise, Francois de, b. 1624; d. 
 1705. A French Jesuit, who taught phi¬ 
 losophy and theology at Lyons and Gren¬ 
 oble, and in 1673 became confessor of 
 Louis XIV. Through his influence over 
 the king he acted an important part in ec¬ 
 clesiastical affairs. His name is immor¬ 
 talized in connection with the cemetery 
 which is laid out near Paris, on the site of 
 the villa and grounds which were given to 
 him by the king. 
 
 La'chish, a city of the Amorites, con¬ 
 quered by Joshua and allotted to Judah. 
 It was fortified by Rehoboam after the re¬ 
 volt of the northern ^kingdom. (2 Chron. 
 xi. 9.) Sennacherib besieged it when on 
 his way from Phoenicia to Egypt. (2 Kings 
 xviii. 13; Isa. xxxvi. 1.) This siege is 
 considered by Layard and Hincks to be 
 depicted on the slabs found by the former 
 in one of the chambers of the palace at 
 Kouyunjik. (2 Chron. xxxii. 1; 2 Kings 
 xix. 8; Jer. xxxiv. 7.) 
 
 Lachmann, Karl, b. 1793; d. 1851. Ed- 
 ucated at Leipzig and Gottingen, and pro¬ 
 fessor of philology at Konigsberg (1816), 
 and then at Berlin (1827), he became fa¬ 
 mous as a textual critic of the New Testa¬ 
 ment. He was the first critic who sought 
 
Lac 
 
 ( 514 ) 
 
 Lai 
 
 to restore the oldest attainable text, and 
 his labors opened the way to the methods 
 which'have produced such valuable results. 
 See Schaff’s Companion to the Greek Tes¬ 
 tament, pp. 253-256. 
 
 Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, one 
 of the greatest of modern French pulpit 
 orators; b. at Recey-sur-Ource, March 12, 
 1802; d. at Sorreze, in the department of 
 Tarn, Nov. 21, 1861. Educated for the 
 law at Dijon, he became an advocate at 
 Paris in 1824, and soon gained distinction. 
 The reading of Lamennais’ Essai stir f In¬ 
 difference aroused him from a condition of 
 skepticism to the conviction that Christian¬ 
 ity w r as the only power that could save 
 and develop the human race. Entering the 
 College of St. Sulpice, he was ordained 
 priest in 1S27. His fame as a preacher 
 soon became widespread.. In connection 
 with Lamennais and Montalembert, he 
 published a journal, L'Avenir, which pro¬ 
 mulgated such radical opinions in connec¬ 
 tion with the highest church views that it 
 was condemned by Gregory XVI. in 1831. 
 Lacordaire submitted to the commands of 
 Rome. In 1S35 he was appointed preacher 
 at the Cathedral of Notre Dame, and his 
 sermons drew vast crowds. He joined the 
 Dominican order in 1840, and enthusiasti¬ 
 cally devoted himself to the advancement of 
 its interests. Elected a member of the 
 National Assembly in 1848, he took his 
 seat among the radicals, and was so out¬ 
 spoken in his Republicanism that he came 
 under ecclesiastical censure. Withdraw¬ 
 ing from political life, he continued to 
 preach at Notre Dame. His health fail¬ 
 ing, he retired in 1854 to the convent of 
 Sorreze, where the remainder of his life 
 was passed. Several of his works have been 
 translated: Conferences Delivered in the 
 
 Cathedral of A r otre Dame (by Henry Lang- 
 don, N. Y., 1870); Jesus Christ (1870); God 
 and Man (1872); Life (1875). His Life, 
 by Chocarne, has been translated into Eng¬ 
 lish by Father Aylward (London and N. Y., 
 1867; 2d ed., 1878), and by H. L. Sidney 
 Lear (London, 1882). 
 
 Lacroix, John Power, b. at Haverhill, 
 O., Feb. 13, 1833; d. at Delaware, O., Sept. 
 22, 1879. He was graduated at the Ohio 
 Wesleyan University, 1857. He taught 
 for a time in New Orleans, and became a 
 prolific writer for the periodical press. In 
 1859 he entered the ministry of the Metho¬ 
 dist Church, and from 1864 until the time 
 of his death was professor of modern lan¬ 
 guages in the Ohio Wesleyan University. 
 Besides translations he wrote : Life of 
 Rudolf Sticr (1874); Outlines of Chris¬ 
 tian Ethics (1879), arR l prepared many 
 
 articles for McClintock and Strong’s Cy¬ 
 clopaedia. 
 
 Lactantius Firmianus, a famous Chris¬ 
 tian apologist who lived at the end of the 
 third, and the beginning of the fourth, cen¬ 
 tury. The country of his birth is disputed. 
 He was the tutor of Crispus, the son of 
 Constantine, and his eloquence gained for 
 him the name of the “ Christian Cicero.” 
 His most important works are his Institu- 
 tions, and a treatise on the Death of Perse¬ 
 cutors. 
 
 Lacticinia (lit. milk dishes'), a name ap¬ 
 plied to milk, butter, cheese, and also eggs, 
 as food forbidden on the fast-days in the 
 Eastern Church. In the Western Church 
 the conditions under w'hich they are for¬ 
 bidden are made known in pastorals. 
 They are generally confined to the Lenten 
 fast and vary according to time, climate, 
 and circumstances. 
 
 Lady-Chapel, a chapel dedicated to the 
 Virgin, attached to cathedrals and large 
 churches. It is generally built at the east¬ 
 ern extremity. 
 
 Lady-Day, the feast of the Annunciation 
 of the Virgin Mary, celebrated March 25. 
 
 Ladd, George Trumbull, D. D. (West¬ 
 ern Reserve College, Hudson, O., 1880), 
 Congregationalist; b. at Painesville, O., 
 Jan. 19, 1842; was graduated at Western 
 Reserve College, Hudson, O., 1864, and at 
 Andover (Mass.) Theological Seminary, 
 1869; pastor of the Spring Street Church, 
 Milwaukee, Wis., 1871-79; professor of in¬ 
 tellectual and moral philosophy in Bow- 
 doin College, Brunswick, Me., 1879; and 
 since 1881 has held the corresponding pro¬ 
 fessorship in Yale University. He is the au¬ 
 thor of: Principles of Church Polity (1882); 
 Doctrine of Sacred Scripture : Critical, His¬ 
 torical, and Dogmatic Inquiry into the Origin 
 and A T ature of the Old and A r ew Testaments 
 (1883), 2 vols. 
 
 Lastare Sunday, the fourth Sunday of 
 Lent, so named from the first word of the 
 introit of the mass, Icetare, “ to rejoice.” 
 Laetare Sunday is chosen by the pope for 
 the blessing of the golden rose. 
 
 Lainez, James, b. in Castile in 1512; d. 
 at Rome, Jan. 19, 1565. He was one of the 
 founders of the order of Jesuits, and suc¬ 
 ceeded Loyola as the second general of the 
 order. He acted an influential part in the 
 Council of Trent, and opposed every at¬ 
 tempt to modify the doctrine of justification 
 in favor of Lutheran views, and asserted 
 
Lai 
 
 ( 515 ) 
 
 Lan 
 
 the supremacy of the papal power. He did 
 much to develop in the Jesuit order the 
 characteristics that have marked its his¬ 
 tory. 
 
 t 
 
 Laity, the people as distinguished from 
 the clergy. In the early Church laymen 
 had the right to and did preach, baptize, 
 administer the Lord’s Supper, and exercise 
 discipline. How long this state of things 
 existed we cannot tell, but gradually the 
 performance of all ecclesiastical functions 
 devolved upon the clergy. The Lord’s 
 Supper became the mass, and the cup was 
 taken from the people. With the Reforma¬ 
 tion the laity again recovered in part its 
 rights, and the tendency in modern times 
 has been to enlarge the scope of their du¬ 
 ties and privileges. See Lay Represen¬ 
 tation. 
 
 Lama, the name given to the Buddhist 
 priests in Tartary, and especially to the 
 Dalai-Lama, or priest of priests, who has 
 full authority over the rest of the priest¬ 
 hood, and is regarded by them as a deity. 
 He lives retired from the world, and is 
 never seen except in one of the rooms 
 of his palace, where the people come to 
 worship him, though they are not allowed 
 to approach him, even to kiss his feet. 
 The people are taught to believe that he 
 was raised up from death and hell hun¬ 
 dreds of years ago, and that he will live for 
 ever. In order to keep up this illusion they 
 conceal the fact of his death, and another 
 Lama is secretly chosen to take his place. 
 The lower order of priests in Tartary form 
 about one-third of the population, and are 
 under vows of celibacy. They are partly 
 supported by lands and revenues granted 
 to them by the Government, and by the 
 offerings of pilgrims; but most of them are 
 also engaged in some trade for the means 
 of gaining their livelihood, and they are 
 also the only physicians in the country. 
 The Lamas excel in painting and sculpture, 
 with which they adorn the walls of their 
 temples.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Lamb of God. See Agnus Dei. 
 
 Lambeth Articles. These were nine 
 brief statements of doctrine drawn up at a 
 conference held at Lambeth Palace in Nov., 
 1595. They were prepared with a view of 
 settling a controversy which was raging in 
 the University of Cambridge regarding 
 predestination. The articles were put forth 
 with the sanction of Archbishop Whitgift, 
 but were never of any authority, and their 
 interest is found in the proof they give of 
 the Calvinistic tendencies of the English 
 theologians of the time. 
 
 Lamentations is the name of five elegies 
 in which are bewailed the destruction of 
 Jerusalem and Judah by Nebuchadnezzar 
 and the Chaldees. The author is not 
 named in the Bible, but tradition has uni¬ 
 formly assigned the composition of these 
 songs to Jeremiah; it is only within recent 
 years that the Jeremianic authorship has 
 been denied either in whole or part. See 
 Introductions to the Old Testament of De 
 Wette, Bleek, and Reuss, and art. of Dr. 
 Plumptre in Smith’s Bible Did ., and Prof. 
 W. R. Smith, in Ency. Britannica. For 
 full list of literature see Lange’s Commen¬ 
 tary. 
 
 Lam'mas-Day, “ an ancient festival of 
 the Church, held annually on the first of 
 August. The name is said to be derived 
 from the Anglo-Saxon Hlafmcesse , loaf- 
 mass, the day being the day of first-fruit 
 offerings, on which it was formerly cus¬ 
 tomary to give a loaf to the clergy, in lieu 
 of first-fruits. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church the day is called the Day of St. 
 Peter in the Fetters , it being the day of the 
 commemoration of St. Peter’s imprison¬ 
 ment.”— CasselFs Encv. 
 
 Lance, The Holy, according to tradition, 
 was presented by King Rudolph, of Bur¬ 
 gundy, to King Henry I., of Germany. It 
 was said, according to an early report, to 
 have been made with the nails with which 
 Jesus was fastened to the cross, but a later 
 tradition identified it with the spear with 
 which the Roman soldier pierced the side 
 of Jesus. It was brought to Prague, and 
 in 1354 Innocent VI. established a festival 
 in its honor. Another lance, discovered by 
 the Empress Helena, was brought to Anti¬ 
 och, and was carried during the crusades. 
 The iron with which it was inlaid was 
 brought to Rome under Innocent VIII. 
 and preserved in the Vatican. In the 
 Greek Church the name “ holy lance” is 
 given to the knife with which the priest 
 pierces the bread of Eucharist, to symbol¬ 
 ize the piercing of the side of Jesus by the 
 Roman soldier. 
 
 Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury; b. 
 at Pavia, in Italy, 1005; d. at Canterbury, 
 May 28, 1089. He was Prior of the Abbey 
 of Bee, and afterwards of Caen in Nor¬ 
 mandy, and came to England with William 
 the Conqueror, by whom he was appointed 
 archbishop. Canterbury Cathedral was re¬ 
 built through his efforts and he was very 
 active in founding hospitals and churches. 
 Few men in the eleventh century were 
 more influential in the revival of the Church 
 and theology in France and England. He 
 held and taught the most extreme views re- 
 
Lan 
 
 ( 516 ) 
 
 Lao 
 
 garding the doctrine of transubstantiation, 
 and his most important work, Liber de Cor- 
 pore et Sanguine (“ The Body and Blood of 
 Christ ”), is upon this subject. He sup¬ 
 ported the supremacy of the king against 
 the pope. See Hook: Lives of Archbishops 
 of Canterbury , vol. ii.; Freeman’s History 
 of the Norman Conquest of England (iv. 
 345-450), and Reign of William Rufus. 
 
 Lang, John Dunmore, D. D., a man who 
 had a remarkable influence in the political 
 and religious life of Australia, was b. at 
 Greenock, Scotland, in 1799, and died at 
 Sydney, New South Wales, in 1878. He 
 was educated at the University of Glasgow; 
 and after his ordination in 1823, he became 
 the first minister of the Church of Scotland 
 in Australia. Many thousands of excellent 
 emigrants were brought from Great Britain 
 to the new colonies by his efforts. He 
 filled important positions of political trust, 
 and secured ministers and teachers for the 
 work of Christian evangelization. He 
 wrote much for the press, and published a 
 History of New South Wales. It is said 
 that seventy thousand people followed his 
 remains to the grave, including the most 
 prominent citizens of the colony. 
 
 Lange, Johann Peter, D. D., b. in the 
 parish of Sonnborn, near Elberfeld, Prus¬ 
 sia, April 10, 1802; d. at Bonn, July 8, 
 1884. He was educated at Dlisseldorf and 
 the University of Bonn. He was engaged 
 in pastoral work in the United Evangelical 
 Church from 1825 to 1841, when he was 
 called to the professorship of theology in 
 the University of Zurich. He had already 
 won a reputation as a brilliant writer, and 
 in i844~47his Life of Jesus appeared, which 
 refuted the famous work of Straus, and 
 won for him wide recognition. In i860 he 
 was called to fill a chair in Bonn where he 
 spent the remainder of his life in active 
 service as a teacher and writer. He edited 
 and contributed very largely to a Commen¬ 
 tary on the Old and New Testaments, which 
 was translated and enlarged under the di¬ 
 rection of Dr. Schaff, and has had a wide 
 circulation in this country. Dr. Lange 
 was engaged on this work for many years. 
 Genial in spirit and simple in his tastes, 
 this noble Christian scholar was beloved by 
 all with whom he was brought in contact. 
 
 Langton, Stephen, “celebrated in the 
 history of the liberties of England, was b. 
 probably in Lincoln or Devonshire, in the 
 early part of the twelfth century. He re¬ 
 ceived the chief part of his education in the 
 University of Paris, where he was the fel¬ 
 low-student and friend of Innocent III.; 
 and having completed his studies he rose 
 
 through successive grades to the office of 
 chancellor of the university. After the 
 elevation of Innocent, Langton, having vis¬ 
 ited Rome, was named to the cardinalate 
 by the pope; and, on occasion of the dis¬ 
 puted election to the see of Canterbury, he 
 was recommended to those electors who 
 had come to Rome on the appeal, and, hav- v 
 ing been elected by them, was consecrated 
 by Innocent himself at Viterbo, June 27, 
 1207. His appointment, nevertheless, was 
 resisted by King John; and for six years 
 Langton was excluded from the see. to 
 which he was only admitted on the adjust¬ 
 ment, in 1213, of the king’s dispute with 
 Innocent through the legate Pandulf. This 
 reconciliation, however, was but tempo¬ 
 rary. In the conflict of John with his bar¬ 
 ons, Langton was a warm partisan of the lat¬ 
 ter, and his name is the first of the subscrib¬ 
 ing witnesses of Magna Charta. When the 
 pope, acting on the representation of John, 
 and espousing his cause as that of a vassal 
 of the holy see, excommunicated the bar¬ 
 ons, Langton refused to publish the excom¬ 
 munication, and was. in consequence, sus¬ 
 pended from his functions in 1215. He was 
 restored, however, probably in the follow¬ 
 ing year; and on the accession of Henry 
 III., he was reinstated (1218) in the see of 
 Canterbury, from which time he chiefly oc¬ 
 cupied himself with church reforms till his 
 death, which took place July 9, 1228. 
 Langton was a learned and successful writ¬ 
 er, but his writings are lost, and the chief 
 trace which he has left in sacred literature 
 is the division of the Bible into chapters, 
 which is ascribed to him. See Lingard, 
 vol. ii.; Milman’s Latin Christianity , vol. 
 iv.; and Dr. Hook’s Lives of the Archbish¬ 
 ops of Canterbury ,vol. ii., 657-761.”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Laodice'a, a city of ancient Phrygia, near 
 the river Lycus, so called after Laodice, 
 queen of Antiochus Theos, its founder, 
 was built on the site of an older town, 
 named Diospolis. It was destroyed by an 
 earthquake during thereignof Tiberius, but 
 rebuilt by the inhabitants, who were very 
 wealthy; fell into the hands of the Turks 
 in 1255; was again destroyed in 1402, and 
 is now a heap of uninteresting ruins, known 
 by the name of Eski-Hissar. Art and 
 science flourished among the ancient Lao- 
 diceans, and it was the seat of a famous 
 medical school. The number of Jews who 
 were settled here at the rise of Christianity 
 will account for its importance in the prim¬ 
 itive history of the Church. An important 
 ecclesiastical council, the First Council of 
 Laodicea, was held here in 363, which 
 adopted resolutions concerning the canon 
 of the Old and New Testaments, and con- 
 
Lao 
 
 ( 517 ) 
 
 Lat 
 
 cerning ecclesiastical discipline. A second 
 council was held here in 476, which con¬ 
 demned the Eutychians.”— Chambers. See 
 Westcott on the Canon. 
 
 Laodicea, The Epistle From, a letter 
 that Paul wrote (Col. iv. 16), has given rise 
 to much speculation. Lightfoot identifies 
 it with the Epistle to the Ephesians. The 
 so-called “ Epistle to the Laodiceans ” is a 
 forgery, compiled in Greek, and translated 
 into Latin at an early period. See Light- 
 foot: St. Paul’s Epistle to the Colossians and 
 to Philemon (1875). 
 
 Lao'Tsze, a celebrated Chinese philos¬ 
 opher, and the reputed founder of the re¬ 
 ligion called “Taoism.” He was born 
 about 604 b. c., in the province of Ho-nau, 
 China. The time and place of his death 
 is unknown. While the keeper of the 
 archives of the court of Chau, he was vis¬ 
 ited (517 b. c.) by Confucius, who desired 
 to learn about the ancient rites and cere¬ 
 monies of Chau. He wrote a remarkable 
 volume of five thousand characters on the 
 subject of Tdo (the way), and Teh (virtue), 
 called Tdo Teh Kins;. This work is trans¬ 
 lated in Legge’s Chinese Classics. The book, 
 however, is hardly intelligible even to 
 native Chinese scholars. One sentence has 
 been remarked as approaching Christian 
 ethics: “ It is the way of Tao not to act 
 from any personal motive, to conduct af¬ 
 fairs without feeling the trouble of them, 
 to taste without being aware of the flavor, to 
 account the great as small, and the small as 
 great, to recompense injury with kindness.” 
 Taoism is now one of the great religions of 
 China, but its practices are so far below the 
 standard of Lao’s teachings that Dr. Legge 
 says, “he ought not to bear the oblo¬ 
 quy of being its founder.” Professor 
 Douglas says: “ Every trace of philosophy 
 and truth has disappeared from it; and in 
 place of the keen searchings after the in¬ 
 finite, to which Lao-tsze devoted himself, 
 the highest ambition of his priestly follow¬ 
 ers is to learn how best to impose on their 
 countrymen by the vainest of superstitions, 
 and to practise on their credulity by tricks 
 of legerdemain.” (Taoism.) See Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. vol. ii. , pp. 1278-79; James 
 Legge: The Chinese Classics; Chalmers: 
 The Speculations on Metaphysics , Polity , and 
 Morality of the “ Old Philosopher ” ( Ldo - 
 Tsze) (London, 1868); R. K. Douglas: Con¬ 
 fucianism and Taonism (1879); J- Legge: 
 The Religions of China. 
 
 Lapland. “ Superficially, at least, the 
 great bulk of the Lapps have been Chris¬ 
 tianized; those of the Scandinavian coun¬ 
 tries being Protestants, those of Russia, 
 
 members of the Greek Church.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. See Sweden. 
 
 Lapsed. This term was used to denote 
 those who, in times of persecution, denied 
 the faith. A distinction was made as to 
 the manner in which they had disavowed 
 their faith, and the question of their disci¬ 
 plinary treatment was the cause of prolong¬ 
 ed controversy. In the second century 
 the rule held that, under no circumstances 
 could a Christian who had lapsed be re¬ 
 admitted to the congregation; but by the 
 middle of the third century milder views 
 prevailed, and the circumstances connect¬ 
 ed with each case were taken into consid¬ 
 eration. 
 
 Lardner, Nathaniel, an eminent Eng¬ 
 lish divine and critic; b. at Hawkhurst, 
 Kent, June 6, 1684; d. there, July 24, 1786. 
 He belonged to a body of English Pres¬ 
 byterians, who had become Unitarians. 
 Having studied under eminent masters at 
 Utrecht and Leyden, he returned to Eng¬ 
 land in 1703. Entering the ministry at the 
 age of 25, he became private chaplain to 
 Lady Treby, whom he accompanied to the 
 Netherlands. After her death, in 1729, he 
 was appointed lecturer at the chapel in 
 Old Jewry. Never popular as a preacher, 
 by reason of defective elocution, caused 
 by deafness, he won lasting fame by his 
 Credibility of the Gospel Testimony, and his 
 Jewish and Heathen Testimonies. These 
 works rank among the ablest apologies for 
 Christianity. 
 
 La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, founder of 
 the Ignorantines (see art.); b. at Rheims, 
 1651; d. at Rouen, 1719. He opened his 
 free schools for the young in 1681,, and 
 met with such success that it led to the 
 founding of the order with which his name 
 is connected. He was canonized by Pius 
 IX. in 1852. 
 
 Lat'eran, Church of St. John, “ the 
 first in dignity of the Roman churches, and 
 styled in Roman usage * the mother and 
 head of all the churches of the city and the 
 world,’ is so called from its occupying 
 the site of the splendid palace of Plantius 
 Lateranus, which, having been escheated 
 (66 a. D.), in consequence of Lateranus be¬ 
 ing implicated in the conspiracy of the 
 Pisos, became imperial property, and was 
 assigned for Christian uses by the Emperor 
 Constantine. It was originally dedicated 
 to the Saviour; but Lucius II., who rebuilt 
 it in the middle of the twelfth century, dedi¬ 
 cated it to St. John the Baptist. The sol¬ 
 emn entrance of the pope into office is in¬ 
 augurated by his taking possession of this 
 
Lat 
 
 (51S) 
 
 Lat 
 
 church; and over its portico is the balcony 
 from which the pope, while still sovereign 
 of Rome, was used, on certain festivals, 
 to bless the entire world. The original 
 church is said to have been the Basilica, 
 which was presented to Sylvester by Con¬ 
 stantine, but it has been several times re¬ 
 built, its final completion dating from the 
 pontificate of Clement XII. It has been 
 the scene of five councils, regarded as 
 oecumenical by the Roman Church. (See 
 Council.) The Lateran palace was the 
 habitual residence of the popes until after 
 the return from Avignon, when they re¬ 
 moved to the Vatican. It was afterwards 
 occupied by officials of the chapter, and is 
 now under the control of the Italian gov¬ 
 ernment. The late pope, Pius IX., had 
 converted a portion of it into a museum of 
 Christian archaeology. In the piazza of St. 
 John Lateran, stands the celebrated relic 
 called the ‘ scala santa,’ or 1 holy staircase,’ 
 which is reputed to be the stairs of Pilate’s 
 house at Jerusalem, made holy by the feet 
 of our Lord as he passed to judgment.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Lathrop, Joseph, D. D., b. at Norwich, 
 Conn., Oct. 20, 1731: d. at West Spring- 
 field, Mass., Dec. 31, 1820. During his 
 life-long pastorate at West Springfield, he 
 gained a position of commanding influence 
 among the neighboring Congregational 
 churches. He published seven volumes, 
 mostly sermons, with autobiography. Dr. 
 Sprague published a memoir of Dr. Lath¬ 
 rop in 1864 with his Exposition of the Epis¬ 
 tle to the Ephesians. 
 
 Latimer, Hugh, “ one of the most dis¬ 
 tinguished of the English Reformers, was 
 b. at Thurcaston, in Leicestershire, in the 
 year 1490 or 1491. He was educated at 
 Cambridge, and after a brief period of zeal¬ 
 ous devotion to the papacy (‘I was as 
 obstinate a papist,’ he says, ‘ as any in 
 England ’), he became attached to the new 
 learning and divinity which had begun to 
 establish themselves there. He very soon 
 became a zealous preacher of the reformed 
 doctrines. The consequence of this new¬ 
 born zeal was, that many of the adherents 
 of the old faith w r ere strongly excited 
 against him, and he was embroiled in many 
 controversies. 
 
 “ The dispute about Henry VIII.’s mar¬ 
 riage with Catharine of Aragon brought 
 Latimer more into notice. He was one of 
 the divines appointed by the University of 
 Cambridge to examine as to its lawfulness, 
 and he declared on the king’s side. This 
 secured Henry’s favor, and he was appoint¬ 
 ed one of his chaplains, and received a liv¬ 
 ing in Wiltshire. In 1535 he was appoint¬ 
 
 ed bishop of Worcester: and at the opening 
 of convocation on June 9, 1536, he preach¬ 
 ed two very powerful and impressive ser¬ 
 mons, urging the necessity of reform. 
 After a while, the work of reform rather 
 retrograded than advanced, and Latimer 
 found himself, with his bold opinions, in 
 little favor at court. He retired to his dio¬ 
 cese, and labored there in a continual round 
 of ‘ teaching, preaching, exhorting, writ¬ 
 ing, correcting, and reforming, either as 
 his ability would serve, or the time would 
 bear.’ This was his true function. He 
 was an eminently practical reformer. Dur¬ 
 ing the close of Henry’s reign, and when 
 the reactionary party, headed by Gardiner 
 and Bonner, were in the ascendant, Lati¬ 
 mer lived in great privacy. He was look¬ 
 ed upon with jealousy, and closely watched, 
 and finally, on coming up to London for 
 medical advice, he was brought before the 
 privy council, and cast into the Tower. 
 
 “ On the accession of Edward- VI. he 
 again appeared in public. He declined, 
 however, to resume his episcopal func¬ 
 tions, although his old bishopric was offer¬ 
 ed to him at the instance of the House of 
 Commons. He devoted himself to preach¬ 
 ing and practical works of benevolence. 
 The pulpit was his great power, and by his 
 stirring and homely sermons he did much 
 to rouse a spirit of religious earnestness 
 throughout the country. At length, with 
 the lamented death of Edward, he and other 
 reformers were arrested in their career of 
 activity. Latimer was put in prison, and 
 examined at Oxford in 1554. After his 
 examination, he was transferred to the 
 common jail there, where he lay for more 
 than a year, feeble, sickly, and worn out 
 with his hardships. Death would not have 
 long spared the old man, but his enemies 
 would not wait for the natural termination 
 of his life. In Sept., 1555, he was sum¬ 
 moned before certain commissioners, ap¬ 
 pointed to sit in judgment upon him and 
 Ridley; and after an ignominious trial he 
 was condemned to be burned. He suffer¬ 
 ed along with Ridley ‘ without Bocardo 
 Gate,’ opposite Balliol College, on Oct. 16, 
 1555, exclaiming to his companion: ‘ Be of 
 good comfort, master Ridley, and play the 
 man: we shall this day light such a candle, 
 by God’s grace, in England, as I trust shall 
 never be put out.’ 
 
 “ Latimer’s character presents a com¬ 
 bination of many noble and disinterested 
 qualities. He was brave, honest, devot¬ 
 ed, and energetic, homely, and popular, 
 yet free from all violence; a martyr and 
 hero, yet a plain, simple-hearted, and un¬ 
 pretending man. Humor and cheerfulness, 
 manly sense and direct evangelical fervor, 
 distinguish his sermons and his life, and 
 
Lat 
 
 ( 519 ) 
 
 Lau 
 
 make them alike interesting and admir¬ 
 able. 
 
 “ Latimer’s sermons were reprinted at 
 London, 2 vols., 1825. The latest edition 
 is by Rev. G. Corrie, 4 vols., 1845. See 
 Tulloch’s Leaders of the Reformation (1859); 
 and Latimer , a biography, by Demaus 
 (1869, new ed., 1881).”—Chambers: Cyclo- 
 pcedia. 
 
 Latin Versions. See Bible. 
 
 Latitudinarians, a name first applied to 
 those within the Church of England, who, 
 in the sixteenth century, manifested a spirit 
 of toleration toward the Dissenters. In 
 this party were men who differed as widely 
 in their theological views as Hales, Chil¬ 
 ling worth , Cudworth, Gale, Tillotson, and 
 Stillingfleet. In recent times the members 
 of the ‘ ‘ Broad-School ” party in the Church 
 of England have been designated as latitu¬ 
 dinarians, inasmuch as they lay most stress 
 upon Christian character as opposed to 
 those who emphasize conformity to ritual¬ 
 istic practices and sectarian exclusiveness. 
 Coleridge, Arnold, Maurice, Kingsley, and 
 Stanley have been among the leading rep¬ 
 resentatives of the “ Broad - Church ” 
 school. 
 
 Latter-Day Saints. See Mormons. 
 
 Laud, William, “ archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury, was the son of a clothier in good 
 circumstances, and was b. at Reading, in 
 Berkshire, Oct. 7, 1573. He entered St. 
 John’s College, Oxford, in 1589, became a 
 fellow in 1593, and took his degree of M. A. 
 in 1598. Ordained a priest in 1601, he soon 
 made himself conspicuous at the university 
 by his antipathy to Puritanism; but being 
 then a person of very little consequence, 
 he only succeeded in exciting displeasure 
 against himself. Yet his learning, his per¬ 
 sistent and definite ecclesiasticism, and the 
 genuine unselfishness of his devotion to 
 the Church, soon won him both friends and 
 patrons. In 1607 he was preferred to the 
 vicarage of Stanford, in Northamptonshire, 
 and in 1608 obtained the advowson of 
 North Kilworth, in Leicestershire. In 
 both of these livings he showed himself an 
 exemplary clergyman according to the 
 High-Church pattern—zealous in repair¬ 
 ing the parsonage-houses, and liberal in 
 maintaining the poor. In 1609 he was ap¬ 
 pointed rector of West Tilbury, in Essex; 
 in 1611—in spite of strong opposition— 
 president of St. John’s College; in 1614 
 prebendary of Lincoln; and in 1615 arch¬ 
 deacon of Huntingdon. King James now 
 began to recognize what sort of a man 
 Laud was, and to see that he might rely 
 
 on him as a valuable ally in carrying out 
 the notions of the “ divine right.” Not 
 that their aims were quite identical — 
 James was chiefly anxious to maintain the 
 absolute authority of the sovereign, and 
 Laud the absolute authority of episcopacy. 
 In 1617 Laud accompanied his majesty to 
 Scotland, with the view of introducing 
 episcopacy into the church government of 
 that country ; but the attempt failed. In 
 1621 he was consecrated bishop of St. 
 Davids. After the accession of Charles I. 
 he was translated from the see of St. 
 Davids to that of Bath and Wells, became 
 high in favor at court, was more than ever 
 hated by the Puritans, and was denounced 
 in Parliament. In 1628 he was made bish¬ 
 op of London. After the assassination of 
 Buckingham, Laud became virtually the 
 chief minister of Charles, and acted in a 
 manner so utterly opposed to the spirit of 
 the times, and to the opinions of the great 
 body of Puritans in England, that one 
 might have foreseen his ruin to be inevita¬ 
 ble, in spite of the royal favor. In 1630 
 he was chosen chancellor of the University 
 of Oxford, the centre of High-Church 
 loyalty. From this period he was for 
 several years busily but fruitlessly em¬ 
 ployed in repressing Puritanism. The 
 means adopted were not only unchristian, 
 but even detestable. Cropping the ears, 
 slitting the nose, branding the forehead, 
 fines, imprisonments, are not at any time 
 satisfactory methods of defending a relig¬ 
 ious system, but in the then temper of the 
 English nation they were in the last degree 
 weak and foolish. In the High-Commission 
 and Star-Chamber courts the influence of 
 Laud was supreme ; but the penalty he 
 paid for this influence was the hatred of 
 the English Parliament, and of the people 
 generally. In 1633 he was raised to the 
 archbishopric of Canterbury, and in the 
 same year made chancellor of the Univer¬ 
 sity of Dublin. The famous ordinance re¬ 
 garding Sunday sports, which Avas pub¬ 
 lished about this time by royal command, 
 Avas believed to be draAvn up by Laud, and 
 greatly increased the dislike felt toward 
 him by the Puritans. His minute altera¬ 
 tions in public Avorship, his regulations 
 about the proper position of the altar and 
 the fencing of it Avith decent rails; his 
 forcing Dutch and Walloon congregations 
 to use the English liturgy, and all Eng¬ 
 lishmen to attend the parish churches 
 Avhere they resided, display a petty intel¬ 
 lect and an intolerant spirit; as other of 
 his actions indicate that there lurked in his 
 small, obstinate nature no inconsiderable 
 amount of cruelty and malice. Still, it 
 must be confessed that, in the long run, 
 Laud’s ritualism has triumphed. The 
 
Lau 
 
 ( 520 ) 
 
 Law 
 
 Church of England was gradually pene¬ 
 trated with his spirit, and the high value 
 which she has come to put on religious 
 ceremonies is partly owing to the pertina¬ 
 cious efforts of the archbishop. This influ¬ 
 ence, in short, has hindered her from 
 becoming as doctrinal and Calvinistic as 
 her articles would logically necessitate. 
 During 1635-37 another effort was made 
 by him to establish episcopacy in Scotland; 
 but the first attempt to read the liturgy in 
 St. Giles’s Church, Edinburgh, excited a 
 dangerous tumult. Proceedings were final¬ 
 ly taken against him, and on March 1, 
 1640-41, he was, by order of the House of 
 Commons, conveyed to the Tower. After 
 being stripped of his honors, and exposed 
 to many indignities and much injustice, he 
 was finally brought to trial before the 
 House of Lords, Nov. 13, 1643, on a charge 
 of treason and other crimes. The Lords, 
 however, did not find him guilty; but the i 
 Commons had previously resolved on his 
 death, and passed an ordinance for his ex¬ 
 ecution. To this the upper house gave its 
 assent; and, in spite of Laud’s producing 
 a royal pardon, he was—undoubtedly in 
 violation of express statute, and by the 
 exercise of a prerogative of Parliament as 
 arbitrary as any king had ever exhibited— 
 beheaded, Jan. 10, 1644-45. Laud had a 
 genuine regard for learning—at least ec¬ 
 clesiastical learning — and enriched the 
 University of Oxford, in the course of his 
 life, with 1,300 MSS. in different European 
 and Oriental languages: but his exclusive 
 sacerdotalism, his inability to understand 
 his fellow - creatures and his consequent 
 disregard for their rights, forbid us to ad¬ 
 mire his character, though we pity his 
 fate. His writings are few. Wharton 
 published his Diary in 1694; and during 
 1857-60, Parker, the Oxford publisher, 
 issued The Works of the Jl/ost Reverend 
 Father in God , William Laud , D. D., some¬ 
 time Lord Archbishop of Canterbury , con¬ 
 taining, among other things, his letters 
 and miscellaneous papers, some of them 
 not before published, and, like his Diary , 
 of great value in helping us to form an 
 adequate conception of the man and his 
 time.”—Chambers: Cj>clop<edia. 
 
 Laura, the name given to the collection 
 of cells in which the hermits lived, a short 
 distance apart from each other. When 
 they lived together, with a community of 
 goods, their dwelling was called a ccenobium. 
 
 La'vater, Johann Kaspar, b. at Zurich, 
 Nov. 15, 1741; d. there, Jan. 2, 1801. After 
 traveling for a time with the celebrated 
 painter Fuseli, and studying theology at 
 Barth under Spalding, he returned to 
 
 Zurich in 1764, and entered upon ministe¬ 
 rial duties. A volume of poems published 
 in 1767 attracted wide attention, and in 
 17S6 he became pastor of the Church of St. 
 Peter in Zurich, which office he held until 
 his death. In connection with his labors 
 here, he wrote many works of a devotional 
 nature. He held the theory that men’s 
 characters could be discovered by the 
 study of their faces, and published a book 
 (1775) upon the subject, Physiognomic 
 Fragments, which has passed through many 
 editions. Filled with many fanciful ideas, 
 which Lavater himself afterward discarded, 
 it was a work of genius. Strictly evangel¬ 
 ical in doctrine, Lavater was beloved and 
 respected by a large circle of friends who 
 looked to him for spiritual counsel. When 
 the French Revolution broke out he sym¬ 
 pathized with the movement until the ex¬ 
 cesses committed, and the murder of the 
 king, turned the tide of his feeling. He 
 was taken prisoner for preaching against 
 the rule of the French in Switzerland. 
 There was universal joy when he returned 
 to Zurich; but a few weeks later, after the 
 battle with Massena (Sept. 25, 1799), he 
 was shot by a French grenadier in the 
 streets of the city, while caring for the 
 wounded and dying soldiers, and after 
 many months of suffering died of his 
 wounds. 
 
 Laver. See Tabernacle and its Con¬ 
 tents. 
 
 Lavigerie, Cardinal, a great Roman 
 Catholic administrator and orator, “ whose 
 burning words during the last few years 
 have aroused the Christian world to a fresh 
 sense of the horrors of the slave trade of 
 interior Africa ; ” b. in 1825 at Bayonne. 
 Educated at St. Sulpice, he became pro¬ 
 fessor at the Sorbonne in Paris, but early 
 interested himself in missionary work in 
 the East. Before he had reached the age 
 of forty he was made bishop of Nancy, 
 from which he was transferred to the arch¬ 
 bishopric of Algiers in 1S67. His work 
 here in building up the institutions of the 
 Roman Catholic Church has been remark¬ 
 able in many ways, but it has been through 
 his agitation against the slave traffic, as 
 now carried on in Africa, that his name has 
 become generally known. Three volumes 
 of his principal speeches, letters, and me¬ 
 moirs were published in 18S8, the twenty- 
 fifth anniversary of his episcopate. 
 
 Law, Natural. See Natural Law. 
 
 Law, William, an eminent writer on prac¬ 
 tical divinity; b. at Kingscliffe, Northamp¬ 
 tonshire, 16S6; d, there, April 9, 1761. A 
 
Lay 
 
 ( 52i ) 
 
 Lay 
 
 graduate and fellow of Emmanuel College, 
 Cambridge, he received holy orders in 
 1711. Refusing to take the oaths of alle¬ 
 giance and abjuration on the accession 
 of George I., he renounced all hope of 
 preferment, and devoted himself to a life 
 of studious retirement and spiritual medi¬ 
 tation. His best-known work is his Serious 
 Call (1729). This remarkable book has had 
 an influence second only to that of the Pil¬ 
 grim’s Progress. Gibbon, Dr. Johnson, and 
 the Wesleys voiced, in their commenda¬ 
 tion, the verdict of multitudes of its read¬ 
 ers. In The Spirit of Prayer and The Spir¬ 
 it of Love, the mystical views of Law found 
 more full expression. In later life he was 
 a student and admirer of the German theos- 
 ophist, Jacob Behmen. See Life of Will¬ 
 iam Law, by J. H. Overton (London, 
 1881). 
 
 Lay Abbots. See Abbots. 
 
 Lay Baptism. See Baptism. 
 
 Lay Brothers. See Monasticism. 
 
 Lay Communion, a technical term refer¬ 
 ring to the reduction of a clegyman to the 
 state of a layman. It has no special ref¬ 
 erence to the reception of the Eucharist. 
 See Smith and Cheetham: Diet, of Chris. 
 A ntiq. 
 
 Lay Preaching. The distinction now 
 made between the clergy and the laity was 
 unknown in apostolic times. The sending 
 of the seventy (Luke x. 1), and the com¬ 
 mission given the disciples at the time of 
 our Lord’s ascension (Matt, xxviii. 19). 
 showed that the obligation was laid upon 
 all to preach the gospel. When the mem¬ 
 bers of the church at Jerusalem were scat¬ 
 tered, after the death of Stephen, they 
 “ went about preaching the word.” (Acts 
 viii. 4; xi. 19.) In some cases, as at Anti¬ 
 och, and probably at Rome, churches were 
 founded before the coming of the apostles 
 to visit them. After a time the lay mem¬ 
 bers were excluded from the performance 
 of nearly all ecclesiastical functions. Ori- 
 gen, while a layman, preached before the 
 bishop of Caesarea, and Tertullian main¬ 
 tained that all Christians were priests in the 
 fullest sense. Augustine and Chrysostom 
 defended lay preaching, but it was finally 
 prohibited by Leo the Great. The practice 
 was revived in the thirteenth century by 
 the Dominican and Franciscan orders, 
 which were composed of laymen. In the 
 times of the Reformation, especially among 
 the Calvinistic churches, lay preaching was 
 sanctioned. In the great religious awak¬ 
 ening, of which Wesley was the recognized 
 
 } leader, lay preaching acted an important 
 part. The rapid spread of Methodism was 
 largely due to the efforts of lay preachers. 
 In our own times, the career of Moody and 
 others has proved that in some respects 
 the lay preacher has an advantage over the 
 regular minister. “ Lay preaching is an 
 adjunct to clerical preaching, not a substi¬ 
 tute for it. In the hands of wise and de¬ 
 vout ministers, the lay preacher can be a 
 powerful agent for God; but, if ill-directed, 
 he becomes a power for the spread of big¬ 
 otry, fanaticism, and cant.”—Schaff-Her- 
 zog: Ency. 
 
 Lay Representation. In apostolic times 
 the laity had a voice in the government of 
 the Church. With the rise of sacerdotal¬ 
 ism, the laity were entirely shut out from 
 the church council. The Reformation, un¬ 
 der the lead of Luther, again gave them 
 representation. “ In Germany and other 
 Lutheran countries the Lutheran Church is 
 governed by boards (consistories), com¬ 
 posed of clergy and laymen. In England, 
 the church is governed by laymen, so far 
 as its affairs are controlled by the Crown 
 and Parliament. In Ireland, laymen are 
 regularly sent to the church convocations. 
 In the Episcopal Church of the United 
 States, three delegates are sent from each 
 parish to the annual diocesan convention. 
 In the general convention, which meets 
 every three years, there is, in the House 
 of Clerical and Lay Deputies, an equal 
 number of clerical and lay delegates, elect¬ 
 ed by the diocesan conventions. In the 
 Presbyterian churches throughout the 
 world, the laity have representation in, (1) 
 the Session, composed of the pastor and 
 the elders, both elected by the congrega¬ 
 tion; (2) in Presbytery, composed of the 
 ministers, and one elder from each congre¬ 
 gation in a certain district; (3) in Synod, 
 composed of all the ministers, and one elder 
 from each congregation, in a larger district 
 embracing several presbyteries ; (4) in 
 
 General Assembly, composed of ministers 
 and elders in equal numbers, elected by 
 Presbytery. In the Reformed (Dutch) 
 Church in America, similar courts exist; 
 but they are named differently, being called 
 Consistory, Classis, Particular Synod, and 
 General Synod, respectively. The consti¬ 
 tution of the first two is similar to that just 
 described. The last two are delegate 
 bodies, and so the laity have less numer¬ 
 ous representatives; but as the number of 
 ministers and elders is equal, they have 
 more equable representation. 
 
 “ In churches of the Congregational 
 order (Congregationalists, Baptists. Uni- 
 j versalists, Unitarians) the laity have full 
 I representation. In the Wesleyan Metho- 
 
 
Lay 
 
 ( 522 ) 
 
 Leb 
 
 dist Church of England there is no lay rep¬ 
 resentation; but in the Methodist Episco¬ 
 pal Church in the United States there 
 are one or two lay delegates for each 
 annual conference, chosen by an elec¬ 
 toral conference of laymen, composed of 
 one layman from each circuit or station 
 within the bounds of the annual conference; 
 such laymen being chosen by the preceding 
 quarterly conference. The lay and minis¬ 
 terial delegates sit together, but may vote 
 separately.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Laying on of Hands. See Imposition 
 of Hands. 
 
 Lazarists, the common name of the 
 “ Congregation of the Priests of the Mis¬ 
 sion,” founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 
 1624. The name 4 4 Lazarists ” originated 
 from the house in which they were estab¬ 
 lished in Paris in 1632, the College of St. 
 Lazare. Their object was to do missionary 
 work in the rural districts and in foreign 
 countries, and to train young priests. 
 During the Revolution, many of the mem¬ 
 bers were killed. Dissolved by the Con¬ 
 vention, the congregation was restored by 
 Napoleon in 1804; again dissolved in 1809, 
 it was restored in 1816, and the use of a 
 house granted to them. 
 
 League and Covenant, Solemn. See 
 Covenanters. 
 
 Leathes, Stanley, D. D. (Edinburgh, 
 1878), Church of England; b. at Ellesbor- 
 ough, Bucks, March 21,1830; was graduated 
 at Cambridge, 1825; curate and minister 
 in London, 1856-80; rector of Cliffe-at-Hoo, 
 diocese of Rochester, since 1880, and since 
 1863 professor of Hebrew, King’s College, 
 London. He was Boyle lecturer, 1868-70; 
 Hulsean lecturer, 1873; Bampton lecturer, 
 1874, Warburtonian lecturer, 1876-80, and 
 a member of the Old Testament Company 
 of the Bible Revision Committee. He has 
 published several important volumes grow¬ 
 ing out of the lectureships which he has 
 filled. 
 
 Leaven. “ Various substances were 
 known to have fermenting qualities; but the 
 ordinary leaven consisted of a lump of old 
 dough in a high state of fermentation, 
 which was inserted into the mass of dough 
 prepared for baking. The use of leaven 
 was strictly forbidden in all offerings made 
 to the Lord by fire. It is in reference to 
 these prohibitions that Amos (iv. 5) iron¬ 
 ically bids the Jews of his day to 4 offer a 
 sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven.' In 
 other instances, where the offering was to 
 be consumed by the priests, and not on the 
 
 altar, leaven might be used. Various ideas 
 were associated with the prohibition of 
 leaven in the instances above quoted. But 
 the most prominent idea, and the one which 
 applies equally to all the cases of prohi¬ 
 bition, is connected with the corruption 
 which leaven itself had undergone, and 
 which it communicated to bread in the proc¬ 
 ess of fermentation. It is to this property 
 of leaven that our Saviour points when he 
 speaks of the 4 leaven ’ (i. e., the corrupt 
 doctrine) 4 of the Pharisees and of the Sad- 
 ducees ’ (Matt. xvi. 6); and St. Paul, when 
 he speaks of the 4 old leaven’ (1 Cor. v. 
 7).”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Leavitt, Joshua, b. in Heath, Mass., 
 Sept. 8, 1794; d. in Brooklyn, N. Y.,Jan. 
 16, 1873. After graduating from Yale Col¬ 
 lege, in 1810, he studied law, but after a 
 practice of two years he entered Yale Di¬ 
 vinity School. From 1825-28 he was pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational church in Strat¬ 
 ford, Conn.; Secretary of the Seamens’ 
 Friend Society, 1828-31; editor and pro¬ 
 prietor of the New York Evangelist, 1831— 
 37. He became deeply interested in the 
 anti-slavery cause, and in 1837 he edited 
 the Emancipator. In 1841 he removed to 
 Boston and started the Daily Chronicle , the 
 first daily newspaper devoted to the anti¬ 
 slavery interest. He accepted the position 
 of managing editor of The Independent , in 
 1848, and was connected with this paper up 
 to the time of his death. He was the first 
 lecturer sent out by the American Tem¬ 
 perance Society, and he edited the Chris¬ 
 tian Lyre, the first hymn-book published in 
 this country with notes. 
 
 Leb anon ( exceeding white'), a name given 
 to a double mountain range — Lebanon 
 proper, and Anti-Lebanon—to the north of 
 Palestine, whose peaks are covered with 
 snow for the larger part of the year. Leb¬ 
 anon proper begins in the south at the 
 river Litani, the ancient Leontes, and for 
 a distance of ninety miles extends in a di¬ 
 rection parallel with the Mediterranean 
 northward to the river Nahr-el-Kebir, the 
 ancient Eleutheros. From the shore of the 
 sea it rises to a height of from six to eight 
 thousand feet. Its highest peaks are Jebel 
 Mukhmel, 10,200 feet, and Sannin, 9.000 
 feet. The line of cultivation runs at an 
 elevation of about 6,000 feet. Anti-Lebanon 
 begins in the south at Mount Hermon and 
 runs northeast, nearly parallel with Leb¬ 
 anon. to the plain of Emesa. Its general 
 aspect is bleak and barren, while Lebanon 
 is fruitful and beautiful. 14 The country 
 covered by these mountains never belonged 
 to the Israelites, though it is mentioned 
 (Josh. xiii. 5) as a territory which should 
 
 
Leb 
 
 ( 523 ) 
 
 Lee 
 
 be conquered, and though parts of South¬ 
 ern Lebanon really seem to have been sub¬ 
 jugated during the reign of Solomon. 
 (1 Kings ix. 19; Cant. iv. 8.) It is generally 
 mentioned simply as the northern bound¬ 
 ary of Judaea (Deut. i. 7; xi. 24; Josh. i. 
 4; ix. 1); but Lebanon proper is often 
 spoken of with admiration as a fertile land 
 with thick forests (Psa. lxxii. 16; Isa. x. 24), 
 charming by its fresh fragrance (Cant. iv. 
 11), its wine (Hos. xiv. 7), its abundance 
 of water (Cant. iv. 15), and rich in game. 
 (2 Kings xiv. 9; Isa. xl. 16.) Its beauty 
 evidently made a deep impression on the 
 imagination of the Israelites. To the mind 
 „ of the prophets, it presented itself as a 
 symbol of the sublime (Isa. xxxvii. 24), or 
 the firm and steady. (Psa. xxix. 6; Hos. xiv. 
 5.) They praise its glory (Isa. xxxv. 2), 
 
 Lectern, or Lecturn, the desk from 
 which, in a church or cathedral, the Script¬ 
 ure lessons are read. They are made of 
 wood or brass, and very commonly in the 
 form of an eagle, probably on account of 
 that bird being the symbol of St. John. 
 They stand at the west end of the choir, 
 facing the congregation. 
 
 Lectionary denotes, in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, the book containing 
 the passages of Scripture used in the 
 mass. It is now sometimes applied to 
 the Table of Lessons in the Prayer- 
 Book. 
 
 Lector, an officer in the ancient Church 
 who read the lessons at divine service and 
 kept the sacred books. 
 
 VIEW OF LEBANON FROM THE SEA. 
 
 and to their eyes its seasons depict the 
 desolation of the days of evil (Isa. xxxiii. 
 9), and the restoration at the coming of the 
 Messiah. (Isa. xxix. 17.) In the oldest times 
 these regions were inhabited by the Hi- 
 vites and the Giblites. (Josh. xiii. 5,6; Judg. 
 iii. 3.) Lebanon belonged to Phoenicia; 
 Anti-Lebanon, to Damascus. In the fourth 
 century before Christ the whole country 
 was incorporated with the kingdom of the 
 Seleucidse, and later on it ran the gauntlet 
 through the Roman, Saracen, and Turkish 
 rule. At present, Lebanon is inhabited by 
 Christians (Maronites and Druses); Anti- 
 Lebanon, by Mohammedans.”— Arnold. 
 See Robinson: Biblical Researches (1841); 
 Porter: Five Years in Damascus (1855). 
 
 Lebbae'us. See Judas. 
 
 Lectures. See Bampton; Hulsean; 
 Lowell, etc. 
 
 Lee, Ann. See Shakers. 
 
 Lee, Jesse, an able and successful Meth¬ 
 odist preacher; b. in Prince George 
 County, Va., March 12, 1758; d. in Balti¬ 
 more, Md., Sept. 12, 1816. He began his 
 labors as an itinerant minister in 1783, and 
 after spending three years in North Caro¬ 
 lina, Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey, 
 he was sent to New England. He formed 
 the first Methodist “class,” numbering 
 three women, at Stratford, Conn., Sept. 
 26, 1787. A “class” was organized at 
 Boston, Mass., July 13, 1792. When he 
 left New England in 1S00 there were fifty 
 Methodist preachers and six thousand 
 
Lee 
 
 ( 524 ) 
 
 Lei 
 
 members. From 1807-13 he was chaplain 
 of the United States House of Representa¬ 
 tives, and from 1814 until his death chap¬ 
 lain of the United States Senate. He had 
 remarkable gifts as an organizer, and well 
 deserved the title that has been given him 
 as “ the apostle of Methodism in New Eng¬ 
 land.” He published History of Methodism 
 in America (Baltimore, 1807). See Life 
 and Times of Jesse Lee, by Leroy M. Lee 
 (Richmond, Va., 1848). 
 
 Lee, Samuel, D. D., an eminent Oriental 
 scholar; b. at Longnor, Shropshire, Eng., 
 May 14, 1783; d. at Barley, Somersetshire, 
 Dec. 16, 1852. His early education was 
 received in a charity school. While work¬ 
 ing at his trade as a carpenter he studied 
 the languages, and without the aid of a 
 teacher became proficient in a large num¬ 
 ber. In 1813 he entered Queen’s College, 
 Cambridge, and after taking orders became 
 (1819) professor of Arabic in the Univer¬ 
 sity. In 1831 he was appointed Regius pro¬ 
 fessor of Hebrew, and at the time of his 
 death was also rector of Barley. He was 
 the author of a Hebrew Grammar (1830) 
 and a Hebrew , Chaldee , and English Lexicon 
 (1S40), besides several other works. He 
 translated the Bible into Syriac, Malay, 
 Persian, Hindustani, Coptic, and Arabic, 
 for the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 Legates, the name given ambassadors 
 sent by the pope to foreign churches. 
 They are of three kinds: (1) Legati a lat¬ 
 ere , chosen from the cardinals and clothed 
 almost with pontifical power; (2) Legati 
 nati, holding their office by hereditary 
 right, but having little power; (3) Legati 
 missi, or Nuncii apostolici, upon whom 
 were bestowed absolute authority in the 
 matter for which they were employed. 
 
 Legends ( things to be read ). The book 
 once used in Roman churches, containing 
 the lessons to be read at divine service, was 
 called a legend. In this way the name was 
 given to the lives of saints and martyrs, 
 because chapters were read from them at 
 stated times. A large portion of the le¬ 
 gends that found a place in the Golden Le¬ 
 gend, and other collections, were a mass of 
 fiction. Many of those of an earlier date, 
 contained in the Acta Martyrum and Acta 
 Sanctoru?n, are probably authentic. The 
 Roman Breviary contains legends of saints 
 which every priest has to peruse daily. 
 See Bollandists. 
 
 Legendary Theory. See Mythical. 
 
 Legion, The Theban, according to the 
 legend, which has many versions, a legion 
 
 of sixty-six hundred men, called the “The¬ 
 ban,” was sent from the Orient to northern 
 Italy to reinforce the army of Maximinian. 
 Being Christians themselves, they refused 
 to obey his commands to persecute the 
 Christians in that region. Exasperated at 
 their refusal, he had the whole legion 
 massacred. 
 
 Legion, The Thundering {I.egio Fulmi- 
 natrix ), is the name given to a Roman 
 legion that, surrounded by heathen ene¬ 
 mies in a valley among the Alps, were on 
 the point of dying from thirst, when a 
 shower of rain saved them. Eusebius tells 
 the story, and ascribes the event to the % 
 miraculous interference of Providence in 
 answer to the prayers of the Christian sol¬ 
 diers. 
 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, one 
 of the most wonderful scholars that ever 
 lived; b. at Leipzig, July 3, 1646; d. at 
 Hanover, Nov. 14, 1716. In his philoso¬ 
 phy he put forth the theory of monads , i. e ., 
 simple, uncompounded substances,without 
 figure, without exterior, without divisibil¬ 
 ity, by the aggregation of which all bodies 
 are formed, and into which they may be 
 again resolved. (Materialism.) These 
 monads are created things, indestructible, 
 and of two classes: Those destitute of con¬ 
 sciousness, but possessing an internal ac¬ 
 tivity which he calls perception; and those 
 possessing consciousness, which are souls. 
 The difference between the higher and 
 lower intelligences depends upon the de¬ 
 gree of this consciousness. The prime 
 monad is God. Now, inasmuch as man 
 consists of mind and body, the joint action 
 has to be accounted for. Des Cartes taught 
 that it exists through the direct assistance 
 of God. Leibnitz, on the other hand, held 
 that the mind and body are distinct ma¬ 
 chines, working independently, though 
 simultaneously, by a preestablished har¬ 
 mony , arranged by their Creator. He illus¬ 
 trated this by two timepieces, arranged the 
 one to point to the hour, the other to strike. 
 And so, he thought, when the mind deter¬ 
 mines to act, the body, by a harmony pre¬ 
 arranged by God, sets in order the neces¬ 
 sary mechanism. But the most celebrated 
 work of Leibnitz is his Theodicea , publish¬ 
 ed in 1700. In this he brings forward his 
 “optimism”—the doctrine, as held by him, 
 that out of all the systems which presented 
 themselves to the infinite intelligence of 
 God as possible, he selected and created 
 in the existing universe that which is the 
 most perfect, both morally and physically. 
 The existence of evil is not incompatible 
 with the general perfection of the divine 
 idea, but is a necessary consequence of the 
 
Lei 
 
 ( 5 2 5 ) 
 
 Leo 
 
 finiteness of created beings. In the balance 
 . of good and evil in creation, this preponder¬ 
 ance is infinitely greater on the former 
 side, and will be seen to be so at the last. 
 The works of Leibnitz fill 46 volumes, but 
 do not comprise nearly the whole of his 
 manuscripts.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Leighton, Robert, archbishop of Glas¬ 
 gow, b. in 1611. He was educated in 
 London until his sixteenth year, and after¬ 
 ward in Edinburgh; subsequently he spent 
 some years in France, and was licensed in 
 1641 to the ministry, with the charge of the 
 parish of Newbattle, near Edinburgh. His 
 character has been greatly misrepresented, 
 and it has now been proved that he was 
 zealous and earnest in his work, striving 
 always to promote peace and unity in the 
 Church, and refusingjto take part more than 
 was necessary in the controversies which 
 engaged most men’s thoughts. This was 
 the more remarkable as his father was one 
 of the bitterest fanatics in the cause of Prot¬ 
 estantism, and had brought up his son in 
 his own footsteps. Robert Leighton re¬ 
 mained at Newbattle for eleven years; but 
 in 1652 was summoned to London to de¬ 
 fend the conduct of some Scottish ministers 
 who had been imprisoned for supporting 
 the Royalist cause. He procured their re¬ 
 lease, and returned to Scotland, where he 
 was appointed principal of the University 
 of Edinburgh. When Charles II. took 
 steps for introducing episcopacy into Scot¬ 
 land, he nominated Leighton to the bishop¬ 
 ric of Dumblane, and shortly afterward to 
 the archbishopric of Glasgow, in 1671. 
 But, finding that his opinions were more in 
 favor of moderation than those of other 
 bishops, who looked on him inconsequence 
 with suspicion, he resigned his see in 1674; 
 and retired to Sussex, to the house of his 
 sister, where he spent the last ten years of 
 his life. He died in London in February, 
 1684, having come up to town, at the re¬ 
 quest of some friends, to hold a discussion 
 with Lord Perth on religious matters, but 
 was buried in a chapel at Horsted-Keynes, 
 his sister’s residence. 
 
 The writings of Leighton are among the 
 most beautiful in English theology. Col¬ 
 eridge’s Aids to Reflection consists almost 
 entirely of expansions and commentaries 
 on the teaching of this saintly man. Several 
 editions of his works have been published. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. Selections 
 from the writings of Leighton, with Life , 
 were published by W. Blair, D. D. (Lon¬ 
 don, 1884). 
 
 Leipzig Disputation. See Eck; Luther. 
 
 Leipzig Interim, The, was issued at Leip¬ 
 
 zig, Dec. 22, 1548. It was the joint pro¬ 
 duction of Melanchthon, Paul Eber, Bu- 
 genhagen, Hieronymus Weller, Antonius 
 Lauterbach, Georg Major, and Joachim 
 Camerarius. It made such concessions to 
 the Roman Catholics with respect to bap¬ 
 tism, penance, mass, etc., that it met with 
 great opposition from the Lutherans, and 
 was revoked in 1552. 
 
 Lent (from the Saxon word lencten , sig¬ 
 nifying “ spring ”), is the name given to the 
 forty week-days preceding Easter. Its or¬ 
 igin was of very early date, as the writings 
 of Irenaeus and Tertullian prove. At first 
 its duration was very short, and appears to 
 have been confined to the forty hours be¬ 
 tween the time of the crucifixion and the 
 resurrection. Gradually the period of fast¬ 
 ing was increased until it became forty 
 days, in accord with the fasts of Moses, Eli¬ 
 jah, and our Lord. The character and ex¬ 
 tent of the fasting varied, but there was al¬ 
 most a universal cessation of everything of 
 a festal nature, and the strict observance of 
 religious duties. Lent is observed in Epis¬ 
 copal churches, but the observance of the 
 fast is left to the individual discretion. In 
 the Roman Catholic Church it retains its 
 ancient features. 
 
 Le'o, “ the name of thirteen among the 
 popes of the Roman Catholic Church, of 
 whom the following call for particular no¬ 
 tice: Leo I., Surnamed ‘ the Great,’ who is 
 held a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 and is one of the most eminent of the Lat¬ 
 in fathers, was born of a distinguished 
 Etrurian family at Rome, about the end of 
 the fourth century. Of his early life little 
 is known. On the death of Sixtus III., in 
 440, Leo was chosen as his successor. It 
 is in his pontificate that the regular series 
 of papal letters and decretals may be said 
 to commence. Leo’s letters, addressed to 
 all parts of the Church, exhibit prodigious 
 activity and zeal, and are used by Roman 
 controversialists as an evidence of the ex¬ 
 tent of the jurisdiction of the Roman see. 
 In a council held at Rome, in 449, he set 
 aside the proceedings of the Council of 
 Ephesus, which had pronounced in favor of 
 Eutyches ( q. v.), summoned a new council 
 at Chalcedon, in which his legates presided, 
 and in which Leo’s celebrated ‘ dogmatical 
 letter ’ was accepted ‘ as the voice of Peter,’ 
 and adopted as the authentic exposition of 
 the orthodox doctrine on the person of 
 Christ. His works, the most important of 
 which are his letters and sermons, were 
 first printed in 1479,and afterward by Ques- 
 nel (2 vols., Paris, 1675); but a much more 
 complete and trustworthy edition is that of 
 Cacciari (3 vols. fol., Rome, 1753-55), and 
 
Leo 
 
 ( 526 ) 
 
 i^es 
 
 of the brothers Ballerini (Venice, 1757). 
 The pontificate of Leo III. is chiefly notice¬ 
 able as the epoch of the formal establish¬ 
 ment of the Empire of the West. He was 
 a native of Rome, and was elected pope on 
 the death of Adrian I. , in 795. During the 
 greater part of the eighth century the 
 popes, through the practical withdrawal of 
 the eastern emperors, had exercised a tem¬ 
 poral supremacy in Rome, which was fully 
 recognized by the gift of Pepin, and placed 
 under the protectorate of the Frank sov¬ 
 ereigns, who received the title of patrician. 
 The pontificate of Leo, however, was a 
 troubled one, and in 799 he was treated 
 with much violence, and obliged to flee 
 to Spoleto, whence he afterward re¬ 
 paired to Paderborn, in order to hold a 
 conference with Charlemagne. On his re¬ 
 turn to Rome he was received with much 
 honor by the Romans, and the chiefs of the 
 conspiracy against him were sentenced to 
 banishment. In the following year (800), 
 Charlemagne, having come to Rome, was 
 solemnly crowned and saluted emperor by 
 the pope, and the temporal sovereignty of 
 the pope over the Roman city and State, 
 under, however, the suzerainty of the em¬ 
 peror, was formally established. In 804 
 Leo visited Charlemagne at his court at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. With Charlemagne’s suc¬ 
 cessor, Louis le Debonnaire, Leo was em¬ 
 broiled in a dispute about the right of sov¬ 
 ereign jurisdiction in Rome, which had not 
 been brought to a conclusion when Leo died 
 in 816. Leo XIII., the present head of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, was elected to the 
 pontifical chair, Feb. 20, 1878. Descended 
 from an old patrician family, Gioacchino 
 Pecci was b. March 2, 1810, at Carpineto, a 
 village in central Italy. He studied at the 
 Collegio Romano, graduated in law and the¬ 
 ology, and, becoming a favorite with pope 
 Gregory XVI., was named by him a prelate 
 of the household. As delegate succes¬ 
 sively at Benevento, Spoleto, and Perugia, 
 he displayed great energy in the gov¬ 
 ernment of these provinces, and was es¬ 
 pecially vigorous and successful in the 
 work of suppressing brigandage. Though 
 but 33 years of age, he was, in 1843, made 
 archbishop of Dalmatia, and sent to Brus¬ 
 sels as papal nuncio. In 1846 Gregory se¬ 
 lected Pecci for the dignity of cardinal, but 
 his friendly views in favor of the young 
 archbishop were frustrated by death, and 
 it was not till 1853 that Gregory’s succes¬ 
 sor, Pius IX., saw fit to confer the cardi¬ 
 nal’s hat. Cardinal Pecci was no favorite 
 of the all-powerful Cardinal Antonelli, and 
 was accordingly not prominent in papal 
 councils. But in 1877 he was made Cam- 
 erlengo (papal finance minister), and was 
 chosen to be the successor of Pius IX. in 
 
 the pontificate in 1878.”—Chambers: Cyclo- 
 piedia. See Life of Leo XIII. , by Bernard 
 O’Reilly (New York, 1887). 
 
 Leprosy. “ There is reason to believe 
 that what is now known as leprosy is not 
 the disease to which the name is given in 
 the Bible. In the present day ‘ leprosy ’ 
 stands for the disease that is also called 
 elephantiasis —the swelling, thickening, and 
 diminished sensitiveness of the skin, sug¬ 
 gesting that of an elephant. This disease 
 is of gradual approach and development. 
 The face is the part most frequently affect¬ 
 ed. In severe cases the throat is involved, 
 and the voice becomes hoarse. Beginning 
 in spots and blotches on the skin, the dis¬ 
 ease works its way into the flesh. Some¬ 
 times nodules like pears grow out on the 
 skin. In another and more common form 
 of the disease the body is slowly eaten 
 away, till sometimes almost all traces of 
 human features are lost, and finger-joints, 
 and then whole limbs decay away. It is a 
 curious fact that this terrible malady is 
 scarcely known to attack Jews. The lep¬ 
 rosy of the Bible does not answer the de¬ 
 scription of elephantiasis. There we never 
 read of the destruction of features and 
 limbs. Yet the description of the disease 
 in Lev. xiii., xiv. is minute and detailed. It 
 is held by Sir Risdon Bennett and others, 
 that in the Bible the word ‘ leprosy ’ stands 
 for a variety of skin diseases. Even 
 houses are said to be leprous when they 
 are mildewed. Often the word is used for 
 the ‘ itch,’ sometimes perhaps for ‘ ring¬ 
 worm,’ but most often for a disease called 
 ‘ psoriasis.’ This is a cutaneous disease, 
 the essential characteristic of which is a 
 rough scaly eruption on the skin. The 
 scaly patches are sometimes of a pearly 
 whiteness. The leper is then ‘ white as 
 snow.’ Evidently the question of the con¬ 
 tagiousness of leprosy is affected by the 
 fact that the name is given in a general 
 sense. Some of the skin diseases are con¬ 
 tagious — others not.” — Bagster: Bible 
 Helps. 
 
 Leslie, Charles, famous as the author 
 of A Short and Easy Method with the Deists; 
 b. in Ireland, 1650; d. at Glaslough, 1722. 
 He took orders in 1680, and in 1687 became 
 chancellor of the cathedral of Connor. An 
 earnest opponent of Roman Catholicism, 
 he was a staunch adherent of the Stuarts, 
 and, having declined to take the oath at the 
 Revolution, was deprived of his benefice by 
 William and Mary. He withdrew to Eng¬ 
 land, and for twenty years was active in 
 writing various articles in favor of the 
 nonjuring cause. After the failure to re¬ 
 store the Stuart dynasty he accompanied 
 
Les 
 
 ( 527 ) 
 
 Lev 
 
 his patron to Italy, but soon asked permis¬ 
 sion to return to his native country, and 
 died the following year. “ The Theolog¬ 
 ical Works of Leslie were collected and pub¬ 
 lished by himself in 2 vols., folio, in 1721: 
 a later edition, slightly enlarged, appeared 
 at Oxford in 1832 (7 vols., 8vo). They 
 handle the controverted points of which 
 they treat with considerable force of argu¬ 
 ment and vigor of style. He had the some¬ 
 what rare distinction of making several 
 converts by his reasonings, and probably 
 persons might still be found who are pre¬ 
 pared to concur in Dr. Johnson’s dictum 
 that “ Leslie was a reasoner, and a reason- 
 er who was not to be reasoned against.” 
 Rut the questions in dispute are no longer 
 discussed on the basis which seems to have 
 been pretty unanimously accepted by the 
 orthodox theologians of that age. This is 
 sufficiently seen when the promise given 
 in the title of his best-known work is con¬ 
 trasted with the actual performance. The 
 book professes to be A Short and Easy 
 Method with the Deists, wherein the Certainty 
 of the Christian Religion is Demonstrated by 
 Infallible Proof from Four Rules , which are 
 Incompatible to any Imposture that ever yet 
 has been, or that can possibly be (1697). The 
 four rules which, according to Leslie, have 
 only to be rigorously applied in order to 
 establish not the probability merely, but 
 the absolute certainty of the truth of Chris¬ 
 tianity, are simply these: (1) that the mat¬ 
 ter of fact be such as that men’s outward 
 senses, their eyes and ears, may be judges 
 of it; (2) that it be done publicly, in the 
 face of the world; (3) that not only public 
 monuments be kept up in memory of it, 
 but some outward actions be performed; 
 (4) that such monuments and such actions 
 or observances be instituted, and do com¬ 
 mence from, the time that the matter of fact 
 was done.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, b. at 
 Kamenz, in Upper Lusatia, Jan. 22, 1729; 
 d. at Brunswick, Feb. 15,1781. He was the 
 son of a Lutheran pastor, first educated at 
 the school of his native town of Kamenz, 
 then at Meisegen in Saxony, and from 1746- 
 48 at the University of Leipzig. He was 
 an insatiable and omnivorous reader almost 
 from infancy, mastering the Latin, Greek, 
 mathematics, and history of the curriculum, 
 and reading other classics in his spare 
 hours. He was intended for the ministry, 
 and went to Leipzig with the full intention 
 of studying theology; but there was no 
 theologian there equal to the position of 
 mastering him , and the love of classics and 
 art gave him a strong impetus toward the 
 world, from which in his youth he had been 
 quite shut out. Consequently he devoted 
 
 himself to a literary life, and especially de¬ 
 sired to purify the drama by writing plays 
 of high moral tone. His time was spent, 
 some at Berlin, some at Breslau. For the 
 last eleven years of his life he was keeper 
 of the Wolfenbiittel Library. 
 
 Lessing is a deeply interesting subject 
 for meditation as regards his theological 
 position. That he was skeptical is clear, 
 but it was not the scoffing skepticism of 
 Voltaire. He was a man of deep, earnest 
 religious feeling, who questioned evidence 
 severely, and hated folly and prevarication. 
 Probably he was unfortunate in the theo¬ 
 logians with whom he came into collision, 
 and was impatient and weary of argumen¬ 
 tation, when a simple faith and example of 
 holy life might have conquered him. He 
 used to express his longing to see the Sav¬ 
 iour’s miracles, that he might adore and 
 believe, but declared that the records did 
 not suffice to teach him living belief in the 
 Son of God. His faith, though not formm 
 lated, was really deeper than that of those 
 who merely repeated formulas; it was 
 eager to spring up, and bear fruit in him, 
 to be a living, and not a dead faith. He 
 was catching hold, if only by the hem of 
 the garment, of that which he felt to be di¬ 
 vine. And therefore his influence was 
 probably good upon his countrymen, as he 
 led them away from systems and theories, 
 and shewed them in his life the example of 
 a true searcher after wisdom and after God. 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Le'vi (joining), the third son of Jacob 
 and Leah. (Gen. xxix. 34.) With Simeon 
 he avenged the wrongs of their sister 
 Dinah (Gen. xxxiv. 25-31), and in so doing 
 incurred the curse of Jacob. (Gen. xlix. 
 5-7.) But this curse, through the action 
 of his descendants in the matter of the 
 golden calf, was changed into a blessing. 
 (Ex. xxxii. 26-29.) Levi had three sons, 
 Gershon, Kohath, and Merari. He died in 
 Egypt at the age of 137. (Ex. vi. 16.) 
 
 Lev'irate Marriage, a term applied to an 
 ancient usage of the Hebrews (Gen. 
 xxxviii.), and reordained by Moses (Deut. 
 xxv. 5-10), that, in case a husband died 
 without leaving male issue, compelled his 
 brother to marry the widow. (Cf. also Matt, 
 xxii. 24.) 
 
 Levites, “ the descendants of Levi, who 
 were singled out for the service of the 
 sanctuary. The term is more particularly 
 employed in contradistinction to ‘ priests ’ 
 (q. v.), in designating all those members 
 of the tribe who were not of the family of 
 Aaron. It was their office—for which no 
 further ordination was required in the case 
 
Lev 
 
 ( 528 ) 
 
 Lib 
 
 of the individual—to erect, to remove, and 
 to carry the tabernacle and its utensils 
 during the sojourn of the Israelites in the 
 wilderness. When the sanctuary had found 
 a fixed abode, they acted as its servants 
 and guardians, and had to assist the priests 
 in their holy functions in the sanctuary, 
 and in their medical capacity among the 
 people. The vocal and instrumental music 
 in the temple was likewise under their 
 care, as were also the general instruction 
 of the people, certain judicial and admin¬ 
 istrative functions, the keeping of the gen¬ 
 ealogical lists, and the propagation of the 
 Book of the Law among the community. 
 In order to enable them better to fulfill 
 these functions, no special part of the land 
 was allotted to them, but they were scat¬ 
 tered— in accordance with Jacob’s last 
 words (Gen. xlix. 7)—in Israel; forty-eight 
 Levitical cities, among which there were 
 also certain ‘cities of refuge,’ being set 
 aside for them on both sides of the Jordan; 
 without, however, preventing their settling 
 wherever else they pleased. Their revenues 
 consisted of the annual tithe ( q . v.), and of 
 a share in the second tithe, due every third 
 year, and in the sacrificial repasts. The 
 length of their service varied at different 
 times. No special dress was prescribed 
 for them until the time of Agrippa. 
 
 “ While in the desert not more than 
 8,580 serviceable men strong, they had, 
 under David, reached the number of 38,000 
 men fit for the service, 24,000 of whom this 
 king selected, and divided them into four 
 classes — sacerdotal assistants, doorkeep¬ 
 ers, singers, and musicians, and judges and 
 officers. A very small number, only, re¬ 
 turned from the exile, and all the Mosaic 
 ordinances with respect to their cities, 
 tithes, share in sacrificial repasts, etc., 
 were virtually abrogated during the second 
 temple. Nothing but the service in the 
 temple, in which they were assisted by 
 certain menials called Nethinim, was left 
 to them. It may be presumed that they 
 earned their livelihood partly like the rest 
 of the community, partly as teachers, 
 scribes, and the like. Their traveling- 
 garb consisted, according to the Talmud 
 (Jebam. 122 a), of a staff, a pouch, and a 
 Book of the Law. Foreign rulers also 
 granted them exemption from taxes. This 
 is the only tribe which is supposed to have 
 kept up its pure lineage to this day, and 
 certain, albeit small, signs of distinction 
 are still bestowed upon its members, more 
 especially in the case of the presumed 
 descendants of Aaron (the Kohanini). But 
 the purity of lineage is more than question¬ 
 able in many instances. ‘ Levites ’ is also 
 the name given to certain sacerdotal assis¬ 
 tants in the Romish Church.”—Chambers: 
 
 Cyclopedia. See S. I. Curtiss: The Levitical 
 Priests ( 1877); W. Robertson Smith: 'The 
 Old Testament in the Jewish Church (London 
 and New York, 1881); W. H. Green: Moses 
 and the Prophets (New York, 1881). 
 
 Levit'icus. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Lewis, Tayler, LL. D., L. H. D., a 
 brilliant and profound American scholar; 
 b. in Northumberland, Saratoga County, 
 N. Y., March 27, 1802; d. in Schenectady, 
 N. Y., May 11, 1877. He was graduated 
 at Union College in 1820, and after 
 studying law, practiced his profession for 
 a time at Fort Miller, N. Y. In 1833 he 
 became principal of the academy at Water¬ 
 ford, and from there was called to be pro¬ 
 fessor of Greek and Latin in the University 
 of the City of New York in 1838. In 1849 
 he accepted the professorship of Greek in 
 Union College, and afterward of Oriental 
 languages and biblical literature. He was 
 a prolific writer for the press, and publish¬ 
 ed several volumes, among them, The Six 
 Days of Creation (1855); Metrical Version 
 of Ecclesiastes and Job in Schaff’s Lange. 
 The Light by which we see Light; or , Nature 
 and the Scriptures (Vedder Lectures, 1875). 
 
 Liber Sextus. See Canon Law. 
 
 Liberia, a negro republic on the west 
 coast of Africa, founded by the American 
 Colonization Society in 1820. It became 
 independent in 1847. The capital is Mon¬ 
 rovia. It has a population of about eighteen 
 thousand civilized Africans, most of whom 
 came from the United States, and there is 
 a native population, within the bounds of 
 the republic, of a million or more. Mission 
 work was begun in 1821. At the present 
 time there are upwards of 1500 members 
 connected with the Methodist Church, 
 and both the Episcopal and Presbyterian 
 Churches of the United States have flour¬ 
 ishing missions. Liberia has not fulfilled 
 the hopes of its early founders, but it has 
 had an interesting history. 
 
 Liberius, bishop of Rome, 352-366. See 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Lib'ertines, (1) a name given to those 
 Jews who, having been taken captive 
 during the wars of Pompey, were sold 
 at Rome as slaves, but soon after were 
 emancipated and returned to Jerusalem, 
 where they sustained a synagogue of their 
 own. The word is used only once in the New 
 Testament. (Acts vi. 9.) (2) A party of 
 loose pantheistic-rationalists which arose 
 in the Netherlands during the Reformation. 
 
 | They affirmed that nothing was bad by 
 
Lib 
 
 ( 529 ) 
 
 Lie 
 
 itself and that God is all, and all is God, so 
 that the natural passions are but the voices 
 of the spirit. They made many converts 
 in France, and they endeavored to gain a 
 foothold in Geneva, but Calvin met their 
 leader Quintin, in a public disputation at 
 Paris in 1534, and later on in 1545 publish¬ 
 ed a pamphlet that uncovered the real 
 character of the sect. (3) The name given 
 a party in Geneva, composed mostly of 
 native citizens, who rose against the bishop 
 and the Duke of Savoy, and, after securing 
 the independence of the city, invited Calvin 
 to introduce the Reformation, but who 
 afterward turned against him. See Cal¬ 
 vin. 
 
 Liberty, Religious. See Toleration. 
 
 Liber Carolini. See Caroline Books. 
 
 License, a term which designates the 
 authority to preach, given by a regularly 
 constituted body, such as a presbytery, a 
 conference, or a council. The licentiate is 
 examined and approved as to his theological 
 qualifications,but until he has been ordained 
 has no authority to dispense the sacraments 
 or to sit as a member of an ecclesiastical 
 court. The word “ license,” in the Church 
 of England and the American Episcopal 
 Church, is applied to the permission to 
 preach, given by a bishop to a deacon, or to 
 read sermons, given to a candidate. 
 
 Lichfield, Bishopric of. The name 
 “ Lichfield ” means “ field of the dead,” 
 and is said to commemorate the slaughter 
 of a number of Christian converts by the 
 Roman soldiers during the Diocletian per¬ 
 secution. Lichfield, though not without 
 some interruption, has been the seat of a 
 bishopric since about 656. It was the great 
 bishopric of Mercia, from which many sees 
 afterward sprang. Hereford was divided 
 from it in 676; Lindsey in 678. Leicester 
 and Lichfield were reunited in 705, but 
 parted again in 737: Leicester became 
 merged in Dorchester about 888, which 
 again in 1072 became the See of Lincoln. 
 Lichfield for a while became joined to 
 Chester (1075), and to these was joined 
 Coventry (1102). In 1541 Chester was 
 joined to the province of York. 
 
 St. Chad, bishop 669-672, is the patron 
 saint of Lichfield. He lived at Stowe, 
 about a mile from the present cathedral, 
 and from thence ruled over his enormous 
 diocese. A church had been built at Stowe 
 by his predecessor, Jarumnan. Bede tells 
 us that St.Chad was buried near the church 
 of St. Mary, the first in Lichfield, and that 
 his remains were translated to the new 
 church of S'. Peter; this must have been 
 
 completed before 735, when Bede died. 
 After the Conquest it was replaced by a 
 Norman church, which was swept away 
 after about a century and gradually the 
 present cathedral was built on its site. The 
 oldest part (the western choir), was prob¬ 
 ably commenced about 1200. The north 
 and south transepts followed,then the nave; 
 then the west front, which does not appear 
 to have been constructed quite continuous¬ 
 ly with the rest, for it is dated 1275; after¬ 
 ward the eastern part of the choir was taken 
 in hand, destroying the work done at the 
 beginning of the century. The present 
 Lady-chapel and presbytery were erected 
 and completed about 1325. Walter Langton, 
 1296-1321, did most of this, and constructed 
 a splendid shrine for the relics of St. Chad, 
 as well as building an episcopal palace. 
 Since then nothing has been done except by 
 way of restoring and improving the build¬ 
 ing. The great event in the history of 
 Lichfield Cathedral was the siege which it 
 sustained, in 1643, against the Parliament¬ 
 ary army, headed by Lord Brooke. The 
 cathedral close had been fortified by Bish¬ 
 op Langton in the thirteenth century, and 
 so was calculated to sustain a siege. In¬ 
 jured by the cannon shots, the central 
 spire fell and crushed in part of the roof; 
 the cathedral was wrecked by the victors, 
 who defaced the monuments, hacked down 
 the carved woodwork, shattered the stained 
 glass, and destroyed the records of the ca¬ 
 thedral and of the city. After the Resto¬ 
 ration, John Hacket was made bishop of 
 Lichfield and Coventry (1661), and at once 
 began the repair of his ruined cathedral; 
 the great spire was rebuilt from a design 
 by Sir Christopher Wren, and in 1669 the 
 building was reconsecrated. In the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century, Wyatt 
 made some destructive alterations which it 
 has cost much to undo. In i860, Sir Gil¬ 
 bert Scott took the true restoration into his 
 hands, and in the spring of 1884 the com¬ 
 pletion was signalized by a great ceremo¬ 
 nial, when the west front was rededicated, 
 in the presence of the archbishop of Can¬ 
 terbury and others. 
 
 Lichfield is one of the smaller cathedrals 
 of England, being only 319 feet in length, 
 but it is one of the most beautiful. Most of 
 the old manuscripts belonging to the cathe¬ 
 dral library were destroyed at the time of 
 the siege, but one or two were saved, the 
 chief being the Gospels of St. Chad ; it con¬ 
 tains the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. 
 Mark, and part of St. Luke; tradition says 
 that Gildas was its scribe, and the Welsh 
 notes on its margin bear out that supposi¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The cathedral body consists of the dean, 
 three archdeacons, four canons residen- 
 
Lid 
 
 ( 530 ) 
 
 Lid 
 
 LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. 
 
 tiary,four priest vicars, and nineteen preb¬ 
 endaries. The income of the diocese is 
 forty-two thousand pounds. — Benham: 
 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Liddon, Henry Parry, D. D., D. C. L. 
 (both Oxford, 1870), Church of Eng¬ 
 land; b. at Stoneham, Hants, Aug. 20, 
 1829; was graduated at Oxford, 1851; or¬ 
 dained in 1852, and from 1852—59 vice-princi¬ 
 
 pal of the theological college of Cuddesdon; 
 prebendary of Major Pars Altaris in Salis¬ 
 bury Cathedral, 1864-70; Ireland, profess¬ 
 or of exegesis of Scripture, 1870-S2; since 
 1870 resident canon at St. Paul’s Cathedral, 
 London. He was Bampton lecturer in 
 1866, and his reputation as a great preach¬ 
 er is world-wide. Among his publications 
 are his well-known Bampton lectures on 
 The D ivinity ofour Lord and Saviour, Jesus 
 
( 53i ) 
 
 Lil 
 
 Lig 
 
 Christ (1867, many editions), and several 
 volumes of sermons. 
 
 Lightfoot, John, an eminent Hebrew 
 scholar; b. at Stoke-upon-Trent, 1602; d. 
 at Ely, Dec. 6, 1675. Educated at Cam¬ 
 bridge, he became minister of St. Barthol¬ 
 omew’s, London, 1642, and sat in the West¬ 
 minster Assembly of Divines. He was 
 appointed vice-chancellor of Cambridge 
 University, 1655, and, having conformed 
 in 1662, became a prebendary of Ely, 1675. 
 His fame rests upon his Horce Hebraicce et 
 Talmudicce (1659), 4 vols. See his com¬ 
 plete works (London, 1822-25), 13 vols. 
 
 Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, D. D., LL. D., 
 bishop of Durham; b. at Liverpool, April 
 13, 1828; d. at Bishop’s Auckland, near 
 Durham, Dec. 21, 1889. He was graduat¬ 
 ed at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1851; 
 fellow, 1852; tutor, 1857; select preacher 
 to the University, 1858; Hulsean professor 
 of divinity, 1861-75; canon of St. Paul’s, 
 London, 1871-79; Lady Margaret professor 
 of divinity at Cambridge, 1875; bishop of 
 Durham, 1879. Dr. Lightfoot was one of 
 the greatest biblical and patristic scholars of 
 this century. This is shown in his commen¬ 
 taries on Galatians, Philippians,Colossians, 
 and Philemon, and the Epistles of Clement, 
 Ignatius, and Polycarp. He was eminent 
 alike as an ecclesiastic,author,and preacher. 
 
 Lights, Use of, in Public Worship, “a 
 practice which prevailed in the Jewish 
 (Exod. xxxv. 31-39) and in most of the 
 ancient religions, and which is retained 
 both in the Roman and in the Oriental 
 churches. The use of lights in the night 
 services, and in subterranean churches, 
 such as those of the early Christians in the 
 catacombs, is, of course, easily intelligible; 
 but the practice, as bearing also a symbol¬ 
 ical allusion to the ‘ Light of the world ’ 
 and to the ‘ Light of faith ’ was not con¬ 
 fined to occasions of necessity, but appears 
 to have been from an early time an accom¬ 
 paniment of Christian worship, especially 
 in connection with the sacraments of bap¬ 
 tism and the eucharist. The time of the 
 service in which lights are used has varied 
 very much in different ages. St. Jerome 
 speaks of it only during the reading of the 
 gospel; Amalarius, from the beginning of 
 the mass till the end of the gospel; Isidore 
 of Seville, from the gospel to the end of 
 the canon; and eventually it was extended 
 to the entire time of the mass. In other 
 services, also, lights have been used from 
 an early period. Lighted tapers were 
 placed in the hand of the newly-baptized, 
 which St. Gregory Nazianzen interprets as 
 emblems of future glory. Indeed, in the 
 
 Roman Catholic Church the most profuse 
 use of lights is reserved for the services 
 connected with that sacrament. The ma¬ 
 terial used for lights in churches is either 
 oil or wax, the latter, in penitential time 
 and in services for the dead, being of a yel¬ 
 low color. In the Anglican Church, can¬ 
 dlesticks and, in some instances, candles 
 themselves, are retained in many churches 
 on the communion-table, but they are not 
 lighted. The retention of them is greatly 
 favored by the ‘ High-Church ’ party, and 
 much disapproved by the ‘ Low-Church ’ 
 or ‘ Evangelical ’ party. In the Presbyte¬ 
 rian and Independent churches of Britain, 
 America, etc., the symbolical use of lights 
 and candlesticks is rejected as supersti¬ 
 tious.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Liguori ( le-gwo'ree ), Alfonso Maria da, a 
 distinguished Roman Catholic theologian 
 and writer, and founder of the order of Li- 
 guorians or Redemptorists; b. near Naples, 
 Sept. 27, 1696; d. at Nocera, Aug. 1, 1787. 
 His works, on casuistry especially, have 
 been strongly condemned by Protestant 
 writers. He held that equivocation was 
 allowable in certain cases, and might even 
 be confirmed by an oath. His Le Glorie di 
 Maria (The Glory of Mary) (Venice, 1784, 
 Eng. trans., N. Y., 1852) exhibits the most 
 intense form of Mariolatry. 
 
 Liguorians. See Redemptorists. 
 
 Ligure, one of the stones in the breast¬ 
 plate of the high-priest. (Exod. xxviii. 19.) 
 It is very difficult to identify, but the opin¬ 
 ion has found favor that it was red tour¬ 
 maline or rubellite—sometimes called red 
 sapphire. 
 
 Lillie, John, D. D., b. at Kelso, Scotland, 
 Dec. 16, 1812; d. at Kingston, N. Y., Feb. 
 23, 1867. He was graduated at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Edinburgh, 1831, and came to 
 this country in 1834. He was pastor of 
 the Reformed Dutch Church at Kingston, 
 N. Y., until Aug., 1841; and from 1843 to 
 1848 had charge of the Broadway, after¬ 
 ward Stanton Street, Dutch Church, New 
 York City. From 1851 to 1857 he was en¬ 
 gaged upon the Revised Version of the 
 American Bible Union. He had just 
 entered upon his duties as pastor of the 
 Presbyterian Church of Kingston, N. Y., 
 when he died. He was an able biblical 
 scholar. His works were: Perpetuity of the 
 Earth (New York, 1842); Lectures on the 
 Epistles to the Thessalonians (i860); Trans¬ 
 lation, with additions, of Auberlen and 
 Riggenbach upon Thessalonians (in the 
 Lange series, 1868), also posthumous Lect¬ 
 ures on the First and Second Epistles of 
 
Lil 
 
 ( 532 ) 
 
 Lit 
 
 Peter , with a Biographical Sketch , by Dr. 
 Schaff and James Inglis (1869). 
 
 Lily. The Arabs give this name to a beau¬ 
 tiful flower resembling the lily, and in this 
 general sense the word is probably used in 
 the Bible. The only true lily now found 
 in Palestine is the scarlet martagon. 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral, as it now stands, 
 dates from 1450. It is unrivaled as the 
 earliest purely Gothic building in Europe, 
 and combines in its restorations many 
 varieties of style. The yearly income of 
 the see is ,£5,000. 
 
 Linen. The Egyptian linen, owing to the 
 -excellent quality of the flax, was equal to 
 the best now made, in texture, and superior 
 in evenness. It was this material from 
 which state robes were made in which 
 mummies were wrapped. The veil of the 
 temple and the curtain for its entrance 
 were made of fine linen (Exod. xxvi. 31, 
 36), and it was worn by priests and royal 
 personages. (Ex. xxviii. 6, 8, 15, 39; xxxix. 
 27; 1 Chron. xv. 27.) 
 
 Lingard, John, D. D., Roman Catholic 
 historian; b. at Winchester, Feb. 5, 1771; 
 d. at Hornby, near Lancaster, July 13, 
 1851. Educated at the English College at 
 Douai, in France, where he remained until 
 1793, and after his return to England in 
 1794 completed his theological studies at 
 Crook Hall, near Durham. Ordained priest 
 in 1795, he was appointed director of the 
 studies at Crook Hall, and teacher of nat¬ 
 ural and moral philosophy. After the col¬ 
 lege was removed to Ushaw, Durham, in 
 1808, he became president (1810), but the 
 following year he took charge of a small 
 church at Hornby that he might have more 
 time for literary work. He visited Rome 
 in 1817, and again in 1821, when Pius VII. 
 made him Doctor of Divinity and Doctor 
 of Laws. Leo XII. wished to make him a 
 cardinal, but he preferred the quiet of his 
 literary studies. In later years he received 
 a pension of three hundred pounds from 
 the Government. His chief historical 
 works were: The Antiquities of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Church (1806), and his History of 
 England. Although biased in favor of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, they show pro¬ 
 found knowledge of constitutional history, 
 and great research. Lingard published a 
 number of controversial writings, among 
 them, A Catechism on the Doctrines of the 
 Catholic Church , and a New Version of the 
 Four Gospels. See his life in sixth edition 
 of his history. 
 
 Litany (Gr. litaneia , a supplication), “ a 
 
 word, the specific meaning of which has 
 varied considerably at different times, but 
 which means, in general, a solemn act of 
 supplication addressed with the object of 
 averting the divine anger, and especially 
 on occasions of public calamity. Through 
 all the varieties of form which litanies have 
 assumed, one characteristic has always 
 been maintained, viz., that the prayer 
 alternates between the priest or other 
 minister, who announces the object of each 
 petition, and the congregation, who reply 
 in a common supplicatory form, the most 
 usual of which was the well-known ‘ Kyrie 
 eleison !’ (Lord, have mercy!) In one pro¬ 
 cession, which Mabillon describes, this 
 prayer, alternating with ‘ Christe eleison,’ 
 was repeated 300 times; and in the capit¬ 
 ularies of Charlemagne, it is ordered that 
 the ‘ Kyrie eleison ’ shall be sung by the 
 men, the women answering ‘ Christe elei¬ 
 son.’ From the fourth century downward 
 the use of litanies was general. The An¬ 
 tiphonary of St. Gregory the Great contains 
 several. In the Roman Catholic Church 
 three litanies are especially in use—the 
 ‘ litany of the saints ’ (which is the most 
 ancient), the ‘ litany of the name of Jesus,’ 
 and the ‘ litany of Our Lady of Loretto.’ 
 Of these, the first alone has a place in the 
 public service-books of the Church, on the 
 rogation days, in the ordination service, 
 the service for the consecration of churches, 
 the consecration of cemeteries, and many 
 other offices. Although called by the name 
 of litany of the saints, the opening and 
 closing petitions, and, indeed, the greater 
 part of the litany, consist of prayers 
 addressed directly to God; and the prayers 
 to the saints are not for their help, but for 
 their intercession on behalf of the worship¬ 
 ers. The litany of Jesus consists of a 
 number of addresses to our Lord under 
 his various relations to men, in connection 
 with the several details of his passion, and 
 of adjurations of him through the memory 
 of what he has done and suffered for the 
 salvation of mankind. The date of this 
 form of prayer is uncertain, but it is re¬ 
 ferred, with much probability, to the time 
 of St. Bernardino of Siena, in the fifteenth 
 century. The litany of Loretto (see Lo¬ 
 retto) resembles both the above-named 
 litanies in its opening addresses to the 
 Holy Trinity, and in its closing petitions 
 to the * Lamb of God, who taketh away the 
 sins of the world;’ but the main body of 
 petitions are addressed to the Virgin Mary 
 under various titles, some taken from the 
 Scriptures, some from the language of the 
 fathers, some from the mystic writers of 
 the mediaeval Church. Neither this litany 
 nor that of Jesus has ever formed part of 
 any of the ritual or liturgical offices of the 
 
Lit 
 
 ( 533 ) 
 
 Lit 
 
 Catholic Church, but there can be no 
 doubt that both have in various ways re¬ 
 ceived the sanction of the highest author¬ 
 ities of the Roman Church. 
 
 “ In the prayer-book of the English 
 Church the litany is retained; but although 
 it partakes of ancient forms it differs from 
 that of the Roman Church, and contains no 
 invocation of the Virgin or the saints. It 
 is divided into four parts—invocations, 
 deprecations, intercessions, and supplica¬ 
 tions, in which are preserved the old form 
 of alternate prayer and response. It is no 
 longer a distinct service, but, when used, 
 forms part of the morning prayer.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopadia. 
 
 Lithuania. See Russia. 
 
 Liturgies, the science of worship. See 
 Worship. 
 
 Liturgy (Gr. leiiourgia). This was orig¬ 
 inally the name of a public duty or office, 
 which, in Athens, the richer citizens had to 
 discharge at their own cost. It consisted 
 of providing, for the benefit of the people 
 generally, some form of public amusement, 
 consisting usually of dancing or games. 
 Leitourgia thus became the name of any 
 service or functions of a public character, 
 and hence in the Septuagint it is used of 
 the public service of God, of divine wor¬ 
 ship of the congregation. In ecclesiastical 
 phraseology it was originally restricted 
 specially to the Eucharist, as being the 
 highest of public offices; but has now ob¬ 
 tained a wider signification, and is com¬ 
 monly applied to the whole form of public 
 worship of the congregation. We shall 
 consider the subject, therefore, under this 
 twofold division. 
 
 It seems probable that some liturgy was 
 drawn up by the apostles at the very be¬ 
 ginning of the Christian Church, for the 
 use of the first converts to Christianity, 
 who, as we read in the Acts of the Apos¬ 
 tles, continued steadfastly in the apostles’ 
 doctrine, and in breaking of bread— i. e.,m 
 partaking of the Holy Communion—and in 
 “ the prayers.” In that case this would 
 be the original liturgy from which the 
 succeeding ones were derived. Hence in 
 very ancient liturgies the bulk of the ser¬ 
 vice is identical, and the variations, com¬ 
 paratively speaking, unimportant. In order 
 to classify the numerous liturgies that 
 have been used in different parts of the 
 world, it will be well to divide them into 
 five principal groups. These are connected 
 with the names of churches, and also with 
 the names of certain apostles, and they are 
 as follows: (i) The liturgy of St. James, 
 or Jerusalem; (2) the liturgy of St. Mark, 
 
 or Alexandria ; (3) the liturgy of St. 
 Thaddeus, or the East; (4) the liturgy of 
 St. Peter, or Rome; (5) the liturgy of St. 
 John, or Ephesus. The Jerusalem liturgy 
 consists of three divisions: The Clemen¬ 
 tine, Caesarean, and Antiochene or Hiero- 
 solymitan liturgies. From the Caesarean 
 liturgy, which is connected with the name 
 of St. Basil, came the liturgy of St. Chrys¬ 
 ostom and the Armenian. 
 
 The many branches which have sprung 
 from these norms would require a volume 
 to expound. There are no less than forty- 
 three existing, all Monophysite, branching 
 off from the Hierosolymitan. 
 
 The third group, consisting of liturgies 
 of the Far East, is smaller in number: 
 most of them are Nestorian. That of 
 Malabar or St. Thomas belongs to this 
 group. 
 
 The fourth division consists of only one 
 liturgy: the Roman. 
 
 The fifth group, viz., those allied to the 
 liturgy of Ephesus, consists of two divis¬ 
 ions: (1) The Mozarabic and (2) the Gal- 
 lican. 
 
 It will be observed that four of the five 
 groups are Eastern; and the remaining one, 
 the Roman, Western. The principal dis¬ 
 tinctions between the Eastern and Western 
 liturgies are as follows: The Invocation 
 of the Holy Spirit, before the words of con¬ 
 secration, which is in the Eastern, is absent 
 in the Western. There are Proper Pref¬ 
 aces and varying collects, epistles, and 
 gospels for Holy Days in the Western, and 
 not in the Eastern, with the exception of 
 the liturgies derived from Ephesus. Later 
 alterations in the Roman Mass, such as the 
 denial of the cup to the laity, have farther 
 increased the differences between that and 
 the Eastern liturgies. 
 
 Every ancient liturgy consisted of two 
 parts, the proanaphoral and the anaphoral. 
 (Anaphora.) The first part consisted of a 
 prayer; an introit; the prayer of little 
 entrance—that is, the bringing in with 
 much ceremony the Book of the Gospels; 
 the trisagion; the lessons (in some, proph¬ 
 ecy, epistle, and gospel; in others the last 
 two only); a prayer. At this point the 
 catechumens were dismissed from the 
 Church. Then followed a further prayer 
 for the faithful; the great entrance— i. e., 
 the carrying the elements to the altar; the 
 offertory; the kiss of peace; the creed. 
 This ended the first or proanaphoral por¬ 
 tion of the service. The second, or anaph¬ 
 oral part, began with the Sursum Corda 
 and preface; the canon, consisting of pray¬ 
 er commemorative of our Lord’s life and of 
 the institution of the eucharist; the obla¬ 
 tion; prayer for descent of the Holy Ghost, 
 for the consecration of the elements. Then 
 
Lit 
 
 ( 534 ) 
 
 Liv 
 
 follows intercession for quick and dead; 
 the Lord’s Prayer; the “ Libera nos” or 
 prayer against temptation ; adoration, 
 “ Sancta sanctis ” (Sancta Sanctis); con¬ 
 fession and absolution; the communion, 
 thanksgiving, and dismissal. 
 
 We have next to consider modern Prot¬ 
 estant liturgies. And, first, it must be 
 noted that while the ancient liturgies make 
 the Lord’s Supper the central object round 
 which all other parts'of the service are 
 grouped, the Protestant idea is rather to 
 group all round the sermon, as expressing 
 the conviction that teaching is the main ob¬ 
 ject of assembling together. The early 
 liturgies do not include any preaching, nor 
 are there any forms for special occasions. 
 
 When the Reformation came, the great 
 leaders, Luther, Calvin, Cranmer, recog¬ 
 nized the usefulness of a form of prayer, 
 and each country that accepted the Re¬ 
 formed doctrines provided its own liturgy. 
 The Continental Reformers left more open¬ 
 ing than the English Church did for the 
 exercise of free prayer, to be suited to 
 special circumstances. So did the Direc¬ 
 tory ( q . v. ) of the Puritans at the time of 
 the Great Rebellion. The bitter feeling 
 which followed that event led to a breach 
 so wide, that for awhile liturgical services 
 were eschewed by the non-Episcopal party, 
 and extemporaneous prayers were substi¬ 
 tuted. Of late years, however, a more 
 catholic feeling has prevailed. In the Pres¬ 
 byterian Church of Scotland, since 1858, a 
 change has been going on, and the Book of 
 Common Order has reached a fifth edition. 
 Many churches, belonging to the chief 
 Nonconformist bodies, accept the idea of 
 some liturgical form to be used of free¬ 
 will. Thus Mr. Newman Hall uses much 
 of the Church Service; the use of the 
 Lord’s Prayer and General Thanksgiving 
 is becoming very common, and on the late 
 occasion of the Queen’s jubilee many Non- 
 conforming churches in London used the 
 collects given in the Prayer-Book.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet . of Religion. “ In the United 
 States, except in the Episcopalian, Luther¬ 
 an, and Dutch Reformed and Moravian 
 churches, liturgical prayer has been almost 
 whollv disused; but from the middle of the 
 present century, a marked tendency has 
 developed itself in favor of increased dig¬ 
 nity and variety in Presbyterian (and Con¬ 
 gregational) public worship. In 1855 Dr. 
 Baird published anonymously his Eutuxia, 
 or the Presbyterian liturgies. The Pres¬ 
 byterian Book of Common Prayer , by Pro¬ 
 fessor Shields, of Princeton, is merely a 
 republication of the Anglican Prayer-Book, 
 with the exceptions offered by the Presby¬ 
 terians at the Savoy Conference. The 
 litany and the ancient prayers are freely, but 
 
 judiciously altered, and many excellent new 
 prayers are added. In 1857 the German 
 Reformed Church issued a new Order of 
 Worship , which is based upon a careful 
 study of the liturgies of the ancient Church 
 and the Reformation period, and resembles 
 in many respects the Anglican liturgy. Its 
 use is left optional with the ministers and 
 congregations. The Dutch Reformed 
 Church follows the old Palatinate liturgy. 
 The Lutherans in America use partly the 
 German Lutheran Agenda, or new church 
 books based upon them. The Moravians 
 have a very rich evangelical liturgy in 
 German and English, with responses and 
 congregational singing.”— S. M. Hopkitis, 
 D. D. See his art. on Liturgy in Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency ., vol. ii., pp. 1324-1329. 
 
 Livingston, John Henry, D. D., “the 
 father of the Reformed Dutch Church in 
 America;” b. at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., May 
 30, 1746; d. in New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 
 20, 1825. Graduating at Yale College in 
 1762, he began the study of law, but after 
 his conversion decided to study for the 
 ministry. He sailed for Holland in 1766, 
 and studied theology at Utrecht. He was 
 licensed by the Classis of Amsterdam in 
 1769, and received the degree of doctor of 
 divinity the following year. In the autumn 
 of 1770 he entered upon the duties of second 
 English preacher in the Reformed Dutch 
 Church in New York. In the troubled 
 days of the Revolution he was driven from 
 the city, and settled at Kingston, 1776; 
 Albany, Nov. 1776-79; Livingston Manor, 
 1 779-Si; Poughkeepsie, 1781-83. After 
 the close of the war he returned to the 
 city, and from this time on exerted a great 
 influence in reorganizing and uniting the 
 broken and distracted church. In 1784 he 
 was appointed by the general synod pro¬ 
 fessor of didactic and polemic theology. 
 In 1810 he was elected president of Queen’s 
 (now Rutger’s) College, and at the same 
 time was asked to open a theological school 
 at New Brunswick. Here he remained 
 until his death. “ By his education, his 
 learning, his piety, and his dignity, he won 
 the respect of both parties in the church; 
 and under his skillful management ‘ the 
 Conferentic ’ and ‘ Coelus ’ were united 
 (1771); and thus the credit of forming the 
 independent organization of the Reformed 
 Dutch Church in America must be given 
 to him. It was he, also, who principally 
 shaped the constitution of this church, and 
 prepared its first psalm and hymn book 
 (1787).” See Gunn’s Memoirs, edited by 
 T. W. Chambers (New York, 1856); 
 Sprague: Annals, vol. ix. 
 
 Livingstone ( liv-ing-ston), David, '‘Afri- 
 
Liv 
 
 ( 535 ) 
 
 Loc 
 
 can traveler and missionary, was a native of 
 Scotland, and was b. at Blantyre, in Lanark¬ 
 shire, in rhe year 1817. At the age of ten he 
 became a ‘ piecer’ inacotton factory,and for 
 many years was engaged in hard work as 
 an operative. An evening school furnished 
 him with the opportunity of acquiring 
 some knowledge of Latin and Greek, and 
 finally, after attending a course of medi¬ 
 cine at Glasgow University, and the theo¬ 
 logical lectures of the late Dr. Wardlaw, 
 professor of theology to the Scotch Inde¬ 
 pendents, he offered himself to the London 
 Missionary Society, by whom he was or¬ 
 dained as a medical missionary in 1840. In 
 the summer of that year he landed at Port 
 Natal in South Africa. Circumstances 
 made him acquainted with the Rev. Robert 
 Moffat, himself a distinguished mission¬ 
 ary, and whose daughter he subsequently 
 married. For sixteen years Livingstone 
 proved himself a faithful and zealous ser¬ 
 vant of the London Missionary Society. 
 The two most important results achieved 
 by him in this period were the discovery 
 of Lake Ngami (Aug. 1, 1849), and his 
 crossing the continent of south Africa, 
 from the Zambezi (or Leeambye), to the 
 Congo, and thence to Loando, the capital 
 of Angola, which took him about eighteen 
 months (from Jan., 1853, to June, 1854). 
 In September of the same year he left 
 Loando on his return across the continent, 
 reached Linzanti (in lat. 18 0 17' S., and 
 long. 23 0 50' E.), the capital of the great 
 Makololo tribe, and from thence proceeded 
 along the banks of the Leeambye to Quili- 
 mane on the Indian Ocean, which he 
 reached May 20, 1856. He then took ship 
 for England. In 1857 Livingstone pub¬ 
 lished his Missionary Travels and Research¬ 
 es in South Africa , a work of great interest 
 and value. Returning in 1858 as British 
 counsul at Quilimane, he spent several 
 years in further exploring the Zambezi, in 
 ascending the Shire, and discovering Lake 
 Shirwa and Lake Nyassa—the Maravi of 
 the old maps. A narrative of these discov¬ 
 eries was published during a visit he paid 
 to England in 1864-65. In the meantime, 
 lakes Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza, and 
 Albert Nyanza had been discovered by 
 Burton, Speke, and Baker, but the true 
 source of the Nile was still a problem. 
 With a view to its solution, Livingstone, in 
 1866, entered the interior, and nothing was 
 heard of him for two years. The commu¬ 
 nications received from him afterward de¬ 
 scribe his discovery of the great water sys¬ 
 tem of the Chambeze in the elevated region 
 to the south of Tanganyika. It flows first 
 west, and then turns northward, forming a 
 succession of lakes, lying to the west of 
 the Tanganyika. To determine its course 
 
 after it leaves these, whether it joins the 
 Nile or turns westward and forms the Con¬ 
 go, was the grand task which Livingstone 
 seemed resolved to accomplish or perish. 
 He was much baffled by inundations, the 
 hostility of the slave-dealers, and by the 
 want of supplies, which were habitually de¬ 
 layed and plundered by those who con¬ 
 veyed them. When nothing certain had 
 been heard of him for some time, Mr. Stan¬ 
 ley, of the New York Herald, boldly pushed 
 his way from Zanzibar to Ujiji, where, in 
 1871, he found the traveler in great desti¬ 
 tution. On parting with Mr. Stanley, Liv¬ 
 ingstone started on a fresh exploration of 
 the river system of the Chambeze or Lua- 
 laba, convinced that it would turn out to 
 be the head-waters of the Nile. In May, 
 1873, however, he died at Ilala, beyond 
 Lake Bemba. His body was brought home 
 in April, 1874, and interred in Westminster 
 Abbey. His Last Journals were preserved, 
 and published in Dec., 1874.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 “ Amid all the vicissitudes of his career, 
 Livingstone remained faithful to his mis¬ 
 sionary character. His warmth and purity 
 of heart, his intense devotion to his Master, 
 and the African people for his Master’s 
 sake, his patience, endurance, trustfulness, 
 and prayerfulness, his love of science, his 
 wide humanity, his intense charity, have 
 given to his name and memory an undying 
 fragrance. After his death, church after 
 church hastened to send missionaries to 
 Africa; and it would take a long space, 
 even to enumerate all the agencies that are 
 at work there. His death, that seemed the 
 death-blow to his plans, gave a new im¬ 
 pulse to the cause of African evangelization 
 and civilization, which bids fair, with God’s 
 help, to accomplish great results.”—W. G. 
 Blaikie in Schaff-Herzog: Ency . See his 
 Personal Life of David Livingstone . 
 
 Local Preachers, in the Methodist Church, 
 are laymen who are licensed to preach by 
 the quarterly conferences. They are ame¬ 
 nable to these bodies, and are required an¬ 
 nually to make a report, and have their 
 licenses renewed. After four years of con¬ 
 tinuous service they may be elected to the 
 office of local deacon, and at the close of 
 four more years of service to the office of 
 local elder. They are not appointed by the 
 bishops, but labor under the direction of 
 the traveling preachers and presiding el¬ 
 ders. 
 
 Locke, John, “ was b. at Wrington, near 
 Bristol, on Aug. 29, 1632. His father was 
 steward to Col. Popham, and served under 
 him as captain in the Parliamentary army 
 during the civil war. Locke was sent for 
 
Loc 
 
 ( 536 ) 
 
 Loc 
 
 his education to Westminster school, where 
 he continued till 1651, when he was elected 
 a student of Christ Church, Oxford. There 
 he went through the usual studies, but 
 seemed to prefer Bacon and Des Cartes to 
 Aristotle. His tendency was toward ex¬ 
 perimental philosophy, and he chose med¬ 
 icine for his profession. In 1664 he went 
 to Berlin as secretary to the British envoy, 
 but soon returned to his studies at Oxford. 
 In 1666 he made the acquaintance of Lord 
 Ashley, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury, and 
 on his invitation went to live at his house. 
 In 1672, when Shaftesbury became Lord 
 Chancellor, Locke was appointed Secretary 
 of Presentations, a post which he afterward 
 exchanged for that of Secretary to the 
 Board of Trade. He was employed to 
 draw up a constitution for the American 
 province of Carolina, but his articles on 
 religion were deemed too liberal, and the 
 clergy got a clause inserted, giving the 
 favor of the State exclusively to the Estab¬ 
 lished Church. In 1675 he took up his 
 residence at Montpellier for the benefit of 
 his health. He had all his life an asthmatic 
 tendency, which at that time threatened to 
 pass into consumption. At Montpellier, 
 he formed the acquaintance of the Earl of 
 Pembroke, to whom his Essay is dedicated. 
 In 1679 he rejoined the Earl of Shaftesbury 
 in England; but in 1682 the Earl fled to 
 Holland to avoid a prosecution for high 
 treason. Locke bore him company, and so 
 far shared with him the hostility of the 
 government of James as to have his name 
 erased, by royal mandate, from the list of 
 students of Christ Church. Even in Hol¬ 
 land he was demanded of the States-General 
 by the English Envoy; but he contrived to 
 conceal himself till the English court ceased 
 to trouble itself on his account. In 1687 
 his Essay on the Understanding , begun 
 seventeen years before, was finished; and 
 an abridgment of it was published in French 
 (1688) by his friend, Le Clerc, in his Bib- 
 liotheques, in which Locke had published 
 two years before his Method of a Common¬ 
 place Book. In 1689 appeared (also in Hol¬ 
 land) his first letter on Toleration. But in 
 1688, the year of the revolution, he came 
 back to England in the fleet that conveyed 
 the Princess of Orange. He soon obtained 
 from the new Government the situation of 
 Commissioner of Appeals, worth £,100 a 
 year. He took a lively interest in the 
 cause of toleration, and in maintaining the 
 principles of the revolution. In 1690 his 
 Essay on the Understanding was published, 
 and met with a rapid and extensive celeb¬ 
 rity; and also a second letter on Toleration , 
 and his well-known Treatises on Govern¬ 
 ment. In 1691 he was engaged upon the mo¬ 
 mentous question of the restoration of the 
 
 coinage, and published various tracts on the 
 subject. In 1692 he brought out a third letter 
 on Toleration , which, as well as the second, 
 was a reply to the attacks made on the first. 
 In 1693 was published his work un Educa¬ 
 tion. In 1695 King William appointed him a 
 Commissioner of Trade and Plantations. 
 In the same year he published his treatise 
 on The Reasonableness of Christianity, which 
 was written to promote William’s favorite 
 scheme of a comprehension of all the Chris¬ 
 tian sects in one national church. He main¬ 
 tained a controversy in defense of this book: 
 he had another controversy in defense of 
 the Essay on the Understanding , against 
 Stillingfleet, the bishop of Worcester. His 
 feeble health now compelled him to resign 
 his office of Commissioner of Plantations, 
 and to quit London; and he spent the re¬ 
 mainder of his life at Oates, in Essex, at 
 the seat of Sir Francis Masham. His last 
 years were very much occupied with the 
 study of the Scriptures, on which he wrote 
 several dissertations, which, with his little 
 work, entitled On the Conduct of the Under¬ 
 standing , were published after his death. 
 He died Oct. 28, 1704. 
 
 “ Great as were Locke’s services to his 
 country, and to the cause of civil and re¬ 
 ligious liberty, his fame rests on the Essay 
 on the Understanding , which marks an 
 epoch in the history of philosophy. His 
 purpose was to inquire into the powers of 
 the human understanding, with a view to 
 find out what things it was fitted to grapple 
 with, and where it must fail, so as to make 
 the mind of man ‘ more cautious in med¬ 
 dling with things exceeding its comprehen¬ 
 sion, and disposed to stop when it is at the 
 utmost extent of its tether.’ This purpose 
 led him to that thorough investigation of 
 the constitution of the human mind, result¬ 
 ing in the most numerous and important 
 contributions ever made by one man to our 
 knowledge on this subject. He institutes 
 a preliminary inquiry, in the subject of the 
 first book, as to the existence of innate 
 ideas, theoretical and practical, on which 
 the philosophical world has been so much 
 divided. Locke argues against the existence 
 of these supposed innate conceptions or 
 intuitions of the mind with a force and 
 cogency that appear irresistible. Having 
 thus repudiated the instinctive sources of 
 our knowledge or ideas, he is bound to 
 show how we come by them in the course 
 of our experience. Our experience being 
 twofold, external and internal, we have two 
 classes of ideas—those of sensation, and 
 those of reflection. He has, therefore, to 
 trace all the recognized conceptions of the 
 mind to one or other of these sources. 
 Many of our notions are obviously derived 
 from experience, as colors, sounds, etc.; 
 
Loc 
 
 ( 537 ) 
 
 Loh 
 
 but some have been disputed, more espe¬ 
 cially such as space, time, infinity, power, 
 substance, cause, mere good and evil; and 
 Lock discusses these at length, by way of 
 tracing them to the same origin. This is 
 the subject of book second, entitled ‘ Of 
 Ideas.’ Book third is on language consid¬ 
 ered as an instrument of truth, and con¬ 
 tains much valuable material. The fourth 
 book is on the nature, limits, and reality 
 of our knowledge, including the nature of 
 demonstrative truth, the existence of a God, 
 the provinces of faith and reason, and the 
 nature of error.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. 
 See H. R. Fox Bourne: Life of Locke 
 (London, 1876), 2 vols. 
 
 Locust. In appearance the Syrian lo- 
 , cust looks very much like the grasshopper. 
 They move in immense swarms and are 
 extremely voracious. Wherever they alight 
 they consume every particle of grass and 
 leaf. In some places they are gathered 
 and eaten as food. They are one of the 
 greatest scourges of the East, and the 
 Bible gives ten different Hebrew names 
 for them, which are rendered “ grasshop¬ 
 per,” “ palmer worm,” “ butte,” etc. 
 These may designate different species. 
 
 Logos. This Greek word, derived from 
 the perf. of lego , “ to speak,” means literal¬ 
 ly “ a word,” and is used in that sense in 
 Matt. viii. 8-16, etc. In 1 John iii. 18 it is 
 opposed to deed and truth. Other mean¬ 
 ings are Commands or Precepts (Matt. vii. 
 24), Prophecies (Luke iii. 4; John ii. 22), 
 Promises (Rom. ix. 6; Heb. vii. 28), 
 Threats (Heb. iv. 12), Arguments (Acts ii. 
 49), Reports or Rumors. (Matt, xxviii. 15.) 
 In a higher sense it is used for the Word of 
 God, whether expressed by the Law or in 
 the Gospel. (Matt. xiii. 19, etc., etc.) In 
 a heathen sense it was used constantly for 
 the Reason, but it is only used once in that 
 sense in the New Testament, and then it is 
 by a heathen speaker. (Acts, xviii. 14.) 
 But the highest theological sense which the 
 word bears is that in which it is applied to 
 the second Person of the Holy Trinity. 
 The word is traceable to Philo (y. v .), the 
 Alexandrian Jew, whose speculations aim¬ 
 ed at reconciling the teaching of Plato with 
 that of the Jewish prophets. He saw that 
 there was One who was spoken of in the 
 Old Testament under the name of “ the 
 Word and the Voice of God,” and that he 
 was the Revealer of God’s attributes and 
 will to mankind. The Personality of this 
 Logos became more and more distinct in the 
 later writings of the Old Testament. Philo, 
 therefore, identified this existence with 
 Plato’s doctrine of the Divine Nous , or 
 “ Mind,” though he hesitated to assert a 
 
 distinct Personality. His doctrine was 
 taken up by the Christian Alexandrians, 
 and the Gnostics adopted it in a confused 
 and tentative manner. In consequence 
 some cried out that they were endangering 
 the doctrine of the Unity of God; the Jew¬ 
 ish sects of Gnostics replied that the Christ 
 was a demigod or superior angel, half hu¬ 
 man, half divine. Then St. John taught 
 how the teaching of the past was in unison 
 with the Gospel, how the Word was in the 
 beginning with God and was God, was the 
 Light of men, shining in darkness and not 
 absorbed by it; and in the fulness of time 
 was made Flesh—a distinct Personality, 
 very God, yet not the less very man. It 
 was for this that St. John was named the 
 Theologos , translated in our authorized ver¬ 
 sion “ the Divine ” (i. e., Theologian). The 
 teaching thus set forth became the basis of 
 the teaching of the great Alexandrian di¬ 
 vines. Justin Martyr, first of Patristic 
 philosophers, dwells earnestly upon the 
 prehistoric Logos, the Divine Reason , 
 spoken of not only by prophets, but by 
 wise heathen such as Socrates, distinct from 
 the God whom Moses knew, yet not sepa¬ 
 rable from Him. This doctrine was the es¬ 
 sential doctrine which united the Church 
 together until it was formulated in the 
 phrases of the Nicene Creed.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Lohe, Johann Konrad Wilhelm, a re¬ 
 markable German pastor, preacher, and 
 organizer of Christian work; b. in Furth, 
 near Nurnberg, Feb. 21, 1808 ; d. Jan. 2, 
 1872, at Neudettelsau. He was educated at 
 the University of Erlangen; and became 
 vicar of Kirchenlamitz in 1831. His fervent 
 preaching attracted wide attention, but did 
 not meet the approval of his ecclesiastical 
 superiors. In 1837 he was made pastor in 
 Neudettelsau, “ an inconsiderable and un¬ 
 attractive place.” He was eminently suc¬ 
 cessful in his work here, and the place 
 became noted for its religious life and ac¬ 
 tivities. Not far from 1840 he interested 
 himself in the condition of his countrymen 
 in the United States. He aided in the 
 founding of the Missouri synod, and the 
 reorganization of the Iowa synod. Through 
 his efforts two spacious buildings were 
 erected for the training of ministers who 
 should labor among Germans in foreign 
 countries. In 1849 he founded the Lu¬ 
 theran Society of Home Missions, and in 
 1853 an institution of deaconesses. A 
 building was erected to meet the needs of 
 this institution, and, within a few years, 
 an asylum for idiots, a Magdalen asy¬ 
 lum, and hospitals for men and women 
 were opened. In addition to these labors 
 this remarkable man found time to prepare 
 
Lol 
 
 ( 538 ) 
 
 Lor 
 
 several volumes for the press. As a preach¬ 
 er he was one of the greatest Germany has 
 known in the present century. 
 
 Lollards, a name given to the followers 
 of Wycliffe, though the term had been pre¬ 
 viously applied to societies in Germany. 
 Some think that the name, as meaning 
 “ idle babbler,” was used as a term of de¬ 
 rision; others derive it from the same root 
 as “ lullaby,” referring to their fondness 
 for singing. The first itinerant preach¬ 
 ers sent out by Wycliffe from Oxford were 
 successful in making many converts. With 
 the Peasants’ Revolt, under Wat Tyler, in 
 1381, there came a strong reaction against 
 religious as well as social reforms. The 
 crown supported Archbishop Courtney in 
 his condemnation of Wycliffe’s doctrine of 
 the sacraments in 1382, and in silencing 
 the great Reformer and his chief disciples. 
 The followers of Wycliffe were to be found 
 in large numbers among the people, and 
 the entire movement became involved with 
 political issues. After the death ofWycliffe 
 Lollardism represented a general spirit of 
 revolt. During the absence of Richard II. 
 in Ireland, in 1394, a petition was presented 
 to Parliament by the Lollards, in which 
 they denounced the wealth and pride of 
 the clergy, and protested against special 
 prayers for the dead, pilgrimages, auric¬ 
 ular confession, etc. The king considered 
 the petition of such a nature that, upon his 
 return home, he demanded that the Lol¬ 
 lard leaders should take an oath abjuring 
 their opinions. Archbishop Arundel, who 
 succeeded Courtney, used his influence, 
 by which, in 1401, a clause was inserted in 
 the statute for the year declaring the Lol¬ 
 lards to be heretics. Under this statute 
 John Badby suffered martyrdom at Smith- 
 field in 1410. While the persecution of the 
 Lollards was continued with great vigor, 
 after the death of the Earl of Salisbury, 
 they found a leader in Sir John Oldcastle. 
 The hope of gaining Henry V. to espouse 
 their cause failed, and a conspiracy was 
 formed to take his life. This plot was dis¬ 
 covered, and thirty-seven of those engaged 
 in it were seized and executed. Four 
 years later Oldcastle was captured and 
 put to death. In 1414 a statute was^assed 
 by which the Lollards became amenable to 
 the common law. These severe measures 
 did not entirely destroy them, for as late 
 as 1431 efforts were put forth to hinder 
 their rising. From this time on they were 
 but slightly persecuted, and, as a political 
 influence, were lost in the struggles be¬ 
 tween the rival houses of York and Lancas¬ 
 ter. It is difficult to determine in all re¬ 
 spects what were the tenets of Lollardism, 
 but in the mass of conflicting opinion they 
 
 held firm to faith in the authority of the 
 Bible as the source of religious truth. 
 Lollardism was widely propagated in Bo¬ 
 hemia by the Oxford teachers, who fled 
 thither under the persecution of Courtney. 
 The principal writers against the Lollards 
 were Thomas Netter, of Walden, and Reg¬ 
 nal Pecock. 
 
 Lombard, Peter, one of the most fa¬ 
 mous of the schoolmen; b. in the early 
 part of the twelfth century, in Novara, 
 Lombardy; d. in Paris, July 20, 1160. He 
 studied at Bologna and Rheims, through 
 the aid of Bernard of Clairvaux, and then 
 at Paris, under Abelard. After a distin¬ 
 guished career as teacher of theology he 
 was appointed bishop of Paris the year 
 before his death. His great work is The 
 Four Books of Sentences , from which he 
 was called Magister Sententiarnm (master 
 of sentences). The first treats of God; the 
 second of created things; the third of the 
 incarnation, redemption, and the virtues 
 of human character; and the fourth of the 
 sacraments and eschatological subjects. 
 His great authority is Augustine. 
 
 Lord’s Day, “ the oldest and best desig¬ 
 nation of the Christian Sabbath first 
 used by St. John. (Rev. i. 10.) See Sab¬ 
 bath; Sunday. 
 
 Lord’s Supper, sometimes called the Eu¬ 
 charist, sometimes the Holy Communion, 
 was solemnly instituted by our Lord on the 
 night before his passion. The importance 
 of the ordinance is emphasized by the ap¬ 
 pearance of its history in four books of the 
 New Testament. It was at first celebrated 
 daily by the disciples in connection with a 
 simple social meal, called the agape , or 
 Feast of Love, and then it was for a long 
 period observed every Lord’s Day, but 
 only within the circle of the Church. Im¬ 
 mediately after the conclusion of the homi¬ 
 letic or missionary services, in which the 
 public participated, the promiscuous as¬ 
 sembly was dismissed (the word ?nissa, 
 thus used, giving its name afterward to 
 the sacrament; Ger. Messe , Eng. Mass), and 
 the elements, common bread and wine 
 mingled with water, were consecrated by 
 the presiding official and then distributed 
 by the deacons to the congregation, and 
 also to the sick and the prisoners who were 
 prevented from being present. An elab¬ 
 orate sacramental liturgy, comprising suit¬ 
 able prayers, hymns, doxologies, and re¬ 
 sponses, which became the basis of all sub¬ 
 sequent formularies of its kind, developed 
 at an early day around the solemn rite, 
 and it has been commonly regarded 
 throughout the Christian Church, as the 
 
Lor 
 
 ( 539 ) 
 
 Lor 
 
 highest and most holy part of divine wor¬ 
 ship. 
 
 It is the unanimous testimony of histo¬ 
 rians that from the beginning this sacrament 
 was viewed as an august mystery, to which 
 was attached profound doctrinal signifi¬ 
 cance and the highest spiritual efficacy. 
 With the visible elements, it was believed, 
 were mystically connected the Body and 
 Blood of the Lord. Those who in faith 
 partook of this Supper, enjoyed essential 
 communion with Christ. They partook of 
 “ a spiritual food indispensable to eternal 
 life. ” The first Christian theologians were 
 not given to sharp distinctions between the 
 outward sign and the invisible substance 
 which it represents. “ The real and the 
 symbolical were so blended,” says Hagen- 
 bach, “ that the symbol did not supplant 
 the fact, nor did the fact dislodge the sym¬ 
 bol.” Yet they distinguish the two things 
 constituting the Supper as terrena et ccelesti. 
 In some places they speak distinctly of 
 signs, and the Alexandrians are designated 
 as spiritualistic; then again they “ speak 
 openly of a real participation in the body 
 and blood of Christ,” while not a single pas¬ 
 sage in the fathers asserts the elements to 
 be merely signs or symbols. 
 
 Of the doctrine of a total change of the 
 elements into the body and blood of Christ 
 not a trace is found in the Ante-Nicene 
 Church. Later, many of the fathers fre¬ 
 quently use terms which seem to involve 
 the doctrine of a real change; and a dispo¬ 
 sition toward that theory is apparent, yet 
 according to Baur these are “ only an ob¬ 
 scure and exaggerated identification of fig¬ 
 ure and fact.” The same teachers use also 
 representations which exclude a change. 
 The idea of a sacrifice came now likewise 
 to be connected with the Sacrament, at first 
 only in the sense of a celebration of the 
 one sacrifice of Christ, but gradually in the 
 sense of an unbloody but actual repetition 
 of that sacrifice. The ascription of a priest¬ 
 ly character to the clerical office contrib¬ 
 uted largely to the development of this no¬ 
 tion. As late as the ninth century a treatise, 
 maintaining in earnest a complete change of 
 the elements, called forth an extensive and 
 violent controversy, although it doubtless 
 only set forth in definite statements what 
 was then the popular belief. Two centu¬ 
 ries later, the denial of the change of sub¬ 
 stance led to the condemnation of Berengar 
 by several synods, and in a. d. 1215, at the 
 Fourth Lateran Council, the doctrine of 
 Transubstantiation was pronounced an ar¬ 
 ticle of faith by Pope Innocent III. 
 
 The Reformers with one voice repudi¬ 
 ated both the doctrine of transubstantia¬ 
 tion and that of the Sacrifice of the Mass, 
 as Wycliffe had done before. When, how¬ 
 
 ever, they came to formulate the positive 
 elements of the doctrine for the Evangel¬ 
 ical Church, so wide a difference emerged 
 that the unity of Protestantism was shat¬ 
 tered upon this rock. Luther was, at first, 
 predisposed to a symbolical and purely 
 subjective interpretation ; but he felt 
 bound by the clear word of Scripture to 
 accept the doctrine that, along with the 
 elements there are present, and received 
 sacramentally and supernaturally, the glo¬ 
 rified Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ, which believers partake of to their 
 spiritual strength, unbelievers to their 
 judgment. Exception to this view, he held, 
 could only be taken on grounds of reason; 
 and if reason may rule supremely on this 
 doctrine, “ you open the way for it to 
 sweep away every doctrine.” 
 
 Zwingli maintained the purely symbol¬ 
 ical, commemorative, and subjective char¬ 
 acter of the Supper, and on this account 
 Luther declined church - fellowship with 
 him. Calvin’s position was mediating be¬ 
 tween the theories of Luther and Zwingli. 
 He also taught, clearly, a Real Presence, 
 but one not mediated through the bread 
 and wine. “ The believer, by means of 
 faith, partakes in the Sacrament only spir¬ 
 itually, but yet really, of the body and 
 blood of the Lord, through a power issu¬ 
 ing from the glorified body of Christ, 
 whereas the unbeliever receives only bread 
 and wine.” This view superseded the 
 Zwinglian in the Confessions of Switzer¬ 
 land, and passed into all the Reformed 
 Creeds of the Continent and of Great Brit¬ 
 ain, including the XXXIX. Articles. The 
 dogma developed by Luther has ever re¬ 
 mained the distinguishing feature of the 
 Lutheran system. It has also been held 
 by many in the Church of England, and 
 by Episcopalians in this country. The sac¬ 
 erdotal idea of the ministry prevalent in 
 the latter communion has favored both 
 the doctrine of a change of substance and 
 that of a sacrifice, errors from which the 
 Lutherans seem to have escaped by their 
 New Testament conception of the minis¬ 
 terial office. 
 
 While all the Reformed Confessions of 
 the sixteenth century contained the Cal- 
 vinistic view of the Lord’s Supper, the 
 current teaching and popular belief in all 
 but Lutheran and Episcopal churches has 
 long been that of Zwinglianism. The Sup¬ 
 per is wont to be celebrated as a solemn 
 spiritual exercise, recalling the atoning 
 death of our Lord, and indicating the union 
 of his followers. A reaction in favor of 
 higher views has of late appeared, espe¬ 
 cially among Presbyterians. See Van 
 Dyke: Presbyterian Quarterly; Lit. Dorner: 
 System of Christian Doctrine; Schmid: 
 
Lor 
 
 ( 540 ) 
 
 Low 
 
 Doctrinal Theology of the Ev. Lutheran 
 Church’, Pusey: The Doctrine of the Real 
 Presence; Armstrong: Sacraments of the 
 New Testament. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Loretto, or, properly, Loreto, a city a 
 short distance south of Ancona, in Italy, 
 famous as the resting-place of the Holy 
 House, believed by Roman Catholics to be 
 the house in which the Virgin lived at 
 Nazareth. It is about 31 x 32 feet, has one 
 door and one window, and is built of a dark 
 reddish stone. It stands in the church of 
 the Santa Casa. The legend is, that when 
 the Holy Land was taken by the infidels 
 the house was miraculously transported in 
 1291 to a hill near Fiume. In 1294 it was 
 again removed to Recanati,and from there 
 to a spot near where it now stands. The 
 last removal was caused by the quarrel of 
 two brothers, who owned the land, as to 
 who should possess it. It is said that the 
 Virgin appeared to a hermit of Recanati, 
 and announced that it was her house. Pil¬ 
 grims still flock to see it. 
 
 Lot. “ The custom of deciding doubtful 
 questions by lot is one of great extent and 
 high antiquity, recommending itself as a 
 sort of appeal to the Almighty,.secure from 
 all influence of passion or bias, and is a 
 sort of divination employed even by the 
 gods themselves. (Horn. II. xxii. 209; Cic. 
 de Div. i. 34; ii. 41.) Among the Jews 
 also, the use of lots, with a religious inten¬ 
 tion, direct or indirect, prevailed exten¬ 
 sively. The religious estimate of them 
 may be gathered from Prov. xvi. 33. The 
 following historical or ritual instances are 
 —(1) Choice of men for an invading force 
 (Judg. i. 1; xx. 10). (2) Partition fa) of the 
 
 soil of Palestine among the tribes (Num. 
 xxvi. 55; Josh, xviii. 10; Acts xiii. 19). 
 
 (b) Of Jerusalem; i. e., probably its spoil 
 
 or captives among captors (Obad. 11); of 
 the land itself in a similar way (1 Macc. iii. 
 36). (c) Apportionment of possessions, or 
 
 spoil, or of prisoners, to foreigners or cap- 
 tors (Joel iii. 3; Nah. iii. 10; Matt, xxvii. 
 35)* (3) ( a ) Settlement of doubtful ques¬ 
 tions (Prov. xvi. 33; xviii. 18). (b) A 
 
 mode of divination among heathens by 
 means of arrows, two inscribed, and one 
 without mark (Hos. iv. 12; Ezek. xxi. 21). 
 
 (c) Detection of a criminal (Josh. vii. 14, 
 
 18). (d) Appointment of persons to offices 
 
 or duties, as above in Achan’s case. (^) 
 Selection of the scape-goat on the Day of 
 Atonement (Lev. xvi. 8, 10). (4) The use 
 
 of words heard or passages chosen at ran¬ 
 dom from Scripture.”—Smith: Did. of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Lotze (Jot'seh), Hermann Rudolf, b. at 
 
 Bautzen, May 21, 1817; d. at Berlin, July 1, 
 1881. He was graduated at Leipzig Univer¬ 
 sity .where, in 1843, he was appointed profes¬ 
 sor of mental philosophy, and to the same 
 position the following year at Gottingen, 
 and to Berlin in the year he died. Lotze was 
 one of the best equipped and most efficient 
 leaders against modern materialism. 
 Among the most important of his works is 
 his Microcosmos: Thoughts bearing upon 
 Nat. Phil, and the Hist, of the Human Race, 
 3 vols. (1856-64). 
 
 Louis IX. (called St. Louis ), b. 1215; d. 
 1270; the son and successor of Louis VIII. 
 He was king of France from 1226 to 1270. 
 A man of deep religious convictions, he led 
 an austere life of piety, and took a prom¬ 
 inent part in the Seventh Crusade. De¬ 
 feated and taken prisoner in 1256, he was 
 compelled to pay a heavy ransom. In 1270 
 he headed another expedition against the 
 infidels and gained possession of Carthage; 
 but died of pestilence while preparing to 
 besiege Tunis. He vindicated the liber¬ 
 ties and privileges of the Gallican Church, 
 and established wholesome regulations that 
 did much to promote the happiness of his 
 people. He was canonized by Pope Boni¬ 
 face VIII., in 1297. 
 
 Love. “ This term signifies one of the 
 constituent principles of our nature, and in 
 the perfect exercise of it is comprehended 
 the whole of our duty to God and to our 
 fellow-creatures. (Matt. xxii. 37-40; Rom. 
 xiii. 8, 10; Gal. v. 14; James ii. 8.) Hence it 
 evidently comprehends all holiness of heart 
 and life. The highest and most glorious 
 display of the divine character which has 
 ever been made to man is the love of God 
 in Jesus Christ (Rom. v. 8), and the great 
 principle and fruit of both faith and obe¬ 
 dience consists in the possession and exer¬ 
 cise of love. (John xiii. 34, 35.)”—Schaff: 
 Bible Did. 
 
 Love-Feasts. See Agape. 
 
 Low-Church is the name given the party 
 in the Church of England and the Episco¬ 
 pal Church of the United States, who hold 
 to the views of the English Reformers re¬ 
 garding the sacraments, church govern¬ 
 ment, and ecclesiastical ritual. It is op¬ 
 posed to what are known as ‘ ‘High-Church” 
 ritualistic practices, such as elevating the 
 host, the use of candles, and facing the east 
 in prayer. 
 
 Lowder, Charles Fuge, whose ministe¬ 
 rial work among the London poor endeared 
 him to multitudes, was b. at Bath, June 22, 
 1820; d. at Zell-am-See, Austria, Sept. 9, 
 
Low 
 
 ( 54i ) 
 
 Luk 
 
 1880. He was educated at Oxford, and 
 ordained in 1843. He came to London in 
 1851 as curate at St. Barnabas. In 1856 he 
 was chosen as leader of the mission to St. 
 George’s-in-the-East, and in 1866 he be¬ 
 came vicar of St. Peter’s, London Docks, 
 where he labored until his death. The 
 story of his self-denying services among 
 the poorest and most degraded classes in 
 London is one of tender interest. He was 
 a ritualist of an advanced type, but no one 
 could doubt the consecration of heart that 
 led him to devote his life to the spiritual 
 help of multitudes whom he reclaimed 
 from the ways of sin. See Charles Lowder: 
 A Biography (Lond., 1882). 
 
 Lowell, John, founder of the Lowell In¬ 
 stitute; b. in Boston, May 11, 1799; d. at 
 Bombay, India, March 4, 1836. He was a 
 student at Harvard College for two years, 
 but ill-health interfered with his plans, and 
 most of his life was spent in travel. He 
 left $250,000 for the maintenance, in Bos¬ 
 ton, of annual courses of free lectures upon 
 religion, science, literature, and the arts. 
 
 Low Mass, in the Roman Church, is one 
 performed by a single priest with a server. 
 
 Low-Sunday, the first Sunday after East¬ 
 er. It received the name from the fact that 
 a part of the services of Easter were re¬ 
 peated, and it was therefore a feast of a 
 lower degree than Easter. 
 
 Lowth, Robert, b. at Winchester, Nov. 
 27, 1710; d. at Fulham, Nov. 3, 1787. Ed¬ 
 ucated at Winchester and Oxford, he be¬ 
 came archdeacon of Winchester, 1750, and 
 successively bishop of St. David’s (1766), 
 of Oxford (1766), and of London (1777). 
 The works upon which his fame rests are 
 his lectures on the Poetry of the Hebrews 
 and the Translation of the Prophet Isaiah. 
 
 Loyola ( loi-o'-la ). See Ignatius Loyola. 
 
 Lucian, a famous satirist, was a native 
 of Samosata, in Syria, and lived about 120- 
 200. He was a teacher of rhetoric. As 
 an author he is known by his Peregrinus 
 Proteus , in which the hero is represented 
 as having at one time been a Christian. 
 Though the criticism of this character 
 “ has run through the whole scale of pos¬ 
 sible judgment, from the Tridentine Coun¬ 
 cil, which put the book on its Index as the 
 work of a satanic fiend, to Mr. Kestner, 
 who believed he had discovered a secret 
 Christian in the author, the chapter, 
 when allowed to speak for itself, is neither 
 more nor less than a simple historical tes¬ 
 timony to a simple historical fact, repre¬ 
 
 senting the Christians, not as impostors, 
 or criminals, or revolutionists, but as 
 blindly believing enthusiasts, ready to 
 make any sacrifice for the weal of their 
 community: that is, just such as they at 
 that moment appeared to the eyes of the 
 indifferent .”—Harnack in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency. ,vol. ii., p. 1358. Complete Eng.trans. 
 of Lucian by Dryden(London,i7ii),4 vols.; 
 J. M. Cotterill: Peregrinus Proteus (Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1879). 
 
 Lucifer ( light-bringer ), a term used by 
 Isaiah to designate the king of Babylon. 
 (Isa. xiv. 12.) The title was given by 
 Tertullian and others to Satan, and it is 
 now applied to him with little thought of 
 the original significance of the word. 
 
 Luciferians, the followers of Lucifer, 
 who was bishop of Cagliari, in Sardinia, 
 in the fourth century. Lucifer was an 
 ardent champion of the Confession of 
 Nicaea, and at the condemnation of Atha¬ 
 nasius (355), suffered banishment. At the 
 accession of Julian he returned to his see, 
 and demanded that all bishops who had 
 not openly opposed the Arians should be 
 deposed and excommunicated, and their 
 ecclesiastical acts declared null and void. 
 His views found adherents, and led to a 
 schism, the Luciferians considering them¬ 
 selves the true and pure Church. They 
 disappeared in about half a century. 
 
 Luke, The Gospel of. “Its author .—The 
 author of this Gospel, whose full name was 
 Lucanus, is, by the unanimous voice of 
 tradition, identified with ‘ the beloved phy¬ 
 sician ’ and ‘ fellow-laborer’ of Paul, men¬ 
 tioned in Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11; and 
 Philem. 24. He was by birth a Greek (Col. 
 iv. 11 et seq.), a native of Antioch in Syria, 
 and probably a Jewish proselyte before he 
 became a convert, possibly under the 
 preaching of Paul, to the faith of Christ. 
 He appears to have joined Paul on the 
 second journey of the apostle to Troas, 
 and to have been frequently afterward in 
 his company. (Acts xvi. 10; xx. 5; xxi. 18; 
 xxiv. 23; xxvii. 1-28.) Of his history after 
 the death of Paul we know nothing; only 
 tradition says that he died a martyr, and 
 Jerome, that his body was buried in Con¬ 
 stantinople. A dubious ecclesiastical tra¬ 
 dition says he was a painter, as well as a 
 physician, and even ascribes certain pict¬ 
 ures to his pencil. On this account he is 
 the patron saint of artists, and is usually 
 represented in Christian art with an ox ly¬ 
 ing near him, and sometimes with painting 
 materials, or in the act of painting the Vir¬ 
 gin with the Child. Some expositors affect 
 to see the artist, as they do the physician, 
 
Lul 
 
 ( 542 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 in certain graphic touches of his narra¬ 
 tive. 
 
 “ Genuineness. —In addition to the un¬ 
 questioning testimony of antiquity, one 
 point is of special interest. The heretic 
 Marcion, who wrote about A. D. 138, found 
 the Gospel in general use, adopted it, and 
 mutilated it to suit his own purpose. The 
 Pauline spirit of the work speaks for its 
 authorship. It is evidently written by the 
 author of the ‘Acts.’ lrenaeus, Origen, 
 and Tertullian bear witness to it. 
 
 “ Date .—Luke’s Gospel can be proved to 
 have been in use and familiarly known 
 about 120 A. D. , and to have been written 
 prior to the year 63 A. D. , since it is at that 
 date that the Acts, which continues the 
 Gospel narrative by the same author, 
 closes. It is not known where it was writ¬ 
 ten, though the Acts was probably written 
 at Rome. 
 
 “ Aim. —Luke’s Gospel is written, in the 
 first instance, to confirm the faith of Theoph- 
 ilus, a native, it is thought, of Italy, and 
 probably of Rome, and a man of some so¬ 
 cial position, in whose spiritual edification 
 and Christian steadfastness, as in all like¬ 
 lihood a convert of his own, he took espe¬ 
 cial interest; and its aim is to represent 
 the Gospel of Christ as destined to bless 
 all mankind, and Jesus as the Saviour at 
 once of Jew and Gentile. The literary style 
 is better than that of the other Gospels, as 
 befits the writing of an educated, profes¬ 
 sional man. This Gospel and the Acts of 
 the Apostles approach more nearly to the 
 ‘ classic’ Greek than the other New Testa¬ 
 ment narratives. 
 
 ‘ ‘ Matter , arrangement , and general char¬ 
 acter. —To this Gospel we owe much of 
 what is contained in chaps, i.-iii.; v. 1-11; 
 vii. 36-50; ix. 51-56; xv. 11-32; xviii. 15; 
 and xxiv., etc. The arrangement is only 
 partially chronological, certain facts and 
 discourses being grouped more according 
 to the matter than the order of time. It is 
 the most complete of all the Gospels.”— 
 Bagster: Bible Helps. See Commentaries of 
 Alford, Meyer, Godet, Van Oosterzee, in 
 Lange series, Abbott, etc. 
 
 Lullus, Raymundus, called “ the en¬ 
 lightened doctor,” was b. about 1235 at 
 Palma, Majorica; d. near Bugia, N. Africa, 
 1315. Of noble birth and educated at the 
 court of Aragon, while yet a young man 
 he passed through spiritual experiences 
 that led him, after making provision for his 
 family, to give up his wealth and become 
 a hermit. Visited with new visions, the 
 conversion of the Saracens and heathen 
 became the supreme purpose of his life. 
 He thought to accomplish this by the con¬ 
 struction of a universal science that would 
 
 present an irresistible argument in favor 
 of Christianity. To this end he endeavored 
 to establish schools where missionaries 
 might become proficient in Oriental lore. 
 From popes and kings, whose aid he so¬ 
 licited, he gained but little encouragement. 
 With undaunted courage he learned Arabic 
 and made three missionary tours among 
 the Saracens. On the last tour, while in 
 Bugia, he preached openly against Islam. 
 He was stoned by the enraged Mohamme¬ 
 dans, who left him dying on the seashore. 
 In this condition he was found by a Chris¬ 
 tian sea-captain, who took him on board 
 his vessel, but he expired soon after. In 
 the Roman Catholic Church the Jesuits ac¬ 
 cused him of heresy, and some of his books 
 were forbidden by Gregory XI., but the 
 Franciscans and others have earnestly de¬ 
 fended him. His writings are numerous. 
 See Neander: Church History. 
 
 Luthardt, Christoph Ernst, Ph. D., 
 D. D. (Erlangen, 1854 and 1856), orthodox 
 Lutheran theologian; b. at Maroldsweisach, 
 Bavaria, March 22, 1823; studied at Er¬ 
 langen and Berlin, 1841-45; teacher from 
 1841 to 1854 at Munich and Erlangen; pro¬ 
 fessor extraordinary at Marburg, 1854-56; 
 and since 1856 professor of systematic the¬ 
 ology and New Testament exegesis at 
 Leipzig. He has won a great reputation 
 as a pulpit orator and university lecturer. 
 Several of his works have been translated 
 into English: St. John's Gospel Described and 
 Explained according to its Peculiar Character 
 (Edinburgh, 1878, 3 vols.); The Fundamen¬ 
 tal Truths of Christianity (1865, 3d ed., 
 1873); Dhe Saving 7 'ruths of Christianity 
 (1868); The Moral Truths of Christianity 
 (1873); St. Johity the Author of the Fourth 
 Gospel (1875, 2d ed., 1885). 
 
 Luther, Martin. The ovation to the 
 memory of Martin Luther, on the 400th 
 anniversary of his birth, surpassed in ex¬ 
 tent and enthusiasm everything that has in 
 any age been rendered to the memory of 
 a mortal man. All denominations, all 
 classes, all institutions, throughout every 
 countrv in the world into which the bless¬ 
 ings of the Reformation have penetrated, 
 united spontaneously in celebrating his 
 personal merits and his illustrious services 
 to religion and progress, and raised him 
 to a pedestal of fame which stands without 
 a rival, and which can never perish. It 
 was the grateful tribute of the modern 
 world to him who is, humanly speaking, 
 acknowledged as its creator. 
 
 “ No man,” says Prof. Schaff, “ has 
 been so much honored; no man, save the 
 apostles, deserves so much to be held in 
 grateful remembrance as Martin Luther.” 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 543 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 Although the founder of Protestantism, 
 his transcendent personality and his public 
 career have extorted from the most famous 
 Roman Catholic historians the highest rec¬ 
 ognition. Dollinger, while repudiating 
 papal infallibility, never showed any sym¬ 
 pathy for Luther’s teachings, yet he says: 
 “ It was Luther’s supreme intellectual 
 ability and wonderful versatility that made 
 
 him the man of his age.He has 
 
 given more to his nation than any one man 
 has ever done: language, popular educa¬ 
 tion, Bible, sacred song; and all that his 
 opponents could say against him and 
 alongside of him seemed insipid, weak, 
 and colorless, compared with his overmas¬ 
 tering eloquence.Even those 
 
 Germans who heartily abhor him as the 
 great heretic and betrayer of religion, can¬ 
 not help speaking his words and thinking 
 his thoughts.” With such panegyrics pro¬ 
 ceeding from minds ecclesiastically biased 
 against him, it is not likely that the seem¬ 
 ingly extravagant admiration of those in 
 closer fellowship with his spirit can over¬ 
 estimate his work. 
 
 He was born at Eisleben, Saxony, Nov. 
 io, 1483, of humble parentage, and re¬ 
 ceived a strictly religious training, which 
 left “ upon his mind an indelible impres¬ 
 sion of moral earnestness and honesty.” 
 At school he manifested “ a keen power 
 of intellect, and was, above all, gifted for 
 eloquence.” Intended by his father for the 
 law, he entered the university at Erfurt, 
 and in 1505 he took the Master’s degree. 
 But, seized with terrible religious fears, 
 and not knowing the gospel, he suddenly 
 formed the resolution of becoming a monk, 
 and was that year received into the Au¬ 
 gustine convent at Erfurt, and in 1507 
 ordained priest. Rome never had a more 
 sincere or a more zealous devotee than he 
 who was destined to shatter its mighty 
 system. The intensity of his devotion 
 became the inspiration of his career. Ap¬ 
 plying himself vigorously to all the pious 
 exercises and penitential observances pre¬ 
 scribed as means to salvation, his mind 
 grew more and more alarmed, his con¬ 
 science was overwhelmed by the greatness 
 of his sins before God, and his soul was 
 brought to the verge of despair. A brother 
 monk pointed him to the article in the 
 Creed on forgiveness, but it was especially 
 his absorbing study of the Scriptures that 
 brought him to experience the gratuitous 
 saving grace of God. His discovery, the 
 heart of the gospel, that, by a simple act of 
 faith in the divine mercy, a sinner is justi¬ 
 fied, was the beginning of the Reformation. 
 It sprang living from his heart. 
 
 Although his own experience was the 
 epitome and the prophecy of the pending 
 
 revolution, and although it gave him a 
 richer knowledge of the gospel and a clearer 
 insight into the prevailing corruption, 
 nothing was farther from his thoughts than 
 the idea of becoming a Reformer, or of 
 breaking with the Church. He was not 
 even conscious as yet of entertaining any 
 beliefs not in accord with the traditional sys¬ 
 tem, nor had he any anticipation of the ir¬ 
 reconcilable conflict between the Holy 
 Papacy and the Holy Scriptures. It was 
 in the confessional that he learned of the 
 ruin of souls through the traffic in indul¬ 
 gences, and he then, Oct. 31, 1517, posted 
 his Ninety-five Theses on the door of the 
 Castle Church, hoping to direct the atten¬ 
 tion of theologians to the great evil, and by 
 public discussion to save the honor of the 
 Church. 
 
 At ordinary times this act would have 
 attracted no special attention, but such was 
 the universal state of mind that it kindled 
 a conflagration which spread with the 
 rapidity of lightning from Wittenberg to 
 the frontiers of Europe. No one could 
 have been more astounded than Luther at 
 the instantaneous and tremendous commo¬ 
 tion which followed, and he found himself 
 suddenly at the head of a colossal move¬ 
 ment against the spiritual authority which 
 had held supreme sway for ages, a move¬ 
 ment which no power on earth could now 
 stay and which, by the irresistible logic of 
 events, he was charged under God to direct 
 and control. Dazed at first by the extreme 
 audacity of a solitary monk, princes, 
 knights, and scholars soon, as by intuition, 
 recognized him as the man for the crisis 
 and sprang to his defense. The prestige 
 of the papacy, and the universal awe which 
 accorded divine honors to the Holy Father, 
 rendered his burning of the Bull of Excom¬ 
 munication an act of haughty defiance, and 
 this closed against him forever the gates 
 of the Church of Rome. 
 
 When political considerations restrained 
 the Emperor from executing the ban, he 
 was summoned before the Imperial Diet at 
 Worms in April, 1521, whither he journey¬ 
 ed as into the jaws of death, defying the 
 devil and concerned only for the victory of 
 the truth. His appearance there, one man 
 against an empire, is the most splendid 
 scene in history. The august assembly 
 was thunderstruck by his point-blank re¬ 
 fusal to surrender his convictions or his 
 conscience to any power on earth, and with 
 the imperishable words, “ Hier stehe ich , 
 ich kann nicht cinders; Gott helf mir , 
 Amen," he sounded the death-knell of ec¬ 
 clesiastical and political tyranny. 
 
 The friendly confinement to which he 
 was for a period subjected showed that the 
 revolution was advancing independently of 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 544 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 him, 'yet also that his steady hand was 
 necessary to its control, lest the forces by 
 which it was irresistibly impelled would 
 dash it upon the rocks. And of all the in¬ 
 comparable services of the Reformer, his 
 highest claim to our gratitude is probably 
 that conservatism which, where all the ele¬ 
 ments of society were stirred to their 
 deepest depths, and men’s minds were 
 rocking to and fro like trees swept by the 
 tempest, was able to assert the principles 
 of order and moderation. Breaking loose 
 from the traditions of ages and from the 
 hoary authority of the papacy, he stood 
 like a granite peak against the fury and 
 frenzy sure to attend every great social 
 revolution. Hence his work endures, while 
 that of all previous and of many later Re¬ 
 formers became engulfed in its own fanat¬ 
 icism. 
 
 Maintaining the conflict with error to 
 the right as well as to the left, his one 
 aim was the upholding of God’s truth, and 
 in his single-eyed zeal for this he could 
 neither temporize nor compromise with 
 anyone for any supposed advantage. He 
 smote Carlstadt and his prophets just as 
 he did the pope and his cardinals. He 
 drew the sword upon his polished friend 
 Erasmus with his Pelagian tenets, and 
 upon the pleading Zwingli with his “ Sac- 
 ramentarian ” rationalism. He hurled his 
 invectives against princes and kings who 
 championed false doctrine, and even re¬ 
 proached his beloved and inseparable coad¬ 
 jutor, Melanchthon, for his skillful temper¬ 
 ing of words in his earnest endeavors to 
 unite the different Protestant churches. 
 Profoundly conscious of the intrinsic unity 
 of Christians, and deprecating with infinite 
 sorrow the breach of outward union, he 
 could not believe that God approved the 
 sacrifice of any feature of the gospel for 
 any end whatsoever. 
 
 Vehement in speech and immovable in his 
 positions, he was, nevertheless, of a con¬ 
 ciliatory spirit, and he is never chargeable 
 with impure, selfish or ambitious motives. 
 Never did mortal care less for the praise 
 or the abuse of men. “ From the begin¬ 
 ning to the end it is the consciousness of a 
 vocation revealed to him from above, 
 which determines him to work and to 
 struggle; and into the carrying out of that 
 vocation he threw his whole being.” 
 
 In the general upheaval he was confront¬ 
 ed by every issue that involves the welfare 
 of mankind. His advice was sought as 
 that of the oracle of his times, and the 
 principles which he inculcated on every 
 question, whether civil or religious, social, 
 educational, or moral, were so fraught with 
 eternal wisdom that the vast progress of 
 nearly four centuries in these respective 
 
 spheres is little more than the development 
 and the triumph of his ideas. There seem¬ 
 ed to be no limit to his creative energy. 
 The elements of power which enabled him, 
 under God, to accomplish results which 
 others had in past ages vainly striven to 
 effect, lay, on the one hand, in Luther’s as¬ 
 tounding versatility of natural gifts; on the 
 other, in his mighty experience alike of the 
 soul - destroying character of prevailing 
 error, and of the absolute freeness of sal¬ 
 vation offered in the gospel. 
 
 His thorough mastery of scholastic the¬ 
 ology gave him a deep insight into the true 
 character of the rank corruption in the 
 Church. His familiarity with the Script¬ 
 ures revealed to him the drastic and infal¬ 
 lible remedy. His matchless power as a 
 preacher, and his clear exhibition of the 
 plan of salvation, held the nation like a 
 spell. His sympathy with the masses, his 
 talent for counsel and comfort, his buoy¬ 
 ancy of spirit, notwithstanding great suf¬ 
 ferings, trying perplexities, and the unin- 
 termittent perils of his life, his personal 
 intercourse with students and with 
 strangers who flocked to him in multitudes, 
 gave to him an influence before which paled 
 the authority of the pope. By his poetic 
 and musical compositions he provided the 
 people in church and home with those aids 
 and vehicles of worship which prove often 
 more helpful to spirituality than the most 
 effective preaching. By his inimitable 
 translation of the Scriptures into the ver¬ 
 nacular and idiom of the nation he placed 
 the divine power of the Reformation at 
 every fireside, and by his remarkably 
 spiritual and practical expositions, his un¬ 
 remitted literary activity and vast corre¬ 
 spondence with all classes, his principles 
 became the common property of the age. 
 The Erlangen Edition of his works com¬ 
 prises 67 German and 33 Latin volumes. 
 
 To these features may yet be added the 
 general belief that he was a man sent from 
 God for the salvation of the Church, and 
 his own conviction of being a chosen instru¬ 
 ment for this purpose, a conviction which 
 not only inspired him with indomitable 
 courage, but kept him disentangled from 
 all movements not founded upon the clear 
 Word of God, and from all accommodation 
 to superficial tendencies and popular 
 clamors; and finally the saving common- 
 sense and practical turn which, declining 
 to be occupied with visionary theories, 
 sought in all things for substantial and en¬ 
 during results. 
 
 His stormy career was intermitted and 
 sustained by a charming Christian home, 
 in which the affectionate husband and fa¬ 
 ther, the lover of music and song, shared 
 with his household and friends a heart full 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 545 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 of childlike simplicity, of innocent humor, 
 and of a joyful faith. 
 
 Excommunicated by the pope, and de¬ 
 clared an outlaw by the Edict of Worms, 
 his enemies all the time openly and secret¬ 
 ly plotting his destruction, the Reformer, 
 thanks to the Providence that shielded him, 
 never was molested, nor suffered even the 
 slightest injury. His predecessors, almost 
 to a man, were burned at the stake, while 
 he lived triumphantly till his work was 
 finished, and finally passed away peacefully 
 in the circle of his friends, with loud thanks¬ 
 giving to God, Feb. 17, 1546. 
 
 Six editions of his collected works have 
 appeared, those of Walch and the Erlangen 
 Edition holding the highest rank. By the 
 munificence of the Prussian government 
 an imperial edition is now passing through 
 the press. 
 
 The best Lives of Luther in the English 
 language are the translation from Kostlin’s 
 standard work, and the two 8vo. volumes 
 of Peter Bayne. E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Lutheran Church, The Evangelical, in 
 Europe. The indestructibility of the 
 Christian Church does not shield her 
 against all phases or stages of corruption. 
 The current of her progress renders her 
 liable, in the nature of things, to absorb in 
 a measure the very errors and impurities 
 which it is her mission to destroy. Ele¬ 
 ments of corruption, accordingly, in the 
 course of ages, penetrated her bosom and 
 vitiated her blood. It was especially the 
 central doctrine of the gospel—the gratui¬ 
 tous offer of mercy to all men—that became 
 gradually obscured, and the pagan idea of 
 salvation through personal endeavor, pen¬ 
 ance, and self-righteousness was substi¬ 
 tuted for salvation by grace. The state of 
 religion and morals throughout Christen¬ 
 dom, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen¬ 
 turies, had sunk into fearful degeneracy. 
 While the Church was still the Church, 
 “ the whole head was sick and the whole 
 heart faint.” Enlightened minds recog¬ 
 nized the magnitude of the abuses that had 
 invaded her, and the cry for a thorough 
 reformation in head and members came 
 from every quarter. 
 
 By an extraordinary concurrence of cir¬ 
 cumstances with the appearance of Martin 
 Luther, a man singularly endowed and 
 providentially trained for the task, the 
 crisis was reached in the sixteenth century, 
 and a reformation was begun in earnest. 
 Salvation by faith alone, and the sole and 
 supreme authority of the Scriptures, be¬ 
 came the battle-cry of the revolution, and 
 these two ideas made it invincible. Rome 
 employed all its spiritual and political 
 resources to resist the work of purifica¬ 
 
 tion, and the result was the renunciation 
 of its jurisdiction by nearly all the peoples 
 of the Germanic race and the entire Scandi¬ 
 navian population, and the establishment 
 of a regenerated and reformed Church, a 
 Church having neither pope nor priest 
 within its domain, but lacking not a single 
 note of the true Church of Christ, and 
 which, by the logic of history, came ta 
 be known as the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Church. 
 
 The reformers, in Holland, England, and! 
 everywhere, were at first called Lutherans, 
 but while all agreed with Luther in oppos¬ 
 ing the tenets and the authority of Rome, 
 the Reformation, from various causes, 
 took on a different form in different coun¬ 
 tries, and the Lutheran Church thus came 
 to be distinguished from the Episcopal, 
 the Reformed, the Presbyterian, and other 
 communions. In contrast with the radical 
 principles and iconoclasm of Zwingli, Cal¬ 
 vin, and Knox, the Lutheran Reformation 
 maintained a conservative character, pre¬ 
 serving from the past, in accordance with 
 the law of historic continuity and develop¬ 
 ment, whatever in doctrine or worship was 
 not in conflict with Apostolic Christianity. 
 
 Acknowledging the three oecumenical 
 symbols, the representatives of the Luther¬ 
 an Church submitted a summary of their 
 faith before the imperial Diet at Augs¬ 
 burg in 1530, a confession which concludes 
 with the avowal that “ in doctrine and 
 ceremonials among us there is nothing re¬ 
 ceived contrary to Scripture or the Church 
 Universal;” and which, from its first pro¬ 
 mulgation, has been recognized as the 
 standard of pure and original Protestant¬ 
 ism, as it, in fact, struck the keynote to 
 the other Evangelical Confessions, the 
 substance of it, and often its language, be¬ 
 ing incorporated in them. 
 
 The Augsburg Confession has ever re¬ 
 mained the fundamental and universally- 
 accepted standard of Lutheranism. Lu¬ 
 ther’s Larger and Smaller Catechisms have 
 also obtained confessional authority, and SO' 
 have Melanchthon’s Apology of the Augs¬ 
 burg Confession, the Smalcald Articles, 
 and the Formula of Concord. 
 
 Doctrinally the Lutheran Church is dis¬ 
 tinguished from other Protestant churches 
 by the emphasis it places on justification 
 by faith alone. That is the centre of all its 
 theology and teaching relative to the sub¬ 
 jective side of redemption, while Christ is 
 the immovable centre of its objective 
 truths, the sun and source of all light and 
 life. Other systems begin with the Bible, 
 with the decrees, with the Church; Luther¬ 
 anism begins with Christ. Another dis¬ 
 tinctive feature is the doctrine of sacra¬ 
 mental grace: Baptism being viewed as the 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 546 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 initiative of a new life, and the Eucharist 
 as the communion of Christ’s body and 
 blood, partaken of by believers to the 
 strengthening of their faith, by unbelievers 
 to their judgment. On the doctrine of 
 Christ’s Person, Lutheran theology has also 
 advanced beyond that of other churches, 
 and has developed peculiar views on the com- 
 municatio idiomatum (q. v .). The doctrines of 
 election and predestination do not hold the 
 prominence which they do in the Calvinistic 
 system, nor are they carried out with the 
 same logical rigor, but there is no Armin- 
 ianism. Great stress is laid on the uni¬ 
 versal priesthood of believers; the sover¬ 
 eignty of the congregation is recognized, 
 and the ministry is an office instituted by 
 Christ for the preaching of the gospel and 
 the dispensing of the sacraments. The 
 parity of all its incumbents is maintained, 
 and all sacerdotalism and hierarchism are 
 repudiated. No special polity is held to 
 have scriptural authority, and practical 
 necessity constrained the Reformers to 
 allow State jurisdiction over the churches, 
 though they were not blind to the unhappy 
 consequences which were sure to follow. 
 In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark the 
 episcopate is retained to the present. 
 
 The crowning attribute of Lutheranism 
 has been not in the sphere of organization, 
 but in that of theology. The maintenance 
 of pure doctrine has been its chief raison 
 cTitre. As a Church, it has won the title 
 of “ The Church of Theologians.” Her 
 scholars were the principal teachers of 
 Christendom in the sixteenth century, and 
 they have, within the present century, re¬ 
 stored the glories of the best age of Chris¬ 
 tian learning. Alike her literature, her 
 universities, and her systems of popular 
 education, have attracted the admiration 
 of Christendom. There are no illiterates 
 in countries in which the Lutheran is the 
 State Church. 
 
 The Lutheran Church is liturgical, and 
 the development of its cultus bears its 
 general stamp of conservatism. Its foun¬ 
 dation was laid by Luther’s Formula Missce 
 (1523), and his German Mass (1526). It 
 was his aim to preserve all the truly evan¬ 
 gelical elements of the Catholic Church, 
 discarding whatever was unevangelical, or 
 impure in doctrine, and to reproduce them 
 in the vernacular, insisting upon the par¬ 
 ticipation of the congregation. The most 
 prominent place is given to preaching. 
 While there is no authoritative uniform 
 service for all countries, the chief Sunday 
 service embraces, in what are recognized 
 as pure Lutheran liturgies, a hymn or 
 psalm, followed by the Kyrie , Gloria in 
 Fxcelsis, a collect, epistle and gospel, with 
 an intervening hymn or chant, the creed, 
 
 and after the sermon a prayer, closing with 
 the Lord’s Prayer, a hymn, and the bene¬ 
 diction. 
 
 The mighty revolutions in thought and 
 in society which have passed over Europe 
 in the last three hundred years have left 
 their impress upon the Lutheran Church, 
 but she continues to be the dominant Prot¬ 
 estant power of continental Europe. In 
 Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and many of 
 the German States she is the established 
 national Church. In Prussia, an edict from 
 the throne in 1817 united the Lutheran and 
 Reformed churches into one national body, 
 under the title of “The Evangelical 
 Church,” and some of the smaller states 
 also adopted this course. Including the 
 Lutheran membership of these united 
 churches, the estimated total numerical 
 strength of the Lutheran Church in Europe 
 is 45,000,000 souls. Of these, 18,000,000 
 are credited to Prussia, 1,500,000 to Ba¬ 
 varia, 3,300,000 to Saxony, 1,425,000 to 
 Wiirtemburg, 2,200,000 to Denmark, 4,750,- 
 000 to Sweden, 1,900,000 to Norway, 
 1,600,000 to Austro-Hungary, 5,100,000 to 
 Finland and the Baltic provinces, and the 
 rest to the smaller German countries, to 
 France, Holland, and Great Britain. 
 
 English works of reference are: Schmid: 
 Doctrinal Theology of the Lutheran Church , 
 translated by Hay and Jacobs; Krauth: 
 Conservative Reformation', Jacobs: The 
 Book of Concord; the great church histor¬ 
 ians, especially Gieseler, Kurtz, and Schaff, 
 and extended articles in Johnson’s Cyclo- 
 pcedia , and McClintock and Strong’s Ency, 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Lutheran Church, The Evangelical, in 
 the United States. The Lutheran 
 communion holds the fourth rank in num¬ 
 bers among the Evangelical churches. Its 
 growth has of late been phenomenal, the 
 increase resulting both from the ordinary 
 conditions of religious progress, and from 
 the large influx of Lutherans from the Old 
 World. Its congregations are scattered over 
 every portion of the Union, but they are 
 most numerous in the Middle, Western, 
 and Northwestern States. 
 
 For a long period this Church advanced 
 slowly, and with irregular pace, in this 
 country. Obstacles of appalling magni¬ 
 tude blocked the path of its development. 
 The first to cast off the yoke of the papacy, 
 the Lutherans might have preceded all oth¬ 
 ers in planting the standard of Protestant¬ 
 ism and freedom on these shores, but lor 
 the fact that Lutheran Germany had, in the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, no 
 commercial equipments, and could under¬ 
 take no colonial enterprise. Lutherans 
 formed, however, an element in one of the 
 
( 547 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 Lut 
 
 first permanent settlements. They came 
 from Holland along with the first Dutch 
 eolony, which in 1623 founded New Am¬ 
 sterdam on Manhattan Island. How early 
 they took steps to celebrate public worship, 
 according to the order of their Church, 
 cannot be definitely ascertained, but this 
 movement was peremptorily and persist¬ 
 ently resisted by the ecclesiastical and po¬ 
 litical authorities. And the first picture of 
 Lutherans in America is that of a noble 
 band suffering persecution, the first Prot¬ 
 estants on the continent to have the honor 
 of suffering solely for their religious opin¬ 
 ions. 
 
 The opposition to Lutheran worship 
 was for a time not so inexorable as to pre¬ 
 vent assemblies in private dwellings, where 
 a layman might conduct services after the 
 Lutheran form, but Lutheran parents were 
 forced to have their children baptized by 
 the Reformed ministers, who required of 
 sponsors a profession of faith which com¬ 
 promised a Lutheran conscience. More 
 rigorous measures followed when the con¬ 
 gregation petitioned Governor Stuyvesant 
 for the privilege of having public worship, 
 and calling a pastor. Strenuous opposition 
 by the Reformed clergy determined the 
 Governor to refuse this permission “ for 
 the reason that he was bound by his oath 
 to tolerate openly no other religion than 
 the Reformed.” 
 
 The Lutherans appealed to the West 
 India Company and the Home Government. 
 The Reformed made a counter-appeal to 
 the Classis of Amsterdam, urging the dan¬ 
 gerous consequences of making such a con¬ 
 cession. Bigotry prevailed. Instructions, 
 bearing date February 26, 1654, came from 
 Holland, “ to encourage no other doctrine 
 in New Netherlands than the true Re¬ 
 formed.” The Governor and his intolerant 
 clergy now proceeded to crush the Luther¬ 
 ans. Even the holding of conventicles 
 was forbidden, under a fine of one hun¬ 
 dred Flemish pounds for every violation 
 of the prohibitory ordinance; and a pen¬ 
 alty of twenty-five pounds was imposed 
 on every person guilty of meeting in pri¬ 
 vate dwellings for worship. 
 
 Another appeal to the civil authorities 
 of Holland elicited a more favorable re¬ 
 sponse, the pledge of a more liberal policy, 
 and the promise of a Lutheran pastor, but 
 this moderation only exasperated the Re¬ 
 formed pastors, who once more renewed 
 their “ importunities with their friends in 
 the Classis of Amsterdam, to save them 
 from so terrible an evil as the establish¬ 
 ment of a Lutheran Church in the pious 
 colony of New Netherlands.” When in 
 June, 1657, the promised pastor arrived, 
 Rev. John Ernest Goetwater, the first Lu¬ 
 
 theran minister on the banks of the Hud¬ 
 son. there being a congregation at Bevers- 
 wycke (Albany), and one at New Amster¬ 
 dam, he was immediately cited before the 
 authorities, forbidden to exercise his office, 
 and in a few months forcibly sent back to 
 Holland. The Lutheran faith remained irre¬ 
 pressible, notwithstanding these outrages, 
 and a more liberal policy was enjoined 
 upon the local government. In 1660 they 
 are found “ promoting a subscription for a 
 clergyman of their own,” and at the time 
 of the English Conquest they had an or¬ 
 ganized existence. Their first pastor was 
 Rev. Jacobus Fabricius, sent to them, in 
 1668, by the Lutheran Consistory of Am¬ 
 sterdam. He was an unfortunate selection, 
 and after a brief pastorate he was suc¬ 
 ceeded by Rev. Bernardus Antonius Aren- 
 sius, who remained in charge probably 
 until about the close of the century. Wor¬ 
 ship was for a long while conducted in 
 Dutch and English, although in course of 
 time there were considerable accessions of 
 Germans and French. In 1715 four small 
 congregations existed in the province of 
 New York, having altogether “ about one 
 hundred constant communicants.” 
 
 Long before this a heroic band had 
 planted the standard of Sweden and of Lu¬ 
 theranism on the banks of the Delaware, not 
 far below the present limits of Philadelphia. 
 Their history forms a radiant picture in 
 the earliest colonial period. This settle¬ 
 ment was the fruit of a project originally 
 conceived by the illustrious Lutheran king 
 and martyr, Gustavus Adolphus. The 
 first body of colonists arrived in 1638, ac¬ 
 companied by a pastor, Rev. Reorus Tor- 
 killus, who was the first Lutheran clergy¬ 
 man on the western continent. Land was 
 immediately purchased from the Indians, 
 and one of the first structures erected after 
 the fort was a church, which was, in fact, 
 enclosed by the same walls. This was the 
 first Evangelical Lutheran church on these 
 shores. Three vessels brought over a sec¬ 
 ond company of emigrants with a govern¬ 
 ment chaplain, in 1642, and these were 
 shortly succeeded by other ships carrying 
 additional people, each accession bringing 
 additional clergymen. The primary object 
 of *his enterprise was the planting of the 
 Christian religion among the wild inhab¬ 
 itants of the country. It was a missionary 
 movement, contemplating the evangeliza¬ 
 tion of the heathen by colonizing among 
 them a Christian people. And the Luther¬ 
 ans have the distinction of being the first 
 Protestants who settled in the American 
 wilderness impelled by this inspiring cause, 
 as they share the glory of being among the 
 first Protestant missionaries to labor 
 among the Indians. Simultaneously with 
 
Lut 
 
 (548) 
 
 Lut 
 
 the work of Eliot in Roxbury, Campanius 
 unfolded successfully to the rude aborig¬ 
 ines along the Delaware the elementary 
 truths of the Gospel, and his translation of 
 Luther's Small Catechism into the Dela¬ 
 ware language was the first literary under¬ 
 taking of the kind, although, through an 
 unfortunate delay in printing, it was not 
 published until some years after Eliot’s 
 New Testament in the Mohegan dialect. 
 These Swedish Lutherans were also un¬ 
 doubtedly the first to advance here the 
 principle of religious tolerance, the in¬ 
 structions of the home government, giv¬ 
 en at Stockholm, Aug. 15, 1642, charg¬ 
 ing them not to disturb the Holland col¬ 
 onists “ in the exercise of the Reformed 
 religion.” 
 
 Its conquest by the Dutch of New Am¬ 
 sterdam in 1655 was almost a death-blow 
 to this Lutheran colony. The Swedish 
 governor and two of the pastors were 
 expelled from the country. A large 
 amount of property was confiscated, the 
 principal men and families were removed, 
 and intercourse with the mother-country 
 was entirely cut off, leaving the little con¬ 
 gregations on the Delaware in absolute 
 isolation. A period of severe trials and 
 spiritual destitution ensued. The Dutch 
 had, indeed, in the terms of capitulation, 
 guaranteed to them the liberty of “ adher¬ 
 ing to their own Augsburg Confession,” 
 but the continued and marked partiality 
 ivhich the Indians showed for their old 
 friends aroused the suspicion of their con¬ 
 querors, and, under the most unjust impu¬ 
 tation of secret plottings, they a second 
 time transported beyond the colony some 
 of its worthiest subjects. 
 
 The preservation of the Lutheran Church 
 under these circumstances may be set down 
 among remarkable providences. For years 
 but a single clergyman served the whole 
 district, extending his labors alike to 
 Swedes and Dutch, to Lutherans and Cal¬ 
 vinists. At times the people were left en¬ 
 tirely without pastoral oversight, as they 
 became, also, inevitably destitute of those 
 manuals of devotion which nurture spir¬ 
 itual life at the hearthstone. Yet their 
 Christian faith and their devotion to the 
 Lutheran cultus survived the extremity of 
 their trial. Their churches were not 
 closed. The people assembled on the 
 Lord’s Day, sang the Songs of Zion, fol¬ 
 lowed the prayers of a layman, heard 
 him read to them the Epistle and Gospel 
 for the da)', and frequently, also, a sermon 
 from the publication of some distinguish¬ 
 ed preacher. They made every exertion 
 to open communication with the mother- 
 country, in order to secure clergymen, 
 Bibles,and other spiritual hand-books, only 
 
 to experience again and again the bitterest 
 disappointment. 
 
 They opposed the coming of William 
 Penn, in 1682, since they were really and 
 justly the owners of the soil. Yet they 
 received his people with Christian hospi¬ 
 tality, and delighted the famous Quaker, 
 especially by their kindly offices for him 
 with the Indians. He praised their abun¬ 
 dance of children, and their habits of so¬ 
 briety and industry, and appreciated their 
 services in the General Assembly of the 
 Province, and the Governor’s Council. 
 Although, by his principles, hostile to a 
 regular ministry, he interested himself 
 deeply in procuring clergymen for them, 
 applying for this purpose, though fruit¬ 
 lessly, to the Swedish ambassador at Lon¬ 
 don. 
 
 Their distress reached at last, in a prov¬ 
 idential manner, the knowledge of Swe¬ 
 den, and awakened a profound sympathy, 
 which resulted in despatching to their 
 relief three clergymen. These arrived in 
 the summer of 1697. Along with the 
 charge of their numerous flocks, they la¬ 
 bored unweariedly among the surrounding 
 Indians. Before the close of the century 
 they rejoiced over the completion at Chris¬ 
 tina (Wilmington) and Wicacoa (Philadel¬ 
 phia) of two large, costly, and beautiful 
 churches, structures which for along time 
 excited the wonder and the admiration of 
 their English neighbors. 
 
 Cultured and consecrated, preaching the 
 doctrines of grace, and animated by en¬ 
 lightened zeal and the spirit of progress, 
 the labors of these men soon commended 
 them to other nationalities. Not only 
 Hollanders, but also many English, Scotch, 
 Irish, and German families became identi¬ 
 fied with their congregations. They and 
 their successors preached likewise in the 
 churches of their English neighbors, and 
 for considerable periods kept alive some 
 of the Episcopal congregations of Penn¬ 
 sylvania. The English residents in every 
 quarter entreated their services, as “ oth¬ 
 erwise their children would become un¬ 
 christened heathen, or Quakers, and their 
 churches would be changed into stables 
 alongside of Quaker meeting-houses.” 
 
 The most important and permanent re¬ 
 sults of the devotion and wisdom of the 
 Swedish ministers was the founding and 
 nursing of German churches at a number 
 of points, which became powerful centres 
 of Lutheranism, and to whose influence 
 the Church is under immeasurable obli¬ 
 gations for its present strength and stand¬ 
 ing. 
 
 The stock which has chiefly built up the 
 Lutheran Church in this country, the Ger¬ 
 man, was the last to come. The German 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 549 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 Governments being incapable of undertak¬ 
 ing any colonial projects, the few of their 
 subjects that wandered to the New World 
 in the seventeenth century had to seek a 
 home among the communities which other 
 nations had planted here. They were spo¬ 
 radic pioneers, scattered over a wide extent 
 of country, and not being followed by re- 
 enforcements, they were gradually ab¬ 
 sorbed among the Dutch, Swedes, and 
 English. They contributed little to the 
 establishment of the Lutheran Church. 
 There is no record of a German Lutheran 
 Church or pastor until the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury. The first German Lutheran congre¬ 
 gation was that of Falckner’s Swamp (New 
 Hanover), Montgomery County, Penn. Its 
 first pastor was Rev. Justus Falckner, who 
 was the first Lutheran minister ordained in 
 this country, the ceremony being adminis¬ 
 tered by three Swedish ministers in the 
 church at Wicacoa, November 24, 1703. 
 
 About this period a considerable tide 
 of Lutheran emigration from Germany set 
 into this country. It consisted largely of 
 fugitives from the Palatinate, which had 
 been desolated by Louis XIV. They were 
 the first Lutherans whom religious perse¬ 
 cution drove to this asylum. Their distress 
 •excited the sympathy of Queen Anne, who 
 not only extended to them a Christian hos¬ 
 pitality in England, but munificently pro¬ 
 vided for them free transportation to the 
 New World, with subsistence on the way, 
 and princely domains for their occupation, 
 -and “ for the maintenance of a Lutheran 
 minister and his successors forever.” One 
 colony was accompanied by a clergyman, 
 the Rev. Joshua von Kocherthal. The land 
 allotted them lay on both sides of the Hud¬ 
 son, in the vicinity of Newburg. 
 
 Their lot here became one of inde¬ 
 scribable hardships. The agents of the 
 Government subjected them to cruel extor¬ 
 tions which rendered development impos¬ 
 sible, and left them without relief, or even 
 hope. The majority abandoned the lands 
 which their toil had redeemed from the 
 wild, and amid terrible sufferings moved 
 northward into the Schoharie region, where 
 a large and fertile tract had been ceded to 
 them by certain Mohawk Indians. Living 
 here without a civil ruler, and on terms of 
 amity with the red men, they grew into a 
 happy and prosperous community. A 
 clergyman visited them only once or twice 
 a year, but they assembled on Sundays, 
 edifying one another through praise and 
 prayer, and the reading of God’s Word. 
 Both under pretense of law, and in open 
 violation of it, their white neighbors in¬ 
 flicted on them a series of outrages and 
 robberies which dismembered this second 
 settlement, and, fleeing from the inhuman¬ 
 
 ity of civilization, they plunged once more 
 into the depths of the wilderness. 
 
 Making their way through frightful 
 ordeals, they followed the Susquehanna 
 into the heart of Pennsylvania, finding at 
 last a place of rest and safety in the Tulpe- 
 hocken region, near the present city of 
 Reading, in the free and fruitful province 
 of William Penn, which, after the outrages 
 suffered by the Palatines in New York, 
 remained for years the land of promise for 
 the Germans. 
 
 Even before this, Pennsylvania swarm¬ 
 ed with Germans, the majority of whom 
 were Lutherans. Their multitude created 
 alarm among the English settlers, and with 
 the Government. The story of the Saxon 
 conquest of Britain might repeat itself in 
 the peaceful domain of the Quaker. The 
 rash attempt to prohibit immigration dealt 
 a serious blow to the prosperity of the col¬ 
 ony, and a year sufficed to abolish the 
 enactment, while public testimony was 
 borne to the invaluable benefits which the 
 infant colony derived from these “op¬ 
 pressed Protestants from the Palatinate, 
 and other German countries.” 
 
 By a variety of circumstances this ele¬ 
 ment was soon scattered broadcast through¬ 
 out the land, occupying fertile agricultural 
 districts in Maryland, Virginia, and North 
 Carolina, as well as in New York and Penn¬ 
 sylvania, but having no ministrations of 
 the sanctuary. 
 
 One of the most interesting and clearly 
 defined colonies of Lutherans, founded dur¬ 
 ing the colonial period, was that of the 
 Salzburgers, who were settled in the in¬ 
 terior of Georgia just a year after the occu¬ 
 pation of the province under General Ogle¬ 
 thorpe. They had been driven from their 
 native land by the remorseless persecu¬ 
 tions of the Archbishops of Salzburg. 
 Their tragic fate touched the heart of 
 Europe, and all Protestant countries threw 
 open their gates to the wandering exiles. 
 Through the interest of the “Society for 
 the Propagation of Christian Knowledge,” 
 and by the aid of Parliament, a company 
 of ninety-one souls, attended by two pas¬ 
 tors, were provided with free passage 
 across the Atlantic, and assigned to a dis¬ 
 trict about thirty miles from Savannah. 
 They landed at Charleston in 1734. Acces¬ 
 sions came from time to time, enlarging 
 the settlement and strengthening its spirit¬ 
 ual condition. 
 
 As soon as they had taken possession of 
 the wilderness they erected a church, es¬ 
 tablished a school, founded an orphan asy¬ 
 lum, and in many other ways attested the 
 exalted character and power of their faith. 
 This noble spiritual colony showed what 
 might have resulted, could the numerous 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 550 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 German Lutheran communities of the 
 other provinces have enjoyed from the 
 beginning the services of religious teach¬ 
 ers, or received pecuniary aid in building 
 houses of worship. But they, as a rule, 
 remained absolutely destitute of pastoral 
 care; and their straitened circumstances, 
 the uncertainty of their situation, the con¬ 
 test with wild beasts, with savages and 
 brutal oppressors, doomed life to a desper¬ 
 ate struggle for existence. With many of 
 them the vitality of their faith endured 
 nobly the severity of their trials. Piety 
 glowed at the fireside, and there were ear¬ 
 nest yearnings for the means of grace, but 
 the establishment of churches was impos¬ 
 sible. There was abundance of Lutheran 
 material, but there were no builders. 
 There was no Mission Board to look after 
 the unfolded flocks. There was not even 
 a bond of strong sympathy drawing them 
 to each other. They had left different 
 states of the fatherland in one of the gloom¬ 
 iest periods of national distraction; and tra¬ 
 ditional animosities kept them asunder in 
 their new surroundings. 
 
 Among the thousands of Lutherans dis¬ 
 persed between the upper Hudson and the 
 Savannah, there were laboring, about the 
 year 1735, eight ordained clergymen. Two 
 of these ministered to the Salzburgers in 
 Georgia; two served the Swedish congre¬ 
 gations around Philadelphia; one cared 
 for some six congregations in New York 
 and three in New Jersey, preaching Dutch, 
 German, and English; one presided over 
 a little colony on the Rappahannock; an¬ 
 other was the spiritual shepherd of a com¬ 
 munity in South Carolina, while in the 
 large province of Pennsylvania, with a 
 Lutheran population of sixty thousand, a 
 solitary clergyman was exercising his 
 office. Between these few isolated labor¬ 
 ers intervened immense distances, with no 
 roads connecting the different localities, 
 no possible means of travel save on horse¬ 
 back, and no protection against the savage, 
 ever lying in ambush for the white intrud¬ 
 er. Long before this period, the Puritans of 
 Neiv England had an average of more than 
 two ministers to a congregation, all of 
 them men of culture, who had either from 
 devotion to convictions been led into vol¬ 
 untary exile, or had received a liberal 
 training at Harvard. Besides, their com¬ 
 munities were homogeneous, of a single 
 nationality, and composed of the chosen 
 element of England. The Dutch, the Eng¬ 
 lish, and the Scotch had, prior to this, ex¬ 
 tended a large measure of support to the 
 missionaries and congregations of their re¬ 
 spective Churches in the colonies; whereas 
 not a single German government, nor a 
 single ecclesiastical organization of that 
 
 country, is known to have supplied either 
 temporal or spiritual aid and comfort to its 
 destitute emigrants. With the former, 
 therefore, the requisites for flourishing and 
 powerful churches were at hand. With 
 the Lutherans they were wanting. 
 
 As far as in them lay there was cooper¬ 
 ation between the sporadic Lutheran be¬ 
 ginnings. With almost superhuman labors 
 and hardships, ministers traveled from 
 one field to another, most of them required 
 by turns to preach in Dutch, German, Swe¬ 
 dish, and English. But vigorous congre¬ 
 gations cannot be built up by irregular ser¬ 
 vices at long intervals. A church life is 
 impossible without constant pastoral over¬ 
 sight and the administration of the ordi¬ 
 nances. The most melancholy destitution 
 prevailed. Numberless families grew up 
 without baptism and religious instruction. 
 Many experienced a sad declension in spir¬ 
 itual life. The knowledge of God faded 
 gradually from their minds. Others, in¬ 
 deed, came through their trials and spirit¬ 
 ual privations to the highest appreciation 
 of religious faith. They kept alive the 
 flame of devotion, but the very fervor of 
 their piety exposed them to great spiritual 
 dangers. Sects, fanatics, impostors, and 
 wretched vagabonds abounded, especially 
 in Pennsylvania, and they made terrible 
 havoc of the Lutheran sheep scattered 
 through the wilderness. In some cases, 
 crowning a long series of calamities, wily 
 scoundrels intruded where disorder and 
 confusion already prevailed, and brought 
 congregations to the verge of extinction. 
 Thus, for more than a century, Lutherans 
 in considerable numbers were found in the 
 colonies, and isolated congregations were 
 established; yet, properly speaking, this 
 mass did not constitute a Lutheran Church. 
 There were no institutions, no bond of 
 union, no organism. The Church was 
 formless, chaotic, and withal a prey to ad¬ 
 verse and destructive influences. 
 
 But the earnest prayers to God for pas¬ 
 tors did not remain unanswered. The im¬ 
 ploring letters to Holland and Germany 
 for spiritual guides, school-teachers, books 
 and pecuniary aid toward the maintenance 
 of churches and schools, though long un¬ 
 availing, elicited at last a gracious re¬ 
 sponse. Through the offices of the Luther¬ 
 an chaplain at the English court the con¬ 
 dition of the Lutherans in America was 
 brought to the attention of Dr. G. A. 
 Francke, at Halle, who stood at the time 
 at the head of the Pietistic movement. A 
 wide-spread sympathy was excited, which 
 took the form of generous contributions, 
 and, what was needed most of all, led to 
 the selection of a clergyman, possessed of 
 the requisite qualifications, to proceed to 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 551 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 America and take personal oversight of the 
 destitute congregations in Pennsylvania. 
 
 This man was Henry Melchior Muhlen¬ 
 berg. He combined the highest qualities 
 of pastor, preacher, and leader, and seems 
 to have been specially endowed by the 
 Holy Ghost for the peculiar and moment¬ 
 ous task which providence devolved 
 upon him. He arrived in 1742. His com¬ 
 ing marks an epoch in the Lutheran Church. 
 His herculean and far-seeing labors con¬ 
 stitute the era of her firm establishment 
 and organic life. His immortal services 
 have won for him the title of “ Patriarch 
 of the American Lutheran Church.” His 
 career began with three congregations in 
 and near Philadelphia. Indefatigable in 
 preaching, teaching school, catechising, 
 and house-to-house visitation, and with 
 equal solicitude caring for the individual 
 soul and the general interest, a boundless 
 parish, extending over half a dozen prov¬ 
 inces, soon claimed his pastoral attention, 
 and attested the spiritual power of his min¬ 
 istrations. For several years he was ab¬ 
 solutely alone, finding the few German 
 ministers who were located in New York 
 not disposed to cooperate with him. Three 
 laborers were sent to his assistance, from 
 Halle, in 1745. Another one came in 1748. 
 
 During the same year the Swedish pas¬ 
 tors and churches united with the Ger¬ 
 mans in a synodical organization, the 
 Ministerium of Pennsylvania, which bound 
 all its members to order, discipline, and 
 soundness of doctrine, and developed 
 efficient cooperation for the advancement 
 of the Church in general. These min¬ 
 isters, with a number of others from 
 Germany, who, up to the outbreak of the 
 Revolution, continued to reenforce them, 
 were a remarkable body of men. Animated 
 by apostolic zeal, possessed of university 
 training, endowed with preeminent practical 
 gifts, they do not suffer in comparison with 
 the noblest group of Puritan Fathers. 
 They made a deep impression upon their 
 contemporaries. Their missionary wcrk 
 branched out rapidly, westward, north¬ 
 ward and southward. Their enlightened 
 and self-devoted labors were followed by 
 extraordinary success. Multitudes of va¬ 
 rious nationalities flocked to their preach¬ 
 ing. A general awakening was witnessed 
 through all the region surrounding their 
 activities. Remote centres were occupied, 
 new congregations were organized, schools 
 multiplied, church buildings erected; 
 Zion’s, of Philadelphia, dedicated in 1769, 
 being for many years regarded the finest 
 house of worship in America. A high 
 standard of spirituality was maintained, 
 and the effectualness of the gospel was re¬ 
 flected in the Christian lives of a devout 
 
 people. In 1768 the Ministerium embraced 
 twenty-four clergymen. A steady increase 
 of ministers and members was kept up for 
 years. “ The comparative numerical 
 strength of the Church, the purity of 
 its spirit, and the fidelity of its discipline 
 held out a most promising future.” 
 
 This prospect was not realized. An un¬ 
 happy blight overtook this living bloom. 
 The eight years of civil war, preceded by 
 the devastations of the long conflict be¬ 
 tween the French and English, and suc¬ 
 ceeded by the political convulsions which 
 continued down to the inauguration of 
 Washington, the financial distress, the re¬ 
 ligious indifference, the defection from 
 orthodoxy, and the rampant infidelity, 
 which in their combined influence wrought 
 fearful havoc among all religious commu¬ 
 nities, completely paralyzed the Lutheran 
 Church. 
 
 The beginnings that had been made in 
 educational institutions were swept away 
 by the Revolution, which also terminated 
 the importation of German clergymen, and 
 secularized some of the most gifted men 
 who had stood in the pulpit. Thus the 
 force of ministers became again wholly in¬ 
 adequate to the needs of the work. 
 
 The most serious obstacle to the ad¬ 
 vancement of the Church was the stubborn 
 opposition at this period to the introduc¬ 
 tion of the English language. This was 
 essentially a blow at her life. The division 
 caused by it in many congregations, the 
 loss of multitudes of the most progressive 
 elements from the Lutheran fold, the re¬ 
 striction of Lutheran influence to the Ger¬ 
 man portion of the public, the invincible 
 obstruction it offered to the establishment 
 of schools of learning and the training of 
 ministers, placed the Lutheran Church at 
 such a disadvantage, in comparison with 
 other communions, and entailed upon her 
 such ruinous calamities, that, to this day, 
 she has not fully recovered from the con¬ 
 sequences of this policy. 
 
 In spite of these overwhelming trials, 
 the Church retained her vitality. Her bor¬ 
 ders were extended. Able and faithful 
 men labored with marked success in vari¬ 
 ous localities. Those on the frontier cared 
 for the feeble congregations around them, 
 and made extensive missionary tours into 
 remote districts. The growth of the 
 Church kept pace with the growth of the 
 country, and the expansion of the popula¬ 
 tion. The seventy-five ministers and three 
 hundred congregations at the beginning of 
 the century increased in two decades to 
 one hundred and sixty-four ministers, four 
 hundred and seventy-five congregations, 
 with a membership of forty-five thousand. 
 But on account of the dearth of ministers 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 552 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 one hundred of the congregations were 
 pastorless. Four new synods were or¬ 
 ganized—that of New York in 1785; the 
 Ohio, and that of North Carolina in 1803; 
 and that of Maryland and Virginia in 1820. 
 
 An effort to form a joint body, composed 
 of delegates from each of these synods, 
 was made in 1820. A General Synod was 
 organized. Several of the bodies stood 
 aloof. The Pennsylvania Ministerium, 
 the mother-synod, which still embraced 
 more than half the strength of the Church, 
 and had taken the initiative in the move¬ 
 ment, withdrew before the second conven¬ 
 tion, chiefly on account of the fears which 
 had arisen in its congregations, lest such 
 a body might become an instrument of 
 tyranny. Other synods soon came into 
 existence, and, excepting that of Tennes¬ 
 see, united one by one with the general 
 body. 
 
 Though feeble in numbers this union, 
 by bringing the congregations into closer 
 fellowship, by forming a rallying cen¬ 
 tre, and by adopting measures of cooper¬ 
 ation, gave a powerful impulse to the ad¬ 
 vancement of the Church, affecting very 
 favorably the development even of those 
 synods that declined to join it. It marks 
 another era, from which date the establish¬ 
 ment of literary and theological institu¬ 
 tions, the organization of missionary and 
 education societies, the inauguration of a 
 church literature, the multiplication of the 
 ministry, and the formation of additional 
 synods, especially in the West. A new life 
 was pulsating through the entire commun¬ 
 ion, giving momentum and homogeneity 
 to every form of Christian enterprise, and 
 causing general prosperity and expansion. 
 
 The progress of the General Synod 
 reached its climax in i860. Forty years 
 had witnessed its growth to a body which 
 embraced twenty-seven synods, spread 
 over almost the entire territory of the 
 Union, all the synods, in fact, which com¬ 
 prised the native Lutheran population, ex¬ 
 cepting the Joint Ohio and Tennessee, and 
 aggregated 864 ministers and 164,000com¬ 
 municants, about two-thirds of the Luther¬ 
 ans in the country. 
 
 In the meantime anew Lutheran element 
 came from abroad, which has since grown 
 to immense proportions, and become a 
 powerful factor in the development of the 
 American Lutheran Church. In 1839, a 
 considerable colony of Saxons, including 
 ministers, school-teachers, lawyers, and 
 physicians, settled in the neighborhood of 
 St. Louis. They adhered rigidly to the 
 Lutheran faith, and were marked by an ar¬ 
 dent, pietistic spirituality, the rationalism 
 and unionism into which the German state 
 churches had fallen being the sole cause of 
 
 their self-expatriation. In the depths of 
 their poverty and other hardships, they at 
 once founded a seminary of a high order for 
 the training of ministers. Others of like 
 faith and spirit followed from Germany, 
 and by means of extraordinary zeal, the 
 thorough instruction of youth and signal 
 executive capacity, they soon formed a 
 number of flourishing centres in the West 
 and Northwest, and in course of time they 
 have spread over the entire country. In 
 1847 they organized the Synod of Missouri. 
 They are generally known under the title 
 of “Missourians.” They united with other 
 German synods in 1S72 in the formation of 
 the Synodical Conference, which now em¬ 
 braces more than one-third of the Lutheran 
 communion, and maintains a number of 
 colleges, theological seminaries, orphan¬ 
 ages and hospitals, with a parish school 
 attached to every congregation, and has 
 nearly one thousand candidates for the 
 ministry in different stages of preparation. 
 
 The immense Scandinavian emigration of 
 the last forty years has furnished a large 
 source of increase to the Church, especially 
 in the Northwest, developing extraordinary 
 missionary operations, liberal institutions, 
 and a blooming church life, with great ac¬ 
 tivity in every sphere of Christian enter¬ 
 prise. The Swedes, numbering 80,000 
 communicants, stand in connection with a 
 general body. The Norwegians, number¬ 
 ing 150,000, and the Danes, remain inde¬ 
 pendent, as do likewise the large German 
 Synod of Iowa and the old Joint-Synod of 
 Ohio, and several smaller associations. 
 
 On the outbreak of the civil war all the 
 synods south of the Potomac sundered 
 their connection with the General Synod. 
 Although resuming fraternal relations with 
 the latter body, they have not renewed or¬ 
 ganic fellowship. They united, in 1S86, 
 with two other synods in that section in the 
 organization of the United Synod in the 
 South. 
 
 A more serious disruption was experi¬ 
 enced by the General Synod in 1866, when 
 the large Synod of Pennsylvania, that of 
 New York, and that of Pittsburg, dis¬ 
 solved their connection. This was essen¬ 
 tially the result of doctrinal divergence, 
 although brought about by a parliamentary 
 ruling. The General Synod was organized 
 at a period of great doctrinal laxity, and 
 was designed to be comprehensive. It 
 heartily opened its doors to those who held 
 but loosely to the teachings of the stand¬ 
 ards, and were strangers to the genius of 
 the Church, as well as to those who adhered 
 firmly to both. Two elements were thus 
 received into its bosom, which must inevi¬ 
 tably come into antagonism. Along with 
 a strong reaction in favor of positive 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 553 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 Lutheranism in doctrine and worship, 
 arose the contest for supremacy in the 
 body. The crisis arrived in 1864, when the 
 Franckean Synod of New York, which 
 stood charged with serious defection from 
 Lutheran doctrine, was received into the 
 General Synod. The minority protested. 
 The Pennsylvania delegation, in accord¬ 
 ance with standing instructions, withdrew 
 to report to their body. Violent contro¬ 
 versies followed. At the next convention, 
 in Fort Wayne, 1866, the representatives 
 of this body were excluded from the or¬ 
 ganization by the chair ruling that the 
 Synod must be considered “in a state of 
 practical withdrawal.” The delegation 
 viewed this as a denial of their constitu¬ 
 tional rights, and took leave. At its next 
 convention their Synod formally severed 
 its relations to the General Synod. The 
 Synod of New York, and that of Pittsburgh 
 followed, each at the cost of a schism in its 
 own constituency. A number of other 
 synods pursued the same course. The 
 General Synod was reduced to one-half of 
 its numerical strength, but retaining all the 
 institutions which it had directly or indi¬ 
 rectly controlled before the rupture, and, 
 gaining in harmony and homogeneity, it 
 was able to maintain a relative prosperity, 
 so that in twenty years it has almost 
 doubled its communicants, and added sixty 
 per cent, to its clergy, and forty per cent, 
 to its congregations. 
 
 With the disruption of the General 
 Synod, the prospect of an organization 
 uniting the entire Church seemed to be dis¬ 
 pelled. And yet the hope of bringing about 
 such an organization on an unequivocal 
 basis of distinctive and historic Lutheran¬ 
 ism was largely instrumental in determin¬ 
 ing that disruption. The last twenty years 
 had witnessed a powerful movement in the 
 Church to renew her connection with the 
 past, and to return to the doctrines and 
 cultus which had characterized Lutheran¬ 
 ism in its purest days in Europe, and which 
 had marked the Church when first planted 
 in this country. The large communities 
 of Germans and Scandinavians which had 
 sprung up in the West were strongly in 
 sympathy with this movement. A number 
 of the ablest men in the Synods that had 
 seceded were its champions, and the same 
 leaven was at work, even in Synods that 
 adhered to the General Synod. The 
 churches in the South had also felt the im¬ 
 petus toward a more decided Lutheran 
 orthodoxy, while one of the Synods of that 
 section, and one in the North had always 
 maintained their isolation because of the 
 alleged unsoundness of the General Syruod. 
 
 The time appeared ripe, therefore, for 
 the unification of the Church in one body, 
 
 on a strictly confessional basis. A good 
 understanding had grown up among all the 
 bodies whose adherence to the Augsburg 
 Confession was pronounced and unquali¬ 
 fied. It was an inspiring prospect, a con¬ 
 summation devoutly wished for by many 
 hearts. The Pennsylvania Synod once 
 more took the lead, and issued an address 
 “ to Evangelical Lutheran Synods, Minis¬ 
 ters, and Congregations in the United 
 States and Canadas, which confess the 
 Unaltered Augsburg Confession, inviting 
 them to unite in a convention for the pur¬ 
 pose of forming a union of Lutheran 
 Synods.” In answer to this address, rep¬ 
 resentatives of all the synods, excepting 
 those in the South and those comprised in 
 the General Synod, assembled in Reading 
 in 1866, and proceeded to organize the Gen¬ 
 eral Council. Some of the largest synods, 
 which participated in the preliminary con¬ 
 vention, declined afterward to enter this 
 union, and several in a few years withdrew 
 from it. The former regarded an organic 
 union premature, and proposed a series of 
 free conferences, with a view to reaching 
 a perfect understanding on all doctrinal 
 and practical points. The course of the 
 latter was determined by the failure of the 
 General Council to adopt an extreme posi¬ 
 tion on “ the four points ” of Millenarian- 
 ism, Secret Societies and Pulpit and Altar 
 fellowship with non-Lutherans. 
 
 Thus the Lutheran Church, which en¬ 
 joys the honor of never having begotten 
 sects, finds itself, from various providen¬ 
 tial causes, divided into four general 
 bodies, besides several large synods dis¬ 
 connected from all others. The diversity 
 of nationality and language, and the differ¬ 
 ences of historic development in Europe 
 and this country, have naturally, if not 
 necessarily, produced these divisions, 
 which are generally regarded as only tem¬ 
 porary, since the common faith to which 
 nearly all rigidly adhere, is destined ulti¬ 
 mately to triumph over all obstacles to 
 union when one language, a common en¬ 
 vironment, and a fuller mutual acquaint¬ 
 ance shall have removed some of the 
 present causes of separation. 
 
 All the bodies, except the General Syn¬ 
 od, receive officially and unqualifiedly the 
 whole of the Symbols of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church. The latter body, al¬ 
 though in no way denying any doctrine 
 contained in the other standards, contents 
 itself with the acknowledgment of the 
 Augsburg Confession, the symbol that has 
 in every country been recognized as the 
 synonym of Lutheranism. The General 
 Synod is further distinguished from nearly 
 all others by its free affiliation with other 
 Christian denominations, in the form of 
 
Lut 
 
 ( 554 ) 
 
 Lut 
 
 pulpit and altar fellowship, and coopera¬ 
 tion in general church enterprises. 
 
 Deeply as all deplore these unhappy 
 divisions in the same household of faith, 
 they serve to stimulate the respective or¬ 
 ganizations to a noble rivalry, especially 
 in the sphere of Home Missions, which, 
 by the increasing myriads of foreigners 
 from Lutheran lands, has been made the 
 special task and sphere of the Lutheran 
 Church ; and which, by her capacity to 
 preach the gospel in every needed tongue, 
 and her extraordinary success, stamps upon 
 her a Pentecostal character. The whole 
 communion, which numbered in 1823 but 
 175 ministers and 45,000 communicants; 
 in 1845, 520 ministers and 145,000 com¬ 
 municants, reports at the close of 1889 a 
 total of 4,514 ministers, 7,804 congrega¬ 
 tions, and 1,099,708 communicants; and a 
 careful survey allots to the Lutheran 
 household a population of not less than 
 7,000,000 who look to her for whatever 
 of spiritual ministrations they receive. 
 
 Twenty-five per cent, of the clergy are 
 doing mission work, many of them adding 
 these labors to their regular pastoral du¬ 
 ties. Besides the stated preaching of the 
 gospel, universal attention is paid to 
 thorough catechisation by the pastors. 
 Luther’s Small Catechism holds a place 
 next to the Bible. And the spiritual power 
 and steady growth of the Church is in a 
 large measure tobe ascribed to the thorough 
 grounding of youth in the doctrines of 
 salvation. Successful Sunday-school work 
 is a prominent feature of Lutheranism, es¬ 
 pecially in the English and Scandinavian 
 Churches. Parish schools giving daily re¬ 
 ligious instruction are maintained by near¬ 
 ly all German congregations, and by many 
 of the Swedish and Norwegian. 
 
 Vigorous foreign missionary enterprises 
 are maintained by the General Synod and 
 the General Council, in India and on the 
 African coast. The contributions of others 
 are mainly sent to European societies, 
 while their capacity for missionary endeav¬ 
 or is almost wholly absorbed by the vast 
 work of supplying with the ordinances 
 their kinsmen scattered over this country. 
 
 The care of the orphan has held a warm 
 place in the heart of the Church, and some 
 fifty eleemosynary institutions illustrate 
 the sympathy which the Lutheran faith be¬ 
 gets for the fatherless and the suffering. 
 
 In cultus the Lutheran Church of this 
 country, as in Europe, is moderately litur¬ 
 gical. Each congregation enjoys entire 
 liberty in the ordering of its worship. 
 Uniformity is not prescribed, though gener¬ 
 ally held to be highly desirable. As an 
 expression of this feeling, and with a view 
 also of contributing somewhat to a closer 
 
 relation between the different bodies of 
 English-speaking Lutherans, a joint com¬ 
 mittee, representing respectively the Gen¬ 
 eral Council, the General Synod, and the 
 United Synod in the South, united lately 
 in the preparation of a Common Service, 
 based upon the pure Lutheran liturgies of 
 the sixteenth century, publishing the full 
 historic Lutheran order of worship, but 
 leaving it to the discretion of congregations 
 to use whatever serves to edification, the 
 principle of uniformity being satisfied with 
 the use of the principal parts in their order. 
 The result of the Joint Committee’s work 
 was adopted by each of the general bodies 
 with entire unanimity, and will doubtless 
 come gradually into general use. 
 
 The literature of the Lutheran Church 
 universities, and her systems of education, 
 in Europe, have won the admiration of the 
 world. Her earlier ministry in this coun¬ 
 try was a group of scholars, and popular 
 education was fostered from the first. But 
 various insurmountable obstacles retarded 
 for a long time the establishment of higher 
 institutions. In the last half-century there 
 has been also in this direction astound¬ 
 ing progress. The latest statistics show 
 twenty-four Theological Seminaries, twen¬ 
 ty-five Colleges, and about fifty Academies 
 and Female Seminaries. 
 
 Of periodical church publications, there 
 are not less than one hundred and fifty, of 
 which about one-third appear in the Eng¬ 
 lish language, about the same proportion 
 in German, while the rest are divided be¬ 
 tween Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Ice¬ 
 landic, Finnish, and French. Flourishing 
 publication houses are established in Phil¬ 
 adelphia, St. Louis, Chicago, and else¬ 
 where. 
 
 A denominational literature in perma¬ 
 nent form is yet in its beginnings, yet some 
 very solid volumes, illustrating the char¬ 
 acter and teachings of the Church, have 
 been issued, foremost among which 
 are: Krauth: Conservative Reformation; 
 Sprecher: Groundwork of Lutheran Theol¬ 
 ogy ; Jacobs: Book of Concord; the transla¬ 
 tion of Schmid’s Dogmatik ; The Holman 
 Lectures on the Augsburg Confession ; Wal- 
 ther: Kirche und Amt , Evangelien-Postille 
 und Epistel-Postille ; and Seiss: Sermons on 
 the Epistles and Gospels of the Church Year. 
 
 Lutheranism has nowhere held to any 
 specific form of church government as di¬ 
 vinely prescribed, but it has always recog¬ 
 nized as scriptural the parity of ministers 
 and the congregation as the source of ec¬ 
 clesiastical power. The government that 
 has generally prevailed in the United States 
 is 4. blending of Congregational with Pres¬ 
 byterian features. Three judicatories 
 usually obtain: the council, cr vestry. 
 
Luz 
 
 ( 555 ) 
 
 Lyt 
 
 which administers the affairs of the indi¬ 
 vidual congregation; the district synod, to 
 which congregations have delegated certain 
 powers, and which are composed of the 
 ministers residing in a certain district and 
 a lay representative from each congrega¬ 
 tion; and the general body constituted of 
 an equal number of clergy and laity repre¬ 
 senting, according to a fixed ratio, the dif¬ 
 ferent synods, charged with the general 
 ecclesiastical and educational interests, and 
 giving authoritative decisions on cate¬ 
 chisms, hymnals, and liturgies. 
 
 The year books of 1889 give the follow¬ 
 ing statistical summary: 
 
 
 District 
 
 Synods. 
 
 Minis¬ 
 
 ters. 
 
 Church¬ 
 
 es. 
 
 Com¬ 
 
 muni¬ 
 
 cants. 
 
 Synodical Conference. 
 
 3 
 
 1286 
 
 1811 
 
 366,761 
 
 General Council. 
 
 10 
 
 1192 
 
 2053 
 
 306,871 
 
 General Synod... 
 
 23 
 
 979 
 
 1437 
 
 i5 I »4°4 
 
 United Synod. 
 
 8 
 
 201 
 
 385 
 
 36,000 
 
 Independent Synods. 
 
 IS 
 
 1305 
 
 2700 
 
 250,000 
 
 Without Synodical Conn. 
 
 
 83 
 
 IOO 
 
 17,000 
 
 Thirty-eight of the synods are either 
 wholly English, or English and German, 
 twelve are exclusively German, and ten are 
 Scandinavian, embracing respectively the 
 Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, 
 Finnish, and Lettic elements. 
 
 Literattire.—Hallesche Nachrichten (new 
 edition, Allentown, Penn., and Halle, 1881, 
 English edition, Reading, 1882), Lutheran 
 Quarterly , Lutheran Church Review , Evan¬ 
 gelical Review ; Mann: Henry Melchior 
 Muhlenburg (1887); Schaeffer: Early 
 History of the Lutheran Church (1857); 
 Schmucker: American Luth. Church (5th 
 ed., 1857); Bernheim: German Settle??ient, 
 etc., in the Carolinas (1872); Strobel: The 
 Salzburgers and their Descendants (1855); 
 Hazelius: Histoiy of the American Lutheran 
 Church (1846); Lintner: Early History of 
 the Lutheran Church in the State of New 
 York; Morris: Fifty Years in the Lutheran 
 Rlinistry (1878); Ac re li us: History of New 
 Sweden (translated by Reynolds); Sprague: 
 Annals of the American Pulpit ; Nicum: 
 Geschichte des Neza York Ministeriums 
 (1885); Proceedings 'of the Lutheran Diets 
 (187S, 1879); Wolf: The Lutherans in Azner- 
 ica (third edition, 1890). 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Luz, a Canaanite city near the site of 
 Bethel. (Gen. xxviii. 19.) After one of the 
 citizens had betrayed it to Israel, he went 
 into “ the land of the Hittites,” and built a 
 city of the same name. (Judg. i. 23, 26.) 
 
 Lycao'nia, a province in the south of 
 Asia Minor. It consists of an elevated 
 plateau surrounded by lofty mountains. 
 
 It was visited several times by St. Paul. 
 (Acts xiv. 1-23; xvii. 1-6; xvii. 23; xix. 1.) 
 
 Ly'cia, a province in the southwestern 
 part of Asia Minor, opposite the island of 
 Rhodes. Its two chief cities, Patara and 
 Myra, were visited by Paul. (Acts xxi. 1; 
 xxvii. 5.) Interesting specimens of coins 
 and ancient architecture have been found 
 in the ruins of these once prosperous 
 towns. 
 
 Lyd'da, now Ludd, nine miles from Jaffa 
 on the northern road from that place to 
 Jerusalem. Here St. Peter healed the 
 paralytic yEneas. (Acts ix. 33.) It was the 
 seat of a bishopric. According to tradition, 
 St. George, England’s patron saint, was 
 born and buried here. A church was built 
 here in his honor, the ruins of which still 
 remain. 
 
 Lyon, Mary, founder of Mount Holyoke 
 Female Seminary and College; b. in Buck- 
 land, Mass., Feb. 28, 1797; d. at South 
 Hadley, Mass., March 5, 1849. From 1824 
 to 1834 she taught in a ladies’ seminary, 
 first at Derry, N. H.,and then at Ipswich. 
 In the face of many discouragements she 
 planned the establishment of a female sem¬ 
 inary of a high order and a distinctively 
 Christian character. It was a part of the 
 plan that the expenses of the school should 
 be reduced by the cooperative services of 
 the pupils. The corner-stone of the first 
 building at South Hadley was laid in the 
 autumn of 1836. From its opening the 
 school prospered wonderfully under the 
 enthusiastic leadership of this noble and 
 large-minded Christian woman, whose in¬ 
 fluence left a deep impression on the minds 
 of the hundreds of pupils who were brought 
 under her influence. See her Life , by Ed¬ 
 ward Hitchcock (revised ed., N. Y., 1858). 
 
 Lysa'nias. See Abilene. 
 
 Lys'tra, a city of Lycaonia visited twice 
 by Paul. (Acts xiv.; xvi.) It is supposed 
 to have been the birthplace of Timothy. 
 (2 Tim. iii. 11.) 
 
 Lyte, Henry Francis, b. at Kelso, Ire¬ 
 land, June 1, 1793; d. at Nice, Nov. 20, 
 1847. He was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, and ordained in 1815. In 1823 he 
 became curate at Lower Brixham, Devon, 
 where he remained until his death. He 
 was an earnest and devoted minister, but 
 his fame rests upon his gifts as a hymn- 
 writer. His best-known hymn is “ Abide 
 with me, fast falls the eventide." This was 
 composed on the last Sunday evening that 
 he spent at Brixham, before starting on 
 

 Lyt ( 556 ) Mac 
 
 the journey for his health to Nice, where 
 he died. See Duffield: English Hymns , 
 p. 8 (New York, 1886). 
 
 Lyttleton, George, Lord, b. at Hagley, 
 Worcestershire, 1709; d. there, 1773. 
 Educated at Eton and Oxford; lord com¬ 
 missioner of the treasury, 1744; member 
 of the privy council, 1754; chancellor of 
 the exchequer, 1756. The chief work upon 
 which his fame rests is his Observations on 
 the Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul 
 (1747). It is based upon the proposition 
 that “ the conversion and apostleship of 
 St. Paul alone is of itself a demonstration 
 sufficient to prove the truth of Christian¬ 
 ity.” Johnson says.it is “ a treatise to 
 which infidelity has never been able to fab¬ 
 ricate a specious answer.” 
 
 M. 
 
 Mabillon ( mabeyon '), Jean, b. at St. 
 
 Pierremont, in the diocese of Rheims, Nov. 
 
 23, 1632; d. in Paris, Dec. 27, 1707. He 
 
 was a Benedictine monk, and entered the 
 
 congregation of St. Maur in 1653. In 1664 
 
 he became the assistant of D’Achery in 
 
 the abbey of St. Germain-des-Pres, at 
 
 Paris. His labors as a scholar bore fruit 
 
 in an edition of the works of St. Bernard, 
 
 published in 1666. Two years later the 
 
 first volume of The Acta Sanctorum Or- 
 
 dinis St. Benedicti appeared, in which he 
 
 gave a learned dissertation on the doctrine 
 
 and discipline of the order, extending over 
 
 the first five centuries of its history. He 
 
 wrote several controversial works, which 
 
 were standard in their day, and defended 
 
 the use of unleavened bread at the com- 
 
 / 
 
 munion. In his Traitt des Etudes Monas- 
 tiques (1691) he contends that study and 
 learning are a necessary element of monas¬ 
 tic life. 
 
 McAll Mission in Paris. The founder of 
 this remarkable mission, the Rev. R. W. 
 McAll, was formerly a Congregational 
 minister in England. While making, for 
 the first time, a brief visit to Paris in the 
 summer of 1871, he distributed, with the 
 aid of his wife, a few tracts in that part of 
 the city occupied by working - people. 
 Struck with the interest shown by those 
 they met in spiritual matters, they were 
 led to make arrangements that resulted in 
 the opening of a mission station in Janu¬ 
 ary, 1872. From that time the work has 
 developed in a remarkable way. The num¬ 
 ber of stations opened in Paris and other 
 places in 1889 was 120. Mr. McAll has 
 been generously aided by many friends. 
 
 Macarians, a sect of the Monothelites. 
 
 They received their name from their lead¬ 
 er, Macarius, bishop of Antioch, who de¬ 
 fended his views in the Second Council of 
 Constantinople (680). 
 
 Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem in 1312. 
 His piety and zeal are mentioned by The- 
 odoret and others. Arius refers to him as 
 one of his opponents, and it was during 
 his episcopate that St. Helena is said to 
 have discovered the cross. Constantine 
 in 326 commissioned him to erect a basilica 
 on the site of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Macarius of Alexandria, a famous her¬ 
 mit-priest of the fifth century. Five thou¬ 
 sand monks are said to have been trained 
 by him in the Nitrian desert. He is the 
 reputed author of the Rules of the Monks , 
 in thirty chapters, and suffered severe per¬ 
 secutions from the Arians. 
 
 MacArthur, Robert Stuart, D. D. 
 (University of Rochester, N. Y., 1880), 
 Baptist; b. at Dalesville, Quebec, Can., 
 Aug. 31, 1841; he was graduated at the 
 University of Rochester, N. Y., 1867, and 
 at the Rochester Theological Seminary, 
 N. Y., 1870; and since June of that year 
 has been pastor of Calvary Baptist Church, 
 New York City. He is the author of Cal¬ 
 vary Pulpit: Christ , and Him Crucified 
 (New York, 1889). 
 
 Macbride, John David, D. C. L., an 
 eminent Orientalist; b. in Norfolk, Eng., 
 1788; d. at Oxford, Jan. 24, 1868. He be¬ 
 came principal in 1813 of Magdalen Hall, 
 Oxford, and professor of Arabic in the 
 University. He prepared several volumes 
 of biblical exposition, and was the au¬ 
 thor of a Diatessaron, which for many 
 years was a university text-book at Ox¬ 
 ford. 
 
 Mac'cabees, “ a word of uncertain mean¬ 
 ing and origin. The founder of the Macca- 
 bean dynasty, Mattathias (Asamonaios, 
 Chashmonaj),apriest(not, asgenerally sup¬ 
 posed, a high-priest, nor even of the family 
 of high-priests), was the first who made a 
 stand against the persecutions of the Jew¬ 
 ish nation and creed by Antiochus Epiph- 
 anes. At the beginning of the troubles, 
 he had retired, together with his five sons, 
 Jochanan (Gaddes—Kaddish), Simon (Tassi 
 —Mathes), Jehudah (Makkabi), Eleazar 
 (Avaran — Syr. Chavin), Jonathan (Ap- 
 phus), to Modiin, a small place between 
 Jerusalem and Joppa, to mourn in solitude 
 over the desolation of the holy city and the 
 desecration of the temple. But the Syrians 
 pursued him thither. He being a person 
 of importance, Apelles, a Syrian captain, 
 
Mac 
 
 ( 557 ) 
 
 McC 
 
 endeavored to induce him, by tempting 
 promises, to relinquish his faith, and to 
 embrace the Greek religion. He answered 
 by slaying with his own hand the first 
 renegade Jew who approached the altar of 
 idolatry. This gave the sign to a sudden 
 outbreak. His sons, together with a hand¬ 
 ful of faithful men, rose against the nation¬ 
 al foe, destroyed all traces of heathen wor¬ 
 ship already established in Modiin and its 
 neighborhood, and fled into the wilderness 
 of Judah. Their number soon increased; 
 and not long after, they were able to make 
 descents into the adjacent villages and 
 cities, where they circumcised the children, 
 and restored everywhere the ancient relig¬ 
 ion of Jehovah. At the death of Matta- 
 thias (166 b. c. ), which took place a few 
 years after the outbreak, Judah Makkabi 
 (166-161 b. c.) took command of the pa¬ 
 triots, and repulsed the enemy, notwith¬ 
 standing his superior force, at Mizpah 
 (6,000 against 70,000), Bethsur (10,000 
 against 65,000), and other places, recon¬ 
 quered Jerusalem, purified the temple 
 (feast of reconsecration—Chanuka), and re¬ 
 inaugurated the holy service (164 b. c.). 
 Having further concluded an alliance with 
 the Romans, he fell in a battle against 
 Bacchides (161 B. c.). His brother Jona¬ 
 than, who succeeded him in the leadership, 
 renewed the Roman alliance, and, taking 
 advantage of certain disputes about the 
 Syrian throne, rendered vacant by the 
 death of Antiochus, acquired the dignity of 
 high-priest. But Tryphon, the guardian 
 of the young prince, Antiochus Theos, fear¬ 
 ing his influence, invited him to Ptolemais, 
 and had him there treacherously executed. 
 Simon, the second brother, was elected by 
 the Jewish commonwealth to assume the 
 reins of the national government, and was 
 formally recognized both by Demetrius, 
 Tryphon’s antagonist, and by the Romans 
 as ‘ chief and ruler of the Jews.’ He com¬ 
 pletely reestablished the independence of 
 the nation, and the year after his succes¬ 
 sion (141 b. c.) was made the starting-point 
 of a new era. The almost absolute power 
 in his hands he used with wise moderation; 
 justice and righteousness flourished in his 
 days, and ‘ Judah prospered as of old.’ 
 But not long (7 years) after his accession 
 to the supremacy, he was foully murdered 
 (136 b. c. ) by his own son-in-law, Ptolemy, 
 who vainly hoped to succeed him. For 
 the subsequent history of this family, see 
 Jews; Hyrcanus, and Herod. The feast 
 of the Maccabees— i.e. , both of the sons of 
 Mattathias, and of the seven martyr chil¬ 
 dren (2 Macc. vii.)—is found in the Roman 
 martyrology under the date of Aug 1.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See Histories of 
 Israel by Ewald and Stanley. 
 
 Maccabees, Books of. See Apocrypha. 
 
 McCheyne, Robert Murray, a devoted 
 Scotch pastor and evangelist; b. at Edin¬ 
 burgh, May 21, 1813; d. at Dundee, March 
 25, 1843. He early gained a reputation 
 for literary ability and scholarship. After 
 graduating from the Divinity Hall of the 
 University of Edinburgh, he was pastor of 
 the Established Church at Larbert for near¬ 
 ly two years, when he was called (1836) to 
 St. Peter’s Church, Dundee, where he re¬ 
 mained until his death. In 1838, suffering 
 from ill-health, he undertook, with friends, 
 a mission of inquiry among the Jews in 
 Palestine and on the Continent, which re¬ 
 sulted in a great increase of general inter¬ 
 est in the subject. Returning home, he 
 found his church enjoying a remarkable 
 revival under the labors of William Burns, 
 afterward missionary to China. This work 
 continued in great power until the close of 
 McCheyne’s life, and he was able to make 
 visits to Ireland and different places in 
 Scotland, that were followed by many con¬ 
 versions. His Memoir and Remains, pre¬ 
 pared by his friend, Andrew Bonar, have 
 had a wide circulation, and been the means 
 of much good. 
 
 McClintock, John, D. D., LL. D., an em¬ 
 inent Methodist preacher, educator, and 
 writer; b. in Philadelphia, Oct. 27, 1814; d. 
 at Madison, N. J., March 4, 1870. He was 
 graduated at the University of Pennsylva¬ 
 nia in 1835, and thenconnected himself with 
 the Philadelphia Conference of the M. E. 
 Church. He was professor at Dickinson 
 College, 1836-48. From 1848-56 he edited 
 the Methodist Quarterly Review; pastor of 
 St. Paul’s Church, New York City, 1857— 
 60; pastor, 1860-64, of the American 
 Chapel in Paris. On his return to this 
 country in 1864 he was recalled to St. 
 Paul’s, but resigned at the close of the 
 year on account of ill-health. In 1867 he 
 was elected president of the Drew The¬ 
 ological Seminary, where he remained un¬ 
 til his death. Dr. McClintock was eminent 
 as a scholar, and as early as 1853, in con¬ 
 nection with Dr. Strong, began the com¬ 
 pilation of the great Cyclopcedia of Biblical, 
 Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature, 
 which was the most prominent literary 
 work with which his name is connected. 
 See Life and Letters of Rev. John McClin¬ 
 tock, by Rev. George R. Crooks, D. D. 
 (N. Y. 1876). 
 
 McCook, Henry Christopher, D. D. 
 (Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., 1880), 
 Presbyterian; b. at New Lisbon, O., July 
 3, 1837; was graduated at Jefferson Col¬ 
 lege, Canonsburg, Pa., 1859, an< ^ at fh e 
 
McC 
 
 ( 558 ) 
 
 Mac 
 
 Western Theological Seminary, Alleghe¬ 
 ny, Pa., 1861. Since 1870 has been pas¬ 
 tor of the Tabernacle Presbyterian Church, 
 Philadelphia. He has gained a wide 
 recognition as a student of natural sci¬ 
 ence, and has published many interest¬ 
 ing papers on the habits of American ants 
 and spiders. He is the author of: The 
 Last Year of Christ's Ministry (1871); The 
 Women Friends of Jesus (1885); The Gospel 
 ,in Nature , and other works. 
 
 McCosh, James, S. T. D. (Brown Uni¬ 
 versity, 1868); LL. D. (Harvard Univer¬ 
 sity, 186S), Presbyterian; b. at Carskeoch, 
 Banks of the Doon, Ayrshire, Scotland, 
 April 1, 1811. He was educated at the 
 Universities of Glasgow (1824-29) and 
 Edinburgh (1829-34), and was ordained 
 minister at Arbroath, Scotland, in 1835. 
 From 1839 to 1851 he was pastor at Brech¬ 
 in, when he was appointed professor of 
 logic and metaphysics in Queen’s College, 
 Belfast, Ireland. In 1868 he became pres¬ 
 ident of the College of New Jersey, at 
 Princeton. During his connection with 
 this institution for twenty years, its re¬ 
 sources were greatly increased. Dr. Mc¬ 
 Cosh has been a prolific writer. Among 
 his works are: The Method of the Divuie 
 Gover 7 iment } Physical and Moral (1856); 
 The Laws of Discursive Thought , being 
 a Treatise on Formal Logic (1869); The 
 Scottish Philosophy , etc. (1874) ; The 
 Emotions (1880), completed in 1886; the 
 “ Philosophical Series ” Gospel Sermons 
 (1888) ; First and Fundamental Truths 
 (1889). 
 
 McCrie, Thomas, D.D., a Scottish divine 
 and historian; b. at Dunse, 1772; d. at 
 Edinburgh, Aug. 5, 1835. Educated at the 
 University of Edinburgh, he was ordained 
 minister of an Anti-Burgher Church in that 
 city in 1796. After a pastorate of ten years, 
 this relation was severed on account of a 
 difference which had arisen on some civil 
 subjects, and he united with a few other 
 ministers in forming what was called “ The 
 Constitutional Presbytery.” His great 
 work was the Life of John Knox, which at 
 once took rank as a masterpiece in bio¬ 
 graphical literature. His contributions to 
 the ecclesiastical history of Scotland were 
 numerous and valuable. 
 
 Macedonia, the country between Thrace 
 on the east, and Illyria on the west. Here 
 Christianity was first received. It was 
 probably visited three times by Paul, who 
 founded the churches at Thessalonica and 
 Philippi. (Acts xvi. 10-xvii. 15; xx. 1-6; 
 
 1 Tim. i. 3.) It is famous as the kingdom 
 of Philip and Alexander the Great. 
 
 Macedonius, the reputed founder of the 
 Macedonian sect of heretics, was raised to 
 the bishopric of Constantinople, A. D. 342, 
 by the Arians, in opposition to Paul, whom 
 the Athanasian party had canonically 
 elected. A great disturbance was caused 
 in the city by the quarrels of the rival 
 bishops, and a party of soldiers was sent 
 by Constantius to restore order; but the 
 excited mob set fire to the house of Her- 
 mogenes, the commander, dragged him 
 forth, and killed him. The rivalry lasted 
 for nine years, during which time Paul and 
 Macedonius were in alternate possession of 
 the see; but in a. d. 351 it was terminated 
 by the murder of Paul in Armenia. Freed 
 from his rival, Macedonius began to act 
 with great violence to all who opposed 
 him, fining, banishing, branding, and even 
 putting to death. The emperor’s displeas¬ 
 ure, aroused by these proceedings, was in¬ 
 creased by his removing, without permis¬ 
 sion, the body of Constantine the Great 
 from the church where it had been buried 
 to a newer one. The removal led to serious 
 riots in the city, and Macedonius was de¬ 
 prived of his bishopric on charges of mis¬ 
 conduct. He then joined the Semi-Arians, 
 and gave his name to a new sect which 
 sprang out of these, though his share in 
 its foundation is uncertain. He died soon 
 after. The Macedonians allowed the Di¬ 
 vinity of the Son, but denied that of 
 the Holy Ghost. They were not agreed 
 among themselves whether the Holy Ghost 
 was a creature or an influence. The spread 
 of Macedonianism led to the meeting of the 
 Council of Constantinople, A. d. 381, at 
 which the heresy was condemned, and the 
 Nicene Creed brought to its present form 
 by the addition of the clauses following 
 “ I believe in the Holy Ghost ” (except the 
 “ Filioque ” clause). — Benham: Diet, of 
 
 Religio 7 i. 
 
 Mach'pelah, the spot containing the 
 wooded field, at Hebron,in the end of which 
 was the cave which Abraham purchased 
 from the Bene-Heth, and which became 
 the burial-place of Sarah,Abraham himself, 
 Isaac, Rebekah, Leah, and Jacob. Its po¬ 
 sition is—with one exception uniformly— 
 specified as “ facing Mamre.” (Gen. xxiii. 
 17, 19; xxv. 9; xlix. 30; 1 . 13.) The cave 
 is surrounded by a wall a hundred and 
 ninety-four feet long and fifty-eight feet 
 high. The blocks with which it is built 
 are very large. Within the enclosure is a 
 Mohammedan mosque, from which stran¬ 
 gers are rigidly excluded. In 1862, by 
 special permission of the Sultan, the Prince 
 of Wales, accompanied by Dean Stanley, 
 was admitted, and since that time a few 
 other distinguished persons have been al- 
 
Mcl 
 
 ( 559 ) 
 
 Mad 
 
 lowed to enter the mosque. The cave it¬ 
 self, according to tradition, has not been 
 entered in 600 years. The Moslems be¬ 
 lieve that any one attempting to do so 
 would be struck dead. 
 
 Mcllvaine, Charles Pettit, D. D., a 
 distinguished bishop of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church; b. in Burlington, N. J., 
 June 18, 1799; d. at Florence, Italy, March 
 14, 1873. He was graduated at Princeton, 
 1816, and was minister of Christ Church, 
 Georgetown, D. C., 1820-25; chaplain of 
 West Point Military Academy, 1825-27; 
 pastor St. Ann’s Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 1827-32; bishop of the diocese of Ohio, 
 1832-73. Bishop Mcllvaine was a man of 
 commanding presence, an eloquent preach¬ 
 er, successful as an administrator, devoted 
 to the service of Christ, and beloved in all 
 the relations of life. Among his published 
 works are: Evidences of Christianity (1831); 
 The Truth and Life (1854) ; Preaching 
 Christ Crucified (1863). See Memorials of 
 Mcllvaine , by Canon Carus, Winchester, 
 Eng. (N. Y., 1882). 
 
 McKendree, William, bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church; b. in King 
 William County, Va., July 6, 1757; d. near 
 Nashville, Tenn., March 5, 1835. He was 
 a soldier in the Revolution. After his con¬ 
 version in 1787, he united with the Metho¬ 
 dist Church and became an itinerant preach¬ 
 er in the following year. He was promoted 
 to positions of influence, and elected bishop 
 in 1808. He had much to do in laying the 
 foundations of Methodism in the West, and 
 was greatly esteemed for his ability, and 
 beloved for his noble and saintly character. 
 
 Mackenzie, Charles Frederick, a mis¬ 
 sionary of the Church of England; b. at 
 Portmore, Peeblesshire, April 10, 1825; d. 
 Jan. 31, 1862, of fever, in Africa. He was 
 graduated with honor at Cambridge, and in 
 1855 went, with Bishop Colenso, to Natal, 
 as archdeacon of Pieter-Maritzburg. He 
 returned to England in 1859, an d did much 
 to arouse interest in the work of missions 
 in Africa. In 1861 he was consecrated the 
 first bi-shop of the Universities’ Mission to 
 Africa, his diocese covering territory bor¬ 
 dering on Lake Nyanza. His early death 
 was the occasion of great sorrow. See 
 Memoir of Bishop Mackenzie , by Dean 
 Goodwin (Cambridge, 1864). 
 
 MacKnight, James, D. D., an eminent 
 Scotch divine; b. at Irvine, Argyleshire, 
 Sept. 17, 1721; d. at Edinburgh, Jan. 13, 
 1800. He studied at Glasgow and Leyden, 
 and in 1753 became pastor of Maybole, Ayr¬ 
 shire; Jedburgh, 1769-72; Edinburgh, 1772 
 
 until his death. He was an able scholar and 
 faithful minister. His principal works are 
 a Harmony of the Gospels , which has passed 
 through many editions; The Trtith of Gos¬ 
 pel History , and A New Translation of the 
 Apostolical Epistles , with a Commentary and 
 Notes. 
 
 Macleod ( mak-lowd ), Norman, D. D., a 
 distinguished minister of the Church of 
 Scotland,and the first editor of Good Words, 
 was b. at Campbelton, Argyleshire, June 3, 
 1812; d. at Glasgow, June 16, 1872. He 
 studied theology at Edinburgh under Dr. 
 Chalmers, and after a ministry of thirteen 
 years, first at London and then at Dalketh, 
 he was called, in 1851, to take charge of 
 the Barony parish in Glasgow. In this 
 prominent position heexertedawide-spread 
 influence. He organized and guided the 
 activities of his parish with great ability, 
 and at the same time accomplished a large 
 amount of literary work. In addition to 
 his labors as the editor of Good Words, he 
 wrote: The Earnest Student; The Old lieu¬ 
 tenant and his Son ; The Gold Thread; Char¬ 
 acter Sketches', The Starling; Eastward: 
 Peeps at the Far East, and the exquisite 
 story of Wee Davie. He was a trusted 
 friend of the queen, and for many years 
 her chaplain for Scotland. From 1864 until 
 the year of his death he was chairman of 
 the committee on missions in his church, 
 and visited India in the interests of this 
 work. Few men in his generation were 
 more widely known and beloved. See Me¬ 
 moir of Nor?Jian Macleod, D. D., by his 
 brother, the Rev. Donald Macleod. 
 
 McTyeire, Holland Nimmons, D. D., 
 bishop of the M. E. Church, South; b. in 
 Barnwell County, S. C., July 28, 1824; d. 
 at Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1889. He 
 was graduated at Randolph-Macon College, 
 Va., 1844; in the pastorate until 1851, 
 when he was elected editor of the New 
 Orleans Christian Advocate, and of the 
 Nashville Christian Advocate in 1858. In 
 1866 he was elected to the episcopate, and 
 in 1872 was made president of the board of 
 trustees of Vanderbilt University. He is 
 the author of: Duties of Christian Masters, 
 a prize essay (Nashville, 1851); Catechism 
 on Church Government (1869); Catechism on 
 Bible History (1869); Manual of Discipline 
 (1870); History of Methodisi?i (1884). 
 
 Madagascar. Christian missions were 
 established in Madagascar in 1818 by 
 Messrs. Jones and Bevan, of the London 
 Missionary Society. Radama, who was 
 king at the time, gave them every encour¬ 
 agement. At his death, in 1828, this con¬ 
 dition of affairs changed, upon the crown- 
 
Mad 
 
 ( 56o ) 
 
 Mak 
 
 ing of one of his wives, who compelled the 
 missionaries to leave the country. The 
 last missionary left in 1836, and from this 
 time until 1857 the native Christians suf¬ 
 fered the most cruel persecutions ; but 
 they were loyal to Christ, even unto 
 death. Some were sold into slavery, oth¬ 
 ers were killed while kneeling in prayer, 
 or, bound hand and foot, were thrown 
 from a high precipice. In the last perse¬ 
 cution, in 1857, two hundred were executed. 
 The number of Christians increased, in 
 spite of this opposition. Radama II., who 
 succeeded the queen, favored Christians, 
 and the missionaries again visited the 
 country. The London Society in 1882 had 
 71,585 communicants connected with their 
 churches. In 1867 the Friends established 
 a mission, with which, in 1881, 3,250 mem¬ 
 bers, and 26,000 Christians were connected. 
 The Norwegian Missionary Society in 1880 
 had 1,200 communicants in its missions. 
 
 Madonna, an Italian word signifying 
 “ my lady.” It corresponds to the Eng¬ 
 lish “ madam,” but is especially applied 
 to the Virgin Mary, and to her pictures 
 and statues. 
 
 Magarita, a name sometimes given in 
 tho Middle Ages to apostates from the 
 Christian faith, especially those who be¬ 
 came Mohammedans. 
 
 Mag'dala ( toxver ), the town from whence 
 Mary Magdalene came, was probably the 
 place now known as el-Mejdel, on the west 
 shore of the Lake of Galilee. The word 
 “ Magdala ” occurs only once in the textus 
 receptus of the New Testament. (Matt. xv. 
 39 -) 
 
 Magdalen, Order of. During the lat¬ 
 ter part of the Middle Ages several asso¬ 
 ciations of women, under the patronage of 
 St. Mary Magdalene, sprang up in differ¬ 
 ent parts of Europe, having for their pur¬ 
 pose the conversion of prostitutes. As 
 early as the middle of the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury, the popes, Gregory IX. and Innocent 
 IV., confirmed such female associations 
 in Germany. Similar institutions were 
 founded at Marseilles (1272); at Naples 
 (1324); at Paris (1492); in Rome (1520), 
 etc. The associations were divided into 
 three classes: (1) The order of St. Mary 
 Magdalene, in which the members lived 
 under a vow and severe rules; (2) the 
 order of St. Martha, in which the mem¬ 
 bers made no vow, and were permitted to 
 return to the world, and marry; (3) the 
 order of St. Lazarus, in which the mem¬ 
 bers were kept by force, to redeem them 
 from vice. 
 
 Magi, the priestly caste of the moun¬ 
 tain regions of Armenia, who gave their 
 name to a branch of the Parsees ( q. v.). 
 According to the ancients, the Magi were 
 of three classes: The first devoted them¬ 
 selves to the study of nature, the second 
 professed to cure diseases by means of 
 charms and incantations, and the third 
 were the invokers of spirits. The wise 
 men who came from the East to worship 
 Christ at his nativity were Magi, and are 
 said by tradition to have been descendants 
 of Abraham.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Magnificat, thesongof the Virgin Mary, 
 so called from the opening words of the 
 Vulgate: Magnificat anima mea Dominion, 
 “My soul magnifies the Lord.” (Luke i. 
 46.) It was prescribed in the rules of 
 Csesarius of Arles about 506, and its use is 
 retained in the services of Reformed 
 churches. 
 
 Ma gog. See Gog and Magog. 
 
 Mahana'im ( two camps ), a town named 
 by Jacob (Gen. xxxii. 1, 2), given to the 
 Levites (Josh. xiii. 26, 30; xxi. 38; 1 Chron. 
 vi. 80), and located in the territory of Gad, 
 near the river Jabbok. Here Ish-bosheth 
 dwelt (2 Sam. ii. 8, 12), and David found 
 refuge in his flight from Absalom (xvii. 24, 
 27; 1 Kings ii. 8). The place has not yet 
 been identified with certainty. 
 
 Mahomet. See Mohammed. 
 
 Maimonides (mi-mon'-e-dez), Moses, one 
 of the most celebrated of Jewish rabbis; b. 
 at Cordova, March 30, 1135; d. 1204. His 
 learning and ability were so great the say¬ 
 ing became common—“ From Moses to 
 Moses no one has arisen like Moses.” He 
 was the first to arrange in order the Jewish 
 traditions, and the discussions that had 
 arisen from them. His great works are a 
 Commentary on the Mishna and the Mishna 
 Thora. His views aroused a great conflict 
 of opinions, but in time the fame of Mai¬ 
 monides became preeminent. Portions of 
 his works have been translated into Eng¬ 
 lish. 
 
 Makemie, Francis, the founder of the 
 Presbyterian Church in the United States; 
 b. near Rathmelton, Donegal County, Ire¬ 
 land (date unknown); d. in Accomac 
 County, Va., 1708. He was licensed to 
 preach in 1681, and first went to Barbadoes, 
 and then to Maryland, where he organized 
 the first Presbyterian Church in the United 
 States at Snow Hill. He made evangelistic 
 tours through Virginia and South Carolina, 
 and in 1704 visited England, and secured 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 561 ) 
 
 Mai 
 
 John Hampton and George Macnish as 
 missionary helpers. While in London, he 
 published: A Plain and Loving Persuasion 
 to the Inhabitants of Virginia and Maryland 
 for Promoting Towns and Cohabitation. In 
 1707, while preaching in the neighborhood 
 of New York, he was seized at Newtown, 
 L. I., by order of Lord Cornbury, and put 
 in prison for preaching without a proper 
 license. Upon his acquittal he was com¬ 
 pelled to pay the cost of his trial (eighty 
 pounds). Besides a Catechism (now lost), 
 he published An Answer to George Keith's 
 Libel on the Catechism, published by F. 
 Makemie (Boston, 1692). See Sprague: 
 Annals , vol. iii.; and Gillett: History of the 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Malachi. “ Of the author of this book 
 nothing is known, and as the name, which 
 means Messenger of Jehovah, does not oc¬ 
 cur anywhere else in the Old Testament, 
 it has been regarded and accepted in some 
 versions of the Bible, and by several crit¬ 
 ics, as an appellative or official title of, as 
 is surmised, Ezra, Nehemiah, or some 
 other person. Whether Malachi be tne 
 name of a real person or not, his prophe¬ 
 cies refer tp abuses which did not begin to 
 make their appearance till fifty years after 
 the restoration of the temple; and it must 
 have been some considerable time after 
 that before they assumed the dimensions 
 in which the prophet here denounces them. 
 These abuses appear to have come to a 
 head in the interval between the first and 
 second visits of Nehemiah to Jerusalem, 
 and it is probable, from his description of 
 the people agreeing with that of Neh. xiii. 
 6 sec/., that it was on the occasion of this 
 second visit that this ‘ last of the prophets.’ 
 uttered his warning words, about 420 b. c. 
 The last of the prophets, indeed; for not 
 only do we miss the old prophetic fire, but 
 ail impression is given as if the prophetic 
 office were ended. He sums up all he has 
 to say by referring his hearers back to the 
 law of the Lord, as that to which all the 
 prophets before him had borne witness, and 
 finishes by a prediction of the time, now 
 not far off,when the first of his line—Elijah 
 —should revive and usher in the judgment 
 which is to precede the final redemption 
 and the reconciliation of ‘ the fathers to the 
 children and the children to the fathers.’ 
 
 “ Divisions of the book. —The prophecy is 
 one, but the sections are three:— (a) chaps. 
 1. 6—ii. 9; (b) chap. ii. 10-16; and (r) chaps, 
 u. 17-iv., the whole preceded by an Intro¬ 
 duction, chap. i. 1-5. 
 
 Contents. —The Introduction reminds 
 the people of the special regard the Lord has 
 for them, {a) Chap. i. 6-14 rebukes the 
 priests for their profanation of the Lord’s 
 
 name, their pollution of his altar, and their 
 hireling spirit, in consideration of which 
 God threatens to cast then} off and accept 
 the homage of the Gentiles. Chap. ii. 1-9 
 rebukes the priests for their want of rev¬ 
 erence of God’s name and regard for his 
 law. ( b) Chap. ii. 10-16 rebukes both 
 priest and people for their intermarriages 
 with the idolatrous aliens. ( c ) Chaps, ii. 
 17-iv., while rebuking the people for their 
 skeptical morality and their scoffing spirit, 
 reassert the certain approach of God’s 
 judgment, with the promise to all who obey 
 his voice and wait for his salvation.”—Bag- 
 ster: Bible Helps. See Pusey: Com. on Mi¬ 
 nor Prophets, vol. ii.; Packard in American 
 series of Lange (1875). 
 
 Malachy, St., the first Irish saint canon¬ 
 ized by the pope; b. 1095; d. 1148. He 
 was efficient in bringing the Irish Church 
 under the authority of Rome, and in 1134 
 became archbishop of Armagh. He died 
 at Clairvaux in the arms of his intimate 
 friend, St. Bernard, who wrote his funeral 
 panegyric. He was long the reputed au¬ 
 thor of the so-called Prophecies of Si. Mal¬ 
 achy Concerning the Popes, but the forgery 
 was uncovered by the Jesuit, Menestrier 
 (1686). 
 
 Malakanes, a sect which originated in 
 southern Russia about the middle of the 
 last century. Contrary to the rule of the 
 Eastern Church, they take milk on fast- 
 days, and the name by which they are gen¬ 
 erally known is a term of reproach, from 
 the word Malkado, “ milk.” They prefer 
 to be called Gospelmen. They accept the 
 Bible as the Word of God, and hold ortho¬ 
 dox views of theology. The worship of 
 saints and images is forbidden, and they 
 enjoin a strict observance of the Lord’s day. 
 They believe in the millennium, and in 1833 
 many of them were misled by the announce¬ 
 ment of a fanatic, named Belioreff, that' 
 within thirty months Christ would appear. 
 Belioreff prophesied that, like Elijah, he 
 should ascend to heaven. Multitudes gath¬ 
 ered at the appointed time, only to witness, 
 the discomfiture of the crazy fanatic, who 
 was seized by the police. To avoid perse¬ 
 cution, many of the sect emigrated to 
 Georgia, Asia. See Blunt: Dictionary of 
 Sects. 
 
 Malan {malon'), Cesar Henri Abraham, 
 b. at Geneva, Switzerland, July 7, 1787; d. 
 there, May 18, 1864. He studied theology 
 in his native city, and was ordained in 1810. 
 The beginning of a distinct spiritual ex¬ 
 perience in 1817 led him to disobey the or¬ 
 ders, that had been given by the association 
 of ministers with which he was connected, 
 
Mai 
 
 ( 562 ) 
 
 Man 
 
 and who were in sympathy with rational¬ 
 istic views, that debatable doctrines should 
 not be preached. The pulpits of Geneva 
 were closed against him, but he gathered 
 a little company of adherents, who first 
 worshiped in his own house, and after¬ 
 ward in a small chapel which he built. 
 After 1830 he made long evangelistic tours 
 in parts of Switzerland, Germany, France, 
 the Netherlands, and Scotland, in which 
 his labors were greatly blessed. He wrote 
 many works of a religious character, one 
 of the best known being Chants de Sion, a 
 collection of hymns often reprinted. His 
 Life was written by one of his sons (1868). 
 
 Malay Archipelago, or Indian Archi¬ 
 pelago. Besides the native religions, which 
 hold to a rude sort of nature-worship, Mo¬ 
 hammedanism and Buddhism have many 
 adherents. Early in the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury these islands came under the control 
 of the Dutch, who still hold them. Almost 
 coercive attempts were early made by them 
 to secure converts to the Reformed faith. 
 All were received who could prove that 
 they knew the Lord’s Prayer and the Ten 
 Commandments. This kind of perfunctory 
 confession did little good, and in time the 
 Dutch authorities were inclined to favor 
 Mohammedanism. In Java, with a popula¬ 
 tion of 18,000,000, there are only about 
 4,000 converts. The Minahassa Mission on 
 Celebes since 1826 has prosecuted a work 
 that has gathered 80,000 of the natives in 
 200 congregations. In Borneo the Rhen¬ 
 ish Society began work in 1859. Seven of 
 the missionaries were killed. There are 
 now over 500 converts on the island. The 
 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 
 has a mission in the northwest part of the 
 island, with some 1,500 native and Chinese 
 converts. On Sumatra the' Rhenish So¬ 
 ciety has a flourishing work, with some 
 5,000 native converts. 
 
 Malcom, Howard, D. D., b. in Phila¬ 
 delphia, Jan. 19, 1799; d. there, March 25, 
 1879. He was graduated at Dickinson 
 College, Penn., and Princeton Seminary. 
 After laboring as a pastor of Baptist 
 churches in Hudson, N. Y., Boston, and 
 Philadelphia, he was president of George¬ 
 town (Ky.) College, 1840-49, and of Lew- 
 isburg (Penn.) University, 1851-57, when 
 he retired, and devoted himself to literary 
 pursuits. He was one of the founders of 
 the American Tract Society, and of the 
 American Sunday-school Union. Among 
 other books, he edited a Dictionary of the 
 Bible (1826, new ed., 1851), of which more 
 than 130,000 have been sold; The Extent 
 and Efficacy of the Atonement (1829); Trav¬ 
 els, in Southeastern Asia, 2 vols. (10th ed., 
 
 Phila., 1837); and Theological Index ( Phila., 
 1870). 
 
 Malebranche, Nicolas, a famous French 
 philosopher, and one of the most prom¬ 
 inent of the disciples of Cartesius; b. in 
 Paris, Aug. 6, 1638; d. there, Oct. 13, 1715. 
 The principal exposition of his views is 
 found in his first work, De la Recherche de 
 la Verite' (Paris, 1674). “ He adopted the 
 
 absolute distinction which Cartesius made 
 between spirit and matter, soul and body. 
 But the relation between these two oppo¬ 
 sites, which Cartesius left unexplained, or 
 only vaguely explained by postulating a 
 perpetual divine mediation between them, 
 Malebranche made the subject of his deep¬ 
 est meditation ; and, hence, resulted his 
 peculiar doctrine: That events taking place 
 in the one sphere occasioned God to effect 
 corresponding readjustments in the other, 
 so that nothing could be truly understood 
 unless ‘ seen in God.’ ”—Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency. ,vol. ii., p. 1392. Among other works, 
 he wrote De la Nature et la Grace, which 
 developed a system of mystic idealism that 
 was opposed by Bossuet, Arnauld, and 
 others. His life was marked by great 
 piety and devotion. 
 
 Mammon (Matt. vi. 24; Luke xvi. 9), a 
 word which often occurs in the Chaldee 
 Targums of Onkelos and later writers, and 
 in the Syriac Version, and which signifies 
 “ riches.” It is used in St. Matthew as a 
 personification of riches. 
 
 Mam're, a place near Hebron, so-called 
 from an Amorite chief. (Gen. xiv. 13, 24.) 
 It was also the name of the plain and 
 grove where Abraham entertained three 
 angels (Gen. xiii. 18; xviii. 1), near Mach- 
 pelah. (Gen. xxiii. 17, 19.) The Palestine 
 Exploration Fund locates Mamre at Ballot et 
 Selta, the “ oak of rest.” The tree is called 
 Abraham’s Oak. 
 
 Manas'seh, son and successor of Heze- 
 kiah, king of Judah. He ascended the 
 throne at the age of twelve years (b. c. 
 696). His reign in its early period was 
 marked by deeds of impiety and cruelty 
 (2 Kings xxi.), and his influence sided with 
 the party that carried their opposition to 
 the worship of Jehovah to such an extent 
 that it was not permitted in Judah. He 
 supported the Babylonian viceroy in his 
 revolt against Assyria, and was finally 
 taken captive by the Assyrian king, and 
 carried to Babylon as a prisoner. Under 
 the discipline of trial, he sought in repent¬ 
 ance the favor of God. His prayer was 
 answered, and after his release and return 
 to Jerusalem, he cleansed the city of idol- 
 
Man 
 
 ( 563 ) 
 
 Man 
 
 atry, and restored the worship of Jehovah. 
 {2 Chron. xxxiii. 1-20.) 
 
 Manasseh, Prayer of. See Apoc¬ 
 rypha. 
 
 Manasseh, Tribe of. See Tribes of 
 Israel. 
 
 Mandaeans. See Mend.eans. 
 
 Mandrake, a member of the potato fam¬ 
 ily {mandrag-ora officinalis ). It is a stem¬ 
 less plant, with leaves nearly as long, but 
 not as wide, as the common garden rhu¬ 
 barb. The rich purple blossoms, which 
 appear early, are followed about wheat- 
 harvest by yellow, pulpy fruit of the size 
 of a large plum. The odor is enjoyed by 
 the natives (Cant. vii. 13), but is usually 
 very disagreeable to foreigners. Among 
 other superstitions connected with this 
 plant, the Orientals, as in Rachel’s time, 
 believe that conception is insured by eating 
 the fruit. (Gen. xxx. 14-16.) 
 
 Mandyas, an ecclesiastical vestment 
 worn by Greek monks, and sometimes by 
 bishops. It resembles the cope, and reaches 
 almost to the feet. 
 
 Manetho, a celebrated Egyptian historian 
 and priest, who flourished in the third 
 century b. c. Only fragments of his works 
 have been preserved in Josephus, Julius 
 Africanus, and Eusebius. Manetho’s list 
 of dynasties, covering some thirty-five hun¬ 
 dred years, was at one time disputed by 
 Egyptologists, but recent discoveries have 
 confirmed their correctness. 
 
 Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, 
 sprang from a distinguished Persian fam¬ 
 ily, which settled at Ctesiphon, in Baby¬ 
 lonia, and was b. at Mardinu in 215 A. D. His 
 father, about the time of the birth of his 
 son, retired from public life, and connected 
 himself with the Mughtasilahs, or Baptiz- 
 ers, a religious sect which then flourished 
 on the Lower Tigris, and were the fore¬ 
 runners of the Manichaeans. Mani was 
 educated among this sect, but separated 
 from them in his thirteenth year, and then 
 adopted the ascetic rules, which he after¬ 
 ward prescribed for the Perfect among his 
 followers. His system was completed in 
 his twenty-fourth year, and four years 
 later he proclaimed himself as the founder 
 of anew religion. (See Manichaeans.) Mani 
 did not gain the favor of the king, and for 
 many years he labored outside the Persian 
 Empire. He returned for a little time to 
 Persia, but was again and again exiled, 
 and in 276 was seized and crucified. 
 
 Manichae'ans, “a religious sect, founded 
 by Mani, which, although it utterly dis¬ 
 claimed being denominated Christian, yet 
 was reckoned among the heretical bodies 
 of the Church. It was intended to blend 
 the chief dogmas of Parseeism, or rather 
 Magism, as reformed by Zoroaster, with a 
 certain number of Buddhistic views, under 
 the outward garb of biblical, more especial¬ 
 ly New Testament, history, which, ex¬ 
 plained allegorically and symbolically, was 
 made to represent an entire new religious 
 system, and one entirely at variance with 
 Christianity and its fundamental teachings. 
 The Manichaeans assumed, above all, two 
 chief principles, whence had sprung all 
 visible and invisible creation, and which— 
 totally antagonistic in their natures—were 
 respectively styled the Light, the Good, or 
 God, and the Darkness, the Bad, Matter, 
 or Archon. They each inhabited a region 
 akin to their natures, and excluding each 
 other to such a degree that the region of 
 darkness and its leader never knew of the 
 existence of that of the light. Twelve 
 aeons—corresponding to the twelve signs 
 of the zodiac and the twelve stages of the 
 world—had sprung (emanated) from the 
 primeval light; while ‘darkness,’ filled with 
 the eternal fire, which burned but shone 
 not, was peopled by ‘ demons,’ who were 
 constantly fighting among themselves. In 
 one of these contests, pressing toward the 
 outer edge, as it were, of their region, 
 they became aware of the neighboring re¬ 
 gion, and forthwith united, attacked it, and 
 succeeded in carrying the ray of light, that 
 was sent against them at the head of the 
 hosts of light, and which was the embodi¬ 
 ment of the ideal or primeval man (Christ), 
 captive. A stronger aeon, however (the 
 Holy Ghost), hurried to the rescue, and 
 redeemed the greater and better part of the 
 captive light (Jesus impatibilis). The 
 smaller and fainter portion, however (Jesus 
 passibilis), remained in the hands of the 
 powers of darkness, and out of this they 
 formed,after the ideal of The Man of Light , 
 mortal man. But even the small fraction 
 of light left in him (broken in two souls) 
 would have prevailed against them, had 
 they not found means to further divide 
 and subdivide it by the propagation of this 
 man (Eve—sin). Not yet satisfied, they 
 still more dimmed it by burying it under 
 dark ‘ forms of belief and faith, such as pa¬ 
 ganism and Judaism.’ Once more, how¬ 
 ever, the original light came to save the 
 light buried in man, in the person of 
 Christ, descending from the sun,with which 
 he is one. The demons succeeded, how¬ 
 ever, in cutting his career of salvation 
 short by seducing man to crucify him. His 
 sufferings and death were naturally only 
 
Man 
 
 ( 564 ) 
 
 Man 
 
 fictitious, since he could not in reality die; 
 he only allowed himself to become an 
 example of endurance and passive pain for 
 his own, the souls of light. Since, how¬ 
 ever, even his immediate adherents, the 
 apostles, were not strong enough to suffer 
 as he had bid them, he promised them a 
 paraclete, who should complete his own 
 work. This paraclete was Mani, who sur¬ 
 rounded himself, like Christ, with twelve 
 apostles, and sent them into the world to 
 teach and to preach his doctrine of salva¬ 
 tion. The end of the ‘ world ’ will be fire, 
 in which the region of darkness will be 
 consumed and utterly annihilated. To at¬ 
 tain to the region of eternal light, it is nec¬ 
 essary that passion, or rather the body, 
 should be utterly subdued; hence rigor¬ 
 ous abstinence from all sensual pleasures, 
 asceticism, in fact, to the utmost degree, 
 is to be exercised. The believers are di¬ 
 vided into two classes, the elect and the 
 auditors. The elect have to adhere to the 
 Signaculum, Oris, Manus, and Sinus, that 
 is, they have to take the oath of abstinence 
 from evil and profane speech (including 
 ‘ religious terms such as Christians use 
 respecting the Godhead and religion ’), 
 further, from flesh, eggs, milk, fish, wine, 
 and all intoxicating drinks (cf. Manu: Instit. 
 vv. 51, 52, 53: ‘ He who makes the flesh 
 of an animal his food .... not a mortal 
 exists more sinful .... he who .... 
 desires to enlarge his own flesh with the 
 flesh of another creature,’ etc.); further, 
 from the possession of riches, or, indeed, 
 any property whatsoever; from hurting 
 any being — animal or vegetable; from 
 heeding their*own family, or showing any 
 pity to him who is not of the Manichaean 
 creed; and finally, from breaking their 
 chastity by marriage or otherwise. The 
 auditors were comparatively free to par¬ 
 take of the good things of this world, but 
 they had to provide for the subsistence of 
 the elect, and their highest aim also was the 
 attainment of the state of their superior 
 brethren. In this Manichaean Avorship, 
 the visible representatives of the light 
 (sun and moon) were re\ 7 ered, but only 
 as representatives of the ideal, of the 
 good or supreme God. Neither altar nor 
 sacrifice Avas to be found in their places 
 of religious assemblies, nor did they erect 
 sumptuous temples. Fasts, prayers, occa¬ 
 sional readings in the supposed Avritings of 
 Mani, chiefly a certain Fundamental Epistle, 
 Avere all their outer worship. The Old 
 Testament they rejected unconditionally: 
 of the New Testament they retained cer¬ 
 tain portions, revised and redacted by the 
 paraclete. (August, c. Faust, book xviii.; 
 cf. book ix.) Sunday, as the day on Avhich 
 the A T isible universe Avas to be consumed. 
 
 the day consecrated to the sun, Avas kept 
 as a great festival; and the most solemn 
 day in their year was the anniversary of 
 the death of Mani. Baptism and the Lord’s 
 Supper were celebrated as mysteries of the 
 elect. Of this mode of celebration, hoAv- 
 ever, Ave know next to nothing; even 
 Augustine, who for about nine years be¬ 
 longed to the sect, and who is our chief 
 authority on this subject, confesses his ig¬ 
 norance of it. As to the general morality 
 of the Manichaeans, Ave are equally left to 
 conjecture; but their doctrine certainly ap¬ 
 pears to have had a tendency, chiefly in the 
 case of the uneducated, to lead to a sensual 
 fanaticism hurtful to a pure mode of life. 
 
 “ The outward history of the sect is one 
 of almost continuous persecution. Diocle¬ 
 tian, as early as 296 A. d., issued rigorous 
 laws against them, Avhich Avere reiterated 
 by Valentinian, Theodosius I., and succes¬ 
 sive monarchs. Notwithstanding this, 
 they gained numerous adherents; and very 
 many mediaeval sects, as the Priscillians, 
 Katharenes, Josephinians, etc., Avere sus¬ 
 pected to be secretly Manichaeans. Italy, 
 the south of France, Spain, and even Ger¬ 
 many, were the successive seats of this 
 sect, which did not disappear entirely until 
 the time of the Reformation.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia . 
 
 Manichaeism. See ManicH/EANS. 
 
 Maniple, a linen scarf or handkerchief 
 Avorn about the left arm by Roman Cath¬ 
 olic priests. As a sacred vestment it is 
 not knoAvn until the eighth or ninth cen¬ 
 tury. It symbolizes the fruit of good 
 Avorks, Avhich are Avon only by faithful and 
 incessant labors. 
 
 Man'na, a substance miraculously fur¬ 
 nished to the children of Israel on their 
 journey through the Avilderness. It Avas 
 called the bread from heaven, and its charac¬ 
 ter and history are given in Exod. xvi. For 
 forty years betAveen 3,000,000 and 4,000,- 
 000 of people were supplied Avith this food. 
 It ceased at Gilgal, Avhen for the first time 
 they celebrated the Passover in the Land 
 of Promise. The manna noAV used in med¬ 
 icine is from the juice of the ash ( ornus), 
 and comes from southern Europe. It has 
 no connection Avith the manna of the Avil¬ 
 derness, and the same is true of the manna 
 gathered by the Arabs, which exudes 
 from the tAvigs of the tamarisk in the des¬ 
 erts of Sinai, and drops upon the ground. 
 
 Manning, Henry Edward, Roman Cath¬ 
 olic cardinal; b. at Totteridge, Hertford¬ 
 shire, Eng., July 15, 180S. He Avas edu¬ 
 cated at Balliol College, Oxford, Avhere he 
 
Man 
 
 (565) 
 
 Map 
 
 acted, for a time, as a select preacher to 
 the university. In 1834 he became rector 
 of Lavington and Graffham, Sussex, and 
 married. He was active in the “ Oxford 
 movement,” and in 1851 resigned his pre¬ 
 ferments. The same year he entered the 
 Roman Catholic Church (his wife having 
 previously died), and, after studying the¬ 
 ology at Rome, he received the degree of 
 D. D. in 1854. Returning to England, he 
 became very active in laying Roman Cath¬ 
 olic foundations. He was a member of 
 the Vatican Council (1869-70), and was 
 appointed cardinal by Pius IX. in 1877. 
 Among his published works are : The 
 Ground of Faith (1852); The Temporal 
 Power of the Vicar of Jesus Christ (1862); 
 True Story of the Vatican Council (1877); 
 The Catholic Church and Modern Society 
 <1880). 
 
 Manning, James, first president of Brown 
 University; b. in Elizabethtown, N. J.; d. 
 at Providence, R. I., July 24, 1791. He 
 was educated at the College of New Jersey, 
 Princeton. After his graduation (1762), 
 in the following year he went to Rhode 
 Island and started a seminary under the 
 direction of the Baptists. In 1764 it was 
 chartered as the Rhode Island College. 
 Dr. Manning was chosen as president, and 
 at the same time he was pastor of the Bap¬ 
 tist church at Warren, and then at Prov¬ 
 idence. In 1786 he was a member of Con¬ 
 gress. See Lives of the Leaders of the 
 Church Universal (pp. 608-614), by H. M. 
 Maccracken. 
 
 Manse, the Scottish name for parsonage. 
 Where the church is unendowed, the 
 manse is owned and maintained by the 
 Church, but in the Established Church it 
 is built and maintained by law, and belongs 
 to the heritors. 
 
 Mansel, Henry Longueville, Dean of 
 St. Paul’s; b. Oct. 6, 1820, at Cosgrove, 
 Northamptonshire, Eng.; d. in London, 
 July 13, 1871. He was graduated at Oxford 
 University, where he gained the highest 
 honors. In 1855 he became Reader in 
 Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at 
 Magdalen College; Bampton Lecturer in 
 1858; Waynflete Professor of Logic in 
 1859; and Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical 
 History in 1866. Two years later he suc¬ 
 ceeded Dr. Milman as Dean of St. Paul’s, 
 London. The publication of Dr. Man- 
 sel’s Bampton Lectures, entitled Limits of 
 Religious Thought , marks an epoch in the 
 history of English theology. It was an 
 eager reiteration of the views of Sir Will¬ 
 iam Hamilton, whose works Mansel had 
 already edited, and maintained that man’s 
 
 intellect, being finite, cannot know absolute 
 truth, but must depend upon a revelation 
 which comes from without, and which is 
 regulative and practical. This view was 
 immediately assailed by Professor Mau¬ 
 rice in a series of letters, which he pub¬ 
 lished under the title of What is Revelation ? 
 Mansel replied with much acrimony, and a 
 very bitter controversy began and spread 
 among other writers. Maurice contended 
 that Mansel, by divorcing Reason from 
 Faith destroyed the life of both; that God 
 does reveal, not regulative truths, but his 
 very self to man. Certainly the doctrine 
 known in modern days as Agnosticism is 
 professedly an acceptance of Mansel’s chal¬ 
 lenge. He said: “ You cannot know God. 
 All you can do is to believe what is told 
 you on miraculous evidence.” The retort 
 was, “ That evidence is not such as con¬ 
 vinces us, and we therefore reject it, and 
 all belief with it.” But the belief that God 
 does speak directly to the conscience, and 
 that by appeals to that conscience Christ 
 brought conviction, was a living faith ages 
 before Sir W. Hamilton was born, and will 
 outlive all such theories. 
 
 Mansel was a brilliant logician, and was 
 also known at Oxford as a clever satirist 
 and wit. A satire of his in the manner of 
 Aristophanes against the Pantheism of the 
 Neologian writers had a wonderful success, 
 and quotations from it were on every one’s 
 tongue. His history of the Gnostic heresies 
 was edited by Bishop Lightfoot, and there 
 is a Life of him, by Lord Carnarvon.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Manton, Thomas, a distinguished Non¬ 
 conformist; b. in Somersetshire, 1620; d. 
 in London, Oct. 18, 1677. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and was first settled at Stoke 
 Newington, near London. He was one of 
 Cromwell’s chaplains, and preached fre¬ 
 quently before the Parliament. Favoring 
 the Restoration he became one of Charles 
 II.’s chaplains, and took part in the Savoy 
 Conference. In 1662 he was deprived of his 
 living, by the Act of Uniformity. He was 
 an able preacher and theologian. Among 
 his best-known works are expositions of 
 James, Jude, the Lord’s Prayer, and Isaiah 
 liii., and CXC. Sermons on the cxix. Psalm. 
 A reprinted edition of his Works , by Rev. 
 J. C. Ryle, was published in 1870-75, 22 
 vols. 
 
 Manuscripts. See Bible, pp. 103-106. 
 
 Maori. See New Zealand. 
 
 Mappa,aname which designates the linen 
 cloth with which the communion-tame, and 
 afterward the altar, was covered. Linen 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 566 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 was always used as the material for making 
 the mappa because the body of Christ was 
 wrapped in a linen cloth. 
 
 Ma'rah ( bitterness ), a place in the wilder¬ 
 ness of Shur, three days’ journey from the 
 point where the Israelites crossed the Red 
 Sea. (Num. xxxiii. 8, 9.) Here was the 
 spring of bitter water made sweet by the 
 casting in of a tree which the Lord showed 
 Moses. (Ex. xv. 23, 24.) Robinson and 
 others think it probable that the spring at 
 Ain Hawarak , forty-seven miles distant 
 from Ayun Mousa, is identical with Marah, 
 as the worst water in the district is found 
 here. It is certain that the spring was in 
 this neighborhood. 
 
 Maranath'a, an Aramaic expression, sig¬ 
 nifying, “ Our Lord cometh,” used by 
 Paul in 1 Cor. xvi. 22. 
 
 Marburg, Conference of. Luther and 
 Zwingli, as the leaders respectively of the 
 German and Swiss Reformation, were op¬ 
 posed to each other regarding the doctrine 
 of the Lord’s Supper. This contention 
 was the source of deep anxiety, and Philip 
 of Hesse was especially active in seeking 
 to bring about a reconciliation. He orig¬ 
 inated the conference, which opened its 
 sessions at Marburg, Oct. 2, 1529. Luther 
 and Zwingli, with their leading adherents, 
 were present, but after discussions lasting 
 for three days, no agreement was arrived 
 at on the contested points of doctrine. Fif¬ 
 teen articles referring to the general prin¬ 
 ciples of Protestantism in opposition to 
 Romanism were drawn up, and subscribed 
 to by all present. These articles were 
 afterward made the basis of the Confessio 
 A ugustana. 
 
 Marcellians and Marcellinists, two he¬ 
 retical sects that flourished from the latter 
 part of the second century. The first-men¬ 
 tioned were the followers of Marcellus of 
 Ancyra (q . z/.), and the second of Marcel- 
 lina, a pupil of Carpocrates, whose system 
 of Gnosticism she taught with success at 
 Rome while Anicetus was bishop. 
 
 Marcellus, the name of two popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Marcellus, the name of five martyrs re¬ 
 corded by the martyrologies, besides Mar¬ 
 cellus I., Bishop of Rome (307-309). 
 
 Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, in Galatia, 
 was an earnest advocate of the homoousian 
 doctrine at the Council of Nicaea (325). He 
 prepared a work, De Subjections Domini 
 Christi , written against the Arians, which 
 
 brought the charge of Sabellianism against 
 him, and he was deposed by the Council of 
 Constantinople (336). He resumed his see 
 after the death of Constantine the Great, 
 but was again deposed, and sought refuge 
 in the West, and was recognized as ortho¬ 
 dox by Julius, bishop of Rome. When the 
 Arians were in power he was condemned 
 with Athanasius, by the Synods of Arles 
 (353), and Milan (355). His Sabellian views 
 made a breach between himself and Atha¬ 
 nasius, and from this time he lived in re¬ 
 tirement. The Marcellians of Ancyra sent 
 a confession to Athanasius, which he ac¬ 
 cepted as satisfactory. 
 
 Marcion, the founder of the Marcionite 
 heresy, was the son of the bishop of Sino¬ 
 pe in Pontus, and flourished in the latter 
 half of the second century. Being excom¬ 
 municated by his father, it has been said, 
 for immorality, but, more probably, for 
 heretical views, he went to Rome; but the 
 Church there refused to receive him, and 
 he attached himself to the heretic Cerdo. 
 Tertullian states that he afterward re¬ 
 pented of his errors, and obtained a prom¬ 
 ise of readmission to the Church, on con¬ 
 dition that he reclaimed all whom he had 
 led astray; but that death overtook him 
 while endeavoring to fulfill this condition. 
 But in this story Tertullian probably con¬ 
 founds Marcion with his master, Cerdo. 
 
 There is some difficulty in arriving at 
 Marcion’s real opinions, but they appear 
 to have been substantially as follows: He 
 taught that there were two eternal princi¬ 
 ples, the Father of Jesus Christ, and the 
 Creator, or Demiurge. The latter was by 
 nature evil, and created the world, and 
 was the author of the Law, and the God 
 of the Jews; the former was the author of 
 the Gospel, and sent his Son, Jesus Christ, 
 to deliver mankind from the dominion of 
 the Demiurge. Holding that the body, the 
 creation of the Demiurge, was necessarily 
 evil, he denied the truth of our Lord’s in¬ 
 carnation, maintaining that Christ’s body 
 was a phantasm only, like the bodies as¬ 
 sumed by angels when they appeared to 
 men. This opinion he supported by refer¬ 
 ence to such texts as, “ He took on him 
 the form of a servant,” i. e., he taught the 
 appearance , as against the reality. Hence, 
 also, he denied the resurrection of the 
 body, though he seems to have allowed a 
 judgment to come. 
 
 For the same reason, that it came from 
 the evil principle, he rejected the Old Tes¬ 
 tament entirely, and published a book of 
 “ Antitheses,” in which he contrasted the 
 precepts of the Law and the Gospel. 
 
 The New Testament, in principle, he 
 received, but it was altered and mutilated 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 567 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 to suit his particular views, and reduced 
 to two divisions: (1) The Gospel, which 
 was a compilation founded mainly on St. 
 Luke’s; and (2) the Epistles, ten in num¬ 
 ber. He defended these emendations on 
 the ground that the original text had 
 become corrupt, a statement which appear¬ 
 ed the more plausible from the number of 
 spurious gospels, etc., then in circulation. 
 
 The Marcionites became very numerous, 
 as is evident from the number of works 
 written against them, as well as from the 
 direct testimony of Justin. Constantine in 
 326 issued an edict against these and other 
 heretics, and Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus, 
 tells us that he converted ten thousand of 
 them. Their doctrine of the evil nature of 
 the body led them to practice fasting and 
 self-denial, and even to go so far as to ex¬ 
 clude married persons from the sacra¬ 
 ments, denying salvation to all but the 
 unmarried. Some of them appear to have 
 undergone martyrdom for their religion. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, 161- 
 1S0; b. in Rome April 26, 121; d. of the 
 plague at his camp in Pannonia. He was 
 remarkable as a legislator, administrator, 
 soldier and scholar: “ indeed, he was the 
 philosopher on the throne. His standpoint 
 was that of an eclectic stoicism—a kind of 
 moral rationalism enlivened by a deep 
 faith in an all-pervading and all-governing 
 reason. His works—a Dialogue, twelve 
 books of Meditations, Letters, etc., written 
 in Greek—represent him as a pious and 
 substantial character, equally averse to the 
 vulgar and to the hollow, and intent upon 
 avoiding silliness in religion, and sophistry 
 in philosophy.”— Harnack. It is difficult 
 to decide his relations to Christianity. 
 Ther»is no doubt that local persecutions 
 of the Christians occurred in his reign, but 
 it would appear that they were not insti¬ 
 gated by the government, which evidently 
 sought to enforce the laws of Hadrian and 
 Trajan. See P. B. Watson: M. Aurelius 
 (New York, 1884); best trans. of his Medi¬ 
 tations. by Geo. Long (1863); F. W. Far¬ 
 rar: Seekers after God (New York, new ed., 
 1877). 
 
 Marcus Eremita, an Egyptian monk who 
 lived in the desert of Scetis, and is said to 
 have died in 410, more than a hundred years 
 old. He was a contemporary of Chrysos¬ 
 tom and the younger Macarinus, with 
 whom the wonderful stories told of his life 
 are sometimes confused. Nine treatises 
 bearing his name have come down to us. 
 The internal evidence is strong that he 
 wrote them, although Bellarminand others 
 have tried to prove that they are fabrica¬ 
 
 tions of some modern heretic. They treat 
 on the Spiritual Law, Justification, Peni¬ 
 tence, Baptism, etc. They were published 
 in Latin and Greek; best ed., Migne (book 
 65). Marcus is commemorated by the 
 Greek Church, March 25. 
 
 Marcus Eugenicus, archbishop of Ephe¬ 
 sus, and one of the representatives of the 
 Greek Church at the Council of Ferrara- 
 Florence (1438). He was unyielding in his 
 opposition to the papal pretensions, and 
 stood alone, finally, in refusing to sign the 
 formula of concord. When summoned be¬ 
 fore a papal court, presided over by the 
 pope, he opened the discussion of the sub¬ 
 ject without attempting to defend himself. 
 He continued to work against the union 
 after returning to his diocese, and on his 
 death-bed took the oath of Gennadius, 
 afterward patriarch of Constantinople, that 
 he would oppose this scheme to the last. 
 See Ferrara-Florence, Council of. 
 
 Margaret’s Day, St., Feb. 21, and 
 July 20. 
 
 Margarita (margaritum, a pearl), the 
 name given in the Greek Church to the 
 vessel in which the consecrated host is 
 preserved. The portions of the host which 
 the priest carried to the sick were called 
 margaritce. 
 
 Marheineke, Philip-Konrad, Lutheran 
 theologian; b. at Hildesheim, May 1, 1780; 
 d. at Berlin, May 31, 1846. Educated at 
 Gottingen he became repetent there in 1804, 
 and the following year professor of the¬ 
 ology and second university preacher at 
 Erlangen. In 1S11 he accepted a professor¬ 
 ship at Berlin where he remained until his 
 death. He became the leader of the so- 
 called “ right wing ” of the Hegelian party, 
 who contended that Hegelianism can be 
 reconciled with positive Christianity. 
 Among his published works are a History 
 of the German Reformation extending to 
 the year 1555; a System of Theology ( Dog- 
 tnatik). A part of his theological lectures 
 were published in 4 vols. (Berlin, 1S47-49). 
 A sketch of his life is given in vol. i. 
 
 Marianists (Knights of the Holy Virgin), 
 the name of an order of knights, composed 
 of noblemen, which was formed at Bologna 
 about 1233. It had for its special purpose 
 the protection of widows and orphans, in 
 the times of violence and insecurity caused 
 by the conflicts between the Guelfs and the 
 Ghibellines. The members were allowed 
 to marry and hold property. Command- 
 eries were founded at Modena, Mantua, 
 and other cities in Northern Italy, but the 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 56 S ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 order disappeared at the close of the six¬ 
 teenth century, and in 1589 Sixtus V. trans¬ 
 ferred its property to the college of Man- 
 
 talto. 
 
 Marinus is the name of two popes. See 
 
 Popes. 
 
 Mariolatry. Of the worship of the 
 mother of our Lord there is no trace either 
 in the Scriptures or in the first three or 
 four centuries. In the earliest Church 
 hymns there is no hint of it. Daniel’s 
 Thesaurus , a collection of Greek hymns 
 dating from the third century to the 
 twelfth, only has two, and these are con¬ 
 fessedly of late date. In the festival of 
 the Greek Church commemorating the 
 Epiphany of Christ as God at his baptism, 
 there is, of course, no connection with the 
 history of the Virgin; it was through that 
 of the Nativity that error first began to 
 creep in. When the Council of Ephesus 
 had truly decided that Christ is not divided, 
 and therefore that the Virgin might be 
 called Theotokos , opportunity was given for 
 abuse of the truth, and one title after an¬ 
 other began to be lavished upon her: 
 “Surpassingly holy,” “All holy,” “Lady,” 
 “ Queen.” It was, in fact, overlooked 
 that the glory of the incarnation lay in its 
 wonderful condescension, and that the 
 glory of all connected with Christ lay sole¬ 
 ly and exclusively in what he is. The 
 evangelist had declared as much when he 
 pointedly traced the genealogy of the Di¬ 
 vine Redeemer through Rahab, and 
 through “ her who had been the wife of 
 Uriah.” 
 
 Another source of the worship of Mary 
 is to be found in the growth of monasti- 
 cism; the adoration of the Mother of God 
 became absorbed in that of the “ Ever Vir¬ 
 gin.” Christendom came to regard its pat¬ 
 tern life, not as found in the home of Naz¬ 
 areth, in holy wedded love and parental 
 care, but in the solitary life of the wilder¬ 
 ness. Thus the early Latin hymns which 
 sang her praise dwelt on her virginity, that 
 was “ the birth which became God.” Still, 
 it must be remembered that not one of the 
 Ambrosian hymns is addressed to her. 
 Scripture failing to furnish material for 
 adoration, fancy supplied its place, and in¬ 
 vented the stories of her Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception and of her Assumption, and out of 
 these was created a new worship—the 
 worship of a great goddess, unknown to 
 Scripture or to history. Figures were 
 made of her, decked in vulgar gold and 
 tawdry finery,and before them were poured 
 out prayers as to one comprising in herself 
 all that was beneficent in man, all that was 
 tender and pure in woman, all that is gra- 
 
 cious in God. As a consequence it fol¬ 
 lowed that God was robbed of his true 
 glory. The compassion and infinite ten¬ 
 derness which the Gospels reveal in Christ 
 were taken from him, and he was only 
 thought of as a stern and avenging Judge. 
 The love of the Father was forgotten in 
 that of the mother; the consolations of the 
 Comforter, in those of “ our Lady of Pity,” 
 “ our Lady of Good Help,” “ our Lady of 
 Sorrows.” The Persons of the Holy Trin¬ 
 ity were placed in some distant heaven 
 where they took little concern of the af¬ 
 fairs of earth, where they were worshipped 
 indeed with formal worship; but the heart¬ 
 felt worship of friend speaking to friend 
 was kept for the mighty mother whose in¬ 
 tercession was all-powerful, whose help 
 was always ready. Thus the rise and de¬ 
 velopment of Mariolatry were simulta¬ 
 neous with an obscuration of the true love 
 of God in Christ, and especially of that 
 truly human nature in the Saviour which 
 the human heart craves for, and which is 
 the true preservative against errors of this 
 kind. Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Mark, also known as John Mark —John 
 being the Hebrew name, and Mark his 
 Latin surname. (Acts xii. 12, 25.) He was 
 a native of Jerusalem, and the home of 
 Mary, his mother, was a resort to the fol¬ 
 lowers of Jesus. (Acts xii. 12.) He was 
 probably a convert of Peter, who calls him 
 “ his son.” (1 Peter v. 13.) He accom¬ 
 panied Paul and his cousin Barnabas (Col. 
 iv. 10), on their missionary tour as far as 
 Perga in Pamphylia. (Actsxiii. 5, 13.) His 
 leaving them at this place was the cause 
 of “sharp contention” between them. 
 (Acts xv. 36-40.) Ten years later Paul 
 and Mark were together in Rome. (Col. iv. 
 10; Philemon 24.) He was with Peter 
 when he wrote his first epistle (1 Pet. v. 
 13), and with Timothy at a probably later 
 date. (2 Tim. iv. 11.) Some commentators 
 (Olshausen, Lange, and others) think it 
 probable that John Mark was the nameless 
 young man who followed Christ on the 
 night of his betrayal. (Mark xiv. 51, 52.) 
 
 Mark, The Gospel by. “ All ancient testi¬ 
 mony makes Mark the author of a cer¬ 
 tain Gospel, and that this is the Gospel 
 which has come down to us, there is not 
 the least historical ground for doubting. 
 Owing to the very few sections peculiar to 
 Mark, evidence from patristic quotation is 
 somewhat difficult to produce. Justin Mar¬ 
 tyr, however, quotes chaps, ix. 44, 46, 48; 
 xii. 30, and iii. 17; and Irenaeus cites both 
 the opening and closing words (iii.; x. 6). 
 An important testimony in any case, but 
 doubly so from the doubt that has been 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 569 ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 cast on the closing verses (xvi. 9-19). With 
 the exception of these few verses, the gen¬ 
 uineness of the Gospel is placed above the 
 reach of reasonable doubt.”— Smith. “ Al¬ 
 though written in Greek the Gospel was 
 designed for Roman readers, and is espe¬ 
 cially adapted to their minds, so easily im¬ 
 pressed by exhibitions of energy and power. 
 It exhibits Christ as the spiritual Con¬ 
 queror and Wonder-worker, the Lion of the 
 tribe of Judah, filling the people with 
 amazement and fear. Mark introduces 
 several Latin terms; he even substitutes 
 Roman money for Greek (xii. 41), which 
 Luke does not, and notices that Simon of 
 Cyrene was the father of Alexander and 
 Rufus (xv. 21), who probably were Chris¬ 
 tians at Rome. (Rom. xvi. 13.) It is there¬ 
 fore most likely that the Gospel was writ¬ 
 ten in that city. The great similarity 
 between the Gospel of Mark and that of 
 Matthew has led some to consider the 
 former a mere abridgment of the latter, 
 but without sufficient reason. It occupies 
 an independent position as the connecting- 
 link between Matthew and Luke. Peter and 
 Paul, the Jewish and the Gentile Chris¬ 
 tians.”—Schaff: Bible Diet. 
 
 Mark’s Day, St., the 25th of April. In 
 the Roman Church it is celebrated by a 
 solemn supplicatory procession (Litania 
 major), and in churches of which St. Mark 
 is patron the priests wear blue at mass on 
 that day. 
 
 Marlorat, Augustin, b. at Bar-le-Duc, in 
 Lorraine, 1506; hanged at Rouen, Oct 31, 
 1562. He was educated in an Augustinian 
 convent, which order he entered in 1524, 
 and became prior in 1533 of a monastery 
 at Bourges. He won a wide reputation as 
 a scholar and preacher, but his sympathy 
 with the Reformation compelled him to flee 
 to Geneva. In 1559 he was appointed 
 preacher to the Reformed congregation in 
 Paris, and in the following year to that of 
 Rouen. After the massacre of Vassy 
 (March 1, 1562) the Protestants took pos¬ 
 session of the city, and established the 
 Government in accord with their faith. The 
 city was recaptured by the Roman Cath¬ 
 olics (Oct. 26, 1562), and Marlorat was con¬ 
 demned, and executed in front of his own 
 church. He wrote commentaries on Gen¬ 
 esis, the Psalms, Isaiah, and the New 
 Testament, parts of which have been trans¬ 
 lated into English. 
 
 Maronites, a community of Syrian 
 Christians whose headquarters is in Mount 
 Lebanon. They say that they derive their 
 name from a monk named Maro, who col¬ 
 lected a number of followers in the fifth 
 
 century, and placed them in a monastery 
 on the Orontes, which he named after him¬ 
 self. In the seventh century this sect was 
 obliged, in consequence of opposition by 
 the Greek Church, to take refuge in Leb¬ 
 anon, and so this name was taken by the 
 whole population of the mountains. In 
 many respects their ritual resembled that 
 of the Greek Church, and all through the 
 Middle Ages they preserved their individ¬ 
 uality and independence. But during the 
 Crusades they established some sort of re¬ 
 lations with the Latin Church, and in the 
 time of Gregory XIII. they formally joined 
 the Roman Communion, and consented to 
 be under the government of the pope. 
 But, even so, they obtained certain rights 
 of their own, such as communion in both 
 kinds, the marriage of their clergy, and the 
 mass in their own vernacular. Pope Greg¬ 
 ory founded a monastery on the Quirinal 
 Mount at Rome, and attached to it a college 
 for the sole use of the Maronites. Youths 
 are educated there by the Jesuits, and then 
 sent to their own country. They have 
 their patriarch, archbishop, bishops, and 
 about 150 curates; but the population is so 
 oppressed by the Turks that all the clergy 
 are obliged to work for their living. They 
 now say mass in Latin, with the exception 
 of the Gospel, which is read in Arabic, the 
 common language of the people. Their 
 population is now about 200,000. Every 
 man is armed, and their army was in great 
 perfection at one time. In i860, however, 
 they were attacked by the Druses (y. v .), 
 a tribe living near them, and although far 
 superior in point of numbers to their in¬ 
 vaders, their capital was destroyed and the 
 inhabitants massacred. They are a fine- 
 looking people, and very hospitable, es¬ 
 pecially toward Europeans. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Marot, Clement, a religious poet: b. at 
 Cahors about 1497; d. at Turin in 1544. 
 He lived at the court of Francis I., and 
 was a favorite of Margaret, Queen of 
 Navarre, but fell into disgrace and fled first 
 to Geneva, where he became friendly with 
 Calvin, and finally settled in Turin. In 
 1538 he made a translation of some of the 
 Psalms in French verse which became very 
 popular, even at court, and were sung there. 
 The first edition (1541) contained only thirty 
 Psalms, the second (1543) contained as 
 many more, with a preface by Calvin. 
 This edition was condemned by the Sor- 
 bonne. The style of poetry which he in¬ 
 troduced is called, after his name, Maro- 
 tique. 
 
 Marriage. When Christ came on earth, 
 marriage had come to be regarded among 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 57 ° ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 lews and Gentiles as merely a civil con¬ 
 tract ; and in consequence divorce was 
 easily to be procured. Christ taught the 
 sacredness of the marriage bond; and for¬ 
 bade divorce, except on the ground of 
 adultery. Henceforth, all marriages were 
 considered, like that of our first parents, 
 Adam and Eve, as sanctioned by God him¬ 
 self. St. Paul compares the marriage bond 
 to the union between Christ and his Church; 
 and in all ages of the Church, matrimony 
 has been regarded as a sacred rite per¬ 
 formed in the sight of God. Thus St. 
 Ignatius writes, “ It becomes those who 
 marry, and those that are given in mar¬ 
 riage, to take this yoke upon them with the 
 consent or the direction of the Church, that 
 their marriage may be according to the 
 will of God, and not their own lusts.” 
 Tertullian says, “ How shall I sufficiently 
 set forth the happiness of the marriage 
 which the Church brings about by her pro¬ 
 curement, which the eucharist confirms, 
 which angels report when done, and the 
 Father ratifies ?” In such passages we have 
 recorded the commencement of that ecclesi¬ 
 astical control in domestic affairs which the 
 Church early began to exercise. But in 
 the reign of Constantine, when religious 
 fervor began to cool and discipline to grow 
 lax, some Christians were married by the 
 civil power, without any religious cere¬ 
 mony: and as this practice in after ages 
 showed a tendency to increase, laws were 
 passed both in the East (a. d. 900) and 
 West (a. d. 800), ordaining that marriages 
 be contracted as religious ceremonies with 
 the blessing of the Church, and that a re¬ 
 ception of the Holy Eucharist was to follow 
 the marriage rite. This law, though fre¬ 
 quently ignored, as far as the eucharist 
 was concerned, continued in force in Eng¬ 
 land under the Commonwealth, when mar¬ 
 riage was declared by the State to be merely 
 a civil contract. At the Restoration, the 
 religious character of the marriage rite was 
 again recognized by the civil law; and the 
 present Rubric, advising a celebration of 
 the Holy Communion, was added to the 
 marriage service in the Book of Common 
 Prayer. A change in the English law of 
 marriage was made by the Act 6 and 7 
 Will. IV. c. 85, whereby marriages might 
 be performed in three ways, viz.: either in 
 the parish church; or in some registered 
 place of worship; or in the registrar’s office, 
 without any religious ceremony. 
 
 Marriage Laws .—In all civilized coun¬ 
 tries laws have been passed regulating 
 marriage. These laws have differed in 
 different countries and at different times, 
 but their object has been identical, viz., to 
 prevent incest, and to guard against injury 
 either to the community at large or to in¬ 
 
 dividuals. The Jewish code is contained in 
 Leviticus xviii. 
 
 The Roman code, as regards marriage, 
 was nearly identical with the Levitical 
 law. 
 
 Second marriages were regarded as in¬ 
 valid by the Novatianist and Montanist 
 heresies ; but the Church in the eighth 
 canon of the Council of Nicaea condemned 
 the Novatian opinion. Marriages between 
 Christians and unbelievers were forbidden 
 by the early Church, which refused to sol¬ 
 emnize such marriages, though it did not 
 dispute their validity; resort had, in such 
 cases, to be made to the civil power.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Questions relating to the laws regulat¬ 
 ing marriage in the different States are in¬ 
 teresting the attention of many in this 
 country, especially as they refer to the 
 great evil of divorce. Space will not allow 
 here the discussion of these questions, but 
 we commend to the reader the following 
 words of the Rev. Dr. S. W. Dike: 
 
 “ Far down at the root of the divorce 
 question, and all the many urgent things 
 to be done for it, is the need of awakening 
 the slumbering consciousness of the fam¬ 
 ily to the necessity of a better home life, 
 better religious instruction, and better 
 ways of making its power felt than we have 
 yet known or used. Everything else has 
 become more vigorous, more highly de¬ 
 veloped, better studied and better treated. 
 The active churches, Sunday - schools, 
 prayer - meetings of to-day are as unlike 
 1 those of a half-century ago as our steam- 
 engines are unlike their prototypes. The 
 family and the home have probably been 
 carried along somewhat in the general 
 movement. It could scarcely be otherwise. 
 We do not want to go back to the past, but 
 1 we do need to bring the home up to its 
 possibilities. We need to see what con¬ 
 centrated study and prayer and reorgan¬ 
 ization and invention can do for it. Help 
 to self-help needs in our treatment of the 
 family to take the place of the mistaken 
 charity that has done too much for the 
 home, regardless of its own need of a 
 more self-respecting treatment. Give the 
 American home a fair field, reasonable 
 protection, and awaken it to its work, and 
 it will show its vitality.” See Divorce. 
 
 Marriage Among the Hebrews. The re¬ 
 lation of husband and wife among the He¬ 
 brews “ was regarded as especially sacred, 
 and not to be lightly dissolved ; but when 
 dissolved, the dissolution was to be final. 
 The right of divorce would appear to have 
 belonged exclusively to the husband, and 
 to make the act legal three steps were nec¬ 
 essary ; First, he must have a bill of di- 
 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 57i ) 
 
 Mar 
 
 vorcement drawn up; secondly, he must 
 put it into his wife’s hand; thirdly, he must 
 send her away. (Deut. xxiv. 1-4.) A wife 
 could contract no engagement,or even vow, 
 independently of her husband, unless after 
 divorce or his decease (Num. xxx. 6-15), 
 and she had no power to separate herself 
 from him. Marriage was forbidden among 
 relatives (Lev. xviii.), as also with the de¬ 
 scendants of the seven nations that orig¬ 
 inally occupied the land of Canaan. (Deut. 
 vii. 1-6.) It was a free act, and could not 
 be consummated without the bride’s con¬ 
 sent. By a law known as the Levirate law 
 (from the Latin levir , a brother-in-law), if 
 a husband died without issue, his brother 
 was required to take his widow to wife, 
 that he might raise up seed to him. (Deut. 
 xxv. 5-10.) 
 
 Marrow Controversy. See Scotland, 
 Church of. 
 
 Marsden, Samuel, the “ Apostle of New 
 Zealand;” b. in England, 1764; d. in Aus¬ 
 tralia, May 12, 1838. Of humble parentage, 
 he was a tradesman at Leeds when he united 
 with the Church of England, and studied 
 at Cambridge. In 1794 he went out as 
 chaplain of the penal colony at Paramatta, 
 Australia. He here established a farm, 
 and sought to train the convicts in habits 
 of industry. In 1800 he visited England, < 
 and tried to secure missionaries to go to 
 the Maoris in New Zealand. The Church 
 Missionary Society did nothing, but two 
 laymen, William Hall and John King, ac¬ 
 companied him on his return. After his 
 arrival in Australia he purchased a small 
 vessel at his own expense, and sailed to 
 New Zealand, and founded a mission. 
 While residing in Australia he visited 
 the island often, and did a great work 
 in Christianizing and civilizing the peo¬ 
 ple. 
 
 Marshall, Stephen, an active participant 
 in the Smectymnuan Controversy (see Ed¬ 
 mund Calamy), and a prominent member 
 of the Westminster Assembly. The date 
 of his birth is unknown. Educated at Cam¬ 
 bridge, he was minister first at Wethers¬ 
 field, and then at Finchingfield in Essex, 
 where he was silenced for nonconformity. 
 He was an eloquent preacher. At his death 
 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but 
 after the Restoration his remains were 
 shamefully disturbed. His principal pub¬ 
 lications are: Reformation and Desolation 
 (1641); Sacred Panegyricks (1644); Of the 
 Baptizing of Infants (1644); A Defence 
 of Infant Baptism (1646). 
 
 Mars’ Hill, so called because Mars was 
 
 judged upon it. It was situated norlh- 
 west of the Acropolis, and is commonly 
 known as the Areopagus. Here Paul de¬ 
 livered his memorable address. (Acts xvii. 
 22-31.) 
 
 Marshman, Joshua, one of the pioneer 
 and most distinguished Baptist mission¬ 
 aries to India; b. at Westbury Leigh, Wilt¬ 
 shire, Eng., April 20, 1768; d. in Seram- 
 pore, India, Dec. 5, 1837. He followed 
 the occupation of his father, as a weaver, 
 until his twenty-sixth year. By untiring 
 effort he had meanwhile gained an educa¬ 
 tion that then enabled him to teach a school 
 at Bristol, where he found time to acquire 
 a knowledge of the Hebrew and Syriac lan¬ 
 guages. Through the influence of Dr. 
 Ryland he joined the Baptist Church, and 
 in 1799, with Mr. Ward and two others, 
 sailed for India. They were not permitted 
 to land at Calcutta, and went on to Seram- 
 pore, where in connection with William 
 Carey they began the work that in time 
 was so abundantly prospered. In 1800 
 Mr. and Mrs. Marshman opened two board¬ 
 ing-schools, which gave them a large in¬ 
 come which they used in support of their 
 mission work. In connection with Carey 
 and Ward he laid the foundation in 1818,of 
 a college for the “ instruction of Asiatic, 
 Christian, and other youth, in Eastern 
 literature, and European science.” He did 
 much in the way of newspaper publication, 
 and after fifteen years of labor published 
 in 1822 a Chinese version of the New 
 Testament. He visited England in 1826. 
 The Baptist Missionary Society sought to 
 secure control of the Serampore Mission in 
 a way that seemed to him and his associates 
 unjust. This controversy embittered his 
 last years. After the death of Carey in 
 1834 his health gave way, and he never re¬ 
 covered strength. One of his daughters, 
 the wife of Gen. Havelock, a noble Chris¬ 
 tian woman, died in 1882. See J. C. Marsh¬ 
 man: Life and Times of Carey, Marshman, 
 and Ward (London, 2 vols., 1859). 
 
 Martin is the name of five popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Martin Marprelate Controversy, The, 
 grew out of an attack which was made upon 
 the prelacy of the English Church in a 
 series of seven tracts which appeared be¬ 
 tween November, 1588 and July, 1589. 
 They were printed secretly under the 
 pseudonyme of Martin Marprelate, Gentle¬ 
 man. They were written in a vein of keen 
 wit and satire, and had a large circulation. 
 Great opposition was aroused to the ex¬ 
 treme views of independency which they 
 defended. Dr. Dexter thinks the tracts 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 572 .) 
 
 Mar 
 
 were written by Henry Borrowe and pub¬ 
 lished by John Penry. See his Congrega¬ 
 tionalism as seen in its Literature , Lect. iii., 
 pp. 131-202. 
 
 Martin of Braga, or Dumia, a learned 
 monk; b. at Pannonia about 510. Having 
 met some Spanish pilgrims while visiting 
 Palestine, he went to northwestern Spain 
 in 551 as a missionary. The country was 
 then inhabited by half Arian, half pagan 
 Sueves. Martin founded the monastery of 
 Dumia of which he was first abbot and then 
 bishop. He was made archbishop of Braga 
 by Theodomir (559-570). His principal 
 work is a collection of canons of Greek and 
 Spanish synods, published by Mansi and 
 others, but he wrote also on canon law and 
 ethics, and some of his letters and verses 
 are still extant. 
 
 Martin of Tours, St., b. at Sabaria, in 
 Pannonia, 319; d. at Cande, in Gaul, 400. 
 His parents were Pagans, and in early life 
 he entered the army. Having become a 
 Christian, after a few years of military ser¬ 
 vice in Gaul, he was ordained a deacon by 
 * Hilary of Poitiers. His zeal against the 
 Arians aroused persecution, and he found 
 refuge in the life of a monk on the island 
 of Gallinaria, near Genoa. In 360 he re¬ 
 turned to Gaul and settled near Poitiers, 
 where he founded the earliest monastery in 
 that region. Elected bishop of Tours in 
 375, he performed his duties with great 
 energy, at the same time living as a monk 
 and founding on the banks of the Loire, 
 the famous monastery of Marmontier. His 
 influence was great in destroying paganism 
 and he became the patron saint of France, 
 Mayence, and Wiirzburg. The day of his 
 death (Nov. 11) is celebrated in France, 
 Germany, and Scandinavia. No less than 
 two hundred and six miracles are said to 
 have been wrought by this saint after his 
 death. His life was written by Sulpicius 
 Severus and others. 
 
 Martin, Sarah, philanthropist, b. near 
 Great Yarmouth, June, 1791. Her life 
 was spent in this town, where she died in 
 1843. She was by trade a dressmaker, 
 but she early became interested in work 
 among the pauper and criminal classes of 
 Yarmouth. In 1819 she began to visit the 
 jail, and soon after devoted an entire day in 
 each week to this labor. She held services 
 on Sunday, and at first read printed ser¬ 
 mons, then for some time those of her own 
 composing, and finally spoke extemporane¬ 
 ously. She found work for the prisoners, 
 and aided them after their discharge. In 
 1826 she fell heir to ten pounds yearly, and 
 from this date she devoted her entire time 
 
 tc her philanthropic labors. She was in 
 sore straits often from poverty, but her 
 unselfish life gained such general recogni¬ 
 tion that in 1841 the corporation of Yar¬ 
 mouth voted her an annuity of twelve 
 pounds. See the Edinburgh Review for 
 April, 1847 (pp. 320-340). 
 
 Martinalia. See Martinmas. 
 
 Martinmas, Festival of, celebrated 
 Nov. 11, in honor of St. Martin of Tours. 
 It is called Martinalia in Germany. In 
 England and Scotland the winter’s provis¬ 
 ions were in olden days cured and stored 
 up at that time of the year, and were hence 
 called a mart. 
 
 Martyn, Henry, a missionary hero; b. 
 at Truro, England, Feb. 18, 1781; d. at 
 Tocat, Asiatic Turkey, Oct. 16, 1812. 
 While a student at Cambridge he gained 
 the highest honors in scholarship, but it 
 was not until after his election as fellow of 
 St. John’s College that he became deeply 
 interested in spiritual things, and decided 
 to become a missionary. In 1805 he sailed 
 for India as a chaplain of the East India 
 Company. His work in India was accom¬ 
 plished within a little more than four years, 
 and was confined to the military stations 
 of Dinapore and Cawnpore, but his labors 
 were so abundant that besides his work 
 among the soldiers and English residents, 
 he preached to the natives, and prepared 
 translations for their use. In 1808 he com¬ 
 pleted an excellent Hindostanee version of 
 the New Testament. While engaged in 
 preparing a Persian version of the New 
 Testament his health, already impaired, 
 gave way, and he decided to return to Eng¬ 
 land. He reached Shiraz in Persia, and 
 with returning strength remained there 
 until he had completed his revision of the 
 Persian New Testament, and also a version 
 of the Psalms in the same language. While 
 here his learning and skill in disputing with 
 Mohammedan scholars attracted wide at¬ 
 tention. Wishing to present the king of 
 Persia with a copy of his New Testament, 
 he went to Tebriz to secure a letter of in¬ 
 troduction from the British Minister, Sir 
 Gore Ouseley. He was very ill on this 
 journey, and the Testament was left with 
 Sir Gore, who afterward gave it to the 
 king. Martyn now hastened to reach Con¬ 
 stantinople, fifteen hundred miles away, 
 but the long journey proved too much for 
 the frail body worn by fever ague. He 
 died at Tocat, where his last resting-place 
 in the Armenian cemetery is marked by a 
 monument raised by an English resident 
 of Bagdad. See C. D. Bell: Life of Henry 
 Martyn (New York, 1881). 
 
Mar 
 
 ( 573 ) 
 
 Mas 
 
 Martyr. This is the Greek word for “ a 
 witness.” In this sense it is used in Matt, 
 xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63, etc. As persecu¬ 
 tion even unto death became the lot of 
 so many of the followers of Christ, the 
 word in its common signification came to 
 mean one who suffered death by reason of 
 his witness or testimony to the truth. The 
 names of the martyrs, or “ confessors,” as 
 they were often called, were kept in re¬ 
 membrance by commemorations, which 
 frequently took place at their tombs, and 
 by sermons which recalled their constancy 
 and faithfulness. 
 
 Martyrs, The Forty, a title given in the 
 martyrologies to the forty soldiers at Se- 
 baste, in Armenia, who in 320, by command 
 of the general, Lysias, were stripped naked 
 and compelled to remain on a frozen pond 
 through an entire night, because of their 
 refusal to sacrifice to the heathen deities. 
 Dying from the exposure, their bodies 
 were burned, and the ashes strewn on the 
 waters. 
 
 Mary (Greek form of the Hebrew Miriam), 
 
 (1) the mother of our Lord. After the in¬ 
 cidents connected with the infancy of Jesus, 
 Mary is mentioned but four times: ( a ) 
 At the marriage of Cana (John ii.); ( b ) in 
 the attempt to speak to Jesus while he was 
 teaching (Matt. xii. 46; Mark iii. 21,31; 
 Luke viii. 19); (e) at the crucifixion (John 
 xix. 26); (cf) during the days following the 
 ascension. (Acts i. 14.) “ In all the epis¬ 
 tles her name never once occurs. Plainly, 
 Scripture negatives the superhuman pow¬ 
 ers which Rome assigns her. In the ten 
 recorded appearances of the risen Saviour 
 in the forty days, not one was specially to 
 Mary. John doubtless cherished her with 
 the tender love which he preeminently 
 could give, and she most needed. It is re¬ 
 markable how, with prescient caution, she 
 never is put forward during Christ’s min¬ 
 istry, or after his departure. Meek (John 
 ii. 5) and humble, making her model the 
 holy women of old (Luke i. 46), yielding 
 herself in implicit faith up to the Divine 
 will, though ignorant how it was to be ac¬ 
 complished (ver. 38), energetic (ver 39), 
 thankful (ver. 48), and piously reflective 
 (ii. 19, 51), though not faultless, she was 
 the most tender and lovable of women, 
 yet a woman still.”— Fausset. See Mari- 
 olatry. 
 
 (2) Mary Magdalene, or Mary of Mag- 
 dala. (Luke viii. 2.) There is no foundation 
 for the very common mistake which iden¬ 
 tifies her with the unchaste woman who 
 anointed Christ’s feet in the house of Si¬ 
 mon. (Luke vii. 37, 38.) The reading of 
 Luke vii. and viii. proves that two entirely 
 
 different persons are described. After 
 being relieved of the demoniacal posses¬ 
 sion, she showed the most unwavering 
 attachment to her deliverer. She was at 
 the crucifixion (John xix. 25) and burial 
 (Mark xv. 47); prepared spices, and came 
 to embalm his body (Mark xvi. 1); went 
 first to the sepulchre after the resurrec¬ 
 tion, and was the first to whom the risen 
 Redeemer appeared. (Mark xvi. 9; John 
 xx. 11-18.) 
 
 (3) The sister of Lazarus and Martha. 
 Besides the incidents in John xi., her name 
 occurs only in John xii. 3, and Luke x. 39, 
 42. 
 
 (4) The wife of Clopas. (John xix. 25.) 
 
 (5) The mother of John Mark. (Acts 
 xii. 12.) 
 
 (6) A Christian woman in Rome, to 
 whom Paul sent his salutation. (Rom. xvi. 
 6 .) 
 
 Mason, Francis, Baptist missionary; b. 
 in York, Eng., April 2, 1799; d. * n Ran¬ 
 goon, Burmah, March 3, 1874. Emigrat¬ 
 ing to the United States in 1818, he worked 
 at his trade as a shoemaker in Missouri 
 until 1824. He then came to Massachu¬ 
 setts, and after his marriage and conver¬ 
 sion he studied at the Newton Theological 
 Seminary, and in 1830 was sent as a mis¬ 
 sionary to Burmah by the Baptist Mission¬ 
 ary Union. Succeeding Dr. Boardman in 
 the work among the Karens, he edited for 
 a long time the Morning Star , a monthly 
 publication in the native language, and 
 translated a number of books for the use 
 of the Karens. He wrote a Life of Kho- 
 Thah-Byu , the Karen Apostle', Burmah: Its 
 People and Natural Productions , and an 
 autobiography, The Story of a Working 
 Man's Life , with Sketches of Travel (1870). 
 
 Mason, John Mitchell, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent divine and pulpit orator; b. in New 
 York City, March 19, 1770; d. there, Dec. 
 26, 1829. After graduating at Columbia 
 College (1789) he completed his theologi¬ 
 cal studies at Edinburgh in 1791. The fol¬ 
 lowing year he was licensed to preach, and 
 after a few months accepted the pastorate 
 of the Associate Reformed Church in New 
 York, of which his father had been the 
 minister previous to his death. Visiting 
 Great Britain in 1801, by request of the 
 synod, to seek additional ministers, he be¬ 
 came interested in a plan for a theological 
 seminary, which he organized in connec¬ 
 tion with his pastoral labors. In 1807 he 
 became the editor and principal contributor 
 to The Christian's Magazine. In 1811 he 
 was appointed provost of Columbia Col¬ 
 lege, and in 1821 he was called to the pres¬ 
 idency of Dickinson College. Three 
 
Mas 
 
 ( 574 ) 
 
 Mas 
 
 years later, broken in health, he returned 
 to New York, where the remainder of his 
 life was spent in retirement. Dr. Mason 
 was of noble physique and remarkable 
 gifts as a pulpit orator. Eminently suc¬ 
 cessful as a teacher, he was active in lay¬ 
 ing the foundations of the work of semi¬ 
 nary instruction in this country; advocating 
 the cause of foreign missions and organiz¬ 
 ing the American Bible Society. 
 
 Mason, Lowell, b. in Medfield, Mass., 
 Jan. S, 1792: d. in Orange, N. J., Aug. 11, 
 1872. He began his career as a public 
 teacher of music in Savannah, Ga. In 
 1827 he removed to Boston, and from there 
 visited every section of New England, and 
 aroused great interest in the study of sa¬ 
 cred music. He did much to increase the 
 demand for congregational singing, and 
 was very efficient in the organization of 
 choirs. He was an earnest Christian, and 
 did a noble work in improving and devel¬ 
 oping the church and Sunday-school music 
 of his time. 
 
 Mas'orah. See Masorites. 
 
 Masorites, or Masoretes, the name 
 given to the Rabbis who made it their 
 special work to correct the faults which 
 'had crept into the text of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment during the Babylonish captivity, and 
 to prevent, for the future, its being cor¬ 
 rupted by any alteration. The name is de¬ 
 rived from Masora , i. e., “tradition,” or 
 from Massorah , “ to bind.” They first 
 separated the apocryphal from the canon¬ 
 ical books; and divided the latter into 
 twenty-two books, being the number of 
 letters in the Hebrew alphabet; they then 
 divided each book into sections and verses. 
 They counted all the words and letters of 
 each section; and because there were words 
 which were to be read otherwise than they 
 were written, and which contained more or 
 less letters than those that were to be pro¬ 
 nounced, they made marginal notes, called 
 Cetib , the manner of writing, and A'eri, the 
 manner of reading. They observed, like¬ 
 wise, the anomaly or irregularity of sev¬ 
 eral words, as to the vowels or accents. 
 It is said that they were the inventors of 
 those points which serve instead of vowels. 
 There is a great difference of opinion as to 
 what time the Masorah was written, but it 
 was probably not all accomplished in one 
 century; but was finished in the tenth or 
 eleventh century. There were several edi¬ 
 tions, varying considerably,but the received 
 and authoritative text is that of Jacob ben- 
 Chajim ibn Adonijah, who carefully sifted 
 and arranged the previous works on the 
 subject. It was published in 1524. A 
 
 very interesting account of the Masoretic 
 writings has been published by Dr. Gins- 
 burg.—Benham: Diet . of Religion. 
 
 Mass (Lat. Missa), “ the name given in 
 the Roman Catholic Church to the eucha- 
 ristic service which in that Church, as well 
 as in theGreekand otherOrientalChurches, 
 is held to be the sacrifice of the new law, 
 a real though unbloody offering, in which 
 Christ is the victim, in substance the same 
 with the sacrifice of the cross, and institut¬ 
 ed as a commemoration of that sacrifice, and 
 as a means of applying its merits, through 
 all ages, for the sanctification of men. 
 The mass is now, in general, denominated, 
 according to the solemnity of the accom¬ 
 panying ceremonial, a 4 low’ mass,’ a 
 ‘ chanted mass,’ or a ‘ high mass.’ In the 
 first a single priest simply reads the ser¬ 
 vice, attended by one or more acolytes or 
 clerks. The second form differs only in 
 this, that the service is chanted instead of 
 being read by the priest. In the high 
 mass, the service is chanted in part by the 
 priest, in part by the deacon and subdea¬ 
 con, by whom, as well as by several minis¬ 
 ters of inferior rank, the priest is assisted. 
 In all these, however, the service, as re¬ 
 gards the form of prayer, is the same. It 
 consists of (1) an introductory prayer com¬ 
 posed of Psalm xli., together w’ith the 
 ‘ general confession ;’ (2) the introit, which 
 is followed by the thrice-repeated petition, 
 
 ‘ Lord, have mercy,’ ‘ Christ have mercy,’ 
 and the hymn, ‘Glory to God on High;’ 
 (3) the collect, or public and joint prayers 
 of priest and people, followed by a lesson 
 either from the Epistles or some book of 
 the Old Testament, and by the ‘ gradual ’ 
 {q. v. ); (4) the gospel, which is commonly 
 followed by the Nicene creed; (5) the of¬ 
 fertory ( q . v.), after the reading of which 
 comes the preparatory offering of the bread 
 and wine, and the washing of the priest’s 
 hands in token of purity of heart, and the 
 ‘ secret,’ a prayer read in a low voice by 
 the priest; (6) the preface, concluding 
 with the trisagion or ‘ thrice holy ’—at 
 which point, by the primitive use, the cat¬ 
 echumens and penitents retired from the 
 church; (7) the ‘canon,’ which is always 
 the same, and which contains all the pray¬ 
 ers connected with the consecration, the 
 elevation, the breaking, and the commun¬ 
 ion of the host and of the chalice, as also 
 the commemorations both of the living and 
 of the dead; (8) the ‘ communion,’which 
 is a short scriptural prayer, usually appro¬ 
 priate to the particular festival; (9) the 
 ‘ post-communion,’ which, like the collect, 
 was a joint prayer of priest and people, 
 and is read or sung aloud; (10) the dis¬ 
 missal with the benediction, and finally, 
 
Mas 
 
 ( 575 ) 
 
 Mas 
 
 the first chapter of St. John’s gospel. 
 Great part of the above prayers are fixed, 
 and form what is called the ‘ ordo ’ or ‘ or¬ 
 dinary ’ of the mass. The rest, which is 
 called the ‘proper of the mass,’ differs for 
 different occasions; some masses being ‘of 
 the season,’ as of lent, advent, passion- 
 tide, ‘ quarter-time,’ etc.; others, of ‘ mys¬ 
 teries,’ as of the nativity, the circumcision, 
 the resurrection; others again, of saints, 
 as of an apostle, a martyr, or a confessor; 
 others again, ‘ votive,’ as ‘ of the passion,’ 
 ‘of the dead,’ ‘for peace,’ etc. In all 
 these various classes, as well as in the in¬ 
 dividual masses under each, the ‘ proper’ 
 portions of the mass differ according to 
 the occasion, and in some of them certain 
 portions of the ‘ ordinary,’ as the ‘ Glory 
 to God on High,’ the ‘ gradual,’ or the 
 ‘ Nicene creed ’ are omitted. On one day 
 in the year, Good Friday, is celebrated 
 what is called the ‘ mass of the presancti¬ 
 fied,' in which no consecration takes place, 
 but in which the priest communicates of 
 the host which was consecrated on the pre¬ 
 ceding day. This usage is found also in 
 the Greek Church, not alone on Good 
 Friday,but on everyday during the lent, ex¬ 
 cept Saturday and Sunday. In the cele¬ 
 bration of mass the priest wears peculiar 
 vestments, five in number—two of linen, 
 called ‘ amice,’ and ‘ alb ’; and three of silk 
 or precious stuffs, called ‘ maniple,’ ‘ stole ’ 
 and ‘ chasuble,’ the alb being girt with a 
 cincture of flaxen or silken cord. The 
 color of these vestments varies with the 
 occasion, five colors being employed on 
 different occasions—white, red, green, 
 purple or violet, and black, and they are 
 often richly embroidered with silk or 
 thread of the precious metals, and occa¬ 
 sionally with precious stones. The priest 
 is required to celebrate the mass fasting, 
 and, unless by special dispensation, is only 
 permitted to offer it once in the day, except 
 on Christmas day, when three masses may 
 be celebrated. 
 
 “ In the Greek and Oriental Churches the 
 eucharistic service, called in Greek theia 
 leitourgia (the divine liturgy), differs in the 
 order of its parts, in the wording of most 
 of its prayers, and in its accompanying cer¬ 
 emonial from the mass of the Latin 
 Church (see Liturgy); but the only differ¬ 
 ences which have any importance as bear¬ 
 ing upon doctrine are their use of leavened 
 bread instead of unleavened; their more 
 frequent celebration of the ‘ mass of the 
 presanctified,' to which reference has al¬ 
 ready been made; the Latin use of private 
 masses in which the priest alone communi¬ 
 cates; and, in general, the much more fre¬ 
 quent celebration of the mass in the Latin 
 Church, The sacred vestments, too. of 
 
 the Greek and Eastern rites differ notably 
 from those of the Latin; and in some of 
 the former—as, for example, the Armenian 
 —a veil is drawn before the altar during 
 that part of the service in which the con¬ 
 secration takes place, which is only with¬ 
 drawn at the time of the communion. The 
 service sometimes used on shipboard, and 
 improperly called missa sicca (dry mass), 
 consists simply of the reading of the pray¬ 
 ers of the mass, but without any consecra¬ 
 tion of the elements. It was resorted to 
 with a view to avoiding the danger of 
 spilling the sacred elements, owing to the 
 unsteady motion of the ship. It is some¬ 
 times also called missa nautica (ship mass).” 
 —Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Massalians. See Messalians. 
 
 Massillon ( mas-sil-lon ), Jean Baptiste, 
 “one of the most distinguished of pulpit or¬ 
 ators, was b. at Hieres, in France, June 24, 
 1663; d. at Clermont, Sept. 18, 1742. His 
 father, a notary, designed the boy for his 
 own profession; and it was only after re¬ 
 peated and persistent efforts that Massillon 
 obtained his father’s permission to enter 
 the congregation of the oratory in 1681. 
 It was while he was engaged in teaching 
 theology in one of the houses of the con¬ 
 gregation in the diocese of Meaux that he 
 made his first essay in the pulpit at Vienne. 
 His funeral oration on M.Villars, the arch¬ 
 bishop of Vienne, was eminently success¬ 
 ful, and led to his being called by the su¬ 
 periors of the oratory to Paris, where he 
 first had the opportunity of hearing Bour- 
 daloue, whose style and manner, without 
 being exactly taken by Massillon as a 
 model, had great influence in forming the 
 taste of the young aspirant. Like Bourda- 
 loue, he avoided the declamatory manner 
 and theatrical action then popular in the 
 French pulpit; but the earnest impressive¬ 
 ness of his look and voice more than sup¬ 
 plied the vigor and energy which other 
 speakers sought from these adventitious 
 aids. His course of ecclesiastical confer¬ 
 ences, delivered in the seminary of St. 
 Magloire, established his reputation. The 
 criticism of Louis XIV., after his advent 
 course at Versailles, that ‘ when he heard 
 other great preachers he felt satisfied with 
 them, but when he heard Massillon he felt 
 dissatisfied with himself,’ well expresses 
 the characteristics of the eloquence of this 
 great orator, who, more than any of his 
 contemporaries, was able to lay bare the 
 secret springs of human action, and to use 
 the feelings and the passions of his audi¬ 
 ence as arms against themselves. He was 
 again appointed to preach the Lent at Ver¬ 
 sailles in 1704; but although the king was 
 
Mas 
 
 ( 576 ) 
 
 Mat 
 
 again equally warm in his admiration of 
 the preacher, Massillon was never after¬ 
 ward invited to preach in the presence of 
 this monarch; yet his funeral oration on 
 the Prince de Conti, in 1709, was one of 
 the greatest triumphs of his oratory. Soon 
 after the death of Louis XIV., Massillon, 
 in 1717, was named bishop of Clermont, 
 and in the same year was appointed to 
 preach before the young king, Louis XV., 
 for which occasion he composed his cele¬ 
 brated petit creme —a series of ten sermons. 
 It was not till 1719 that he was consecrated 
 bishop of Clermont, in which year also he 
 was elected a member of the Academy; and 
 in 1723 he preached the funeral oration of 
 the Duchess of Orleans, his last public dis¬ 
 course in Paris. From this time he lived 
 almost entirely for his diocese, where his 
 charity, gentleness, and amiable disposition 
 gained him the affections of all. His works, 
 consisting mainly of sermons and other 
 similar compositions, were collected in 12 
 vols., by his nephew, and published in 
 1745-46.” — Chambers : Cyclopedia. For 
 translations of his sermons, see Dodd: Ser¬ 
 mons on the Duties of the Great (London, 
 1776); Sermons , with a Life , by D’Alembert 
 (London, 1837). 
 
 Massora. See Masorites. 
 
 Mass-Priests were, in early times, sec¬ 
 ular priests, as distinguished from regular: 
 afterward they were priests who, by spe¬ 
 cial appointment, said masses in chapels or 
 at particular altars for the souls of the 
 wealthy donors who had endowed them. 
 
 Matamoros, Manuel, a Spanish Protes¬ 
 tant,whose life and sufferings aroused great 
 interest in many countries; b. Oct. 8, 1835, 
 at Lepe, in the Province of Huelva; d. at 
 Lausanne, July 31, 1866. At the wish of 
 his father, who was a captain in the Spanish 
 artillery, he entered the military school at 
 Toledo. Upon the death of his father he 
 left the school and lived with his mother at 
 Malaga. While visiting Gibraltar he ac¬ 
 cidentally attended a Protestant service, and 
 heard a sermon by Ruet, who had been 
 converted under the preaching of Sanctis, 
 in Turin, and afterward banished from 
 Spain for preaching the gospel in Barce¬ 
 lona. Convinced of his spiritual need, 
 Matamoros commenced the study of the 
 New Testament. He renounced all alle¬ 
 giance to the Roman Church. Through the 
 aid of a Protestant society in Paris he be¬ 
 gan to labor in Granada, Seville and Bar¬ 
 celona (i860). At Granada he became ac¬ 
 quainted with Alhama, a hat-maker, who 
 had been converted by an American tract. 
 This Christian preacher was thrown into 
 
 prison, and when letters were found on his 
 person from Matamoros and three other 
 converts, they were also arrested and im¬ 
 prisoned. Matamoros, while in confine¬ 
 ment for two years, contracted the disease 
 that caused his death. Through the efforts 
 of the Evangelical Alliance he was re¬ 
 leased, and banished from the country for 
 nine years. He visited England and met 
 with a cordial reception, and from there 
 went to Lausanne, where he attended the 
 theological seminary. Through the liber¬ 
 ality of an American lady, he established 
 a school at Pau, in southern France, while 
 visiting there for his health. He died at 
 Lausanne a few days before the time set 
 for his ordination. His loyalty to Christ, 
 noble character, and earnest devotion to 
 the work of evangelizing his native country 
 will long be remembered. 
 
 Mater Dolorosa ( the mourning mother ), 
 a name given to certain pictures of the 
 Virgin, which represent her alone, without 
 the child, and weeping. See Mrs. Jame¬ 
 son: Legends of the Madonna. 
 
 Materialism. As the word implies, Ma¬ 
 terialism deals merely with matter, with 
 that which we can appreciate with our 
 senses. According to it, nothing at all 
 exists but matter—there is no such thing 
 as a separate spiritual existence. There 
 is no God, and no spirit in man which can 
 hold communion with him; none is re¬ 
 quired, since God is non-existent. Mate¬ 
 rialism is the basis, in one way or other, 
 for nearly all forms of unbelief. Thus, 
 Atheism denies that there is a God: hence, 
 the mystery of our own being, and of the 
 world around us, has to be explained by 
 Materialism. Pantheism regards God as a 
 kind of animating principle, or impersonal 
 soul of the world; God and Nature become 
 interchangeable ideas; matter is merged 
 into God, and a kind of materialism has to 
 explain how Nature begat matter and life. 
 Deism , Naturalism , Pationalism admit that 
 God created the world, but that, having 
 once done this, he takes no further part in 
 its government, but leaves it to be regu¬ 
 lated by fixed laws. The difficulty of the 
 origin of life and matter is thus got over, 
 but a phase of Materialism has to be called 
 in to explain how the world keeps on with¬ 
 out a Divine Ruler. So also the Positivist 
 makes a clean sweep, even of the idea of 
 God, ascribing it merely to erroneous teach¬ 
 ing, and he, too, has only matter left to 
 deal with. (Atheism; Pantheism; Deism; 
 Positivism.) Materialism merges God in 
 matter, and its creed is, “ There is nothing 
 but matter.” 
 
 The History of Materialism is a long one. 
 
w 
 
 Mat ( 577 ) Mat 
 
 It pervades the whole history or mankind. 
 The gloomy outlook to which it leads is 
 before us in the words of the “ Preacher,” 
 “ Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.” It 
 seems to have flourished in the Chinese 
 Empire early in the third century before 
 Christ, and earlier still in Greece. Democ¬ 
 ritus, B. C. 460, first propounded the 
 “atomic theory,” still held, with some 
 changes, by Materialists at the present day. 
 He taught that matter is eternal, that it 
 consists of minute atoms incapable of divis¬ 
 ion, with spaces between them. He de¬ 
 rived the soul from the finest fire atoms. 
 Epicurus, b. c. 342, maintained that much 
 of the unhappiness and degradation of man¬ 
 kind arose from the slavish dread which 
 they entertained of the power and wrath of 
 the gods in this life and after death. To 
 remove these fears he taught that the gods 
 dwelt in sublime peacefulness, and were 
 indifferent to the world and its inhabitants, 
 and he sought to show that the material 
 universe was not created by the gods, but 
 that all the objects in it were formed 
 by the union of elementary atoms, which 
 had existed from all eternity, and were gov¬ 
 erned by simple laws. Lucretius, a Latin 
 poet, about three hundred years later, tried 
 to popularize and make these views attract¬ 
 ive in a long poem, De Renwi Natura , in 
 which, whilst he apostrophized the gods, 
 he yet sought to free his countrymen from 
 the tyranny of their religious beliefs. He 
 begins with the axiom that nothing can be 
 produced from nothing, and that nothing 
 can be reduced to nothing; and then goes 
 on to define the ultimate atoms, infinite in 
 number, which, together with vacant space, 
 infinite in extent, constitute the universe. 
 Generally speaking, these principles are 
 maintained by modern Materialistic writers. 
 Sir W. Thomson, however, holds that the 
 primary substance is a Derfect fluid which 
 fills all space, atoms being only the rotat¬ 
 ing portions of this fluid. These atoms 
 are, however, only objects of faith to the 
 Materialist, for they have never been seen. 
 Lucretius endowed atoms with the power 
 of motion and of freewill, and thus he en¬ 
 deavored to show how they came together 
 to make a beginning of organized nature; 
 whilst Materialists of the present day deny 
 the power of motion to atoms and, of 
 course, of freewill. Man, they say, is a 
 Necessitarian, he has no freewill, since all 
 his passions and thoughts are mere func¬ 
 tions of organized substance. 
 
 During the long conflict between Chris¬ 
 tianity and Paganism, Materialism, as a 
 philosophy, passed out of sight, but again 
 came into power at the time of the French 
 Revolution, when “ There is no God in 
 heaven, no soul in man, no future life ” 
 
 was the creed of many of the rulers of the 
 French people. Modern English Material¬ 
 ism made a fresh start with H. G. Atkin¬ 
 son and Harriet Martineau; and at the 
 present time, the writings of Professors 
 Tyndall and Huxley state the Materialistic 
 argument in a powerful as well as attractive 
 manner, although it is only just to say that 
 these gentlemen do not call themselves 
 Materialists, and, indeed, deny some of the 
 apparently logical materialisticconclusions. 
 
 Origin of the Universe according to Ma¬ 
 terialists. — Allowing the existence of 
 atoms, Materialists now rely on the law of 
 gravitation to explain the movements of 
 atoms whereby they came together and 
 formed the various kinds of matter, organ¬ 
 ized and unorganized, with which we are 
 acquainted. This law is “ that every body 
 attracts every other body with a force pro¬ 
 portional to their masses conjointly, and to 
 the square of their distances apart inverse¬ 
 ly.” Hence, they say, the atoms would 
 come together of themselves; but in order 
 that they may do this it has further to be 
 assumed, either that the atoms are of differ¬ 
 ent sizes, or that they are at unequal dis¬ 
 tances apart, since, if they were all equal 
 in size and all equidistant, there could be 
 no motion, their mutual attractions exactly 
 balancing each other. But this assumption 
 is fatal to the theory, since—matter being 
 a single substance, and hence uniformly 
 divided—it would have to be allowed that 
 some other power had collected matter into 
 unequal atoms, or had set these at varying 
 distances apart. This position is in no way 
 altered by using the terms energy and force. 
 Energy is defined by physicists to be the 
 power of doing work; force, the rate at 
 which that work is done. The energy 
 which moves atoms must—as there is noth¬ 
 ing but matter divided into atoms—be resi¬ 
 dent in them, but this will not help to ex¬ 
 plain how they first moved together, since 
 physical science declares that energy is 
 locked up in matter, and only becomes 
 active in consequence of some previous 
 energy exerted, i. e., of some work done 
 (for example, the stone cannot fall to the 
 ground until it has been, by work, lifted 
 up; the spring cannot recoil until it has 
 been first bent). Hence, to unloose the 
 pent-up energy of the atoms, to convert 
 what is called potential into actual energy, 
 there would be wanted the exercise of 
 some previous energy altogether outside 
 matter, and therefore unknown to Mate¬ 
 rialists. Materialism, then, fails to explain 
 how the universe was first formed, and we 
 are compelled to go back for an explanation 
 of this to some great First Cause—in short, 
 to God. Supposing, however, the difficulty 
 of starting the universe to be surmounted. 
 
Mat 
 
 ( 573 ) 
 
 Mat 
 
 Materialists then make great strides with 
 the help of the doctrine of Evolution, since, 
 to a large extent, they are treading on firm 
 and sure ground; but again they break 
 down when they try to explain, by its 
 means, man’s spirit and intellect and moral 
 sense. 
 
 There remains to be discussed the origin 
 of life. How does Materialism explain 
 this ? Living things, whether plants or 
 animals, from the lowest to the highest, 
 feed, grow, and reproduce themselves: 
 these are the signs of life. Besides living 
 things, there are the various lifeless sub¬ 
 stances making up the soil and the air and 
 water. Where is the point of contact be¬ 
 tween living and non-living things ? It has 
 been discovered that plants have the power 
 of taking up the various constituents of 
 soil, water, and air, and converting them 
 into living matter—in short, of feeding 
 upon them; whilst animals can only feed 
 upon living matter, or that which has once 
 lived—on plants or other animals. Hence 
 we have non-living matter converted into 
 living matter, but only by a living agent. 
 Is there any evidence to prove that any 
 form of life can be developed out of matter 
 without life ? Professors Tyndall and 
 Huxley admit that they cannot point to any 
 proof that life can be developed except 
 from previous life. Life can only be pro¬ 
 duced from some living germ. Here again 
 the Materialist theory breaks down ; it 
 fails altogether to explain the origin of life. 
 
 Materialism necessarily dispenses with 
 Religion; it denies the existence of God, of 
 the soul, of a future life: hence prayer and 
 worship have no meaning. It likewise un¬ 
 dermines the basis of Morals. Man, being 
 only a complicated aggregation of atoms of 
 matter governed by physical laws, is alto¬ 
 gether irresponsible for his actions. A Ma¬ 
 terialist who is intelligent enough can have 
 no conscience, no sense of sin, no ideas of 
 right or wrong. Harriet Martineau said, 
 
 ‘ ‘ When we have finally dismissed all notion 
 of subjection to a superior lawless will, all 
 the perplexing notions of sin and responsi¬ 
 bility . . . . the relief is like that of coming 
 out of a cave full of painted shadows under 
 the free sky.” Another Materialist, Vogt, 
 has expressed himself with great plainness: 
 “ Freewill does not exist, neither does any 
 amenability or responsibility, such as mor¬ 
 als, penal justice, and Heaven knows 
 what else, would impose upon us. At no 
 moment are we our own masters any more 
 than we can decree as to the secretion of 
 our kidneys. The organism cannot govern 
 itself; it is governed by the law of its ma¬ 
 terial combination. It is impossible to 
 demonstrate the admissibility of punish¬ 
 ment.” Such is Materialism carried to its 
 
 logical conclusions. Many Materialists are 
 vastly better than this creed. But it would 
 be a mistake to attribute their character to 
 their Materialism. It is due rather to early 
 training, and to the silent influence of cen¬ 
 turies of Christian habits and feelings upon 
 the society amongst which they live. They 
 are unknowing witnesses to the life and 
 power of Christianity, which compels them 
 to adopt its high moral standard.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. See F. A. Lange: Ge- 
 schichte des ATaterialistnus, translated by 
 Thomas. Among the advocates of Ma¬ 
 terialism are Strauss, Spencer, Huxley, 
 Tyndall, etc. Its opponents number Beal, 
 Carpenter, Bowen, Joseph Cook, Hodge, 
 Le Conte, McCosh, Porter, Flint, etc. 
 
 Mather, Cotton, “ was the most learned 
 and widely known of a family which 
 through four generations enjoyed singular 
 consideration, and exercised commanding 
 influence upon New England in its first 
 century. Richard, son of Thomas Mather 
 of Lowton (Winwick), Lancashire, Eng¬ 
 land, after studying for a time at Brase- 
 nose, Oxford, and teaching and subsequent¬ 
 ly preaching at Yoxteth Park, went to New 
 England for nonconformity’s sake, in the 
 summer of 1635, where, till his death in 
 1669, at seventy-three, he was pastor of 
 the Congregational church in Dorchester 
 (now a part of Boston), acquiring large re¬ 
 pute, writing three or four instructive and 
 constructive treatises upon polity, and be¬ 
 ing much trusted as to the foundations of 
 both church and state. His youngest son, 
 Increase, took his first degree at Harvard 
 College in T656, at seventeen, returning 
 after a visit to the old country, in which he 
 served several pulpits, to take, at twenty- 
 five, the pastorate of the Second (or North) 
 Church in Boston, which place he held till 
 his death in 1723, at eighty-five; while, in 
 addition, he had been acting, or actual, 
 president of the college most of the time 
 from 1681 to 1701; the author of one hun¬ 
 dred and sixty books or tracts, and, for four 
 of its most perilous years, the choice of all 
 its citizens to represent the Massachusetts 
 colony before the English Government. 
 His wife, Maria, was daughter of the fa¬ 
 mous John Cotton, and their first-born re¬ 
 ceived both family names, and when he 
 took his B. A. degree at less than sixteen, 
 at Harvard, in 1678, his promise tempted 
 President Oakes to say in his presence, re¬ 
 ferring to his two distinguished grand¬ 
 fathers; “ Cottonus atque Alatherus tarn re 
 qnam nomine coalescant et reviviscant.' 
 After a short time spent as a tutor, and a 
 period of diligent toil ending in the con¬ 
 quest of an impediment of speech which 
 endangered success in the family profes* 
 
Mat 
 
 ( 579 ) 
 
 Mat 
 
 sicn, he became assistant to his father, in 
 two years being ordained pastor, and hold¬ 
 ing the pulpit for nearly three and forty 
 years, till his death at sixty-five. As a 
 private Christian, from his frank diaries, it 
 is clear that he labored much with himself, 
 in a single year devoting more than sixty 
 days to fasting, and twenty nights to vigil. 
 As a preacher he was conscientious and 
 successful, always diligently studying his 
 discourses, in one year delivering more 
 than seventy public sermons, with nearly 
 half as many in private houses, sometimes 
 thus ‘ pressing a glorious Christ’ through 
 eleven successive days; and, with six com¬ 
 petitors by his side, maintaining to the last 
 his hold upon the largest congregation in 
 New England, having about four hundred 
 gifted communicants. As a pastor he was 
 exceptionally laborious, systematically ex¬ 
 horting and praying with his people at their 
 homes, making conscience of spiritualizing 
 every casual interview, and now and then 
 spending days upon his knees with the 
 names of his flock before him to prompt 
 his intercessions for them, and for himself, 
 that he might better reach their peculiar 
 need. As a philanthropist, while abundant 
 in personal benefactions, he originated 
 more than twenty societies for public chari¬ 
 ty, bore the cost of a school for Christian¬ 
 izing the negroes, and, at the risk of life, 
 in the face of popular opposition, medically 
 led, advocated, and vindicated the intro¬ 
 duction of inoculation as a protection 
 against the then terrible ravages of the 
 small-pox. As an author he was learned— 
 publishing in French, Spanish, and Algon- 
 kin as well as English—and voluminous, 
 three hundred and eighty-two of his print¬ 
 ed works having been catalogued, several 
 of which are elaborate books, and one a 
 folio of 800 pages; while his Biblia Ameri¬ 
 cana, by him considered the great work 
 of his life, remains in six huge volumes of 
 manuscript to this day. As a scholar he 
 was better known across the sea than any 
 other American of his time, once contem¬ 
 poraneously corresponding with more than 
 fifty learned Europeans, in his forty- 
 seventh year being made doctor of divinity 
 at Glasgow, and receiving election as a 
 fellow of the Royal Society, in those days 
 eminent distinctions for a colonist. With 
 all this it must be confessed that he had 
 some grave defects. His common-sense 
 was not uniformly equal to his need. Al¬ 
 ways ambitious and self-opinioned, he was 
 occasionally irritable and conceited. He 
 lacked good taste, and it was his uncon¬ 
 cealed grief that he was never elected to 
 preside over Harvard College. His enor¬ 
 mous knowledge did not digest well, and 
 his use of learning tended to be crude. He 
 
 was superstitious, and it was his misfor¬ 
 tune that, as to witchcraft, he was not, as 
 with vaccination, in advance of his genera¬ 
 tion, any more than such men as Richard 
 Baxter and Sir Matthew Hale. Of his 
 works, the Magnalia and Ratio Disciplines 
 are indispensable to the student of New 
 England history.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Mathew, Theobald, popularly known as 
 “ Father Mathew,” the apostle of Tem¬ 
 perance in Ireland, was b. at Thomastown, 
 in Tipperary, Oct. 10, 1790; d. at Queens¬ 
 town, Dec. 8, 1856. He studied at Kil¬ 
 kenny and Maynooth, and became a priest 
 in the Roman Catholic Church in 1814. He 
 became head of the Capuchin monastery 
 at Cork, where he established a society foi 
 visiting the poor, after the model of those of 
 St. Vincent de Paul. Through the influ¬ 
 ence of one of his fellow-governors, Wil¬ 
 liam Martin, a Quaker, he became deeply 
 interested in the cause of temperance. 
 From the spring of 1838, he devoted his 
 energies to the advocacy of total absti¬ 
 nence. He met with wonderful success, 
 and within a few months many thousands 
 signed the pledge. He traveled all over 
 Ireland, Scotland and England, and spent 
 two years in America (1849-51). His en¬ 
 terprise involved him in financial straits, 
 from which he was partially relieved by a 
 royal annuity of 300 pounds. His memory 
 is justly cherished as one of the greatest 
 of Ireland’s benefactors. 
 
 Mathilde, Countess of Tuscany, b. 
 1046; d. in the monastery of Bondeno 
 de’Roncori, July 24, 1115. She was adaugh- 
 ter of Boniface, Marquis of Tuscany, who 
 changed from an adherent of the German 
 emperor in his struggle with the pope, 
 and in later life sustained the side of the 
 papal power. His daughter sympathized 
 with him, and when she came into posses¬ 
 sion of her father’s estate in North and 
 Central Italy, while quite young, she was 
 an earnest supporter of Gregory VII. 
 against Henry IV., and after Gregory’s 
 death carried on the war with great skill. 
 Mathilde was married twice, first to God¬ 
 frey of Lorraine, and afterward to Duke 
 Welf of Bavaria, from whom she was di¬ 
 vorced. 
 
 Matins, the name given to the first of 
 the seven daily hours of prayer, which 
 were held in England previous to the Ref¬ 
 ormation. It came about daybreak. 
 
 Matthew, The Gospel According to. 
 “ Its author .—The author of this Gospel is 
 presumed to be the Matthew mentioned in 
 chap. ix. 9, who is called Levi, the son of 
 
Mat 
 
 ( 58o ) 
 
 Mat 
 
 Alphaeus, in Mark ii. 14 (see Luke v. 27), 
 and is described as a publican, whose busi¬ 
 ness it was to collect the Roman custom 
 on goods crossing the Sea of Tiberias, but 
 who rose and left the receipt of custom on 
 the simple call of Christ, and afterward 
 became one of his twelve apostles. We 
 know nothing for certain of the author’s 
 after-history, except what may in a gen¬ 
 eral way may be deduced from the tenor of 
 this Gospel. From the structure, or drift, 
 of it, it has been inferred that he was at 
 first the apostle of Christianity to the Jews, 
 probably in Palestine, and afterward, in 
 .consequence of their rejection of his testi¬ 
 mony, the witness of its truth to other 
 nations—tradition says in Ethiopia, Ind^a, 
 and Parthia—in which last country he is 
 further said to have suffered martyrdom 
 for the faith. He is generally represented 
 in Christian art as an old man, with a large 
 flowing beard, and often as occupied in 
 writing his Gospel with an angel standing 
 by him. 
 
 “Original language .— According to the 
 unanimous testimony of the earliest writ¬ 
 ers in the Christian Church who refer to 
 the subject, Matthew wrote his Gospel in 
 Hebrew, i. e., in Aramaic, the current 
 language of Palestine. On the other hand, 
 it is pretty generally agreed that our Gos¬ 
 pel as it stands in Greek is not a trans¬ 
 lation from the Hebrew, but an original 
 composition in Greek. Did Matthew write 
 two Gospels ? or are we to say that our 
 Gospel is not the genuine Gospel? or were 
 the ancient writers mistaken in supposing 
 the Gospel was written in Hebrew ? or, 
 lastly, was the Hebrew Gospel of which 
 they wrote not genuine ? Another piece 
 of information throws some light on these 
 questions. Later church writers refer to 
 and quote from a “ Gospel according to 
 the Hebrews,” a book which was not ac¬ 
 cepted by the general Church, but used by 
 Judaizing sects. Some fragments of this 
 Gospel remain, and they do not coincide 
 with our Gospel. Yet we cannot suppose 
 it likely that this book, rejected by the 
 Church, handed over to heretics and now 
 lost, was the true work of the apostle; 
 whilst our Gospel, which is a great and 
 evidently inspired book, is only a second¬ 
 hand imitation. Is it not much more rea¬ 
 sonable to believe that ours is the original 
 work, written in Greek, and that the 
 Church tradition that Matthew wrote in 
 Hebrew grew out of the knowledge that a 
 Hebrew Gospel existed, as undoubtedly it 
 did exist ? This view is supported by the 
 fact that none of the earliest writers re¬ 
 ferred to state that they themselves had 
 ever seen the Hebrew original. It is quite 
 possible that uncritical men, who had only 
 
 heard by report of a Hebrew Gospel, in 
 many respects like Matthew’s Gospel, 
 should have imagined that this was the 
 original work of the Apostle to the He¬ 
 brews. We may probably conclude, then, 
 that rumors of the ‘ Gospel according to 
 the Hebrews,’ reaching men who had not 
 seen that Gospel, led them to identify the 
 work with Matthew’s Gospel, whilst in 
 fact it was another work, but that Matthew 
 wrote his Gospel in Greek. 
 
 “Genuineness .—This question is closely 
 connected with the preceding subject. But 
 further it is to be noted that Papias, a dis¬ 
 ciple of the apostle John, who lived in the 
 early part of the second century, and 
 Irenaeus, who knew John’s intimate disciple 
 Polycarp, tell us that Matthew wrote a 
 Gospel, though they say, as we have seen, 
 that this was in Hebrew. But Irenaeus 
 quotes from our Gospel as Matthew’s. 
 Justin Martyr, who wrote only forty years 
 after the death of John, frequently quotes 
 from our Gospel. His quotations have 
 been referred by some to another source— 
 perhaps some document now lost—because 
 they are not accurate. But Justin Mar¬ 
 tyr’s quotations from the Septuagint are 
 just as loose as his quotations from Mat¬ 
 thew. When books were produced in the 
 form of cumbrous rolls, and when verbal 
 accuracy was not much considered, quota¬ 
 tions from memory may have been frequent¬ 
 ly given without a reference to the author¬ 
 ity cited. As the inaccuracy which would 
 thus arise is seen with Justin’s use of the 
 Septuagint, there is no reason to be sur¬ 
 prised at finding it also in his use of Mat¬ 
 thew. Then the beautiful little Epistle to 
 Diognetus—about the same date—appears 
 to quote Matthew; so does Hegesippus. 
 The later writers, Tertullian, Clement, 
 and Origen, undoubtedly knew our Gospel. 
 Henceforth the general acceptance of the 
 book is unquestionable. 
 
 “Date. — According to Irenaeus, Mat¬ 
 thew wrote his Gospel when, as he repre¬ 
 sents it, Peter and Paul were founding the 
 Church at Rome—that is, about the year 
 62 A. D. 
 
 “Aim. —The aim of this Gospel is to 
 show that the Messiah promised in the Old 
 Testament has appeared in Jesus of Naz¬ 
 areth—in a form, however, which led to 
 his rejection by the Jews, and their conse¬ 
 quent rejection by him, to the eventual 
 emancipation and salvation of the Gentile 
 nations (chap, xxviii. 19, 20). It is the 
 author’s justification, as it was that of the 
 apostles generally, for missionary work 
 among the heathen to the neglect of his 
 own countrymen, who had spurned his 
 message. 
 
 “The matter , character , and its arrange- 
 
Mat 
 
 < 581) 
 
 Mau 
 
 ment. —The arrangement is often not chron¬ 
 ological, but topical, while the matter 
 which we more particularly owe to it em¬ 
 braces the Sermon on the Mount (chap. v. 
 -vii.), Christ’s charge to his apostles (chap, 
 x.), most of the parables in chap, xiii., that 
 of the unmerciful servant (chap, xviii.), 
 and some in chaps, xxi.-xxviii. It is not 
 written with such spiritual insight as is 
 John’s, or even Luke’s Gospel, and hence 
 was called by the Fathers the ‘ somatic,’ 
 or bodily Gospel.”—Bagster: Bible Helps . 
 See Com?nentaries of Alford, Wordsworth, 
 J. A. Alexander, Lange, Eng. trans. by 
 Schaff (1864); Mansel, in Speaker's Commen¬ 
 tary; G. P. Fisher: Beginnings of Chris¬ 
 tianity, pp. 256-286. 
 
 Matthew’s-Day, St., commemorated in 
 the Roman and Anglican Churches on Sept. 
 21, and by the Greek, Nov. 16. 
 
 Matthew of Paris, one of the most learned 
 men of his day; b. early in the thirteenth 
 century. His surname was given probably 
 from the fact that he was perhaps born or 
 studied in Paris. He entered the Cluniac 
 monastery at St. Albans in 1217, and 
 through the favor of Henry III. he secured 
 certain privileges for the University of Ox¬ 
 ford. He died in 1259. His great work 
 was the Historia Anglica Major , extending 
 from 1066 to 1259. The first part was cop¬ 
 ied from the Chronicle of Roger of Wend- 
 over. 
 
 Matthew of Westminster, so called be¬ 
 cause he was a Benedictine in the monas¬ 
 tery of Westminster. His work, Flores His- 
 toriarum , is an abridgment of the Historia 
 Major of Matthew of Paris. 
 
 Maundy Thursday, the day preceding 
 Good Friday. The word “ maundy ” is 
 identified with the “ mandatum ” of the ru¬ 
 bric, which refers to the “ new command¬ 
 ment” of John xiii. 34, especially to the 
 precept given in the chapter “ to wash one 
 another’s feet.” For many centuries past 
 the pope on this day has washed the feet 
 of twelve beggars, and the custom is prac¬ 
 ticed by the Austrian emperor and other 
 Roman Catholic sovereigns. 
 
 Maur, St., a Congregation of the order 
 of Benedictines in France. During the lat¬ 
 ter part of the Middle Ages the order had 
 sunk very low, and in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century efforts were made to 
 revive it. Didier de la Cour established 
 the order, with severe discipline, at the 
 monastery of St. Vanne. In 1614 a con¬ 
 vention of the French clergy sought a union 
 of all the Benedictine monasteries with St. 
 
 Vanne, but the chapter-general feared the 
 results of such an extension, and Dom 
 Benard, a monk of St. Vanne, received au¬ 
 thority from Louis XIII., in 1618, to form 
 a new order, which was placed under the 
 patronage of St. Maur. The sixteen prov¬ 
 inces, into which the order was divided, had 
 about twenty religious houses. Besides 
 the rule of St. Benedict, they had special 
 constitutions. They gave particular care 
 to the interests of learning and the educa¬ 
 tion of the young. In the line of historical 
 investigation their labors have been im¬ 
 mense. They have published editions of 
 the Fathers of great value. The Congre¬ 
 gation was suppressed during the Revolu¬ 
 tion, but revived, in 1837, at the abbey of 
 Solesmes. 
 
 Maurice of Saxony, b. at Freiberg, 
 March 21, 1521; d. in the camp at Sievers- 
 hausen, July 11, 1553. He succeeded his 
 father as duke of Saxony in 1541, and was 
 made elector after the battle of Mtihlberg, 
 1547. He had early embraced the Ref¬ 
 ormation and signed the Articles of Smal- 
 cald, but he did not join the League. For 
 the purpose of furthering his ambitious 
 plans, at the Diet of Ratisbon (1546) he 
 made a secret alliance with Charles V. 
 When the war broke out he invaded the 
 territory of his cousin, the elector of 
 Saxony, who returned and drove Maurice 
 out of his country, and took from him his 
 dukedom. With the aid of the emperor he 
 soon returned, and was given a consider¬ 
 able part of the territory of his cousin, and 
 made elector. By the terms of the Diet of 
 Augsburg (1548), he was left free in relig¬ 
 ious matters, and he rejected the Augs¬ 
 burg Interim; but the Leipzig Interim, 
 adopted after conference with Melanchthon 
 and others, did not please his subjects. 
 This position of affairs, in connection with 
 the treachery of the emperor in keeping 
 his father-in-law as a prisoner, led Maurice 
 to form an alliance with France. By a 
 sudden attack, while the emperor was sick 
 at Imspruck, he compelled him to flee for 
 his life. Through the efforts of King Fer¬ 
 dinand the Convention of Passau was held, 
 Aug., 1552, and full religious liberty was 
 granted to the Protestants. This victory 
 made Maurice the military leader of the 
 Reformers. In a feud with the Margrave 
 of Brandenburg he was wounded, and 
 died a few days afterward. 
 
 Maurice, Rev. John Frederick Deni¬ 
 son, D. D., “a distinguished divine of the 
 Church of England, and one of the most 
 influential thinkers of his age, was the son 
 of a Unitarian minister, and was born in 
 Normanston, Suffolk, Eng., Aug. 29, 1805. 
 
Mau 
 
 ( 582 ) 
 
 May 
 
 His reputation at the university for schol¬ 
 arship stood high, but being at this time a 
 dissenter, and otherwise not in a position 
 to sign theThirty-nine Articles, he left Cam¬ 
 bridge without taking a degree, and com¬ 
 menced a literary career in London. To 
 this period belongs his novel entitled 
 Eustace Conway. He also wrote for the 
 Athenceian, which had then been recently 
 started by James Silk Buckingham. After 
 the lapse of two years, a change came over 
 his religious sentiments and opinions; his 
 spirit was profoundly stirred and influenced 
 by the speculations of Coleridge, and he 
 now resolved to become a clergyman of 
 the Church of England. He did not, how¬ 
 ever, return to Cambridge, but proceeded 
 to Oxford, where he took the degree of M. 
 A., and was ordained a priest about 1828. 
 From that time the aim of his whole life 
 was the interpretation of Christianity in 
 accordance with the most pure and spirit¬ 
 ual conceptions of our nature; nor have his 
 labors been without result. At the time 
 of his death there was probably no clergy¬ 
 man in the United Kingdom more deeply 
 reverenced and loved than he was by a 
 large body of the thoughtful and cultivated 
 portion of the religious laity. He also 
 succeeded in gathering round him, zvithin 
 the Church, a large number of adherents, 
 especially among the younger clergy, who 
 constitute what is commonly called the 
 ‘ Broad-Church ’ party, though its mem¬ 
 bers repudiate any sectional tendency, and 
 do not associate for the purpose of carry¬ 
 ing out any sectional schemes, like the 
 ‘ Evangelicals ’ and Tractarians. Maurice’s 
 theological opinions, especially on the 
 question of the atonement, are not con¬ 
 sidered ‘ sound ’ by the ‘ orthodox ' portion 
 of the clergy; and the publication of a 
 volume of Theological Essays, in which, 
 among other heresies, he took the chari¬ 
 table view of future punishments, lost 
 him the professorship of theology in King’s 
 College, London. For many years Maurice 
 was chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn, but in 1S60 
 he was appointed incumbent of the District 
 Church of Vere Street, Mary-le-bone. He 
 was always a warm and enlightened friend 
 of the working classes, and founded the 
 first Working-man’s College in London. 
 Maurice became professor of moral philos¬ 
 ophy at Cambridge in 1866, and died April 
 1, 1S72. He wrote largely. All his works 
 are written in the most exquisite English, 
 and display a beauty and tenderness of 
 Christian sentiment that are nearly fault¬ 
 less, but united with a subtlety of thought 
 that frequently passes into mysticism. His 
 principal productions are his Mental and 
 Moral Philosophy; Religions of the World; 
 Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament; 
 
 Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment; The Kingdom of Christ; The Doc¬ 
 trine of Sacrifice; Theological Essays; Lect¬ 
 ures on the Ecclesiastical History of the 
 First and Second Centuries; Gospel of St. 
 John; and Social Morality —Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. See The Life of John Frederick 
 Denison Maurice , by his son (London,1884), 
 2 vols. 
 
 Maury, Jean Siffrein, Roman Catholic 
 cardinal; b. at Valreas in Venaissin, June 
 26, 1746; d. at Montefiascone, May 11, 
 1817. Educated at Avignon, he early at¬ 
 tracted attention as an orator. Elected a 
 member of the States-General in 1780, he 
 was an eloquent defender of the Crown, as 
 well as the Church. Compelled to leave 
 France, he found refuge in Rome, in 1792, 
 and was received by Pius VII. with pecul¬ 
 iar honor, and made a bishop of Montefias¬ 
 cone and cardinal in 1794. Having become 
 reconciled with the French Government he 
 returned to Paris in 1806, and became in¬ 
 timate with Napoleon, who made him arch¬ 
 bishop of Paris, in 1810. The pope re¬ 
 fused to sanction this appointment, and 
 when the Bourbons regained power he was 
 expelled from his see. Visiting Rome to 
 plead his case before the pope, he was im¬ 
 prisoned in the Castle of St. Angelo, and 
 kept there until he resigned his see. A 
 part of his writings were published by his 
 nephew (Paris, 1827, 5 vols). See his Life 
 by Ponjoulat (Paris, 1835). 
 
 Maximus, Confessor, b. in Constanti¬ 
 nople about 580; d. in the castle of Shem- 
 ari, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, 
 Aug. 13, 662; was the chief champion and 
 martyr in the Monothelite controversy, and 
 one of the most acute theologians and most 
 subtle mystics of the Greek Church. See 
 Wagenmann in Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 May, Samuel J., b. in Boston, Sept. 12, 
 1797; d. in Syracuse, N. Y., July 1, 1871. 
 After graduating at Harvard in 1817 he 
 was pastor of a Unitarian Church at Brook¬ 
 lyn, Conn. (1822-35). In 1835 he acted as 
 agent of the Massachusetts Anti-slavery 
 Society, and in 1836 was pastor in South 
 Scituate, Mass; 1842-45 principal of the 
 Lexington Normal School for Girls; 1845- 
 68 pastor at Syracuse. He was ardently 
 devoted to the anti-slavery cause, and his 
 life was often endangered. He wrote 
 Recollections of our Anti-slavery Conflict 
 (Boston, 1869). See his Memoir, by J. T. 
 Mumford (1873). 
 
 Mayer, Lewis, D. D., German Reformed; 
 b. at Lancaster, Pa., March 26, 1783; d. at 
 York, Pa., Aug. 25, 1849. He was or - 
 
May 
 
 ( 583 ) 
 
 Mea 
 
 dained, 1807; pastor at Shepherdstown, 
 Va., until 1821, and at York until 1825. 
 He then accepted the presidency of the 
 theological seminary, founded first at Car¬ 
 lisle, Pa., but afterward removed to York. 
 After his retirement in 1835 he began the 
 preparation of a history of the German Re¬ 
 formed Church, of which only one volume, 
 bringing the story down to 1770, was pub¬ 
 lished in 1850. A Mc 7 noir, by Rev. E. 
 Hciner, is prefixed to this volume. 
 
 Mayhew, Experience, b. at Martha’s 
 Vineyard, Mass., Jan. 27, 1673; d. there, 
 Nov. 29, 1758. For sixty-four years he 
 labored as a missionary among the Indians. 
 He published, in 1727, Indian Converts , giv¬ 
 ing brief sketches of thirty Indian preach¬ 
 ers, and eighty other converts. At the 
 request of the Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel, he prepared a version of the 
 Psalms and of John. His learning and de¬ 
 votion were widely recognized. 
 
 Mayhew, Jonathan, son of the preced¬ 
 ing; b. at Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., Oct. 
 8, 1720; d. in Boston, July 9, 1766. He 
 was ordained minister of the West Church, 
 Boston, in 1747, where he remained until 
 his death. He took an active part in op¬ 
 posing the introduction of bishops into the 
 colonies, and earnestly advocated the rights 
 of the colonists in the discussion that led 
 to the Revolution. In theology he was 
 Unitarian. He published: Christian So¬ 
 briety ,, in Eight Sermons to Young Men; 
 Observations on the Charter and Conduct of 
 the Society for Propagating the Gospel in For¬ 
 eign Parts. See his Memoir , by A. Brad¬ 
 ford (Boston, 1838). 
 
 Maynooth, fifteen miles from Dublin, is 
 the seat of the Royal College of St. Patrick, 
 founded in 1795, for the training of Roman 
 Catholic priests. It was supported by an 
 annual grant of ^8,000 from the Irish Par¬ 
 liament, which was continued after the 
 Union (1801). Other grants were made, 
 but after the Irish Church Act in 1869 all 
 of them ceased, and as a compensation 
 ^37 2 »33 I was appropriated for the support 
 of the institution. The college has a full 
 faculty in the arts and theology. 
 
 Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal; b. at Piscina, 
 in Southern Italy, July 14, 1602; d. at Vin¬ 
 cennes, March 19, 1661. He gave early 
 proofs of an acute intellect, and after 
 studying law at Alcala, entered the pope’s 
 military service. The peace of Queisas is 
 ascribed to his efforts. He gained the 
 favor of Cardinal Richelieu, and also of 
 Louis XIII., who procured him a cardinal’s 
 hat from Urban VIII. in 1641. After the 
 
 death of Richelieu he was made Privy 
 Councillor, and, as the executor of the 
 king, had charge of affairs during the 
 regency of Queen Anne of Austria. The 
 hatred of the poor and oppressed was 
 aroused against him, and this gave rise to 
 the civil war (1649-52). He retired to the 
 Netherlands, but, after the war, returned to 
 the court, and soon regained his former 
 power, and exerted a great influence in ad¬ 
 vancing the interests of France. Partly 
 from indifference, partly for political rea¬ 
 sons, he was very tolerant toward the Hu¬ 
 guenots. 
 
 Mazarine Bible, The, was the first com¬ 
 plete book ever printed with movable type. 
 It was printed by Gutenburg at Mentz, 
 1450-55. There are six copies on vellum 
 and twenty-one copies on paper that are 
 known to be in existence. A copy on paper 
 is in the Lenox Library, New York City. 
 It is valued at fifteen thousand dollars. 
 
 Mead, Charles Marsh, Ph. D. (Tubing¬ 
 en, 1866), D. D. (Middlebury College, 
 1881), Congregationalist; b. in Cornwall, 
 Vt., Jan. 28, 1836. He was graduated at 
 Middlebury, Vt., in 1856, and at Andover 
 Theological Seminary in 1862; studied in 
 Berlin and Halle, 1863-66; professor of 
 Hebrew at Andover, 1866-82. He was a 
 member of the Old Testament Revision 
 Company. His publications include a 
 translation of Exodus in the American 
 Lange series (New York, 1876), and The 
 Soul Here and Hereafter: A Biblical Sttidy 
 (1879). 
 
 Meade, William, D. D., third bishop of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church of Vir¬ 
 ginia; b. Nov. 11, 1789, in Clarke Co., Va.; 
 d. in Richmond, March 14, 1862. He be¬ 
 gan his ministry as pastor of Christ 
 Church, Alexandria, in 1811. He was the 
 founder of the Protestant Episcopal Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary of Virginia (1823). In 
 1829 he was elected assistant bishop of 
 Virginia, and at the death of Bishop Moore, 
 in 1841, he became bishop, and continued in 
 this office until his death. He exerted a 
 great influence in the councils of his de¬ 
 nomination, and was successful in building 
 up and restoring interests that had suffered 
 very much from the effects of the Revolu¬ 
 tion. He published: Lectures on the Pastoral 
 Office; The Bible and Classics; and Old 
 Churches , Ministers , and Families of Vir¬ 
 ginia. See A Memoir of the Life of the Rt. 
 Rev. William Meade , D. D. f by J. Johns 
 (Baltimore, 1867). 
 
 Meals and Banquets Among the He¬ 
 brews. “ The Jews would appear to have 
 
Mea 
 
 ( 584 ) 
 
 Med 
 
 sat down to two chief meals a day—one of 
 a light nature in the morning, about 9 or 
 10 o’clock, and another, which was the 
 principal meal, and of a more substantial 
 nature, after sunset. Meals were origi¬ 
 nally and ordinarily eaten in a sitting post¬ 
 ure, and it was only in later times that the 
 practice, introduced from Syria and Baby¬ 
 lon, began to prevail of reclining at them 
 on couches. This was the custom in vogue 
 in the days of Christ, the arrangement, 
 called a triclinium , being a table in the cen¬ 
 tre, with couches, generally for three men 
 each, on three sides of it, the guests re¬ 
 clining with their bodies leaning forward 
 and raised on the left elbow. The hands 
 were washed, and grace was said before 
 and after eating; and the food, which was 
 usually served in a common dish, though 
 sometimes special portions were sent 
 round, was eaten by dipping bread in it, or 
 by using two pieces of it by way of forks. 
 Meals of a sumptuous order were custom¬ 
 ary on the great festival days, and also in 
 connection with birthdays, marriages, fu¬ 
 nerals, and all high occasions. At such 
 times the guests were saluted with a kiss; 
 sometimes they had their heads anointed 
 with ointment, and encircled with garlands, 
 and occasionally their persons were deco¬ 
 rated with a specially provided festive gar¬ 
 ment. The guests had their several places 
 at the table allotted to them, and one of 
 them was elected master of the ceremonies, 
 and called the ‘ governor of the feast.’ 
 (John ii. 8.)”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 
 Means of Grace are the ordinances which 
 God has established as the channels of his 
 mercy, through Christ. In a restricted 
 sense they are: (1) the Word of God; (2) 
 the sacraments (the Lord’s Supper and 
 baptism), (3) and prayer. The efficacy of 
 these instrumentalities depends upon the 
 faith of the individual, in their appropria¬ 
 tion, attended by the gracious influences 
 of the Holy Spirit. The Roman Church 
 holds that these sacraments are alone valid 
 in their efficacy, as administered through a 
 priesthood, and baptism is regarded as a 
 condition of salvation. Protestants teach 
 that the Holy Spirit may regenerate and 
 sanctify, irrespective of the sacraments, 
 but not as a rule. See Baptism; Lord’s 
 Supper. 
 
 Measures. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, 
 and capital of the Arabian province of 
 Hedjaz. It is sixty-five miles east of 
 Jiddah on the Red Sea, and two hundred 
 and fifty miles south of Medina. It has a 
 population of about forty-five thousand, 
 
 who are almost entirely dependent upon 
 the great crowd of pilgrims who visit the 
 renowned mosque, and kiss the black stone 
 of the Kaabah. 
 
 Mec'hitar, Mec'hitarists. See Mekhi- 
 
 TARISTS. 
 
 Medes. See Media. 
 
 Media. The name is the same as Madai, 
 “ middle land,” one of Japheth’s sons. 
 (Gen. x. 2.) The Hebrew word is also 
 rendered “ Medes” (2 Kings xvii. 6, etc.), 
 “ Media” (Esth. i. 3, etc.), and “ Mede.” 
 (Dan. xi. 1.) Its boundaries appear to 
 have been the Caspian Sea, and the river 
 Araxes on the north; Parthia, Hyrcania, 
 and the desert of Iram on the east; Persia 
 and Susiana on the south; Assyria and 
 Armenia on the west. It is now a part of 
 the dominion of the Shah of Persia. The 
 origin of the Medes is given in Gen. x. 2. 
 It is in connection with the captivity of 
 Israel that mention is made of their history 
 in the Bible. (2 Kings xvii. 6; xviii. 11.) 
 Their character and work are given by 
 Isaiah (xiii. 17, 18; xxi. 2). Conquered by 
 Sargon, and afterward by Sennacherib, it 
 regained independence, and under the 
 leadership of Cyaxares in b. c. 625 took 
 part in the destruction of Nineveh. It 
 then became a great and powerful mon¬ 
 archy. The two kingdoms of the “ Medes 
 and Persians ” were united under Cyrus, 
 B. C. 558. Its principal city was Ecbatana. 
 The Medes were successful in revolt in 
 B. C. 500, and b. C. 420. Absorbed for a time 
 in the empire of Alexander the Great, it 
 later gained independence, but at the be¬ 
 ginning of the Christian era became a part 
 of the Parthian Empire. (Acts ii. 9.) 
 
 Mediator, one who intervenes to rec¬ 
 oncile two parties who are at variance. 
 The idea of mediation as a necessity to 
 salvation formed a great part of the relig¬ 
 ion of Paganism, and the name of “ media¬ 
 tor ” was given by the Persians to their 
 god, and by the Jews to the Messiah. It 
 is a part of human consciousness that sin 
 makes a separation between God and the 
 soul. Christ is the appointed Mediator to 
 bring about the reconciliation; through 
 him alone can man be brought into a state 
 of salvation, and into a state of greater 
 friendship with God than was possible be¬ 
 fore the Fall. In order to accomplish this 
 work of reconciliation it was necessary 
 that the mediator should be God and man 
 in one person. He must be man, in order 
 that he might be related to those in whose 
 cause he was to mediate; that reconcilation 
 should be made for sin in the same nature 
 
Med 
 
 ( 585 ) 
 
 Mel 
 
 which sinned; that the mediator should be 
 capable of obeying the law broken by the 
 sin of man, which God could not do; that 
 he might be capable of suffering death, 
 since “ without shedding of blood there is 
 no remission;” that he might sustain man 
 by sympathy, having experience of his 
 trials and temptations; and that, being holy 
 and sinless, he might offer himself without 
 spot to God, thereby taking away the sins 
 of men. On the other hand, he must be 
 God, in order that he might enter into a 
 covenant with God, as no mere man could 
 do; that his obedience and sufferings might 
 be infinite in their effect; and that we might 
 have such confidence in his mediation as 
 would be impossible were he only man. 
 Were Christ God and not man, we could not 
 approach him with confidence; were he 
 man and not God, we should be guilty of 
 idolatry to worship him at all. His attri¬ 
 butes as mediator are: (1) He is the only 
 mediator. (2) He is the mediator of men 
 only, not of spirits. (3) He is the mediator 
 for all men, without exception, and for all 
 who died before his Incarnation, as well as 
 for all who have existed since. (4) He is a 
 constant, just, and loving mediator, and 
 his mediation is successful.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. See Atonement; 
 Christology, etc. 
 
 Medina, the burial place of Mohammed, 
 situated in the Arabian province of Hedjaz. 
 Next to Mecca it is the point visited by 
 the greatest numbers of pilgrims. The 
 mausoleum of the prophet is within the 
 precincts of a large mosque. See Burton: 
 Mecca and Medina (London, 1879—80). 
 
 Meeting. See Friends. 
 
 Megid'do, a city of Manasseh, situated 
 within the borders of Issachar. Before its 
 conquest by Joshua it was a royal city of 
 the Canaanites. (Josh. xii. 21.) It is usu¬ 
 ally identified with the modern Lejjziu, six 
 miles from Carmel, on the southwestern 
 edge of the plain of Esdraelon. Conder 
 gives reasons for identifying it with Me- 
 fedcfa , ten miles from Jenin. This places 
 the valley of Megiddo, where Josiah re¬ 
 ceived his death-wound (2 Kings xxiii. 29), 
 in the valley leading from Jezreel to Beth- 
 shean. 
 
 Mek'hitarists, The, an order of the Ro¬ 
 man Church, which has developed a re¬ 
 markable literary activity. Its founder, 
 Mekhitar, was b. at Sebaste, in Lesser Ar¬ 
 menia, Feb. 7,1676; d. in Venice, April 27, 
 1749. In early life he made rapid progress 
 in the study of the Scriptures at Edshmia- 
 zin, the seat of Armenian learning. While 
 
 on the way to Rome he was detained by 
 serious illness at Cyprus, and compelled 
 to return to Sebaste. Here he was or¬ 
 dained as priest and began his life-work, 
 which sought the religious education of his 
 people, and bringing about the reconcilia¬ 
 tion of the Armenian and Roman Catholic 
 Churches. In 1700 he went to Constanti¬ 
 nople, but persecutions compelled him to 
 find refuge, in 1703, in Morea, under the 
 protection of the republic of Venice. After 
 Morea was conquered by the Turks the or¬ 
 der,which had been established by Clement 
 IX. in 1712, was removed to Venice. The 
 city council gave the order the Island of 
 San Lazzaro. From this time it began a 
 career of literary activity which has had a 
 great influence among Armenians and in 
 the Armenian Church. 
 
 Melanchthon, Philip, is known preemi¬ 
 nently as the coadjutor of Luther in the 
 great Reformation. Never were two souls 
 more the complement of each other, or 
 more indispensable to each other, in carry¬ 
 ing forward an important cause. Each 
 had, furthermore, the advantage of fully 
 understanding alike the talents and the 
 weaknesses of the other, and they ascribed, 
 respectively, to each other the highest ser¬ 
 vices to the reformation of the Church. 
 
 Melanchthon was born at Bretten, in 
 Baden, Feb. 16, 1497, and died at Witten¬ 
 berg, April 19, 1560. He was a nephew of 
 the famous scholar, Reuchlin, from whom 
 he received much encouragement in his 
 earlier studies, and at whose instance, in 
 accordance with the literary fashion of the 
 times, he changed his name, Schwarzerd, to 
 its Greek equivalent, Melanchthon. At the 
 age of 12 he entered the University of 
 Heidelberg. At 14 he took the bachelor’s 
 degree, and when, a year later, Heidelberg 
 refused him the master’s degree, on ac¬ 
 count of his youth, while admitting his 
 proficiency, he went to Tubingen, where 
 he applied himself to humanism, philos¬ 
 ophy, law, astronomy, and medicine, pub¬ 
 lishing editions of Terence before he was 
 21, and a Greek grammar when he was 22. 
 At the recommendation of Reuchlin he 
 was called to the chair of Greek at Witten¬ 
 berg in 1618, just when Luther’s course 
 was beginning to shake the world, and 
 while at first sharing with Erasmus the 
 hope of reforming the Church through lit¬ 
 erary culture, he was soon influenced by 
 Luther to prosecute the study of the 
 Scriptures and to emphasize their author¬ 
 ity. Becoming warmly attached to the 
 Reformer, he came out as his champion in 
 1521, although the thought of an irrecon¬ 
 cilable separation from the Romish Church 
 caused him infinite pain. His literary 
 
Mel 
 
 ( 586 ) 
 
 Mel 
 
 attainments, now consecrated to the puri¬ 
 fication of the faith, were of the highest 
 order. Learning was his passion, and 
 Greek and Latin were more familiar to 
 him than his vernacular. His lectures at 
 the university were attended at times by 
 two thousand students, and he received 
 the title of Preceptor of Germany. Among 
 the most imperishable monuments of his 
 pen are his Loci Communes in 1521, the first 
 Evangelical System of Theology; his par¬ 
 ticipation in the translation of the Bible, 
 his Commentaries, and, above all, the 
 Augsburg Confession, the pioneer of Prot¬ 
 estant Confessions, and the Apology of 
 the Augsburg Confession, “an admirable 
 portrayal of the scriptural evidences for 
 evangelical doctrines.” 
 
 Mild and retiring by nature, shrinking 
 from contentions and divisions, he is 
 charged with wavering in his positions, 
 and, notwithstanding his love of peace, he 
 became the occasion of much theological 
 strife, and the object of sharp attacks,which 
 wore upon his mind and embittered his later 
 years. The key to his course is his bias 
 for union—the spirit of union abroad in the 
 Churches to-day is, doubtless, an inherit¬ 
 ance from Melanchthon—and this led him 
 to moderate the expression of his own 
 views, both to the right and to the left, for 
 to the very last he was willing to hold con¬ 
 ferences with the Roman Catholics, in or¬ 
 der to find a common ground for reunion, 
 as well as with the Calvinists to restore 
 the unity of Protestantism. Although 
 standing with Luther, in declining, at Mar¬ 
 burg in 1529, Church fellowship with the 
 Swiss, he subsequently altered the Tenth 
 Art. of his own confession, so as to make 
 it acceptable to the Calvinists. His most 
 serious departure from the common faith 
 of the Lutheran Reformation was his so- 
 called Synergism, taught in the later edi¬ 
 tions of the Loci , which is clearly in con¬ 
 flict with Augustinian views on the sover¬ 
 eignty of grace. 
 
 These vacillations have sometimes been 
 ascribed to personal weakness and want of 
 courage, but they doubtless are in the 
 main due to his irenic disposition, and his 
 anxiety for the welfare of the Church; 
 and, although his was confessedly not the 
 powerful personality of a Luther, there is 
 no question but that his moderation and 
 conservative and conciliatory tendency 
 were, in their place, as serviceable to the 
 Reformation as the belligerent heroism of 
 the great leader. There were instances of 
 defection which moved Luther to a public 
 disapprobation of his colleague’s action, 
 but at other times he punctuated his strict¬ 
 ures by the assurance that he would, in spite 
 of this,“share his heart with Melanchthon.” 
 
 A complete edition of his works by 
 Bretschneider & Bindseil is contained in 
 the Corpus Reformatorum , in 28 volumes. 
 Ledderhose’s Life is the only work on Me¬ 
 lanchthon that has appeared in English. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Melchites (Heb. Melcha , a king), “ fol¬ 
 lowers of the king”—a name given in the 
 East to Syrian and Egyptian Christians of 
 the orthodox Greek Church, who adhered 
 to the creed supported by the authority of 
 the king—the Byzantine emperor. They 
 accepted the doctrines laid down by the 
 Council of Chalcedon, 451. The Arabs 
 treated them much more severely than they 
 did the Nestorians and Jacobites. 
 
 Meletius, bishop of Antioch, was b. at 
 Melitine, in Lesser Armenia. When Eu- 
 doxius was translated from the see of Anti¬ 
 och to that of Constantinople, in 361, Me¬ 
 letius, then bishop of Sebaste, was elected 
 to that of Antioch. Those who raised him 
 to this position supposed that he held Arian 
 views, but soon after his installation he 
 preached a sermon in favor of the Nicene 
 doctrine. Arian influences secured his 
 deposition and banishment within a short 
 time. Two bishops were elected to fill his 
 place—Euzoius, by the Arians; and Paul¬ 
 inos, by the Luciferians. Each of the three 
 bishops had their followers. In 363 Mele¬ 
 tius was restored to his see, and at once 
 called a synod, in which the bishop signed 
 the Nicene Creed. Banished by Valens, 
 he was finally reinstated by the Emperor 
 Theodosius. During a part of the sessions 
 of the Council of Constantinople (381), he 
 acted as president, but died before its close. 
 
 Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt. 
 He was the leader of a schism which arose, 
 either out of a local persecution, about 301, 
 or that of the great Diocletian persecution, 
 about 306. The accounts differ, one attrib¬ 
 uting the schism to the disapproval of 
 Meletius of the leniency shown by the 
 bishop of Alexandria in dealing with peni¬ 
 tent apostates; the other states that its 
 cause was his deposition for having sacri¬ 
 ficed during the persecution. Probably, 
 jealousy of the growing power of the 
 bishop of Alexandria had much to do with 
 it. He gained a considerable following— 
 at one time as many as twenty-eight bish¬ 
 ops. The Council of Nicaea was successful 
 in bringing about a conciliation, but it did 
 not last long. After the death of Meletius 
 the sect fell into Arianism.and was lost to 
 sight. 
 
 Mel'ita, the site of the shipwreck of the 
 vessel in which Paul was being taken to 
 
Mel 
 
 ( 537 ) 
 
 Men 
 
 Rome. (Acts xxvii-xxviii.) Two islands 
 formerly bore the name of Melita, one in 
 the Adriatic Sea, and the other the modern 
 Malta, sixty miles south of Sicily, in the 
 Mediterranean. The latter island, without 
 doubt, was the scene of the shipwreck. 
 See Capt. Smith in Voyage and Shipwreck 
 of St. Paul , and Dean Howson in Smith’s 
 Bible Diet, and Life of St. Paul. 
 
 Melito of Sardis flourished in the middle 
 of the second century. Of his numerous 
 works only a few fragments remain. He 
 addressed a celebrated Apology to Marcus 
 Aurelius. Little is known of his life, but 
 he won the respect and reverence of his 
 age. 
 
 Melvill, Henry, b. at Pendennis Castle, 
 Cornwall, Eng., Sept. 14, 1800; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, Feb. 9, 1871. He was graduated at St. 
 Peter’s College, Cambridge, in 1821, and 
 after taking orders became incumbent of 
 the parish of Camden Chapel in London; 
 and afterward was principal of the East 
 India College, chaplain of the Tower of 
 London, chaplain to the queen (1853), 
 canon of St. Paul’s (1856) and in 1863 he 
 became rector of Barnes. He was a re¬ 
 markable rhetorician, and many of his 
 sermons have been republished in this 
 country. It is said that he rewrote his 
 sermons two or three times before preach¬ 
 ing. Among his published books are: 
 Voices of the Year; Golden Counsels (1857), 
 and Persuasions to a Christian Life. 
 
 Melville, Andrew, an eminent Scotch 
 Reformer, b. at Baldovv, on the banks of 
 the South Esk, in 1545. He lost both par¬ 
 ents when only two years old, and his 
 care devolved on his eldest brother. An¬ 
 drew was educated at Montrose Grammar 
 School, and in 1559 went to St. Mary’s 
 College, in the University of St. Andrews, 
 where he remained for five years. He 
 studied in Paris for two years, and then 
 proceeded to Poitiers, where he was at 
 once made Regent of St. Macreon College. 
 Driven away by political disturbances, he 
 went to Geneva, where he, through his 
 friend Beza, was appointed to the chair of 
 Humanity in the Academy. Here it was 
 that he gained the love for religious lib¬ 
 erty for which he was afterward so zealous. 
 He returned to Scotland in 1574, and was 
 offered the post of private tutor in the 
 family of the regent, Morton, but refused, 
 and became principal of Glasgow College. 
 He made many improvements, and gained 
 a great influence, not only over the stu¬ 
 dents, but throughout the whole of Scot¬ 
 land. The overthrow of Episcopacy and 
 the establishment of Presbyterianism were 
 
 greatly owing to him, and he received the 
 nickname of “ Episcopomastix,” or “ the 
 scourge of bishops.” He was possessed 
 of great intrepidity, and it is related of him 
 that on one occasion, when Morton had ex¬ 
 claimed that there would be no peace in 
 the country till he was hanged or banish¬ 
 ed, he replied, “ Tush, man! threaten your 
 courtiers so. It is the same to me whether 
 I rot in the air or in the ground; and I have 
 lived out of your country as well as in it. 
 Let God be praised, you can neither hang 
 nor exile his truth.” At the end of 1580 
 he was made principal of St. Mary’s Col¬ 
 lege, St. Andrews, where he worked with 
 much zeal and ability; the number of stu¬ 
 dents increased, and those of other colleges 
 also attended. In 1592 the Privy Council 
 revived Episcopacy, and filled up the see 
 of Glasgow. The Scotch Church excom¬ 
 municated the new bishop, upon which the 
 Privy Council declared the excommunica¬ 
 tion to be void, imprisoned those who re¬ 
 fused to pay the episcopal rents, and laid 
 Glasgow College under an interdict. Mel¬ 
 ville preached against these proceedings so 
 fiercely that he was summoned before the 
 Privy Council. He claimed to be tried in 
 a Church court, and, on a refusal, made 
 his escape and fled to London, where he 
 remained for twenty months. On his re¬ 
 turn to St. Andrews he continued his work 
 with as great zeal as before, and was made 
 Moderator of the General Assembly and 
 Rector of the University. In 1605 James 
 I. wished to make another attempt to re¬ 
 establish Episcopacy, and in order to get 
 rid of some of his opponents, invited Mel¬ 
 ville and others to come to London and 
 take part in the Hampton Court Confer¬ 
 ence. They went, and had interviews with 
 the king, but found that they were really 
 prisoners, and not allowed to return home. 
 Melville wrote a Latin epigram, in which 
 he ridiculed a service which had taken 
 place in the Chapel Royal on St. Michael’s 
 Day. For this he was confined for nearly 
 a year in the houses, first of the dean of 
 St. Paul’s, and afterward of the bishop of 
 Winchester; then in the Tower, where he 
 remained till February, 1611; and then was 
 not allowed to return home, but was only 
 liberated on condition that he should be¬ 
 come professor of Sedan University, 
 where he remained till his death in 1622.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Mem'phis. See Noph. 
 
 Menaea,or Menaion, corresponds in the 
 Greek Church to the breviary of the Ro¬ 
 man Church. It contains the prayers and 
 hymns for each fast-day and holiday, with 
 short lives of saints and martyrs. 
 
 
Men 
 
 (588) 
 
 Mer 
 
 Men'ahem {consoler), the son of Gadi, 
 came to the throne by his murder of Shal- 
 lum, who had reigned but one month. 
 His reign of ten years (771-760 b. c.), was 
 marked with acts of cruelty and oppression. 
 (2 Kings xv. 14-20.) The first invasion of 
 the Assyrians took place in his reign. 
 
 Menander, one of the earliest Gnostics, 
 who taught at Antioch. He was a native 
 of Capparatia, a village in Samaria, and 
 according to Irenaeus was a pupil of Simon 
 Magnus, and in his teaching represented 
 the transition from the Oriental to the 
 Hellenistic Gnosticism. 
 
 Mendaeans. See Christians of St. 
 John. 
 
 Mendenhall, James William, Ph. D. (Mt. 
 Union College, Io., 1880), D. D. (Ohio 
 Wesleyan University, 1884), LL. D. (Cor¬ 
 nell College, Mt. Vernon, Io., 1888), Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal; b. at Centreville, Mont¬ 
 gomery County, O., Nov. 8, 1844: was 
 graduated at Ohio Wesleyan University in 
 1864, and entered the ministry of the Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal Church. In 1888 he was 
 appointed by the General Conference ed¬ 
 itor of the Methodist Review. He is the 
 author of: Echoes fro 7 n Palestine (1883); 
 Plato and Paul (1886). 
 
 Mendicant Friars. These orders came 
 into existence in the thirteenth century. 
 They were four in number—the Francis¬ 
 cans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augus- 
 tinians. Whatever may have been their 
 early history these orders in time sought 
 after and gained the wealth and power 
 which their vows opposed. 
 
 Menno Simons. See Mennonites. 
 
 Mennonites, a name given to the Dutch 
 Baptists in memory of their reformer, 
 Menno Simons. There are four sects who 
 come under this head—Flemings, Germans, 
 Frieslanders, and Waterlanders, and they 
 were originally called Anabaptists, but 
 changed the name in consequence of the 
 ridicule which had attached to it. They 
 were also known as Doopsgezinden or 
 “ Dippers.” Menno, who was a priest of 
 Friesland, was born in 1492, and was led at 
 the dawn of the Reformation to cast off 
 papal doctrine. He came to the conclu¬ 
 sion that Infant Baptism was not sanctioned 
 in Scripture, but rejected the enthusiasms 
 and revelations of the first Anabaptists, and 
 their doctrines concerning the new King¬ 
 dom of Christ, and formulated tenets which 
 are still held by his followers. He died in 
 1559. His treatise, entitled^ True Chris¬ 
 
 tian Belief, was in 1580 developed by two 
 Mennonite preachers into the Confession of 
 Waterland, which is supposed to contain 
 the whole of the Mennonite doctrine. It 
 declares that Christ’s Body was not of the 
 substance of his mother, but of a direct 
 creation by the power of the Holy Spirit 
 from the essence of the Father; that there 
 is no Original Sin, and therefore no neces¬ 
 sity for Infant Baptism; that it is not law¬ 
 ful for Christians to exercise any office of 
 magistracy, nor to wage war upon any 
 terms; that the ministers of the Gospel 
 ought to receive no salary; and that it is 
 possible for a Christian to attain to the 
 height of perfection in this life. A sup¬ 
 plementary Confession was written in 1632 
 introducing the Arian belief respecting the 
 Incarnation; but the generality of the com¬ 
 munities at the present day appear to be 
 orthodox, as, in most points, appears to 
 have been Menno himself. There are sev¬ 
 eral congregations of Mennonites in Elsass 
 and Bavaria, several in Poland also, and a 
 few in France. There are also about 
 200,000 of them in America.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. See Tunkers. 
 
 Menologion, in the Greek Church, cor¬ 
 responds to Martyrologium of the Roman 
 Church. It contains a complete list of all 
 the festivals celebrated throughout the 
 year in honor of the saints and martyrs, 
 with brief sketches of their life and death. 
 
 Mental Reservation, a doctrine of the 
 Jesuits, to the effect that falsehood in cer¬ 
 tain circumstances may be reconciled to the 
 conscience, if, at the same time, a saving 
 clause be added secretly. They say that 
 even when giving evidence on oath mental 
 reservation may be made, so that the evi¬ 
 dence may be understood falsely, by the 
 witness giving his words some qualification 
 in his own mind. 
 
 Mercersburg Theology arose in 1836 at 
 the Theological Seminary of the German 
 Reformed Church, in Mercersburg, Penn¬ 
 sylvania. Dr. Rauch, president of the 
 College, who had come from Germany, and 
 was well read in German metaphysics, de¬ 
 sired to establish a regular and orderly 
 system of philosophy, which should em¬ 
 body the ripe teaching of the great thinkers. 
 His method was intensely subjective; all 
 ideas and opinions were, with him, parts of 
 a vast unity held together by an internal 
 law, the centre of which is the living In¬ 
 telligence. His method of reasoning was 
 cut short by his death in 1841, before he 
 had fully developed it, and his successor, 
 Dr. Nevin, continued it. At the same time 
 Dr. Philip Schaff was appointed as profess- 
 
Mer 
 
 ( 589 ) 
 
 Mer 
 
 or of Church History at Mercersburg, and 
 the two together developed the principles 
 of the Theology in different ways, Nevin 
 regarding it from a theological, and Schaff 
 from a historical point of view. Their aim 
 was the revival and defence of the pure Re¬ 
 formed doctrine; yet, in consequence of 
 their appeals to ancient history and the 
 early Fathers, they were accused of Roman¬ 
 ist tendencies, and tried for heresy, of 
 which they were unanimously acquitted. 
 The doctrine on which the Mercersburg 
 Theology is based is that of the twofold 
 nature of Christ, from which it is believed 
 that all other doctrines are to be developed. 
 The Church is regarded as a spiritual or¬ 
 ganism, with the life, like that of an indi¬ 
 vidual, developing by successive stages 
 from childhood to manhood, whence it is 
 inferred that views and modes of expres¬ 
 sion which held good at one period of her 
 existence need not necessarily do so at a 
 later period. In common with others of 
 the German Reformers, the Mercersburg 
 Theologians reject the doctrine of Apos¬ 
 tolical Succession. They believe in the life- 
 giving power of the Sacraments, in oppo¬ 
 sition to the usually received opinion in 
 America that they are merely emblems or 
 symbols. They have also drawn up a 
 liturgy for the use of their disciples, be¬ 
 ing strongly opposed to the practice of ex¬ 
 temporaneous public prayer, and in favor 
 of the revival of the old pre-Reformation 
 liturgy.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Mercy “ is kindness exercised toward 
 the miserable, and includes pity, compas¬ 
 sion, forbearance and gentleness, which 
 the Scriptures so abundantly ascribe to 
 God. Grace is love exercised toward the 
 unworthy.”—Hodge: Sys. Theology, vol. i., 
 p. 427. The theological distinction here 
 made is not found in the New Testament 
 where the words “ grace ” and “ mercy ” 
 occur. 
 
 Mercy, Sisters of, or Order of our 
 Lady of Mercy, was founded by Miss 
 Catharine McAuley, at Dublin in 1831. 
 The order is under the rule of St. Augus¬ 
 tine, and was confirmed by Gregory XVI. 
 in 1840. It has spread rapidly both in 
 Great Britain and the United States. The 
 first house opened in this country was at 
 Pittsburg, Penn., 1843. The Sisters de¬ 
 vote themselves to the relief of the sick 
 and suffering, and the tempted class of 
 women. They are divided into choir- 
 sisters, and lay-sisters: the latter care for 
 the house, and the former engage inactive 
 duties. The members are received after 
 a novitiate of two years, and take the ir¬ 
 revocable vows of poverty, chastity, obe¬ 
 
 dience and service to the poor, sick, and 
 ignorant. Their dress is a black robe with 
 long, loose sleeves, a white coif and a 
 white or black veil. On the street a bon¬ 
 net of black crape is worn instead of the 
 coif and veil. 
 
 Mer'cy-Seat, the name of the cover or 
 lid of the Ark of the Covenant. See Ark 
 of the Covenant. 
 
 Mer'ibah {quarrel), the name of two 
 places: (1) The fountain near Rephidim 
 that flowed from the rock which Moses 
 smote by command of God. (Ex. xvii. 1-7.) 
 Wilson and Warren place it in Wady 
 Feiran, near Mount Serbal; Holland, in the 
 pass at Watiyeh, at the eastern end of 
 Wady-es Sheikh. 
 
 (2) Meribah, near Kadesh, in the desert 
 of Zin. It was here that Moses, by his 
 disobedience in striking the rock instead 
 of speaking to it, was not allowed to enter 
 the promised land. (Num. xx. 12.) See 
 Kadesh. 
 
 Merle D’Aubign6, Jean Henri, “ a pop¬ 
 ular ecclesiastical historian, wasb. at Eaux- 
 Vives, near Geneva, in Switzerland, Aug. 
 16, 1794, studied there and at Berlin under 
 Neander, and subsequently became pastor 
 of the French Protestant church in Ham¬ 
 burg. Thence, after a residence of five 
 years, he proceeded to Brussels, became 
 chaplain of King William, who, after the 
 revolution of 1830, invited him to Holland, 
 as tutor to the Prince of Orange. Merle, 
 however, declined the offer, and, returning 
 to Geneva, took part in the institution of 
 a new college for the propagation of ortho¬ 
 dox theology, in which he was appointed 
 professor of church history. With the ex¬ 
 ception of some visits to England and 
 Scotland, where he had numerous readers 
 and admirers, he remained constantly at 
 Geneva. The work which has given him 
 so wide-spread a reputation is his Histoire 
 de le Reformation au Seizieme Siecle (1835, 
 et seq.). It is written with the utmost 
 vivacity, and is sometimes eloquent. Its 
 popularity has been immense. Among 
 Merle d’Aubigne’s other writings are: Le 
 Lutheranisme et la Reforme (Paris, 1844); 
 Germany, England, and Scotland (1848); Le 
 Protedeur au la Re'publique cTAngleterre 
 aux fours de Cromwell (1848); Trois Siecles 
 de Lutte en Ecosse (1850); Caradere du Re- 
 formateur et de la Reformation de Geneve, 
 and Histoire de la Reformation en Europe 
 aux Temps de Calvin (1862-77). He died 
 at Geneva, Oct. 20, 1872.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Mero'dach, a Babylonian idol-god, son 
 
Mer 
 
 ' ( 590 ) 
 
 Mts 
 
 of Ea, god of the planet Jupiter. He was 
 confounded in later times with Bel. The 
 name often appears in connection with 
 Babylonian proper names. Merodach was 
 worshiped among the Assyrians. 
 
 Mero'dach-Bal'adan, a king of Babylo¬ 
 nia, who sent ambassadors with presents 
 to Hezekiah, on his recovery from sick¬ 
 ness. (2 Chron. xxxii. 31; Isa. xxxix. 1.) 
 He is called Berodach-baladan. 
 
 Me'rom, Waters of, the name of a lake 
 in northern Palestine, where Joshua gained 
 a complete victory over the northern tribes 
 under Jabin. (Josh. xi. 5, 7.) It is identi¬ 
 fied by most authorities with the modern 
 el Huleh , eleven miles north of the Lake 
 of Galilee. Josephus calls it “Lake Sa- 
 machonitis.” It is about six miles long, 
 three and a half wide, and only seven feet 
 deep. 
 
 Merrill, Selah, D. D. (Iowa College, 
 1875), LL. D. (Union College, 1884), Con¬ 
 gregationalism b. in Canton Centre, Hart¬ 
 ford Co., Conn., May 2, 1837. He studied 
 at Yale, where he also prepared for the 
 ministry. He was chaplain in the army, 
 1864-65, and studied in Germany, 1868-70. 
 From 1874 till 1877, he was in the Holy 
 Land as archaeologist of the American Pal¬ 
 estine Exploration Society, and United 
 States consul at Jerusalem from 1882 till 
 1886. During these years he made discov¬ 
 eries that settled the location of the second 
 wall of the city, on which the site of Cal¬ 
 vary depends. He is the author of: East of 
 the Jordan (New York, 1881, new ed., 1883); 
 Galilee in the Time of Christ (Boston, 1885- 
 86); parts of Picturesque Palestine (New 
 York, 1882-83); Greek Inscriptions Collected 
 in the years 1875-77 ^ ie Country East of 
 the fordan (1885), and Reports on the Coun¬ 
 try East of the Jordan in the Fourth State¬ 
 ment of the American Palestine Exploration 
 Society (1887); The Site of Calvary (Jerusa¬ 
 lem, 1886). 
 
 Merrill, Stephen Mason, D. D. (Ohio 
 Wesleyan University, 1868) ; LL. D. 
 (Northwestern University, Evanston, 
 Ill., 1886), bishop of the M. E. Church; b. 
 in Jefferson county, Ohio, Sept. 16, 1825. 
 He entered the Methodist ministry in 1864, 
 became editor of the Western Christian 
 Advocate in 1868, and was consecrated bish¬ 
 op in 1872. His publications include : 
 Christian Baptism (1876); New Testament 
 Idea of Hell (1878) ; Second Coming of 
 Christ (1879); Aspects of Christian Expe¬ 
 rience (1882) ; Digest of Methodist Latu 
 (1885); Out lutes of Thought on Probation 
 (1886). 
 
 Mesopotamia is the name given by the 
 Greeks, and afterward by the Romans, to 
 the region bounded on the east and west 
 by the Tigris and Euphrates. The northern 
 part is mountainous, and its fruitful val¬ 
 leys were the home of a large population 
 from an early period. The southern sec¬ 
 tion was a desolate waste, except along 
 the river-beds, and abandoned to wild 
 beasts and Arab robber-bands. It was in 
 Mesopotamia that the ancestors of the 
 Hebrew people settled after leaving Ur of 
 the Chaldees. (Gen. xi. 10 sqq., xii. 5; Josh, 
 xxiv. 2; Acts vii. 2.) It was the early 
 home of Rebekah, and here Jacob came to 
 find both wives and fortune. (Gen. xxviii.) 
 We learn from the Assyrian inscriptions 
 that the land was divided among petty 
 chiefs, who were finally subdued by the 
 Assyrians. After having come under the 
 control successively of the Assyrians, 
 Babylonians, and Persians, it was incor¬ 
 porated into the Roman Empire in the 
 reigns of Trajan and Caracalla (a. d. 217). 
 Mesopotamia was conquered by the Arabs 
 in A. D. 637-641. 
 
 Messiah, Messianic Prophecy. Defin¬ 
 ing Messianic Prophecy as the prediction 
 of the completion of redemption through 
 the Messiah, we must understand the 
 meaning of the word “Messiah.” The 
 term “ Messiah,” or, more correctly, 
 Mashiach , represented in the Greek by 
 Alessias, denotes “ the Anointed One.” In 
 the Septuagint and the New Testament it is 
 rendered by Christos , which means the 
 same as “ Messiah.” Among the Jews the 
 prophets, priests and kings were anointed 
 to their respective offices. We have only 
 one instance of the anointing of a prophet 
 (1 Kings xix. 16), and cannot tell whether 
 this was a usual ceremony in the consecra¬ 
 tion to the prophetical office; but of the 
 great future prophet, the Messiah, it is ex¬ 
 pressly said, “ The Lord hath anointed me 
 to preach good tidings unto the meek.” 
 (Isa. lxi. 1.) Anointing was regularly em¬ 
 ployed in the consecration to the priestly 
 office. (Ex. xxviii. 41.) The high-priest 
 especially was thus consecrated; hence he 
 is called “the priest that is anointed.” 
 (Lev. iv. 3.) Samuel anointed Saul and 
 David, and Elisha anointed Jehu. But 
 while the title “ Messiah ” might be applied 
 to all the three offices, it was especially at¬ 
 tached to royal dignity. The king was 
 preeminently “the Lord’s Anointed” (2 
 Sam. i. 14; xix. 21; Lam. iv. 20); hence, 
 not an absolute monarch, but the anointed 
 vicegerent or representative of Jehovah, 
 the true king of Israel. 
 
 And thus the title “Messiah” having 
 reference to the anointed king, we may un- 
 
Mes 
 
 ( 59i ) 
 
 Mes 
 
 derstand the primary though subordinate 
 meaning of several passages in the Psalms 
 (ii. 2; xx. 6). At length the term, which 
 was at first the official title of the Israelitish 
 monarchs, came—especially after the dis¬ 
 solution of the Jewish monarchy, and the 
 Babylonish captivity—to be restricted to 
 the future Deliverer, the expected Re¬ 
 deemer. He is revealed in the prophets 
 as the ideal king, the true representative 
 of Jehovah, who was to sit on the throne 
 of David, and to rule over the house of 
 Israel. Hence the royal title of “ Messiah ” 
 was applied to him in whom all the three 
 offices to which men were formerly anoint¬ 
 ed were to meet. Thus it has come to 
 pass that the title “Messiah” is now re¬ 
 stricted to him, both by Jews and Christ¬ 
 ians—the former expecting yet their king, 
 Messiah; the latter believing that the De¬ 
 liverer has already appeared in the person 
 of Jesus of Nazareth, the Messiah of the 
 Jews. 
 
 As noted above, the promise of the Mes¬ 
 siah was connected with the house of 
 David, but it presupposes and was built 
 upon the hope of salvation, which Revela¬ 
 tion from the beginning had excited. It 
 is with this expectation, therefore, that we 
 must here begin. 
 
 The first promise of salvation is put in 
 closest connection with the Fall. (Gen. iii. 
 13.) In this protevangelium the seed of the 
 woman, who is to bruise the serpent’s head, 
 is not an individual; but the passage de¬ 
 clares that the contest with evil, to which 
 the human race is now exposed, shall issue 
 in the victory of the latter, though this 
 shall not be obtained without injury. In 
 the promises met with in the histories of 
 the patriarchs, the seed of Abraham (Gen. 
 xii. 3; xviii. 18; xxii. 18), Isaac (xxvi. 4), 
 and Jacob (xxviii. 14), in whom all the na¬ 
 tions of the earth are to bless themselves, 
 is not merely an individual. The expres¬ 
 sion refers to the entire race of Abraham 
 as the recipients of revelation, though these 
 promises have their final fulfillment in 
 Christ. In the blessing of Jacob, the tribe 
 of Judah is chosen to rule all nations (xlix. 
 20), and Balaam’s prophecy (Num. xxiv. 
 17 seq .) points to an illustrious sway pro¬ 
 ceeding from Israel, which is to subdue the 
 neighboring states, and to outlast the fall 
 of the nations far and near—a sway which 
 certainly cannot be conceived of apart from 
 a personal ruler. The promise, Deut. 
 xviii. 15-19, cannot be confined to a single 
 individual, but is meant in a collective 
 sense, referring to a prophetical order, cul¬ 
 minating in the Messiah as its chief. 
 
 The point of departure for the more def¬ 
 inite concentration of the Messianic expec¬ 
 tation on a person is 2 Sam. vii., where 
 
 Jehovah promises to establish David’s 
 dynasty forever, and to make his seed his 
 son. The seed of David is not the whole 
 of David’s descendants, but.one of David’s 
 sons. (1 Chron. xvii. 11.) From 2 Sam. 
 vii. we learn that the Messiah was to be a 
 king, and a son of David. The seed of 
 David may be humbled, but not forever. 
 (1 Kings xi. 39.) The crown of David may 
 be taken away, but One will come whose 
 right it is. (Ezek. xxi. 27 seq.) The topmost 
 branch of the cedar, which in Ezekiel’s vis¬ 
 ion (ch. xvii.) represents the house of 
 David, may be broken off, but the cedar 
 itself remains. In David’s last song (2 Sam. 
 xxiii.) predicates are affirmed of David’s 
 royalty which cannot be referred to his own 
 person, but to the ideal kingdom he repre¬ 
 sented (comp. Psa. xxi. 5-7; lxi. 7). In 
 Psa. ii.; xlv.; lxxii. and cx. a royal per¬ 
 sonage is depicted, to whom neither David 
 nor Solomon corresponds, but only he of 
 whom they were types. 
 
 Turning to the prophetical books, we 
 find in the older writings none of the more 
 special references to the person of the 
 Messiah, but the elaborate descriptions of 
 his person and rule which Isaiah and Micah 
 give do not convey the impression that the 
 idea was a novel one. The low estate to 
 which the Davidic kingdom had fallen was, 
 indeed, the external occasion of directing 
 the prophetic glance the more vividly 
 toward its perfection; because it is at those 
 times when the divine promise seems, hu¬ 
 manly speaking, to fail, and it is the office 
 of prophecy to testify to its certain per¬ 
 formance. 
 
 Pursuing, first, the line of the predic¬ 
 tions concerning the person of the Messiah, 
 we discover that he is to be endowed with 
 a superhuman dignity. He is of divine 
 origin (Mic. v. 2), and endowed with divine 
 power (v. 4). To this passage (v. 2), cor¬ 
 responds Isa. iv. 2, provided this is to be 
 referred to the Messiah. But the passage 
 Mic. v. 3, on the other hand, is parallel 
 with Isa. vii. 14 of the birth of Immanuel, 
 a passage whose reference to the Messiah 
 is demanded by its connection with ix. 5, 
 where the divine nature of the Messiah is 
 affirmed. In xi. 1 seq ., the divine element 
 in the Messiah appears only as the fullness 
 of the Spirit of the Lord resting upon him. 
 In Jer. xxiii.; xxxiii. 14-26 we have the 
 prophecies of the Messiah, although the 
 first (xxiii. 6) does not necessarily contain 
 the affirmation of the divinity of the Mes¬ 
 siah. In Jer. xxx. 21, however, the Mes¬ 
 siah is described as a governor, and in a 
 peculiar relation to Jehovah, such as no 
 human being could claim for himself. In 
 Zech. iii. 8; vi. 12 the Messiah’s proper 
 name is “ Branch.” In Mai. iii. 1 we have 
 
Mes 
 
 ( 592 ) 
 
 Mes 
 
 a prophecy of a “ messenger,” whom the 
 Lord would send to prepare the way for 
 the “ message of the covenant,” or angel 
 of the covenant. The Lord who sends this 
 harbinger is Jehovah, and the angel of the 
 covenant is the Messiah himself. Finally, 
 in Dan. vii. 13 seq ., the “ Son of man ” is 
 spoken of as “ coming with the clouds of 
 heaven, brought before the Ancient of 
 Days.” The passage, it is true, is contro¬ 
 verted, but it has always been regarded as 
 Messianical, where the Messiah appears as 
 a divine as well as a human being; since God 
 alone can use the clouds as his chariot. 
 (Psa. civ. 3.) According to the usual in¬ 
 terpretation, the Messiah is not again to 
 appear among the heavenly creatures of 
 the book of Daniel; but who is he of whom 
 mention is made in viii. 15-17; x. 5 seq .; 
 xii. 6 seq. ? The best view is that which 
 sees here the angel of Jehovah, the angel 
 of the face. If this be so, his identity with 
 the Son of man of vii. 13 is easily made 
 out. 
 
 Turning to the office and work of the Mes¬ 
 siah, we find that he is first to be a king. 
 His coming presupposes the rejection of 
 the nation, and the deepest humiliation of 
 the house of David: hence the Messianic 
 kingdom rises from an abject to a glorious 
 state. (Isa. xi. 1; Mic. v. 2.) The Messiah 
 comes forth as a sprout out of the trunk of 
 Jesse, and, like the first David, proceeds 
 from the insignificant town of Bethlehem. 
 The passage, Ezek. xvii. 22 seq ., already 
 referred to, treats of this subject. The 
 Messiah was to come, not with the pomp 
 of an earthly conqueror, but in lowly array, 
 and riding upon an ass (Zech. ix. 9 seq.), 
 but his royal power was to extend over all 
 nations. (Isa. xi. 10 seq.) Connected with 
 the work and office of the Messiah is the 
 question: Does the Old Testament speak 
 of a suffering Messiah (i. e., one who atones 
 by death and suffering for the sins of the 
 people)? We answer in the affirmative, 
 although the Messianic passages hitherto 
 quoted do not involve this. The Messiah, 
 it is true, abolished (according to Isa. xi. 
 4, 9) sin by the exercise of righteous judg¬ 
 ment, and by filling the earth with the 
 knowledge of the Lord. But together with 
 these statements there is another prophetic 
 view which points to a servant of God who 
 suffers in the place of the people; to an 
 act of atonement on which the dawning of 
 the day of redemption depends; to the 
 priesthood of the Messiah. The sufferings 
 of the Messiah bring about a manifestation 
 of God’s faithfulness and power in his de¬ 
 liverance, and procure an acknowledgment 
 of his saving power from those who as yet 
 have not known him. This idea is brought 
 out very distinctly in Psa. xxii. This Mes¬ 
 
 sianic suffering is regarded as vicarious. 
 The whole Old Testament is full of the 
 thought that God stays judgment upon a 
 guilty race on account of a just and right¬ 
 eous substitute. But as these appointed 
 mediators are sinful themselves (Isa. xliii. 
 27 seq .; Ezek. xiv. 14 seq.), the people need a 
 more perfect mediator, and this is the ser¬ 
 vant of Jehovah, Isa. liii. The fundamental 
 conception of the servant of God in Isa. 
 xl. seq ., it is true, commences with the na¬ 
 tion, but culminates in an individual; 
 and this must be affirmed very positively 
 with regard to Hi. 13-liv. 12. The people 
 itself has the consciousness of guilt (lix. 
 16; Ixiv. 5), and cannot atone for its sins. 
 The prophecy points to One who suffers, 
 not for his own sins, but as the substitute 
 of the people, and for their sins. This 
 servant of God is the great Son of David 
 (lv. 3 seq.). In Zechariah the Messiah dis¬ 
 tinctly appears as the future Redeemer of 
 the people, and, indeed, as their atoning 
 high-priest (ch. iii.), is crowned with the 
 double crown, uniting the priestly and 
 royal dignities (vi. 9-15), and suffers death; 
 and when he is pierced it is as though Je¬ 
 hovah himself were pierced (xii. 10-13). 
 
 Turning from the canonical books of the 
 Old Testament to the Apocrypha and Apoc¬ 
 alyptic writings, we state that the former 
 contain but few Messianic allusions, be¬ 
 cause, for the most part, they are historical 
 or didactic, and not prophetic. But this 
 does not mean that the Messianic idea was 
 not entertained by the authors. Besides 
 the hope of a return of the dispersed of Is¬ 
 rael (Baruch iv. 36, 37; v. 5-9; 2 Macc. ii. 
 18), of a conversion of the Gentiles (Tob. 
 xiii. 11—18; xiv. 6, 7), and the perpetual 
 existence of the Jewish nation (Ecclus. 
 xxxviii. 25; xliv. 13), we also find the idea 
 of an everlasting kingdom of the house of 
 David. (Ecclus. xlvii. 11; 1 Macc. ii. 57.) 
 
 The richer, however, flows the stream 
 of Messianic prophecies in the Apocalyptic 
 writings, which can be systematically ar¬ 
 ranged. Space forbidding to enter into 
 details we must confine ourselves to the 
 barest outline,which we indicate by the fol¬ 
 lowing headings of subjects: (1) Signs of 
 the last times; (2) Elijah, the forerunner 
 of the Messiah; (3) appearance of the Mes¬ 
 siah; (4) the last enemies; (5) destruction 
 of the enemies; (6) renovation of Jerusa¬ 
 lem; (7) gathering of the dispersed; (8) 
 the kingdom of glory in Palestine; (9) ren¬ 
 ovation of the world; (10) general resur¬ 
 rection; (11) last Judgment, eternal bless¬ 
 edness and damnation. 
 
 Literature. —Comp. Oehler-Orelli , art. 
 “ Messias ” in Herzog’s Real-Ency., 2d ed., 
 ix. 641-672; Oehler: Old Testament Theol- 
 ogy (N. Y., 1883); Castelli: II Messia Seeon- 
 
Met 
 
 ( 593 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 do Gli Ebrei (Firenze, 1874); Riehm: Mes¬ 
 sianic Prophecy (Edinburgh, 1876); Gloag: 
 The Messianic Prophecies (ibid., 1879); Or- 
 elli: The Old Testament Prophecy of the 
 Consummation of God s Kingdom {ibid., 1885); 
 Briggs: Messianic Prophecy (N. Y., 1889); 
 Delitzsch: Messianische Weissagungen 
 
 (Leipzig, 1890); Pick: Talmudic Notices con¬ 
 cerning the Messiah {Pres. Review, July, 
 1884); the same: Old Testament Passages 
 Messianically applied by the Ancient Syn¬ 
 agogue {Hebraica, Oct., 1884 and seq .); the 
 same: art. “Messianic Hope” in the 2d 
 supplement vol. of McClintock and Strong's 
 Cyclopcedia (N. Y., 1887), in which the Mes¬ 
 sianic hope, as expressed in the apocalyptic 
 literature, is treated at length. 
 
 B. Pick. 
 
 Methodists, Wesleyan. —The early his¬ 
 tory of this remarkable body will be more 
 fully given in the biographies of its found¬ 
 ers, John and Charles Wesley {q. v.). 
 “ The first rise of Methodism,” says John 
 Wesley, “was in November, 1729, when 
 four of us met together at Oxford.” Their 
 object in meeting was to deepen their 
 spiritual life by prayer and study of the 
 Scriptures. They were called “ method- 
 ists ” first in a taunting spirit, because they 
 were unusually precise and “ methodic ” 
 in the observance of their religious duties, 
 and in the regularity of their lives. Very 
 soon they were joined by other Oxford men, 
 including George Whitefield. On his return 
 from America, in 1738, John Wesley began 
 to organize those who attended his devo¬ 
 tional meetings into a Society. The mem¬ 
 bers met regularly once a week, at least, 
 in some private house for spiritual exer¬ 
 cises, and were constant in their attendance 
 at the services of the parish church; for 
 Wesley’s aim was to rekindle a spirit of 
 piety within the Church of England, and 
 not to set up a sect in opposition to her. 
 Hence the meetings of his society were not 
 held during the hours of Divine Service, 
 his object being to supplement the work of 
 the clergy, and not to provide a substitute 
 for such work. His teaching on this point 
 is most emphatic. He says, “ We hold 
 communion with the Church for conscience’ 
 sake, by constantly attending both the 
 Word preached and the Sacraments admin¬ 
 istered therein.” Again, he bade his lay- 
 preachers, whom he had appointed to 
 minister to his followers in different parts 
 of the country, “in every place to exhort 
 those who are brought up in the [Establish- 
 edjChurch constantly to attend its services.” 
 And he wrote even in 1790, the year before 
 his death, “ I fear that when the Method¬ 
 ists leave the [Established] Church, God 
 will leave them.” Circumstances were, 
 
 however, too strong for him. The spirit¬ 
 ual deadness, which had of itself stimulated 
 his movement, was unable to endure it, 
 and in 1740 this intolerance was displayed 
 by the clergy repelling Methodists from the 
 Lord’s Supper at Bristol — an example 
 widely followed elsewhere. The brothers 
 were thus driven into administering the 
 sacrament to their own people at their own 
 meetings, but it was not till 1788 that Wes¬ 
 ley ordained preachers to assist in admin¬ 
 istering the sacraments in England, and 
 not till his death in 1791 was the last link 
 severed which bound the [Established] 
 Church to Methodism, the gradual sever¬ 
 ance having been against his own will at 
 every stage of the process. The Method¬ 
 ists were equally excluded from many of 
 the Dissenting meeting-houses, and by this 
 want of sympathy on the part of others 
 was largely developed that wonderful sys¬ 
 tem of open-air preaching, which did so 
 much to bring the neglected populace of 
 England within the reach of the gospel. 
 
 Methodism, in its inception, was not in¬ 
 tended so much to be a Church or sect, as 
 a “ method ” of cultivating the divine life; 
 and this method remains essentially the 
 same still, in all the bodies into which the 
 original Wesleyan Methodists have now 
 divided. Its success as such has been 
 simply wonderful. It has produced great 
 works of Christian benevolence, and has 
 exerted an influence on the religious life of 
 England so great, that a thoughtful philos¬ 
 opher, F. D. Maurice, has expressed his 
 conviction that it was Methodism which 
 saved England from being carried into the 
 terrible vortex of the French Revolution. 
 In seeking to account for such success, in 
 the first place let it be noted that Method¬ 
 ism was, at its very heart, a religious move¬ 
 ment. It did not take its rise in any 
 doctrinal disputes or questions of church 
 government. Its declared object was “ to 
 reform the nation, more particularly the 
 Church, and to spread Scriptural holiness 
 over the land.” To the Methodist all 
 ideas were subordinated to this need of 
 personal holiness, in order that the soul 
 might hold fast to God. “ John Wesley,” 
 says Mr. Matthew Arnold, “ had a genius 
 for godliness.” Secondly, we have to take 
 into account Wesley’s marvelous powers 
 of organization, a power which was still 
 predominated by the main idea we have 
 stated, and which was subjected to the in¬ 
 fluence of the methodical habits already al¬ 
 luded to. Thus it was, that so simple a 
 custom as the weekly meeting of the few 
 at Oxford developed into the class-meet¬ 
 ing, and so on. In every village his So¬ 
 ciety was at work, and preaching houses 
 were erected throughout the kingdom. In 
 
Met 
 
 ( 594 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 order to retain hold on those who had been 
 moved by his preaching, Wesley formed 
 every dozen or twenty converts into a 
 “ class,” under a class-leader, or sometimes 
 under a lay-preacher : these bands and 
 classes met weekly for prayer and confes¬ 
 sion of sins. Several of these “ classes ” 
 were grouped together to form a “ circuit,” 
 and about eighteen “ circuits ” formed a 
 “district.” A “ circuit ” generally com¬ 
 prised a market town, and the neighboring 
 villages within a distance of ten or twelve 
 miles. It was under the guidance of three 
 or four ministers and some lay-preachers. 
 The management of each “ district ” was 
 entrusted to the ministers, who met on cer¬ 
 tain stated occasions for discussion and 
 transaction of necessary business. And 
 once a year each “ district ” sent up repre¬ 
 sentatives to attend a conference held in 
 London or some large town. 
 
 The same features still distinguish 
 Methodism, and the only condition exacted 
 of those desiring to enter the Society is “ a 
 desire to flee from the wrath to come, and 
 to be saved from their sins.” The mem¬ 
 bers are arranged into classes of about a 
 dozen, more or less, under a “ class-lead¬ 
 er,” who meet weekly, after Wesley’s old 
 Oxford custom, to relate and compare their 
 spiritual “ experience,” and receive exhor¬ 
 tation or counsel from the leader, or from 
 one another under his superintendence. 
 The leader also receives at these meetings 
 the weekly contributions toward the ex¬ 
 penses of the ministry, the customary 
 minimum being one penny a week. These 
 contributions are then handed to the 
 “ stewards,” and in this way—in which 
 Methodism stands alone — the humblest 
 member is grasped by the system, and 
 brought into direct pecuniary as well as 
 spiritual relation with the body. A con¬ 
 venient number of classes is united into a 
 society, or congregational church, and a 
 sufficient number of these into circuits, 
 each circuit having one or more itinerant 
 or recognized preachers authorized by the 
 Conference, under whom are lay or “ local ” 
 preachers ministering in their own locali¬ 
 ties. It is an essential part of the modern 
 Methodist system that every one who gives 
 apparent evidence of the possession of true 
 ministerial gift, or of “ preaching power,” 
 should be led to exercise it under the re¬ 
 sponsible ministry; so that the system not 
 only recognizes, but is a vast agency for 
 the express development of, lay-preaching. 
 Without this vast body of lay-preachers 
 ths work could not possibly be carried on; 
 and the results accomplished are an elo¬ 
 quent testimony to the value of lay-preach¬ 
 ing under proper safeguards. Owing to 
 their permanent residence and local knowl- 
 
 f ~~ ' 
 
 edge, some local-preachers of character and 
 
 ability have even superior influence to the 
 circuit-preachers. These are appointed for 
 three years only, and no circuit or itinerant 
 preacher can be appointed again to the 
 same circuit until he has been three years 
 absent at some other. Furnished residences 
 are provided for these Conference preach¬ 
 ers, and to keep up the furniture and uten¬ 
 sils complete is part of the duty of the 
 stewards. Candidates for the regular or 
 paid ministry have to pass four years as 
 probationers, after which they are admitted 
 to the theological colleges; and this sys¬ 
 tem ensures that every minister shall (in 
 the opinion of his brethren at least) be 
 possessed of some amount of preaching 
 power. Each society has a monthly 
 “ leaders’ meeting,” composed of stewards 
 and leaders; this deals with most cases of 
 discipline, etc., and is the general church 
 court of reference; but each circuit also 
 has its quarterly “ circuit ” meeting, com¬ 
 posed of leaders, preachers, and stewards. 
 The supreme court of all is the Conference. 
 The foundation of this in Wesleyan Method¬ 
 ism is the “ legal hundred,” whose num¬ 
 bers are kept up by election to vacancies, 
 and who really possess the legal power of 
 the Conference, according to a deed exe¬ 
 cuted by John Wesley, and enrolled in 
 Chancery. But, as a matter of fact, repre¬ 
 sentatives elected by assemblages of cir¬ 
 cuits, called “ districts,” deliberate togeth¬ 
 er with the legal hundred, which confirms 
 their decisions, and finally sanctions all 
 ministerial appointments. The standard of 
 Methodist doctrine (except among the Cal- 
 vinistic branch) is found in the volumes of 
 Wesley’s own iVrwwwand Notes on the Ne?o 
 Testament , which are so named in trust- 
 deeds. Methodists believe that no man 
 can possess any assurance of final salva¬ 
 tion, but only of pj-esent acceptance with 
 God, and that it is fearfully possible to fall 
 entirely away, even from a real state of 
 grace. They also maintain the possibility 
 of an entire deliverance from sin, even in 
 this life. 
 
 Besides the usual sacraments and ob¬ 
 servances of a Christian Church, Wesley 
 borrowed from the Moravians the “ love- 
 feast,” in which one or more societies meet 
 together in fellowship, and partake to¬ 
 gether, with some solemnity, of cakes and 
 water. Another practice, almost general 
 amongst them, is the holding of a “ watch- 
 night ” service on the eve of the New 
 Year, when the services are protracted till 
 past midnight; and when the New Year 
 has commenced the whole congregation 
 stands up and renews the solemn vow to 
 serve the Lord. 
 
 It is not surprising that, in an age of the 
 
 * 
 
Met 
 
 ( 595 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 greatest lukewarmness and indifference on 
 the part of the Church of England, a So¬ 
 ciety displaying so much zeal and activity 
 should win many converts, especially 
 when we consider the avowedly unsec¬ 
 tarian nature of the organization, which 
 was joined by many members both of the 
 Church of England and Dissenting bodies. 
 In 1741 the first secession took place, upon 
 theological grounds. Hitherto the Wes¬ 
 leys and Whitefield had worked together, 
 but Whitefield’s strong views concerning 
 predestination were now found incompat¬ 
 ible with further union, and he left the So¬ 
 ciety along with many followers. Wes¬ 
 ley’s views on these subjects were mainly 
 in accordance with Arminian theology, but 
 otherwise may be described as what is 
 popularly called “ Evangelical.” Among 
 a large portion of the Wesleyan Methodists 
 the whole or part of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land Service is still used at morning wor¬ 
 ship, testifying to the desire always felt 
 by Wesley that his movement should be 
 considered part and parcel of the Anglican 
 body. 
 
 The rupture, however, became inevi¬ 
 table, and was practically effected by his 
 own act in 1784, though the last hope of 
 union was not finally destroyed until his 
 death in 1791. So far back as 1746 Wesley 
 had become convinced by Lord King’s Ac¬ 
 count of the Primitive Church that bishops 
 and presbyters have the same meaning in 
 the New Testament. Thirty-eight years 
 later, when pressing representations were 
 made to him of the need for ministers to 
 be ordained in America to administer the 
 sacraments, he ordained* Dr. Coke as su¬ 
 perintending “ bishop” for America, who 
 subsequently ordained Francis Asbury. 
 Soon after, Wesley exercised the same re¬ 
 sponsibility in regard to Scotland, and in 
 1788 he ordained ministers for England 
 also. His brother Charles strongly disap¬ 
 proved of this step; but there is no doubt 
 that it was sincerely taken, and Southey’s 
 offensive insinuations on the subject have 
 very little ground. Not content with im¬ 
 puting to Wesley more or less conscious 
 dishonesty, Southey argues that if presby¬ 
 ter and bishop were synonymous the con¬ 
 secration was useless, as Dr. Coke was or¬ 
 dained already, and therefore “ as good a 
 bishop as Mr. Wesley himself.” Wesley 
 would not have questioned that for a 
 moment; and his solemn ordination of Dr. 
 Coke was not to the mere office of presby¬ 
 ter, but as a delegate of his own authority 
 to be exercised in America. It was a step 
 taken with hesitation, as were all Wesley’s 
 steps in the direction of separation; but it 
 appeared to be forced on him, and when 
 taken was practically final and irrevocable. 
 
 Perhaps few thoughtful students of what 
 Methodism has since done will question 
 the reality of the divine providence which 
 so modified Wesley’s personal wishes into 
 an entirely different direction. 
 
 At the death of John Wesley great dis¬ 
 sensions arose in the Methodist body, now 
 increased to over 60,000 members. The 
 laity claimed a share in the government of 
 their body; they protested against the 
 Conference being solely composed of min¬ 
 isters; they also claimed their “ right to 
 hold public religious worship at such 
 hours as were most convenient, without 
 being restricted to the mere intervals of 
 the hours appointed for service in the Es¬ 
 tablished Church; ” and also the right to 
 receive the sacraments at the hands of 
 their [, lay-preachers —a thing which Wesley 
 had refused to permit. At last, in order 
 to allay the discontent and dissensions, 
 which had increased to an alarming extent 
 the Conference in 1795 drew up a Plan of 
 Pacification. The claims of the laity to a 
 share in the government of the Society 
 were steadily rejected. The claims of the 
 trustees of the various chapels to a voice 
 in the appointment of their ministers were 
 also denied. The whole business of elect¬ 
 ing and appointing ministers and local 
 preachers was reserved to the Conference. 
 But, on the other hand, in order to meet 
 the claims of the laity to a certain extent, 
 a new court was formed to administer dis¬ 
 cipline in each district. The Court con¬ 
 sisted of the preachers of each district, and 
 all trustees, stewards, and leaders of the 
 circuit. The Court received accusations 
 against a preacher, and had power to sus¬ 
 pend him till the next Conference, to 
 whom the matter must then be submitted. 
 This arrangement still continues in force. 
 
 Owing to the dissatisfaction that many 
 of the laity felt at the decisions of the Con¬ 
 ference of 1795, a second secession oc¬ 
 curred in 1797, the seceding members 
 forming the “ Methodist New Connection;” 
 they are sometimes called Kilhamites, 
 after their leader, Alexander Kilham. A 
 few years later, in 1812, the “ Primitive 
 Methodists ” formed a distinct sect, after 
 being expelled from the main body. In 
 1815 a further secession occurred, the 
 Bryanites or Bible Christians forming a 
 separate communion. The “ Methodist 
 Free Churches ” consist of those who were 
 expelled from Methodism in 1828, 1835, 
 and 1849; they amalgamated in 1857, and 
 are known as the “ United Free Churches.” 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists. —In spite, how¬ 
 ever, of these numerous secessions, 
 amounting in a few years to the loss of 
 100,000 members, the Society still flour¬ 
 ishes, and remains the leading division of 
 
Met 
 
 ( 596 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 the great body. At the present time they 
 have, in the United Kingdom, 2,183 minis¬ 
 ters, 469,857 class members, and 7,071 
 chapels. According to the official returns 
 published at the close of 1885, Methodists 
 of all kinds throughout the world number 
 32,701 minsters, and 5,174,037 class-mem¬ 
 bers. 
 
 Calvinistic Methodists. — This sect 
 followed Whitefield in 1741, but it was not 
 till 1748 that a secession formally occurred, 
 in consequence of Whitefield preaching 
 strong Calvinistic doctrine. Some of their 
 earliest chapels were erected in Moorfields 
 and in Tottenham Court Road about the 
 year 1756; but the greatest number were 
 in Wales. On the death of Whitefield, in 
 1769, the various congregations supported 
 themselves on the Independent principle. 
 At the present time they number 970 min¬ 
 isters, 276,051 members,and 1,372 chapels. 
 A section of this body is known as “ Lady 
 Huntingdon’s Connection.” (Hunting¬ 
 don, Countess of.) 
 
 Methodist New Connection, founded 
 in 1797, owing to the expulsion of Alex¬ 
 ander Kilham from the Methodist minis¬ 
 try; 5,000 sympathizers formed the first 
 members of this new sect. Alexander 
 Kilham was the first to claim the right of 
 the Methodist people to meet together for 
 worship in Church hours, and to receive 
 the Sacraments from their own ministers. 
 In theology, the New Connexion does not 
 differ from the old; the chief difference be¬ 
 tween the two bodies is that the New ad¬ 
 mits the laity to a share in the government 
 of the society. Ministers and lay dele¬ 
 gates attend the Conference in equal num¬ 
 bers, and the laity have a voice in the 
 election and expulsion of their ministers. 
 This body has missions abroad, especially 
 in China, and at the present time has, in 
 the United Kingdom, 211 ministers, 33,964 
 members, and 444 chapels. The society 
 is also strong in Canada. 
 
 Primitive Methodists. —This sect arose 
 from the expulsion of William Clowes and 
 Hugh Bourne from the Methodist Society 
 in 1811. These two men had preached and 
 conducted prayer-meetings among the men 
 engaged in the potteries in Staffordshire: 
 great numbers of people attended their 
 meetings. In 1807 they introduced the 
 American custom of holding camp-meet¬ 
 ings, at which various speakers addressed 
 the congregation assembled in the open 
 air. These meetings were prolonged 
 sometimes throughout the whole day. 
 The Methodist Conference, disapproving 
 of this, expelled the promoters, William 
 Clowes and Hugh Bourne. In 1812 they 
 took the name of “ Primitive Methodists,” 
 signifying by this that they wished to walk 
 
 as closely as they could in the steps of 
 John Wesley. They were named also 
 “ Ranters,” from their custom of singing 
 aloud in the open streets. In their theol¬ 
 ogy they do not differ materially from the 
 original Methodist Society, their prominent 
 doctrine being “ full, free, and present 
 salvation.” They differ from the older 
 Methodists in the admission of laity .to 
 their Conference, in a majority of two to 
 one. Other characteristics of this body 
 are their preference for open-air preaching, 
 and the allowing women to preach, the dis¬ 
 tribution of bread and water at their love- 
 feasts, and the great excitement which pre¬ 
 vails at their meetings. They flourished 
 chiefly in the northern counties of England 
 at first. Their present statistics for the Unit¬ 
 ed Kingdom are as follows: 1,042 minis¬ 
 ters, 192,389 members, and 4,217 chapels. 
 
 Bible Christians or Bryanites. —This 
 sect arose in 1815, with the secession of 
 William O’Bryan, a Methodist local-preach¬ 
 er in Cornwall. It succeeded well in 
 Devonshire and Cornwall, but in 1829 
 O’Bryan left the sect. Their Conference 
 consists of equal numbers of ministers and 
 people; and they allow females to act as 
 itinerant preachers. They possess in the 
 United Kingdom, at the present time, 245 
 ministers, 28,760 class-members, and 578 
 chapels; and they have a mission also in 
 Australia. 
 
 Methodist United Free Churches 
 consist of members expelled from the 
 Methodist Society, especially for agitating 
 in favor of the admission of the laity to a 
 voice in the management of their society. 
 They were amalgamated in 1857, and differ 
 only from the older society in giving in¬ 
 creased powers to the laity. They have 
 foreign missions in Africa and Australia; 
 and number at the present time, in the 
 United Kingdom, 419 ministers, 84,653 
 class members, and 1,232 chapels. 
 
 Two other very small sections of Method¬ 
 ism are The Wesleyan Reform Union, 
 founded in 1849, and the Independent 
 Methodists. Their adherents together 
 muster 13,915 members. — Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. A just 
 estimate of an organization requires more 
 than a knowledge of the immediate facts of 
 origin, formal constitution, gradual devel¬ 
 opment, and achievements; for the insti¬ 
 tution is always the product of antecedent 
 forces and conditions, which give it form 
 and efficiency, and which we must care¬ 
 fully consider, in order to any adequate 
 judgment of its .'place and value. What 
 seems newest may be, in reality, oldest. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church is a 
 
M 
 
 ( 597 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 branch of the visible Church of Jesus 
 Christ, one of the many “ outward and 
 visible ” ecclesiastical expressions and ad¬ 
 justments of the “ inward and invisible ” 
 ideas and energies of Christianity, empha¬ 
 sizing in its creed the apostolical confes¬ 
 sion: “ I believe in the Holy Catholic 
 Church; the communion of saints;” train¬ 
 ing its children to look upon all other 
 churches which exalt Christ, appeal to the 
 Holy Scriptures as the final authority in 
 matters of faith and conduct, and believe 
 in the quickening and sanctifying opera¬ 
 tions of the Holy Spirit, as equally sharing 
 with itself the authority and privileges of 
 the Holy Catholic Church, which is “ the 
 pillar and ground of the truth,” the “house¬ 
 hold of God,” the “ body,” of which Jesus 
 Christ is the “ Head.” This conception 
 is always present in the ruling thought 
 and teaching of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, and is a safeguard against secta¬ 
 rian narrowness. The Church accounts 
 itself one part of a vast and diversified in¬ 
 stitution: one part, and not the whole; one 
 division of a great army; one household 
 of a royal family. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church is, as 
 a form of the visible Church, one of the 
 results of that comparatively modern 
 movement in the religious world known 
 commonly as “ Methodism,” acknowl¬ 
 edged by thoughtful Christians of all de¬ 
 nominations as a divine work of revival 
 and reformation, restoring to the general 
 Church the fervent spirit, the evangelical 
 doctrines, the simple methods, and the 
 Christian activities of the first century. 
 Methodism is “ a revival of apostolic 
 Christianity,” the reproducing of “ the 
 first-century Church.” Mr. Wesley said 
 to his followers in America, “ Follow the 
 Scriptures and the primitive Church.” 
 Thus Methodism is, in a word, another 
 Reformation, as wide - reaching as the 
 great movement under Martin Luther and 
 his coadjutors; a reformation even more 
 radical than that. Under Luther, souls in 
 bondage made protest against ecclesiastical 
 tyrannies, and against papal perversions 
 of the gospel, and looked, as did the dis¬ 
 ciples in the beginning, when the temple 
 lost its power to satisfy them, toward the 
 heavens, whither their Lord had gone. 
 Under Wesley a step forward was taken; 
 the ascended Lord came again to his peo¬ 
 ple; the scenes of Pentecost were renew¬ 
 ed; the “dispensation of the Spirit” re¬ 
 ceived new illustration and application, 
 and the Church was prepared for a new 
 age—the age of intellectual, scientific, po¬ 
 litical, and religious activity; the age of 
 Christian civilization, in the heart of which 
 we are living to-day. 
 
 This large claim for the providential 
 origin of Methodism, and its relation to 
 our modern civilization, must not be pro¬ 
 nounced extravagant. One has but to read 
 the records of the eighteenth century in 
 England and on the continent of Europe, 
 as made by judicious and impartial stu¬ 
 dents and observers in all the churches, 
 and beyond the churches, to appreciate the 
 importance of the Methodist movement. 
 It was an age of unbelief, indifferentism, 
 intemperance, dissoluteness, hardness, and 
 heartlessness. John Telford, in his ad¬ 
 mirable life of John Wesley, says : “ In 
 
 1736 every sixth house in London was a 
 grog-shop, and the gin-sellers hung out 
 boards announcing that they would make 
 a man drunk for a penny, dead-drunk for a 
 twopence, and find straw for him to lie on 
 till he recovered from his carouse.” The 
 Church of England was full of the spirit 
 of irreligion; the clergy, to a lamentable 
 degree ignorant of the Bible, given up to 
 questionable amusements, and despised by 
 the people. Into this night of darkness 
 came the apostolic reformers, the Wesleys, 
 Whitefield, and their fellow-laborers. Their 
 work as instruments in the hands of God 
 is well and fairly summarized by a com¬ 
 petent and certainly unbiased judge, the 
 distinguished Unitarian, Dr. Bellows, who, 
 in 1866, wrote: “ Millions have been con¬ 
 verted by Methodism; millions have been 
 awakened from their worldliness, started 
 out of their stupor—some from sinful 
 courses—and spiritually quickened and 
 strengthened by its offices and ministra¬ 
 tions.There are no moral census- 
 
 tables to tell in mathematical figures the 
 real good Methodism has done; the statis¬ 
 tics of its work must be studied in the 
 altered lives, and the improved manners 
 and morals, and the noble aims of the peo¬ 
 ple influenced by it, and the higher life of 
 society in communities where it has flour¬ 
 ished.” It would be easy to fill pages with 
 similar testimony from writers of the high¬ 
 est standing. 
 
 The relation of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church to the Republic is a subject full 
 of suggestion. A government for the 
 people, and by the people, demanded just 
 what Methodism was most sure to empha¬ 
 size and most competent to promote—a 
 popular conscience, a religious faith full of 
 large and beneficent ideas, a spirit of equal¬ 
 ity and brotherhood, a religious life of fer¬ 
 vor and aggression to neutralize the ten¬ 
 dencies to secularity and worldliness inci¬ 
 dent to the intense life of the new freedom 
 in a new country and a new age. Thus, 
 when the God of nations prepared on this 
 continent a sphere for the people’s growth, 
 culture and responsibility, he provided for 
 
 
Met 
 
 ( 593 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 the people a Church, and through it pro¬ 
 moted in all the Churches a revival of 
 primitive, first-century Christianity, ear¬ 
 nest in spirit, Scriptural in doctrine, facile 
 and practical in method, indefatigable in 
 effort and thoroughly democratic in aim. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church was 
 organized in America with the approval, by 
 the authority, and under the direction, of 
 Mr. John Wesley. He preferred that, dur¬ 
 ing his life-time, the Wesleyans of England 
 should remain a “Society” within the 
 Church of England. In that venerable 
 branch of the Christian Church he was 
 born. By one of its bishops, John Potter, 
 D. D., Bishop of Oxford (afterward Arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury), he was set apart to 
 the Diaconate and to the “ Priesthood.” In 
 the Church of England he lived, preached 
 and died. By the authority given to him 
 when ordained a presbyter, according to 
 the true interpretation of the “orders,” 
 by the ablest ecclesiastical scholars, in pur¬ 
 suance of unchallenged precedents in the 
 early Church, John Wesley, in a providen¬ 
 tial emergency, exercised his rights as a 
 presbyter ( episcopos)', and in due form, as¬ 
 sisted by other presbyters of the Church 
 of England, set apart Thomas Coke, LL. D., 
 as a Superintendent (an Episcopos ), a Bishop 
 of the Wesleyan body in America. He 
 prepared an edition of the “ Book of Com¬ 
 mon Prayer ” for American use. He sent 
 Bishop Coke to assist in organizing the 
 Church in America. He said, “ I firmly 
 believe that I am a Scriptural Episcopos as 
 much as any man in England, or in Europe; 
 that the uninterrupted succession I know to 
 be a fable, which no man ever did or can 
 prove.” And be it noted that John Wes¬ 
 ley continued an acceptable member and 
 clergyman of the Church of England to the 
 day of his death; and although his course 
 in the ordination of a Bishop for America 
 was much condemned and ridiculed, he 
 was never called to account by the author¬ 
 ities of the Church. Those who knew the 
 whole subject best knew that Wesley had 
 precedents for his action, that his ordina¬ 
 tion was valid, and that the New Testa¬ 
 ment powers of the ministry of the Church 
 of England were in a legitimate way con¬ 
 veyed to the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 of America, which was, as Dr. Abel Stevens 
 says, “the first Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the world; and as Wesley had 
 given it the Anglican Articles of Religion 
 (omitting the XVIIth, On Predestination), 
 and the Liturgy Wesley abridged, it be¬ 
 came, both by its Protestant organization, 
 and its subsequent numerical importance, 
 the real successor to the Anglican Church 
 in America.” 
 
 The early life of Methodism in the Unit¬ 
 
 ed States was intense, active and aggres¬ 
 sive. Its ministers went everywhere 
 preaching the Word. They allowed no 
 obstacles to hinder their work. They pro¬ 
 claimed the pure gospel, a new gospel in 
 that age; a gospel to all men; a gospel of 
 salvation as free and full as it was all-em¬ 
 bracing. The people saw and felt that 
 these ardent, ever-moving and straight¬ 
 forward itinerant preachers were full of 
 what old Dr. Mason, of New York, used to 
 call “ blood earnestness.” The zeal of the 
 preachers prepared the people to hear and 
 to heed their message. Multitudes were at¬ 
 tracted, awakened, convicted and convert¬ 
 ed. The powers of the world to come 
 broke through the shell of wordliness, in¬ 
 difference, sensualism and infidelity. Whole 
 communities were reformed. Instead of 
 cursing and confusion, were heard songs of 
 praise for a divine deliverance. Drunkards 
 became sober men, and those who had 
 aforetime been maddened by strong drink, 
 were now “ filled with the Spirit.” The 
 proof of the divine wisdom, love and power 
 in this great Instauration, are to be found 
 in all the Churches of every denomination, 
 in the social and political life of the nation, 
 in the pulpits of Christendom, in the in¬ 
 creased zeal of believers for home and 
 foreign missions, in the personal joy of 
 salvation as experienced by the hearts to- 
 which this new proclamation of the old 
 gospel has come with such power, and in 
 the multitude of the redeemed who, saved 
 from earth and sin, are now before the 
 throne of him in whose “presence is 
 fullness of joy, and at whose right hand 
 are pleasures for ever more.” 
 
 The formal organization of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church took place in “ Lovely 
 Lane Chapel,” Baltimore, Md., at the fa¬ 
 mous “ Christmas Conference,” which be¬ 
 gan,December 24,1784, and closed, January 
 2, 1785. There were, at that time, 14,988 
 members of the Societies in America, sev¬ 
 eral hundred Local Preachers, and 84 Trav¬ 
 eling Preachers, 60 of whom were present 
 at the conference, not including Bishop 
 Coke, Francis Asbury, Richard Whatcoat 
 and Thomas Vasey. Bishop Coke pre¬ 
 sided. He read a letter from John Wesley 
 expressing his desire for the organization 
 of the Church, and a plan for the same. 
 This plan was adopted. Francis Asbury, 
 on the second day of the conference, was 
 ordained Deacon, on the third day Elder, 
 and on the fourth day General Superinten¬ 
 dent, or Bishop. There were at this Con¬ 
 ference thirteen Preachers elected and or¬ 
 dained Deacons, and twelve elected and 
 ordained Elders. 
 
 There are now 129 Conferences and Mis¬ 
 sions in the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
 
Met 
 
 ( 599 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 1 5,°95 Traveling Preachers; 983 Supernu¬ 
 merary Preachers; 1,638 Superannuated 
 Preachers; making a total of 17,716 in 
 conference relations. There are, besides 
 these, 13,561 Local Preachers. While the 
 ministry lost, during the year 1889, by 
 deaths, locations and withdrawals 485, the 
 additions made up the deficit, and showed 
 a net gain of 551 in her ministry. 
 
 During the same year there were 28,256 
 deaths among the lay members of the 
 Church. Notwithstanding these losses 
 and withdrawals, for various reasons, the 
 net gain was 83,177, leaving a total mem¬ 
 bership, including those on probation, at 
 the close of the year 1889, of 2,237,526. 
 The total of ministerial and lay members 
 of the Church is, therefore, 2,353,639. 
 
 The value of church property is re¬ 
 ported as $104,172,793; the total value of 
 connectional church property, including 
 churches, parsonages, educational institu¬ 
 tions, hospitals, etc., is not less than 
 $143,500,000. 
 
 During the year 1889 the total amount 
 raised for church expenses, including new 
 churches, payment on indebtedness on 
 church property, current church expenses, 
 ministerial support, including Presiding 
 Elders and Bishops, reached the sum of 
 $20,352,798. 
 
 The receipts for the year 1889, for the 
 three Missionary Societies, the “ Parent,” 
 the “ Woman’s Foreign,” and the “ Wom¬ 
 an’s Home,” make a grand total of $1,466,- 
 238.51; for the Board of Church Exten¬ 
 sion, $277,779.17; for the Sunday-school 
 Union, $22,504.05; for the Tract Society, 
 $19,461.00; for the Board of Education, 
 $54,476.56; for the Freedmen’s Aid and 
 Southern Education Society (for 1S88), 
 $84,587.00; for the American Bible Society 
 (for 1888), $33,348.00; for the Conference 
 Claimants, $217,876.00; making a grand 
 total of $2,185,980.22, for actual benevo¬ 
 lences under the General Conference of the 
 Church. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church repre¬ 
 sents the revolution in theological thought 
 which has compelled the older, and es¬ 
 pecially the Calvinistic, churches to re¬ 
 vise their creeds. It is substantially Ar- 
 minian, although its only authority is the 
 Holy Bible. It refers to Paul. John and 
 James, rather than to any human teacher 
 or school of divinity. It remands to the 
 cloister and the chamber of the metaphysi¬ 
 cian the philosophical problems which grow 
 out of the critical study of the Word, but 
 which have not been to us revealed. It 
 cares little for theological speculations. 
 It aims to reach the hearts and consciences 
 of the mass of men. It puts stress on 
 law and gospel, on personal responsibility, 
 
 personal freedom, and the personal con¬ 
 sciousness of the indwelling Spirit of God. 
 It proclaims everywhere the Fatherhood 
 of God and the Brotherhood of man. The 
 following brief putting of Methodist doc¬ 
 trines under the general head of “ The 
 Ten Points of Doctrine,” has been approved 
 by leading theologians of the Church: 
 “ (1) All men are sinners. (2) God the 
 Father loves all men and hates all sin. (3) 
 Jesus Christ died for all men to make pos¬ 
 sible their salvation from sin, and to make 
 sure the salvation of all who believe in 
 him. (4) The Holy Spirit is given to all men 
 to enlighten, and to incline them to repent 
 of their sins, and to believe in the Lord 
 Jesus Christ. (5) All who repent of their 
 sins and believe in the Lord Jesus Christ 
 receive the forgiveness of sins (this is “ Jus¬ 
 tification”). (6) All who receive the forgive¬ 
 ness of sin are at the same time made new 
 creatures in Christ Jesus (this is “Regenera¬ 
 tion ”). (7) All who are made new creatures 
 in Christ Jesus are accepted as the children 
 of God (this is “ Adoption ”). (8) All who 
 are accepted as the children of God may 
 receive the inward assurance of the Holy 
 Spirit to that fact (this is the “ Witness of 
 the Spirit ”). (9) All who truly desire and 
 seek it, may love God with all their heart 
 and soul, mind and strength, and their 
 neighbors as themselves (this is entire 
 “Sanctification”). (10) All who persevere 
 to the end, and only those, shall be saved 
 in heaven forever (this is the true “ Final 
 Perseverance ”). 
 
 Methodism began within the walls of 
 the university. Its projectors and first 
 promoters were men of fine intellectual en¬ 
 dowment, thorough education, and more 
 than one of them of broad and varied schol¬ 
 arship. The very beginnings of Method¬ 
 ism were in the upper room of Lincoln 
 College, where John and Charles Wesley, 
 George Hervey, George Whitefield, and 
 several others, either fellows or under¬ 
 graduates of the university, met four 
 nights a week for biblical, spiritual, phil¬ 
 anthropic, and literary exercises. It is a 
 singular fact that the spiritual agency 
 which was to enter the field of human ac¬ 
 tivity at the founding of our American re¬ 
 publican civilization was developed in a 
 college. It seems as though the great 
 Head of the Church was preparing a people 
 who should be able to carry Christianity 
 into the very heart of a new century, in 
 which the educational, scientific, and liter¬ 
 ary forces were to be at their best; Cult¬ 
 ure without grace is impotent; but grace 
 must ally herself with knowledge, and that 
 in many departments, in order to meet all 
 the demands of such a civilization as the 
 present. In Oxford University this prep- 
 
Met 
 
 ( 600 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 aration was begun, and the men who were 
 to be a power of burning in the hearts of 
 the people, were also to be a tongue of fire 
 crowning their intellects, and preparing 
 them to shed light as well as to promote 
 fervor among the masses and the classes 
 in the new century or the new continent be¬ 
 yond the sea. 
 
 Mr. Wesley, although at first reluctant 
 to lower his standard of ministerial ef¬ 
 ficiency and scholastic preparation, was, as 
 a practical man, compelled to employ those 
 who had never enjoyed the advantages of 
 the classical or professional schools. He 
 needed men to arouse men. He needed 
 earnest men who knew well the Book of 
 God, and who also knew, by their own per¬ 
 sonal experience, its power over the hu¬ 
 man heart. He and his American succes¬ 
 sors, therefore, followed the leadership of 
 the other learned professions—the “ law ” 
 and “ medicine ”—and chose men, whether 
 classically educated or not, who had the 
 essential qualifications for the Christian 
 ministry—hard sense, fervent piety, stu¬ 
 dious habits, a love of the Word of God, 
 and sympathy with their fellow-men. He 
 would not have refused to employ Dwight 
 L. Moody as evangelist or pastor. The 
 men he did select—John Oliver, John Paw- 
 son, Alexander Mather, Thomas Oliver, 
 George Story, Thomas Walsh, and others, 
 were men brought up to business; but 
 they knew men, and they knew how to 
 reach and save them through the gospel 
 of Christ. This is the policy which lias 
 prevailed in the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, and with marvelous success. The 
 evils resulting have been far overbalanced 
 by the good. 
 
 What was done in the old country, Wes¬ 
 ley, Coke, and Asbury projected for the 
 new. Thomas Coke, the first bishop of 
 the “ First-Century ” type on the American 
 Continent, was a man of extensive learning, 
 and Francis Asbury, who was the pioneer 
 bishop of Methodism in America, was, as 
 Abel Stevens says, “ One of those men of 
 anomalous greatness, in estimating whom 
 the historian is compelled to use terms 
 which would be irrelevant to most men 
 with whom he has to deal. His dis¬ 
 crimination of character was marvelous; 
 his administrative talent would have placed 
 him in civil government along-side of 
 Richelieu or Caesar; his success placed him 
 at the head of leading characters of Amer¬ 
 ican ecclesiastical history.” He was a man 
 with “ a restless instinct for work,” always 
 “ going,” and always “ doing,” methodical, 
 gentlemanly in his manners, and direct and 
 practical in his preaching. He was in the 
 habit of spending three hours a day in 
 private devotion, and made it a rule to read 
 
 every day, thoughtfully, one hundred 
 pages of good literature. It is said that 
 during the forty-five years of his American 
 ministry, he preached about 16,500 ser¬ 
 mons, traveled about 270,000 miles, pre¬ 
 sided in not less than 224 Annual Confer¬ 
 ences, and ordained more than 4,000 
 preachers. 
 
 I he very first General Conference, 
 known as the “ Christmas Conference,” re¬ 
 solved to found a college, and an effort was 
 made to raise funds for its endowment, and 
 for the erection of necessary buildings. 
 Bishop Asbury says, “ Bishop Coke and I 
 have agreed to use our joint endeavors to 
 establish a school or college.” The site 
 was chosen at Abingdon, Md., twpnty-five 
 miles from Baltimore, and on Sunday, 
 June 5, 1785, the corner-stone of Cokesbury 
 College was laid. Within three years there 
 were thirty students in the college proper, 
 and fifteen in the preparatory school. In 
 1792 seventy students were enrolled, pur¬ 
 suing not only the English branches, but 
 the ancient and modern languages, and also 
 lines of study in agriculture and architect¬ 
 ure—so practical were these founders of a 
 system of education for the people. When 
 the Methodist Book Concern was estab¬ 
 lished, a portion of the profits was set aside 
 for this first Methodist college. Notwith¬ 
 standing the disaster which came in the 
 burning of the building, December 7, 1795, 
 the educational work continued, and there 
 are to-day 197 institutions of learning under 
 the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, of which 129 are academies and 
 seminaries, 56 colleges and universities, 
 and 12 theological schools; the buildings 
 and endowments of the same aggregating 
 not less than $21,163,407. In 1S89 these 
 schools report 1,595 professors and other 
 teachers, and 32,276 students. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church has 
 always been a foremost friend of education. 
 Edward Everett said, forty years ago, 
 “ Methodism has done more than any other 
 branch of the Church for the promotion of 
 popular education in America.” Her suc¬ 
 cess does not demand the repudiation of 
 the public school, nor is “ Ignorance the 
 mother of Methodist devotion.” She goes 
 to the people to lift them up, socially, in¬ 
 tellectually, commercially, religiously, and 
 to bring to the higher levels all classes of 
 men. As Bishop Foster well says: “ Meth¬ 
 odism does not want to court the world, 
 or let down the standard to meet the pop¬ 
 ular taste, to set her sails for the wealthy 
 and great; nor does she want to reject or 
 repel them. Her mission is to the rich 
 and the poor; the refined and the uncult¬ 
 ured; to one class just as much as another, 
 and to all alike. .. . At her altars, whether 
 
Met 
 
 ( Go i ) 
 
 Met 
 
 in the humble chapel or magnificent 
 churchly edifice, they are to stand side by 
 side as children of one Father, and brothers 
 equally beloved.” 
 
 Thus is Methodism the exponent and 
 representative for the twentieth century of 
 the theology, spirit, experience, energy, 
 enterprise, and methods of the first cen¬ 
 tury; the adaptation of the oldest to the 
 demands of the newest; and her mission 
 has but just begun. J. H. Vincent. 
 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 
 
 Episcopal Methodism began its organic 
 existence in Baltimore, Maryland, at the 
 Christmas Conference of 1784. Methodist 
 preachers had been laboring among the 
 American colonists since 1766, and, de¬ 
 spite the interruption to their labors 
 caused by the War of the Revolution, 
 there had been gathered into the Method¬ 
 ist societies in this country some 15,000 
 members, under the ministry of 84 itiner¬ 
 ant preachers. They were without the 
 sacraments, however, as there were no 
 ordained preachers among them. Rev. 
 John Wesley, who, under God, had been 
 the founder of these societies in Europe 
 and America, set apart Rev. Thomas Coke, 
 LL. D., a presbyter in the Church of Eng¬ 
 land, but for some years a faithful co-la¬ 
 borer in the Methodist movement, who, 
 jointly with Rev. Francis Asbury, was to 
 organize the different societies into a reg¬ 
 ular Church, with an ordained ministry for 
 the administration of the sacraments. 
 Coke and Asbury were unanimously chos¬ 
 en superintendents or bishops by the Con¬ 
 ference, which also elected a number of 
 qualified preachers to deacons’ and elders’ 
 orders. Dr. Coke, having been ordained 
 by Mr. Wesley, ordained Mr. Asbury, 
 and they jointly ordained the deacons and 
 elders. 
 
 For the next sixty years Episcopal Method¬ 
 ism remained undivided; but, for sufficient 
 reasons, the General Conference of 1344 
 authorized a division into two General 
 Conference jurisdictions. The relations 
 between these two branches of Episcopal 
 Methodism were fully and clearly defined 
 in the action of the Cape May Commission 
 in their Declaration and Basis of Frater¬ 
 nity, in which the status of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church and of the Methodist 
 Episcopat Church, South, and their co¬ 
 ordinate relation as legitimate branches of 
 Episcopal Methodism are stated as follows: 
 “ Each of said Churches is a legitimate 
 branch of Episcopal Methodism in the 
 United States, having a common origin in 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church organized 
 in 1784; and since the organization of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was 
 
 consummated in 1845, by the volunta¬ 
 ry exercise of the right of the Southern 
 Annual Conferences, ministers, and mem¬ 
 bers, to adhere to that communion, it has 
 been an Evangelical Church, reared on 
 scriptural foundations, and her ministers 
 and members, with those of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, have constituted one 
 Methodist family, though in distinct ec¬ 
 clesiastical connections.” 
 
 The doctrines of the Methodist Episco¬ 
 pal Church, South, are substantially those 
 of Evangelical Arminianism, as held by 
 Methodists everywhere. In 1866 lay del¬ 
 egation was incorporated into its polity, 
 and from that time the General Conference 
 has been composed of an equal number of 
 ministers and laymen. Laymen are elected, 
 also, to the annual conference, each dis¬ 
 trict being entitled to four lay delegates, 
 one of whom may be a local-preacher. 
 Each lay delegate must be at least twenty- 
 five years of age, and, for the six years 
 preceding his election, a member of the 
 Church. What is known as the veto power 
 of the bishops is defined as follows: “When 
 any rule or regulation is adopted by the 
 General Conference, which, in the opinion 
 of the bishops, is unconstitutional, the 
 bishops may present to the Conference 
 which passed said rule or regulation their 
 objections thereto, with their reasons, in 
 writing; and if then the General Confer¬ 
 ence shall, by a two-thirds vote, adhere to 
 its action on said rule or regulation, it 
 shall then take the course prescribed for 
 altering a restrictive rule, and, if thus pass¬ 
 ed upon affirmatively, the bishops shall 
 announce that such rule or regulation takes 
 effect from that time.” The Restrictive 
 Rules are six in number, and are known 
 as the Constitution of the Church, defining 
 as they do the limits within which the Gen¬ 
 eral Conference may legislate. They for¬ 
 bid the General Conference to make any 
 changes in the doctrines of the Church; to 
 allow of more than one representative for 
 every eighteen members of an Annual 
 Conference, or a less number than one for 
 every sixty; to destroy the plan of our 
 itinerant general superintendency; to re¬ 
 voke or change the General Rules of the 
 United Societies; to do away the privileges 
 of our ministers and members of trial by 
 a committee, and of an appeal; to appro¬ 
 priate the produce of the Publishing House 
 to any purpose other than for the benefit 
 of the traveling, supernumerary, superan¬ 
 nuated, and worn-out preachers, their 
 wives, widows, and children. These Re¬ 
 strictive Rules may be changed, upon the 
 concurrent recommendation of three- 
 fourths of all the members of the several 
 Annual Conferences, who may be present 
 
Met 
 
 ( 602 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 and vote on such recommendation, the 
 General Conference, by a two-thirds vote 
 making the recommended change. This 
 does not apply, however, to the first article 
 respecting changes in the Articles of Re¬ 
 ligion or Standards of Doctrine. 
 
 This is the second largest Methodist 
 Church in the world, having- a member¬ 
 ship—including 4,862 traveling preachers 
 —of 1,177,150. It has, in 1890, 11,767 
 churches, worth $16,878,575, and 2,561 
 parsonages, worth $2,876,575. It gives in¬ 
 struction to 694,553 Sabbath-school schol¬ 
 ars, under the care of 88,842 teachers. 
 Under its fostering care are 70 institutions 
 of learning, including 14 colleges and uni¬ 
 versities. It has missions in China, Japan, 
 Mexico, Brazil, Cuba, and among the In¬ 
 dians. Its greatest missionary work for 
 many years was among the colored pop¬ 
 ulation of the slave-holding States, where 
 at the outbreak of the war, in 1861, there 
 was a colored membership of 207,766, in 
 whose evangelization the Church had 
 spent over a million dollars since its sep¬ 
 arate organization in 1844. The Colored 
 Methodist Episcopal Church in America 
 was organized out of the remnant of this 
 membership ; and their two institutions, 
 Paine and Lane Institutes, are under the 
 fostering care of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South, whose ministers are ap¬ 
 pointed to preside over the education of 
 the colored ministers and others who re¬ 
 ceive instruction there. 
 
 In 1889 there was contributed for home 
 and foreign missions $341,023; for Church 
 Extension $56,561, and for superannuated 
 preachers and the widows and orphans of 
 deceased preachers, $132,952. There is a 
 publishing house located at Nashville 
 which does a large business in the manu¬ 
 facture and sale of books. This is also the 
 seat of the Board of Missions, the publish¬ 
 ing committee, the S. S. Board, and the 
 place of annual meeting of the College 
 of Bishops. There are now ten living 
 bishops: John C. Keener, New Orleans, 
 La.; Alpheus W. Wilson, Baltimore, Md.; 
 John C. Granbery, St. Louis, Mo.; Robert 
 K. Hargrove, Nashville, Tenn.; William 
 Wallace Duncan, Spartansburg, S. C.; 
 Charles B. Galloway, Jackson, Miss.; 
 Eugene R. Hendrix, Kansas City, Mo.; 
 and Joseph S. Key, Ft. Worth, Texas (At- 
 ticus Haygood and O. P. Fitzgerald elect¬ 
 ed 1890). 
 
 At the time of the separation of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church in America, 
 in 1844, the following was the law of the 
 Church on the subject of Slavery: (See 
 Section X. of the Discipline.) “ Question: 
 What shall be done for the extirpation of 
 the evil of slavery ? 
 
 “ Answer 1. We declare that we are as 
 much as ever convinced of the great evil 
 of slavery: therefore no slave-holder shall 
 be eligible to any official station in our 
 Church hereafter, where the laws of the 
 State in which he lives will admit of eman¬ 
 cipation, and permit the liberated slave to 
 enjoy freedom. 
 
 “ 2. When any traveling preacher be¬ 
 comes an owner of a slave or slaves, by 
 any means, he shall forfeit his ministerial 
 character in our Church, unless he execute, 
 if it be practicable, a legal emancipation of 
 such slaves, conformably to the laws of the 
 State in which he lives. 
 
 “ 3. All our preachers shall prudently 
 enforce upon our members the necessity 
 of teaching their slaves to read the Word 
 of God; and to allow them to attend upon 
 the public worship of God on our regular 
 days of divine service. 
 
 “4. Our colored preachers and official 
 members shall have all the privileges which 
 are usual to others in the district and quar¬ 
 terly conferences, where the usages of the 
 country do not forbid it. And the presid¬ 
 ing elder may hold for them a separate 
 district conference where the number of 
 colored local-preachers will justify it. 
 
 “ 5. The annual conferences may em¬ 
 ploy colored preachers to travel and 
 preach where their services are judged 
 necessary; provided that no one shall be 
 so employed without having been recom¬ 
 mended according to the form of disci¬ 
 pline.” 
 
 This law had been faithfully observed by 
 the members of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church living in the slave-holding States. 
 Bishop Andrew having become connected 
 with slavery by his marriage to a widow 
 owning slaves, he made over all his right 
 and interest in them to his wife, as, under 
 the laws of the State in which he lived, they 
 could not be emancipated. A resolution 
 that he desist from the exercise of his office 
 as a bishop so long as he remained con¬ 
 nected with slavery in any form led to the 
 adoption of a Plan of Separation, whereby 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church in Amer¬ 
 ica became two Methodist Episcopal 
 Churches, which, for convenience, were 
 called North and South, according to their 
 fields of operation. It was intended to 
 make two General Conferences of the 
 Church, and Dr. Capers offered a resolu¬ 
 tion that one be called the “ Southern Gen¬ 
 eral Conference of the Methodist Episco¬ 
 pal Church in the United States” and the 
 other the “ Northern General Conference 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the 
 United States.” As the proposed name 
 was somewhat lengthy, it was finally short¬ 
 ened into Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 
Met 
 
 ( Oo 3 ; 
 
 Met 
 
 South. As it was not claimed that Bishop 
 Andrew had violated any law, and as no 
 trial was proposed or had, but simply a 
 mandatory resolution suspending him 
 from the exercise of his office as a bishop, 
 the members of the General Conference 
 from the Southern conferences deemed 
 that grave differences on constitutional 
 questions rendered separate General Con¬ 
 ference jurisdictions desirable and neces¬ 
 sary. They claimed that a General Con¬ 
 ference had no more right to demand that 
 a bishop should cease to exercise the rights 
 and functions of his office, without form of 
 trial, than Congress could make a like 
 demand of the President of the United 
 States, without due process of trial. 
 
 The Plan of Separation, whereby the two 
 branches of Episcopal Methodism were 
 formed, passed the General Conference of 
 1844 by a vote of 135 to 15. Bishop Joshua 
 Soule, the senior bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, adhered with the Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal Church, South, asdid Bish¬ 
 op J. O. Andrew. At the first General Con¬ 
 ference of said Church, held in 1846, Will¬ 
 iam Capers and Robert Paine were elected 
 bishops. In 1850, H. B. Bascomb was 
 elected to the same office. In 1854, George 
 F. Pierce, John Early, and H. H. Kavan- 
 augh were elected bishops. In 1S66, D. 
 S. Doggett, E. M. Marvin, W. M. Wight- 
 man, and H. N. McTyeire; in 1870, J. C. 
 Keener; and in 1882, A. W. Wilson, L. 
 Parker, J. C. Granbery and R. K. Har¬ 
 grove were chosen to the same responsible 
 office. The present bishops of the Church 
 are given above. 
 
 A leading characteristic of this Church is 
 its conservatism. It began as a protest 
 against alliances with the State, and its pul¬ 
 pits have been marked by freedom from 
 political discussions, and have been emi¬ 
 nently evangelical and successful. 
 
 Literature.—Organization of the Metho¬ 
 dist Episcopal Church, South , by A. H. 
 Redford, D. D. (Published by the South¬ 
 ern Methodist Publishing House, Nash¬ 
 ville, Tenn., 1871); History of Methodism, 
 by Bishop H. N. McTyeire; (Published by 
 the Southern Methodist Publishing House, 
 1884); Refutation of Erroneous Viezvs in 
 regard to the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South, by J. E. Godbey, D. D. (Published 
 by Southwestern Methodist Publishing 
 Co..Kansas City, Mo., 1890). 
 
 E. R. Hendrix. 
 
 Methodist Protestant Church, The. The 
 Methodist Protestant Church was the out¬ 
 growth of the discussion of lay-delegation 
 in the Methodist Episcopal Church, in the 
 early part of this century. In the Gen¬ 
 eral Conference of the Methodist Episcopal 
 
 Church of 1824 numerous petitions were 
 presented, praying for a representation of 
 laymen, as well as of ministers, in the law¬ 
 making body of the Church. No practical 
 results were obtained from these petitions. 
 
 The question had been earnestly dis¬ 
 cussed for several years prior to this Gen¬ 
 eral Conference, and on failing to gain the 
 attention of the General Conference, the 
 friends of the movement for the reform of 
 lay-delegation in that church called a con¬ 
 vention to meet in Baltimore. At this 
 convention it was determined to publish a 
 pamphlet, known as “ Mutual Rights,” 
 advocating the views of the reformers. It 
 was also determined to form a Union So¬ 
 ciety, to be composed of such persons as 
 sympathized with the movement, for the 
 purpose of cooperation in the furtherance 
 of their common cause. 
 
 Subsequently, conventions were held in 
 several of the States, for the purpose of 
 making inquiry into the propriety of pre¬ 
 paring one united petition to the General 
 Conference of 1828, praying for represen¬ 
 tation. These conventions, and the dis¬ 
 cussion ensuing, called forth much opposi¬ 
 tion from the church authorities. Church 
 members were expelled for participating in 
 the controversy, among these being eleven 
 ministers, in Baltimore, and twenty-two 
 laymen. 
 
 These expelled ministers and members 
 immediately organized, under Wesley’s 
 rules, under the name of the Associated 
 Methodist Reformers. 
 
 In November, 1827, a convention, com¬ 
 posed of ministerial and lay representa¬ 
 tives elected by State conventions and 
 Union Societies, met in Baltimore. This 
 convention prepared a memorial to the 
 General Conference of 1S28, praying that 
 the government of the Church might be 
 made representative, and more in accord¬ 
 ance with the mutual rights of ministers 
 and people. This memorial, like the 
 former petitions, was fruitless. 
 
 Finding that there was no hope of ob¬ 
 taining a change in the government of the 
 Church, the reformers called a convention 
 to meet in Baltimore, Nov. 12, 1828. At 
 this convention articles of association were 
 adopted, and the name “ Associated Meth¬ 
 odist Churches” taken as a title, until a 
 permanent organization could be formed at 
 a later convention. On Nov. 2, 1830, this 
 convention for permanent organization 
 met, and the new organization adopted the 
 name of “Methodist Protestant Church.” 
 and prepared a constitution and disci¬ 
 pline. 
 
 The new church recognized the principle 
 of constituting the General and Annual 
 Conferences of an equal number of minis- 
 
Met 
 
 ( 604 ) 
 
 Met 
 
 tersand laymen, and a representative polity 
 throughout was adopted. 
 
 The church thus organized prospered 
 fairly, until the slavery agitation began to 
 divide the churches of the land. In 1858 a 
 convention of nineteen annual conferences 
 in the Northern States decided to separate 
 themselves from the churches and confer¬ 
 ences supporting the institution of slavery, 
 until the cause for disagreement should be 
 removed. Soon after, the Civil War broke 
 out, and all intercourse between the north¬ 
 ern and southern portions of the church 
 was broken off. The northern portion 
 dropped the word Protestant from its name 
 meanwhile, and was known simply as the 
 “ Methodist Church.” 
 
 After the war, negotiations between the 
 separated portions of the church took 
 place, and on May 11, 1877, a convention 
 composed of representatives from both 
 Northern and Southern branches met in 
 Baltimore, Md., and arrangements were 
 happily perfected for the reunion of the 
 dissevered portions of the church. 
 
 Since then the church has steadily gained 
 ground. It has at present a membership 
 ■s of 150,000. Over 1,400 itinerant ministers 
 are enrolled in its work. It has a college 
 in Adrian, Michigan, with property valued 
 at $300,000. Another college is located in 
 Westminster, Md., with property valued 
 at about $150,000. Several seminaries and 
 academies are controlled by some of the 
 annual conferences. 
 
 The Methodist Protestant in Baltimore, 
 and the Methodist Recorder in Pittsburg, 
 Pa., are the chief organs of the church, al¬ 
 though several conference and independent 
 papers are published in different parts of 
 the country. 
 
 The church has in hand a prosperous 
 mission work in Japan. Thirteen mission¬ 
 aries in that country are at present sup¬ 
 ported by the Board of Foreign Missions 
 and the Woman’s Board of Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions. 
 
 A Board of Home Missions is organized 
 to carry on mission work in this country. 
 A Board of Ministerial Education has been 
 of great service in assisting young men 
 studying for the ministry. 
 
 The Methodist Protestant Church, while 
 aiming to preserve the traditions and 
 spiritual fervor of Methodism, also en¬ 
 deavors to conjoin with this a representa¬ 
 tive and democratic form of ecclesiastical 
 government. She recognizes that the ulti¬ 
 mate authority in all matters of church 
 government is inherent in the ministers 
 and members of the Church. She believes 
 that the living Church which God has es¬ 
 tablished in the hearts of his children re¬ 
 quires that the outward visible church 
 
 should provide that all its members should 
 have a voice and a representation in its 
 councils and legislation. 
 
 D. S. Stephens. 
 
 Wesleyan Methodist Connection of 
 America. —This Church, an outgrowth of 
 the anti-slavery agitation, was organized 
 at a convention held at Utica, N. Y., May 
 31, 1843. It is Arminian in doctrine, re¬ 
 jects the episcopacy, and strongly opposes 
 all secret societies. They publish two 
 periodicals, and sustain several institutions 
 of learning. 
 
 Free Methodist Church. —This body 
 was organized at Pekin, N. Y., Aug. 23, 
 i860. It is modeled very closely in its 
 government after the Wesleyans. They 
 lay special stress upon simplicity in dress 
 and demeanor. They sustain two educa¬ 
 tional institutions, a monthly magazine, 
 and a weekly church paper. 
 
 Colored Methodists in the United 
 States.—S ee African Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Church; African Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Zion Church. 
 
 Union American Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. —This body was formed in 1813, 
 by colored members who seceded from 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. Its doc¬ 
 trines are the same as the parent Church, 
 and its polity is similar. 
 
 Colored Methodist Episcopal Church 
 in America. —Before the Civil War, large 
 numbers of the colored people, not being 
 allowed by law to hold meetings among 
 themselves, united with the M. E. Church, 
 South. After their emancipation, many 
 broke away from this connection, and, as 
 the result, the above-named church was 
 organized in 1874. In doctrine and disci¬ 
 pline they follow the order of the M. E. 
 Church, South. 
 
 Americo-German Methodism is repre¬ 
 sented by the German Conferences con¬ 
 nected with the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. See Evangelical Association; 
 United Brethren in Christ. 
 
 Canadian Methodism.—(1) Methodist 
 Episcopal Church in Canada. —Methodism 
 was introduced into Canada as early as 
 1788; but it was not until 1S24 that the 
 Canada Conference was organized under 
 the authority of the M. E. Church. It 
 holds an independent position, but in doc¬ 
 trine and polity is like the parent Church. 
 (2) Alethodist Church of Canada. — This 
 body was formed in 1S74 by a union of the 
 Wesleyan Methodists, the New Connection 
 and the Wesleyan Methodists in the East¬ 
 ern Provinces. In doctrine and polity they 
 closely resemble the British Wesleyan 
 Church, and are the largest body of Meth¬ 
 odists in British America. (3) The British 
 Methodist Episcopal Church is composed of 
 
Met 
 
 ( 605 ) 
 
 Mey 
 
 the colored Methodists of Canada. It was 
 formerly connected with the African M. 
 E. Church, but became independent in 
 1864. (4) The Primitive Methodist Connec¬ 
 
 tion has two conferences in the United 
 States and one in British America. The 
 Bible Christian Church , a Wesleyan body, 
 has a few societies in the Northern States 
 and in British America. There are a 
 number of Independent Methodist churches 
 in different localities that are essentially 
 Congregational in polity. 
 
 Metho'dius, the famous missionary to the 
 Slavs. See Cyrillus and Methodius. 
 
 Metropolitan denoted the bishop of the 
 municipal capital of a province. In rank 
 he took the precedency of the other bish¬ 
 ops, acted at their consecration, and called 
 together councils. In the Anglican Church 
 there are, in England, two metropolitans, 
 the archbishops of Canterbury and York. 
 
 Mexico is a federal republic with a pop¬ 
 ulation of over 10,000,000, one-sixth of 
 which is of pure European, three-sixths 
 Indian, and two-sixths of mixed blood. 
 The original inhabitants were the Toltecs, 
 who came from the north in the seventh 
 century, and*were followed by the Aztecs 
 in the thirteenth century. The Aztecs 
 practiced the most revolting rites in their 
 worship, and offered human sacrifices. 
 After the conquest of the country by Cor¬ 
 tez (1519-21) the Roman Catholic religion 
 was forced upon the people, and in its dom¬ 
 inance gained great wealth for the Church, 
 and developed a religious superstition of 
 the darkest kind, that brought forth only 
 the fruits of moral degeneracy and igno¬ 
 rance. It was not until 1857 and 1859, when 
 President Juarez ordered the abolition of 
 the convents and the sequestration of the 
 property of the Church, that religious tol¬ 
 eration was granted. The first Protestant 
 mission school was opened by Miss Rankin 
 at Brownsville, and afterward (1866) at 
 Monterey. A dozen schools were founded 
 by her efforts, with native teachers, which 
 were finally cared for by the American and 
 Foreign Christian Union. In 1865 a Roman 
 Catholic priest, Francis Aguilar, started a 
 reform movement in the Mexican Church, 
 which was named the “ Church of Jesus.” 
 Aguilar, in 1867, opened a hall for public 
 worship in San Jose de Real. After his 
 death the Church sought aid from the Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Church of the United 
 States. This help has been given since 
 1878, and Rev. Henry C. Riley, who had 
 labored since 1869 under commission of 
 the American and Foreign Christian Union, 
 was appointed bishop. Meanwhile mission 
 
 work was undertaken by other denomina¬ 
 tions. The following are the churches at 
 work in the Republic, with the date of com¬ 
 mencement, and the names of the States in 
 which they are respectively laboring: 
 
 (1) American Baptist Home Missionary 
 Society, 1863. In six States, viz.: Coa- 
 huila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, San Luis 
 Potosi, Aguas Calientes, and Mexico. 
 
 (2) Episcopal Missions, 1869. In four 
 States: Mexico, Morelos, Guerrero, and 
 Hidalgo. 
 
 (3) Friends’ Mexican Mission, 1S71. In 
 two* States: Tamaulipas, and San Luis 
 Potosi. 
 
 (4) Presbyterian Board of Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions, 1872. In twelve States: Nuevo 
 Leon, Coahuila, San Luis Potosi, Durango, 
 Zacatecas, Hidalgo, Mexico, Michoacan, 
 Guerrero, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Yuca¬ 
 tan. 
 
 (5) Methodist Episcopal, 1873. I n seven 
 States: Guanajuato, Queretaro, Hidalgo, 
 Mexico, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Vera Cruz. 
 
 (6) Methodist Episcopal (South), 1873. 
 In seventeen States: Nuevo Leon, Chihua¬ 
 hua, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Jalisco, 
 Coahuila, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, 
 Guanajuato, Aguas Calientes, Michoacan, 
 Mexico, Hidalgo, Puebla, Morelos, and 
 Vera Cruz. 
 
 (7) Presbyterian (South), 1874. In two 
 States: Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon. 
 
 (8) Associate Reformed Presbyterian, 
 1880. In two States: Tamaulipas, and Vera 
 Cruz. 
 
 (9) A. B. C. F. M., 1882. In three 
 States: Chihuahua, Sonora, and Jalisco. 
 
 (10) Southern Baptists, 1884. In five 
 States: Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Tamauli¬ 
 pas, Zacatecas, and Aguas Calientes. 
 
 (11) Cumberland Presbyterian, 1S86. In 
 two States: Aguas Calientes, and Guana¬ 
 juato. 
 
 It will thus be seen that only three States 
 remain without a missionary representa¬ 
 tive, viz.: Colima, Chiapas, and Campeche. 
 The Baptist Church has recently sent one 
 of its number to the latter State with a view 
 of establishing work there. At the present 
 time (1890) there are 510 workers in this 
 interesting field. Of this number 55 are 
 ordained missionaries from abroad, and 94 
 ordained native ministers. The number of 
 congregations are 393, with 14,523 com¬ 
 municants, and 89 church buildings. 
 
 Meyer {mi’er), Heinrich August Wil¬ 
 helm, a distinguished commentator on the 
 New Testament; b. at Gotha, Jan. 10, 1800; 
 d. in Hanover, June 21, 1873. From 1821 to 
 1848 he was engaged in pastoral duties, but 
 at the same time prosecuted his labors as 
 an exegete. In 1848 he retired to Han- 
 
Mic 
 
 ( 606 ) 
 
 Mid 
 
 over, and for the most part devoted the rest 
 of his life to the writing and revising of 
 his commentaries. Acute in criticism, la¬ 
 borious in research, and evangelical in 
 sentiment, his work has received wide rec¬ 
 ognition, not only in Germany but in this 
 country and Great Britain. 
 
 Micah. “ The author of this book was 
 a native of Moresheth, a small town in the 
 southwest of Judaea, near Gath, and a con¬ 
 temporary of Isaiah, Hosea, and Amos, 
 being probably the youngest of the group. 
 His name is a contracted form of Micaiah, 
 which means, ‘ Who is like Jehovah ?’ and 
 it appears, according to the fashion of the 
 times (see Isaiah), to have been given to 
 him or adopted by him as a sign to the peo¬ 
 ple of Israel. His prophecies are in the 
 same vein as those of Isaiah, and both nu¬ 
 merous and close are the coincidences 
 which have been traced between them. A 
 greater sternness of temper is at first sight 
 apparent, and a greater severity of tone 
 pervades his prophecies, but from time to 
 time a deep tenderness of heart reveals it¬ 
 self (chap. i. 10), and his pleading is as 
 urgent as any wherewith an inspired mes¬ 
 senger of heaven has sought to reconcile 
 the sinner to God (chap. vi. 8). Chap. vii. 
 S-20 is referred to as ‘ one of the sweetest 
 passages of prophetic writing.’ Micah’s 
 style is clear, vivid, concise, and poetic. 
 His prophecies predict the destruction of 
 the northern kingdom and its capital, Sa¬ 
 maria (chap. i. 6-8), the destruction of Jeru¬ 
 salem (chaps, iii. 12; vii. 13), the Captiv¬ 
 ity (chap. iv. 10), the Return (chaps, iv. 
 1-8; vii. n), the establishment of the the¬ 
 ocracy in Zion (chap. iv. 8), and the ruler 
 to come out of Bethlehem (chap. v. 2). 
 
 “ Divisions of the Book .—It has been di¬ 
 vided into three sections—( a ) chaps, i.-iii.; 
 (b) chaps, iv. and v.; and (e) chaps, vi. and 
 vii. 
 
 “ Contents. —(tf) Chap. i. contains a 
 threatening of judgment on Samaria and 
 Jerusalem,and the prophet’s lament over it. 
 Chap. ii. refers the cause, while it de¬ 
 scribes the punishment, to the sins of the 
 princes and rulers. Chap. iii. describes 
 the cruel conduct of these men, foretells 
 the fate of the false prophets, and refers 
 again to the national sin and judgment. 
 
 “ (b) Chap. iv. predicts the return of 
 prosperity to Zion. Chap. v. predicts the 
 birth and rule of the Messiah, with the ab¬ 
 olition of war and idolatry. 
 
 “ (r) Chaps, vi. and vii. state the case be¬ 
 tween the Lord and his people.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. 
 
 Michael (who is like God?') “appears in 
 the Old Testament as a man’s name, sy¬ 
 
 nonymous with Micaiah or Micah. In 
 the book of Daniel the same name is 
 given to one of the chief ‘ princes ’ of the 
 heavenly host, the guardian angel or 
 ‘ prince ’ of Israel (Dan. x. 13, 21; xii. 1), 
 and as such he naturally appears in Jewish 
 theosophy as the greatest of all angels, 
 the first of the four who surround the 
 throne of God. (See Gabriel.) It is as 
 guardian angel of Israel, or of the Church, 
 the true Israel, that Michael appears in 
 Jude 9 and Rev. xii. 7. In the Western 
 Church the festival of St. Michael and all 
 angels (Michaelmas) is celebrated on Sept. 
 29. It appears to have grown out of a local 
 celebration of the dedication of a church of 
 St. Michael, either at Mount Garganus in 
 Apulia or at Rome, and was a great day by 
 the beginning of the ninth century.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. 
 
 Michaelmas. This festival, held on 
 Sept. 29, is celebrated not only in the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic Church, but also in the 
 Greek and some other Protestant churches, 
 in honor of the Archangel Michael. The 
 festival is a special commemoration of the 
 benefits received from the ministry of an¬ 
 gels. There is a tradition that the festival 
 was instituted by Alexander, bishop of 
 Alexandria. • 
 
 Middle Ages, “ the designation applied 
 to the great historic period between the 
 times of classic antiquity and modern times. 
 The beginning and close of this period are 
 not very definite. It is usual, however, to 
 regard the Middle Ages as beginning with 
 the overthrow of the Western Roman Em¬ 
 pire in the year 476; and there is a pretty 
 general concurrence in fixing on the Ref¬ 
 ormation as the great event which brought 
 this period to a close. It began with the 
 rise of the Frankish upon the ruins of the 
 ancient Roman Empire, and with the com¬ 
 mencement of civilization among the bar¬ 
 barous tribes which had taken possession 
 of the former Roman provinces. In course 
 of it the different nations of modern Europe 
 were formed, and their political and social 
 systems developed. It was a period of 
 much superstition, in connection with 
 which much religious enthusiasm very ex¬ 
 tensively prevailed, manifested in many 
 great religious endowments, in magnificent 
 ecclesiastical buildings, in pilgrimages,and, 
 above all, in the crusades. In the earlier 
 parts of this period the Church was much 
 occupied in the extension of its bounds in 
 the North of Europe, where heathenism 
 still subsisted, and the means employed 
 were not always consistent with the spirit 
 of Christianity. During the Middle Ages 
 the hierarchy acquired enormous power 
 
Mid 
 
 ( 607 ) 
 
 Mig 
 
 and wealth, and the papacy rose from com¬ 
 paratively small beginnings to its utmost 
 greatness. During the Middle Ages chiv¬ 
 alry had its rise and decline, modifying 
 and in many respects tending to refine the 
 feelings and usages of society. Towards 
 the close of the Middle Ages the revival of 
 letters, the increase of knowledge, and the 
 formation of a wealthy and influential class 
 in society, distinct alike from the aristoc¬ 
 racy and the peasantry, tended, even before 
 the Reformation, both to the diminution of 
 the power of the hierarchy and the decay 
 of the feudal system. See Guizot’s His- 
 toire de la Civilisation; Riihs’s Handbuch 
 der Geschichte des Mittelalters; and Hal- 
 lam’s History of the Middle Ages.” —Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Middleton, Conyers, D. D., famous as a 
 controversalist, and the author of a Life of 
 Cicero; b. at York, Dec. 27, 1683; d. at 
 Hildersham, July 28, 1750. A graduate 
 of Cambridge, he became a fellow of Trin¬ 
 ity in 1716. In the following year he be¬ 
 came involved in controversies with Bent¬ 
 ley, then master of Trinity, and made such 
 a caustic attack upon some published spec¬ 
 imens of an edition of the New Testa¬ 
 ment, projected by Bentley, that he gave 
 up the work. He had a passion for con¬ 
 troversy, which involved him in many 
 conflicts of opinion. In 1749 he pub¬ 
 lished Introductory Discourse , etc ., to the 
 Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers 
 which are Supposed to have Subsisted in the 
 Christian Church , from the Earliest Ages 
 through Several Successive Centuries. This 
 work denied the continuance of miraculous 
 power in the Church after the time of the 
 apostles. A complete edition of his works, 
 with the exception of his Life of Cicero , 
 was published in London, 1755, 4 vols. 
 Middleton’s great work was his Life of 
 Cicero (best edition, London, 1848). 
 
 Midian {strife), the territory extending 
 from the Elanitic Gulf to Moab and Mount 
 Sinai, or, according to others, from the 
 Sinaitic peninsula to the desert and the 
 banks of the Euphrates. The people car¬ 
 ried on trade with Egypt, Palestine and 
 Lebanon. Moses lived among the Midian- 
 ites. (Ex. ii. 15-21; Num. x. 29.) In the 
 desert they were on intimate terms with 
 the Israelites, but, having infected them 
 with their sins of idolatry and uncleanness, 
 they were destroyed. (Num. xxv.;xxxi.) 
 The Midianites afterward became a strong 
 nationand oppressed the Hebrews, but were 
 miraculously defeated by Gideon. (Judg. 
 vi.-viii.) The Midianites gradually were 
 absorbed among the Moabites and Ara¬ 
 bians. Many ancient ruins have been dis¬ 
 
 covered in the region east of Edom and 
 Moab. Some portions of the country are 
 very fertile, and the modern Arabs in these 
 sections bear a resemblance in character 
 and habits to what is known of the ancient 
 Midianites. “ Curtains of Midian ” (Hab. 
 iii. 7) is a figurative expression denoting 
 the borders of Midian. 
 
 Midrash. “ The term ‘ Midrash ’ de¬ 
 notes, in the abstract and general sense, 
 ‘ the study,’ ‘ the exposition of Holy 
 Writ.’ After the return from Babylon, 
 the law was the centre of the spiritual life 
 in Israel; and its study became the object 
 of scientific treatment when the temple, 
 the Jewish sanctuary, was destroyed. The 
 ‘ law of Moses ’ had not only to be adapt¬ 
 ed to the altered circumstances of life, but 
 had also to be supplemented by more 
 precisely determining that which was un¬ 
 determined, in order to meet all individual 
 relations and circumstances of life. This 
 investigation and explanation of Scripture 
 was termed Midrash , and was divided into 
 the Halachic (‘ exegesis ’), i. e., embracing 
 law and practice, or doctrine in its whole ex¬ 
 tent, and Hagadic, i. e., embracing all other 
 scientific products, all the afflux of free 
 meditation, whether its subject - matter 
 might be historical or legendary, ethical, 
 parabolic or speculative. 
 
 “ The writing down of the Midrash, i. e ., 
 of a Halachoth and Hagadoth, commenced 
 with the second century of our era, and 
 ended in the eleventh century; since that 
 time history, religious philosophy, gram¬ 
 matical exegesis, and Cabala became the 
 objects of study. A large portion of the 
 Midrashim consists of homiletical lectures 
 introduced by a text not contained in the 
 Pentateuch. This was called p'ticha , or 
 proem. The most simple form of the 
 proem is the quotation of a verse, the re¬ 
 lation of which to the section of the Penta¬ 
 teuch, or rather its application to the sub¬ 
 ject, was left to the reader or hearer to be 
 found out. Sometimes more than one text 
 was introduced, and the exposition was 
 given in such a manner that the last ex¬ 
 position, or its close, served as a connect¬ 
 ing link between the introduction and the 
 subject under discussion.”— H. L. Struck. 
 For full literature of the subject see his 
 art. in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. ii., pp. 
 1505-1507. 
 
 Migne, Jacques Paul, a famous Roman 
 Catholic author and publisher; b. at St. 
 Flour, Cantal, France, Oct. 25, 1800; d. in 
 Paris, Oct. 25, 1875. Educated at the 
 theological seminary in Orleans, he was 
 ordained priest, 1824, and became curate at 
 Puiseaux, in the diocese of Orleans. The 
 
Mil 
 
 ( 608 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 publication of his Liberty of the Priests in¬ 
 volved him in controversy with his bishop, 
 and in 1833 he came to Paris and started 
 IL Univers, which he sold in 1836, and 
 then at Petit Montrouge, near Paris, laid 
 the foundations of the great printing-house, 
 which he named Imprimerie Catholique. A 
 large number of the works of the Greek 
 and Latin Fathers and other theological 
 works issued from its presses. Not only 
 did Migne carry on printing in his estab¬ 
 lishment, but the building of organs, statu¬ 
 ary, pictures, and other things used in 
 churches. This great work - shop was 
 burned down in 1868, but was speedily re¬ 
 built. Previous to this the archbishop for¬ 
 bade Migne to continue his business, but he 
 refused, and was suspended. 
 
 Milburn, William Henry, Methodist 
 Episcopal; b. in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 
 26, 1823. By an accident in youth he lost 
 the sight of one eye, and the other became 
 blind in early manhood. He studied in 
 Illinois College, and in 1843 entered the 
 ministry of the Methodist Church. In 
 1845, when a little over twenty-two years 
 of age, he was elected chaplain of the 
 29th Congress. From 1845 he was again 
 in the pastorate until 1853, when he return¬ 
 ed to Washington as chaplain of the 
 33d Congress. For many years he has 
 devoted himself chiefly to lecturing. In 
 188^ he served for the third time as chap¬ 
 lain of Congress, and was again elected in 
 1887. He is the author of: Rifle , Axe , and 
 Saddle Bags: Symbols of Western Character 
 and Civilization (New York, 1856); Ten 
 Years of Preacher-Life: Chapters from an 
 Autobiography (1858); The Pioneers , Preach¬ 
 ers , and People of the Mississippi Valley 
 (i860). 
 
 Mildmay Conferences, a name given to 
 various missionary and religious conven¬ 
 tions held at the Conference Hall in Mild¬ 
 may Park, London. The present hall was 
 erected in 1870, and seats 2,500 people. 
 It is the centre of evangelistic work in that 
 section of the city, and has in charge a 
 large number of philanthropic organiza¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Mile'tus, a city of Ionia, on the coast of 
 Asia Minor, thirty-six miles south of Ephe¬ 
 sus. In 500 B. C. it was the largest and 
 most prosperous Greek City in Asia. It 
 was the native place of Thales and other 
 distinguished men. After its capture by 
 Alexander the Great, b. c. 334, it never re¬ 
 gained its former position. A few ruins 
 still mark its site. It was at Miletus that 
 Paul stopped on his return to Jerusalem 
 from his third missionary tour, and met 
 
 the elders from Ephesus. (Acts xx. 15-38.) 
 
 . The fact that Paul left Trophimus here at 
 another time, on account of his sickness 
 (2 Tim. iv. 20), is supposed by many to 
 indicate a later visit, after his first imprison¬ 
 ment at Rome. See Howson: Idfe of St. 
 Paul , chap, xxvii. 
 
 Military Orders. The origin of these 
 associations may be traced to the necessi¬ 
 ties of the Christian pilgrims to the Holy 
 Land, who often reached Jerusalem utterly 
 destitute and broken in health, and who 
 were tended in the hospitals by the monks, 
 who were compelled in self-defence to as¬ 
 sume the joint character of soldier and 
 monk. Many of these orders have now 
 fallen into disuse, but some of them still 
 exist in the form of orders of knighthood. 
 There were once from ninety to one hun¬ 
 dred. We give a few particulars of the 
 more important: 
 
 I. Knights Hospitallers. —This order 
 owed its foundation to some merchants of 
 Amalfi, who obtained leave from the Ca¬ 
 liph of Egypt to build a church at Jerusa¬ 
 lem. They founded a monastery of the 
 Benedictine Order, to receive and entertain 
 Christian pilgrims, and a convent of nuns 
 dedicated to Mary Magdalene, to receive 
 the women who should visit the Holy Sep¬ 
 ulchre. The hospital was built in 1080. 
 and the administration of it was committed 
 to the Abbot Gerard, who, after Godfrey 
 of Bouillon had taken the city in 1099, 
 founded the Order of St. John of Jerusa¬ 
 lem, and became its first Grand Master. 
 He instituted a rule and religious habit 
 for the knights, who, at their reception, 
 vowed chastity, obedience, and self-abne¬ 
 gation, and promised always to assist the 
 Christians. Gerard died in 1118, and was 
 succeeded by Raymond Du Puy, who es¬ 
 tablished a yet more severe rule, which 
 was confirmed by Pope Calixtus II. in 
 1120. Numerous hospitals, called Com- 
 manderies, were established at seaside 
 towns, whence pilgrims were assisted on 
 their way to the Holy Land. The Order 
 had become military in 1104, and many 
 rich men enrolled themselves, and they 
 were styled “ knights.” When Jerusalem 
 was conquered by Saladin in 1187, the 
 knights, with their Grand Master Daps, 
 retired to Margatt, in Phoenicia, and thence 
 to Acre, which they valiantly defended in 
 1290. Then they went to Cyprus, where 
 they stayed till 1310, and in that year, un¬ 
 der the Grand Master, Foulques de Villa- 
 ret, they took Rhodes, and next year de¬ 
 fended it against the Saracens, for which 
 reason their successors have used these 
 four letters for a device: F. E. R. T., i. e ., 
 Fortitudo ejus Rhodian tenuit. In 1522 this 
 
Mil 
 
 ( 609 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 island was attacked by Solyman the Mag¬ 
 nificent, and the Grand Master, Villiers de 
 I’lle d’Adam, was forced to capitulate; 
 they then retired to Candia, thence to Sic¬ 
 ily, where Pope Adrian VI. granted them 
 the city of Viterbo. In 1530 the Emperor 
 Charles V. gave them the island of Malta, 
 which he had conquered from Tunis, on 
 condition that they should defend his 
 kingdom of Sicily from the Turks. In 1565 
 Solyman besieged Malta for four months, 
 but it was gallantly defended by the Grand 
 Master, John de Valette Parisot. They 
 then remained undisturbed till 1798, when, 
 by means of bribery to some French 
 knights, and the cowardice of the Grand 
 Master, Ferdinand d’Hompesch, the isl¬ 
 and was surrendered to Napoleon. The 
 order was then suppressed in many of 
 the European States, and the office of 
 Grand Master has never since been fill¬ 
 ed up ; a Deputy Grand Master has, 
 however, been appointed, who lives in 
 Spain, but the knights are now very few 
 in number. The order was divided into 
 three classes—(1) Knights, who must all 
 be of noble birth; (2) Chaplains; (3) Serv¬ 
 ing brothers, who were not noble. The 
 knights were divided into eight different 
 languages, or nations—(1) That of Pro¬ 
 vence, from which the Grand Commander 
 was always chosen; (2) Auvergne, whose 
 chief was Marshal of the order; (3) France, 
 whose chief was Grand Hospitaller; (4) 
 Italy, whose chief was High Admiral; (5) 
 Aragon, whose chief was Grand Conserva¬ 
 tor; (6) Germany, whose chief was Grand 
 Bailiff; (7) Castile, whose chief was Grand 
 Chancellor; and (8) England, whose chief 
 was General of Infantry. Every language 
 had several Grand Priories, and every 
 Grand Priory a certain number of Com- 
 manderies. Amongst the knights the 
 Grand Crosses were those who had a right 
 to be candidates for the dignity of Grand 
 Master, who was the sovereign of the isl¬ 
 and, and to whom all knights owed obedi¬ 
 ence. There were also Dormes or Demi- 
 Crosses, who were allowed to marry, and 
 wore a golden cross of three branches. In 
 times of peace the knights wore a black 
 habit with a white cross of the well-known 
 shape called the Maltese cross, having 
 eight points. When fighting, the dress 
 was red with a great white cross before 
 and behind. 
 
 II. The Knights Templars began at Jeru¬ 
 salem about 1118. Hugh de Payens and 
 Geoffrey of St. Omer, with seven others, 
 whose names are not known, devoted 
 themselves to God’s service as Canons Reg¬ 
 ular, and made their religious vows to the 
 patriarch of Jerusalem. Baldwin II. gave 
 them a house near the site of the temple, 
 
 whence their name of Templars, or Knights 
 of the Temple, or Poor Soldiers of the 
 Temple of Solomon. The king and nobles 
 gave them estates, some for a set term of 
 years, others for ever; the object of the 
 institution being to defend pilgrims from 
 the cruelty of the infidels, and to keep the 
 passes free for such as undertook the jour¬ 
 ney to the Holy Land. Until 1128, the 
 nine knights added none to their number, 
 but after the Council of Troyes aspirants 
 for knighthood joined the order in great 
 numbers. At that council, Honorius II. 
 confirmed the rules of their order, amongst 
 the rest, that their dress should be white; 
 in 1146 Eugenius III. added a cross to be 
 set on their cloaks. Like other orders 
 they were divided into three classes—(1) 
 The Knights proper; (2) the Esquires; (3) 
 Rich men who, without actually becoming 
 knights, aided with gifts of money, and 
 obtained protection in case of need. As 
 their numbers increased, they were or¬ 
 ganized into Provinces, each containing 
 so many Commanderies and Preceptories. 
 A spirit of rivalry existed between them 
 and the Knights Hospitallers. After the 
 conquest of Jerusalem by the Saracens, 
 they spread all over Europe, and were a 
 very wealthy society. Matthew Paris says 
 they had 9,000 houses or convents, and 20,- 
 000 knights. Their stations in the East were 
 Jerusalem, Antioch, Tripoli and Cyprus, 
 and almost every country in the West had 
 one of their Provinces. In each country 
 they had their Governor, who was called 
 Master of the Temple, or of the Militia of 
 the Temple. One of their Masters fell at 
 the siege of Acre (1291), and they then re¬ 
 tired to Cyprus. Their work of fighting 
 against the infidels was now done, and they 
 took up no definite enterprise. In Spain 
 and Portugal they remained popular for a 
 time because of the assistance they gave 
 against the Moors; but in France, where 
 was their chief settlement, their immense 
 wealth excited the cupidity of the French 
 king. All sorts of dreadful charges were 
 brought against them, many of them ab¬ 
 surd and incredible, and in 1307 they were 
 seized by secret orders of Philip le Bel and 
 thrown into prison. Confessions were ex¬ 
 torted from some of them by torture, which 
 they afterward retracted. In these pro¬ 
 ceedings Philip was aided by Pope Clement 
 V., who owed his office to the French 
 king. Philip, impatient at the pope’s 
 leniency, submitted the case to the officers 
 of the Inquisition; but the pope suspend¬ 
 ed these proceedings, and ordered that the 
 knights should be tried by a commission 
 of cardinals appointed by him. Two or 
 three years passed in disputes as to how 
 the Templars should be dealt with, and at 
 
Mil 
 
 ( 610 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 last, in 1310, Philip called a council at 
 Paris, headed by the archbishop of Sens, 
 and under this council the proceedings of 
 the Inquisition were resumed. Many 
 knights died either of torture or long cap¬ 
 tivity, and many were burnt, among them 
 the Grand Master, Jacques du Molay; this 
 was in 1313. The year before (1312), the 
 whole order had been abolished at the 
 General Council of Vienne, and their prop¬ 
 erty was given to the Knights of St. John 
 of Malta, who also received from Edward 
 II. of England, in 1323, a like grant of their 
 English possessions. The Templars, 
 though suppressed in other countries, were 
 nowhere else ill-treated as in France. The 
 seal of the Templars represented two 
 knights riding on one horse, as an emblem 
 of their poverty; their war-cry was “ Beau 
 se'ant” and their banner bore the same 
 name, and the motto, “ Non nobis , Donline , 
 non nobis , sed Tuo Nomini da gloriam." 
 Traces of the Knights Templars are still 
 to be found in England—in the Temple 
 Church, London, where are cross-legged 
 figures of several of the knights; in the 
 Round Churches at Northampton, Cam¬ 
 bridge, and Maplestead; and in the names 
 of several villages, Temple Brewer, Lin¬ 
 colnshire; Temple Newsom, Yorkshire; 
 Temple Cowley, near Oxford; places in 
 which they possessed property, and had 
 small Preceptories of their order. 
 
 III. Teutonic Knights, or Knights of 
 St. Mary, instituted after the siege of 
 Acre in 1192 with the sanction of Henry of 
 Jerusalem, Frederick of Suabia, and the 
 Emperor Henry VI. in favor of the Ger¬ 
 man nation, who had suffered greatly in 
 that siege. The statutes of the order were 
 formed on the model of those of the Hos¬ 
 pitallers and Templars. The knights were 
 to be exclusively Teutonic or German, to 
 be well born, to vow the defence of the 
 Christian Church and Holy Land, and to 
 give entertainment to the pilgrims of their 
 own nation, and they were to be called 
 Knights of St. Mary, or of Our Lady of 
 Mount Zion. Pope Celestine III. ordered 
 that they should be clad in white, and wear 
 a black cross, in the form of that of St. 
 John of Jerusalem, on their habits, stand¬ 
 ards, and arms, and live according to St. 
 Augustine’s rule. At first the Teutonic 
 Knights were all laymen, but soon they 
 had priests, and in 1221 a class of half- 
 brothers, or serving-brothers, was added. 
 Their first station was Acre. After the 
 fall of Jerusalem they removed to Venice, 
 thence to Marburg in Hesse, and in 1309 
 to Marienburg on the Vistula. In 1252 
 they had been joined by the Order of 
 Christ, or Brethren of the Sword, who 
 possessed Livonia, and for a long time the 
 
 knights carried on a cruel war against the 
 heathen nations on the shores of the Bal¬ 
 tic, which resulted in the conquest of 
 Prussia and other territories, and raised 
 the order to the rank of a sovereign 
 Power. (See Chaucer’s Prologue, “ The 
 Knight.”) Their power began to decline 
 in the fifteenth century, when Sigismund 
 of Poland snatched West Prussia from 
 them. In 1510 the knights chose his 
 nephew, Albert of Brandenburg, for their 
 Grand Master; this prince, embracing 
 Luther’s doctrines, treated with Sigismund 
 to make him absolute master of Prussia, 
 on condition of his doing homage for it to 
 the Crown of Poland. He then drove the 
 knights from the country, and they retireu 
 to Mergentheim in Suabia. The order 
 was formally abolished by Napoleon in 
 1809. 
 
 In Spain there were three military 
 orders:— 
 
 (1) The Knights of Calatrava, founded 
 by a Cistercian monk named Velasquez, in 
 1158, to defend Calatrava from the Moors, 
 were sanctioned by Pope Alexander III. in 
 1164. At first they were victorious; but 
 in 1197 the Moors took Calatrava, and the 
 knights went to Salvatierra and took that 
 name till they were able to return to their 
 former city in 1212. The order soon be¬ 
 came rich, and this caused so manv dis- 
 sensions as to patronage that in 1489 Pope 
 Innocent VIII. annexed the Grand Master¬ 
 ship to the Crown of Spain. In this cen¬ 
 tury the order was suppressed, with other 
 monastic institutions in Spain, and the title 
 is now only an honorary distinction. 
 
 (2) Knights of St. James of Compos- 
 tella. —The relics of St. James the Apostle 
 are said to have been buried at Compos- 
 tella in Gallicia, which occasioned an ex¬ 
 traordinary concourse of pilgrims to flock 
 thither. In 1161 thirteen Spanish nobles 
 founded an order of knighthood to protect 
 those pilgrims from the Moors; the order 
 was confirmed in 1175 by Pope Celestine 
 III. They outstripped in wealth and pow¬ 
 er the other Spanish orders, and gained 
 vast territories. This wealth was with 
 them, as with other orders, the primary 
 cause of their decline. In 1522 the Grand 
 Mastership was transferred to papal au¬ 
 thority. The order was not finally dis¬ 
 solved till 1835. 
 
 (3) Knights of Alcantara. —This or¬ 
 der was founded about the same time as that 
 of Compostella, for the defence of Estre- 
 madura from the Moors. It adopted the 
 rule of St. Benedict, and was confirmed in 
 1197 by Pope Celestine III. It was after¬ 
 ward joined to the Order of Calatrava, but 
 in the fourteenth century the knights quar¬ 
 reled over the election of a Grant! Master, 
 
Mil 
 
 ( 6n ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 which resulted in open war and ultimate 
 separation. In 1495 it, with Calatrava and 
 Compostella, was placed under the author¬ 
 ity of the Spanish Crown. The order was 
 abolished in this century, but revived in 
 1874 by the late king of Spain. 
 
 Among French military orders we may 
 mention the Ultramarine, or Beyond-sea 
 Order, founded - by St. Louis in 1269, to 
 encourage his nobles to undertake the ex¬ 
 pedition tothe Holy Land; the Knights oe 
 St. Lazarus, to whom Louis VII. gave 
 lands near Orleans, and who were united 
 to the Knights of Malta by Pope Innocent 
 VIII., but reestablished by Henry IV. in 
 1608—known, also, as the Order of Our 
 Lady of Mount Carmel ; the Knights of 
 St. Louis, established by Louis XIV. in 
 1093—a strictly military order; the 
 Knights of Notre Dame de Lis, insti¬ 
 tuted against the Moors by Garcia IV., 
 King of Navarre, in 1408. Then there was 
 the Order of the Golden Fleece, insti¬ 
 tuted in 1429 by Philip the Good, Duke of 
 Burgundy, in defence of the Catholic faith; 
 the military Order of St. Dominic, estab¬ 
 lished against the Albigenses; the Knights 
 of Jesus Christ, instituted about 1318 by 
 Denys, King of Portugal, against the 
 Moors. 
 
 In England, we have the Order of the 
 Bath, spoken of by writers in the thir¬ 
 teenth century, as of ancient custom; the 
 Order of the Garter, founded by Ed¬ 
 ward III. in 1347; in Scotland, the Order 
 of the Thistle, instituted by James V. in 
 1534.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Mill, John, b. at Shap, Westmoreland, 
 about 1645; d. at Blechingdon, Oxfordshire, 
 June 23, 1707. A graduate of Oxford, he 
 became fellow at Queen’s College, Nov., 
 1669; chaplain to Charles II., and rec¬ 
 tor of Blechingdon, 1681; principal of St. 
 Edmund’s Hall, May, 1685. His fame 
 rests upon his critical edition of the Greek 
 Testament. It was the fruit of thirty 
 years of labor, and contains thirty thou¬ 
 sand various readings. The work appear¬ 
 ed only two weeks before his death. 
 
 Mill, John Stuart, an English philos¬ 
 opher; b. in London, May 20, 1S06; d. at 
 Avignon, May 9, 1873. He was the son of 
 an acute thinker, who educated him not 
 only in ordinary subjects of study, but in 
 politics and all the foremost controversies 
 of the day. In this way he imbibed the 
 philosophy founded solely upon utility and 
 experience from his very cradle. In 1820 
 he went to France fora year, part of which 
 he spent in the south, at the house of Sir 
 Samuel Bentham, the brother of Jeremy 
 Rentham, and the rest of the time at Paris, 
 
 where he lived with Jean Baptiste Say, the 
 French economist, and made the acquaint¬ 
 ance of many leading politicians. On his 
 return to England he brought backastrong 
 interest in Liberalism and Democracy, and 
 had laid the foundation of his Utilitarian¬ 
 ism. With a view to promoting the spread 
 of this principle, he and his friends started 
 the Utilitarian Debating Society, and they 
 also began the publication of the West¬ 
 minster Review. In 1823 he entered the 
 India House as Examiner of Indian Corre¬ 
 spondence, and he continued to hold this 
 post till 1856, when he was promoted to , 
 the head of the department. He retired 
 on a pension in 1858, and from that time 
 devoted himself to authorship. His works 
 are powerful, and likely to last. His work 
 on Logic is the best in the English lan¬ 
 guage, though his treatise on Liberty is 
 more popular. His examination of Sir 
 William Hamilton’s philosophy was re¬ 
 markably acute, and is considered by many 
 most damaging to that writer. His posi¬ 
 tion with respect to religion it is impossible 
 to fix definitely. In some of his writings, 
 even to the last, we find absolute negation 
 and rejection of Christianity. But, on the 
 other hand, there is a plaintive confession 
 that he has not found the peace and rest 
 for which he yearned, and a regret that his 
 education was what it was. Deep earnest¬ 
 ness, strong conscientiousness, intense de¬ 
 sire to find truth, and to lead others to it, 
 all these are to be found in his writings. 
 He rejects Christianity, yet looks longing¬ 
 ly upon it; and in one of his Essays on Re¬ 
 ligion goes so far as to say that to the 
 “ rational ” skeptic it must ever present it¬ 
 self as a “ possibility ” that Christ may 
 have had a unique and special “commis¬ 
 sion from God.” Many a firm believer in 
 Christian doctrine, reading Mill’s essays, 
 has expressed the conviction that, darken¬ 
 ed as his intellectual conceptions were on 
 the most important of all subjects, these 
 essays are the work of one who was not far 
 from the kingdom of God. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Middledoler, Philip, D. D., a prominent 
 minister in the Reformed Church; b. at 
 Rhinebeck, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1775; d. on 
 Staten Island, Sept. 23, 1851. He was grad¬ 
 uated at Columbia College (1793), and 
 from 1795 to 1825 held important pastor¬ 
 ates in New York City and Philadelphia. 
 He was president of Rutgers College, New 
 Brunswick, N. J., 1825-41; and one of the 
 founders of the American Bible Society, 
 1816. 
 
 Millenarianism, Millennium. Millena- 
 rians maintain substantially the following 
 
( <*I2 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 iv'i .J 
 
 views: “ Christ’s personal advent precedes 
 the millennium; (2) the resurrection of 
 saints occurs at this advent; (3) the saints 
 are to reign with him,while mankind is still 
 in the body, subject to disease and death; 
 (4) this dispensation is to continue one thou¬ 
 sand years, in which Jews and Gentiles are 
 to be converted. The doctrine involves 
 these positions: («) The millennium is not 
 an expansion of the present, but a new dis¬ 
 pensation. (/>) It is not to be introduced 
 by present agencies; all will wax worse 
 and worse; the gospel will not convert the 
 world, (e) The Son of God will have a vis¬ 
 ible reign and majesty in the world. Christ 
 and his saints will dwell in a new Jerusa¬ 
 lem, of which Rev. xxi. gives the descrip¬ 
 tion, over and on the earthly Jerusalem; 
 the temple will be rebuilt, the Jews re¬ 
 stored, the centre of worship will be at 
 Jerusalem, (tf) There are two resurrec¬ 
 tions, one, of the holy dead, at the begin¬ 
 ning—another, of the wicked dead, at the 
 close of the millennium. ( e) There will be 
 no general Judgment; the Judgment is in 
 two parts, one before, and one after, the 
 millennium. (f) Then the world is to be 
 refitted and forever inhabited. (Rev. xx.)” 
 —Dr. H. B. Smith: Christiati Theology, 
 p. 608. 
 
 Three periods are distinguished in the 
 history of millenarianism: (1) In the tribu¬ 
 lations and persecutions from which the 
 early Christians suffered the doctrine of 
 the millennium took strong root, especially 
 among the Jewish Christians. In the 
 midst of present afflictions they found com¬ 
 fort in the thought of a speedy reward. 
 The doctrine was finally superseded by 
 that of St. Augustine, who taught that the 
 Church was the Kingdom of God on earth. 
 
 (2) The second period begins with the 
 Reformation. Many of the Reformers 
 shared in a very general faith that the mil¬ 
 lennium was not far distant. Fanaticism 
 broke forth in the wild excesses of certain 
 Anabaptists, who,at the point of the sword, 
 made preparations to establish the new 
 Zion at Munster (1534). The Augsburg 
 and Helvetic Confessions condemned these 
 fanatical views, and later theologians gen¬ 
 erally held that the thousand years were 
 past. Millenarianism again became preva¬ 
 lent in the seventeenth century, especially 
 among those who had suffered in the relig¬ 
 ious wars in Germany and the persecu¬ 
 tions of the Huguenots and Puritans in 
 England. 
 
 (3) The third period dates from the mid¬ 
 dle of the eighteenth century. The great 
 commentator, Bengel, did much to call at¬ 
 tention to the subject in his commentary 
 on Revelation and his Sermons for the 
 People. In England the Irvingites (</. v .) 
 
 declared the speedy coming of Christ. 
 The doctrine found fanatical expression 
 among the Mormons, who established Zion 
 at Salt Lake City, and the Adventists 
 ( q . v. ). In recent years millenarian theories 
 have been advocated by Rothe, Hoffman, 
 Delitzsch, Volck, and other eminent schol¬ 
 ars. No satisfactory work on the subject 
 has yet appeared. 
 
 Millenary Petition, a petition presented 
 by nearly a thousand (whence its name) 
 Puritan ministers to James I., in April, 
 1603. It prayed for the “ reformation of 
 certain ceremonies and abuses of the 
 Church.” The petition resulted in the 
 Hampton Court Conference. 
 
 Millennium. See Millenarianism. 
 
 Miller, Hugh, an eminent Scotch geol¬ 
 ogist and the first editor of the Free Church 
 newspaper, The Witness, was b. at Crom¬ 
 arty, Scotland, Oct. 10, 1802; d. by his own 
 hand, in a fit of insanity, at Portobello, 
 near Edinburgh, Dec. 26, 1856. His geo¬ 
 logical works, Vestiges of the Natural His¬ 
 tory of Creation (1844); Footprints of the Cre¬ 
 ator (1849), and The Old Red Sandstone , did 
 much to popularize the science and defend 
 revelation, although, at the time, they were 
 criticised severely for advancing views that 
 are now generally accepted. 
 
 Miller, Samuel, D. D., b. near Dover, 
 Del., Oct. 31, 1769; d. at Princeton, N. J., 
 Jan. 7, 1850. He was graduated at the Uni¬ 
 versity of Pennsylvania, in 1789, and after 
 finishing a course of theological study, he 
 became associate pastor of the First Presby¬ 
 terian Church, New York City, 1793-1S13. 
 He was the first professor of church history 
 and government in the theological seminary 
 at Princeton from 1813 till his death. He 
 was prominent in the discussions that led 
 to the disruption of the Presbyterian 
 Church, in 1837. He was a wise and ef¬ 
 ficient teacher, beloved for his social qual¬ 
 ities, and respected for his ability as a 
 scholar and preacher. He published a 
 number of works. See his Life , by his son, 
 Samuel Miller (Philadelphia, 1869), 2 vols. 
 
 Miller, William, b. in Pittsfield, Mass., 
 Feb. 15, 1782; d. at Low Hampton, N. Y., 
 Dec. 20, 1849. A farmer by occupation, 
 and having very limited educational ad¬ 
 vantages, he became deeply interested in 
 the study of the prophecies, and in 1S33 
 began to lecture on the second coming of 
 Christ, and predicted the destruction of the 
 world in 1843. He made many converts to 
 his views in the United States, Canada, 
 and Great Britain. They were called Mil- 
 
Mil 
 
 ( 613 ) 
 
 Mil 
 
 lerites. The repeated failure of his pre¬ 
 dictions weakened the faith of his follow¬ 
 ers, but they regarded him as a man of 
 great intellectual ability, and a devoted 
 Christian. See his Life , by White (Battle 
 Creek, Mich., 1875). 
 
 Millerites. See Adventists. 
 
 Mills, Samuel John, one of the first in 
 the United States to enter the work of 
 foreign missions; b. at Torringford, Conn., 
 April 21, 1783; d. at sea, off the coast of 
 Africa, June 16, 1818. While a student at 
 Williams College he became deeply inter¬ 
 ested in the work of sending the gospel to 
 heathen lands, and after entering Andover 
 Seminary in 1810, with his fellow-students, 
 Judson, Nott and Newell, he joined in an 
 address to the general Association of Mas¬ 
 sachusetts presenting the claims of this 
 work. Between 1812 and 1817 he pros¬ 
 ecuted an extensive col portage work in the 
 South and West. In 1817 the Colonization 
 Society, which had been recently organized, 
 sent him with the Rev. Mr. Burgess as 
 their agents to explore Sierra Leone and 
 Western Africa. He died on the return 
 voyage. See Memoirs of the Rev. Samuel 
 f. Mills , by Gardiner Spring (N. Y., 1820). 
 
 Milman, Henry Hart, D. D., “ an Eng¬ 
 lish poet and ecclesiastical historian, was 
 the youngest son of Sir Francis Milman, 
 physician to George III., and was b. in 
 London, Feb. 10, 1791. He was educated 
 at Eton, and afterward at Brasenose Col¬ 
 lege, Oxford, where he took the degree of 
 M. A., obtained the Newdegate prize in 
 1S12; published Fazio , a Tragedy (which 
 was successfully brought upon the stage 
 at Covent Garden) in 1815, took orders 
 in 1817, and shortly after was appointed 
 vicar of St. Mary’s, Reading. In the fol¬ 
 lowing year appeared his Savior , Lord of 
 the Bright City: An Heroic Poem , which was 
 followed in 1820 by the Fall of Jerusalem , 
 a beautiful dramatic poem, with some fine 
 sacred lyrics interspersed. In 1821 Mil- 
 man was chosen professor of poetry at Ox¬ 
 ford, and published three other poems in 
 the course of the sanve year— The Martyr 
 of Antioch, Belshazzar , Anne Bolcyn. His 
 Sermons as Bampton Lecturer appeared 
 in 1827, and his History of the Jews (3 vols.) 
 in 1829. The last of these works did not 
 bear the author’s name; it was written in 
 so liberal and tolerant a spirit that ec¬ 
 clesiastics of the stricter sort could hardly 
 fail to be offended. Its weak point was a 
 want of adequate learning, especially in the 
 department of biblical criticism. A new 
 edition, greatly improved and more criti¬ 
 cal, yet still far from being very accurate, 
 
 or built on solid foundations, with an in¬ 
 teresting preface, was published in 1863. 
 In 1840 appeared a collected edition of his 
 Poetical Works , containing some other 
 pieces besides those already mentioned. 
 The same year witnessed the publication 
 of his History of Christianity from the 
 Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism 
 in the Roman Empire (3 vols.). In 1849 he 
 was made dean of St. Paul’s; and in 1854 
 published his masterpiece, History of Latin 
 Christianity. including that of the Popes , to 
 the Pontificate of Nicholas V. (3 vols.). It 
 is a work of great learning, liberality, and 
 chastened eloquence; it displays a broad 
 grasp of human nature in its religious 
 workings; besides a philosophic and poet¬ 
 ical sympathy with the different men and 
 opinions which it reviews. The work 
 secured for its author a position in the 
 first rank of English historians. Milman 
 edited Gibbon, and contributed extensively 
 to the Quarterly Review. He died in 1868. 
 A posthumous work contains his Essays on 
 St. Paul , Savonarola , Erasmus , etc.”— 
 Chambers: Cylcopcedia. 
 
 Milner, the name of two distinguished 
 brothers and church historians. Isaac was 
 b. at Leeds, Jan. 11, 1751; d. in London, 
 April 1, 1820. Joseph was b. in Leeds 
 Jan. 2, 1744; d. in Hull, Nov. 15, 1797. 
 They were among the founders and leaders 
 of the Evangelical school. The work upon 
 which their fame rests is the History of the 
 Church of Christ of which Joseph wrote the 
 first three volumes, and Isaac the last two. 
 Before the great work of Neander appear¬ 
 ed, this history had a wide circulation, but 
 it is now obsolete. 
 
 Milnor, James, D. D.; b. in Philadelphia, 
 June 20, 1773; d. in New York City, April 
 8, 1844. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1794, and was a member of the House of 
 Representatives in 1810. He entered the 
 ministry of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in 1814, and from 1816 till his death 
 was rector of St. George’s, New York. 
 He was an earnest and eloquent preacher, 
 and a leader of the Low-Church party. See 
 Memoirs of the Life of James Milnor , by J. 
 S. Stone (New York, 1855). 
 
 Milton, John, the greatest of English 
 sacred poets, was b. in London, Dec. 9, 
 1608; d. in London, Nov. 8, 1674. He was 
 educated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, 
 and then resided for a time at Horton, in 
 Buckinghamshire, where he wrote his 
 Minor Poems. In 1638 he traveled in Italy, 
 and the following year returned to London, 
 where he became involved in the contro¬ 
 versy between the Episcopalians and Pres- 
 
Min 
 
 ( 614 ) 
 
 Mir 
 
 byterians, taking the side of the Presbyte¬ 
 rians. This was the period of his great 
 prose works: On Church Government; On 
 Divorce; Areopagitica: A Speech for the 
 Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, etc. Blind¬ 
 ness and poverty fell to his lot, but in the 
 midst of these trials he bore himself with 
 courage. In 1665 he finished his Paradise 
 Lost , and in 1671 appeared his Samson 
 Agonistes and the Paradise Regained. The 
 best English life is by Masson (1859-80, 
 new ed., 1881, London). 
 
 Minister, Ministry. See Clergy. 
 
 Ministerium, that body in the Lutheran 
 Church which examines, licenses, and or¬ 
 dains candidates for the ministry, conducts 
 trials for clerical heresy, and also of lay 
 heresy when there is an appeal from a 
 church council. Only ordained ministers 
 can belong to this body. 
 
 Minor Canons, priests in collegiate 
 churches, next in rank to the canons and 
 prebendaries, but not of the chapter, who 
 are responsible for the performance of the 
 daily service. Their stipend is fixed by 
 law at not less than £ 150, and the office 
 may be held by a vicar, if his benefice is 
 within six miles of the cathedral. 
 
 Minor Prophets, The, are twelve in 
 number: viz., Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, 
 Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habbakuk, Zepha- 
 niah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 
 They are called “Minor Prophets” simply 
 because of their brevity, and to distinguish 
 them from the four longer books of proph¬ 
 ecy (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Dan¬ 
 iel). In the Hebrew canon they constitute 
 only one book. For full literature see 
 Charles Elliott, D. D. (in Lange): Intro¬ 
 duction to the Minor Prophets. 
 
 Minorites, a name of the Franciscan 
 order derived from the original later de¬ 
 nomination adopted by their founder, 
 Fratres Minores. See Franciscans. 
 
 Minucius Felix was a Christian apologist 
 of the end of the second or beginning of 
 the third century. He was the author of 
 a work entitled Octavius. In the form of a 
 dialogue between a heathen and Christian, 
 it refutes the objections to Christianity 
 that were then urged by educated pagans. 
 A translation maybe found in vol ii. of the 
 Writings of Cyprian , in the Ante-Nicene 
 Library (Edinburgh, 1873). 
 
 Miracles. Miracles are mentioned in 
 Scripture under four names: “ Wonders, 
 signs, powers, and works.” As “ won¬ 
 
 ders,” their immediate physical effect on 
 the spectator is emphasized; as “ signs,” 
 their moral and spiritual purpose is im¬ 
 plied, lurking under their phenomenal as¬ 
 pect; as “ powers,” they hint at some hid¬ 
 den cause that produces them; while as 
 “ works,” their general practical character 
 is regarded, as the acts of a distinct person, 
 in attestation of his mission and his mes¬ 
 sage. 
 
 Still the question remains, What is a 
 miracle? It may be replied that a miracle 
 is not a violation of the ordinary laws of 
 nature, but a special interference of super¬ 
 natural or superhuman power for a definite 
 moral purpose. It is the extraordinary in¬ 
 terposition of the Great Law-giver himself, 
 modifying for the time the regular action 
 of his own ordinary laws. Even so the 
 human will is a potent factor in the physi¬ 
 cal world, as when a man raises his hand, 
 or throws up a ball into the air, in spite of 
 the law of gravitation. It is God’s will 
 making itself seen and felt in the ordinary 
 course of nature. A miracle then, is a 
 possible event, because it does not of itself 
 deny the existence of the regular order of 
 nature. An exceptional phenomenon, like 
 a miracle, simply reveals God in another 
 way than that in which nature reveals him. 
 An occasional departure does not over¬ 
 throw the harmony of the cosmos, but, on 
 the contrary, implies it. There could be 
 no exception, unless there were also a gen¬ 
 eral law. 
 
 Modern science, which has fathomed 
 more deeply the unbroken reign of law in 
 the physical order of creation, denies the 
 possibility of a miracle. The real question 
 is, Is there a God, or is there not? If 
 there is, a miracle is possible. Once admit 
 the idea of One Almighty God, and a mir¬ 
 acle becomes an imaginable event. And if 
 there is thus room for one miracle, there 
 is room for many. 
 
 But can a miracle be proved? Hume 
 denied that it could. Our belief, according 
 to his view, is the result of experience, and 
 ordinary experience knows nothing of mir¬ 
 acles. He urges further that the human 
 testimony advanced in their support is 
 solitary, exceptional, and may be mistaken, 
 inasmuch as all testimony is as likely to 
 be false as true; no testimony, therefore, 
 is to be received which contradicts the uni¬ 
 form tenor of nature. The question, 
 however, is not the abstract credibility of 
 all human testimony, but the specific 
 credibility of certain special witnesses. 
 The character and circumstances of the 
 evangelists and apostles is a distinct ele¬ 
 ment in this inquiry. What they were in 
 themselves, and what they suffered in sup¬ 
 port of the miraculous story they publish- 
 
Mir 
 
 ( 615 ) 
 
 Mir 
 
 ed, affords strong proof that they were at 
 least honest men. But were they mistaken 
 men, mistaken in their interpretation of the 
 phenomena which they witnessed ? The 
 answer is, No: not only because the char¬ 
 acter of some of the miracles was such as 
 to admit only of one interpretation, and 
 that, the supernatural interpretation, such, 
 for instance, as the Ascension—and if we 
 admit one miracle, we must also admit 
 others—but because of the extraordinary 
 purity of the morality which the miracles, 
 thus vouched for, inculcated: and also be¬ 
 cause of the lasting beneficial results that 
 remain to this day. 
 
 It ought to be remembered that a mere 
 wonder of itself proves nothing. The won¬ 
 der must also be a sign, associated with 
 some word or act indicative of design. 
 This coincidence of extraordinary manner 
 and avowed purpose, which is found in 
 most of the Scriptural miracles, and which 
 is wanting in mediaeval and so-called mod¬ 
 ern miracles, is an essential part of the 
 evidence for the miracles themselves. 
 What new morality, what permanent re¬ 
 sults, have followed from the fantastic 
 miracles of the Middle Ages, or from the 
 unauthenticated vagaries of modern Spirit¬ 
 ualism ? 
 
 Miracles, again, are necessary as the 
 credentials of Revelation; and since Reve¬ 
 lation makes known what could not bp 
 otherwise discovered, what is bevond and 
 above reason, it follows that reason is not 
 adequate of itself to gauge the truth of a 
 revelation when given; some other sign, 
 some other proof is wanted, viz., a miracle 
 —in its purpose and in its results evidently 
 from above. A miracle, then, is not only 
 possible, but probable; and if it is prob¬ 
 able, it is also credible. With the existing 
 evidence in their favor, it is more weakly 
 credulous to renounce the miracles of the 
 Gospels than to accept them. To imagine 
 that Christ founded his religion, and that 
 his followers conquered the larger part of 
 the civilized world in his name, without 
 miracles as his or their original credentials, 
 is a greater strain on our reason and faith 
 than to suppose that the miracles were 
 facts, and that the record given of them is 
 true. 
 
 After all, Nature is not sufficient, apart 
 from Revelation. There is no complete 
 discovery of God in nature. It reveals 
 Wisdom and Power, but not Love. The 
 sum of Natural Theology, as Lord Brough¬ 
 am said, is only to discover “ a great 
 Mechanician.” God’s moral character, or 
 his connection with ourselves, is not clear¬ 
 ly legible in the works of creation. “ Our 
 Father which art in heaven ” was never 
 found in Nature’s Book; it was Christ him¬ 
 
 self who alone authorized such a mode of 
 address, and all that it contains. Under 
 such conditions, when a further revelation 
 was wanted, it is not incredible that it 
 should be given; and given, too, in the only 
 way by which it could be substantiated—by 
 the occasional performance of miracles; 
 mighty, and therefore proofs of his power; 
 beneficial, and therefore signs of his love; 
 lasting inconsequent results, and therefore 
 evidences of a set design; by which also he 
 showed that there were other laws at work 
 than the physical laws of nature; by wffiich, 
 too, he lifted up men’s hearts and minds at 
 once into a higher spiritual sphere, and 
 made known to mankind his own moral 
 perfections and infinite love. Nor is there 
 an escape from such conclusions by sup¬ 
 posing that Christ was in possession of 
 some of the secrets of science in advance ot 
 his own day, or even of later times, and 
 therefore wrought only what seemed to be 
 wonders to the ignorant eyes that beheld 
 them. For as Christ appealed to his mir¬ 
 acles as proofs that he was God, and came 
 from God, he must then have been only an 
 arrant deceiver, even while inculcating the 
 loftiest morality, which has since revolu¬ 
 tionized the world. Such truth and such 
 falsehood in the same person would only 
 exhibit a moral monster, which would be a 
 monstrous miracle in itself. 
 
 In the present day, the internal proof of 
 Christianity most relied on is its sublimity 
 and its fitness for human wants. But, 
 valuable as this may be as an auxiliary, in¬ 
 ternal proof is not sufficient without ex¬ 
 ternal evidence. Internal proof only ap¬ 
 peals to reason, and reason is not the sole 
 judge in such a matter. Our Lord himself 
 said: “ Believe me that I am in the Father 
 . . . or else believe me for the very 
 works’ sake.” This was an argument for 
 the truth of his doctrine from the character 
 of his works. For instance, the central 
 facts of the Incarnation and Atonement are 
 not proved actually to have taken place, 
 because they are exactly suitable to man’s 
 wants; such internal evidence requires his¬ 
 torical corroboration as an additional proof 
 in their favor. Even so, the indirect 
 evidence from the character of the Gospel 
 itself demanded the direct evidence of 
 miracles in order to substantiate its claims. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be said that mira¬ 
 cles are possible, if the existence of one 
 Supreme God is admitted; that they are 
 antecedently probable from the necessary 
 character of a revelation from heaven; 
 that trustworthy evidence has been adduc¬ 
 ed in their support of a very various and 
 complex kind; and that by them a new 
 moral and spiritual element has been in¬ 
 troduced into the world, of which the last- 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 616 ) 
 
 Mis 
 
 ing results are a standing proof of the 
 miracles themselves. On the other hand, 
 it should be pointed out that the question 
 of the general credibility of miracles, as re¬ 
 corded in Scripture, must not be confound¬ 
 ed with that of the actual occurrence or 
 not of any single event presumed to be so 
 recorded, but which may rest on less than 
 the normal evidence, or may present less 
 of those signs of a true miracle above men¬ 
 tioned, or may involve some error in inter¬ 
 pretation. Thus, for instance, the nar¬ 
 rative concerning Joshua and the sun and 
 moon standing still may be held to be a 
 quotation from a recognized poem, rather 
 than a sober statement, and is so held by 
 many who sincerely believe generally in 
 the miraculous element of revelation. It is 
 not so much the character of the marvel, 
 as the moral surroundings and whole set¬ 
 ting of the passage, that arouse suspicion 
 in such a case. Again, the account of the 
 angelic interference at the Pool of Bethesda 
 is now known to be merely a corruption of 
 the text, being absent from the oldest MSS. 
 But caution is needed in the exercise of 
 such selective processes, lest they de- 
 * generate into a mere systematic attempt to 
 explain away every miracle, where any 
 possible grounds can be found. Such a 
 course will be of no real benefit in the end, 
 since, as has been partly indicated above, 
 the miraculous element is too deeply in¬ 
 grained in the biblical revelation for one 
 to be really destroyed without the virtual 
 destruction of the other also. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. See Trench: Miracles 
 of our Lord; Bushnell: Nature and the 
 Supernatural; Mozley : Eight Lectures 
 on Miracles (Bampton Lectures, 1865); 
 Fisher: Supernatural Origin of Christi¬ 
 anity (1877); Lias: A re Mira cles Credible 
 (1883)? 
 
 Misere're ( have mercy ) is the musical 
 rendering of portions of the Fifty-first and 
 Fifty-seventh Psalms. It forms a part of 
 the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 and is used at services of penitence and 
 at funerals. The most impressive of the 
 many melodies that have been composed 
 is that by Gregorio Allegri (1590-1640), 
 which is always used at the Sistine Chapel 
 at Rome on Thursdav and Friday in Holv 
 Week. 
 
 Mishnah {doctrine), denotes the great 
 collection of legal decisions by the ancient 
 rabbis which forms in each Talmud the 
 text on which the Gernara rests, and so is 
 the fundamental document of the oral law 
 of the Jews. See Talmud. 
 
 Missa. See Mass. 
 
 Missal, the office-book of the Roman 
 Catholic Church which contains the liturgy 
 of the mass. 
 
 Mission is a term used by Roman Cath¬ 
 olics and Ritualists for special revival 
 meetings, in which subjects of vital spir¬ 
 itual interest are preached upon, and ex¬ 
 traordinary efforts are made to secure the 
 attention of the people. 
 
 Missions. A universal religion demands 
 a world-wide proclamation. This obvious 
 truth was but slowly apprehended, even by 
 the apostles. The Church of Christ has 
 not yet fully measured its obligations, 
 growing out of its possession of a gospel 
 adapted to and designed for the whole hu¬ 
 man race. Under the Old Testament dis¬ 
 pensation there were predictions of “a 
 light to lighten the Gentiles,” and of a king 
 in Zion who should have “ dominion from 
 the river even unto the ends of the earth.” 
 Yet in spite of these intimations of the 
 world-wide reach of the Messiah’s rule, 
 the Jewish people appear to have had no 
 thought of attempting the conversion of 
 other nations to their faith. It would 
 seem as if the instructions of Christ, 
 crowned by his last commission to “ Go 
 into all the world, and preach the Gospel to 
 every creature,” could not have failed to 
 convince his disciples of their obligations; 
 and yet we find Peter, even after Pente¬ 
 cost, doubting whether it would be right 
 for him to preach the Gospel to a Roman 
 centurion who had sent to him for instruc¬ 
 tion. And not until a new and extraordi¬ 
 nary vision was given him from heaven 
 did Peter learn that God had called the 
 Gentiles to repentance unto life. But be¬ 
 fore the death of the apostles the breadth 
 of the Saviour’s command was apprehend¬ 
 ed by them, and the gospel was preached 
 in Cyprus and Phoenicia, throughout Asia 
 Minor, and in Macedonia and in Greece. 
 In the three great missionary journeys of 
 Paul the divine message was proclaimed, 
 and churches were established all the way 
 from Jerusalem to Rome, and there were 
 saints in Csesar’s household. The perse¬ 
 cutions which occurred during the three 
 centuries after Christ did not hinder the 
 earnest propagation of the faith. And at 
 the end of that period, a. d. 323, upon the 
 union of the Roman Empire under Con¬ 
 stantine, Christianity was recognized as 
 the religion of the State. 
 
 In the fourth and fifth centuries mission¬ 
 ary operations were carried forward with 
 much vigor. Ulfila became the “ Apostle 
 of the Goths.” The “ golden-mouthed ” 
 Chrysostom established a training-school 
 at Constantinople, to which natives from 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 617 ) 
 
 Mis 
 
 pagan lands were brought to be trained as 
 missionaries to their countrymen. St. 
 Patrick of Ireland, in the beginning of the 
 fifth century, accomplished a wonderful 
 work in evangelizing that island, and sent 
 forth missionaries to other lands. Then 
 followed other eminent missionaries, Co- 
 lumba of Iona, Aidan and Columbanus. 
 English missionaries went into the heart of 
 the German forests. The Church of Rome, 
 in the beginning of the seventh century, 
 sent its missionaries, under St. Augustine, 
 to the pagan tribes of Britain. In the 
 same century the Nestorian missionaries 
 carried the gospel into China. In the ninth 
 and tenth centuries Cyril and Methodius 
 preached the gospel to the Slavic peoples, 
 and Adalbert went as missionary among 
 the pagans of Prussia. 
 
 Up to this time there seems to have been 
 a clear recognition of the obligation of all 
 Christians to give the gospel to those who 
 had it not, and there were vigorous and 
 successful efforts to fulfill this obligation. 
 During the centuries which followed, the 
 Church was sadly compromised by its rela¬ 
 tions to the State, and the missionary spirit 
 waned. Doubtless there was something of 
 this spirit in some of those who took part 
 in the Crusades. But Christ’s kingdom 
 was not to be established by the sword, 
 and those who took the sword lost sight of 
 the purpose that should actuate them. It 
 is a singular fact, too, that the evangelical 
 reformers, both before and after Luther, 
 were so absorbed in their conflicts for 
 Christian truth and in cleansing the Church 
 in doctrine and practice, that their thoughts 
 do not seem to have been turned toward 
 the pagan world. There arose, however, 
 in the sixteenth century, among the Roman 
 Catholics,a most zealous missionary, Fran¬ 
 cis Xavier, who, whatever opinions are en¬ 
 tertained of his doctrine and methods, 
 must be regarded as a man of eminent abil¬ 
 ity and devotion. He arrived in India in 
 1542, and to the time of his death, ten years 
 later, he toiled with wonderful energy in 
 India and Japan. His successor, Ricci, 
 established the Roman Church in China. 
 It should not be forgotten that the Pilgrim 
 Fathers had a missionary purpose in seek¬ 
 ing the New World; and the labors of the 
 “ Apostle ” Eliot, and of the Brainerds 
 and Mayhews, in the seventeenth century, 
 are among the most interesting in mission¬ 
 ary annals. 
 
 The era of modern missions may proper¬ 
 ly be said to have begun in 1705, almost a 
 century before English missionaries were 
 sent out to labor among the pagans in for¬ 
 eign lands. About the time the Pilgrim 
 Fathers landed in America, the Danish 
 East India Company obtained a foothold at 
 
 Tranquebar, on the eastern coast of India. 
 The duty of giving the gospel to the natives 
 of that region was pressed upon the Da¬ 
 nish king by his chaplain, and as a result 
 Ziegenbalg and Pltitschau arrived at Tran¬ 
 quebar in 1706, being the first Protestant 
 missionaries to India. Later, this mission 
 was aided to some extent by the Society 
 for the Propagation of the Gospel in For¬ 
 eign Parts, which was organized in Eng¬ 
 land in 1701, and also by the Society for 
 Promoting Christian Knowledge. The de¬ 
 voted missionary, Schwartz, joined this 
 mission in 1570, and, fifty years after Zie¬ 
 genbalg landed, 11,000 souls were enrolled 
 as Christians. But the toleration of caste 
 proved a vast hindrance, and subsequently 
 the blight of rationalism in the home 
 churches led to the practical failure of the 
 mission, save as, in a few places, it opened 
 the way for missions which were subse¬ 
 quently established. 
 
 Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, went 
 to Greenland in 1721, sent by a college in 
 Copenhagen. In 1*831 the United Brethren, 
 or Moravians, unaer the lead of Count 
 Zinzendorf, began those labors for the con¬ 
 version of the world which have entitled 
 the Moravians to the name of the Mission¬ 
 ary Church. It is said that within ten years 
 from that date they had commenced work in 
 the West Indies, South America and South 
 Africa, in Greenland, Lapland, and Ceylon. 
 But as yet the churches of England were 
 not awake to their duty. That awakening 
 came through William Carey, who in early 
 life was a shoemaker, and became a Bap¬ 
 tist minister. He preached before his 
 ministerial association at Nottingham, on 
 the 31st of May, 1792, a sermon in which, 
 with extraordinary eloquence, he enforced 
 the duty of attempting the evangelization 
 of heathen nations. This resulted in the 
 organization of the Baptist Missionary 
 Societ}', and Carey became its first mis¬ 
 sionary to India. With Marshman and 
 Ward, a station was begun at Serampore, 
 a few miles above Calcutta. This place 
 was under Danish rule, the missionaries 
 having been compelled to seek the protec¬ 
 tion of that government, inasmuch as the 
 English Company objected to their evan¬ 
 gelistic work. Great ridicule was heaped 
 upon this undertaking, and the sarcasms 
 of Sidney Smith upon the enterprise of the 
 “ Consecrated Cobbler” have passed into 
 history. But his work was the means of 
 arousing a remarkable interest, and within 
 a few years many missionary organizations 
 were formed: the London Missionary So¬ 
 ciety in 1795, the Church Missionary So¬ 
 ciety in 1799, the Religious Tract Society 
 in 1799, and the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society in 1S04. 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 6l S ) 
 
 Mis 
 
 In the United States various bodies be¬ 
 gan to plan for missionary work, but their 
 attention was directed largely to the abo¬ 
 rigines who lived near them. In 1806 a 
 few young men in Williams College were 
 much impressed in regard to their duty to 
 the heathen. One of them was Samuel J. 
 Mills, whose mother consecrated him at 
 his birth to be a missionary. These young 
 students frequently met for prayer, and 
 one afternoon in the autumn of 1806, hav¬ 
 ing been driven by a sudden shower to find 
 shelter under a hay-stack, they consecrated 
 the spot, which has since been called “ the 
 Birthplace of American Missions.” In the 
 year 1810 Mills found kindred spirits 
 among his associates at the Theological 
 Seminary at Andover, and after consulta¬ 
 tion with their instructors, four of these 
 young men, Samuel J. Mills, Adoniram 
 Judson, Samuel Nott, and Samuel Newell 
 presented themselves before the General 
 Association of Massachusetts at its session 
 at Bradford on June 25, expressing their 
 desire to be sent to the heathen, and asking 
 advice. Others would have applied at the 
 same time, but it was feared that the 
 presence of so many would alarm the As¬ 
 sociation, in view of the probable cost of 
 undertaking their support. The Associa¬ 
 tion listened to their plea, and though 
 some of its members thought their pro¬ 
 posal rash and presumptuous, yet their 
 spirit was commended, and their plans ap¬ 
 proved, and the Association formed for 
 their support the first foreign missionary 
 organization of the United States, under 
 the ponderous name of the American Board 
 of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 
 it was not without much difficulty that this 
 organization obtained a charter from the 
 State of Massachusetts. One of the argu¬ 
 ments against granting it was that there 
 was none too much religion in the land to 
 warrant its exportation, but the reply was 
 made that religion was of such a nature 
 that the more it was imparted the more it 
 increased, and the Charter was granted in 
 1812. In view of the doubt entertained 
 whether the churches in the United States 
 could support four missionaries, Judson 
 had been sent to England to inquire as to 
 a possible cooperation with the London 
 Missionary Society, but. that scheme fail¬ 
 ing, it was decided to undertake a mission 
 in India, and five young men, three of them 
 having wives, sailed early in the year 1S12. 
 During the voyage the views of two of 
 these missionaries, Judson and Rice, on 
 the subject of baptism underwent a change, 
 and this event led to the formation in 1814 
 of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 
 under which organization Judson went to 
 Burma, so that, through the good Provi¬ 
 
 dence of God, an event which threatened to 
 prove divisive tended directly to the de¬ 
 velopment of missionary operations. Other 
 branches of the Christian Church in the 
 United States soon organized for foreign 
 missionary work: The Methodist Epis< o- 
 pal Church in 1819; the Protestant Episco¬ 
 pal Church in 1835; the Free Baptist 
 Church in 1836. Until 1837 the whole 
 Presbyterian Church supported the Amer¬ 
 ican Board, as did the Reformed Dutch 
 Church, and the larger portion of the Pres¬ 
 byterian Church did so for a quarter 01 a 
 century longer. In 1857 the Reformed 
 Church, and in 1870 the - Presbyterian 
 Church, amicably withdrew, in the hope of 
 prosecuting foreign missionary work more 
 vigorously under Boards of their own. 
 There are now in the United States not less 
 than thirty-five missionary societies con¬ 
 ducting independent work in foreign lands. 
 These societies had an income for the year 
 1888-S9 of about $3,700,000. Connected 
 with their 640 principal stations, in which 
 missionaries reside, there were over 3,oo<3 
 out-stations. The 2,300 missionaries from 
 America, about 1,000 of whom were males, 
 are aided in their work by over 8,000 na¬ 
 tive helpers. The 2,300 churches had an 
 enrolled membership of a little over a 
 quarter of a million, with 167,000 pupils 
 in the schools of all grades. 
 
 In Canada the M. E. Church organized 
 a missionary board in 1824, the Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church in 1844, and other churches 
 somewhat later. The income of these 
 Canadian societies for foreign missions for 
 the year 1888-S9 amounted to about $1 So,- 
 000, and they supported in foreign lands 
 over 100 missionaries, male and female. 
 
 In Great Britain there are now between 
 thirty-five and forty foreign missionary 
 societies, reporting an income for the year 
 1888, according to tables prepared by Can¬ 
 on Robertson, of $6,672,000. Of this sum 
 the societies of the Church of England 
 contributed $2,708,000; the joint societies 
 of Churchmen and Nonconformists, $1 ,- 
 042,000, English and Welsh Nonconform¬ 
 ists, $1,961,000 ; and Presbyterian soci¬ 
 eties, $916,000. These British societies 
 report about 1,900 male missionaries and 
 600 female missionaries, with 24,000 na¬ 
 tive helpers, and 351,000 communicants in 
 their churches. In Germany there are 
 some eighteen evangelical missions, some 
 of them working most efficiently in foreign 
 lands. Together, they have about 600 Eu¬ 
 ropean missionaries,and not far from 80,000 
 communicants in their churches. There are 
 also efficient missionary organizations in 
 France, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden. 
 The most recent statistics received from 
 these missions last named give the number 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 619 ) 
 
 Mis 
 
 of their missionaries as about 100, their 
 native helpers as nearly 500, and their 
 communicants as somewhat over 10,000. 
 
 The summary, therefore, of the Protes¬ 
 tant missions would make about 115 prin¬ 
 cipal foreign missionary societies, many of 
 them having a large number of auxiliaries. 
 Their income amounts to a little over $10,- 
 000,000. Their stations, principal and 
 subordinate, number 8,500; about 3,600 
 men, ordained or unordained, are labor¬ 
 ing in foreign lands. The various soci¬ 
 eties report but about 2,000 female mis¬ 
 sionaries, but should they uniformly 
 include the wives, the number of women 
 would doubtless exceed that of men. The 
 native helpers who are connected with 
 these foreign missionaries number about 
 33,000, while the communicants are re¬ 
 ported as 704,000. It is impossible to 
 state accurately the number of adherents, 
 who, though not communicants in the 
 churches, are yet fully identified with the 
 several Christian communities, but it is 
 believed, taking the ratio that exists be¬ 
 tween the communicants and adherents in 
 many missions, that the total number of 
 adherents is about 3,000,000. 
 
 Mention should be made of two or three 
 special branches of missionary work. Med¬ 
 ical missions have been prosecuted in con¬ 
 nection with most of the great organiza¬ 
 tions. Efforts to heal the body appeal 
 directly to many who are little disposed to 
 hear of a new religious faith; and preju¬ 
 dices have been removed, and the way 
 opened for the gospel by the practice of 
 the healing art. Several medical mission¬ 
 ary societies have been formed, and ref¬ 
 uges, hospitals, and dispensaries have 
 proved a most efficient agency in the dis¬ 
 semination of the gospel. In waiting-rooms 
 of hospitals have often been found the 
 best audiences for the Christian preachers. 
 
 Woman’s Work in missions, though of 
 recent development, has proved a power¬ 
 ful auxiliary. The woes under which wom¬ 
 en suffer in pagan and Mohammedan 
 lands could not fail to appeal strongly to 
 the hearts of Christian women throughout 
 the world, and they have not been slow 
 to take up these branches of work, which 
 seemed specially adapted for them. Par¬ 
 ticularly have they devoted their energies 
 to education, opening boarding-schools for 
 girls. In India female missionaries have 
 done a great work among the zenanas, 
 carrying the Word of life to women who 
 are excluded from society, but whose in¬ 
 fluence in their homes is powerful, and 
 without whose conversion it seems impos¬ 
 sible to renovate society. There are sixty- 
 one principal Women’s Foreign Missionary 
 Societies: thirty-nine in the United States, 
 
 nine in Canada, thirteen in Great Britain. 
 The thirty-nine Women’s Boards in the 
 United States have not less than 33,000 
 auxiliaries, including Bands of children, 
 and their membership is estimated at about 
 700,000. 
 
 Some brief statement should be made in 
 this article in regard to the progress of 
 missionary work in the principal nations of 
 the world. 
 
 The vast Continent of Africa has been 
 entered at many points. The Moravians, 
 under George Schmidt, were the pioneers 
 who commenced in Cape Colony, and that 
 region, through the labors of the London 
 Missionary Society, is fairly under Chris¬ 
 tian influences. The English Wesleyans 
 in the Transkei, the Paris Evangelical So¬ 
 ciety among the Basutos, and the Ameri¬ 
 can Board among the Zulus, have accom¬ 
 plished much. The Scotch Presbyterians 
 of the Established and Free Churches have 
 successful missions along the Shir6 and at 
 Lake Nyassa. The English Church'Mis¬ 
 sionary Society, and the Universities’ Mis¬ 
 sion, on the East Coast, have done a noble 
 work. The Church Missionary Society has 
 planted a station at Uganda, in the very 
 heart of the continent, where scores of 
 converts have proved steadfast while in 
 the firesjof persecution, even unto death. 
 The same society has also on the West 
 Coast accomplished a great work along the 
 Niger, and since the Congo has been opened 
 the English and American Baptists have 
 planted vigorous missions along that high¬ 
 way. The German missions have been 
 planted both on the eastern and western 
 coasts. The American Presbyterians have 
 held fast to their work, begun in 1842, at 
 the Gaboon; and the United Presbyterian 
 Church of America has accomplished re¬ 
 markable results in Egypt. Altogether, 35 
 Missionary Societies are at work in Africa, 
 from the mouth of the Nile to the Cape, of 
 Good Hope, and the Dark Continent is il¬ 
 lumined at many points by the light of the 
 gospel. 
 
 Throughout the Turkish Empire the 
 missionary work, begun in 1819, has been 
 left almost entirely to the American Board, 
 save that since 1870 the Syrian mission has 
 been connected with the Presbyterian 
 Church, and there are some English mis¬ 
 sions in Palestine. Little has been accom¬ 
 plished as yet among Moslems, for, though 
 there is nominally religious liberty, yet 
 death or exile awaits any convert from 
 Mohammedanism. But a vast work has 
 been accomplished among the decayed 
 churches, especially the Gregorian Arme¬ 
 nians. At the first these churches bitterly 
 opposed the incoming of evangelical truth,, 
 but many of their members, and even their 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 620 ) 
 
 Mis 
 
 leaders, though still adhering to the old 
 Church, are feeling the force of a better 
 Christian teaching and example. Includ¬ 
 ing Syria and European Turkey, there are 
 now in the Turkish Empire 135 churches 
 having a membership of over 13,000. 
 
 It is less than a century since Carey and 
 his associates were expelled by the British 
 authorities in India. In 1S13 the first mis¬ 
 sionaries from the United States to India 
 were driven from Calcutta, and only after 
 protracted negotiations were permitted to 
 stay at Bombay. But, from that date to 
 this, Christianity has been vigorously 
 propagated throughout Hindustan. Not 
 far from forty missionary societies are 
 laboring there, under the protection of the 
 British Government; and the old fear lest 
 any attempt to disturb the superstitions 
 of the natives might lead to revolt and the 
 overthrow of English rule has entirely 
 passed away. Henry Martyn thought that 
 it would be the nearest approach to a 
 miracle of anything that could be witness¬ 
 ed, should he ever see a Brahman con¬ 
 verted to Christ. That miracle has been 
 witnessed in hundreds of cases. In the 
 year 1851 the number of Protestant com¬ 
 municants in India, including Burma, was 
 17,306. In the year 1S81 they numbered 
 145,097. In India alone, in the decade 
 from 1871 to 1881, the communicants in¬ 
 creased from 52,000 to 113,000, while the ad¬ 
 herents increased from 224,000 to 417,000. 
 Sir William Hunter, an acknowledged au¬ 
 thority, states that in the nine years preced¬ 
 ing 1881 the native Christians increased at 
 the rate of 64.07 per cent., while the general 
 population increased at the rate of 10.89 
 per cent.; the Mohammedans at the rate 
 of 10.96 per cent., and the Hindus at a rate 
 below 13.64 per cent. Though recent re¬ 
 turns are not complete, it is believed that 
 the number of Protestant communicants 
 cannot be less than 180,000, and the ad¬ 
 herents not less than 700,000. Among the 
 converts are persons of all castes, from the 
 highest to the lowest, and of all races dwell¬ 
 ing in India. Not a few Mohammedans have 
 espoused the religion of Jesus Christ. 
 But statistics cannot show the great revo¬ 
 lution that is going on. The barriers of 
 ignorance, caste, and false religion are by 
 no means overthrown, but even the de¬ 
 fenders of false faiths are compelled to ad¬ 
 mit that the leaven of the gospel is per¬ 
 meating India. 
 
 In Burma the American Baptist mission 
 has had a rich harvest, and the work be¬ 
 gun by Judson and others has progressed 
 until, in the year 1889, there were in that 
 kingdom 521 churches having a member¬ 
 ship of 29,952. 
 
 China received its first Protestant mis¬ 
 
 sionary in the year 1807, Robert Mor¬ 
 rison being compelled, on account of the 
 opposition of the East India Company, to 
 proceed to Canton by way of New York. 
 For years an entrance was denied to the 
 messengers of Christ, but with extraor¬ 
 dinary patience their efforts were con¬ 
 tinued. The study of the language and 
 the work of translation were prosecuted 
 until, in 1842, a treaty was signed which 
 opened five ports to the commerce of 
 the world. Since that time various pro¬ 
 visions have been introduced into the 
 treaties with foreign powers so that the 
 Christian missionary is free to prosecute 
 his work throughout the empire. In the 
 year 1843 it was believed that there were 
 not more than ten converted souls within 
 the empire. In 1853 there were 351 en¬ 
 rolled Christians; in 1863 nearly 2,000; in 
 1877, 13,035, and by the last report, cover¬ 
 ing the year 1888, the Protestant com¬ 
 municants numbered 35,122. There are 
 now laboring within the empire, counting 
 some of the smaller bodies, forty mission¬ 
 ary societies having connected with them 
 1,168 missionaries, 545 of them being men. 
 These missionaries are aided by 1,325 or¬ 
 dained and unordained native laborers. 
 Notwithstanding this remarkable growth, 
 China is so vast that comparatively few of 
 its hundreds of millions of souls have as 
 yet heard the blessed message. But the 
 empire is open, and the rate of present 
 progress gives promise for a speedy and 
 glorious harvest. 
 
 It is but a third of a century since Japan 
 was sealed, not only to all Christians, but 
 to all foreigners. It is less than twenty 
 years since a native teacher of one of the 
 missionaries was thrown into prison on 
 mere suspicion of being a Christian. The 
 first church in Japan was organized in 1S72, 
 at which date there were twenty ordained 
 missionaries within the empire. This 
 number has increased until, in 1890, the male 
 missionaries were 200, connected with 
 twenty-eight missionary societies in Great 
 Britain, the United States, and Canada. 
 Including the wives of missionaries, and 
 unmarried women, the number of mission¬ 
 aries is 527. During the eighteen years the 
 churches increased in number from one 
 to 274, and the membership from eleven to 
 28,877. With extraordinary avidity the 
 Japanese have studied the arts and sciences 
 of the Western World, and havealready lost 
 confidence in their national religions, Shin¬ 
 toism and Buddhism, and have been ready 
 to listen to the preaching of the gospel. 
 The New Constitution of the empire, pro¬ 
 claimed in Feb., 1SS9, guarantees perfect 
 religious liberty, and the Christian preach¬ 
 er will be welcomed in every city of the 
 
MISSIONARY STATISTICS. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FOREIGN MISSIONARY SOCIETIES OF GREAT HRITAIN. 
 
 
 Income 
 
 Stations 
 
 and 
 
 Out- 
 
 stations. 
 
 Missionaries. 
 
 Native 
 
 Helpers. 
 
 Com¬ 
 
 muni¬ 
 
 cants. 
 
 1 
 
 Ad¬ 
 
 herents. 
 
 Societies. 
 
 in 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Male. 
 
 ! 
 
 Female. 
 
 London Missionary Society. 
 
 <1655,280 
 
 1,920 
 
 i54 
 
 36 
 
 5,504 
 
 74,127 
 
 3 l6 ,355 
 
 Church Missionary Society. 
 
 1,260,080 
 
 305 
 
 316 
 
 44 
 
 3-99° 
 
 47-754 
 
 188,037 
 
 Society for Propagation of the Gospel. 
 
 691,830 
 
 * 
 
 493 
 
 * 
 
 2,444 
 
 66,593 
 
 281,620 
 
 Universities’ Mission.. 
 
 82,500 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 566 
 
 1,281 
 
 Church of England Zenana Miss’y Soc’y... 
 
 116,340 
 
 46 
 
 • • 
 
 105 
 
 534 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 Baptist Missionary Society. 
 
 404,090 
 
 496 
 
 Il8 
 
 • . 
 
 1,014 
 
 47,i33 
 
 
 General Baptist Society. 
 
 39.515 
 
 U 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 i,39° 
 
 3,7io 
 
 China Inland Mission. 
 
 182,558 
 
 i45 
 
 i53 
 
 123 
 
 144 
 
 2,464 
 
 * 
 
 English Presbyterian Mission. 
 
 7°> 395 
 
 12 7 
 
 24 
 
 l6 
 
 108 
 
 3,597 
 
 6,016 
 
 Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 324.995 
 
 211 
 
 79 
 
 38 
 
 568 
 
 6,276 
 
 =* 
 
 Established Church of Scotland. 
 
 80,245 
 
 l6 
 
 32 
 
 I 
 
 195 
 
 805 
 
 3-537 
 
 United Presbyterian, Scotch. 
 
 282,674 
 
 228 
 
 6l 
 
 21 
 
 528 
 
 14,079 
 
 * 
 
 Wesleyan Missionary Society. 
 
 659.335 
 
 359 
 
 152 
 
 * 
 
 6,104 
 
 37,03 1 
 
 118,247 
 
 Irish Presbyterian Society. 
 
 7 2 >9 X 5 
 
 *3 
 
 i5 
 
 IO 
 
 207 
 
 429 
 
 2,223 
 
 Methodist, New Connection. 
 
 13,100 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 44 
 
 1,268 
 
 X 
 
 Primitive Methodists. 
 
 70,642 
 
 IO 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 420 
 
 =* 
 
 Methodist, United Free. 
 
 105,140 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 * 
 
 166 
 
 6,670 
 
 * 
 
 Moravian Missions. 
 
 37.704 
 
 i33 
 
 151 
 
 141 
 
 1,71° 
 
 35.920 
 
 84,201 
 
 South American Missionary Society. 
 
 92,500 
 
 37 
 
 48 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 411 
 
 3,038 
 
 Friends. 
 
 42,500 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 
 l6 
 
 378 
 
 2,970 
 
 36,36-0 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. 
 
 25,000 
 
 8 
 
 IO 
 
 8 
 
 302 
 
 1.389 
 
 6,519 
 
 Turkish Missions Aid Society. 
 
 10,608 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals. 
 
 $5,3U,94 6 
 
 4.U9 
 
 1,904 
 
 595 
 
 24,029 
 
 351,292 
 
 c 051,144 
 
 * Not reported. 
 
 FOREIGN MISSIONARY SOCIETIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1 888-89. 
 
 
 
 
 C/3 
 
 Missionaries. 
 
 & 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 
 & 
 
 c 
 
 & 
 
 > 
 
 c/5 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 Societies. 
 
 Income. 
 
 Stations. 
 
 Out-station 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 U 
 
 a 
 
 <u 
 
 > 
 
 4-» 
 
 GJ 
 
 Churches. 
 
 0 
 
 *5 
 
 I 
 
 r* 
 
 e 
 
 0 
 
 O 
 
 4-» 
 
 1/5 
 
 r2 
 
 T3 
 
 V 
 
 T3 
 
 HD 
 
 < 
 
 rC 
 
 u 
 
 in 
 
 0 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 American Board. 
 
 0685,111 
 
 93 
 
 1,023 
 
 J 95 
 
 3 J 9 
 
 2,380 
 
 360 
 
 33 220 
 
 4,609 
 
 1,066 
 
 43,838 
 
 Presbyterian Board, North.. 
 
 852,815 
 
 IOI 
 
 * 
 
 224 
 
 308 
 
 1,209 
 
 321 
 
 25,346 
 
 3,067 
 
 543 
 
 27,394 
 
 Presbyterian Board, South.. 
 
 96,054 
 
 39 
 
 96 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 * 
 
 1,678 
 
 364 
 
 * 
 
 1,214 
 
 Reformed Church of Amer¬ 
 ica (Dutch). 
 
 93,i42 
 
 14 
 
 127 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 274 
 
 5i 
 
 5,089 
 
 762 
 
 125 
 
 3=775 
 
 United Presbyterian Board.. 
 
 108,585 
 
 l6 
 
 i55 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 402 
 
 34 
 
 8,712 
 
 1,874 
 
 236 
 
 9,639 
 
 Cumberland Presb. Church.. 
 
 I 7»475 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 IO 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 513 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 220 
 
 Reformed Presb. Church.... 
 
 16,432 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 336 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 975 
 
 Asso. Ref. Synod of the 
 South. 
 
 6,453 
 
 6 
 
 t 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 226 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 Reformed Church of the 
 
 U. S., German. 
 
 Ref. Presb. Gen. Synod. 
 
 18,000 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 1,438 
 
 293 
 
 2 
 
 62 
 
 4,300 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 * 
 
 Baptist Missionary Union f... 
 
 414,895 
 
 62 
 
 1,179 
 
 IO7 
 
 172 
 
 1,313 
 
 687 
 
 78,543 
 
 6,093 
 
 983 
 
 18,574 
 
 Baptist Southern Convention. 
 
 99,023 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 47 
 
 75 
 
 57 
 
 2,050 
 
 228 
 
 8 
 
 600 
 
 Free Baptists. 
 
 24,885 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 646 
 
 54 
 
 103 
 
 3,59i 
 
 Seventh Day Baptists. 
 
 4,108 
 
 r 
 
 * 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 Baptist Convention of the 
 United States §. 
 
 4,598 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2,000 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 German Baptist Brethren 
 (Tunkers). 
 
 1,055 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Methodist Epis. Church t li-.. 
 
 566,139 
 
 52 
 
 25O 
 
 148 
 
 IQO 
 
 1,388 
 
 516 
 
 63,295 
 
 3,027 
 
 801 
 
 27,519 
 
 Meth. Epis. Church, South.. 
 
 244,176 
 
 18 
 
 * 
 
 34 
 
 * 
 
 97 
 
 * 
 
 4> OI 4 
 
 228 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Meth. Protestant Church.... 
 
 15,000 
 
 3 
 
 * 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 239 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 African Meth. Episcopal §... 
 
 12,000 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 900 
 
 302 
 
 5 
 
 408 
 
 Wesleyan Methodist. 
 
 2,000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 256 
 
 IO 
 
 1 
 
 33° 
 
 Free Methodist. 
 
 2,500 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Foreign 
 Missionary Society. 
 
 i59,M9 
 2,646 
 
 51 
 
 124 
 
 75 
 
 33 
 
 124 
 
 32 
 
 2,367 
 
 3°o 
 
 IOI 
 
 3,755 
 
 Reformed Episcopal Church. 
 
 1 
 
 ., 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 • . 
 
 , . 
 
 Evangelical Association. 
 
 13,662 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 77 
 
 5° 
 
 9,959 
 
 1,007 
 
 319 
 
 17.983 
 
 United Brethren in Christ... 
 
 28,000 
 
 15 
 
 60 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5° 
 
 * 
 
 6,000 
 
 200 
 
 * 
 
 460 
 
 Evangelical Lutheran Gener¬ 
 al Synod. 
 
 82,404 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 388 
 
 113 
 
 5,443 
 
 1,001 
 
 155 
 
 4,33° 
 
 Evangelical Lutheran Gener¬ 
 al Council §. 
 
 10,288 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 72 
 
 4 
 
 805 
 
 235 
 
 57 
 
 767 
 
 Foreign Christian Missionary 
 Society (Disciples). 
 
 61,866 
 
 15 
 
 l6 
 
 27 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 3° 
 
 2,990 
 
 617 
 
 14 
 
 380 
 
 Amer. Christian Connection. 
 
 3,000 
 
 4 
 
 IO 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 140 
 
 40 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 Mennonite Gen. Conference. 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 IO 
 
 
 * 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 IOO 
 
 Friends. 
 
 28,273 
 
 l6 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 IO 
 
 379 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 7°9 
 
 United Brethren (Mora¬ 
 vians) J. 
 
 13,500 
 
 • . 
 
 . . 
 
 . • 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
 % • 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 $3,69L534 
 
 639 
 
 3,226 
 
 1,006 
 
 1,317 
 
 00 
 
 £ 
 
 M 
 
 2,313 
 
 256,556 
 
 24,570 
 
 4,609 
 
 167,048 
 
 * Not reported. t Work of these Societies in Protestant countries of Europe is not here reported. 
 
 $ Excepting receipts from the United States, the Statistics of Moravian Missions are given in the table of British 
 Societies. § The statistics of 1887-88 in whole or in part. II Not including the Woman’s Board of this church. 
 
 ( 621 ) 
 
Mis 
 
 ( 622 ) 
 
 Miz 
 
 empire by a few, if not by many who de¬ 
 sire to know of a better faith than that of 
 their fathers. 
 
 Some of the most marvelous triumphs 
 of modern missions have been witnessed in 
 the Island World. The great island of 
 Madagascar, the jewel in the crown of the 
 London Missionary Society, has been in 
 large degree brought under the power of 
 Christianity. After passing through the 
 fires of persecution, the Christian Church 
 among the Malagasy has come out tri¬ 
 umphant; and although the London Society 
 has but twenty-eight missionaries among 
 them, there are 670 ordained native min¬ 
 isters, 3,700 native preachers unordained, 
 50,000 church members, and 236,000 native 
 adherents. 
 
 The triumphs of the gospel among the 
 savage islanders of the Pacific furnish con¬ 
 vincing proof of its Divine origin and power. 
 Islands from which the missionaries were 
 driven by force, or, if captured, were slain 
 and eaten, have not only accepted the truth, 
 but have sent forth of their own people on 
 missionary work to other islands. Almost 
 all branches of the Christian Church have 
 had a share in this work in Polynesia, 
 Melanesia, and Micronesia. The London 
 Missionary Society has been specially 
 honored in its work in Tahiti, the Society, 
 the Hervey, the Samoan, and the Loyalty 
 Islands and in New Guinea. The Wesleyan 
 Society of England has won a notable vic¬ 
 tory in Tonga and Fiji. In 1879 Sir A. 
 Gordon, the English governor of Fiji, de¬ 
 clared that out of a population of about 
 120,000 former cannibals, 102,000 were 
 regular worshipers in churches, and that 
 in every family there was morning and 
 evening worship. The societies of the 
 Church of England have labored earnestly 
 and successfully in Melanesia; and the 
 Presbyterian Churches of Scotland and 
 Canada in the New Hebrides, and the 
 American Board in the Sandwich Islands 
 and Micronesia. Many of these islands 
 have been so thoroughly Christianized that 
 they do not now make reports to the so¬ 
 cieties which established Christian work 
 within them, so that the statistics of Chris¬ 
 tian work in the Island World are by no 
 means complete, but we have a record of 
 over 96,000 communicants and of nearly 
 a half-million adherents in connection 
 with the churches in the islands of the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The South American Missionary Society 
 of England has accomplished a noble work, 
 commencing among the savages of Tierra 
 del Fuego and coming north; and the 
 American Presbyterian and Methodist 
 Epicopal Churches are laboring earnestly 
 in Brazil. The Moravians are toiling, as 
 
 is their wont, among the degraded tribes 
 of British Guiana and Central America. 
 
 If the present outlook for missions is 
 compared with that of a hundred years ago, 
 it will be seen that there is everything to 
 cheer the Christian in reference to the fu¬ 
 ture. The apathy of the Church has given 
 place in some good degree to earnest en¬ 
 deavor. The nations that, a hundred years 
 ago, openly forbade the preaching of the 
 Gospel, or the coming of the foreigner, are 
 now freely open. The means of transit 
 are wonderfully improved, so that, in place 
 of the voyage of six months or a year, al¬ 
 most any mission-field can be reached in a 
 few weeks. The introduction of modern 
 science and art is overthrowing the super¬ 
 stitions of pagan nations, as they find that 
 their sacred pages are filled with absurdi¬ 
 ties. The languages of the illiterate nations 
 have been reduced to writing, and into 
 about 300 tongues of the earth the Script¬ 
 ures have been translated, and dictionaries 
 and other appliances for learning these 
 foreign tongues have been provided. Mis¬ 
 sionary societies in large numbers, and 
 working by different methods, have been 
 organized. The batteries of Christianity 
 have been planted in all the great nations. 
 The native agency has been set in opera¬ 
 tion, and schools and colleges have been 
 founded. The preliminary work may be 
 said to be done. Nothing is now wanted 
 but united and consecrated effort on the 
 part of the whole Church of Christ, accom¬ 
 panied by the outpouring of the Spirit, to 
 bring the kingdoms of the world under the 
 sway of him to whom they belong. 
 
 E. E. Strong. 
 
 Mite, a small bronze or copper coin, 
 which, in Christ’s time, was worth only 
 half a mill. 
 
 Mitre, the head-dress worn in solemn 
 church services by bishops, abbots, and 
 other prelates in the Latin Church. The 
 materials used in their manufacture con¬ 
 sist of most costly stuffs, studded with 
 gold and precious stones. It is tongue¬ 
 shaped in form, and is supposed to sym¬ 
 bolize the “ cloven tongue” of Pentecost. 
 The origin of its use is uncertain: no spe¬ 
 cial mention is made of it before the ninth 
 century. 
 
 Miz'pah ( watch-tower ). (1) The Mtzpeh 
 
 of Gilead (Judg. xi. 29), Ramath-mizpeh 
 (Josh. xiii. 26), and Ramoth-gilead (1 Kings 
 iv. 13), were probably the same place. 
 Here Jacob and Laban set up a heap of 
 stones as a landmark between them (Gen. 
 xxxi. 23, 25, 48, 52), and here Jephthah was 
 met by his daughter. (Judg. xi. 34.) It is 
 
Moa 
 
 ( 623 ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 identified with the modern Jebei Osha, 
 three miles northwest of Ramoth-gilead. 
 (2) The Mizpah of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 
 26) is generally identified with the modern 
 Neby Samwil. Here Saul was elected king 
 (r Sam. x. 17-21), and Gedaliah was mur¬ 
 dered. (2 Kings xxv. 23, 25.) 
 
 Moab, a name used in designating both 
 the Moabites and their territory, which lay 
 along the eastern shore of the Dead Sea 
 and the lower course of the Jordan. It is 
 a well-watered, fertile', and mountainous 
 country, rising more than three thousand 
 feet above the level of the sea. By an¬ 
 cestry and language the Moabites were 
 related both to the Israelites and Edomites. 
 They were addicted to sensual habits, and 
 worshiped Chemosh as their chief divin¬ 
 ity. (1 Kings xi. 7, 33; 2 Kings xxiii. 13.) 
 Human sacrifices, especially of children, 
 were made in their worship. (2 Kings iii. 
 27.) Chedorlaomer subdued the Emim, 
 the original inhabitants of the country, in 
 the time of Abraham. (Gen. xiv. 5.) After 
 the Moabites took possession of the coun¬ 
 try they were ruled by their own kings, 
 but were subdued, and became dependent 
 to the Amorites in the territory north of 
 the Arnon, and to Israel south of the 
 Arnon. When the separation of the two 
 kingdoms took place, Moab followed Is¬ 
 rael. (2 Kings iii. 4.) They favored the 
 revolt against Nebuchadnezzar, but when 
 he marched against Israel they at once 
 joined his forces. Nothing further is 
 known of their history. The country be¬ 
 longed to the Nabataeans until A. D. 105, 
 when it fell into the hands of the Romans. 
 The ancient cities of Moab are now in 
 ruins, and the scattered population roam¬ 
 ing through the country is of a degraded 
 type. In 1868 the famous Moabite stone 
 was discovered by Mr. Klein (a German 
 missionary at Jerusalem), near the walls 
 of old Dibon. It is a slab of black basalt, 
 
 3 feet, 8j£ inches high, 2 feet, 3 )/> inches 
 wide, and 1 foot, 1.78 inches thick. The 
 stone is now in the museum of the Louvre 
 in Paris. 
 
 Modalism, a term used to denote the doc¬ 
 trine, first set forth by Sabellius, that the 
 Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were 
 not three distinct personalities, but only 
 three different modes of manifestation. See 
 Christology; Monarchianism; Sabel- 
 lianism; Trinity. 
 
 Moderates, a name given to a party in the 
 Established Church of Scotland, during the 
 eighteenth century, who were lax in their 
 doctrinal views. The discussions which I 
 grew out of their position finally culmi¬ 
 
 nated in the organization of the Free 
 Church. 
 
 Moderator is the title of the presiding 
 officer of Presbyterian courts (session, pres¬ 
 bytery, synod, general assembly). The 
 title is often used to distinguish the presid¬ 
 ing officer in Congregational assemblies. 
 
 Moffat, Robert, D. D., “African mis¬ 
 sionary, was born at Ormiston, Hadding¬ 
 tonshire, Scotland, on December 21, 1795, 
 of humble parentage. Moffat learned the 
 craft of gardening, but in 1814 offered him¬ 
 self to the London Missionary Society, 
 who, in 1816, sent him out to South Africa. 
 After spending a year in Namaqua Land 
 with the powerful and dreaded chief Afri¬ 
 caner, whom he converted, Moffat returned 
 , to Cape Town in 1819, and married Miss 
 Mary Smith, a remarkable woman and 
 most helpful wife. In 1820 Moffat and his 
 wife left the Cape, and proceeded to Griqua 
 Town, and ultimately settled at Kuruman, 
 among the Bechuana tribes lying to the 
 west of the Vaal River. Here he worked 
 as a missionary till 1870, when he reluc¬ 
 tantly returned finally to his native land. 
 He made frequent journeys into the neigh¬ 
 boring regions, as far north as the Matabele 
 country, to the south of the Zambezi. The 
 results of these journeys he communicated 
 to the Royal Geographical Society (Jour. 
 P. G. S. xxv., xxviii., and Proc. ii.), and 
 when in England in 1842 he published his 
 well-known Missionary Labours and Scenes 
 in South Africa. Single-handed he trans- 
 I lated the whole of the Bible into Bechuana. 
 While solicitous to turn the people to 
 Christian belief and practice, Moffat was, 
 perhaps, the first to take a broad view of 
 the missionary function, and to realize the 
 importance of inducing the savage to adopt 
 the arts of civilization. He himself was 
 builder, carpenter, smith, gardener, farm¬ 
 er, all in one, and by precept and example 
 he succeeded in turning a horde of blood¬ 
 thirsty savages into a ‘ people appreciating 
 and cultivating the arts and habits of civil¬ 
 ized life, with a written language of their 
 own.’ Now we find more or less Christian¬ 
 ized communities extending from Kuruman 
 to near the Zambezi. Moffat met with in¬ 
 credible discouragement and dangers at 
 first, which he overcame by his strong 
 faith, determination, and genial humor. It 
 was largely due to him that the work of 
 Livingstone, his son-in-law, took the direc¬ 
 tion it did. On his return to England, Mof¬ 
 fat received a testimonial of about ,£6,000. 
 He died at Leigh, near Tunbridge Wells, 
 August 9, 1883.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Mohammed, Mohammedanism. Neither 
 
Moh 
 
 1 <>24 ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 Greek nor Roman paganism obtained more 
 sway over the minds of the desert tribes 
 than the military power of those nations 
 acquired over their bodies, and it was 
 among these that the greatest of all op¬ 
 ponents of Christianity arose. The Ara¬ 
 bians preserved a tolerably accurate tra¬ 
 dition of their existence as a free nation 
 from the day of Abraham and Ishmael; and 
 their religion appears to have been derived 
 from a period as remote, for it was a com¬ 
 pound of the ancient Sabaean religion and 
 of the patriarchal religion, of which we 
 seem to have a new founder in Abraham 
 himself. The Sabaean religion consisted 
 at first in the worship of the ‘ ‘ host of heav¬ 
 en,” the sun, moon, and stars, without the 
 use of idols; but afterward images were 
 made to represent them, and we find Terah 
 mentioned as an idolater. (Joshua xxiv. 2- 
 14.) Laban also used idols while Jacob was 
 in his family; and idols were in use among 
 the descendants of Ishmael until the time 
 of Mohammed. Their religion, so far as 
 it was true, would necessarily be that of 
 Abraham, not of Moses, and, so far as it 
 was false, it would be of that Sabaean char¬ 
 acter which has just been mentioned. A 
 mixture of this kind, in which Abrahamic 
 traditions and a very corrupt form of Sa- 
 baeanism were the principal elements, ap¬ 
 pears to have been the actual religion of 
 Arabia, unaffected in the mass by Chris¬ 
 tianity, at the time when Mohammed arose. 
 The new religion, therefore, sprang up in 
 a soil which had already given birth to an 
 Eclecticism in which there were probably 
 more ancient primeval or patriarchal ingre¬ 
 dients than in any of the known pagan sys¬ 
 tems. 
 
 Mohammed (a. d. 570-632) w r as born of 
 parents who belonged to an Arabian tribe 
 which claimed a descent from Joktan, the 
 son of Eber (Gen. x. 25-29), and not from 
 Ishmael. This tribe went by the name of 
 the Koreish, and they were considered 
 “ Araba el Araba,” as St. Paul declared 
 himself a “ Hebrew of the Hebrews,” on 
 account of the purity of their blood. Some 
 years before the time of Mohammed’s pub¬ 
 lic life there had been signs of dissatisfac¬ 
 tion among some members of this tribe 
 with the religion then current, and they 
 craved after one more in accordance with 
 the religion of Abraham. Four are es¬ 
 pecially remembered by name—Waraca, 
 Othman, Obayd Allah, and Zayd—who 
 were thus seeking for some higher faith 
 than the superstition in which they had 
 been brought up. The first two of these 
 shortly became Christians; the third, after 
 he had been for a time seduced into being 
 a follower of Mohammed. The fourth, 
 Zayd, became a great reformer of Arabian 
 
 religion at Mecca, proclaiming the Unity 
 of God, and denouncing idolatry; and he 
 probably laid the foundation of the better 
 parts of Mohammedanism, though he was 
 murdered before he could obtain an inter¬ 
 view with Mohammed himself. 
 
 It was in the year 570 of the Christian 
 era that Mohammed was born, and about 
 609 (five years after the death of St. Au¬ 
 gustine, first archbishop of Canterbury) 
 that he declared himself to be the Prophet 
 of God. 
 
 Mohammed belonged to the family of the 
 Hashemites, who were considered the 
 most illustrious members of the tribe, and 
 to whom the care of the temple at Mecca 
 (ancient when Mohammed was born) was 
 entrusted. His father dying while Mo¬ 
 hammed was young, the boy was brought 
 „ up by an uncle, named Abu Thaleb, who 
 was, like most of the tribe, a merchant en¬ 
 gaged in exchanging the fruits, spices, and 
 perfumes of Arabia for the corn and other 
 productions of more temperate lands. It 
 is doubtful whether Mohammed was ever 
 able to read and write, but it is on record 
 that he became very early proficient in the 
 kind of commerce in which his uncle was 
 engaged. As soon as he reached manhood, 
 he became factor, agent, and commercial 
 traveler to a rich widow, who carried on 
 the trade of her deceased husband; and the 
 cleverness of Mohammed in this occupa¬ 
 tion was so satisfactory to the rich Kadijah 
 that she proposed to him to become her 
 husband. They married, and seem to 
 have retired from business with an im¬ 
 mense fortune, the age of the adventurer 
 being now twenty-five, and that of his rich 
 wife forty. Up to this period he appears 
 in the character of a mere adventurer of a 
 very ordinary sort; but it seems probable 
 that his rapid accession to position and for¬ 
 tune aroused an ambition for still greater 
 success, and that this, combined with a 
 certain religiousness of disposition, accord¬ 
 ing to the current religion of Mecca at that 
 time, influenced him to undertake the im¬ 
 posture on which his subsequent greatness 
 was founded. As Mohammedanism is a 
 mixture of truth and error, so the character 
 of its founder seems to have been far from 
 one of unmixed evil; and at the beginning 
 of his career he was neither the voluptuary 
 nor the impostor that he afterward be¬ 
 came. It would seem, indeed, that, like 
 Zayd, he began by looking for a higher and 
 more devotional system of religion than 
 that by which he was surrounded; that as¬ 
 ceticism and excess of self-contemplation 
 led him on to wild notions of his own mis¬ 
 sion as a religious reformer within the limit¬ 
 ed circle of his own acquaintance and city; 
 that the idea of religious reformation be- 
 
Moh 
 
 ( f )2 5 ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 came transmuted by success into that of a 
 universal new religion; and that the neces¬ 
 sities of his advanced movements made 
 Mohammed far more of an impostor than 
 he had been in a more limited sphere, 
 while his asceticism and religious charac¬ 
 ter broke down under the intoxication of 
 his enormous success. 
 
 There was an interval of some years be¬ 
 tween the marriage of the young Moham¬ 
 med with the mature Kadijah and his as¬ 
 sumption of the office of prophet. For 
 thirteen years, in fact, we have little or no 
 clue to his mode of life, and he is thirty- 
 eight years of age before we see the begin¬ 
 ning of that career which subsequently 
 opened out for him. From that age until 
 forty he was known to retire frequently to 
 a cave near Mecca, called the Cave of Hira, 
 where it is said that he practised great 
 mortifications as a preparation for his office; 
 and at the end of that time he declared 
 himself to his now aged wife and some 
 others of his family, as a prophet of God. 
 Three years more passed, and the circle of 
 his adherents was widened by his open 
 proclamation of himself as a prophet en¬ 
 trusted with a great mission to all the fam¬ 
 ily of Hashem, and in his forty-fourth 
 year (a. d. 613) Mohammed declared pub¬ 
 licly to the people of Mecca that he had 
 been sent by God to reform their religion, 
 and to put down the idolatry of the city. 
 At first he was met by ridicule and insult; 
 but a religious reformer who shows him¬ 
 self to be in earnest will not long want ad¬ 
 herents, and in a few months those of Mo¬ 
 hammed began so to increase that the sup¬ 
 porters of the old religion were alarmed, 
 and became fierce opponents of him and his 
 pretensions, endeavoring to put him to 
 death. In consequence of this opposition 
 he sought refuge in a town named Tayef, 
 not very far distant from Mecca, where he 
 continued to make proselytes by preaching 
 his new religion—for it was now develop¬ 
 ing into this—to his neighbors, and to the 
 caravans which traveled to Mecca. He 
 afterward returned to Mecca, until compel¬ 
 led, by an insurrection which his preaching 
 had aroused, to fly for his life to Yalreb, or 
 Medina. This flight began on July 16, 622, 
 and that day has been the era from which 
 all Mussulman chronology is reckoned 
 since the days of Mohammed, so that an 
 event which is, by our computation, Anno 
 Domini 1886, is by the Mohammedans 
 (after July) reckoned in the 1304th year of 
 the Hegira or Flight. 
 
 There are only 354 days in the Moham¬ 
 medan year, which accounts for the dis¬ 
 crepancy in the number of years between 
 the Christian and the Mohammedan reck¬ 
 oning of the interval between a. d. 622 and 
 
 the present time; 100 Christian being 
 equal to about 103 Mohammedan years. 
 
 The city to which Mohammed fled had 
 been in no small degree prepared for his 
 reception. Pilgrims had come from thence 
 to Mecca, and had heard of the fame of 
 Mohammed. The city of Medina had been 
 originally occupied by two tribes, one of 
 idolatrous Arabs and one of Jews. A fierce 
 war arose between the rival races; it ter¬ 
 minated in the defeat of the Jews, who were 
 reduced to slavery. Amid their sufferings 
 they were frequently heard to exclaim, 
 “ Oh! if the appointed time of the Messiah 
 had arrived, we would seek him, and he 
 would deliver us from this tyranny.” 
 When the Medinese pilgrims heard the ac¬ 
 count of the new prophet at Mecca, they 
 said to one another, “ Can this be the 
 Messiah of whom the Jews are constantly 
 speaking ? Let us find him out, and gain 
 him over to our interests.” Mohammed 
 at once saw what an advantage he had 
 gained by such a prepossession; he de¬ 
 clared he was the person whom the Jews 
 expected, but that his mission was not con¬ 
 fined to a single people, for all who be¬ 
 lieved in God and his prophet should share 
 its advantages. (Taylor’s History of Ma- 
 hommedanism , p. 105.) 
 
 It was probably from this time that Mo¬ 
 hammed began to be an intentional impos¬ 
 tor, claiming to be far more than a reformer 
 of religion; and it is a curious fact that the 
 chronology of the great antichristian im¬ 
 posture which he founded should be reck¬ 
 oned, not from the time when he showed 
 himself in the character of a reforming ser¬ 
 vant of God, but from a period thirteen 
 years later, when his assumptions were of 
 a much less excusable kind. 
 
 It was about this period of Mohammed’s 
 career that the Koran began to be produced 
 as an authority. He had declared, in the 
 first instance, that he had received a mes¬ 
 sage from God by Gabriel; and that pre¬ 
 tended message was succeeded, he alleged, 
 by many others. These were taken down 
 from the lips of Mohammed, and written 
 on bones or on palm-leaves, and, when col¬ 
 lected, formed the Koran, a book which 
 holds the same place in the estimation of 
 the Mohammedans that the Holy Bible 
 does among Christians. It is said to be 
 very beautiful reading in the original 
 Arabic, in which it is written, but in English 
 a great part of it is nonsense, while some 
 of it is grossly immoral and profane. This 
 book was written down by the companions 
 of Mohammed at various periods during 
 the course of his public life; and portions 
 of it show that he had an imperfect ac¬ 
 quaintance with Old Testament history and 
 with the facts of the Gospel; but all is 
 
Moh 
 
 ( 626 ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 grossly distorted, and ludicrous fables are 
 added on to some of the most solemn his¬ 
 tories of Holy Writ. The great burden of 
 the book is that Mohammed is the prophet 
 of God. Christ is named, as is also the 
 Virgin Mary; but the miraculous concep¬ 
 tion and birth of Jesus are denied, and he 
 is declared to be the son of Joseph as well 
 as of Mary. To win the support of igno¬ 
 rant Christians, Mohammed allowed that 
 Jesus was a prophet, but only in a very 
 inferior degree to himself; the latter and 
 not the former being set forth as the great 
 centre, next to God himself, of the religious 
 system inculcated in the book. (Koran.) 
 
 The flight to Yalreb was the turning- 
 point of Mohammed’s career. The religion 
 which he had already begun to found now 
 took shape as a form of doctrine, worship, 
 and morals; and mosques began to be 
 erected in which it might have a local 
 habitation. The citizens of Yalreb were 
 predisposed in favor of Mohammed, and 
 showed as much eagerness to receive him 
 as those of Mecca had shown to get rid of 
 him. They welcomed him to their city in 
 procession, as their sovereign and religious 
 head, and changed its name from Yalreb to 
 Medinet-al-Nabi, the City of the Prophet, 
 by which latter name, contracted to Medina 
 among ourselves, it has ever since been 
 known. Then began the military charac¬ 
 ter of the new religion, a character which 
 essentially belonged to it for a very long 
 period. Christianity mastered the world 
 before a single sword even was drawn in 
 its defence; but Mohammedanism was prop¬ 
 agated by violence from the beginning. 
 At first the new “prophet” had but a 
 small band of about three hundred military 
 followers, but with these he made a suc¬ 
 cessful raid on a caravan of the rich prod¬ 
 uce of Arabia, which was proceeding 
 from Mecca to Syria under the escort of a 
 thousand soldiers, headed by Abu Sophian, 
 the successor of Abu Taleb, in what was 
 practically the sovereignty of Mecca. The 
 small force of Mohammed was on the point 
 of being defeated, when he pretended to 
 have had an interview with the angel 
 Gabriel, and as he threw a handful of sand 
 toward the Meccans, with the exclamation, 
 “ May their faces be confounded !” his 
 followers concluded that a miracle was 
 being wrought in their favor, and with the 
 fierceness which such a persuasion has 
 always given men in battle, they made a 
 fresh onslaught, which ended in the total 
 rout of those who had opposed them, and 
 the capture of an immense boot)'. This 
 success led Mohammed to assume a much 
 more haughty position, and he now pre¬ 
 tended to be guided by special revelations 
 from heaven in all his undertakings. A 
 
 second encounter between Abu Sophian 
 and Mohammed in the following year 
 ended in the defeat of the latter; but as 
 the advantage was not followed up, each 
 party remained in strong force, and for a 
 time the whole of Arabia was the arena of 
 most horrible petty warfare, in which 
 plunder and murder were the object of 
 both sides. Then came the siege of Medina 
 by the Meccans, which ended in a truce 
 between Mohammed and his opponents for 
 the long period of ten years. 
 
 The prophet then began to plunder and 
 slay the rich Jews who thronged the towns 
 within his reach; and by this means ob¬ 
 tained great treasure for his further pro¬ 
 ceedings. Some he caused to be privately 
 assassinated by small bands of his follow¬ 
 ers who presented themselves as guests, 
 and became the murderers of their enter¬ 
 tainers. By this means Mohammed grad¬ 
 ually advanced toward Mecca, increasing 
 his numbers and his wealth without act¬ 
 ually breaking the treaty which had been 
 made between him and the army of Mecca. 
 Then he found a pretense for invading the 
 city itself, declaring that the truce had 
 been broken by his opponents; but as he 
 was now at the head of an army which 
 numbered ten thousand men, the city sur¬ 
 rendered to him on condition of his not 
 entering it for a year, and of his followers 
 meanwhile performing their pilgrimages 
 to the Kaaba, the ancient temple of the 
 Arabians, unarmed with any weapon but 
 their swords. During the interval, the 
 false prophet employed himself in extend¬ 
 ing his conquests over neighboring tribes, 
 and especially in subduing and plundering 
 the Jews; and he also sent ambassadors to 
 Persia, Constantinople, and Ethiopia, in¬ 
 viting monarchs and people to adopt the 
 new religion. The king of Ethiopia was 
 ready to become a convert; the emperor 
 of Constantinople, Heraclius, returned a 
 politic but indifferent answer; and only the 
 Persian sovereign showed indignation at 
 the effrontery of the adventurer. He tore 
 in pieces the letter, and denounced the 
 message as insolent. “ Thus may Allah 
 tear his kingdom !” was the reply of Mo¬ 
 hammed. 
 
 When the time came for Mohammed to 
 visit Mecca, he entered the city in the two¬ 
 fold character of conqueror and religious 
 reformer. His first act was to go to the 
 Kaaba, and cause all the three hundred 
 and sixty idols to be destroyed, laying his 
 hand on each, and saying: “ Truth has 
 come, let falsehood disappear.” His oppo¬ 
 sition to idolatry was always consistent 
 and energetic. No doubt this opposition 
 to idolatry became one great means of 
 gaining over most of the Iconoclasts , who 
 
Moh 
 
 ( 627 ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 had done so much harm to Christianity in 
 the East. These religionists were power¬ 
 fully impressed with the evil of using 
 images of saints and of our Lord, and 
 finding the new imposture agree with their 
 -own principles in this particular, they 
 looked on such a basis of agreement as one 
 which they could adopt, without consider¬ 
 ing the important points of fundamental 
 difference. Certain it is that many such 
 Christians were gained over by the im¬ 
 postor. 
 
 The personal supremacy of Mohammed 
 over the whole of Arabia was now estab¬ 
 lished, and he began to carry his arms 
 against Palestine, which was then under 
 the dominion of Heraclius, the emperor 
 of Constantinople; but the expedition end¬ 
 ing without any engagement between the 
 Christians and the Moslems, Mohammed 
 returned to Medina. His mode of life at 
 this time was of the most sensual descrip¬ 
 tion. One of his rules in the Koran for 
 all his followers was, that they were to 
 practice polygamy only to the extent of 
 having four wives each. To justify him¬ 
 self in possessing a much larger number, 
 he pretended a fresh revelation, by which 
 he was to be allowed any number that he 
 pleased; and there can be no doubt that 
 sensual excesses shortened his days. 
 
 The death of Mohammed took place on 
 June 8, 632, when he was at the age of 
 sixty-three. Poisoned food had been given 
 him some years before by a Jewish slave, 
 but before he had partaken of it in sufficient 
 quantity to cause immediate fatal effects, 
 the woman’s act was discovered. The 
 poison remained, however, in his system, 
 and acting upon a frame exhausted by dis¬ 
 sipation carried him off at the time named, 
 after sixteen days of raving fanaticism. 
 He left no son, and only one daughter, 
 Fatima, behind him. His body was buried 
 in a grave dug under the bed on which he 
 had died, and a mosque erected over the 
 spot has become the scene of as much vir¬ 
 tual idolatry in Medina as ever was prac¬ 
 ticed in the Kaaba at Mecca. 
 
 Mohammed left to his followers a new 
 religion and the germ of an empire. He 
 was succeeded in his rule over the latter 
 by Abu Beke (a. d. 571-634), the father of 
 his favorite wife Ayesha, and the first of 
 the four Caliphs by whom the Moslem 
 Empire was founded. Within thirty years 
 from his death, his followers had conquered 
 the whole of Syria, Egypt, and Mesopo¬ 
 tamia, and had overthrown the empire of 
 the Persians. The second of his four great 
 successors, the Caliph Omar (582-644), took 
 Jerusalem in the year 637, and built on the 
 site of the temple the mosque which has 
 since been called by his name. It was he 
 
 also who destroyed the great library of 
 Alexandria three years afterward, declaring 
 that no books were needed besides the 
 Koran: by that ignorant and savage act he 
 deprived the world of some of its greatest 
 literary treasures, including probably many 
 Christian writings, and many primitive 
 manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures. Omar 
 was also the first of the Mohammedan 
 rulers who assumed the title of “ Com¬ 
 mander of the Faithful;” and he, in fact, 
 consolidated that which Mohammed him¬ 
 self had founded, and, to a great extent, 
 completed his work. “ During the reign 
 of Omar,” says the Mohammedan historian, 
 “ the Saracens conquered thirty-six thou¬ 
 sand cities, towns, and castles, destroyed 
 four thousand Christian, Magian, and Pa¬ 
 gan temples, and erected fourteen hundred 
 mosques.” As to the latter item, it is cer¬ 
 tain that many mosques yet exist—as that 
 of St. Sophia at Constantinople — which 
 were originally Christian churches. The 
 early course of this false religion was, in¬ 
 deed, that of a most sanguinary propagan- 
 dism, cruelties and acts of tyranny being 
 perpetrated, under the plea of devotion to 
 God and his prophet Mohammed, such as 
 no civilized conquerors had ever been 
 guilty of. 
 
 The third caliph, Othman (a. d. 574-656), 
 who had been secretary to Mohammed, ex¬ 
 tended the conquests of Omar, and with 
 them the new religion. Persia was entirely 
 subdued, the north of Africa, and some of 
 the islands in the Mediterranean. He was 
 murdered by his own people in the mosque 
 at Medina, and succeeded by Ali (a. d. 
 598-661), a first cousin of Mohammed, al¬ 
 most his first convert, and the husband of 
 his daughter Fatima. He, too, after some 
 years of civil war, was stabbed in a mosque 
 (that of Cufa), being the last of the imme¬ 
 diate successors of Mohammed. The seat 
 of the empire was then removed to Damas¬ 
 cus. 
 
 It is not necessary to go into much de¬ 
 tail respecting the subsequent history of 
 Mohammedan conquest, and it will be suf¬ 
 ficient just to sketch out in a few words the 
 progress which it made between the time 
 of these, its great founders, and the period 
 at which modern history begins. Let it be 
 said, then, that almost the whole of Asia 
 (Asia Minor excepted) was subdued during 
 the time of the first four caliphs, and that 
 in the reign of the first caliph of Damascus 
 (a. d. 675) the empire penetrated as far as 
 Tangier and the Atlantic. A few years 
 later the entire north of Africa was part of 
 the empire, as far as the Straits of Gibral¬ 
 tar. In 711 Spain, on the north of those 
 straits, was successfully invaded by the 
 Arab conquerors, who retained possession 
 
Moh 
 
 ( 62S ) 
 
 Moh 
 
 of that part of Europe until 1492. Under 
 Solyman the greater part of Asia Minor 
 was conquered — that is, in A. D. 717 
 (though Constantinople was not conquered 
 until 1453), and about the same time the 
 northern parts of India were subdued. 
 The armies had even penetrated into the 
 south of France, and it was not until the 
 defeat of Abdurrahman by Charles Martel 
 in 732 that there seemed any hope of 
 preventing that which Mohammed had 
 directed his followers to accomplish—the 
 subjugation of the whole world to his rule 
 and religion. It brings home the fact of 
 Mohammed’s conquest very vividly to 
 our minds to remember that Spain was a 
 Mohammedan country for eight hundred 
 years before the Reformation, and down to 
 the reign of Henry VII., and also that 
 for some centuries the empire founded on 
 the basis of this religion covered as large 
 a surface of the globe as the Roman Em¬ 
 pire had done in the most prosperous days 
 of the Caesars. When it is remembered 
 that wherever the arms of the invaders 
 penetrated, there the religion of the false 
 prophet in whose name they fought and 
 ruled was propagated and enforced, it will 
 be conceived how mighty an enemy Chris¬ 
 tianity had to contend with in these middle 
 ages of its history. Even now, ninety-six 
 millions of Mohammedans occupy some of 
 the fairest portions of the Eastern Hemi¬ 
 sphere. This religion has almost entire 
 possession of the northern half of Africa, 
 of Turkey in Europe, of Arabia, Persia, 
 the Holy Land, Asia Minor, and some 
 parts of India; and very few of its devotees 
 have ever become converts to Christianity. 
 
 Principles of Mohammedanism. — Let 
 us now endeavor to sum up the principles of 
 Mohammedanism, as it has been exhibited 
 to the world for twelve centuries and a 
 quarter. 
 
 First of all, it must be noted that Mo¬ 
 hammedanism professes an unbounded 
 veneration for the doctrine of the unity of 
 God. “ Islamism,” says the Moham¬ 
 medan doctor, “ rests on five foundations, 
 of which the first is the confession of God, 
 that there is no other God beside him, and 
 that Mohammed is his prophet; the second 
 is the offering up of prayer at stated inter¬ 
 vals; the third, the giving of alms; the 
 fourth, fasting during the month Rama¬ 
 dan; and the fifth is the pilgrimage to 
 Mecca, which every person must perform 
 who is able.” In as far as this confession 
 of one God stands by itself, it may be taken 
 as the truth, just as it was the truth for the 
 Jews to confess, “ Hear, O Israel, the 
 Lord thy God is one Lord.” But the Koran 
 entirely repudiates the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, and says distinctly, “ Jesus was a 
 
 mere mortal, and not the Son of God.” His 
 birth by a supernatural conception is de¬ 
 nied; his resurrection and ascension are 
 taken no account of. Our Lord is allowed 
 to have been a holy man, a messenger from 
 God, but his place as the object of man’s 
 worship, love, and hope, is denied him. 
 Hence some hold it to be an error to call 
 Mohammedanism a heresy. Dante views 
 it as such in the Inferno {xxv iii. 35), where 
 he speaks of Mohammed and his followers, 
 who 
 
 “ While they lived did sow 
 Scandal and schism, and, therefore, thus are rent.” 
 
 Other writers have also taken this idea, 
 and in a lecture on the subject Dean Stan¬ 
 ley has said that “ Mohammedanism must 
 be regarded as an eccentric heretical form 
 of Eastern Christianity ” {Led. on Eecl. 
 Hist. p. 308). But the essence of Moham¬ 
 medanism, others maintain, is rather to re¬ 
 pudiate Christianity— i. e. y the system of 
 religion in which Christ is the centre—and 
 to substitute a system in which he holds a 
 very inferior place, and which would not 
 be one iota changed if its partial acknowl¬ 
 edgment of Christ were left out altogether. 
 So in the creed, which was lately quoted, 
 the complement of the truth that there is 
 one God is the assertion that Mohammed 
 is his prophet, and the whole foundation 
 of the system at large is that all personal 
 messengers from God culminated in the 
 person of Mohammed, and all revelations 
 in the Koran. It is contended, therefore, 
 to be a mistake to suppose that there is any 
 ground of agreement between Christianity 
 and Mohammedanism, for when once they 
 are brought face to face, they must be as 
 much opposed to each other as Christianity 
 and Paganism.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 See Dollinger: MuhammecTs Religion (183S); 
 Washington Irving: Mahomet and His Suc¬ 
 cessors (1850); Bos worth Smith: Mohammed 
 and Mohammedanism (1874); E. A. Free¬ 
 man: History and Conquests of the Saracens 
 (1876); T. P. Hughes: Did. of Islam (1885). 
 
 Mohler, Johann Adam, “ Roman Catho¬ 
 lic theologian, was b. at the village of 
 Igersheim, in Wiirtemburg, on May 6, 
 1796, and after studying philosophy and 
 theology in the Lyceum at Ellwagen, en¬ 
 tered the Wilhelmstift in the University of 
 Tubingen in 1S17. Ordained to the priest¬ 
 hood in 1819, he was appointed to a curacy 
 at Reedlingen, but speedily returned as 
 ‘ repetent ’ to Tubingen, where he became 
 privat-docent in 1822, extraordinary pro¬ 
 fessor of theology in 1826, and ordinary in 
 1828. The controversies excited by his 
 Symbolik { 1832) proved so unpleasant that 
 in 1835 he accepted a call to the University 
 of Munich. In 1838 he was appointed to the 
 
Mol 
 
 ( 629 ) 
 
 Mol 
 
 deanery of Wurzburg, but died shortly 
 afterward (April 12, 1838). It is with the 
 Syntbolik that his name is chiefly associated; 
 the interest excited by it in prominent 
 circles is shown by the fact that within two 
 years of its appearance it had elicited three 
 replies of considerable importance, those, 
 namely, of Baur, Marheineke, and Nitzsch. 
 But, although characterized by abundant 
 learning and acuteness, as well as by con¬ 
 siderable breadth of spiritual sympathy, 
 and thus a stimulative and suggestive work, 
 it cannot be said to have been accepted by 
 Catholics themselves as embodying an 
 accurate objective view of the actual doc¬ 
 trine of their Church. The liberal school of 
 thought, of which Mohler was a promi¬ 
 nent exponent, was discouraged in official 
 circles, while Protestants, on the other 
 hand, complain that the author has failed 
 to grasp the vast significance of the Refor¬ 
 mation as a great movement in the spirit¬ 
 ual history of mankind, while expending 
 needless pains on an exposition of the doc¬ 
 trinal shortcomings, inconsistencies, and 
 contradictions of the individuals who were 
 its leaders.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Mo'lech ( the ruler ) (Lev. xviii. 21), or 
 Moloch (Acts vii. 43), and also Milcom (i 
 Kings xi. 5), the chief idol-god of the 
 Ammonites, whose worship was attended 
 with human sacrifices, especially of chil¬ 
 dren. Though warned against this idolatry 
 it was again and again adopted by the 
 Israelites. (2 Kings xvii. 10; Ezek. xx. 26.) 
 The place where they worshiped and 
 sacrificed at Jerusalem was Tophet, in the 
 valley of Hinnom. It was from this place 
 that the word “ Gehenna,” designating the 
 lower world, was derived. 
 
 Molinos ( mo-lee-nds ), Michael de, “was 
 b. of noble parentage at Saragossa, in the 
 kingdom of Aragon, Dec. 21, 1627. He re¬ 
 ceived holy orders, and was educated at 
 Pampeluna, and afterward at Coimbra, at 
 which university he obtained his theological 
 degree. After a career of considerable dis¬ 
 tinction in his native country, Molinos went 
 to Rome, where he soon acquired a high rep¬ 
 utation as a director of conscience, and a 
 master of the spiritual life. His private 
 character was in keeping with his public 
 reputation. He steadily declined all ecclesi¬ 
 astical preferment,and confined himself en¬ 
 tirely to his duties in the confessional, and 
 in the direction of souls. An ascetical treat¬ 
 ise which he published, under the title of 
 The Spiritual Guide , added largely to the 
 popularity which he had acquired in his per¬ 
 sonal relations; but there were not want¬ 
 ing many who, in the specious, but vision¬ 
 ary principles of this work, discovered the 
 
 seeds of a dangerous and seductive error. 
 Among these, the celebrated preacher, F. 
 Segneri, was the first who ventured pub¬ 
 licly to call them into question; but his 
 strictures were, by the friends of Molinos, 
 ascribed to jealousy of the influence which 
 Molinos had acquired with the people. 
 By degrees, however, reports unfavorable 
 to the practical results of this teaching, 
 and even to the personal conduct and 
 character of Molinos, or of his followers, 
 began to find circulation; and eventually, 
 in the year 1685, he was cited before the 
 Holy Office, and subjected to close im¬ 
 prisonment and examination. In addition 
 to the opinions contained in his book, a 
 prodigious mass of papers and letters, to 
 the number, it is said, of 20,000, found in 
 his house, were produced against him, and 
 he was himself rigorously examined as to 
 his opinions. The result of the trial was 
 a solemn condemnation of sixty-eight prop¬ 
 ositions, partly extracted from his Spirit- 
 tial Guide , partly, it would appear, drawn 
 from his papers or his personal profes¬ 
 sions. These doctrines Molinos was re¬ 
 quired publicly to abjure, and he was him¬ 
 self sentenced to close imprisonment, in 
 which he was detained until his death in 
 1696, when he had entered on his 70th year. 
 The opinions imputed to Molinos may be 
 described as an exaggeration of the worst 
 and most objectionable principles of Quiet¬ 
 ism ( q . v.). According to the propositions 
 which were condemned by the Inquisition, 
 Molinos pushed to such an extreme the 
 contemplative repose which is the common 
 characteristic of Quietism, as to teach the 
 utter indifference of the soul, in a state of 
 perfect contemplation, to all external 
 things, and its entire independence of the 
 outer world, even of the actions of the very 
 body which it animates; insomuch that this 
 internal perfection is compatible with the 
 worst external excesses. These conse¬ 
 quences are by no means openly avowed 
 in the Spiritual Guide , but they appear to 
 follow almost necessarily from some of its 
 maxims, and they are said to have been 
 plainly contained in the papers of Molinos, 
 which were produced at his trial, and to 
 have been admitted by himself. After the 
 death of Molinos, no further trace of his 
 teaching appears in Italy, but it was re¬ 
 vived in more than one form in France.” 
 —Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See Molinos the 
 Quietist, by John Bigelow (New York 
 1882). 
 
 Molokani, a Russian sect confined most¬ 
 ly to the province of Samara and the Kir- 
 ghis Steppe. They oppose image-worship 
 and reject episcopacy. They have no 
 creed, and accept the Scripture as the only 
 
Mom 
 
 ( 630 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 rule of faith. Holding their meetings in 
 private houses, they have no paid clergy. 
 Exercising a severe discipline in their con¬ 
 gregations, their religious life is exem¬ 
 plary. They are first mentioned in the 
 reign of Catharine II. 
 
 Mombert, Jacob Isidor, D. D. (Univer¬ 
 sity of Pennsylvania, 1866), Episcopal; b. 
 in Cassel, Germany, Nov. 6, 1829. He 
 studied at Leipzig and Heidelberg and 
 took orders in the Church of England, and 
 in 1857 acted as curate in Quebec, Canada; 
 rector of St. James’s Church, Lancaster, 
 Pa., 1859-70, when he accepted the Amer¬ 
 ican chaplaincy at Dresden, Saxony, which 
 he held till 1875. He was rector of St. 
 John’s, Passaic, N. J., 1880-82, since which 
 time he has devoted himself chiefly to lit¬ 
 erary work. Among his publications are 
 translations of Tholuck’s Commentary on 
 the Psalms (1856); Commentary on the Cath¬ 
 olic Epistles in the Lange series (1867); 
 Hand-book of the English Versions of the Bi¬ 
 ble (1883); Great Lives: A Course of History 
 in Biography (1886); Life of Charlemagne 
 (1889).' 
 
 Monarchians, heretics who deny the dis¬ 
 tinction of Persons in the Divine Nature. 
 The term comes from the Gr. ?nonarchia 
 (monos, alone, and archo , to govern), lit¬ 
 erally, the government of a single indi¬ 
 vidual. The heresy of the Monarchians 
 may be traced in the very earliest times of 
 Christianity: they are mentioned by Ter- 
 tullian. The opposite views to be found 
 among them involved them in more violent 
 disputes with each other than with the 
 Church, but they all agreed with regard 
 to what was conveyed by this term of Mon- 
 archianism —a zeal to preserve the unity-of 
 the consciousness of God, which made 
 them unwilling to acknowledge any other 
 Divine Being than the one God, the Father. 
 Either they absolutely rejected the doc¬ 
 trine of the Logos, or they understood by 
 the Logos simply a Divine energy, the Di¬ 
 vine wisdom or reason which illuminates 
 the souls of the pious. There were 
 amongst them two great classes. With 
 the one class, the dialectical, critical facul¬ 
 ty of the understanding was supreme; with 
 the other, the practical element and Chris¬ 
 tian feeling predominated. While the first 
 class saw nothing in Christ but his human 
 nature, and kept the Divine element entire¬ 
 ly out of sight, the others could see nothing 
 but the Godhead, and wholly suppressed 
 or overlooked the human elements. Ac¬ 
 counts of the various sects included under 
 the comprehensive term of Monarchians, 
 will be found under their respective heads; 
 viz., Alogi; Patkipassians; Sabellians; 
 
 Paul of Samosata; Theodotians. — Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Monastery. See Monasticism. 
 
 Monasticism. A monastery may be de¬ 
 fined as a house of religious retirement, or 
 seclusion. The word is an English form 
 of the Greek word, monasterion, “a seclud¬ 
 ed dwelling.” The popular form of the 
 word was “ minster,” as in Westminster, 
 or Newminster. 
 
 As Christian institutions, monasteries 
 took their rise from the days of persecu¬ 
 tion. In the Decian persecution (a. d. 
 250-53), and again in that of Diocletian 
 (a. d. 303-13), many Christians took refuge 
 in the deserts, where they were obliged to 
 lead lives of great privation. Some of them 
 became so attached to such a kind of life 
 that they still continued to pursue it after 
 the necessity for doing so had passed away. 
 These gradually acquired distinctive names, 
 some being called Ascetics (Gr. asketai), 
 “ men training, or exercising, or disciplin¬ 
 ing themselves.” As St. Paul says, 
 “ Herein do I exercise myself” (Gr. en 
 touto de asko ). Others went by the name 
 of Anchorites (Gr. anachbretai), “ men 
 who had retired from the world;” while 
 others again were named Hermits (Gr. 
 eremitai), “ men of the desert.” 
 
 After persecution had ceased, large 
 numbers of the hermits formed societies 
 for the purpose of living in common, call¬ 
 ing themselves by the name of Coenobites 
 (from two Greek words, koines, common, 
 and bios, life), and thus were formed the 
 first actual monasteries among Christians. 
 They were of a simple and voluntary char¬ 
 acter at first, but when St. Basil put them 
 into a more definite form, he probably in¬ 
 troduced the practice of vows, which in 
 early times were binding upon the monks 
 as long as they resided in the monastery, 
 but permitted them to leave and give up 
 the monastic life when they pleased. 
 
 It was by St. Athanasius, the friend of 
 St. Antony, that the system was intro¬ 
 duced in Europe (about A. d. 340), and 
 after his day made great progress under 
 Augustine, Gregory of Tours, and others 
 of a similar character, and by them monas¬ 
 ticism was consolidated into a much better 
 and more practical form than that which it 
 had assumed in the East. 
 
 Formerly the monks were all laymen. 
 Not only were monks prohibited the priest¬ 
 hood, but, as appears from the letters of 
 St. Gregory, priests were expressly pro¬ 
 hibited from becoming monks. Pope Siric- 
 ius was the first who called them to the 
 clericate, on occasion of some great scarcity 
 of priests that the Church was then sup- 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 631 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 posed to labor under, and since that time 
 the priesthood was usually united to the 
 monastic profession. 
 
 Toward the close of the fifth century the 
 monks, who had formerly lived only for 
 themselves in solitary retreats, found 
 themselves in a condition to claim an em¬ 
 inent station among the pillars and sup¬ 
 porters of the Christian community. The 
 fame of their sanctity was so great that 
 bishops and priests were often chosen out 
 of their order, and their learning made 
 them useful to the bishops in confuting 
 heresies, chiefly in the great Nestorian 
 controversy; but many abusing their au¬ 
 thority, it was ordered at the Council of 
 Chalcedon that monks should be wholly 
 under bishops, and should build no mon¬ 
 asteries without their leave, and should be 
 removed from ecclesiastical employments, 
 except called thereto by their bishops. 
 From this jurisdiction they were exempted 
 by the pope in the seventh century, and in 
 return they devoted themselves wholly to 
 advance the interest and maintain the dig¬ 
 nity of the bishop of Rome. This immu¬ 
 nity from authority was a fruitful source 
 of licentiousness and disorder, and occa¬ 
 sioned the greater part of the vices with 
 which they were afterward charged. In 
 the eighth century the monastic discipline 
 was greatly relaxed, both in the East and 
 West, and all efforts to restore it were in¬ 
 effectual. Nevertheless, this kind of in¬ 
 stitution was in the highest esteem, and 
 nothing could equal the veneration paid in 
 the ninth century to those who thus retired 
 from the world; they were called to Court 
 and employed in civil affairs of the great¬ 
 est moment. At the Lateran Council in 
 1215, however, a decree was passed, by 
 the advice of Innocent III., to prevent any 
 new monastic institutions. 
 
 The monastic system in its integrity may 
 be best represented by the Benedictine 
 monks. A monastery of this character was 
 a collegiate institution, in which a number 
 of laymen and a few chaplains dwelt to¬ 
 gether for the purpose of living a religious 
 life and doing work for religion. They 
 took three vows: the first , to remain un¬ 
 married, and to observe chaste lives; the 
 second , to be obedient to the regulations 
 under which they were to live, and to 
 those who were entrusted with the gov¬ 
 ernment of the society; and the third , to 
 live without any property of their own.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Most of the English monasteries were 
 founded during the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries. The building contained rooms 
 for guests, for the sick, for the school, 
 storerooms, stables, etc. Both for defence 
 and seclusion the structure was surround¬ 
 
 ed with a wall. On the ground floor were 
 the refectory and public rooms; and on 
 the second, the cells. In some cases there 
 were no cells, but only one large dormi¬ 
 tory, in the centre of which stood the 
 abbot’s bed. “ As, for centuries, the mon¬ 
 astery was the true homestead not only of 
 science, but also of art, artistic ornaments 
 —paintings and carvings—were not want¬ 
 ing. Some monasteries—as, for instance, 
 that of Certosa, near Pavia, and that of St. 
 Marco, at Florence—are overloaded with 
 the most exquisite specimens of mediaeval 
 art. In those immense beehives life went 
 on pretty nearly as it does in any other 
 household. Between the canonical hours 
 the exercises of the school and the labors 
 in the garden or the field followed with 
 unbroken regularity ; and variation was 
 not wanting, as guests—often strange ones, 
 often interesting ones—might come in at 
 any moment. Some institutions—as, for 
 instance, that of St. Gall—'Stood in steady 
 and lively communication with knights, 
 merchants, etc.”— Gass. With the Refor¬ 
 mation the monasteries soon disappeared 
 in the countries where Protestantism pre¬ 
 vailed. Their revenues were diverted to 
 educational and scientific purposes, and 
 the buildings were utilized as hospitals, 
 barracks, etc., or left to decay. The mon¬ 
 astery in Roman Catholic countries lost its 
 important position. In 1789311 monastic 
 orders were dissolved in France, and the 
 monasteries closed. Portugal, in 1821, 
 and Spain, in 1835, took similar steps; and 
 while a reaction in their favor is to be 
 noted, the institution of monasticism is 
 gradually dying out. 
 
 Money, Jewish. The following table 
 gives the value of the Hebrew money-sys¬ 
 tem in American money: 
 
 Jewish. American. 
 
 dots. cts. 
 
 “ A gerah (Exod. xxx. 13).= o 2.73 
 
 iogerahs = 1 bekah (Exod. xxxviii. 26) = o 27.37 
 
 2 bekahs = 1 shekel (Exod. xxx. 13; 
 
 Isa. vii. 23).... . = o 54.74 
 
 50 shekels = 1 maneh.= 27 37.50 
 
 6omanehs = 1 kikkar (talent).= 1,642 50 
 
 A gold shekel.= S 76 
 
 A kikkar of gold. - 26,280 00 
 
 “ A shekel would probably purchase near¬ 
 ly ten times as much as the same nominal 
 amount will now. Remember that one 
 Roman penny (8 fid.) was a good day’s 
 wages for a laborer. The Hebrew maneh, 
 according to 1 Kings x. 17, compared with 
 2 Chron. ix. 16, contained 100 shekels: 
 though according to one interpretation of 
 Ezek. xlv. 12 it contained 60, but more 
 probably 50. The passage reads thus:— 
 ‘Twenty shekels, five and twenty shekels, 
 fifteen shekels shall be your maneh.’ This 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 632 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 is variously interpreted, (1) 20 -\- 2 S~hi 5= 
 Co; (2) 20, 25, 15 are different coins in gold, 
 silver, and copper, bearing the same name. 
 It is well to remark the meaning of these 
 names: Shekel = simply weight; Bekah 
 = split, i. e., the shekel divided into two; 
 Gerah — a grain, as in our weight, a grain 
 and a barley-corn, the original standard 
 weight; Maneh = appointed, equivalent to 
 sterling, a specific sum; Kikkar = a round 
 mass of metal, i. e., a weight or coin. 
 Hebrew names of weights and coins are 
 not found in the New Testament: mna in 
 Luke xix. 13 is Greek, though possibly 
 identical with the Hebrew maneh.” 
 
 The following foreign coins are mention¬ 
 ed in the Bible: (1) The darie, dram, or 
 drachm, a Persian gold coin equal to about 
 $5.50. (2) The stater or piece of money 
 
 (Matt. xvii. 27), a Greek or Roman silver 
 coin in value over 50 cents. (3) The penny 
 (Matt. xxii. 19), or denarius, a Roman sil¬ 
 ver coin, equal to about 16 cents. (4) The 
 farthing (Matt. x. 29), a Roman silver coin 
 equal to one cent and a quarter. (5) An¬ 
 other piece of money, equal to one-fourth 
 of a farthing, was called by the same name 
 (Matt. v. 26), and the mite was half of this 
 coin, and about equal to two mills. 
 
 Monica, or Monnica, the mother of 
 Augustine; b. about 332; d. at Ostia, May 
 4, 387. She was married to Patricius, a 
 pagan, who before his death was convert¬ 
 ed t@ Christianity by her beautiful Chris¬ 
 tian life. After the death of his father, 
 Augustine, who gave great promise as a 
 scholar, abandoned the Catholic faith, to 
 the great sorrow of his mother. Her 
 prayers were finally answered in his con¬ 
 version and baptism at Milan. Soon after 
 this they set out together for Africa, and 
 on the way Monica fell ill and died. Her 
 name will ever have a tender remembrance 
 through the Confessions of her distinguish¬ 
 ed son, who there pours out the grief of 
 his heart over her loss. In 1430 her re¬ 
 mains were removed by Pope Martin V. 
 from Ostia to Rome, and buried in the 
 Church of St. Augustine. 
 
 Monod, Adolphe, a great pulpit orator 
 of the Protestant Church of France; b. in 
 Copenhagen, Jan. 21, 1802; d. in Paris, 
 April 6, 1856. He studied first in Paris, 
 where his father was pastor of the French 
 Church, and afterward was graduated in 
 theology at Geneva, in 1S24. During the 
 following year, while on a journey to Italy, 
 he passed through a spiritual experience 
 of peculiar interest. He founded the Prot¬ 
 estant Church in Naples, and remained 
 there as a pastor until 1827, when he was 
 called to Lyons. His earnest evangelical 
 
 preaching aroused opposition, and he was 
 deposed by the Catholic Minister of Educa¬ 
 tion. He still continued to labor in the 
 city, and gathered a large congregation. 
 In 1836 he accepted a professorship in the 
 Theological Seminary of Montauban,where 
 he remained until 1847, when he was called 
 as pastor to Paris, where his reputation as 
 a pulpit oratordrew great audiences. Mo¬ 
 nod was a man of saintly and devoted life; 
 an earnest student of the Bible, and ever 
 anxious to save men. It was said of him 
 that he was, “ twice over, the first of Prot¬ 
 estant preachers in our day—first for the 
 excellency of his oratorical genius, and 
 then for the holiness of his life.” 
 
 Monod, Frederic, elder brother of 
 Adolphe Monod; b. at Monnaz, Canton de 
 Vaud, Switzerland; d. Dec. 30, 1863, in 
 Paris. He studied theology in Geneva 
 (1815-18), and in 1820 became an associate 
 pastor in Paris and also editor of the Ar¬ 
 chives du Christianisme. In 1S48, when the 
 synod refused to make a definite declara¬ 
 tion of faith, he resigned his pastorate and 
 withdrew from the State Church. With 
 Count Gasparin, he founded the Union of 
 the Evangelical Churches of France. In 
 1855 he came to the United States and ob¬ 
 tained money to build a church in Paris. 
 He was an earnest preacher and leader of 
 evangelical faith. 
 
 Monophysites (from monos, alone, and 
 physis, nature), a general name given 
 to all those sects who acknowledge 
 only one nature in Christ. Such were 
 the Eutychians ( q . z>), condemned at the 
 Council of Chalcedon in 451. The de¬ 
 crees of that Council, however, were fierce¬ 
 ly opposed by the followers of Cyril, pa¬ 
 triarch of Alexandria, who declared that 
 the council had reinstated the Nestorian 
 heresy. Theodosius, a fanatical monk, 
 spread the seeds of discord in Palestine, 
 and procured the banishment of Juvenalis, 
 bishop of Jerusalem, and his own election 
 for a time to that dignity. In Alexandria, 
 Proterius was nominated patriarch in the 
 room of the deposed Dioscurus, and a 
 great schism arose, which was only quelled 
 by military force. The Monophysite party 
 was headed by the presbyter Timotheus 
 Ailurus, and on the death of the Emperor 
 Marcian he was appointed patriarch. The 
 Emperor Leo appealed to Pope Leo the 
 Great as to the legitimacy of the election 
 of Ailurus, and in 460 he was banished to 
 Cherson; but Timotheus Salophaciolus, a 
 neutral person, was appointed in his place. 
 In Antioch, Petrus Fullensis was support¬ 
 ed by Zeno, son-in-law and successor to 
 the emperor, and when, in 476. Basiliscus 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 633 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 expelled Zeno and secured the imperial 
 throne to himself, the Monophysites be¬ 
 came the ruling party in the East. In 477 
 Zeno once more made himself master of 
 the empire, and, to settle the manifold dis¬ 
 sensions which were disturbing Church 
 and State, he, in 482, offered to the dispu¬ 
 tants the formula of concord called the 
 Henoticon (q. v .). For a moment it 
 seemed successful. Petrus Mongus, the 
 patriarch of Alexandria, accepted it, and 
 the Monophysites, who had looked on him 
 as their leader, separated themselves from 
 him, and, having no principal leader, they 
 were designated the headless sect (Aceph- 
 ali). On the other hand, the conviction 
 grew upon the Roman pope that the Henot¬ 
 icon was really in favor of the Monophy¬ 
 sites, and then the schism grew worse than 
 ever. Instead of two parties, there were 
 now four—the zealots on both sides, and 
 the moderates of the two parties who ac¬ 
 cepted the compromise. The Roman 
 Church stigmatized the ruling party of the 
 Oriental Church as heretical; and a schism 
 between the Eastern and Western Church¬ 
 es was the consequence. In 491 Zeno died, 
 and was succeeded by Anastasius, whose 
 partiality for the Monophysites caused 
 riots and bloodshed at Constantinople. 
 Then two men of vigorous activity took 
 the lead of the Monophysites. One of these 
 was Xenayas, a Persian, whose name was 
 changed into the Greek form, Philoxenas, 
 and who is best known as the promoter of 
 the Philoxenian Syriac translation of the 
 New Testament. The other was Severus, 
 a learned monk of Palestine, who had been 
 made patriarch of Antioch, and was de¬ 
 posed about 520. Severus held peculiar 
 views regarding the united wills in the 
 united natures, and thus prepared the 
 way for the opinions of the Monothelites 
 (q. v.). One of his deacons, Themistius, 
 invented the tenet of the Agnoetae—that 
 the human soul in Christ was like ours in 
 everything, even in ignorance. Anastasius 
 had been succeeded by Justin in 518, who 
 was a tool in the hands of his nephew, Jus¬ 
 tinian, and was persuaded by his chief 
 ministers to depose all the Monophysite 
 clergy. Severus fled to Egypt, where his 
 party was strong, and here he headed that 
 portion called the Phthartolatrae, or Cor- 
 rupticolae, who maintained that Christ’s 
 human nature was corruptible, all qualities 
 of human nature being retained in our Lord 
 after his Incarnation, though so incorpo¬ 
 rated with the Divine nature as to have no 
 longer any identity of their own. 
 
 Justinian, who became emperor in 527, 
 meant to be orthodox, but his wife Theo¬ 
 dora, who was attached to Monophysitism, 
 successfully plotted for the advantage of 
 
 that party, moved by hatred of Roman as¬ 
 cendancy. Her agent in these schemes was 
 Anthimus, who had once been a bishop in 
 Pontus, and who had resigned under pre¬ 
 text of living a more Christian life as a 
 monk. He came to Constantinople, drew 
 around him all the most important men of 
 the Monophysite party, and amongst them 
 Severus, and was made patriarch of Con¬ 
 stantinople in 535. Justinian had no idea 
 that his bishop was unorthodox till a year 
 later, when the Pope Agapetus visited Con¬ 
 stantinople, and a complaint was brought 
 against Anthimus by the dissatisfied clergy, 
 which ended in his deposition, and the elec¬ 
 tion of Mennas to the patriarchate. Aga¬ 
 petus died the following year, and Theo¬ 
 dora, with Antonina, wife of the General 
 Belisarius, procured that a deacon named 
 Vigilius, who had accompanied him to Con¬ 
 stantinople, should be his successor, on 
 condition of joining the Monophysite party. 
 Vigilius, however, was afraid of commit¬ 
 ting himself. While openly professing to 
 submit to Chalcedon, he secretly wrote 
 letters of sympathy to Anthimus, so that 
 Theodora could not effect much. She then 
 endeavored to gain her point by inciting 
 quarrels amongst the opponents of Mo¬ 
 nophysitism; she represented to Justinian 
 that the chief objection of the Monophysites 
 to the Council of Chalcedon was that it had 
 approved of the writings of Theodore of 
 Mopsuestia, Theodoret, and Ibas of Edes- 
 sa, which favored Nestorianism; and 
 that if these writings were condemned, an 
 important obstacle would be removed to 
 the recognition of the Council of Chalcedon, 
 and that the object he was striving for 
 would be secured, viz., the reuniting of 
 the Monophysites to the dominant Church. 
 The result was that Justinian in 544 issued 
 an edict condemning the writings of the 
 three obnoxious writers above-named, 
 which were known under the title of The 
 Three Chapters. Now, inasmuch as all these 
 writers had been at peace with the divines 
 of Chalcedon, the condemnation of their 
 writings was regarded as a partial con¬ 
 demnation of that council, and the Latin 
 Church long refused acquiescence, and 
 seven or eight years were spent in unfruit¬ 
 ful controversies. Mennas, the patriarch 
 of Constantinople, and others, agreed in 
 condemning the three articles, but Jus¬ 
 tinian could not do as he wished with the 
 bishops of Illyria and North Africa. Vi¬ 
 gilius, thus encouraged, refused to sub¬ 
 scribe, and in 551 was obliged to abscond. 
 Then it was determined that a General 
 Council for the determination of the dis¬ 
 pute should be assembled at Constantinople 
 in 553, under the Patriarch Eutychius, who 
 had succeeded Mennas; Vigilius was invited 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 634 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 to take part in this council, but declined, 
 and the council therefore decided accord¬ 
 ing to the imperial edict. Several bishops 
 of Illyria and North Africa were deposed 
 and banished. Still the object sought, of 
 reconciling the Monophysites to the domi¬ 
 nant party, was not attained, and the un¬ 
 stable character of the Roman bishop 
 caused a schism in the Western Church, the 
 Churches of Istria, with others, renounc¬ 
 ing fellowship with the Roman Church. 
 
 A party among the Monophysites, who 
 followed the doctrines of Xenayas and of 
 Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus, derived, 
 as a consequence from the union of the 
 Deity and humanity in one nature in Christ, 
 the proposition that the body of Christ, 
 even during his earthly life, was not sub¬ 
 jected, by any necessity of nature, to wants 
 such as hunger, thirst, and pain; but that 
 by a free determination of his own will, he 
 subjected himself to all these things for 
 the salvation of man: which view went 
 under the name of Aphthartodocetism. To 
 this branch Justinian allied himself toward 
 the close of his reign, and was preparing to 
 make it a law when he died, in 565. The 
 Alexandrian section of the Aphthartodo- 
 cetae were called Gaianitae from their leader 
 Gaianus, whom they made patriarch in op¬ 
 position to Theodosius, who had been ap¬ 
 pointed by the emperor. 
 
 In Egypt the Monophysite party con¬ 
 tinued to exercise an important influence. 
 The sect was revived in the sixth century 
 by Jacob Baradaeus, a monk of Nisibis, 
 who became bishop of Edessa, and at his 
 death he left it in a most flourishing state 
 in Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, 
 Nubia, Abyssinia, and other countries. 
 The Syrian Monophysites were called from 
 him Jacobites (q. v.). They still exist in 
 Egypt under the name of Copts, and also 
 in Armenia. From the fifteenth century 
 downwards, all the patriarchs of the Mo¬ 
 nophysites have taken the name of Ignatius, 
 to show that they are the lineal successors 
 of Ignatius, who was bishop of Antioch in 
 the first century, and consequently the 
 lawful patriarch of Antioch. In the seven¬ 
 teenth century a small body of Asiatic 
 Monophysites joined the Church of Rome; 
 but the Africans have resisted all attempts 
 to bring them under the papal yoke. — Ben- 
 ham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Monothelites. This heretical sect arose 
 in the Eastern Church in the seventh cen¬ 
 tury, through a desire to bring the doc¬ 
 trines of the Monophysites (</. v .) into 
 harmony with the orthodox doctrines of 
 the Church. The Emperor Heraclius was 
 assured by one Paul, a man of great in¬ 
 fluence among the Armenian Monophysites, 
 
 that the peace of the Church might be re¬ 
 stored by the reaffirmation of the decrees 
 of Chalcedon with the addition of the 
 proposition that, after the union of the two 
 natures, there was in Jesus but one will 
 and one operation, which was partly 
 Human, and partly Divine. Cyrus, whom 
 Heraclius had raised from the bishopric 
 of Phasis to the patriarchate of Alexandria, 
 assembled a synod at Alexandria in 633, 
 whereat this doctrine was affirmed, and, in 
 consequence, vast numbers of the Eutych- 
 ians became reconciled to the Church. 
 The patriarch of Jerusalem opposed, and 
 appealed to the bishop of Rome, Honorius, 
 who declared in favor of the Monothelite 
 doctrine. In 639 Heraclius issued his 
 Ilc thesis, or “ exposition of the faith.” It 
 was accepted by the Eastern Church, but 
 condemned by Pope John IV., successor 
 of Honorius. This was followed by the 
 “ Type,” issued by the Emperor Constans 
 II., forbidding all controversy concerning 
 the Will of Christ. But both parties were 
 too embittered now to keep silence, and a 
 council, called by Pope Martin in 649, con¬ 
 demned the heresy, heretics, and both 
 edicts together—an act which caused the 
 emperor to condemn Pope Martin to 
 death, though the sentence was commuted 
 to banishment to Cherson. The Monothe¬ 
 lite doctrine was finally condemned at the 
 Sixth Lateran Council at Constantinople 
 (6So-Si),and it was decided that Christ has 
 “ two natural wills, and two natural opera¬ 
 tions, without division, without conversion 
 or change, with nothing like antagonism 
 or confusion,” but that the Human will is 
 subject to the Divine. Anathemas were 
 also pronounced on the leaders of the 
 heresy, and repeated for three centuries 
 by the successors of Pope Honorius.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Monstrance was the name originally 
 given to any repository of relics. After 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation was de¬ 
 fined in the thirteenth century, the name 
 was restricted to the receptacle that con- 
 tamed the consecrated host. At first it 
 was made in the form of a Gothic tower, 
 afterwards in that of a radiant sun. In 
 the Greek Church it was shaped like a 
 coffin. Only ordained priests were allowed 
 to touch it, and the crime of stealing it was 
 punished with death. 
 
 Montalembert, Charles Forbes, Comte 
 de, b. in London, April 15, 1810; d. in 
 Paris, March 12, 1S70. He was a brilliant 
 writer and astute politician, distinguished 
 alike for his advocacy of the cause of polit¬ 
 ical liberty, and for his attachment to the 
 Roman Catholic Church. He earnestly 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 635 ) 
 
 Mon 
 
 opposed the dogma of papal infallibility, for 
 which action he was severely treated by the 
 Church which he had served with such 
 faithfulness. See his Memoir, by Mrs. 
 Oliphant (London, 1872), 2 vols. 
 
 Montanism. See Montan us. 
 
 Monta'nus, “ a celebrated heresiarch of 
 the early Christian Church, was a Phrygian 
 by birth, and made his first public appear¬ 
 ance about 160 A. d. , in the village of Ar- 
 dabar, on the confines of Phrygia and 
 Mysia. He was brought up in heathenism, 
 but embraced Christianity with all the 
 fanatical enthusiasm for which his country¬ 
 men were noted. 
 
 “ Montanus’s standpoint was, in theory, 
 the exact opposite of that occupied by the 
 Gnostic sects; yet, in practice, it led to a 
 similar exclusiveness and sectarianism. 
 He believed in the constancy of supernat¬ 
 ural phenomena within the Church. The 
 miraculous element, particularly the pro¬ 
 phetic ecstasy, was not removed; on the 
 contrary, the necessity for it was greater 
 than ever. He considered those only to 
 be true or perfect Christians who possess¬ 
 ed the inward prophetic illumination of the 
 Holy Spirit—they were the true Church; 
 and the more highly gifted were to be 
 looked upon as the genuine successors of 
 the apostles, in preference to the mere 
 outwardly consecrated bishops. Thus, they 
 form a religious aristocracy, as arrogant 
 as the Gnostics: the difference between the 
 two simply being that the Montanists 
 prided themselves on a kind of inflamed 
 inspiration, and the Gnostics on a calm 
 and serene illumination of the reason. 
 Neither party wished to recede from the 
 Catholic Church, but rather to exist as an 
 esoteric body within its pale. It was per¬ 
 secution, caused; no doubt, by their own 
 insolent obstinacy, that forced them into a 
 sectarian course. Montanus did not med¬ 
 dle directly with the creed of the Church; 
 in fact, he was not a thinker, nor a man of 
 almost any importance, intellectually. His 
 efforts were confined to stirring up the 
 Christians generally to fresh religious life 
 —to a belief in a fresh outpouring of the 
 Holy Ghost ! At first Montanus contented 
 himself with predicting fresh persecutions, 
 exhorting men to greater strictness and 
 holiness of life, and announcing judgments 
 to come upon the persecutors; but his 
 idea of his own mission afterward became 
 more exalted, and he claimed to be in a 
 very special sense a prophet of God—the 
 organ chosen by the Holy Ghost to purify, 
 enlighten, and advance the Church. Among 
 the things on which the Montanists laid 
 stress was an ascetic mode of life, scorn 
 
 of persecution, and love of martyrdom; 
 connected with these, and, indeed, flowing 
 from them, was an aversion to second 
 marriages, and to the restoration of the 
 Lapsed. Like other enthusiasts, they also 
 were firm believers in the near approach of 
 the millennium, and in the personal advent 
 of Christ. Two ‘ prophetesses,’ Priscilla 
 and Maximilla, were associated with Mon¬ 
 tanus in his work. A decree for the expul¬ 
 sion of Montanus and his followers from 
 the communion of the Catholic Church 
 was issued by Eleutherus, bishop of Rome. 
 The Montanists at once proceeded to or¬ 
 ganize themselves as a distinct sect. They 
 found a singularly able apologist in Ter- 
 tullian (who became a Montanist about 200 
 A. D.), and continued to exist till the sixth 
 century.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 M onte Casino, a famous monastery, 
 situated on a mountain of the same name, 
 fifty-five miles northwest of Naples. It 
 was founded by Benedict of Nursia in 528, 
 and destroyed by the Lombards in 580. 
 Restored in 720 by Gregory II., it became 
 the centre of great literary activity. In 
 856-884 a hospital and medical school was 
 established here that was the most famous, 
 for many centuries, of any in the world. 
 Plundered by the Saracens in the ninth 
 century, it was reestablished near the close 
 of the tenth century, and the place became 
 “one of the centres of civilization.” The 
 buildings were partially destroyed by an 
 earthquake in 1349. The monastery was 
 secularized in 1866. 
 
 Montenegrin Church, a sect of the 
 Greek Church in the south of Albania, that 
 rejects images, crucifixes, and pictures. 
 It is connected with the Russian Church. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de, one of the leaders 
 of the fourth crusade. Innocent III. com¬ 
 missioned him to destroy the Albigenses, 
 and with fiendish cruelty he engaged in 
 this work. He was killed at the siege of 
 Toulouse, June 25, 1218. 
 
 Montgomery, James, a religious poet 
 and journalist; b. at Irvine, Ayrshire, 
 Nov. 4, 1771; d. at Sheffield, April 30, 
 1S54. The son of a Moravian preacher, he 
 was educated at their school at Fulneck, 
 near Leeds. Resisting the efforts made to 
 induce him to study for the ministry, he 
 found employment as a shop-boy at Waith. 
 From here he went to London, and after a 
 time settled in Sheffield (1792), where he 
 became proprietor and editor of a paper. 
 The Iris. He was twice imprisoned for 
 publishing certain political articles. Be¬ 
 tween 1806 and 1812 he published his 
 
Mon 
 
 ( 636) 
 
 Moo 
 
 poems, The Wanderer of Switzerland; The 
 West Indies; The World before the Flood. 
 From this time he wrote many religious 
 hymns and minor poems, some of which 
 have had a wide circulation. “ All his 
 thoughts, sentiments, and feelings,” says 
 Professor Wilson, “are moulded and 
 colored by religion. A spirit of invoca¬ 
 tion, prayer and praise pervades all his 
 poetry; and it isas sincere as it is beautiful.” 
 
 Monumental Theology “designates the 
 scientific study of theological opinion and 
 feeling as unconsciously expressed in 
 works of art. While, in written language, 
 thought is presented by the discursive fac¬ 
 ulty in elements which are gradually ap¬ 
 prehended, a work of art as a completed 
 object existing in space, may produce at 
 once its grand impression on the mind. 
 Rut as the Christian Church took its rise 
 in the midst of Judaism and of heathen 
 worship, and as its first members had been 
 trained under the influence of one or both 
 of these conflicting systems. Christian 
 monuments as well as early Church doc¬ 
 trine and practice often present a mixed 
 ’ character. In the progress of the Church 
 it was also frequently attacked by errors 
 within and hostile influences without, the 
 effect of which would be exhibited in its 
 works of art. A complete consideration of 
 monumental theology, would, therefore, 
 require careful attention to these modify¬ 
 ing agencies as they show themselves in 
 works of art. The principles of Christian¬ 
 ity, from its origin to the present day, 
 have influenced human art as well as 
 thought and life. While this influence has 
 sometimes been disastrously exerted, it has 
 generally been in some degree beneficial. 
 After the revival of classical learning and 
 the infusion of new elements into modern 
 life, art was indeed partly liberated from 
 that subjection to the Church which in the 
 xMiddle Ages had been complete. Yet it 
 must always find its noblest inspiration in 
 Christian themes. Consequently its mon¬ 
 uments may be expected to exhibit much 
 of the Christian thought and feeling of each 
 successive age. Hence recent writers on 
 theological encyclopaedia continue the 
 study of Christian monuments to the pres¬ 
 ent time.”— International Cyclopedia, s. v. 
 
 Monuments “ are found among all peo¬ 
 ples and in all ages. They are generally 
 very simple—a stone set up, or a heap of 
 stones. Many such reminders of impor¬ 
 tant events are mentioned in the Bible. 
 Thus, Jacob and Laban made a heap of 
 stones to ‘ witness ’ their covenant. (Gen. 
 xxxi. 45-48.) Moses ordered their elders 
 to set up stones on Mount Ebal, upon 
 
 which the ‘law’ was inscribed. (Deut. 
 xxvii. 2-4.) Joshua fulfilled the request. 
 (Josh. viii. 32.) Twelve stones out ot the 
 midst of Jordan, and twelve stones in the 
 midst of Jordan, commemorated the pas¬ 
 sage. (Josh. iv. 3, 9.) Samuel and Saul 
 erected stones in memory of victories. 
 (1 Sam. vii. 12; xv. 12.) Monuments were 
 also erected in memory of the dead. (Gen. 
 xxxv. 20; 2 Kings xxiii. 17.) In old times, 
 as now in the East, stones were thrown 
 upon the graves of enemies. (Josh. vii. 26; 
 viii. 29; 2 Sam. xviii. 17.) Heaps of stones 
 also marked the way. (Jer. xxxi. 21.)”— 
 Wolf Baudissen in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., 
 vol. ii., p. 1565. 
 
 Moody, Dwight Lyman, evangelist; b. 
 in Northfield, Mass., Feb. 5, 1837. He 
 worked on a farm until he was seventeen, 
 when he became a clerk in a shoe store in 
 Boston. Not long after this he was con¬ 
 verted, and united with a Congregational 
 church. In 1856 he went td Chicago, where 
 he engaged in mission and Sunday-school 
 work with great enthusiasm. During the 
 civil war he was employed by the Chris¬ 
 tian Commission, and afterward by the 
 Young Men’s Christian Association in Chi¬ 
 cago. A church was built to accommodate 
 his work and he became its unordained 
 pastor. In the fire of 1871 the church was 
 destroyed, but a much larger one has been 
 erected. In 1873 he visited England, and 
 entered upon the evangelistic labors, since 
 continued in this country, that have made 
 his name so widely known. Through his 
 efforts a seminary for boys and girls has 
 been founded at Northfield, Mass. He has 
 published: The Second Coming of Christ 
 (1877); The Way and the Word (1877); Se¬ 
 cret Power; or. The Secret of Success in Chris¬ 
 tian Life and Work (1881); The Way to 
 God and Hozu to Find It (1884). Of his col¬ 
 lected sermons there have been published: 
 Glad Tidings (1876); Great foy (1877); To 
 all People { 1877); Best Thoughts and Dis¬ 
 courses (1876), and Arrows and Anecdotes, 
 with sketch of his life (1877). 
 
 Moore, Clement Clarke, LL. D., b. in 
 New York, July 15, 1779; d. in Newport, 
 R. I., July 10, 1863. A graduate of Colum¬ 
 bia College in 1798, he was professor in 
 the General Seminary of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church, New York, from 1821 
 to 1850, first of Hebrew and Greek, then 
 of Oriental and Greek literature. He gave 
 the land upon which the seminary now 
 stands. He prepared the first Hebrew 
 lexicon published in this country (N. Y., 
 1809), 2 vols. He was the author of the 
 famous children’s poem beginning w'ith the 
 lines “ ’Twas the night before Christmas, 
 
Mor 
 
 ( &37 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 when all through the house.” His father, 
 Benjamin Moore, was bishop of the diocese 
 of New York (b. 1748; d. 1816), and the 
 son edited a collection of his sermons 
 (1824) in 2 vols. 
 
 Moral Law is distinguished from (1) 
 Natural and (2) Judicial Law. By the 
 former we mean the laws of nature, which 
 we are compelled by necessity to obey, 
 seeing that they are out of our control. 
 Judicial Law is law made by a State, the 
 infraction of which involves penalties or¬ 
 dained by that State, and to which a man 
 may be said to be bound by the fear of 
 those penalties only, seeing that he may, 
 in his conscience, doubt whether the law 
 is, in the abstract, right. Thus a man who 
 pays his tithe or poor-rate, or refrains from 
 his business on Sundays, may consider, in 
 any of these cases, that the law ought to 
 be altered; but, so long as it is not, he has 
 no choice but to obey. But Moral Law 
 begins with the human will—does not say 
 to it, “You must recognize the necessity 
 of obedience, whether you agree with the 
 commands or not;” but says, instead, 
 “ Gbey, because obedience is right in. it¬ 
 self.” The moment external compulsion 
 comes in, Moral Law ceases to be of effect. 
 The basis of Moral Law, then, is religion, 
 ihe sense in the soul of duty toward its 
 Creator, and the purpose for which he 
 created it. And the enemy of Moral Law 
 is selfishness. Mere self-seeking may as¬ 
 sume many forms, without making a man 
 absolutely repulsive as a hardened ruffian, 
 or apparently contemptible as one living 
 only for enjoyment and idleness; but its 
 essence is the same, and it is opposed to 
 the idea of duty. On the other hand, the 
 man who recognizes that he is under Moral 
 Law recognizes that he is a member of a 
 great community; that he is sinful, but can 
 be holy; is weak, but can find strength; 
 can assert the Divine element in himself 
 by taking voluntary service under him who 
 made him, by crying to the Creator of the 
 whole universe, “ I am Thine; O save me, 
 for I do not forget thy commandments.” 
 The recognition that all created things, 
 from the lowest organism upwards, fulfill 
 their part, is an incentive to him to fulfill 
 his; andTherefore Moral Law comes to him 
 with an authority which the mere law of the 
 land could not have, bidding him be pure 
 and gentle, truthful and high-minded, brave 
 and able, courteous and generous, dutiful 
 and useful, through Jesus Christ, whose 
 very appearance in this world was in order 
 that he “ might fulfill all righteousness.” 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Moravians, or United Brethren. After 
 
 the expulsion of the Protestants from Bo¬ 
 hemia, many of them met secretly for de¬ 
 votion, and from time to time fled into the 
 Protestant States of Germany. In 1722 
 they were permitted by Count Zinzendorf 
 to settle in his territory, and he ultimately 
 became the head of their Church. It was 
 in contemplation to affiliate themselves to 
 the Lutheran Church, but on casting lots 
 it was decided to remain a separate body 
 under the name of Unitas Fratrum. They 
 at once began to send out missionaries to 
 preach the Gospel in distant lands, Count 
 Zinzendorf, who had been banished from 
 Germany, himself taking the leadership of 
 the “Congregation of Pilgrims,” as he 
 termed his fellow-laborers. Their first field 
 of work was in the West Indies, then in 
 Greenland, and since that in South Africa, 
 Australia, and among the North American 
 Indians. Their first establishment in Eng¬ 
 land was in 1742; where they now have 
 about thirty-four chapels. 
 
 The Moravian doctrines are in accordance 
 with the Confession of Augsburg. The 
 following Declaration was adopted in 1775 
 at a General Synod held at Barby, near 
 Rugby: 
 
 “ The chief doctrine to which the Church 
 of the Brethren adheres, and which we 
 must preserve as an invaluable treasure 
 committed unto us, is this—that by the 
 sacrifice for sin made by Jesus Christ , and 
 by that alone , grace and deliverance from 
 sin are to be obtained for all mankind. We 
 will therefore, without lessening the im¬ 
 portance of any other article of the Chris¬ 
 tian faith, steadfastly maintain the follow¬ 
 ing five points: 
 
 “(1) The doctrine of the universal de¬ 
 pravity of man: that there is no health in 
 man, and that, since the Fall, he has no 
 power whatever left to help himself. 
 
 “(2) The doctrine of the Divinity of 
 Christ: that God, the Creator of all things, 
 was manifest in the flesh, and reconciled us 
 to himself; that he is before all things, and 
 that by him all things consist. 
 
 “ (3) The doctrine of the atonement and 
 satisfaction made for us by Jesus Christ: 
 that he was delivered for our offences, and 
 raised again for our justification, and that, 
 by his merits alone we receive freely the 
 forgiveness of sin and sanctification in soul 
 and body. 
 
 “(4) The doctrine of the Holy Spirit, 
 the operations of his grace: that it is he 
 who worketh in us conviction of sin, faith 
 in Jesus, and pureness in heart. 
 
 “(5) The doctrine of the fruits of faith: 
 that faith must evidence itself by willing 
 obedience to the commandments of God, 
 from love and gratitude.” 
 
 The Moravian Church is in form episco- 
 
Mor 
 
 ( 638 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 pal, its bishops claiming direct descent 
 from those of the old Church of Bohemia. 
 They have also presbyters and deacons. 
 The Church is governed by a board of 
 elders, who are chosen at the general 
 synods held at periods varying from seven 
 to twelve years. One of these, which has 
 the general supervision of the whole soci¬ 
 ety, is held at Herrnhut, the cradle of the 
 Moravian Church, for which reason the 
 Moravians are sometimes called Herrnhut- 
 ers. There are female elders, but they 
 have no vote at the conference. The Sac¬ 
 raments of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper 
 are administered much in the same way as 
 in other Protestant churches. In some set¬ 
 tlements the latter ordinance is celebrated 
 on every fourth Saturday evening; in oth¬ 
 ers, on every fourth Sunday. The deacons 
 distribute the consecrated bread to all the 
 communicants, standing, who then kneel 
 down and eat it all together; they then stand, 
 and receive the cup in turn. Formerly, 
 foot-washing was observed before partak¬ 
 ing of the Communion, but now this cere¬ 
 mony is confined to Maundy Thursday. 
 They use a great deal of music, both vocal 
 and instrumental, and at their morning 
 service they have a litany and extemporary 
 prayers. Occasionally they hold love- 
 feasts, in imitation of the agapce of the 
 early Church. The desirability of a mar¬ 
 riage is often decided by lot, and previous 
 to marriage the sexes in many places oc¬ 
 cupy separate establishments, called the 
 “ Single Brethren’s Houses” and the “Sin¬ 
 gle Sisters’ Houses.” Several elders usu¬ 
 ally attend the death-bed of a brother, and 
 prepare him for the end by prayer, singing, 
 and laying-on of hands. The}’’ have a 
 custom on Easter Day of the whole con¬ 
 gregation meeting at sunrise in the burial- 
 ground, where they hold a solemn service, 
 commemorating by name all those who 
 have died during the previous year. In 
 England they have schools at Fulneck in 
 Yorkshire, Fairfield in Lancashire, and 
 Ockbrook in Derbyshire ; in Ireland, at 
 Gracehill, Antrim. On the continent 
 Herrnhut is still their centre, and they 
 have separate communities in Silesia, 
 Konigsfeld in Baden, Neuwied on the 
 Rhine, Christianfeld in Holstein, Zeyst, 
 near Utrecht, and Sarepta, on the borders 
 of Asiatic Russia, besides organized soci¬ 
 eties at Berlin, Potsdam, Copenhagen, 
 Stockholm, St. Petersburg, Moscow, etc. 
 In the United States they have separate 
 communities at Bethlehem (which ranks in 
 size next to Herrnhut), Nazareth, and Litiz 
 in Pennsylvania, and at Salem in North 
 Carolina. Besides these, there are congre¬ 
 gations at Newport in Rhode Island, Phil¬ 
 adelphia, New York, etc., and several 
 
 country congregations scattered through 
 Pennsylvania, the members of which gen¬ 
 erally dwell on their plantations, but have 
 a common place of worship. In their 
 separate communities they do not allow 
 the permanent residence of any persons as 
 householders who are not members in full 
 communion, and who have not signed the 
 written instrument of brotherly agreement 
 upon which their constitution and disci¬ 
 pline rest; but they freely admit of the 
 temporary residence among them of such 
 other persons as are willing to conform to 
 their external regulations. Each commu¬ 
 nity has to provide for the erection and 
 maintenance of a church, the support of its 
 ministers and schools; but the individuals 
 are as entirely independent in their private 
 property as other persons, and do not have, 
 as has often been stated, a community of 
 goods. Their schools have sustained a 
 very considerable reputation in Europe 
 and America; there is, especially, one at 
 Niesky, in Upper Lusatia, where they 
 maintain a higher classical institution, 
 where those receive a preparatory educa¬ 
 tion who intend to embrace the liberal pro¬ 
 fessions, or be prepared for the ministry. 
 
 The Moravians have been particularly 
 active in missionary work ; among their 
 principal missions are those among the 
 negro slaves in the three Danish West 
 Indian Islands; in Jamaica, St. Kitts, An¬ 
 tigua, Barbadoes, Tobago, and Surinam; 
 in Greenland; in Labrador, among the 
 Esquimaux; at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 among the Caffres and Hottentots; and in 
 North America, among the Indians and 
 Cherokees. 
 
 It is a general principle of the society 
 that their social organization is in no way 
 to interfere with their duties as citizens, or 
 as subjects of Governments under which 
 they live, and wherever they are settled. 
 —Benham: Did of Religion. The Mora¬ 
 vians number not far [from 108,000 souls, 
 besides about 80,000 persons connected 
 with their foreign missions. See Schwei- 
 nitz: The History of the Unitas Fratrum 
 
 (1885). 
 
 More, Hannah, was b. at Stapleton, 
 Gloucestershire, Feb. 2, 1745; d. in Clifton, 
 Sept. 7, 1833. She was educated at Bris¬ 
 tol, by her father, who was a village school¬ 
 master. When but sixteen she wrote a 
 pastoral drama, The Search after Happi¬ 
 ness, and in the following year a tragedy, 
 called The Inflexible Captive , founded on 
 the story of Regulus. Removing to Lon¬ 
 don, she became a favorite in society, but 
 on account of religious scruples gave up 
 writing for the stage, and retired to the 
 country, living with her sisters at Wring- 
 
Mor 
 
 ( 639 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 ton, near Bristol (1786), then at Barley 
 Wood (1802), and making her final home at 
 Clifton (1828). Her works were numerous 
 and popular, and had a marked influence 
 on English manners. “ Her poetry is not 
 much prized. Her prose is justly admired 
 for its sententious wisdom, its practical 
 good sense, its masculine vigor, and the 
 dignified religious and moral fervor that 
 pervades it.” Two American editions of 
 her works have appeared, Phila.: Lippin- 
 cott; New York: Harpers. 
 
 More, Henry, the Cambridge Platonist; 
 b. at Grantham, Oct. 12, 1614; d. at Cam¬ 
 bridge, Sept. 1, 1687. He was educated at 
 Eton and Cambridge, and while acting as 
 private tutor, he devoted his life to the 
 study of philosophy. He declined the 
 mastership of his college in 1654, a bishop¬ 
 ric, and other preferments. “ More was 
 of opinion that the Hebrews had transmit¬ 
 ted their wisdom to Pythagoras, and he to 
 Plato, and that therefore Platonism con¬ 
 tains the principle of Divine philosophy. 
 His writings, though tinctured with mysti¬ 
 cism, show great piety and a liberal spirit. 
 His chief works are: Philosophical Poems, 
 which were published in 1647, and contain 
 the germ of most of his speculations; Con¬ 
 fect ur a Cabalistica ; The Mystery of Iniquity; 
 
 A Key to the Revelation; An Apology for 
 Des Cartes; The Immortality of the Sonl,etc.” 
 
 Morganatic Marriage, a form of marriage 
 between a man of high rank and a woman 
 of inferior standing, quite common among 
 the princely houses and the higher nobility 
 of Germany. In the ceremony the left 
 hand is given to the bride instead of the 
 right. Neither the wife nor her children 
 can enjoy the rank of the husband. 
 
 Mori'ah (appearance of Jehovali), (1) the 
 land where Abraham was directed to go 
 and offer Isaac as a sacrifice. (Gen. xxii. 
 2.) (2) A mount in the eastern part of 
 
 Jerusalem where Solomon built the tem¬ 
 ple. (eChron. iii. 1.) Most authorities iden¬ 
 tify it as the place where Abraham went 
 to offer Isaac. 
 
 Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints. Mor- 
 monism is one of the most remarkable re¬ 
 ligious movements of modern times. The 
 word is derived from the Gaelic mor, 
 
 “ great,” and the Egyptian mon , “ good,” 
 thus meaning “ great good.” The founder 
 of this sect was Joseph Smith, born of 
 humble parentage at Sharon, Windsor Co., 
 Vt., Dec. 23, 1805. In 1S15 he removed, 
 with his parents, to Palmyra, New York. 
 His father was a man of a peculiar tempera¬ 
 ment, a visionary, who spent much time in | 
 
 searching for hidden treasure, and his son 
 seems to have inherited his eccentricities in 
 an intensified form. When about fourteen 
 years of age, Joseph Smith says that he was 
 pondering on the importance of preparing 
 for a future state; he was perplexed by the 
 variety of opinions held by different de¬ 
 nominations of Christians, and betook him¬ 
 self to prayer that he might see his way 
 out of the difficulty. He thus describes 
 what happened: “ I retired to a secret 
 place in a grove and began to call upon the 
 Lord. While fervently engaged in suppli¬ 
 cation, my mind was taken away from the 
 objects with which I was surrounded, and 
 I was enwrapt in a heavenly vision,and saw 
 two glorious personages, who exactly re¬ 
 sembled each other in features and likeness, 
 surrounded with a brilliant light, which 
 eclipsed the sun at noonday. They told me 
 that all the religious denominations were 
 believing in incorrect doctrines, and that 
 none of them was acknowledged of God as 
 his Church and kingdom. And I was ex¬ 
 pressly commanded to ‘ go not after them,’ 
 at the same time receiving a promise that 
 the fullness of the Gospel should at some 
 future time be made known to me. On the 
 evening of the 21st of September, 1823, 
 while I was praying unto God and endeav¬ 
 oring to exercise faith in the precious 
 promises of Scripture, on a sudden, a light 
 like that of day, only of a far purer and 
 more glorious appearance and brightness, 
 burst into the room; indeed, the first sight 
 was as though the house was filled with 
 consuming fire. The appearance produced 
 a shock that affected the whole body. In a 
 moment a personage stood before me, sur¬ 
 rounded with a glory yet greater than that 
 with which I was already surrounded. 
 This messenger proclaimed himself to be 
 an angel of God, sent to bring the joyful 
 tidings that the covenant which God made 
 with ancient Israel was at hand to be ful¬ 
 filled; that the preparatory work for the 
 second coming of the Messiah was speedily 
 to commence; that the time was at hand 
 for the Gospel in all its fullness to be 
 preached in power unto all nations, that a 
 people might be prepared for the millen¬ 
 nial reign. 
 
 “ I was informed that I was chosen to be 
 an instrument in the hands of God to bring 
 about some of his purposes in this glorious 
 dispensation. 
 
 “ I was informed, also, concerning the 
 aboriginal inhabitants of this country, and 
 shown who they were and from whence they 
 came; a brief sketch of their origin, prog¬ 
 ress, civilization, laws, governments, of 
 their righteousness and iniquity, and the 
 blessings of God being finally withdrawn 
 i from them as a people, was made known 
 
Mor 
 
 ( 640 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 unto me. I was also told where there were 
 deposited some plates, on which was en¬ 
 graven an abridgment of the records of 
 the ancient prophets that had existed on 
 this continent. The angel appeared to me 
 three times the same night and unfolded 
 the same things. After having received 
 many visits from the angels of God, unfold¬ 
 ing the majesty and glory of the events 
 that should transpire in the last days, on 
 the morning of the 22d of September, 1827, 
 the angel of the Lord delivered the records 
 into my hands. These records were en¬ 
 graven on plates which had the appearance 
 of gold; each plate was six inches wide and 
 eight inches long, and not quite so thick as 
 common tin. They were filled with en¬ 
 gravings in Egyptian characters, and bound 
 together in a volume, as the leaves of a 
 book, with three rings running through the 
 whole. The volume was something near 
 six inches in thickness, apart of which was 
 sealed. The characters on the unsealed 
 part were small and beautifully engraved. 
 The whole book exhibited many marks of 
 antiquity in its construction,and much skill 
 in the art of engraving. With the records 
 was found a curious instrument which the 
 ancients called 4 Urim and Thummim,’ 
 which consisted of two transparent stones 
 set in the rim on a bow fastened to a 
 breastplate. 
 
 “ Through the medium of the Urim and 
 Thummim I translated the record by the 
 gift and power of God.” 
 
 This translation, it is said, constitutes 
 the Book of Mormon , which is considered 
 by its disciples as revealed Scripture. 
 
 The news of his alleged discovery at¬ 
 tracted much attention, and Smith was so 
 persecuted that he had to take refuge in 
 Pennsylvania, carrying away his precious 
 book in a barrel of beans. Mormon was 
 said to be a prophet in the fourth or fifth 
 century, who had engraved on plates the 
 history of the troubles of the American 
 Israelites, and his son Moroni concealed 
 them in a hill called Cumorae, about a. d. 
 420. They are said to contain many proph¬ 
 ecies concerning the colonizing of America 
 by a direct tribe of Jews, for which reason 
 the Mormons claim direct Jewish descent. 
 The Mormons urge in favor of the authen¬ 
 ticity of the Book of Mormon, that it was 
 an impossibility for it to have been written 
 and invented by an uneducated man like 
 Smith; and to account for the non-produc¬ 
 tion of the engraved plates they say that 
 Smith was forbidden by distinct revelation 
 to show them to any of his disciples. It is 
 alleged, on the other hand, that about 
 1809-12 Solomon Spaulding, who had once 
 been a clergyman, wrote a tale on the sup¬ 
 position that the American Indians were 
 
 the lost ten tribes of Israel, in which the 
 names Mormon and Moroni frequently oc¬ 
 cur; and that the MS. found its way into 
 the hands of Sidney Rigdon, one of Smith’s 
 earliest followers. 
 
 The Book of Mormon was followed by a 
 Book of Doctrine and Covenants, which 
 contained the further revelations which it 
 was supposed were made to Smith as the 
 Church needed them. 
 
 The “ Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- 
 Day Saints ” was organized on April 6, 
 1830, at Manchester, in the State of New 
 York. There were about thirty members. 
 Churches were formed in the States of New 
 York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and 
 Missouri, notably in the last-named State, 
 in Jackson County. Here they made large 
 purchases of land; but popular hostility 
 was so great that, in 1833, they were driv¬ 
 en from their settlement, and they removed 
 to Clay County. But they were not to be 
 left unmolested. In 1838 Joseph Smith 
 and his brother Hiram were imprisoned, 
 and the Mormons sought a new resting- 
 place at Commerce, in the State of Illinois. 
 This place they at once enlarged and called 
 Nauvoo, or “ Beautiful.” Their prophet 
 was made “ Mayor ” of the city, and “Gen¬ 
 eral ” of a body of militia. In 1841 they 
 were commanded by a “ revelation ” to 
 build a superb temple, toward which each 
 member should give a tithe of his proper¬ 
 ty. In a few years they numbered 20,000 
 inhabitants. But suspicion and hatred fol¬ 
 lowed the Mormons; every crime com¬ 
 mitted in the neighborhood was charged on 
 them; their doctrine of polygamy made 
 them a public scandal; and at length the 
 editors of a newspaper,which had been sup¬ 
 pressed for publishing some scandal about 
 Smith, in revenge got a warrant against 
 him and his brother Hiram, and they were 
 thrown into prison at Carthage, where 
 they were shot by the mob, June 27, 1844. 
 This act of lynch-law made a martyr of one 
 who otherwise would have been detected 
 as an impostor or fanatic, for his own fol¬ 
 lowers had become suspicious of him, and 
 the folly of the revelations was becoming 
 more and more apparent. But now all was 
 changed. 
 
 Sidney Rigdon and Brigham Young were 
 competitors for the supremacy: the latter 
 was chosen to be the 44 Lord’s Prophet and 
 Seer to the Saints,” under the title of First 
 President. He lived till 1877. The Mor¬ 
 mons now' determined to seek a home far 
 from the haunts of men; and in February, 
 1846, a pioneering party went beyond the 
 Rocky Mountains to the basin of the Great 
 Salt Lake; the rest followed in detach¬ 
 ments, and through great hardships; and at 
 length, in iS4S, r they founded a State under 
 
Mor 
 
 ( 641 ) 
 
 Mor 
 
 the name of Deseret, a word from the Mor¬ 
 mon book, signifying the “ Land of the 
 Honey-bee.” Here they have made great 
 progress, and founded several cities. Utah 
 Territory hasan areaof 84,476 square miles, 
 and a population of about 150,000, of 
 which not above 20,000 are non-Mormons. 
 
 The following is the printed “ Creed ” 
 given to the Mormons by their founder, 
 Joseph Smith: 
 
 “ We believe in God the Eternal Father, and his Son 
 Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost. 
 
 “ We believe that men will be punished for their own 
 sins, and not for Adam’s transgressions. 
 
 “ We believe that through the atonement of Christ all 
 men may be saved, by obedience to the laws and or¬ 
 dinances of the Gospel. 
 
 “We believe that these ordinances are:—1st, Faith 
 in the Lord Jesus Christ; 2d, Repentance; 3d, Baptism 
 by immersion for the remission of sins; 4th, Laying-on 
 of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 “We believe that a man must be called of God by 
 ' prophecy and by laying-on of hands,’ by those who are 
 in authority, to preach the Gospel and administer in the 
 ordinances thereof. 
 
 “ We believe in the same organization that existed in 
 the primitive Church, viz., apostles, prophets, pastors, 
 teachers, evangelists, etc. 
 
 “We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revela¬ 
 tion, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, etc. 
 
 “ We believe the Bible to be the Word of God, as far 
 as it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of 
 Mormon to be the Word of God. 
 
 “ We believe all that God has revealed, all that he 
 does now reveal, and we believe that he will yet reveal 
 many great and important things pertaining to the 
 Kingdom of God. 
 
 “ We believe in the literal gathering of Israel, and in 
 the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion will be 
 built upon this continent; that Christ will reign person¬ 
 ally upon the earth; and that the earth will be renewed 
 and receive its paradisal glory. 
 
 “We claim the privilege of worshipping Almighty 
 God according to the dictates of our conscience, and 
 allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, 
 where, or what they may. 
 
 “ We believe in being subject to kings, presidents, 
 rulers, and magistrates; in obeying, honoring, and sus¬ 
 taining the law. 
 
 “ We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevo¬ 
 lent, virtuous, and in doing good to all men; indeed, we 
 may say that we follow the admonition of Paul—* We 
 believe all things, we hope all things ’ We have en¬ 
 dured many things, and hope to be able to endure all 
 things. If there is anything virtuous, lovely, or of good 
 report, or praiseworthy, we seek thereafter.” 
 
 This is not, however, the whole of their 
 creed. Instead of believing in a Trinity, 
 they hold a duality of Persons in the God¬ 
 head, the Holy Ghost being merely a spirit¬ 
 ual soul. They also believe that God has 
 parts resembling the body of man, and not 
 materially differing from him in size. They 
 hold a twofold priesthood, the Melchis- 
 edec and the Aaronic; they believe in a 
 “ baptism for the dead,” i. e., that a living 
 person may save a dead friend by being 
 immersed for him, unless he has committed 
 the unpardonable sin. Polygamy is not so 
 much tolerated as enjoined as a positive 
 duty, a man’s rank in heaven being alleged 
 to be largely dependent upon the number 
 of his children. Children are baptized at 
 the age of eight, never before. 
 
 Mr. Gunnison gives the following ac¬ 
 count of their Church government:—“ The 
 hierarchy of the Mormon Church has many 
 grades of offices and gifts. The first is the 
 presidency of three persons, which, we 
 were led to understand, answered to the 
 Trinity in heaven, but more particularly to 
 Peter, James, and John, the first presidents 
 of the Gospel Church. 
 
 “ Next in order is the traveling High 
 Apostolic College of twelve apostles, after 
 the primitive Church model, who have the 
 right to preside over affairs in any foreign 
 country, according to seniority; then the 
 High - Priests, Priests, Elders, Bishops, 
 Teachers, and Deacons, together with 
 Evangelists and Missionaries of the ‘ Three 
 Seventies.’ Each order constitutes a full 
 quorum for the discipline of its members, 
 and transacting business belonging to its 
 action; but appeals lie to higher orders, 
 and the whole Church is the final appellate 
 court assembled in general council. 
 
 “ Their prophets arise out of every 
 grade, and a patriarch resides at head¬ 
 quarters to bless particular members, after 
 the manner of Jacob and his sons, and that 
 of Isaac toward Esau and his brother. 
 
 “ A High Council is selected out of the 
 high-priests, and consists of twelve mem¬ 
 bers, which is in perpetual session to ad¬ 
 vise the presidency, in which each is free 
 to give and argue his opinion. The presi¬ 
 dent sums up the matter, and gives the 
 decision, perhaps in opposition to a great 
 majority, but to which all must yield im¬ 
 plicit obedience; and probably there has 
 never been known, under the present head, 
 a dissent when the * awful nod ’ has been 
 given, for it is the ‘ stamp of fate and sanc¬ 
 tion of a god.’ ” 
 
 The Mormons have been wonderfully 
 energetic in sending their missionaries all 
 over the globe, and they have made very 
 many converts among the working-classes 
 of Great Britain, notably in Wales. Many 
 yearly emigrate to Salt Lake City. 
 
 Their polygamy exposes them to the ab¬ 
 horrence of Christian civilization, and will 
 finally bring them to naught. Yet for the 
 present it forces them into unity. Ostra¬ 
 cised by the world, they hold together for 
 mutual protection.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. In 1882 the Edmunds Bill, to legis¬ 
 late polygamy out of existence, passed 
 Congress, and since that time the power of 
 the Government has steadily been asserting 
 itself against this criminal part of the social 
 life of the Mormons. The development of 
 the material resources of Utah, and the 
 consequent increase of a non-Mormon pop¬ 
 ulation and influence, are also aiding to 
 break down the ascendancy of Mormon 
 power. 
 
Mor 
 
 ( 642 ) 
 
 Mos 
 
 Morris, Thomas Asbury, a bishop of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church; b. in Kana¬ 
 wha County, Va., April 2S, 1794; d. in 
 Springfield, O., Sept. 2, 1874. He was re¬ 
 ceived into the Ohio Conference, 1816; and 
 labored in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee 
 until 1S34, when he became the first editor 
 of the Western Christian Advocate. He was 
 elected bishop in 1S36, in which office he 
 showed great skill in presiding, and rare 
 practical wisdom and judgment in decision. 
 In 1868 he was compelled to retire, by the 
 infirmities of age and health. He published 
 a volume of Sermons; Miscellany (1837), and 
 Church Polity (1859). See Marlay: Life of 
 Bishop Morris (N. Y., 1875). 
 
 Morrison, Robert, “ the first Protestant 
 missionary to China, was born of Scottish 
 parents at Morpeth, Northumberland, on 
 Jan. 5, 1782. After receiving an element¬ 
 ary education in Newcastle, he was ap¬ 
 prenticed to a lastmaker, but his spare 
 hours were devoted to studies connected 
 with theology, and in 1803 he was received 
 into the Independent Academy at Hoxton. 
 In the following year he offered his ser¬ 
 vices to the London Missionary Society, 
 by which, after he had attended the mis¬ 
 sion college of Gosport, and studied 
 Chinese under a native teacher, he was 
 sent to Canton in 1807. He was appointed 
 translator to the East India Company’s 
 factory there in 1808, and, in addition to his 
 official duties connected with this port, la¬ 
 bored with intense application at a Chinese 
 Grammar, and a translation of the New 
 Testament, both of which were published in 
 1814. In 1817 he published A View of China 
 for Philological Purposes , and his translation 
 of the entire Bible was completed in the fol¬ 
 lowing year. His next enterprise was the 
 establishment of an Anglo-Chinese college 
 at Malacca for ‘ the reciprocal cultivation 
 of Chinese and European literature’ which 
 was opened in 1820. In 1821 -his Chinese 
 Dictionary was published by the East In¬ 
 dia Company at an expense of ^15,000. 
 Leaving China at the close of 1823 he 
 spent two years in England, where he ad¬ 
 vocated Chinese missions before large and 
 enthusiastic audiences, and was elected a 
 fellow of the Royal Society. Returning 
 to China in 1826 he set himself to promote 
 education, and to prepare a Chinese com¬ 
 mentary on the Bible, and other Christian 
 literature. He died at Canton on Aug. 1, 
 1834. His Memoirs, compiled by his 
 widow, were published in London, 1839.” 
 — Ency. Britannica . 
 
 Morse, Jedediah, D. D., b. at Wood- 
 stock, Conn., Aug. 23, 1761; d. in New 
 Haven, June 9, 1S26. After graduating at 
 
 Yale College, 1783, where he remained as 
 tutor for a time, he was called to the pas¬ 
 torate of the First Congregational Church 
 of Charlestown, Mass., where he remained 
 from 1789 to 1820. He took a prominent 
 part in the Unitarian controversy, and 
 founded the Panoplist, which he edited 
 from 1806 to 1811. He prepared the first 
 geography ever published in this country 
 for use in schools (1784). He also wrote 
 A Compendious History of New England 
 (Cambridge, 1804); Annals of the Af/ierican 
 Revolution (Hartford, 1824). See Life of 
 Jedediah Morse, by William B. Sprague 
 (New York, 1875). 
 
 Mortmain (from the French mort, 
 dead, and main, hand). In the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries nearly one- 
 half of the national wealth in Germany, 
 and more than one-third of all the real 
 estate in England was in the possession of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. In order to 
 prevent this undue growth of ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal property, statutes of mortmain were 
 enacted in Germany in the thirteenth cen¬ 
 tury, and in England from the time of 
 Magna Charta, limiting the right of an 
 institution to hold and acquire landed 
 property. In England no landed property 
 can be devised by will for charitable pur¬ 
 poses unless the gift has been made twelve 
 months before the death of the donor. 
 This mortmain statute was made to pre¬ 
 vent improper solicitations on the part of 
 priests or others, under fear or expectation 
 of death. 
 
 Moses. “ Of the life of Moses we have 
 few certain details, though the history of 
 Israel bears witness to the importance of 
 his work. His origin and the history of 
 his childhood can be read in Exodus i., ii. 
 (comp. vi. 16 sq .); the statements there 
 given are enlarged and modified in the 
 Jewish Midrash, particularly as we find it 
 in Josephus and Philo. The daughter of 
 Pharaoh, we are told, was Thermutis ( Ant. 
 ii. 9, 5), or Merris (Euseb.: Praep. Ev. ix. 
 27): she named the boy Mouses , not be¬ 
 cause she used the Hebrew verb to ex¬ 
 press the fact that he was drawn out 
 of the water, but because the Egyptian 
 word for water was mo, and uses applied to 
 those who have been delivered from it 
 (Ant. ii. 9, 6; comp. Philo , ed. Mangey, ii. 
 83; Euseb. 1 . c., ix. 28). She took care to 
 have him trained in all the wisdom of the 
 Egyptians (Acts vii. 22), and in that of the 
 Greeks, Assyrians, and Chaldeans as well 
 (Philo, ii. 84). To his great intellectual 
 endowments corresponded his personal 
 beauty, of which Josephus speaks in ex¬ 
 travagant terms (Ant. ii. 9, 6-7). It was 
 
Mos 
 
 ( 643 ) 
 
 Mos 
 
 •on account of this beauty that when, on 
 one occasion, as a young man, he led an 
 Egyptian army against Meroe, the Ethio¬ 
 pian Princess Sharbis opened the gates of 
 the capital to him, in order to make him 
 her husband (Ant. ii. 10; comp. Num. 
 xii. 1). For reasons explained in Exod. ii. 
 11 sq. , Moses left the land of Pharaoh, and 
 came to Midian, to the Kenite priest, Jethro 
 (also called Hobab Ben Raguel and Raguel), 
 whose daughter Zipporah he married, be¬ 
 coming by her the father of two sons, 
 Gershom and Eliezer. (Exod. ii. 21 sq .; 
 xviii. 2 sq. ) During his stay in Midian he 
 received at the foot of Sinai (Horeb) the 
 divine revelation at the burning bush, 
 whereby he was called to become the lib¬ 
 erator of Israel from Egyptian bondage. 
 With much reluctance he at last accepted 
 this vocation, and, already expected by his 
 brother Aaron, and the eiders, returned to 
 his people. Arrived in Egypt, he asso¬ 
 ciated Aaron with him as his interpreter, 
 being himself no orator, but a man of coun¬ 
 sel and action, and appeared before Pha¬ 
 raoh to demand of the king, in Jehovah’s 
 name, permission for the people to go with 
 flocks and herds into the wilderness to cele¬ 
 brate there a festival (the spring festival 
 of the Passover) in honor of their God. Je¬ 
 hovah gave emphasis to the demand by 
 great signs and wonders—the plagues of 
 Egypt, which have their explanation, for 
 the most part, in evils to which Egypt is 
 periodically liable, but are treated by 
 Israelite tradition as the weapons of Je¬ 
 hovah in his ever-intensifying conflict with 
 the king and the gods of Egypt. At length, 
 by the slaying of the first-born, the stub¬ 
 bornness of Pharaoh was broken, so that 
 he consented to, and even urged, the de¬ 
 parture of the Hebrews. By and by, how¬ 
 ever, he changed his mind, and setting 
 out in pursuit of the Hebrews overtook 
 them at the Red Sea; but Jehovah fought 
 for them, and annihilated Pharaoh’s char¬ 
 iots and all his host. In order to present 
 themselves in proper festal array at the 
 celebration, for the sake of which they 
 were going into the wilderness, the Hebrew 
 women had borrowed dresses and orna¬ 
 ments from those of Egypt. The Egyptians 
 could now only blame themselves and their 
 hostile conduct if those articles were not 
 returned. By the miracle wrought at the 
 Red Sea, Moses was pointed out to the 
 Hebrews as the man of God, to whom ac¬ 
 cordingly they now committed the task of 
 caring for their outward life, as well as 
 their spiritual guidance. He led them first 
 to Sinai, where the law was revealed, and 
 the worship in connection with the ark of 
 the covenant instituted. When he had com¬ 
 muned face to face with the Godhead for 
 
 forty days on the holy mountain, the skin 
 of his face shone so that he had to w r ear a 
 veil (hence the horns, properly rays, on 
 his forehead). Driven from Sinai, in con¬ 
 sequence of their worship of the golden 
 calf, the Israelites removed to Kadesh with 
 the view of entering Palestine. But this 
 plan was defeated by their unbelief and 
 faintheartedness, and, as a punishment, 
 they were compelled to sojourn forty years 
 in the wilderness of Kadesh (Paran, Sin). 
 It was here and now that the people went 
 to school with Moses; here, at the sanc¬ 
 tuary of the camp, he declared law and 
 judgment; and here, according to the view 
 of the oldest tradition, the foundations of 
 the Torah were laid. (Exod. xviii.) The 
 region of Kadesh was also the scene of al¬ 
 most all the miracles and other circum¬ 
 stances we read about Moses. Here he 
 showed himself to be at once the father and 
 mother of the people, their judge, priest, 
 and seer. It was not till toward the very 
 close of his life that he led the Israelites 
 from Kadesh into Northern Moab, which 
 he wrested from the Amorite king, Sihon 
 of Heshbon. Here he died on Mount 
 Pisgah or Nebo, after taking leave of the 
 people in the great legislative address of 
 Deuteronomy. According to Deuteronomy 
 xxxiv. 6, he ‘ was buried in a valley in the 
 land of Moab, .... but no man knoweth 
 of his sepulchre unto this day.’ As his 
 successor in the leadership, Moses had 
 named Joshua ben Nun, but the real heirs 
 to his position and influence were the 
 priests at the sanctuary of the ark of the 
 covenant.”— J. Welhausen in Ency. Britan¬ 
 nic a. 
 
 Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von, “ well 
 known as a church historian, but also dis¬ 
 tinguished in his day as a master of elo¬ 
 quence, was born at Liibeck on the 9th of 
 October. There is some uncertainty as to 
 the year, but the probability is in favor of 
 1693 or 1694. He received a somewhat 
 irregular education at the gymnasium 
 of his native place, and afterward entered 
 the University of Kiel, where he took his 
 master’s degree in 1718. His first appear¬ 
 ance in the field of literature was in a 
 polemical tract against Tolland, Vindicice 
 Antiques Christianorum Disciplines (1720), 
 which was soon followed by a volume of 
 Observationes Sacrcs (1721). These works, 
 along with the reputation he had acquired 
 as a lecturer on philosophy, and also as a 
 fervent and eloquent preacher while acting 
 as assistant to Albrecht Zuno Felde, his 
 teacher and future father-in-law, secured 
 for him a call to a theological chair at Helm- 
 stadt, in 1723. The Institutionum His¬ 
 tories Ecclesiasticcs, libri IV., appeared in 
 
Mos 
 
 ( 644 ) 
 
 Mos 
 
 1726 (2 vols., i2mo), and in the same 
 year he was appointed by the Duke of 
 Brunswick abbot of Marienthal, to which 
 dignity and emolument the abbacy of 
 Michaelstein was added in the following 
 year. Mosheim was much consulted by 
 the authorities when the new University of 
 Gottingen was being formed; especially 
 had he to do with the framing of the stat¬ 
 utes of the theological faculty, and with 
 the provisions for making the theologians 
 independent of the ecclesiastical courts. 
 But.having signed, in 1726, a promise to re- 
 
 tion of a new and greatly improved edition; 
 of his Church History .”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Mosque, a Mohammedan place of wor¬ 
 ship. The word is derived, through the 
 Italian moschea , from the Arabic mesjid y 
 a place of prayer. The form of the old¬ 
 est mosques in Jerusalem and Cairo is 
 evidently derived from that of the Chris¬ 
 tian basilica, the narthex being the origin 
 of the court with its arcade, and the eastern 
 apses representing the principal buildings 
 of the mosque facing Mecca. The original 
 
 MOSQUE. 
 
 main in Helmstadt he was unable to ac¬ 
 cept the call to Gottingen, which was 
 urgently pressed upon him, until the year 
 1747, when the Duke of Brunswick at last 
 released him from obligation. He so en¬ 
 hanced the dignity he already possessed as 
 a learned and brilliant theological professor 
 that a new office was specially created for 
 him, that of chancellor, which, however, 
 proved somewhat burdensome, exciting 
 the jealousy of the nobles whom he gov¬ 
 erned. He died at Gottingen on the 9th of 
 September, 1755, shortly after the comple- 
 
 forms became, however, obliterated. They 
 vary considerably in style in different 
 countries, but in many points are always 
 the same. They are all square, and built 
 of good stones. Before the chief gate 
 there is a square court paved with white 
 marble, and low galleries round about, 
 whose roof is supported with marble col¬ 
 umns, and in the centre of which is a tank 
 or fountain for ablution. The walls are 
 generally whitewashed, and on them are 
 engraved God’s name and also sentences 
 from the Koran, but no device of any living 
 
Mou 
 
 ( 645 ) 
 
 Mo z 
 
 being. The floors are covered with mats 
 or carpets; there are no seats. In the 
 southeast there is a pulpit, and, in the di¬ 
 rection in which Mecca lies, a niche toward 
 which all the faithful turn when they pray. 
 Opposite the pulpit is a platform, from 
 which parts of the Koran are read to the 
 congregation. The whole congregation 
 say the five daily prayers in the mosques 
 on Friday, the Moslem Sunday. Women 
 are not allowed to enter, but stay in the 
 porch. On entering the mosque the Mos¬ 
 lem takes off his shoes and carries them in 
 his hand. Most of the mosques have hos¬ 
 pitals attached to them, where travelers of 
 all religions are entertained for three days. 
 —Benham: Diet . of Religion. As a rule, 
 every mosque has a minaret. See Muezzin. 
 
 Mourning. “ Eastern peoples are ex¬ 
 ceedingly demonstrative in their expres¬ 
 sions of grief over departed friends. In 
 all periods down to the present day it has 
 been customary to hire professional mourn¬ 
 ers—generally women—to join their lam¬ 
 entations with those of the family circle. 
 The mourning begins at the moment of 
 death, and is kept up, with little intermis¬ 
 sion, until after the funeral. Grief is 
 expressed, not alone by weeping and loud 
 cries, but by beating the breast, plucking 
 out the hair, and scattering dust upon the 
 head. Male members of the household 
 rend their garments, put on sackcloth, 
 pluck out the beard, throw themselves 
 upon the earth, and go about shoeless and 
 with veiled faces. David, on the occasion 
 of Abner’s assassination, refused to eat 
 bread until the day was over. (Gen. xxxvii. 
 34.) In some cases the tears of mourners 
 were caught in bottles and buried with the 
 departed, as a token of affection. This 
 practice is still kept up in Persia ; the 
 tears, however, instead of being buried 
 with the dead, are carefully preserved as a 
 charm. Tear-bottles are one of the most 
 common objects found in ancient tombs. 
 The Israelites were forbidden in the book 
 of Deuteronomy to cut themselves, or 
 ‘ make any baldness ’ between the eyes 
 for the dead. (Deut. xiv. 1.) The law 
 ! seems to be but a repetition of one found 
 for both priests and people in an earlier 
 book. (Lev. xix. 27, 28; xxi. 5.) It is ev¬ 
 ident, however, that the heathen custom 
 against which it was directed did not 
 wholly disappear, since we find it still in 
 vogue in Jeremiah’s time. (Jer. vii. 29; 
 xvi. 6; xli. 5.) Rending the garment as a 
 token of grief became at a later period 
 largely a matter of form, the master of 
 ceremonies ripping down the outer robe a 
 few inches on the breast, where there was 
 a seam. The usual period of mourning 
 
 lasted seven days; but on extraordinary 
 occasions it was extended. During the 
 period of the second Jewish commonwealth 
 feasts were often given at funerals, which 
 were occasions of great extravagance and 
 display. There is no valid evidence that 
 it was customary in the times covered by 
 the canonical books of the Old Testament. 
 Certain passages quoted in proof of it have 
 another meaning. They simply show that 
 food was frequently sent by friends to the 
 house of mourning, that the claims of 
 hospitality, which were greatly enlarged 
 on such occasions, might be properly met. 
 This seems to be the meaning of that 
 passage in Deuteronomy, also, where wor¬ 
 shipers at the altar say that, so faithfully 
 have they discharged their obligations re¬ 
 specting the tithes, that no part of them 
 has been expended even in such seasons of 
 special need as the funerals of neighbors 
 and friends: ‘ I have not eaten thereof in 
 my mourning, .... nor given thereof 
 for the dead.’ (Ezek. xxiv. 17; Hos. ix. 4.) 
 The custom of making an offering for the 
 dead appears first in an apocryphal book 
 in the century preceding the Christian era. 
 (2 Macc. xii. 43.) Naturally, much em¬ 
 phasis is laid on this passage by Roman 
 Catholic writers in justification of their 
 practice of praying for * souls in purga¬ 
 tory.’ ”—Bissell: Biblical Antiquities. 
 
 Movable Feasts are those which do not 
 occur on a fixed day, as Easter and the 
 feasts calculated from Easter. Tables for 
 the calculation of movable feasts are found 
 in the Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgy, an ancient form of 
 service once used in some of the churches 
 of Spain. Its origin is unknown, although 
 some Roman Catholic authors affirm that 
 it was prepared by the apostles who first 
 founded Christianity in Spain. In matter 
 it is Scriptural, and marked by a reverent 
 and earnest spirit. 
 
 Mozley, James Bowling, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent English theologian and writer; b. at 
 Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Sept. 15, 
 1813; d. in Oxford, Jan. 4, 1878. He was 
 graduated at Oriel College, Oxford, in 
 1834, and from 1840 to 1856 resided as 
 fellow at Magdalen College when he be¬ 
 came vicar of Old Shoreham, Sussex. He 
 was made canon of Worcester in 1869, and 
 in 1871 Regius professor of divinity, at the 
 same time retaining his vicarage. He was 
 appointed Bampton Lecturer for 1865, and 
 his work on the Miracles gave him a fore¬ 
 most place among English thinkers. In 
 the early part of his life he was deeply in¬ 
 terested in the Tractarian movement, but 
 
Mos 
 
 ( 644 ) 
 
 Mos 
 
 1726 (2 vols., i2mo), and in the same 
 year he was appointed by the Duke of 
 Brunswick abbot of Marienthal, to which 
 dignity and emolument the abbacy of 
 Michaelstein was added in the following 
 year. Mosheim was much consulted by 
 the authorities when the new University of 
 Gottingen was being formed; especially 
 had he to do with the framing of the stat¬ 
 utes of the theological faculty, and with 
 the provisions for making the theologians 
 independent of the ecclesiastical courts. 
 But.having signed, in 1726, a promise to re- 
 
 tion of a new and greatly improved edition 
 of his Church History." — Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Mosque, a Mohammedan place of wor¬ 
 ship. The word is derived, through the 
 Italian mo sc he a , from the Arabic mesjid , 
 a place of prayer. The form of the old¬ 
 est mosques in Jerusalem and Cairo is 
 evidently derived from that of the Chris¬ 
 tian basilica, the narthex being the origin 
 of the court with its arcade, and the eastern 
 apses representing the principal buildings 
 of the mosque facing Mecca. The original 
 
 MOSQUE. 
 
 main in Helmstadt he was unable to ac¬ 
 cept the call to Gottingen, which was 
 urgently pressed upon him, until the year 
 1747, when the Duke of Brunswick at last 
 released him from obligation. He so en¬ 
 hanced the dignity he already possessed as 
 a learned and brilliant theological professor 
 that a new office was specially created for 
 him, that of chancellor, which, however, 
 proved somewhat burdensome, exciting 
 the jealousy of the nobles whom he gov¬ 
 erned. He died at Gottingen on the 9th of 
 September, 1755, shortly after the comple- 
 
 forms became, however, obliterated. They 
 vary considerably in style in different 
 countries, but in many points are always 
 the same. They are all square, and built 
 of good stones. Before the chief gate 
 there is a square court paved with white 
 marble, and low galleries round about, 
 whose roof is supported with marble col¬ 
 umns, and in the centre of which is a tank 
 or fountain for ablution. The walls are 
 generally whitewashed, and on them are 
 engraved God’s name and also sentences 
 from the Koran, but no device of any living 
 
Mou 
 
 ( 645 ) 
 
 Mo z 
 
 being. The floors are covered with mats 
 or carpets; there are no seats. In the 
 southeast there is a pulpit, and, in the di¬ 
 rection in which Mecca lies, a niche toward 
 which all the faithful turn when they pray. 
 Opposite the pulpit is a platform, from 
 which parts of the Koran are read to the 
 congregation. The whole congregation 
 say the five daily prayers in the mosques 
 on Friday, the Moslem Sunday. Women 
 are not allowed to enter, but stay in the 
 porch. On entering the mosque the Mos¬ 
 lem takes off his shoes and carries them in 
 his hand. Most of the mosques have hos¬ 
 pitals attached to them, where travelers of 
 all religions are entertained for three days. 
 —Benham: Did . of Religion. As a rule, 
 every mosque has a minaret. See Muezzin. 
 
 Mourning. “ Eastern peoples are ex¬ 
 ceedingly demonstrative in their expres¬ 
 sions of grief over departed friends. In 
 all periods down to the present day it has 
 been customary to hire professional mourn¬ 
 ers—generally women—to join their lam¬ 
 entations with those of the family circle. 
 The mourning begins at the moment of 
 death, and is kept up, with little intermis¬ 
 sion, until after the funeral. Grief is 
 expressed, not alone by weeping and loud 
 cries, but by beating the breast, plucking 
 out the hair, and scattering dust upon the 
 head. Male members of the household 
 rend their garments, put on sackcloth, 
 pluck out the beard, throw themselves 
 upon the earth, and go about shoeless and 
 with veiled faces. David, on the occasion 
 of Abner’s assassination, refused to eat 
 bread until the day was over. (Gen. xxxvii. 
 34.) In some cases the tears of mourners 
 were caught in bottles and buried with the 
 departed, as a token of affection. This 
 practice is still kept up in Persia ; the 
 tears, however, instead of being buried 
 with the dead, are carefully preserved as a 
 charm. Tear-bottles are one of the most 
 common objects found in ancient tombs. 
 The Israelites were forbidden in the book 
 of Deuteronomy to cut themselves, or 
 ‘ make any baldness ’ between the eyes 
 for the dead. (Deut. xiv. 1.) The law 
 'seems to be but a repetition of one found 
 for both priests and people in an earlier 
 book. (Lev. xix. 27, 28; xxi. 5.) It is ev¬ 
 ident, however, that the heathen custom 
 against which it was directed did not 
 wholly disappear, since we find it still in 
 vogue in Jeremiah’s time. (Jer. vii. 29; 
 xvi. 6; xli. 5.) Rending the garment as a 
 token of grief became at a later period 
 largely a matter of form, the master of 
 ceremonies ripping down the outer robe a 
 few inches on the breast, where there was 
 a seam. The usual period of mourning 
 
 lasted seven days; but on extraordinary 
 occasions it was extended. During the 
 period of the second Jewish commonwealth 
 feasts were often given at funerals, which 
 were occasions of great extravagance and 
 display. There is no valid evidence that 
 it was customary in the times covered by 
 the canonical books of the Old Testament. 
 Certain passages quoted in proof of it have 
 another meaning. They simply show that 
 food was frequently sent by friends to the 
 house of mourning, that the claims of 
 hospitality, which were greatly enlarged 
 on such occasions, might be properly met. 
 This seems to be the meaning of that 
 passage in Deuteronomy, also, where wor¬ 
 shipers at the altar say that, so faithfully 
 have they discharged their obligations re¬ 
 specting the tithes, that no part of them 
 has been expended even in such seasons of 
 special need as the funerals of neighbors 
 and friends: ‘ I have not eaten thereof in 
 my mourning, .... nor given thereof 
 for the dead.’ (Ezek. xxiv. 17; Hos. ix. 4.) 
 The custom of making an offering for the 
 dead appears first in an apocryphal book 
 in the century preceding the Christian era. 
 (2 Macc. xii. 43.) Naturally, much em¬ 
 phasis is laid on this passage by Roman 
 Catholic writers in justification of their 
 practice of praying for ‘ souls in purga¬ 
 tory.’ ”—Bissell: Biblical Antiquities . 
 
 Movable Feasts are those which do not 
 occur on a fixed day, as Easter and the 
 feasts calculated from Easter. Tables for 
 the calculation of movable feasts are found 
 in the Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgy, an ancient form of 
 service once used in some of the churches 
 of Spain. Its origin is unknown, although 
 some Roman Catholic authors affirm that 
 it was prepared by the apostles who first 
 founded Christianity in Spain. In matter 
 it is Scriptural, and marked by a reverent 
 and earnest spirit. 
 
 Mozley, James Bowling, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent English theologian and writer; b. at 
 Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Sept. 15, 
 1813; d. in Oxford, Jan. 4, 1878. He was 
 graduated at Oriel College, Oxford, in 
 1834, and from 1840 to 1856 resided as 
 fellow at Magdalen College when he be¬ 
 came vicar of Old Shoreham, Sussex. He 
 was made canon of Worcester in 1869, and 
 in 1871 Regius professor of divinity, at the 
 same time retaining his vicarage. He was 
 appointed Bampton Lecturer for 1865, and 
 his work on the Miracles gave him a fore¬ 
 most place among English thinkers. In 
 the early part of his life he was deeply in¬ 
 terested in the Tractarian movement, but 
 
Miin 
 
 (648) 
 
 Mus 
 
 but the army at his disposal proved utter¬ 
 ly insufficient. Not until an imperial army 
 had besieged the city for several weeks, 
 and famine and dissension reduced the 
 strength of the fanatics, were the walls 
 forced, and the rioters overwhelmed, June 
 25,1535- See Anabaptists.” — 0 . Theleman 
 in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. ii., p. 1595. 
 
 Miinzer, Thomas, a leader of the Ana¬ 
 baptists; b. at Stolberg in the Harz region 
 about 1490. He studied theology at Halle, 
 and in 1520 became preacher of St. Mary 
 in Zwickau. Here he entered upon the 
 active career of fanaticism which led him 
 finally to wander through Germany, 
 preaching socialistic and religious opinions 
 that added fuel to the flames that were 
 kindled in the Peasants’ War. After the 
 defeat of those engaged #n this insurrec¬ 
 tion (1525), he was taken prisoner and be¬ 
 headed. 
 
 Murdock, James, D. D., b. in Westbrook, 
 Conn., Feb. 16, 1776; d. in Columbus, 
 Miss., Aug. 10, 1856. He was graduated at 
 Yale College, 1797; pastor of Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, Princeton, Mass., 1802-15; 
 professor of ancient languages in the Uni¬ 
 versity of Vermont, 1815-19; professor of 
 sacred rhetoric and ecclesiastical history in 
 Andover Theological Seminary, 1819-28. 
 He then retired to New Haven, and de¬ 
 voted the remainder of his life to scholarly 
 research. He translated from the Latin 
 Mosheim’s Institutes of Ecclesiastical His¬ 
 tory , and The New Testament , a literal 
 translation from the Syriac Peshito version 
 (New York/ 1852), besides other works. 
 He wrote: The Nature of the Atonement 
 (Andover, 1823); and Sketches of Modern 
 Philosophy , especially among the Germans 
 (Hartford, 1842). 
 
 Murray, John, founder of the Universal- 
 ist denomination in America; b. in Alton, 
 Hampshire, Eng., Dec. 10, 1741; d. in 
 Boston, Mass., Sept. 3, 1815. He was first 
 brought under the influence of Whitefield’s 
 preaching, but afterward accepted the 
 views of James Relly, a Universalist, and 
 was excommunicated from the church to 
 which he belonged. Coming to this coun¬ 
 try in 1770, he began his labors as a Uni¬ 
 versalist preacher at Good Luck, N. Y., 
 Sept. 30. He preached both in New Jersey 
 and New York, but afterward almost en¬ 
 tirely in New England. From 1793 to 1809 
 he was pastor of the Universalist Society 
 in Boston. He endured persecution with 
 unfaltering courage. See his Letters , and 
 Sketches of Sermons (1812); and Autobiog¬ 
 raphy, centenary edition by Rev. G. L. 
 Demarest (Boston, 1870). 
 
 Murray, Nicholas, D. D., b. at Bally- 
 nasloe, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1803; d. at Eliza¬ 
 bethtown, N. J., Feb. 4, 1861. He came 
 to this country in 1818; and was first a 
 printer’s boy in the Harper & Brothers 
 establishment. Converted from the Roman 
 Catholic faith, he was graduated at Williams 
 College, 1826, and after studying theology 
 at Princeton was pastor of the Presbyterian 
 church at Wilkesbarre, Pa., 1829-34, and 
 from that time until his death at Elizabeth¬ 
 town, N. J. Under the signature of “ Kir- 
 wan” he published in the New York Ob¬ 
 server a series of Letters to the Right Rev. 
 John Hughes , Roman Catholic Bishop of New 
 York , that attracted wide attention, and 
 were afterward translated into several lan¬ 
 guages. He published in 1852 another 
 series to Chief-Justice Taney, under the 
 title, Romanism at Ho?ne. He also wrote 
 Men and 7 'kings as I saw them in Europe 
 (1853). 
 
 Musgrave, George Washington, D. D., 
 LL. D., b. in Philadelphia, Oct. 19, 1804; 
 d. there, Aug. 24, 1882. He was graduated 
 at Princeton Theological Seminary in 
 1828; pastor of the Third Presbyterian 
 Church, Baltimore, 1830-52; corresponding 
 secretary of the Presbyterian Board of 
 Publication, 1852-53, and of the Board of 
 Home Missions, 1853-61, 1868-70; pastor 
 of the North Tenth Street Church, Phila¬ 
 delphia, 1862-68. He held many positions 
 of influence, and was prominent in the re¬ 
 union movement of 1867-69. 
 
 Music. That music has been in use in 
 the Church from its very foundation is 
 perfectly clear from the notices we have in 
 the New Testament (Matt. xxvi. 30; Acts 
 xvi. 25; Col. iii. 16; James v. 13), as well 
 as in the writings of the early Fathers. 
 But we know very little of the character of 
 it. The first great name in the history of 
 church music is that of Ambrose, after 
 whom Ambrosian Chant ( q . v. ) is named; 
 the next is that of St. Gregory the Great, 
 after whom Gregorian music is named. 
 The traditional belief is that four of the 
 chants known as Gregorian, viz., the first, 
 third, fifth, and eighth tones, date from St. 
 Ambrose, and that the rest are due to St. 
 Gregory. The scales out of which these 
 tones are formed differ from the modern 
 scales in the varying positions of the semi¬ 
 tones. They consist, of course, of eight 
 natural notes; and one octave, known as 
 the Hvpo-Lydian, is that which we know 
 as the natural scale, with the semitones be¬ 
 tween the third and fourth and seventh and 
 eighth notes. A favorite scale, adopted by 
 some of the earliest of English anthem 
 writers, was the Dorian, starting from D as 
 
Mus 
 
 ( 649 ) 
 
 Mus 
 
 the key-note, and, therefore, like a minor 
 scale in the place of its first semitone, but 
 not in that of the second. Tallis and Bat¬ 
 ten both composed services and anthems in 
 this mode. 
 
 The music of the Middle Ages all rested 
 on the Gregorian mode as a basis. Instru¬ 
 mental accompaniments date back from the 
 days of St. Ambrose, and some also ac¬ 
 credit him with the introduction of antiph- 
 onal singing, while others give it to St. 
 Hilary of Poitiers, who borrowed it from 
 the practice of the Eastern Church. The 
 instruments were “ viols,” and, later, “ or¬ 
 gans,” but originally these were in unison 
 only with the voices. Of course the ten¬ 
 dency was more and more to richer and 
 smoother melody, but an outcry was raised 
 from time to time that the ancient methods 
 were being departed from, and the sim¬ 
 plicity of the music destroyed by too much 
 elaboration, as well as by the introduction 
 of “ lewd ” and secular melodies. The 
 great reformer of church music was Gio¬ 
 vanni Palestrina (d. 1594), the Master of the 
 Pope’s Choir, first at the Lateran Church, 
 then at St. Maria Maggiore, then at the 
 Vatican. He found not only the singers 
 demoralized, but the sacred service, even 
 the most solemn parts of it, set to music 
 which only seemed to have for its object 
 the display of the artifices of the composers, 
 and the pleasing of the ear by utterly secu¬ 
 lar and frivolous melodies. The masses 
 and other compositions of Palestrina mark¬ 
 ed the beginning of a new epoch in sacred 
 music. Pope Gregory XIII. commissioned 
 him to revise and reform the whole sys¬ 
 tem, and although he died before this 
 commission was fully completed there was 
 sufficient done to enable the reform to be 
 carried on. He was a splendid melodist, 
 but he never used his art for the purpose 
 of display, subjugated it all to the sense of 
 the words, and aimed at purity and beauty. 
 His works, which are astonishing in quan¬ 
 tity, are still admired as keenly as ever 
 they were. 
 
 The rise of the English School of Music 
 synchronises with the dawning of the 
 Reformation. The first anthem in Boyce’s 
 Cathedral Music is by King Henry VIII., 
 who was originally intended by his father 
 for Holy Orders with a view to his ap¬ 
 pointment to the Primacy. Consequently, 
 all the greatest English sacred composi¬ 
 tions were written with a view to their 
 performance in the service of the Anglican 
 Church. The first great ecclesiastical 
 writer of the first period was John Mar- 
 becke, organist of St. George’s Chapel (d. 
 
 1 585), whose Te Deum, adapted from the 
 Ambrosian, is very popular in our own day. 
 His Booke of Cotnmon Praier , Noted , an 
 
 adaptation of the old plainsong of the 
 Church to the English Liturgy, is the basis 
 of the English Choral Service, and was re¬ 
 published by Mr. Dyce in 1844, and there 
 have been many editions since. Marbecke, 
 having written a theological treatise, would 
 have been burned as a heretic for Calvin¬ 
 ism, had he not hidden himself. He was 
 followed by Redford, the author of the 
 beautiful anthem “ Rejoice in the Lord,” 
 Christopher Tye, Thomas Tallis (d. 1585), 
 William Byrd (d. 1623), and Richard Far- 
 rant (1580). The choral responses and 
 liturgy of Tallis have never been super¬ 
 seded. His anthem, “ If ye love Me,” and 
 Byrd’s sublime “ Bow Thine ear,” are 
 among our first-class anthems: Farrant’s 
 “ Lord, for Thy tender mercies’ sake,” is 
 also deservedly popular, and his service in 
 G Minor, though heavier than suited to 
 modern taste, has some passages beauti¬ 
 fully pathetic and sweet. The service in 
 F, by Orlando Gibbons, is reckoned by 
 many musicians the finest ever written for 
 the English ritual, and his eight-part set¬ 
 ting of the 47th Psalm as an anthem is al¬ 
 most unrivalled for its majestic swing. 
 He died in 1625, and is buried in Canter¬ 
 bury Cathedral. The great Rebellion for 
 a while put a complete stop to the prog¬ 
 ress of English Cathedral music. Organs 
 were burned and music books torn up. 
 At the Restoration, so great had been the 
 destruction, there was difficulty in reviv¬ 
 ing the choral services of the Church, 
 and the taste of the king and his court was 
 toward more florid melodies than those of 
 the old masters. But a new school slow¬ 
 ly arose, not unworthy of its predeces¬ 
 sors. Among its members were Child, 
 Michael Wise, Blow, Lawes, and Henry 
 Purcell, the last being the greatest com¬ 
 poser which Great Britain has produced. 
 Under this school “verse” anthems be¬ 
 gan; i. e., anthems with passages for solo 
 voices, ending, and generally beginning, 
 with a chorus, and with interludes for the 
 organ only. One of the most curious of 
 verse anthems is Purcell’s, “ They that go 
 down to the sea in ships,” which opens 
 with a bass solo beginning on upper D, - 
 and running down two octaves. It was 
 written for a singer of exceptional voice 
 compass. Such performances are hardly - 
 consistent with the solemn dignity which 
 should characterize the service of the 
 Church, and it is due to Purcell to say 
 that such forgetfulness is not a mark of his 
 writing in general. 
 
 Among the great composers who fol¬ 
 lowed, we must name Jeremiah Clarke, 
 Nares, Charles King, Drs. Greene and 
 Boyce, Goldwin, Weldon. Quite worthy 
 of being named with them are the amateurs 
 
Mus 
 
 ( 650 ) 
 
 Mus 
 
 Creyghton and Aldrich, both cathedral dig¬ 
 nitaries. The graceful service in G by the 
 latter never fails to delight when well sung. 
 The arrival of Handel in England in 1711 
 must not pass unmentioned, but the his¬ 
 tory of the oratorio hardly falls within our 
 province. It created much opposition when 
 it was first started in England. Cowper 
 and Newton both wrote fiercely against it. 
 But the opposition was not unreasonable, 
 considering that the performances in church 
 were, as far as it could be done, divested 
 of all religious character: payment at the 
 doors, and fashionable lounging stood in 
 the way of all idea of worship. The anthem 
 music of later times in England is, some of 
 it, very beautiful. Such names as Att- 
 wood, Walmisley, S. S. Wesley, Goss, 
 Sterndale Bennett, Turle, to say nothing 
 of living masters, are an honor to any na¬ 
 tional school of composers. 
 
 We have said nothing of the use of hymn¬ 
 singing in public worship. It had been the 
 intention of Cranmer to translate some of 
 the grand mediaeval hymns for the use of 
 the Church, but he only carried it out with 
 respect to the Veni Creator , which is in¬ 
 serted in the Ordination Service. Conse¬ 
 quently, the metrical singing of the Church 
 was long confined to the translation of the 
 Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins, known 
 as the Old Version. This was largely sup¬ 
 planted by the New Version of Tate and 
 Brady in the days of Charles II. Nearly 
 all the metres were either 8. 8. 8. 8. 
 
 (“ Long Metre ”); or 8. 6. 8. 6. (“Com¬ 
 mon Metre ”); or 6. 6. 8. 6. (“ Short 
 Metre”). 
 
 But the Evangelical movement of the 
 eighteenth century made large use of 
 hymn-singing, and this was greatly ob¬ 
 jected to by the old-fashioned church folk; 
 e. g., Bishop Mant preached against it, and 
 fifty years ago it was a distinguishing mark 
 of “ Low-Church men ” to find hymns sung 
 in churches. Now, however, this is all 
 changed. When there is a good choir in a 
 parish church one anthem is generally 
 sung in the day, but the hymns form one 
 of the most popular portions of the service. 
 In England there has been also a remark¬ 
 able revival of the ancient Gregorian chant¬ 
 ing, partly from a dislike of the florid 
 styles into which chant music had fallen at 
 the beginning of the century, partly from 
 the revived love of mediaevalism which has 
 been the outgrowth of the Oxford move¬ 
 ment. The use of choral services again, 
 which formerly was confined to cathedrals 
 and college chapels, is now common in 
 places where a choir can be gathered to¬ 
 gether. This is largely owing to the ex¬ 
 tended knowledge of music among the peo¬ 
 ple. The objection which was formerly 
 
 made to the chanting of the Psalms, that 
 the unlettered could not follow it, is ob¬ 
 viated now that everybody can read.— 
 Ben ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 The history of church music in America 
 is of interest. The Puritans brought with 
 them to New England Ainsworth's Version 
 of the Psalms. In 1640 The Bay Psalm- 
 Book was published. It was not until about 
 1690 that music was first printed in this 
 country. Early in the eighteenth century 
 the Rev. John Tufts published A Very 
 Plain and Easy Introduction to the Art of 
 Singing Psalm-Times. This was followed 
 by Dr. Cotton Mather’s Psalterium Arner- 
 icynum (1718), and Walter’s singing-book, 
 The Grounds and Rules of Musick Explained 
 (1741). There was great opposition at first, 
 on the part of many in the New England 
 churches against singing by note, but this 
 prejudice died away, choirs became gener¬ 
 al, and considerable advance was made in 
 the singing of simple melodies. Early in 
 this century there was a great revival of 
 interest in musical knowledge. Lowell 
 Mason and Thomas Hastings were especial¬ 
 ly prominent in this movement. Singing- 
 schools and musical conventions multiplied 
 under their enthusiastic and able leader¬ 
 ship. More than seventy musical publica¬ 
 tions were issued by these writers. In 
 recent years the “ hymn-tune book ” has 
 taken the place of the tune-books. A vast 
 amount of music, good, bad, and indiffer¬ 
 ent, has been prepared for the use of Sun¬ 
 day-schools, prayer-meetings, and revival 
 services. The choral music of Germany 
 and England has never been popular here, 
 but there are signs that a reaction may 
 take place in its favor. See George Grove: 
 A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Lon¬ 
 don and New York, 1879-S3), 3 vols., with 
 supplement; N. E. Cornwall: Afusic as it 
 was and as it is (New York, 1851); Hood: 
 History of Music in New England (Boston, 
 1846). 
 
 Music Among the Hebrews. “ Vocal mu¬ 
 sic occupies an important place in Script¬ 
 ure, both in religious worship (1 Chron. vi. 
 32), public rejoicings (1 Sam. xviii. 6), and 
 social festivities. (Isa. v. 1; liv. 1.) It is 
 mentioned among the earliest expressions 
 of joy (Exod. xv. 21), and was accompa¬ 
 nied by dancing (2 Sam. vi. 16) and clap¬ 
 ping of hands, especially in the ‘ chorus.’ 
 (Psa. xlvii. 1.) For worship David chose 
 a body of singers (1 Chron. xvi. 41); 
 Jehoshaphat appointed a band of singers 
 to praise God in front of his army. (2 
 Chron. xx. 21.) After the Captivity we 
 find an equal number of male and female- 
 voices (Ezra ii. 65), who sang alternately. 
 They formed a distinguished class, had a 
 
Myr 
 
 ( 651 ) 
 
 Mys 
 
 separate maintenance (Neh. xi. 23), had 
 cities assigned to them (Neh. vii. 73), and 
 chambers for those in attendance at the 
 temple. (Ezek. xl. 44.) From the dedica¬ 
 tion of some Psalms there would seem to 
 have been a written musical notation, but 
 no certain record of it is extant. Musical 
 instruments are among the earliest record¬ 
 ed human inventions. (Gen. iv. 21.) In 
 Scripture their use seems to be confined to 
 religious worship and social festivities, 
 except that the sound of the trumpet 
 served as a battle-call. The earliest kinds 
 were a tabret, a stringed instrument (in¬ 
 cipient harp), cymbals, and pipe. From 
 these germs all others are developments. 
 As the Hebrew names were obscure, or 
 unintelligible to the translators of our Bi¬ 
 ble, one general term expressing a well- 
 known instrument often does duty for sev¬ 
 eral species of the same genus; while the 
 same Hebrew generic word is sometimes 
 translated by different English specificones, 
 and in other cases the translation is erro¬ 
 neous.”—“ Oxford ” Bible Helps . 
 
 Myrrh “ is the aromatic gum or sap of 
 a low, thorny tree, which grows chiefly in 
 Arabia and Ethiopia, but not in Palestine. 
 The gum is first oily, then fluid; first yel¬ 
 low-white, then reddish, hardening into 
 small globules of a peculiar balsamic smell, 
 and bitter taste. There are several ways 
 of collecting it : the best is to allow it 
 to exude of itself; another way is to cut 
 the bark of the tree. Myrrh was used 
 for incense (Cant. iii. 6), perfume for 
 clothing and beds (Psa. xiv. 8; Prov. vii. 
 17; c. Cant. v. 1), as an oil (Esth. ii. 12), 
 an ointment (Cant. v. 5), in the holy anoint¬ 
 ing oil (Exod. xxx. 23), and, as to-day, in 
 medicine, and for embalming. (John xix. 
 39.) The root was also put in wine, to 
 give it a spicy taste and smell; and this 
 unintoxicating wine was a favorite with 
 the ladies. Jesus, before his crucifixion, 
 was offered wine mingled with myrrh 
 (Mark xv. 23), probably the sour wine of 
 the Roman soldiers.”— Riietschi. 
 
 Mystics, a class of theologians who 
 profess to be able to see mysteries hidden 
 from the uninitiated. They are to be found 
 in every religion, and in every age. There 
 are said to be three kinds: those who re¬ 
 sign themselves to an imagined Divine 
 manifestation, those who form a theory of 
 God based on their own inspiration, and 
 those who claim converse with spirits. 
 The first Christian mystics seem to have 
 arisen toward the close of the third century. 
 They held that they must remain in a state 
 of inaction while the Divine Spirit guided 
 them; that if they turned their eyes from 
 
 the world the soul would return to God, 
 and they would enjoy not only communion 
 with him but would see truth undisguised 
 and pure. Mysticism was thus a reaction 
 against stiff formalism, a cry of the spirit 
 for freedom. In the sixth century mysti¬ 
 cism received a strong impetus from the 
 publication of some writings alleged to be 
 by Dionysius the Areopagite, as Mystical 
 Theology , The Heavenly Hierarchy , The 
 Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. They certainly 
 are not his, but probably date from the 
 time when they first appeared. The writer 
 endeavored to apply to Christianity the 
 theosophy of the Neo-Platonist school, and 
 to show that by means of an intermediate 
 and mediatorial hierarchy man may hold 
 communion with the higher powers, even 
 rising higher till he can contemplate God 
 himself. These works were translated by 
 John Scotus Erigena; afterward a com¬ 
 mentary was made on them by Maximus of 
 Constantinople, who, in addition to his 
 works against the Monothelites, wrote a 
 great number of mystical tracts on the 
 Scriptures, the Trinity, and the ceremonies 
 of the Church, all thoroughly saturated 
 with the allegorizing principles of the 
 Alexandrian school. 
 
 The encouragement given to mysticism 
 by Louis the Meek in the ninth century 
 caused it to spread over Europe, especially 
 in France. St. Bernard of Clairvaux was 
 deeply impressed with it; and St. Hugo 
 and Richard of St. Victoire in the twelfth 
 century did much in opposing the material¬ 
 ism of the Schoolmen. The mysticism, 
 however, of the West did not rush into 
 heresy, as that of the East seemed fated to 
 do. Gnosticism, Montanism, Manichaeism, 
 all had their origin in the cry for spirit as 
 against letter. In the West, in course of 
 time, errors had their origin in the same 
 root. Thus Bonaventura in the thirteenth, 
 and Gerson in the fifteenth, labored to 
 reconcile the two elements. In the Nether¬ 
 lands and Germany mystical pantheism 
 developed in the sect of the Brethren of 
 the Free Spirit ( q . v. ). In the fourteenth 
 century Henry Eckhart revived the pan¬ 
 theism of Scotus, and united it with the 
 severest asceticism. Ruysbroeck caused a- 
 complete revolution in mysticism, which 
 he based on Theism. He states that 
 “ man, having proceeded from God, is des¬ 
 tined to return and become one with him 
 again. This oneness, however, is not to 
 be understood as meaning that we become 
 wholly identified with him, and lose our 
 own being as creatures, for that is an im¬ 
 possibility. What it is to be understood 
 as meaning is, that we are conscious of be¬ 
 ing wholly in God, and at the same time, 
 also, wholly in ourselves; that we are unit- 
 
Mys 
 
 ( 652 ) 
 
 Nab 
 
 ed with God, and yet at the same time re¬ 
 main different from him.” Mysticism was 
 further developed by Gerhard in the 
 Netherlands, and by John Tauler in Ger¬ 
 many. Tauler, a Dominican of Strasburg, 
 and a great preacher, who was called Doc¬ 
 tor Illuminatus, was very practical in his 
 mysticism, and held the school of thought 
 which was afterwards developed in the 
 Reformation. His great friend, Henry 
 Suso, of Ulm, a pupil of Eckhart, thus ex¬ 
 pressed his views: “ A meek man must 
 be deformed from the creature, conformed 
 to Christ, and transformed to Deity.” 
 Thomas a Kempis’s works are pervaded by 
 the longing for annihilation of self and 
 oneness with God, common to all the 
 mediaeval mystics. In the fourteenth cen¬ 
 tury appeared a little book, named German 
 Theology , to which no name is appended, 
 but which is attributed to the Custos of the 
 Herrn Haus, at Frankfort, one of the 
 ■“ Friends of God” (q. v.). This book re¬ 
 mained comparatively unnoticed till 
 brought forward by Luther, who ranks it 
 third among his favorite books, next to the 
 Bible and St. Augustine. In 1621 it was 
 prohibited in the Roman Church, but the 
 edition published by Luther in 1518 met 
 with great favor. 
 
 The Reformation, which had thus been 
 aided by mysticism, almost caused its 
 downfall when Luther proved the fallibility 
 of oral tradition and individual intuition, 
 and proclaimed the Scriptures the standard 
 of Christian faith. But it soon broke out 
 in more extravagant modes, especially 
 among the Anabaptists, though under a 
 different form. The first reformers who 
 professed mysticism were Paracelsus of 
 Hohenheim (d. 1541), and Weigel of Meis¬ 
 sen, in Saxony (d. 1588); but the leader of 
 the movement was Jacob Bohme, whose 
 views show a mixture of Gnostic theos¬ 
 ophy and naturalism. (Bohme, Jacob.) 
 Arndt (d. 1621), a Lutheran of Anhalt, who 
 gave up his post when his province adopt¬ 
 ed Calvinism, was also a mystic, but his 
 mysticism took the form of a spiritual re¬ 
 ligion. He wrote Trite Christianity , and 
 The Paradise of Christian Virtues, which 
 are still read in Germany. Gerhard’s 
 Sacred Meditations and School of Piety are 
 of the same tone as Arndt’s works. Tow¬ 
 ard the close of the seventeenth century, 
 Michael de Molinos, of Saragossa, publish¬ 
 ed The Guide to a Spiritual Life , the sub¬ 
 stance of which is that, in pursuance of 
 good, the mind must be withdrawn from 
 all worldly objects, and be wholly merged 
 in God; therefore his followers are called 
 Quietists (q. v.). This book was con¬ 
 demned by Innocent XI., and Molinos was 
 imprisoned, Among the most famed of 
 
 the Quietists in the seventeenth century 
 were Madame Guyon, Madame Bourignon, 
 Peter Poiret, and Madame de Krtidener. 
 In modern times the chief mystics have 
 been Emanuel Swedenborg and William 
 Law ( q . v. ). In the same category we 
 must place the Hutchinsonians, the Jansen- 
 ists, and those who substitute the subject¬ 
 ive revelation of consciousness for the ob¬ 
 jective revelation of the written Word.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Mythical Theory, The, and The Legend¬ 
 ary Theory, both agree in considering the 
 miraculous and supernatural features of 
 the gospel narrative as poetical fiction. 
 The mythical theory was applied to the 
 gospel history by D. F. Strauss, in his 
 Leben Jesu (1835). Admitting the historical 
 personality of Jesus, and his remarkable 
 genius as a religious leader, he attempted 
 to prove that the miracles ascribed to him 
 were the outgrowth of myths, which had 
 their origin in the Messianic conceptions 
 and hopes then prevalent in the minds of 
 the Jews. The legendary theory, represent¬ 
 ed by E. Renan, in his Life of Jesus , dis¬ 
 cards the mythical view, and gives prom¬ 
 inence to the legends and legendary 
 narratives which, it is asserted, gathered 
 about the life and acts of Jesus through 
 the imaginative conceptions of his enthusi¬ 
 astic disciples. These theories have been 
 fully refuted by Christian scholars. 
 
 N. 
 
 Na'aman ( agreeableness ), a distinguished 
 Syrian general, whose restoration from 
 leprosy is one of the most remarkable in¬ 
 cidents in the life of Elisha. The story is 
 found in 2 Kings v. Its lessons, teaching 
 the goodness of God, the pride of man and 
 the necessity of obedience are strikingly 
 enforced. There is now a leper-hospital 
 on the traditionary site of Naaman’s house 
 at Damascus. Our Lord referred to the 
 cure of the Syrian general in his sermon to 
 the Nazarenes. (Luke iv. 27.) 
 
 Na'bal, (fool) a wealthy citizen of Maon 
 near Hebron, whose wife Abigail, after his 
 death, was married to David. Selfish and 
 churlish, he refused to provide food for 
 David and his men. This aroused the anger 
 of David,whose plans for the destruction of 
 Nabal were turned aside by the prudent 
 forethought and gifts of Abigail. Upon her 
 return home she found her husband at a 
 feast and drunk, and did not inform him of 
 her action until the following day. When 
 told of her gifts he was seized with a vio¬ 
 lent sickness, and died in ten days. The 
 story is related in 1 Sam. xxv. 2-42. 
 
Nah 
 
 ( 653 ) 
 
 Nat 
 
 Na'hor, oi\Na'chor (Josh. xxiv. 2), (1) 
 the name of Abraham’s grandfather. (Gen. 
 xi. 22, 24.) (2) Abraham’s brother. (Gen. 
 
 xi. 26.) One of his sons was Bethuel, the 
 father of Rebekah. (Gen. xxii. 23.) He 
 lived at Haran which is known as the “ city 
 of Nahor.” (Gen. xxiv. 10.) 
 
 Nahum. “ The author of this prophecy 
 was a native of a place called Elkosh, 
 which some identify with a village on the 
 banks of the Tigris, and others, who are 
 more probably correct, with a place in the 
 region of Galilee. He appears to have been 
 a contemporary of Isaiah, and to have 
 prophesied after the destruction of Samaria 
 and the defeat of Sennacherib before Jeru¬ 
 salem in the reign of Hezekiah. His mis¬ 
 sion was to comfort the Jew in the near 
 presence of so formidable a foe as Assyria, 
 and to announce the destruction of that 
 overbearing power, and especially of its 
 capital city, Nineveh, an event which hap¬ 
 pened under Cyaxares the Mede, 623 b. c. 
 The style of the prophet is as classical as 
 that of Isaiah, and is not inferior to his in 
 force and originality of thought, clearness 
 of expression, and purity of diction. His 
 prophecy is divisible into three strophes, 
 which are coincident with the chapters. 
 
 “ Contents. —Chap. i. announces the Di¬ 
 vine purpose to inflict judgment on the 
 Assyrian oppressor of his people. Chap, 
 ii. anticipates the glad tidings of the con¬ 
 quest, sack, and destruction of Nineveh. 
 Chap. iii. represents the guilt of the city, 
 and depicts its inevitable ruin.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. 
 
 Na'in {beauty), a town in Galilee, now 
 called Nein , six miles southeast of Naza¬ 
 reth. It was here that Christ raised the 
 widow’s dead son to life. (Luke vii. 11-18.) 
 Its ruins indicate that it was once a town 
 of considerable size with walls and gates. 
 It is now a Mohammedan hamlet of about 
 twenty mud and stone houses. On the west 
 side of the village the rock is full of se¬ 
 pulchral caves. 
 
 Nantes, Edict of, a decree issued by 
 Henry IV. of France, in 1598, which se¬ 
 cured freedom of conscience to the Prot¬ 
 estants. Restrictions were, however, laid 
 upon them as to the times and places 
 where they might worship, and they were 
 obliged to observe the festivals and fasts 
 of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1685 
 the edict was revoked by Louis XIV. on 
 the ground that there were no Protestants 
 in France. Over one hundred ^thousand 
 among the Huguenots were driven from 
 the country in the persecutions that fol¬ 
 lowed. See Huguenots. 
 
 Naph'tali. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Narthex designated the ante-chapel of an 
 ancient church, in which the catechumens 
 and penitents gathered. In some churches 
 an outside corridor or cloister was called 
 the exterior narthex, and was occupied by 
 the “ mourners,” the name given the pen¬ 
 itents who were in the first stage of their 
 penance. 
 
 Na'than {given), { i)a celebrated prophet 
 of Judaea who exerted a marked influence 
 during the reigns of David and Solomon. 
 Through him came the divine message to 
 David that the building of the temple was 
 to be the work of his posterity. (2 Sam. 
 vii.) Nathan was the bearer of the mes¬ 
 sage which awakened the conscience of 
 David after his sin against Uriah (2 Sam. 
 xii.); and his influence did much to declare 
 Solomon the heir-apparent. (1 Kings i.) 
 (2) One of the sons of David by Bathsheba. 
 (1 Chron. iii. 5.) (3) Father of one of Da¬ 
 
 vid’s warriors. (2 Sam. xxiii. 36.) (4) One 
 of the chief men who returned to Jerusa¬ 
 lem with Ezra. (Ezra viii. 16.) 
 
 Nathan'ael. See Bartholomew. 
 
 Nativity of Christ. See Christmas. 
 
 Natural Ability. See Inability. 
 
 Natural Laws, or Laws of Nature, are 
 simply statements of the orderly condition 
 of things in nature. They state what is 
 found in nature by a sufficient number of 
 competent observers. Thus it has been 
 found that specimens of air in different 
 parts of the world have possessed about 
 the same weight; hence it is inferred that 
 the air everywhere has weight, and this is 
 called a law of nature. Again, Newton 
 observed that bodies fall to the ground at 
 a certain rate, and from this and many like 
 observations flowed the great law of gravi¬ 
 tation, another law of nature; and from 
 this, again, three others, the three laws of 
 motion. Sometimes the term Law of Na¬ 
 ture is applied to the condition which is 
 observed when several simple laws of nat¬ 
 ure act together; thus Darwin noticed 
 that those species of plants and animals 
 which could live and thrive on the plainest 
 food, which could get their food most 
 easily, and which could withstand the acci¬ 
 dents of weather, and of the attacks of their 
 neighbors, with the least harm, would, in 
 the long run, overpower and exterminate 
 less hardy species, and this, the “ survival 
 of the fittest,” is sometimes called a law of 
 nature. As an illustration—it has been 
 found that the common English fly, because 
 
 
Nat 
 
 ( ^54 ) 
 
 Nat 
 
 it is more thrifty and less dependent on 
 surrounding circumstances, will, in time, 
 exterminate the great blue-bottle of New 
 Zealand. The laws of nature, collectively, 
 are, briefly, then, the fewest and simplest 
 assumptions, which, being granted, the 
 whole existing order of nature would re¬ 
 sult. 
 
 The further that scientific research is 
 carried the more exactly is this “ reign of 
 law ” found to prevail, so that we never 
 look for any deviations from laws of nat¬ 
 ure: given certain conditions, we know 
 that they will be followed by certain other 
 conditions; the former we call cause, the 
 latter, effect. 
 
 To these laws of nature there are, in 
 Christian doctrine, apparently two great 
 classes of exceptions— miracles and the re¬ 
 sults of prayer. Thus we are brought face 
 to face with the questions—Can we believe 
 in miracles, which seem to contradict these 
 laws ? Can we believe that prayer will 
 produce any effect, when everything is 
 regulated by law? The Deist, who be¬ 
 lieves that God created the universe and 
 arranged it once for all, but does not now 
 interfere in its concerns, would say that 
 the Laws of Nature, as we call them, are 
 the expression of God’s mind and will, and 
 that hence any interference with them, 
 such as a miracle supposes, is impossible. 
 The world, like a vast and perfect clock, 
 has been wound up once for all, and not 
 the slightest deviation in its working is to 
 be looked for. But how stands the case 
 with those who believe in the beneficent 
 rule of a Personal God, whose tender 
 mercies are over all his works ? (The 
 general question of the credibility of mira¬ 
 cles will be found discussed in the article 
 Miracles.) In considering the relation 
 of miracles to the laws of nature, it should 
 be remembered that sin is always rep¬ 
 resented as having brought misery and 
 disorder into the fair order of nature, 
 whilst the effect of nearly all the mir¬ 
 acles recorded in the Bible was to re¬ 
 lieve misery or to restore some degree of 
 order. Again, many miracles were but 
 extensions or intensifications of natural oc¬ 
 currences; e. g., some of the “ plagues ” of 
 Egypt—the flies, the frogs, the locusts— 
 and even our Lord’s miracles of healing. 
 We cannot, then, regard them as contrary 
 to nature. Perhaps the simplest way of 
 looking at miracles, in regard to natural 
 laws, is to compare them with our own or¬ 
 dinary power of modifying the effects of 
 those laws. We cannot violate these, but 
 we can control, or alter the direction of the 
 action of many of them at pleasure; thus, 
 a ball thrown into the air would, by the 
 law of gravitation, fall to the earth, but we 
 
 can arrest the action of the law by catching 
 the ball in our hands, and, against the 
 same law, we can throw it up into the air 
 again. No law has been “ violated;” in¬ 
 telligent will has merely brought other 
 forces into play, which have temporarily 
 suspended the most conspicuous effect of 
 the law of gravity. Much of our life, as 
 animals, is consumed in struggling against 
 and modifying laws of nature, which 
 would, left to themselves, work our death. 
 Thus, we clothe our bodies to prevent that 
 continual radiation of heat which, in win¬ 
 ter at least, would be fatal to life. Now, 
 in our case the interference is exactly 
 known; but if God should see fit to sus¬ 
 pend or counteract laws of nature, though 
 he might employ means or other laws in a 
 similar way, the means being unknown to 
 us, what we call miracles .would be pro¬ 
 duced. Such considerations may prevent 
 us from falling into the mistake of looking 
 upon miracles as violent interruptions to 
 the course of nature. But whether God 
 actually has thus modified and controlled 
 the laws of nature is, of course, a different 
 inquiry, and in the present day the ques¬ 
 tion of the reality of miracles practically 
 centres in the greatest of them, the Resur¬ 
 rection of Christ. Accepting this, as the 
 Church does, all the others naturally fol¬ 
 low. 
 
 Similar remarks will apply in the case of 
 Prayer , since answers to many prayers 
 must be of a miraculous nature—special 
 providences, as they are called. If we can 
 so much control and modify the action of 
 natural laws, why is it not possible to God? 
 But the question is, Will God thus inter¬ 
 fere at our request? Some reply, No. 
 God has foreordained everything; and to 
 suppose that he would make any change 
 because we asked him would be to admit 
 that his arrangements were faulty and 
 needed amendment; prayer, therefore, can 
 only be useful to the one who prays, by 
 making him dwell on the goodness of God, 
 arousing his faith, etc. It may, however, 
 be replied that although God foresees all 
 things, he has yet given us freewill, and 
 has made us responsible for the use of our 
 wills, so that, in a manner never explained 
 to us, we have the ordering of our lives 
 and conduct largely in our own hands, and 
 that hence there must be room for prayer 
 in the providential arrangements of God. 
 Besides this, the promises that prayer shall 
 be heard and answered are so emphatic and 
 so varied (Matt. vii. 7, 8: Jas. i. 5; 1 John v. 
 14, 15), that we cannot doubt that God de¬ 
 sires us to pray in the full belief that, tin¬ 
 der the conditions he lays down, we shall 
 obtain our requests. (Prayer.) One con¬ 
 dition of rightful prayer is that we should 
 
Nat 
 
 ( 655 ) 
 
 Naz 
 
 not put any hindrance in the way of its ful¬ 
 filment; indeed, we ourselves are to fur¬ 
 ther it as far as we can. It follows from this 
 that we cannot expect an answer to our 
 prayer if we are wilfully doing that which 
 would make our desire impossible by a 
 law of nature; for instance, natural laws 
 tell us that a few grains of arsenic will de¬ 
 stroy life; it would then be clearly useless 
 to pray for deliverance from death if we 
 deliberately took what we knew to be a 
 fatal dose of the poison. Again, it would 
 be improper, and probably useless, to pray 
 for protection when amongst the sufferers 
 in an epidemic of cholera, if, knowing and 
 understanding the precautions to be used 
 {i. e., the natural laws of the disease), we 
 yet neglected them all when we might have 
 observed them. God expects us to show 
 our faith by using the reason he has given 
 us, and conforming, as far as we know 
 them, to the laws of nature, which are the 
 general expression of his will, and therefore 
 to be obeyed. 
 
 A very interesting question arises with 
 regard to Natural Law: Have we any rea¬ 
 son for supposing that laws of nature rule 
 in the spiritual as well as in the natural 
 world, or do they cease to have effect at 
 the boundary line of Matter and Spirit ? 
 From time to time analogies have been 
 traced between natural laws and spiritual 
 laws, but Professor Drummond, in a re¬ 
 markable book, Natural Law in the Spirit¬ 
 ual World, takes up the position that 
 spiritual laws are the same laws as natural 
 laws; that the spiritual world is arranged 
 on a like principle to the natural world, 
 and that it is under a like governmental 
 scheme. One example of Professor Drum¬ 
 mond’s method must suffice: Numerous 
 and exact experiments have conclusively 
 proved that life can only originate from 
 pre-existing life; that under no conditions 
 can particles of dead matter, whether organ¬ 
 ized or not, acquire life by themselves. 
 This fact of life only from life is known as 
 the Law of Biogenesis in the natural world. 
 Professor Drummond maintains that the 
 same law holds good in the spiritual world. 
 Except a ?nan be born again. . . . Except a 
 man be born of 70a ter and of the Spirit, he 
 cannot enter into the Kingdo?n of God. 
 That which is born of the flesh is flesh, and 
 that which is born of the Spirit is spirit. 
 (John iii. 3, 5, 6.) As in the natural, so 
 in the spiritual world, there is life only 
 from life. The general argument is very 
 interesting, and the analogies suggested 
 are in many points striking, and in some 
 cases seem of real value; but, as a whole, 
 the contention not only does not seem to 
 be made out, but very weighty reasons 
 have been advanced, both from science and 
 
 theology, against Professor Drummond’s 
 cardinal conclusion. — Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Natural Theology, the belief concern¬ 
 ing the existence and the character of God 
 which we derive from our observation of 
 the phenomena of nature. Thus Paley, 
 in his work bearing this title, argues for 
 the belief (1) i n design, i. e.,in an intelli¬ 
 gent Creator; and (2) in the goodness of the 
 Creator, judging from the arrangements 
 observable in the Creation for promoting 
 the happiness of the creatures. See God. 
 
 Nave, in modern churches, the central 
 division of the body of the church, as dis¬ 
 tinguished from the aisles on either side. 
 In ancient churches, the central portion 
 as distinguished from the narthex or ante- 
 chapel at the end, and the bema or chancel 
 at the other. It was occupied by those 
 worshippers who were in full communion 
 with the Church, and also by the penitents 
 of the third and fourth grades. In it stood 
 the ambo, or reading desk. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Naylor {na-ler ), James, b. in Yorkshire, 
 Eng., about 1616; d. 1660. He was a 
 quartermaster in the army for some time. 
 Converted under the preaching of George 
 Fox, he became a teacher of Quaker doc¬ 
 trines. His eccentric actions led to his 
 trial by Parliament for blasphemy,‘and he 
 was condemned to be whipped twice, to be 
 branded, and have his tongue bored with 
 a hot iron. Besides this cruel punishment, 
 he was imprisoned for two years. Upon 
 his release, his mind having regained san¬ 
 ity, he was received into the Society of 
 Friends, and labored among them with pen 
 and voice until his death. His Writings 
 were published in 1716. 
 
 Nazarenes. See Ebionites. 
 
 Nazareth “ in Galilee, now al-Nasira, 
 the city of Mary and Joseph, and the place 
 where our Lord spent his youth, is pleas¬ 
 antly situated in a hollow on the south 
 slope of the hills (J. al-Sekh) which bound 
 the plain of Esdraelon on the north. 
 Though it had a synagogue (Matt. xiii. 54; 
 Luke iv. 16), and is called in the Gospels a 
 city, Nazareth must have been an obscure 
 place in the time of Jesus, for we find no 
 mention of it outside of the New Testament 
 till Eusebius and Jerome identify it with a 
 ‘ village ’ which undoubtedly occupied the 
 place of the modern Nasira. In Jerome’s 
 time it was already visited by pilgrims, but 
 as yet we hear nothing of relics, or places 
 associated with special incidents in the life 
 
( 6 5 6 ) 
 
 NAZARETH, 
 
Naz 
 
 ( 6 57 ) 
 
 Nea 
 
 land that met with much favor, but his 
 fame rests chiefly upon his History of the 
 Puritans, or Protestant Nonconformists , 
 from the Reformation in iyij to the Revolu¬ 
 tion in 16SS (1793-95). An American edi¬ 
 tion of this work, edited by J. O. Choules, 
 was published in New York, 1844, 2 vols. 
 
 Neale, John Mason, b. in London, Jan. 
 24, 1818; d. at East Grinstead, Aug. 6, 
 1866. He was graduated at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, 1840, and from 1846 until the 
 time of his death was warden of Sackville 
 College, East Grinstead. He was an ex¬ 
 treme High - Churchman, and his views 
 made him for many years the subject of 
 much ridicule and persecution. He was a 
 prolific writer, and showed great ability in 
 defending his opinions. As a writer for the 
 young, he holds an enviable rank, and as a 
 poet he gained the Seatonian prize eleven 
 times. The work by which he is best 
 known is his translations of Mediaeval 
 Hymns, and his own contributions as a 
 hymn-writer. 
 
 Neander, Johann August Wilhelm, 
 “ by far the greatest of ecclesiastical his¬ 
 torians, was born at Gottingen, Jan. 16, 
 1789, of Jewish parentage. His name prior 
 to baptism was David Mendel. By the 
 mother’s side, he was related to the eminent 
 philosopher and philanthropist, Mendels¬ 
 sohn. Plato and Plutarch were his fa¬ 
 vorite classics as a boy; and he was pro¬ 
 foundly stirred by Schleiermacher’s famous 
 Discourses on Religion (1799). Finally, in 
 1806, he publicly renounced Judaism, and 
 was baptized, adopting, in allusion to the 
 religious change which he had experienced, 
 the name of Neander (Gr. neos , new; aner , 
 a man), and taking his Christian names 
 from several of his friends. His sisters 
 and brothers, and, later, his mother also, 
 followed his example. He now proceeded 
 to Halle, where he studied theology with 
 wonderful ardor and success under Schlei- 
 
 of Jesus. The population was mainly Jew¬ 
 ish—exclusively so, we are told by Epi- 
 phanius, down to the time of Constantine— 
 and the Jews, after their manner in modern 
 as in ancient times, seem to have been the 
 inventors of various marvellous relics and 
 identifications which were palmed off upon 
 Christian pilgrims in the sixth century. 
 Such at least is the natural inference from 
 what Antonius Martyr tells of these won¬ 
 derfully friendly and communicative He¬ 
 brews. A century later, Arculphus de¬ 
 scribes two great churches, corresponding 
 to the modern Greek church over the Vir¬ 
 gin’s Well, and the Latin church of the 
 Franciscan monastery over the Grotto of 
 the Annunciation. The place has since 
 passed through- various vicissitudes; it 
 was most flourishing in the time of the 
 Crusaders, who transferred to it the bish¬ 
 opric of Scythopolis. The Ottomans at 
 length expelled the Christians; but the 
 Franciscans established themselves under 
 the protection of Fakhr al-Din in 1620. The 
 town has now a Greek, a Latin, and a Mos¬ 
 lem quarter, as well as a Protestant mis¬ 
 sion and orphanage. The population is 
 variously estimated at from 6,000 to 10,- 
 000.”— Ency. Brilannica. 
 
 Naz'arites “ (from Heb. nazar , to sepa¬ 
 rate), denoted among the Jews those per¬ 
 sons, male or female, who had consecrated 
 themselves to God by certain acts of ab¬ 
 stinence, which marked them off, or ‘ sep¬ 
 arated them,’ from the rest of the commu¬ 
 nity. In particular, they were prohibited 
 from using wine or strong drink of any 
 kind, grapes, whether moist or dry, or from 
 shaving their heads. The law in regard to 
 Nazarites is laid down in the book of Num¬ 
 bers (vi. 1-21). The only examples of the 
 class recorded in Scripture are Samson, 
 Samuel, and John the Baptist, who were 
 devoted from birth to that condition, though 
 the law appears to contemplate temporary 
 and voluntary rather than perpetual Naza- 
 riteship.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. “ That 
 Paul, according to Acts xviii. 18, took the 
 Nazarite vow, is a mere conjecture: the 
 vow could be taken in a foreign country, 
 but not fulfilled outside of Palestine; and 
 there is nothing which indicates that Paul 
 ever fulfilled a vow at Jerusalem. ” — Oehler. 
 
 Neal, Daniel, author of the History of 
 the Puritans ; b. in London, Dec. 14, 1678; 
 d. at Bath, April 4, 1743. He was educat¬ 
 ed at Merchant Taylors’ School, London, 
 and then in 1700 went to Holland, and 
 studied at Utrecht and Leyden. Having 
 served as assistant to Dr. Singleton, Al- 
 dersgate Street, he succeeded him in 1706. 
 He published in 1720 a History of Neva Eng- 
 
 ermacher, and concluded his academic 
 course at his native town of Gottingen, 
 where Planck was then in the zenith of his 
 reputation as a church historian. Iri 1811 
 he took up his residence at Heidelberg 
 University as a privat-docent ; in 1812 he 
 was appointed there extraordinary profess¬ 
 or of theology; and in the following year 
 was called to the newly established uni¬ 
 versity of Berlin as professor of church 
 history. Here he labored till his death, 
 July 14, 1850. Neander enjoyed immense 
 celebrity as a lecturer. Students flocked 
 to him not only from all parts of Germany, 
 but from the most distant Protestant coun¬ 
 tries. Many Roman Catholics, even, were 
 among his auditors, and it is said that there 
 
Nea 
 
 (658) 
 
 Neb 
 
 is hardly a great preacher in Germany who 
 is not more or less penetrated with his 
 ideas. His character, religiously consid¬ 
 ered, is of so noble a Christian type that it 
 calls for special notice. Ardently and pro¬ 
 foundly devotional, sympathetic, glad- 
 hearted, profusely benevolent, and without 
 a shadow of selfishness resting on his soul, 
 he inspired universal reverence, and was 
 himself, by the mild and attractive sanctity 
 of his life, a more powerful argument on 
 behalf of Christianity than even his writ¬ 
 ings themselves. Perhaps no professor 
 was ever so much loved by his students as 
 Neander. He used to give the poorer 
 ones tickets to his lectures, and to supply 
 them with clothes and money. The great¬ 
 er portion of what he made by his books 
 he bestowed upon missionary, Bible, and 
 other societies, and upon hospitals. As a 
 Christian scholar and thinker he ranks 
 among the first names in modern times, and 
 is believed to have contributed more than 
 any other single individual to the over¬ 
 throw, on the one side, of that anti-histor¬ 
 ical rationalism, and on the other of that 
 dead Lutheran formalism, from both of 
 which the religious life of Germany had so 
 long suffered. To the delineation of the 
 development of historical Christianity he 
 brings one of the broadest, one of the most 
 sagacious (in regard to religious matters), 
 one of the most impartial yet generous and 
 sympathetic intellects. His conception of 
 church history as the record and portrait¬ 
 ure of all forms of Christian thought and 
 life, and the skill with which, by means of 
 his sympathy with all of these, and his ex¬ 
 traordinary erudition, he elicits, in his 
 Kirchengeschichte , the varied phenomena of 
 a strictly Christian nature, have placed 
 him far above any of his predecessors.”— 
 Chambers : Cyclopedia. The General History 
 of the Christian Religion and Church was 
 his main life-work. This work, admirably 
 translated by Prof. Torrey, has had a large 
 sale (12th ed., N. Y., 1882, 6 vols.). 
 Among his works that have been translated 
 into English are: History of the Planting 
 and Training of the Christian Church by the 
 Apostles (N. Y., 1869); Julian, the Apostate 
 (N. Y., 1850); The Life of Jesus Christ j 
 <N. Y., 1848). 
 
 Neap olis ( new city), memorable as the 
 first place in Europe visited by Paul. (Acts 
 xvi. ir.) He probably landed here on his 
 second missionary tour, and it was from 
 here he embarked on his last journey to 
 Jerusalem. (Acts xx. 1, 6.) The town is 
 eight or ten miles from Philippi in North¬ 
 ern Greece. It is now known as Ka- 
 ralla, and numerous ruins are in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Neba'ioth, son of Ishmael (1 Chron. i. 
 29), whose descendants, supposed to have 
 settled in Arabia, are identified with the 
 Nabatheans. Petra was their chief city. 
 
 Ne'bo, one of the Assyrian deities. He 
 is described as “ the far-hearing,” “ he of 
 intelligence.” The cuneiform arrow-head 
 is his emblem. The Assyrian monarch, 
 Pul, made the worship of Nebo very prom¬ 
 inent. A statue of Nebo, with his names 
 written across the body, is in the British 
 Museum. The fact that the name occurs 
 in so many compound words shows the 
 esteem in which the god was held. 
 
 Ne'bo, a city of Moab, taken possession 
 of by the Reubenites. Also a mountain 
 of the Abarim range in Moab, from which 
 Moses viewed the promised land, and 
 where he died. (Deut. xxxii. 49; xxxiv. 1- 
 5.) The majority of explorers identify 
 Nebo with the northern end of the Abarim 
 range, Jebel Neba. 
 
 Nebuchadnez'zar ( Nebo protect the crown), 
 the son and successor of Nabopolassar, 
 and the most famous of the Babylonian 
 kings. (2 Kings xxiv. 1; Dan. i.-iv.) As 
 co-regent and general under his father, he 
 led an army against Necho, king of Egypt, 
 and defeated him at Carchemish on the 
 Euphrates (b. C. 605). Tidings of the 
 death of his father called him back to 
 Babylon to take the throne. In the eighth 
 year of his reign he again invaded Pales¬ 
 tine and carried Jehoiachin and the best 
 of his people as captives to Babylon. (2 
 Kings xxiv. 10-16.) At the same time he 
 placed Mattaniah, the uncle of Jehoiachin, 
 on the throne, and changed his name to 
 Zedekiah. (2 Kings xxiv. 17.) In the 
 eighth year of his reign Zedekiah revolted, 
 and the following year Jerusalem was 
 again besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, and, 
 after many months (b. c. 586). was taken, 
 and the king of. Judah, after seeing his 
 sons slain before his eyes, was carried 
 to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar now began 
 the siege of Tyre, which lasted for thirteen 
 years. (Ezek. xxix. 18.) In the thirty-third 
 year of his reign he led his army against 
 Egypt, pushing on as far as the borders of 
 Ethiopia, where he was repelled by Hoph- 
 ra. Ten years later he sent an army 
 against Amasis, who was probably the 
 successor of Hophra. A record of this 
 campaign is found in the cuneiform in¬ 
 scriptions. There are other inscriptions 
 that give an account of his work at home 
 in restoring and building temples and con¬ 
 structing a magnificent palace. See G. 
 Rawlinson: Five Great Monarchies of An¬ 
 cient Eastern World (1879). See Daniel. 
 
Neb 
 
 ( 6 59 ) 
 
 Neh 
 
 Nebuzar-a'dan, captain of the body¬ 
 guard of Nebuchadnezzar. (2 Kings xxv. 8.) 
 He was chief in command at the siege and 
 capture of Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxv. 8-21.) 
 Five years later, when Tyre was besieged, 
 he came again to Jerusalem, and carried 
 away more captives. (Jer. lii. 30.) By com¬ 
 mand of Nebuchadnezzar he treated Jere- 
 jruah with great consideration. (Jer. xxxix. 
 11; lx. 1.) 
 
 Necessity, Moral, is the real and certain 
 connection between moral acts and their 
 causes. 
 
 Ne'cho, king of Egypt, and successor of 
 Psammetichus the Great, who reigned over 
 Egypt from 609 to 595 B. c. “ He sent out 
 an expedition of Phoenician sailors, who 
 successfully circumnavigated Africa in 
 three years. He also continued his father’s 
 work on the great canal, but gave it up 
 without completing it, probably on account 
 of his campaign against Assyria. With a 
 great army he landed in Syria, and defeated 
 Josiah at Megiddo, 608 b. c. , but was him¬ 
 self completely routed by Nebuchadnezzar 
 at Carchemish, 605 b. c. ; and in 597 b. c. 
 the Egyptians were again completely driven 
 out of Asia.”— Ruetschi. See 2 Kings xxiii. 
 
 sqq.\ xxiv. 7; 2 Chron. xxxv. 20-xxxvi. 
 4; Jer. xxii. 10; xv. 7; xlvi; Josephus: 
 Ant. 2, 5. 
 
 Necromancy (Gr. nekros. dead, and tuan¬ 
 te ia , divination), the art of revealing fu¬ 
 ture events by conversing with the dead. 
 It originated in the East, and amongst the 
 Greeks it was said to have been the inven¬ 
 tion of Orpheus. Thessaly was the chief 
 place where it was practiced, and it was 
 connected there with many horrible rites. 
 A distinct class of people called Psychago- 
 goi, “ evokers of spirits,” made it their pro¬ 
 fession. Its practice is condemned in the 
 Old Testament, where we have a singular 
 instance of it in the story of the witch of 
 Endor. With the establishment of Chris¬ 
 tianity by Constantine, necromancy was 
 strictly forbidden. It is still practiced by 
 some of the negro tribes in Western Africa. 
 Traces of it are to be found in old Scandi¬ 
 navian and Teutonic poems.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Neff, Felix, b. at Geneva, Oct. 8, 1798; 
 d. there, April 12, 1S29. In early life a 
 soldier in the garrison of his native city, 
 he was converted during a religious re¬ 
 vival, and was active in Christian service 
 among his comrades. Leaving the army 
 in 1819 he came to London, and in 1823 was 
 ordained to the ministry, and soon after 
 entered upon his labors in the Ilautes- 
 
 A(pes. The Waldenses who had sought 
 refuge in these lonely valleys had degener¬ 
 ated sadly, both in faith and morals. With 
 heroic courage Neff endured hardships that 
 cost him his life in this missionary work; 
 but he was eminently successful, and when 
 in 1827 he returned to Geneva to die, he 
 had the joy of knowing that the homes scat¬ 
 tered among these secluded valleys were 
 homes of faith and prayer. 
 
 Nehemi'ah, “son of Hachaiiah, prob¬ 
 ably of royal descent, is first mentioned in 
 the Bible as cup-bearer to Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, in his palace at Shushan, 
 about 444 B. c. Having learned the sad 
 fate of the returned colonists in Jerusalem, 
 he prevailed upon the king to send him to 
 his brethren there, with full powers ‘ to 
 seek their welfare.’ For twelve years 
 (444-432) he was untiringly engaged as 
 ‘governor’ in works for their safety 
 from within and without; re-fortifying the 
 city walls, notwithstanding the hindrances 
 and dangers that beset him on all sides; 
 inducing people from the country to take 
 up their permanent abode in the city, thus 
 promoting its prosperity; and finally, and 
 above all, rekindling the flame of ancient 
 piety and enthusiasm for the observance 
 of the law in the hearts of the rough im¬ 
 migrants. He then returned to Persia, 
 trusting to the new vitality which his re¬ 
 forms had, as he thought, infused into the 
 Jewish commonwealth. But not long 
 afterwards—within a period which it is ex¬ 
 tremely difficult now to fix—he had again 
 to obtain leave from the king, for the pur¬ 
 pose of abolishing the many abuses that 
 had crept in during his brief absence from 
 Jerusalem. His energies now were chiefly 
 directed against the foreign elements 
 mixed up with the people, both privately 
 and publicly. He enforced the rigorous 
 observation of feast and Sabbath, and re¬ 
 arranged the temple service in accordance 
 with its primeval purity, procuring at the 
 same time the means for its proper support, 
 by inducing the people to offer the tithes 
 as of old. His second stay at Jerusalem 
 seems to have lasted between ten and fif¬ 
 teen years; but the dates, as gathered 
 from circumstantial evidence only, are ex¬ 
 ceedingly vague. He seems to have lived 
 to an old age, but the place and year of his 
 death are unknown. What was the part he 
 took in the formation and redaction of the 
 biblical canon cannot be investigated in 
 this place. But there can hardly be a 
 doubt that, among the reformatory works 
 undertaken by him, the collection and per¬ 
 haps the edition of some of the books of 
 the Old Testament must be included. 
 
 “ The book known under his name (in 
 
Neh 
 
 ( 660 ) 
 
 Neo 
 
 13 chapters), is believed only partly his 
 own work. Recent investigation ascribes 
 to him only the first six chapters, part of 
 the seventh, and the last chapter and half; 
 the rest being a compilation of other 
 hands. Its style and character are very 
 simple, free from anything supernatural 
 or prophetic. Its language resembles 
 much that of Chronicles and Ezra, and is 
 replete with Aramaisms and other foreign, 
 partly Persian, words. Originally consid¬ 
 ered a mere continuation of the Book of 
 Ezra, it was by the Greeks and Latins at 
 first called ‘The Second Book of Ezra.’ 
 Gradually, however, it assumed its present 
 independent position in the canon after 
 Ezra. It is supposed to have been written 
 or compiled towards the end of Nehemiah’s 
 life.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. See Raw- 
 linson, in Speaker s Commentary', Crosby 
 in Lange’s Com. (New York, 1873). 
 
 Nehush'tan ( brazen thing), the contempt¬ 
 uous name which King Hezekiah gave to 
 the brazen serpent (Num. xxi. 8), when he 
 ordered it to be destroyed, because the 
 people burned incense to it as an idol. 
 
 (2 Kings xviii. 4.) 
 
 Nelson, David, Presbyterian clergyman; 
 b. near Jonesborough, Tenn., Sept. 24, 
 1793; d. at Oakland, Ill., Oct. 17, 1844. 
 After graduating at Washington College, 
 Va., in 1810, he first practised medicine. 
 Converted from infidel views, he then stud¬ 
 ied for the ministry, and was licensed to 
 preach in 1825. In 1830 he founded Marion 
 College, in Missouri, and for six years was 1 
 its president. His strong anti-slavery 
 sentiments compelled his resignation, and 
 in 1836 he opened a school at Oakland for 
 the training of ministe/s, especially for 
 missionary service. He is best known by 
 his work, Cause and Cure of Infidelity , pub¬ 
 lished in 1S36, which has passed through 
 many editions. 
 
 Neonomians, a name applied near the 
 close of the seventeenth century to Daniel 
 Williams and those who accepted his 
 views. They asserted that the old law was 
 entirely abolished, and that the new law 
 was embodied in Christianity, which had 
 taken its place. 
 
 Neophytes ( nedphutoi , the newly planted) 
 
 “ denoted, in the primitive Church, such as 
 had been recently baptized; see 1 Tim. iii. 
 
 6, where it is rendered ‘ novice.’ The 
 term was retained by the Fathers, though 
 with various modifications. According to 
 . I post. Canon, 50, a neophyte could hold no 
 office in the Church, except under peculiar 
 circumstances. Neophytes of the Roman 
 
 Catholic Church—that is non-Christians, 
 or Christians of other denominations, enter¬ 
 ing the Church of Rome—receive many 
 privileges from the pope.”—Schaff-Her- 
 
 zog: Ency. 
 
 Neo-Platonism, a system of philosophy, 
 which became prominent in Alexandria 
 about the end of the second century. Am- 
 monius Saccas (i. e., the sack-bearer), so 
 called from his having been in former years 
 a carrier, was at that time the chief teacher 
 of this school. But long before this, Philo 
 Judaeus, a contemporary of Christ, had pre¬ 
 pared the way, and by some is regarded as 
 the first of the Neo-Platonists. The chief 
 aim of this school was to popularize and re¬ 
 vive the doctrines of Plato, by showing that 
 all that was true in current systems of phi¬ 
 losophy was in harmony with Platonism. 
 At Alexandria every system of philosophy 
 and every religious sect had its represent¬ 
 atives; Ammonius Saccas taught that all 
 these were derived from one original and 
 perfect standard of philosophy, which 
 had been delivered to the Egyptians by 
 Hermes, and had been preserved in its 
 purity by Plato. The amalgamation of 
 the mysticism of Egypt with the specula¬ 
 tions of Plato, formed the basis of Neo-Pla¬ 
 tonism; and with it were blended many of 
 the doctrines of Aristotle, and of the exist¬ 
 ing philosophies. Ammonius, who had been 
 brought up as a Christian, held that Christ 
 was a great and wise teacher; but that 
 his followers were misled, and had cor¬ 
 rupted his teaching by spurious additions, 
 such as the Divinity of Christ, and other 
 doctrines. 
 
 Christ, he said, would be favorable to 
 Neo-Platonism, for he came to check error, 
 but not to abolish the true standard of 
 philosophy. Hence, Neo-Platonism, as 
 taught by Ammonius,was hostile to, and be¬ 
 came the powerful rival of, Christianity. 
 Other prominent teachers in this school 
 were Numenius, a Jew, Longinus and 
 Plotinus, and a powerful patron was found 
 in Julian the Apostate. Plotinus consoli¬ 
 dated Neo-Platonism, and reduced it to a 
 definite system. The Supreme Being, ac¬ 
 cording to this school, was a mystical Trin¬ 
 ity, consisting of unity, or Primitive Light, 
 the source of all things; intelligence, and 
 soul, from which emanated all the souls of 
 men and animals. The souls of men were 
 considered to be kept in their bodies as in 
 a prison, and hence self-denial and asceti¬ 
 cism were enjoined as a means towards the 
 release of the soul, and its rise above 
 earthly things. The most distinguished 
 pupil of Plotinus was Porphyry; in his 
 time Neo-Platonism became strongly hos¬ 
 tile to Christianity. Their last great 
 
Ner 
 
 ( 6bi ) 
 
 Nes 
 
 teacher was Proclus, a man of great learn¬ 
 ing, who lived about 450. In 519 the Em¬ 
 peror Justinian arbitrarily closed their 
 school at Alexandria, and dispersed their 
 followers, and by about the middle of the 
 century they had disappeared altogether. 
 But their system has greatly influenced 
 Christianity in all ages. Origen was a 
 pupil of Ammonius Saccas. Clement of 
 Alexandria, and other divines, may be 
 styled Christian Neo-Platonists, in that 
 they, like Ammonius, sought to find out 
 what was true in Platonism and in every 
 philosophy; and then to show that it was 
 in harmony with the Christian faith. 
 Truth, it was recognized, was not confined 
 to any one sect or system. Thus Clement, 
 in his Strom, i. 7, writes: “ By philosophy, 
 I mean not Stoic, Platonic, Epicurean, or 
 Peripatetic theories, but all sound teach¬ 
 ing of the collective schools, all precepts 
 of virtue that have connection with relig¬ 
 ious knowledge.” At the Reformation 
 Neo-Platonism flourished for a time, espe¬ 
 cially in Florence.—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Ner'gal, an Assyrian deity. In the Baby¬ 
 lonian star-worship, the planet Mars is 
 assigned to Nergal. A human-headed lion 
 with eagle’s wings was his symbol. His 
 name, with various titles, has been found 
 upon-the monuments. 
 
 Ner gal-Share'zer {prince of fire), the 
 name of two Babylonian noblemen who 
 accompanied Nebuchadnezzar at the cap¬ 
 ture of Jerusalem. (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13.) One 
 has the title Rabmag, and on Babylonian 
 bricks he is called Nergal-shar-uzar , Ru- 
 bucemga, the same as Neriglissar, who 
 married the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and succeeded him on the throne. His 
 palace has been discovered on the right 
 bank of the Euphrates. 
 
 Neri (nd’ree), Philip (Filippo de), 
 founder of the Congregation of the Ora¬ 
 tory, and a saint of the Roman Catholic 
 Church; b. at Florence, July 22, 1515; d. 
 at Rome, May 25, 1595. He was ordained 
 priest in the Lateran Church, Rome, in 
 1551, and the society which he founded 
 grew out of evening gatherings which he 
 held in a hall—the Oratory for prayer, 
 song, and readings from the Bible, the 
 Fathers, etc. Special attention was given 
 to the music, and the pieces chosen were 
 called “ oratorios.” The members of the 
 Congregation of the Oratory, which was rec¬ 
 ognized by papal decree in 1575, are not 
 monks, and do not renounce their private 
 fortune, nor take vows. In 1S47 Cardinal 
 Newman founded a Congregation of the 
 
 Oratory at Birmingham, Eng., and in 1849 
 F. W. Faber organized a Congregation in 
 London, of which he was superior. Neri 
 is described as a man of singular piety and 
 cheerful disposition. He was canonized 
 in 1622. 
 
 Nero, Roman Emperor, 54-68. The per¬ 
 secution of the Christians under this cruel 
 and despotic ruler took place A. u. 64. In 
 July of that year a fire broke out on the 
 southern side of the Palatine Hill, which 
 lasted for three or more days, and destroy¬ 
 ed ten out of the fourteen wards of the 
 city. It has been the common belief that 
 the fire was kindled by the orders of Nero, 
 with the purpose of rebuilding the city 
 with special reference to his own fame, 
 and in the excitement caused by the great 
 disaster he sought to allay suspicion by 
 charging the Christians with the deed. 
 The persecution that followed was terrible 
 in the extreme. 
 
 Nestorians, followers of Nestorius, who 
 was bishop of Constantinople from 428 to 
 431. Formerly a monk of Antioch, who 
 had gained some reputation as a scholar 
 and orator, he was nominated to the see of 
 Constantinople by the Emperor Theodo¬ 
 sius, and readily elected by the clergy 
 and people, to put an end to the distrac¬ 
 tions caused by the claims of the two rival 
 Constantinopolitan candidates, Proclus and 
 Philip of Lide. He began his episcopal 
 career by showing himself extremely zeal¬ 
 ous for the extirpation of heresy. After 
 denouncing heretics in no moderate terms 
 in a sermon preached on the day of his in¬ 
 stallation, he proceeded to active persecu¬ 
 tion of the Arians and other sects, atod 
 prevailed on the emperor to publish a 
 severe edict against them. But it was not 
 long before Nestorius himself was accused 
 of heretical views concerning the nature 
 of our Lord. Many eminent divines, espe¬ 
 cially those of the school of Alexandria, 
 in their zeal against Arianism, had been 
 led to insist so strongly upon the divine 
 nature of the Saviour as almost to exclude 
 the idea of his human nature ,and to assert of 
 him as God that which could strictly only 
 be said of him as man. For example, God 
 was said to have been born; to have suf¬ 
 fered and died. This tendency was strong¬ 
 ly condemned in a sermon preached at 
 Constantinople by Anastasius, a presbyter, 
 whom Nestorius had brought with him 
 from Antioch. Anastasius particularly 
 attacked the use of the term Theotokos 
 (Bearer or the Mother of God), which had 
 been applied to the Virgin Mary by Atha¬ 
 nasius and others, and was then in general 
 use. Nestorius supported these views of 
 
Nes 
 
 ( 662 ) 
 
 Nes 
 
 Anastasius in numerous sermons, in 
 which, among other things, he maintained 
 that it was not allowable to affirm that God 
 was born, or that man may be worshiped, 
 and proposed to replace the word Theot¬ 
 okos (which, however, he admitted in a cer¬ 
 tain sense) by Christotokos , i. e ., Mother 
 of Christ; urging that since both natures 
 were united in Christ, this term would ex¬ 
 press all the meaning that the older term 
 was meant to convey. These sermons 
 caused a great commotion in Constantino¬ 
 ple. Proclus and others vehemently op¬ 
 posed Nestorius; some even going so far 
 as to threaten to throw him into the sea. 
 The bishop, for his part, retaliated by 
 deposing, banishing, or whipping such of 
 his opponents as were under his authority. 
 The controversy spread, and soon reached 
 Egypt, where a number of monks adopted 
 Nestorian views. Cyril of Alexandria, 
 becoming aware of the dispute, entered 
 the lists as the opponent of Nestorius, 
 and the controversy between the two 
 bishops, inflamed by the standing rivalry 
 of their sees, assumed very much the 
 complexion of a personal quarrel. Cyril 
 enlisted the aid of Celestine, bishop of 
 Rome, and addressed several letters to 
 Nestorius, the most important of which 
 contained twelve anathemas, to which the 
 bishop of Constantinople was called upon 
 to subscribe. Nestorius answered by send¬ 
 ing back twelve counter anathemas. At 
 length a General Council was called at 
 Ephesus by the Emperor Theodosius to 
 settle the vexed questions, A. D. 431. John 
 of Antioch and other Eastern bishops were 
 unable to reach Ephesus at the time ap¬ 
 pointed, owing to the bad state of the 
 roads. Nevertheless, the Anti-Nestorians 
 determined to open the council, and a 
 session was held under the presidency of 
 Cyril. Nestorius was three times cited to 
 appear; but, with his suffragans, he re¬ 
 fused to obey, in the absence of the Ori¬ 
 entals. After the third citation the ques¬ 
 tion was discussed in his absence, and 
 Nestorius condemned and deposed, “ in 
 the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, whom 
 he hath blasphemed.” The emperor at 
 first refused to ratify this sentence, but 
 extensive bribery brought his court over 
 to the side of Cyril, and he was at last pre¬ 
 vailed upon to confirm the deposition, and 
 consent to the consecration of Maximian, 
 a monk, to the bishopric of Constantino¬ 
 ple. Nestorius was banished to his mon¬ 
 astery at Antioch, where he remained till 
 434. Maximian dying in that year, the 
 Nestorian party urged the restoration of 
 their leader, and the disturbance thus 
 caused became so serious that he was sen¬ 
 tenced to be banished for life to the Great 
 
 j Oasis. Here he was taken captive by a 
 wild people called the Blemmyae, who dev¬ 
 astated the Oasis. On being released by 
 these captors, he gave himself up to an 
 officer of the emperor in Egypt, under 
 whose treatment he died, about a. d. 440. 
 
 The followers of Nestorius, being driven 
 from the empire, wandered eastward, and 
 settled in Persia, Ceylon, and on the Mala¬ 
 bar, and other parts of the coast of India. 
 In the sixth century Nestorianism became 
 the established religion of Persia, and all 
 other forms of Christianity were forbidden. 
 The absence of continuous written history 
 prevents us from knowing accurately the 
 course of the Nestorian Church. That 
 they existed in China, in the 8th century, 
 is proved by the fact that the Jesuits, in the 
 17th century, found there a monument set 
 up by them in 781. In 125S twenty-five 
 Metropolitans acknowledged the authority 
 of the Nestorian patriarch of Bagdad. In 
 the primacy of Archbishop Tait,~of the 
 Church of England, repeated applications 
 having been made by the Nestorian Chris¬ 
 tians for instruction and help under isola¬ 
 tion and oppression, Dr. Cutts was sent 
 out to report on their condition. They 
 have had, at least, the courage of their 
 faith, however ignorant they may have 
 been. Education has been more than once 
 offered them by other Churches which had 
 a purpose behind—namely, to proselytize 
 them to their own views—a somewhat un¬ 
 generous method, and one which they 
 greatly resent. The wisest suggestion 
 which appears to have been made with re¬ 
 spect to them is, that means should be af¬ 
 forded of procuring their union with the 
 Eastern Church, as represented by the or¬ 
 thodox patriarchs. If Eastern Christians 
 could be brought to understand one an¬ 
 other better, and to see that their separa¬ 
 tion is largely owing to misrepresentations 
 and misunderstandings, a great benefit 
 would accrue to Christianity. It would 
 present an unbroken front to the reviving 
 fanaticism of Islam, which threatens even 
 yet to disturb very seriously the course of 
 civilization.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 The first American mission among the 
 Nestorians was founded by Rev. Justin 
 Perkins (</. v .), who sailed from Boston. 
 Sept. 21, 1833. The name of Dr. Asahel 
 Grant (t/. v.) is also connected with the 
 early development of this mission. The 
 work among the Nestorians was in charge 
 of the American Board until 1870, when 
 it Avas transferred to the care of the Pres¬ 
 byterian Church. The headquarters of 
 the mission is at Oroomiah, where an im¬ 
 portant school is doing a noble work among 
 a number of self-supporting churches. 
 The New Testament was printed in the 
 
Net 
 
 ( 663 ) 
 
 New 
 
 modern Syriac in 1846, and the entire Bible 
 in 1852. 
 
 Neth'inim. See Levites. 
 
 Nettleton, Asahel, an American Cal- 
 vinistic revivalist preacher; b. at Killing- 
 worth, Conn.. April 21, 1783; d. at East 
 Windsor, Conn., May 16, 1844. He was 
 graduated at Yale College in 1809, and was 
 licensed to preach in 1811. From 1811 to 
 1822 he engaged in active evangelistic 
 work in Connecticut, Massachusetts and 
 New York. In 1822 he was prostrated by 
 an attack of typhus fever, which left him, 
 ever after, a partial invalid. In 1830-31 he 
 held meetings in New York City, and in 
 1831 visited Europe. As a preacher his 
 ministrations were attended with great suc¬ 
 cess. Extremely conservative in his views, 
 he opposed in many respects the methods 
 of Mr. Finney and others. He published 
 Village Hymns (1824), which had a large 
 circulation. See Memoir of Rev. A. Nettle- 
 ton, D. D., by Bennet Tyler (Hartford, 
 1844). 
 
 Nevins, William, D. D., a distinguished 
 Presbyterian clergyman; b. in Norwich, 
 Conn., Oct. 13, 1797; d. in Baltimore, 
 Sept. 14, 1835. He was graduated at Yale 
 College in 1816, and after studying at 
 Princeton Seminary was installed as pas¬ 
 tor of the First Presbyterian Church, Bal¬ 
 timore. His ministry here was eminently 
 successful. He wrote a series of articles 
 in the New York Observer, that were pub¬ 
 lished under the title, Thoughts on l^opery 
 (N. Y., 1836). See Select Remains of W. 
 Nevins, D. D ., with a Memoir (N. Y. 1836). 
 
 New Birth. See Regeneration. 
 
 Newell, Harriet, b. at Haverhill, Mass., 
 Oct. 10, 1793; d. on the Isle of France, 
 Nov. 30, 1812. She was married to the 
 Rev. Samuel Newell in 1812, and the same 
 year sailed for Calcutta. They were not 
 allowed to land here, and went to the Isle 
 of France. Her early death, with the 
 story of her devotion to Christ, did much 
 to quicken sympathy in the cause of mis¬ 
 sions. Her Memoirs , by her husband, and 
 a Life with her Letters, and a Memorial 
 Sermon, by Dr. Woods, had a large circu¬ 
 lation. 
 
 Newell, Samuel, one of the first in Amer¬ 
 ica to engage in the work of foreign mis¬ 
 sions; b. at Durham, Me., July 24, 17S4; 
 d. in Bombay, India, March 30, 1S21. He 
 was graduated at Harvard in 1807, and at 
 Andover Seminary in 1809. Me was one of 
 the four young men whose petition for aid 
 
 to enter upon missionary service hastened 
 the organization of the American Board. 
 He was ordained, Feb. 6, 1812, at Salem, 
 with Judson, Nott, Rice and Gordon Hall. 
 With Judson he first went to Calcutta, 
 but not being allowed to remain there 
 he sailed for the Isle of France; from 
 there joined Hall and Nott at Bombay in 
 1814. He published, with Hall, The Con¬ 
 version of the World; or. The Claims of Six 
 Hundred Millions; and a Memoir of Harriet 
 Newell. 
 
 New England Theology is the name giv¬ 
 en to theological tenets that have been 
 widely accepted and have had a marked in¬ 
 fluence, especially in shaping the present 
 theological views held by Presbyterians 
 and Congregationalists in the United 
 States. The name is derived from the fact 
 that the men who promulgated these tenets 
 were New Englanders. “ The starting- 
 point in this new development of the Re¬ 
 formed faith is with Jonathan Edwards 
 (q. v.), who fortified the Calvinistic theol¬ 
 ogy against Arminian objections, in his 
 works on the Will and on Original Sin. 
 The central idea of his system is that of 
 spiritual life (holy love) as the gift of di¬ 
 vine grace. Samuel Hopkins gave to Ed¬ 
 wards’s theory of virtue (love to being), the 
 form of disinterested benevolence; held 
 that sin (overruled) was an advantage to 
 the universe; and equally enforced the di¬ 
 vine sovereignty and the obligation of im¬ 
 mediate repentance. (See Horkinsianism). 
 The younger Edwards modified the theory 
 of the atonement. Nathaniel Emmons 
 (q. v.) pressed the doctrine of divine ef¬ 
 ficiency, and the necessity of unconditional 
 submission, to their sharpest statement, 
 and matured the Exercise Scheme, i. e., 
 that no moral quality belongs to the soul 
 apart from its exercises—denying all orig¬ 
 inal sin, and making justification to consist 
 in pardon. Other Hopkinsians, Asa Bur¬ 
 ton, Leonard Woods, advocated the Taste 
 Scheme, i. e., that the essence of virtue or 
 vice is not in exercises, but in the antece¬ 
 dent taste or disposition. The Connecti¬ 
 cut theologians (Smalley, Dwight, Strong), 
 and other New England divines, preferred 
 a less extreme statement of the main points 
 of the Calvinistic system. The New Ha¬ 
 ven theology (see Taylor, N. W.) planted 
 itself in direct opposition to the old Hop- 
 kinsian theories on three points, viz., di¬ 
 vine efficiency, sin as the necessary means 
 of the greatest good, and the nature of 
 virtue, while agreeing with Emmons in the 
 position that all that is moral is in exer¬ 
 cises (interpreted as acts of the will).”— 
 Hagenbach: Hist, of Doctrine, vol. ii., pp. 
 435 ~ 3 ^* See art. by Edwards A. Park in 
 
New 
 
 ( 664 ) 
 
 New 
 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency.,\ ol. ii., pp. 1634-38; 
 works of Edwards, Bellamy, Hopkins, 
 Smalley, President Dwight, especially his 
 Theology Explained and Defended in a Se¬ 
 ries of Sermons , 4 vols.; works of Woods, 
 N. VV. Taylor, Bennet Tyler ( Lectures on 
 7'heology)\ Albert Barnes on the Atonement; 
 G. P. Fisher: Discussions in History and 
 Theology. 
 
 New Haven Divinity. See Taylor, 
 N. W. 
 
 New Jerusalem Church, a society that 
 was founded by the followers of Sweden¬ 
 borg (1/. v.), and so called because they 
 hold that their Church is the “ New Jeru¬ 
 salem ” spoken of in the Apocalypse. 
 
 In December, 1783, five persons met to¬ 
 gether in London in answer to an adver¬ 
 tisement for admirers of Swedenborg’s 
 writings, and these continued to meet at 
 intervals, and by April, 1787, they had in¬ 
 creased their number to thirty, and resolved 
 to form a society. Amongst the first dis¬ 
 ciples were two clergymen of the Church 
 of England, Thomas Hartley and John 
 * Clowes, also two Wesleyan preachers. The 
 following is a copy of the Articles of Faith 
 held by the New Church, not indeed writ¬ 
 ten by Swedenborg, but drawn up at the 
 
 Annual Conference of Ministers and Lav- 
 
 * 
 
 men. 
 
 The Articles of Faith of the New Church, 
 signified by the New Jerusalem in the 
 Revelation, are these: 
 
 “ 1. That Jehovah God, the Creator, and Preserver 
 of heaven and earth, is Love Itself, and Wisdom Itself, 
 or Good Itself, and Truth Itself; that he is one both in 
 Fssence and in Person, in whom, nevertheless, is the 
 Divine 'trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, which 
 are the essential Divinity, the Divine Humanity, and 
 the Divine Proceeding, answering to the soul, the body, 
 and the operative energy in man. And that the Lord 
 and Saviour Jesus Christ is that God. 
 
 “ 2. That Jehovah God himself descended from 
 heaven as Divine Truth, which is the Word, and took 
 upon him Human nature for the purpose of removing 
 from man the powers of hell, and restoring to order all 
 things in the Spiritual world, and all things in the 
 Church. That he removed from man the powers of hell, 
 by combats against and victories over them, in which 
 consisted the great work of Redemption. That by the 
 same acts, which were his temptations, the last of which 
 was the Passion of the Cross, he united, in his Human¬ 
 ity, Divine truth to Divine good, or Divine wisdom to 
 Divine love, and so returned into his Divinity in which 
 he was front eternity, together with and in his Glorified 
 Humanity ; whence he for ever keeps the infernal pow¬ 
 ers in subjection to himself. And that all who believe 
 in him with the understanding from the heart, and live 
 accordingly, will be saved. 
 
 “ 3. That the sacred Scripture, or Word of God, is 
 Divine Truth Itself containing a Spiritual sense hereto¬ 
 fore unknown, whence it is Divinely inspired and holy 
 in every syllable, as well as a literal sense, which is the 
 basis of its spiritual sense, and in which Divine Truth 
 is in its fulness, its sanctity, and its power. Thus, that 
 it is accommodated to the apprehension both of angels 
 and men. That the spiritual and natural senses are 
 united by correspondences, like soul and body, every 
 natural expression and image answering to, and includ¬ 
 
 ing, a spiritual and Divine idea. And thus, that the 
 Word is the medium of communication with heaven, 
 and of conjunction with the Lord. 
 
 “4. That the government of the Lord’s Divine Love 
 and Wisdom is the Divine Providence; which is univer¬ 
 sal, exercised according to certain fixed laws of order, 
 and extending to the minutest particulars of the life of 
 all men, both of the good and of the evil. That in all 
 its operations it has respect to what is infinite and eter¬ 
 nal, and makes no account of things transitory but as 
 they are subservient to eternal ends; thus, that it main¬ 
 ly consists, with man, in the connection of things tem¬ 
 poral with things eternal; for that the continual aim of 
 the Lord, by his Divine Providence, is to join man to 
 himself, and himself to man, that he may be able to 
 give him the felicities of eternal life. And that the laws 
 of permission are also the laws of the Divine Provi¬ 
 dence ; since evil cannot be prevented without destroy¬ 
 ing the nature of man as an accountable agent; and 
 because, also, it cannot be removed unless it be known, 
 and cannot be known unless it appear. Thus, that no 
 evil is permitted but to prevent a greater ; and all is 
 overruled by the Lord’s Divine Providence for the 
 greatest possible good. 
 
 “ 5. That man is not life, but only a recipient of life 
 from the Lord, who, as he is Love Itself, and Wisdom 
 Itself, is also Life Itself; which life is communicated 
 by influx to all in the spiritual world, whether belong¬ 
 ing to heaven or to hell, and to all in the natural world ; 
 but is received differently by every one, according to 
 his quality and consequent state of reception. 
 
 “6. That man, during his abode in the world, is, as 
 to his spirit, in the midst between heaven and hell, act¬ 
 ed upon by influences from both, and thus is kept in a 
 state of spiritual equilibrium between good and evil; in 
 consequence of which he enjoys freewill, or freedom 
 of choice, in spiritual things as well as in natural, and 
 possesses the capacity of either turning himself to the 
 Lord and his kingdom, or turning himself away from 
 the Lord, and connecting himself with the kingdom of 
 darkness. And that, unless man had such freedom of 
 choice, the Word would be of no use, the Church would 
 be of no use ; the Church would be a mere name, man 
 would possess nothing by virtue of which he could be 
 conjoined to the Lord, and the cause of evil would be 
 chargeable on God himself. 
 
 ‘ ‘ 7. That man at ttlis day is born into evil of all kinds, 
 or with tendencies toward it. That, therefore, in order 
 to his entering the kingdom of heaven, he must be regen¬ 
 erated or created anew; which great work is effected 
 in a progressive manner, by the Lord alone, by charity 
 and faith as mediums during man’s cooperation. That 
 as all men are redeemed, all men are capable of being 
 regenerated, and consequently saved, every one ac¬ 
 cording to his state. And that the regenerated man is 
 in communion with the angels ofheaven, and the unre¬ 
 generate with the spirits of hell. But that no one is 
 condemned for hereditary evil, any further than as he 
 makes it his own by actual life; whence all who die in 
 infancy are saved, special means being provided by the 
 Lord in the other life for that purpose. 
 
 “8. That repentance is the first beginning of the 
 Church in man ; and that it consists in a man’s examin¬ 
 ing himself, both in regard to his deeds and his inten¬ 
 tions, in knowing and acknowledging his sins, confessing 
 them before the Lord, supplicating him for aid, and be¬ 
 ginning a new life. That to this end, all evils, whether 
 of affection, of thought, or of life, are to be abhorred 
 and shunned as sins against God, and because they 
 proceed from infernal spirits, who in the aggregate are 
 called the Devil and Satan ; and that good affections, 
 good thoughts, and good actions are to be cherished 
 and performed because they are of God and from God. 
 That these things are to be done by man as of himself; 
 nevertheless, under the acknowledgment and belief 
 that it is from the Lord, operating in him and by him. 
 That so far as man shuns evils as sins, so far they are 
 removed, remitted, or forgiven ; so far also he does 
 good, not from himself, but from the Lord ; and in the 
 same degree he loves truth, has faith, and is a spiritual 
 man. And that the Decalogue teaches what evils are 
 sins. 
 
 “ q . That Charity. Faith, and Good Works are unit- 
 
New 
 
 ( ^ 6 5 ) 
 
 New 
 
 ediy necessary to man’s salvation; since charity with¬ 
 out faith is not spiritual but natural; and faith without 
 charity is not living but dead; and both charity and 
 faith, without good works, are merely mental and per¬ 
 ishable things, because without use or fixedness. And 
 that nothing of faith, of charity, or of good works is of 
 man, but that all is of the Lord, and all the merit is his 
 alone. 
 
 “ io. That Baptism and the Holy Supper are sacra¬ 
 ments of Divine institution, and are to be permanently 
 observed; Baptism being an external medium of intro¬ 
 duction into the Church, and a sign representative of 
 man’s purification and regeneration; and the Holy Sup¬ 
 per being an external medium, to those who receive it 
 worthily, of introduction, as to spirit, into heaven, and 
 of conjunction with the Lord, of which also it is a sign 
 and seal. 
 
 “ 11. That immediately after death, which is only a 
 putting off of the material body, never to be resumed, 
 man rises again in a spiritual or substantial body, in 
 which he continues to live to eternity; in heaven, if his 
 ruling affections, and thence his life, have been good; 
 and in hell, ifhis ruling affections, and thence his life, 
 have been evil. 
 
 “ 12. That now is the time of the Second Advent of 
 the Lord, which is a coming, not in Person, but in the 
 power and glory of his Holy Word. That it is attend¬ 
 ed, like his first coming, with the restoration to order of 
 all things in the spiritual world, where the wonderful 
 Divine operation, commonly expected under the name 
 of the Last Judgment, has in consequence been per¬ 
 formed; and with the preparing of the way for a New 
 Church on the earth, the first Christian Church having 
 spiritually come to its end of consummation, through 
 evils of life and errors of doctrine, as foretold by the 
 Lord in the Gospels. And that this New or Second 
 Christian Church, which will be the Crown of all 
 Churches, and will stand for ever, is what was represent¬ 
 atively seen by John, when he beheld the holy city, 
 New Jerusalem, descending from God out of heaven, 
 prepared as a bride adorned for her husband.” 
 
 The general affairs of the New Church 
 are administered by a conference of minis¬ 
 ters and laymen. Itfc principal societies 
 for spreading its doctrines are the “ Swe¬ 
 denborg Printing Society,” established in 
 iSio, and the Missionary and Tract Society, 
 established in 1S21. Its disciples are found 
 now in all parts of Christendom; its first 
 minister in America was ordained in 1798, 
 since which time it has made great prog¬ 
 ress. 
 
 At the present time there are in England 
 about seventy - five societies, twelve of 
 which are in London or its neighborhood; 
 they are governed by a Conference, which 
 meets annually, and is composed of minis¬ 
 ters and representatives of the societies. 
 In America, where there is a still greater 
 number of societies, they have a general 
 convention composed of eleven associations 
 and six societies. They have also societies 
 in Germany, Austria, France, Switzerland, 
 Italy, Norway and Sweden, Australia, and 
 Africa.—Benham; Diet, of Religion. See 
 works of Swedenborg, and biographies of 
 him by White, Wilkinson, Hobart, and 
 Worcester. 
 
 Newman, John Henry, Cardinal of the 
 Roman Catholic Church; b. in London, 
 Feb. 21, 1801; d. at Birmingham, Aug. ir, 
 1890. Educated at Trinity College, Ox¬ 
 
 ford, he was graduated with honors in 
 1822, and two years later became fellow of 
 Oriel College, and in 1826 vice-principal 
 of St. Alban’s Hall, and, soon after, tutor 
 of his college. In 1828 he was appointed 
 incumbent of St. Mary’s, Oxford, and 
 chaplain of Littlemore. In the years that 
 followed, up to 1843, he was, with Dr. 
 Pusey ( q . v. ), a recognized leader of the 
 High-Church party in the Church of Eng¬ 
 land, and by his brilliant intellectual qual¬ 
 ities and moral worth exerted a great in¬ 
 fluence upon the under-graduates of the 
 University. With Dr. Pusey, he undertook 
 the editorship of the now famous Tracts 
 for the Ti?nes , and personally prepared 
 twenty-four of the entire series. He wrote 
 No. 90 (the last of the series), which ap¬ 
 peared March, 1841, and was an argument 
 in behalf of the position that the Thirty- 
 nine Articles may be interpreted in the 
 Roman Catholic sense. This tract roused 
 such a tempest of opposition, that New¬ 
 man, after avowing its authorship, retired 
 to Littlemore, where, for three years, with 
 a few kindred spirits, he lived in seclusion. 
 In 1845 he severed his connection with the 
 Church of England, and united with the 
 Church of Rome. Entering the priesthood, 
 he was, in 1847, appointed to found the 
 Oratory of St. Philip Neri, in England, 
 and, in 1854, was appointed rector of the re¬ 
 cently founded Roman Catholic University 
 at Dublin, a position which he resigned in 
 1858, and returned to Birmingham to take 
 charge of a school for the sons of Roman 
 Catholic gentry at Edgbaston, near that 
 city. He was created a cardinal by Pope 
 Leo XIII., May 12, 1879, an d from this 
 time the life of the eminent prelate was 
 spent, for the most part, in the Birming¬ 
 ham Oratory. Besides his influence on re¬ 
 ligious thought, Newman wasa consummate 
 master of English style, and left a perma¬ 
 nent impress upon the literature of this 
 century. A collected edition of his works 
 appeared in London, 1870-79, 36 vols.* Pa¬ 
 rochial and Plain Sermons, 8 vols.; and three 
 other volumes of sermons; five volumes 
 of miscellanies and two religious novels; 
 his autobiography, Apologia pro Vita Sua 
 (1864); Arians of the Fourth Century (1833); 
 Essay on the Development of Christian 
 Doctrine (1845); Difficulties of Anglicans 
 (1850), 2 vols.; Essays in Aid of the Grarn- 
 mar of Assent (1870). He was the author 
 of the beautiful hvmn, “ Lead, Kindlv 
 Light.” 
 
 Newman, John Philip, D. D. (Rochester 
 Seminary, N. Y., 1864), LL. D. (Wesleyan 
 University, Athens, Tenn., 1882), Metho¬ 
 dist; b. in New York City, Sept. 1, 1826; 
 was graduated at Cazenovia Seminary.1848; 
 
New 
 
 ( 666 ) 
 
 Nic 
 
 entered the ministry of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, 1848; was editor of the 
 New Orleans Advocate, 1866—69; pastor of 
 the Metropolitan Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, Washington, D. C., 1869-72, 1S75- 
 78; and chaplain to the United States Sen¬ 
 ate, 1869-75; elected bishop in 1888. He 
 is the author of: Fro?n Dan to Beer-sheba; 
 or, The Land of Promise, as it now Appears 
 (New York, 1864); The Thrones and Palaces 
 of Babylon and Nineveh, from the Persian 
 Gulf to the Mediterranean (1876); Sermons 
 Preached in the Metropolitan Church (Wash¬ 
 ington, D. C., 1876); Christianity Trium¬ 
 phant (New York, 1884). 
 
 Newton, John, b. in London, July 24, 
 1725; d. there, Dec, 31,1807. In early life 
 he was a sailor and for a time he was in 
 charge of an African slave-ship. Between 
 1750 and 1754 a great change came in his 
 life and purposes, and having decided to 
 take orders in the Church of England he 
 was finally ordained in 1764. He became 
 curate of Olney in Buckinghamshire,where 
 he formed an intimate friendship with the 
 poet Cowper. From Olney he became rec¬ 
 tor of St. Mary Woolnoth, where he la¬ 
 bored until an advanced age. He was a 
 recognized leader of the Evangelical wing 
 of the Church of England. He contributed 
 many of the best of the famous Olney 
 Hymns, and his letters, published under 
 the titles of Omicron and Cardiphonia (1816), 
 were very popular. The epitaph upon his 
 monument, written by himself, reads as 
 follows: “ John Newton, clerk, once an in¬ 
 fidel and libertine, a servant of slaves in 
 Africa, was, by the rich mercy of our Lord 
 and Saviour Jesus Christ, preserved, re¬ 
 stored, pardoned, and appointed to preach 
 the faith he had long labored to destroy.” 
 
 Newton, Richard, D. D. (Kenyon Col¬ 
 lege, Gambier, O., 1845), (Low-Church), 
 Episcopal; b. in Liverpool, Eng., July 25, 
 1813; was graduated at the University of 
 Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1836, and at 
 General Theological Seminary, New York 
 City, 1839; became rector of St. Paul’s 
 Church, Philadelphia, 1840; of Church of 
 the Epiphany, 1862; of Church of the Cove¬ 
 nant, 1882. He has gained a world-wide 
 reputation as the author of volumes of ser¬ 
 mons for children and youth. Among other 
 books he has written are: Pearls from the 
 East: Stories and Incidents from Bible His¬ 
 tory (Philadelphia, 1881); Covenant Names 
 and Privileges (New York, 1882); A Bible 
 Portrait-Gallery (Philadelphia, 1SS5); He¬ 
 roes of the Reformation (1885). 
 
 Newton, Robert, a distinguished Wes¬ 
 leyan minister; b. at Roxbv, Yorkshire, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1780; d. April 30, 1854. He be¬ 
 came a member of the British Conference, 
 in 1799, and soon gained wide reputation 
 as a pulpit orator. He was elected presi¬ 
 dent of the British Conference four times, 
 and in 1839 was sent as a delegate to the 
 General Conference of the Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Church of the United States. A vol¬ 
 ume of his sermons was published in 1856. 
 See his Life, by Jackson (London, 1855). 
 
 Nicaea, Council of. This was the first 
 council in which East and West met to¬ 
 gether, and hence it is the first of the four 
 General Councils of the Church. The 
 peace of the Church had been greatly dis¬ 
 turbed by the teaching of Arius and his 
 followers concerning the Divinity of Christ, 
 whereupon the Emperor Constantine, be¬ 
 ing anxious to see the Church united and 
 at peace, summoned a General Council to 
 meet at Nicaea, in Bithynia, in June, 325, to 
 settle the questions at issue. Nicaea was 
 chosen as the place of assembly partly be¬ 
 cause of its healthy situation, and partly 
 on account of its nearness to the seat of 
 government, Nicomedia, twenty miles 
 distant. 
 
 The number of bishops who attended 
 the council has been generally received as 
 318; and each bishop had two presbyters 
 and other attendants, so that the whole as¬ 
 sembly numbered, according to some ac¬ 
 counts, over 2,000. As Arianism was of 
 Eastern growth, and unknown in the W T est, 
 the great majority of the council were 
 Eastern bishops, only about ten coming 
 from the West. The composition of the 
 assembly was of a very mixed character. 
 There were deputies from Egypt, headed 
 by Alexander, the aged bishop of Alexan¬ 
 dria; in attendance upon him was a young 
 deacon, twenty-five years of age, repre¬ 
 sented as small and insignificant, but who 
 was none other than the great Athanasius, 
 the champion of the orthodox; from Alex¬ 
 andria also came Arius, the leader of the 
 opposite party. There were also bishops 
 from Syria, including Eustathius of An¬ 
 tioch; Eusebius, the historian, of Csesarea, 
 who was suspected of being an Arian; one 
 bishop came from Persia, another from 
 Armenia, others from Asia Minor, Greece, 
 and Cyprus. Another conspicuous bishop 
 was Eusebius, of Nicomedia, a strong 
 Arian. It was from his hands that the 
 Emperor Constantine, on his deathbed, re¬ 
 ceived the rite of Baptism. Alexander, a 
 presbyter, and Acesius the Novatian, rep¬ 
 resented Byzantium; and Marcellus, 
 bishop of Ancyra, was a prominent speak¬ 
 er on the orthodox side; all these came 
 from the East. The West was represented 
 by deputies from France, Calabria, SicHy, 
 
( 667 ) 
 
 Nic 
 
 Nic 
 
 and Milan. Rome sent two presbyters, 
 Victor and Vincentius, her bishop, Sylves¬ 
 ter, being too aged to be present. From 
 Carthage came Ciecilian, and from Spain 
 Hosius, bishop of Cordova, who is repre¬ 
 sented as holding the chief place in the 
 council, at the emperor’s right hand. The 
 sight of these Fathers of the Church was 
 rendered deeply impressive by the fact 
 that the majority of them bore traces of 
 the severe persecutions through which 
 they had passed. They were truly an ar¬ 
 my of confessors; and for this reason they 
 were peculiarly qualified to testify what 
 was the true faith of the Church. Many 
 heathen philosophers were attracted to 
 Nicaea, and discussed with the bishops out¬ 
 side the council. 
 
 On the arrival of Constantine, the coun¬ 
 cil was formally opened; first, an address 
 to the emperor was recited by Eusebius 
 of Caesarea, and a thanksgiving to God for 
 the emperor’s victory over Licinius. Con¬ 
 stantine, from his throne in the midst of 
 the council, then addressed the assembled 
 bishops, exhorting them to unity and con¬ 
 cord; and then, in order to promote this 
 desirable end, he openly in their presence 
 burnt all the written complaints and accu¬ 
 sations that various bishops had laid before 
 him, adding these words: “ It is the com¬ 
 mand of Christ that he who desires to be 
 himself forgiven must first forgive his 
 brother.” Coming now to the main pur¬ 
 pose for which the council was assembled, 
 viz.: the determining of the faith that had 
 been attacked by Arius, it seems certain 
 that Arius was heard in defence of his 
 opinions, and that he boldly adhered to 
 them; whereupon the assembled bishops 
 raised their hands and closed their ears in 
 horror at such blasphemous words. Arius 
 was expelled, and the council set them¬ 
 selves to issue the result of their deliber¬ 
 ations in the form of a creed, setting forth 
 the true faith. First of all, Eusebius of 
 Caesarea presented a creed which had been 
 long in use in Caesarea; the Arian bishops, 
 about eighteen or twenty in number, were 
 willing to sign it; but as this creed evaded 
 the very points at issue, a very important 
 phrase was inserted, viz: homoousion to 
 patri —“ of one substance with the Father,” 
 and other alterations. The creed of Caesa¬ 
 rea was then adopted as the faith or creed 
 of the Council of Nicaea. The emperor 
 acquiesced in the decision of the council, 
 banished Arius and his followers, and or¬ 
 dered all the heretic’s writings to be burnt. 
 He further decreed to banish any who re¬ 
 fused to subscribe the Nicene Creed. The- 
 onas and Secundus were the only two bish¬ 
 ops who persevered in refusing to subscribe 
 to the Creed, and they were banished. 
 
 The following anathema was added to 
 the Creed: 
 
 “But those that say ‘there was when he was not,’ 
 and ‘before he was begotten he was not,’ and that ‘ he 
 came into existence from what was not,’ or who profess 
 that the Son of God is of a different ‘ person ’ or ‘ sub¬ 
 stance,’ or that he was created, or changeable, or vari¬ 
 able, the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes 
 them.” 
 
 Another question was settled by this 
 council, viz., the date for keeping Easter. 
 The council decreed by common consent 
 (i) to discard the custom of keeping the 
 Christian Passover on the same day as the 
 Jewish, viz., the 14th of Nisan, and (2) to 
 keep it on the Sunday that came next after 
 the full moon of the vernal equinox. 
 
 The council, before breaking up, passed 
 twenty canons for the correction of abuses, 
 and for regulating the discipline and gov¬ 
 ernment of the Church. Of these twenty 
 Nicene canons, the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 17th re¬ 
 fer to the morals and behavior of the cler¬ 
 gy; the 17th, forbidding usury; the other 
 three restraining abuses now happily ex¬ 
 tinct. The 4th, 5th, Cth, 7th, 15th, 16th, 
 and 18th refer to clerical discipline. The 
 4th is still observed throughout the great¬ 
 er part of Christendom, and orders three 
 bishops, at least, to be present at the con¬ 
 secration of a bishop. The 5th limits the 
 power of the bishop, by ordering a synod 
 to meet twice a year in order to investigate 
 the cases of those excommunicated. The 
 6th and 7th preserved to the Metropolitans 
 of Alexandria, Antioch, and Caesarea their 
 ancient privileges. The 15th has been gen¬ 
 erally disregarded throughout the Church; 
 it forbids the translation or promotion of 
 ecclesiastics from one city to another. 
 The 18th restrains the powers of deacons, 
 who, in that age, practiced a kind of tyran¬ 
 ny, which has been imitated by the other 
 orders of the ministry in later times. The 
 16th forbids bishops to ordain outside their 
 own dioceses. Other canons refer to the 
 cases of those who have “ lapsed ” in times 
 of persecution, laying down on what con¬ 
 ditions such are to be received back into 
 the Church. The last canon, the 20th, di¬ 
 rects prayers to be offered up, the people 
 standing. 
 
 Another question, of local interest only, 
 was settled, viz., the Melitian schism in the 
 Church in Egypt. 
 
 The work of the council was now com¬ 
 pleted. The emperor, in a letter to the 
 Churches throughout the empire, set forth 
 the settlement of the Arian and Paschal 
 controversies; and, having entertained the 
 whole of the bishops present at the coun¬ 
 cil, dismissed them to their dioceses, ex¬ 
 horting them to prize concord above all 
 things, and begging them to pray for him. 
 
Nic 
 
 ( 668 ) 
 
 Nim 
 
 The council, which had commenced prob¬ 
 ably in June, closed with the banquet on 
 July 25.—Benham: Did. of Religion 
 
 Nicseno-Constantinopolitan Creed, The, 
 used in all the Greek and Roman churches, 
 and recognized by most of the denomina¬ 
 tions of Protestantism, is, according to the 
 generally received opinion, a recension, 
 made at the Council of Constantinople in 
 381, of the creed formulated by the Coun¬ 
 cil of Nicaea, in 325. Recent investiga¬ 
 tions, however, have led scholars to con¬ 
 sider the Constantinopolitan Creed “an 
 apocryphal work, like the Apostle’s Creed 
 and the Athanasian. It is at once older 
 and younger than the Council of 381. The 
 historical student will compare its contents 
 with the theology of Cyril and Athanasius. 
 After the middle of the fifth century, the 
 Fathers regarded it as an enlarged form of 
 the Nicene, and used it against Apollinaris, 
 Nestorius, and Eutyches.” See art. by 
 Prof. Harnack in Schaff-Herzog: Ency .— 
 Schaff: Creeds of Christendom. 
 
 Nicene Creed. See Creed, Nicene. 
 
 Nicholas, the name of five popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Nicode'mus, “ a Pharisee, a ruler of the 
 Jews, and teacher of Israel (John iii. 1, 10), 
 whose secret visit to our Lord was the oc¬ 
 casion of the discourse recorded only by 
 St. John. The high station of Nicodemus 
 as a member of the Jewish Sanhedrim, and 
 the avowed scorn under which the rulers 
 concealed their inward conviction (John iii. 
 2) that Jesus was a teacher sent from God, 
 are sufficient to account for the secrecy of 
 the interview. A constitutional timidity 
 is discernible in the character of the in¬ 
 quiring Pharisee. Thus the few words 
 which he interposed against the rash injus¬ 
 tice of his colleagues are cautiously rested 
 on a general principle (John vii. 50), and 
 betray no indication of his faith in the Ga¬ 
 lilean whom his sect despised. And even 
 when the power of Christ’s love, mani¬ 
 fested on the cross, had made the most 
 timid disciples bold, Nicodemus does not 
 come forward with his splendid gifts of af¬ 
 fection until the example had been set by 
 one of his own rank and wealth, and station 
 in society (xix. 39). In these three no¬ 
 tices of Nicodemus, a noble candor and a 
 simple love of truth shine out in the midst 
 of hesitation, and fear of man. We can 
 therefore easily believe the tradition, that 
 after the resurrection he became a pro¬ 
 fessed disciple of Christ, and received bap¬ 
 tism at the hands of Peter and John.”— 
 Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Nicolaitans, a heretical sect, holding the 
 doctrines of Antinomianism, and condemn¬ 
 ed in the Book of Revelation as holding 
 “ the doctrine of Balaam .... to eat 
 things sacrificed unto idols, and to commit 
 fornication.” Probably it was these whom 
 St. Paul described as “glorying in their 
 shame, minding earthly things.” The 
 Nicolaitans are thought by some to derive 
 their name from Nicolas the proselyte; 
 others believe that the name is only the 
 Greek form of Balaam, “destroyer of the 
 people,” of whom they were supposed to 
 be symbolical. They are spoken of by 
 Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement of Alex¬ 
 andria, as being in existence in the second 
 century; and Epiphanius says that the sect 
 became merged in that of the Gnostics. 
 
 Nicop'olis. There are several cities of 
 this name, but the Nicopolis in which Paul 
 determined to winter (Tit. iii. 12) was, 
 with little doubt, the city in Epirus founded 
 by Augustus to celebrate his victory at 
 Actium, b. c. 31. 
 
 Niedner, Christian Wilhelm, an emi¬ 
 nent church historian; b. in Oberwinkel, 
 Saxony, Aug. 9, 1797; d. in Berlin, Aug. 
 13, 1865. He studied theology at Leipzig, 
 where he became professor extraordinary 
 in 1829, and doctor of theology and ordinary 
 professor in 1838. This position he retain¬ 
 ed until the revolution of 1848, when he re¬ 
 tired to Wittenberg, and remained till 1859, 
 when he accepted a professorship in Berlin. 
 His Church history, Gcschichte der Christ - 
 lichen Kirche, was published in 1846. 
 “ Niedner at once took a place at the side 
 of Neander, Gieseler, and Hase, and is dis¬ 
 tinguished by his philosophical treatment 
 of the details, but falls behind them in the 
 vivid portrayal of character, clear sum¬ 
 marization, and skill of arrangement. 
 Niedner held a middle position in theology, 
 and had as little sympathy with Strauss 
 and Baur, as with strict confessional ortho¬ 
 doxy. ”— Tzschirner. 
 
 Nile. See Egypt, p. 275. 
 
 Nimbus, The, or Glory, a ring or disk 
 of gold or some bright color placed back of 
 the head of a person, and symbolizing the 
 radiant glory that emanated from a divine 
 being. Among the Romans it came finally 
 to signify power,and in the fifth century was 
 adopted by Christians as a symbol of sanc¬ 
 tity. First applied to Christ, it was after¬ 
 ward used with representations of the an¬ 
 gels, and finally of Mary and the saints. 
 
 Nim'rod (firm, strong), the son of Cush 
 and grandson of Ham. (Gen. x. 8.) He is 
 
Nin 
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 Nin 
 
 described as a “ mighty hunter before the 
 Lord,” and became a great ruler and the 
 founder of the kingdom of Babylon. He 
 built Nineveh, and the immediate region 
 was known as the land of Nimrod. (Mic. 
 V, 6.) 
 
 east bank of the Tigris, where gigantic 
 tells or artificial mounds, and the traces of 
 an ancient city wall bore evident witness 
 of fallen greatness. The walls enclose an 
 irregular trapezium, stretching in length 
 about two and a half miles along the Tigris, 
 
 Nineveh, “the famous capital of the As¬ 
 syrian Empire, called Ni-na-a or Ni-nu-a on 
 the monuments. Though the city appears 
 to have been entirely destroyed in the fall 
 of the empire the name of Nineveh con¬ 
 tinued, even in the Middle Ages, to be 
 applied to a site opposite Mosul on the 
 
 which protected the city on the west. The 
 greatest breadth is over a mile. The most 
 elaborate defences, consisting of outworks 
 and moats that can still be traced, were on 
 the southern half of the east side, for the 
 deep sluggish Khauser, which protects the 
 northern half of this face, then bends round 
 
Nin 
 
 ( 67(J ) 
 
 Nit 
 
 toward the Tigris and flows through the 
 middle of the town, so as to leave the 
 southeast of the city more open to attack 
 than any other part. The principal ruin 
 mounds within the walls are that of Kuy¬ 
 unjik north of the Khausar, and that of the 
 prophet Jonah (Nebi Tunus) south of that 
 stream. The latter is the traditional site 
 of Jonah’s preaching, and is crowned by an 
 ancient and famous Mohammedan shrine. 
 
 “ The systematic exploration of these 
 ruins is mainly due to Layard (1845-46), 
 whose work has been continued by subse¬ 
 quent diggers. These researches leave no 
 doubt as to the correctness of the local 
 tradition. Not only have magnificent re¬ 
 mains of Assyrian architecture and sculp¬ 
 ture been laid bare, but the accompanying 
 cuneiform inscriptions throw much light 
 on the history of the city and its buildings. 
 The mound of Kuyunjik covers palaces of 
 Sennacherib and Assur-banipal, that of 
 Jonah, a second palace of Sennacherib, and 
 one of Esar-haddon. Of other remains, 
 the most striking is the gateway near the j 
 centre of the north wall, consisting of two 
 halls, seventy feet by twenty-three, the en¬ 
 trance to which, toward the town, was 
 flanked by colossal man-headed bulls and 
 winged human figures. Nineveh proper 
 was only one of a group of cities and royal 
 residences whose ruins still mark the plain 
 between the Tigris, the Great Zab, and the 
 Khazio. The chief of these are at Khorsa- 
 bad or Khurustabad, five hours by cara¬ 
 van northeast of Mosul, on a tributary of 
 the Khausar, and at Nimrud on the left 
 bank of the Tigris, eight caravan hours 
 (eighteen miles) southeast from Kuyunjik. 
 The former site was mainly explored by 
 the Frenchmen, Botta and Place. The city 
 was almost square, each face of the walls 
 a little more than a mile in length. The 
 vast T-shaped palace of Sargon (722-705 
 K. C.), whose name the town bore (Dur- 
 Sarrukin), stood near the northern angle. 
 Its main frontage was nearly a quarter of 
 a mile long; it had thirty-one courts, and 
 more than two hundred apartments. The 
 ruins of Nimrud, identical with the ruin 
 Athur, of Arabic geographers (Takut, s. 
 vv. ‘Athur,’ ‘Salamiya’), and first ex¬ 
 cavated by Layard, represent the ancient 
 city of Kalhu, the biblical Calah. The 
 enclosure, protected on the west by the old 
 bed of the Tigris, is, according to Layard’s 
 measurements, a quadrangle of 2,331 yards 
 by 2,095 at the widest part, and was sur¬ 
 rounded by walls with towers and moats. 
 The chief architectural remains belong to 
 a group of palaces and temples which oc¬ 
 cupied the southwest quarter of the city. 
 The principal palace (northwest palace), 
 was built by Assur-nasir-pal (SS5-S60B. c.), 
 
 and besides it he raised a temple with a 
 great tower (falsely called the tomb of Sar- 
 danapalus), built in narrowing stages. 
 The so-called central palace is that of his 
 son, Shalmaneser II.; the unfinished south¬ 
 west palace was the work of Esar-haddon. 
 Of the so-called southeast palace the chief 
 part is really a temple of Nebo; a statue 
 of the god from this temple is in the Brit¬ 
 ish Museum. See the works of Layard, 
 Botta, Oppert, and G. Smith.”— IV. Robert¬ 
 son Smith in Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Ninian, St., the apostle of the Southern 
 Piets, said to have visited Rome in 370, and 
 was ordained in 394. Returning to Britain, 
 he built a stone church at what is now the 
 modern Whithorn. Here he established his 
 see. He is reputed to have converted the 
 Piets as far as the Grampians. 
 
 Nirvana. See Buddhism. 
 
 Nisan. See Year, Hebrew. 
 
 Nis'roch, an Assyrian deity, in whose 
 temple Sennacherib was assassinated by his 
 sons. (2 Kings xix. 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38.) 
 The derivation of the name is uncertain. 
 Some are of the opinion that Nisroch is 
 represented in the eagle-headed, winged 
 figure, with cone in one hand and basket in 
 the other, taken from the ruins of Nineveh. 
 
 Nitschmann, David, first bishop of the 
 Moravian Church ; b. at Zauchtenthal, 
 Moravia, Dec. 27, 1696; d. at Bethlehem, 
 Penn., Oct. 8, 1772. Compelled to find 
 refuge from persecution, he fled to Herrn- 
 hut (1724), and became prominent among 
 the Moravians. With a single companion 
 he started on foot for Copenhagen in Au¬ 
 gust, 1732, and from there he sailed to St. 
 Thomas, where he began missionary work 
 among the negroes. Returning to Europe 
 the following year he was consecrated at 
 Berlin in 1735, and soon after sailed with a 
 company of Moravians for Georgia: in the 
 same vessel with them were John and 
 Charles Wesley. Bishop Nitschmann la¬ 
 bored in Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Nor¬ 
 way, Great Britain, and in Georgia, North 
 Carolina, New York, and Pennsylvania. 
 See Schweinitz: Fathers of the American 
 Moravian Church (1881). 
 
 Nitzsch (nitsh), Karl Immanuel, “ the¬ 
 ologian, was born at the small Saxon town 
 of Borna, on September 21, 1787. After re¬ 
 ceiving his elementary education at home, 
 he was sent to Schulpforta in 1803, whence 
 he proceeded to the University of Witten¬ 
 berg in 1806. In 1809 he was graduated. 
 Having been ordained deacon in iSn.he 
 
No 
 
 ( 6 7i ) 
 
 Non 
 
 showed remarkable energy and zeal during 
 the bombardment and siege of the city in 
 1813; and in 1817 he was appointed one of 
 the preceptors in the preacher’s seminary, 
 which had been established after the sup¬ 
 pression of the university. From 1820 to 
 1822 he was superintendent in Kemberg, 
 and in the later years he was appointed 
 professor ordinarius of systematic and 
 practical theology at Bonn. Here he re¬ 
 mained until called to succeed Marheineke 
 at Berlin in 1847; subsequently he became 
 university preacher, provost of St. Nicolai 
 (in 1855), and member of the supreme coun¬ 
 cil of the Church, in which last capacity he 
 was one of the ablest and most active pro¬ 
 moters of the Evangelical Union. He died 
 Aug. 21, 1868. Nitzsch still stands out as 
 one of the ablest and most genial and ac¬ 
 complished representatives of the ‘ media¬ 
 tion theology,’ or what may be called the 
 broad evangelical school of modern Ger¬ 
 many.” — Ency. Brit a n 11 ica . 
 
 No (Ezek. xxx. 14), or, in full, No A'mon 
 -(Nah. iii. 8), the biblical name of Thebes. 
 It was situated on both sides of the Nile 
 from 400 to 500 miles from its mouth, and 
 was one of the oldest cities in Egypt. Ac¬ 
 cording to Strabo, it covered an area five 
 miles in length and three miles in breadth. 
 The ruins reveal the wonderful splendor of 
 this great city. 
 
 Noah, one of the most remarkable char¬ 
 acters in Bible history. The great events 
 of his life are given in outline in the book 
 of Genesis. The Flood took place when he 
 was six hundred years old. (Gen. vii. 11.) 
 “ Many peoples have preserved a tradition 
 of this event. And not only do we find 
 traditions to this effect on the tablets of 
 Assyria and in the literature of Greece, 
 but also among the Chinese and among the 
 aborigines of North and South America and 
 Mexico. The prevalence of a belief in the 
 occurrence of a great deluge confirms the 
 account of Genesis. It is not necessary to 
 assume that the Flood extended over all the 
 earth, although it did most likely destroy 
 all human life except the family of Noah. 
 Such expressions as ‘ all the high hills. . . 
 were covered ’ (Gen. vii. 19) do not oblige 
 us to go beyond those portions of the earth 
 which were then inhabited by men. Sim¬ 
 ilar expressions are used where the event 
 referred to was only partial in extent. See, 
 for example, Gen. xli. 57 ; Luke ii. 1. 
 Opinions still differ as to whether the Flood 
 was universal or only partial. The Deluge 
 is referred to in the New Testament. (Matt, 
 xxiv. 37; 2 Pet. ii. 5; iii. 6.)”—Schaff: 
 Bible Did. The ark which Noah was com¬ 
 manded to build was divided into three 
 
 stories and was 300 cubits long, 50 cubits 
 broad, and 30 cubits high: allowing, ac¬ 
 cording to prominent authorities, 21 inches 
 for a cubit, the ark was 525 feet long, 87 
 feet wide, and 52 feet high. The Great 
 Eastern was 691 feet long, 83 feet wide, 
 and 58 deep. This comparison will help 
 to give an approximate idea of the size of 
 the great vessel built by Noah. 
 
 Nob ( height ), a city of the priests in Ben¬ 
 jamin, a little north of Jerusalem. (1 Sam. 
 xxii. 19; Isa. x. 32.) It was here in the 
 time of Saul that the tabernacle and ark 
 rested, and it was here that Ahimelech 
 gave David the shewbread and the sword 
 of Goliath. This act so enraged Saul 
 that he destroyed all of the inhabitants 
 of the city, with the exception of Abia- 
 thar, who escaped. (1 Sam. xxi; xxii.) It 
 has proved difficult to identify the site of 
 the city. 
 
 Nocturns. See Canonical Hours. 
 
 Nod {flight ), the region east of Eden 
 where Cain fled from the presence ofjeho- 
 vah. (Gen. iv. 14, 16.) It is impossible to 
 locate the place. 
 
 Noel, Hon. and Rev. Baptist Wriothes- 
 ley, a brother of the first Earl of Gains¬ 
 borough; b. at Leithmont, Scotland, July 
 10, 1799; d. at Stanmore, Middlesex, Jan. 
 20, 1873. He was graduated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and became a queen’s 
 chaplain, and incumbent of St. John’s, 
 Bedford Row, London. Withdrawing from 
 the Church of England he entered the 
 Baptist ministry, and labored with suc¬ 
 cess. Among his published works are: Es¬ 
 say on Christian Baptis?n (1849); Letters on 
 the Church of Rome (1851); A Selection of 
 Psalms and Hymns (1832, enlarged, 1853), 
 and Hymns about Jesus (1869). These 
 volumes contain several hymns of his com¬ 
 position. 
 
 Noetius. See Monarchianism, 
 
 ! 
 
 Nominalism. See Scholasticism. 
 
 ( 
 
 I 
 
 Nonconformists. This term, as now in 
 use, includes all who absent themselves 
 from the worship of the Established 
 Church of England on the ground of con¬ 
 science, and in this sense is synonymous 
 with the word Dissenters {q. v.). But in 
 a stricter sense it is applied to those min¬ 
 isters who were ejected from their livings 
 on their refusal to submit to the Act of 
 Uniformity passed by Charles II. in 1662. 
 The number of these was about 2,000, and 
 their burdens were increased by the pass- 
 
Non 
 
 ( 672 ) 
 
 Nor 
 
 ing of the Conventicle Act in 1664, by 
 which they were prohibited from meeting 
 in any number greater than five, in any 
 other manner than was allowed by the 
 liturgy or practice of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land. This was followed in 1665 by the 
 Five-Mile Act ( q. v.), and in 1673 by the 
 Test Act ( q. v.). This last act was in¬ 
 tended to deprive them of all political 
 power and religious influence. Amongst 
 the ejected clergy were some of the most 
 pious and learned divines of the day, Bax¬ 
 ter, Howe, Flavel, Philip Henry, etc. 
 lames II. showed a decided disposition at 
 first to crush the Nonconformists, as evi¬ 
 denced in the trial of Baxter, but he after¬ 
 ward relaxed the laws, hoping to gain 
 toleration for the Roman Catholics, and 
 published his Declaration of liberty of con¬ 
 science. Soon after the accession of Will¬ 
 iam III. the Toleration Act was passed, 
 which granted to the Nonconformists a 
 partial relief, and in George I.’s reign the 
 laws against them were never enforced. 
 The Bill of 1829 removed Parliamentary 
 disabilities, not only from the Noncon¬ 
 formists, but also from the Roman Catho¬ 
 lics.—Benham: Diet. of Religion. 
 
 Nonjurors, in English history, are the 
 small minority of the beneficed clergy who 
 incurred the penalties of suspension and 
 deprivation for refusing to swear alle¬ 
 giance to William and Mary, in 1689. The 
 party, which was headed by Archbishop 
 Sancroft and Bishop Ken, with five other 
 members of the Episcopal bench, included 
 such men as Jeremy Collier, George 
 Hickes, William Sherlock, Charles Leslie, 
 and Henry Dodwell. 
 
 Non-residence, the absence of an incum- 
 Dent from his parish or benefice, who en¬ 
 joys the revenues, while a substitute is 
 entrusted with his duties. This evil has 
 often been the subject of prohibitive laws 
 in the Roman Church, and it is forbidden 
 in the Church of England by statutes pass¬ 
 ed in 1837-38. 
 
 Noph (Isa. xix. 13), the biblical name of 
 the great Egyptian city of Memphis. The 
 city is said to have had an area of about 
 19 miles, and was situated about 10 miles 
 south of Cairo and 5 miles from the Great 
 Pyramids. The monuments of Memphis 
 are considered by many scholars as of a 
 higher antiquity than those of Thebes. 
 Recent explorations have brought to light 
 many of its relics. The materials with 
 which Cairo was built were largely brought 
 from the ruins of Memphis. 
 
 Norbert. See Premonstrants. 
 
 North, Browni.ow, a distinguished evan¬ 
 gelist of the Free Church of Scotland; b. at 
 Chelsea, Jan. 6, 1810; d. at Tullichewan, 
 near Edinburgh, Nov. 9, 1875. His early 
 life was one of careless pleasure-seeking, 
 although at one time he purposed to take 
 holy orders, and studied with this view. 
 In November, 1854, while visiting at Dal¬ 
 las Moors, Scotland, he passed through an 
 experience that in a single night left him a 
 changed man. After long struggle and 
 reading of the Bible he found peace, and 
 began to distribute tracts among the desti¬ 
 tute class in Elgin, Scotland. His gifts as 
 an earnest and forcible speaker were soon 
 recognized, and from 1856 until his death 
 he labored with great success as an evan¬ 
 gelist in all the leading cities of England 
 and Scotland, and in Ireland in the great 
 revivals of 1859. See his Life, by K. 
 Moody-Stuart (London, 1878). 
 
 Norton, Andrews, a distinguished Uni¬ 
 tarian scholar and theologian; b. at Hing- 
 ham, Mass., Dec. 31, 1786; d. at Newport, 
 R. I., Sept. 18, 1853. After his graduation 
 at Harvard, in 1804, he was tutor in Bow- 
 doin College, 1809-11; tutor in mathemat¬ 
 ics at Harvard, 1811-13; librarian, 1813-21; 
 and lecturer on biblical interpretation, 
 1813-19. From 1819-30 he was the Dex¬ 
 ter professor of sacred literature in the 
 Harvard Divinity School. “ Dr. Norton 
 was, after Dr. Channing, the most dis¬ 
 tinguished exponent of Unitarian theology, 
 a clear and perspicuous lecturer, an able 
 critic and voluminous writer. Rejecting 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, and protesting 
 against Calvinism, he also opposed the 
 school of Theodore Parker and the nat¬ 
 uralistic theology. Besides his contribu¬ 
 tions to the General Repository and Review, 
 North American Review, and Christian Ex¬ 
 aminer, he published: A Statement of Rea¬ 
 sons for not Believing in the Doctrine of the 
 Trinity (1833); The Genuineness of the Gos¬ 
 pels (1837); On the Latest Forms of Infidel¬ 
 ity (1839).” Prof. Norton was a poet of 
 considerable merit. 
 
 Norway. Out of a population of i,So2,- 
 172 the Lutheran Church claims 1,794,934 
 adherents. Christianity was introduced 
 into the country by Olaf Trygvason (995- 
 1000) and St. Olaf (1014-31), in the tenth 
 and eleventh centuries. From 1387 to 
 1814 Norway, in its connection with Den¬ 
 mark, has a church history in common 
 with the latter country. The Reformation 
 gained a hold in Norway in 1536. The 
 Norwegian Church is a State Establish¬ 
 ment. It is only since 1845 that the free¬ 
 dom of worship has been extended to other 
 denominations. 
 
Nor 
 
 ( 673 ) 
 
 Not 
 
 Norwich Cathedral. This beautiful cathe¬ 
 dral was commenced in 1094 by Bishop 
 Herbert Losinga, and completed by Bishop 
 Perry in 1361. It is chiefly of Norman 
 architecture. The tower was restored in 
 1858. 
 
 Nott, Eliphalet, b. in Ashford, Conn., 
 June 25, 1773; d. at Schenectady, Jan. 29, 
 1866. After studying at Brown University 
 he entered the ministry, and after a brief 
 service at Cherry Valley he was called in 
 1795 to the pastorate of the Presbyterian 
 
 NORWICH CATHEDRAL. 
 
 Notre Dame(o«r fady),the old French ap¬ 
 pellation of the Virgin Mary, and the name 
 therefore given to many churches dedicated 
 to her. The cathedral of Notre Dame in 
 Paris is one of the most magnificent speci¬ 
 mens of Gothic architecture in the world. 
 
 Church in Albany, N. Y. He was elected 
 president of Union College in 1804, and 
 under his management it became one of 
 the leading institutions of the country. 
 Through inventions which he secured for 
 improved methods of heating, by the use of 
 
Nov 
 
 (674) 
 
 Nun 
 
 stoves, he secured a large fortune, of which 
 he gave liberally to endow the college. 
 He was prominent in the councils of the 
 Presbyterian Church, and was noted for 
 his eloquence as an orator on special occa¬ 
 sions. The cause of temperance has had 
 but few more able and sturdy advocates. 
 His Counsels to Young Men, and Lectures on 
 Temperance have had a wide circulation. 
 He wrote the Resurrection of Christ (new 
 edition, N. Y., 1872), with notes by Prof. 
 Tayler Lewis. See Memoirs of Elifhalet 
 Mott, by Van Santvoord, revised by Prof. 
 Lewis (N. Y., 1876). 
 
 Novalis, the name assumed by Fried¬ 
 rich von Hardenberg, who was born at 
 Wiedestedt, in Mansfeld, in 1772. His 
 father and mother belonged to the Herrn- 
 huters.. He was educated at Jena, whence 
 he passed to Leipzig and Wittenberg. He 
 assisted his father for a time as auditor of 
 the Saxon Salt-works, but was obliged to 
 give up his post through ill-health, and de¬ 
 voted himself wholly to literature. He 
 .became acquainted with Schlegel and with 
 Tieck, the Romantic writer, who wrote a 
 biography of Novalis, and who seems to 
 have had a great influence over him. He 
 died in 1801. 
 
 Novalis’s best works are his Spiritual 
 Songs, which show a beautiful simplicity 
 and pure spirit of devotion. His other 
 works, Heinrich von Ofterdingen, The 
 Pupils at Sais, and Hymns of the A T ight, are 
 remarkable for the imagination and enthu¬ 
 siasm which they display.—Benham: Diet. 
 of Religion. 
 
 Novatian, the founder of the Novatianist 
 sect in the third century, was a man of 
 learning and eloquence, but of ascetic ten¬ 
 dency. Educated as a philosopher, he was 
 baptized on a sick-bed, but omitted after 
 his recovery to present himself to the 
 bishop for the laying-on of hands. Not¬ 
 withstanding this, and in the face of some 
 opposition, he was ordained priest by 
 Bishop Fabian of Rome, who wished to 
 enlist his talents for the Church, and he 
 acquired great influence at Rome. After 
 the Decian persecution, a dispute arose as 
 to the treatment of the lapsed. Navatian 
 headed a party which maintained that the 
 Church had no power to re-admit apostates, 
 and that, by receiving such into commun¬ 
 ion, it would forfeit its Christian character. 
 The lapsed, they said, must be left to the 
 mercy of God. At the election of Corne¬ 
 lius, a man of milder views, as Fabian’s 
 successor, a. d. 251, Novatian, with his 
 party, seceded from the Church, and three 
 obscure bishops, obtained on false pre¬ 
 tences, consecrated him to the See of 
 
 Rome. Intimation of this consecration 
 was sent to the great Churches, but these 
 refused to acknowledge him, and many of 
 his followers, alarmed at the schism, re¬ 
 turned to orthodoxy. Nevertheless, the 
 numbers of the sect increased, and the 
 members swore, at the reception of the 
 Eucharist, that they would never desert 
 him or return to Cornelius. They now 
 assumed the name of Cathari (i. e., Puri¬ 
 tans), and adopted still harsher views. 
 Not only the lapsed, but also those who 
 had been guilty of any of the greater sins 
 after baptism, were excommunicated for 
 life. They declared the Church to have 
 become impure, and its ministrations to be 
 of no effect, and second marriages were 
 forbidden as adulterous. The Novatian 
 sect continued for a considerable time. 
 They were perfectly orthodox as to the 
 fundamental doctrines of Christianity, and 
 suffered, with the Catholics, from the Ari- 
 ans. An attempt was made at the Council 
 of Nicaea to bring them back to the Church, 
 and they were generally unmolested by 
 the Catholics until the time of Nestorius 
 and Cyril of Alexandria.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Novices, a name given to those who are 
 in a state of probation, prior to their en¬ 
 tering a religious society. This period 
 is termed the novitiate. During this time 
 of trial no promises are given, and if they 
 so desire they can return to the world. 
 
 Novitiate. See Novices. 
 
 Nowell, Alexander, b. at Whalley, 
 Lancaster, 1507 or 1508; d. in London, 
 Feb. 13, 1602. He became head-master of 
 Westminster School in 1543, and gained an 
 extended reputation as a preacher. Ac¬ 
 cepting the principles of the Reformation, 
 on the accession of Mary he fled to the 
 Continent, but returned when Elizabeth 
 came to the throne, and was made arch¬ 
 deacon of Middlesex and canon of Canter¬ 
 bury in 1560. He was prominent in 
 ecclesiastical affairs, and noted for his learn¬ 
 ing and piety.* See his Life , by Churton 
 (Oxford, 1809). 
 
 Numbers. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Nun, Nunnery (derived probably from 
 the Coptic nonnos , holy). Early in the his¬ 
 tory of the Christian Church females who 
 sought religious retirement, and desired to 
 devote themselves to labors of piety among 
 the poor and sick, were consecrated by the 
 bishop, and received from him the mantle, 
 veil, and head-dress which were their pe¬ 
 culiar garments. This life of asceticism 
 
Nun 
 
 ( ^75 ) 
 
 Oba 
 
 was changed to monasticism at the same 
 time, and under the influences that created 
 communities of monks. These bands of 
 nuns were under the care of the bishops, 
 and received their rules from them. In the 
 sixth century they gained a right to their 
 own cloister-churches, in which special 
 priests officiated. At the head of the nun¬ 
 nery was an abbess, a prioress, or a mother- 
 superior. See Abbess; Monastery. 
 
 Nuncio* See Legate. 
 
 Nuremberg, The Religious Peace of. 
 
 It was evident after the Diet of Augsburg 
 (Nov. 19, 1530) that Charles V. was de¬ 
 termined to control the religious affairs of 
 Germany. In 1531 the Protestant princes 
 met at Smalcald, and arranged an alliance 
 for armed defence. The promised support 
 of France, and the threatened invasion of 
 Hungary and Austria by the Turks soon 
 placed the emperor in such a position that 
 in the spring of 1532 he opened negotiations 
 with the Protestant princes. These nego¬ 
 tiations resulted in the so-called “Religious 
 Peace of Nuremberg” (July 23, 1532), 
 which guaranteed the Protestants the posi¬ 
 tion and privileges they then held until a 
 general council could be held. This was a 
 substantial victory for the Protestant 
 cause. 
 
 o. 
 
 Oaks. There are six Hebrew words thus 
 rendered, from a root which means strong. 
 
 In some passages it probably designates 
 the terebinth, elm, or any strong, flourish¬ 
 ing tree. Three species of the oak are 
 found in Palestine. They are often men 
 tioned in the Bible to designate the locality 
 of important events. (Gen. xxxv. 8; Josh, 
 xxiv. 26.) Idols were made of oak (Isa. 
 xliv. 14); and they marked places of sacri¬ 
 fice (Hos. iv. 13; Isa. i. 29); and of burial. 
 
 (1 Sam. xxxi. 13.) The Druids of Britain 
 venerated the oak, and it was to them the 
 symbol of the Supreme Being. The mistle¬ 
 toe which grew upon the oak represented 
 the dependent state of man, and it was cut 
 with special ceremonies in December of 
 each year. 
 
 Oaths. The custom of appealing to God to 
 affirm the truth of statements, with an im¬ 
 precation of his vengeance, or a renuncia¬ 
 tion of his favor if they prove false, has 
 been common to all nations. The Romans 
 and Greeks used many forms of swearing, 
 with ceremonies. The Jews at first used 
 to swear by God only, but in later times 
 they swore by Jerusalem, the temple, the j 
 altar, etc., and that it was against this that j 
 
 our Lord warns Christians, and not against 
 swearing at all, appears from the fact that 
 St. Paul calls God to witness the truth of 
 his affirmations several times. This view 
 was taken by the early Christians, and in 
 several passages in the Fathers and coun¬ 
 cils it appears that swearing upon solemn 
 occasions was held lawful. It then became 
 a custom to lay their hands on the Gospels 
 when they swore, and to conclude with 
 “ So help me, God, and the contents of this 
 Book,” to which, in the Roman Church, 
 “all the saints” was sometimes added. 
 These oaths were called corporal oaths. 
 Others swore by some particular saint, 
 relics, cross, or altar. In the Middle Ages 
 an oath was frequently called a canonical 
 purgation, to distinguish it from the other 
 modes of declaring innocence, as duels, or¬ 
 deals, etc. By the Council of Meaux the 
 clergy were forbidden to take corporal 
 oaths, it being held that all ought to trust 
 their word.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Obadiah (worshiper of JehovaJi) “ proph¬ 
 esied, it has been conjectured, before the 
 destruction of Jerusalem (b. c. 588), and 
 the conquest of Edom (583). As Nahum 
 had foretold the downfall of Assyria, and 
 Habakkuk that of Chaldaea, so Obadiah 
 predicts that of the implacable foe of Is¬ 
 rael, Edom, warning the Edomites not to 
 rejoice in the day of their brother’s calam¬ 
 ity (for the Hebrew tenses are future , not 
 past, as in our translation). He foretells 
 the utter annihilation of Edom, and con¬ 
 trasts it with the future restoration of Is¬ 
 rael, which should also possess the land of 
 Edom and Philistia, and enjoy the promises 
 of her offspring, the Messiah. 
 
 “ Verses 1 to 8 are extremely similar to 
 a passage in Jeremiah (xlix. 14 foil.). This 
 similarity has caused a doubt which of the 
 two prophets repeated the denunciations 
 of the other; and therefore the exact date 
 of this book is rendered uncertain, some 
 advocating its priority to that of Jeremiah, 
 others ascribing it to a later date. Dr. 
 Pusey maintains that the Hebrew future 
 determines the question in favor of the 
 priority of the Book of Obadiah. Those 
 who take the opposite view conjecture that 
 the occasion of this prophecy was the hos¬ 
 tility shown by the sons of Esau to their 
 brethren, the Israelites, at the time of the 
 Babylonish invasion. They seem to have 
 rejoiced in the downfall of Jerusalem, 
 and to have cut off those Jews who at¬ 
 tempted to flee through Idumaea into Egypt. 
 Hence arose the prayer of the Jewish cap¬ 
 tives in Babylon (Psa. cxxxvii. 7), and the 
 answer to it in the denunciations of Oba¬ 
 diah, who predicts the Divine retribution 
 on Edom, and the future glory of Israel in 
 
Obe 
 
 ( 676 ) 
 
 Obe 
 
 the occupation of Idumaea. This prophecy 
 was partially fulfilled by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and further by the entire subjugation of 
 Edom by John Hyrcanus, which thence¬ 
 forth vanishes from history; but its com¬ 
 pletion, in the possession of Idumaea by the 
 Israelites, must still be anticipated after 
 the final return of that people to their 
 promised inheritance; and therefore this 
 book is the favorite study of the Jews to 
 this day. 
 
 “ Summary. —(1) The Edomites fancied 
 themselves secure in the fastness of their 
 rocks (ver. 3). (2) The spoiler should ut¬ 
 terly destroy them (vers. 4-16). (3) The 
 
 chastisement inflicted on the Jews should 
 be but temporary; and, after their return 
 from captivity, they should possess Edom 
 and Philistia, and at length rejoice in the 
 glorious reign of the Messiah (17-21).”— 
 “ Oxford ” Bible Helps. See Lange’s Com¬ 
 mentary (N. Y., 1875); Pusey: Commentary 
 of the Minor Prophets (N. Y., 1885). 
 
 Oberammergau, a village situated in 
 the highlands of Bavaria, made famous by 
 the Passion Play which is acted there every 
 ten years. The following traditional ac¬ 
 count is given of its origin: A plague 
 broke out in the neighborhood in 1633, 
 which, in spite of all the efforts of the vil¬ 
 lagers, was introduced into Ammergau by 
 a peasant, Caspar Schuchle, who had been 
 working at Eschelohe, one of the plague- 
 stricken villages, and wished to visit his 
 family. In a day or two he died, and 
 within a month eighty-four persons had 
 perished. Then the villagers assembled, 
 and vowed that if God would take away 
 the pestilence they would perform the 
 Passion Play every tenth year. From that 
 time no one died of the plague. The play 
 was first performed in 1634, and has been 
 enacted every tenth year since 1680. This 
 is the tradition, but the play is of much 
 older date. They now speak of it as 
 something already well known, and it is 
 only the acting it every tenth year that is 
 new. The oldest text-book of the play 
 bears the date 1662, and refers to a still 
 older book. Since the year 1634 the play 
 has undergone many improvements. Thus, 
 Lucifer, Prince of Hell, who, with his 
 retinue, used to play a prominent part, has 
 been banished. Father Ottmar Weiss, of 
 Jesewang, ex-conventual of the Benedict¬ 
 ine monastery at Ettal (d. 1843), revised 
 the play, and the improvements were car¬ 
 ried on by Anton A. Daisenberg, the 
 former pastor of the village. Up to 1830 
 the play took place in the churchyard, but 
 since then a theatre has been built for it. 
 This is built entirely of boards, and is 
 partly open to the sky. The auditorium 
 
 is 118 feet wide and 168 deep. It comprises 
 an area of 20,000 square feet, and is ca¬ 
 pable of conveniently seating 50,000 to 60,- 
 000 persons. Some say the stage resem¬ 
 bles those of ancient classical Greek thea¬ 
 tres, while others find more resemblance 
 to the mystery theatre of the Middle Ages. 
 There are five distinct places of action for 
 the players: The proscenium for the chor¬ 
 us, processions, etc.; the central stage for 
 the tableaux-vivants and the usua^ dramatic 
 scenes; the palace of Pilate; the palace of 
 Annas, and the streets of Jerusalem. The 
 prices of the seats are from one to eight 
 marks. 
 
 The great training-school for the Passion 
 Play has been the village church, with its 
 ceremonies, processions, music, and song. 
 Thus, the dramatic scene of Christ’s entry 
 into Jerusalem is a repetition of the Church 
 procession on Palm Sunday, even to the 
 singing of the chorale, “ All hail ! all hail ! 
 O David’s Son !” In the school the chil¬ 
 dren are taught to learn by heart and sing 
 passages from the great drama. The se¬ 
 lection of the actors takes place there. The 
 more talented are given parts for perform¬ 
 ance on the stage of the theatre, which 
 remains up during the nine intervening 
 years, though the rest is taken down. 
 During these years minor plays, religious 
 and secular, are acted, especially during 
 the winter. Almost all the principal actors 
 are wood-carvers. Josef Maier, who rep¬ 
 resented the “ Christus ” in 1870-71 and in 
 1880, and who has since died, also Schauer, 
 who took the part in i860, devoted them¬ 
 selves chiefly to crucifixes. Jacob Hett, 
 the “Petrus” of 1880, and Lechner, the 
 “ Judas,” are also skilful carvers. 
 
 At five o’clock on the mornings when the 
 play is to take place a cannon is fired to 
 summon the villagers and visitors to attend 
 mass. The performance begins at eight 
 and lasts till five, with an interval of an 
 hour and a half. It consists of eighteen 
 acts, beginning with the entry into Jerusa¬ 
 lem, and ending with the Ascension. Each 
 act is preceded by one or more tableaux 
 taken from the Old Testament, which de¬ 
 lineate symbols or prophecies of the scenes 
 from the life of Christ. These types are 
 explained by the chorus of eighteen schutz- 
 geister, or guardian angels, headed by a 
 leader called the prologue or choragus. 
 The shutzgeister greatly resemble the cho¬ 
 rus of the ancient Greek plays. The play 
 was, in 1880, given more than thirty 
 times, from May 17 to Sept. 26; it always 
 takes place on Sundays and festivals. 
 Though many look upon the play as irrev¬ 
 erent, it is acted with so much earnestness 
 and piety that it is evident to all spectators 
 that it is regarded by the people as a relig- 
 
Obe 
 
 (677) 
 
 Och 
 
 ious duty. It would, however, certainly 
 not be so in any other place, as the attempts 
 to introduce it into New York in 1881-82 
 clearly show.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Oberlin (o'ber-li/i), Jean Frederic, “ pas¬ 
 tor and philanthropist, was the son of a 
 teacher, and was b. Aug. 31, 1740, at 
 Strasburg, where he studied theology. In 
 1766 he became Protestant pastor of Wald- 
 bach, a remote and poverty-stricken region 
 in the Steinthal(Ban de la Roche) in Alsace. 
 At once he set himself to better the mate¬ 
 rial equally with the spiritual condition of 
 the inhabitants. He began by constructing 
 roads through the valley and erecting 
 bridges, inciting the peasantry to the en¬ 
 terprise by himself taking a mattock and 
 commencing operations. His example 
 proved equally effectual in introducing an 
 improved system of agriculture, with the 
 results that the sterile Waldbach soon ‘ be¬ 
 gan to blossom as the rose.’ Substantial 
 cottages were erected, various industrial 
 arts were introduced, and activity and com¬ 
 fort began to prevail in homes formerly 
 tenanted by listless and- ignoble poverty. 
 Regarding the intellectual needs of his 
 parishioners, Oberlin was also keenly so¬ 
 licitous. He founded a circulating library, 
 originated infant - schools—the first that 
 have existed—and established an ordinary 
 school at each of the five villages in the 
 parish. In the work of education he re¬ 
 ceived great assistance from Louis Schep- 
 pler, who lived in his house in the capacity 
 of servant and housekeeper. By his un¬ 
 selfish devotion to their interests, Oberlin 
 won so entirely the confidence of his par¬ 
 ishioners that he was consulted in the most 
 minute domestic affairs, and his word be¬ 
 came the recognized unwritten law of the 
 district. He died, June 1, 1826, and was 
 interred with great manifestations of honor 
 and affection at the village of Fonday. Since 
 his death the Steinthal has suffered no in¬ 
 terruption to its prosperity. When he began 
 his labors its inhabitants did not number 
 more than 500; in the beginning of the cen¬ 
 tury they had increased to about 3,000; and 
 now they are supposed to number about 
 6,000.”— Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Oblations, by special usage, signifies the 
 bread and wine offered upon the altar for 
 consecration at the Holy Eucharist. It 
 was an early custom for all communicants 
 who could afford it, to offer bread and wine 
 at the altar, and what was needed was 
 taken for the Eucharist and the rest for a 
 common meal. None were allowed to make 
 these offerings but communicants. 
 
 Occam, or Ockham, William oe, one 
 
 of the great Schoolmen, called Doctor Sing- 
 ularis et Invincibilis; b. at Ockham, Surrey, 
 about; 1270 d. at Munich, April 7, 1347. 
 He was educated at Merton College, Ox¬ 
 ford, but, having joined the Order of the 
 Franciscans, went to France to study under 
 Duns Scotus. He afterward opposed the 
 Realism of his teacher, and formed a sect 
 of Occamists among his followers, holding 
 the doctrine of Nominalism (see Realism), 
 of which he became the most vigorous and 
 logical advocate. He constituted himself 
 defendant of Philippe le Bel of France when 
 the latter was excommunicated by Pope 
 Boniface VIII.; and some years later he 
 attacked Pope John XXII., who had con¬ 
 demned one Berenger Talon for saying 
 that ecclesiastical possessions were unlaw¬ 
 ful and contrary to the example of Christ 
 and his disciples. For this, William of Oc¬ 
 cam was imprisoned at Avignon, but es¬ 
 caped with one of his companions to the 
 Mediterranean, and thence to Munich, 
 where he spent the remainder of his life. 
 He ranked high among the Schoolmen as a 
 logician, and was engaged throughout his 
 life in continual ecclesiastical controversies. 
 Among his works may be mentioned, Dis- 
 pntatio inter Clericu)n et Mililem , Expositio 
 Aurea (containing a summary of his Nom¬ 
 inalist views); Decisiones Octo Questionum 
 de Pot estate summi Pontifcis (based on the 
 Sententice of Peter the Lombard), and many 
 other controversial works.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. 
 
 Occum, Sampson, a converted Indian; 
 b. at Mohegan, near New London, Conn., 
 about 1723; d. at New Stockbridge, N. Y., 
 July 14, 1792. He made a Christian con¬ 
 fession in 1739, an d was ordained in 1759 
 by the Suffolk Presbytery, Long Island. 
 He visited England in 1766 to raise money 
 for Dr. Wheelock’s Indian school at Leba¬ 
 non, Conn. As the first Indian preacher 
 who had visited that country he received 
 much attention. His labors as a mission¬ 
 ary were confined mostly to the tribes in 
 New York. 
 
 Ochino, Bernardino, an Italian reform¬ 
 er; b. in Siena, 1487; d. at Schlackau, 
 Mahren, 1565. He joined the Franciscans, 
 and in 1534 the still stricter order of the 
 Capuchins. His fame as a preacher became 
 very great, but he was accused of heresy 
 at Naples in 1540, for laying emphasis upon 
 justification by faith, and ignoring indul¬ 
 gences, purgatory, etc. In the following 
 year, however, he was again elected gen¬ 
 eral of the Capuchins. Driven from Italy 
 by the persecutions of Rome, he found a 
 refuge in Geneva, where he won the regard 
 of Calvin. In 1545 he preached to an Ital- 
 
Oct 
 
 ( 678 ) 
 
 Oet 
 
 ian congregation in Augsburg; two years 
 later an effort was made to take him pris¬ 
 oner, but he escaped to England, where he 
 remained until the accession of Queen 
 Mary. Returning to Geneva, he spoke in 
 disapproval of the burning of Servetus, 
 and was compelled to leave. He went to 
 Zurich, where he published several works 
 which contained Socinian views and also 
 brought him under the charge of favoring 
 polygamy. He was banished from the city, 
 and went to Cracow, only to meet there a 
 decree (1564) banishing all foreigners from 
 Poland who were not Catholics. He died 
 on the way to Germany. Ochino has been 
 regarded by some as the founder of Anti- 
 Trinitarianism. See his Life, by Benrath 
 (Eng. trans. N. Y., 1877). 
 
 Octave, a liturgical term, denoting the 
 celebration in the Roman Catholic Church 
 of the great Christian festivals during eight 
 consecutive days. All the days of octaves 
 in the Roman Church are kept very strictly. 
 The missal prescribes a special prayer for 
 each day, and for the last a special service. 
 The Anglican Church retains this arrange¬ 
 ment to some extent. 
 
 CEcolampadius (ek'o-lam-pa'di-us) , Joan¬ 
 nes, the companion of Zwingli in carrying 
 forward the work of the Reformation in 
 Switzerland, was b. in Weinsberg, Wiir- 
 temberg, in 1482; d. at Basel, 1531. He 
 studied for the law at Bologna, but return¬ 
 ed home and decided to study theology at 
 Heidelberg. He received his degree in 
 1503, and not long after returned to Weins¬ 
 berg, where he delivered a series of ser¬ 
 mons which were published in 1512. In 
 order to become more proficient in the an¬ 
 cient languages he studied at Freiburg and 
 Tubingen, and Heidelberg. Soon after his 
 return to Weinsberg he was called to Basel 
 as cathedral preacher, and here assisted 
 Erasmus in the preparation of his Annota¬ 
 tions on the New Testament. He published 
 a Greek grammar in 1520, in connection 
 with his labors as preacher of the cathe¬ 
 dral church of Augsburg. At this time he 
 identified himself with those who favored 
 the cause of Luther. After a period of 
 two years spent in a convent near Augs¬ 
 burg, he again settled in Basel. He here 
 denounced many of the doctrines of the 
 Roman Church, and held controversies 
 with the Anabaptists. He supported 
 Zwingli in his disputes with Luther con¬ 
 cerning the Lord’s Supper. He wrote a 
 treatise on this subject, besides commen¬ 
 taries and other books. “ (Eolampadius 
 was not as original and able a theologian 
 as Zwingli and others; but he held an in¬ 
 dependent position over against Zwingli, 
 
 as is clear from his views on predestination. 
 He did not enter into Zwingli’s, Luther’s, 
 and Calvin’s minute analysis of this doc¬ 
 trine. His views were well expressed in 
 his reply to the Waldensian, Morel (1530), 
 ‘ Our salvation is of God; our perdition of 
 ourselves.’ He was moderate and irenic 
 in his spirit. His earlier views on the 
 Lord’s Supper gave way to sounder views, 
 which regarded it as a means of grace for 
 the Christian life.” See art. by Herzog in 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. ii., pp. 1681-83. 
 
 (Ecumenical Councils (Greek oikoutnene, 
 the world) are distinguished from diocesan 
 or provincial synods, by being gathered 
 from all parts, and therefore representative 
 of the entire church. 
 
 Oehler, Gustav Friedrich, a distin¬ 
 guished Old Testament theologian and 
 commentator; b. June 10,1812, at Ebingen, 
 Wiirtemberg; d. Feb. 19, 1872, at Tubing¬ 
 en. He studied theology at Tubingen, 
 and from 1834 taught for three years at 
 Basel, when he returned to Tubingen. In 
 1840 he became pastor at Schflnthal and 
 professor in the seminary. In 1845 he was 
 chosen a member of the theological faculty 
 at Breslau, and continued there until 1852, 
 when he accepted the position of director 
 of the seminary at Tubingen. He was a 
 man of great industry, and devoted him¬ 
 self to the study of the Old Testament. 
 “ His conception of the Old Testament 
 was that of a progressive and growing 
 revelation toward the standard of the New 
 Testament; the Old and New Testaments 
 are parts of one organic history by reason 
 of an inherent plan of the Divine Mind. 
 The Old Testament was to him a record of 
 revelation, in which the plan of God was 
 realized in part, the New Testament form¬ 
 ing the consummation. He adopted some 
 of the results of modern criticism, and ac¬ 
 knowledged the existence of several differ¬ 
 ent hands in the composition of the Penta¬ 
 teuch, and two authors for Isaiah.” 
 Oehler’s Theology of the Old Testament 
 (Eng. trans. N. Y., 1883) is considered by 
 the ablest scholars the best work on the 
 subject. 
 
 Oetinger (o'ting-er), Friedrich Christo¬ 
 pher, a German theological writer of the 
 Mystical school; b. at Goppingen, Wiirtem- 
 berg, May 6, 1702; d. at Murrhard, Wiir- 
 temberg, Feb. 10, 1782. His position in 
 German theology is analogous to that of 
 the Hutchinsonians with respect to the 
 English Deists. He endeavored to meet 
 the Rationalism and Materialism of his 
 country by philological investigations, by 
 means of which he constructed a system 
 
Off 
 
 ( 6 79 ) 
 
 Ola 
 
 of philosophy which was to unite subject 
 and object, matter and spirit, in the living 
 Christ. Much of his doctrine was derived 
 from Swedenborg. His writings were 
 voluminous and not without effect. The 
 Pietists (q. v.) set a large value upon 
 them on account of the careful spirit of in¬ 
 vestigation and industry which they dis¬ 
 play. For though his mind was inclined 
 to everything fanciful and mysterious, yet 
 he was learned, and, moreover, practical 
 and full of good sense; above all, he was 
 earnest and pious, and the people of Berlin 
 recognized in him a genuine desire to give 
 the mysteries of God a bearing on their 
 daily life.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Offerings formed, in connection with 
 sacrifices, an essential part of religious 
 worship among the Jews. These “ were 
 made regularly or occasionally, some in 
 self - dedication, some propitiatory, and 
 some eucharistic, and consisted of (i) 
 burnt-offerings, (2) meat-offerings, (3) 
 peace-offerings, and (4) sin and trespass 
 offerings. 
 
 “ (1) The burnt-offering. —This consisted 
 of an offering to God in fire taken from the 
 altar, where it burned continually, of a 
 whole animal, and it symbolized the dedi¬ 
 cation of the entire life to God in an un¬ 
 dying, all-consuming zeal for his law. It 
 was to be made daily on behalf of all the 
 people (Exod. xxix. 38-42), to be double on 
 the Sabbath (Num. xxviii. 9, 10), and to be 
 a special feature of the great festivals. 
 (Num. xxviii. 11-xxix. 39.) 
 
 "(2) The meat-offering. —This was ‘ un¬ 
 bloody,’ consisting of pure flour, oil, and 
 wine, seasoned with salt, and it was eucha¬ 
 ristic, the flour in symbol that the support 
 of life, the oil that its fulness, and the wine 
 that its vigor are of the Lord. It was to 
 be made at the morning and evening sacri¬ 
 fice (Exod. xxix. 40, 41), in the renewal of 
 shewbread every Sabbath (Lev. xxiv. 5-9), 
 and specially on the Sabbath, and at the 
 great festivals. (Num. xxviii. and xxix.) 
 
 “(3) The peace - offering. — This was 
 ‘ bloody,’ consisting of an animal from 
 the herd or the flock, of which the flesh 
 was to be eaten, the blood to be poured 
 out, and the fat to be burned, in way 
 of vow to observe the statute which re¬ 
 quired that the offerer should ‘ eat neither 
 fat nor blood.’ (Lev. iii.) It was to be in 
 thank-offering, in vow, or in freewill-offer¬ 
 ing. (Lev. vii. 11-21.) 
 
 “( 4 ) The sin and trespass offerings .— 
 These were propitiatory or expiatory, and 
 consisted of the sacrifice of an animal, of 
 which the blood was partly sprinkled be¬ 
 fore the veil of the sanctuary, partly put 
 on the horns of the altar of incense, and 
 
 the rest poured out at the foot of the altar 
 of burnt-offering, and of which the flesh 
 was either burnt without the camp, or 
 eaten by the priests in the holy place. 
 (Lev. iv.-vi.) They expressed confession 
 of sin, and a sense of its ill-desert—the 
 sin-offering, it is thought, of sin in general, 
 or offenses which the person committing 
 them has perpetrated unwittingly, and the 
 trespass-offering of some particular offense 
 of which the offender felt the guilt even 
 before the community discerned it.” — Bag- 
 ster: Bible Helps. See Delitzsch: Commen¬ 
 tary on Hebrews ; Ewald: Antiquities of 
 Israel; Oehler: Theology 0 f the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Offertory, (1) a term which, in the litur¬ 
 gy of the Roman Catholic Church, denotes 
 the first part of the eucharistic service, con¬ 
 sisting of the Dominus vobiscum , the obla¬ 
 tion of the bread and wine, the censing of 
 the oblation, the altar, etc., and the pray¬ 
 er. (2) The sentences, said by the minis¬ 
 ter in the Episcopal and some other church¬ 
 es, during the communion, while the offer¬ 
 ings of the people are being collected. 
 
 Office, Congregation ok the Holy, 
 that department of the papal government 
 which is charged with the direction of the 
 Inquisition ( q. v.). It was established by 
 Paul III., in 1542. 
 
 Offices of Christ. Sec Jesus Christ, 
 Three Offices of. 
 
 Oil, Olive. The olive-tree is one of the 
 most common trees of Palestine. It resem¬ 
 bles the apple-tree in form and in mode of cul¬ 
 tivation. It blossoms profusely, and its fruit 
 is like a plum in shape and color. The olives 
 are sometimes gathered in an unripe state 
 and pickled, but are valuable mostly for the 
 oil which is pressed from them. Olives 
 are eaten, and the oil is used in the place 
 of butter and fat. So important a part did 
 the olive play in the every-day life of the 
 Jews that the failure of the harvest was 
 deemed a great calamity. Mixed with 
 odorous vegetable essences the oil was used 
 for anointing the body. 
 
 Olaf, St., King of Norway (1015-30). 
 In early life he fought in England against 
 Canute the Great. Returning to Norway, 
 in 1015, he secured the crown, ami bent his 
 energies to the establishment of Christian¬ 
 ity. He employed coercive and violent 
 methods, and the discontent became so 
 great that when Canute the Great invaded 
 the country most of the people welcomed 
 him. Olaf fled to Russia, and upon his re¬ 
 turn was defeated and killed in the battle 
 
Old 
 
 ( 680 ) 
 
 Oli 
 
 of Sliklesbad, July 29, 1030. Very soon 
 there came a strong revulsion of feeling, 
 and in 1031, in a great assembly of the 
 clergy and laymen, Olaf was declared a 
 saint. His remains were deposited in the 
 cathedral of Nidaros (Trondhjem), and the 
 story of miracles drew crowds of pilgrims 
 to his grave. Olaf is the patron saint of 
 Norway. 
 
 Oldcastle, Sir John. See Gorham, Lord. 
 
 Old Catholics, “ (a) the name used by 
 a small body of believers in Jansenism in 
 Holland, with an archiepiscopal see in 
 Utrecht. They have continued since 1723 
 to recognize the authority of the pope by 
 sending him notice of each new election of 
 a bishop, which he always disregards. ( b ) 
 A reform party in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, founded after the proclamation of, 
 and in opposition to, the dogma of papal 
 infallibility proclaimed by the Vatican 
 Council in 1870. A schism with the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic Church was not intended,'but 
 it resulted; the leaders were excommuni¬ 
 cated and new congregations formed. No 
 t bishop having joined the movement, the 
 ordination of a bishop was obtained from 
 the Old Catholic bishop of Deventer in 
 Holland. Old Catholics have departed in 
 few respects from their former ecclesias¬ 
 tical customs as Roman Catholics. Auric¬ 
 ular confession and fasting are, however, 
 voluntary with them, and priests are 
 allowed to marry. Mass is permitted to 
 be said in the vernacular. They are found 
 chiefly in Germany and in Switzerland, 
 where they call themselves Christian Cath¬ 
 olics.''—Century Dictionary. They number 
 in Holland about thirty priests and 8,000 
 adherents. In Prussia in 1886 they had 
 thirty-five priests and 15,063 members. It 
 is estimated that there are in Germany 
 about 40,000 Old Catholics; Austria, 10,- 
 000; and in Switzerland, 40,000. See 
 Doellinger. 
 
 Old Testament. See Bible, p. 103. 
 
 Olevianus, Casper, one of the founders 
 of the Reformed Church in Germany; b. 
 at Treves, 1536; d. at Herborn, 1587. He 
 studied at Geneva, where he became an ar¬ 
 dent disciple of Calvin. Returning to 
 Treves, as a teacher, he began to preach 
 the doctrines of the Reformation with 
 such success that the archbishop of the 
 diocese threw him into prison. He was 
 finally released on the payment of a sum 
 of money, but banished with his friends. 
 In 1561 he was elected professor of theol¬ 
 ogy at Heidelberg, and in conjunction with 
 Ursinus, he composed the Heidelberg Con¬ 
 
 fession. He held the views of Calvin, and 
 upon the accession of Ludwig VI., a Lu¬ 
 theran, with six hundred other reformed 
 ministers, he was obliged to leave the coun¬ 
 try. He found a home at Berleburg, where 
 he wrote commentaries on the Epistles , 
 and a work on the covenant of grace. He 
 was active in founding the Reformed 
 Church, in Nassau Siegen,and other States. 
 
 Olga, the wife of Igor, prince of Kieff, 
 and afterward (from 945) regent for Svia- 
 toslaf, her son, was baptized at Constanti¬ 
 nople, about 955, and died about 969. She 
 was afterward canonized in the Russian 
 Church, and is now commemorated on the 
 nth of July. 
 
 Olin, Stephen, D. D., LL. D., an emi¬ 
 nent Methodist preacher and educator; b. 
 at Leicester, Vt., March 3, 1797; d. at 
 Middletown, Conn., Aug. 16, 1851. After 
 graduating at Middlebury College, in 1820, 
 he entered the ministry of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church; was professor of Eng¬ 
 lish literature in the University of Georgia, 
 1827-34; president of Randolph Macon 
 College, Va., 1834-37. After spending 
 some time in traveling in Europe, Egypt, 
 and Palestine, he assumed the presidency 
 of the Wesleyan University, Middletown, 
 Conn., in 1842, where he remained until his 
 death. He was a preacher of wonderful 
 power and eloquence. He wrote: Trav¬ 
 els in Egypt , Arabia Petrcea , and the Holy 
 Land (N. Y., 1843), 2 vols.; and Greece 
 and the Golden Horn (N. Y. 1854). His 
 Works , consisting of sermons, etc., were 
 published in N. Y., 1852, 2 vols.; and his 
 Life and Letters , edited by his wife (N. Y., 
 1853), 2 vols. 
 
 Olive. See Oil. 
 
 Olivers, Thomas, b. at Tregonan, in 
 Wales, 1725; d. in London, 1799. He was 
 converted from a life of profligacy under 
 the preaching of Whitefield, and became an 
 active helper of Wesley, assisting him es¬ 
 pecially in his literary work. He wrote 
 an elegy on the death of Wesley (1791), 
 and four hymns, one of which, “ The God 
 of Abraham praise,” is considered among 
 the best odes in the language. 
 
 Olives, Mount of. or Mount Olivet, “is 
 the hill facing the Temple Mount on the 
 east, and separated from it by the Kidron. 
 Here our Lord sat when he delivered his 
 great eschatological address. (Markxiii. 3.) 
 That the ascension took place from the sum¬ 
 mit of the Mount of Olives is not necessarilv 
 implied in Acts i. 12, and appears to be ex¬ 
 cluded by Luke xxiv. 50, for Bethany lies 
 
Ols 
 
 ( 68r ) 
 
 Opt 
 
 at the back of the hill and almost a mile 
 from the top. But since Constantine erect¬ 
 ed the basilica of the ascension on the spot 
 marked by a certain sacred cave (Euself. v. 
 Const., iii. 41), the site of the ascension 
 has been placed here and marked by a suc¬ 
 cession ol churches. The present building 
 is quite modern. Close to the Chapel of 
 the Ascension is the vault of St. Pelagia, 
 and a little way down the hill is the laby¬ 
 rinth of rock-hewn sepulchral chambers, 
 now called the ‘ Tombs of the Prophets.’ 
 A chapel bearing the name of 4 Omar,’ 
 and said to occupy the place where he en¬ 
 camped when Jerusalem surrendered to the 
 Moslems, formerly stood beside the Church 
 of the Ascension (Mokaddasi).” — Ency. 
 Eritannica. See Jerusalem. 
 
 Olshausen iols'how-zen), Hermann, a dis¬ 
 tinguished modern commentator, was b. at 
 Oldeslohe, in Holstein, Aug. 21, 1796; d. at 
 Erlangen, Sept. 4, 1839. He studied the¬ 
 ology at Kiel and Berlin, and became ex¬ 
 traordinary professor at Kdnigsberg, in 
 1821, and ordinary professor in 1827. In 
 1838 he accepted a call to the professorship 
 of theology at Erlangen. His great work 
 is his Commentary on the New Testatnent , a 
 translation of which, revised by Professor 
 A. C. Kendrick, was published in New 
 York in 1856-58. He was an able scholar 
 and a devoted Christian. 
 
 On, the Greek Heliopolis. See Egypt, 
 p. 280. 
 
 Onderdonk, Henry Ustic, U. D., 
 LL. D., was b. in New York, 1789; d. in 
 Philadelphia, Dec. 6, 1858. Educated at 
 Columbia College (1805) he first studied 
 medicine, but afterward was ordained to 
 the ministry in 1815. In 1816-20 he was 
 pastor at Canandaigua, N. Y.; rector of St. 
 Ann’s, Brooklyn, 1820-27; assistant bishop 
 of Pennsylvania, 1827; succeeded Bishop 
 White, 1836; suspended, 1844; restored 
 1856. He was one of the compilers of the 
 two hundred and twelve hymns, which from 
 1327 to 1871 were usually found in the 
 Prayer-Book of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church. Ten of the hymns were of his 
 own composition, one of which has come 
 into general use, “ The Spirit in our 
 hearts.” He was the author of Episcopacy 
 Examined and Re-examined (1835). 
 
 Oneida Community, an association 
 founded by John H. Noyes who taught 
 a so-called religious perfectionism that 
 inculcated a community of goods, and 
 a theory of “ complex marriage,” which 
 considered every man as married to every 
 woman and every woman to every man. 
 
 1 
 
 Two communities were established, one 
 near Oneida, N. Y. (1847), and the other 
 at Wallingford, Conn. The community at 
 Oneida, living in one large building, was 
 successful as a business enterprise, but the 
 opposition to its immoral practices in the 
 relation between the sexes, under the lead 
 of prominent citizen^ of Oneida County, 
 secured its dissolution in 1879. 
 
 Onkelos, the supposed author of an 
 Aramaic version (Targum) of the Penta¬ 
 teuch, and other books of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. He was a pupil of Gamaliel, and, 
 as the Talmud informs us, a fellow-scholar 
 with Paul. His Targum is a faithful 
 translation. It may be found in the Bibles 
 of Bomberg and Buxtorf, and in Walton’s 
 Polyglot. 
 
 Oosterzee, Jan Jacob van, a distinguish¬ 
 ed theologian of the Dutch Evangelical 
 School, was b. at Rotterdam, April 17, 
 1817; d. at Wiesbaden, July 29, 1882. He 
 was educated at Utrecht, and was first pas¬ 
 tor of Kemnes-Binnendijk, and four years 
 later (1844) at Rotterdam. In 1862 he was 
 called to Utrecht University. In connec¬ 
 tion with his labors as a teacher he pub¬ 
 lished many valuable works. His Life of 
 Christ, Christology , Theology of the Nero 
 Testament , Dogmatics , Year of Salvation, 
 Moses, and Practical Theology are well 
 known to English readers through transla¬ 
 tions. He contributed St. Luke, the Pas¬ 
 toral Epistles, and St. James for Lange’s 
 Commentaries. 
 
 O'phir, the region from which the ships 
 of Solomon brought gold of the finest qual¬ 
 ity. Its precise situation is a much-dis- 
 i puted question. Three countries have been 
 , suggested as its location: (1) Arabia, as 
 the land of gold was probably named after 
 Ophir, a son of Joktan, and a descendant 
 of Shem(Gen. x. 29, 30), who lived between 
 Mesha and Sephar, and a town of the lat¬ 
 ter name is spoken of by Ptolemy in his 
 description of Arabia Felix. (2) India is 
 advocated by Ritter, Ewald, and Max Mul¬ 
 ler, because the articles brought in the 
 ships of Solomon are peculiar to that coun¬ 
 try. (3) Eastern Africa. Portuguese trav¬ 
 elers in the sixteenth century suggested 
 that Ophir was identical with Sofalaon the 
 coast of Mozambique, and some French 
 scholars accept this theory. The most 
 probable conjecture places Ophir at some 
 point on the southeastern coast of Arabia. 
 
 Ophites. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Optimism. This theory, although it ex¬ 
 ists to a great extent in most books on 
 
Opu 
 
 ( <382 ) 
 
 Ord 
 
 Christian philosophy, was first designated 
 by the name “ optimism ” to describe the 
 teaching of Leibnitz in the eighteenth cen¬ 
 tury. Its chief point is that the world as 
 it is is as good as it possibly can be, see¬ 
 ing that God is a perfect Being, and that 
 therefore his creations must be to a certain 
 extent perfect, too. But there are difficul¬ 
 ties in the way of this theory. If God 
 wished the world and mankind to be abso¬ 
 lutely perfect, why does he not make them 
 so? This is a question which has been 
 eagerly asked age after age, and no answer 
 is forthcoming which settles it. Pope’s 
 Essay on Man sums up the Optimist theory 
 in that famous line in the first book, 
 “ Whatever is is right; ” but in the face of 
 the sorrow and sin which we are compelled 
 to witness, we feel that an epigram like 
 Pope’s does not settle the question. Epi¬ 
 grams take hold of the memory, but they 
 do not convince. Physical suffering, in¬ 
 deed, can be shown in many cases to result 
 in good, and to conduce to the general wel¬ 
 fare of man, but the conscience pronounces 
 sin essentially evil. The Scripture points 
 to a true Optimism when it points to a 
 world to come where there shall be “ no 
 more curse,” and where God “ shall wipe 
 away all tears.”—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Opus Operantis (the work of the worker ), 
 and Opus Operatum (the work wrought ), 
 “ two theological terms, expressive of two 
 diametrically opposite conceptions of the 
 character of the Christian sacraments; the 
 former ascribing the effect of the rite 
 chiefly, if not exclusively, to the disposi¬ 
 tion of him who performs it; the latter 
 ascribing the effect to the rite itself, inde¬ 
 pendent, or nearly independent, of the dis¬ 
 position of him who performs it.”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Oral Law. See Tradition. 
 
 Oratories, a name once given to churches 
 as being houses of prayer, but it is now 
 commonly used to designate private and 
 domestic chapels, in distinction to the parish 
 church. 
 
 Oratorio, a sacred drama, sung by solo 
 voices and choruses, and accompanied by 
 an orchestra. It differs from the opera in 
 not requiring scenery or stage costumes. 
 The subjects of oratorios have almost al¬ 
 ways been taken from the Bible. As now 
 prepared, they originated with Filippo de 
 Neri (1515—1595), who had them sung in 
 the “ oratory ” of his church. Hence their 
 name. They have come to their grandest 
 development in the works of Handel, Bach, 
 Mendelssohn, and Haydn. 
 
 Oratory, Congregation of the. See 
 Neri. 
 
 Ordeal means a direct appeal, by some 
 extraordinary test, to the judgment of God. 
 It came into use at a time when the law 
 was but feebly administered by regular 
 courts, and between the sixth and thirteenth 
 centuries it was encouraged by the clergy in 
 Europe. Many tests were employed, such 
 as carrying red-hot iron in the hands, or 
 walking upon it, and thrusting an arm into 
 a vessel of boiling water. The ordeal by 
 water, which consisted in being thrown into 
 a stream of water, with the hands and 
 feet tied, was often used in cases of witch¬ 
 craft. This ordeal was employed both in 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 
 time when the witchcraft mania raged. In 
 the eleventh century opposition to the or¬ 
 deal, although incorporated with the laws, 
 became active, and the Council of Trent re¬ 
 jected it. In many countries, however, 
 witches were tried by ordeal in the seven¬ 
 teenth century. 
 
 Orders, Holy, a term, used especially in 
 the Roman Catholic and Episcopal 
 Churches, to represent the office and func¬ 
 tions of lawfully ordained bishops, priests, 
 and deacons. These orders are designated 
 “holy” in distinction from Inferior or 
 Minor Orders. 
 
 Ordinary, a term of canon law denoting 
 one who exercises ordinary or immediate 
 jurisdiction in ecclesiastical affairs. An 
 ordinary performs all his functions in his 
 own right, while lower orders perform 
 them in the right delegated to them from 
 the bishops. 
 
 Ordination, the rite or ceremony by 
 which ministers of the Christian Church 
 are dedicated to their sacred office. The 
 use of a ceremonial for such purposes is 
 traceable among the Jews (Exod. xxix. 24; 
 Lev. xxi. 10; Num. iii. 3); and the New 
 Testament contains frequent reference to 
 the specific ceremonial of “ imposition of 
 hands.” (Acts vi. 1-7; xiii. 1-4; xiv. 23; 
 1 Tim. iv. 14; v. 22; 2 Tim. i. 6.) In the 
 Roman, the Greek, and the other Eastern 
 Churches this rite of ordination is held to 
 be sacramental, and it is reserved, at least 
 as regards the major orders, exclusively to 
 bishops. The Roman Catholic Church, the 
 Church of England, and the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church of the United States do 
 not consider ordination valid unless the 
 officiating bishops are in the line of succes¬ 
 sion from the apostles. Presbyterian 
 Churches hold that the ministers of a pres¬ 
 bytery are identical with bishops, and have 
 
Ore 
 
 ( 6 $3 ) 
 
 Ori 
 
 power to ordain. Congregational Churches 
 (including the Baptist), believe that the 
 local church has the power of ordination. 
 In recognition of the fellowship of the local 
 churches, councils are called of neighbor¬ 
 ing churches, who examine the candidate as 
 to his character and theological views, and 
 act in behalf of the local church by ordain¬ 
 ing him with prayer and laying on of hands. 
 In Wesleyan and Methodist Churches or¬ 
 dination is performed at the annual confer¬ 
 ence by the bishop or president. The 
 Society of Friends, the Disciples of Christ, 
 and Plymouth Brethren have no formal 
 ceremony in setting apart their ministers, 
 and do not recognize any human right of 
 ordination. The Moravians allow ordina¬ 
 tion only by their bishops, but recognize 
 the ordination of other Protestant bodies 
 as valid. 
 
 Orelli (Hans), Conrad von, Ph. D. 
 (Leipzig, 1871), D. D. ( hon ., Greifswald, 
 1885), Swiss Protestant; b. at Zurich, Jan. 
 25, 1846; studied at Zurich, Lausanne, Er¬ 
 langen, Tubingen, and Leipzig; became 
 orphan-house preacher at Zurich, 1869, 
 privat-docent , 1871; professor extraordi¬ 
 nary of theology at Basel, 1873; ordinary 
 professor, 1881. Of his works, The Old 
 Testament Prophecy of the Consummation of 
 Gods Kingdom , traced in its Historical De¬ 
 velopment , was published in Edinburgh, 
 1885. He wrote many articles in Herzog’s 
 Real-Ency. 
 
 Organ (Gr. organon). The word in the 
 LXX. was used for any kind of instru¬ 
 ment, but in the Vulgate it is translated as 
 “ pipe.” In St. Augustine’s time it seems 
 to have nearly approached its present 
 meaning, as he speaks of it as an instru¬ 
 ment in which wind was supplied by bel¬ 
 lows. The pipes were at first generally ten, 
 which were sounded either from a wind- 
 magazine compressed by the arms, or by 
 bellows whose supply was regulated by 
 water. These were used at entertain¬ 
 ments, and not allowed in churches, be¬ 
 cause it was thought that the soft tones 
 spoilt the singing; but when Michael 
 Rhangabe sent an organ to Charles the 
 Great, it was put in Aix-la-Chapelle Ca¬ 
 thedral, and at the end of the ninth cen¬ 
 tury Pope John VIII. begged Bishop Anno 
 of Freesing to send him an organ and 
 some one who could play it. The keys 
 were added in the eleventh century, and 
 pedals in the fifteenth. The organ has 
 never been used among the Greeks. From 
 the time of Charlemagne organs seem to 
 have come more and more into use in the 
 West, though protests were made against 
 them, and the monks were very averse to 
 
 their use. At the Reformation they were 
 discarded, being considered “the vilest 
 remnants of Popery;” but they were re-in¬ 
 troduced at the Council of Basel. They 
 were so disliked by the Puritans in Eng¬ 
 land that at the Restoration there was 
 scarcely one to be found, and foreigners 
 were brought over to play on those which 
 remained. 
 
 Concerning the position of the organ in 
 a church, it is noticeable that in ancient 
 times it was placed on the north side of the 
 choir, as it is generally at present. The 
 plan of placing it over the choir screen, 
 which is now far less prevalent than it was 
 half a century ago, seems not to have be¬ 
 come general till the Restoration. It is the 
 custom in many churches and cathedrals 
 in Europe for the organ to be silent through¬ 
 out Passion Week, and during Wednesdays 
 and Fridays in Lent. — Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Oriflamme, a three-pointed banner of 
 flame-colored silk, embroidered \yith gold, 
 and having green tassels. It was carried 
 on the point of a lance, and was first used 
 by the Count of Vexin, as the defender of 
 the Church of St. Denis. After Louis VI. 
 acquired possession of Vexin, he adopted 
 the oriflamme as the standard of France. 
 It was kept in the Cathedral of St. Denis, 
 and consecrated with great ceremony when¬ 
 ever it was taken to be carried in battle. 
 The original banner was lost about 1382. 
 
 Origen, “ one of the most eminent of the 
 early Christian writers, 4 the father of 
 biblical criticism and exegesis in Christen¬ 
 dom;’ b. 185 A. d. at Alexandria, where 
 his father, Leonidas, seems to have held 
 some superior office in the Church. Ori¬ 
 gen received a most liberal education. 
 While, on the one hand, he was initiated 
 at an early age into Hellenic science and 
 art, the teachings of Christianity were in¬ 
 stilled into his mind by men like Pantaenus 
 and Clemens of Alexandria. During the 
 persecutions against the Christians, insti¬ 
 tuted by Sept. Severus, his father died the 
 death of a martyr, and Origen, then seven¬ 
 teen years of age, would have shared it of 
 his own free will, had not his mother, left 
 unsupported with six children, prevented 
 him. After a short time his zeal and eru¬ 
 dition procured for him the office of cate¬ 
 chist in the Alexandrian Church; but, no 
 salary being affixed to it, he was fain to 
 dispose of his much-loved collection of 
 classical authors for a daily stipend of four 
 oboli (2d.) for several years. His wants 
 were extremely limited, and his asceticism 
 led him even to self-mutilation (in accord¬ 
 ance with the view he took of Matt. xix. 
 
Ori 
 
 ( 684 ) 
 
 Ort 
 
 12); an act for which heafterwarcl express¬ 
 ed the deepest sorrow, and which became 
 a dangerous weapon in the hands of his 
 antagonists. Not a few of his hearers 
 being masters of Greek (Neo-Platonic) phi¬ 
 losophy, Origen, in order to ward off more 
 successfully their attacks upon his doc¬ 
 trines, and to combat them on their own 
 ground, applied himself particularly to this 
 science, and Ammonius Saccas himself is 
 said to have been his teacher. From this 
 period, also, may be dated Origen’s tran¬ 
 sition from unconscious to conscious belief. 
 He examined, henceforth, with as little 
 prejudice as possible, all the different sys¬ 
 tems of human speculations that came 
 under his notice during the mat ) journeys 
 he undertook, proceeding on the principle 
 ‘ that we are not, under the pretense of 
 piety, to pin our faith on that which is held 
 by the multitude, and which, therefore, 
 alone seems to stand on high authority, 
 but on that which results, through exam¬ 
 ination and logical conclusions, from estab¬ 
 lished and admitted truths.’ This liberal¬ 
 ity of his mind and doctrines could not 
 fail, on the one hand, to bring about many 
 .conversions to the faith, as he taught it, 
 both among ‘ pagans ’ and ‘ heretics,’ the 
 latter chiefly of the Gnostic sects ; and, 
 on the other hand, to raise an outcry 
 among less liberal professors and teachers 
 of the faith, who had not been so success¬ 
 ful in their labors. What gave the great¬ 
 est offence in his teachings was his way of 
 explaining, after the manner of the Mid¬ 
 rash, known to him through the Jewish 
 masters (from whom, at an advanced age, 
 he had also learned Hebrew), allegorically 
 and symbolically, that which in the Script¬ 
 ure warred with the common human un¬ 
 derstanding, or seemed repugnant in man¬ 
 ner or matter. Furthermore, while 
 upholding all the ethical portions of the 
 Bible, he rejected a great deal of its sup¬ 
 posed historical and legal contents for all 
 purposes, save, perhaps, as starting-points 
 for homiletics. As to the discrepancies in 
 the different gospels respecting the life of 
 Christ, he says: ‘ One of two only is pos¬ 
 sible. Either these things are true in a 
 spiritual sense only, or, as long as the dis¬ 
 crepancies are not satisfactorily explained 
 away, we cannot believe in the gospels 
 being dictated by the Holy Ghost, and re¬ 
 dacted under the influence of his inspira¬ 
 tion.’ 
 
 “ In 211 he went to Rome, but, soon af¬ 
 terward, at the wish of Bishop Demetrius, 
 he returned to Alexandria; which, how¬ 
 ever, he was obliged to leave precipitately, 
 and to seek refuge from certain popular 
 tumults in Palestine. Here the bishops 
 received him with great honors, and de¬ 
 
 sired him to institute public lectures, in 
 which they themselves became hearers. 
 Recalled again by the Alexandrian bishop, 
 he was sent to Achaia to combat certain 
 heresies that had broken out there. The 
 wrath that had silently been gathering 
 against him found its first vent when, in 
 228, the bishops assembled in Ctesarea, in 
 Palestine, consecrated him presbyter. The 
 bishop of Alexandria took umbrage at this 
 outrage, as he called it, on his authority. 
 Two councils were convoked, and in 232 
 Origen was deprived of his priestly office, 
 and excommunicated, the principal heresy 
 charged against him being his denial of 
 eternal punishment. Yet the churches of 
 the East remained faithful to him. Pales¬ 
 tine, Arabia, Phoenicia, and Achaia re¬ 
 mained in constant communication with 
 him; and men like Gregory Thaumaturgus 
 {q. v.), Athenodoros, and others, remained 
 or became his faithful disciples ever after, 
 while the bishop of Caesarea allowed him 
 openly to expound the Scripture in his 
 church. The persecutions under Maximi¬ 
 nus again forced him to seek refuge for 
 two years in Cappadocia. Returning under 
 Gordianus, he resumed his labors and jour¬ 
 neys, until, when Decius ascended the 
 throne, he was seized, imprisoned, and tor¬ 
 tured for his faith. He did not survive 
 his sufferings long, but died in 254 at Tyre, 
 where his tomb, near the high altar of the 
 cathedral, was shown for many centuries, 
 until it was destroyed during the Cru¬ 
 sades.”—Chambers : Cyclopccdia. Origen 
 teaches the ultimate restoration of all—the 
 Devil not being an exception. See Church 
 histories of Neander and Schaff. Several 
 of Origen’s writings have been translated 
 by 5 ! Cronbie in the Ante-Niceue Library 
 (Edinburgh, 1869-72), 2 vols. 
 
 Original Sin. See Sin. 
 
 Ormuzd and Ahriman. “ In the Zoroas- 
 trian writings, Ormuzd denotes the high¬ 
 est god, the absolute god, involving both 
 the principle of good, and that of evil. 
 But, in the later-developed dualism of the 
 Parsee religion, Ormuzd sank down to the 
 representative of only one of these princi¬ 
 ples,—that of the good; and Ahriman was 
 placed in direct opposition to him as the 
 representative of evil.” — Schaff-Herzog: 
 Eticy. See Zoroaster. 
 
 Orthodoxy (Gr. orthos , right, and doxa , 
 opinion). Inasmuch as no one can ar¬ 
 rogate to himself the claim of holding cor¬ 
 rect opinions on all subjects, it might seem 
 difficult to determine what constitutes 
 orthodoxy. It may be said that those who 
 hold the doctrines of Scripture are ortho- 
 
Osc 
 
 (6s 5 > 
 
 Ost 
 
 i 
 
 dox; but as disputes exist as to the inter¬ 
 pretation of Scripture this test is hardly 
 sufficient. The Roman Catholic Church 
 holds it heterodox to deny transub- 
 stantiation. Protestants generally would 
 agree to apply it to those who hold the 
 doctrine of the Trinity and the three 
 Creeds.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Oscultatory, a carving or painting on 
 wood or metal, representing the Saviour, 
 the Virgin, or one of the saints. During 
 the celebration of the mass it was first 
 kissed by the priest, and then by the peo¬ 
 ple. It was probably suggested by the 
 custom among the early Christians of in¬ 
 terchanging the kiss of peace at the agapee. 
 
 Osgood, David, D. D., in his day a dis¬ 
 tinguished Congregational preacher; b. at 
 Andover, Mass., Oct. 14, 1747; d. at Med¬ 
 ford, Dec. 12, 1822. He was graduated at 
 Harvard in 1771, and became pastor at 
 Medford, where he continued for fifty 
 years. He was a zealous federalist, and 
 in 1794 preached a sermon upon Genet’s 
 appeal to the people against the Govern¬ 
 ment, which attracted wide attention, and 
 passed through several editions. A 
 volume of his sermons was published in 
 Boston (1824). 
 
 Osgood, Howard, D. D., Baptist; b. on 
 Magnolia Plantation, parish of Plaque- 
 mine, La., Jan. 4, 1831; was graduated at 
 Harvard College, 1850; pastor at Flush¬ 
 ing, N. Y., 1856-58; New York City, 1860- 
 65; professor in Crozier Seminary, Ches¬ 
 ter, Penn., 1868-74, and Rochester (N. Y.) 
 Theological Seminary since 1875. He was 
 a member of the American Old Testament 
 Revision Company, and translated the 
 general and special introduction to Exodus , 
 Leviticus , and Numbers in the Lange Com¬ 
 mentary. 
 
 Osgood, Samuel, D. D., LL. D., b. in 
 Charlestown, Mass., Aug. 30, 1812; d. in 
 New York City, April 14, 1880. He was 
 graduated at Harvard in 1832, and studied 
 theology in the Divinity School of the Uni¬ 
 versity. He entered the Unitarian minis¬ 
 try in 1835; was pastor at Nashua, N. H., 
 1838-41; in Providence, 1841-1849. He 
 then accepted a call to the Church of the 
 Messiah, New York City, where he gained 
 an influential position in many directions. 
 In 1869 he changed his theological views, 
 and after a year spent in travel abroad he 
 became rector of the Church of St. John 
 the Evangelist. For several years he was 
 domestic corresponding secretary of the 
 New York Historical Society. Among his 
 writings are: Studies of Christian Biogra¬ 
 
 phy (N. Y., 1851); God with Men (N. Y., 
 1S54); Milestones in our Life fourney (N. 
 Y., 1855); Student Life (N. Y., 1S60). He 
 was a frequent contributor to the North 
 American Review , and edited the Christian 
 Inquirer (1850-54). 
 
 Osiander (o-ze-dn'der), Andreas, “ one of 
 the most learned and zealous of the Ger¬ 
 man reformers, was b. in 1498, at Gunzen- 
 hausen, near Nuremberg. His father was 
 a blacksmith called Hosemann, out of 
 which name his son, after the fashion of 
 his time, manufactured the classic-looking 
 Osiander. Osiander was educated at Ing- 
 olstadt and Wittenberg; and after com¬ 
 pleting his course of study, became a 
 preacher at Nuremberg, where he was con¬ 
 spicuously active in introducing the Ref¬ 
 ormation (1522). He ardently advocated 
 the views of Luther in his controversy 
 with the Swiss reformer, Zwingli, on the 
 question of the Lord’s Supper. He took 
 part in the conference held at Marburg 
 (1529), and was present at the Diet of Augs¬ 
 burg (1530). In 1548 he was deprived of 
 his office as preacher at Nuremberg, be¬ 
 cause he would not agree to the Augsburg 
 Interim; but was immediately afterward 
 invited by Albrecht, Duke of Prussia, to 
 become the head of the theological faculty 
 in the newly established University of Kb- 
 nigsberg. He was hardly settled here 
 when he became entangled in a theological 
 strife that imbittered his naturally impe¬ 
 rious and arrogant temper. In a treatise 
 De Lege et Evangelio (‘ On the Law and the 
 Gospel ’), Osiander asserted that the right¬ 
 eousness by which sinners are justified, is 
 not to be conceived as a mere justificatory 
 or imputative act on the part of God, but 
 as something inward and subjective, as the 
 impartation of a real righteousness, spring¬ 
 ing in a mystical way from the union of 
 Christ with man.”—Chambers: Cyclopedia. 
 He published, in 1537, a Harmony of the 
 Gospels—the first of its kind. Several 
 other persons of the name of Osiander, 
 most of them the descendants of Andreas, 
 have been prominent in the theological 
 thought of Germany. 
 
 Ostervald (os'ter-walt), “Jean Frederic, 
 Swiss Protestant theologian, was b. at 
 Neufchatel, Nov. 25, 1663;. was educated at 
 Zurich and at Saumur (where he was gradu¬ 
 ated), studied theology at Orleans, Paris, 
 and Geneva, and was ordained to the min¬ 
 istry in his native place, in 1683. As 
 preacher, pastor, lecturer, and author, he 
 attained a position of great influence in his 
 day; he and his friends, J. A. Surretin, of 
 Geneva, and S. Werenfels, of Basel, form¬ 
 ing what was once called the * Swiss tri- 
 
Oth 
 
 ( 6S6 ) 
 
 Owe 
 
 umvirate.’ Me died on April 14, 1747.”— 
 Ency. Britannica. 
 
 Otho, Sr., the Apostle of Pomerania; b. 
 in Suabia about 1060; d. at Bamberg, June 
 30, 1139. He was a teacher in Poland be¬ 
 fore entering the service of Henry IV., 
 who, in 1101, made him chancellor, and in 
 1102 bishop of Bamberg in Franconia. At 
 the request of Duke Boleslaus he went to 
 Pomerania, in 1124, to preach Christianity 
 to the Slavs. With the encouragement of 
 the pope he entered the country in almost 
 royal state, and made many converts and 
 founded several churches. In 1127 he again 
 visited the country. He was canonized by 
 Clement III., in 1189. 
 
 Otterbein (ot'er-bin), Philip William. 
 See United Brethren. 
 
 Owen, Dr. John, b. 1616; d. 16S3; Puri¬ 
 tan divine, honored both for his personal 
 piety and his high literary attainments. 
 His father was unable to supply him with 
 the means for his maintenance at the uni¬ 
 versity, but a rich uncle did so, and at the 
 early age of twelve John Owen was admit¬ 
 ted to Queen’s College, Oxford, and at 
 nineteen was Master of Arts. Two years 
 later he was forced to leave his college for 
 resisting the discipline of Archbishop Laud. 
 He was at this time exercised much in his 
 mind by doubts about his spiritual life, and 
 this perplexity continued for nearly five 
 years, causing a deep melancholy. Through 
 liearing accidentally a very simple yet 
 powerful sermon preached by a stranger 
 (whose name he never found out) on thte 
 text, “ Why are ye fearful, O ye of little 
 faith ? ” he found such peace that he had 
 from that time a serenity which never for¬ 
 sook him throughout his life. He became, 
 first, chaplain to a private gentleman; then 
 was offered the living of Fordham, in Es¬ 
 sex, which he occupied on the principles of 
 Independency; but after two years the peo¬ 
 ple of Coggleshall, five miles from Ford- 
 ham, besought him to go to them, which 
 he did. His fame soon spread, and he was 
 ordered to preach before the Parliament on 
 April 29, 1646. His sermon was a power¬ 
 ful appeal for liberty of conscience. Out 
 of gratitude to the Earl of Warwick, who 
 had given him the living of Coggleshall, he 
 dedicated his book, Death of Death , in the 
 Death of Christ , to him in 1643; and it was 
 about this time that he attracted the notice 
 of Cromwell, who heard him preach, and de¬ 
 sired his friendship. General Fairfax was be¬ 
 sieging Colchester, and he, too, was struck 
 by his eloquent preaching. Cromwell, later 
 on, insisted upon his accompanying him to 
 I reland. and afterward to Scotland, where he 
 
 also remained about six months, then re¬ 
 turning to Coggleshall; but in a very short 
 time he was appointed by the House of 
 Commons to the deanery of Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and the following year (1652) he 
 was chosen Vice-Chancellor of that uni¬ 
 versity, which office he held for five years. 
 When in this high position he still retained 
 that moderation and gentle firmness which 
 had so endeared him to his congregation 
 and friends. He showed no favoritism, but 
 was tolerant, hospitable, and generous. He 
 preached every Sunday at St. Mary’s, and 
 often at Stadham, and other neighboring 
 places. Probably Oxford never stood higher 
 for learning and religion than under his rule. 
 The book he wrote about this time, Com¬ 
 munion with God , corresponded with his 
 daily life. At the Restoration he was de¬ 
 prived of the deanery, and from that time 
 lived privately in London, publishing many 
 books, amongst which was an Exposition of 
 the 1joth Psalm, and An Exposition of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, which last was most 
 valuable in refuting the errors of the So- 
 cinians. In 1678 he published a very power¬ 
 ful work upon The Holy Spirit, which 
 shows his earnest endeavor to answer and 
 refute all erroneous doctrines. His piety 
 and learning won the respect of all, and 
 even the king sent for him, and assured 
 him of his favor and respect. He died 
 peacefully at his house at Ealing, having 
 survived all his children.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. See edition of Owen’s JVorks, 
 reedited by C. W. Quick, published in 
 Philadelphia (1S65-69), 17 vols. 
 
 Owen, Robert, a social theorist and phi¬ 
 lanthropist; b. at Newtown, North Wales, 
 March 14, 1771; d. there, Nov. 19, 1858. 
 Of humble parentage, he found a situation 
 at fourteen in London, and afterward had 
 charge of the Chorlton Mills near Man¬ 
 chester, and then at New Lanark, Scotland. 
 Here he married the daughter of the pro¬ 
 prietor of the mills in 1S01, and with the 
 means which a prosperous business gave 
 him, he entered upon the philanthropic and 
 social plans with which his name is con¬ 
 nected. He did much to improve the con¬ 
 dition of the operatives in New Lanark, 
 and in 1813 published Neva View of Society; 
 or, Essays on the Formation of Human Char¬ 
 acter. In 1S23 he came to this country and 
 bought a large tract of land at Wabash, 
 Ind.,and founded New Harmony. This 
 attempt to give a practical direction to his 
 communistic views proved an utter failure. 
 Returning to England, Owen founded so¬ 
 cieties, on the principle of cooperation, at 
 Lanarkshire and elsewhere, but they were 
 unsuccessful. In 1829 he held a memorable 
 debate with Dr. Alexander Campbell at 
 
Owe 
 
 ( 687 ) 
 
 Pag 
 
 Cincinnati on the evidences of Christianity. 
 Energetic, gifted, but visionary, he con¬ 
 tinued to advocate his peculiar view until 
 the time of his death. In the latter part of 
 his life he became a convert to Spiritual¬ 
 ism. See Packard: Life of Robert Owen 
 (Philadelphia, 1866). 
 
 estants. None of them were of long dura¬ 
 tion. The first was granted by Charles 
 IX., in 1562, and the last, the famous Edict 
 of Nantes (see Nantes), was given by Hen¬ 
 ry IV., in 1598. 
 
 Paedobaptism, the baptism of children. 
 See Baptism of Infants. 
 
 Owen, Robert Dale, son of Robert 
 Owen; b. in Glasgow, Scotland, Nov. 7, 
 1801; d. June 24, 1877. He came to the 
 United States in 1823, and aided his father 
 in the attempt to found a colony at New 
 Harmony, Ind. In 1828 he began the pub¬ 
 lication of the Free Inquirer in New York 
 City. After its discontinuance in 1834, he 
 returned to New Harmony and was elected 
 member of the Indiana Legislature three 
 terms (1835-38), and represented his dis¬ 
 trict in Congress two terms (1843-47). 
 From 1853 to 1858 he was charge d’ affaires 
 and minister to Naples from our country. 
 He earnestly favored the emancipation of 
 the slaves, and was one of the most prom¬ 
 inent Spiritualists of his time. He wrote, 
 among other books, The Debatable Land 
 between this World and the Next (1872); 
 Threading My Way (1874), an autobio¬ 
 graphical sketch. 
 
 Oxford Tracts. See Tractarianism. 
 
 F\ 
 
 Pachomius {fa-kd' me-us), St., the organ¬ 
 izer of the monastic life; b. about 292, in Up- 
 per Thebais; d. at Tabenna, an island in 
 the Nile, in 348. In his twentieth year he 
 joined Palemon, one of the most austere 
 pupils of St. Anthony. With the great in¬ 
 crease in the number of those devoted to 
 the hermit life, the custom had arisen of 
 the novices building their cells around that 
 of some prominent leader in asceticism, 
 that they might have the benefit of his ex¬ 
 ample and training. This was called the 
 laura, and Pachomius was the first to take 
 the steps that changed it into the organized 
 community of the monastery, with fixed 
 rules. The monastery which he founded 
 in the island of Tabenna at one time con¬ 
 tained fourteen hundred monks. Pacho¬ 
 mius practiced and required of his follow¬ 
 ers the most severe austerities. His sister 
 desiring to retire from the world, a mon¬ 
 astery was built on the other side of the 
 Nile for her and her followers. The order 
 established by Pachomius is said to have 
 remained in the East until the eleventh 
 century. 
 
 Pacification, Edicts of, the name given 
 to those edicts which at different times 
 were issued for the protection of the Prot- 
 
 Paedobaptists, a term used to distinguish 
 those who believe in infant baptiam, irre¬ 
 spective of differences on other points. 
 
 Paganism, the name applied to the idol- 
 worship of the ancient world. The name 
 is derived from Lat. pagus , a village, 
 and the etymology reminds us that the 
 name was applied to the religion of the 
 villages or country districts, as contrasted 
 with that of the towns and large centres of 
 population. In other words, when the 
 world in its intelligent centres accepted 
 I Christianity, the outlying districts re¬ 
 mained long attached to the ancient poly¬ 
 theism; hence, “ villager,” a “ rustic,” 
 became synonymous with “ idol-wership- 
 per.”" By exactly similar process the 
 word heathen , in Anglo-Saxon, “one who 
 dwelt on the heath or open country,” also 
 became identified with a believer in the an¬ 
 cient gods. 
 
 At the period when Christianity began 
 to extend itself beyond Palestine, the Ro¬ 
 man Empire had gathered into itself all the 
 civilized world except India and China, and 
 as we have no historical evidence of the 
 extension of apostolic labors to China, 
 and little as to the primitive Christianity 
 of India, we may for our present purpose 
 assume the Roman Empire to have been 
 the real battle-field of idolatry and Chris¬ 
 tianity. Let us, therefore, sketch out in a 
 few words what was the quasi-religious 
 condition of the civilized world, or of that 
 portion of it of which we know anything, 
 at the period when the strife began. 
 
 A necessary part of the Roman policy 
 was that of tolerating every form of relig¬ 
 ion which was found established among the 
 conquered nations under their sway, pro¬ 
 vided that religion was not inconsistent 
 with those relations between the con¬ 
 querors and the conquered which were 
 necessarv for the maintenance of their 
 power by the former. Hence, we find 
 the Jews exercising their religion in the 
 | time of our Lord without any restraint, 
 i so long as it was not made the pretext for 
 ( rebellion to Roman authority. And so 
 also in other portions of the empire, the 
 local idolatries were rarely interfered 
 with; the Druidism of unconquered 
 
 * The word first appears in a Law of the Emperor 
 Valentinian, A. D. 368. 
 
Pag 
 
 ( 688 ) 
 
 Pag 
 
 Britain, for example, continuing to prevail 
 when the land was subdued by the Roman 
 legions, and other local forms of polytheism 
 in other countries being persecuted only 
 when socially or politically troublesome. 
 But with the more intellectual and educated 
 subjects of the empire, and wherever the 
 influence of Rome itself was much felt, ex¬ 
 ternal idolatry had become little more than 
 the recognized public religion of the State, 
 conformity to which was kept up pierely 
 on the ground of order and social pro¬ 
 priety; the more real and ruling principles 
 of life being found in certain systems of 
 philosophy which had grown up among the 
 Greeks, and had extended their influence 
 over all the higher classes among the 
 Romans. Thus the religion of the civilized 
 world at the time when it stood opposed to 
 Christianity was, partly, a system of mere 
 idolatry, the worship of things that were 
 not God; and partly this combined with 
 philosophical principles which were more 
 attractive than mere idolatry could be to 
 educated minds. These philosophical 
 principles were developed out of three sys¬ 
 tems which had their origin among the 
 Greeks, who were highly civilized and 
 acute thinkers at a period when the Ro¬ 
 mans themselves were in their infancy. 
 
 The three systems were the Stoic, the 
 Epicurean, and the Platonist. They will be 
 found under their separate heads. We have 
 here only to inquire how idolatry affected 
 the morals of matikind. A man must be 
 violently prejudiced, if not wilfully blind, 
 who should refuse to see in the teach¬ 
 ings of Plato and Socrates a desire after 
 truth, and also after virtue which was al¬ 
 most Divine. The whole ethical doctrine 
 of Greek polytheism was beautiful in con¬ 
 ception. It inculcated the recognition of 
 mutual rights, and the rendering to each 
 man his due, “ honor to whom honor, cus¬ 
 tom to whom custom, tribute to whom 
 tribute.” Dike, “ justice,” was to the Greek 
 a real god. Liberty defending itself 
 against tyranny was courage; courage was 
 the essence of manliness ( andreia ). In¬ 
 dividual right involved social right, the 
 authority of law reposed on the consent of 
 the community, and thus there was inter¬ 
 dependence and mutual help. Law was 
 not, as in the great Oriental tyrannies, the 
 power exerted by the strong over the 
 weak, but the free and spontaneous con¬ 
 sent of a race of freemen. And to pre¬ 
 serve this mutual welfare consideration, 
 kindness and forgiveness became duties. 
 “ When thy neighbor acknowledges his 
 fault,” says Hesiod, “ restore him to thy 
 friendship.” 
 
 Yet this system had a deadly worm at 
 its very core. It contemplated man in his 
 
 relation to his fellow-men, but ignored his 
 duty toward himself, and toward God. 
 “ Know ye not that your bodies are the 
 temples of the Holy Ghost ? ” was a ques¬ 
 tion which Christianity taught as a new 
 revelation. A Greek was ruled in his deal¬ 
 ings with the commonwealth, but was free 
 to do what he liked as an individual. 
 What was the result ? The result was ex¬ 
 actly what St. Paul described it in the first 
 chapter of the Romans — licentiousness 
 knew no bounds, for religion had not at¬ 
 tempted to check it. Greek indecency, 
 wantonness, dishonesty, lying, became 
 proverbial. “ If there is one fact of history 
 more certain than another,” says a power¬ 
 ful writer of our own day, “ it is this 
 fact, that human nature was reduced to 
 such a state of fetid decay by the rejection 
 of God, that a few more years would have 
 seen the world one gigantic dunghill of cor¬ 
 ruption and death. Then the great sacri¬ 
 fice took place: God manifest in the flesh, 
 died upon the cross, an eternal sacrifice to 
 take away sin. A fresh invigorating 
 breeze swept through the putrefying mass 
 of human life. Men faced for the first time 
 the realities of existence with an unflinch¬ 
 ing faith—by pureness, by knowledge—in 
 a Divine life.”— J. H . Shorthouse. 
 
 When Christianity became the recognized 
 religion of the civilized world, idolatry be¬ 
 came a popular belief in contravention of 
 State authority. It had at first tolerated 
 Christianity as it did any other religion. 
 The persecutions that we have in the New 
 Testament are mostly raised by Jews. 
 The rest are excited by men who found 
 that it interfered with their personal gains. 
 (Acts xvi. 19; xix. 27.) It was only when 
 Christianity revealed itself as an aggres¬ 
 sive system, bound to extirpate the “ gods 
 many and lords many” from the world, 
 and hand it over to the one lordship of 
 Christ, that idolatry took alarm and began 
 to persecute fiercely. It was beaten in the 
 struggle, and Christianity triumphed. For 
 a while an analogous state of things was 
 repeated. Paganism was tolerated by Con¬ 
 stantine, as Christianity had been by most 
 of the Emperors. The heathen priests 
 were maintained in the enjoyment of their 
 ancient privileges, and he and his im¬ 
 mediate successors retained the heathen 
 title, which their predecessors had held, of 
 Pontifex Maximus (“chief sacrificer ”). 
 But popular opinion was against the hea¬ 
 then rites, and the temples were in some 
 cases pulled down, and in others allowed 
 to crumble into ruins. Gibbon tells with 
 glee, though at the expense of his hero 
 Julian, how that emperor, in his zeal to 
 restore Paganism, proclaimed a sacrifice to 
 the gods in populous Antioch, Instead of 
 
Pag 
 
 (689) 
 
 Pai 
 
 hecatombs of fat oxen, such as former days 
 had witnessed, one pale and solitary priest 
 appeared, bringing a single goose. 
 
 At an epoch when toleration was a virtue 
 so little understood, it is no wonder that 
 legislation was often confused, and to our 
 minds indefensible. Governments were 
 called upon to inculcate the faith, and to 
 secure liberty, though to some extent 
 obliged, as a matter of fact, to respect the 
 prejudices of the minority. When Arian- 
 ism divided the Christian Church into 
 fiercely contending bodies, Paganism lifted 
 its head once more, but in vain, since it 
 had lost its hold upon the intelligent. 
 Theodosius the Great enacted that those 
 who relapsed into Paganism should forfeit 
 all civil rights. For years even this was 
 evaded in the West. It was Justinian who 
 completed the work. In his days the last 
 temple was turned into the celebrated 
 monastery of St. Benedict. 
 
 But meanwhile Paganism had left its 
 markon Christianity. The Church had felt 
 obliged to make concessions to the pagans, 
 to mitigate their opposition and facilitate 
 their conversion. Hence, minor observ¬ 
 ances of paganism were adopted as part of 
 Christian ritual. The commemoration of 
 saints is admitted by Jerome and Augustine 
 to be derived from Pagan custom, and they 
 justify the practice as one which the uni¬ 
 versal conscience of mankind approves. 
 Neander traces the worship of the Virgin 
 to that of Ceres. The casting of earth 
 upon the dead, which we retain in our 
 Burial Service, is derived from Paganism. 
 The hanging of votive offerings in Roman 
 Catholic churches is like what was prac¬ 
 ticed in the days of Horace. New Year’s 
 gifts and rejoicings, the use of bride-cake, 
 the popular observances of Valentine’s 
 Day, are all of Pagan origin. And every 
 day of our lives we have the names of the 
 gods of our fathers on our lips, for after 
 them we call the days of the week.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Page, Harlan, a devoted Christian lay¬ 
 man; b. at Coventry, Conn., July 28, 1791; 
 d. in New York, Sept. 23, 1834. He was 
 a carpenter by trade, but proved so efficient 
 and useful in Christian work that from 
 1825 until his death he was employed by 
 the American Tract Society as the agent of 
 its depository in New York. He was the 
 means of leading many souls to Christ. 
 See Memoir ,by W. A. Hallock (N. Y., 1835). 
 
 Pagoda, the name given a highly deco¬ 
 rated style of Hindoo temples, and also to 
 tower-shaped buildings in China which con¬ 
 sist of a series of one-room stories, sur¬ 
 rounded by a gallery. 
 
 Paine, Robert, D. D., a distinguished 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South; b. in Person County, N. C., Nov. 
 12, 1799; d. at Aberdeen, Miss., Oct. 19, 
 1882. Making the best use of limited edu¬ 
 cational advantages, he was licensed to 
 preach soon after his conversion, in 1817. 
 He was admitted into the Tennessee Con¬ 
 ference in 1818, and continued his service 
 as an itinerant preacher until 1834, when 
 he was elected president of La Grange Col¬ 
 lege, Alabama. He did excellent service 
 in this position for sixteen years, when he 
 accepted the office of bishop. He was 
 chairman of the committee which reported 
 the plan of separation, by which the Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal Church was divided, in 
 1844. He was an excellent administrator, 
 an able preacher, and as a platform speak¬ 
 er had few superiors. He wrote Life and 
 'Limes of Bishop McKendree (Nashville, 
 1874), 2 vols. 
 
 Paine, Thomas, a political writer who 
 also gained notoriety by his deistical opin¬ 
 ions, was b. at Thetford, Norfolk, Eng., 
 Jan. 29, 1737; d. in New York City, June 
 8, 1809. Without educational advantages 
 in youth, he worked for a time at his fa¬ 
 ther’s trade as a stay-maker, and then was a 
 sailor. From 1763 he became an exciseman 
 at Sandwich, and here wrote his first pam¬ 
 phlet, criticising the systemofexcise, which 
 led to his dismissal from the service, and 
 by the advice of Franklin, whom he met in 
 London, he came to this country in 1774. 
 He at once entered upon a political and 
 journalistic career that was of great help¬ 
 fulness during the struggle of the colonies 
 for their liberty. It was in 1776 that his 
 first notable work, Common Sense , was pub¬ 
 lished, of which Burke speaks as “that 
 celebrated pamphlet which prepared the 
 minds of the people for independence.” In 
 1787 he returned to Europe, and in* f i79i 
 published The Rights of Man , in reply to 
 Burke’s Reflections on the Revolutio 7 i in 
 France. The book was condemned as a 
 “ seditious libel,” and he was brought to 
 trial, and found guilty, but escaped to 
 France. Elected to the National Assembly, 
 he incurred the anger of the Jacobins by 
 voting against the execution of Louis XVI., 
 and was thrown into prison in 1794, where 
 he remained for nearly a year. In 1802 he 
 returned to the United States. He was 
 buried on his farm at New Rochelle, given 
 him by the State of New York for his ser¬ 
 vices in the Revolution. His remains were 
 removed to England in 1819 by William 
 Cobbett. In 1839 a monument was erected 
 by his admirers at New Rochelle, and in 
 1875 the Paine Memorial Hall was dedi¬ 
 cated in Boston. “ If Paine’s writings had 
 
Pai 
 
 ( 690 ) 
 
 Pai 
 
 been only political he would be entitled to 
 honor as a bold and vigorous friend of hu¬ 
 man liberty. . . . But it is as the author 
 of The Age of Reason , an uncompromising, 
 ignorant, and audacious attack on the Bible, 
 that he is most widely known, indeed, no¬ 
 torious. . . . Paine was not an atheist, but 
 a deist. In his will he speaks of his ‘ re¬ 
 posing confidence in my Creator-God, and 
 in no other being: for I know no other, 
 nor believe in any other.’ He voiced cur¬ 
 rent doubt, and is still formidable; because, 
 although he attacks a gross misconception 
 of Christianity, he does it in such a manner 
 as to turn his reader, in many cases, away 
 from any serious consideration of the claim 
 of Christianity. He was blind to the moral 
 and spiritual truths of the Bible, and is 
 therefore an incompetent critic, whose pre¬ 
 tensions in this line are really ludicrous. 
 
 . . . Comparison of the contemporary biog¬ 
 raphies, both of friends and foes, seems 
 to show these facts; Paine was through life 
 a harsh, unfeeling, vain, and disagreeable 
 man. He was wanting in a sense of honor, 
 and therefore could not be trusted. But it 
 was not until after his return from France, 
 when he was sixty-five years old, very 
 much broken by his long sufferings, and 
 the strain of the great excitement in which 
 he had lived for years, and for the first 
 time in his life above want, that he devel¬ 
 oped those traits which rendered him in 
 his last days such a miserable object. The 
 charges of matrimonial infidelity and of se¬ 
 duction are probably unfounded; but that 
 he was in his old age penurious, uncleanly, 
 drunken and unscrupulous, may be accept¬ 
 ed as true. He did a great service for the 
 United States in her hour of peril. But, 
 alas ! he has done irreparable injury ever 
 since in turning many away from God and 
 the religion of Jesus Christ.”— S. M. Jack- 
 son in Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. iii., p. 
 171S. The complete Works of Paine have 
 been frequently published. 
 
 Painting, Christian. In the early days 
 of Christianity the primary object of paint¬ 
 ing was to represent Jesus Christ, either 
 alone or as the centre of a picture, and 
 these representations were not left to the 
 imagination of the artist, but were copied 
 from certain likenesses supposed to have 
 been taken during his life upon earth. Tra¬ 
 dition ascribed certain paintings of Christ 
 and the Madonna to St. Luke, and the nap¬ 
 kin of St. Veronica was preserved, on 
 which was supposed to be depicted the 
 Vera icon . These likenesses were copied 
 and recopied for centuries, and departure 
 from the ancient tradition came to be look¬ 
 ed upon as nothing less than heresy. Un¬ 
 til the twelfth century there was no art in 
 
 Christian painting; pictures were painted 
 in order to keep alive the spirit of devo¬ 
 tion in the minds of the uneducated, and 
 this object was reached by the most con¬ 
 ventional method, made holy to the wor¬ 
 shipers by long usage. Figures were rep¬ 
 resented as stiff and shapeless, and the 
 only change which came over early art was' 
 the continual increase in richness of color. 
 The first dawn of new life began gradually 
 to make itself felt about the twelfth cen¬ 
 tury, when artists first attempted to put 
 animation, beauty, and grace into the forms 
 of their creation; but the work was slow, 
 and was more a trial of skill for their own 
 pleasure than for the sake of art. Guido 
 of Siena, and Giunto of Pisa, are asso¬ 
 ciated with the birth of true Christian art 
 —the Romanesque school; it almost reach¬ 
 ed its completeness with Giovanni Cima- 
 bue, of Florence; and with Giotto di Bon- 
 done (b. 1276; d. 1336) the last fetters of 
 conventionalism were cast off. From this 
 time till the fifteenth century, art continued 
 to flourish, fostered in two schools, the 
 Florentine and the Siennese; the former 
 somewhat severe, resembling the Byzan¬ 
 tine school of the early Christians; the lat¬ 
 ter more graceful and more independent of 
 conventional ideas. The fifteenth century 
 saw a further development, which may be 
 traced to the increase of religious feeling 
 consequent on the rise of the mendicant 
 orders. It took the form of a nearer ap¬ 
 proach to nature in form and color, light 
 and shade—art became more naturalistic, 
 while still keeping the spiritual expression 
 of the old masters. The first of this school 
 was a Dominican monk, Fra Angelico da 
 Fiesole (b. 1387; d. 1455), who was fol¬ 
 lowed by Masaccio, Fra Lippo Lippi, and 
 Ghirlandajo; and it reached its highest per¬ 
 fection with the sixteenth century, in which 
 Christian art was represented by many 
 great masters, headed by Raphael and 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo. 
 With these great masters beauty of form 
 and feature were made equal, but not su¬ 
 perior, to spiritual import, and the result 
 was the painting of such pictures as later 
 artists have never been able to equal. They 
 have influenced all Italian painting of later 
 times. 
 
 German art, as well as Dutch and French, 
 was far behind the Italian; during the Mid¬ 
 dle Ages it followed the Gothic style, and 
 it was only about the middle of the fifteenth 
 century that Italian influence began to 
 make itself felt. The Nuremberg and Sax¬ 
 on schools,headed respectively by Albrecht 
 Diirer (b. 1471; d. 1528), and Lucas Cran¬ 
 ach (b. 1472; d. 1533), each produced a 
 number of good artists, but their individu¬ 
 ality was lost in close and inferior imita- 
 
Paj 
 
 ( 691 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 tion of the Italian painters. In opposition 
 to the decline of art in Italy, and conse¬ 
 quently in Germany, a school arose in Spain 
 in the seventeenth century which lasted 
 only a short time, but which produced five 
 great painters, of whom Murillo is the 
 greatest. The age which followed, charac¬ 
 terized by the irreligion and immorality 
 which preceded the French Revolution, 
 gave a check to religious art from which it 
 has never recovered; and although efforts 
 have been made to revive the greatness of 
 Catholic art, it still stands in a very small 
 proportion to art in general, and is marked 
 by no artist of great distinction.—Benham: 
 Did . of Religion. 
 
 Pajon, Claude, the founder of Pajon- 
 ism, was b. at Romorantin, in Lower Ble- 
 sois, 1626; d. at Carre, near Orleans, Sept. 
 27, 1685. He was educated at Saumur, 
 and in 1650 became minister at Machenoir, 
 and in 1666 professor of theology at Sau¬ 
 mur. His peculiar doctrinal views led 
 him to resign this position, and he became 
 minister of a congregation in Orleans, 
 where he spent the rest of his life. He 
 held that there is no such thing as subject¬ 
 ive grace, and that in the spiritual as well 
 as material world, God governs by the ob¬ 
 jective connection of cause and effect, and 
 that external circumstances are sufficient 
 to explain the conversion or non-conversion 
 of an individual. He gained many follow¬ 
 ers, but the provincial synods excluded all 
 Pajonists from the offices of the Church. 
 Pajon published two books in refutation 
 of attacks on the Reformed Church, but 
 never gave, through the press, an exposi¬ 
 tion of his doctrines. 
 
 Palamas, Gregory, the leader of the 
 Hesychasts (y. v. ), was b. in Asia, and 
 brought up in the court of the emperor, 
 John Cantacuzenus. He became a monk 
 at Mt. Athos, and was the principal defend¬ 
 er of the ideas promulgated by the Hesy¬ 
 chasts. He was made archbishop of Thes- 
 salonica in 1349, but the city refused to 
 receive him, and he retired to the island of 
 Lemnos. Little is known of his later life. 
 Most of his sixty works still remain in 
 manuscript. Of those printed are Proso¬ 
 popoeia , and two Greek treatises against the 
 Latin Church. 
 
 Paleario, Aonio, b. at Veroli, in 1500; 
 burned at Rome, July 3, 1570. He was 
 educated at Rome, and became a teacher at 
 Siena, in 1536. He gained fame as a poet. 
 A volume which he published, Della Pie- 
 nezza, Sufpcienza , e Satisfadione della Pas- 
 sione di Christo , brought him before the In¬ 
 quisition, but he was acquitted. In 1546 
 
 he was appointed professor at Lucca, and 
 from there, in order to gain greater secu¬ 
 rity, removed to Milan, in 1555. The 
 charge of heresy was here brought against 
 him, and he was sent to Rome where, after 
 an imprisonment of two years, he was con¬ 
 victed and condemned to death, Oct. 15, 
 1569. See The Life and Times of Aonio 
 Paleario, by Mrs. Young (London 1S60), 2 
 vols. 
 
 Palestine. In the place it occupies in the 
 history of, the world Palestine is without 
 a rival; and in whatever light it is regard¬ 
 ed, it has a strange and fascinating interest 
 not possessed by any other country. In 
 the first place, its position and physical feat¬ 
 ures are remarkable. It is a small country, 
 situated at the eastern end of the Med¬ 
 iterranean, extending not over Df degrees 
 from north to south, reckoning from Da¬ 
 mascus; not over 2J2 degrees from west to 
 east, reckoning from Gaza, and containing 
 12,000 to 13,000 square miles at the period 
 of its greatest prosperity. It is divided 
 from north to south into two nearly equal 
 portions by the Jordan Valley, which i? » 
 the deepest depression that exists any* 
 where on the surface of the earth. On the 
 east and south it is bounded by deserts, 
 on the west by the Mediterranean, which 
 the Hebrews called the “ Great Sea,’' 
 and on the north by rugged mountains. 
 
 A unique surface is presented by the 
 peculiar arrangement of its valleys, 
 plains, table-lands, and hills, since all of 
 them run parallel to the Mediterranean 
 coast. 
 
 (1) There is, first, the belt of level land 
 along the sea, at points not half a mile in 
 width, but elsewhere widening to a dis¬ 
 tance of several miles, which, in general, 
 formed the countries of Phoenicia and Phi- 
 listia, and the plain of Sharon which lay 
 between them. Gaza, Joppa, Tyre, Sidon, 
 are only four of the many cities which 
 made this belt of land famous in the wars, 
 but especially in the commerce of the an¬ 
 cient world. (2) Beyond this narrow plain 
 rises the mountain range of Western Pal¬ 
 estine, along which, at different heights 
 above the sea level, are many noted places 
 of sacred history, such as Nazareth, 1,602 
 feet; Shechem, 1,935; Bethel, 2,890; Jeru¬ 
 salem, 2,593; Bethlehem, 2,550, and He¬ 
 bron, 3,040; the latter being 447 feet higher 
 than the. Holy City itself. The western 
 slope of this range of mountains, although 
 broken and rugged, is gradual compared 
 with its eastern slope where, particularly 
 in the parts near the Dead Sea, bold, rocky 
 hills appear as if tossed together in wild¬ 
 est confusion. Moreover, the western 
 slope is fertile, while the eastern is barren 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 692 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 and forbidding. (3) These mountains drop 
 down into the Jordan Valley, which can 
 best be described as a great chasm sunk 
 into the earth, it being 700 feet and 1,300 
 feet, at the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea 
 respectively, below the level of the Medi¬ 
 terranean; but if we reckon from the sum¬ 
 mit of the mountains which line it on 
 either side, it is from 2,000 to 4,000 feet in 
 depth. In width it varies from three to 
 ten miles. (4) Beyond this valley rises the 
 long range known as the mountains of 
 
 Moab and Gilead, varying in height from 
 1,800 to nearly, or quite, 3,000 feet, al¬ 
 though when looked at from a distance the 
 line of the summit appears to be pretty 
 uniform. This range is continuous from 
 Mount Hermon in the north to Mount Hor 
 in the south, a distance of upwards of two 
 hundred miles. (5) Curiously enough, 
 these mountains have no appreciable east¬ 
 ern slope, but from their very summits 
 they drop off gradually into the vast table¬ 
 land which forms the countries of Moab 
 and Bashan, which in turn fades into the 
 
 deserts lying to the east and south. These 
 five distinct sections render the surface 
 of Palestine unlike that of any other 
 country. 
 
 We find, likewise, a marked variety in the 
 climate and pr eductions of these different 
 sections; on the sea-coast the winters are 
 always mild and the summers very hot; on 
 the mountains the storms in winter are pen¬ 
 etrating and violent, and occasionally snow 
 falls, while the summers are long and less 
 oppressive, with cool nights; in the Jordan 
 Valley there is intense heat 
 the year round; the hills 
 of Gilead and Moab, and 
 the table-land beyond have 
 a colder climate than the 
 mountains of Western Pal¬ 
 estine: birds, animals, and 
 plants are found in the 
 Jordan Valley which do 
 not exist in other parts of 
 the country, and the same 
 is true of the higher moun¬ 
 tain ranges. 
 
 Palestine is not a well- 
 watered country. The Jor¬ 
 dan is the largest stream, 
 whose head waters are 
 near Hasbeyeh on the 
 western slope of Hermon, 
 one hundred and forty 
 miles from its mouth. In 
 its course it passes 
 through the only two 
 sweet-water lakes of Pal¬ 
 estine, Merom and Tibe¬ 
 rias, and flows into the 
 Dead Sea. Between its 
 mouth and the Sea of Gal¬ 
 ilee the distance is sixty- 
 five miles, but its course 
 is so winding as to meas¬ 
 ure one hundred and twen¬ 
 ty miles between those 
 two points, while its fall 
 in the same distance is 
 six hundred feet. This 
 rapid stream, whose aver¬ 
 age width is about one 
 hundred feet, the He¬ 
 brews called the “ Descender.” Flow¬ 
 ing into the Jordan from the east are the 
 Hieromax just below the Sea of Gali¬ 
 lee; the Jabbok, called the Zerka, meaning 
 the “ Blue Stream,” and the Arnon; and 
 on the west, the Aujeh north of Jericho, 
 and a few smaller streams which in sum¬ 
 mer become nearly dry. From the Jordan 
 and its many tributaries a vast quantity of 
 water is carried down into the Dead Sea, 
 and escapes thence by evaporation. On 
 the coast the Aujeh, three miles north of 
 Jaffa, is the largest, a beautiful stream with 
 
 THE JORDAN. 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 693 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 full banks; Nahr Rubin, south of Jaffa, the 
 Zerka near Cesarea-on-the-sea, and the 
 Kishon, north of Mount Carmel. Through¬ 
 out the country there are many springs 
 and fountains, upon whose limited supply 
 of water thousands of men and animals de¬ 
 pend for all they use. In the large towns 
 water is caught in cisterns, and a supply is 
 thus furnished for a part of the year, at 
 least. In former times immense reservoirs 
 were provided near important towns, as at 
 Hebron, Jerusalem, and many other places, 
 and to this class belong the structures well 
 known as “Solomon’s Pools” south of 
 Bethlehem. 
 
 The rainfall varies from fourteen to 
 thirty-two inches. When twenty-five inches 
 fall a good crop is thought to be insured, 
 and eighteen inches are considered ab¬ 
 solutely necessary for this purpose. The 
 early rains should fall in November, and 
 the latter rains about the first of April. 
 From April to November is the dry season, 
 and during the rainy season, from Novem¬ 
 ber to March, there are many intervals, 
 sometimes of several weeks’ duration, of 
 delightful weather. 
 
 In th z productions of the soil of Palestine 
 there is a marked variety, notwithstanding 
 its neglected condition. Figs, grapes, and 
 olives are still its chief glory among fruits; 
 but we find also lemons, citrons, pome¬ 
 granates, dates, quinces, apricots, almonds, 
 and oranges in vast numbers; peaches can 
 be raised, but cherries, pears, and apples 
 do not flourish, the latter being always 
 small and poor. Almost every variety of 
 vegetable is raised, except the potato, 
 which does not do well: these are imported 
 from Malta, France,and elsewhere. Sugar¬ 
 cane grows luxuriantly on the lowlands, 
 and the remains of sugar-mills in the Jor¬ 
 dan Valley are evidence that formerly it 
 was extensively cultivated. The cultivation 
 of cotton, sugar-cane, and some other 
 crops might be indefinitely increased. In 
 recent times, Indian corn has been intro¬ 
 duced, but the art of raising as well as of 
 using it has not yet been learned. There 
 is no grass, as we understand that word, 
 consequently no hay, and chopped straw or 
 tibin, which is both the Hebrew and Ar¬ 
 abic word for it, is the staple article of food 
 for domestic animals, just as it was in the 
 days of Abraham. The Jordan Valley and 
 the Plains of Bashan are among the finest 
 wheat districts in the world, and great quan¬ 
 tities raised here are shipped annually, 
 chiefly from Acre. It is brought to this 
 point on camels, sometimes three thousand 
 arriving in a single day, and taken thence 
 by steamers to European ports. 
 
 The mineral deposits of the country are 
 of considerable interest and value, and will 
 
 one day become a source of wealth when 
 foreign capital is allowed to enter in and 
 work these mines. Iron, coal, lead, cop¬ 
 per, sulphur, salt, and bitumen are found, 
 and it is probable that an indefinite sup¬ 
 ply of petroleum exists about the Dead 
 Sea. Not even the natives are allowed 
 to gather the bitumen or the salt, these 
 articles being regarded as Government 
 monopolies. 
 
 Of manufactured articles soap takes the 
 lead, and two hundred thousand to three 
 hundred thousand dollars’ worth are ship¬ 
 ped every year from Jaffa; besides the soap 
 and wheat, oriental maize, barley, oranges, 
 wine, raisins, dye-stuffs, and rags, Jeru¬ 
 salem and Bethlehem wares of olive-wood, 
 bituminous limestone and mother-of-pearl, 
 with some other articles, make up the chief 
 exports from the country. 
 
 Camels, horses, donkeys, sheep, goats, 
 mules, and a few cattle comprise the list 
 of dotnestic animals. Horses are under size, 
 but very docile. The wild Arabs have the 
 reputation of being kind to these animals, 
 but in the towns they are poorly fed and 
 often abused. Donkeys, though cruelly 
 treated, are most serviceable creatures, and 
 as for camels, man in the desert could not 
 exist without them. With no hills, streams, 
 or trees to kindle the imagination, it is no 
 wonder that Arab poets have said some of 
 their choicest things about this strange, 
 uncouth, indispensable burden-bearer, 
 with which such multitudes of human be¬ 
 ings live and die. Cattle are small, and 
 their flesh is poor, since during the summer 
 months there is no grass for them to feed 
 upon. In the cities and villages are num¬ 
 berless dogs, without owners, leading a 
 half-starved, wretched existence. The in¬ 
 habitants of Palestine have never learned 
 either to be kind to animals, or to care for 
 them properly. 
 
 In the Natural History of Palestine many 
 facts are found which illustrate and con¬ 
 firm the Bible, although some of the birds 
 and animals referred to have not yet been 
 identified. Upward of three hundred and 
 fifty birds have been noted as belonging 
 to that country, besides about forty ani¬ 
 mals. Some have become extinct, as the 
 ostrich and the lion. Among those at 
 present found in great abundance are the 
 gazelle, fox, jackal, hyena, porcupine, 
 badger, hare, and wild boar. In the rocks 
 about En-gedi wild goats (the ibex) are 
 still seen, and the curious and timid coney 
 (,hyrax Syriacud) is found in the most se¬ 
 cluded places. 
 
 Birds of prey are most abundant of all 
 the species found in Palestine. Partridges 
 exist in multitudes; the chukar , or Greek 
 partridge, in both valley and mountain, 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 694 ) 
 
 and the Desert sand-partridge {ammoperdix 
 heyi) in t the Jordan Valley and about the 
 Dead Sea only. There are few song-birds, 
 and generally the plumage of birds is dull, 
 with such exceptions as the egret, the 
 squacco, and buff - backed herons, the 
 Smyrna, and the little green kingfishers, 
 the roller, frankolin, oriole, the bee-eater, 
 and the tiny and exquisitely beautiful 
 sun-bird. In the spring, when the birds 
 are moving northward, the land appears 
 to be full of them, and among these 
 the turtle-dove should be mentioned, 
 whose voice and presence are as welcome 
 now as they were centuries ago when their 
 advent was heralded in the Song of Songs 
 (ii. 11, 12). In climates so unlike as are 
 those of the seacoast of Palestine, the Jor¬ 
 dan Valley, southern Judea, and the sum¬ 
 mits of Ilermon and Lebanon, although 
 these sections are in such close proximity 
 to each other, distinct and peculiar forms 
 of animal and plant life are found. 
 
 For historical records pertaining to Pal¬ 
 estine, the Bible was, until recently, al¬ 
 most our only authority, for a period of 
 nearly twenty centuries. Scattered notices 
 have been preserved in the writings of 
 other races, which are more abundant as 
 we approach the time of Christ. To this 
 latter period belong the works of Josephus, 
 invaluable, and providentially preserved 
 to shed light on the politics, religion, and 
 life of Judea ; since then, particularly 
 within a century past, books on that sub¬ 
 ject have multiplied so that the world is 
 now familiar with that country in every 
 phase of its fascinating history. The want 
 of collateral evidence for the long interval 
 between Abraham and Herod the Great 
 was felt, but there were no means of sup¬ 
 plying it. An important means has at last 
 been found in the stone documents that 
 have been preserved in the buried libra¬ 
 ries of Assyria and Babylonia. The re¬ 
 covery and decipherment of these records 
 is not only one of the greatest events of 
 the present century, but it marks a new 
 era in the study of Palestine and the lands 
 and people about it. This rich and vast 
 literature of a people closely allied to the 
 Hebrews, but always hostile to them, illus¬ 
 trates and corroborates in a surprising 
 manner the statements of the Bible from 
 Genesis to Malachi. Similar documents, 
 only to a much more limited extent, have 
 been recovered from the tombs of Egypt. 
 Moreover, the soil of Palestine itself has 
 begun to yield inscriptions; the Moabite 
 stone, the Gezer boundary, and that of the 
 Siloam tunnel, which confirm the Bible 
 records, and make us better acquainted 
 with the former condition of that land of 
 marvels. The discoveries already made 
 
 ' Pal 
 
 have awakened the universal hope that 
 still other records will be brought to light 
 —perhaps from Kirjath-Sepher, the Book- 
 town, and elsewhere—belonging to the 
 early inhabitants that were conquered by 
 Joshua, or to still more ancient peoples. 
 
 From these records we learn that Pal¬ 
 estine in the earliest times was called 
 Canaan, and the earliest inhabitants Ca- 
 naanites, the word signifying Lowlanders 
 and Traders. They occupied the Mediter¬ 
 ranean coast, the great plains, and the 
 Jordan Valley. In the mountains Abraham 
 encountered the Hittites, of whom little is 
 known, yet sufficient to warrant the con¬ 
 clusion that in the remotest times they 
 were a powerful race, and were once dom¬ 
 inant in a large part of Western Asia. The 
 country promised to Abraham was not con¬ 
 quered and occupied by the Hebrews till 
 b. c. 1450. Its brilliant conquest under 
 Joshua was soon followed by three and a 
 half centuries of which little is known, and 
 which may well be described as the dark 
 ages of Hebrew history. The few facts 
 recorded in Judges and the first book of 
 Samuel are meagre, but priceless. When 
 the nation began to emerge from this pe¬ 
 riod it was as an oppressed people, few in 
 numbers, and without wealth or power; 
 but the tide in their favor had certainly 
 turned, and under David and Solomon 
 they rose to a foremost place in all that 
 constitutes national greatness. The great 
 increase of territory, the establishment of 
 a commercial navy, the accumulation of 
 vast amounts of gold, cedar-wood, copper, 
 and tin from different parts of the world, 
 and the erection of many public buildings, 
 particularly the royal palaces and the Tem¬ 
 ple at Jerusalem, are to be noted among 
 the important events of that time. 
 
 The greatest events following the death 
 of Solomon were the division of his king¬ 
 dom and the establishment of the separate 
 kingdoms of Israel and Judah, Israel last¬ 
 ing for two and a half centuries, until its 
 capital, Samaria, was captured; and Judah 
 flourishing for nearly four hundred years, 
 until Jerusalem, its capital, had been twice 
 captured by Nebuchadnezzar. Under Ze- 
 rubbabel and Ezra, by permission of Cyrus, 
 a weak and dependent kingdom was rees¬ 
 tablished about 536 b. c., which, subject 
 now to one and now to another foreign 
 power with every brief intervals of quasi¬ 
 independence, lasted until the final destruc¬ 
 tion of Jerusalem, in the year 70 a. d. 
 The vicissitudes which Palestine has ex¬ 
 perienced since the time of Christ are 
 hardly second in number and variety—cer¬ 
 tainly not in their tragic and forbidding 
 aspect—to those of the twenty centuries 
 which stretch backward from Christ to 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 695 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 Abraham. Omitting details, important 
 historical way-marks are the two conquests 
 by the Romans in A. D. 66-70, and A. d. 
 134; that by the Persians in a. d. 616; the 
 re-conquest of the country by Heraclius, 
 emperor of Byzantium, which was soon 
 followed by the Mohammedan conquest in 
 A. D. 636. Since then it has been subject 
 to many different dynasties and races, but 
 all the while under the Mohammedan yoke 
 with the exception of nearly one hundred 
 years, A. D. 1096-A. d. 1187, when the 
 country was in the hands of the Crusaders. 
 For nearly four centuries it has been under 
 Turkish rule, and now forms a part of the 
 Turkish Empire. Under the last-named 
 rulers the people of Palestine, have become 
 poor, and the country has retrograded. 
 Promises of reform have not been carried 
 out, owing in part to the weakness of the 
 government, and in part to its ignorance as 
 to what constitutes real progress and true 
 national prosperity. 
 
 The inhabitants of Palestine , numbering 
 roughly 600,000, are composed chiefly of 
 Arabs, and after them the most numerous 
 races are Syrians and Jews. In the East 
 it is customary to divide the population 
 according to religious beliefs; hence we 
 speak of Mohammedans, Jews, and Chris¬ 
 tians. Besides Jaffa there are but four 
 towns that have any considerable Jewish 
 population, namely, Hebron, Safed, Tibe¬ 
 rias, and Jerusalem. They are poor and 
 ignorant, the Spanish Jews being, how¬ 
 ever, somewhat better off than the German 
 Jews, who are by far the larger of the 
 two bodies. Each body has its separate 
 synagogues. A few Jewish colonies have 
 been established in Palestine during the 
 past two decades, but they are small in 
 numbers and have to be supported by out¬ 
 side help. Recent years have witnessed a 
 large number of societies organized for the 
 purpose of colonizing Judea with Jews, and 
 a vast amount has been written in favor of 
 these projects; but in no case was any 
 proper account taken of the obstacles to be 
 encountered, and the consequence is that 
 these schemes have, with hardly an excep¬ 
 tion, been entire failures. 
 
 The Christians are divided into the vari¬ 
 ous Oriental sects, as Greek, Latin or Ro¬ 
 man Catholic, Armenians, Copts, Abys- 
 sinians, and Syrians, and there are also a 
 few Protestants. The bulk of the popula¬ 
 tion is Mohammedan, and in a majority 
 of the villages of Palestine Christians are 
 unknown, Christians having exclusive pos¬ 
 session of but very few villages, as, for ex¬ 
 ample, Bethlehem. The Greek and Latin 
 sects are wealthy, and have throughout the 
 country many convents. The Greeks are 
 supported by Russia and the Latins by 
 
 France, and the many political questions 
 growing out of the relations of these two 
 rival bodies are interesting, and may, not 
 very far hence, prove of vital significance 
 for the weal or woe of the Holy Land. 
 
 Owing to various circumstances, the 
 struggle for life in Palestine is a hard one. 
 The people are universally poor, and there 
 is among them much suffering, with no 
 prospect for betterment under the present 
 order of things. There is a great variety 
 of occupations , and in any large town one 
 will meet with bakers, butchers, black¬ 
 smiths, builders, coffee-shop keepers, 
 clothes dealers, charcoal dealers, carpen¬ 
 ters, dyers, gold and silver smiths, gro¬ 
 cers, gunsmiths, masons, money-changers, 
 milkmen, stone-cutters, shoemakers, spice 
 merchants, saddlers, soap-makers, tailors, 
 tinsmiths, tobacconists, tanners, vegetable 
 dealers, watch-makers, wine and spirit 
 merchants, weavers, etc. These are taken 
 from a list of over one hundred occupa¬ 
 tions, as those in which the largest number 
 of persons are engaged. In all manual la¬ 
 bor the methods employed are primitive, 
 and the work produced is of the rudest char¬ 
 acter. In a few instances, however, as in 
 gold ornaments, and in the manufacture of 
 cloth of gold, silver, and siTic, they exhibit 
 fine taste and skill; on the othejhand they 
 cannot make a right angle in the wall of a 
 room, a straight edge to a board, or a farm¬ 
 ing utensil that is not clumsy. Manufact¬ 
 uring is carried on only to a limited extent, 
 being confined chiefly to the household, 
 farming, and other utensils that are needed 
 in the country. Imported tools would be 
 far better, but the people are too poor 
 to buy them. There are large estab¬ 
 lishments for the manufacture of pottery 
 from white and black clay, both kinds being 
 abundant, whose products are inexpensive 
 and are constantly in demand. In some 
 sections the preparation of stones for hand- 
 mills, or for mills of a larger size that are 
 turned by donkeys, is quite an important 
 industry. Glass rings and small glass or¬ 
 naments are extensively made in Hebron; 
 and here and elsewhere the preparation of 
 goat-skins for bottles for water, wine, and 
 oil is carried on with profit, because these 
 articles are always and everywhere needed. 
 In the work from mother-of-pearl and bi¬ 
 tuminous limestone at Bethlehem, and in 
 the olive-wood work of Jerusalem, a lu¬ 
 crative business is done, which has greatly 
 increased within twenty years past, and 
 given employment to thousands of people, 
 as these objects are sent to all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 The mass of the people of Palestine are 
 engaged in tilling the soil. This is labori¬ 
 ous work and not very profitable. More- 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 6 9 6 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 over, the farmers are almost universally in 
 debt, and after the tax-collector and money¬ 
 lender have been satisfied, there is fre¬ 
 quently very little of the products of the 
 year left for the farmer himself; conse¬ 
 quently in order to carry on his work he 
 must make ruinous pledges on future 
 crops — pledges for seed, cattle, imple¬ 
 ments, and sometimes even for food. He 
 works hard, lives and dies in debt—this, 
 in brief, is the farmer’s normal condition in 
 Palestine. The government affords its 
 people no help, but in the management of 
 the country’s affairs is oppressive and cruel 
 in many ways. Could roads be built, mar¬ 
 kets opened, and enterprise encouraged, 
 much would be done toward raising the in¬ 
 habitants to a condition of prosperity and 
 happiness. 
 
 The people suffer not only from an op¬ 
 pressive government and their own habits 
 of improvidence, but because they are 
 ignorant of all sanitary laws. About any 
 town or village the dunghill—as Moslems 
 never apply fertilizing material to the land— 
 is always a conspicuous, not to say an of¬ 
 fensive object. In the large towns sinks 
 are built within the thick walls of the 
 houses, and are seldom cleaned. The nar¬ 
 row streets become the receptacles of all 
 sorts of filth and decaying substances, to 
 whose presence the inhabitants seem to be 
 perfectly indifferent. The streets of a 
 town are almost never cleaned except when 
 washed by winter rains. People live and 
 die in filth. It is a standing miracle that 
 pestilence in some form does not visit that 
 land every year. This would be the result 
 were it not for the intense heat which pre¬ 
 vails from the first of April till the last of 
 November, which burns up filth and car¬ 
 rion as.well as all green vegetation. The 
 prevailing diseases are fevers, dysentery, 
 measles, and small-pox, and occasionally 
 *the country is scourged by cholera. The 
 latter is the only disease of which the na¬ 
 tives have any dread. Thousands die of 
 measles and small-pox who might be saved, 
 were any proper care taken of the sick. 
 It is largely due to this neglect that the 
 death-rate in Palestine is so high. Among 
 the Jews another fact enters into the ac¬ 
 count in estimating the death-rate, and that 
 is, that so many aged and infirm persons go 
 to the Holy Land to spend their last days, 
 who readily succumb to a climate to which 
 they are not accustomed. Leprosy still 
 exists to a limited extent, but it is not con¬ 
 sidered contagious. For many years lepers 
 have not been allowed within the walls of 
 Jerusalem, and a hospital has been provid¬ 
 ed for them by the Moravians, at some dis¬ 
 tance from the city, where they receive 
 excellent sanitary and medical care. No 
 
 law compels them to enter the hospital, 
 and a considerable number prefer, as in 
 ancient times, to sit by the wayside and 
 beg. 
 
 The question of wine and te?nperance in 
 Palestine may be referred to, since that 
 topic is so frequently mentioned. Wine is 
 manufactured in large quantities, both red 
 and white, according to the color of the 
 grapes used, and is mostly consumed in 
 the country. Its use by Christians and 
 Jews is universal, and in the large towns 
 and sea-ports many Mohammedans are also 
 addicted to wine-drinking. Much is im¬ 
 ported from Cyprus and the Greek Islands. 
 From the pomace of grapes and from ref¬ 
 use figs a distilled liquor is made, called 
 araky which is generally very poor, and 
 injurious to the system. German beer is 
 imported in considerable quantities—10,000 
 bottles in 1886; besides, there are three 
 breweries, one at Jerusalem and two at 
 Jaffa, managed by foreigners. No such 
 thing as unfermented wine is known in Pal¬ 
 estine, or anywhere in the East. With beer, 
 arak and wine in abundance—the latter 
 costs from five to ten cents a quart—and no 
 temperance societies or public sentiment to 
 condemn their use, total abstinence is un¬ 
 known, except in such Mohammedan vil¬ 
 lages as have not been reached by unfavor¬ 
 able influences. Very few intoxicated per¬ 
 sons are seen on the streets in the towns 
 of Palestine, because Orientals do most of 
 their drinking at home, and not in saloons 
 as is the custom among Western nations. 
 
 During recent years the number of trav¬ 
 elers whovisit Palestine annually has increas¬ 
 ed from a very few to four or six hundred, 
 coming from the different countries of the 
 world; and, besides these, the number of 
 pilgrims is not far from ten thousand, in¬ 
 cluding the Mohammedans who flock to 
 Jerusalem to observe the feast of the Proph¬ 
 et Moses (Neby Musa). Travelers are 
 provided for in hotels and tents, while 
 Christian pilgrims find comfortable accom¬ 
 modations in the great convents and pil¬ 
 grim houses; those belonging to the Greek, 
 Latin and Armenian bodies at Jerusalem 
 being each able to shelter several thousand 
 guests at once. One-third, and, perhaps, 
 one-half, of the Christian pilgrims come 
 from Russia. They are all in mature life, 
 and the effect of such a body of men and 
 women visiting the holy places of Judea 
 every year is incalculable upon the yeo¬ 
 manry of that grea empire. It is a vast relig¬ 
 ious movement with a strong political mo¬ 
 tive. A Palestinian constituency is being 
 created, which at some future day may 
 prove of the highest importance to that 
 government. For Palestine the yearly ad¬ 
 vent of these pilgrims and travelers is a 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 697 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 priceless boon, since they leave behind 
 them a vast amount of money. 
 
 The exploration of Palestine is at pres¬ 
 ent receiving special attention in both 
 Europe and America. Many successful 
 efforts have already been made, which have 
 only stimulated a desire to bring to light 
 the secrets still hidden in the soil of that 
 ancient land. Were the matter to be treated 
 fully, mention would be made of American, 
 English, German, French, Italian, and 
 Swedish explorers, who have contributed 
 time, strength, and, in some instances even 
 life, to the furtherance of this work. Lieu¬ 
 tenant Lynch’s exploration of the river 
 Jordan and the Dead Sea (1848); Dr. Ed¬ 
 ward Robinson’s important work ten years 
 previous (1836), and Dr. W. M. Thomson’s 
 volumes which appeared in 1859—three 
 eminent Americans in three successive dec¬ 
 ades—gave a remarkable impetus to Pal¬ 
 estinian study and research, and placed it 
 upon a scholarly basis almost wholly un¬ 
 known before. In 1864 Due de Luynes, 
 accompanied by Vignes and Lartet,did im¬ 
 portant service in connection with the Dead 
 Sea and the geology of the country. The 
 English work began under C. W. Wilson, 
 in 1865, and the excavations at Jerusalem 
 under Charles Warren in 1867. In 1871, 
 under Captain Stewart, the English Society 
 undertook the systematic triangulation of 
 Western Palestine which, under Conder 
 and Kitchener, was completed in 1878. 
 The Americans sent out two parties, 1872, 
 1875, which did commendable work east of 
 the Jordan, and opened the way for further 
 researches in that less-accessible but in¬ 
 tensely interesting portion of the Holy 
 Land. The finding of the Moabite Stone 
 by Pastor Klein, the Gezer Boundary by 
 Messrs. Bergheimand Ganneau, the Siloam 
 Tunnel Inscription by a Jewish school-boy, 
 and a long section of the Second Wall of 
 ancient Jerusalem by the present writer in 
 1886, are regarded by scholars as among 
 the most important Palestinian discoveries 
 of the present century. 
 
 The following works, selected from the 
 vast Literature of Palestine , will be found 
 helpful: Dr. Edward Robinson’s Biblical 
 Researches (1841, 1856), and Dr. W. M. 
 Thomson’s The Land and the Book (1859, 
 new edition in 3 vols., with separate titles, 
 New York, 1880—1886), are works of great 
 value. On Jerusalem one should consult 
 the works of Lewin, Thrupp, Williams, 
 Fergusson, W. H. Bartlett, J. T. Barclay; 
 and, for recent results, Charles Warren: 
 Underground Jerusalem (London, 1876); 
 E. H. Palmer: Desert of the Exodus (Lon¬ 
 don and New York, 1871, 1872); Selah 
 Merrill: East of the Jorda 7 i (New York and 
 London, 1881, new edition, 1883); J. Mac¬ 
 
 gregor: Rob Roy on the Jordan (London, 
 1866); Dr. Philip Schaff: Through Bible 
 Lands (New York, 1878); H. B. Tristram: 
 The Land of Israel (London, 1866, new edi¬ 
 tion, 1876), also, Natural History of the 
 Bible ( London, 1868); A. P. Stanley: Sinai 
 a?id Palestine (London and New York, 1853), 
 and many editions since. The publications 
 of the English Palestine Exploration Fund 
 will be found of great service, although 
 some of them are too costly for the general 
 reader. Our Work in Palestine , by this 
 society (London and New York, 1873); 
 The Recovery of fertisalem (London and New 
 York, 1871); C. R. Conder’s Tent Work 
 in Palestine (1878), are all interesting and 
 valuable. The Fauna and Flora of Pales¬ 
 tine have been treated in a separate volume 
 by the Pal. Exp. Fund (London, 1884). 
 For the Geology of the country one should 
 read the works of Hull (1885, 1886); Fraas 
 (1878); Diener (1886), and Lartet, and es¬ 
 pecially Modern Science in Bible Lands , by 
 Sir J. W. Dawson (1888). The views of 
 this reverent Christian scholar will be 
 found fresh and instructive. Kiepert’s is 
 still one of the best wall maps of the whole 
 country, but those of the Pal. Exp. Fund 
 for Western Palestine supersede all others. 
 
 Selah Merrill. 
 
 Palestrina (pd-les-tree'na), Giovanni Pier¬ 
 luigi, the founder of the modern style of 
 church music; b. at Palestrina, near Rome, 
 in 1524; d. in Rome, Feb. 2, 1592. He 
 studied under Goudimel, and was made 
 musical director of the Julian chapel by 
 Pope Julius III., to whom he dedicated 
 his first works. By his various composi¬ 
 tions and influence he changed the entire 
 method and style of church music. The 
 famous “ Mass of Pope Marcellus ” is con¬ 
 sidered his best work. 
 
 Paley, William, a celebrated English di¬ 
 vine, was b. at Peterborough in 1743. Dur¬ 
 ing his infancy his father removed to 
 Giggleswick, to become head-master of the 
 Grammar School, and the boy was educated 
 there. When he left for Christ’s College, 
 Cambridge, at the age of sixteen, his father 
 said he had by far the cleverest head he had 
 ever met with. In 1763 he was graduated 
 as Senior Wrangler, and then taught at 
 Greenwich Academy for three years. In 
 1765 he gained the prize at Cambridge for 
 a Latin dissertation on A Co??iparison be¬ 
 tween the Stoic and Epicurean Philosophy 
 with Respect to the Influence of Each on the 
 Morals of a People , and in the next year he 
 was elected a fellow and tutor of his col¬ 
 lege. He remained there for ten years 
 more, then married, and retired to the liv¬ 
 ings of Musgrove and Appleby in West- 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 698 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 moreland, and Dalston in Cumberland. 
 In 1780 he became prebendary of Carlisle, 
 and subsequently archdeacon and chan¬ 
 cellor of the diocese. It was during this 
 part of his life that he wrote most of his 
 works. In 1794, as a reward for his Evi¬ 
 dences, the bishop of London made him a 
 prebend of St. Pancras, he was promoted 
 to the subdeanery of Lincoln, became a 
 D. D. of Cambridge, and rector of Bishop- 
 Wearmouth. He died in 1805. The first 
 of Dr. Paley’s important works was The 
 Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy 
 (1785), in which he shows himself to be a 
 follower of Locke, and denies the theory 
 of moral sense. In 1790 appeared the most 
 original of his works, Horce Paulines, in 
 which, by comparing St. Paul’s Epistles 
 with the Acts of the Apostles, he shows 
 the authenticity of both, and furnishes a 
 testimony on behalf of revealed religion. 
 A third important work was A View of the 
 Evidences of Christianity , which appeared 
 in 1794, in writing which he borrowed from 
 the works of Lardner and Bishop Douglas. 
 This book was very popular at the time, 
 and ran through many editions. His last 
 work was Natural Theology ; or. Evidences 
 of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, 
 which Paley gained partly from Nieuwen- 
 tyt’s Religious Philosopher. The Natural 
 Theology was, perhaps, the most popular 
 of his works. 
 
 Paley stands preeminent in English 
 popular theology as the Utilitarian divine. 
 With him expediency was the one founda¬ 
 tion of all philosophy. The laws of honor, 
 the sense of right and wrong in the mind 
 both of the individual and the nation, were 
 set aside by him in favor of the doctrine 
 that the laws both of God and man appeal 
 to the fear of tangible punishment, and the 
 hope of tangible reward. Moral obligation 
 means self-interest stretching through an 
 endless future, and the proclamation of 
 such motives is the revelation of the will 
 of God. And this will must be made known 
 by some authoritative method. What shall 
 the method be ? The moral sense being 
 discarded, there remains the proof from 
 miracles. Whoever cannot dispense with 
 the laws of nature has no credentials of a 
 Divine mission to offer. Consequently 
 Paley directs his argument to proving that 
 the evidence for the miracles of the New 
 Testament is sufficient for the conviction 
 of an honest conscience. Hume had de¬ 
 clared that a miracle is so improbable in 
 itself that no amount of external evidence 
 is sufficient to make it credible. Paley re¬ 
 plied that the evidence adduced in favor of 
 the statements of the Evangelists was 
 overwhelming. This much must be ac¬ 
 knowledged, that Paley’s style is perfect 
 
 as regards clearness and directness. But 
 the ignoring of the moral sense was a ter¬ 
 rible weakness in his theology, and it may 
 perhaps be regarded as the greatest merit 
 of the philosophy of Coleridge that he as¬ 
 serted against Paley the power of the con¬ 
 science, of the internal evidence, and of the 
 direct appeal of God to the soul.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Palimpsest (from Greek, palin, again, and 
 psao, I scrape out), a term used to desig¬ 
 nate a manuscript written on vellum, from 
 which former writing has been scraped off. 
 The most famous of the palimpsests which 
 contain portions of the Bible is the Codex 
 Ephrccmi. There is a palimpsest of the 
 sixth century containing a portion of St. 
 Luke’s Gospel, in the British Museum, 
 and several others have been preserved. 
 
 Palissy {pa-le-se'), Bernard, “ a Hugue¬ 
 not artisan, famous for his glass paintings 
 and beautiful figured pottery, was b. near 
 Agen, now in the department of Lot et 
 Garonne, France, about 1510, and at an 
 early age was apprenticed to a potter. He 
 devoted himself to chemical researches for 
 the improvement of his art, and made 
 many journeys through France and Ger¬ 
 many for this purpose; at the same time 
 carrying on the business of a land-sur¬ 
 veyor. An enameled cup of “faience,” 
 which he saw by chance, inspired him with 
 the resolution to discover the mode of pro¬ 
 ducing white enamel. Neglecting all other 
 labors, he devoted himself to investiga¬ 
 tions and experiments for the long period 
 of sixteen years. He had by this time 
 exhausted all his resources, and for want 
 of money to buy fuel was reduced to the 
 necessity of burning his household furni¬ 
 ture piece by piece; his neighbors laughed 
 at him, his wife overwhelmed him with re¬ 
 proaches, and his starving family sur¬ 
 rounded him, crying for food; but in spite 
 of all these discouragements he persisted 
 in the search, and was in the end reward¬ 
 ed by success. A few vessels adorned 
 with figures of animals, colored to repre¬ 
 sent nature, sold for high prices, and en¬ 
 abled him to complete his investigations, 
 after which he became famous, and, though 
 a Huguenot, was protected and encouraged 
 by the king and the nobility, who employ¬ 
 ed him to embellish their mansions with 
 specimens of his art. He was lodged in 
 or near the Tuileries, and was specially 
 exempted by Queen Catherine from the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, more from 
 a regard to her own benefit than from kind¬ 
 ness. In March, 1576, he commenced a 
 course of lectures on natural history and 
 physics, and was the first in France to sub- 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 699 ) 
 
 Pal 
 
 stitute positive facts and rigorous demon¬ 
 strations for the fanciful interpretations of 
 philosophers. In the course of these lect¬ 
 ures, he gave (1584) the first right notions 
 of the origin of springs, and the formation 
 of stones and fossil shells, and strongly 
 advocated the importance of marl as a 
 fertilizing agent. These, along with his 
 theories regarding the best means of puri¬ 
 fying water, have been fully supported by 
 recent discovery and investigation. In 
 1588 he was arrested and thrown into the 
 Bastille as a heretic, but died in 1590 be¬ 
 fore his sentence was pronounced. 
 
 “ Palissy left a collection of objects of 
 natural history, the first that had been 
 formed in France. His works are at the 
 present day almost beyond price, and his 
 ornaments and arabesques are amongst the 
 most beautiful of the ‘ Renaissance.’ As 
 a sincere, earnest, and courageous man he 
 was no less eminent than as an artist.”— 
 Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See his Life , by 
 Henry Morley (New York, 1852), 2 vols. 
 
 Pall, or Pallium (Latin palliu?n , a cov¬ 
 er, a mantle), “ a white woolen scarf of 
 the breadth of a hand, and adorned with 
 six black crosses, is an ecclesiastical orna¬ 
 ment borne by the highest officers of the 
 Roman Catholic Church on the most sol¬ 
 emn occasions. Its origin is variously ex¬ 
 plained; some referring it to the head-band 
 of the Jewish high-priest, others to the 
 mantle of the Roman emperor. Most prob¬ 
 ably, however, it is connected with the 
 shoulder-band of the high-priest, which, 
 by being adopted by the Christian Church, 
 came to symbolize the Lord seeking after 
 the lost lamb, and carrying it, when found, 
 on his shoulder. From the East it was 
 early transferred to the West, where it be¬ 
 came a custom for the bishop of Rome to 
 present it to the metropolitans connected 
 with his sees.”— H. F. Jacobson in Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. ,vol. iii., p. 1730. At first the 
 pallium was given gratis, but in time it be¬ 
 came a great source of revenue to Rome. 
 The pallium can only be received direct 
 from the pope; and upon the death of an 
 archbishop his pallium is buried with him. 
 In the East every bishop has his pallium. 
 
 Palladius, b. about 368, in Galatia. He 
 studied in Egypt among the monks, and 
 then spent three years at Mount Olivet, 
 where he met Rufinus, of whom he was a 
 great admirer. In 400 he was made bishop 
 of Helenopolis. He opposed Epiphanius 
 and Jerome in the Origenistic controversy. 
 Banished for a time to Syene, in Upper 
 Egypt, he was recalled and made bishop of 
 Aspona, in Galatia, where he died, 431. He 
 was the author of a collection of lives of 
 
 Egyptian and Palestinian monks, entitled 
 Historia Lausiaca. 
 
 Palmer (Lat. palmifer> a palm-bearer), 
 the name given to those who, having made 
 a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and per¬ 
 formed their vow, returned bringing back 
 a palm branch,which was given to the priest 
 to be placed on the altar of the parish 
 church. After their return these pilgrims 
 often continued to rove in their own coun¬ 
 try, and thus the name “ palmer ” was used 
 to designate these itinerant monks, who 
 professed voluntary poverty, and visited 
 about from shrine to shrine. 
 
 Palmer, Edward Henry, an English 
 Orientalist, was born at Cambridge in 1840. 
 He studied at St. John’s College, Cam¬ 
 bridge, where he took his degree in 1867, 
 and for the next three years made expedi¬ 
 tions to Sinai, and became perfectly ac¬ 
 quainted with the language and manners 
 of the Bedouins. In 1871 he was made 
 Lord Almoner’s Professor of Arabic at 
 Cambridge, and remained in England till 
 the beginning of the Soudan war. He 
 then went out to Egypt to try to dissuade 
 the Bedouins from their attacks on the 
 Suez Canal, but was captured, with two 
 European companions, Captain Gill and 
 Lieutenant Charrington, in the Wady Sudr, 
 Desert of El Tih, and murdered, August 
 11, 1882. 
 
 His books have proved very serviceable 
 to Orientalists. They are: The Negeb , or 
 South Cou 7 itry of Scripture and the Desert 
 of El Tih; The Desert of the Exodus; His¬ 
 tory of the Jewish Nation from the Earliest 
 Times; The Quran , etc.—Benham: Did. 
 of Religion. See Walter Besant: The Life 
 and Achievetnents of Edward Henry Palmer 
 (London, 1883). 
 
 Palmer, Herbert, b. at Wingham, Kent, 
 March 29, 1601; d. Aug. 13, 1647. Edu¬ 
 cated at Cambridge, ordained in 1624; 
 University preacher at Cambridge in 1632, 
 and vicar of Ashwell. He was a member 
 of the Westminster Assembly, in 1643, 
 and incumbent of the new church at West¬ 
 minster, in 1647. He prepared a number 
 of catechisms. One of them was taken as 
 the basis of the Westminster Catechism. 
 He was a moderate Presbyterian, and fa¬ 
 vored presiding bishops. As a preacher he 
 was devout and eloquent, and used his in¬ 
 herited wealth as a means of advancing 
 t the cause of Christ. 
 
 Palm-Sunday, “ the last Sunday in Lent, 
 is celebrated in many Christian churches, 
 both in the East and the West, in commem¬ 
 oration of the entrance of our Lord into 
 
Pal 
 
 ( 700 ) 
 
 Pan 
 
 Jerusalem, when the multitude saluted 
 him by waving palm-branches, and strew¬ 
 ing them before him. (Matt. xxi. 1-11; 
 Mark xi. 1-11; John xii. 12-16.) In the 
 East the celebration dates back to the fifth 
 century; in the West it is somewhat later.” 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Palm-Tree. The palm-tree of the Bible is 
 the date-palm. It is now rare in Palestine, 
 and it is only in the extremely warm 
 climate of Jericho and the Dead Sea that it 
 ripens its fruit. It is eaten fresh or dried, 
 and a kind of honey-like syrup or wine is 
 made from it. The tree is very graceful 
 inform, with an average height of forty or 
 fifty feet. The slender branchless ..runk 
 is crowned with a large number of feath¬ 
 ery leaves from six to twelve feet long. 
 Jericho was called the “ city of palm- 
 trees.” (Deut. xxxiv. 3, etc.) Branches 
 of the palm-tree were used on the feast of 
 Tabernacles, and carried in triumphal pro¬ 
 cessions. 
 
 Pamphi'lus, “ an eminent promotor of 
 learning in the early Church, is said to 
 have been born of good family at Berytus, 
 in the latter half of the third century. 
 After studying at Alexandria under Pieri- 
 us, the disciple of Origen, he was ordained 
 presbyter at Caesarea in Palestine, where 
 the remainder of his life was spent. There 
 he established a theological school, and 
 warmly encouraged students; he also 
 founded, or at least largely extended the 
 great library to which Eusebius and Jerome 
 were afterward so much indebted. He was 
 very zealous in the transcription and dis¬ 
 tribution of copies of Scripture, and of the 
 works of various Christian writers, es¬ 
 pecially of Origen, the copy of the com¬ 
 plete works of the last named in the library 
 of Caesarea was chiefly in the handwriting 
 of Pamphilus himself. At the outbreak 
 of the persecution under Maximin, Pam¬ 
 philus was thrown into prison, and there, 
 along with his attached friend and pupil 
 Eusebius (sometimes distinguished as 
 Eusebius Pamphili), he composed an 
 Apology for Origen in five books, to which 
 a sixth was afterward added by Eusebius. 
 He was put to death in 309. Only the first 
 book of the Apology of Pamphilus is extant, 
 and that but in an imperfect Latin trans¬ 
 lation by Rufinus. It has been reprinted 
 in De la Rue’s edition of Origen , and 
 also by Routh, and by Galland. Eusebius 
 wrote a Metnoir of his master, which also 
 has unfortunately disappeared.”— Ency. 
 Britannica. 
 
 Pamphyl'ia, a province of Asia Minor, 
 bounded on the north by Pisidia, east by 
 
 Cilicia, south by the Mediterranean, and 
 west by Lycia. Its chief cities were Perga 
 and Attalia. Perga was the first place in 
 Asia Minor visited by Paul on his first mis¬ 
 sionary tour (Acts xiii. 13), and on his re¬ 
 turn from Pisidia he again preached there, 
 and from Attalia sailed to Antioch. (Acts 
 xiv. 24-26.) 
 
 Panagia (Gr. panagia , all-holy). In the 
 Eastern Church this word has two mean¬ 
 ings: (1) to designate the Virgin Mary; 
 and (2) the consecrated bread. 
 
 Pan - Anglican Synod. See Lambeth 
 
 Conference. 
 
 Pantsenus, the first catechetical teacher at 
 Alexandria, was b. in the second century. 
 He is not heard of after 203. According 
 to Jerome he wrote several commentaries, 
 but, with the exception of two small frag¬ 
 ments, his works are lost. 
 
 Pantheism (from pan , everything, t.nd 
 Theis, God), the belief that God is every¬ 
 thing, and everything God. In one form 
 pantheism may be regarded as a protest 
 against materialism. Those who regard¬ 
 ed the visible world as the sum total of 
 all things, became from the very nature 
 of the case atheists. Those who recog¬ 
 nized that thoughts and feelings are things 
 just as real as things that can be touched 
 were, so far, emancipated from the blank 
 hopelessness of the materialist creed. 
 Pantheism may be regarded as an importa¬ 
 tion from the Eastern philosophies, the 
 groundwork of which was the belief in an 
 Infinite Eternal Being which clothes itself 
 in a multiplicity of forms, and thus makes 
 up the universe. But the great origin of 
 modern pantheism must be traced to Ger¬ 
 many. The endeavor to construct a basis 
 of belief which should supersede the old 
 traditional supremacy over the conscience 
 claimed by the Church of Rome led to the 
 theories of Spinoza, of Schelling, of Hegel, 
 and upon these theories much of the suc¬ 
 ceeding pantheism of modern thought has 
 been founded. The first postulate of the 
 system is, not an objective faith which 
 rules and regenerates the life of man, but 
 religious ideas and thoughts which have to 
 find their assimilation in the facts of the 
 universe, and to make these fit in with ar¬ 
 bitrary assumption. The sense of har¬ 
 mony, the aesthetic faculty, requires a relig¬ 
 ion, and therefore a religion which meets 
 this want must be true. Of course, where 
 free license is thus given to the imagina¬ 
 tion, it is no wonder that pantheism takes 
 a thousand forms. “ Matter,” says one, 
 “ does not exist except as an idea of our 
 
Pan 
 
 ( 701 ) 
 
 Pan 
 
 minds.” “ Matter,” says another, “ is the 
 body of God, and the unseen life, energy, 
 intelligence of the universe are his soul. 
 The two co-exist, and are inseparable.” 
 “ There is no God beside Me,” says the 
 Creator by his prophet Isaiah; but the 
 pantheist applies this to the universe, and 
 represents it as saying, “ I am God, and 
 there is no other.” It is true that the 
 higher expression of pantheism admits 
 such ideas as God, Revelation, Creation, 
 Providence, as something more than sub¬ 
 jective—as expressing realities beyond the 
 mind. But, unfortunately, when it is sought 
 to fix and define these realities, they van¬ 
 ish like shadows. Thus a very able Uni¬ 
 tarian minister, speaking of Gibbon’s ac¬ 
 count of himself sitting in the Coliseum, 
 and suddenly resolving there and then to 
 write his famous book, regards that reso¬ 
 lution as parallel to the inspiration of the 
 Hebrew prophets who heard the Word of 
 the Lord speaking to them and sending 
 them a message. But such a comparison 
 is not exalting to the modern writer—it 
 simply drags down the ancient. To deny 
 any real inspiration which comes direct 
 from God, without any modification beyond 
 that caused by the imperfection of the mind 
 to comprehend it, is practically pantheism. 
 It denies personal intercourse between God 
 and the soul. There may be a veiled pan¬ 
 theism, too, in the view so often put forth 
 of late, that conceptions of God have varied 
 from age to age according to human cir¬ 
 cumstances. Thus the Jew conceived of 
 God as a Deliverer when the exodus from 
 Egypt was new, and as a Legislator when 
 order supervened upon anarchy, and as 
 King when the nation was united, and as 
 Father when Christ had compassion on the 
 multitudes. There is truth, of course, in 
 all this, as there is in the modern concep¬ 
 tion that he is an all-pervading beneficent 
 Power; but it becomes error if it ignores 
 the fact that God is, and ever has been, all 
 these. The original grounds of faith in a 
 Divine Creator, and Ruler, and King, and 
 Saviour fail, when one aspect only is con¬ 
 fessed. The supposed discovery becomes 
 a mere childish game at hide-and-seek, 
 where the finder and found are identical; 
 fear and gratitude are predicated, but the 
 source from which they spring becomes a 
 shadow. 
 
 Unhappily pantheistic opinion involves 
 moral consequences of a sad character. 
 The sinking of the personal distinction be¬ 
 tween man and God is followed by the loss 
 of the affections and the conscience, which 
 are the very life of religion. If God is al¬ 
 ready identified with his creatures, where 
 is the room for obedience to him, for his 
 supreme law, for prayer which asks for 
 
 what otherwise it would not receive ? 
 Above all, the holiness of God would dis¬ 
 appear, as he becomes identified with the 
 struggles and failures of the creation. 
 “ The comparative and relative perfection 
 of his being,” we are told, “ is only to be 
 reached by strife within and without, from 
 which the spirit mounts stronger after 
 every conflict.” It is impossible to exag¬ 
 gerate the moral danger of assuming, as 
 evil men did of old, that we are delivered 
 to do all the abominations of sin (Jer. vii. 
 10), that evil in fact is a necessity for the 
 production of virtue, not a moral conse¬ 
 quence of liberty, and that the teaching of 
 Holy Scripture is erroneous when it tells 
 us that two possibilities are open to us, 
 life and death, between which man has to 
 choose. Freewill is the very centre of 
 human personality, and without it we lose 
 the distinction between human agency and 
 the agency of God. Deeply instructive is 
 it to watch the progress downward of the 
 denial of this distinction. There is a strife 
 going on, says the modern pantheist, and 
 its conditions make the world so bad that 
 it is only just endurable, and the progress 
 of civilization makes things worse, for they 
 increase the consciousness of misery. Such 
 is the pantheism of pessimism, identified 
 with the name of Schopenhauer. “ I know 
 no theory of the universe,” says a cele¬ 
 brated living writer, “which leads me to 
 think that it would not have been better for 
 mankind if they had never been born.” 
 
 Not only worship must disappear before 
 such a creed, but morality also. Long be¬ 
 fore men reasoned about theories of life 
 and the ultimate good, light and life were 
 given to the world by the Ten Command¬ 
 ments, and the commentaries upon them in 
 Psalms and Prophets. They were based 
 on the principle that man is subject to a 
 will higher than his own and distinct from 
 it, the will of an eternally righteous and 
 unchanging Lord. By this conviction 
 men’s lives have been governed and 
 brought into a measure of order and peace. 
 Pantheism sweeps away Lawgiver, King, 
 and Judge. So long as he was believed in, 
 the noblest spirits among men could face 
 the terrible difficulties and problems of life 
 even with joy, because they believe him 
 faithful. They were like men with the 
 warm sun over their heads casting light all 
 around them. But the night cometh. 
 Nature fails us all, and when God is denied 
 men do the deeds of darkness, and learn to 
 praise the dead more than the living. The 
 only refuge from such dreariness and de¬ 
 spair is to believe in God even as Abraham 
 did, even as St. Paul did,who knew in whom 
 he believed, the same yesterday, to-day, 
 and forever.—Benham: Did of Religion. 
 
Pan 
 
 ( 702 ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 Pantheon, once a heathen temple at 
 Rome, dedicated to Jupiter and all the 
 gods. It was re-dedicated by Pope Boni¬ 
 face IV., in 608, to the Virgin Mary and 
 the saints. 
 
 Papal Power, Growth of. The founda¬ 
 tion-stone of the papal supremacy was 
 Rome itself. Rome was what no other 
 city has ever been—the capital of the whole 
 civilized world; it was, moreover, the cen¬ 
 tre of the civil and military government of 
 the empire. St. Paul himself felt the 
 greatness of Rome, and the importance of 
 witnessing for Christ there. (Acts xix. 21; 
 xxiii. 11; xxv. 11; xxviii. 15.) Again, the 
 Roman Church was an apostolical otie, the 
 only Western Church which could claim 
 this title at all. St. Paul had lived there 
 long, had written his greatest epistle to it, 
 and had received the crown of martyrdom 
 there. St. Peter, too, may have resided in 
 Rome; very early tradition says that he 
 had been its bishop, and he had probably 
 been martyred there. To apostolical 
 churches belonged a certain degree of 
 reverence, and the Church of Rome could 
 boast of the two great apostles. 
 
 Besides this, in early days, the Roman 
 Church was always orthodox. It was not a 
 Church of great literary fame, but it held 
 fast “the faith once delivered to the saints.” 
 When heretics came to Rome to further 
 their views, their opinions were rejected 
 by the stern orthodoxy of the Roman 
 Church, and the news of this, spreading 
 over the Christian world, tended to increase 
 the influence of the bishops of Rome. On 
 such grounds Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons 
 (180), says that “ with this Church the 
 whole Church (i.e ., the faithful everywhere) 
 must agree—with this Church .... in 
 which the apostolical tradition has always 
 been preserved.” And in like manner Ter- 
 tullian: “ What a happy Church is that on 
 which the apostles poured out all their 
 doctrine with their blood. . . . Let us see 
 what she hath learned, what taught.” The 
 references of the ancient Fathers to the 
 Roman Church are full of respect and of a 
 desire to set Rome as high as possible; but 
 they speak of it as belonging to the same 
 class with other apostolic churches, and 
 rest its glory on its connection with both 
 the apostles, SS. Peter and Paul, on their 
 having founded it, settled it, and taught it, 
 and not on any promise of our Lord to St. 
 Peter and his successors. Rather later, 
 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (248), a man 
 of great abilities and lofty character, was 
 brought into close relations with the 
 Church of Rome. We find that he writes 
 to, and treats, its bishops on terms of per¬ 
 fect equality. He addresses them as 
 
 “brother and colleague;” and whilst he 
 holds up the general dignity of the episco¬ 
 pate, he never owns, or even shows, that 
 he was aware of any right in the bishop of 
 Rome to rule over the whole Church. 
 Even those passages in his writings which 
 speak in an exalted way of St. Peter, and 
 of the Roman Church as founded by him, 
 appear rather to be symbolical, represent¬ 
 ing Peter as the type of apostleship and 
 the Roman Church as the type of unity, 
 than to imply that he admitted in any way 
 the supremacy of the Roman See as it was 
 afterwards understood. 
 
 In the reign of the Emperor Constantine 
 (306) the bishops of Rome became more 
 important still. Christianity was made the 
 acknowledged religion of the empire, 
 hence, the number of Christians and of the 
 clergy was largely increased; and, besides 
 this, the bishops and clergy were allowed 
 to receive legacies, and thus grew in wealth. 
 It is also probably true that Constantine 
 gave to Bishop Sylvester and his succes¬ 
 sors his own palace, the Lateran Palace, 
 as the episcopal residence (see “ Donation 
 of Constantine” further on). In his reign, 
 too, was founded the New Rome (Constan¬ 
 tinople), and from this time onwards the 
 Old Rome knew comparatively little of her 
 emperors, whilst her bishops became more 
 and more her most important public per¬ 
 sonages. 
 
 From early times the ecclesiastical had 
 followed the lines of the civil divisions of 
 the empire, and thus the bishop of the 
 capital city or metropolis of each province 
 —with the title of metropolitan —had pre¬ 
 sided at synods of the bishops and clergy 
 of the province, and had been looked upon, 
 in Church affairs, as the representative of 
 the province generally. Constantine made 
 a new partition of the empire into dioceses, 
 each of which comprised several provinces. 
 In the West the bishop of the chief city of 
 a dioceSe received the title of primate, and 
 was at the head of all the metropolitans 
 within his limits, but without exercising 
 their privileges. The most eminent of 
 these primates were called patriarchs (of 
 Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Anti¬ 
 och and Jerusalem). The patriarchate of 
 Rome included the seven provinces of 
 Middle and Lower Italy, with Corsica, Sar¬ 
 dinia, and Sicily; but in none of these had 
 metropolitans yet been introduced, so that 
 the bishop of Rome exercised metropolit- 
 ical functions—the consecration of bish¬ 
 ops, the convocation of synods, the ultimate 
 decision of appeals, and many other sorts 
 of authority—throughout the whole patri¬ 
 archate. This in no small degree tended 
 to exalt the importance of the Roman See. 
 The State acknowledgment of Christianity 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 703 ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 I 
 
 also gave the bishops of Rome political 
 influence, since their opinions and support 
 were sought after not only by other bish¬ 
 ops, but by emperors who wished to have 
 their support in the religious controversies 
 of the time. 
 
 The next great step in the building up of 
 the papal power dates from the Council of 
 Sardica (343), held at a town of that name 
 in Illyria, and summoned as a General 
 Council of the Church by the emperors of 
 the East and West. Its object was to heal 
 the divisions in the Church caused by the 
 Arian heresy (Arius); but as the Westerns 
 gave Athanasius (y. v.) a seat and a voice 
 at it, the Easterns separated themselves 
 and met elsewhere, so that the Council of 
 Sardica had no longer a title to the^name 
 “ General.” Some of the canons enacted 
 gave a deposed bishop the privilege of ap¬ 
 pealing to the bishop of Rome as a referee, 
 not to decide the case himself, but to say 
 whether there ought to be a new trial, in 
 this case allowing him to send Legates 
 (Legate) to sit with the judges. On these 
 canons has been founded the claim to a ju¬ 
 risdiction by the bishop of Rome over the 
 whole Church; and in the next century 
 more than one bishop of Rome referred to 
 the Sardica canons as canons of the Coun¬ 
 cil of Nicaea, which had been held nearly 
 twenty years earlier, and was recognized 
 as General by the Universal Church. By 
 such means, in course of time, the appel¬ 
 late jurisdiction of the pope came to be 
 more and more allowed. 
 
 But beyond formal appeals, the practice 
 arose of referring to Rome for advice in 
 difficult matters in distant parts of the 
 Church. Thus Siricius, who was bishop 
 of Rome in 398, answered an application 
 from Himerius, bishop of Tarragona, in 
 Spain, and his letter is the first genuine 
 piece in the series of what are called De¬ 
 cretal Letters or Epistles. At first these 
 epistles were written in the name of Ro¬ 
 man synods (i. e., bishops and clergy met 
 for consultation), but afterward they ran 
 in the name of the pope alone, and their 
 tone gradually rose from one of brotherly 
 adyice to one of command. 
 
 In order that these views might be fur¬ 
 thered, an occupant of the Roman See was 
 wanted of marked ability, and one who 
 was determined to promote the aggran¬ 
 dizement of his office. Such an one was 
 Innocent I. (a. d. 402). He laid it down 
 as a principle, that all churches ought to 
 follow the usages of Rome, but apparently 
 limiting the claim to those of the West— 
 the churches of Italy, the Gauls, the 
 Spains, of Africa, Sicily, and the islands 
 which lie between—on the plea that they 
 had been founded by emissaries of St. 
 
 Peter or his successors. This claim over 
 daughter churches was often cheerfully 
 admitted, to a large extent; as, later on, 
 in the case of the Anglo-Saxon Church, 
 which owed its organization, though only 
 partly its origin, to Roman missionaries, 
 and which was a firm maintainer of the 
 papal supremacy in legitimate matters. In 
 like manner, in the Pelagian controversy, 
 Innocent said that the Fathers considered 
 that nothing, in remote provinces, should 
 be finally settled unless it came to the 
 knowledge of the Roman See, so that the 
 Roman decision might serve as a rule for 
 all the churches. The next bishop, Zosi- 
 mus, went on to declare the authority of 
 the Apostolic See to be such that no one 
 might dare to question its decisions, and 
 that the successors of St. Peter inherit from 
 him an authority equal to that which our 
 Lord bestowed on the apostle himself. 
 
 The election of Boniface I. (a. d. 418) 
 was opposed by a rival named Eulalius. 
 In consequence of this, the former applied 
 to the Emperor Honorius for aid, and was 
 by him established in his see. This inter¬ 
 vention of Honorius, at the request of the 
 pope himself, appears to have laid the 
 foundation for the influence which emper¬ 
 ors afterward exercised in the election of 
 the popes, and indirectly to have added to 
 the power of the latter. 
 
 The latter half of the fifth century was a 
 critical one for the power of the Roman 
 See. The Eastern Empire was decaying, 
 the Western Empire was tottering to its 
 fall. Africa had already fallen a prey to 
 the Vandals, and Sicily had suffered se¬ 
 verely. Like the Empire, the Church was 
 in evil case, from the many heresies rife 
 within her, whilst outside she was assailed 
 by the Arian powers of the barbarians. It 
 was at this juncture that Leo I., or the 
 Great, became pope. He stands out as the 
 Christian representative of the imperial 
 dignity and severity of old Rome, and is 
 the true founder of the mediaeval papacy in 
 its uncompromising strength, representing 
 strongly that one side of the developing 
 life of the Church which is especially identi¬ 
 fied with Rome—authority and unity. St. 
 Leo—for he is a saint of the Church—was 
 a man lofty and severe in life and aims, a 
 theologian, and a man of personal piety. 
 He is the reputed inventor of the Collect 
 form of prayer, and its “ Roman brevity, 
 and majestic conciseness ” are consonant 
 with his character and the style of his 
 writings. Notwithstanding his ambition 
 and love of domination, we may not doubt 
 that, in his exertions for the elevation of 
 the Roman See, he believed himself to be 
 laboring, not for its benefit only, but for 
 the benefit of the whole Church. The man 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 704 ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 and the times suited one another. Leo 
 boldly declared the pretensions and prac¬ 
 tices of the Roman Church to be matters 
 of unbroken apostolical tradition, and thus 
 tried to enforce the usages of Rome on the 
 whole Church. He represented the Sardi- 
 can canons, as to appeals, as canons of the 
 General Council of Nicaea, or perhaps 
 adopted what was now the usual practice 
 of Rome. The Vandals who conquered the 
 province of Africa were Arians, and the 
 hitherto independent African Church was 
 now glad to submit to Leo’s interference as 
 the price of his support. A chance dispute 
 amongst the bishops in Gaul was taken ad¬ 
 vantage of, when one of the bishops ap¬ 
 pealed to Rome against his metropolitan— 
 the great and good Hilary of Arles—to lay 
 down the declaration that Rome had been 
 always accustomed to receive appeals from 
 Gaul, and the Emperor Valentinian III. 
 passed a law enforcing this view. 
 
 During Leo’s pontificate arose the Eu- 
 tychian controversy, which was settled at 
 the General Council of Chalcedon, a. d. 
 451. At this Council the Legates whom 
 Leo sent to represent him sat as presidents 
 of the clergy with Anatolius, patriarch of 
 Constantinople, and the practical adoption, 
 though only after discussion, of Leo’s tome , 
 or letter, to Flavian (bishop of Constanti¬ 
 nople), treating of the doctrine of our 
 Lord’s incarnation, contributed greatly to 
 raise the general opinion of the authority 
 of the bishop of Rome. 
 
 The claims of the Roman See were main¬ 
 tained during the next century and a half, 
 but they made no great progress until the 
 time of Gregory I., or the Great (590), a 
 man of great personal piety, as well as an 
 able ruler, both in temporal as well as spir¬ 
 itual things. As the emperor lived at 
 Constantinople, and governed Italy by an 
 exarch, or lieutenant, at Ravenna, the 
 country was practically left with very little 
 defence against the Lombards, and Greg¬ 
 ory had often to provide for the safety of 
 the people, and to negotiate peace with the 
 enemy. This led to a large increase in the 
 temporal power of the popes. Again, the 
 popes had gradually become great land- 
 owners. The “ Patrimony of St. Peter,” 
 as the estates of the Roman See came to be 
 called, were situated not only in Italy, but 
 in many distant countries. Gregory man¬ 
 aged this property by agents, often in minor 
 orders, and through them he communicated 
 with the churches and the sovereigns of 
 these various countries, and thus the Ro¬ 
 man See gained a footing and influence 
 wherever it possessed estates. From the 
 time of Gregory onward the authority of 
 the bishops was more and more depressed 
 by the popes. Persons often only in minor 
 
 orders were empowered, by a commission 
 from the pope, to set aside the rule of the 
 bishops, and to deprive them of their rights. 
 Gregory, moreover, brought himself into 
 a closer connection with the churches and 
 sovereigns of other countries by appoint¬ 
 ing certain bishops as his deputies or 
 vicars , and as a mark of this commission 
 he sent them the pallium (Pallium). 
 
 English people will always hold Gregory 
 in reverent esteem for sending Augustine 
 as a missionary to Kent. 
 
 The next event of considerable impor¬ 
 tance was the opposition of Pope Gregory 
 II. to Leo III. (717), the Isaurian. This 
 emperor took strong objection to the 
 worship of images which had sprung up, 
 and by edicts ordered their destruction iri 
 all th% churches of the empire. The em¬ 
 peror was reluctantly obeyed in the East, 
 but the pope refused to yield, and boldly 
 armed against the enemy; finally, the im¬ 
 perial fleet was destroyed at the mouth of 
 the Po, and a synod was summoned in 
 which the Iconoclasts were condemned. 
 The pope pursued his victory no further, 
 but by moderate counsels preserved Italy 
 outwardly to the empire, whilst at the 
 same time he greatly increased his own 
 power. 
 
 In the pontificate of Zacharias (741) we 
 have the first instance wherein the civil 
 duties of a nation, and the rights of a crown, 
 were submitted to the decision of a pope. 
 Pepin, the Mayor of the Palace under 
 Childeric, the last of the Merovingians, 
 asked Pope Zacharias whether the nation 
 of the Franks should be ruled by the real 
 or nominal holder of power. Zacharias de¬ 
 cided in Pepin’s favor. The question was 
 merely a point of casuistry, laid before the 
 first religious judge of the Church; but 
 later popes pretended that Zacharias had 
 exercised a right belonging to his office, 
 and had deposed Childeric. 
 
 In the year 800, Charlemagne, the son of 
 Pepin, w r as crowned in St. Peter’s at Rome 
 by Pope Leo III., with the imperial title. 
 Rome was grateful to her deliverer from 
 the Lombards, an emperor was needed, 
 the pope was the spokesman of the popular 
 will as well as a consecrating priest, and 
 hence Charles the Great was crowned; but 
 on this event was founded the right, claimed 
 afterward by the popes, of raising and de¬ 
 posing monarchs at their will. 
 
 Later than this, two great forgeries were 
 put forth which greatly helped the papal 
 claims: (1) The so-called “ Donation of 
 Constantine,” which was believed to be 
 true from 868 to the middle of the fifteenth 
 century. It professed that Constantine had 
 conferred on Pope Sylvester the right of 
 wearing a golden crown, that he had en- 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 705 ) 
 
 Pap 
 
 dovved the Apostolic See with the Lateran 
 Palace (this one thing was probably true), 
 with the city of Rome, and with all the 
 provinces of Italy. And that, in conse- 
 quenceof this, Constantine had relinquished 
 the ancient capital, and had built anew city 
 for himself—Constantinople. Its pretend¬ 
 ed date was about 330. The fable was in¬ 
 vented to give an ancient right to many 
 things which had become matters of history, 
 more or less. (2) “ The False Decretals.” 
 In the sixth century Dionysius Exiguus 
 collected the canons from the General and 
 the most famous Provincial Councils, and 
 to them he added the “ Decretal” letters 
 of the popes, so that these latter were set 
 forth as having the same weight as the 
 canons. His collection was generally re¬ 
 ceived as a book of canon law in the West, 
 except in Spain, where Isidore, bishop of 
 Seville (601-636), made a separate collec¬ 
 tion. About 840 another Isidore started the 
 False Decretals under cover of the name of 
 the great Isidore. They are skilful forger¬ 
 ies, and profess to be letters and decrees of 
 bishops of Rome, going back to apostolic 
 days. Their aim is to exalt the hierarchy 
 as a whole, asserting the rights of the 
 clergy as a body against the oppressions of 
 the emperors; but they carry the pope’s 
 power higher than it had ever been carried 
 before, and since they found their way in¬ 
 to the collections of the canon laws, and 
 finally into the code of the papacy, their 
 influence was very strong, and, indeed, 
 still exists now, although the deception is 
 admitted. 
 
 An example of the righteous use of the 
 papal power, and one which shows why the 
 moral support of the civilized world was 
 given to it, occurred in the pontificate of 
 Nicholas I. (858). Lothair II., a vicious 
 and contemptible prince, wished to obtain 
 a divorce from his queen and marry an¬ 
 other women. Nicholas firmly opposed him, 
 even deposing two French Metropolitans 
 and annulling the decisions of a Frankish 
 National Council, because they favored the 
 divorce. These measures were novel and 
 aggressive, but the rightness of the cause 
 prevented their being questioned. From 
 the eighth century onward, the popes had 
 granted special privileges to monastic 
 bodies (Monk), by which they were ex¬ 
 empted from all jurisdiction but that of the 
 pope. Later on, especially in the twelfth 
 century, these institutions increased in 
 number, and it is easy to see how, by their 
 means, the pope’s authority grew through¬ 
 out every country, since they were inde¬ 
 pendent of the bishops, and were often op¬ 
 posed to the parochial clergy. One of the 
 greatest names amongst the popes is that 
 of Hildebrand, Gregory VII. (1048-85). 
 
 He was the moving spirit of a party in the 
 Church which desired to emancipate it 
 from all connection with the State, and 
 from the feudal obligations by which it was 
 bound in regard of its possessions. With 
 unswerving steadiness, with thorough con¬ 
 viction, with far-sighted patience, and with 
 a deep, subtle, and even unscrupulous 
 policy, he labored toward these ends dur¬ 
 ing the reign of several popes, who were 
 guided by his forcible character, until at 
 last he became pope himself (1073). The 
 two objects he put before himself were:— 
 
 (1) To fix in the College of Cardinals (Car¬ 
 dinal) the freedom and independence of 
 election of the popes, and forever to abolish 
 the right (or, as he considered it, usurpa¬ 
 tion) of the emperors and Roman people. 
 
 (2) To bestow and resume the Western 
 Empire as a fief of the Church, and to ex¬ 
 tend his temporal dominion over kings and 
 kingdoms of the earth. As Hallam wittily 
 says, he found it convenient to treat the 
 Apostle St. Peter " as a great feudal suze¬ 
 rain ” of the kingdoms of the earth. The 
 first of these designs was accomplished, 
 but the second only attained a partial suc¬ 
 cess, although from this time onward no 
 pope thought of awaiting the confirmation 
 of the emperor before he was installed in 
 the throne of St. Peter. Pepin and Charle¬ 
 magne had bestowed on the popes grants 
 of territory, with sovereign rights, and now 
 the Countess Matilda, a firm friend of 
 Gregory, made over to the Roman See her 
 territories after her death. The “ dona¬ 
 tion ” was disputed, but the popes realized 
 enough of it to add greatly to their power 
 and wealth. 
 
 The Crusades (Crusades) brought vast 
 advantages to the papacy in many ways. 
 Urban II., in 1095, offered forgiveness of 
 sins to all faithful Christians who took up 
 arms in this cause. In this movement the 
 popes found themselves placed at the head 
 of Western Christendom, since they had 
 the control of enterprises in which the 
 most powerful sovereigns were expected 
 to enlist themselves. They likewise ex¬ 
 tended their sway by claiming the supreme 
 lordship over the territories rescued from 
 the Infidels (the Turks). 
 
 Innocent III. (1198), the most powerful 
 of all the popes, carried the ideas of his 
 predecessors to their furthest limit. Many 
 of his high-handed proceedings directly 
 tended towards social order and the happi¬ 
 ness of mankind. No control but that of 
 religion appeared sufficient to restrain the 
 abuses of society. Innocent announced 
 himself as thp general arbiter of differences 
 and conservator of the peace throughout 
 Christendom. Thus, he compelled the ob¬ 
 servance of peace between the kings of 
 
Pap 
 
 ( 706 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 Castile and Portugal by the threat of ex- 
 communication and interdict. He enjoined 
 the king of Aragon to restore his debased 
 coin. By a general interdict enforced 
 throughout France he compelled Philip 
 Augustus—a powerful prince—to take back 
 his wife whom he had repudiated; andEng- 
 land-was not the only country which he 
 converted into a spiritual fief. On the 
 whole. Innocent was the greatest and most 
 successful of the popes. The times them¬ 
 selves were favorable to his ability and 
 gifts, as well as to his pretensions. A 
 strong, uncompromising power, exercised, 
 upon the whole, on the side of God and 
 of right, was needed, and Innocent exactly 
 met the want. 
 
 The popes were at the summit of their 
 power during the thirteenth century. 
 “ Rome inspired during this age all the 
 terror of her ancient name. She was once 
 more the mistress of the world, and kings 
 were her vassals.” The Emperor Freder¬ 
 ick II. had taken the sign of the Cross, by 
 which he bound himself to serve in the 
 Holy War of Palestine; but he considered 
 himself at liberty to fulfil his vow at his 
 own time, and on this account became em¬ 
 broiled with successive popes. Innocent 
 IV., at a council at Lyons, 1245, declared 
 him to be deposed, and this and the pro¬ 
 scription of Alexander IV. were the main 
 causes of the ruin of his family. This is 
 the most successful instance of the exercise 
 of the power of deposing kings which his¬ 
 tory affords. 
 
 In 1294 Boniface VIII. became pope, 
 and endeavored to carry out Hildebrand’s 
 idea of the papacy, but the real power of 
 the Roman See was beginning to wane. 
 The first successes of the Crusades were 
 being followed by failure and disasters; the 
 Holy Land was being abandoned, and the 
 preaching of a Holy War ceased to rouse 
 men to enthusiasm. The high pretensions 
 of the canon law were opposed by the 
 revived study of the Roman civil law, 
 which contained a lofty theory of imperial 
 and secular power. Boniface quarrelled 
 with Philip of France, who would not yield 
 to him, and death only prevented the pope 
 from publishing a bull of deposition 
 against the king. Just after his death the 
 popes settled at Avignon, and came under 
 the control of the sovereigns of France. 
 Next followed the Councils of Constance 
 and Basel, and afterwards the movement 
 of the Reformation, all tending to limit 
 and cripple the papal power. 
 
 No student of history can fail to see 
 what an important part the papacy played 
 in the Middle Ages, nor can he fail to ad¬ 
 mit that, though deformed by many human 
 imperfections, it was yet powerful for 
 
 good, by opposing to the idea of mere 
 brute force that of an unseen but mightier 
 spiritual power, which, in a comparatively 
 lawless age, did, on the whole, defend the 
 innocent and weak and punish the guilty 
 and strong. 
 
 But whilst freely admitting this, he can 
 find no foundation either in Holy Scripture 
 or in the page of history for the assertions 
 of a celebrated bull of Boniface VIII. 
 (“ Unam Sanctam ”), one sentence from 
 which appears to sum up the papal claims: 
 “ Moreover we declare, affirm, define, and 
 pronounce that it is altogether necessary 
 for salvation that every human creature 
 should be subject to the Roman Pontiff.”— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Papal Election. See Conclave. 
 
 Papebroeck. See Bollandists. 
 
 Paphnutius, b. 275 (?) ; d. 350 (?). He 
 was bishop of a city in the Upper Thebais, 
 and took a prominent part in the Council 
 of Nicaea (325), where he spoke against the 
 proposition that all ecclesiastics should put 
 away the wives they had married while 
 they were laymen. His views prevailed, 
 and marriage was forbidden only after 
 ordination. 
 
 Pa'phos ( boiling , or hot). There were two 
 towns of this name in Cyprus—old Paphos, 
 situated on a height about two miles from 
 the sea, and new Paphos, on the shore of 
 the sea, about ten miles to the northwest 
 of the old town. This was the place visited 
 by Paul and Barnabas. (Acts xiii. 6-13.) 
 For description of Cyprus, see Di Cesnola: 
 Cyprus (N. Y., 1870). 
 
 Papias, bishop of Hierapolis; b. about 
 70; d. probably about 153. All that we 
 know of his life or works has come to us 
 through Eusebius and Irenaeus. He wrote 
 an Interpretation of the Sayings of the Lord, 
 a collection of the words and works of the 
 Master and his disciples, all of which have 
 perished, with the exception of a few frag¬ 
 ments. 
 
 Papy'rus. See Reed. 
 
 Parable (Heb. mashal, Gr. parabole), “ a 
 placing side by side, or comparing earthly 
 truths, expressed, with heavenly truths 
 to be understood. The fable introduces 
 brutes, and transgresses the order of things 
 natural, introducing improbabilities rest¬ 
 ing on fancy. Parable does not, and has a 
 loftier significance; it rests on the imagi¬ 
 nation, introducing only things probable. 
 The allegory personifies directly ideas or 
 
Par 
 
 ( 707 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 attributes. The thing signifying and the 
 thing signified are united together, the 
 properties and relations of one being 
 transferred to the other; instead of being 
 kept distinct, side by side, as in the par¬ 
 able, it is a prolonged metaphor, or ex¬ 
 tended simile; it never names the object 
 itself; it may be about other than religious 
 'ruths, but the parable only about religious 
 truth. The parable is longer carried out 
 than the proverb, and not merely by acci¬ 
 dent and occasionally, but necessarily, 
 figurative, and having a similitude. The 
 parable is often an expanded proverb, and 
 the proverb a condensed parable. The par¬ 
 able expresses some particular fact, which 
 the simile does not. In the fable the end 
 is earthly virtues, skill, prudence, etc., 
 which have their representatives in irra¬ 
 tional creation; if men be introduced, they 
 are represented from their mere animal 
 aspect. 
 
 “The basis of parable is, that man is 
 made in the image of God, and that there 
 is a law of continuity of the human with 
 the divine. The force of parable lies in 
 the real analogies impressed by the Cre¬ 
 ator on his creatures, the physical typify¬ 
 ing the higher moral world. ‘ Both king¬ 
 doms develop themselves according to the 
 same laws; Jesus’ parables are not mere 
 illustrations, but internal analogies, nature 
 becoming a witness for the spiritual world; 
 whatever is found in the earthly exists 
 also in the heavenly kingdom.’— Lisco. 
 The parables, earthly in form, heavenly in 
 spirit, answer to the parabolic character of 
 his own manifestation. Jesus’ purpose in 
 using parables is judicial as well as didactic , 
 to discriminate between the careless and 
 the sincere. In his earlier teaching, as 
 the sermon on the mount, he taught plain¬ 
 ly, and generally without parables; but 
 when his teaching was rejected or misun¬ 
 derstood, he, in the latter half of his min¬ 
 istry, judicially punished the unbelieving 
 by parabolic veiling of the truth (Matt, 
 xiii. 11-16), ‘ therefore speak I to them 
 in parables, because they seeing see not, 
 . . . . but blessed are your eyes, for they 
 see,’ etc. Also, vers. 34, 35. The disci¬ 
 ples’ question (ver. 10), ‘ why speakest 
 thou unto them in parables ?’ shows that 
 this is the first formal beginning of his 
 parabolic teaching. The parables found 
 earlier are scattered, and so plain as to be 
 rather illustrations than judicial veilings 
 of the truth (vii. 24-27; ix. 16; xii. 25; 
 Mark iii. 23; Luke vi. 39). Not that a 
 merciful aspect is excluded, even for the 
 heretofore carnal hearers. The change of 
 mode would awaken attention, and judg¬ 
 ment thus end in mercy, when the message 
 of reconciliation addressed to them first 
 
 after Jesus’ resurrection (Acts iii. 26) 
 would remind them of parables not under¬ 
 stood at the time. The Holy Spirit would 
 ‘bring all things to their remembrance.’ 
 (John xiv. 26.) When explained, the par¬ 
 ables would be the clearest illustration of 
 truth. The parable, which was to the 
 carnal a veiling, to the receptive was a 
 revealing, of the truth, not immediate, but 
 progressive. (Prov. iv. 18.) They were a 
 penalty or a blessing according to the hear¬ 
 er’s state; a darkening to those who loved 
 darkness; enshrining the truth (concerning 
 the Messiah’s spiritual kingdom so differ¬ 
 ent from Jewish expectations) from the 
 jeer of the scoffer, and leaving something 
 to stimulate the careless afterwards to think 
 over. On the other hand, enlightening the 
 diligent seeker, who asks, What means this 
 parable ? and is led so to ‘ understand all 
 parables’ (Mark iv. 13; Matt. xv. 17; xvi. 
 9, 11), and at last to need no longer this 
 mode, but to have all truth revealed plain¬ 
 ly. (John xvi. 25.) The truths, when 
 afterward explained, first by Jesus, then 
 by his 'Spirit (xiv. 26), would be more 
 definitely and indelibly engraven on their 
 memories. About fifty out of a larger 
 number are preserved in the gospels. 
 (Mark iv. 33.) Each of the three synopti¬ 
 cal gospels preserves some parable pecul¬ 
 iar to itself. John never uses the word 
 parable, but ‘ proverb,’ or, rather, brief 
 ‘ allegory 'parabolic saying(faroimia). Par¬ 
 abolic sayings, like the paroimia in John 
 (x. 1, 6-18; xvi. 25; xv. 1-8) occur, also, 
 in Matt. xv. 15; Luke iv. 23; vi. 39; Mark 
 iii. 23; ‘ parable,’ in the sense of ‘ figure ’ or 
 type , Heb. ix. 9; xi. 19.”—Fausset: Bible 
 Cyclopcedia. See French: Notes on the Par- 
 ables (1841, many editions); Thomas Guth¬ 
 rie: The Parables (1866); W. Arnot: The 
 Parables of our Lord; A. B. Bruce: The 
 Parabolic Teaching of Christ (1882). 
 
 Parabolani (Gr., those who expose them¬ 
 selves). In the ancient Church one of the 
 minor orders of the clergy, upon whom was 
 laid the special duty of nursing the sick. 
 
 Paraclete. See Holy Spirit. 
 
 Paradise, “a word of Persian origin, 
 meaning ‘a garden,’ ‘orchard,’ or other 
 enclosed place, filled with beauty and de¬ 
 light. Hence it is used figuratively for any 
 place of peculiar happiness, and particularly 
 for the kingdom of perfect happiness, 
 which is the abode of the blessed beyond 
 the grave. (Luke xxiii. 43; 2 Cor. xii. 4; 
 Rev. ii. 7.)” —Schaff: Bible Diet. See Eden. 
 
 Paraguay, a republic of South America, 
 having a population of about 300,000. 
 
Par 
 
 ( 7o8 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 With the exception of a few immigrants 
 the inhabitants are all nominally connected 
 with the Roman Catholic Church. The 
 episcopal see is at Asuncion, the capital. 
 
 Pa'ran {place of caverns), Wilderness of, 
 “ bounded on the north by the Wilderness 
 of Shur and the land of Canaan, on the east 
 by the Arabah and the Gulf of Akabah, on 
 the south by a sand-belt which separates it 
 from Sinai, on the west by the Wilderness 
 of Etham. It is now called Badiet et-Tih 
 (desert of the wandering), the scene of the 
 thirty-eight years’ scattering of Israel be¬ 
 tween Egypt and Palestine. It is a high 
 limestone plateau, crossed by low ranges 
 of hills. Its few water-courses run only in 
 the rainy season. The vegetation is scanty. 
 The northeastern portion of this plateau is 
 the Negeb (south country) of Scripture. 
 The caravan route to Egypt crossed Paran.” 
 —Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. iii., p. 1743. 
 
 Pardee, Richard Gay, widely known as 
 a Sunday-school worker ; b. at Sharon, 
 Conn., Oct. 12, 1811; d. in New York City, 
 Feb. 11, 1869. From 1853 to 1863 he was 
 the agent of the New York Sunday-School 
 Union. He prepared two books which 
 have had a wide circulation: The Sunday- 
 School Worker and The Sunday-School Index. 
 
 Paris, Matthew, b. probably in Paris, 
 about A. D. 1195; d. at St. Albans, 1259; 
 a Benedictine monk of St. Albans; the 
 author, under the title of Historia Major, of 
 a history of England from 1066 to 1259. 
 The earlier part of the history (from 1066 
 to 1235) belongs, however, really to Roger 
 of Wendover, another monk of St. Albans; 
 and it was continued after the death of 
 Matthew (up to 1273) by William Rishan- 
 ger. The whole work, so far as it touches 
 upon matters affecting the Church, is con¬ 
 sidered of great value. 
 
 Parish (from the Gr .para, near, and oikos, 
 a house), in law, originally an ecclesiastical 
 division, or a part of a diocese, being the 
 district near the parish church. There are 
 about 12,000 ecclesiastical parishes in Eng¬ 
 land. In the United States the parish sys¬ 
 tem is retained by the Roman Catholic and 
 the Protestant Episcopal Churches, modi¬ 
 fied, however, on account of the complete 
 separation of Church and State. 
 
 Park, Edwards Amasa, D. D. (Harvard 
 University, 1844), b. at Providence, R. I., 
 Dec. 29, 1808; was graduated at Brown 
 University, 1826; at Andover Theological 
 Seminary, 1831; was pastor at Braintree, 
 Mass., 1831-33; professor of mental and 
 moral philosophy at Amherst College, 
 
 1 835-36; professor of sacred rhetoric at 
 Andover Theological Seminary, 1836-47; 
 and of Christian theology, 1847-81. He 
 was one of the founders of the Bibliotheca 
 Sacra, 1844, and one of its editors till 1884. 
 He is the author of: Memoirs of Samuel 
 Hopkins (1852) and Nathaniel E?nmons 
 (1861), and editor of The Sabbath Hyvin- 
 Book (1858), and other works. His last 
 publication is a volume of fourteen Dis¬ 
 courses on some Theological Doctrines as Re¬ 
 lated to the Religious Character (1885). 
 
 Parker, Joseph, D. D., Congregational¬ 
 ism b. at Hexam, Northumberland, Eng., 
 April 9, 1830; educated at University Col¬ 
 lege, London, he privately entered the 
 Congregational ministry and became suc¬ 
 cessively pastor at Banbury (Oxfordshire), 
 1853; Manchester (Cavendish Chapel), 1858; 
 and of the City Temple, London, since 
 1869. He is the author of: Ecce Deus: Es¬ 
 says on the Life and Doctrines of Jesus 
 Christ (1868); Ad Clerum (1870); Pulpit 
 Notes with Introductory Essay on the Preach¬ 
 ing of Jestts Christ (1873); The People's 
 Bible: Discourses on Holy Scripture (1885), 
 still in course of publication. 
 
 Parker, Matthew, the second Protestant 
 archbishop of Canterbury; b. in Norwich, 
 Aug. 6, 1504; d. at Lambeth, May 17, 1575. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and be¬ 
 came master of Corpus Christi College 
 and dean of Lincoln. He was appointed 
 archbishop by Elizabeth. He aided in the 
 preparation of the Bishop's Bible , and 
 wrote De Antiquitata Britannicce Ecclesioe. 
 
 Parker, Theodore, b. at Lexington, 
 Mass., Aug. 24, 1810; d. at Florence,Italy, 
 May 10, i860. He was educated in the 
 Unitarian faith by his parents, who were 
 pious middle-class persons, and they in¬ 
 tended him for the ministry of their com¬ 
 munion. He worked intensely, was gradu¬ 
 ated at the Divinity School at Harvard with 
 high honors, and became minister of a 
 church at Boston. His Unitarian brethren 
 soon found that he was leaving the conserv¬ 
 ative line of such men as Channing, and 
 was being moved along in the direction of 
 freethought, and they drew apart from him. 
 This grew to an open breach when, in 
 1841, he published a sermon in which he 
 treated the gospel miracles as either myths 
 or exaggerations. The result of the con¬ 
 troversy which arose was that he left the 
 Unitarian body with a large following, who 
 established themselves under him as an 
 independent congregation (1845). His con¬ 
 gregations were large, and his influence, 
 from his manifest zeal of philanthropy and 
 social reforms, was very wide. His testi- 
 
 v 
 
Par 
 
 ( 709 ) 
 
 Par 
 
 mony against slavery had great power in 
 its abolition. He was a prolific writer, and 
 his sermons are devout, earnest and 
 thoughtful. His works, comprising, be¬ 
 sides these and other discourses, reviews, 
 criticisms, and speeches, were published in 
 London in twelve volumes, 1863-65. He 
 also published a translation of De Wette’s 
 Introduction to the Old Testament. His 
 health failing, he came to Europe for 
 change, but died at Florence. 
 
 Parker’s position with respect to the 
 Bible miracles, as indicated in his works, 
 can hardly be said to deny them. “ Non¬ 
 proven ” would perhaps express his view: 
 they are improbable, and the evidence in¬ 
 sufficient, but cannot be called impossible. 
 The truth of Christ’s moral teaching, nay, 
 even his divinity, in a sense unapproached 
 by any other human personality, were evi¬ 
 denced by the sanctity of his life. Legends 
 gradually grew round the beauty of his 
 figure in the history; these being dropped, 
 a true biography remains. Parker’s faith 
 in a personal God who governs the soul 
 and the daily life of man, to whom prayer 
 can be made, and who will answer it, seems 
 not to have wavered. His private papers 
 contain many direct and most earnest peti¬ 
 tions to God. The Bible, according to him, 
 is inspired, not in the sense of a revelation, 
 but as calling forth in man the latent inspi¬ 
 ration which is in him, and leading him to 
 discern the truth, which is given to every 
 man, but which, but for such quickening, 
 lies hidden.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 Parker’s principal works were: Discourses 
 of Matters Pertaining to Religion (1842); 
 Critical and Miscellaneous Writings (1843); 
 Ten Sermons of Religion (1853); Sermons on 
 Theism , Atheism and the Popular Theology 
 (1853); and four volumes of Sermons , Ad¬ 
 dresses■, etc. (1855). See his Life , by Weiss 
 (1864), 2 vols.,and by Frothingham (1874). 
 
 Parsees. Parseeism was the religion of 
 Iran or Persia. Its origin is wrapped in 
 obscurity; even the date of Zoroaster, or 
 Zarathustra, is fixed variously between 500 
 or 600 b. c. and 1200 b. c. The fundamental 
 doctrines probably were formed 2,000 years 
 b. c., whilst Persians and Hindoos were 
 still one nation, and before the Veda exist¬ 
 ed, which is generally fixed at 1,500 years 
 b. c. The first historic record is found in 
 the arrow-head inscriptions of about 516 
 b. c., in which Darius Hystaspes figures as 
 a disciple of the prophet, and ascribes his 
 victories to Ormuzd. At the present time 
 there is but a small congregation of Par¬ 
 sees living in Yezd and Kirman, the rest 
 have emigrated. There are many points 
 of similarity to be found in the Jews and 
 Parsees: both are monotheists, both are 
 
 exiles, and both are followers of an ancient 
 sacred law. 
 
 The book which contains their creed is 
 called Avesta , which comes from the same 
 root as Veda — vid, “ to know,” and thus 
 means “ law and revelation.” It is some¬ 
 times improperly called Zend-Avesta; zend 
 means a “commentary” or “glossary,” 
 which accompanies each part of the book 
 as a help to the understanding. The Avesta 
 was not the work of only one man or time; 
 some of it is said to date back to between 
 the seventh and fourth centuries before 
 Christ, and some as late as the fourth cen¬ 
 tury after. It is divided into the Yasna , 
 which includes five gdthas, or hymns, writ¬ 
 ten in a dialect resembling Vedic Sanscrit, 
 and probably very ancient; the Vendiddd, 
 which means “ given against the demons,” 
 and contains the laws; the Visparad, mean¬ 
 ing “ chiefs,” a collection of prayers; and 
 other sections with special prayers. The 
 Avestan doctrine came to Persia through 
 Media by the Magi —some of the race who 
 were the first Gentiles to worship the in¬ 
 fant Saviour. It became the ruling relig¬ 
 ion of Persia in a. d. 226 under Ardeshir, 
 the first Sassanide monarch, and it re¬ 
 mained so till 642, when the Persian king¬ 
 dom came to an end. Then many Persians 
 accepted the Koran; yet a small remnant 
 remained, and were the progenitors of the 
 modern community of Indian Parsees. 
 Some went to India, in 716, and settled in 
 the northern part. 
 
 Besides being monotheistic, Parseeism 
 is dualistic. It teaches the existence of 
 two principles, always at war with each 
 other—light and darkness, good and evil— 
 under the names of Ormuzd or Ahura- 
 Mazda, and Ahriman. These two were 
 supposed to be living in different parts of 
 the universe with immense space separat¬ 
 ing them, till, each becoming aware of the 
 existence of the other, a fierce war was 
 waged between them. Ormuzd commenced 
 creating spirits suitable to his purposes 
 against his enemy, and then Ahriman cre¬ 
 ated evil spirits to counteract their influ¬ 
 ence. Ormuzd next made the stars and 
 planets, and when the earth was finished 
 he placed it between himself and Ahriman; 
 but the latter bored a hole through the 
 earth, and placed some of his bad spirits 
 on it. Henceforth the earth became the 
 arena of the struggle between good and 
 evil. Zoroaster was then created by Or¬ 
 muzd to oppose Ahriman. The struggle is 
 to last for 12,000 years. Each man is to live 
 his allotted time on the earth, there to de¬ 
 termine his ultimate happiness; for the 
 Parsee believes in the resurrection of the 
 dead, and in a state of final blessedness. 
 Fifty-seven years before the end of the 
 
Par 
 
 ( 7io ) 
 
 Pas 
 
 world—which is to be brought about by 
 collision with a comet—Soshyans, of the 
 direct seed of Zoroaster, will appear, and 
 prepare the dead for the new life to begin. 
 Then sinners are to be purified to join the 
 blessed by living three days in molten lead. 
 Ahriman is to vanish forever. 
 
 The Parsees are worshippers of fire; 
 their sacred altar-fire is never allowed to 
 go out, and is fed chiefly with sandal-wood; 
 their domestic fire is also sacred. They 
 never smoke, and are very particular about 
 bodily defilement: contact with a dead body 
 is the greatest source of defilement, and 
 needs special forms of purification. Their 
 corpses are exposed to be the food of vul¬ 
 tures on a dakhma , or “ tower of silence,” 
 and then the bones only fall into a pit be¬ 
 low; to inter a corpse is punishable by 
 death. The priesthood was formerly con¬ 
 fined to one family, but is not now so lim¬ 
 ited. Their service is divided thus: first, 
 hymns and offering of sacrifices, which con¬ 
 sist of small cakes and homa , the juice of a 
 plant said to be very effectual against evil 
 spirits; secondly, hymns, and reading of 
 parts of the Vendidad; and then of hymns 
 and prayers. The young Parsee becomes 
 a member of the congregation at the age of 
 seven, when, with sundry ceremonies, he 
 or she is invested with a woolen cord, 
 called a kusti , or sacred girdle, which is 
 always worn, and implies irrevocable con¬ 
 secration to the faith of Zoroaster. Mar¬ 
 riage is looked on as a very sacred tie, and 
 is contracted between persons of the near¬ 
 est kindred. The Parsees never make con¬ 
 verts. They have translated the Vendidad 
 into the dialect Gujerati, which, since their 
 settlement in India, has been their mother- 
 tongue. 
 
 From the seventeenth century the Par¬ 
 sees have been the middlemen in India 
 between English, French, and other Euro¬ 
 pean nations, and their native customers. 
 In 1881, of 100,000 worshippers of Zoro¬ 
 aster, one-half were found to be in Bom¬ 
 bay, which largely owes its prosperity to 
 them. They are great promoters of educa¬ 
 tion, and have English taught in all their 
 schools; they have done much toward fe¬ 
 male enfranchisement. They are extremely 
 charitable, and very loyal to the British 
 Crown. 
 
 In 1771 Anquetil Duperron published a 
 French translation of the A vesta, and Pro¬ 
 fessor Max Muller has edited the transla¬ 
 tion in The Sacred Books of the East. —Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Particular and General Baptists, the 
 names by which two Baptist bodies in 
 England are known. The first is Arminian 
 in theology and had its origin in a com¬ 
 
 pany, which, under the lead of John Spils- 
 bury, withdrew in 1633 from an Independ¬ 
 ent congregation at Southwark, of which 
 Henry Jacobs was pastor. The General 
 Baptists are Calvinistic, and are descend¬ 
 ed from a company which, having embraced 
 Baptist doctrines, withdrew from the main 
 body of the Separatist exiles in Holland, 
 and returned to England in 1612. In 1822 
 a small denomination of Baptists holding 
 Arminian views, but practicing strict com¬ 
 munion, was formed in the States of In¬ 
 diana, Illinois, Missouri, and Kentucky, 
 under the name of General Baptists. They 
 were estimated in 1888 to have over 2,000 
 churches, and 13,000 members. 
 
 Pas'cal (fas'kat), Blaise, “ b. at Cler¬ 
 mont, in Auvergne, June 19, 1623; d. at 
 Port Royal, Aug. 19, 1662; a distinguished 
 French mathematician and philosopher, 
 chiefly remembered, however, as the 
 author of the famous Provincial Letters 
 (published about 1658, in opposition to the 
 Jesuits), and of Thoughts on Religion and 
 So/ne Other Subjects (published after the 
 author’s death). From his childhood he 
 gave evidence of remarkable capacity. 
 His gift for mathematics was extraordinary, 
 and he contributed largely to the develop¬ 
 ment of that science. But when he was 
 in his thirty-fourth year he all at once re¬ 
 nounced the study of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy, as well as of all human 
 learning, and devoted himself wholly to 
 religious meditation, mortification, and 
 prayer. The last five years of his life 
 were spent in retirement at Port Royal. 
 But his retirement did not prevent his 
 noticing what was passing in the world; 
 and he took an interest in the controversy 
 between the Jesuits and Jansenists, which 
 led to the publication of the Provincial 
 Letters in favor of the latter. The wit 
 and genius of his Provincial Letters have 
 always been acknowledged, though their 
 fairness has been questioned. His 
 Thoughts on Religion has been translated 
 into most European languages, and has 
 been many times republished.”—Cassell: 
 Cyclopcedia. Pascal “ is one of those rare 
 religious characters whom both Catholics 
 and Protestants love to claim; and his de¬ 
 fense of Christianity is, to use the fine 
 words of Neander, ‘ witness to that re¬ 
 ligious conviction which is founded in im¬ 
 mediate perception, and is elevated above 
 all reflection.’ ”— Th. Schott. Lives of Pas¬ 
 cal have been written by St. Beuve, Vinet, 
 Cousin, etc. Eng. trans. of Thoughts and 
 Provincial Letters , by Wright, N. Y., 2 vols. 
 
 Paschal Controversies (Gr. pascha , pass- 
 over). These were controversies which 
 
Pas 
 
 ( 7ii ) 
 
 Pas 
 
 arose in die middle of the second century- 
 on the question of the proper date for 
 keeping Easter, The term “ pascha” was 
 in the first ages of the Church applied to 
 the anniversary of our Saviour’s death (cf. 
 1 Cor. v. 7). After a time Easter became 
 included in this term, but at length the 
 “ pascha,” as an ecclesiastical term, was 
 confined to Easter alone, Good Friday be¬ 
 ing excluded. The Churches in Asia Minor 
 used to celebrate the Paschal Supper, or 
 anniversary of the crucifixion, on the 14th 
 day of the month of Nisan, the date of the 
 Jewish Passover; and three days later they 
 kept Easter, regardless of what day of the 
 week it fell upon. The practice of Rome, 
 and of the majority of the Churches, was 
 always to keep Easter on the Sunday, and 
 the Paschal Supper on its eve. The former 
 custom — called the “ quartodeciman,” 
 from its being kept on the fourteenth day— 
 was claimed as derived from St. John and 
 St. Philip; the latter from St. Peter and St. 
 Paul. About the year 158 Polycarp, bish¬ 
 op of Smyrna, visited Anicetus, bishop 
 of Rome, and discussed this question with 
 him in a friendly spirit; the result was that 
 it was agreed that a difference of practice 
 was allowable on this point. But about the 
 year 196 Victor, bishop of Rome, sought 
 to enforce uniformity of practice by 
 threatening to cut off communion with the 
 Asiatic Churches unless they submitted to 
 the Western custom. His efforts, however, 
 were doomed to failure. Polycrates, bish¬ 
 op of Ephesus, writing on behalf of the 
 Asiatics, refused to yield to Victor, and 
 when the latter sought to cut off so large 
 a body of people from Christian communion 
 he was opposed by many Western bishops, 
 among others by Irenaeus, bishop of 
 Lyons. In 314 the Council of Arles de¬ 
 creed that Easter should in all places be 
 kept “ on one day, and at one time;” but 
 the council had no jurisdiction in the East, 
 and therefore did not affect the Asiatics. 
 But in the Council of Nicaea the bishops 
 from Asia Minor consented to conform to 
 the Western and more general custom of 
 keeping Easter; and although individual 
 congregations resisted this surrender, yet 
 the controversy was then at an end, and by 
 the sixth century all traces of the Quarto- 
 decimans had disappeared. — Benham : 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Paschalis is the name of two popes and 
 two antipopes. See Popes. 
 
 Paschasius, Radbertus. See Radber- 
 tus. 
 
 Passion, The, of our Lord, is his cruci¬ 
 fixion. 
 
 Passion-Plays. See Religious Dramas. 
 
 Passion-Week. See Holy Week. 
 
 Passionists, an order of the Roman 
 Catholic Church founded by Paolo della 
 Croce; b. at Ovada, in Piedmont, Jan. 3, 
 1694; d. at Rome, Oct. 18, 1775. He was 
 canonizedjby Pius IX. in 1868. The object 
 of the order is to keep alive in every possi¬ 
 ble way Christ’s atoning passion and death. 
 There are several congregations of this 
 order in England and the United States. 
 
 Passover, “ Pesac/i, pascha, the first and 
 greatest of the three annual feasts ( regalim ) 
 instituted by Moses, at which it was in¬ 
 cumbent upon every male Israelite to make 
 a pilgrimage to the house of the Lord. It 
 was celebrated on the anniversary of the 
 exodus from Egypt— i. e., on the 14th day 
 of Nisan, otherwise called Abib, the pe¬ 
 riod of the first full moon in the spring— 
 and lasted eight days. In commemoration 
 of the incidents connected with the great 
 event of the liberation of the people, it was 
 ordained that unleavened bread only should 
 be eaten during this festive period, whence 
 it also bore the name chag hamazzoth (feast 
 of unleavened bread); and, further, that a 
 lamb one year old, and free from all blem¬ 
 ish, roasted whole, together with bitter 
 herbs, should form the meal in every 
 house on the eve of the feast. Prayers 
 and thanksgivings, all with a reference to 
 the redemption from bondage, accompanied 
 the repast, at which the members of the 
 family or families who had joined in the 
 purchase of the lamb had to appear in trav¬ 
 eling garb. At a later period, a certain 
 number of cups of red wine were super- 
 added to this meal, to which, as its special 
 ceremonies and the order of its benedic¬ 
 tions were fixed, the name seder (arrange¬ 
 ment! was given. The name ‘ passover ’ was 
 more strictly limited to the first day, in 
 which the paschal lamb was entirely con¬ 
 sumed, the reserving of any part of it to 
 the next day being expressly forbidden 
 (Ex. xii. 10); and the name ‘ feast of unleav¬ 
 ened bread ’ belonged rather to the remain¬ 
 ing days, on which other animal food was 
 eaten; but the names were often used in¬ 
 discriminately. 
 
 “ The passover is generally regarded by 
 Christian theologians as at once a sacrifice 
 and a sacrament, and in the former charac¬ 
 ter as an eminent type of the sacrifice of 
 Christ. The death of Christ at the very 
 time of the passover is regarded as corrob¬ 
 orative of this view, which is indeed plain¬ 
 ly adopted in certain passages of the New 
 Testament, as John xix. 36, and 1 Cor. v. 
 7, in which last place our Saviour is desig- 
 
Pas 
 
 ( 7i2 ) 
 
 Pat 
 
 nated * Christ our Passover.’ The pass- 
 over is regarded as typical of Christ, in its 
 connection with the deliverance of Israel 
 from the bondage of Egypt, held to typify 
 our salvation from the bondage of sin; in 
 its being a sacrifice, and that of a lamb 
 without blemish—the perfection of the pas¬ 
 chal lamb, as of the other sacrificial victims, 
 being supposed to signify the perfection of 
 the great sacrifice; and in many other mi¬ 
 nor particulars, of which one is that re¬ 
 ferred to in John xix. 36, that no bone of 
 the paschal lamb was to be broken. 
 
 “The paschal meal, as at present cele¬ 
 brated among the Jews, has more the char¬ 
 acter of a hallowed family feast, with ref¬ 
 erence, however, to the great national 
 event. The greater part of those, it may 
 be added here, who live out of the Holy 
 Land, celebrate it on the first two evenings, 
 as, owing to the uncertainty prevalent at 
 one time with respect to the fixing of the 
 new moon by the sanhedrim at Jerusalem, 
 it was ordained that the ‘ exiles ’ should 
 celebrate all their festivals—except the day 
 of atonement—on two successive days, a 
 law still in force among the orthodox. 
 The regulations of the ‘ lamb for each 
 house,’ the traveling garb, etc., are abro¬ 
 gated, but many further symbolical tokens 
 have been superadded; reminiscences, as 
 it were, both of the liberation from Egypt 
 and the subsequent downfall of the sanc¬ 
 tuary and empire. The order of prayers 
 and songs to be recited on these evenings 
 has also received many additions, and even 
 mediaeval German songs have crept in, as 
 supposed to contain a symbolical reference 
 to the ultimate fate of Israel.”—Chambers: 
 Cyclopcedia. See Oehler: Theology of the Old 
 Testament; Stanley: Hist, of the Jewish 
 Churchy vol. i. 
 
 Pastoral Letter, a letter written by a bish¬ 
 op to his diocese. 
 
 Pastoral Staff, or Crozier, a bishop’s 
 official emblem. It is a long staff with a 
 hook at the end, like a shepherd’s crook, 
 and is the symbol of the bishop’s pastoral 
 authority over his flock. It is often beau¬ 
 tifully decorated with gold and jewels. 
 
 Pastoral Theology, “ that branch of theo¬ 
 logical science which regards the duties and 
 obligations of pastors in relation to the 
 care of souls. It comprises two parts: 
 first, that which treats of the obligations 
 of the pastors themselves, and which is, 
 therefore, designed for the training and 
 preparation of the candidates for the pas¬ 
 toral office. The other part of pastoral 
 theology, which might, perhaps, better be 
 called popular theology, comprises the ob¬ 
 
 jective teaching which is to be employed in 
 the instruction and direction of the flock 
 committed to the pastor’s charge. This 
 branch of theology has long formed a lead¬ 
 ing portion of the training of candidates in 
 the evangelical churches of France and 
 Germany. Numerous works on the sub¬ 
 ject represent the practice of the various 
 sections of the Protestant Church; and, 
 more recently, Catholic manuals of pastoral 
 theology have appeared.” 
 
 Paten, Patena, or Discus, the plate on 
 which the sacramental bread is placed and 
 distributed to communicants. 
 
 Pater Noster (Our Father), The, desig¬ 
 nates, especially in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, the Latin translation of the Lord’s 
 Prayer. 
 
 Patience “ is that moral pow T er by which 
 the soul preserves its equanimity under all 
 exciting and oppressive circumstances, and 
 freely submits to the unavoidable, with 
 the presentiment that it is a divine dispensa¬ 
 tion. As a fruit of Christian faith, patience 
 is the persistence of the believer in a state 
 of sanctification, in spite of temptations. 
 Born of Christian love, it supplements 
 Christian hope. (Rom. viii. 25.) It gradu¬ 
 ally learns to bear all things, endure all 
 things, hope all things, to wait contentedly 
 for the coming of the Lord. (James, v. 7.) 
 Its foundation is the Lord’s faithfulness.”— 
 Lange . 
 
 Pat'mos, a barren and rocky island, situ¬ 
 ated near the coast of Asia Minor, in the 
 H£gean Sea. The Roman emperors used 
 it as a place of banishment, and here the 
 Apostle John wrote his Revelation. (Rev. i. 
 9.) Above the cave, where tradition says 
 he had his visions, is the Greek monastery 
 built by Alexius Commenus. 
 
 Patriarch. The name, as a title in the 
 Christian Church, was given as a mark of 
 respect to bishops in the fourth century. 
 In time it designated the bishops of certain 
 great metropolitan sees who held a position 
 of authority over the metropolitans includ¬ 
 ed in their district which was called a patri¬ 
 archate. There are eleven patriarchs in 
 the Roman Catholic Church. See Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Patrick, St., Roman Catholic saint and 
 apostle of Ireland. The chief sources of 
 information regarding him are found in his 
 Confession , and the Epistle to Coroticus. The 
 dates of his life are uncertain. His birth 
 has been placed between 336 and 378, and 
 his death between 455 and 493. When a 
 
Pat 
 
 C 7i3 ) 
 
 Pau 
 
 youth of sixteen he was carried captive to 
 Ireland from Bonavem of Taberniae, which 
 was probably in Gaul. After six years he 
 made his escape and regained his home. 
 Nothing further is known of him until at a 
 mature age he began his missionary labors 
 in Ireland. In the face of great difficulties 
 he established among this heathen people 
 a native church with a clergy raised up 
 from their ranks. St. Patrick’s Day is com¬ 
 memorated March 17. See Nicholson: St. 
 Patrick , Apostle of Ireland (Dublin, 1868); 
 Killen : Ecclesiastical History of Ireland 
 (London, 1875), 2 vols. 
 
 Patrick, Symon, b. at Gainsborough, in 
 Lincolnshire, in 1626; d. at Ely, May 31, 
 1707. Educated at Cambridge, he was or¬ 
 dained by Dr. Hall, the ejected bishop of 
 Norwich, in 1651, and became successively 
 vicar of Battersea, 1658; rector of Covent 
 Garden, 1662; prebendary of Westminster 
 Abbey, 1672; dean of Peterborough, 1679; 
 bishop of Chichester, 1689, and of Ely, 
 1691. He is best known as a commentator, 
 but produced several other works of merit, 
 and took high rank as a preacher, and in 
 later years was accused of favoring the 
 Nonconformists. He is numbered among 
 the Cambridge latitudinarians. 
 
 Patripassians (from paterpassus, the suf¬ 
 fering father), “ a name applied to those 
 Christians, who, denying that there is a 
 definite distinction between the personali¬ 
 ties of the Father, the Son, and the Holy 
 Spirit in the Trinity, said that the Father 
 had suffered in the Son. It occurs for the 
 first time in the treatise of Tertullian 
 against Praxeas, about 200.”—Schaff-Her- 
 zog: Ency. See Monarchians. 
 
 Patristics, that branch of historical the¬ 
 ology which treats particularly of the lives 
 and doctrines of the Church Fathers. 
 
 Patronage, the right to present a cler¬ 
 gyman to a living; i. e., to nominate him 
 to the bishop for the purpose of insti¬ 
 tution. This right was originally confined 
 to the bishop of the diocese; but in the 
 Council of Orange (a. d. 441), it was 
 enacted that one who built a church might 
 be allowed the presentation to it, and by a 
 law of Justinian (a. d. 541) it was laid down 
 that the founders of churches, and their 
 heirs, should enjoy the privilege of nomi¬ 
 nating the incumbents; provided always (1) 
 that a sufficient maintenance were provided 
 for the clerk; (2) that the bishop approved 
 of the nominee. The system soon became 
 general throughout the West. It was in¬ 
 troduced into England by Archbishop Theo¬ 
 dore (a. d. 668-90). Abuses, as was 
 
 natural, gradually crept in. Churches 
 were sometimes built as a profitable specu¬ 
 lation, the builder taking the offerings, and 
 allowing to the incumbent a fixed income 
 while he appropriated the surplus to his 
 own use. Occasionally the right of pre¬ 
 sentation was divided among several heirs, 
 which led to a division of the living into a 
 like number of parts, each held by a sepa¬ 
 rate clerk. Frequently the patron claimed 
 the right of introducing or ejecting a priest, 
 without any reference to the bishop; whilst, 
 on the other hand, the bishop sometimes 
 unreasonably refused to institute the pa¬ 
 tron’s nominee. Against such practices 
 frequent canons and laws were directed: 
 bishops were prohibited from consecrating 
 churches built for profit; the partition of 
 livings was put a stop to; the bishop’s con¬ 
 sent was made a condition of induction; 
 and bishops were forbidden to withhold 
 that consent except for valid reasons. 
 
 Instead of being regarded merely as a 
 trust, patronage came to be considered as 
 a vested right, and therefore as salable 
 property, which might be sold either with 
 the estate or as a separate property. In 
 England the perpetual right of presenta¬ 
 tion is called an “ advowson; ” if appended 
 to an estate, it is an “advowson append¬ 
 ant; ” if a property by itself, it is an “ ad¬ 
 vowson in gross.”—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Patteson, John Coleridge, “ bishop of 
 Melanesia, was the eldest son of Justin 
 Patteson and Frances Duke Coleridge, a 
 near relative of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 
 and was born in Gower Street, Bedford 
 Square, April 2, 1827. He was educated 
 at Ottery St. Mary and at Eton, where he 
 greatly distinguished himself on the cricket 
 field. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, 
 in 1845, and was graduated B. A. in 1848. 
 After spending some time on the Continent 
 in the capacity of tutor, he in 1852 became 
 a fellow of Merton College. In 1853 he 
 became curate of Alfington, Devon, and in 
 the following year he was ordained priest, 
 and joined the mission to the Melanesian 
 Islands in the South Pacific. There he la¬ 
 bored with great success, visiting the dif¬ 
 ferent islands of the group in the mission- 
 ship, the Southern Cross , and by his 
 good sense and unselfish devotion winning 
 the esteem and affection of the natives. In 
 1861 he was consecrated bishop of Melane¬ 
 sia, and in this capacity did much to pro¬ 
 mote the Christianization of the islands, 
 until his premature death by the hand of a 
 native, Sept. 20, 1871. See Life , by Char¬ 
 lotte M. Yonge.”— Encv. Britannica. 
 
 Paul the Apostle, and his Epistles. I. 
 
Pau 
 
 ( 714 ) 
 
 Pau 
 
 The Life of Paul. —Paul was born of Jew¬ 
 ish parents (2 Cor. xi. 22; Phil. iii. 5) at 
 Tarsus in Cilicia. (Acts ix. 11; xxi. 39; 
 xxii. 3.) He traced his lineage to the tribe 
 of Benjamin (Rom. xi. 1; Phil. iii. 5); be¬ 
 longed, on his father’s side, to the sect of 
 the Pharisees (Acts xxiii. 6), and had inher¬ 
 ited the right of a Roman citizen (xxii. 18; 
 comp. xvi. 37; xxiii. 27). He had a sister, 
 who was married, at Jerusalem (xxiii. 6). 
 His earliest education he received at home, 
 to complete which he went to Jerusalem, 
 where he attended the lectures of the famous 
 Gamaliel (xxii. 3), a grandson of the great 
 Hillel. As the Jewish teacher received no 
 money for his instruction he learned the 
 trade of a tent-maker (xviii. 3), which en¬ 
 abled him afterward to make his own living 
 without being dependent on congregations. 
 (Acts xx. 34; 1 Cor. iv. 12; ix. 15; 2 Cor. 
 xi. 9; xii. 13; 1 Thess. ii. 19; 2 Thess. iii. 
 8.) He became a zealous Pharisee, and 
 his animosity against Christianity showed 
 itself at the stoning of Stephen (Acts vii. 
 57), where Saul was a looker-on at the 
 bloody scene (viii. 1). In the persecution 
 which commenced with the death of Ste¬ 
 phen, his fanaticism grew, and he went 
 from house to house to imprison the 
 believers (viii. 3). With letters from the 
 high-priest he went to Damascus to 
 bring the Christians bound to Jerusalem 
 (ix. I seq. ). In the midst of his zeal that 
 event took place which made him the chos¬ 
 en vessel of Christ (ix. 1-20; xxii. 4-16; 
 xxvi. n-20). Led by his companions he 
 came to Damascus, where a Christian, 
 named Ananias, baptized him. From Da¬ 
 mascus Saul, now Paul, went to Arabia 
 (Gal. i. 17) to prepare himself for his great 
 work. After three years’ stay in Arabia 
 he returned to Damascus, and thence to 
 Jerusalem, to make himself acquainted 
 with the apostles. (Gal. i. 17; Acts ix. 26.) 
 He soon perceived that Jerusalem was not 
 the place of his work, and so he went by 
 way of Syria and Cilicia to Tarsus. For a 
 time he labored in his old native place, 
 when he was called by Barnabas, with 
 whom he had become acquainted in Jeru¬ 
 salem (Acts ix. 27), to Antioch in Syria (xi. 
 26). From Jerusalem they were accompa¬ 
 nied by John Marcus, the evangelist, a 
 cousin of Barnabas’ (Col. iv. 10), whom 
 Peter had brought over to Christianity, 
 (r Pet. v. 13.) Not of his own accord, but 
 at the impulse of the Holy Ghost, and or¬ 
 dained by the congregation, he went, ac- 
 campanied by Barnabas and Marcus, on 
 his first missionary tour. (Acts xiii.; xiv.) 
 By way of Seleucia they came to Cyprus, 
 the home of Barnabas (iv. 36), where they 
 labored with great success (xiii. 6-12). 
 Having returned to the continent of Asia 
 
 Minor, they preached in Pamphylia, where 
 John Marcus (xiii. 13) separated himself 
 from them; then in Pisidia (Antioch, Ico- 
 nium) and Lycaonia (Lystra and Derbe), to 
 return by way of Attalia to Antioch in Syr¬ 
 ia. Here assaulted (xiii. 50; xiv. 5), and 
 there deified (xiv. 11), his first journey al¬ 
 ready indicates the general character of his 
 missionary work. It was intended for the 
 Gentiles, but not to the exclusion of the 
 Jews (xiii. 14, 42; xiv. 1, a. o.). By this 
 practice the apostle, in harmony with his 
 written word (Rom. i. 16; iii. 1 seq. ; ix. 1 
 seq. ; xi. 16; comp, also Matt. xv. 45; John 
 iv. 22), preserved the prerogatives of Israel 
 for the history of salvation, without be¬ 
 coming untrue to his universalism. How 
 long the first journey lasted is not stated. 
 
 While Paul and Barnabas were again at 
 Antioch, some Jewish Christians of Jeru¬ 
 salem made a commotion in the congrega¬ 
 tion of Antioch by claiming that Gentiles, 
 wishing to become Christians, must first 
 be circumcised. (Acts xv. 1.) To settle the 
 dispute Paul and Barnabas and a few oth¬ 
 ers were sent to Jerusalem. Soon after the 
 return of Paul and Barnabas, Peter came 
 to Antioch, where he was rebuked by Paul 
 on account of his treatment—in which he 
 was followed by Barnabas—of the Gentile 
 Christians, in spite of the decision at Jeru¬ 
 salem. (Gal. ii. 11 seq.) This occurrence 
 probably brought about a conflict between 
 Paul and Barnabas; for when the latter 
 proposed to receive Marcus, Paul declared 
 himself against the proposition (Acts xv. 
 36-39), in consequence of which Marcus 
 (ver. 39) joined himself to Barnabas, and 
 went with him to Cyprus; whereas Paul, 
 joined by Silas, who had gone with him 
 from Jerusalem to Antioch (vers. 22 and 
 23), prepared himself for his second ?nission- 
 ary journey. (Acts xv. 40-xviii. 22.) 
 
 In the beginning it wqs a visitation 
 journey for the strengthening of formerly 
 established congregations in Syria, Cilicia, 
 and Lycaonia (xv. 41). From Lystra Paul 
 was, besides, accompanied by Timothy 
 (xvi. 1-3), a native of that place, and went 
 to Phrygia, thence to Galatia (xvi. 1), 
 where he was kindly received (Gal. iv. 14 
 seq.), founded a congregation (i. 6 seq.), and 
 stayed some time on account of bodily in¬ 
 firmities (iv. 13). Over Mysia he went to 
 Troas where, in a vision, he was com¬ 
 manded to go to Macedonia. (Acts xvi. 8 
 seq.) In Troas Luke joined Paul, Silas, 
 and Timothy. At Philippi the apostle, true 
 to his custom, preached the Gospel first to 
 the Jews; and Lydia of Thyatira is men¬ 
 tioned as the first European Christian. At 
 Philippi, also, he was imprisoned with 
 Barnabas, and miraculously delivered. 
 (Acts xvi. 12-40.) From Philippi Paul 
 
Pau 
 
 { 7i5 ) 
 
 Pau 
 
 went with Silas and Timothy to Thessalo- 
 nica (xvii. 1), where he founded a congrega¬ 
 tion (xvii. 4; 1 Thess. i. 9; iv. 6 seq.). He 
 was finally obliged to leave the place, and 
 went to Beroea, thence to Athens (xvii. 16— 
 34), and Corinth (xviii. 1-18), where the 
 gospel had never been preached before 
 (1 Cor. iii. 6; iv. 15; 2 Cor. i. 19), and 
 where many were brought over to Christ 
 (Acts xviii. 8; viii. 1; xii. 2; Rom. xvi. 21, 
 23; 1 Cor. i. 14; vi. 9 seq.), among whom 
 were Aquila and Priscilla. From Corinth, 
 and not from Athens, Paul wrote his First 
 Epistle to the Thessalonians, and, a few 
 months later, the Second. Accompanied by 
 Aquila and Priscilla (Acts xviii. 18 seq.), 
 Paul went by way of Ephesus to Jerusalem, 
 to celebrate the Pentecost and to pay a 
 vow, and thence he returned to Antioch in 
 Syria (xviii. 22). He did not tarry here 
 long. He undertook also his third ??iission- 
 ary journey. (Acts xviii. 23-xxi. 15.) He 
 first went to Galatia and Phrygia, thence 
 to Ephesus, where he stayed three years 
 (xix. i-xx. 1). Here he wrote his Epistle 
 to the Galatians and the First Epistle to the 
 Corinthians. From Ephesus he goes over 
 Troas (2 Cor. ii. 12) to Macedonia, where 
 he meets with Timothy (comp. i. 1), after¬ 
 ward, also, with Titus (vii. 6 seq.), who 
 came from Corinth (comp. vers. 4, 12, 18) 
 with news concerning the success the 
 apostle’s epistle had (ii. 2; vii. 5). From 
 Macedonia, perhaps from Philippi, he wrote 
 the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, which 
 he soon followed in person. From Corinth 
 he wrote his Epistle to the Romans , in order 
 to prepare the brethren of Rome for his 
 personal preaching. Phoebe, the deaconess, 
 was probably the bearer of the letter. But 
 before going to Rome he visits Jerusalem. 
 By way of Macedonia (Philippi) he goes to 
 Troas (Acts xx. 3-12), thence with his 
 helpers (ver. 4 seq.) to Miletus (ver. 15). 
 Considering the sufferings which were 
 awaiting him (ver. 23), he bids farewell to 
 the elders of the church of Ephesus (xx. 
 17 seq.), and, in spite of the warnings of 
 the prophet Agabus in Caesarea (xx. 10 
 seq.), he continues his journey to Jeru¬ 
 salem. Soon the troubles commenced. 
 Claudius Lysias saved him from the fanat¬ 
 icism of some zealous Jewish Christians, 
 who stigmatized him as an opponent of the 
 law. In vain did he try to justify himself 
 before the people (xxii. 1-21), and by night 
 he was sent to Caesarea to Antonius Felix. 
 Under Festus, the successor of Felix, Paul 
 again made a self-defence (xxvi. 1-23), and 
 though he could expect a better under¬ 
 standing for his case, yet, being bent, in 
 his plans and hopes (xix. 21; xxiii. 11; 
 Rom. xv. 24, 28) upon Rome, he appealed 
 as a Roman citizen to the emperor (xxvi. 
 
 32), and under the care of Julius, accompa¬ 
 nied by Luke and Aristarchus of Thessa- 
 lonica (xxvii. 1; Col. iv. 10), he went from 
 Caesarea to Sidon, and was driven by winds 
 to Crete to be finally shipwrecked near the 
 coast of Melita. After a three months’ stay 
 they came by way of Syracuse and Rhegi- 
 um to Puteoli, near Naples. Here Paul 
 found Christians already, and Christians 
 from Rome went out to meet him at the 
 Three Taverns to accompany him to the 
 capital. 
 
 Although in Rome for the first time, yet 
 the apostle was no stranger there. From 
 the epistle we learn that he was well ac¬ 
 quainted with the affairs of the congrega¬ 
 tion, in which he now spent two years, 
 though closely watched, yet in his own 
 hired house (Acts xxviii. 16, 30 seq.), 
 preaching the gospel, no man forbidding 
 him. In Rome he wrote his epistles to 
 Philemon, the Ephesians, Colossians, and 
 Philippians, and suffered martyrdom under 
 Nero. 
 
 As to the Pastoral Epistles, their gen¬ 
 uineness can only be asserted in so far as 
 a second imprisonment has a support in 
 ecclesiastical tradition. 
 
 II. The Character of the Pauline Epistles . 
 —The Epistles are writings on a particular 
 occasion, in the noblest sense, closely con¬ 
 nected with the concrete position of their 
 author and the existing necessities of the 
 receivers. The more manifold those caus¬ 
 es were, the more heterogeneous is the 
 inner character of the Epistles. Beside 
 friendly writings, in which tender love is 
 expressed (Philemon, Philippians), stand 
 epistles of a strong polemical character, 
 which also express hard reproof (Galatians, 
 Colossians); and, again, such in which, 
 on account of their didactic element, the 
 rhetoric is directed by dialectics (Romans, 
 Ephesians). 
 
 III. The Contents of the Pauline Epistles. 
 —The gospel of the apostle is of a soterio- 
 logico-anthropological character, inasmuch 
 as he gives an answer to the main question 
 of the religious moral life; i. e., to the 
 question as to the true relation of man to 
 God, which is identical with that of man’s 
 righteousness. Whoever is a breaker 
 (Rom. ii. 25), not a doer, of the law, and 
 continuing not in the sphere of the law 
 (Gal. iii. 10), is lacking righteousness: his 
 lawlessness is equivalent to unrighteous¬ 
 ness. But whoever not only hears of the 
 requirements of the law, but does it (Rom. 
 ii. 13), is righteous. What the history of 
 the Gentiles as well as of the Jews teaches 
 (i. 18—iii. 30), Paul knows of his own ex¬ 
 perience (Gal. i. 13): law-righteousness is 
 impossible to man. (Rom. x. 3.) All have 
 sinned, and come short of the glory of God 
 
Pau 
 
 ( 7i6 ) 
 
 Pau 
 
 (iii. 23); therefore God opened a way to 
 righteousness by giving it through grace 
 to him who believes in Jesus Christ (iv. 
 13; x. 6). Paul accordingly teaches the 
 unrighteousness of men under the rule of 
 the law, as well as the righteousness of 
 them through faith in Jesus Christ. In 
 showing the inability of man to obtain 
 righteousness by himself, Paul demon¬ 
 strates it from the history of the extra- 
 Christian world. Neither Jew nor Gentile 
 can reach the righteousness by himself: 
 both have one thing in common—sin, 
 because descendants of one progenitor, 
 Adam, from whom sin and its effect, 
 death, came to all men. Sin, then, shows 
 itself as enmity against God, and is know- 
 able to man bv his ungodly lusts which 
 awake affections, thus proving with cer¬ 
 tainty that he is not free, but fettered by a 
 strange power. Against such power of 
 sin God’s doing is directed, which Paul 
 shows from the history of mankind. The 
 Gentiles were left to themselves—given 
 to the power of darkness, to the impurity 
 of a life of sin: this was God s judgment 
 over the original apostasy. By becoming 
 vain in their imaginations, and their foolish 
 heart being darkened, the aim was shown 
 them toward which sin must lead; and 
 Israel received the law for the purpose of 
 this pedagogy. But they, too, did not 
 bring forth works of the law, for the latter 
 did not lead to life (Rom. vii. 10; comp. 
 2 Cor. iii. 6); but as to the knowledge 
 (Rom. iii. 20), so, also, to the increase of 
 sin (v. 20). For only by God’s will is the 
 sinful state of man strikingly measured, 
 and by the prohibition of sin the lust is 
 incited. (Rom. vii. 5; 1 Cor. xv. 56.) Ac¬ 
 cordingly, the law became a schoolmaster 
 leading to Christ(Gal. iii. 24): a lasting bless¬ 
 ing was promised to Israel in the word of 
 promise. Given to the fathers as a present 
 (Rom. iv. 16), it passed over to the heirs 
 (ver. 13), and was therefore, also, not 
 abolished by the covenant of Sinai. (Gal. 
 iii. 17.) 
 
 Since the fulfillment of this prophecy 
 the law no more has dominion, but grace. 
 (Rom. vi. 14.) If the law insists upon 
 works, grace excludes human work (xi. 6); 
 the righteousness is, therefore, no more 
 merited,but donated (iii. 24). The mediator 
 of this grace is Jesus Christ, who appeared 
 in the fullness of time, when mankind was 
 prepared for the efficacy of God’s grace 
 (Gal. iv. 4): Christ became the mediator 
 through his death, whereby he brought 
 about a reconciliation of man with God. 
 (2 Cor. v. 18.) What God’s grace has given 
 in Jesus Christ becomes the possession of 
 man through faith, which is not a mere 
 knowledge of the gospel, but a deed of the 
 
 whole personality of man (Rom. x. 10) 
 which, in a free self-determination, turns 
 itself toward Christ; leans on him as me¬ 
 diator and reconciler, and finds in him its 
 spiritual sphere of life. Giving up his 
 present principles of knowledge and life, 
 the believer gives himself up unreservedly 
 to the grace of God in Christ, and thus 
 finds himself in a life-communion with 
 Christ. (1 Cor. i. 9; 2 Cor. v. 17; Gal. ii. 
 20; Rom. v. 10; 2 Cor. xiii. 5.) 
 
 All those who have received the grace 
 of God in Jesus Christ form the Church of 
 God (1 Cor. x. 32), a divine organism, 
 represented under the image of the temple 
 (iii. 16 seq.; 2 Cor. vi. 16) and the body. 
 *(i Cor. x. 17; xii. 12.) As the temple was 
 the place of the divine presence of grace, 
 thus the spirit of God lives in it, which 
 proves itself as the spirit of sonship here so 
 effective that all differences in the external 
 Christian relations of life are overcome in 
 it. (Gal. iii. 28.) True, the congregation 
 is not an ideal one. Its consummation 
 rests upon the complete revelation of 
 Jesus Christ, the preaching of which was 
 the starting-point of the apostle, whether 
 orally or in writing. (Comp. 1 Thess. ii. 9; 
 iv. 6; 2 Thess. i. 7, 9; Acts xvii. 31 seq.) 
 The final world crisis is marked as a fact 
 near at hand (1 Thess. iv. 17; 2 Thess. ii. 
 1; 1 Cor. vii. 29; xv. 32), which, however, 
 will not take place till apostasy has reach¬ 
 ed its climax in the person of the Anti¬ 
 christ, whom Christ shall consume (2 
 Thess. ii. 8) at his coming, and the resur¬ 
 rection and change of those who survive 
 shall take place. The last enemy, death, 
 shall be overcome with this consummation; 
 for, after the abolition of all godless pow¬ 
 ers, the complete life-union of God and 
 his creatures — the kingdom of God, has 
 come. (The above is a very succinct out¬ 
 line of W. Schmidt’s art., “ Paul the 
 Apostle,” in Herzog’s Real-Ency ., 2d ed., 
 vol. xi., pp. 356-389.) B. Pick. 
 
 Paul, the name of five popes. Paul 
 I- (757) ^ noticeable as living at the time 
 of the Lombard invasion, and as having to 
 play a double part between Desiderius, the 
 Lombard king, and Pepin of France. 
 
 Paul II. (1464-71), a worldly pontiff, 
 who, instead of withstanding the inroads of 
 the Turks in the Mediterranean, devoted 
 himself to pleasure and luxury, and ex¬ 
 communicated Podiebrad, king of Bo¬ 
 hemia, the strongest opponent of the Turk, 
 for keeping faith with the Utraquists. 
 
 Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) was ap¬ 
 pointed cardinal by the wicked Pope Alex¬ 
 ander VI., who held unhallowed relations 
 with his sister. He failed twice before he 
 succeeded in his attempt on the tiara, fol- 
 
Pau 
 
 ( 717 ) 
 
 Pau 
 
 lowing Clement VII. in 1534. He was a 
 man of shameless immorality. In his 
 pontificate the Council of Trent began. 
 Paul, who dreaded that the power of the 
 Emperor Charles V. might be employed 
 adversely to himself, secretly encouraged 
 some acts of the Reformers, and was will¬ 
 ing to grant the cup to the laity, marriage 
 to the clergy, and to make some other con¬ 
 cessions, but lacked the skill needful for 
 such complicated intrigues, and was quite 
 defeated. 
 
 Paul IV. (John Caraffa), one of the 
 most determined enemies pf the Reforma¬ 
 tion, succeeded to the popedom in 1555. 
 He had previously been instrumental in 
 establishing the Inquisition in Rome, with 
 a view of stopping the progress of the Ref¬ 
 ormation in Italy. He was a man of strict 
 life and of determined will, and left his 
 mark upon the whole future history of the 
 papacy. . 
 
 Paul V. (Camillo Borghese). His 
 pontificate (1605-21) is marked by the 
 Molinist controversy, in which he took the 
 part of the Jesuits against the Dominicans. 
 For imprisoning two priests, he laid Venice 
 under an interdict, and endeavored to ex¬ 
 cite Spain to make war upon the refractory 
 State. But he entirely failed, and the 
 Venetians defied him successfully, refus¬ 
 ing to give up the prisoners. This was 
 the last papal interdict ever issued. His 
 menaces against the English throne were 
 not more successful, and a work by Mari¬ 
 ana, written by his command, in favor of 
 the murder of tyrannical kings, was burned 
 in Paris by the hangman, by order of the 
 French Parliament. To the city of Rome 
 he was a kind and useful ruler. 
 
 Paul, Father (Paolo Sarpi). See 
 Sarpi. 
 
 Paul of Samosata, a heretic, and bishop 
 of Antioch in 262. He denied the distinc¬ 
 tion of the three Persons in the Trinity, 
 and asserted that there were two distinct 
 Persons in our Saviour, the Word and 
 Christ, who did not exist before Mary. 
 Paul led an impious life, and, after breaking 
 a promise made to a council in 264 to re¬ 
 nounce his erroneous doctrines, he was de¬ 
 posed in 270. His followers were called 
 Samosatians, or Paulinists. They did not 
 entirely disappear until the middle of the 
 fifth century. 
 
 Paul the Deacon, b. about 720; d. prob¬ 
 ably in the year 800. He was tutor of 
 Adelperga, daughter of Desiderius, king of 
 the Lombards. After taking orders he re¬ 
 mained some time in the court of Charle¬ 
 magne. Returning to Monte Casino in 
 
 Italy in 787, he devoted his life to writing. 
 Among his works are a Life of Gregory the 
 Great and a History of the Lo?nbards . From 
 one of his poems on John the Baptist the 
 names of the notes in the musical scale 
 were derived by Guido of Arezzo (q. v.). 
 
 Paula, St., a Roman lady of high rank 
 and great wealth. After the death of her 
 husband she settled most of her property 
 on her four children, and followed St. 
 Jerome to the Holy Land. Retiring to a 
 cave in Bethlehem, she founded there a 
 monastery, nunnery and hospital, and spent 
 her life in voluntary poverty and devotion. 
 She died in 404, and is commemorated by 
 the Roman Catholic Church on Jan. 26. 
 
 Paulicians, a heretical sect which orig¬ 
 inated about the middle of the seventh 
 century. It is uncertain from whom they 
 derived their name, whether from one Paul 
 of Samosata (the second of the name); 
 from a Paul of Armenia, who was a promi¬ 
 nent member of the sect at the beginning 
 of the eighth century; or from the Apostle 
 Paul himself, whose teaching they special¬ 
 ly pretended to follow. There has been 
 considerable controversy as to their doc¬ 
 trines, some maintaining that they were 
 the exponents of reformed and Scriptural 
 religion, and others denouncing them as 
 Manichaeans. Their opinions, however, as 
 stated by Peter of Sicily and Photius, are 
 decidedly heretical. They believed in two 
 Gods — one, the Creator of this present 
 world, and God of the Old Testament; the 
 other, the Good One, the ruler of the 
 world to come. They received the New 
 Testament only, attaching particular 
 authority to the Epistles of St. Paul, and 
 the Gospels of St. Luke and St. John. 
 They rejected the Sacraments, and attacked 
 the use of images and the growing venera¬ 
 tion for the Virgin Mary. They considered 
 it allowable to attend Catholic Churches, 
 and to conceal their true views by equivo¬ 
 cation and deceit. 
 
 The originator of the sect appears to 
 have been a certain Constantine, a man of 
 Manichaean family, who lived about the 
 year 653 at Mananalis, a village near 
 Samosata. It happened that a copy of the 
 Gospels and Pauline Epistles came into 
 his possession, which he diligently studied. 
 His reading led him to renounce some of 
 the errors of his hereditary belief, but did 
 not prevent him from substituting others, 
 and he produced a system which, though 
 professedly in accordance with the New 
 Testament, was really founded on a Mani¬ 
 chaean basis. The new doctrines soon 
 gained converts. Constantine settled at 
 Kibossa, in Armenia, and assumed the 
 
Pau 
 
 ( 718 ) 
 
 Pay 
 
 name of Silvanus. Here he remained for 
 twenty - seven years, until the year 684, 
 when the emperor, having heard of the 
 progress of the sect, made an attack upon 
 it. The emperor’s officer, Symeon, cap¬ 
 tured Constantine and a number of his 
 followers, and, ranging the latter in a line, 
 ordered them to stone their leader. All 
 but one refused, but by the hand of that 
 one—his adopted son, Justus—the heresi- 
 arch fell. The officer, Symeon, however, 
 struck with their constancy, began to in¬ 
 quire into the Paulician doctrines, with the 
 result that he was converted, and succeed¬ 
 ed Constantine as leader of the sect, under 
 the name of Titus. About A. D. 690 the 
 youth Justus became uneasy as to the 
 truth of his religion, and, failing to obtain 
 satisfaction from Symeon, applied to the 
 bishop of a neighoring town. The bishop 
 informed the emperor, Justinian II., of 
 the tenets of the sect, and the latter exert¬ 
 ed himself for its suppression. Justus, 
 Symeon, and many others were burnt, and 
 the remainder dispersed. But Paulician- 
 ism was not stamped out. A new leader 
 arose in the person of the Armenian Paul, 
 under whom it soon recovered its strength. 
 But after his death the sect grew corrupt, 
 and sank lower and lower till about A. D. 
 801. It was then reformed by the ex¬ 
 ertions of Sergius, who had lately been 
 converted to Paulicianism, and promoted 
 to the headship under the name of Tychi- 
 cus. 
 
 The disposition of the emperors toward 
 the sect had varied. Leo the Isaurian and 
 Constantine Copronymus transported many 
 of them to Thrace; Nicephorus granted 
 them toleration; Michael Curopalates and 
 Leo the Armenian fiercely persecuted them. 
 The Empress Theodora (a. d. 844) under¬ 
 took the suppression of the sect, and under 
 her not less than a hundred thousand were 
 killed in various ways. Amongst these 
 was the father of Carbeas, a captain of the 
 guard. Carbeas was so enraged at his 
 father’s death that he deserted with 5,000 
 followers to the Saracens, by whom he was 
 given the city of Tephrica and other places. 
 Here he was joined by other Paulicians, 
 and they soon became strong enough to 
 menace the empire. With the help of the 
 Saracens, Carbeas defeated Michael, the 
 son of the empress, at Samosata, and this 
 success was followed up by his son-in-law, 
 Chrysocheres, who was able to force the 
 Emperor Basil to beg for peace (a. d. 867). 
 But a few years after (a. d. 871), Chrys¬ 
 ocheres was defeated and slain by one of 
 Basil’s generals; Tephrica was taken and 
 destroyed, and the power of the sect over¬ 
 thrown. Paulicianism, however, was kept 
 alive by those who had been settled in 
 
 Thrace. From this centre it spread over 
 Europe, and is heard of as late as the 
 eleventh century.—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. See the Church Histories of Giese- 
 ler and Neander; A. Lombard: Paulicians 
 (Geneva, 1879). 
 
 Paulists, a name given to “ The Congre¬ 
 gation of the Missionary Priests of St. 
 Paul the Apostle,” founded by Isaac Thom¬ 
 as Hecker, in New York, in 1858. The 
 original members were Redemptorists 
 ( q. v.), but they requested to be released 
 from their vows, thinking they could carry 
 on mission work in the United States bet¬ 
 ter by forming a new order. They are 
 bound by voluntary agreement under a su¬ 
 perior general, with rules enacted in gen¬ 
 eral chapter. 
 
 Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob, 
 a distinguished representative of the mod¬ 
 ern rationalistic school of German theolo¬ 
 gians; b. at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, Sept. 
 1, 1761; d. at Heidelberg, Aug. 10, 1851. 
 The son of a Lutheran clergyman, he was 
 educated at Tubingen, and after teaching 
 three years in a German school and travel¬ 
 ing in England and on the continent for two 
 years, he was chosen ordinary professor of 
 Oriental languages at Jena. He was in¬ 
 timate with Schiller, Goethe, Herder, and 
 others of the distinguished men of his 
 time. In 1793 he was elected professor of 
 theology. His conception of religion was 
 merely an intellectual knowledge of God. 
 “ He held that miracles, in the strict sense, 
 were impossible, and that the events re¬ 
 corded in the Bible took place naturally, and 
 that the narratives of the Gospels are the 
 true reports of men who either were eye¬ 
 witnesses, or had obtained information from 
 such as were, but whose opinion regarding 
 the facts were sometimes incorrect.” Paul¬ 
 as’ chief works were a critical Commentary 
 on the New Testament (1804); Key to the 
 Psalms (1791); Key to Isaiah (1793); and 
 Commentary on the First Three Gospels 
 (1830—33). Leaving Jena in 1803, he be¬ 
 came professor of exegesis and ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal history at Heidelberg in 1811, which 
 place he filled until 1844, when he retired 
 on account of his extreme age. 
 
 Payson, Edward, D. D.,b. at Rindge, 
 N. H., July 25, 1783; d. at Portland, Me., 
 Oct. 22, 1827; was graduated at Harvard 
 College, in 1803; studied theology with his 
 father, Dr. Seth Payson, pastor at Rindge, 
 N. H., and in 1807 was settled over the 
 Second Congregational Parish in Portland, 
 where he labored with remarkable success 
 until his death. In his last illness, he display¬ 
 ed, in the most interesting and impressive 
 
Paz 
 
 ( 719 ) 
 
 Pec 
 
 manner, the power of Christian faith. Smit¬ 
 ten down in the midst of his days and useful¬ 
 ness, he was entirely resigned to the divine 
 will, for he perceived distinctly that the in¬ 
 finite wisdom of God could not err in the 
 direction of events, and it was his joy that 
 God reigneth. His mind rose over bodily 
 pain, and in the strong visions of eternity 
 he seemed almost to lose the sense of suf¬ 
 fering. 
 
 In a letter to his sister, just before his 
 death, he says: “Were I to adopt the figur¬ 
 ative language of Bunyan, I might date 
 this letter from the land of Beulah, of which 
 I have been for some weeks a happy in¬ 
 habitant. The celestial city is full in my 
 view. Its glories beam upon me, its odors 
 are wafted to me, its sounds strike upon 
 my ears and its spirit is breathed into my 
 heart. Nothing separates me from it but 
 the river of death, which now appears but 
 as an insignificant rill, that may be crossed 
 at a single step, whenever God shall give 
 permission. The Sun of Righteousness 
 has gradually been drawing nearer and 
 nearer, appearing larger and brighter as he 
 approached, and now he fills the whole 
 hemisphere; pouring forth a flood of glory, 
 in which I seem to float like an insect in 
 the beams of the sun; exulting, yet almost 
 trembling, while I gaze on the excessive 
 brightness, and wondering, with unutter¬ 
 able wonder, why God should deign thus 
 to shine upon a sinful worm. A single 
 heart and a single tongue seem altogether 
 inadequate to my wants: I want a whole 
 heart for every separate emotion, and a 
 whole tongue to express that emotion.” 
 See The Complete Works of Edward Pay son, 
 3 vols. (1846). 
 
 Pazmany, Peter, a great Hungarian Ro¬ 
 man Catholic prelate; b. at Grosswardein, 
 Oct. 4, 1570; d. at Presburg, March 19, 
 1637. His parents were Calvinists, but he 
 was educated at the Jesuit College at Ko- 
 loszvar, and at the age of seventeen enter¬ 
 ed the order of Jesuits. Protestantism 
 had gained a strong hold in Hungary, but 
 Pazmany, by a succession of brilliant con¬ 
 troversial works, and the most adroit man¬ 
 agement, turned the tide in favor of Cathol¬ 
 icism. The Protestant clergy were driv¬ 
 en from their parishes, and the Jesuits 
 gained complete control. In 1629 Pazmany 
 was made cardinal. 
 
 Peabody, George, an American philan¬ 
 thropist; b. in the part of Danvers, Mass., 
 which now bears the name of Peabody, 
 Feb. 18, 1795; d. in London, Nov. 4, 1869. 
 He was for many years a merchant in Bal¬ 
 timore, but became a banker in London in 
 1843. His great wealth was distributed 
 
 through many channels of benevolence. 
 Among his bequests the largest were: a 
 fund in trust for the London poor, amount¬ 
 ing now to $4,000,000; an Educational Fund 
 for the Southern States of $2,000,000; and 
 the endowment of Peabody Institute, Bal¬ 
 timore, $1,400,000. 
 
 Peace, Kiss of. See Kiss of Peace. 
 
 Peace-Offering. See Offering. 
 
 Pearson, Eliphalet, LL. D., one of the 
 founders of the Andover Theological Sem¬ 
 inary; b. in Newbury, Mass., June 11, 
 1752; d. at Greenland, N. H., Sept. 12, 
 1826. He was graduated at Harvard Col¬ 
 lege in 1769, and taught for a time at An¬ 
 dover, aiding in the establishment of Phil¬ 
 lips Academy. In 1786 he was appointed 
 professor of the Hebrew and Oriental lan¬ 
 guages at Harvard, where he labored with 
 eminent success until 1806. He then be¬ 
 came interested in founding the Andover 
 Theological Seminary, and prepared its fa¬ 
 mous constitution. He was the first presi¬ 
 dent of its Board of Trustees, and was 
 elected professor of sacred literature at 
 the opening of the seminary, but retained 
 the position only one year. A man of in¬ 
 defatigable industry and executive ability, 
 he was very influential as a leader and 
 counselor in many directions. He pub¬ 
 lished a Hebrew grammar and several 
 pamphlets. 
 
 Pearson, John, an eminent English bish¬ 
 op and scholar; b. at Snoring, Feb. 12, 
 1612; d. at Chester, July 16, 1686. A grad¬ 
 uate of Cambridge, he entered holy orders 
 in 1639, and after service in the parish of 
 Torrington was appointed, in 1650, preach¬ 
 er of St. Clement’s in London. In 1659 he 
 published his celebrated Exposition of the 
 Creed, which has been recognized as a 
 standard authority by men of every school 
 of thought. Pearson was interested in 
 other literary work that was of much in¬ 
 fluence in his day. He became rector of 
 St. Christopher’s, London, prebendary of 
 Ely, master of Jesus College, Cambridge 
 (1662), and bishop of Chester in 1672. 
 Burnet pronounced him “ in all respects the 
 greatest divine of his age.” 
 
 Peck, George, D. D.; b. in Middlefield, 
 N. Y., Aug. 8, 1797; d. at Scranton, Penn., 
 May 20, 1876. He joined the Genesee Con¬ 
 ference of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 in 1816. From 1824 he filled the office of 
 presiding elder for many years; principal 
 of Oneida Conference Seminary (1835-40); 
 editor of the Methodist Quarterly Review 
 (1840—48); editor of the Christian Advocate 
 
Pec 
 
 ( 720 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 and Journal (1848-52). From this time he 
 was engaged in active ministerial duties 
 until 1873. He was an effective and elo¬ 
 quent preacher and a wise counselor. 
 Among his published works are: Scripture 
 and Doctrine of Christian Perfection (N. Y., 
 1842); Wyoming: Its History, Stirring In¬ 
 cidents, and Romantic Adventures (1858); 
 Life and Times (autobiography, 1874). 
 
 Peck, John Mason, D. D., Baptist; b. 
 in Litchfield, Conn., Oct. 31, 1789; d. at 
 Rock Spring, Ill., March 14, 1857. He re¬ 
 moved to Greene Co., N. Y., in 1811, and 
 was licensed as a Baptist preacher in 1812. 
 He was sent as a missionary to Missouri in 
 1817, and from there went to Illinois. He 
 labored under the direction of the Baptist 
 Missionary Society and the American Bible 
 Society for a time. In 1827 he established 
 the Rock Spring Seminary (now Shurtleff 
 College) ; and in 1829 The Pio 7 ieer, the 
 first Baptist paper west of the Alleghanies. 
 He was one of the founders of the Amer¬ 
 ican Baptist Home Missionary Society and 
 of the Theological Seminary at Covington, 
 Ky. He wrote: The Emigrant's Guide; A 
 Gazetteer of Illinois; Life of Daniel Boone 
 in Spark’s American Biography; Life of 
 Father Clark, a Western preacher. See 
 Forty Years of Pioneer Life: Memoirs of 
 fohn Mason Peck, D. D., by R. Babcock 
 (Phila., 1864). 
 
 Peck, Jesse Truesdell, D. D., Metho¬ 
 dist Episcopal bishop ; b. in Middlefield, 
 N. Y., April 4, 1811; d. in Syracuse, May 
 17, 1883. He joined the Oneida Confer¬ 
 ence in 1832; was principal of the Gouver- 
 neur Wesleyan Seminary, 1837-41; princi¬ 
 pal of the Troy Conference Seminary at 
 Poultney, Vt., 1841-48; president of Dick¬ 
 inson College, Carlisle, 1848-52. From 
 this time he was engaged in ministerial 
 duties in Washington, New York, and San 
 Francisco, with the exception of a brief 
 period in which he held the office of secre¬ 
 tary and editor of the Methodist Tract So¬ 
 ciety. He was elected bishop in 1872 and 
 did efficient service. He wrote: The Cen¬ 
 tral Idea of Christianity (N. Y.); The True 
 Woman (N. Y., 1857); History of the Great 
 Republic (N. Y., 1868). 
 
 Pedobaptism, Pedobaptists. See Bap¬ 
 tism (Pedobaptist View). 
 
 Pelagianism. Towards the close of the 
 fourth century the heresy of Pelagianism 
 took its rise in the Church of Britain. 
 Pelagius (b. about 380; d. about 450)—the 
 classic form of his British name of Morgan 
 —was a priest of some learning, much of 
 whose later life was spent at Rome, until 
 
 that city was taken by Alaric and his Goths, 
 when he went to Carthage for a time, and 
 thence to Jerusalem. The substance of his 
 heresy was the denial of original sin. He 
 believed and taught that none but Adam 
 himself received any damage from his sin; 
 that we are born as holy as Adam was be¬ 
 fore his fall; and that we can live a holy 
 life by the mere power of our own deter¬ 
 mination to do so, without the aid of super¬ 
 natural grace from God. The great St. 
 Augustine (not the English missionary, 
 but the still greater bishop of Hippo, a 
 town in that part of Africa which is now 
 called Algeria) was the chief opponent of 
 this heresy, which seems only to have 
 reached Britain—though invented by a 
 native of the country—after it had been 
 known for some years in Palestine and 
 Africa. When it did arrive, the orthodox 
 party in the British Church applied to the 
 Church of France—not to the Church of 
 Rome—for some persons of learning and 
 discretion who might come across the 
 Channel and assist in combating the heresy. 
 Germanus and Lupus, bishops of Auxerre 
 and Troyes, were sent over for the pur¬ 
 pose; and a conference was held between 
 them and the Pelagians at St. Albans, in 
 the presence of a great multitude. St. 
 German, by his arguments in the confer¬ 
 ence and by the fervid eloquence of his 
 preaching, afterward brought the greater 
 part of his hearers back to the orthodox 
 side.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Pelagius. See above. 
 
 Pelagius, the name of two popes; (1) 
 (555 - 56o), b. in Rome, and d. there, March 
 3, 560. He was accused of heresy, and at 
 the request of Childebert furnished a con¬ 
 fession of faith as a proof of his orthodoxy; 
 (2) (578-590), b. in Rome; d. there in Jan., 
 590. He attempted to heal the schism 
 which the Three - Chapter Controversy 
 (y. v.) had caused in the Western Church, 
 but his overtures were declined. See Popes. 
 
 Penance. In the early Church those who 
 fell into sin after baptism were subject to 
 very severe discipline. Penitents were 
 divided into four classes: (1) the “ mourn¬ 
 ers ” ( flentes ), who prostrated themselves at 
 the church porch and begged the prayers 
 of the faithful; (2) when admitted to the 
 second class they were called “ hearers ” 
 (<audientes ), and were permitted to hear the 
 sermons and lessons. (3) At the third 
 stage they remained to join in the prayers 
 offered in their behalf, and to receive the 
 bishop’s blessing. They were then called 
 kneelers (genufedentes ). (4) They were 
 
 permitted to stand with those who en- 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 72i ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 joyed the privileges of membership, co- 
 standers ( consistentes ). After being released 
 from this stage they were permitted to par¬ 
 take of the Lord’s Supper. Leo the Great 
 (461-68) allowed penance to be made in pri¬ 
 vate. Near the close of the seventh cen¬ 
 tury the commutation and vicarious per¬ 
 formance of penance was permitted. This 
 introduced the system of “ indulgences.” 
 
 Penance is the fourth of the seven sacra¬ 
 ments of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Penitential Psalms, the name given 
 seven of the Psalms which mourn the guilt 
 of sin and seek the pardoning mercy of 
 God. They are the vi., xxxii., xxxviii., li., 
 cii., cxxx., cxliii. They are found in the 
 Roman breviary, and those who recite them 
 gain an indulgence of fifty days. They are 
 said in Roman Catholic Churches on Fri¬ 
 days in Lent. 
 
 Penn, William, “b. in London, Oct. 14, 
 1644; d. at Ruscombe, in Berkshire, July 
 30, 1718; an eminent member of the Society 
 of Friends, celebrated as the founder of 
 the colony of Pennsylvania. He was the 
 son of Sir William Penn, a British Admiral, 
 and was entered, when in his fifteenth year, 
 as a student of Christ Church, Oxford. 
 While there he embraced Quaker views, 
 and was ultimately expelled for contraven¬ 
 ing the discipline of his college; but, after 
 a tour in France and Italy, which was in¬ 
 tended by his father to change the bent of 
 his mind, he returned to England with 
 greatly modified views, and became a fa¬ 
 vorite at the court of Charles II. When in 
 his twenty-third year, however, he visited 
 Cork, and there fell in with the Quaker (a 
 disciple of George Fox) who had been the 
 means of his conversion at Oxford. This 
 led to the revival of his Quaker opinions, 
 in even greater strength than before, 
 and in 1668 he published a work called 
 Truth Exalted , and another called The 
 Sandy Foundation Shaken, in both of which 
 the new doctrine was expounded with much 
 force and vehemence. For the latter of 
 these works he was charged with sedition, 
 and was committed to the Tower, where, 
 during a confinement of eight months, he 
 wrote his No Cross, No Crown. In 1670 he 
 was again imprisoned, and once more in 
 1671, when he wrote his Great Case of Lib¬ 
 erty of Conscience. By this time his father 
 had died, and he had come into possession 
 of a considerable estate. He now devoted 
 himself wholly to preaching, and visited 
 France and Holland, in company with Fox 
 and Barclay, for the advancement of Quak¬ 
 erism; but in 1682, having obtained a grant 
 of land in America from the Crown, in ex¬ 
 change for certain unsatisfied claims of his 
 
 father, he set out for that continent, and 
 there founded a colony which he would 
 have called Sylvania (in allusion to the 
 great forests which covered it), but which 
 the king called, in the charter Pennsylvania, 
 and which now forms the State of Pennsyl¬ 
 vania. Two years later, after having set¬ 
 tled the constitution of the new colony, 
 and after having made his famous treaty of 
 amity and brotherhood with the Indian pos¬ 
 sessors of the soil, he returned to England; 
 and during the remainder of the reign of 
 Charles II., and during the brief reign of 
 James II., he was able to exert consider¬ 
 able influence in favor of the persecuted 
 members of his sect, many of whom had 
 suffered prolonged imprisonment. The in¬ 
 timacy of his relations with James II., 
 however, led him into difficulty after the 
 succession of William III.; and he had 
 other difficulties to contend with in connec- 
 
 a> 
 
 tion with certain extortionate claims which 
 were made upon him by the family of a 
 deceased agent in Pennsylvania, to rid him¬ 
 self from which he had to take refuge in 
 the Fleet Prison. But before this he had 
 once more visited Pennsylvania, and had 
 found it in a prosperous condition. He now 
 retired to his seat in Berkshire, and spent 
 there the remainder of his life, during the 
 last six years of which he was prostrated 
 by paralysis. He is buried in the Friends’ 
 Burial Ground, near Beaconfield, in Buck¬ 
 inghamshire. Several other works were 
 written by Penn besides those mentioned 
 above, notably a series of Reflections and 
 Maxims, and an Essay towards the Present 
 and Futiire Peace of Etirope, in which he 
 advocated the holding of a great European 
 congress to settle international differences 
 without an appeal to arms.”—Cassell: Cy- 
 clopcedia. See biography of Penn, by Dixon 
 (1851), and Stoughton (1882). 
 
 Penry, John, Congregational martyr; b. 
 at Cefnbrith, Brecknockshire, Wales, 1559; 
 hanged in London, May 29, 1593. He was 
 brought up a Roman Catholic, but while a 
 student at Cambridge became a Puritan. 
 He took his degree of M. A. at Oxford in 
 1586. Soon after receiving orders, his 
 heterodox views brought him in conflict 
 with the bishops. In 1587 he published a 
 strong plea for gospel-preaching in Wales, 
 and the following year had charge of the 
 Puritan press of Waldegrave. About this 
 time several of his tracts and the first 
 Martin Marprelate (q. v.) book appeared, 
 and Penry was compelled to seek refuge 
 in Scotland. Queen Elizabeth demanded 
 his return, but it was not until Sept., 
 1592, that he was sent back to London. 
 Suspected as the author of the Martin Mar- 
 prelate books, he was arrested and com- 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 722 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 mitted to the Poultry Prison, March 24, 
 1593. Two indictments for inciting insur¬ 
 rection and rebellion were founded on a 
 scrap in his diary, and he was most unjust¬ 
 ly condemned and hanged at St. Thomas-a- 
 Watering, Surrey, London. See Dexter: 
 Congregationalistn as seen in its Literature 
 (N. Y., 1880). 
 
 Pentateuch, The. The Pentateuch is a 
 part of the Old Testament which comprises 
 the first five books of our Bible. 
 
 I. Name and Contents. —The Pentateuch 
 is styled “ the book of the law of Moses ” 
 (Neh. viii. 1), “ the law ” (Neh. viii. 2 
 seq. ), “ the book of the law ” (viii. 3), “ the 
 book of the law of Jehovah ” (ix. 3), “ the 
 book of Moses ” (xiii. 1). In Talmudic lit¬ 
 erature it is called “ the Five Fifths of the 
 law.” The single books of the Pentateuch 
 are called, among the Jews, after the first 
 words: (1) Bereshith, i. e., “ In the begin¬ 
 ning ” (in the Greek, Genesis ); (2) Shemoth, 
 or ve-eleh shemoth , i. e. , “ These are the 
 names ” (in the Greek, Exodos)\ (3) Vay- 
 ikra , i. e.. “ And he called ” (Greek Leviti- 
 con)\ (4) Bamidbar , or vayedabber , i. e. , “ In 
 the wilderness,” or “And he spoke ” (in 
 the Greek, arithmoi , i. e., Numbers); (5) 
 debharitn, or eleh hadbharim , i. e. , “The 
 words,” or, “ These are the words ” (in the 
 Greek, D euteronomioti). The fourth book 
 is also called chomesh happikudi?n, i. e ., 
 “ The book of musterings.” 
 
 Contents. — The summary of the Penta¬ 
 teuch may be best characterized as: history 
 of the kingdom of God on earth, and in 
 Israel, from the creation to the death of 
 Moses, and the laws of God’s kingdom in 
 Israel. The individual sections are as fol¬ 
 lows: (1) Gen. i.-xi., the early history of 
 the world; (2) Gen. xii.-l., history of the 
 Patriarchs; (3) Ex. i.-xv. 21, oppression 
 and salvation of Israel; (4) Ex. xv. 22-xxiv. 
 11, march to Sinai, and the conclusion of 
 the covenant; (5) Ex. xxiv. 12-xxxiv., the 
 continuation of God’s ordinances being in¬ 
 terrupted by the apostasy of the people— 
 renewal of the covenant; (6) Ex. xxxv.- 
 Num. x. 10, regulations and ordinances at 
 Mount Sinai; (7) Num. x. 11-xxii. 1, the 
 journey from Sinai to Moab; (8) Num. 
 xxii. 2-xxxvi., events and legislation in 
 Moab; (9) Deut. i. 4-iv. 43, first discourse 
 of Moses; (10) Deut. iv. 44-xxvi., second 
 discourse; (11) Deut. xxvii.-xxx., third 
 discourse; (12) Deut. xxxi.-xxxiv., close 
 of the life and activity of Moses. 
 
 II. History of the Pentateuch Criticism .— 
 The synagogue, the ancient and mediaeval 
 Church, and even some modern scholars— 
 with the exclusion of the last eight verses 
 —regard Moses as the author of the Penta¬ 
 teuch. The Mosaic authorship was first 
 
 disputed by Cclsus the Gnostic, Ptole- 
 maeus, the pseudo-Clementine homilies 
 (ii. 40-52; iii. 43, 47). Isaac ben Jasus, of 
 the eleventh century, declared Gen. xxxvi. 
 31 seq. , as being written only in the time 
 of Jehoshaphat, for which he was taken to 
 task by Abraham ibn Ezra (d. 1167), who 
 regarded the Pentateuch, as a whole, as 
 the work of Moses. The next critic was 
 Andreas Bodenstein von Carlstadt, who 
 doubted the Mosaic authorship from a 
 stylistic point of view. Andreas Masius 
 (d. 1573) advanced the opinion that the 
 Pentateuch in its present form cannot be 
 by Moses, but was supplemented here and 
 there, and worked over by Ezra, or some 
 other man of God. Passing over Bonfrere, 
 Hobbes, Isaac Peyrere, Spinoza, Richard 
 Simon, etc., we come to Jean Astruc, a 
 French physician (d. 1766), who, in his 
 book entitled Conjectures sur les Me'?noires 
 Originaux, etc., pointed out the fact, by a 
 literary analysis, that in Genesis the names 
 of God, Elohi?n and Jehovah , are not em¬ 
 ployed indiscriminately, but usually alter¬ 
 nate with one another in what appear to be 
 alternate sections. Eichhorn in his Intro¬ 
 duction arrived at the same result, dis¬ 
 tinguishing between an Elohim document 
 and Jahveh document, and placing the col¬ 
 lection of the Pentateuch in the time be¬ 
 tween Joshua and Samuel. De Wette, in 
 a dissertation (1805), and in the first 
 volume of his contributions to an Intro¬ 
 duction to the Old Testament (1806), was 
 the first to call attention to the fact that 
 Deuteronomy essentially differs from the 
 preceding book; and it is now admitted 
 that the main part of Deuteronomy belongs 
 to a separate document. Ewald ( Theol . 
 Studien tend Kritihen , 1831, pp. 602-604) 
 pointed out that the differences of the Elo¬ 
 him and Jahveh documents were traceable 
 throughout the entire Pentateuch, and ex¬ 
 tended into Joshua. Ilgen ( Urhunden des 
 Jerusal. fempelarchivs, Halle, 179S), and 
 with more success, Hupfeld ( Quellen der 
 Genesis , Berlin, 1853), endeavored to trace 
 out the hand of a second Elohist. Till re¬ 
 cently the following results of criticism 
 were regarded as acceptable: first , that the 
 Hexateuch (Pentateuch and Joshua) had 
 for its basis four sources, viz.: (a) P, i. e., 
 the Priests' Code , the first Elohist, the 
 original document (Tuch), the Book of 
 Origins (Ewald), the annalistic narrator 
 (Schrader), A (Dillmann, H. Schultz).— (b) 
 E, the second Elohist, the younger Elohist, 
 the North Israelitish narrator, the third 
 narrator (Ewald), the prophetic narrator 
 (Schrader), B (Dillmann), C (H. Schultz).— 
 (c) /, the Jahvist, the supplementer (Tuch), 
 the fourth narrator (Ewald), the prophetic 
 narrator (Schrader), C (Dillmann), B (H. 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 723 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 Schultz). — ( d) the Deuteronomist, D. 
 Second, that several sections of the Penta¬ 
 teuch, although contained only in the 
 sources mentioned above, are older than 
 these sources (the decalogue, the book of 
 the covenant, Ex. xx. 22-xxiii. 19, the main 
 part of the song, Ex. xv., and other legal and 
 poetical pieces); third , that the Elohistic 
 writings are older than the Jahvistic^ and 
 fourth , that the three sources just named 
 were already worked over into one whole 
 before the Deuteronomist. There was and is 
 a difference of opinion,mainly as to the man¬ 
 ner of composing these sources for our 
 present Pentateuch (Hexateuch). (a) Most 
 critics suppose that one redactor united P, 
 E, J, and that D was added later. Schra¬ 
 der thinks that the Jahvist supplemented 
 P and E with his own material, and then 
 worked it together. (But almost the same 
 considerations are against his view as 
 against the now abandoned supplemental 
 hypothesis.) (b) According to some the 
 Deuteronomist incorporated his work in 
 P, E, J, (Schrader, comp, also Bleek); ac¬ 
 cording to most critics this insertion be¬ 
 longs to an especial redactor (Ewald, a. o.). 
 
 Against this view of the origin of the 
 Pentateuch, which almost seemed to have 
 become, or was to become, the ruling one, 
 stands boldly the view commonly called 
 after Graf and Wellhausen, more correctly 
 to be called after Ed. Reuss, Leop. George 
 and Wilh. Vatke, which for a time remain¬ 
 ed unheeded, but soon gained many fol¬ 
 lowers through Wellhausen’s ingenious as 
 well as brilliant mode of representation. 
 
 W. Vatke {Religion des Alten Test., 1835) 
 and, independent from him, J. F. L. George 
 (Die Aelteren Juedischen Teste , 1835), tried 
 to prove that the legislation of the middle 
 books of the Pentateuch is younger than 
 that of Deuteronomy, which belongs to 
 the time of Jonah. Hengstenberg ( Au¬ 
 thentic des Pentateuch , 2 vols., 1836, 1839), 
 Drechsler (Die Unwissenschaftlichkeitli, 
 1837), and F. H. Ranke ( Untersuchungen - 
 ueber der Pentateuch, Erlangen, 1840) wrote 
 against them without receiving a rejoinder, 
 and thus Vatke and George were soon for¬ 
 gotten. 
 
 But already, before Vatke and George, 
 since the year 1833, Edward Reuss, in 
 lectures and afterward in the art. “ Juda¬ 
 ism ” in Ersch and Gruber’s Cyclo. (1850), 
 had expressed the same views, which, 
 however, were little known till K. H. Graf, 
 a "former hearer of Reuss, published Die 
 Geschichtlichen Bucher des Alten Testaments 
 (Leipzig, 1866). He distinguished from 
 the “ original document the old historical 
 book of the Elohist,” which was first work¬ 
 ed over by the Jahvist, afterward by the 
 Deuteronomist, the middle - Pentateuch 
 
 legislation (Ex. xii. 1-28, 43-51; xxv-xxxi... 
 xxxv-xl.; Leviticus; Num. i. i-x. 28; xv.,. 
 xvi. and xvii; partly xviii., xix., xxviii.- 
 xxxi.; xxxv. 16-xxxvi.); and from studies 
 upon the feasts, priests and tabernacle, 
 he declared that this legislation bears 
 “ the plainest marks of its post exilic com¬ 
 position.” A few years later, in answer 
 to Riehm and Noldeke, he pronounced (in 
 Mer x' Archiv., i., 466-477) the so-called 
 original document post-exilic, forming not 
 the basis, but the latest part, by whose 
 insertion the redaction of the Pentateuch 
 was closed. Graf died in 1869, but his 
 thesis was taken up and further developed 
 by Aug. Kayser [das Vorexilische Buch, 
 1874) and Wellhausen (Geschichte Israels , 
 1874; Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels 
 1883, 3d ed., 1886, and in other works), 
 who, by his mode of handling the ques¬ 
 tion, gained the good-will of E. Kautzsch, 
 W. Robertson Smith, Stade, Smend,Giese- 
 brecht, Budde, and many others. After 
 him Reuss himself took up the question 
 again, and treated it fully in his French 
 Bible work (I’histoire sainte et la loi, vol. 
 i., 1879) and then in his Geschichte der heil- 
 igen Schriften Alten Testament (1881, 2d 
 ed., 1890). 
 
 The Fragmentary hypothesis , first pro¬ 
 mulgated by Peyrerius and Spinoza, and 
 further developed by Geddes, Vater and 
 Hartmann, has not many adherents at the 
 present time. 
 
 The identity of style and views in all 
 the Elohim section gave rise to the Stip- 
 plemental hypothesis , according to which 
 the Elohim (also called original) document, 
 beginning with Gen. i. 1, was supplement¬ 
 ed by the Jahvist (supplementer), by the 
 insertion of disconnected sections and re¬ 
 marks. Deuteronomy was incorporated 
 later (Staehelin, Bleek, Tuch, Knobel, 
 formerly, also, Delitzsch). This view 
 does no justice to the Jahvistic portions. It 
 is now generally abandoned: Schrader, 
 only, clings to it yet. All views defended 
 at present by the representatives of crit¬ 
 icism may be designated as modifications 
 of the Documentary hypothesis. 
 
 III. The right of the Pentateuch criticism. 
 —Aside from all real or seeming contra¬ 
 dictions, double narratives, anachronisms, 
 impossibilities, etc., there are two reasons 
 for criticism: First, the Pentateuch no¬ 
 where claims to have been composed by 
 Moses himself; for Ex. xvii. 14; xxiv. 4, 
 7; xxxiv. 27; Num. xxxiii. 2 refer only to 
 some important events, and the book of 
 the covenant, the passages in Deut. xxxi. 
 9-11, 22, 24-26 only to Deuteronomy—at 
 least to chaps, xii.-xxvi.; that Moses, if 
 he wrote at all, wrote also of other things 
 than of these few events and laws, is cer- 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 724 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 tainly probable in itself. Secondly, the 
 literary analysis has proved with undoubt¬ 
 ed certainty that not only Genesis, but the 
 first four books of the Pentateuch are 
 composed of (three [two])great documents 
 (2 [1] Elohist. 1 Jahv.); that to these is 
 added the Deuteronomic in the fifth book, 
 and that these sources are plainly distin¬ 
 guishable, also, in the book of Joshua, 
 i. e., after the narrative of Moses’ death. 
 
 IV. Present Problems. —The problems 
 are, at present: («) the number; ( b) the 
 order; ( c ) the absolute age of the single 
 documents, (a) Not taking into account 
 the older pieces which the redactor found 
 only as parts of his matter, there is an 
 agreement in the supposition of an Elo- 
 histic (P) writing, commencing with “ In 
 the beginning Elohim created;” of a Jah- 
 vistic, beginning Gen. ii. 4, and the Deu¬ 
 teronomic: it is also agreed upon that Elo- 
 histic pieces (E), distinguishable from P, 
 stand in the closest relation to the Jahvist. 
 It is debatable, however, whether E is old¬ 
 er than y(most critics affirm this, with the 
 exception of Wellhausen and Schultz, who 
 regard J older than E)\ whether E was 
 perused by J( so the most, e. g. , Dillmann; 
 on the other hand, besides, Hupfeld, Well¬ 
 hausen and Reuss regard the connection by 
 a third as more probable); whether E was 
 before the same redactor who united P 
 with J (Hupfeld, Dillmann), or is extant 
 only as far as J copied him (Noldeke, 
 Graf). The relation between E and J 
 must be made more clear than has hitherto 
 been done before a view concerning the 
 origin of the Hexateuch can be given with 
 any probability. Another question which 
 belongs here is that as to the nature of P. 
 According to Wellhausen ( Gesch . i., 8, 
 420; Proleg. 429 seq,)a.. o. is the remaining 
 part of the Hexateuch after the separation 
 of J (-f- E) and D, not a unitary work, but a 
 conglomerate, the result of a learned 
 priestly activity, lasting over a century. 
 An original nucleus (called Q by Well¬ 
 hausen) was increased, “aside from the 
 insertion of older pieces, especially Lev. 
 xvii.-xxvi., by a multitude of secondary 
 and tertiary after-growths which, formally, 
 do not belong to it, but materially are en¬ 
 tirely homogeneous .... so that the 
 whole may be regarded, though not as a 
 literary, still, however, as an historical 
 unity.” Dillmann now approaches this 
 view, who supposes yet a fifth document 
 ( S , i. e., Sinai-laws), which was used by 
 P, as well as later collectors. 
 
 (b) It is agreed that D is younger than J; 
 even P. Kleinert (1872), who puts Deuter¬ 
 onomy in an earlier time (that of Samuel) 
 than all other critics. Disputable, how¬ 
 ever, is the position of P (the formerly 
 
 so-called original document). Hupfeld, 
 Ewald, Knobel, Schrader and Riehm re¬ 
 gard P as the oldest document of the 
 Pentateuch; Dillmann regards it as old. 
 It is looked upon as the youngest part by 
 Graf, Kuenen, Wellhausen, Reuss and 
 Smend, who insert Lev. xvii.-xxvi. after 
 D. Since these scholars make Lev. xvii.- 
 xxvif dependent upon Ezekiel (Graf and 
 Kayser think this part also composed by 
 Ezekiel), the correctness of this assertion 
 must first be thoroughly examined. But 
 Noldeke (Zur Kritik , p. 67-71), Aug. Klos- 
 termann (Zeitschrift fuer Luth. Theologie , 
 1877, pp. 404-445), D. Hoffmann ( Magazin 
 fuer die Wissensch des Judenthums , 1879, PP* 
 210-215), Dillmann (Commentar zu Levit .), 
 Bredenkamp (Gesetz und Propheten , p. 116 
 seq ., 129-134) have conclusively shown that 
 Ezekiel is dependent upon Leviticus. The 
 order of the documents can only be settled 
 after a greater harmony has been brought 
 about concerning the original contents 
 of P. 
 
 (e) As to the absolute age of the individ¬ 
 ual sources, it will be seen from the fol¬ 
 lowing how scholars differ: 
 
 (1) Th. Noldeke: P, E, J belong to the 
 10th or 9th century b. c. ; E preserved 
 only in the work made by J; P cannot 
 be the oldest — may also be not much 
 younger than the other two; D was writ¬ 
 ten shortly before the reformation by Jo- 
 siah, and incorporated by a later writer in 
 the Hexateuch. Ezekiel is surely depend¬ 
 ent upon P. 
 
 (2) Eb. Schrader: P, beginning of David’s 
 reign, is traceable to Josh. xxiv. 33; E , 
 soon after the division of the kingdom, be¬ 
 tween 975 and 950, traceable to 1 Kings ix. 
 28; J supplemented his predecessors, and 
 worked them together under Jeroboam II., 
 between 825 and 800; the Deuteronomist, 
 who inserted his own book of the law 
 (composed shortly before Josiah’s reform), 
 continued the history to the destruction of 
 Jerusalem (2 Kings xxv. 21), making use 
 of other sources for the later time. The 
 separation of the Pentateuch, in its present 
 form, from the other books was made after 
 the close of the Babylonish exile. 
 
 (3) A. Dillmann (Commentar zu Numeri- 
 Josua , 18S6) thinks that the Hexateuch 
 consists of five writings— E, P, J, D and 
 S. E (B), the Israelitish book of history 
 and tradition, originally used the name 
 “Elohim” (“Jahveh” being introduced 
 only by later hands); what is extant com¬ 
 mences with Gen. xx.; the author, who be¬ 
 longed to the kingdom of Israel, wrote in 
 the first half of the 9th century b. c. J ( C ), 
 Judaic writing; remains of J surely yet in 
 Judg. i.; A 1 is especially made use of, yet 
 partly worked over, hardly before the 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 725 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 middle of the 8th century. D , written not 
 long before the 18th year of Josiah. Sources 
 for the historical: E and J for the legal, 
 especially the book of the covenant, but 
 also other laws (esp. S), which are now 
 extant in connection with P. What is left 
 after the separation of E, J, D is a group 
 of writings of a complicated composition. 
 The historical frame, with the traceably 
 legal pieces appertaining to it, forms the 
 nucleus of the Priests' Code , called Q. Q 
 knows and peruses the law-collection S, 
 and presupposes, besides, the substance of 
 other older laws: for the historical matter 
 E has been made use of—time “ + 800 b. 
 C.” S, i. e., Sinai-laws (Lev. xxv. 1; xxvi. 
 46 so styled), coming out especially in Lev. 
 xvii.-xxvi.; the main point of view the de¬ 
 mand for holiness (hence also called “ the 
 law of holiness”). Many injunctions con¬ 
 tained in S are regarded by D as old-Mo- 
 saic. But not all pieces are alike old; a 
 collection S was already perused by Q; 
 many things belong to a later time, espe¬ 
 cially a part of Lev. xxvi. to the exilic pe¬ 
 riod. Q, E, J were worked together at one 
 time, about 600 b. c., not much later: 
 probably during the exile D was combin¬ 
 ed with this work, whereby D remained 
 the authoritative book. Afterward, but 
 still in the exile, i. e., before Ezra’s ret’urn, 
 S and other current priestly laws were in¬ 
 serted in the middle pieces of the large 
 collectaneum: on this occasion Joshua was 
 separated. Ezra obtained in the year 444 
 public acknowledgment for the Pentateuch. 
 The succeeding scribes added nothing, but 
 corrected and changed the text, as the old¬ 
 er readings, still preserved in the Samaritan 
 Pentateuch and Septuagint prove. 
 
 (4) Franz Delitzsch has considerably mod¬ 
 ified his former views ( Genesis , 1872). He 
 gives as the order now :J;D, post-Solomon- 
 ic, but pre-Isaianic; law of holiness; P, pre- 
 exilic ( Zeitschrift fur Kirchl. Wissensch. 
 1880, pp. 338 seq., 346 seq., 445, 509, 564, 
 622). The contents of P are not of like 
 age with the “ codification and final redac¬ 
 tion,” and “ the contents of D is not at all 
 of the same age with the emanation in the 
 present form ( 1 . e. 1882, p. 295). In his 
 new commentary on Genesis (1887) these 
 dates are, inded, not retracted, but also 
 not repeated. The oldest portions of the 
 Pentateuch are, besides the songs (Num. 
 xxi.; Deut. xxxii.; xxxiii. pp. 28-30), the 
 decalogue and the book of the covenant. 
 From the “ Jehovistic-Deuteronomic nat¬ 
 ure ” of these legal pieces it follows “ that 
 when, of the two characteristically distin¬ 
 guished Pentateuchal modes of represent¬ 
 ing, one goes back to a Mosaic original 
 type ( Urtypus ); this can only be the Jeho¬ 
 vistic-Deuteronomic, and not the Elohist” 
 
 (p. 20). “ The author, whose record of 
 
 creation begins the Pentateuch {P) is, “ in 
 relation to the narrator of the history of 
 Paradise (J), not the older but the youn¬ 
 ger” (p. 9). Yet “the prehistories of Israel, 
 from the creation to the history of Joseph 
 (in P), were already written down in old 
 preexilic time;” even “ the legislative-his¬ 
 torical ” in P is “ not . . . freely devised, 
 but taken from tradition;” and the ground 
 features “ of the legislation, codified by 
 the Elohistic pen ( P ),” were already known 
 to the Deuteronomist (p. 26 seq.). The 
 Elohist by eminence (this now mystifying 
 designation Delitzsch unfortunately uses 
 often for the Priests' Code) is not a unitary 
 work; but an older groundwork (Q), “was 
 enlarged by degrees, ... at any event 
 within the priesthood called to propagate 
 the law. . . . To the law-collections in P 
 belongs the law of holiness.” E begins 
 with Genesis, “ chap. xx., if not sooner.” 
 “ The writings of J and E, before Deuter¬ 
 onomy received its present form, seem to 
 have been melted together to one whole.” 
 The “ interfering hand ” of the second 
 Deuteronomist “is to be perceived 
 throughout the entire Pentateuch, except¬ 
 ing the purely legislative parts of P" (p. 
 18). “ The legally historical and literary 
 
 process, from which the Pentateuch ema¬ 
 nated in its present form, continued itself 
 to the post-exilic time ” (p. 17; comp. p. 9; 
 pause 2). Ezra probably only read P in 
 the year 444 (p. 13, note 2; p. 34, line 21 
 seq.). “ The texts of the Samaritan and 
 Greek Pentateuch show that the form of 
 text was variously vacillating at the time 
 of the origin of these versions ” (p. 34). 
 
 (5) H. Schultz: J, Solomon’s time; E , 
 from the last time of the Mosaic period 
 (which Schrader allows to reach to 800); 
 D, at the latest in the time of Manasseh; 
 P, at the earliest the production of the 
 Babylonian epoch of the prophetical time 
 (see Alttestamentliche Theologie , 2d ed., pp. 
 84, 87, 88, 91). 
 
 (6) J. Wellhausen: J belongs to the gold¬ 
 en period of Hebrew literature, just pre¬ 
 ceding the dissolution of the two kingdoms 
 ( Gesch . i. 9; Proleg. 9); E, younger, and 
 only afterward combined with J (Gesch . i. 
 370); D (chaps, xii.-xxvi.), composed in the 
 period when it was discovered (Gesch. i. 
 9; Prol. 9). The main part of Lev. xvii.- 
 xxvi. written in the exile, after Ezekiel, 
 but not remote from him; P , not the work 
 of one author, but the result of a work 
 of many years in and after the exile, is 
 incorporated with Lev. xvii.-xxvi. in the 
 Pentateuch by Ezra, published and intro¬ 
 duced in the year 444 (Gesch. i. 421, 425; 
 Proleg. 430, 434). 
 
 Similarly (7) B. Stade (Geschichte des 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 726 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 Volkes Israel , i. pp. 58-64); J , 850-800; E , 
 about 750; worked together at the end of 
 the seventh century; D, in the beginning 
 of the exile inserted with other portions in 
 /, £; P , in the exile; connection with J , 
 E, D 1 ‘ toward the end of the exile, or 
 shortly after it (p. 63), in the time of Ezra” 
 (p. 64). 
 
 (8) K. H. Graf (Geschichte , comp, with 
 Archiv.): J , middle of the eighth century, 
 or at the time of Ahaz; D, shortly before 
 Josiah’s reform; second Deuteronomist in 
 the first half of the exile; P, post-exilian, 
 introduced by Ezra; connected with J , D 
 soon after Ezra. 
 
 (9) A. Kayser ( Vorex. Bitch; Jahrbb. fuer 
 Protest. Theol ., 1881): E and J, in the ninth 
 or beginning of the eighth century; E , 
 older, and perused by J; worked together 
 later, probably; D (iv. 44-xxvi; xxvii. 
 partly, xxviii), last third of the seventh 
 century; the Ezekielian law-books (espe¬ 
 cially in Lev. xvii.-xxvi.) by Ezekiel; Q 
 (nucleus of P), after the return from the 
 exile, introduced by Ezra; after him, con¬ 
 nection of the Ezekielian pieces with Q; 
 still later A’was inserted in the Hexateuch; 
 our present Pentateuch ready when the 
 books of Chronicles were composed. 
 
 (10) Ed. Reuss (L' histoire salute et la 
 loi , and Geschichte ): book of the covenant 
 at the time of Jehoshaphat; J , second half 
 of the ninth century; F, “ perhaps still 
 older,” but later so worked together with 
 J that “the separation is almost impos¬ 
 sible” ; D, shortly before the eighteenth 
 year of Josiah, “ purporting to be a discov¬ 
 ery of the priests; connection with J , E 
 between the first deportation and the down¬ 
 fall of the kingdom ( Gesch . p. 312); main 
 part of Lev. xvii.-xxvi. post-Ezekielian, 
 but before Ezra. The codex promulgated 
 by Ezra contained in its framework (‘ a 
 gross fiction .... dreams of an im¬ 
 poverished generation’) mainly ‘a collec¬ 
 tion of laws of different origin.’ It was 
 worked together with J, E, D and a great 
 many special ordinances in the time be¬ 
 tween Nehemiah and Alexander. The 
 prophets are older than the law, and the 
 Psalms later than both.” 
 
 Till recently C. F. Keil {Introduction and 
 Commentary; d. May 5, 1888) was the only 
 prominent German Old Testament student 
 who still adhered to the Mosaic authorship 
 of the whole Pentateuch. Laying aside 
 this view, the main differences are those 
 which concern the Priests' Code. Have we, 
 in it, good and old traditions of an histor¬ 
 ical, as v eil as legal nature, or is it the 
 product of a late tendencious fiction ? Is 
 Moses respectively in the oldest or pre- 
 prophetical time, the creator of the law 
 credited to him, or does the same come 
 
 from a school of priests in the century fol¬ 
 lowing Ezekiel, finally from Ezra? Is it 
 pre-exilic, or post-exilic? 
 
 Whatever the merits are of those who 
 regard P as pre-exilic, and whose views 
 need more modification and a better asser¬ 
 tion, yet we think that the view making 
 the Priests' Code a post-exilic product is 
 surrounded t)y insuperable difficulties, as 
 a few points will prove: 
 
 (1) As to the linguistic part, it must not 
 be forgotten that, through vocalization, 
 different orthography, and slight gram¬ 
 matical and stylistic changes many archa¬ 
 isms, without altering the contents, could 
 easily be removed—not a few were entirely 
 removed. From this it follows that the 
 want, or scarce occurrence, of archaisms 
 is, in itself, no proof of later composition; 
 and the careful disquisition of V. Ryssel, 
 De Elohistce (=P) Pentateuchici Sermone 
 (Leipzig, 1878), is unfavorable to a post- 
 exilic composition of P. Giesebrecht’s ef¬ 
 fort (Zeitschrift fuer Alttestt. IVissenschaft, 
 i. 177 seq.) to prove the contrary has found 
 a rejoinder in Driver’s On some Alleged 
 Affinities of the Elohist (in fournal of Phi¬ 
 lology , 1882, xi. 201-236). 
 
 (2) How much respect has been paid in 
 preexilic writings to P requires fuller in¬ 
 vestigation. Not everything that is gen¬ 
 erally quoted is valid, though many a pas¬ 
 sage must be regarded as conclusive. 
 Comp. Marti: Die Spuren der sogenannten 
 Grundschrift (in fahrbb. fuer Prot. Theolog ., 
 1880), vi. 127-161; 308-354, esp. 325 seq. 
 
 (3) The relation existing between Ezekiel 
 and the law of holiness must be reverted to. 
 
 (4) The testimony of the Samaritan 
 Pentateuch remains important, in spite of 
 Kayser’s opposition ( Jahrbb. fuer Prot. 
 Theol., 1881, pp. 561-563). 
 
 (5 ) P contains a series of laws which 
 were useless after the exile, or could not 
 be carried out. Of what avail were the in¬ 
 junctions concerning the Urim and Thum- 
 mim (Ex. xxviii. 30; Num. xxvii. 21; comp. 
 Ezra ii. 63; Nell. vii. 65)? That the de¬ 
 tailed instructions concerning the taber¬ 
 nacle are mainly a fiction of exilic or post- 
 exilic time is highly improbable — yea, 
 almost inconceivable. 
 
 (6) From the non-observance of laws 
 does not follow their non-existence. Ex¬ 
 amples: Jer. xvi. 16 compared with Deut. 
 xiv. 1 (and Lev. xix. 28); image-worship 
 in Israel, in spite of the very ancient pro¬ 
 hibition (comp Bredenkamp: Gesetz und 
 Propheten , 51-54). The laws in P may 
 have long existed, especially among the 
 priests, before they received an official, 
 general acknowledgment. 
 
 (7) It is incredible that the people of 
 Israel which came out of Egypt, the land of 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 727 ) 
 
 Pen 
 
 an old and extensive literature, should not 
 have received, soon after the exodus, 
 priestly laws, but should have remained a 
 millennium without written priestly law. 
 It is to be assumed that the priest Moses 
 (Ex. xxiv. 6 seq; Deut. xxxiii. 10; Psa. 
 xcix. 6) established a ritual. 
 
 (8) The Old Testament writings, in order 
 to agree with the Graf-Wellhausen con¬ 
 struction of history, both from a critical 
 and an exegetical point of view, are 
 violently treated. Exegetically: Ex. xx. 
 24, 25 (acc. to Wellhausen: Gesch. i. 30; 
 Proleg. 30) “sanctions” sacrifices at any 
 locality. From 1 Sam. ii. 27 seq. he infers 
 (i. 129, 142, 148=130 seq., 143, 149) that 
 Zadok was the “ first of an absolutely new 
 line. ” The difference between the prophets 
 and P, to be explained only from the di¬ 
 versity of purpose, has been made an in¬ 
 dissoluble contradiction (see Marti 1 . e., 
 308-323; Bredenkamp, 83-90, 108-112). 
 Neh. viii.-x. is to bear witness that P was 
 only first made known and solemnly intro¬ 
 duced after the exile by Ezra and Nehe- 
 fniah. But this does not stand in the alleged 
 chapters, comp. e. g., D. Hoffmann: Maga- 
 zin fiir die JViss. d. Judth., 1879, vi. 4 ~ 7 * 
 Critically: Through numerous revisions 
 and retouches ever new ideas from later 
 times were inserted in the prophetical-his¬ 
 torical books; especially in the historical 
 viewing of the books of Kings, an histori¬ 
 cally untruthful pious pragmatism. The 
 book of Job is later than Jeremiah; the 
 Psalms are almost all post-exilic, many be¬ 
 longing to the time of the Maccabees. 
 
 (9) Deuteronomy becomes a tendency- 
 work of the priests in Jerusalem, compos¬ 
 ed shortly before Josiah’s reform. But, 
 according to the new construction of Israel- 
 itish history, the very claim, xviii. 6-8, must 
 have been most unwelcome to these priests. 
 The account, 2 Kings xxii. 8 seq. , shows 
 that the book of the law, when the manu¬ 
 script was found in the temple, was already 
 of an incontestable authority. Many in¬ 
 junctions contained in Deuteronomy were 
 already long purposeless at the time of 
 Josiah (xx. 10-20; xxv. 17-19); different 
 views concerning Egypt, Moab and Am¬ 
 mon were then held than in Deuteronomy. 
 
 The future results of continued efforts 
 in the Pentateuch criticism cannot be fore¬ 
 seen, as to details. We are persuaded, 
 however, that the Graf-Wellhausen theory 
 will not have a lasting influence upon the 
 existing conception of Israel’s history, and 
 especially of Moses’ activity. On the other 
 hand, the result will remain that the Penta¬ 
 teuch was not composed by Moses himself, 
 but was united by later redactors from 
 many documentary writings. Of this re¬ 
 sult no believing Christian need be afraid, 
 
 as, in general, of no result of true science. 
 It is now generally admitted that, besides 
 the divine factor, very essentially also, hu¬ 
 man factors cooperated in the divine writ¬ 
 ings. The very majority of sources can 
 be made use of in favor of the credibility 
 of the Pentateuch. 
 
 [The above is taken from Strack’s Intro¬ 
 duction to the Old Testa?nent (3d ed., Nord- 
 lingen,1888), which was prepared later than 
 his art. on the Pentateuch in Herzog’s 
 Real Ency., 2d ed., but which must not be 
 passed over by those interested in the 
 question. The literature on the Penta¬ 
 teuch is given in a very complete manner 
 by Bissell: The Pentateuch: Its Origin and 
 Structure (N. Y., 1888), pp. 410-475, who 
 maintains that the traditional view of the 
 origin and structure of the Pentateuch is 
 much better supported than the one now 
 most widely current in Germany. Stu¬ 
 dents will also do well to study the papers 
 published on the Pentateuchal question by 
 Harper and Green in Hebraica , Oct., 1888, 
 and seq.] B. Pick. 
 
 Pentateuch, The. The Case in Favor of 
 its Antiquity and Genuineness. —“ (1) It is 
 remarkable that it should be left for very 
 recent critics to discover so great a secret 
 as that of the late origin of the Pentateuch 
 in opposition to the opinions of all past 
 ages. (2) It is difficult to acquit the au¬ 
 thors of the Pentateuch of a charge of 
 fraud, on any known principles of literary 
 morality, if the book was composed as al¬ 
 leged by the disintegrating critics. The 
 authority of Moses is distinctly claimed for 
 the law. (3) There has been no consensus 
 of opinion among the critics. Till lately 
 they have been divided among themselves. 
 Theories of the successive order of the va¬ 
 rious parts of the book have been violently 
 reversed. First, the Elohistic part was 
 said to be the earliest; now, it is said to be 
 the latest. Wellhausen’s theory holds the 
 field for the present only by having ousted 
 rival theories. (4) Except in the case of 
 the Book of Deuteronomy, the separate 
 parts of the Pentateuch are not kept dis¬ 
 tinct. They are mixed up in closely asso¬ 
 ciated sections. We pass to and fro in the 
 same book between the Jehovistic narrative 
 and the priestly code. In analyzing the 
 books on the new theory, they have to be 
 cut up into numerous fragments, and these 
 fragments sorted out by the aid of a refined 
 critical faculty. (5) The theory is contra¬ 
 dicted by statements in the character of the 
 supposed later writings appearing in the 
 middle of what is unquestionably of the 
 earlier date. This difficulty is met by the 
 assertion that the statements have been in¬ 
 serted by a later hand. And yet it is on 
 
Pen 
 
 ( 728 ) 
 
 Per 
 
 the very ground of the absence of such 
 statements in the early writing that the 
 other writings with which they agree are 
 said to be later. Is not this reasoning in a 
 circle ? (6) Nations do not always progress, 
 and development is not unbroken. It may 
 well be that a law which a people could not 
 yet live up to should lie in abeyance and 
 be ignored by the nation. As much as this 
 was implied by Josiah’s reformation, when 
 he discovered the book of the law and set 
 to work to bring the national worship into 
 harmony with it. It may be taken as 
 proved by the critics that the Levitical sys¬ 
 tem was neglected during the history of the 
 Judges and the Kings. We need not be 
 surprised at this when we think of the dark 
 ages through which Israel passed. It may 
 be admitted, further, that while the people 
 were not yet ready to appreciate the law, 
 and, indeed, were wholly ignorant of its ex¬ 
 istence, inspired prophets, such as Samuel 
 and Elijah, themselves perhaps not know¬ 
 ing the law, would be permitted by God to 
 lead the people according to the measure of 
 their light. Moreover, the moral and spir¬ 
 itual standpoint of the prophets of Isaiah’s 
 age is in advance of that of the law. (7) 
 The disintegrating critics are not strong in 
 showing the changes of language to be in 
 harmony with their theory. (8) Archaeol¬ 
 ogy supports the historical genuineness of 
 the Pentateuch. The late discoveries of 
 the Egyptian Exploration Society, and all 
 that has been deciphered from monuments 
 throwing any light on the subject, tend to 
 establish the authenticity of the history. 
 The route of the exodus is confirmed by 
 Professor Palmer and M. Naville. Such 
 an able Egyptologist as Mr. Reginald Stew¬ 
 art Poole declares that the most recent dis¬ 
 coveries and interpretation of hieroglyphics 
 distinctly favor the antiquity of the Penta¬ 
 teuch. Egyptian names are given more 
 correctly in the Pentateuch than in the later 
 histories, and the details are true to Egyp¬ 
 tian life. (9) The archaic flavor of the 
 earlier part of the Pentateuch can be appre¬ 
 ciated by the ordinary reader. It is diffi¬ 
 cult to think that those naive writings that 
 seem to hover on the horizon of history, 
 and speak to us out of the childhood of the 
 race, are literary compositions of the latest 
 ages of Hebrew literature. 
 
 “ On the whole it may well be conceded 
 that the Pentateuch has undergone editing 
 from an inspired Ezra, and that it has borne 
 the marks of the hand of scribes later than 
 its author. But the truth of the glorious 
 history which it records stands unshaken.” 
 —Bagster: Bible Helps. See the defense of 
 the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch; 
 Keil: Introduction to the Old Testament 
 (Eng. trans. 1869), 2 vols.; W. H. Green: 
 
 Moses and the Prophets (1882); Bissell; The 
 Pentateuch: Its Origin and Structure (1885). 
 In favor of the Graf-Wellhausen theory: 
 Kuenen: Religion of Israel (Eng. trans.) 3 
 vols.; Wellhausen, art. “ Israel ” in Ency. 
 Britannicaj W. R. Smith: The A T ew Testa- 
 ment in the Jewish Church (1881). 
 
 Pentecost, (1) The Jewish. —“ This fes¬ 
 tival was the second of the great Jewish 
 feasts, and was so called as being held on 
 the ‘fiftieth’ day after the second day of 
 the Passover. It was called also ‘ the feast 
 of the harvest, the first-fruits of labor’ 
 (Ex. xxiii. 16), ‘ the feast of weeks ’(Num. 
 xxviii. 26), and ‘the day of first-fruits.’ 
 The fifty days, of which it was the last, 
 represented the period of the grain-harvest 
 —the sheaf of the Passover denoting the 
 commencement, and the offering of two 
 loaves at the Pentecost denoting the ter¬ 
 mination. These loaves were to be of native 
 wheat, and leavened; and the offering of 
 them constituted the distinguishing rite of 
 the feast, which was accompanied, more¬ 
 over, with sacrifices peculiar to itself. (Lev. 
 xxiii.) It was of a more freely festive 
 character, and of more general celebration 
 than the Passover, although in observing 
 it the people were likewise reminded of 
 their deliverance from Egypt, and their 
 obligation to keep the law of their Deliv¬ 
 erer. It is regarded by the Jews as com¬ 
 memorative of the giving of the Law on 
 Mount Sinai, and it is said to have been 
 the custom among them at one time to 
 spend the eve of the festival in thangsgiv- 
 ing to Jehovah for this gift.”—Bagster: 
 Bible Helps. 
 
 (2) The Christian. —Among ancient Chris¬ 
 tian writers the term signifies sometimes 
 the whole time between the Easter and the 
 Whitsun Festivals, and sometimes the lat¬ 
 ter festival alone. The whole period of 
 fifty days, being kept in honor and memory 
 of the Saviour’s Resurrection, was a time 
 of more than ordinary joy, and it was a 
 custom of very general observance to 
 worship standing, instead of kneeling, dur¬ 
 ing the whole of this space, to mark its 
 joyful character. At a later period the 
 Fast of the Rogation Days was introduced, 
 modifying the ancient custom in the Church 
 of excluding fasting from this season. 
 
 Perfectionists, those who believe that it 
 is possible to attain to actual perfection in 
 this life. There are four classes of Per¬ 
 fectionists: (1) The Roman Catholics, who 
 teach that a man may, by obedience, be¬ 
 come free from all mortal sin, though still 
 subject to fall into venial sin; and even 
 this tendency may be done away through 
 the special favor of God. (2) The Wesleyan 
 
Per 
 
 ( 729 ) 
 
 Per 
 
 Arminians, who teach Christian perfection, 
 namely, the fulfilment of the Law bv faith 
 and love, through the grace of God, though 
 the infirmity of the body prevents it from 
 being absolute in the eyes of men. (3) 
 Many Quakers, who say that in souls justi¬ 
 fied by God “ the body of death and sin 
 comes to be crucified and removed, and 
 their hearts united and subjected unto the 
 truth, so as not to obey any suggestion or 
 temptation of the Evil One, but to be free 
 from actual sinning and transgressing of 
 the law of God, and in that respect per¬ 
 fect.” Yet this theory does not preclude 
 the possibility of attaining to a higher de¬ 
 gree of perfection, nor of falling away from 
 a state of grace. (4) The Oberlin school 
 of theology, who say that perfection is to 
 be reached by a life of implicit obedience, 
 which effectually prevents the possibility 
 of sin, since virtue and sin cannot exist in 
 the same soul at the same time. The Cal¬ 
 vinists and Lutherans absolutely reject the 
 theory of Perfectionism.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. The Wesleyan-Arminian view 
 is given by Wesley: Plain Account of Chris¬ 
 tian Perfection] Fletcher: Christian Perfec¬ 
 tion. For the Calvinistic view see Hodge: 
 Systematic Theology , iii., p. 245. 
 
 Per'gamos, the seat of one of the seven 
 churches of Asia. (Rev. i. 11; ii. 12-17.) 
 It was a celebrated city of Mysia, about 
 three miles north of the river Caicus, and 
 some twenty miles from the sea. It was 
 noted for its great wealth, and an immense 
 library of 200.000 volumes, which was 
 presented to Cleopatra by Antony, who re¬ 
 moved it to Egypt, when it was destroyed 
 with the Alexandrine Library, by Caliph 
 Omar. The city is now called Bergama, 
 and has a population of from 20,000 to 30,- 
 000, of which about 2,000 are Christians. 
 Many ruins of churches and temples attest 
 its former magnificence. 
 
 Pericopes, portions of the New Testa¬ 
 ment to be read in the ancient Christian 
 Church on Sunday and festivals. Some 
 say that the selection was made as early as 
 apostolic times, while others fix the time 
 as the fourth century, and some as late as 
 the eighth century. The custom corre¬ 
 sponds with the Jewish Parashas and Haph- 
 tarahs. The Parashas were fifty-four sec¬ 
 tions, into which the Law was divided, so 
 that the whole of it should be read during 
 the year. The Haphtarahs were fifty-four 
 sections chosen from the Prophets, and 
 read in like manner. This is still contin¬ 
 ued among the modern Jews, but the por¬ 
 tions of the Prophets now read generally 
 omit the prophecies regarding the Messiah. 
 
 The method of selection of the lessons 
 
 in Episcopal Churches is given in the Pray¬ 
 er-Book. 
 
 In the Roman missal each mass has two 
 Scripture lessons, which are mostly taken 
 from the Vulgate Version. 
 
 The Greek Church has special Epistles 
 and Gospels for every week-day, as well 
 as every Sunday and Salt’s Day. 
 
 In the Armenian Church, Scripture read¬ 
 ing takes a very important place; from 
 Easter to Pentecost they have three ser¬ 
 vices a day, and portions from the Old and 
 New Testaments specially selected for each 
 service.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Perkins, Justin, an eminent American 
 missionary in Persia; b. at West Spring- 
 field, Mass., March 12, 1805; d. at Chico¬ 
 pee, Mass., Dec. 13, 1869. He was grad¬ 
 uated at Amherst in 1829, and after study¬ 
 ing theology at Andover Seminary, he was 
 sent, in 1833, by the American Board, to 
 the Nestorians in Persia. For thirty-six 
 years he had charge of the mission at 
 Oroomiah. He translated the Bible and 
 other books into the Nestorian dialect. In 
 1842 he returned to the United States, and 
 made a tour, accompanied by Mar Yohan- 
 nan, a convert and former Nestorian bishop, 
 whose presence and addresses awakened a 
 deep interest. Dr. Perkins returned to 
 Persia, and labored with marked success 
 almost to the time of his death. He wrote: 
 A Residence of Eight Years in Persia among 
 the Nestorian Christians (1843); Missionary 
 Life in Persia (1861). 
 
 Perrone, Giovanni, Roman Catholic the¬ 
 ologian, was born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 
 1794; studied theology at Turin, and in 
 his twenty-first year went to Rome, where 
 he joined the Society of Jesus, and, after 
 his ordination to the priesthood, became 
 a teacher in the Collegium Romanum. 
 From Ferrara, where he was rector of the 
 Jesuit College after 1830, he returned to 
 his teaching work in Rome, being made 
 head of his old college in 1850. He died on 
 Aug. 26, 1876. He was the author of nu¬ 
 merous dogmatic works, which, as clearly 
 and faithfully reflecting the prevailing ten¬ 
 dencies of Roman theology, obtained wide 
 currency, and were extensively translated. 
 They may still be regarded as representing 
 most nearly the modern orthodoxy of his 
 church. The Prcelediones Thcologicce (1835) 
 may be specially named. 
 
 Perronet, Edward, d. 1792; wasapreach- 
 er in John Wesley’s connection, and that 
 of the Countess of Huntingdon, and after¬ 
 ward an Independent Dissenter. He pub¬ 
 lished, in 1785, Occasional Verses, Moral 
 and Sacred, in which is found the well- 
 
Per 
 
 ( 730 ) 
 
 Per 
 
 known hymn: “All hail the power of Jesus’ 
 name.” 
 
 Perry, Right Rev. William Stevens, 
 S. T. D. (Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 
 1869), LL. D. (William and Mary College, 
 Williamsburg, Va., 1876), D. D., Oxon. 
 (Oxford University, Eng., 1888), the second 
 bishop of Iowa; b. at Providence, R. I., 
 Jan. 22, 1832. He was graduated at Har¬ 
 vard College in 1854, and studied theology 
 at the Alexandria Theological Seminary, 
 Va.; became assistant minister at St. 
 Paul’s, Boston, Mass., 1857; rector of St. 
 Luke’s, Nashua, N. H., 1858; of St. Ste¬ 
 phens, Portland, Me., i86r; of St. Mi¬ 
 chael’s, Litchfield, Conn., 1864; of Trinity, 
 Geneva, N. Y., 1869; president of Hobart 
 College, Geneva, N. Y., April, 1876; con¬ 
 secrated bishop, Sept. 10, 1876. Bishop 
 Perry has been an indefatigable student of 
 the history of the American Episcopal 
 Church, and since 1868 has held the official 
 position of its historiographer. His nu¬ 
 merous publications in this field of histor¬ 
 ical research are invaluable to those who 
 desire to learn the history of the Episcopal 
 Church in this country. 
 
 Persecutions. The causes of persecution 
 in religious history are manifold and com¬ 
 plicated. The Lord Jesus Christ was per¬ 
 secuted by the Pharisees because he ex¬ 
 posed their hypocrisy, and by the Jews in 
 general because he ran counter to their 
 prejudices. These causes produced a like 
 treatment of his apostles; and the igno¬ 
 rance of the heathen was another cause of 
 persecution: the Christians were confound¬ 
 ed by them with the rebellious Jews, and 
 indiscriminately persecuted. Thus the 
 historian Suetonius says that Christ excited 
 the Jews to frequent tumults. Further¬ 
 more, Gentile superstition came to the in¬ 
 crease of persecution: the heathen could 
 not endure a sect which aimed at the de¬ 
 struction of the worship of their gods. 
 The Jews frequently escaped rough treat¬ 
 ment simply because, though they practis¬ 
 ed their own rites, they let those of the 
 heathen alone. But this was exactly what 
 the Christians would not do. They boldly 
 called on men “ to turn from their vanities 
 and serve the true God alone.” Thus it 
 was that they were called “ Atheists,” as 
 enemies of the gods. And so all calumnies 
 among them were believed by the super¬ 
 stitious: they burned Rome, made nightly 
 conspiracies, ate human flesh, worshipped 
 an ass’s head, committed adultery, incest, 
 infanticide. The base heresies of the 
 Nicolaitans, Carpocratians, and others, 
 sometimes gave color to the slanders. But 
 another cause, which influenced some of the 
 
 best and wisest of the emperors, was found 
 in political ideas. The Gentile religion was 
 interwoven with the State; and men like 
 Trajan, who conscientiously believed it 
 their duty to uphold existing institutions, 
 regarded Christianity as a hostile, and 
 therefore a dangerous, principle. Its pro¬ 
 fessors were denounced as the enemies of 
 kings, of laws, and of the human race. 
 
 The persecutions in the New Testament 
 were (r) about Stephen, (2) by Herod 
 Agrippa (Acts xii.), (3) those stirred up by 
 the Jews against St. Paul, (4) those raised 
 by heathen who saw that their gains were 
 endangered. (Acts xvi. and xx.) 
 
 In Ecclesiastical History there are com¬ 
 monly reckoned ten persecutions. They 
 are the following, notices of each will be 
 found under their several names: 
 
 Persecution 
 of ; 
 
 Date. 
 
 1.—Nero 
 
 64-68 
 
 2.—Domitian 
 
 95-96 
 
 3.—Trajan . . 
 
 105-117 
 
 4. —Marcus 1 
 
 Aurelius j 
 
 5. —Septimius 
 
 6. —M aximian 
 
 166-180 
 
 202-211 
 
 235-238 
 
 7.—Decius . . 
 
 250-253 
 
 8.—Valerian . 
 
 257—260 
 
 9.—Aurelian . 
 
 275 
 
 10.—Diocletian 
 
 303-305 
 
 Chief Sufferers. 
 
 St. Peter and St. Paul 
 Consul Flavius Clemens 
 (St. John sent to Pat¬ 
 inos) 
 
 Symeon of Jerusalem; 
 Ignatius of Antioch 
 
 Justin Martyr ; Polycarp 
 Perpetua and Felicitas 
 
 \ Fabian of Rome ; Alex- 
 "j ander of Jerusalem 
 ( Xystus of Rome ; Cyp- 
 j rian of Carthage 
 Execution of Edict pre¬ 
 vented by death of 
 emperor 
 
 Anthimus of Nicome- 
 dia; St. Alban 
 
 The accession of Constantine the Great, 
 the first Christian emperor, put an end to 
 the persecutions of Christianity by the 
 Empire. Would that no more needed to be 
 added to this article. But Christian history 
 has to record that persecution has been 
 used as a weapon age after age for enforc¬ 
 ing obedience to that form of religion which 
 is strongest. The Arian controversy, 
 which began the reign of Constantine, was 
 the signal for persecution, now by the 
 Arians, now by their opponents. “ Tolera¬ 
 tion,” it has been well said, “ was the last 
 Christian virtue to be learned.” It was 
 argued that as error of opinion leads to 
 disorganization of society, to moral evils, 
 and (in early opinion) to everlasting perdi¬ 
 tion, such error must be put down like any 
 other offence against the well-being of the 
 commonwealth. The barbarous nations 
 who broke into the Roman Empire and de¬ 
 stroyed it were frequently persecutors. 
 Thus the Vandals, both in their heathen 
 days, and also after they had embraced the 
 Arian faith, desolated the Church, and per¬ 
 secuted those who remained faithful to the 
 
Per 
 
 ( 73i ) 
 
 Pet 
 
 ancient creed to death. The English, on 
 arriving as heathen in this country, per¬ 
 secuted the Christian Britons, destroyed 
 their churches, and drove them into the 
 mountains. The cruelties of the Moham¬ 
 medans when they began their career of 
 conquest were terrible and remorseless. 
 “ The Koran or the sword ” was their sole 
 alternative to all who fell into their power. 
 During the Middle Ages all movements in 
 the direction of free thought were regarded 
 by the dominant religion as warfare against 
 the Kingdom of God. The persecutions 
 of the Waldenses and Albigenses, and the 
 establishment of the Inquisition, are de¬ 
 scribed in their places, as are also the Hus¬ 
 site wars, the persecutions of the Lollards, 
 and the fires of Smithfield in the reign of 
 Queen Mary. On the accession of Eliza¬ 
 beth the tables were turned, and the spirit 
 of persecution was directed against the 
 Roman Catholics, who were proceeded 
 against as traitors to the State, and fined 
 and imprisoned for not attending the es¬ 
 tablished worship. Cases also occurred 
 occasionally of punishment by death for 
 heresy, a penalty inflicted by Elizabeth 
 upon both Baptists and Independents (y. 
 v .). There were those who left England 
 for America in order to secure “freedom 
 to worship God;” but even these in turn 
 became persecutors both of those who pre¬ 
 ferred Episcopacy to Independency, and 
 also of the Quakers. The same spirit 
 showed itself on both sides in England in 
 the days of the Commonwealth and of the 
 Stuarts; and the history of the Scottish 
 Covenanters is a touching narrative of per¬ 
 secutions bravely endured. The Act of 
 Toleration may be said to have put an end 
 to persecution as a legalized instrument in 
 England, but the spirit will hardly be 
 eliminated from mankind, except as human 
 nature itself is altered by the influence of 
 the Gospel of Christ.—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. 
 
 Perseverance of Saints, “ a doctrine nec¬ 
 essarily resulting from the most essential 
 parts of the Calvinistic system, and, there¬ 
 fore, held by almost all who adopt the 
 Calvinistic or Augustinian doctrines. It 
 is advocated not only by arguments from 
 other doctrines, as those of election, atone¬ 
 ment, the intercession and mediatorial 
 dominion of Christ, imputed righteousness 
 and regeneration, but also from many texts 
 of Scripture, as those which declare eternal 
 life to be always connected with believing, 
 and those which encourage the believer to 
 depend upon the faithfulness, love, and 
 omnipotence of God. To an objection very 
 commonly urged against it, that it tends 
 to make men careless concerning virtue 
 
 and holiness, its advocates reply that this 
 objection is only valid against a doctrine 
 very different from theirs, the true doctrine 
 of perseverance of saints being one of per¬ 
 severance in holiness, and giving no en¬ 
 couragement to a confidence of final salva¬ 
 tion which is not connected with a present 
 and even an increasing holiness.”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cydopcedia. 
 
 Persia. The prevailing religion of Per¬ 
 sia, until it fell into the hands of the 
 Arabs in 651, has been described in the 
 article Parsees ( q. v.). Then the greater 
 part of the population embraced Moham¬ 
 medanism: Persia developed that special 
 branch of Islamism which is mystical and 
 is seen under the form of Dervishes ( q. v.). 
 Their founder, Meolana, was born at the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century; there 
 are now thirty-six dervish sects spread in 
 the surrounding countries. It is a most 
 powerful sect, both in the Ottoman and 
 Persian Empires. The Sultan is never 
 deemed as fully invested with the imperial 
 power till he has received the sword from 
 the successor of Meolana Jelalu-d-hin, and 
 at the present time the Caliphate seems to 
 be within its grasp. 
 
 Persia has been the scene of many mis¬ 
 sions — Nestorian and Roman Catholic 
 missions, which have left little trace be¬ 
 hind them; and in the middle of the last 
 century a Moravian mission, which was 
 unsuccessful.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 During this century, since the brief stay 
 of Martyn (1811-12), a few devoted mis¬ 
 sionaries have labored with increasing 
 success among the Nestorians. The work 
 of Dr. Perkins, who began his labors in 
 1834, is well known in the United States. 
 At the present time efforts are being made 
 to reach the Armenians and Mohammedans. 
 The Presbyterian Church has the largest 
 representation in the number of mission¬ 
 aries now in Persia. 
 
 Peru. The great majority of the peo¬ 
 ple, who are of Indian descent, are Roman 
 Catholics. The Church is still wealthy, 
 although, since the establishment of the re¬ 
 public, much of the property which it held 
 under Spanish rule has been confiscated. 
 The bishops are appointed by the govern¬ 
 ment and are treated as government of¬ 
 ficials. 
 
 Peshito. See Bible, Sec. III., p. 106. 
 
 Peter. “ I. His Life. —‘ Peter’ is the 
 Greek equivalent of the Syriac appellative 
 ‘ Cephas,’ meaning a stone or a rock, with 
 which Christ saluted Simon when he first 
 met him. He made good his right to this 
 
 
Pet 
 
 ( 732 ) 
 
 Pet 
 
 title by that confession of his which is the 
 rock on which Christianity is grounded 
 and rooted (Matt. xvi. 16), himself being 
 the first ‘living stone’ in the temple; by 
 his being deemed worthy to be charged 
 with the keys of the kingdom of heaven 
 {ib. 19); by his being entrusted especially 
 with the pastorate of the lambs of Christ’s 
 flock (John xxi. 15-17); by his being the 
 first to declare, and that in Jerusalem it¬ 
 self, the Messiahship of the crucified Jesus 
 (Acts ii. 14-36); and by his being the first 
 to acknowledge the equal right of the 
 Gentiles to a share in the inheritance of 
 Israel. (Acts x.) He is the principal fig¬ 
 ure in the history of the early Christian 
 Church, but is soon eclipsed by the over¬ 
 powering presence and zeal of Paul. He 
 disappears after the first Council of Jeru¬ 
 salem, and the only other mention we have 
 of him is in Gal. ii. 11-14, till he comes be¬ 
 fore the Church as the author of I. Peter and 
 the subsequent epistle. He figures con¬ 
 spicuously, indeed, in ecclesiastical tradi¬ 
 tion and legend, but from this source little 
 that is trustworthy can be gathered beyond 
 the fact, perhaps, that he finished his career 
 by martyrdom in the city of Rome. 
 
 “I I. His Epistles: I. Peter .—This epistle 
 is addressed to the churches in the district 
 of Asia Minor mentioned in chap. i. I, and 
 especially those members of them who were 
 of Jewish origin. These churches appear 
 to have been all directly or indirectly 
 founded by Paul, although the seed of the 
 gospel may have been first introduced by 
 those Jews who, as we read in Acts ii. 10, 
 came up from thence to Jerusalem, and 
 witnessed the events of the day of Pente¬ 
 cost, in connection with which Peter took 
 so prominent a part, and might be repre¬ 
 sented to be the chief actor. Thus it might 
 naturally happen that his name would be 
 regarded with honor among the Jewish 
 Christians in those parts, and that he him¬ 
 self might be led to take a paternal inter¬ 
 est in their affairs. This epistle was 
 quoted by Polycarp and recognized by Pa- 
 pias early in the second century; later, it 
 was repeatedly quoted by Irenseus, Clem¬ 
 ent of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian. 
 The internal notices of names, places, and 
 conditions of church life all bespeak its 
 genuineness. So does its character of 
 spiritual riches. The epistle has been re¬ 
 ceived by Christians in all ages and with¬ 
 out reasonable doubt. It appears to have 
 been written from Babylon, which has very 
 questionably been identified by some with 
 Rome; and is referred to the date when 
 Paul wrote his epistles to Timothy, on the 
 ground that the state of things described 
 in it corresponds exactly with that de¬ 
 scribed in them. It must be allowed, how¬ 
 
 ever, that it is difficult to determine the 
 time, place, and circumstances in which the 
 epistle was written. The occasion of 
 Peter’s writing this epistle was the report 
 which Silvanus had brought him of the 
 fiery persecution with which the churches 
 addressed were being threatened by the 
 civil power, and of the outrages they were 
 suffering on account of the odium of the 
 Christian name, associated as it was with 
 evil-doing, especially disloyalty and revolu¬ 
 tion (chap. iii. 16); and his object in writ¬ 
 ing it was to comfort and fortify the Church 
 in view of the impending fiery trial, to en¬ 
 force on its members the duties—personal, 
 social, and domestic—of their Christian 
 calling as the best answer to the charges 
 of their accusers, to prove to them how 
 completely their discharge of these depend¬ 
 ed on a spiritual apprehension of Christ 
 and his work. The churches addressed 
 are especially comforted and encouraged 
 by the hope of the coming of the Lord, 
 which is represented as not far off. The 
 character of the epistle corresponds with 
 that of the writer as revealed in the Gos¬ 
 pels and the Acts, being ‘ ardent, impas¬ 
 sioned, practical, and unspeculative,’ and 
 as showing a mind ‘ which held with a fine 
 Hebraic vehemence of faith the great facts 
 and principles of Christianity, but could 
 not, like the more subtle and logical Paul, 
 give them a systematic expression.’ 
 
 “ II. Peter .—This epistle has been re¬ 
 garded with more doubt than any other book 
 of the New Testament. In the time of Eu¬ 
 sebius it was reckoned among the disputed 
 books, and references to it cannot be defi¬ 
 nitely fixed upon before Origen, in the third 
 century, though the so-called second epistle 
 of Clement of Rome, the Shepherd of Her¬ 
 nias, Justin Martyr, Melito of Sardis, Ire- 
 naeus, and Theophilus have been thought 
 by some to have alluded to it. II. Peter 
 ii. 1-19 is so like Jude 3-16 that one of the 
 passages must have been taken from the 
 other, and that in Jude appears to be the 
 original. This epistle is less Jewish in 
 tone than I. Peter, and is not like it in 
 style, and the people addressed seem to be 
 different from those addressed in the first 
 epistle, being established Christians, not 
 the scattered Dispersion, yet they are de¬ 
 scribed as the same (chap. iii. 1). But the 
 epistle might be genuine, and little known 
 in the early Church, because not much in 
 circulation, and perhaps even lost sight of 
 for a time. Origen seems to have reckoned 
 it as Scripture, and if so he probably re¬ 
 ceived it as such from an earlier age. It 
 has been suggested that perhaps Silvanus 
 helped the fisherman-apostle with the ear¬ 
 lier work, and Mark or some other friend 
 with the later one, and that so the varia- 
 
Pet 
 
 ( 733 ) 
 
 Pet 
 
 tions in style may be accounted for. The 
 churches had grown in power and changed 
 in character during the interval between 
 the writing of the two epistles; and thus, 
 while the first refers to external enemies, 
 the second is required to treat of internal 
 dangers. Hence a necessary change of 
 tone. Further, it may be asked, Why 
 should not Peter have quoted from Jude ? 
 The epistle was received as in the Canon 
 at the Council of Laodicea (372 A. D.), and 
 the Council of Carthage (397 A. D.). 
 
 “ This epistle professes to be addressed to 
 some at least of those to whom the former 
 epistle was sent (chap. iii. 1), only they are 
 described in more general terms than those 
 to whom that was written (chap. i. 1), so 
 as to include all who bore the Christian 
 name. The occasion for writing this epis¬ 
 tle was the appearance in the Church of 
 certain fatal forms of error, both doctrinal 
 and practical, and the purpose in writing 
 was a desire to confirm the Christians in 
 the faith they had received. The object 
 throughout is twofold, and is given in 
 chap. iii. 17, 18—the first, that the readers 
 might believe, lest, being led away with the 
 error of the wicked, they should fall from 
 their steadfastness; and the second, that 
 they might grow in grace and the knowl¬ 
 edge of their Lord and Saviour; this last 
 being the final aim of the whole, as the one 
 means of fellowship with God (chap. i. 3, 
 4), of escape from the pollutions of the 
 world (chap. ii. 20), and access into the di¬ 
 vine kingdom (chap. i. 11). The doctrinal 
 errors against which they were warned 
 were ( a ) the denial of the power, and ( b ) 
 the denial or the coming of the Lord as 
 judge; and the practical errors were of¬ 
 fences against the way of righteousness 
 (chap. ii.). The similarity between the 
 second chapter of the epistle and the Epis¬ 
 tle of Jude strikes every reader, and a hy¬ 
 pothesis in explanation has been hazarded, 
 that Peter had seen Jude’s letter, had felt 
 appalled at the revelation, and deemed it 
 his duty to caution the churches he had al¬ 
 ready written to against the evils described, 
 adopting Jude’s terms in doing so. Com¬ 
 pare the epistle of the latter with his ques¬ 
 tion and. the answer in John xiv. 22-24.”— 
 Bagster: Bible Helps. See Bible diction¬ 
 aries of Kitto, and Smith; New Testament 
 Introductions of De Wette and Reuss, and 
 the standard Commentaries. 
 
 Peter, Festivals of. There were for¬ 
 merly four festivals of St. Peter kept: (1) 
 June 29, the day on which SS. Peter and 
 Paul are supposed to have been martyred 
 at Rome, the former by crucifixion, with 
 his head downward, the latter by behead¬ 
 ing. This is the oldest of the Feasts of 
 
 the Apostles, having been observed since 
 the fourth century. (2) February 22, the 
 festival of St. Peter’s Chair at Antioch. 
 Though there is no account in the Bible 
 of the foundation of the Church at Anti¬ 
 och, it is generally believed to have been 
 the work of St. Peter, who established his 
 episcopal chair first in this place. (3) Jan¬ 
 uary 18, St. Peter’s Chair at Rome. Cel¬ 
 ebrated in honor of St. Peter’s fixing his 
 episcopal work there after seven years at 
 Antioch. (4) August 1, St. Peter’s Chains, 
 or St. Peter ad Vincula, the day on which 
 the Roman Catholics honor his chains, and 
 commemorate his miraculous deliverance 
 from the hands of Herod Agrippa. The 
 1st of August was probably the day on 
 which the church on the Esquiline Hill 
 was dedicated to St. Peter in Chains. It 
 was built by Eudoxia, wife of Valentine 
 III., about the middle of the fifth century. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Peter D’Ailly. See Ailli. 
 
 Peter of Bruys. See Petrobrussians. 
 
 Peter Lombard. See Lombard. 
 
 Peter the Hermit, b. at Amiens in the 
 middle of the eleventh century; d. in the 
 monastery of Neu Montier, in the diocese 
 of Liege, July 7, 1115. He is said to have 
 conceived the idea of preaching a crusade 
 after returning from a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land in 1093. His enthusiasm cre¬ 
 ated great excitement, and large numbers 
 under his leadership were too impatient to 
 wait for a regular army. They landed at 
 Constantinople in 1096, and went thence 
 to Bithynia, where they were defeated, 
 and but 3,000 returned to Constantinople. 
 See Crusades. 
 
 Peter’s Pence denotes a money tribute 
 once paid annually by several countries to 
 the popes. It probably originated in Eng¬ 
 land, where it was collected from about 
 740 until it was abolished by Henry VIII. 
 in 1534. The tax was first fixed at a penny 
 for every family, but was afterward re¬ 
 quired only of those having fixed incomes. 
 The peter-pence paid to the pope since 
 i860, which placed him in a position where 
 he could decline the pension offered by 
 the Italian Government, is a gratuitous 
 contribution. 
 
 Peters, or Peter, Hugh, a noted Puri¬ 
 tan; b. at Fowey, Cornwall, Eng., 1599; 
 hanged at Charing Cross, London, Oct. 16, 
 1660. Educated at Cambridge (1622); after 
 his ordination he preached for a time in 
 London. After suffering imprisonment for 
 
Pet 
 
 ( 734 ) 
 
 Phi 
 
 nonconformity, he preached to a congre¬ 
 gation at Rotterdam. Emigrating to New 
 England in 1636, he became successor of 
 Roger Williams as pastor at Salem. Re¬ 
 turning to England in 1641, he interested 
 himself actively in the fortunes of the Puri¬ 
 tan party. At the Restoration he was 
 brought to trial and sentenced to be hung 
 as a regicide. While in prison he wrote: 
 A Dying Father s Last Legacy to an Only 
 Child , published in 1717. 
 
 Petra. See Selah. 
 
 Petrobrussians, followers of the heretic 
 Peter of Bruys, who was burnt at St. Gil- 
 les about A. D. 1125. The only authorities 
 from which any knowledge of the sect can 
 be gained are a passage in Abelard, and a 
 book by Peter the Venerable, Adversus Pe- 
 trobrusianos Hcereticos. Peter of Bruys ap¬ 
 pears to have been an ecclesiastic holding 
 some benefice in the south of France, 
 where he first began to publish his heresy, 
 and gained many followers among the Cath- 
 ari at Arles and elsewhere; afterwards 
 he preached with great success at Nar- 
 bonne and Toulouse, but was eventually 
 seized and condemned to death. He pro¬ 
 fessed the desire to restore Christianity to 
 its original purity, and accepted the Gos¬ 
 pels, to which he would only grant a liter¬ 
 al interpretation; the Epistles he partly 
 rejected, and only granted to them a deriv¬ 
 ative authority. He would not allow 
 infant baptism; declared that the Church 
 being invisible, no buildings are necessary 
 as places of worship, for the Church exists 
 only in the hearts of the people; denied 
 not only the Real Presence in the Eucharist, 
 butalso that any sacramental character is at¬ 
 tached to it, and regarded it simply as a 
 historical incident in Christ’s life. He ob¬ 
 jected to elaborate ritual of any kind, to 
 prayers for the dead, and to music as a 
 part of divine worship; and abhorred the 
 adoration of the cross, as being the instru¬ 
 ment of our Lord’s torture. After his 
 death the sect continued to flourish for 
 some time, but finally became merged in 
 that of the Henricians.—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Pew is a word derived from the old 
 French .pui, an elevated space; puye , an 
 open gallery with rails, which is the Latin 
 podion, a balcony where distinguished per¬ 
 sons sat in the amphitheatre. In this way 
 the name pew was given to the places in 
 churches occupied by distinguished per¬ 
 sons. As a rule, pews are unknown in 
 Roman Catholic churches on the Conti¬ 
 nent. In England they date from the 
 Reformation, but did not come into gen¬ 
 
 eral use until the middle of the seven¬ 
 teenth century. 
 
 Pharaoh, “which the Old Testament 
 often uses as if it were a proper name, ap¬ 
 plicable to any king of Egypt, though some¬ 
 times such a distinguishing name as Hoph- 
 ra (Apries, Jer. xliv. 30), or Necho (Nekos, 
 2 Kings xxiii. 29) is added, is really an 
 Egyptian title of the monarch (Peraa or 
 Phuro), often found on the monuments. 
 Apart from Hophraand Necho. the biblical 
 Pharaohs cannot, in the present state of 
 Hebrew and Egyptian chronology, be iden¬ 
 tified with any certainty.”— Ency. Britan - 
 nica. 
 
 Pharisees, “a religious party whose 
 name was derived from the Hebrew “ Pa- 
 rush,” separated , because they affected very 
 great sanctity. (John vii. 49; Acts xxvi. 5.) 
 They were strict observers of external 
 rites and ceremonies beyond the require¬ 
 ments of the Law, placing the traditions of 
 the elders on an equal footing with the writ¬ 
 ten oracles. They were exclusive, formal, 
 self-righteous; proud of their unblemished 
 descent from Abraham; abjuring Greek 
 culture, literature, and commerce; adher¬ 
 ing to the land, language, and proud self- 
 satisfaction of the ancient Hebrew race. 
 Jerusalem was their capital; their language 
 was Aramaic; the Hebrew Scriptures were 
 their literature; the temple their one cen¬ 
 tre of devotion. They held to the literal 
 interpretation of the Law and the prophets; 
 believed in spiritual manifestations, in the 
 pre-existence and immortality of the soul, 
 and in the resurrection of the dead. They 
 were already an influential body in the 
 time of John Hyrcanus the Maccabee (b. c. 
 108).”—“ Oxford ” Bible Helps. 
 
 Philadelphia ( brotherly love), a city on 
 the borders of Lydia and Phrygia, about 
 twenty-five miles southeast from Sardis, 
 and the seat of one of the seven churches 
 of Asia. (Rev. i. 11; iii. 7-13.) It was built 
 by Attalus Philadelphus, king of Perga- 
 mos, who died b. c. 138. It then came 
 under the power of the Romans, and after 
 its destruction by an earthquake, A. d. 17, 
 it was restored, and became a place of 
 importance, until captured by the Turks in 
 1390. The modern city, called Allah-Shehr 
 (beautiful city), has a population of about 
 ten thousand. There are the ruins of many 
 churches, and a solitary pillar is one of the 
 conspicuous features of the place. 
 
 Philadelphian Society (Gr. Philadelphia , 
 brotherly love), a sect founded in 1695 
 by an aged Englishwoman named Jane 
 Lead. She embraced, it is said, the same 
 
Phi 
 
 ( 735 ) 
 
 Phi 
 
 views as Madame Bourignon (y. v. ). She 
 was a widow of good family, from Norfolk, 
 and had devoted a great deal of time to the 
 study of the works of Jacob Boehme ( q. v.). 
 She wrote many books of a mystical char¬ 
 acter; one of them is called The Wonders 
 of God's Creation Manifested in the Variety 
 of Eight Worlds , as They Were Made Knozun 
 Experimentally to the Author. She was of 
 opinion that all dissensions among Chris¬ 
 tians would cease, and the Kingdom of the 
 Redeemer become, even here below, a 
 glorious scene of charity, concord, and 
 happiness, if those who bear the name of 
 Jesus, without regarding the forms of doc¬ 
 trine or discipline that distinguish partic¬ 
 ular communions, would all join in com¬ 
 mitting their souls to the care of the internal 
 guide , to be instructed, governed, and 
 
 Philemon. See Paul. 
 
 Phil'ip the Apostle. His name in the 
 Synoptical Gospels and the Acts occurs 
 only in the list of apostles. (Matt. x. 3; 
 Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13.) He 
 is frequently mentioned in the Gospel by 
 John. According to tradition he preached 
 in Phrygia, and died at Hierapolis. 
 
 Philip, “ ‘ the evangelist,’ is first men¬ 
 tioned in the Acts (vi. 5) as one of ‘ the 
 seven ’ who were chosen to attend to cer¬ 
 tain temporal affairs of the church in Jeru¬ 
 salem, in consequence of the murmurings 
 of the Hellenists against the Hebrews. 
 After the martyrdom of Stephen he went 
 to Samaria, w r here he preached with much 
 success, Simon Magus being one of his 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, ASIA MINOR. 
 
 formed by his divine impulse and sugges¬ 
 tions. She declared that this desirable 
 event would come to pass, and that she 
 had a divine commission to proclaim the 
 approach of this glorious communion of 
 saints, who were to be gathered in one vis¬ 
 ible, universal church or kingdom before 
 the dissolution of the earth. Thus she as¬ 
 serted that her Philadelphian Society was 
 the true Kingdom of Christ, in which alone 
 the Divine Spirit resided and reigned. She 
 died in 1704 at the age of eighty-one. She 
 was greatly assisted in forming her society 
 by Dr. Pordage, one of the Nonjurors, 
 who had afterward taken to medicine, and 
 who was a great spirit-seer. The Phila¬ 
 delphians helped to spread the doctrines of 
 mystical piety shown in the writings of 
 William Law ( q. v. ).—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 converts. He afterward instructed and 
 baptized the Ethiopian eunuch on the road 
 between Jerusalem and Gaza; next he was 
 * caught away ’ by the Spirit and ‘ found 
 at Azotus ’ (Ashdod), whence, * passing 
 through, he preached in all the cities till 
 he came to Caesarea.’ (Acts viii.) Here, 
 some years afterward, according to Acts 
 xxi. 8, 9, he entertained Paul and his com¬ 
 panion on their way to Jerusalem. At that 
 time ‘ he had four daughters which did 
 prophesy.’ At a very early period he came 
 to be confounded with the subject of the 
 preceding notice (q. v.)\ the confusion was 
 all the more easy because, while he un¬ 
 doubtedly could, in a certain well-under¬ 
 stood sense of the word, be called an 
 ‘ apostle,’ writers naturally refrained from 
 applying to him the more ambiguous 
 designation of ‘ evangelist.’ ‘ Philip the 
 
Phi 
 
 ( 736 ) 
 
 Phi 
 
 deacon ’ is commemorated on the 6th of 
 June.”— Encv. Britannica. 
 
 Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, called 
 “ The Magnanimous;” b. at Marburg, 
 Nov. 23, 1504; d. there, March 31, 1567. 
 By the death of his father he came into 
 possession of his estates at the age of four¬ 
 teen (1518). He was present at the Diet 
 of Worms (1521), and, although he had 
 taken no positive stand in the matter of 
 religious belief, he insisted that Luther 
 should receive full protection, and even 
 visited him at his lodgings. In 1525 he 
 took open sides in favor of the Reforma¬ 
 tion. He used his great influence in an 
 effort to unite the German and Swiss Prot¬ 
 estants, but was only partially successful. 
 In 1531 he formed the Smalcaldian League, 
 and in various directions did much to ad¬ 
 vance the Reformation. A marriage with 
 Margarethe von der Saal, while his wife 
 was still living, although made with the 
 consent of his wife and prominent Reform¬ 
 ers, weakened his influence. After the 
 Smalcaldian war (1546-47), he was treach¬ 
 erously seized by the emperor, Charles 
 V., and imprisoned for five years. After 
 his release he acted the part of mediator 
 on several occasions between the Protes¬ 
 tants and Roman Catholics, and was active 
 in the conferences of Naumburg in 1554, 
 and of Worms in 1557. 
 
 Philip'pi, the chief city of the eastern 
 division of Macedonia, eight miles north¬ 
 west of Neapolis, its seaport. It was cap- 
 . tured by Philip, the father of Alexander 
 the Great, from the Thracians, and given 
 his name. It was here the famous battle 
 of Philippi was fought, B. c. 42, and in 
 honor of the victory Augustus made it a 
 Roman “ colony.” It was the first place 
 in Europe to receive the Gospel. Paul and 
 Silas preached there, and Lydia was one 
 of their converts. The story of their 
 being cast into prison, and the conversion 
 of the jailor, is told in Acts xvi. Paul re¬ 
 visited the city, and remained there some 
 time. (Acts xx. 1—6.) The Christians here 
 were generous in their contributions to his 
 support, and he wrote to them the Epistle 
 to the Philippians. The place is now only 
 interesting on account of its ruins and as - 
 sociations. 
 
 Philip'pians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Philippists, a term applied to the follow¬ 
 ers of Philip Melanchthon. It first desig¬ 
 nated those who accepted the theological 
 views of Melanchthon, but afterward it was 
 used to distinguish the party which sought 
 to bring about a union among the Prot¬ 
 
 estants, especially the Lutherans and Cal¬ 
 vinists. 
 
 Philis'tines. “The origin of the Philis¬ 
 tines is nowhere expressly stated in the 
 Bible; but as the prophets describe them 
 as ‘the Philistines from Caphtor’ (Amos 
 ix. 7), and ‘ the remnant of the maritime 
 district of Caphtor’ (Jer. xlvii. 4), it is 
 priitia facie probable that they were the 
 ‘ Caphtorim which came out of Caphtor’ 
 who expelled the Avim from their terri¬ 
 tory, and occupied it in their place (Deut. 
 ii. 23); and that these again were the Caph¬ 
 torim mentioned in the Mosaic genealog¬ 
 ical table among the descendants of Miz- 
 raim. (Gen. x. 14.) But, in establishing 
 this conclusion, certain difficulties present 
 themselves: in the first place, it is observ¬ 
 able that, in Gen. x. 14, the Philistines are 
 connected with the Casluhim rather than 
 the Caphtorim. The clause seems to have 
 an appropriate meaning in its present posi¬ 
 tion; it looks like an interpolation into the 
 original document with the view of ex¬ 
 plaining when and where the name Philis¬ 
 tine was first applied to the people whose 
 proper appellation was Caphtorim. But a 
 second and more serious difficulty arises 
 out of the language of the Philistines; for 
 while the Caphtorim were Hamitic, the 
 Philistine language is held to have been 
 Shemitic. The difficulty arising out of the 
 question of language may be met by as¬ 
 suming either that the Caphtorim adopted 
 the language of the conquered Avim, or 
 that they diverged from the Hamitic stock 
 at a period when the distinctive features 
 of Hamitism and Shemitism were yet in 
 embryo. A third objection to their Egyp¬ 
 tian origin is raised from the application of 
 the term ‘uncircumcised’ to them (1 Sam. 
 xvii. 26; 2 Sam. i. 20), whereas the Egyp¬ 
 tians were circumcised. (Herod, ii. 36.) 
 But this objection is answered by Jer. ix. 
 25, 26, where the same term is in some 
 sense applied to the Egyptians, however it 
 may be reconciled with the statement of 
 Herodotus. The next question that arises 
 relates to the early movements of the Phi¬ 
 listines. It has been very generally assumed 
 of late years that Caphtor represents Crete, 
 and that the Philistines migrated from that 
 island, either directly or through Egypt, 
 into Palestine. This hypothesis presup¬ 
 poses the Shemitic origin of the Philis¬ 
 tines. Moreover, the name Caphtor can 
 only be identified with the Egyptian Cop- 
 tos. But the Cretan origin of the Philis¬ 
 tines has been deduced, not so much from 
 the name Caphtor as from that of the 
 Cherethites. This name in its Hebrew 
 form bears a close resemblance to Crete, 
 and is rendered Cretans in the LXX. But 
 
Phi 
 
 ( 737 ) 
 
 Phi 
 
 the mere coincidence of the names cannot 
 pass for much without some corroborative 
 testimony. Without, therefore, asserting 
 that migrations may not have taken place 
 from Crete to Philistia, we hold that the 
 evidence adduced to prove that they did is 
 insufficient. 
 
 “ The last point to be decided in connec¬ 
 tion with the early history of the Philis¬ 
 tines is the time when they settled in 
 the land of Canaan. If we were to restrict 
 ourselves to the statements of the Bible, 
 we should conclude that this took place be¬ 
 fore the time of Abraham; for they are 
 noticed in his day as a pastoral tribe in the 
 neighborhood of Gerar. (Gen. xxi. 32, 34; 
 xxvi. 1,8.) The interval that elapsed be¬ 
 tween Abraham and the Exodus seems 
 sufficient to allow for the alteration that 
 took place in the position of the Philistines, 
 and their transformation from a pastoral 
 tribe to a settled and powerful nation. 
 Between the times of Abraham and Joshua 
 the Philistines had changed their quarters, 
 and had advanced northward into the Shefe- 
 lah or Plain of Philistia. This plain has been 
 in all ages remarkable for the extreme rich¬ 
 ness of its soil; its fields of standing corn, 
 its vineyards and olive-yards, are incident¬ 
 ally mentioned in Scripture (Judg. xv. 5); 
 and in time of famine the land of the 
 Philistines was the hope of Palestine. 
 (2 Kings viii. 2.) It was also adapted to 
 the growth of military power; for while 
 the plain itself permitted the use of war- 
 chariots, which were the chief arm of 
 offence, the occasional elevations which rise 
 out of it offered secure sites for towns and 
 strongholds. It was, moreover, a commer¬ 
 cial country; from its position it must 
 have been at all times the great thorough¬ 
 fare between Phoenicia and Syria in the 
 north, and Egypt and Arabia in the south. 
 The Philistines probably possessed a navy; 
 for they had ports attached to Gaza and 
 Ashkelon: the LXX. speaks of their ships 
 in its version of Isa. xi. 14; and they are 
 represented as attacking the Egyptians out 
 of ships. They had at an early period at¬ 
 tained proficiency in the arts of peace. 
 Their wealth was abundant (Judg. xvi. 5, 
 18), and they appear in all respects to have 
 been a prosperous people. Possessed of 
 such elements of power, the Philistines had 
 attained in the time of the Judges an im¬ 
 portant position among Eastern nations. 
 About b. c. 1209 we find them engaged in 
 successful war with the Sidonians. (Justin 
 xviii. 3.) About the same period, but 
 whether before or after is uncertain, they 
 were engaged in a naval war with Rameses 
 III. of Egypt, in conjunction with other 
 Mediterranean nations. 
 
 “ And now to recur to the biblical narra¬ 
 
 tive: The territory of the Philistines, hav¬ 
 ing been once occupied by the Canaanites, 
 formed a portion of the promised land, and 
 was assigned to the tribe of Judah. (Josh, 
 xv. 2,12,45-47.) No portion, however, of 
 it was conquered in the lifetime of Joshua 
 (Josh. xiii. 2), and even after his death no 
 permanent conquest was effected (Judg. 
 iii. 3); though, on the authority of a some¬ 
 what doubtful passage, we are informed 
 that the three cities of Gaza, Ashkelon, and 
 Ekron were taken. (Judg. i. 18.) The 
 Philistines, at all events, soon recovered 
 these, and commenced an aggressive policy 
 against the Israelites, by which they gained 
 a complete ascendancy over them. Indi¬ 
 vidual heroes were raised up from time to 
 time whose achievements might well kindle 
 patriotism, such as Shamgar the son of 
 Anath (Judg. iii. 31), and still more Sam¬ 
 son (Judg. xiii.-xvi.); but neither of these 
 men succeeded in permanently throwing off 
 the yoke. Under Eli, there was an organ¬ 
 ized but unsuccessful resistance to the en¬ 
 croachments of the Philistines, who were 
 met at Aphek. (1 Sam. iv. 1.) The pro¬ 
 duction of the ark on this occasion demon¬ 
 strates the greatness of the emergency, and 
 its loss marked the lowest depth of Israel’s 
 degradation. The next action took place 
 under Samuel’s leadership, and the tide 
 of success turned in Israel’s favor. The 
 Israelites now attributed their past weak¬ 
 ness to their want of unity; and they de¬ 
 sired a king, with the special object of lead¬ 
 ing them against the foe. (1 Sam. viii. 20.) 
 As soon as Saul was prepared to throw off 
 the yoke, he occupied with his army a 
 position at Michmash, commanding the de¬ 
 files leading to the Jordan Valley; and his 
 heroic son Jonathan gave the signal for a 
 rising by overthrowing the pillar which the 
 Philistines had placed there. The challenge 
 was accepted; the Philistines invaded the 
 central district with an immense force, and, 
 having dislodged Saul from Michmash, oc¬ 
 cupied it themselves, and sent forth preda¬ 
 tory bands into the surrounding country. 
 The Israelites shortly after took up a posi¬ 
 tion on the other side of the ravine at Geba, 
 and, availing themselves of the confusion 
 consequent upon Jonathan’s daring feat, 
 inflicted a tremendous slaughter upon the 
 enemy. (1 Sam. xiii.; xiv.) No attempt 
 was made by the Philistines to regain their 
 supremacy for about twenty-five years, and 
 the scene of the next contest shows the 
 altered strength of the two parties: it was 
 no longer in the central country, but in a 
 ravine leading down to the Philistine Plain, 
 the Valley of Elah, the position of which is 
 about fourteen miles S. W. of Jerusalem: 
 on this occasion the prowess of young 
 David secured success to Israel, and the 
 
Phi 
 
 ( 738 ) 
 
 Phi 
 
 foe was pursued to the gates of Gath and 
 Ekron. (1 Sam. xvii.) The power of the 
 Philistines was, however, still intact on 
 their own territory. The border warfare 
 was continued. The scene of the next con¬ 
 flict was far to the north, in the Valley of 
 Esdraelon. The battle on this occasion 
 proved disastrous to the Israelites: Saul 
 himself perished, and the Philistines pene¬ 
 trated across the Jordan, and occupied the 
 forsaken cities. (1 Sam. xxxi. 1-7.) On 
 the appointment of David to be king over 
 the united tribes, the Philistines attempted 
 to counterbalance the advantage by an at¬ 
 tack on the person of the king: they there¬ 
 fore penetrated into the Valley of Rephaim, 
 S. W. of Jerusalem, and even pushed for¬ 
 ward an advanced post as far as Bethlehem. 
 (1 Chron. xi. 16.) David twice attacked them 
 at the former spot, and on each occasion 
 with signal success, in the first case cap¬ 
 turing their images, in the second pursu¬ 
 ing them ‘ from Geba until thou come to 
 Gazer.’ (2 Sam. v. 17-25; 1 Chron. xiv. 8- 
 16.) Henceforth the Israelites appear as 
 the aggressors: about seven years after the 
 defeat at Rephaim, David, who had now 
 consolidated his power, attacked them on 
 their own soil, and took Gath with its de¬ 
 pendencies (1 Chron. xviii. 1), and thus (ac¬ 
 cording to one interpretation of the obscure 
 expression ‘ Metheg-ammah ’ in 2 Sam. 
 viii. 1) ‘ he took the arm-bridle out of the 
 hand of the Philistines,’ or (according to 
 another) ‘ he took the bridle of the metrop¬ 
 olis out of the hand of the Philistines ’— 
 meaning in either case that their ascendancy 
 was utterly broken. 
 
 “ The whole of Philistia was included 
 in Solomon’s empire. The division of the 
 empire at Solomon’s death was favorable 
 to the Philistine cause. Rehoboam secured 
 himself against them by fortifying Gath 
 and other cities bordering on the plain (2 
 Chron. xi. 8): the Israelite monarchs were 
 either not so prudent,or not so powerful, for 
 they allowed the Philistines to get hold of 
 Gibbethon. (1 Kingsxv. 27;xvi. 15.) Judah 
 meanwhile had lost the tribute. (2 Chron. 
 xvii. 11.) The increasing weakness of the 
 Jewish monarcy, under the attacks of Ha- 
 zael, led to the recovery of Gath, which was 
 afterwards dismantled and probably destroy¬ 
 ed by Uzziah. (2 Chron. xxvii. 6; 2 Kings 
 xii. 17.) We have reason to suppose that 
 the Philistines were kept in subjection un¬ 
 til the time of Ahaz. (2 Chron. xxvii. 18.) A 
 few years later, the Philistines, in conjunc¬ 
 tion with the Syrians and Assyrians, and, 
 perhaps, as the subject-allies of the latter, 
 carried on a series of attacks on the king¬ 
 dom of Israel. (Isa. ix. 11, 12.) Hezekiah 
 formed an alliance with the Egyptians, as 
 a counterpoise to the Assyrians, and the 
 
 possession of Philistia became henceforth 
 the turning-point of the struggle between 
 the two great empires of the East. The 
 Assyrians under Tartan, the general of 
 Sargon, made an expedition against Egypt, 
 and took Ashdod, as the key of that coun¬ 
 try. (Isa. xx. 1, 4, 5.) Under Sennacherib, 
 Philistia was again the scene of important 
 operations. The Assyrian supremacy was 
 restored by Esar-haddon, and it seems 
 probable that the Assyrians retained their 
 hold on Ashdod until its capture, after a 
 long siege, by Psammetichus. It was 
 about this time that Philistia was traversed 
 by a vast Scythian horde on their way to 
 Egypt. The Egyptian ascendancy was not 
 as yet re-established; for we find the next 
 king, Necho, compelled to besiege Gaza 
 on his return from the battle of Megiddo. 
 After the death of Necho, the contest was 
 renewed between the Egyptians and the 
 Chaldaeans, under Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 the result was specially disastrous to the 
 Philistines. The ‘old hatred’ that the 
 Philistines bore to the Jews was exhibited 
 in acts of hostility at the time of the Baby¬ 
 lonish captivity (Ezek. xxv. 15-17); but on 
 the return this was somewhat abated, for 
 some of the Jews married Philistine wom¬ 
 en, to the great scandal of their rulers. 
 (Neh. xiii. 23, 24.) From this time the 
 history of Philistia is absorbed in the 
 struggles of the neighboring kingdoms. 
 The latest notices of the Philistines as a 
 nation occur in 1 Macc. iii.-v. With regard 
 to the institutions of the Philistines, our 
 information is very scanty. The five chief 
 cities had, as early as the days of Joshua, 
 constituted themselves into a confederacy, 
 restricted, however, in all probability, to 
 matters of offence and defence. Each was 
 under the government of a prince, whose 
 official title was seven (Josh. xiii. 3; Judg. 
 iii. 3, etc.), and occasionally sar. (1 Sam. 
 xviii. 30; xxix. 6.) Each town possessed 
 its own territory. The Philistines appear 
 to have been deeply imbued with supersti¬ 
 tion: they carried their idols with them on 
 their campaigns (2 Sam. v. 21), and pro¬ 
 claimed their victories in their presence. (1 
 Sam. xxxi. 9.) The gods whom they 
 chiefly worshipped -were Dagon (Judg. xvi. 
 23; 1 Sam. v. 3-5; 1 Chron. x. 10; 1 Macc. 
 x. 83), Ashtaroth (1 Sam. xxxi. 10; Herod, 
 i. 105), Baal-zebub (2 Kings i. 2-6), and 
 Decerto, who was honored at Ashkelon 
 (Diod. Sic. ii. 4), though unnoticed in the 
 Bible. Priests and diviners (1 Sam. vi.) 
 were attached to the various seats of wor¬ 
 ship.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Philo, a Jew of Alexandria; b. probably 
 a few years b. c.; d. during the reign of 
 the Emperor Claudius. Of his life noth- 
 
Phi 
 
 ( 739 ) 
 
 Phce 
 
 ing is known beyond what can be gathered 
 from his writings. He was of noble family, 
 of the sect of the Pharisees, and was well 
 acquainted with the Old Testament Script¬ 
 ures, as appears from his numerous writ¬ 
 ings. About 39 or 40 A. D. Philo was ap¬ 
 pointed to the head of an embassy sent by 
 the Jews of Alexandria to the Emperor 
 Caligula to petition him for redress from 
 the injustice of the Imperial Governor, 
 Publius Avilius Flaccus. The manner in 
 which the ambassadors were treated in¬ 
 duced Philo to write his book Contra Flac- 
 £um. At different times he visited Jeru¬ 
 salem, and other parts of Palestine; and it 
 is said that he made another journey to 
 Rome in the reign of Claudius; but the 
 story is surrounded by legends, and is 
 probably not true. The works of Philo are 
 divided into three parts: the first contain¬ 
 ing Cosmopoetica , the second Historica, and 
 the third Juridica seu Legalia. The influ¬ 
 ence of Philo’s writings upon both Jewish, 
 and through that upon Christian, theology 
 and thought has been profound. He had 
 practically mastered all the learning of his 
 time, and his object was to show that the 
 Divine revelation as given to the Jews was 
 consistent with the highest philosophy 
 known to the ancients, and especially with 
 that of Plato. From the bold anthropo¬ 
 morphism of the Jewish Scriptures he ar¬ 
 gued the absolute necessity of a symbolic or 
 allegorical meaning, which required study 
 and systematic interpretation—a doctrine 
 carried to still greater lengths in modern 
 days by Swedenborg ( q . v.~). This alle¬ 
 gorical doctrine is carried much further in 
 the first division of his works than in the 
 last; but he does not deny also the literal 
 sense, which is, as it were, the vehicle of 
 the spiritual. 
 
 In Philo’s system of theistic philosophy 
 God is the one ideally good and perfect 
 Being, as with Plato. As such he is in¬ 
 comprehensible and inscrutable, but as 
 Creator he manifests himself to man, and 
 is then the “ Beginning, the Name, the 
 Word; ” and this manifestation is as natural 
 to him as burning is to great heat. On the 
 other hand exists a formless chaos, which 
 God has determined to fashion into a uni¬ 
 verse; but to bring such different exist¬ 
 ences into relation an intermediary is re¬ 
 quired. This is found in the Logos ( q . v.) 
 or Word, and in still lower intelligent ex¬ 
 istences. The Logos is at different times 
 represented as a High-priest, the Image of 
 God, his Shadow, the instrument of Crea¬ 
 tion, the first-born Son, the Archangel, and 
 so on; and Philo also identifies him with 
 the Lord, or Angel of the Covenant, who so 
 often appeared to the patriarchs. 
 
 In the Book of Wisdom we probably see 
 
 a slightly earlier form of Philo’s doctrine 
 engrafted upon Judaism, Wisdom being, in 
 this book, personified much in the same 
 real sense as the Logos of Philo. By the 
 heathen philosophers the system of thought 
 out of which Philo’s grew was corrupted 
 into Gnosticism. On the other hand, its re¬ 
 lation to, and influence upon, Christian 
 theology can be clearly traced in St. John’s 
 phraseology concerning the Logos or 
 Word, and the teaching of the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews, which also gives striking 
 examples of the allegorical method of in¬ 
 terpretation Philo so largely adopted, and 
 which so profoundly influenced Origen, 
 and other Christian Fathers. But as Far¬ 
 rar well points out, while Philo’s concep¬ 
 tion, splendid as it is, is vague, and only 
 floats in the air, the difference between it 
 and that of the apostles “ is as wide as that 
 between the living and the dead.” “ The 
 four words of St. John, ‘ The Word became 
 Jlesh, y created an epoch,” and tell us more, 
 and give us a more definite conception, 
 than all which Philo and Plato wrote, 
 though it was given to them not only to 
 see through a glass darkly much of the 
 truth, but also to prepare the way for the 
 coming of its kingdom.—Benham: Diet . of 
 Religion. 
 
 Phoenicia. The Old Testament usually 
 designates the Phoenicians as Canaanites, 
 though sometimes as Sidonians; the land 
 is spoken of in the New Testament as the 
 coasts of Tyre and Sidon. (Matt. xv. 21; 
 comp. Mark iii. 8; vii. 24.) Phoenicia was 
 the name given by the Greeks, and includ¬ 
 ed a narrow strip of country between the 
 Lebanon mountains and the Mediter¬ 
 ranean Sea. “ Its limits varied at different 
 times; generally it was included within 
 two degrees of latitude, and was of narrow 
 breadth. Its inhabitants were enterpris¬ 
 ing navigators, and the country has been 
 called ‘ the birthplace of commerce.’ 
 Phoenician pilots and sailors navigated the 
 vessels of Solomon; and before other ships 
 had ventured to lose sight of their own 
 shores colonies of this people were es¬ 
 tablished in some of the most distant parts 
 of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They were 
 also distinguished for their knowledge of 
 the arts and sciences. Phoenician work¬ 
 men were employed at the building of the 
 Temple of Solomon, and by Phoenicians 
 the knowledge and use of letters were in¬ 
 troduced into Greece. The climate of the 
 country is mild; the land is abundantly 
 watered; and it yields large crops of fruit, 
 corn, cotton, and sugar. But its once 
 populous and opulent cities are reduced, 
 under the rule of a despotic government, 
 to impoverished villages or masses of 
 
Phr 
 
 ( 740 ) 
 
 Pie 
 
 ruins. Under the Romans Phoenicia form¬ 
 ed a part of the province of Syria. Since 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century it 
 has formed apart of the Turkish Empire.” 
 —Cassell: Cyclopcedia. For their relig¬ 
 ion, see the articles on Astarte; Baal, etc. 
 
 Phryg'ia. Occupying the central portion 
 of Asia Minor, its boundaries varied at dif¬ 
 ferent times, and it furnished parts to sev¬ 
 eral Roman provinces. (Acts ii. 10.) Paul 
 passed through Phrygia on his second 
 (Acts xvi. 6) and third (xviii. 23) mission¬ 
 ary tours. The inhabitants of this region 
 were of Indo-Germanic descent, and allied 
 to the Armenians; but many Jews had set¬ 
 tled among them. At the Council of Nice 
 (325) the Phrygian churches were repre¬ 
 sented by eight bishops. 
 
 Phylac'teries, or Frontlets. (Ex. xiii. 16; 
 Deut. vi. 8; xi. 18; Matt, xxiii. 5.) “ These 
 ‘ phylacteries’ or 4 frontlets ’ were strips of 
 parchment on which were written four 
 passages of Scripture (Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11- 
 17; Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-23) in an ink prepared 
 for the purpose. They were then rolled 
 up in a case of black calfskin, which was 
 attached to a stiffer piece of leather, hav¬ 
 ing a thong one finger broad and one and 
 a half cubits long. They were placed at 
 the bend of the left arm. Those worn on 
 the forehead were written on four strips of 
 parchment, and put into four little cells 
 within a square case, on which the Hebrew 
 letter Shin was written. The square had 
 two thongs, on which Hebrew letters were 
 inscribed. That phylacteries were used 
 as amulets is certain, and was very nat¬ 
 ural. Scaliger even supposes that phylac¬ 
 teries were designed to supersede those 
 amulets, the use of which had been already 
 learned by the Israelites in Egypt. The 
 expression 4 they make broad their phylac¬ 
 teries ’ (Matt, xxiii. 5), refers not so much 
 to the phylactery itself, which seems to 
 have been of a prescribed breadth, as to 
 the case in which the parchment was kept, 
 which the Pharisees, among their other 
 pretentious customs (Mark vii. 3, 4; Luke 
 v. 33, etc.), made as conspicuous as they 
 could. It is said that the Pharisees wore 
 them always, whereas the common people 
 only used them at prayers. The modern 
 Jews only wear them at morning prayers, 
 and sometimes at noon. In our Lord’s time 
 they were worn by all Jews, except the 
 Karaites, women, and slaves. Boys, at the 
 age of thirteen years and a day, were 
 bound to wear them. The Karaites ex¬ 
 plained Deut. vi. 8; Ex. xiii. 9, etc., as a 
 figurative command to remember the law, 
 as is certainly the case in similar passages. 
 (Prov. iii. 3; vi, 21; vii, 3; Cant. viii. 6, 
 
 etc.) It seems clear to us that the scope of 
 these injunctions favors the Karaite inter¬ 
 pretation. The Rabbis have many rules 
 about their use.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Piarists, an order of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, founded in 1600, in Rome, by a 
 Spanish nobleman, Joseph Calasanze; b. 
 at Calasanze in Aragon, Sept. 11, 1556; d. 
 in Rome, Aug. 22, 1648; canonized by 
 Clement XIII. in 1767. Their object is to 
 give poor children a religious education, 
 and also some knowledge of Latin, Greek, 
 and philosophy. The Jesuits have opposed 
 them, but they have grown and number 
 about two thousand members. They are 
 chiefly confined to Italy, Spain, and Austro- 
 Hungary. In the latter country it is said 
 that 20,000 children are under their care. 
 
 Picards, a term applied to some branches 
 of the Bohemian Brethren. Picard was a 
 Fleming, who finally settled at Tabor, in 
 Bohemia, where he was attacked and killed 
 by Zisca, with all his followers but two, 
 who were kept in order that they might 
 give an account of the doctrines which they 
 held. See Adamites. 
 
 Pierce, Lovick, D. D., a distinguished 
 minister of the M. E. Church, South; b. in 
 Halifax Co., N. C., March 24, 1785; d. at 
 Sparta, Ga., Nov. 9, 1879. He entered the 
 South Carolina Conference in 1S04, and 
 served as a chaplain in the war of 1S12. 
 In 1812 he withdrew from the conference, 
 and until 1822 practised medicine at Greens- 
 borough, Ga., when he again connected 
 himself with the Georgia Conference. From 
 this time he was very influential in the 
 councils of the denomination. He was a 
 member of every General Conference from 
 1824 till his death. He is said to have 
 preached during his life-time not less than 
 eleven thousand times. 
 
 Pierpont, John, b. at Litchfield (now 
 Morris), Conn., April 6, 1785; d. at Med¬ 
 ford, Mass., Aug. 27, 1866. He was 
 graduated at Yale College in 1804, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1812, but soon aban¬ 
 doned it from conscientious scruples, and 
 after an unsuccessful attempt to establish 
 himself in business he studied theology at 
 the Cambridge Divinity School, and be¬ 
 came pastor of the Hollis Street Unitarian 
 Church, Boston, 1819. He was pastor at 
 Troy, N. Y., 1845-49, and Medford, Mass., 
 1S49-59. He was an earnest champion of 
 the antislavery and temperance causes, 
 but his name is most widely known by the 
 poems and hymns which he wrote. His 
 Airs of Palestine was published in 1S16, 
 and with other poems in 1S40. 
 
Pie 
 
 ( 741 ) 
 
 Pil 
 
 Pietists, a party in the Lutheran Church, 
 formed first about the middle of the seven¬ 
 teenth century at Leipzig, by Spener. He 
 considered that the Bible was neglected in 
 the studies ordered for young men at the 
 University, and organized lectures and 
 meetings for its more careful study. His 
 preaching at Strasburg, Frankfort, and 
 Dresden had great effect, and he insisted 
 on a holy life in both teachers and taught. 
 For this purpose, he formed schools called 
 Collegia Pietatis, where men and women 
 met together for prayer and instruction, 
 and thence carried their influence through¬ 
 out the land. The scheme was treated 
 with some contempt, and those who took 
 it up were nicknamed Pietists, on account 
 of their alleged excessive piety as regards 
 outward behavior. The movement cer¬ 
 tainly did a great deal of good to society, 
 instilling a purity of devotion in home life 
 whose effects were lasting; and to it was 
 due the foundation of German and Danish 
 missions to the heathen. Amongst Spe- 
 ner’s disciples were Francke(^. v.), Thoma- 
 sius, the professor of Leipzig and Halle, 
 and Bengel, the great commentator. Their 
 teaching gained ground at Leipzig, but 
 some of the more extreme Pietists so ir¬ 
 ritated the old school of theologians by 
 their denunciation of the mere doctrinal- 
 ism of many ministers in the Church, that 
 at last the Docents were obliged to leave 
 Leipzig. Frederick William I. of Branden¬ 
 burg established the University of Halle 
 in 1694, and through Spener’s influence 
 his friends found a refuge there, and it be¬ 
 came the home of Pietistic professors, who 
 first prelected on Scripture and founded 
 the great exegetical literature of Germany. 
 Afterward they came into collision with 
 the University of Wittenberg. Little more 
 is heard of the party in the history of the 
 Church till the beginning of the present 
 century, when it was at the height of its 
 power. It was entirely the result of the 
 new wave of evangelical teaching which 
 passed all through Europe about the same 
 time—waking men’s consciences, making 
 them dissatisfied with the rationalistic 
 , creed which had been considered sufficient 
 the century before, and counterbalancing 
 the refined indifference to religion which 
 we find in the works of Goethe and some 
 of his contemporaries. The work was, to 
 a great extent, carried on by a publication 
 called the Evangelical Church Journal. 
 The views held by the members of this 
 party were decidedly narrow. As a ground¬ 
 work they took the teaching of either Luther 
 or Calvin, but further proceeded to say 
 that those only who also held these views 
 could hope to be saved; and it was in con¬ 
 sequence of this that several famous and 
 
 learned divines, Neander amongst others, 
 refused to join their ranks. It was not to 
 be expected that the various members in all 
 parts of Germany (for it was in that coun¬ 
 try that Pietism was principally developed) 
 would think exactly alike. One province 
 wanted the work carried on in one way 
 and another in another; and the conse¬ 
 quence was that various communities were 
 formed. The most famous of these was 
 that which established itself at Kornthal, 
 near Wurtemberg. It was not in the least 
 schismatic, taking the Augsburg Confes¬ 
 sion as its basis, but it made several minor 
 alterations in the Lutheran Liturgy, and 
 claimed absolute right to settle its own af¬ 
 fairs independently of the ordinary ec¬ 
 clesiastical jurisdiction of Wurtemberg. 
 The community is still in a flourishing 
 condition, the church well attended, and 
 the agricultural department a pattern to 
 the surrounding country. Some of the 
 schools, too, are so famous that many boys 
 from America and England are sent there 
 for their education. The population at 
 the present time is about 1,000.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Pi'late (John xix. 1), or Pon'tius Pi'late 
 (Matt. xxvi. 2), was the sixth Roman pro¬ 
 curator of Judaea, appointed A. D. 25-26, in 
 the twelfth year of Tiberius. It was dur¬ 
 ing the time that he held office that our 
 Lord labored, suffered, and died. The 
 administration of Pilate was very offensive 
 to the Jews. A weak, time-serving man, 
 while declaring his conviction of the inno¬ 
 cence of Jesus, when he saw that his ac¬ 
 quittal might be used to arouse the suspi¬ 
 cion of the emperor, he delivered the 
 innocent Saviour into the hands of the 
 Jews to be crucified. In a. d. 36 Pilate 
 went to Rome to defend himself against 
 accusations brought by the governor of 
 Syria; but was unsuccessful. There are 
 several traditions as to the scene of his 
 death. One is, that he was banished, and 
 died in Vienne, Gaul; while another is, 
 that he sought refuge in the recesses of 
 the mountain near Lucerne, which bears 
 his name ; and in remorse and despair 
 committed suicide by drowning in the 
 dismal lake upon the summit of the moun¬ 
 tain. 
 
 Pilgrimage, a religious discipline, which 
 consists in making a journey to some 
 place in order to adore the relics of a 
 saint, or to visit the scene of some event 
 in sacred history. Pilgrimages were first 
 made about the fourth century, and speed¬ 
 ily came into use as an effectual means of 
 penance, the most celebrated places of de¬ 
 votion being Jerusalem, Rome, Tours, and 
 
Pis 
 
 ( 742 ) 
 
 Pla 
 
 Compostella. The custom of going on 
 pilgrimages reached its height about the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries, when it 
 was followed by all classes of society, 
 from kings to peasants. The Church 
 granted indulgences and special privileges 
 to those who visited certain places of de¬ 
 votion, and some made it their calling in 
 life to travel from one shrine to another. 
 At some places, as at Loretto, and, in our 
 own days, at Lourdes, it was said that the 
 Virgin Mary had appeared and ordained 
 that they should be consecrated to her 
 service; while at others relics of saints 
 were said to exist, which had wonderful 
 powers for the healing or sanctification of 
 those who visited them. In almost every 
 country pilgrimages have been common. 
 In England, the shrine of Thomas a Becket 
 was the chief resort of the pious; in Scot¬ 
 land, St. Andrew’s; in Ireland, various 
 places. The practice has been discontin¬ 
 ued among the Protestants, but is still in 
 favor in Roman Catholic countries, and 
 innumerable shrines are held sacred, and 
 visited for the expiation of sins or the 
 healing of infirmities. Pilgrimages are not 
 confined to Roman Catholics; they are 
 common among Mohammedans, Hindus, 
 and Jews, and are connected with all kinds 
 of superstitions.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Pisa, Councils of. The first Council of 
 Pisa (1409) sought to restore the unity of 
 the Roman Church. Failing to secure the 
 retirement of the two contending popes, 
 Gregory XII. and Benedict III., it elected a 
 third, Alexander V. The second Council 
 of Pisa was called in the interest of Louis 
 XII. Composed mostly of French clergy, 
 after a few sessions they removed to Mil¬ 
 an, and cited the pope to appear; and, on 
 his refusal, passed a sentence of suspen¬ 
 sion. Meanwhile, Julius II. held a coun¬ 
 cil in the Lateran, which excommunicated 
 the members of the Council of Pisa. The 
 loss, not long after, of his Italian con¬ 
 quests, compelled Louis to submit. 
 
 Pis'gah, the mountain height from which 
 Moses, just before his death, obtained a 
 view of the promised land. (Deut. xxxiv. 
 1.) It was in Moab, in the territory assign¬ 
 ed to Reuben, and was the place of Balak’s 
 sacrifice and Balaam’s prophecy. (Num. 
 xxiii. 14.) The precise location of Pisgah 
 has long been in dispute. The Due de 
 Luynes and Professor Paine of the Amer¬ 
 ican Palestine Exploration Society (1873) 
 identified Pisgah with Jebel Siaghah , the 
 extreme headland of the range Abarim. 
 “ His theory of the site of Pisgah is sharp¬ 
 ly questioned by Wolcott, Tristram, War¬ 
 
 ren, and others, chiefly on the ground that 
 it fails to meet the requirements of the 
 biblical narrative, and that Siaghah is not 
 the modern equivalent of Pisgah. Merrill, 
 as the results of a later exploration, says: 
 
 ‘ Mr. Paine makes the lowest and most 
 7 vestern of his five flat summits to be the 
 Pisgah of Moses. The most prominent 
 summit, directly south of ’Ayun Musa, is 
 called by Due de Luynes Jebel Rfrtsa, and 
 is covered with ruins.’ Mr. Paine’s theory 
 places Pisgah a quarter of a mile south¬ 
 west of this ruin summit, while Due de 
 Luynes regards a higher peak in the oppo¬ 
 site direction as Pisgah. Merrill favors 
 this ‘ highest point and most commanding^ 
 outlook’ as the probable point to which 
 Moses ascended. (See East of the fordan , 
 pp. 242-250.)”—Schaff: Bible Diet. 
 
 Pisid'ia [pitchy), a district of Asia Minor 
 north of Pamphylia, and south of Phrygia, 
 The Taurus mountains run through it, cut 
 by narrow defiles, with rushing torrents. 
 This wild region was infested with robber 
 tribes, and it may have been here that Paul 
 was in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, 
 (2 Cor. xi. 26.) Paul visited Pisidia twice, 
 (Acts xiii. 14; xiv. 21-24.) 
 
 Pi'thom. See Egypt, p. 281. 
 
 Pius is the name of nine popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Placet ( placetu?n regiuni , regium exe¬ 
 quatur , litterce pareatis ), a confirmation 
 of church law, papal bulls, or briefs, for¬ 
 merly required to be given by the State 
 before such law could be put into execu¬ 
 tion. This was made compulsory in Eng¬ 
 land by the Statute of Praemunire, 1393,. 
 which “ vindicated the right of the Church 
 of England to prohibit the admission or the 
 execution of all papal bulls or briefs with¬ 
 in the realms.” In the Roman Catholic 
 Church it is no longer in force as regards 
 matters of doctrine, ritual, or the sacra¬ 
 ments; in other matters it is simply limited 
 to an appeal to the pope, made by the 
 bishops if any constitution appears to them 
 to be unfitted for enforcement in their dio¬ 
 cese. The pope denies the right of the 
 State to interfere in ecclesiastical matters,, 
 and all who attempt to prevent the carry¬ 
 ing out of a papal decree are under a 
 penalty of excommunication; but, never¬ 
 theless, concessions are occasionally made 
 in order to prevent disturbance.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Plagues of Egypt, The, were ten in 
 number. (1) The waters of the Nile were 
 changed intQ blood. (Ex. vii. 14-25.) (2) 
 
Pla 
 
 ( 743 ) 
 
 Pla 
 
 The plague of frogs. (Ex. viii. 1-15.) (3) 
 
 The plague of lice. (Ex. viii. 16-19.) ( 4 ) 
 Swarms of venomous flies. (Ex. viii. 20- 
 32.) (5) A grievous murrain that destroy¬ 
 
 ed the cattle of the Egyptians. (Ex. ix. 1- 
 7.) (6) Malignant boils. (Ex. ix. 8-12.) 
 
 (7) Terrible storms with hail. (Ex. ix. 13- 
 35.) (8) Locusts. (Ex. x. 1-20.) (9) A 
 
 pall of darkness for three days, except in 
 Goshen. (Ex. x. 21-28.) (10) Finally the 
 
 first-born of Egypt were smitten at mid¬ 
 night. (Ex. xii. 29, 30.) These plagues 
 were probably spread over a considerable 
 period and followed as much as possible 
 the order of the seasons. 
 
 Plato, the greatest writer of heathen 
 philosophy, was born at Athens, B. c. 429. 
 Of the details of his early life little is 
 known. He was well-educated, and de¬ 
 voted the early years of his life to writing 
 poetry; but at the age of twenty became 
 acquainted with Socrates ( q . v.), and in 
 consequence gave up poetry, and devoted 
 the rest of his long life to the study of phi¬ 
 losophy. It is related by the biographer 
 of the Greek philosophers that once upon 
 a time Socrates dreamed that he found an 
 unfledged cygnet on his knee. In a few 
 moments it became winged and flew away, 
 uttering sweet sounds. Next day Plato 
 came, and Socrates felt his dream fulfilled. 
 From that time Plato became so identified 
 with his master that his individuality is al¬ 
 most lost. A part of the writings attributed 
 to him are certainly spurious, though a few 
 fragments of them may be genuine, giving 
 us some information respecting his travels 
 in Sicily. The form which Plato chose to 
 express his philosophy, that of the dia¬ 
 logue, was not an invention intended to 
 present his truth in attractive form. It 
 was because he was desirous from his heart 
 to elucidate truth, and to give all sides full 
 consideration. Many doubts and objec¬ 
 tions expressed are frivolous, but they are 
 such as suggest themselves to many minds, 
 and therefore have to be met. “ The dia¬ 
 logues of Plato,” says an English philos¬ 
 opher, “ are literally an education , explain¬ 
 ing to us how we are to deal with our own 
 minds, how far we are to humor them, how 
 far we are to resist them; how they are to 
 entertain the glimpses of light which some¬ 
 times fall upon them; how they are to 
 make their way through the complications 
 and darkness in which they so often feel 
 themselves lost. Nowhere but in the sa¬ 
 cred oracles do we find an author so cogni¬ 
 zant of our own perplexities, so little 
 anxious to hide them from us; nay, so 
 anxious to awaken us to the consciousness 
 of them, in order that we may be delivered 
 from them. Herein lies the art of Plato. 
 
 Most consummate art it is, we admit; supe¬ 
 rior in the depth of insight which must 
 have led to it, and in the influence which it 
 exerts, to that which is displayed in almost 
 any human composition. Still, it is not 
 art, in the sense commonly given to that 
 word; it has no independent purpose of 
 pleasing. It does not work underground, 
 leaving the ordinary man to feel its effects 
 simply, and the thoughtful man to judge 
 of its character by its effects. On the con¬ 
 trary, it anxiously draws your attention to 
 its own methods and contrivances: that 
 you should enter into them, and under¬ 
 stand all the springs and valves that are at 
 work is as much the writer’s ambition as 
 that you should accept any one of the final 
 results. Indeed, he does not acknowledge 
 the result as yours, till in the region of 
 your own inner being you have gone 
 through the processes which lead to them.” 
 —Maurice: Moral and Metaphysical Philos¬ 
 ophy, p. 129. 
 
 The fundamental principle of Plato’s doc¬ 
 trine is probably that which was known to 
 the Schoolmen as that of Universals, i. e., 
 the assertion that there is a constant char¬ 
 acter which repeats itself in every sample 
 of any natural kind, an invariable attri¬ 
 bute, which makes that object what it is, 
 whilst individual members of that class 
 have variable accidents. The essential 
 attribute he called the idea —that was the 
 ultimate reality. No object that comes be¬ 
 fore us in the physical world completely 
 fulfils our idea. I have an idea of a man, 
 but no one man fulfils the whole idea when 
 I hear the word “ man.” But so far as the 
 thing coalesces with the thought, the abid¬ 
 ing essence is present. And these ideals 
 rise in rank, the lower rise into the higher, 
 even until they reach One Supreme, in 
 whom all ideas and all thoughts are cen¬ 
 tred. Dr. Martineau, in his masterly and 
 exhaustive examination of the Platonic 
 philosophy, thus discriminates its main 
 principles: “ (1) The proper end of man is 
 not pleasure or the contentment of the 
 sensitive nature, but a good which may run 
 counter to this, and the chief elements of 
 which are truth, beauty, right. These are 
 to be sought on their own account as hav¬ 
 ing intrinsic and ultimate worth. (2) This 
 good, though including the just regulation 1 
 of the active principles of conduct, does not 
 terminate here, but takes in also the right 
 direction of the rational powers. (3) The 
 good which supplies the proper human aim 
 is not merely subjective and dependent on 
 the constitution.of the human faculties; it 
 has an objective reality, which would re¬ 
 main though we were not. Ere anything 
 perishable arose, it was. It existed sep¬ 
 arately, and justifies, therefore, its as- 
 
Pla 
 
 ( 744 ) 
 
 Ply 
 
 sumption of the name God. (4) This high¬ 
 est good exists in us and out of us. Its 
 various types, embodied in the visible uni¬ 
 verse, are also indigenous treasures of the 
 human mind which has pre-existed as well 
 as they, and been familiar with them in an 
 earlier state. Whatever is good is evolved 
 from us by appeal to memory; virtue is 
 learning, and learning is remembrance. (5) 
 It follows from this that our relation to 
 God as the divine ground and source of 
 the universe is a relation of likeness, arising 
 from identity of essence—of the little to 
 the great, the mixed and disguised to the 
 pure and clear, the partial copy to the per¬ 
 fect original.”— Types of Ethical Theory, 
 vol. i., pp. 84-86. The learned author 
 shows in a very grand passage which fol¬ 
 lows, where the Platonic idea fell short of 
 the Christian. 
 
 Platonism has been made by Providence 
 one of the most powerful handmaids of 
 Christianity. It underlies the grand phi¬ 
 losophy of the apocryphal books of “ Ec- 
 clesiasticus ” and the “ Wisdom of Sol¬ 
 omon,” writings of Alexandrian Jews who 
 had drunk deep of the Platonic writings. 
 Philo’s teaching concerning the Logos was 
 derived from the same source, and St. John 
 was inspired to show how far he was right, 
 and how the ideals had been fulfilled in the 
 Incarnate Word. The Alexandrian divin¬ 
 ity was Platonic, and some of the greatest 
 of English philosophers have drawn their 
 doctrines from the same fountains.—Ben- 
 ham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Platonism. See above. 
 
 Platonists, The Cambridge. See Cam¬ 
 bridge Platonists. 
 
 Plitt, Gustav Leopold, one of the edi¬ 
 tors of the second edition of Herzog’s Real- 
 Encyklopadie; b. at Genin, near Liibeck, 
 March 27, 1836; d. at Erlangen, Sept. 10, 
 18S0. He studied theology at Erlangen 
 and Berlin; became extraordinary, in 1867, 
 and in 1875 ordinary, professor of church 
 history and encyclopaedia at Erlangen. He 
 wrote several volumes on historical sub¬ 
 jects, and at the time of his death had nearly 
 completed a Life of Luther. He lived to 
 aid Dr. Herzog in his editorship of the Real- 
 Encyklopadie only through six volumes. 
 He was an excellent scholar and well 
 equipped for this work. 
 
 Plumer, William Swan, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent Presbyterian minister and theologian; 
 b. in Darlington, Penn., July 26, 1802; d. 
 In Baltimore, Md., Oct. 22, 1880. He was 
 graduated at Washington College, Lexing¬ 
 ton, Va., and studied theology at Princeton 
 
 Seminary. He was licensed to preach in 
 1827, and after several years of evangelistic 
 work in North Carolina he was called to 
 Petersburg, Va., in 1831 and then to the 
 First Presbyterian Church in Richmond in 
 1834, where he labored thirteen years. 
 From 1847 to 1854 he was pastor of the 
 Franklin Street Church, Baltimore, when 
 he was elected to the chair of didactic and 
 pastoral theology in the Western Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary at Allegheny, Penn., at the 
 same time serving as pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church of that city. From 
 1862 to 1867 he preached in Philadelphia 
 and Pottsville, Penn. Elected in 1867 to 
 the professorship of didactic and polemic 
 theology in Columbia Seminary, S. C., he 
 remained there until 1880, when he was 
 made professor emeritus. He wrote a num¬ 
 ber of commentaries on different portions 
 of the Old and New Testaments, and a great 
 variety of tracts that had a wide circulation, 
 as well as articles for the religious press. 
 A man of devoted piety and lovable char¬ 
 acter, he accomplished a noble life-work. 
 
 Plymouth Brethren, “ a religious sect 
 which sprang into existence about 1830-35 
 in Plymouth, Dublin, and other places in 
 the British Islands, and which has extended 
 itself considerably throughout the British 
 dominions and in some parts of the conti¬ 
 nent of Europe, particularly among the 
 Protestants of France, Switzerland, and 
 Italy, and also in the United States of 
 America. It seems to have originated in 
 a reaction against exclusive high-church 
 principles, as maintained in the Church of 
 England, with everything of a kindred 
 nature in other churches, and against a 
 dead formalism associated with ‘ unevan¬ 
 gelical ’ doctrine. Man)'- of the first mem¬ 
 bers of the new religious communities 
 formed in Plymouth and elsewhere were 
 retired Anglo-Indian officers, men of un¬ 
 questionable zeal and piety; and these 
 communities began to appear almost simul¬ 
 taneously in a number of places. Their 
 origin is, however, very much to be as¬ 
 cribed to the labors and influence of Mr. 
 Darby, from whom the Plymouth Brethren 
 on the continent of Europe are very gen¬ 
 erally known as Darbyites. Mr. Darby was 
 a barrister, moving in the highest circles 
 of society; and under deep religious im¬ 
 pressions became a clergyman of the 
 Church of England, and lived for some 
 time in a mud hovel in the county Wick¬ 
 low, devoting himself to his work ; but 
 afterward left the Church of England from 
 conscientious scruples, and became an 
 evangelist unconnected with any church. 
 In this character he labored both in Eng¬ 
 land and on the continent of Europe, 
 
Ply 
 
 ( 745 ) 
 
 Pol 
 
 preaching in French, English, and German. 
 He also gave utterance to his opinions in 
 numerous pamphlets, and in a quarterly 
 periodical called The Christian Witness, 
 which for a number of years was the ‘ or¬ 
 gan ’ of the Plymouth Brethren. He con¬ 
 tinued to visit from time to time the com- 
 munitiesor meetingsof Plymouth Brethren. 
 His tenets, and those of the Plymouth 
 Brethren in general, are strictly Calvin- 
 istic: original sin and predestination, the 
 efficacy of Christ’s sacrifice, the merit of 
 his obedience, the power of his interces¬ 
 sion, the gracious operations of the Holy 
 Spirit in regeneration and sanctification, 
 are prominent points. Millenarian views 
 are also generally entertained by the Plym¬ 
 outh Brethren; and they usually practice 
 the baptism of adults without regard to 
 previous infant baptism. They acknowl¬ 
 edge the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, 
 and administer it to one another in their 
 meetings, usually on every Sunday, or 
 ‘ first day of the week;’ in this, as in every¬ 
 thing else, refusing to acknowledge any 
 special ministers. They utterly reject 
 confirmation. Their most distinctive pe¬ 
 culiarity, when contrasted with other Cal- 
 vinistic churches, is their complete rejec¬ 
 tion of ecclesiastical organization. They 
 suppose the whole Christian body in the 
 world to have declined from truth and 
 duty, like Israel of old, and, therefore, to 
 have been ‘ corporately rejected of God,’ 
 and believe the true Church to consist of 
 themselves and of other chosen ones in the 
 various Christian churches. They refuse 
 to recognize any form of church govern¬ 
 ment, or any office of the ministry; they 
 insist much on the equal right of every 
 male member of the church to prophesy or 
 preach; and in their meetings, after each 
 hymn or prayer, there is usually a pause, 
 that any one, moved by the Spirit, may un¬ 
 dertake this office. They exclude persons 
 known to have been guilty of gross sins 
 from participation with them in the Lord’s 
 Supper, until proof is afforded of repent¬ 
 ance. The Plymouth Brethren reject every 
 distinctive appellation but that of Chris¬ 
 tians; although a special denomination is 
 found necessary to designate them; and, 
 in fact, no one not holding their views 
 could remain associated with them. A 
 great schism took place among them in 
 consequence of doctrines preached in Plym¬ 
 outh and Bristol concerning the human 
 nature of Christ; Mr. Darby vigorously 
 opposing what he deemed a dangerous 
 error, and he and his adherents utterly 
 separating from the fellowship of those 
 who maintained or even refused to con¬ 
 demn it. One of the most noted (if not 
 notable) converts to the principles of the 
 
 sect was the revivalist Guinness, who was 
 baptized in i860 by another Plymouth 
 Brother, Lord Congleton. 
 
 “ On the continent of Europe the Plym¬ 
 outh Brethren have in many places given 
 great trouble to the Protestant churches 
 by their opposition to all ecclesiastical 
 order or organization.”—Chambers: Cyclo- 
 pcedia. See Tevlon: History and Doctrines 
 of the Plymouth Brethren (London, 1883). 
 
 Pneumatomachi (Gr .pneuma, spirit, and 
 machos, an enemy), a name applied to all 
 who denied the personality and divinity 
 of the Holy Spirit, but more especially to 
 the followers of Macedonius (q. v.). See 
 Semi-Arians. 
 
 Poetry, Hebrew. See Hebrew Poetry. 
 
 Pole, Reginald, archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury; b. probably in Lordington, Sussex, 
 March, 1500; d. at Lambeth, Nov. 18, 
 1558. His mother was a niece of Edward 
 IV., and he was educated at Oxford, and at 
 the universities of Paris and Padua, at the 
 expense of Henry VIII., who bestowed up¬ 
 on him several important ecclesiastical pre¬ 
 ferments. When that monarch resolved 
 upon the divorce from his queen, Catherine 
 of Aragon, Pole strongly opposed the 
 measure, and wrote his Pro Unitate Eccle- 
 siastica, which condemned the position taken 
 by the king. Deprived of his preferments 
 Pole found refuge in Italy, where he was 
 received with honor, and made cardinal. 
 On the death of Paul III. he came near be¬ 
 ing elected his successor. At the acces¬ 
 sion of Mary he was sent as legate to Eng¬ 
 land, and the day after the execution of 
 Cranmer he was consecrated to the arch¬ 
 bishopric of Canterbury. During his brief 
 term of power many were put to death as 
 heretics. He was a man of time-serving 
 spirit, but always firm in his defence of 
 papal authority. See Hook: Lives of 
 Archbishops of Canterbtiry, vol. iii. 
 
 Polemics. See Apologetics. 
 
 Polentz, George of. See George of 
 Polentz. 
 
 Polity. See Church Government 
 
 Pollock, Robert, a Scottish minister and 
 poet; b. at Muirhouse, Eaglesham Parish, 
 Renfrewshire, 1799; d. at Southampton, 
 Sept. 15, 1827. He was graduated at the 
 University of Glasgow, and studied theol¬ 
 ogy, but after receiving his license from the 
 United Secession Church (1827), he preach¬ 
 ed but once. He wrote numerous stories 
 which were published anonymously, but 
 
Pol 
 
 (746) 
 
 Pol 
 
 his fame rests upon his poem, the “ Course 
 of Time” (1827), which had great popularity. 
 
 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was a pupil 
 of St. John, and by some is thought to be 
 the angel of Smyrna on whose account St. 
 John received a message in the Book of 
 Revelation. Soon after his accession, 
 Marcus Aurelius ordered a persecution 
 throughout his empire. The Christians 
 bore their sufferings so bravely that they 
 are described by a writer of that time in 
 the following words: “At the time of 
 their torment they seemed absent, as it 
 were, from the body, or rather that the 
 Lord, being present with them, conversed 
 familiarly with them; thus they were sup¬ 
 ported by the grace of Christ.” The mob 
 were so angry at this fortitude that they 
 determined to have Polycarp as one of 
 their victims. He was warned of the ar¬ 
 rival of the officers, so had time to take 
 refuge in a neighbor’s house, and from 
 thence retired to a small village on the out¬ 
 skirts of Smyrna. He might have stayed 
 there safely for some time, but the officers 
 bribed one of his slaves to reveal the 
 bishop’s hiding-place. When they came 
 to take him he behaved toward them with 
 great kindness,setting refreshments before 
 them with his own hand. He asked leave 
 to have a quiet hour for prayer, and then 
 expressed himself ready to go with them. 
 On the way back to Smyrna the soldiers 
 tried to tempt him to recant, urging that 
 there could be no harm in saying the words 
 “ Lord Caesar,” or in offering sacrifice, and 
 yet by such trivial matters he might save 
 his life. He did not answer them at first, 
 and when absolutely compelled to speak 
 he only said, “ I will not follow your ad¬ 
 vice.” He was given another chance by 
 the proconsul while the soldiers were pre¬ 
 paring the stake at which he was to be 
 burnt alive. The proconsul said, “ Swear 
 by the fortunes of Caesar; curse Christ, 
 and I will set thee free.” But Polycarp 
 quietly answered, “ Eighty and six years 
 have I served Christ; how, then, can I 
 curse him, my King and my Saviour?” 
 The herald was ordered to proclaim 'that 
 Polycarp had admitted that he was a 
 Christian, and then the fire was kindled. 
 Soon after his death one of his followers, 
 Irenaeus, wrote an account of his life and 
 death, and some of his congregation met 
 together to settle how they should com¬ 
 memorate the memory of one to whom 
 they all owed so much. They agreed that 
 they would solemnly keep the day of his 
 martyrdom every year, which they called 
 his “ birthday.” This is probably the 
 origin of keeping Saints’ Days.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Polyglot (Gr. polys , many, and glotta, a 
 tongue). The name is given to two or 
 more versions of the Bible arranged side 
 by side. The polyglots seem to have ex¬ 
 isted from very early ages. The ancient 
 editions of the New Testament which ap¬ 
 peared in the first ten centuries, and which 
 contain the Greek and vernacular lan¬ 
 guages, are sometimes wrongly termed 
 polyglot. The name is also sometimes 
 used for the Hexapla of Origen, which con¬ 
 tains the Hebrew text and six Greek ver¬ 
 sions. The polyglots, properly so called, 
 are the four greater and the many lesser 
 polyglots. The four greater are the Com- 
 plutensian, the Antwerp, the Parisian, and 
 the London. 
 
 The Complutensian Polyglot (so called be¬ 
 cause it was printed at Alcala da Henares, 
 the Latin name of which is Complutum) 
 was prepared at the cost of Cardinal Xime- 
 nes by famous Spanish scholars between 
 the years 1502 and 1517, but was not pub¬ 
 lished till 1529. It is in six volumes, of 
 which the first four contain the Old Testa¬ 
 ment, the fifth the New, and the sixth He¬ 
 brew and Chaldee grammars and lexicons. 
 It gives six different texts: the Hebrew, 
 the Chaldee, Onkelos’s Targum, the Sep- 
 tuagint, the Vulgate, and the Greek New 
 Testament. There are also literal Latin 
 translations of the Chaldee and Septuagint 
 Greek versions. 
 
 The Antwerp Polyglot was published 
 there between 1569 and 1572 by the famous 
 printer Christophe Plantin, at the cost of 
 King Philip II. of Spain, under the direc¬ 
 tion of Benedict Arias Montanus. It is in 
 eight volumes, and contains, besides what 
 is in the Complutensian Version, the Chal¬ 
 dee Paraphrase upon the other books of 
 the Old Testament, with the Latin inter¬ 
 pretation of the Syriac. The eighth vol¬ 
 ume, which has the Hebrew and Greek 
 texts with the Latin version of Pagninus, 
 altered in a few instances by Arias, has 
 been often reprinted. This polyglot is not 
 of very much value, as it depends very 
 much on the Complutensian, and the alter¬ 
 ations are made from some editions pub¬ 
 lished in Paris by Robert Stephens (d. 
 1559 )- 
 
 The Paris Polyglot , the largest of the 
 polyglots, was published in Paris in 1645 
 at the expense and under the superintend¬ 
 ence of Guy Michel le Jay. It is in ten 
 large folio volumes, and contains, besides 
 the versions in the Antwerp Polyglot, 
 Syriac and Arabic versions, arranged by 
 some Maronites from Rome, the Samaritan 
 Pentateuch, and another Samaritan version, 
 each with a literal Latin translation. It 
 contains many defects, and has little criti¬ 
 cal value. 
 
Pol 
 
 ( 747 ) 
 
 Pop 
 
 The London Polyglot was published in 
 1654-57 in London in six volumes. It was 
 edited by Brian Walton, afterward bishop 
 of Chester. There are two sets of copies 
 —the Republican (1657), those dedicated to 
 Oliver Cromwell, and the Loyal (1660), 
 which were dedicated to Charles II. on his 
 accession. The work engaged all the most 
 learned men in England for many years. 
 It contains Hebrew, Samaritan, Greek, 
 Arabic, Chaldee, Ethiopic, Syriac, Persic, 
 and Latin versions, all but the Vulgate be¬ 
 ing accompanied with literal Latin transla¬ 
 tions. The sixth volume contains various 
 readings and critical remarks. The Prole¬ 
 gomena by Walton discusses Bible texts and 
 versions. This work was followed in 1669 
 by the Lexicon Heptaglotton of Edmund 
 Castell, containing lexicons of all the lan¬ 
 guages of the polyglot except the Latin and 
 Greek. 
 
 The chief of the lesser polyglots are (1) 
 the Heidelberg , in 3 vols. (1586), containing 
 Hebrew, Greek and Latin texts ; (2) the 
 Hamburg, compiled by David Wolder, in 6 
 vols. (1596), in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and 
 German; (3) the Nuremberg , edited by Elias 
 Hutter (1599), in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, 
 Latin, German, and French; (4) the Leipzig, 
 edited by Reineccius, the New Testament 
 in Syriac, Greek, Latin, German, and Ro¬ 
 man (1713), and the Old Testament in He¬ 
 brew, Greek, Latin, and German (1750-51); 
 
 (5) Bagster’s, the most valuable of the 
 modern collections of versions (1831), 
 which contains Latin, Greek, Samaritan, 
 the Septuagint, Hebrew, German, Italian, 
 Spanish, French, and English, to which 
 Syrian is added in the New Testament; 
 
 (6) Bielefelds Hand Polyglot (1845-54), 
 containing, in the Old Testament, Hebrew, 
 Greek, Latin, and Luther’s German ver¬ 
 sion, and in the New, Greek, Latin, and 
 Luther’s German, and in the fourth column, 
 sometimes the chief differences between 
 this and other German versions, sometimes 
 the English authorized version; (7) the 
 Hexaglot Bible, edited in London by R. de 
 Levante( 1871-75), containing the’Greek and 
 Hebrew texts, with Septuagint, Syriac, 
 Latin, English, French, and German ver¬ 
 sions.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Polytheism. The gradual development 
 of polytheism—the belief in and worship of 
 many gods—from the primitive monothe¬ 
 ism, we infer from the history of Abraham 
 (Gen. xiv. 18; Josh. xxiv. 2), of Jacob 
 (Gen. xxxi. 19), of Joseph (Gen. xli. 50), 
 and of Moses in his struggle to keep his 
 people free from the seductions of Egyptian 
 and Midianite heathenism. This view is 
 substantiated by the New Testament. 
 (Rom. i. 21; Acts xiv. 16; xvii. 29.) 
 
 Pond, Enoch, D. D., b. at Wrentham, 
 Mass., July 29, 1791; d. at Bangor, Me., 
 Jan. 21, 1882. He was graduated at Brown 
 University in 1813, and studied theology 
 under Dr. Emmons, and was ordained pas¬ 
 tor of the Congregational Church in Ward 
 (now Auburn), Mass., 1815. From 1828 
 to 1832 he edited The Spirit of the Pilgrims , 
 published in Boston. In 1832 he entered 
 upon the duties of professor of systematic 
 theology in the Bangor Theological Sem¬ 
 inary. He filled this chair till 1856, when 
 he was elected president and professor of 
 ecclesiastical history, and lecturer on pas¬ 
 toral theology. He retired from active 
 service in 1870. He wrote several books, 
 among them: Lectures on Pastoral Theology 
 (Andover, 1866 \, Lectures on Christian The¬ 
 ology (Boston, 1868); A History of Gods 
 Church, from its Origin to the Present Times 
 (Hartford, 1871). 
 
 Pontifex, or Pontiff, an order of hea¬ 
 then priests at Rome. The Pontifex Maxi¬ 
 mus was the head of the College of Pontiffs, 
 and was an office of power. The term 
 “ pontiff,” as applied to bishops and then 
 to the gope, is borrowed from this source. 
 
 Pontificale, a book which designates the 
 rites which can alone be performed by a 
 bishop; e. g. , the coronation of kings, the 
 ordination of priests and deacons, and con¬ 
 firmation. It also describes his vestments. 
 
 Poole, Matthew, a learned Noncon¬ 
 formist divine; b. at York, Eng., 1624; d. 
 at Amsterdam, Oct., 1679. Educated at 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he became 
 Presbyterian minister of St. Michael-le- 
 Quernes, London, in 1648. Having lost 
 his living on account of his Nonconformity, 
 he devoted himself to biblical studies and 
 writing. His chief works are: Synopsis 
 Bibliorum Criticorum (1669); The Blasphem¬ 
 er Slain by the Sword of the Spirit (1654); 
 The Nullity of the Romish Faith; or, a Blow 
 at the Root , etc. (1666); Dialogues Between a 
 Popish Priest and an English Protestant 
 (1667). He left an uncompleted English 
 Annotations of the Holy Bible, which was 
 completed by his friends, and has passed 
 through many editions. 
 
 Poor Clares. See Clare, St. 
 
 Poor Men of Lyons. See Waldenses. 
 
 Popes. “ The name Pope (from the Lat. 
 papa, a father) was formerly given to all 
 bishops; but in the Western Church it is 
 now given exclusively to the bishop of 
 Rome, and the head of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Officially the pope bears the title. 
 
Pop 
 
 (748) 
 
 Pop 
 
 * Bishop of Rome and Vicar of Jesus 
 Christ, Successor of St. Peter, Prince of 
 the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Uni¬ 
 versal Church.’ The title of pope was first 
 adopted by Hyginus, A. D. 139. Originally 
 the popes were elected by the priests and 
 people of the diocese of Rome. In the 
 eleventh century, Nicholas II. conferred 
 on the cardinals the right of election; but, 
 in conformity with his statutes, these dig¬ 
 nitaries, who had figured as a body since 
 the eighth century, were bound to demand 
 of the Roman people and the Roman clergy 
 the ratification of their choice, that choice 
 being the preference of at least two-thirds of 
 the conclave. Since 1227 (the accession of 
 Gregory IX.) the popes have been chosen 
 by the cardinals alone, and almost always 
 from among the Italian members of their 
 own body. Each cardinal writes the name 
 of the candidate he proposes on a ticket, 
 which he deposits in a consecrated chalice 
 which stands on the altar of the chapel in 
 which the conclave meets. If no candidate 
 is found to have secured two-thirds of the 
 votes, there is no election, and the former 
 mode of proceeding must be repeated; but 
 any cardinal may 4 accede ’ to the^vote of 
 another by altering his ticket according to 
 a prescribed form, and thus the necessary 
 two-thirds may be obtained. This proceed¬ 
 ing is called election 4 by access.’ The 
 moment the election is declared the tickets 
 are burned. After election the pope is 
 solemnly enthroned and crowned. From 
 755 to 1870 the pope was a temporal prince. 
 The states (called 4 the States of the 
 Church’)over which he reigned now form 
 a part of the Italian Kingdom. The follow¬ 
 ing is a list of the bishops and popes of 
 Rome from the first century downwards: 
 
 a. d. First Century. 
 
 St. Peter. [Although St. Peter is always placed 
 at the head of the list, it is doubted by many 
 historians whether St. Peter ever was at 
 Rome. There is a tradition, however, that 
 he was martyred there—crucified, with his 
 head downwards.] 
 
 St. Clement (Clemens Romanus). (See Clemens 
 Romanus.) 
 
 St. Linus. 
 
 St. Cletus. 
 
 St. Clement II. 
 
 Second Century. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 230—St. Pontianus. [Banished.] 
 
 235— St. Antherus. [Martyred.] 
 
 236— St. Fabianus. [Martyred.] 
 
 251— St. Cornelius. 
 
 252— St. Lucius. [Martyred.] 
 
 253— St. Stephen I. [Martyred.] 
 
 257—St. Sixtus II. [Martyred.] 
 
 259—St. Dionysius. 
 
 269—St. Felix I. [Martyred.] 
 
 275—St. Eutychianus. 
 
 283—St. Caius. • 
 
 296—St. Marcellinus. 
 
 Fourth Century. 
 
 308—St. Marcellus I. [Banished.] 
 
 310— St. Eusebius. 
 
 311— St. Melchiades. 
 
 • 3x4—St. Sylvester I. 
 
 336— St. Marcus. 
 
 337— St. Julius. 
 
 352—Liberius. [Felix II., antipope.] 
 
 366—St. Damasus [Ursicinus, antipope.] 
 
 384—Siricius. 
 
 398—St. Anastasius. 
 
 Fifth Century. 
 
 402—St. Innocent I. 
 
 417— St. Zosimus. 
 
 418— St. Boniface I. 
 
 422—St. Celestine I. [Is said to have sent missionaries 
 to Ireland.] 
 
 432—Sixtus III. 
 
 440—St. Leo I., or, the Great. [Celebrated for his 
 writings; also as having, it is said, induced 
 Attila to leave Italy, without attacking 
 Rome, after he had sacked Verona, Mantua, 
 and other cities.] (See Atola.) 
 
 461—St. Hilary. 
 
 468—St. Simplicius. 
 
 483—St. Felix III. 
 
 492—St. Gelasius I. 
 
 496—St. Anastasius II. 
 
 498—Symmachus. [Laurentius, antipope.] 
 
 > Sixth Century. 
 
 514—Hormisdas. 
 
 523—John I. [Died at Ravenna in prison, into which 
 he had been thrown by Theodoric, king of 
 the Goths.] 
 
 526—Felix IV. [Is said to have introduced into the 
 Church the sacrament of extreme unction.] 
 530—Boniface II. 
 
 533—John II. (Mercurius.) 
 
 535— Agapetus I. 
 
 536— St. Sylverius. [Banished, through the influence 
 
 of the Empress Theodora, into Lycia, where 
 he is said to have died of hunger. Vigilius, 
 antipope.] 
 
 540—Vigilius. 
 
 555—Pelagius I. 
 
 560—John III. (Catilinus.) 
 
 574—Benedict I. (Bonosus.) 
 
 578—Pelagius II. 
 
 590—St. Gregory I., or, the Great. [Sent St. Augus¬ 
 tine to England to win the English over to 
 the Church.] 
 
 100—St. Evaristus. [Martyred.] 
 109—St. Alexander I. [Martyred.] 
 119—St. Sixtus I. [Martyred.] 
 
 127—St. Telesphorus. [Martyred.] 
 139—St. Hyginus. 
 
 142—St. Pius I. [Martyred.] 
 
 157—St. Anicetus. 
 
 168—St. Soterus. [Martyred.] 
 
 177—St. Eleutherius. 
 
 193—St. Victor I. [Martyred.] 
 
 Third Century. 
 202—St. Zephyrinus. 
 
 219—St. Calixtus. [Martyred.] 
 
 223—St. Urban I. [Martyred.] 
 
 Seventh Century. 
 
 604—Sabinianus. 
 
 607— Boniface III. 
 
 608— Boniface IV. 
 
 6x5—St. Deusdedit, or Deodatus I. 
 618—Boniface V. 
 
 625—Honorius I. 
 
 638—Severinus. 
 
 640—John IV. 
 
 642—Theodorus I. 
 
 649—Martin I. 
 
 654—Eugenius I. 
 
 657—Vitalianus. 
 
 672—Deusdedit, or Deodatus 11 = 
 
 676—Domnus I. 
 
Pop 
 
 ( 749 ) 
 
 Pop 
 
 A. D. 
 
 678—St. Agathon. 
 
 682—St. Leo II. [Is said to have introduced into the 
 Church the use of holy water.] 
 
 684— Benedict II. 
 
 685— John V. 
 
 686— Conon. 
 
 687— Sergius I. 
 
 Eighth Century. 
 
 701—John VI. 
 
 705—-John VII. 
 
 708—Sisinius. 
 
 Constantine. 
 
 715—St. Gregory II. 
 
 731—Gregory III. 
 
 741—St. Zacharias. 
 
 752—Stephen II. 
 
 Stephen III. 
 
 757—Paul I. 
 
 763—Stephen IV. 
 
 772—Adrian I. [Is said to have sanctioned the wor¬ 
 ship of images, which had been allowed by 
 a council held at Nice in 786, but was 
 opposed by Charlemagne and the Latin 
 Church.] 
 
 795—Leo III. 
 
 Ninth Century. 
 
 816— Stephen V. 
 
 817— Paschal I. (Paschasius.) 
 
 824—Eugenius II. 
 
 827—V alentinus. 
 
 Gregory IV. 
 
 844—Sergius II. 
 
 847—Leo IV. [To this period belongs the fabulous 
 story of Pope Joan. See Joan.] 
 
 855—Benedict III. 
 
 858—Nicholas I. 
 
 867—Adrian II. 
 
 872—John VIII. 
 
 882—Marinus, or Martin II. 
 
 884— Adrian III. 
 
 885— Stephen VI. 
 
 891—Formosus. [Sergius and Boniface VI., anti¬ 
 
 popes.] 
 
 896— Stephen VII. [Strangled by the people, for 
 
 having dishonored the remains of the former 
 pope.] 
 
 897— Roman us. 
 
 Theodorus II. 
 
 John IX. 
 
 Tenth Century. 
 
 900—Benedict IV. 
 
 903— Leo V. [Died in prison. Christopher, anti¬ 
 
 pope.] 
 
 904— Sergius III. 
 
 911—Anastasius III. 
 
 9x3—Landonius, or Lando. 
 
 914—John X. [Put to death by Marozia, wife of Guy, 
 Duke of Tuscany,] 
 
 928— Leo VI. [Also said to have been put to death 
 
 by Marozia.] 
 
 929— Stephen VIII. 
 
 931—John XI. [A son of Marozia. Thrown by his 
 brother Alberico into the Castle of St. An¬ 
 gelo, where he died.] 
 
 936—Leo VII. 
 
 939—Stephen IX. 
 
 942—Marinus II., or Martin III. 
 
 946—Agapetus II. 
 
 956—John XII. (Octavianus Conti.) [The first pope 
 to change his name on his accession to the 
 papal throne. He was assassinated by a 
 man whose bed he had violated.] 
 
 963— Leo VIII. [Styled antipope by some. ] 
 
 964— Benedict V. 
 
 965— John XIII. 
 
 972— Benedict VI. [Murdered in prison.] 
 
 973— Domnus II. 
 
 974— Benedict VII. (Conti.) 
 
 A. D. 
 
 984— John XIV. [Poisoned in the Castle of St. An¬ 
 
 gelo. Boniface VII., antipope.] 
 
 John XV. 
 
 985— John XVI. 
 
 996—Gregory V. (Bruno.) [John XVII., antipope.]; 
 
 999—Sylvester II. 
 
 Eleventh Century. 
 
 1003—John XVII. (Philagathus.) 
 
 John XVIII. (Secco.) 
 
 1009—Sergius IV. (Bocca di Porco.) 
 
 1012—Benedict VIII. 
 
 1024—John XIX. (Fasio.) 
 
 1033—Benedict IX. [Sylvester III., antipope.] 
 
 1044—Gregory VI. (Giovanni Graziano.) 
 
 1047— Clement II. (Suger.) 
 
 1048— Damasus II. (Poppo.) 
 
 1049— St. Leo IX. (Bruno.) 
 
 1055—Victor II. (Gebhard.) 
 
 1057— Stephen X. 
 
 1058— Benedict X. [By some styled antipope.] 
 
 1059— Nicholas II. 
 
 1061—-Alexander II. (Anselmo Baggio.) [Honorius 
 II., antipope.] 
 
 1073—St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand.) [The son of a 
 carpenter of Soano, in Tuscany. He was 
 characterized by great energy and ambition, 
 formed vast projects for the reform of the 
 Church, and in attempting to execute them 
 assumed unexampled powers. But he was 
 embroiled with the Emperor Henry IV., and 
 after a violent struggle retired to Salerno, 
 where he died. Clement HI., antipope.] 
 
 1086—Victor III. (Didier.) 
 
 1088—Urban II. [Proclaimed the first Crusade.] 
 
 1099—-Paschal II. [Albert and Theodoric, antipopes.] 
 
 Twelfth Century. 
 
 1118— Gelasius II. [Gregory VIII., antipope.] 
 
 1119— Calixtus II. 
 
 1124—Honorius II. (Lamberto.) 
 
 1130—Innocent II. [Victor IV. (Anacletus), antipope.] 
 
 1143— Celestine II. 
 
 1144— Lucius IT. [Killed by a blow which he received 
 
 in a popular commotion.] 
 
 1145— Eugenius III. 
 
 1153— Anastasius IV. 
 
 1154— Adrian IV. (Nicholas Brakespeare.) [The only 
 
 Englishman ever elected to the papal chair. 
 He was bom at Abbot’s Langley, near St. 
 Albans, and was for some time connected, i.i 
 an inferior position, with the monastery in 
 that city. It was during this pontificate that 
 the disputes between the papacy and th^ 
 Emperor Frederick of Germany (Barbarossa) 
 began, the result of which was the strife be¬ 
 tween the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, 
 which lasted for three centuries. Adrian IV. 
 is believed to have died from poison.] 
 
 1159—Alexander III. (Ronaldo Ranuci.) [Several 
 antipopes during the reign of this pope. He 
 took part with Thomas a Becket in his con¬ 
 flict with Henry II., and canonized A Becket 
 after his death.] 
 
 1181-—-Lucius III. (Ubaldo.) 
 
 1185—Urban III. (Uberto Crivelli.) 
 
 1187— Gregory VIII. (Alberto di Mora.) 
 
 1188— Clement III. (Paulino Scolaro.) [Proclaimed 
 
 the Third Crusade.] 
 
 X191 —Celestine III. (Hyacinthus.) 
 
 1198—Innocent III. (Lothario Conti.) [Encouraged 
 the Crusades, promoted the war against the 
 Albigenses, laid the kingdom of France under 
 interdict, and excommunicated John, king 
 of England.] 
 
 Thirteenth Century. 
 
 1216—Honorius III. (Cencio Savclli.) 
 
 1227—Gregory IX. (Ugolino.) [Proclaimed the Cru¬ 
 sade which was led by Frederick II. of Ger¬ 
 many, whom he afterward, however, twice 
 excommunicated.] 
 
Pop 
 
 (750) 
 
 Pop 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1241—Celestine IV. 
 
 1243—Innocent IV. (Sinibaldo de’ Fieschi.) [Said to 
 nave been the first to give red hats to the 
 cardinals.] 
 
 1254—Alexander IV. (Rinaldo Conti.) 
 
 1261—Urban IV. (Jacques Pantaleon.) 
 
 1265—Clement IV. (Guy Foulquois.) [Signed with 
 St. Louis of France the ‘ Pragmatic Sanc¬ 
 tion,” which put an end to the differences 
 between Rome and France.] 
 
 1271—Gregory X. (Tebaldo Visconti.) 
 
 1276— Innocent V. (Pietro de’ Champagniaco.) 
 
 Adrian V. (Ottobono Fieschi.) [Had been, 
 
 before his elevation to the papacy, legate to 
 England, in the reign of Henry III.] 
 
 John XXI. 
 
 1277— Nicholas III. (Giovanni Orsini.) 
 
 1281—Martin IV. (Simon de Brie.) 
 
 1285—Honorius IV. (Giacomo Savelli.) 
 
 1288—Nicholas IV. (Jerome of Ascoli.) 
 
 1294— St. Celestine V. (Pietro da Morroni of Abruzzo.) 
 
 [Imprisoned by his successor in a castle, 
 where he died.] 
 
 1295— Boniface VIII. (Benedetto Gaetani.) [Asserted 
 
 that God had set him over all kings and 
 kingdoms. He was taken prisoner by Philip 
 the Fair of France, which country he had 
 laid under an interdict. His death is said to 
 have been hastened by the sufferings he en¬ 
 dured during his captivity.] 
 
 Fourteenth Century. 
 
 1303—Benedict XI. (Nicholas of Treviso.) [Said to 
 have been poisoned.] 
 
 1305—Clement V. (Bertrand of Bordeaux.) [Re¬ 
 moved the residence of the popes from Rome 
 to Avignon.] 
 
 1316—John XXII. (Jacques de Cohors.) [Nicholas, 
 antipope.] 
 
 1334—Benedict XII. (Jacques Fournier.) 
 
 1342—Clement VI. (Pierre Roger.) 
 
 1352—Innocent VI. (Etienne d’Albert.) 
 
 1362—Urban V. (Guillaume de Grimoard.) 
 
 1370—Gregory XI. (Pierre Roger.) [Restored the 
 papal chair from Avignon to Rome; pro¬ 
 scribed the doctrine of Wycliffe.] 
 
 3378—Urban VI. (Bartolomeo Prignano.) [With this 
 reign began the great Western Schism, dur¬ 
 ing which several rival popes were elected, 
 residing at Avignon. It lasted till 1410.] 
 
 1389—Boniface IX. (Peter Tomacelli.) 
 
 Fifteenth Century. 
 
 1404—Innocent VII. (Cosmo de’ Migliorati.) 
 
 1406—Gregory XII. (Angelo Corrari.) [Deposed.] 
 
 1409— Alexander V. (Peter Philargius.) [Is believed 
 
 to have died from poison, administered by 
 his successor.] 
 
 1410— John XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa.) [Deposed.] 
 
 1417—Martin V. (Otho Colonna.) [Persecuted the 
 
 Hussites.] 
 
 1431—Eugenius IV. (Gabriel Condulmero. [Felix V., 
 antipope.] 
 
 1447—Nicholas V. (Tommaso Parantucelli.) [Founded 
 the Vatican Library.] 
 
 1455—CalixtusIII. (Alfonso Borgia.) 
 
 1458—Pius II. (.Eneas Silvius Piccolomini.) [One of 
 the most eminent scholars of his age.] 
 
 1464—Paul II. (Pietro Barbo.) 
 
 1471—Sixtus IV. (Francesco della Rovere.) [Issued a 
 bull giving indulgence to those who cele¬ 
 brated the Festival of the Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception.] 
 
 1484—Innocent VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo.) 
 
 1492—Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Lenzuoli Borgia.) [Died 
 from poison, which he had prepared for 
 another.] 
 
 Sixteenth Century, 
 
 1503—Pius III. (Francesco Piccoloipini.) 
 
 Julius II. (Julian della Rovere.) 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1513—Leo X. (Giovanni de’ Medici.) [The issue of 
 indulgences by this pope was the immediate 
 cause of the Reformation under Martin 
 Luther.] 
 
 1522— Adrian VI. 
 
 15 2 3— Clement VII. (Giulio de’ Medici.) [Excom¬ 
 
 municated Henry VIII. for having divorced 
 Catherine of Aragon and married Anne 
 Boleyn. This led to the Reformation in 
 England.] 
 
 1534—Paul III. (Alessandro Farnese.) [Issued a bull 
 of excommunication and deposition against 
 Henry VIII. of England.] 
 
 1550—Julius III. (Giovanni Maria Giocci.) 
 
 1555—Marcellus II. (Marcello Servini.) 
 
 Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Caraffe.) 
 
 1559—Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medichini.) 
 
 1566—St. Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri.) 
 
 1573—Gregory XIII. (Hugo Buoncompagni.) [The 
 Gregorian Calendar derives its name from 
 this pope. See Calendar.] 
 
 1585—Sixtus V. (Felice Peretti.) 
 
 1590— Urban VII. (Giovanni Battista Castagna.) 
 
 Gregory XIV. (Nicola Sfrondati.) 
 
 1591— Innocent IX. (Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti.) 
 
 1592— Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini.) 
 
 Seventeenth Century. 
 
 1605—Leo XI. (Alessandro de’ Medici.) 
 
 Paul V. (Camillo Borghese.) [The founder of 
 the Borghese family, one of the wealthiest in 
 Italy.] 
 
 1621—Gregory XV. (Alessandro Ludovici.) 
 
 1623—Urban VIII. (Mafifeo Barberini.) 
 
 1644—Innocent X. (Giovanni Battista Pamphili.) 
 
 1655—Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi.) 
 
 1667—Clement IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi.) 
 
 1670—Clement X. (Emilio Altieri.) 
 
 1676—Innocent XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi.) 
 
 1689—Alexander VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni.) 
 
 1691—Innocent XII. (Antonio Pignatelli.) 
 
 Eighteenth Century. 
 
 1700—Clement XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albini.) 
 
 1721—Innocent XIII. (Michael Angelo Conti.) 
 
 1724—Benedict XIII. (Vinbenzo Maria Orsini.) 
 
 1730—Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini.) 
 
 1740—Benedict XIV. (Prospero Lambertini.) 
 
 1758—Clement XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico.) 
 
 1769—Clement XIV. (Giovanni Vincenzo Ganganelli.) 
 
 1775—Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi.) [Drained 
 the Pontine Marshes. Was dethroned and 
 deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798, and 
 died at Valencia the following year.] 
 
 Nineteenth Century. 
 
 1800—Pius VII. (Gregorio Barnaba Chiaramonti.) 
 
 [Crowned Napoleon Emperor in 1804 ; ex¬ 
 communicated him in 1809; and was for 
 some years prisoner in France. On the abdi¬ 
 cation of Napoleon he returned to Rome, 
 where he died in 1823.] 
 
 1823—Leo XII. (Annibale della Genga.) 
 
 1829—Pius VIII. (Francesco Xavier Castiglioni.) 
 
 1831—Gregory XVI. (Mauro Cappellari.) 
 
 1846—Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Maistai-Ferreti.) [At 
 first remarkable for his reforms of abuses, 
 both civil and ecclesiastical, Pius IX. was 
 yet compelled to leave Rome on account of 
 the revolutionary movement of 1848, and re¬ 
 tired to Gaeta, where he remained till 1850, 
 when he was reinstated by French troops. 
 In 1870 he propounded the doctrine of Papal 
 Infallibility, and, after a troubled reign, was 
 deprived of his temporal power in the same 
 year. He died Feb. 7, 1878.] 
 
 1878—Leo XIII. (Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci, b. at 
 Carpineto, Italy, March 2, 1810.)” 
 
 —Cassell: Cyclopedia. 
 
 *For a full account of the development of 
 the papal power, and the part acted by dif- 
 
Pop 
 
 (751) 
 
 Pqs 
 
 ferent popes, see articles: Papal Power, 
 Christianity, and Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, b. in London, May 
 21, 1688; d. at Twickenham, May 30, 1744. 
 His name is given a place among sacred 
 poets because of his Messiah (1712); Uni¬ 
 versal Prayer (1732), and Dying Christian to 
 his Soul (1712). 
 
 Pordage, John, one of the founders of 
 the Philadelphian Society; b. in London, 
 1600; d. there, 1698. He studied theology 
 and medicine at Oxford, and was curate at 
 Reading, and then rector at Bradfield. 
 While here he became a convert to the 
 views of Boehme (q. v.), and, with a little 
 company of disciples, moved to London, 
 where he aided in the formation of the 
 Philadelphian Society. See Philadelphian 
 Society. 
 
 Por'phyry. See Neo-Platonism. 
 
 Porter, Ebenezer, D. D., b. at Cornwall, 
 Conn., Oct. 5, 1772; d. at Andover, April 
 8, 1834. He was graduated at Dartmouth 
 College, 1792, and after holding the pas¬ 
 torate of the Congregational Church in 
 Washington, Conn., from 1796 to 1812, he 
 became professor of sacred rhetoric in the 
 Andover Theological Seminary, where he 
 remained until ill-health compelled him to 
 retire, in 1832. He was a man of great 
 intellectual strength and ability. Among 
 his published works are: Letters on Relig¬ 
 ious Revivals which Prevailed about the Be¬ 
 ginning of the Present Century ; Lectures on 
 Eloquence and Style (1836). 
 
 Porter, Noah, D. D. (University of New 
 York City, 1858, Edinburgh, 1886), LL. D. 
 (Western Reserve College, O., 1870; 
 Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 1871), 
 Congregationalist; b. at Farmington, 
 Conn., Dec. 14, 1811; was graduated at 
 Yale College, New Haven, Conn., 1831; 
 was pastor at New Milford, Conn., 1836- 
 43; at Springfield, Mass., 1843-46; Clark 
 professor of metaphysics and moral phi¬ 
 losophy at Yale College, 1846-71; president 
 of Yale College, 1871-86. He is the author 
 of: The Human Lntellect (1868, 3d ed., 1876); 
 Books and Reading (1870, 6th ed., 1881); 
 American Colleges and the American Public 
 (1870, 2d ed., 1878); Elements of Lntellectual 
 Science (1871); Evangeline: The Place, the 
 Story, and the , Poem (1882); Science and 
 Sentiment (1882); The Elements of Moral 
 Science, Theoretical and Practical (1885); 
 Bishop Berkeley (1885); Kant's Ethics, a 
 Critical Exposition (Chicago, 1886). He was 
 the principal editor of the revised editions 
 
 of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (Spring- 
 field, Mass., 1864, 1880, and 1890). 
 
 Port Royal, “ the name given to two 
 celebrated nunneries which formerly ex¬ 
 isted in France—the Port Royal de Paris, 
 in the city of Paris, and the Port Royal de 
 Champs, near Chevreuse. The latter was 
 the more ancient, having been founded in 
 1204 by the wife of a French noble who 
 had joined in the Crusades; and its name 
 is said to have been given it by Philippe 
 II., or his followers, who, having lost their 
 way while hunting, found a ‘ port ’ or ref¬ 
 uge in the valley in which it was situated. 
 Early in the seventeenth century the nuns 
 of the establishment were removed to 
 Paris, carrying the name of the establish¬ 
 ment with them; and the old monastery 
 was soon after occupied by a number of 
 learned men, who wished to live a seclud¬ 
 ed life, and who went by the name of Les 
 Solitaires de Port Royal. These men in¬ 
 stituted a school or academy, by means of 
 which they hoped to counteract the teach¬ 
 ing of the Jesuits; and from them proceed¬ 
 ed the famous school-books, which have 
 ever since borne the name of Port Royal. 
 The nuns of Port Royal were also famous 
 for their conflicts with the Jesuits. Their 
 establishment in Paris continued in ex¬ 
 istence till the Revolution, when it was 
 finally dissolved.” — Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 See Sainte - Beuve: Port Royal (Paris, 
 1840-59), 5 vols; Beard: Port Royal (Lon¬ 
 don, 1861), 2 vols.; Jansenists. 
 
 Portugal. The State religion is Roman 
 Catholic, and of its population of 4,708,178 
 it is estimated that only 500 are Protes¬ 
 tants, and these are not allowed to worship 
 in public. The Roman clergy are paid in 
 part by the State, by the congregations 
 and from ecclesiastical funds. The Jesuits 
 were expelled in 1759, and have not been 
 allowed to return. 
 
 Positivism. Positivism consists essen¬ 
 tially of a philosophy and a polity, and 
 to these may be added a religion. It was 
 originated by Auguste Comte (b. 1797; d. 
 1S57), who set forth his ideas in some fif¬ 
 teen volumes. The books are rather ver¬ 
 bose, and the difficulties connected with his 
 system are met with the easy assurance, or 
 “ thereforeism,” so often found in French 
 philosophical and theological writers. 
 
 The name “ Positivism” was chosen by 
 Comte as implying reality and usefulness 
 as well as certainty and precision , since he 
 teaches that we have nothing whatever to 
 do with anything which cannot be positively 
 demonstrated. The existence of God, and 
 the belief in a future state are thus prac- 
 
Pos 
 
 (752) 
 
 Pos 
 
 tically excluded from his system. Posi¬ 
 tive Religion, or the Religion of Humanity, 
 as Comte calls it, is a curious invention. 
 Having dismissed, as mere fables, the be¬ 
 lief in God and the instinctive longing for 
 immortality, some central point was want¬ 
 ed toward which feeling, reason, and ac¬ 
 tivity could alike converge, and this was 
 found in the great conception of Humanity 
 —the abstract idea of mankind in the past, 
 the present, and the future. It is the pe¬ 
 culiar characteristic of Humanity, or the 
 Great Being, who is here set forth, to be 
 compounded of separable elements; mut¬ 
 ual love knits together its various parts; 
 and “towards Humanity, who is for us 
 the only true Great Being, in the conscious 
 elements of whom she is composed, we 
 shall henceforth direct every aspect of our 
 life, individual or collective. Our thoughts 
 will be devoted to the knowledge of Hu¬ 
 manity, our affections to her love, our ac¬ 
 tions to her service.” ( General View.) 
 “ By Humanity, the conception of God 
 will be entirely superseded.” This differs 
 from pantheism, since the Great Being of 
 positivism submits to the laws of the ex¬ 
 ternal world instead of originating them. 
 (Pantheism.) This idea is to be illustrat¬ 
 ed by the organization of festivals at reg¬ 
 ular intervals, setting forth the various 
 aspects of Humanity: the nation, the 
 town, the domestic relations, polythe¬ 
 ism, monotheism, etc., will have their fes¬ 
 tival days; in fact, there is to be a “ Posi¬ 
 tivist Calendar.” On the last day of the 
 year there is to be a commemoration of 
 the dead and of their services. 
 
 Throughout his system, Comte assigns 
 to woman a peculiar and exalted position. 
 He seems to find the answer to Solomon’s 
 question, “ Who can find a virtuous wom¬ 
 an?” in the great majority of women. 
 Woman’s mission is, he says, in one word, 
 love; they are charged with the education 
 of sympathy, the source of human unity. 
 As mothers and wives it is their office to 
 conduct the moral education of humanity. 
 In return for these benefits women are to 
 enjoy immunity from out-door and other 
 toilsome labor, and, besides, they are to be 
 the objects of worship, publicly and pri¬ 
 vately, as the first permanent step towards 
 the worship of Humanity. Man will, in 
 the days when positivism prevails, kneel 
 to woman, and to woman alone; the 
 source of his reverential feelings being a 
 clear appreciation of benefits received, and 
 a spirit of deep thankfulness for them. To 
 her, as the concrete form of the abstract 
 idea of Humanity, prayer— i. e., the out¬ 
 pouring of men’s nobler feelings—is to be 
 addressed daily. If a suitable living ob¬ 
 ject of devotion does not present itself, a 
 
 dead wife or mother may be selected, or 
 even some historical personage, so long as 
 she once really lived. For women them¬ 
 selves, however, Comte does not consider 
 himself competent to suggest an object of 
 devotion. 
 
 We have seen that love is said to be the 
 principle of positivism; it is to amount to 
 an abnegation of self; the motto on the 
 positive flag is to be Vivre pour altrui , 
 “Live for Others;” and the great moral 
 principle itself Comte called Altruism: 
 hence, “to love Humanity may be truly 
 said to constitute the whole duty of man.” 
 And then, after having “ lived as far as it is 
 possible for others, both in public and pri¬ 
 vate, and having given a charm and sacred¬ 
 ness to our temporary life, we shall at last 
 be forever incorporated with the Supreme 
 Being (Humanity), of whose life all noble 
 natures are necessarily partakers.” ( Gen¬ 
 eral View —condensed.) 
 
 If we look for the sources of this novel re¬ 
 ligion, we are not much assisted by Comte’s 
 own life. He seems to have been an 
 eccentric genius, with one of those bitter, 
 despotic tempers which led him to quarrel 
 with every one ! He was separated from 
 his wife, and lived on intimate terms with 
 a married woman, Clotilde de Vaux, not¬ 
 withstanding the strict morality of his sys¬ 
 tem. We must rather turn for an expla¬ 
 nation to what he calls “ Catholicism,” by 
 which he means sometimes Christianity, 
 sometimes modern Romanism; and then 
 we cannot but be struck with the singular 
 imitation of Christianity and the Christian 
 Church which positivism presents. Thus, 
 for the positive principle of love , “ live 
 for others,” we have the Gospel grace of 
 love as “ the fulfilling of the Law,” and 
 “ Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself,” 
 with the Christian rule of self-denial. For 
 the abstract idea of Humanity, we have 
 the Incarnate Son of God, the Second 
 Adam, and the Church of many members, 
 his Mystical Body. For the worship of 
 woman, extended to women generally in 
 imitation of mediaeval chivalry, and per¬ 
 haps not without reference to the Goddess 
 of Reason of the French Revolution, we 
 have the Romanist cultus of the Virgin. 
 The Madonnas of art had likewise their 
 influence, for the positivist flag has for its 
 device a young woman with a child in her 
 arms. For the festivals and commemora¬ 
 tions we have the Christian Seasons and 
 the roll of Saints. The leading principle 
 and the form of the Religion of Humanity 
 are thus obviously borrowed from Catholic 
 Christianity. 
 
 But a system that asserts that there is 
 no sense of, or feeling after, a God in our 
 nature, which does not acknowledge a sense 
 
Pos 
 
 ( 753 ) 
 
 Pra 
 
 of sin or guilt as we understand it, nor an 
 instinctive longing for, or expectation 
 of, immortality in man, gives us little 
 ground for hope that the exalted love and 
 the strict morality which it professes would 
 bear fruit in practice if it were freed from 
 the pressure of surrounding Christian 
 opinion. It seems, by its negations, rather 
 to be the philosophy of those who are ab¬ 
 sorbed in the sense of life, and to whom 
 this world is the whole of existence. Tak¬ 
 ing positivism at its own estimate, it 
 would appear to be easier to live as a con¬ 
 sistent Christian than as a moderately 
 good positivist; and certainly the promise 
 of eternal life is more attractive than, at 
 the best, the possibility of an idle com¬ 
 memoration after incorporation into the 
 Supreme Being of Humanity.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. Comte’s Philo sop hie Pos¬ 
 itive was translated into English and con¬ 
 densed by Miss Martineau into 2 vols. 
 (1853). The Catechism was translated by 
 Dr. Congreve (1858), and the Politique 
 Positive , published in London (1875-77). 
 See also Mill’s essay on August Co?nte and 
 Positivism ; Fisk: Outlines of Cosmic Phi- 
 losophy{\Zqf)\ Lewes: History of Philosophy, 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Possession, Demoniacal. See Demo¬ 
 niacs. 
 
 Postils, sermons or homilies. They fol¬ 
 lowed the reading of the Gospel, whence 
 the name {post ilia , i. e ., evangelica). 
 
 Porter, Alonzo, D. D., Protestant Epis¬ 
 copal bishop in the diocese of Pennsyl¬ 
 vania; b. July 6, 1800, in La Grange, 
 N. Y.; d. on shipboard in the harbor of San 
 Francisco, July 4, 1865. He was graduat¬ 
 ed at Union College in 1818, where he 
 filled the chair of mathematics until 1825, 
 when he was elected rector of St. Paul’s, 
 Boston, Mass. He resigned his pastorate 
 on account of ill-health, in 1831, and again 
 assumed the duties of the professorship at 
 Union. He was chosen bishop of the dio¬ 
 cese of Pennsylvania in 1845. His service 
 in this important field was efficient in many 
 directions. He took a deep interest in 
 philanthropic and educational work, and 
 laid his plans with far-sighted wisdom. 
 Devout in spirit, able in counsel, and gifted 
 with remarkable intellectual strength, his 
 influence was felt far beyond the bounds of 
 his diocese. 
 
 Potter, Right Rev. Henry Codman, 
 D. D. (Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., 
 1865; Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 
 1883), LL. D. (Union College, Schenec¬ 
 tady, N. Y., 1881), Episcopalian, bishop 
 
 of New York; b. at Schenectady, N. Y., 
 May 25, 1835; was graduated at the Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Theological Seminary of 
 Virginia, 1837; became rector of Christ 
 Church, Greensburg, Penn., 1857; St. 
 John’s Church, Troy, N. Y., 1859; assist¬ 
 ant minister of Trinity Church, Boston, 
 1866; rector of Grace Church, New York 
 City, 1868; assistant bishop of New York, 
 1883; bishop, 1886. He has published: 
 Sisterhoods and Deaconesses at Hoyne and 
 Abroad (New York,1871); Gates of the East: 
 A Winter in Egypt and Syria (1876); Ser¬ 
 mons of the City (1881). 
 
 Potts, George, an eminent Presbyterian 
 minister; b. in Philadelphia, Penn., March 
 15, 1802; d. in New York City, Sept. 15, 
 1864. After graduating at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Pennsylvania, 1819, and at the 
 Princeton Theological Seminary, 1823, he 
 was pastor at Natchez, Miss., 1823-35, and 
 in New York City from 1836 to his death. 
 He engaged in a memorable controversy 
 with Bishop Wainwright, on the claims of 
 Episcopacy, and published No Church 
 Without a Bishop (N. Y., 1844). 
 
 Pouring, the form of baptism in the 
 Church of Rome, and Protestant commun¬ 
 ions holding pedobaptist views. See 
 Baptism, Pedobaptist View. 
 
 Praemunire {to defend in front of), a term 
 used in a writ passed in the reign of Ed¬ 
 ward III. Its object was to lessen the au¬ 
 thority of the pope, and it ordained that no 
 one should appeal to the pope against the 
 authority of the sovereign, or on matters 
 belonging to his jurisdiction. Later sover¬ 
 eigns have given the name to other statutes 
 relating to their authority, but differing as 
 to the offences forbidden. 
 
 Prayer. In its wider meaning, and as 
 used very often in Holy Scripture, prayer 
 includes not only petition to God for our¬ 
 selves and for others, but also confession 
 of sin, thanksgiving for mercies received, 
 and also the praise and adoration of God 
 for his greatness and glory, to which last 
 the term “ worship ” is properly applied. 
 These various aspects of prayer are abun¬ 
 dantly illustrated in the Psalms, the great 
 book of inspired public and private devo¬ 
 tion. Thus, in the compass of one Psalm 
 we sometimes find two or more of these 
 elements of prayer joined together, and 
 this may remind us that the hard line we 
 often draw between prayer and praise is an 
 artificial one. In the Collects, and, in¬ 
 deed, in the prayers of the Western Church 
 generally, petition predominates over wor¬ 
 ship or adoration; but in the longer and 
 
Pra 
 
 ( 754 ) 
 
 Pra 
 
 more rhetorical prayers of the Eastern 
 Church adoration holds an important 
 place. 
 
 We read of prayer ages before God di¬ 
 rectly enjoined it, and in such a way that 
 we can only believe the idea of prayer to 
 be intuitive. Man naturally turns to God 
 in prayer. The Psalmist was but uttering 
 a universal truth when he said, “ O thou 
 that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh 
 come.” (Psa. lxv. 2.) Nor is this idea of 
 prayer confined to those who know one 
 God. In various ways the heathen appeal 
 to their gods; they hardly enter upon any 
 event in their lives without first of all ap¬ 
 proaching, in some form of prayer, the 
 powers they think able to help them. This 
 is matter of history, as well as of observa¬ 
 tion by missionaries now. We find prayer 
 made to God throughout Holy Scripture, 
 from beginning to end, accepted by him, 
 and answered by him. Here and there, as 
 in the Psalms, there are declarations as to 
 the kind of prayer to which God will heark¬ 
 en, until at last, in the New Testament, 
 Christ was plainly set forth as the medium 
 through whom it is to be offered, and the 
 Holy Spirit was made known as cooperat¬ 
 ing with the human spirit in its utterance. 
 Christians pray as members of Christ; God 
 hears and answers our prayers only be¬ 
 cause we are members of his beloved Son. 
 The duty of prayer is inculcated, not only 
 by the example of the Old Testament 
 saints, but also directly by our Lord and 
 his apostles. (Matt. vi. 5-13; xviii. 19, 20; 
 Luke xviii. 1—14; John xiv. 13, 14; xvi. 24; 
 Rom. viii. 26; 1 Cor. xiv. 15; Eph. vi. 18, 
 19; Phil. iv. 6; 1 Thess. v. 17; James i. 5; 
 v. 13-18.) 
 
 Remembering, then, the many-sidedness 
 of prayer, some points connected with it in 
 its aspects of petition for ourselves, or of 
 intercession for others, require examina¬ 
 tion. We must first clearly recognize that 
 God puts prayer before us as necessary if 
 we would gain our ends. There is a sig¬ 
 nal instance of this, and of the store which 
 God sets by his people’s prayers, when our 
 Lord bade his disciples, “ Pray ye the 
 Lord of the harvest, that he will send forth 
 laborers into his harvest.” (Matt. ix. 38.) 
 The disciples were bidden to ask God to 
 do his own work, and thus to cooperate 
 with him in his labor of love. But this is 
 only a sample of all prayer. God is ever 
 seeking the salvation and well-being of his 
 creatures, and yet he requires them to ask 
 him for those very things of which he 
 knows they stand in the direst need. How 
 there can be a place for petition when God 
 foresees everything is the mystery of 
 prayer; but there is likewise the mystery 
 of our freewill, and the one is the neces¬ 
 
 sary complement of the other. If we are 
 free to rule or misrule our lives and con¬ 
 duct, our very nature leads us to prayer in 
 our perplexities and distresses. If we are 
 free to wander, we must appeal to a guide. 
 This may be an intellectual difficulty, but 
 it is one involved in the mystery of God, 
 and in the mystery of our own being. 
 
 In the present day other difficulties 
 have been raised as to prayer and its effi¬ 
 cacy. (1) It has been said that prayer is 
 merely a superstitious custom, handed on 
 from generation to generation in civilized 
 countries; that it is a human invention al¬ 
 together. But, unlike other superstitions 
 which have crumbled away in the light of 
 truth and of modern discovery, prayer still 
 holds its ground. In spite of all that is al¬ 
 leged as to its uselessness, men of the 
 acutest intellect, as well as uncultured 
 men, still pray, and still believe in the 
 power of prayer. Besides this, we cannot 
 pass over the fact already mentioned, that 
 prayer is an intuitive idea with man, and 
 is not due to education—that it fulfils a 
 universal need of human nature. (2) It 
 is said that prayer is unreasonable, because 
 request is made for things contrary to the 
 immutable laws of nature. It is needful 
 to state this objection to prayer plainly. 
 The laws of nature are merely statements 
 of the orderly condition of things in nature, 
 a summary of what has been found by 
 competent observers. The order is so 
 perfect that we do not look for any devia¬ 
 tion from it. And in the spiritual world, 
 as far as we know it, we have every reason 
 to believe that law likewise reigns, or, to 
 speak more correctly, that the most perfect 
 order prevails. Thus we must believe 
 that every thought of our hearts is the re¬ 
 sult of some previous combination of ideas, 
 either existing there already or introduced 
 from without. Thoughts do not come 
 into our minds by chance. Such being 
 what we understand by law, we can sup¬ 
 pose that prayer may be answered, or ap¬ 
 parently answered, in two ways. Thus, 
 fine weather may be prayed for, and many 
 natural laws acting together may bring it 
 about in the ordinary course of things, to 
 all appearance as a direct answer to the 
 prayer; or, on the other hand, natural 
 causes not sufficing to cause fine weather, 
 God may see fit to bring about the result 
 prayed for by suspending or controlling 
 some of the laws of nature. It is to the 
 latter of these answers to prayer that ob¬ 
 jection is made. Again, prayer may be 
 made for some spiritual blessing, and the 
 blessing may come, either from ordinary 
 causes, i. e ., as a result of the religious 
 circumstances in which God has placed us, 
 or he may put a fresh thought into our 
 
Pra 
 
 ( 755 ) 
 
 Pra 
 
 minds, or change the intensity of some 
 feelings already there, and thus bring the 
 blessing prayed for. It is the latter case 
 to which objection is made. Objectors re¬ 
 gard those answers to prayer for temporal 
 or spiritual blessings which come in the 
 ordinary course of natural laws as the only 
 possible ones; they look upon them as 
 mere coincidences, and they wholly deny 
 the possibility of answers of the latter kiifd, 
 because they are contrary to unchangeable 
 laws—in short, because they are mirac¬ 
 ulous, and miracles are incredible. (The 
 question of the credibility of miracles 
 is discussed in the articles Miracles 
 and Resurrection, and reference may also 
 be made to the article on Natural Law.) 
 But there is also a class of theologians 
 who are disposed to deny that miraculous 
 answers to prayer are vouchsafed; one of 
 them has recently expressed his opinion 
 as follows: “ To the best of my under¬ 
 standing, we do well and reasonably to ask 
 God—just as we do for a daily sufficiency 
 in the Lord’s Prayer—to bless and pre¬ 
 serve the fruits of the earth, leaving the 
 immediate process to the ordinary work¬ 
 ings of his all-wise law; and then, after 
 doing our duty in the matter, to trust that, 
 in spite of appearances, he, ‘ in perfect 
 wisdom, perfect love, is working for the 
 best.’ In all troubles, temporal or spirit¬ 
 ual, we do well to put them up before God 
 and ask for his guidance to do our duty 
 toward mitigating or relieving them, and 
 to take to heart the many moral lessons 
 they inculcate. This prayer, with the un¬ 
 derstanding, I deem to be our reasonable 
 service to the Almighty; while, according 
 to our light and knowledge of God’s world¬ 
 wide and salutary law of ‘ reaping zuhat zve 
 sozv' I deem it unreasonable to ask him 
 to contravene this law for our special or 
 national possible benefit.” This writer 
 would think it unreasonable to be asked to 
 pray against the inundations of the Thames 
 in Lambeth, and would consider the 
 Thames Embankment authorities the prop¬ 
 er source of help. True, he would say, 
 the seasons lately have been unfavorable 
 for agriculture; the remedy for this is to 
 alter our system, rents, etc. And he goes 
 on: '* Why I strike against special petitions 
 to the Almighty to intervene directly in 
 certain things when they become painful, 
 is because we practically thereby charge 
 God with directly and specially sending 
 such visitations, when, as a fact, we are 
 but reaping what we or others have culpa¬ 
 bly or ignorantly sown.I do not 
 
 say that God cannot so administer his law, 
 moral and physical, as to give and with¬ 
 hold what we ask. I simply say that, to 
 the best of our understanding, acquired 
 
 from revelation and experience, God zvill' 
 not work signs and wonders that we may 
 believe.” Now, as nearly as the whole- 
 of our needs and adversities can be traced 
 to the culpable or ignorant sowing of our¬ 
 selves or others, prayer, according to this 
 view, should be limited to petitions for 
 patience and for guidance as to how we 
 can best help ourselves. Unquestionably 
 these are right objects of prayer, since all 
 real prayer is always accompanied by work 
 on our part; but it is impossible to accept 
 them as the whole, or even the most im¬ 
 portant, matters of prayer, without ignor¬ 
 ing what is told us in Holy Scripture. 
 Prayer is there represented to us as the 
 remedy for our sins and their effects, and 
 the only conditions placed upon our peti¬ 
 tions are, that they must be according to 
 God’s will, and the outcome of a sincere 
 and obedient heart. These conditions be¬ 
 ing fulfilled, the promise is that God will 
 grant us our requests, whatever they may 
 be. (A reference to the texts already 
 named will make this clear.) To deny this 
 would be equivalent to denying the efficacy 
 of prayer altogether, except as a moral 
 agent affecting ourselves only as a kind of 
 religious exercise; for it must be remem¬ 
 bered that even if we only believe that 
 God will give us patience, and guide us as 
 to how we should help ourselves, we yet 
 admit—though we may not avow it—the 
 efficacy of prayer, since patience and guid¬ 
 ance are themselves, if specially granted, 
 miraculous gifts of God. 
 
 For the sake of plainness, it may be add¬ 
 ed that: (i) No distinction can be made be¬ 
 tween prayer for temporal and spiritual 
 blessings; both alike are put before us as 
 proper objects of prayer in Scripture, and 
 both the one and the other are promised 
 in answer to it. (2) When prayer seems 
 to be specially answered, we can rarely 
 say how much is due to the operation of 
 natural laws, how much to some modifica¬ 
 tion of those laws; we know not where 
 ordinary law, so to speak, ends, and where 
 miracle begins. (3) Taking the history of 
 the Apostolic Church for our guide, al¬ 
 though we are encouraged to make known 
 all our requests, freely, to God, we are 
 not, generally speaking, led to expect such 
 an answer to our prayers as would involve 
 an obvious miracle— e. g ., the raising of the 
 dead, the floating of a hopelessly sinking 
 ship in mid-ocean—but we must believe 
 that he does really and directly answer 
 prayer, as well in our temporal as our 
 spiritual concerns, though we know it not. 
 By a logical necessity we are compelled to 
 take one side or the other; there is no 
 middle course. Prayer, in the Scripture 
 sense of the word, is and can be, or it is 
 
Pra 
 
 ( 756 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 not and cannot be, answered. —Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Prayer, Book of Common. See Com¬ 
 mon Prayer, Book of. 
 
 Prayer for the Dead was offered by the 
 Jews in later times (2 Macc. xii. 43-45), 
 and the custom is referred to by Christian 
 writers at a very early period. The Prot¬ 
 estant Church almost universally rejects 
 this ancient usage. See Purgatory. 
 
 Preachers, Local. See Local Preach¬ 
 ers. 
 
 Preaching Friars. See Dominicans. 
 
 Prebend (Lat. preebenda , an allowance) 
 was originally the portion of food allotted 
 to each monk at the common table where 
 they assembled, Later the revenues of 
 the Church were divided among the monks 
 and clergy according to their station, but 
 the term was still used to denote the fixed 
 income which each one received. The 
 prebends were either preebendee capitulares 
 ox preebendee domicellares, the former being 
 those held by a regular member of the 
 chapter, and the latter by a junior. They 
 were of four degrees — majores , media , 
 minores and semi-preebendee. The holder of 
 a prebend is called a prebendary. 
 
 Precentor, the leader of the choir and 
 musical director. In the churches where 
 there are no organs the one who leads the 
 singing is called a precentor. 
 
 Preconization (Lat. prceconisare , to an¬ 
 nounce publicly), the notice given by the 
 pope, in the assembly of the cardinals, of 
 the appointment of any person to a high 
 ecclesiastical position. 
 
 Predestination, a word used to denote 
 the eternal purpose of God, whereby he 
 has preordained whatever comes to pass. 
 See Calvinism. 
 
 Prelacy, the office or dignity of a prelate 
 or bishop. 
 
 Prelate, a term used to designate the 
 highest of the three orders of the ministry. 
 
 Premillennialism. See Millenarianism. 
 
 Premonstrants, or Premonstraten- 
 sians, a once powerful and numerous 
 monastic order founded in the early part 
 of the twelfth century by Norbert. At one 
 time it had a thousand male and five hun¬ 
 dred female abbeys. They followed the 
 
 rules of St. Augustine, fasted frequently, 
 and abstained entirely from the use of 
 meats. Their founder, Norbert, was born 
 at Zanten, on the Rhine, and died at 
 Magdeburg, June 6, 1134. He was a rela¬ 
 tive of the emperor, Henry V., and after 
 leading a life of pleasure in youth, became 
 a preacher among the poor to whom he dis¬ 
 tributed his wealth and founded his order 
 at fTemontr e (Proemonstratum), a place be¬ 
 tween Rheims and Laon. Honorius II. 
 confirmed the order in_ii26, and for several 
 centuries it rivaled the Cistercian, but 
 when decay set in its dissolution was rapid. 
 
 Prentiss, Elizabeth, b. at Portland, Me., 
 Oct. 26, 1818; d. at Dorset, Vt., Aug. 13, 
 1878. She was the youngest daughter of 
 Dr. Edward Payson. She married the Rev. 
 George L. Prentiss in 1845. Her home, 
 after 1851, was in New York City. The 
 first and most popular of her juvenile books 
 (.Little Susy's Six Birthdays ), was published 
 in 1853. More than twenty volumes came 
 from her pen, among them The Home at 
 Grey lock, and Stepping Heavenward. Over 
 seventy thousand copies of this book have 
 been sold in America. See Life and Letters 
 of Elizabeth Prentiss , edited by her husband 
 (N. Y., 1882). 
 
 Presbyter, Presbyterians. The Greek 
 word presbuteros , senior or elder, is fre¬ 
 quently 5 used in the Greek translation of 
 the Old Testament to signify a ruler or 
 governor—one chosen not for his age, but 
 for his merits and wisdom. In the Chris¬ 
 tian Church a presbyter or elder is one who 
 is set apart to a certain office, and authorized 
 to discharge the several duties of that office 
 and station in which he is placed. The 
 office of the presbyter consisted in feeding 
 the flock of God, and exhorting and con¬ 
 vincing the gainsayers by sound doctrine, 
 baptizing, and celebrating the Eucharist, 
 and leading the public prayers of the con¬ 
 gregation. The body of Christians who 
 call themselves Presbyterians hold that all 
 the powers and rights of the Christian min¬ 
 istry, including ordination, are held and 
 exercised by the single order of presbyters; 
 that there is no order in the Church as 
 established by Christ and his apostles 
 superior to that of presbyters; that all 
 ministers, being ambassadors of Christ, are 
 equal by their commission; that presbyter 
 and bishop , though different words, are of 
 the same import; and that prelacy was 
 gradually established upon the primitive 
 practice of making the ?noderator, or speak¬ 
 er of the presbytery, a permanent officer. 
 This is the point of controversy between 
 the Presbyterians and Episcopalians. They 
 maintain their position against the Episco- 
 
* re 
 
 ( 757 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 palians by the following Scriptural argu¬ 
 ments: They observe, that the apostles 
 planted churches by ordaining bishops and 
 deacons in every city; that the ministers 
 who in one verse are called bishops are in 
 the next, perhaps, called presbyters; that 
 we nowhere read in the New Testament of 
 bishops, presbyters, and deacons in any 
 one church, and that therefore we must of 
 necessity conclude “ bishop ” and “pres¬ 
 byter ” to be two names for the same office. 
 They take the passage i Pet. v. 2-3, and 
 say it is evident that the presbyters not 
 only fed the flock of God, but governed it 
 with episcopal powers, and that Peter him¬ 
 self as a church officer was nothing more 
 than a presbyter or elder. In Heb. xiii. 
 7-17 and 1 Thess. v. 12 the bishops are 
 spoken of as discharging various offices 
 which it would be impossible for any man 
 to perform for more than one congregation, 
 for if they were to be such as all the peo¬ 
 ple were to know, esteem, and love , they 
 could not have been diocesan bishops, 
 whom ordinarily the hundredth part of their 
 flock never hear nor see. Again, in James 
 v. 14, the elders whom the Apostle James 
 desires the sick to call for were the highest 
 permanent order of ministers; it is evident 
 that those elders cannot have been diocesan 
 bishops, otherwise the sick would have 
 been often without the reach of the remedy 
 proposed for them. From Acts xx. 17, 
 etc., where St. Paul sends from Miletus to 
 Ephesus to call the elders of the Church, 
 the Presbyterians argue that there was in 
 the city of Ephesus a plurality of pastors 
 of equal authority, without any superior 
 pastor or bishop over them, for the apos¬ 
 tle directs his discourse to them all in com¬ 
 mon, and gives them equal power over the 
 whole flock. They argue, therefore, that 
 Paul left in the Church of Ephesus, which 
 he had planted, no other successors to him¬ 
 self than presbyter-bishops , or Presbyterian 
 ministers, and that he did not devolve his 
 power upon any prelate. Timothy, whom 
 the Episcopalians allege to have been the 
 first bishop of Ephesus, was present when 
 this settlement was made (Acts xx. 5); and 
 had he been their bishop, it is not to be 
 supposed that the apostle would have de¬ 
 volved the whole episcopal power upon the 
 presbyters before his face; for if ever there 
 were a season fitter than another for point¬ 
 ing out the duty of this supposed bishop 
 to his diocese and his presbyter’s duty to 
 him, it would have been when St. Paul was 
 taking his final leave of them. That Tim¬ 
 othy resided at Ephesus, and was by the 
 apostle invested with authority to ordain 
 and rebuke presbyters, are facts about 
 which both parties are agreed. What, then, 
 was his office in that city ? To this the 
 
 Presbyterian replies that his power was 
 that of an evangelist , 2 Tim. iv. 5, and not 
 of a fixed prelate. It will thus be seen 
 that they identify the office of bishop with 
 that of presbyter, and hold the presbvter- 
 ate to be the highest permanent office in 
 the Church, every faithful pastor of a flock 
 being successor to the apostles in every¬ 
 thing in which they were to have any suc¬ 
 cessors. 
 
 The modern Presbyterian theory of 
 church government dates from the Ref¬ 
 ormation. Luther earnestly taught that 
 all Christians are priests unto God. Ever* 
 had he been desirous of preserving an 
 Episcopal form of government, the course 
 which the Reformation took on the Contin¬ 
 ent, so different from that in England, 
 would have prevented him. It was, how¬ 
 ever, Calvin, with that genius for organiza¬ 
 tion which so remarkably characterized 
 him, who established the Presbyterian 
 form of government. He incorporated his 
 ideas with that of the State control, and so 
 arranged that the Council of State in con¬ 
 sultation with the people should choose 
 the presbyters, each of whom was to have 
 his allotted work, and the assembly of 
 whom together in Consistory were to deal 
 with all cases of ecclesiastical discipline. 
 There were ministers who were to preach 
 and teach, and the elders who ruled the 
 Church. Both, however, were recognized 
 as holding spiritual office. His idea was 
 adopted in the Reformed Church of France, 
 and also in Scotland, where there are now 
 three main bodies of Presbyterians, viz.: 
 the Established Church, the Free Church, 
 and the United Presbyterians. In Eng¬ 
 land Presbyterianism was started in 1572 
 at Wandsworth, when a presbytery was 
 opened with its “ Book of Order.” In the 
 struggles between the House of Stuart and 
 the House of Commons, Presbyterianism 
 represented the side of the latter, and the 
 downfall of Charles I. was the signal for 
 the abolition of the Episcopal Church on 
 June 29, 1647. The famous Westminster 
 Assembly, and its Catechism, which we 
 have noticed in its place, represents the 
 zenith of Presbyterianism in England. 
 But in a very few years it was displaced 
 by Independency under Cromwell. The 
 result was that Presbyterianism became 
 altogether weakened as a power in Eng¬ 
 land, and on the Restoration the non- 
 Episcopal ministers, most of them Presby¬ 
 terians, were ejected from their livings. 
 Even in Scotland Presbyterianism was 
 downtrodden until the Revolution. In 
 England, where it had not gained the af¬ 
 fection of the people, most of the congre¬ 
 gations, in reaction from Calvinism, be¬ 
 came Unitarian. Nevertheless, Presby- 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 758 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 terianism upon the old Puritan lines has 
 been revived in the present century in 
 England. In 1836 two Presbyteries were 
 opened in union with the Church of Scot¬ 
 land; two more were added in 1839. On 
 the Scottish disruption, in 1843, the Eng¬ 
 lish Presbyteries severed this connection, 
 and joined the English congregations of 
 the “ United Church.” In 1876 they were 
 all united under the title of the “ Presby¬ 
 terian Church of England.” In the census 
 of 1881, 275 congregations were returned, 
 of which seventy-five are in London. One 
 £>f its noblest works is the China Mission. 
 
 In Ireland, Presbyterianism is the largest 
 denomination in the province of Ulster, 
 where there is a large population of Scot¬ 
 tish blood.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 See Scotland, Church of. 
 
 Presbyterian Church in England. See 
 
 above. 
 
 Presbyterian Church, The, in the Unit¬ 
 ed States of America. American Pres¬ 
 byterianism came to these shores chiefly 
 from Scotland, Holland, Ireland, and Eng¬ 
 land. An important element also came 
 from German Reformed and French Hu¬ 
 guenot immigrants. It had its origin in 
 the characteristics of these various peoples, 
 but it has become thoroughly American, 
 strengthened, of course, by the diversity 
 of elements that entered into the begin¬ 
 nings of its history. The organized 
 form of the Presbyterian Church in the 
 United States dates about the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century. But Presby¬ 
 terianism in its essential features existed 
 in this country long before that period. 
 Before the organization of the first Presby¬ 
 tery there were Presbyterian churches on 
 Long Island and in New Jersey, organized 
 by the descendants of the Puritans. So, also, 
 in New England some of the first churches, 
 as that at Plymouth, were conformed, as 
 nearly as local circumstances permitted, to 
 the French Presbyterian type. New Eng¬ 
 land Puritans and Scotch dissenters affili¬ 
 ated very readily, and organized churches 
 which became Presbyterian or Congrega¬ 
 tional, according to circumstances. It is 
 thought thatjby the year 1700 there were, in 
 New York and New Jersey, from ten to fif¬ 
 teen churches of New England descent 
 and life, but essentially Presbyterian in or¬ 
 ganization. The church at Jamaica, Long 
 Island, was probably a Presbyterian 
 church, although it did not come into con¬ 
 nection with Presbytery until some time 
 after its organization. The first Protes¬ 
 tant church organized on this continent 
 was that of New Amsterdam in 1638, and 
 this, though a Reformed, was essentially a 
 
 Presbyterian church. The foundation of 
 Presbyterianism in this country, as an or¬ 
 ganized body, was laid by Francis Makemie, 
 an Irishman, who organized a church at 
 Snow Hill, Maryland, in 1684. On this 
 peninsula, between the Atlantic and the 
 Chesapeake, in a colony founded by a Ro¬ 
 man Catholic nobleman, the Presbyterian 
 Church of the United States began its ca¬ 
 reer. Makemie had the fiery heart of an 
 apostle. He was incessant in his labors 
 to gather into folds the scattered sheep of 
 the wilderness. He crossed the ocean to 
 appeal to the churches of England and Ire¬ 
 land for help, and visited New England for 
 the same purpose. He not only labored 
 in season and out of season, but suffered 
 persecution for the cause of religious lib¬ 
 erty. Gillette says of him: “ The experi¬ 
 ence of Makemie in a New York prison, or 
 before a royal judge, reminds us of Bax¬ 
 ter and the abuse heaped upon him by the 
 infamous Jeffries, while the history of the 
 Virginia dissenters is not unworthy a place 
 by the side of that of the English Non¬ 
 conformists of 1662.” Makemie pushed 
 his labors, not only through Maryland and 
 Virginia, but extended them as far as 
 North Carolina. Emigrants from the Old 
 World were attracted to Maryland, Dela¬ 
 ware and Pennsylvania by the more liberal 
 policies prevailing in these provinces. Our 
 Church, therefore, grew with considerable 
 rapidity in those regions, and the begin¬ 
 ning of the eighteenth century was signal¬ 
 ized by the organization of the first Pres¬ 
 bytery (in 1705), in the Presbyterian 
 Church of Philadelphia, constituting the 
 Presbytery of Philadelphia, the first in the 
 New World. The seven ministers who 
 were present were Makemie, Davis, Wil¬ 
 son, Andrews, Taylor, McNish and Hamp¬ 
 ton. 
 
 Five years after the organization of that 
 first presbytery they had four congrega¬ 
 tions in Maryland, five in Pennsylvania, 
 two in New Jersey, and one at Elizabeth 
 River in Virginia. Six years after that 
 they resolved themselves into three Pres¬ 
 byteries, Philadelphia, New Castle, and 
 Long Island, these three constituting the 
 Synod of Philadelphia. The churches now 
 numbered seventeen. In the province of 
 New York there were five churches, in New 
 Jersey four, in Philadelphia and the regions 
 beyond, six. The new churches of Eliza¬ 
 bethtown and Newark with their pastors, 
 Jonathan Dickinson and Joseph Webb, came 
 in soon afterward. The ministers had now 
 increased to nineteen. During the first ten 
 years twenty-seven had been enrolled, five 
 had died, and three had withdrawn. The 
 Church now made steady progress. There 
 is no record that up to this time any stand- 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 759 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 ards of doctrine had been adopted by the 
 Synod. It is presumed, however, that as 
 the most of the ministers were of Scotch 
 descent, and as the Scottish Church had 
 adopted the Westminster Confession of 
 Faith and Catechisms, these were, at least, 
 the informal standards of the young 
 Church. The prevalence of error, how¬ 
 ever, made it necessary that now there 
 should be formulated for adoption some 
 symbol of faith. The annual meeting of 
 the Synod in 1739, with great unanimity, by 
 an “ adopting act” made the Westminster 
 Confession of Faith their doctrinal standard, 
 “ as being in all the essential and necessary 
 articles good forms of sound words and 
 system of Christian doctrine,” agreeing 
 also that no one should be ordained to the 
 ministry, or received into membership, 
 who had scruples as to any part of that 
 Confession, “ save only about articles not 
 essential and necessary to doctrine, worship 
 and government.” Where differences did 
 exist on these points it was agreed that 
 they would treat one another in a spirit of 
 mutual forbearance and love. At an early 
 period, however, divisions of sentiment 
 began to appear in different parts of the 
 Synod. The ministers from abroad, as we 
 have said, were for the most part Scotch: 
 the native ministry were for the most part 
 of New England antecedents. The former 
 were more strict in their doctrinal ideas, 
 laid more stress on scholarship—the latter 
 insisted on a living Christian experience. 
 The former were more rigid in their de¬ 
 mand for a full term of study; the latter 
 were disposed, in view of the great needs 
 of the country, to make exceptions in the 
 case of students for the ministry who were 
 sound in doctrine, but had had limited op¬ 
 portunities for education. At this time 
 there was a great religious awakening in 
 New England, under the leadership of 
 George Whitefield, which extended largely 
 throughout the country. This was the 
 occasion of still further divisions. The 
 New side churches welcomed Whitefield 
 and the ministers who were with him, 
 espousing the cause of the revival. The 
 Old side were apprehensive of extremes, 
 and for the most part stood aloof. In 1740 
 these two bodies came into collision in 
 Synod. The Presbytery of New Brunswick 
 withdrew in 1741, and with it went the Pres¬ 
 bytery of New York, with some ministers 
 and churches from the Presbytery of New 
 Castle. These, in 1745, met and organized 
 • the rival Synod of New York. This un¬ 
 fortunate breach was happily healed in 
 1758, when the two synods united under 
 the general title of the Synod of New York 
 and Pennsylvania, with more than a hun¬ 
 dred churches under its care. 
 
 The next twenty-five years were memo¬ 
 rable in the history of American Presbyte¬ 
 rianism. During the period named came 
 the war with the British. The independ¬ 
 ence of the United States had been se¬ 
 cured. During all the struggle the Pres¬ 
 byterian Church was an absolute unit in 
 the defence of the civil and religious liberty 
 of the country, and contributed largely to¬ 
 ward our independence. John Wither¬ 
 spoon, the leading divine of that period, 
 was a signer of the Declaration of Independ¬ 
 ence, and in Congress made one of the 
 most effective pleas for the liberty of the 
 country, declaring that he staked his repu¬ 
 tation and his property on the issue of that 
 conflict. The Church now grew with great 
 rapidity, and it became evident that there 
 should be a General Assembly, in which the 
 various synods and presbyteries should be 
 united in one church court. The sixteen 
 presbyteries of 1788 were distributed into 
 four synods—New York, Philadelphia, 
 Virginia, and the Carolinas—and a General 
 Assembly composed of the commissioners 
 from those presbyteries met in Philadel¬ 
 phia, Penn., May, 1789. The First Congress 
 of the United States was in session in the 
 city of New York at the same time. The 
 constitutions of these two bodies were 
 thus adopted in the same year. 
 
 At the beginning of the century the 
 Church entered on a new era of prosperity. 
 Missionaries went everywhere with the 
 tide of emigration, which was now flowing 
 into western New York, Pennsylvania, and 
 Ohio. In 1801 the plan of union was en¬ 
 tered into between the Presbyterian 
 Church and the Congregational Associa¬ 
 tions of New England, by which it was 
 provided that they should mutually help 
 each other on all mission ground; Presby¬ 
 terian ministers might serve Congrega¬ 
 tional churches, Congregational ministers 
 Presbyterian churches, and there should 
 be no rivalry between the two denomina¬ 
 tions, except the rivalry of good works. 
 This plan worked for a number of years, 
 and resulted in the large increase of the 
 churches in the Western States. The 
 Presbyterian Church at the time of the 
 union numbered 26 Presbyteries, 300 min¬ 
 isters, and nearly 500 congregations. Early 
 in the century there were many revivals, 
 especially in the southwestern part of the 
 country. In them zealsometimes outrandis- 
 cretion; strange doctrines were taught and 
 practices fostered, and Presbyterian order 
 violated. This state of things led to the 
 organization in 1811 of what is now known 
 as the Cumberland Presbyterian Church 
 (y. v .). The increase of the Church was now 
 very rapid. In 1834 it contained 32 Synods, 
 hi Presbyteries, and about 1,900 minis- 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 7^0 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 ters. For a number of years, however, there 
 had been indications of a diversity of doc¬ 
 trinal beliefs in different parts of the 
 Church, which now began rapidly to de¬ 
 velop into a New School party, which was 
 increasingly antagonized year by year by 
 what came to be known as the Old School 
 portion of the Church. The affiliations of 
 the plan of union tended to increase the 
 theological diversities within the Church. 
 Many were in favor of what was called the 
 New Haven or Hopkinsian theology. 
 Albert Barnes, of Philadelphia, and Lyman 
 Beecher, of Cincinnati were both subjected 
 to trial and censure by their presbyteries, 
 but each of them was vindicated by the 
 General Assembly. The whole Church 
 was now plunged into controversy. The 
 agitation arising from slavery increased, 
 and divided the parties still further. The 
 New School wished to bear strong testi¬ 
 mony against slavery ; the Old School— 
 strong in the Southern States—resisted 
 such testimony. So on grounds partly of 
 doctrine, but more of polity, the breach 
 widened. 
 
 It has been said that the division was 
 between the more progressive and the 
 more conservative sides of the Church; 
 that in the Old School there were stricter 
 views of doctrines and discipline; that 
 the New School was decidedly in favor of 
 the laxer doctrines of New England, from 
 which many of them had originally come. 
 In a general way this was true, but the se¬ 
 verest strain on the Church was the same 
 that a quarter of a century later plunged 
 our country into civil war. 
 
 In 1837 the Old School party, being in 
 the majority in the General Assembly, ex¬ 
 scinded three of the synods in Western New 
 York, and one in Ohio,with all the churches 
 and ministers belonging to them. Other 
 measures obnoxious to the minority were 
 enacted. Great excitement prevailed 
 throughout the entire Church. A con¬ 
 vention of aggrieved members was held 
 at Auburn, New York, in August, 1837, 
 and measures were taken to resist what 
 was conceived to be the wrong action of 
 the Assembly. The next year the New 
 School members demanded the enrollment 
 of the commissioners from the exscinded 
 synod. This was refused, and so the two 
 bodies separated, and two assemblies were 
 organized. The crisis had come. The 
 property question, after a jury trial, was 
 decided in favor of the New School As¬ 
 sembly, but the decision was overruled on 
 points of law, and a new trial granted. 
 No further action was taken. 
 
 Each denomination, realizing now that 
 they were hopelessly separated, proceeded 
 with its work. Both of these Churches 
 
 were extended over the whole of the 
 United States. Both had mission stations 
 in different parts of the heathen world, 
 their collections forming a large part of 
 the contributions for that object from the 
 United States of America. The Old School 
 Presbyterians had seminaries at Princeton, 
 Allegheny, Columbia, Danville, and Chi¬ 
 cago. The New School Presbyterians 
 held Union Seminary, New York, Auburn, 
 Lane at Cincinnati, and Blackburn at Car- 
 linville, Ill. Each Church now carried on 
 its work with marked prosperity, both at 
 home and abroad. Each branch was equal¬ 
 ly active in fostering educational institu¬ 
 tions throughout the country. So the 
 bodies flourished side by side, each grow¬ 
 ing gradually more confident of the ortho¬ 
 doxy and usefulness of the other. 
 
 The Old School Assembly established 
 its Board of Foreign Missions in New 
 York in 1837. Boards of Home Missions 
 and Education had been organized long 
 before the division. These were supported 
 by the Old School, the New School prefer¬ 
 ring to work through the American Home 
 Mission Society and the Educational So¬ 
 ciety, voluntary organizations in which 
 Congregationalists participated. The New 
 School subsequently organized permanent 
 committees for Home Missions, Educa¬ 
 tion, and Publication, through which their 
 work was carried on. Their foreign work 
 was conducted through the American 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis¬ 
 sions. 
 
 In 1861 the Civil War broke out, an event 
 which, in the providence of God, was the 
 cause of the reunion of the two Presby¬ 
 terian Churches in the North. The Old 
 School Assembly of 1861, at Philadelphia, 
 took strong ground in behalf of the Gov¬ 
 ernment. The New School Assembly did 
 the same. The Southern commissioners 
 left the Old School Assembly, and organ¬ 
 ized the Southern Presbyterian Church. 
 (See following article.) The abolition of 
 slavery, which followed soon after, put an 
 end to all controversy between the two 
 bodies. Gradually a new spirit came over 
 them. A new generation had come to the 
 front. The Northern churches were united 
 in common cause. The New School had 
 proven their soundness in the faith, vindi¬ 
 cated their Presbyterianism, and the inher¬ 
 itance of a common faith began unmistak¬ 
 ably to assert its power. In 1866 the two 
 Assemblies met in St. Louis, sat down to¬ 
 gether for the first time in a generation at 
 the Lord’s Table, and at the same time 
 appointed a joint committee to consider a. 
 plan for the reunion of the Churches. In 
 1869 they met in New York. Each agreed 
 to the propositions submitted by the joint 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 761 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 committee. These propositions were over¬ 
 timed to the Presbyteries. At the next 
 meeting of the two Assemblies at Pitts¬ 
 burg returns from the Presbyteries show¬ 
 ed an overwhelming majority in favor of 
 the union. Thus, happily the breach was 
 healed, and the two Assemblies met in the 
 Third Church of Pittsburg, and consum¬ 
 mated the union. It was a grand Church 
 that was thus reunited. In 1837 the minis¬ 
 ters had numbered 2,140; the churches, 
 2,865; and the membership less than a 
 quarter of a million. But in 1870, the year 
 of the reunion, the ministers numbered 
 4,238; the churches, 4,526; and the mem¬ 
 bership, 446,561. 
 
 To commemorate this auspicious event, 
 the churches the following year raised a 
 thank-offering of more than seven millions 
 of dollars, which was used in paying church 
 debts, erecting new churches, and found¬ 
 ing and endowing educational institutions. 
 From 1870 dates a period of remarkable 
 progress in every department of church 
 work. Contributions to missionary and 
 educational causes advanced rapidly. En¬ 
 tire harmony reigned in the united Church. 
 Old differences were forgotten, and under 
 the most manifest blessing of God the 
 Church extended her lines of work in every 
 direction. In eight years the Church 
 gained nine hundred ministers, and twelve 
 hundred churches. 
 
 In 1888 the General Assembly observed 
 in the city of Philadelphia the first centen¬ 
 nial of its organization with most impress¬ 
 ive and enthusiastic services. The review 
 of the progress of a hundred years was 
 very encouraging. When the General As¬ 
 sembly was organized in 1788 there were 
 only 419 churches, and not more than 
 20,000 members. Home missions were 
 only beginning; foreign missions had not 
 been born. But at the Centennial there 
 were 6,436 churches reported, and about 
 700,000 communicants. The Home Board 
 had about 1,500 missionaries on a field that 
 reaches from the Atlantic to Alaska. The 
 Foreign Mission Board maintained a force 
 of 1,543 men and women, ministers, teach¬ 
 ers, and physicians. The educational his¬ 
 tory of the denomination was likewise 
 shown to be full of encouragement. 
 
 There are now, at the end of the century, 
 forty-six colleges under Presbyterian con¬ 
 trol, and twelve theological seminaries and 
 institutions with which theological depart¬ 
 ments are maintained. The Church was 
 never so well equipped for her work, never 
 more united in her doctrine and polity, 
 never more enthusiastic for the extension 
 of the kingdom of Christ, both at home and 
 abroad. 
 
 By the report of the General Assembly 
 
 (1890) it appears there are now twenty- 
 nine Synods, 211 Presbyteries, 5,936 minis¬ 
 ters, and 6,727 churches, with a total 
 membership of 753,749. Contributions for 
 Home Missions last year aggregated $885,- 
 518; for Foreign Missions, $709,735; for 
 church erection, $272,541; for education, 
 $155,843; and for ministerial relief, $272,- 
 024. The total amount of money raised 
 for benevolent purposes was about $3,000,- 
 000, and for congregational purposes over 
 $9,000,000. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church is now passing 
 through one of the most important peri¬ 
 ods of her history. The General As¬ 
 sembly of 1889 received overtures from a 
 number of Presbyteries, asking for some 
 revision of the doctrinal standards of the 
 Church. That Assembly sent an overture 
 to the Presbyteries, asking whether any 
 revision was desired, and if so, in what 
 respect and to what extent. About two- 
 thirds of the Presbyteries expressed desire 
 for revision. The revision desired was, in 
 most cases, conservative—affecting the 
 doctrine of divine decrees—the statement 
 about elect infants, and the salvability of 
 the heathen. In addition to the changes in 
 these particulars, many of the Presbyter¬ 
 ies wished inserted in the Confession of 
 Faith more explicit statements of the love 
 of God for all mankind, and the free offer 
 of the gospel to all men. 
 
 The mind of the Church being thus un¬ 
 mistakably expressed in favor of a revision 
 of the standards, the Assembly of 1890 
 appointed a Committee on Revision, con¬ 
 sisting of fifteen ministers and ten ruling 
 elders, to whom the work was committed, 
 with only the instruction that the integrity 
 of the Calvinistic System should not be im¬ 
 paired. 
 
 On this committee were appointed a 
 number of those who were opposed to re¬ 
 vision. Whether this committee will be 
 able to agree on a report, and whether the 
 report, if agreed upon, will be satisfactory 
 to the Church are questions which the 
 near future will decide. This committee will 
 report to the next Assembly. If the report 
 is adopted by the Assembly, it will then 
 go to the Presbyteries for their approval. 
 
 The General Assembly was also over- 
 tured by a large proportion of Presbyter¬ 
 ies to take steps looking to the formulation 
 of a new, brief, and simple creed, which 
 should express in clear terms the substance 
 of the system of doctrine. The Assem¬ 
 bly appointed a committee to correspond 
 with other Presbyterian bodies through¬ 
 out the world, with reference to the joint 
 formulation, by all the Reformed Churches 
 holding the Presbyterian faith, of a creed 
 for popular use in the Churches. 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 762 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 The revision of the standards and the 
 adoption of a consensus creed is thus 
 practically assured. Not at any time in 
 the history of Presbyterianism in this 
 country has so long a step forward been 
 taken as that taken by the action of the 
 last Assembly. It marks an era of prog¬ 
 ress, in which not only Presbyterianism 
 but the universal Christian Church has a 
 profound interest. 
 
 Authorities. —Charles Hodge: Consti- 
 ttitional History of the Presbyterian Church 
 in the United States of America (2 vols.); 
 Gillett: History of the Presbyterian Church 
 in the United States of America (2 vols.); 
 Baird: A History of the New School; 
 Spence: Early History of the Presbyterian 
 Church in America; Presbyterian Re-union , 
 a memorial volume, 1870; McClintock and 
 Strong: Cyclopcedia of Biblical , Theological 
 and Ecclesiastical Literattire , art. “ Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church;” Schaff-Herzog: Encyclopcedia 
 of Religious Knowledge , art. “ Presbyterian 
 Churches;” Centennial Addresses (Philadel¬ 
 phia, 1888.) 
 
 Charles L. Thompson. 
 
 Presbyterian Church, The, in the Unit¬ 
 ed States ' (Southern). The origin of 
 this branch of the Presbyterian Church is 
 given as follows by the Rev. Moses D. 
 Hoge, D. D. (Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., vol. 
 iii., pp. 1909-10): “ In May, 1861, the 
 General Assembly of the Presbyterian 
 Church (Old School), which met in Phila¬ 
 delphia, adopted a paper in reference to 
 the civil war, then impending, which un¬ 
 dertook to decide for the whole constitu¬ 
 ency, North and South, a question upon 
 which the most eminent statesmen had 
 been divided in opinion from the time of 
 the formation of the Constitution, viz.: 
 whether the ultimate sovereignty, the jus 
 summi imperii , resided in the people as a 
 mass, or in the people as they were orig¬ 
 inally formed into colonies, and afterward 
 into States. Presbyterians in the South 
 believed that this deliverance, whether 
 true or otherwise, was one which the 
 Church was not authorized to make, and 
 that in so doing, she had transcended her 
 sphere, and usurped the duties of the 
 State. Their views upon this subject found 
 expression in a quarter which relieves 
 them of all suspicion of coming from an 
 interested party. A protest against this 
 action was presented by the venerable 
 Charles Hodge, D. D., of Princeton The¬ 
 ological Seminary, and by forty-five others 
 who were members of that Assembly. 
 
 “In this protest it was asserted ‘ that 
 the paper adopted by the Assembly does 
 decide the political question just stated in 
 our judgment is undeniable. It not only 
 
 asserts the loyalty of this body to the Con¬ 
 stitution and the Union, but it promises, 
 in the name of all the churches and minis¬ 
 ters whom it represents, to do all that in 
 them lies to strengthen, uphold, and en¬ 
 courage the Federal Government. It is, 
 however, a notorious fact, that many of 
 our ministers and members conscientiously 
 believe that the allegiance of the citizens 
 of this country is primarily due to the 
 States to which they respectively belong, 
 and that therefore, whenever any State re¬ 
 nounces its connection with the United 
 States, and its allegiance to the Constitu¬ 
 tion, the citizens of that State are bound 
 by the laws of God to continue loyal to 
 their State, and obedient to its laws. The 
 paper adopted by the Assembly virtu¬ 
 ally declares, on the other hand, that the 
 allegiance of the citizen is due to the 
 United States, anything in the Constitution 
 or laws of the several States to the con¬ 
 trary notwithstanding.The General 
 
 Assembly, in thus deciding a political 
 question, and in making that decision prac¬ 
 tically a condition of church membership, 
 has, in our judgment, violated the consti¬ 
 tution of the Church, and usurped the 
 prerogative of its divine Master.’ Presby¬ 
 terians in the South, coinciding in this 
 view of the case, concluded that a separa¬ 
 tion from the General Assembly aforesaid 
 was imperatively demanded, not in the 
 spirit of schism, but for the sake of peace, 
 and for the protection of the liberty with 
 which Christ had made them free. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, ninety-three ministers and rul¬ 
 ing elders, who had been commissioned 
 for that purpose, met in the city of Au¬ 
 gusta, Ga., on the 4th of December, 1861, 
 and integrated in one body, under the title of 
 the ‘ General Assembly of the Confederate 
 States of America,’ adopting at the same 
 time as their constitution the standards of 
 their faith and order which they had always 
 held. After the close of the war the 
 name of their Church was changed to that 
 of 4 The Presbyterian Church in the Unit¬ 
 ed States.’ ” 
 
 This body, in 1890, reported the follow¬ 
 ing statistics: 2,321 churches, 1,145 minis¬ 
 ters, more than 161,000 communicants, 
 100,000 scholars in the Sunday-schools, 
 and benevolent contributions amounting, in 
 1889, to $1,612,865. It sustains missions 
 in China, South America, Greece, Italy, 
 Mexico, and among the Choctaw and Cher¬ 
 okee Indians, and sustains a flourishing 
 college at Brazil. A number of education¬ 
 al institutions are under its care and di¬ 
 rection. 
 
 Cumberland Presbyterian Church. See 
 
 article. 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 763 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 « 
 
 The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian 
 Church in North America. This body 
 of Presbyterians claims tobe “ the lineal ec¬ 
 clesiastical descendants of that part of the 
 Presbyterian Church of Scotland which re¬ 
 fused to accept of the Revolution settle¬ 
 ment of 1688.” They emigrated in small 
 numbers to America,and the first Reformed 
 Presbytery of North America was organized 
 in Philadelphia in 1798, and the first synod 
 in the same city in 1809. They accept the 
 Westminster Confession of Faith as their 
 chief doctrinal standard. In worship they 
 find no warrant for the use of instrumental 
 music, or hymns of human composition, and 
 employ in this service the psalms of inspi¬ 
 ration. They testify strongly against se¬ 
 cret oath-bound associations, and do not 
 allow their members to join such societies. 
 They protest against the sectilar character 
 of the United States Constitution, since it 
 does not recognize the Bible or the Chris¬ 
 tian Sabbath, and does not require Chris¬ 
 tian qualifications for civil officers. For 
 these reasons they refuse to take the oath 
 to the Constitution, or perform any civil act 
 that involves the oath, and are deeply in¬ 
 terested in seeking amendments to the Con¬ 
 stitution in the points they deem defective. 
 The Church has now (1890) 10,817 mem¬ 
 bers, 124 ministers, and 124 congregations. 
 It has a theological seminary, and supports 
 a foreign mission at Latakia, Syria. 
 
 Presbyterian (Reformed) Church in North 
 America—General Synod. This ecclesias¬ 
 tical body, with the congregations under 
 its care, claims tc be a lineal descendant of 
 the Reformed Presbyterian Church of 
 Scotland. The line or links of descent 
 may be easily traced in history. The in¬ 
 terval of Scottish church annals, between 
 1638 and 1649 inclusive, has generally been 
 regarded as the brightest period of refor¬ 
 mation in the land of the covenants. Dur¬ 
 ing this interval the Westminster Confes¬ 
 sion of Faith, the Catechisms, Larger and 
 Shorter, with several supplementary acts 
 tc the First and Second Books of Disci¬ 
 pline had been adopted. The National Cov¬ 
 enant had been renewed. The Solemn 
 League and Covenant had been sworn and 
 subscribed by all ranks throughout the 
 kingdom. In this deed the rights of peo¬ 
 ple, church, and sovereign had been sedu¬ 
 lously guarded. Never since the days of 
 covenanting in ancient Israel,were a people 
 more solemnly bound to God and to duty 
 than was the Reformed Church of Scot¬ 
 land, when Charles II., in 1650, was wel¬ 
 comed to the throne. With apparent sin¬ 
 cerity the young king renounced popery 
 and prelacy, and subscribed the covenant. 
 His duplicity, however, soon became man¬ 
 
 ifest, and the defeat of the loyalist forces 
 by Cromwell, in 1651, compelled Charles 
 to retire to France. His recall to the throne 
 of Britain, in 1660, was a dark day for 
 Presbyterianism in Scotland. Regardless 
 of his oath, he proceeded to force upon the 
 Scottish people prelatic forms and cere¬ 
 monies. The Church was divided into 
 factions, and twenty-eight years of perse¬ 
 cution ensued. Many succumbed to the 
 storm. A few remained faithful and be¬ 
 came the true exponents of the Church’s 
 faith, as held during the period known in 
 history as the Second Reformation. Among 
 these Richard Cameron and Donald Car¬ 
 gill deserve honorable mention. In 1680, 
 when the “ Highland Host ” had been let 
 loose, and multitudes were being impris¬ 
 oned and put to death because they dared 
 to worship God in accordance with his 
 word, these two worthies published the 
 “ Sanquhar Declaration.” In this docu¬ 
 ment the ground was taken that when a 
 sovereign violates his solemn engagements 
 with his subjects and becomes a tyrant 
 his subjects are no longer bound to sup¬ 
 port or defend him. Although this senti¬ 
 ment was denounced as treason, and a 
 price was set upon the heads of its au¬ 
 thors, yet in less than ten years, by the 
 coronation of William and Mary as king 
 and queen of Britain, it received a most 
 triumphant endorsement by the nation. 
 The same sentiment received endorsement 
 in the American Revolution of 1776. 
 
 The “revolution settlement” of 1688-89, 
 by which Presbyterianism was established 
 in Scotland, was hampered with so many 
 Erastian principles that a large number of 
 intelligent and faithful covenanters refused 
 to enter into the communion of the Estab¬ 
 lished Church. For more than sixteen 
 years they remained without a stated min¬ 
 istry. At length, by the accession of Rev. 
 John McMillan in 1706, and Rev. Mr. 
 Nairn in 1743, the Reformed Presbytery of 
 Scotland was constituted. Through this 
 body Reformed Presbyterians in Scotland, 
 Ireland, British America, the United 
 States, Northern India, and Syria have re¬ 
 ceived their ministry according to Presbyte¬ 
 rian order. By ministers sent to the colonies 
 of America from the Reformed Presbyter¬ 
 ies of Scotland and Ireland a Reformed 
 Presbytery was constituted on this continent 
 in 1774. In 1781-82 this Presbytery was 
 dissolved. In 1798, in the city of Philadel¬ 
 phia, the Reformed Presbytery was recon¬ 
 stituted by Rev. James McKinney and 
 Rev. Wm. Gibson. In 1800 this Presby¬ 
 tery, believing that American slavery was 
 contrary to God’s word, adopted a resolu¬ 
 tion which excluded all who held slaves 
 from her communion. In 1806 a formulary 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 764 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 of doctrine and principle known as '* Ref¬ 
 ormation Principles ” the Testimony of the 
 Church, was adopted. In this document 
 there is a declaration of doctrinal truth, 
 arranged under suitable heads, accompa¬ 
 nied with the condemnation of error. In 
 1809, from the Reformed Presbytery, 
 which had been divided into the Northern, 
 Middle, and Southern Committees, was 
 constituted the Synod of the Reformed 
 Presbyterian Church in North America. 
 This Synod adopted all the acts of the Re¬ 
 formed Presbytery of which it became the 
 orderly successor. In 1823 the General 
 Synod was constituted according to a cer¬ 
 tain ratio of representation from the differ¬ 
 ent presbyteries. This synod meets once 
 a year by adjournment, and not by being 
 dissolved. 
 
 The Reformed Presbyterian Church has 
 always been a zealous advocate of the 
 mediatorial supremacy of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ. As such she has contended that 
 nations living under the light of the gospel 
 should frame their constitutions and laws 
 in accordance with the word of God, and 
 recognize the Mediator as their Sovereign. 
 At an early date in the history of the Re¬ 
 formed Presbyterian Church in the United 
 States, differences of opinion among her 
 members touching the character of the 
 United States Constitution made their ap¬ 
 pearance. This subject had been made 
 matter of “Free Discussions” in the Synod 
 of 1831. When the General Synod met in 
 Philadelphia in 1833, about half of the min¬ 
 isters and ruling elders who had been dele¬ 
 gated withdrew, thus diminishing both the 
 ministry and membership of the Church. 
 
 In 1836 General Synod established a 
 mission in Northern India, and in 1837 
 the Presbytery of Saharanpur was organ¬ 
 ized in connection with said Synod. This 
 mission has been successful in training up 
 a number of native ministers, who are now 
 doing a good work in Northern India. In 
 1863 Synod established a Freedmen’s Mis¬ 
 sion in Alexandria, Virginia. For a time 
 several ministers and two female teachers 
 were engaged in this mission enterprise. 
 
 In 1883 Synod established a native mis¬ 
 sion at Rurki, Northern India. In 1884 
 the Synod brought from India to the United 
 States Mr. Charles G. Scott. He has 
 passed through the theological seminary, 
 and, subsequently, he was graduated from 
 the medical department of the University 
 of Pennsylvania. Dr. Scott has since 
 joined his brother, Rev. George W. Scott. 
 The mission now numbers two native mis¬ 
 sionaries, eight catechists, four zenanas, 
 sixteen boys in the orphan school, a con¬ 
 gregation of eighteen communicants, and 
 about fifty adherents. 
 
 This Church has one theological semina¬ 
 ry, located in the city of Philadelphia, and 
 organized in 1809, with the late Rev. Sam¬ 
 uel B. Wylie, D. D. t as its first professor. 
 The faculty consists of three professors, 
 and the number of students in attendance 
 varies. 
 
 The form of government in this Church 
 differs in no essential element from that of 
 other Presbyterian bodies. Adherence to 
 this form is not grounded on convenience 
 or custom, but upon the teachings of Holy 
 Scripture. This appears in the Church’s 
 third term of communion, which is : The 
 Lord Jesus Christ has established one 
 permanent form of church government, 
 and this form is by divine right Presbyte¬ 
 rian. The doctrinal principles of this 
 Church are embodied in the Westminster 
 Confession of Faith, Catechisms, Larger 
 and Shorter and Reformation Principles 
 Exhibited. 
 
 The Book of Psalms, in the best attain¬ 
 able version, prose or metrical, or both, is 
 the matter of praise in this Church. This 
 praise is conducted without the use of in¬ 
 strumental accompaniment, and congrega¬ 
 tional singing is a marked feature of wor¬ 
 ship on the Lord’s Day. 
 
 Sealing ordinances are extended only to 
 those who subscribe to the subordinate 
 standards of the Church. The design of 
 this is not to unchurch members of other 
 denominations, but to promote order and 
 exhibit the real unity of the Church. 
 
 The pulpit of this Church has been in¬ 
 variably noted for sound evangelical 
 preaching. Endeavoring to be true to her 
 name and history, this Church is an advo¬ 
 cate of all the moral and scriptural reforms 
 of the day. The movement to restrain in¬ 
 temperance and banish from the land the 
 use of all intoxicants as a beverage is em¬ 
 phasized and commended by the supreme 
 judicatory. All associations, secret or 
 otherwise, professing to be of a religious 
 character, and requiring of their members 
 the solemnity of an oath, while excluding 
 from their ritual the name of Christ, are 
 condemned by this Church, and connection 
 therewith is inconsistent with good stand¬ 
 ing in the same. 
 
 Qualification for membership in this 
 Church has always been reckoned a matter 
 of supreme importance; hence, Sabbath- 
 school instruction, and, above all, family 
 training, have been made prime factors in 
 the preparing of youth for a place in the 
 Church. 
 
 This Church at present numbers 40 min¬ 
 isters, about 6,500 members, and 4,000 
 Sabbath-school teachers and scholars. In 
 .various ways the growth of this Church 
 has been retarded,but the day is breaking, 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 765 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 the shadows flee, and a brighter period un¬ 
 doubtedly approaches. See Histories of 
 the Church of Scotland , Reformation Prin¬ 
 ciples Exhibited, Christian Expositor (ed. 
 by Rev. Alexander McLeod, D. D.), and 
 Minutes of General Synod. 
 
 David Steele. 
 
 The United Presbyterian Church of North 
 America was organized in the city of 
 Pittsburg, Pa., on May 26, A. d. , 1858, by 
 the formal union of the Synod of the Asso¬ 
 ciate Church and the General Synod of the 
 Associate Reformed Church. It is descend¬ 
 ed from, and is the principal representative 
 in America of, the dissenting Churches of 
 Scotland, and retains their principal char¬ 
 acteristics. 
 
 The Associate, or, as it was more popu¬ 
 larly known, the Secession, Church, com¬ 
 posed of those who separated with the 
 Erskines from the Established Church on 
 account of corruptions in doctrine and op¬ 
 pressive administration, was early repre¬ 
 sented in the American colonies, and in 
 1753 a presbytery was formed. The con¬ 
 gregations increased, so that a few years 
 later a second presbytery was organized. 
 The Reformed, or Covenanting Church of 
 Scotland also organized congregations in 
 various parts of the colonies. These two 
 bodies, separated by causes local to Scot¬ 
 land, were drawn toward each other by 
 their common ancestry and their common 
 interest in the struggle of the colonies for 
 independence, and finally concluded a union 
 in 1782, under the name of the Associate 
 Reformed Church. 
 
 A few of the Associate people declined 
 to accede to the union, and, being sustained 
 by the Church in Scotland, maintained the 
 organization. Both Churches rapidly in¬ 
 creased, extending with the settlement of 
 the country, until there were presbyteries 
 in the South and in the West as far as the 
 Scotch-Irish immigration pushed its way. 
 They were distinguished not so much by 
 real doctrinal differences as by tradition, 
 spirit, and discipline, the Associate being 
 the more conservative. Dissensions arose 
 in the Associate Reformed Church, which 
 resulted in the secession of a considerable 
 number to the Presbyterian Church, and 
 the separation of the body into three inde¬ 
 pendent, coordinate synods—New York, 
 the South and the West. In 1856 the 
 Synod of New York and the General Synod 
 of the West united; the Synod of the South 
 remains a separate body, but correspond¬ 
 ence is maintained. 
 
 The Congregations of the Associate and 
 the Associate Reformed Churches were in 
 substantially the same territory, and so 
 were gradually drawn toward each other. 
 
 After an extended correspondence and 
 many conferences, a union was formed in 
 the year 1858, under the name of The 
 United Presbyterian Church of North 
 America, on the doctrinal basis of the West¬ 
 minster Confession of Faith, modified as to 
 the power of the civil magistrate in refer¬ 
 ence to spiritual affairs, the Catechisms, 
 Larger and Shorter, and a statement of 
 doctVine, in eighteen articles, setting forth 
 more clearly the distinguishing tenets of 
 the body, and defining certain points not 
 fully stated in the Confession of Faith. 
 The government and discipline of each 
 body was continued until a new book was 
 prepared. In doctrine the United Presby¬ 
 terian Church is strictly Calvinistic, giving 
 great prominence to the absolute sovereign¬ 
 ty of God in grace as well as in government, 
 the infinite love in redemption in which no 
 human merit has any place, and the un¬ 
 bounded freeness]of the gospel offer and in¬ 
 vitation. The verbal inspiration of the 
 Scriptures is taught; the Word of God is 
 held to be the supreme law for the con¬ 
 science and life; human slavery is regarded 
 as such a violation of the law of God as to 
 exclude from the communion of the Church. 
 Secret oath-bound societies are declared to 
 be opposed to the genius and spirit of 
 Christianity, and therefore Church mem¬ 
 bers ought not to have connection with 
 them. In the worship of God, the Psalms 
 of the Bible are used to the exclusion of 
 human compositions, on the ground that 
 they were given by the Holy Spirit for 
 such use to all ages, and the divine Word 
 is the best expression of praise, and should 
 not be displaced by the human. In relation 
 to other Churches, the position is that of 
 restricted communion; that is, members of 
 other Churches are admitted to communion, 
 not on a general and promiscuous invita¬ 
 tion, but under the supervision of the Ses¬ 
 sion, and on the same knowledge of faith 
 and Christian character required of those 
 seeking permanent membership. In gov¬ 
 ernment, the General Assembly has appel¬ 
 late power in all cases of discipline, and 
 before any regulation can be made bind¬ 
 ing on the Church, or any change be made 
 in the standards, it must be submitted 
 by overture, and receive at least a ma¬ 
 jority of the votes of the whole Church 
 cast in the Presbyteries, each minister and 
 ruling elder in the Presbytery beingentitled 
 to vote. 
 
 The United Presbyterian Church has al¬ 
 ways held a high standard for the ministry, 
 and has been very slow to admit to its pul¬ 
 pits any not qualified by a regular academic 
 and theological course. In colonial times 
 arrangements were made for the careful 
 training of students; in 1794 the Associate 
 
Pre 
 
 ( 7^6 ) 
 
 Pre 
 
 Seminary was opened, at Service, Pa., un¬ 
 der Dr. John Anderson, and ten years later 
 the Associate Reformed Seminary, under 
 Dr. John M. Mason, of New York, began 
 its good work. There are at present two 
 Theological Seminaries; one at Allegheny, 
 Pa., and the other at Xenia, O., with an 
 attendance of about ninety students. There 
 are four Colleges under synodical control, 
 viz: Westminster, at New Wilmington, Pa.; 
 Muskingum, at New Concord, O.; Mon¬ 
 mouth, at Monmouth, Ill.; and Cooper 
 Memorial, at Sterling, Kan.; Franklin, at 
 New Athens, O., and Amity, at College 
 Springs, Iowa, are practically institutions 
 of this Church. 
 
 The spirit of the United Presbyterian 
 Church is very conservative. Changes in 
 law or custom are made very slowly. 
 While evangelistic and revival services are 
 much held in destitute places, pastors de¬ 
 pend for the increase of their congregations 
 on faithful preaching of the Word, pastoral 
 labor, and family instruction. A special 
 effort is made to maintain home instruction 
 and family worship. While prominence is 
 given to denominational doctrines and cus¬ 
 toms, cordial relations are maintained tow¬ 
 ard other Churches, and there is the most 
 hearty cooperation in all the great evangel¬ 
 ical agencies of the present day. 
 
 The mission work of the Church has 
 been very greatly blessed. Its Home Mis¬ 
 sion work is carried on under the direction 
 of a General Committee, composed of one 
 member from each Presbytery, meeting a 
 week before the General Assemblv, with 
 an Executive Board to have intermediate 
 control. The work among the Freedmen 
 has two collegiate institutions—Knoxville, 
 Tenn., and Norfolk,Va., one normal school, 
 and several others of common grade. The 
 foreign missions are in the Punjab, India, 
 and in Egypt, extending the whole length of 
 the valley of the Nile; they rank as among 
 the most successful of modern missions. 
 In 1889 they reported 34 congregations, 
 with 21 native pastors, and 8,812 commu¬ 
 nicants, 18 licentiates, 165 other presbyte- 
 rial employes, and nearly 10,000 pupils in 
 the schools. 
 
 The statistics of the whole Church in 
 1890 were as follows: Synods, 10; Presby¬ 
 teries, 59; Ministers, 774; Licentiates, 60; 
 Students of Theology, 71; Congregations, 
 904; Members, 103,921 ; Missionary So¬ 
 cieties, 781; Sabbath-schools, 1,010, with 
 10,260 officers and teachers, and 92,557 
 scholars; Contributions, $1,134,223; Aver¬ 
 age per member, $12.34; Average salary 
 of pastors, $1,000. 
 
 A. G. Wallace. 
 
 Presbyterium, a term denoting the body 
 
 of elders, whether Jewish (Luke xxii. 66; 
 Acts xxii. 5) or Christian. (1 Tim. iv. 14.) 
 
 Presbytery, (1) the place behind the 
 altar, provided with seats for the bishops 
 and presbyters (priests), and protected by 
 rails so that none but clergy might enter 
 it. (2) An ecclesiastical court of Presby¬ 
 terian churches, composed of all the min¬ 
 isters, and one elder from each church with¬ 
 in certain stated local bounds. This court 
 ranks next above the session, and has juris¬ 
 diction over the ministers composing it, 
 over the churches within its bounds, and 
 over candidates for the ministry and licen¬ 
 tiates. 
 
 Presence, The Real. See Lord’s SuP' 
 
 PER. 
 
 Presiding Elders are officers of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, appointed by 
 the bishops, and having charge of local 
 districts within the bounds of a conference. 
 It is their duty to visit the churches at 
 stated intervals, to be present at, as far as 
 practicable, and hold all their quarterly 
 meetings. They hear complaints, receive 
 and try appeals, and renew all licenses ap¬ 
 proved by the quarterly conferences. Their 
 decisions are subject to an appeal to the 
 next Annual Conference. They are paid 
 by their respective districts. The office is 
 one of large power in its general oversight 
 of spiritual and temporal affairs. See 
 Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 Pressense ( pra-son-sa ), Edmond (De- 
 hault) de, D. D. ( hon ., Breslau, 1S69; 
 Montauban, 1876; Edinburgh, 1884), 
 French Protestant; b. in Paris, Jan. 24, 
 1824; studied arts at the University of 
 Paris; theology under Vinet at Lausanne 
 (1842-45); and under Tholuck and Neander 
 at Halle and Berlin (1846-47); was pastor of 
 the Free Evangelical Congregation of the 
 Taitbout at Paris (1847-70); deputy to the 
 National Assembly from the Department of 
 the Seine (1871-76); elected a life senator 
 of France (1S83). Among his numerous 
 writings, some of the best known are his 
 Life of Christ (1866); Mystery of Suffering , 
 and other Discourses (1868); Dome and Italy 
 at the Opening of the (Ecumenical Council 
 (1872); Study of Origins: Problems of Being 
 and Duty (1883). 
 
 Pressly, John Taylor, D. D., a promi¬ 
 nent minister in the United Presbyterian 
 Church; b. in Abbeville District, S. C., 
 March 28, 1795; d. at Allegheny City,Penn., 
 Aug. 13, 1870. He was graduated at Tran¬ 
 sylvania University, Ky., in 1812, and in 
 1816 was ordained pastor of the Cedar 
 
Pri 
 
 ( 7^7 ) 
 
 Pri 
 
 Spring, S. C., Associate Reformed Church. 
 He was called to the professorship of the¬ 
 ology in the seminary at Pittsburg (1832), 
 which was removed to Allegheny the fol¬ 
 lowing year. He here engaged in pastoral 
 duties and took a prominent part in organ¬ 
 izing the United Presbyterian Church, 
 which was formed in 1858 from the Asso¬ 
 ciate and Associate Reformed Presbyterian 
 churches. He was eminently successful 
 as a pastor, preacher, and teacher. 
 
 Priesthood and Priest, in the Old Tes¬ 
 tament. “ Definition .—By priesthood is 
 meant the office of a priest, or the priestly 
 order; and a priest is one consecrated to 
 minister in matters pertaining to God; one 
 appointed to a ministry through which 
 spiritual as well as other help and guidance 
 are ordained to be sought and secured 
 from above. The institution of a class of 
 men set apart to this office is, wherever it 
 exists, witness to a sense of the need of 
 such mediation, and to a faith in the fact 
 of it, or, in other words, is both a confes¬ 
 sion of the sin of man and a recognition of 
 the grace of God, as well as an assent on 
 the part of the worshipper to the reception 
 of the latter on God’s own terms. The ex¬ 
 istence of such an institution among the 
 Jews at any rate implies this much, and if 
 this no longer exists within the Christian 
 community, it is because the dividing wall 
 between priest and people has been broken 
 down, and each man has by Christ been 
 admitted into the inner sanctuary, and him¬ 
 self consecrated a priest unto God for the 
 salvation of other men, while Christ him¬ 
 self is revealed as the one High-Priest. 
 
 “ The priests were the descendants of 
 Aaron, and, according to the Levitical law, 
 they possessed, in virtue of this descent, 
 the exclusive right of offering to God the 
 sacrifices of the people, at first in the Tab¬ 
 ernacle and then in the Temple of Jerusa¬ 
 lem. 
 
 “ (a) Qualifications .—A priest must have 
 been able to prove his descent from Aaron, 
 and he was bound to observe certain rules 
 in regard to marriage, with a view to pre¬ 
 serve the purity of the priestly stock, and 
 guard the sanctity of the priestly order. 
 He must have been free from all physical 
 defect, for if not he was debarred from of¬ 
 ficiating. These disqualifying defects are 
 enumerated in Lev. xxi. 16-23, an d were 
 afterwards reckoned, by the subtle casuis¬ 
 try of the Jewish rabbis, to amount to 142. 
 He must not touch the body of a dead per¬ 
 son, or attend the obsequies of any one ex¬ 
 cept a blood relation. 
 
 “(^) Consecration .—This consisted of three 
 steps: (1) the washing of the body with 
 pure water; (2) investiture with the priest¬ 
 
 ly garments; and (3) a series of sacrifices, 
 accompanied by certain symbolic acts sig¬ 
 nificant of the priestly rank and function. 
 (Exod. xxix., and Lev. viii.) 
 
 “ (c) The dress .—The material of the 
 dress which was worn by the priest only 
 in the temple, whether on duty or off, was 
 all of linen, and it consisted of: (1) short 
 breeches drawn over the hips and thighs; 
 (2) a white, tight-fitting cassock, with a 
 diamond pattern upon it, of one woven 
 piece, which reached nearly to the feet, 
 and which was gathered round the body 
 with a symbolically ornamented girdle; 
 and (3) a turban or cap of a cup-shaped 
 form. Besides these, all priests would ap¬ 
 pear to have also worn the ephod in later 
 times, though at first this was confined to 
 the High-Priest, and they always went 
 barefoot when engaged in the service. 
 
 “ (d) Priestly courses .—The priests were 
 so numerous that they could not all of¬ 
 ficiate at once, so that an arrangement had 
 to be made whereby they might do so in 
 regular rotation. Accordingly the whole 
 body of the order was divided into twenty- 
 four families, or courses of service, each 
 of which was to serve in rotation for a 
 week—an arrangement which, though it is 
 traced back to the time of David (1 Chron. 
 xxix. 7-18), appears to have first consoli¬ 
 dated itself after the return from the Cap¬ 
 tivity. The twenty-four divisions were 
 broken up into more or fewer subordinate 
 ones, each, both principal and subordinate, 
 under a ‘ head,’ who is sometimes desig¬ 
 nated an ‘ elder.’ These divisions, though 
 of equal standing in the services of the 
 sanctuary, were of unequal rank in the 
 state, those from which the high-priests 
 were drawn naturally acquiring at length 
 greater influence and importance than the 
 rest, to the ruin, as it happened, not only 
 of the order, but of the commonwealth it¬ 
 self. 
 
 “ ( e) Emoluments .—Before the Exile the 
 revenues of the priests would appear to 
 have been at once slender and uncertain, 
 and to have been derived exclusively from 
 the small fraction which fell to their share 
 of the offerings made to Jehovah. But 
 with the return from the Captivity these 
 increased to an enormous extent, and this 
 was due to the increase of political power 
 which the new order of things put into the 
 hands of the priesthood. The priestly 
 function from this time became the sover¬ 
 eign one of the state, and more and more 
 of the offerings of the people and the 
 wealth of the community was dedicated to 
 its maintenance, in a dignity and an effi¬ 
 ciency proportionate to the importance now 
 assigned to it. The priests acquired hence¬ 
 forward, if not earlier, a right to a larger 
 
Pri 
 
 ( 768 ) 
 
 Pri 
 
 share of, and a choicer selection from, the 
 offerings, as well as a power to levy tithes 
 of the whole people, and to lay claim for 
 the service of the Lord to the first-born of 
 men and cattle. (1) Of the offerings they 
 now received the whole of the sin-offerings 
 and the trespass-offerings, and nearly all 
 of the meat-offerings, though of the thank- 
 offerings they received only two parts— 
 the breast and the right shoulder—and of 
 the burnt-offerings little more than the 
 skins, which, however, were a source of no 
 small revenue. (2) But by far the greater 
 portion of their revenue was derived from 
 dues that were paid, irrespective of the sac¬ 
 rifices altogether, viewed in the light of a 
 tax for the support of the temple service 
 and its ministers. These were levied part¬ 
 ly in the form of tithes, partly upon the 
 produce of the soil, and partly upon the 
 offspring of cattle. (3) In addition to im¬ 
 posts on these, there fell to the priests vo¬ 
 tive-offerings, or the ransom of them, 
 things specially willed away to their ben¬ 
 efit, and certain indemnities, as for prop¬ 
 erty unlawfully appropriated, and that 
 could not be restored to its rightful owner. 
 (4) There were also imposts for their ben¬ 
 efit intended to defray the expenses con¬ 
 nected with public worship, the chief of 
 which was the half-shekel tax, which every 
 male Israelite of twenty years old and up¬ 
 wards was required to pay every year in 
 the month Adar. All these and other im¬ 
 posts, added to the free-will offerings of 
 the people, naturally contributed to in¬ 
 crease the wealth and enhance the impor¬ 
 tance of the priestly order to an extent of 
 which it is hardly possible to form any ad¬ 
 equate conception.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 
 Priestley, Joseph, an eminent Unitarian 
 writer and scientist; b. at Fieldhead, March 
 13, 1733; d. at Northumberland, Pa., Feb. 
 6, 1804. He early developed remarkable 
 gifts as a scholar, and while attending the 
 grammar-school he studied Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, etc. Ill-health compelled him to 
 relinquish his purpose to enter the minis¬ 
 try, and he engaged in mercantile pursuits. 
 In 1752 he regained his strength sufficiently 
 to enter the dissenting academy at Daven- 
 try. He became minister of an Independ¬ 
 ent congregation at Needham Market, 
 Suffolk, in 1755, and at Nantwich, in Ches¬ 
 ter, in 1758. He was appointed professor 
 of belles-lettres at the dissenting academy 
 at Warrington, 1767; minister at Mill-Hill 
 Chapel, Leeds; librarian and companion to 
 the Earl of Shelburne, 1773; minister at 
 Birmingham, 1780, and at Hackney, 1791. 
 It was during these years that he became 
 famous for his scientific discoveries. In 
 the spring of 1794 he sailed for America, 
 
 and spent the remainder of his life on the 
 farm of his son at Northumberland. Dr. 
 Priestley was a sturdy champion of Uni- 
 tarianism, and wrote several theological 
 works, the principal of which are: A His¬ 
 tory of the Corruptions of Christianity (1782); 
 A History of the Early Opinions Concerning 
 Jesus Christ, Compiled from Original Writ¬ 
 ers, Proving that the Christian Church 7cas 
 at first Unitarian (1786). While at Bir¬ 
 mingham he wrote a reply to Burke’s Reflec¬ 
 tions on the French Revolution, that upheld 
 the French Republic so earnestly that a 
 brutal mob entered and sacked his house. 
 His political and religious views made him 
 unpopular in England, but his personal 
 character was above reproach. He won 
 enduring fame by his discoveries in chem¬ 
 istry and physics. His statue was placed 
 in the museum of Oxford University in 
 i860, and another was unveiled at Birming¬ 
 ham, Eng., in 1874. Most of his laboratory 
 came into the possession of the Smithsonian 
 Institute, Washington, D. C., in 1883. See 
 Memoirs of Dr. Joseph Priestley, to the Year 
 1795, written by Himself ; with a Continua¬ 
 tion to the Time of his Decease, by his Son 
 (London, 1806-1807), 2 vols. 
 
 Primate, a title originally given to all 
 metropolitans, then retained only by the 
 vicars of the pope. “ Their rights—de¬ 
 fined partly by older canons, partly by cus¬ 
 tom—consisted in confirming the bishops 
 and archbishops elected, convening national 
 synods, and presiding over them, receiving 
 appeals, superintending the districts, and 
 crowning the kings. Gradually, however, 
 their rights were absorbed by the pope, 
 and their position became in reality only 
 one of honor.”— Jacobsen. The title has 
 been retained in the Church of England, 
 where the archbishop of Canterbury is 
 primate of England; the archbishops of 
 Armagh and Dublin, primates of Ireland; 
 and St. Andrew’s, of Scotland. 
 
 Prime, Samuel Iren^us, D. D., an emi¬ 
 nent Presbyterian minister and editor; b. 
 at Ballston, N. Y., Nov. 4, 1812; d. while 
 on a vacation trip at Manchester, Vt., July 
 18, 1885. He was graduated at Williams 
 College in 1829, and studied theology at 
 Princeton Seminary, 1832-33. He was 
 pastor at Ballston Spa, 1833-35; and at 
 Matteawan, N. Y., 1837-40. In 1840 he 
 became editor of the New York Observer, a 
 position which he occupied until his death. 
 He held many positions of trust and influ¬ 
 ence, but it was as an editor and author 
 that he accomplished a noble life-work. 
 Among his publications were: Travels in 
 Europe and the East (1885); Life of Samuel 
 F. B. Morse (1875); Twenty-five Years of 
 
Pri 
 
 ( 769 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 the Fulton Street Prayer-Meeting (1882); 
 Irenceus' Letters , (three series, 1882, 1885, 
 and 1886, containing his autobiography in 
 the form of letters). 
 
 Primitive Methodist Connection. See 
 
 Methodism, p. 596. 
 
 Prince, Thomas, Congregational divine; 
 b. at Sandwich, Mass., May 15, 1687; d. 
 in Boston, Oct. 22, 1758. After graduat¬ 
 ing at Harvard College in 1707, he trav¬ 
 eled abroad, and preached for several years 
 at Combs, and other places in England. 
 Returning to Boston in 1717, he was or¬ 
 dained the following year colleague pastor 
 of the Rev. Dr. Sewall, of the Old South 
 Church. He was a man of learning and 
 pulpit ability. He wrote a Chronological 
 History of New England in the form of An¬ 
 nals. This history, of deep interest to an¬ 
 tiquarians, extends from 1602 to 1633. He 
 also wrote: An Account of the Earthquakes 
 of New England (1755); New England 
 Psalm-Book Revised and Improved (1758), 
 and other works. He bequeathed his li¬ 
 brary to the Old South Church, and by it 
 it was deposited in the Boston Public Li¬ 
 brary, 1866. 
 
 Prior, the superior of certain convents, 
 who ranked next to the abbot. Where a 
 monastery was attached to a cathedral it 
 was ruled by the prior, as in this case the 
 abbot was the bishop. There were two 
 kinds of priors: (1) the priores claustrales , 
 who were subordinate to the abbots, or 
 acted in their place, and (2) th e priores con- 
 ventuales, who were in charge of their 
 monasteries. 
 
 Priscillian, an heresiarch of the fourth 
 century, was a Spaniard of good family, 
 considerable wealth, and great eloquence 
 and learning. Numerous heresies, includ¬ 
 ing Gnosticism, Manichseism, Arianism, 
 and Sabellianism, contributed to form his 
 system, and he was also addicted to the 
 practice of astrology and magic. His prin¬ 
 ciples were ascetic, and he has been falsely 
 charged with secretly encouraging impu¬ 
 rity. He allowed his followers to use 
 deceit to conceal their opinions, and they 
 were in the habit of attending Catholic 
 services, and receiving, but not consuming, 
 the consecrated elements. They held that 
 Christ was not a real man, but had only 
 assumed the appearance of one. They 
 fasted on Sundays and Christmas-Day. 
 Women were allowed to officiate in their 
 service. The system was mainly built on 
 some apocryphal books, but Priscillian rec¬ 
 ognized the complete canon of Scripture, 
 altered and explained to support his views. 
 
 Priscillianism gained many converts, 
 especially of the weaker sex. About A. d. 
 378 a provincial council was held at Sar¬ 
 agossa, at which the heresy was condemn¬ 
 ed. ^Priscillian, however, found supporters 
 in the Bishops Salvianus and Justantius, 
 and Hyginus of Cordova who, wishing to 
 convert the heretics, was consecrated bish¬ 
 op of Avila; but by the influence of the 
 orthodox party these were banished from 
 Spain, with the heresiarch. After a time 
 they returned, and, by means of bribery, 
 procured their restoration to their sees, 
 and the banishment of Ithacius and Idacius, 
 their chief opponents. But after the mur¬ 
 der of Gratian, Ithacius succeeded in per¬ 
 suading the usurper Maximus to call a 
 council at Bordeaux (a. d. 384), which 
 condemned the heresy. Priscillian ap¬ 
 pealed to Maximus, but, after a formal 
 trial, judgment was pronounced against 
 him, and in spite of the remonstrance of 
 Martin, bishop of Tours, he was put to 
 death, with six of his companions, by be¬ 
 heading (a. d. 385). The heresy did not 
 disappear with the death of its founder. 
 His followers flourished, in spite of their 
 further condemnation at the Synod of To¬ 
 ledo (in 400), till the sixth century, when 
 they began to diminish, and received their 
 death-blow at the Synod of Braga in 563. 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Priscillianists. See above. 
 
 Probabilism, the theory that, in all mat¬ 
 ters where there is any doubt as to the 
 right course of action, there is no sin as 
 long as the probable course is taken. There 
 are some glimpses of probabilism in the 
 works of some of the early Greek Fathers, 
 but the doctrine did not assume any im¬ 
 portance till the sixteenth century, when it 
 was adopted by Medina, a Spanish Domini¬ 
 can, and in the following century was held 
 by many of the Jesuits. It soon divided 
 into four classes: Probabilism si?nple , that 
 is, the doctrine that it is lawful to act upon 
 any probable opinion, however slight its 
 probability ; AEqui-probabilism , which de¬ 
 clares that an opinion may be acted upon if 
 it is equally probable with another; Prob- 
 abiliorism , in which only the more probable 
 opinion may be acted upon; and Tertior- 
 ism , which required that the more safe 
 opinion shall be followed, even if it be the 
 less probable. The first Jesuit to adopt 
 probabilism was Gabriel Vasquez. It was 
 further developed by Escobar, Coninch, 
 Hurtado de Mendoza, and Henriquez. 
 There were very many who were hostile to 
 the doctrines, especially in France, the 
 most famous being among the Jansenists. 
 It was first condemned at the Council of 
 
Pro 
 
 ( 770 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 the Sorbonne in 1620, and it was afterward 
 condemned by several of the popes, not¬ 
 ably by Innocent XI. In the last century 
 probabiliorism was the more popular doc¬ 
 trine, but in the present century that theory 
 has entirely disappeared, and probabilism 
 is the only existent theory. The greatest 
 modern probabilist writer has been Liguori 
 ( q. v. ).—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Probation, Future, a term used to denote 
 the doctrine, held by some modern divines, 
 that the offers of the gospel will be made 
 to men in the next life, who never had a 
 probation in the present life. See Dorner: 
 System Christian Doctrine; Schaff : Com. 
 (Lange) on Matt. xii. 32; Craven: Excur¬ 
 sus on Hades (Lange’s Com. on Revelation); 
 Farrar: Eternal Hope. 
 
 Procession of the Holy Ghost. See 
 
 Filioque. 
 
 Processions. Ecclesiastical processions 
 are first mentioned in the fourth century. 
 When the Arians of Constantinople were 
 not allowed to worship within the walls, 
 they marched morning and evening in long 
 processions through the streets to their 
 meeting-places outside the gates. These 
 processions made such an impression that 
 Chrysostom, with much pomp, gathered 
 the orthodox, and with the priests at their 
 head they marched through the streets 
 singing hymns, and carrying large silver 
 crosses and lighted wax tapers. During 
 the Middle Ages processions were a very 
 important part of the ceremonial life of the 
 Roman Church. The custom of having 
 them held annually in Ascension week 
 (.Rogation days) still survives in the annual 
 marching about the boundaries of parishes 
 in England, known as “ beating the 
 bounds.” Processions, especially on Palm 
 Sunday, are still retained in Roman Catho¬ 
 lic countries. 
 
 Procopius, a Bohemian priest who suc¬ 
 ceeded Ziska in 1424, as leader of the 
 Hussite army. He proved himself a skill¬ 
 ful leader and wise statesman. In 1426 he 
 defeated the Germans at Aussig, routed an 
 army of Crusaders in 1427, and again put 
 to flight the forces of Germany at Tauss 
 in 1431. These victories were followed by 
 the Council of Basel, in which Procopius 
 and fourteen other Bohemian leaders met 
 for conference in Jan., 1433. At the close 
 of the conference envoys were sent to 
 Prague. The Bohemians sought to reduce 
 the town of Pilsen that alone gave alle¬ 
 giance to the Roman Catholic side. The 
 siege was unsuccessful, and opposition 
 arose in the army against Procopius, who 
 
 retired from leadership (1433). A party 
 was organized that favored the restoration 
 of Sigismund as king of Bohemia. The 
 barons of Bohemia and Moravia formed a 
 royalist league. Again Procopius placed 
 himself at the head of the Taborites, and 
 met the army of the barons at Lipan, in 
 May, 1434. Procopius was killed, and the 
 defeat of the Taborites ( q . v.) left affairs in 
 the hands of the moderate party. 
 
 Prodicians, a sect founded by Prodicus, 
 a heretic of the second century. Their 
 views were similar to those of the Anti- 
 nomian Gnostics. As the sons of God they 
 declared that they were exempt from all 
 law. They did not keep the Sabbath, and 
 refused to submit to the external ordinances 
 of religion. They accepted the apocry¬ 
 phal writings of Zoroaster, and quoted 
 them as authority. 
 
 Propaganda, a committee of cardinals 
 and others who have in charge the mission¬ 
 ary operations of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. This society for the “ Propaga¬ 
 tion of the Faith,” was founded in 1622 by 
 Gregory XV. It meets at Rome weekly 
 under the presidency of the pope. 
 
 Prophetic Office in the Old Testament. 
 “ Nothing is more peculiarly characteristic 
 of the religion and history of Israel than 
 the mission of the prophets, and the exer¬ 
 cise of their unique gifts. Greece is famous 
 for its poets, philosophers, and artists; 
 Rome for its soldiers, statesmen, and legis¬ 
 lators; Israel for its prophets. The proph¬ 
 et was not simply, nor was he chiefly, a 
 seer of the future. He was a messenger 
 of Jehovah, a man inspired by God to see 
 his Lord’s will, and sent forth to declare it. 
 But while the true prophet of God was all 
 this, a multitude of professional prophets 
 existed—people who were trained to exer¬ 
 cise prophetic functions, and who practiced 
 them as a profession—exciting themselves 
 with music and wild dances. They were 
 the dervishes of the Jews. Many of these 
 men were not divinely inspired, and some 
 of them were directly opposed to the mind 
 and will of God. It is important to ob¬ 
 serve the distinction between the two 
 classes of men. Sometimes they are direct¬ 
 ly opposed to one another—the true proph¬ 
 ets denouncing the professional prophets, 
 and the latter persecuting the former. 
 In course of time the professional order 
 of prophets lost every spark of divine 
 inspiration, and every trace of a special 
 mission. Then it became a mere echo of 
 popular cries, and a base organ for the 
 flattery of king and court. The true proph¬ 
 ets, on the contrary, were too often ‘ in 
 
Pro 
 
 ( 771 ) 
 
 Pro 
 
 opposition.’ They were driven to take up 
 a post of antagonism to popular habits 
 and royal wishes. Sometimes, Cassandra- 
 like, they only earned hatred for their 
 faithful warnings. But they always en¬ 
 deavored to keep before the nation the 
 high ideal of its true life. Their avocation 
 was public and largely political. They 
 performed the function in the state which 
 the leader-writer of the modern newspaper, 
 at his best, aims at exercising, i. e. , they 
 were the critics and censors of public 
 policy. At the same time they took note of 
 private morals. This was on the grounds 
 of a theocratic government. God was the 
 true King of Israel, and the prophets con¬ 
 stituted his ministry. Austere and sub¬ 
 lime, they stood out as the national con¬ 
 science incarnate, as the voice of God 
 pleading with his people. This lofty voca¬ 
 tion was not confined to men. It was seen 
 in women—anticipated by Deborah in a 
 very early age (Judg. iv. 5), and fulfilled 
 also by Huldah at a later date. (2 Kings 
 xxii. 14.) 
 
 “ The prophets, whose special function 
 it was to interpret from time to time the 
 meaning of Jehovah’s dealings with the 
 nation, may be distributed into five differ¬ 
 ent classes, according to the part they 
 played in the history of the theocracy, 
 each one affirming a principle and taking a 
 step in advance of his predecessor, as well 
 as defining more clearly the ultimate 
 destiny of the nation, and the final purpose 
 of God in its election. These classes may 
 be named after their conspicuous and 
 representative members: that of (1) the 
 Nebiim (i. e., prophets ), (2) Elijah, (3) 
 Amos, (4) Isaiah, and (5) Jeremiah.”—Bag- 
 ster: Bible Helps. See Oehler: Old Testa¬ 
 ment Theology , trans. by Professor Day 
 (New York, 1883); W. Robertson Smith: 
 The Prophets of Israel (1882); Green: 
 Moses and the Prophets (1883). 
 
 Propitiation, a sacrifice offered to God to 
 arrest the punishment of sin and secure 
 the bestowment of his favor. Such an ef¬ 
 fectual sacrifice was Jesus Christ; he is, 
 therefore, our propitiation. For the doc¬ 
 trinal statements, see Atonement. 
 
 Proselytes. While this term is applied to 
 converts to any religion, or religious sect, 
 it is especially applied to those converted 
 from heathenism to the Jewish faith. 
 There were two classes of these proselytes: 
 (1) “ Full proselytes, called ‘ proselytes of 
 righteousness,’ who were circumcised, and 
 in full communion with the synagogue. 
 They were usually more fanatical than the 
 native Jews (comp. Matt, xxiii. 15). (2) 
 
 Half proselytes, called ‘ proselytes of the 
 
 gate ’ (from Ex. xx. 10, ‘ Thy stranger that 
 is within thy gate ’), who embraced the 
 monotheism and Messianic hopes of the 
 Jews, without submitting to circumcision, 
 and conforming to the Jewish ritual. The 
 latter class are called in the New Testament 
 religious, devout, God-fearing persons. 
 (Acts xiii. 43, 50; xvi. 14; xvii. 4, 17; xviii. 
 7.) They were among the first converts, 
 and formed generally the nucleus of Paul’s 
 congregations. To these half-proselytes 
 belonged Cornelius, Lydia, Timothy, and 
 Titus.”—Schaff: Bible Diet. 
 
 Protestanten-Verein ( Protestant Union), 
 an association of German rationalistic min¬ 
 isters and professors, organized in 1865 at 
 Eisenach. It has been earnestly opposed 
 by the orthodox influence in the German 
 Church, and has made but little progress. 
 
 Protestants, a name first given to the fol¬ 
 lowers of Luther, who protested against 
 the decree of the Diet of Spires, signed by 
 Charles V. and other Roman Catholic 
 princes in 1592. See Reformation. 
 
 Prote'vangelium. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Proverbs. “ The Hebrew title of this 
 book is Mis hie { by-words, proverbs, simili¬ 
 tudes); in the LXX. it is called Paroinu'ai 
 (Proverbs), and similarly, in the Vulgate, 
 Liber Proverbiorum. 
 
 “ It is a manual of practical rules of life, 
 as the Psalms are a manual of daily devo¬ 
 tion; the former guiding the actions, the 
 latter the thoughts. It is a book of daily 
 lessons for all ages and states of men and 
 women. ‘ Wisdom ’ is religion; and ‘ folly ’ 
 is irreligion. 
 
 “ It may be divided as follows: (1) In¬ 
 troduction, the value of wisdom’Ji.-ix.). (2) 
 The Proverbs (strictly so called) of Solo¬ 
 mon (x.-xxii. 16). (3) Another introduction 
 on the study of wisdom (xxii. 17-xxiv.). 
 
 (4) A second volume of true Proverbs, col¬ 
 lected by those who were set by Hezekiah 
 to restore the temple worship, among 
 whom were Isaiah and Hosea (xxv.-xxix.). 
 
 (5) An Appendix, containing the instruc¬ 
 tions of Agurto his pupils, Ithieland Ucal, 
 and of the mother of Lemuel to her son 
 (xxx., xxxi.). 
 
 “ It is generally allowed that the main 
 portion (x.-xxii. 16) is the work of Solomon, 
 consisting of Proverbs composed or col¬ 
 lected by himself, and that the other por¬ 
 tions have been collected and added to it 
 subsequently, the original title being pre¬ 
 served for the whole of the compilation, 
 just as was done for the Psalms. 
 
 “ Date and Authorship. —The date of this 
 final arrangement is uncertain, but it was 
 
Pro 
 
 ( 772 ) 
 
 Pry 
 
 most probably in the time of Hezekiah. 
 Modern critics are divided in their opinion 
 whether the first part of the book (i.-ix.) 
 belongs to the seventh or ninth century 
 b. C. , and the arguments on either side are 
 alike inconclusive. It is also a matter of 
 dispute whether it is earlier or later than 
 the Song of Solomon and the Book of Job, 
 many passages in the latter bearing such a 
 striking resemblance to the Proverbs as to 
 leave no doubt that the writer of the one 
 book was familiar with the other. The 
 Jews attributed the Song of Solomon to the 
 early youth, the Proverbs to the mature 
 age, and Ecclesiastes to the declining years, 
 of Solomon, while others have assigned 
 them all to the last portion of his life. 
 There has never been any doubt of the 
 canonicity of the book, except on the part 
 of some writers among the Jews them¬ 
 selves.”—“ Oxford ” Bible Helps. 
 
 Providence, the superintending care 
 Which God exercises over creation. The 
 arguments for the providence of God are 
 generally drawn from the light of nature; 
 the being of a God; the creation of the 
 world; the wonderful disposing and con¬ 
 trolling of the affairs and actions of men; 
 the various blessings enjoyed by God’s 
 creatures; the awful judgments that have 
 been inflicted, and the wonderful preserva¬ 
 tion of the Bible and the Church through¬ 
 out every age,notwithstanding the attempts 
 of earth and hell against them. Some have 
 denied that the providence of God reaches 
 beyond a general superintendence of the 
 laws of nature, and say that he never inter¬ 
 poses in the particular concerns of individ¬ 
 uals. This would be to render his govern¬ 
 ment imperfect, and would leave no ground 
 for reposing any trust under its protection, 
 for then the majority of human affairs 
 would be fortuitous, without any regular 
 direction, and tending to no special scope. 
 But the uniform doctrine of Scripture is 
 that nothing in the universe happens with¬ 
 out God, that his hand is ever active, his 
 decree or permission intervening in all; 
 that nothing is too great or unwieldy for his 
 management, nothing too minute or com¬ 
 monplace to be beneath his care; that while 
 he is guiding the planets in their course 
 through the heaven, or ruling the nations 
 of the world, he is still watching over 
 and guiding the humblest of his creatures. 
 We cannot, it is true, understand the 
 manner in which Providence interposes 
 in human affairs, and we are equally at 
 a loss to explain how it directs the 
 motions of the heavenly bodies; but the 
 fact remains that there does exist an over¬ 
 ruling influence in the moral world, as 
 certainly as in the natural. It would be 
 
 impossible to conceive God acting as the 
 Governor of the world, unless he were to 
 govern all the events which happen in it; 
 he would then be no more than an uncon¬ 
 cerned spectator of the behavior of his 
 subjects, regarding the obedient and the 
 rebellious alike with an eye of indifference. 
 From the imperfection of our knowledge 
 to ascertain what is good for us, and from 
 the defect of our power to bring about that 
 good when known, arise all those disap¬ 
 pointments which continually prove that 
 man is not master of his own lot; that, 
 though he may devise , it is God who directs 
 —God who can make the smallest incident 
 an effectual instrument of his providence 
 for overturning the most carefully elabo¬ 
 rated plans of man. Accident , chance , and 
 fortune are words to which much is ascrib¬ 
 ed in the life of man; but what are they 
 but synonyms for the unknown operations 
 of Providence ? In God’s universe noth¬ 
 ing happens in vain or without a cause: in 
 that chaos of human affairs and intrigues, 
 or that mass of confusion and disorder in 
 which we can see no light, all is clearness 
 and order in the sight of him who is gov¬ 
 erning and directing all, and bringing for¬ 
 ward every event in its due time and place. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Provost ( preepositus ), a name first given to 
 the official next in authority to the abbot in 
 a monastery. According to the rules of 
 St. Benedict, he was of equal rank with 
 the diaconus. The term is now used in 
 the Roman Catholic Church to denote the 
 head of the cathedral chapter. 
 
 Prudentius of Troyes, a native of Spain, 
 whose real name was Galindo. He was 
 appointed bishop of Troyes in 847, and 
 d. April 6, 861. He supported Gottschalk 
 in the predestination controversy, and 
 wrote Ad Hinkmarum and De Breed, contra 
 Jo. Scotum. He was revered as a saint by 
 his diocese. 
 
 Prussia contained, according to the cen¬ 
 sus of 1880, a population of 27,279,111, of 
 which 17,613,530 belonged to the Evangel¬ 
 ical State Church, 9,205,136 to the Roman 
 Catholic Church, 96,655 to other Christian 
 denominations, and 363,970 Jews. The 
 Protestants are chiefly found in the prov¬ 
 inces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Saxony, 
 Hanover, and Schleswig-Holstein; the Ro¬ 
 man Catholics in the provinces of East 
 Prussia, Silesia, Westphalia, and Rhenish 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prynne, William, b. at Swanswick, near 
 Bath, 1600; d. in London, Oct. 24, 1669. 
 He was graduated at Oxford, and gained 
 
Psa 
 
 ( 773 ) 
 
 Psa 
 
 great notoriety by his Histriomastix; or , A 
 Scourge for Stage Players , for which he 
 was condemned by Archbishop Laud to 
 pay a fine of three thousand pounds, to 
 stand in the pillory, and to lose both his 
 ears. He was again imprisoned for libel 
 in 1637, but was released by the Long Par¬ 
 liament. He became member of Parlia¬ 
 ment for Newport in 1648, and was the 
 solicitor in the trial of Laud (1644), and 
 arranged the proceedings. He advocated 
 the cause of Charles, and in 1650 was ex¬ 
 pelled from the House of Commons be¬ 
 cause of his active opposition to Cromwell. 
 After the Restoration he was appointed 
 Keeper of the Records of the Tower. His 
 publications, chiefly on religion and poli¬ 
 tics, amount to nearly two hundred. 
 
 Psalms, Book of. “ The present Hebrew 
 name of the book is Tehilltm , ‘ Praises.’ 
 But in the actual superscriptions of the 
 Psalms, the word Tehillah is applied only to 
 one, Psalm cxlv., which is, indeed, emphat¬ 
 ically a praise-hymn. The LXX. entitled 
 them Psalmoi, or ‘ Psalms.’ The Christian 
 Church obviously received the Psalter from 
 the Jews, not only as a constituent portion 
 of the sacred volume of Holy Scripture, 
 but also as the liturgical hymn-book which 
 the Jewish Church had regularly used in 
 the temple. The book contains 150 psalms, 
 and may be divided into five great di¬ 
 visions or books, which must have been 
 originally formed at different periods. 
 This is by various further considerations 
 rendered all but certain. Thus, there is a 
 remarkable difference between the several 
 books, in their use of the divine names 
 Jehovah and Elohim, to designate Almighty 
 God. In Book I. (i.-xli.), the former name 
 prevails: it is found 272 times, while Elo¬ 
 him occurs but fifteen times. In Book II. 
 (xlii.-lxxii.), Elohim is found more than 
 five times as often as Jehovah. In Book 
 III. (Ixxiii.-lxxxix.), the preponderance of 
 Elohim in the earlier is balanced by that 
 of Jehovah in the latter psalms of the book. 
 In Book IV. (xc.-cvi.), the name Jehovah 
 is exclusively employed; and so also, vir¬ 
 tually, in Book V. (cvii.-cl.), Elohim be¬ 
 ing there found only in two passages in¬ 
 corporated from earlier psalms. We find 
 the several groups of psalms which form 
 the respective five books distinguished, in 
 great measure, by their superscriptions 
 from each other. Book I. is, by the super¬ 
 scriptions, entirely Davidic; nor do we 
 find in it a trace of any but David’s author¬ 
 ship. We may well believe that the com¬ 
 pilation of the book was also David’s work. 
 Book II. appears by the date of its latest 
 psalm, Psa. xlvi., to have been compiled 
 in the reign of King Hezekiah. It would 
 
 naturally comprise, first, several or most 
 of the Levitical psalms anterior to that 
 date; and, secondly, the remainder of the 
 psalms of David previously uncompiled. 
 To these latter, the collector, after properly 
 appending the single psalm of Solomon, 
 has affixed the notice that ‘ the prayers of 
 David, the son of Jesse, are ended ’ (Psa. 
 Ixxii. 20); evidently implying, at least on 
 the prinid facie view, that no more com¬ 
 positions of the royal Psalmist remained. 
 How then, do we find, in the later books, 
 III., IV., V., further psalms yet marked 
 with David’s name ? The name David is 
 used to denote in other parts of Scripture, 
 after the original David’s death, the then 
 head of the Davidic family; and so, in 
 prophecy, the Messiah of the seed of David, 
 who was to sit on David’s throne. (1 Kings 
 xii. 16; Hos. iii. 5; Isa. lv. 3; Jer. xxx. 9; 
 Ezek. xxxiv. 23-24.) And thus, then, we 
 may explain the meaning of the later Da¬ 
 vidic superscriptions in the Psalter. The 
 psalms to which they belong were written 
 by Hezekiah, by Josiah, by Zerubbabel, or 
 others of David’s posterity. The above 
 explanation removes all serious difficulty 
 respecting the history of the later books of 
 the Psalter. Book III., the interest of 
 which centres in the times of Hezekiah, 
 stretches out, by its last two psalms, to 
 the reign of Manasseh: it was probably 
 compiled in the reign of Josiah. Book IV. 
 contains the remainder of the psalms up to 
 the date of the captivity; Book V., the 
 psalms of the return. There is nothing to 
 distinguish these two books from each 
 other in respect of outward decoration or 
 arrangement, and they may have been 
 compiled together in the days of Nehemiah. 
 
 “ Connection of the Psalms with the Is- 
 raelitish History. —The psalm of Moses, 
 Psa. xc., which is in point of actual date the 
 earliest, faithfully reflects the long, weary 
 wanderings, the multiplied provocations, 
 and the consequent punishments, of the 
 wilderness. It is, however, with David 
 that Israelitish psalmody may be said vir¬ 
 tually to commence. Previous mastery 
 over his harp had probably already pre¬ 
 pared the way for his future strains, when 
 the anointing oil of Samuel descended upon 
 him, and he began to drink in special meas¬ 
 ure, from that day forward, of the Spirit 
 of the Lord. It was then that, victorious 
 at home over the mysterious melancholy 
 of Saul, and in the field over the vaunting 
 champion of the Philistine hosts, he sang 
 how from even babes and sucklings God 
 had ordained strength because of his ene¬ 
 mies. (Psa. viii.) His next psalms are of 
 a different character; his persecutions at 
 the hands of Saul had commenced. When 
 David’s reign has begun, it is still with the 
 
Psa 
 
 ( 774 ) 
 
 Psa 
 
 most exciting incidents of his history, pri¬ 
 vate or public, that his psalms are mainly 
 associated. There are none to which the 
 period of his reign at Hebron can lay exclu¬ 
 sive claim. Rut after the conquest of Je¬ 
 rusalem his psalmody opened afresh with 
 the solemn removal of the ark to Mount 
 Zion; and in Psa. xxiv.-xxix., which belong 
 together, we have the earliest definite in¬ 
 stance of David’s systematic composition 
 or arrangement of psalms for public use. 
 Even of those psalms which cannot be re¬ 
 ferred to any definite occasion, several re¬ 
 flect the general historical circumstances 
 of the times. Thus Psa. ix. is a thanks¬ 
 giving for the deliverance of Israel from 
 its former heathen oppressors. Psa. x. is 
 a prayer for the deliverance of the Church 
 from the high-handed oppression exercised 
 from within. The succeeding psalms 
 dwell on the same theme, the virtual inter¬ 
 nal heathenism by which the Church of 
 God was weighed down. So that there re¬ 
 main very few, e.g., Psa. xv.-xvii., xix., 
 xxxii. (with-its choral appendage, xxiii.), 
 xxxvii., of which some historical account 
 may not be given. A season of repose near 
 the close of his reign induced David to 
 compose his grand personal thanksgiving 
 for the deliverances of his whole life, Psa. 
 xviii.; the date of which is approximately 
 determined by the place at which it is in¬ 
 serted in the history. .(2 Sam. xxii.) It 
 was probably at this period that he finally 
 arranged for the sanctuary service that col¬ 
 lection of his psalms which now constitutes 
 the First Book of the Psalter. • 
 
 “ The course of David’s reign was not, 
 however, as yet complete. The solemn 
 assembly convened by him for the dedica¬ 
 tion of the materials of the future temple 
 (1 Chron. xxviii., xxix.), would naturally 
 call forth a renewal of his best efforts to 
 glorify the God of Israel in psalms; and to 
 this occasion we doubtless owe the great 
 festal hymns, Psa. lxv.-lxvii., lxviii., con¬ 
 taining a large review of the past history, 
 present position, and prospective glories, 
 of God’s chosen people. The supplications 
 of Psa. lxix. suit best with the renewed 
 distress occasioned by the sedition of 
 Adonijah. Psa. lxxi., to which Psa. lxx., 
 a fragment of a former psalm, is introduc¬ 
 tory, forms David’s parting strain. Yet 
 that the psalmody of Israel may not seem 
 finally to terminate with him, the glories 
 of the future are forthwith anticipated by 
 his son in Psa. Ixxii. Fora time, the single 
 psalm of Solomon remained the only addi¬ 
 tion to those of David. If, however, relig¬ 
 ious psalmody were to revive, somewhat 
 might be not unreasonably anticipated from 
 the great assembly of King Asa (2 Chron. 
 xv); and Psa. 1 . suits so exactly with the 
 
 circumstances of that occasion, that it may 
 well be assigned to it. The great propheti¬ 
 cal ode, Psa. xlv., connects itself most read¬ 
 ily with the splendors of Jehoshaphat’s 
 reign. And after that psalmody had thus 
 definitely revived, there would be no rea¬ 
 son why it should not thenceforward man¬ 
 ifest itself in seasons of anxiety, as well 
 as of festivity and thanksgiving—hence 
 Psa. xlix. Yet the psalms of this period 
 flow but sparingly. Psa. xlii.-xliv., lxxiv. 
 are best assigned to the reign of Ahaz. 
 The reign of Hezekiah is naturally rich 
 in psalmody. Psa. xlvi., Ixxiii., lxxv., lxxvi. 
 connect themselves with the resistance to 
 the supremacy of the Assyrians and the 
 divine destruction of their host. 
 
 “We are now brought to a series of 
 psalms of peculiar interest, springing out 
 of the political and religious history of the 
 separated ten tribes. In date of actual 
 composition, they commence before the 
 times of Hezekiah. The earliest is prob¬ 
 ably Psa. lxxx,, a supplication for the Is- 
 raelitish people at the time of the Syrian 
 oppression. All these psalms (lxxx.- 
 lxxxiii.) are referred by their superscrip¬ 
 tions to the Levite singers, and thus bear 
 witness to the efforts of the Levites to 
 reconcile the two branches of the chosen 
 nation. The captivity of Manasseh him¬ 
 self proved to be but temporary; but 
 the sentence which his sins had pro¬ 
 voked upon Judah and Jerusalem still 
 remained to be executed, and precluded 
 the hope that God’s salvation could be re¬ 
 vealed until after such an outpouring of 
 his judgments as the nation never yet had 
 known. Labor and sorrow must be the lot 
 of the present generation; through these 
 mercy might occasionally gleam, but the 
 glory which was eventually to be manifest¬ 
 ed must be for posterity alone. The 
 psalms of Book IV. bear generally the im¬ 
 press of this feeling. 
 
 “We pass to Book V. Psa. cvii. is the 
 opening psalm of the return, sung prob¬ 
 ably at the first Feast of Tabernacles. 
 (Ezra iii.) The ensuing Davidic psalms may 
 well be ascribed to Zerubbabel. We here 
 pass over the questions connected with Psa. 
 cxix.; but a directly historical character 
 belongs to Psa. cxx.-cxxxiv., styled in our 
 A. V. ‘Songs of Degrees.’ Internal evi¬ 
 dence refers these to the period when the 
 Jews under Nehemiah were, in the very 
 face of the enemy, repairing the walls of 
 Jerusalem, and the title may well signify 
 ‘ Songs of goings-up upon the walls,’ the 
 psalms being, from their brevity, well 
 adapted to be sung by the workmen and 
 guards while engaged in their respective 
 duties. Of somewhat earlier date, it may be, 
 are Psa. cxxxvii. and the ensuing Davidic 
 
Psa 
 
 ( 775 ) 
 
 Pto 
 
 psalms. Of these, Psa. cxxxix. is a psalm 
 of the new birth of Israel, from the womb 
 of the Babylonish captivity to a life of 
 righteousness; Psa. cxl.-cxliii. may be a 
 picture of the trials to which the unrestor¬ 
 ed exiles were still exposed in the realms 
 of the Gentiles. Henceforward, as we 
 approach the close of the Psalter, its 
 strains rise in cheerfulness; and it fittingly 
 terminates with Psa. cxlvii.-cl.,which were 
 probably sung on the occasion of the thanks¬ 
 giving procession of Neh. xii., after the 
 rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem had 
 been completed. 
 
 “ Moral Characteristics of the Psalms .— 
 Foremost among these meets us, undoubt¬ 
 edly, the universal recourse to communion 
 with God. Connected with this is the faith 
 by which the Psalmist everywhere lives in 
 God rather than in himself. It is of the 
 essence of such faith that his view of the 
 perfections of God should be true and 
 vivid. The Psalter describes God as he 
 is; it glows with testimonies to his power 
 and providence, his love and faithfulness, 
 his holiness and righteousness. The 
 Psalms not only set forth the perfections 
 of God, they proclaim also the duty of 
 worshipping him by the acknowledgment 
 and adoration of his perfections. They 
 encourage all outward rites and means of 
 worship. Among these they recognize 
 the ordinance of sacrifice as an expression 
 of the worshipper’s consecration of him¬ 
 self to God’s service. But not the less do 
 they repudiate the outward rite when sep¬ 
 arated from that which it was designed to 
 express. Similar depth is observable in the 
 view taken, by the psalmists, of human sin. 
 In regard to the law, the psalmist, while 
 warmly acknowledging its excellence, feels 
 yet that it cannot so effectually guide his 
 own unassisted exertions as to preserve 
 him from error. (Psa.xix.) The Psalms 
 bear repeated testimony to the duty of in¬ 
 structing others in the ways of holiness. 
 (Psa. xxxii., xxxiv., li.) This brings us to 
 notice, lastly, the faith of the psalmists in 
 a righteous recompense to all men accord¬ 
 ing to their deeds. (Psa. xxxvii., etc.) 
 
 “ Prophetical Character of the Psalms .— 
 The moral struggle between godliness and 
 ungodliness, so vividly depicted in the 
 Psalms, culminates, in Holy Scripture, in 
 the life of the Incarnate Son of God upon 
 earth. It only remains to show that the 
 Psalms themselves definitely anticipated 
 this culmination. Now there are in the 
 Psalter at least three psalms of which the 
 interest evidently centres in a person dis¬ 
 tinct from the speaker, and which, since 
 they cannot without violence to the lan¬ 
 guage be interpreted of any but the Mes¬ 
 siah, may be termed directly and exclusive¬ 
 
 ly Messianic. We refer to Psa. ii., xlv., 
 cx.; to which may, perhaps, be added Psa. 
 lxxii. It would be strange if these few 
 psalms stood, in their prophetical signif¬ 
 icance, absolutely alone among the rest: 
 the more so, inasmuch as Psa. ii. forms 
 part of the preface to the First Book of the 
 Psalter, and would, as such, be entirely 
 out of place, did not its general th#me vir¬ 
 tually extend itself over those which fol¬ 
 low, in which the interest generally centres 
 in the figure of the suppliant or worshipper 
 himself. And hence the impossibility of 
 viewing the Psalms generally, notwith¬ 
 standing the historical drapery in which 
 they are outwardly clothed, as simply the 
 past devotions of the historical David or 
 the historical Israel. All of these psalms 
 which are of a personal rather than of a 
 national character are marked in the super¬ 
 scriptions with the name of David, as pro¬ 
 ceeding either from David himself, or from 
 one of his descendants. It results from 
 this, that while the Davidic psalms are 
 partly personal, partly national, the Levitic 
 psalms are uniformly national. It thus 
 follows that it was only those psalmists 
 who were types of Christ by external office 
 and lineage, as well as by inward piety, 
 that were charged by the Holy Spirit to set 
 forth beforehand, in Christ’s own name and 
 person, the sufferings that awaited him, 
 and the glory that should follow. The 
 national hymns of Israel are, indeed, also 
 prospective; but in general they anticipate 
 rather the struggles and the triumphs of 
 the Christian Church than those of Christ 
 himself.”'—Smith: Die*, of the Bible. See 
 Commentaries of Delitzsch (Eng. trans. 
 1871), 3 vols.; Alexander (1850), 3 vols.; 
 Perowne (1864, new ed., 1879), 2 vols.; 
 Spurgeon: Treasury of David, 7 vols.; T. 
 W. Chambers: The Psalter a Witness to the 
 Divine Origin of the Bible (1876). 
 
 Psalter, the Book of Psalms arranged 
 for use in worship. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church the psalter has the Psalms arranged 
 to fit different services,while in the Prayer- 
 Book they are divided into sections for 
 reading in the daily morning or evening 
 service. The translation is that of Cran- 
 mer’s, known as the Greek Bible. 
 
 Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament. 
 
 See Apocrypha of the Old Testament. 
 
 Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals is the com¬ 
 mon designation of a large collection of 
 spurious letters ascribed to the popes of 
 the first three centuries, which was brought 
 into circulation in the ninth century. 
 
 Ptolemae'us, Ptol'emy ( the •warlike'), the 
 
Pub 
 
 ( 776 ) 
 
 Pun 
 
 dynastic name of the thirteen Macedonian 
 kings of Egypt, who reigned from the death 
 of Alexander the Great down to B. c. 43. 
 See art. “ Ptolemaeus,” in Smith’s Did. of 
 Biography and Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Publican, an under-collector of the Roman 
 tribute. (Matt, xviii. 17.) The chief collect¬ 
 ors were men of wealth and political influ¬ 
 ence, but they farmed out the direct work of 
 gathering the revenue to a class who were 
 notorious for their greed and extortion. 
 Those who engaged in this service were 
 despised by the Jews, and they were not 
 allowed to enter the temple or the syna¬ 
 gogues, or to give testimony in a court of 
 justice. From this despised class our 
 Lord chose one of his apostles (Matthew, 
 or Levi), and from its ranks Zaccheus was 
 converted. 
 
 Publicani, or Pauliciani, a name given 
 to the Western Cathari by the crusaders of 
 the twelfth century, because like the Paul- 
 icians of the East, they were dualists. 
 
 Pulpit, an elevated place in a church, 
 from which the sermon is preached. For¬ 
 merly the pulpit was used for the reading 
 of the Gospel, and the sermon was preach¬ 
 ed from the altar steps. Since the thir¬ 
 teenth century pulpits of great architect¬ 
 ural beauty have been built in connection 
 with noted cathedrals. • In Protestant 
 churches the pulpit is more conspicuous 
 than in the Roman Catholic. This is espe¬ 
 cially true in the United States. 
 
 Punishment Among the Hebrews. 
 “ Death was the punishment of striking or 
 even reviling a parent (Exod. xxi. 15, 17); 
 blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 14, 16,23); Sabbath¬ 
 breaking (Num. xv. 32-36); witchcraft 
 (Exod. xxii. 18); adultery (Lev. xx. 10); 
 rape (Deut. xxii. 25); incestuous and un¬ 
 natural connection (Lev. xx. 11. 14, 16); 
 man-stealing (Exod. xxi. 16); idolatry 
 (Lev. xx. 2). ‘ Cutting off from the peo¬ 
 
 ple ’ is ipso facto excommunication or out¬ 
 lawry, forfeiture of the privileges of the 
 covenant people. (Lev. xviii. 29.) The 
 hand of God executed the sentence in some 
 cases. (Gen. xvii. 14; Lev. xxiii. 30; xx. 3, 
 6; Num. iv. 15, 18, 20.) Capital punish¬ 
 ments were stoning (Exod. xvii. 4); burn¬ 
 ing (Lev. xx. 14); the sword (Exod. xxxii. 
 27); and strangulation , not in Scripture, 
 but in rabbinical writings. The command 
 (Num. xxv. 4, 5) was that the JBaal-peor 
 sinners should be slain first, then impaled 
 or nailed to crosses; the Heb. there (hoyua’) 
 means dislocated , and is different from that 
 in Deut. xxi. 22 ( ihalitha tolvi), 23. The 
 hanged were accounted accursed; so were 
 
 buried at evening, as the hanging body de¬ 
 filed the land; so Christ. (Gal. iii. 13.) The 
 malefactor was to be removed by burial 
 from off the face of the earth speedily, 
 that the curse might be removed off the 
 land. (Lev. xviii. 25, 28; 2 Sam. xxi. 6,9.) 
 Punishments not ordained by law: sawing 
 asunder , and cutting with iron harrows 
 (Isaiah, Heb. xi. 37); Ammon, in retalia¬ 
 tion for their cruelties (2 Sam. xii. 31; 1 
 Sam. xi. 2); pounding in a mortar (Prov. 
 xxvii. 22); precipitation (Luke iv. 29; 2 
 Chron. xxv. 12); stripes , forty only allow¬ 
 ed (Deut. xxv. 3), the Jews therefore gave 
 only thirty-nine; the convict received the 
 stripes from a three-thonged whip, strip¬ 
 ped to the waist, in a bent position, tied to 
 a pillar; if the executioner exceeded the 
 number he was punished, a minute accu¬ 
 racy observed in 2 Cor. xi. 24. The Abys- 
 sinians use the same number (Wolff: 
 Travels , ii. 276). Heaps of stones were 
 flung upon the graves of executed criminals 
 (Josh. xv. 25,26; 2 Sam. xviii. 17); to this 
 day stones are flung on Absalom’s sup¬ 
 posed tomb. Outside the city gates. (Jer. 
 xxii. 19; Heb. xiii. 12.) Punishment in kind 
 (lex talionis ) was a common principle. (Exod. 
 xxi. 24, 25.) Also compensation, restitu¬ 
 tion of the thing or its equivalent (vers. 18— 
 36). Slander of a wife’s honor was punish¬ 
 ed by fine and stripes (Deut. xxii. iS, 19).” 
 —Fausset: Bible Cyctopcedia. 
 
 Punishment, Future. The moral gov¬ 
 ernment of the universe is a guarantee of 
 the punishment of evil. The punishment 
 inflicted in this life is confessedly only par¬ 
 tial, and it is a matter of common observa¬ 
 tion that the most wicked often go un¬ 
 whipped of justice. Misery is, indeed, in¬ 
 separable from sin, yet the longer and the 
 deeper man’s continuance in sin, the more 
 insensible he becomes to its consequences. 
 The more a man deserves penalty the less 
 he suffers its infliction. Independent of 
 the Scriptures, accordingly, reason utters 
 the direful prophecy of an ultimate retribu¬ 
 tion. The divine government becomes an 
 appalling riddle, if, at the end of their 
 course, there remains no punishment for 
 the wicked. But for the conviction that 
 retribution is only delayed and that it is ab¬ 
 solutely certain, despair must settle down 
 upon the moral universe and society un¬ 
 dergo inevitable dissolution. God is not 
 mocked. His righteous abhorrence of sin 
 is no mere dream. He endures, indeed, 
 with divine long-suffering, the disobedience 
 of his creatures, yet this only argues that 
 as the supreme moral judge he reserves 
 the final verdict and its execution to the 
 great and terrible day of his wrath. 
 
 The Scriptures are fearfully explicit on 
 
Pun 
 
 ( 777 ) 
 
 Pun 
 
 this subject. They denounce frightful 
 punishments upon all who continue in dis¬ 
 obedience, rebellion and unbelief. They 
 employ the most horrible imagery to ex¬ 
 hibit the nature of the sufferings impending 
 over those who die in their sins. The fact 
 that these representations are largely fig¬ 
 urative does not relieve, but heighten, their 
 awful meaning. They show that whatever 
 may be the nature of the torments of the 
 damned, it is something so dreadful that 
 only the terrific description of him who 
 wept over sinners, and died for them, can 
 properly and faithfully represent it. (John 
 iii. 36; Matt. xiii. 41, 42; 2 Thess. i. 8, 9; 
 Rev. xxi. 8; xiv. 10; xix. 20; xx. 14, 15; 
 Matt. ii. 30; v. 22, 29, 30; xviii. 8; xxv. 
 41; Mark ix. 43-45; Jude 6, 13. 
 
 Future punishment will necessarily dif¬ 
 fer in many respects from temporal retri¬ 
 bution. “ The latter,” says Van Ooster- 
 zee, “ was partly delayed by the long-suf¬ 
 fering, partly lessened by the mercy, of 
 God, partly concealed from the eyes of 
 others, partly confined within a certain 
 space; in the future retribution the oppo¬ 
 site of all this will be the case.” The 
 Scripture representations point to a local 
 habitation, an infernal prison-house, an en¬ 
 vironment in every way calculated to ag¬ 
 gravate the woe of the lost. Viewed sub¬ 
 jectively their extreme misery may be re¬ 
 garded negatively as the privation of all 
 good, the desire for sensuous things re¬ 
 maining and increasing, while the means 
 of obtaining them are no more at hand; 
 eternal exclusion from the favor of God, 
 and a total separation from every element 
 of joy and blessedness; with a terrible real¬ 
 ization of failure, loss, disgrace, and de¬ 
 spair. Such are the inevitable results, the 
 unfailing natural fruits of a course of evil. 
 But God will also visit positive, judicial, 
 punitive inflictions upon incorrigible 
 transgressors. The activity of conscience, 
 which even here can render existence in¬ 
 supportable, may be reckoned in part with 
 the natural, in part with the positive pun¬ 
 ishments of sin. But furthermore, God, 
 the absolute judge of the living and the 
 dead, will, by a distinct personal revelation 
 of his wrath, by his own judicial act, smite 
 the enemies of his law. This is the su¬ 
 preme import of future retribution. It is 
 not mercy that casts sinners into hell, and 
 the soul is not subjected to ineffable pain 
 for the sake of amendment, or for the pro¬ 
 tection of others, or for the moral good of 
 the universe. They are put there because 
 that is their fit place; because they have de¬ 
 served it; because God is angry with the 
 wicked, and because he is just and cannot 
 deny himself. 
 
 The Scriptures teach unmistakably that 
 
 this punishment will endure forever. So 
 they have been almost invariably interpret¬ 
 ed by those who accept this authority as 
 final; and, on the other hand, some of the 
 most intelligent opponents of the Bible 
 have made the doctrine of everlasting woe 
 contained in it a ground of their hostility 
 to it. The crucial word aidnios receives 
 from the Standard Greek lexicographers 
 the interpretation of duration without end, 
 perpetual, never-ceasing, eternal, everlast¬ 
 ing. It occurs seventy-one times in the 
 New Testament, there being in no instance 
 a probability of its implying limited dura¬ 
 tion. The blessedness of saints is parallel¬ 
 ed in Matt. xxv. 46 cf. 41 with the misery 
 of the damned by this term, eternal life 
 and eternal pain being, without any quali¬ 
 fication, set over against each other. Meyer 
 holds that the absolute idea of eternity in 
 regard to the punishment of hell is to be 
 regarded as exegetically established in this 
 passage. The Scriptures admit of no other 
 deduction than that the sentence of the 
 damned is irreversible, and its enforcement 
 absolutely interminable. (Luke xvi. 26; 
 Rev. xiv. 11; xxii. 11; Matt. xii. 32.) 
 
 This doctrine has, accordingly, formed a 
 part of the universal faith of the Church 
 since the days of the apostles. It is found 
 alike in all the Protestant creeds as well as 
 the Roman Catholic. Its denial or qualifi¬ 
 cation has been uniformly condemned as 
 heresy. There is no tenet of Christianity 
 on which the whole Church has been more 
 unanimous or more explicit. 
 
 Against a doctrine so horrible to contem¬ 
 plate various arguments have been urged, 
 especially that it is in conflict both with the 
 justice and the mercy of God. But man 
 must be sure that he has an adequate con¬ 
 ception of the turpitude of sin before he 
 assumes to review the justice of infinite 
 holiness in punishing it eternally. This 
 cannot be reduced to a question of eternal 
 pains for temporal sins, for there is every 
 reason to believe that the sinner will in¬ 
 exorably continue in his opposition to the 
 divine will. The objection urged on the 
 score of infinite benevolence would bear 
 equally against all retributive consequences 
 of sin upon earth. And it is, in fact, not the 
 endless duration of evil, but the origin of it 
 under the reign of infinite goodness, that is 
 the appalling problem of the universe. If 
 the presence of wickedness and pain in this 
 world are not incompatible with the divine 
 benevolence, how can their endless con¬ 
 tinuance be ? 
 
 Stagger as it may at this doctrine of 
 revelation, reason has failed to offer any 
 valid objections to it, and the theories 
 which have been devised as an escape from 
 it, Universalism, Restorationism, and An- 
 
Pun 
 
 ( 778 ) 
 
 Pur 
 
 nihilation ism, create insuperable difficulties, 
 as irreconcilable with general principles as 
 they are with the specific teachings of the 
 gospel. For a summary of the historic 
 belief in eternal punishment, see Remen- 
 snyder’s D 00771 Eternal (New York). 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Punshon, William Morley, LL. D., a 
 distinguished Wesleyan minister; b. at 
 Doncaster, May 29, 1824; d. in London, 
 April 14, 1881. In 1842 he became a local 
 preacher in the Wesleyan Connection, and 
 in 1844 entered the college at Richmond, 
 and the following year was stationed at 
 Marden, Kent. His fame as a pulpit or¬ 
 ator spread rapidly. After filling impor¬ 
 tant stations he came to London, where he 
 remained for nine years. In 1868 he visit¬ 
 ed Canada as a delegate from the British 
 Wesleyan Conference. While there he 
 married the sister of his deceased wife and 
 remained for some time in Canada, where 
 he was honored in many ways. He preach¬ 
 ed and lectured to great audiences, both in 
 the Dominion and the United States. After 
 the death of his second wife he returned to 
 England in 1873, and was elected president 
 of the Wesleyan Conference. He was elect¬ 
 ed one of the secretaries of the Wesleyan 
 Missionary Society in 1875, and continued 
 in this service until his death. As a pulpit 
 orator he was almost without a peer in his 
 generation. He published: Life Thoughts 
 (1863); Sabbath Chunes (verses); SermoTis 
 aTid Addresses. 
 
 Purgatory is, according to Roman Cath¬ 
 olic teaching, “ a place or state where 
 souls departing this life with remission of 
 their sins as to the guilt or eternal pain, 
 but yet liable to some temporary punish¬ 
 ment still remaining due, or not perfectly 
 freed from the blemish of some defects 
 which we call venial sins, are purged before 
 their admittance into heaven, where noth¬ 
 ing that is defiled can enter.”— Faith of 
 Catholics (London, 1846). 
 
 The sufferings of those in this state are 
 both punitive and refining, and they may 
 be alleviated and abridged by the prayers 
 of their brethren still in the flesh, but 
 principally by the oblation of the bloodless 
 sacrifice of the body and blood of Christ, 
 and also “ by works of mercy done in faith 
 for their memory.” The Scriptures, while 
 speaking of fire as a figure of purification, 
 and even as a symbol of punishment and 
 damnation, contain no allusion to any pu¬ 
 rifying process between death and resur¬ 
 rection. Judas Maccabaeus offered pray¬ 
 ers and sacrifices for the dead (2 Macc. xii. 
 40-46), and the acceptance of the Apocry¬ 
 pha as canonical by Romanists enables 
 
 them to cite this passage as supporting the 
 dogma. 
 
 Although not derived from the Script¬ 
 ures, great antiquity can be claimed for 
 the doctrine. A number of things cooper¬ 
 ated in its development. The early Chris¬ 
 tians, assured of inseparable fellowship 
 with those who had departed in the Lord, 
 not only continued praying for them at the 
 family altar, but brought oblations for 
 them to the Eucharist, which they were 
 wont to celebrate over their graves on the 
 anniversary of their decease, and special 
 intercessions were made for them in con¬ 
 nection with the Sacrament. When the 
 idea of a sacrifice was substituted for that 
 of a sacrament these oblations, which had 
 been merely symbols of the living com¬ 
 munion which continued between the de¬ 
 parted and those who remained, were re¬ 
 garded as an atoning sacrifice offered for 
 the deceased as “ masses for their souls.” 
 The doctrine of penance and the belief in 
 an intermediate state contributed also to 
 the establishment of the idea. Some of 
 the earliest Fathers refer to the oblations 
 for the dead, and the view of a spiritual 
 burning in this world, which Origen held 
 continued beyond the grave, was not un¬ 
 known, but the idea of a place of punish¬ 
 ment between death and the resurrection, 
 in which the venial sins of believers must 
 be atoned for, was, according to Kurtz, 
 quite unknown to the whole ancient Church 
 down to the age of Augustine, and to the 
 Greek Church till even after his day. 
 Gregory the Great (d. 604) raised it into an 
 established dogma of the Western Church. 
 
 The Scholastics generally taught a ma¬ 
 terial fire, a point on which the Greeks dif¬ 
 fered from the Latins. The precursors of 
 the Reformation assailed the whole doc¬ 
 trine of purgatory, and the Reformers with 
 one mind repudiated it. 
 
 While rejecting all purgatorial views of 
 the intermediate state, eminent Anglican 
 divines have argued in favor of prayers for 
 souls already in joy and felicity from the 
 practice^unanimously attested by the ancient 
 liturgies, from the inscriptions on the cat¬ 
 acombs, and even from the Scriptures. 
 (2 Tim. i. 16, 17; iv. 19.) E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Purification, “ in a biblical sense, is the 
 act through which an individual became fit 
 to approach the Deity, or to mix freely in 
 the community, in cases where a certain 
 bodily or other disability had kept him out 
 of the pale of the latter. The purification 
 consisted chiefly in expiations and ablutions, 
 sometimes accompanied by special sacri¬ 
 fices. Priests and Levites were consecrated 
 for the divine service by ‘purification;’ 
 proselytes had to undergo it at baptism; 
 
Pur 
 
 ( 779 ) 
 
 Pur 
 
 and special religious acts could only be 
 performed by those who had ' bathed their 
 bodies.’ Generally, no one was allowed 
 to enter the temple or synagogue without 
 having washed or ‘ sanctified ’ himself; and 
 in the post-exilian period bathing was con¬ 
 sidered (chiefly by the Pharisees and Es- 
 senes) as one of the chief duties of piety. 
 In general, the Mosaic law distinguishes 
 between ‘ clean ’ and ‘ unclean ’ persons as 
 well as things, calling ‘ unclean ’ all that 
 with which an Israelite is not to come in 
 contact. It has been erroneously assumed 
 that all the Levitical laws of purity and 
 purification have a physical or medical 
 reason—that is, that infection was to be 
 prevented through them; but this can only 
 have been the case in some instances. At 
 the same time, we cannot deny that we are 
 at a loss for the general principle on which 
 they were based. There can be no doubt 
 that cleanness, like every other virtue, if 
 not enforced on religious grounds, would 
 have had few devotees in those days, and 
 among an Eastern people; while, again, a 
 hot climate requires a much greater atten¬ 
 tion to outward purity than more temper¬ 
 ate zones. Compared with the Indian and 
 Persian laws in this respect, the Jewish 
 ones seem much less minute and harassing. 
 For the purification from the severer kinds 
 of uncleanness, a certain ‘ water of unclean¬ 
 ness’ (Lev. xv.) was prepared; and the 
 different acts to be performed for the re¬ 
 admission of the leper into the community 
 (Lev. xiv. 4-32) show plainly that his was 
 considered the last stage of impurity. 
 Identical with the first stage of the leper’s 
 purification are the ceremonies to be per¬ 
 formed in the case of infected houses and 
 garments. The sixth Seder of the Mish- 
 na, in 11 treatises (there is no Gemara to 
 this portion, except to Niddah), contains 
 the most detailed regulations (as fixed by 
 tradition) on this point. The washing of 
 hands, we may add in conclusion, was in 
 later times considered ritually necessary, 
 in accoidance with the Talmudical maxim, 
 that ‘ every table should properly be sanc¬ 
 tified unto an altar.’ All the Jewish cere¬ 
 monial purifications are commonly regard¬ 
 ed by Christian theologians as emblematic 
 of the necessity of holiness in the people of 
 the Lord, and particularly in all acts of 
 worship. ”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Pu'rim (lots), a Jewish festival instituted 
 to commemorate the preservation of the 
 Jews from the massacre ordered by Haman. 
 (Esth. ix. 20-32.) The name had its origin 
 from the circumstance that Haman endeav¬ 
 ored to decide by lots as to the day on 
 which the massacre should take place. 
 The festival is celebrated on the fourteenth 
 
 and fifteenth of the month Adar (March). 
 The book of Esther is read aloud in the syn¬ 
 agogue, and whenever the name of Ha¬ 
 man occurs all of the congregation shout 
 “ Let his name be blotted out.” The fes¬ 
 tival ends with great merriment. 
 
 Puritans. This name was used in the 
 primitive Church for the Novatians, be¬ 
 cause they would never admit to commun¬ 
 ion any one who from dread of death had 
 apostatized from the faith. In the sixteenth 
 century it was given in derision by their 
 adversaries to the Nonconformists and 
 Presbyterians. These, as an English body, 
 first arose from those who had fled to Ger¬ 
 many during the reign of Queen Mary, 
 and who returned to England with new 
 ideas at the accession of Queen Elizabeth. 
 They refused to agree to the Act of Uni¬ 
 formity which the queen had published, on 
 the ground that it was too favorable to 
 popery. Unfortunately, the way that they 
 were met did not tend to peace whilst 
 peace was still within reach. They urged 
 the Presbyterian form of government as 
 that of the New Testament; Archbishop 
 Whitgift met them, not by defending the 
 Episcopal form, and maintaining that it 
 was in accordance with primitive Chris¬ 
 tianity, but by the argument that the form 
 of church government was a thing indiffer¬ 
 ent, and therefore the nation might choose 
 whichever it thought most advisable. Such 
 an argument was hardly one to offer to deep¬ 
 ly religious men, as certainly some of them 
 were, and when they resisted it they were 
 sent to prison. But, moreover, the old- 
 fashioned clergy who had sung mass in the 
 days of Mary, and now conformed to the 
 Prayer-Book, were unhappy and listless 
 under the change. The younger spirits 
 had no lingering regrets for the past, and 
 inclined to Puritanism. Their zeal was on 
 this side, though toward the end of Eliza¬ 
 beth’s reign there was a reaction in favor 
 of “ comely forms and decent order,” which 
 the Puritans in their hatred of mediaevalism 
 had somewhat set at nought. They strove 
 hard for ascendancy in Parliament, prepar¬ 
 ing the Book of Discipline for acceptance, 
 and urging the abolition of the Book of 
 Common Prayer. But public opinion as 
 well as the queen's minister went against 
 them. 
 
 On the accession of King James I. the 
 Puritans presented a petition demanding a 
 revision of the Prayer-Book. A conference 
 was called to discuss the matter, and the 
 Puritans were defeated, and treated un- 
 courteously and harshly. About 1620 some 
 of them began to emigrate to America, and 
 founded the colonies of Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut. It is said that during twelve 
 
Pus 
 
 (780) 
 
 Que 
 
 
 years the emigrants amounted to 21,000 
 persons. The tyrannical conduct of Charles 
 I., both in the Church and Government, 
 resulted in the Great Rebellion, and the 
 overthrow, for the time being, of Church 
 and Throne. In September, 1642, an act 
 was published abolishing prelacy in Eng¬ 
 land, and commanding all to take the cov¬ 
 enant. It is said that the number of clergy¬ 
 men who were rejected for refusing 
 amounted to 7,000, and that more were 
 turned out by the Presbyterians in three 
 years than were deprived by the Roman 
 Catholics in Queen Mary’s time. After the 
 Restoration the name “Puritans” was 
 dropped, and that of Nonconformists (q. v.) 
 adopted.—Benham: Diet. of Religion. See 
 CONGREGATIONALISTS; WESTMINSTER AS¬ 
 SEMBLY ; Presbyterian Churches. Neal: 
 History of the Puritans; Bacon: The Gene¬ 
 sis of the New England Churches. 
 
 Pu'sey, Edward Bouverie, b. 1800; d. 
 at Ascot Priory, Oxford, Sept. 16, 1882; “ a 
 distinguished clergyman of the Church of 
 England; from 1828 to his death Regius- 
 professor of Hebrew, and canon of Christ 
 Church, Oxford. He was the second son 
 of the Hon. Philip Bouverie Pusey, who 
 was the youngest brother of the first Earl 
 of Radnor; and he was educated first at 
 Eton, and afterward at Christ Church, Ox¬ 
 ford, where he attained high honors. Hav¬ 
 ing been appointed to the Regius-profes- 
 sorship at the early age of twenty-eight, he 
 at once took a very considerable position 
 among his contemporaries, in the list of 
 whom appear the names of some of the 
 most eminent scholars and churchmen of 
 the time; and when, in 1833-40, the Tracts 
 for the Times appeared (from which the 
 name of ‘ Tractarians,’ given to a section of 
 the clergy, was derived), Pusey contributed 
 to the series the Tracts on Fasting and on 
 Baptism. Indeed, he threw himself so 
 heartily into the movement represented by 
 the Tracts, that the form of ecclesiasticism 
 and of doctrine they advocated became 
 popularly known by the name of ‘ Pusey- 
 ism;’ and when the series came to a close, 
 on account of the excitement caused by the 
 publication of Tract XC. (written by Dr. 
 John Henry Newman, and which argued 
 that the ‘ Articles ’ did not prevent the 
 holding of Roman Catholic doctrine), Dr. 
 Pusey continued, through a succession of 
 letters and pamphlets, several of which 
 were in many ways very remarkable, to 
 maintain the doctrines which the Tracts had 
 been designed to enforce. Eventually, in 
 1843, in consequence of a sermon preached 
 by him before the University on the sub¬ 
 ject of the ‘ Holy Eucharist,’ in which he 
 was believed to have argued in favor of 
 
 transubstantiation, he was interdicted from 
 preaching for two years. From this time 
 forward, however, he continued his career, 
 exerting an influence almost unparalleled 
 both in Oxford and throughout England: 
 an influence which was due, not so much to 
 his teaching, as to his pure and noble char¬ 
 acter and his profound conscientiousness. 
 Among his many works may be mentioned 
 his Commentary on the Minor Prophets 
 (1862) ; LecHires on the Prophet Daniel 
 (1864), and The Church of England a Por¬ 
 tion of the One Holy Catholic Church , an 
 Eirenicon , in reply to Dr. Manning (1865). 
 He also projected and edited throughout 
 The Anglo-Catholic Library , and was one of 
 the working editors of The Oxford Library 
 of the Fathers. His last years were spent 
 in a seclusion rarely broken by controver¬ 
 sial strife. His death took place at Ascot 
 Priory, and he was buiied in the Cathedral 
 at Oxford, beside his wife and daughter, 
 some of the most distinguished men in Eng¬ 
 land following his remains to the grave. 
 Since Dr. Pusey’s death, a large Memorial 
 Fund has been raised by subscription to be 
 devoted to objects in harmony with the 
 tenor of his life.”—Cassell : Cyclopcedia. 
 See Tractarianism. 
 
 Pyx, the box or vessel in which the con¬ 
 secrated bread is kept in Roman Catholic 
 Churches. When it contains the Host, a 
 lighted lamp is kept before it. Its use was 
 prescribed by Innocent III. in 1215. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadragesima. See Lent. 
 
 Quakers. See Friends. 
 
 Quarles (kwdrlz), Francis, b. at Stew¬ 
 ards, Essex, 1592; d. in London, Sept. 8, 
 1644. After graduating at Cambridge he 
 studied law at Lincoln’s Inn; was a servant 
 of Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia; secretary 
 to Archbishop Ussher. He espoused the 
 cause of Charles I., and lost all in the fall 
 of that monarch. He is remembered as a 
 sacred poet, in whose verses, quaint and 
 labored, there are many noble lines. His 
 Divine Poems were published in 1630, and 
 have run through many editions: Etnbletns, 
 Divine and Moral (1635); School of the 
 Heart'. Hieroglyphics of the Life of Man 
 (1638). 
 
 Quarterly Meeting. See Friends. 
 
 Quartodecimani. See Paschal Con¬ 
 troversy. 
 
 Queen Anne’s Bounty, the name given 
 
 
Que 
 
 ( 78i ) 
 
 Rab 
 
 to a fund appropriated to increase the in¬ 
 comes of the poorer clergy of England, 
 created out of the first-fruits and tenths, 
 which before the Reformation formed part 
 of the papal exactions from the clergy. 
 The first-fruits are the first whole year’s 
 profit of all spiritual preferments, and the 
 tenths are one-tenth of their annual profits, 
 both chargeable according to the ancient 
 declared value of the benefice; but the 
 poorer livings are now exempted from the 
 tax. 
 
 Quesnel ( ka'nel ), Pasquier, b. in Paris, 
 July 14, 1634; d. in Amsterdam, Dec. 2, 
 1719. He studied theology at the Sor- 
 bonne, and was ordained in 1659. Soon after 
 his appointment as Director of the Semi¬ 
 nary of the Oratory he began the publica¬ 
 tion of his Reflexions Morales. The work 
 met with great public favor, but his ad¬ 
 vocacy of Jansenist views incurred the 
 hostility of the Jesuits, and he was com¬ 
 pelled to seek refuge in the Netherlands. 
 Here he continued his publication of the 
 Reflexions. In 1703 he was arrested and 
 put in the dungeon of the archiepiscopal 
 palace at Brussels, but he escaped to Hol¬ 
 land, and made his home at Amsterdam, 
 where he died at an advanced age. He 
 also wrote a Life of Arnauld, Traditions of 
 the Roitian Church , etc. 
 
 Quinquagesima, the Sunday before Ash 
 Wednesday. It was so named from the 
 fact that it is fifty days before Easter. 
 
 Quietism. See Molinos; Guyon. 
 
 Quirinius (Greek Cyrenius , Luke ii. 2.) 
 His full name was Publius Sulpicius 
 Quirinius. It is probable that he was 
 twice governor of Syria; the first time from 
 the year of our Lord’s birth, b. c. 4 to b. c. 
 1, and again from a. d. 6 to a. d. ii. The 
 “first taxing ” or enrollment which made 
 it necessary for Mary and Joseph to come 
 to Bethlehem occurred during the first 
 governorship of Quirinius. The second 
 census, mentioned by Luke (Acts v. 37) 
 and by Josephus, took place A. D. 6. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabanus ( rd-bd'noos ), Maurus Magnen- 
 tius, b. at Mayence about 776; d. there, 
 Feb. 4, 856. He was educated at the 
 cloister-school of Fulda, and for a time was 
 a pupil of Alcuin in Tours. From here he 
 was called to the principalship of the school 
 in Fulda, which under his guidance became 
 very prosperous, and in 822 he was elected 
 abbot of the monastery. This position he 
 resigned in 842 on account of political dis¬ 
 
 turbances, and retired to a church which 
 he had built at Petersberg. In 847 he was 
 again called into active life by his election 
 as archbishop of Mayence. Eminent as a 
 teacher and administrator, his fame rests on 
 his literary works. He wrote Commen¬ 
 taries on the Old Testament, on the Gos¬ 
 pels of Matthew and John, and on the 
 Pauline Epistles, two collections of homi¬ 
 lies, hymns, text-books for his school, and, 
 among other polemical treatises, one relat¬ 
 ing to the book on Transubstantiation, by 
 Paschasius Radbertus. His collected 
 works were published at Cologne, 1627. 
 Life , by Spingler (Ratisbon, 1856). 
 
 Rabaut {ra'bo), Paul, a celebrated Frencn 
 Protestant preacher and leader in a time of 
 persecution; b. at Bedarieux, Jan. 9, 1718; 
 d. at Nimes, Sept. 25, 1794. After study¬ 
 ing theology at Lausanne he became pastor 
 of Nimes in 1744. The following year the 
 spirit of persecution again broke out against 
 the Protestants in a decree forbidding the 
 assembling of congregations. Rabaut con¬ 
 tinued to preach, and although a price of a 
 thousand livres was put upon his head, he 
 escaped arrest, often in ways that seemed 
 miraculous. His efforts to secure the re¬ 
 lease of those Protestants who had been 
 sent to the galleys, and to gain a legal 
 recognition of the baptism and marriage of 
 those connected with Protestant families 
 were met by further persecutions, and 
 when, in 1761, the governor of Guienne 
 proposed to compel Protestants by force 
 to have their children baptized and their 
 marriages consecrated by Roman Catholic 
 priests, Rabaut in a pastoral letter advised 
 his people to emigrate rather than to sub¬ 
 mit to the Government. Meanwhile in¬ 
 creasing sympathy was elicited in favor of 
 the Protestants, and in 1787 the Edict of 
 Toleration was issued, and Rabaut spent 
 his last years in peace. 
 
 Rab'bah. See Ammonites. 
 
 Rabbinism, a form of Judaism which 
 prevailed among the Jews from the disper¬ 
 sion to the end of the last century. It may 
 be divided into two periods, the first from 
 the fifth century b. C. to the fifth century 
 A. D. , and the second from the fifth century 
 A. D. to its disappearance. It was caused 
 by the reorganization of the social, moral, 
 and religious life of the Jews according to 
 the Mosaic Law, which brought about a 
 union between school and government. 
 The Hebrew was rendered into Chaldee, 
 and was added to by explanations, illustra¬ 
 tions, etc., and a tradition was formed 
 which became in the eyes of the people of 
 equal importance with the written Law. 
 
Rab 
 
 ( 782 ) 
 
 Rai 
 
 Later on, the Mishna was edited by Hillel 
 and Jehuda; by it the Mosaic Law, which 
 had formerly been treated under 613 heads, 
 was now reduced to six. During the latter 
 part of the fourth century a rivalry grew 
 up between the Persian and Babylonian 
 schools. The Babylonian Talmud was re¬ 
 arranged by Rabbi Ashe, the head of the 
 Rabbinical schools; the Rabbinical schools 
 throughout Persia were closed. 
 
 The second epoch of Rabbinism is less 
 interesting than the first. The Babylonian 
 Talmud was brought to Europe and trans¬ 
 lated into Arabic. Maimonides succeeded 
 in reconciling the liberal form of Rabbinism 
 which had grown up in Spain, and the or¬ 
 thodox form which had appeared in Gaul 
 and Italy, and it flourished till the thir¬ 
 teenth century, when the persecutions of 
 the Inquisition partly destroyed it. How¬ 
 ever, the Cabbala was studied till the last 
 century, when Moses Mendelssohn rose 
 against it. At the present time Rabbinism 
 is superseded by rationalism.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Rab'saris, the title of an Assyrian officer 
 mentioned in 2 Kings xviii. 17; Jer. xxxix. 
 3. 13- 
 
 Rab'shakeh, the title of an Assyrian offi¬ 
 cer, sent with Rabsaris and Tartan, by 
 Sennacherib to Hezekiah with a demand, 
 couched in insolent terms, that he should 
 surrender Jerusalem. (2 Kings xviii. 17-37.) 
 
 Ra'ca, a term of contempt often used by 
 the Jews. (Matt. v. 22.) It is derived 
 from the Aramaic reka, “worthless.” It 
 is a less severe term of opprobrium than 
 “fool.” 
 
 Ra'chel. See Jacob. 
 
 Radbertus, Paschasius, a prominent ec¬ 
 clesiastical writer who flourished in the 
 first half of the ninth century. Very little 
 is known of his personal life. Born at 
 Soissons, toward the close of the eighth 
 century, he entered the monastery of 
 Corbie in 814, where he became abbot 
 in 844. Ten of his works have been pre¬ 
 served, but the most important is his De 
 Corpore et Sanguine Domini , the first com¬ 
 prehensive treatise regarding the Lord’s 
 Supper. Up to this time two entirely op¬ 
 posite views had been held regarding this 
 doctrine, without controversy; one consid¬ 
 ering the elements of the Supper as mere 
 symbols, while the other saw in the bread 
 and wine the actual body and blood of 
 Christ. Radbertus attempted to combine 
 and harmonize these views. His book was 
 attacked both by Ratramus and Rabanus 
 
 Maurus. According to later Roman Cath¬ 
 olic writers, he is the champion of tran- 
 substantiation. 
 
 Raffles, Thomas, D. D., LL. D., an emi¬ 
 nent Congregational minister; b. in Lon¬ 
 don, May 17, 1788; and from 1812 until his 
 death, Aug. 18, 1863, was pastor at Liver¬ 
 pool. Among other writings he produced 
 some hymns that have been widely used. 
 See his Life , by his son, T. S. Raffles (1864). 
 
 Ragged Schools have for their purpose 
 the teaching of vagrant children and their 
 rescue from a criminal life. The earliest 
 school of the kind is said to have been or¬ 
 ganized in Rome, near the close of the last 
 century, by Giovanni Borgia, an illiterate 
 mason. The name, however, came into 
 general use to designate the schools insti¬ 
 tuted by John Pounds, a poor shoemaker, 
 at Portsmouth, in 1819. He kept up this 
 work, with great success, until his death 
 in 1839. In 1838 a Ragged Sunday-school 
 was opened in London, and at the present 
 time there are a large number of the schools 
 doing an efficient work in that city. Dr. 
 Thomas Guthrie became deeply interested 
 in the organization of these schools at 
 Edinburgh and elsewhere. His famous 
 Plea for Ragged Schools appeared in 1847. 
 
 Ra'hab, the harlot of Jericho, who hid 
 and protected the spies of Israel, and as a 
 reward was saved with her family when 
 Jericho was destroyed. (Josh. ii.; vi. 22- 
 25.) Her name is found among the heroes 
 of faith (Heb. xi. 13), and in James ii. 25 
 she is said to have been justified by works. 
 According to 1 Chron. ii. 4, compared with 
 Matt. i. 4, she married Salmon, “ prince ” 
 of Judah, and thus became the ancestress 
 of David and our Lord. Rahab is used as 
 a symbolical term for Egypt. (Psa. lxxxvii. 
 4; lxxxix. 10; Isa. Ii. 9.) 
 
 Raikes, Robert, founder of Sunday- 
 schools; b. at Gloucester, Eng., Sept. 14, 
 1735; d. there, April 5, 1811. His father 
 was a printer, and edited and published the 
 Gloucester fournal. The son in after-life 
 succeeded to this business. When but a 
 young man he often visited the jail of the 
 city, and called public attention to its 
 bad condition in his paper, until a radical 
 change for the better was brought about. 
 In 1781 he became interested in the welfare 
 of the poor and ragged groups of children, 
 whom he met playing on the streets. Se¬ 
 curing the hired services of four women, 
 he opened schools to teach them to read, 
 and on Sunday they instructed all who 
 would come together in reading and the 
 catechism. His work met with great sue- 
 
Ral 
 
 ( 783 ) 
 
 Ram 
 
 cess, and the plan was taken up in other 
 places, and has grown into the system of 
 Sunday-schools that gathers millions for 
 instruction each Lord’s Day. See Sunday- 
 Schools. 
 
 Rale(r 47 ), Sebastian, French Jesuit mis¬ 
 sionary to the North American Indians; 
 b. in Fianche-Comt6, 1657 or 1658; d. at 
 Norridgewock, Me., Aug. 23, 1724. He 
 came to Quebec in 1689, an( i labored among 
 the Abnakis, a few miles above the city. 
 In 1691 or 1692 he was with the Algonquins 
 in the Illinois country. Returning to the 
 East he settled at Norridgewock, on the 
 Kennebec, where he built a chapel (1698), 
 and gained so great an influence among fhe 
 Abnakis that he was accused of inciting the 
 attacks on the Protestant settlers of the 
 Maine coast. In 1705, 1722, and 1724 Nor¬ 
 ridgewock was attacked by the settlers, 
 who had put a price on the head of Rale. 
 The first time the chapel was burned, and 
 the second time his house was pillaged, 
 and his papers carried off, among them a 
 manuscript dictionary of Abnaki, now at 
 Harvard College Library (printed in 1833); 
 the third time Rale was killed. See his 
 Memoir , by Con vers Francis in Spark’s 
 Am. Biog. (2d series, vol. vii.). 
 
 Raleigh, Alexander, an English Inde¬ 
 pendent minister; b. at Kirkcudbright, 
 Scotland, Jan. 3, 1817; d. in London, April 
 19, 1880. With limited school advantages 
 he was in business in London from 1835 to 
 1840, when he studied theology at Black¬ 
 burn College. He was first settled in 
 Greenock, Scotland, 1844; Rotherham, 
 Eng., 1850-55; Glasgow, 1855-59; an d ftom 
 1859 to his death, in London. His chief 
 works are: Quiet Resting-Places; The Story 
 of Jonah the Prophet; The Little Sanctuary, 
 and Other Meditations; Thoughts for the 
 Weary and Sorrowful. Dr. Raleigh was 
 twice elected chairman of the Congrega¬ 
 tional Union. 
 
 Ramadan (from ramida , to glow with 
 heat), the ninth month of the Moham¬ 
 medan year, observed as a fast in honor of 
 the giving of the Koran. The month of 
 fasting is followed by three days of feast¬ 
 ing, called the Little Beiram. 
 
 Ra'mah ( high place), the name of several 
 towns in Palestine. (1) A city in Benja¬ 
 min, near Gibeah (Josh, xviii. 25; Judg. 
 xix. 13), occupied by Saul. (1 Sam. xxii. 6.) 
 Its naturally strong site was fortified by 
 Baasha, but his work was stopped by the 
 king of Judah, aided by the Syrians. (1 
 Kings xv. 17-22; 2 Chron. xvi. 1-6.) It 
 was here that Nebuchadnezzar placed under 
 
 guard the captives he had taken at Jerusa¬ 
 lem, among whom was the prophet Jere¬ 
 miah. (Jer. xxxi. 15; xxxix. 8-12; xl. 1.) 
 The place was reoccupied after the captiv¬ 
 ity. (Ezra ii. 26; Neh. vii. 30.) It is iden¬ 
 tified with er-Ram , about five miles north 
 of Jerusalem. (2) A place on the border 
 of Asher, identified by Robinson with 
 Rameh , about thirteen miles southeast of 
 Tyre. This site is accepted by the Pal. 
 Memoirs, but they call the place Ramia. 
 
 (3) A fortified place of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 
 36); it is probably identical with Rameh , 
 ten miles northwest of the sea of Galilee. 
 
 (4) A name for Ramoth-gilead. (2 Kings 
 
 viii. 29; xxix.; 2 Chron. xxii. 6); a city of 
 the Amorites (Deut. iv. 43), then of Gaul, 
 and a city of refuge. Many travelers have 
 identified it with Es-Salt, twenty-five miles 
 east of the Jordan, and thirteen miles south 
 of the Jabbok. Dr. Merrill, after most 
 careful explorations in this region, identi¬ 
 fies it with Gerosh, about twenty-five 
 miles northeast of Es-Salt. (5) A place in¬ 
 habited by the Benjamites after the exile. 
 (Neh. xi. 33.) (6) The birthplace, home 
 
 and burial-place of the prophet Samuel. 
 (1 Sam. i. 1; ii. 11; viii. 4; xv. 34; xvi. 13; 
 xix. 18; xxv. 1; xxviii. 3.) The name was 
 a contraction of Ramathaim-zophim. It 
 was on an eminence south of Gibeah, and in 
 the district called “ Mount Ephraim.” The 
 exact position of the place is a much-dis¬ 
 puted and, as yet, unsolved problem. 
 
 Rame'ses (son of the sun), a city and 
 province in Egypt; called also Raam'ses. 
 (Gen. xlvii. 11; Ex. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 
 3, 5.) It corresponds without doubt to the 
 district of Goshen. The precise location 
 of the city is unknown. See Exodus. 
 
 Ram'mohun, Roy, a Hindoo religious 
 reformer; b. at Burdwan, Bengal, 1772; d. 
 at Stapleton Park, near Bristol, Eng., Sept. 
 2 7 > 1833. He was a Brahman, but was led 
 to renounce polytheism by the reading of 
 the Koran. He translated the Vedanta, or 
 Resolution of all the Veds, and in 1820 
 published selections from the New Testa¬ 
 ment under the title, 7 'he Precepts of Jesus, 
 the Guide to Peace and Happiness. He 
 wrote an Apology for the Pursuit of Final 
 Beatitude. He believed in the divine mis¬ 
 sion of Jesus, but did not accept his 
 divinity. In the early part of 1830 he 
 founded at Calcutta the Brahmiya Somaj 
 from which came the Brahmo Somaj (q. v.). 
 In the same year he came to England as 
 representative of the sovereign of Delhi to 
 obtain an increase of stipend, which was 
 granted by the East India Company. 
 While in England he worshiped with the 
 Unitarians. 
 
Ran 
 
 ( 784 ) 
 
 
 Ranee ( ron'sd ), Armand Jean le Bou- 
 thillier de, b. in Paris, Jan. 9, 1626; d. 
 at Soligny-la-Trappe, Oct. 12, 1700. He 
 was a precocious scholar, and in youth 
 pleasure-loving. Converted at twenty-five 
 he resigned all his benefices, distributed 
 his wealth among the poor, and retired to 
 La Trappe, where he spent the rest of his 
 life, and organized the most severe dis¬ 
 cipline known in the monastic system. 
 He was a prolific writer. See Trappists. 
 
 Randell, Benjamin. See Free-Will Bap¬ 
 tists. 
 
 Ranke, Leopold von, a famous histo¬ 
 rian; b. at Wiche, Thuringia, Dec. 21, 1795; 
 d. in Berlin, May 23, 1886. He studied at 
 Leipzig; became head teacher in the Frank¬ 
 fort (on the Oder) gymnasium in 1818; and 
 after 1825 was professor of history at the 
 University of Berlin. In 1827, under the 
 direction of the Prussian Government, he 
 conducted historical researches at Rome, 
 Venice, and Vienna. In 1841 he was ap¬ 
 pointed historiographer of Prussia, and in 
 1866 ennobled. He continued his labors as 
 a historian with great success into advanced 
 life. Of his works pertaining to religious 
 history that have been translated, the most 
 important are: The History of the Rotncin 
 and Germanic Peoples, from 1494 to 1538 ; 
 The Popes of Rome, their Church and their 
 State, especially of the Conflict with Protes¬ 
 tantism in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth 
 Centuries, 3 vols.; German History in the 
 Ti?nes of the Refor?nation; Universal His¬ 
 tory, vol. i. 
 
 Ranters, an Antinomian sect which ap¬ 
 peared in England in 1645. They professed 
 themselves incapable of sinning and in the 
 condition of Adam in Paradise. At their 
 public meetings they stripped themselves 
 naked and were guilty of gross lewdness. 
 The name was afterward applied to the 
 Primitive Methodists, because of their vo¬ 
 ciferous earnestness and violent gesticula¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Raph'ael, “ one of the seven holy’ an¬ 
 gels which ... go in and out before the 
 glory of the Holy One.” (Tob. xii. 15.) 
 According to another Jewish tradition, 
 Raphael was one of the four angels which 
 stood round the throne of God (Michael, 
 Uriel, Gabriel, Raphael). In Tobit he ap¬ 
 pears as the guide and counselor of Tobias. 
 
 Rappists, a name given the followers of 
 George Rapp, a weaver by trade, who was 
 b. at Iptingen, Wiirtemberg, 1770, and d. 
 at Economy, Penn., Aug. 7, 1847. He be¬ 
 came the leader of a society which sought 
 
 
 Rat 
 
 to carry out the principles which they 
 thought were inculcated in the New Testa¬ 
 ment. They held their property in com¬ 
 mon, and for this reason soon came into 
 conflict with the government authorities. 
 Emigrating to the United States in 1803, 
 they first settled on Conequenessing Creek, 
 in Butler County, Penn., and called the 
 place Harmony. In 1815 they bought a 
 tract of twenty-four thousand acres on the 
 Wabash, Ind., and removed thither. New 
 Harmony, as it was called, was sold to 
 Robert Owen, in 1824, and the Rappists 
 then made their home at Economy, seven¬ 
 teen miles northwest of Pittsburg, on the 
 Ohio River. 
 
 Rashi, the celebrated Jewish commenta¬ 
 tor; b. in 1040 at Troyes in France. He 
 was a man of extraordinary attainments in 
 many branches of learning, and traveled in 
 Italy, Greece, Germany, Palestine, Egypt, 
 and Persia, studying under the greatest 
 scholars of the time. His chief work is a 
 commentary on the entire Old Testament, 
 giving both the literal sense and also alle¬ 
 gorical illustrations. The first volume ap¬ 
 peared at Reggio in 1475 and was the first 
 book ever printed in Hebrew. 
 
 Raskolniks. See Russian Church. 
 
 Rationalism, the setting up of reason 
 as the supreme arbiter, and causing the 
 Scriptures and the mysteries of Christian¬ 
 ity to be interpreted and judged by it alone. 
 Such a system was the natural outcome of 
 the Reformation so far as this: the tradi¬ 
 tional method was abandoned, for men 
 claimed the right of appealing to the Script¬ 
 ures against it. The authority of the 
 Church to impose fetters on opinion was 
 denied when Luther burned the pope’s 
 bull. It thus became necessary to find 
 another basis of belief, and it was in good 
 faith that the early German rationalists de¬ 
 clared that the evidence for Christianity 
 was found in its harmonizing with the in¬ 
 stincts and needs of the soul. It was later 
 developments, which, ignoring the pres¬ 
 ence of sin in the world, and of the dark¬ 
 ness produced by sin, exalted reason above 
 mystery, and proceeded to eliminate every¬ 
 thing supernatural from religion, to dis¬ 
 credit miracles, or to regard them as 
 Oriental exaggerations of natural opera¬ 
 tions, and to question the inspiration of the 
 Bible.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 Kant; Deism; Miracles; Evidences; In¬ 
 spiration, and Revelation. 
 
 Ratisbon, Conference of, which met in 
 May, 1541, was a continuation of the one 
 held in Worms the previous year. It was 
 
Rat 
 
 ( 785 ) 
 
 Rec 
 
 the last attempt which Charles V. made to 
 settle the religious differences of the time 
 without resort to arms. 
 
 Ratramnus, a monk in the monastery of 
 Corbie, Picardy, in the ninth century. He 
 wrote against the doctrine of transubstan- 
 tiation as taught by Paschasius Radbertus. 
 This book, De Corpore et Sanguine Domini , 
 was condemned two centuries later as a 
 supposed work of John Scotus Erigena. 
 In 1526 John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 quoted it against CEcolampadius as a repre¬ 
 sentative of the Roman Catholic doctrine 
 of the Eucharist. 
 
 Rauch, Frederick Augustus, Ph. D., 
 first president of Marshall College, Mer- 
 cersburg, Penn.; b. at Kirckbracht, Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, July 27, 1806; d. at Mercers- 
 burg, Penn., March 2, 1841. He was edu¬ 
 cated at the University of Marburg, and 
 studied theology and philosophy at Giessen 
 and Heidelberg. Just after receiving an 
 appointment to an ordinary professorship 
 at Heidelberg, he came under the displeas¬ 
 ure of the government for some political 
 sentiments he had expressed, and he found 
 refuge in this country, in 1831. He taught 
 at Easton and then at York, Penn., and in 
 1835, when Marshall College was founded 
 at Mercersburg, he was chosen president, 
 and professor of biblical literature in the 
 theological seminary. His early death 
 frustrated his literary plans, but his ability 
 as a scholar and thinker left an abiding 
 influence upon the college and the circle 
 in which he moved. See Mercersburg 
 Theology. 
 
 Rauhe Haus. See Wichern. 
 
 Ravenna was founded, according to 
 Strabo, by the Thessalians. From the 
 time of Julius Caesar far on in the history 
 of the later empire, it was an important 
 military and naval station, and a place of 
 confinement for military prisoners. It was 
 originally situated on the Adriatic, but 
 owing to the deposits from the delta of the 
 river Po, it is now distant five or six miles 
 from the sea. Ravenna has an interesting 
 ecclesiastical history. According to a 
 doubtful tradition Christianity was intro¬ 
 duced. here as early as 79 A. D. by Apolli- 
 naris, a disciple of Peter, who is said to 
 have suffered martyrdom for the destruc¬ 
 tion of a temple of Apollo. Ravenna has 
 been the seat of twenty-five synods, and 
 while the Emperor Honorius made it his 
 residence he convened there, about 419, an 
 assembly of bishops to decide the rival 
 claims of Boniface and Eulalius* to the 
 papal chair. This was the beginning of a 
 
 long struggle for the independence of the 
 Roman see. 
 
 Raymond Martini, a Dominican monk 
 and learned Orientalist; b. at Suberts in 
 Catalonia, early in the th rteenth century; 
 d. after 1284. He was a missionary among: 
 the Spanish Jews, and went to Tunis to> 
 convert the Mohammedans, against whom 
 he wrote Pugio fidei , and a work refuting 
 the Koran, which has perished. 
 
 Reader. See Lector. 
 
 Real Presence. See Lord’s Supper; 
 
 T RANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 Realists, the opponents of the Nomi¬ 
 nalists ( q. v.) among the Schoolmen of the 
 Middle Ages. Their main doctrine, which 
 is also attributed to Aristotle, was that 
 “ Universals ” (y. v.) have an independent 
 existence; nay, that they, or Ideas, are, the 
 only real existences, inasmuch as all visible 
 things grow, change, and perish. Wise 
 men perish, but their wisdom is eternal. 
 •Universals exist, therefore, independently 
 of things, and of our conceptions of them, 
 in the divine intellect. And the supreme 
 reason of man is to have his thoughts in 
 conformity with the divine ideals. Real¬ 
 ism, therefore, accepting the divine origin 
 of the Church, taught complete submission 
 to authority, and the necessity of looking 
 to God only for revelation and light. The 
 founder of this school of thought was An¬ 
 selm, and the work was taken up and car¬ 
 ried on by Thomas Aquinas and William 
 of Champeaux.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Re'chabites, descendants of Jonadab or 
 Jehonadab, son of Rechab. (2 Kings x. 15.) 
 They worshiped the true God, and prac¬ 
 tised circumcision, but they were not reck¬ 
 oned among the children of Israel. Jonadab 
 gave command to his people not to drink 
 wine, build houses, or plant vineyards, but 
 to dwell always in tents. The loyalty with 
 which the Rechabites kept these counsels 
 is held up as an example of constancy to 
 Judah by the prophet Jeremiah. (Jer. xxxv.) 
 The Rechabites still dwell in the northeast 
 of Medina. They do not mingle with the 
 Jews, who consider them as “ false breth¬ 
 ren ” because they do not observe the Law. 
 
 Recluse, a term frequently given to all 
 persons who withdraw from the world tc 
 spend their days in meditation, but prop¬ 
 erly applied to those hermits, especially 
 monks and nuns, who, at their own request, 
 were sealed up in their cells, to remain 
 until death. This privilege was only ac- 
 
Rec 
 
 ( 786 ) 
 
 Red 
 
 corded by the express permission of the 
 abbot, and only a bishop could allow re¬ 
 cluses to leave their cells. This practice 
 prevailed most widely in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. 
 
 Recollects, a minor branch of the Fran¬ 
 ciscan order of monks. The name is sup¬ 
 posed to have been given them by Clement 
 VII., who, in 1531, granted houses to such 
 as possessed “ the Spirit of Recollection.” 
 From its foundation the Order of St. Fran¬ 
 cis has been divided into two parties, the 
 Conventualists and the Observants, the 
 former living in monasteries under a not 
 very strict rule, and the latter following 
 more exactlj' - the laws of their founder, 
 especially those relating to poverty. At 
 the end of the sixteenth century the Ob¬ 
 servants in Italy were named by the reign¬ 
 ing pope “ Reformed Franciscans.” They 
 spread very rapidly in France during the 
 seventeenth century, and were in great 
 favor at court. It was in this country that 
 we find the term “ Recollects” most fre¬ 
 quently in use. They stood their ground 
 well all through the agitation caused by 
 the Jansenist movement, and refused to 
 relax their rules in the slightest degree. 
 The order was suppressed at the Revolu¬ 
 tion, but has lately reappeared in a few 
 towns in France.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Reconciliation. See Atonement. 
 
 Rector, a clergyman who has the charge 
 and care of a parish, and possesses all of 
 the tithes. 
 
 Redeemer, Orders of the. (i) The 
 order in Spain was founded by Alfonso I., 
 as a reward for courage in fighting against 
 the Moors. It was abolished after their 
 conquest. (2) In Italy, by Vincenzo of 
 Mantua, for the defence of the Catholic 
 faith: abolished in the eighteenth century. 
 (3) In Greece, by King Otto I., in 1844, as 
 a reward of merit. The king is the Grand 
 Master. 
 
 Redemption “ is a fundamental concep¬ 
 tion of Christianity, and the name Redeem¬ 
 er is applied to Christ as a comprehensive 
 designation of his work. It presupposes a 
 state of bondage and restraint, in which 
 man fails to reach the development for 
 which his powers adapt him, and stands in 
 a false relation to God. This disturbance 
 of our relation to God is called sin. If 
 there were no sin, there would be no re¬ 
 demption. Redemption is, therefore, lib¬ 
 eration from sin and its evil consequences. 
 The promise of redemption which God 
 
 gave after the fall (Gen. iii. 15) was re¬ 
 newed to the children of Israel in various 
 forms: as a deliverance from enemies 
 (Exod. xx. 2), and from the hand of the un¬ 
 godly (Psa. xii.; xxxi. 15), a conception 
 which still prevailed in New Testament 
 times (Luke i. 71), and from guilt and sin 
 (Psa. li.; Isa. xliii. 24, 25; liii., etc.) Je¬ 
 hovah is expressly called the Redeemer 
 of Israel. The promises of the Old 
 Testament were fulfilled in Christ. The 
 redemption from the yoke of the Roman do¬ 
 minion, which the mass of his contempo¬ 
 raries expected, he did not procure. His 
 redemption is an infinitely higher and bet¬ 
 ter one, from sin and all evil, and extends 
 to all mankind. (John iii. 16, 17.) The 
 New Testament speaks of it under a va¬ 
 riety of figures, as a payment of a ransom 
 (lutrou), and a rescue from a lost condition 
 (apdleia). It is regarded as a deliverance 
 from guilt, whereby the forgiveness of sins 
 is made possible (Eph. i. 7; Col. i. 14, etc.), 
 the curse of the law (Gal. iii. 13; iv. 5); and 
 the wrath of God. (Rom. v. 9; 1 Thess. i. 
 10; v. 9.) This is the juridical side of 
 redemption. It has also an ethical side, 
 and includes deliverance from the power 
 and dominion of sin. In this sense, Christ 
 has redeemed us from all unrighteousness, 
 as his own possession, purifying us unto 
 good works (Tit. ii. 14; 1 Pet. i. 18 sq.), 
 and has overcome the world, whose temp¬ 
 tation leads us into evil (John xvi. 33; 
 1 John v. 4, etc.), and has broken the pow¬ 
 er of the prince of this world—the devil. 
 (John xii. 31; Col. ii. 15.) Redemption 
 also has a physical aspect, and when Christ 
 returns again to raise the quick and the 
 dead there will be no more pain and death 
 for the believing (Rev. xxi. 4), but eternal 
 life. (Rom. v. 10; vi. 22.) The original 
 motive of redemption was the love of God, 
 which wills not the death of the sinner. 
 (John iii. 16; 1 Tim. ii. 4.) In order to ac¬ 
 complish it God sent his Son into the 
 world, who gave himself as our ransom, 
 even unto death (Matt. xx. 2S; John x. 11, 
 15; 1 Tim. ii. 6), becoming a curse on the 
 cross to deliver us from the curse of the 
 law. (2 Cor. v. 21; Gal. iii. 13.) What he 
 began in his humiliation on earth, he is 
 consummating in his state of exaltation. 
 Christ is himself redemption (John xiv. 6; 
 xi. 25, 26), offered to all men, on condition 
 of their repentance and turning from their 
 evil ways (2 Cor. vii. 10; James v. 20, etc.), 
 believing in the Lord Jesus Christ (Rom. 
 i. 16; Eph. ii. 8), and confessing his name. 
 (Rom. x. 9, 13.) The sinner must work 
 out his own salvation with fear and trem 
 bling (Phil. ii. 12), dying to sin, and living 
 unto righteousness. (1 Pet. ii. 24.) The 
 post-apostolic writers bring out the differ- 
 
Red 
 
 ( 787 ) 
 
 Red 
 
 ent aspects under which the work of re¬ 
 demption is presented in the New Testa¬ 
 ment; but the majority of the Fathers 
 <Trenaeus, Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Am¬ 
 brose, Augustine, etc.), treated it as a ju¬ 
 dicial transaction, in which Jesus gave up 
 his life to the devil in payment for man¬ 
 kind. Gregory Nazianzen, opposing this 
 -conception, treated it as a conflict between 
 Christ and Satan for the possession of 
 man. ( Oral . xlv.) As heathenism, the 
 manifestation of sin’s dominion, began 
 to be overcome, the Church began to re¬ 
 gard redemption from the standpoint of its 
 power and effects upon the soul itself. 
 Athanasius carried out the idea that the Lo¬ 
 gos assumed human nature, and gave him¬ 
 self up to death because the justice and ve¬ 
 racity of God demanded the death of man¬ 
 kind, as he had threatened, for sin. Basil 
 the Great, Cyril of Alexandria, Cyril of 
 Jerusalem, Hilary, and John of Damascus 
 held to this conception. It was Anselm of 
 Canterbury who laid the most stress on 
 man’s guilt, and worked out his doctrine 
 in the famous treatise, Why God Became 
 Mail (Cur Deus Homo). Starting with the 
 conception of the divine justice and the 
 majesty of the law, he asserted the neces¬ 
 sity of an equivalent for the violation of 
 the law. This could be furnished only by 
 the innocent and infinite Son of God. This 
 doctrine of the atonement was further de¬ 
 veloped by Hugo of St. Victor, Alexander 
 -of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Bonaventura, 
 Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. The 
 Reformers, accepting this view, developed 
 the doctrine in such a way as to render its 
 practical workings very different from what 
 they are in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 which imposes burdens and penances upon 
 the sinner, admits works of supererogation, 
 and grants to the priesthood the powers of 
 binding and loosing. The Protestant 
 churches regard redemption as the work 
 of divine mercy, accomplished by the in¬ 
 carnation, obedience, and death of Christ, 
 and made efficacious by the faith of the 
 sinner. This work, which is already ac¬ 
 complished, acts upon the intellectual nat¬ 
 ure of man as a deliverance from darkness 
 unto light (Col. i. 13), and upon his moral 
 nature, delivering his will from the bond¬ 
 age of sin, and endowing it with the power 
 to choose and execute works of righteous¬ 
 ness. Christ redeems us from the world, 
 the flesh, and the devil; and faith in him 
 overcomes the world. (1 John v. 4.) Re¬ 
 demption also affects man’s physical nature 
 by delivering him from death; Christ him¬ 
 self being the resurrection and the life 
 (John xi. 25), having broken the power of 
 death by his own resurrection. He who 
 believes in Christ already has eternal life 
 
 (John iii. 36) dwelling in him. And, when 
 Christ returns, ‘our vile bodies shall be 
 changed yito the likeness of his glorious 
 body (Phil. iii. 21), and we shall be trans¬ 
 lated into the communion of the blessed. 
 This is redemption in its narrowest sense. 
 (Rom. viii. 23; 1 Cor. i. 30; Eph. i. 14.)” 
 —Schoberlein in Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., vol. 
 iii., pp. 2002, 2003. See Atonement. 
 
 Redemptorists, an order founded in 1732 
 by St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori {q. v .), 
 its chief object being to provide a set of 
 men to work amongst the poor. In this he 
 received the assistance of Falcoia, bishop 
 of Castellamare, and the work was begun 
 at Scala, where he had previously founded 
 a community of nuns. In 1749 the order 
 was confirmed, and its rules approved by 
 Benedict XIV. He gave it first the title of 
 the “ Congregation of the Most Holy 
 Saviour,” but as there was an order of the 
 same name in another part of Italy, the 
 pope ordained that the title should be 
 changed to that of the “ Most Holy Re¬ 
 deemer,” to prevent confusion. The mem¬ 
 bers, who were called Redemptorists, had, 
 in addition to the general vows of obedi¬ 
 ence, poverty, and chastity, to take an oath 
 that they would work diligently in the 
 order till their death. Their great object 
 was to be the conversion of the most poor 
 and miserable, especially those living in 
 great cities, who would otherwise be left to 
 a large extent destitute. Besides this, 
 Liguori insisted on constant study among 
 his disciples as a means toward being of 
 more use to the Church. The order still 
 exists in most countries of Europe, al¬ 
 though at different times, through revolu¬ 
 tions and various other causes, it has been 
 banished. It was introduced into England 
 in 1843, and has now six houses in the 
 British Isles. The nuns are called Re- 
 demptoristines; they live in strict enclos¬ 
 ure, and employ their whole time in pray¬ 
 ing for the success of the Redemptorist 
 missions. The chief seat of government is 
 Rome, where the head of the order, who 
 has the title of Rector Major, superintends 
 the general working of the society in all 
 parts of the world. He is elected for life, 
 but the heads of the different houses, who 
 are appointed by him, assisted by six 
 councillors, can only hold office for three 
 years.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Red Sea, the sea between Egypt and 
 Arabia, 1,450 miles long, and 230 miles 
 broad. At its northern extremity, it is di¬ 
 vided into two gulfs, the Gulf of Suez, 
 about 180 miles long and the Gulf of Aka- 
 bah, about 100 miles long. Its name among 
 the Hebrews, Syrians, and Egyptians was 
 
Ref 
 
 (788) 
 
 Ref 
 
 “ The Sea of Reeds;” and the “ Red Sea” 
 among the Greeks and Romans. The de¬ 
 rivation of the Hebrew name is uncertain; 
 reeds are rare along the shores of the sea 
 although it is said they are found at the 
 two points familiar to the Hebrews. Some 
 think the derivation of the Greek-Roman 
 name is from the red corals which abound 
 Mn the waters and were much used as orna¬ 
 ments by the Hebrews and Syrians; others 
 derive it from Edoyn (red). For reference 
 to the passage of the Israelites through the 
 Red Sea, see Exodus of Israel. 
 
 Reformation. To give in detail the his¬ 
 tory of the great religious revolution of the 
 sixteenth century would be almost to write 
 the history of Europe. Our object in the 
 following article will simply be to indicate 
 the causes and the occasions which pro¬ 
 duced the mighty changes in the several 
 countries, and the most prominent results. 
 Let it be remembered that causes and occa¬ 
 sions are by no means synonyms. An oc¬ 
 casion furnishes reason for present action, 
 but the causes lie further back. Henry 
 VIII.’s divorce was the occasion of Eng¬ 
 land’s breach with Rome, but the causes 
 had been gathering for whole generations 
 before. 
 
 As far back as the twelfth century St. 
 Bernard, called “ the last of the Fathers,” 
 had sadly cried out that he longed before 
 he died to see the Church of God as it was 
 in the ancient days. And the cry had 
 gathered strength in succeeding years. 
 The great councils of the fifteenth century 
 —Pisa, Constance, Basel—had called for 
 “ purification of head and members.” And 
 so there is also a long list of illustrious 
 names—Gerson, Grostete, Bradwardine, 
 Colet, Sir Thomas More—men who would 
 have been indignant at any suspicion 
 thrown upon their faithfulness to the 
 Church, who were urgent in their demands 
 for reform. Bossuet, in his Variations des 
 Eglises Protestantes, attempts to break the 
 force of this fact by saying that these doc¬ 
 tors never thought of changing the faith of 
 the Church, or of correcting her worship, 
 or of subverting the authority of her prel¬ 
 ates, and chiefly that of the pope. But 
 unhappily the conscience of men came to 
 the conviction that the practical evils of the 
 Church had their root in doctrine. The 
 shameful sale of indulgences and masses 
 came out of corrupt teaching concerning 
 the intermediate state. So, again, when it 
 was seen that in one year nearly a thou¬ 
 sand pounds were offered at the shrine 
 of St. Thomas a Becket, and during the 
 same period not one penny at the altar 
 of Christ, it is no wonder if the suspicion 
 arose that errors had crept into the Church 
 
 concerning saintly intercession and invo¬ 
 cation. 
 
 Of the manifold causes which wrought 
 together to produce the Reformation, three 
 stand out the most prominent: 
 
 (1) The Papacy.—No Roman pontiff— 
 not Gregory VII., nor Innocent III.—ever 
 advanced loftier claims than did Boniface 
 VIII., when, in 1302, he addressed to the 
 Christian world his bull Unam Sanctam 
 ( q . v.). That was the culminating point of 
 papal power, and the two centuries that 
 followed saw its rapid decline. The re¬ 
 moval of the papal court to Avignon 
 brought more clearly to the light its cor¬ 
 ruptions and cruelties, and exhibited the 
 supreme pontiff as the puppet of the 
 French king. The Great Schism, which 
 followed and lasted through forty years, 
 gave a still ruder shock to traditional rev¬ 
 erence for the see. At this moment, too, 
 the nations of modern Europe were con¬ 
 solidating and settling their national life, a 
 state of things which “ could not fail to give 
 an impulse, hitherto unknown, in calling 
 up the nationality of many a Western State, 
 in satisfying it that the papal rule was not 
 essential to its welfare, and in thereby add¬ 
 ing strength to local jurisdictions.” (Hard¬ 
 wick’s Reformation .) How strong this im¬ 
 pulse was may be seen in the fact that at 
 the Council of Constance the vote was 
 taken, not by individuals, but by nations— 
 viz., the English, German, French, and 
 Italian. That method of voting was the 
 precursor of national reformations. To this 
 must be added the personal character of 
 the popes themselves. Blunt’s statement 
 is no exaggeration when he says that “ for 
 sixty years before the final breach was 
 made, there had not been a pope, except 
 Clement VII., who could be called even a 
 decent Christian.” (Blunt’s Refortnalion, p. 
 242.) It is a shame even to mention the 
 deeds of vileness which make up the life of 
 such men as Pope Alexander VI. 
 
 (2) The revival of letters and the impulse 
 given by it to human intellect was a second 
 cause of the demand for reformation. The 
 revival of learning in Italy — and Italy led 
 the way in everything in those days— was, 
 in its temper, simply pagan. The Decame¬ 
 ron of Boccaccio was saturated with the pa¬ 
 gan spirit. An eclogue of Geraldini on the 
 Passion spoke of the Lord Jesus Christ as 
 “ Daphnis,” and “ Daphnis in an odorifer¬ 
 ous garden ” is the commencement of the 
 agony in Gethsemane. At the court of the 
 Medici it was a characteristic of good so¬ 
 ciety to dispute the fundamental principles 
 of Christianity; and the narratives of Holy 
 Scripture and the mysteries of the Faith be¬ 
 came subjects of derision. Leo X., in all 
 probability, was an infidel. “ Marvelous,’* 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 789 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 says Dr. J. M. Neale, “ was the infatuation, 
 which could expend all its zeal in the dis¬ 
 covery of the last books of Tacitus and 
 Livy, in the production of the purest Cice¬ 
 ronian Latin, in the erection of Classical 
 churches, and which could pay for all these 
 pagan amusements by the infamous mis¬ 
 sion of Tetzel, unconscious of the ap¬ 
 proaching earthquake, regarding the dis¬ 
 content of one German monk as something 
 that might—it mattered not which of the 
 two—be hushed at the stake or silenced by 
 the sop of a fat benefice.” The very great¬ 
 ness of the evil brought a reaction, and 
 thoughtful men endeavored to stay the 
 general corruption by revived religious 
 conviction. But the attempt failed through 
 two causes. The one was the timidity ex¬ 
 pressed in the saying attributed to Cardinal 
 Pole, that men “ ought to content them¬ 
 selves with their own inward convictions, 
 and not concern themselves to know if 
 errors and abuses existed in the Church.” 
 The other was the irreformable character 
 •of the Roman court. Meanwhile, let the 
 causes have been what they may, this pa¬ 
 gan tendency was remarkably kept in check 
 in England, though signs of it appeared all 
 through from Chaucer to Shakespeare. 
 'Signs—but only on the surface: none of 
 the great English writers can be charged 
 with the moral foulness and scornful unbe¬ 
 lief of the Continental paganism. 
 
 (3) The third cause of the cry for refor¬ 
 mation lay in the tremendous sense of re¬ 
 sponsibility which rests on the reason and 
 conscience of individuals with reference to 
 their belief, and the necessity which they 
 feel rests upon them of personal faith in, 
 and personal communion with, the Lord. 
 The other causes live in the outward world: 
 this dwells in each man’s soul. It was a 
 mark of Western theology, as contrasted 
 with the Eastern, that whereas the latter 
 loved to meditate upon God and upon the 
 Christian doctrines as defined in the creeds, 
 the Western Church contemplated more 
 practically the great phenomena of human 
 nature and the relation of the soul to God. 
 And Christian anthropology, it has been 
 well said, “ ranged itself under two heads 
 —the objective one of the sacraments and 
 ordinances of the Church as such; and the 
 subjective one of the progress of grace in 
 the heart of each one of us.” (Foulkes’s Di¬ 
 visions of Christendom.} The mediaeval 
 divines had mainly concerned themselves 
 with the former of these two heads, though 
 not exclusively so, for the “ Friends of 
 God ” and the Mystics had eagerly incul¬ 
 cated personal earnestness in religious life. 
 But, taken as a whole, mediaeval Christian¬ 
 ity was preeminently the sense of corporate 
 membership, and an exaggerated idea of 
 
 the value of a perfunctory discharge of 
 routine and merely external duties ; “ the 
 form of godliness without the power ” was 
 the result. This, probably, more than 
 anything else, honeycombed the Church 
 with corruption. And this furnishes the 
 key to the preaching of Luther and its 
 mighty effect upon men. It was the pas¬ 
 sionate assertion of personal religion and 
 individual responsibility. 
 
 The cry for reform, then, was general 
 before the great revolution appeared. By 
 what method might it be looked for ? That 
 which most commended itself to the 
 thoughtful men of those days was the con¬ 
 voking of a general council. Attempts 
 had been made, but in vain; and in 1460 
 Pope Pius II. forbade any attempt “ to in¬ 
 voke the aid of councils, under pain of 
 damnation.” This seemed to close that 
 door. Yet men hoped even against hope. 
 Constitutional reform had taken strong 
 hold in France. When pagan Leo X. was 
 succeeded by Adrian VI. men hoped again, 
 especially when that pontiff declared that 
 “ many abominations had existed for a long 
 time, yea in the Holy See itself;” but he 
 died after a brief pontificate, and the Roman 
 Curia was confirmed in its resolution to re¬ 
 sist all change. But Luther’s preaching 
 had by this time stirred the waters too 
 profoundly to suffer any further stagnation. 
 Men’s hearts were moved to their very 
 depths, and the cry for reformation was too 
 universal to be put down. Two methods 
 remained. The one was a movement un¬ 
 der individual leaders, the other the asser¬ 
 tion of the rights of autonomous national 
 Churches, as against papal centralization. 
 The one marked the movement in Germany 
 and Switzerland: the other was pursued in 
 England. And this last was no after¬ 
 thought. It was a recurrence to the prac¬ 
 tice of the purest ages of the faith. In all 
 time and everywhere, national synods had 
 discussed and dealt with the heresies, 
 errors, and evils of national churches, 
 whether such evils and heresies had grown 
 up within or been thrust in from without. 
 The method was an old one revived, not a 
 new one invented. (Hardwick on the Arti¬ 
 cles, ch. i.) The special occasions which 
 set the causes in operation will be seen as 
 we now glance through the history of each 
 nation. 
 
 Germany .—On Oct. 31, 1517, Luther’s 
 conflict with the Church of Rome began, 
 when he boldly attacked the doctrine of 
 “ Indulgences.” This date has been kept 
 throughout Protestant Germany as the 
 Festival of the Reformation. Luther soon 
 had to defend himself against the charge of 
 insubordination. The arguments which 
 his opponents advanced rested upon the 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 790 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 supreme power of the pope; e. g. , one of 
 these arguments was that “ the pope alone 
 has power to determine those things which 
 are of faith,” and another was that “ Chris¬ 
 tians are to be taught that the Church 
 holds many things as Catholic verities 
 which yet are placed neither in the Canon 
 of the Bible, nor among the more ancient 
 Fathers.” Luther replied, quoting Augus¬ 
 tine, that the canonical books of Scripture 
 alone are an infallible guide. Luther was 
 now led to inquire more fully into the 
 authority of the pope; consequently he 
 was cited on Aug. 7, 1518, to appear in 
 Rome, to answer the charge of heresy. 
 Eventually, however, his trial took place 
 before the papal legate, Cardinal Cajeta- 
 nus, at Augsburg, on Oct. 10. Luther 
 persisted in denouncing the doctrine of in¬ 
 dulgences, and denied the authority of 
 papal edicts when unsupported by Holy 
 Scripture, the ancient Fathers, or the de¬ 
 cisions of General Councils. He was 
 ordered peremptorily to recant. Luther, 
 however, fearing violence, escaped by 
 night from Augsburg (Oct. 16), and re¬ 
 turned to Wittenberg. In July, 1519, an 
 important theological debate took place at 
 Leipzig, between Carlstadt (who had join¬ 
 ed the new movement, but who eventually 
 pushed his principles to such extravagant 
 lengths that he was silenced by Luther) on 
 the one side, and Eck, a very learned 
 champion of the papacy, on the other. 
 During the debate Luther spoke, and ad¬ 
 vanced a step farther in his conflict with 
 the papal power. He denied (1) that the 
 Latin Church is exclusively the Church of 
 Christ; (2) that the ascendancy of the pope 
 of Rome was of Divine institution; (3) that 
 the councils of the Church are infallible. 
 The result of this boldness was his excom¬ 
 munication by Pope Leo X. in June, 1520. 
 The papal bull was publicly burnt at Wit¬ 
 tenberg the same year. Luther at this 
 time attracted many followers; among 
 others, Martin Bucer—who subsequently 
 took refuge in England, and received a 
 theological professorship at Cambridge— 
 and Melanchthon, a brilliant and earnest 
 student at Wittenberg. In 1521, Melanch¬ 
 thon drew up a text-book for Lutheran 
 divines, entitled Loci Communes Renan 
 Theologicarum; it contained a calm state¬ 
 ment of their special doctrines, supported 
 by Scriptural proofs. Meanwhile, in 1520, 
 Luther had appealed to the Christian poten¬ 
 tates of the German nation to summon a 
 council for redressing grievances and re¬ 
 moving abuses in the Church; and later in 
 the same year he published The Babylo¬ 
 nish Captivity of the Churchy a violent treatise 
 against the mediaeval doctrine concerning 
 the Sacraments; he reduces them in num¬ 
 
 ber from seven to two, and lays very great 
 'stress on the necessity of faith, without 
 which the sacraments convey no benefit. 
 The prospect of his excommunication 
 caused Luther to bring forward another 
 doctrine of great importance, viz., that all 
 Christians are the priests of God, quoting 
 Rev. i. 6 and other texts in support. 
 Henry VIII. replied to this by stating that 
 for the same reason all Christians must be 
 kings. Luther, however, used this doctrine 
 for giving more importance to the laity, 
 and for reducing the tyranny of the papal 
 priesthood. Luther’s views were popular, 
 and at length the Elector Frederick became 
 an ardent champion of the Reformation 
 movement. In 1521 Luther was summon¬ 
 ed by the Emperor Charles V. to appear 
 before the Diet at Worms. On this oc¬ 
 casion he made his memorable stand, say¬ 
 ing that unless he were convicted of heresy 
 by the testimony of Scripture, he could 
 not and would not retract anything, add¬ 
 ing, “ Here stand I, I can no farther; God 
 help me. Amen.” In spite of opposition, 
 the Diet eventually proclaimed the im¬ 
 perial bann against Luther as a heretic and 
 outcast from the Church of God, and his 
 writings were prohibited. On his way 
 back to Wittenberg, he was secured by the 
 order of his friend and patron, the Elector 
 of Saxony, and carried off to a safe shelter 
 in the Castle of Wartburg. Here Luther 
 worked actively with his pen, his most im¬ 
 portant work being the Translation of the 
 New Testament into the Saxon dialect. 
 During Luther’s retirement, some of the 
 Reformers, headed by Carlstadt, had 
 broken out into extravagances, and many 
 sympathizers had in consequence shrunk 
 from throwing in their lot with the Re¬ 
 formers. At this period, too, the fanatical 
 and lawless sect of the Anabaptists had 
 started into birth. Luther, in consterna¬ 
 tion, reappeared at Wittenberg on March 
 7, 1552, to save his work from destruction; 
 he silenced the ultra - Reformers, undid 
 their work, and in his own teaching laid 
 great stress on the necessity of Christian 
 quietness and charity. The Peasants’ 
 War, in 1524, brought the Lutheran doc¬ 
 trines into fresh discredit; although Lu¬ 
 ther sternly denounced the insurgents, and 
 preached obedience to the civil magistrate, 
 still much of his influence was gone, owing 
 to the revolutionary proceedings of fanati¬ 
 cal Reformers. In this year, Erasmus, 
 who had been an exceedingly able advocate 
 of Reformation principles, went over to 
 the opposite side, and violently attacked 
 Luther and his teaching. The .states of 
 the empire now formed themselves into 
 religious leagues, either in opposition to 
 or in defense of the new doctrines. The 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 79i ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 “League of Torgau ” (1526) was consti¬ 
 tuted of those princes who supported re¬ 
 form; they agreed to stand by each other in 
 case they were attacked “ on account of the 
 Word of God, or the removal of abuses.” 
 The Diet of Spires, which opened im¬ 
 mediately afterward, recommended many 
 reforms, such as allowing the clergy to 
 marry (Luther had already married an 
 escaped nun), restoring the chalice in the 
 Eucharist to the laity, and that private 
 masses should be abolished. The em¬ 
 peror, however, refused his sanction to 
 these reforms; whereupon the individual 
 States took it upon themselves to work out 
 their own reforms; so, in 1527, in Saxony, 
 “ visitors” were nominated by the Elector 
 to examine into the condition of each par¬ 
 ish; the visitors did not interfere with old 
 institutions, provided they were not repug¬ 
 nant to Scripture; their motto was to re¬ 
 form and correct, not to destroy and abol¬ 
 ish. The Reformation, however, received 
 a check at the new Diet of Spires, which 
 assembled in 1529. The reforming edict 
 of the former Diet (1526) was repealed, 
 and the emperor was angry and intolerant. 
 The Reformers hereupon drew up their 
 protest against these proceedings, and so 
 obtained for themselves and their posterity 
 the name of “ Protestants.” Their in¬ 
 fluence, however, was now much weakened 
 by internal divisions. A new set of Re¬ 
 formers, headed by Zwingli, and opposed 
 to the Lutherans in their opinions as to 
 the sacraments and other doctrines of the 
 Gospel, arose in parts of southern Ger¬ 
 many, and in Switzerland. The Conference 
 of Marburg was held in 1529, in order to 
 bring about an understanding between the 
 two sets of Reformers, but without suc¬ 
 cess. At this conference the Lutherans 
 drew up and agreed upon fifteen dogmatic 
 definitions; these were revised and increas¬ 
 ed to seventeen at the Conference of 
 Schwabach (Oct., 1529), and subscription 
 to them became a necessary condition of 
 membership in the league of Reformers 
 referred to previously. These seventeen 
 articles were finally revised by Melanch- 
 thon, and were incorporated in the cele¬ 
 brated Confession of Augsburg —an apology 
 for Lutheranism, presented to the Emperor 
 Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg (1530). 
 The Confession is remarkably clear and 
 outspoken, but humble and modest in tone. 
 In setting forth the articles of the Luther¬ 
 an Reformed Faith, it was seen that the 
 Reformers held almost everything in com¬ 
 mon with the Catholic Church; for the 
 errors and abuses which they rejected they 
 gave their reasons, taken from Scripture 
 and the early Fathers of the Church. 
 After the Lutheran views had been dis¬ 
 
 cussed, the Diet, with threats, ordered the 
 Reformers to conform in all things to the 
 established usage of the Roman Church. 
 Owing to these threats the Reformers en¬ 
 tered into a covenant, called the “ Smal- 
 cald League ” (1531), by which they 
 
 agreed to help each other for six years in 
 defending their faith. They also sought 
 the aid of France against their own em¬ 
 peror—a fatal and unpatriotic thing to do. 
 Charles V. was now glad to pacify the 
 Protestant Reformers, in order to concen¬ 
 trate his forces against the Ottoman Turks, 
 who were attacking his dominions. Ac¬ 
 cordingly the Peace of Niiremburg was 
 signed (July, 1532), by which it was agreed 
 that the present state of things was to con¬ 
 tinue until a “ General Free Council ” 
 could authoritatively settle the matters in 
 dispute. Pope Paul III. attempted to calL 
 a council at Mantua in 1537, but the Lu¬ 
 therans could not regard it as a free coun¬ 
 cil, so the attempt failed. The Lutherans 
 then issued a manifesto, embodying their 
 principles, and called the “ Smalcald 
 Articles,” because issued by the Prot¬ 
 estant League of that name (1537). At 
 the same time the emperor, his brother 
 Ferdinand, and many powerful princes 
 formed themselves into “ the Holy 
 League,” for the purpose of opposing the 
 Reformation. In 1541 the Colloquy of 
 Ratisbon was held between champions of 
 the Reformed and Unreformed faith, and, 
 although an agreement was nearly arrived 
 at, yet in the end the matters in dispute 
 were in the same position as before. An¬ 
 other fruitless council was held at Ratis¬ 
 bon in the beginning of 1546, followed 
 quickly by the death of the great Reform¬ 
 er, Luther, in February of the same year. 
 He held his opinions firmly to the last. 
 He had proved them, and found that they 
 did not fail him in the hour of his need; 
 but his last days were saddened by the re¬ 
 ligious animosities of the age, by the divis¬ 
 ions among the Reformers themselves, and 
 especially by the rise and growth of Zwin- 
 glianism. Immediately after his death a 
 terrible religious war broke out between 
 the Romanists and Reformers. The Lu¬ 
 therans struck the first blow, but the em¬ 
 peror had been openly making his prepa¬ 
 rations for bloodshed before this. The 
 pope granted plenary indulgence to all who 
 fought against the Lutheran “ heresy.” 
 The Protestants were utterly defeated at 
 the battle of Miihlberg (April 24, 1547). 
 In May of the following year the Diet of 
 Augsburg, under Charles V., issued an 
 edict called the Interim Augustanum. This 
 was a formulary of faith and worship for 
 the Protestants to adopt, as a temporary 
 arrangement, until a general council settled 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 792 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 matters. The “ Interim” was opposed to 
 the Reformed faith, but it made two con¬ 
 cessions, by legalizing the marriage of 
 such ecclesiastics as had already taken 
 wives,and by tolerating communion in both 
 kinds. It met with great opposition among 
 the more strict Lutherans: the more mod¬ 
 erate tried to modify its operation, and 
 were in danger of compromising their faith, 
 when, in 1552, Maurice, the Elector of Sax¬ 
 ony, took the field on their behalf. The 
 war was ended honorably for the Reform¬ 
 ers by the “ Peace of Augsburg” (1555). 
 It was agreed that every land proprietor 
 should be free to choose between the old 
 religion and that embodied in the Confession 
 of Augsburg (1530); his tenants and depend¬ 
 ents were expected to follow his example. 
 Meanwhile the long-promised council met 
 at Trent in 1545, but by its protracted and 
 wearying disputes all hope was dispelled 
 of its effecting any speedy reformation of 
 existing abuses. The two great religious 
 parties, the Romanists and the Reformers 
 or Protestants, lived in comparative quiet¬ 
 ness for the remainder of the century; but 
 in the latter part of it, owing to the divis¬ 
 ions among the Lutheran and Swiss Re¬ 
 formers, and to the persevering zeal of the 
 Jesuits, founded in 1540, Protestantism in 
 Germany greatly declined; whole districts 
 were gradually brought back to allegiance 
 to Rome. The Reformed faith was to go 
 through another terrible ordeal—the Thirty 
 Years’ War (1618-48)—before it was finally 
 recognized and supported by the German 
 Government by the Peace of Westphalia 
 (1648). 
 
 The Reformation spread through the 
 following States in the German Empire: 
 
 The Electorate of Saxony , the starting- 
 place of the movement, and where as early 
 as 1527 the majority of the people em¬ 
 braced the Reformed Faith. 
 
 Ducal Saxony yielded in 1539, Leipzig, 
 Dresden, and other chief towns joining the 
 movement. 
 
 Hessen, under Philip, eagerly received 
 Lutheran doctrines in 1526. 
 
 Bavarian Brandenburg joined in 1528, at 
 the Diet of Anspach. 
 
 Electoral Brandenburg did not cast off the 
 papal yoke till 1539. 
 
 Liineburg joined in 1527; Scriptural 
 preaching was enforced, but ritual and 
 worship remained much as before. 
 
 Mecklenburg , Holstein, and Pomerania 
 also were among the first to join. 
 
 A few years later, in 1535, IVurtemberg 
 and other minor States joined the Protes¬ 
 tant League. 
 
 Frederick, Elector Palatine, and his peo¬ 
 ple, took the same side in 1546. 
 
 In the Duchy of Bavaria, the Reforma¬ 
 
 tion made much progress at first among 
 the people, but owing to the opposition of 
 the civil power, and to the efforts of the 
 Jesuits, Lutheranism was extinguished in 
 the duchy before the century closed. 
 
 In East Friesland and in Silesia Luther¬ 
 anism had a peaceful triumph about the 
 year 1527. 
 
 The rapid spread of the movement in 
 Germany was almost entirely owing to the 
 influence of Luther; in 1523 he is said to 
 have issued as many as 183 books or 
 pamphlets in promoting the cause; his 
 writings were perfectly clear and practical, 
 and adapted to influence the people. The 
 force of his arguments, his homely illus¬ 
 trations, his simple boldness, and especial¬ 
 ly his deep earnestness, completely won 
 the people and made them ardent cham¬ 
 pions of the Reformation. Melanchthon’s 
 influence, though of a different nature, was 
 also very great in forwarding the move¬ 
 ment; his learned lectures at the Univer¬ 
 sity of Wittenberg were the means of rais¬ 
 ing up many able coadjutors in the work of 
 Reformation; but the Lutherans were 
 chiefly indebted to Melanchthon for the 
 Confession of Augsburg and other symbol¬ 
 ical writings containing systematic state¬ 
 ments of Lutheran doctrines; by these the 
 truth, after it had been discovered, was 
 preserved and kept intact for themselves 
 and their posterity. He died in 1560. The 
 masses of the people, however, were prob¬ 
 ably most influenced by the itinerant friars 
 who went from village to village, and town 
 to town, preaching the doctrines of Luther. 
 
 Eastern Prussia received Lutheran 
 preachers in 1523, and George Polentz, one 
 of the Prussian bishops, embraced the Lu¬ 
 theran doctrines, and promoted the Refor¬ 
 mation. In 1525 the whole country was 
 converted. A German liturgy, adhering 
 as much as possible to ancient usage, was 
 introduced. Convents were converted 
 into hospitals, and, for the instruction of 
 the clergy, Postils, or explanatory ser¬ 
 mons on the Epistles and Gospels, were 
 regularly sent from Wittenberg. In 1548 
 the Reformers were aided by a large influx 
 of Bohemian Protestant refugees, and so 
 became independent of aid from Witten¬ 
 berg. 
 
 Polish Prussia became reformed about 
 1560, Sigismund Augustus being their sov¬ 
 ereign. 
 
 In Dc 7 imark Lutheranism was first taught 
 at Wiburg, in Jutland, by John Tausen, 
 who had studied under Melanchthon at Wit¬ 
 tenberg. Lutheran preachers came in 
 1526. When Frederick I. was crowned 
 King of Denmark (1523), the Danish hie¬ 
 rarchy required him to extirpate the “ her¬ 
 etics of Luther’s school.” Hence the king. 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 793 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 though personally favorable to reform, was 
 unable to advance the work immediately; 
 but in 1526 he passed over to the side 
 of the Reformers, and in 1527, at a diet 
 held at Odense, “ liberty of conscience ” 
 was granted to both parties. In 1530 the 
 Danish Protestants issued a manifesto 
 at Copenhagen similar to the Augsburg 
 Confession, holding fast to "all Lutheran 
 doctrines. Christian III., who succeeded 
 his father on the throne in 1533, was 
 an ardent Reformer; he had attended the 
 Diet at Worms (1521), and had listened 
 with admiration to Luther. The Reforma¬ 
 tion now spread throughout the whole of 
 Denmark; bishops were deposed, and 
 twelve Superintendents established in the 
 ancient sees. In the University of Copen¬ 
 hagen three Divinity professors were ap¬ 
 pointed to lecture , on the Old and New 
 Testaments and on the Fathers. A Danish 
 liturgy was compiled on Lutheran models. 
 Christian III. joined the Protestant League 
 in 1538. The Confession of Augsburg was 
 accepted by Denmark in 1569. 
 
 Norzvay and Iceland , after brief struggles, 
 gave in their adherence to Lutheranism 
 about 1539. 
 
 All these countries have remained Lu¬ 
 theran to the present day. 
 
 Sweden .—Students from Wittenberg had 
 brought Lutheranism into Sweden in 1519. 
 Gustavus Vasa, crowned in 1523, support¬ 
 ed the Reformers in his kingdom. Accord¬ 
 ingly when Brask, bishop of Linkoping, 
 began a persecution of “ the heretics,” 
 the king interfered on their behalf. In 
 1524 a council was called to prepare the 
 Church for the changes that were to be 
 made by the court. The king constituted 
 himself supreme in matters ecclesiastical, 
 appointed and deposed bishops on his own 
 authority, seized a large part of the eccle¬ 
 siastical revenues, suppressed monaster¬ 
 ies, and organized the Church much on the 
 same model as the Reformed Church in 
 Denmark. He advocated the use of near¬ 
 ly all the ancient service-books and ritual, 
 'until the people were better instructed; 
 and this course was adopted by the clergy 
 at the Synod of Orebro in 1529. One great 
 characteristic of the Reformed Church of 
 Sweden is that the government of the 
 Church by bishops has been preserved and 
 perpetuated to the present day. Lawrence 
 Peterson, a moderate Lutheran, was made 
 archbishop of Upsala. In 1539, however, 
 the king threatened to constitute the Swe¬ 
 dish Church on the Presbyterian model, but 
 the threat was not accomplished. In 1544 
 the Reformation changes were established 
 throughout the kingdom. These changes, 
 however, led to an insurrection among the 
 poorer classes, urged on in several cases by 
 
 the Romish priests (1537-1543). The insur¬ 
 rection was quelled, but another reaction 
 occurred in 1576, when King John intro¬ 
 duced a new liturgy, based on the missal 
 authorized by the Council of Trent; it was 
 adopted by the diet in 1577, two bishops 
 strongly protesting against it, viz., Linkd- 
 ping and Strengness; the king, moreover, 
 entrusted the management of a college at 
 Stockholm to certain Jesuits whom he 
 had invited from Louvain. But when Lu¬ 
 theranism was just at its lowest ebb, the 
 king suddenly changed his course; the Jes¬ 
 uits were compelled to leave the country, 
 and Lutheranism regained the ground it 
 had lost. At the kirk-mote held at Upsala 
 in 1593, the Augsburg Confession was 
 adopted by Sweden; the followers of Zwin- 
 gli and Calvin were denounced, the Roman¬ 
 izing liturgy of King John was revoked, 
 and the service-book of Lawrence Peter¬ 
 son took its place. Luther’s short cate¬ 
 chism became also the recognized manual 
 of instruction. 
 
 Poland .—Sigismund I., king of Poland 
 from 1548 to 1572, tolerated Lutheranism, 
 and during his reign it penetrated among 
 all classes. Large numbers of Protestant 
 refugees from Bohemia came to Poland in 
 1548, and aided in spreading the Lutheran 
 doctrines. An ecclesiastical synod held at 
 Piotrkow, in 1551, advocated the most bit¬ 
 ter persecution of the Protestants. On the 
 other hand, the Polish Diet in 1552 was fa¬ 
 vorable to them. The Protestant Reform¬ 
 ers, however, were greatly weakened by 
 the desertion of their champion, Oricho- 
 vius, formerly a student at Wittenberg, 
 who rejoined the Roman Church in 1559. 
 After Sigismund’s death, most of the suc¬ 
 ceeding kings favored the Romanists. 
 Stephen Bathori came to the throne in 
 1575, and proclaimed himself favorable to 
 religious toleration, saying that God had 
 reserved to himself the government of 
 men’s consciences. He was, notwithstand¬ 
 ing, a patron of the Jesuits, and winked at 
 their persecution of the Protestants. He 
 was 'succeeded by Sigismund III. (1587- 
 1632), Crown Prince of Sweden, whose 
 parents had resisted Protestantism in Swe¬ 
 den. In this reign Protestantism in Po¬ 
 land was completely overthrown. This 
 result was brought about partly by the Jes¬ 
 uits, and partly by serious divisions among 
 the Reformers themselves. The cause of 
 the Reformers was also greatly weakened 
 by some of their number adopting the Anti- 
 Trinitarian heresy. 
 
 Bohemia and Moravia .—The followers of 
 John Huss, the great Bohemian Reformer, 
 entered into negotiations with Luther in 
 1519. In Feb., 1520, Luther writes, after 
 reading the works of John Huss, that “ I, 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 794 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 without being conscious of it, have both 
 taught and held all the things of John Huss 
 . . . in brief, we are all Hussites without 
 knowing it.” An alliance was soon form¬ 
 ed between the Bohemians and Lutherans. 
 In 1532 the Bohemians, with the sanction 
 of Luther, presented a formal statement of 
 their tenets to George, Margrave of Brand¬ 
 enburg, followed in 1535 by a regular 
 “ Confession of Faith to Ferdinand, King 
 of Bohemia.” At the breaking out of the 
 religious war in 1546, the country sent an 
 army to aid the Protestants; after the 
 disastrous battle at Miihlberg (April 24, 
 1547), they were subject to severe persecu¬ 
 tion. Many were ordered to leave their 
 country within six weeks, and a thousand 
 of them settled in Prussia (1548). The 
 Jesuits began to work against them in 1552. 
 The three divisions of Protestants, viz., 
 Lutheran, Swiss, and Bohemian Breth¬ 
 ren, now united and presented the Confes¬ 
 sion of their faith to Maximilian II. in 
 1575, and again to Rudolph II. in 1608. 
 In 1609 perfect religious equality was 
 granted to them, but it was soon with¬ 
 drawn. The Jesuits were successful in 
 once more getting rid of Protestantism in 
 1627, when Ferdinand II., a former pupil 
 in their school, rigorously banished all 
 who had held fast to the Reformed Faith. 
 Many fled to Moravia and formed the nu¬ 
 cleus of the Moravian Church, which con¬ 
 tinues to this day. Protestantism subse¬ 
 quently revived in Bohemia, and in 1781 
 Joseph II. issued in its behalf the Edict of 
 Toleration. There are now about 100 
 Protestant congregations in the country, 
 the majority of them belonging to the 
 Swiss or Calvinistic division of Reformers. 
 
 Hungary and Transylvania .—As early as 
 1521 we find traces of Protestantism in 
 these countries, for in that year George 
 Szakmary, archbishop of Gran, ordered a 
 condemnation of Luther’s books to be read 
 from the pulpits of the principal churches. 
 Severe edicts against Lutheranism were 
 issued in 1523 and 1525. But in spite of 
 these the Reformation triumphed in sev¬ 
 eral towns and districts; students who had 
 been sent to Wittenberg returned and 
 taught the Lutheran doctrines. In 1527 
 King Ferdinand I. complained that even 
 Anabaptists and Zwinglians were gaining 
 ground. Monks and nuns were driven 
 from their cloisters. In 1533 John Honter, 
 on his return from Switzerland, established 
 a printing-office at Cronstadt for publishing 
 Protestant teaching. About the same time 
 a Magyar translation of the New Testa¬ 
 ment by Matthew Devay, a former pupil 
 at Wittenberg, appeared. He was called 
 the Luther of Hungary. Eventually he 
 joined the Swiss school of Reformers 
 
 (about 1544), and was followed by the great 
 majority of Hungarian Protestants. They 
 drew up their Confession of Csenger in 
 1557, and it still remains their standard of 
 orthodoxy. In Transylvania the majority 
 of the Reformers were Lutheran; religious 
 liberty was granted to them in 1557. It is 
 said that only three families of the mag¬ 
 nates then adhered to the pope, the nobil¬ 
 ity were nearly all reformed, and the 
 people thirty to one in favor of the new 
 doctrine; but owing to divisions, and the 
 heresy of the Anti-Trinitarians, the Jesuits 
 regained a great part of the country (1579- 
 1588). In the latter year, however, the 
 Jesuits were forcibly expelled. After a 
 further reaction under Rudolph II., full 
 religious liberty was secured by the treat¬ 
 ies of Nikolsburg (1622) and Linz (1645). 
 
 Spain. —Luther’s writings were circu¬ 
 lated in Spain as early as 1520, and con¬ 
 verts were made in great numbers, espe¬ 
 cially in Seville and Valladolid. But the 
 cruelties of the Inquisition successfully 
 extirpated Protestantism from the country, 
 and in 1570 hardly a trace of it remained. 
 The accession of Philip II., in 1559, “ the 
 Nero of Spain,” had made its destruction 
 only a matter of time. Among the more 
 prominent of Spanish Reformers were two 
 brothers, Juan and Alfonso de Valdes, 
 Rodrigo de Valero, Egidius, Domingo de 
 Rojas, and Dryander, who published a 
 Castilian translation of the New Testament 
 in 1543, and in 1548 took refuge in England, 
 ana was made professor of Greek at Cam¬ 
 bridge. 
 
 Italy .—Lutheranism, between the years 
 1530 and 1542, made good progress in dif¬ 
 ferent parts of the country, e. g ., in the 
 Duchy of Ferrara, where Calvin and other 
 Reformers took refuge about 1535; in 
 Naples, where Juan de Valdes was Spanish 
 Secretary; throughout the Republic of 
 Venice, in Modena, Milan, Lucca, and 
 other places, and even at Bologna in the 
 Papal States. But in 1542 Cardinal 
 Caraffa, afterwards Pope Paul IV., brought 
 the cruelties of the Inquisition to bear 
 upon the Protestants, and quickly exter¬ 
 minated them. Two of the principal Re¬ 
 formers, Bernardino Ochino and Peter 
 Martyr, an able scholar and formerly 
 canon of the Augustinians, took refuge in 
 England in 1547. Ochino was made a 
 prebend of Canterbury, and Peter Martyr, 
 professor of divinity at Oxford. At the 
 accession of Queen Mary, in 1553, both 
 fled from England and took refuge at 
 Zurich. Ochino was subsequently accused 
 of advocating Anti - Trinitarianism and 
 polygamy. 
 
 Switzerland. —The Reformation in Swit¬ 
 zerland was commenced under the leader- 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 795 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 ship of Huldreich Zwingli, born in 1484, 
 seven weeks after the birth of Luther; he, 
 too, like Luther, was educated for the 
 priesthood, being ordained in 1506. In 
 1513 he began to devote himself to the 
 study of the Bible, and especially to the 
 New Testament, in order, as he says, that 
 he might draw the doctrine of Christ direct 
 from the fountain; he did not place much 
 value on the writings of the Fathers, but 
 looked forward to a time when “Divine 
 Scripture alone would be precious among 
 Christians.” Unlike Luther, he had no 
 reverence for ancient uses and traditions 
 of the Church, and abolished as far as he 
 could every such use not specially men¬ 
 tioned in the New Testament. He came 
 into contact with, and was greatly influenc¬ 
 ed by, Erasmus in 1514 and following years. 
 His first efforts at reform began in 1517, 
 when at Einsiedeln he exerted himself to 
 abolish image-worship and other corrup¬ 
 tions. In 1519 he was appointed to a 
 preachership at Zurich, and here he soon 
 took a commanding position, his talents and 
 force of character being very conspicuous. 
 It was his custom to explain the Scriptures 
 to his people, instead of reproducing the 
 mediaeval interpretations of them; he is 
 said also to have done a good work in 
 purifying the morals as well as the worship 
 of the citizens. In 1519 we find him suc¬ 
 cessfully resisting the disgraceful sale of 
 Indulgences. The papal authorities evi¬ 
 dently wished to retain Zwingli on their 
 side. For this purpose the pope, Leo X., 
 granted him a pension of fifty gulden, and 
 made him one of his chaplains in 1518. 
 Pope Adrian also wrote him a cajoling let¬ 
 ter. But in 1512 the bishop of Constance 
 formally accused the Zwinglians of dis¬ 
 obedience, in breaking the fasts of Lent; 
 public opinion, however, was now entirely 
 on the side of Zwingli, and the bishop’s 
 action was futile. Zwingli about this time 
 married, against the law of the Church; he 
 kept his marriage secret, however, till 
 1524. In 1523 a sweeping change was 
 effected in Zurich, the authority of the 
 bishop was destroyed, the ancient liturgy 
 was swept away, the mass was reduced to 
 a memorial, and the monasteries were con¬ 
 verted into schools. The bishop of Con¬ 
 stance and several cantons, including 
 Lucerne, Freyburg, and Zug, protested in 
 vain at these changes —Zwingli’s ascen¬ 
 dancy was now complete. Meanwhile, the 
 Reformation had been making headway in 
 Basel. Its chief author was CEcolampadius, 
 a friend of Melanchthon and Erasmus; he 
 was made a preacher in the cathedral of 
 Basel in 1515, where he set forth the Re¬ 
 formed opinions; in 1522 he allied himself 
 to Zwingli. The bishop and his party op¬ 
 
 posed the movement, but the Senate assert¬ 
 ed the supremacy of the Bible, and permit¬ 
 ted disputations to be held, in which many 
 papal doctrines were openly attacked 
 (1524). The canton of Berne was disposed 
 to follow in the footsteps of Zurich and 
 Basel. In 1526 a general assembly of 
 twelve Swiss cantons was held at Baden, 
 and the Zwinglian doctrines condemned by 
 a majority of nine out of the twelve can¬ 
 tons. Yet the Reformation, in spite of this 
 severe check, still continued to make way. 
 The hatred, however, between the oppos¬ 
 ing parties culminated on the battlefield of 
 Cappel, where Zwingli was slain (1531) and 
 his followers routed. Zwingli’s teaching 
 in regard to original sin, the sacraments, 
 and predestination was at variance with 
 all other branches of the Church. With 
 regard to Christian baptism, he represent¬ 
 ed it as standing on the same level with 
 John’s baptism—merely a sign; yet at the 
 Conference of Marburg, in 1529, he signed 
 the statement of the Lutherans that baptism 
 is not “ a naked sign, but a work of God, 
 by which we are. regenerated.” Hence 
 Luther considered him guilty of dishonesty 
 and insincerity. 
 
 The death of Zwingli was closely follow¬ 
 ed by that of CEcolampadius; but the work 
 of reformation was carried on by two able 
 successors, Henry Bullinger and Oswald 
 Myconius; the latter,*a bosom friend of 
 Zwingli, had been forcibly expelled from 
 Lucerne in 1522. Another prominent Re¬ 
 former was William Farel, a refugee from 
 France, who was very successful at Berne, 
 Neufchatel, Basel, and especially in Gene¬ 
 va, where he brought about the overthrow 
 of the papal power in 1535. But a far 
 greater leader now appeared on the scene 
 in the person of John Calvin; in him began 
 the second generation of Reformers. Born 
 in 1509, at Noyon, in Picardy, he was orig¬ 
 inally destined for holy orders, but event¬ 
 ually devoted himself to jurisprudence at 
 Orleans and Bourges Universities. He 
 first began the work of reformation in Paris, 
 but some of the more violent and indis¬ 
 creet Reformers there having posted up 
 anti-papal placards, he fled to Basel in 
 October, 1534. It is remarkable that al¬ 
 though Calvin was unusually severe in his 
 general character, yet he was deficient in 
 Christian heroism, and describes himself 
 as being “ naturally timid, and of a soft 
 and faint-hearted disposition.” 
 
 At Basel Calvin drew up, in 1536, his 
 Institutes of the Christian Religion , which 
 quickly became the text-book for Calvinists 
 generally. In it are contained all his dis¬ 
 tinctive doctrines. Calvin succeeded in 
 getting his principles adopted in Lausanne 
 this same year. But in Geneva the people 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 79 6 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 rebelled against the severity of his disci¬ 
 pline, and both he and Farel were banished 
 in 1538. He was invited to return, how¬ 
 ever, and he did so in 1541, thenceforth 
 exercisingdespotic power. He established 
 a consistory, consisting of twelve lay 
 elders and six ministers, Calvin himself 
 presiding, and exercising a controlling in¬ 
 fluence. To this body was entrusted the 
 jurisdiction over the religion and morals 
 of the whole community, together with the 
 power of excommunication. The decisions 
 of this tribunal were marked by great 
 sternness and severity; in 1553, by its 
 orders Servetus was burned for heresy. 
 In 1549 Calvin brought about the religious 
 union of the cantons of Switzerland by the 
 Consenstis Tigurinus , and so consolidated 
 the Swiss Reformation. By this Consen¬ 
 sus the sacraments are treated as much 
 more than mere outward signs, as Zwingli 
 treated them. Calvin spoke of them as 
 “ organs ” which God uses for conferring 
 grace; but he restricted the benefits of the 
 sacraments to “ the elect.” Cavin died in 
 1564, and was succeeded by Beza, who 
 continued for a time to uphold the stand¬ 
 ard of Geneva. But in 1569 a powerful 
 reaction began under Carlo Borromeo, 
 archbishop of Milan, a man of great piety, 
 and devoted to the Church of Rome. The 
 Jesuits were busy in different parts of the 
 country, and in 1586 the Romish cantons 
 formed themselves into “ The Golden 
 League,” to resist the Calvinists, and at 
 the beginning of the next century the Cal¬ 
 vinists lost still more ground,owing to the 
 inroads of the Duke of Savoy, and the 
 titular bishop of Geneva, Francis de 
 Sales. Peace was not finally concluded 
 till after the battle of Vilmergen, 1712. 
 
 France . — The earliest Reformer in 
 France was Jacques Lefevre, who in 1512 
 was engaged with Bri^onnet, bishop of 
 Meaux, in the reformation of that diocese, 
 both men being persuaded that the papal 
 religion of that day was not a true form of 
 Christianity. In 1523 the Theological Fac¬ 
 ulty of Paris, called the Sorbonne, having 
 previously condemned Luther’s writings, 
 began the work of persecuting the French 
 Reformers. The monarch, Francis I., pro¬ 
 fessed to be neutral, but he took no meas¬ 
 ures to pacify the perpetrators of the savage 
 massacres of the Protestants. In 1534 
 Calvin and others fled from the country; 
 in 1545 the towns of Merindol and Cabri- 
 eres, with twenty-eight villages, were lit¬ 
 erally destroyed, as many as 4,000 people 
 being slain. In spite of all this, the Re¬ 
 formers had increased in importance in 
 1547, when Francis I. was succeeded by 
 his son, Henry II., who married Catherine 
 de’ Medici, niece of Pope Clement VII. 
 
 During this reign the persecution went on 
 with even greater severity; but, nothing 
 daunted, the Reformers in Paris organized 
 themselves, in 1555, as a distinct congrega¬ 
 tion, adopting the Calvinistic discipline of 
 Geneva, and in 1559 they issued their first 
 Confession of Faith. 
 
 France, at this time, was divided into 
 two rival parties, one headed by the Dukes 
 of Guise, the other by the Bourbon family. 
 The Bourbons now allied themselves with 
 the Protestants, or Huguenots, as they 
 were called in France, and the Guises be¬ 
 came the champions of the Roman Cath¬ 
 olics. The two parties were inspired with 
 mutual hatred of each other. In 1560 a 
 Huguenot conspiracy to rid the kingdom 
 of the Guises was discovered; the chief 
 mover was Geoffrey de la Barre, a friend 
 of Calvin. On the other hand, the cardinal 
 of Lorraine tried to force every Frenchman, 
 at the peril of his life, to sign a creed, 
 drawn up by the Sorbonne, and which he 
 called the “ Huguenots’ rat-trap.” A con¬ 
 ference between the two parties took place 
 at Poissy in 1561, Theodore Beza and Peter 
 Martyr representing the Huguenots; but 
 no good result followed. By this time the 
 Huguenots had greatly increased in the 
 country, and were being continually aided 
 by disciples of Calvin sent from Geneva; 
 in January, 1562, they were granted relig¬ 
 ious liberty, but shortly afterward the mas¬ 
 sacre of several of their number at Vassy 
 rekindled the strife, and civil war broke 
 out. The Huguenot leaders were the 
 Prince of Conde and Admiral de Coligny. 
 At the battle of Dreux (Dec., 1562), the 
 Huguenots were routed ; immediately 
 afterward the Duke of Guise was assassi¬ 
 nated by a fanatical Huguenot. Peace was 
 concluded at Orleans, and the Pacification 
 of Amboise (March, 1563) secured a certain 
 amount of religious liberty to the Hugue¬ 
 nots. A second religious war raged from 
 1567-70. At the battle of Jarnac (1569) the 
 Prince of Conde was taken prisoner, and 
 subsequently assassinated. The peace of 
 St. Germain-en-Laye was concluded in 
 1570, by which the Huguenots were to be 
 free to worship in their own way; but in 
 1572, by an act of gross treachery, under 
 the guidance of Catherine de’ Medici, a 
 massacre of the Huguenots was planned, 
 and carried out under circumstances of great 
 atrocity on St. Bartholomew’s Day (1572). 
 Over twenty thousand Protestants were 
 murdered in different parts of France, 
 among them Admiral Coligny. The Cal¬ 
 vinists rose again, and the Guise family en¬ 
 tered into an alliance with Philip II. of 
 Spain in order to extirpate Protestantism. 
 But in 1589 the Protestant prince, Henry 
 of Navarre, came to the throne as Henry 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 797 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 IV. Four years later, in order to stop 
 further bloodshed, Henry IV. renounced 
 Protestantism; perfect religious liberty, 
 however, was granted to the Huguenots 
 by the “ Edict of Nantes ” (1598), solemnly 
 declared to be perpetual and irrevocable. 
 But the despotism of Richelieu, and the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis 
 XIV., in 1685, overthrew the Reformation 
 in France. 
 
 Netherlands. —The country had been pre¬ 
 pared for the Reformation (1) by the cruel¬ 
 ties of the Spanish Inquisition, which had 
 aroused hatred tc the papal power; (2) by 
 the writings of Erasmus, a native of Rot¬ 
 terdam, exposing the vices of the age, in 
 1500; (3) by the writings of Luther. The 
 Emperor Charles V., born at Ghent in 1500, 
 was lord of these provinces, and mercilessly 
 persecuted all who held the “ new opin¬ 
 ions;” in 1521 he issued an edict against 
 the writings of Luther, “ whether in Latin, 
 Flemish, or any other modern language.” 
 The first two martyrs suffered at Brussels 
 in 1523, whereupon Luther wrote his 
 Epistle to the Christians in Holland and 
 Brabant. In 1525 converts abounded, and 
 executions became fearfully numerous, the 
 victims during Charles’s reign being reck¬ 
 oned by thousands, among them being the 
 Englishman, William Tyndaie, who, in 
 1536* was put to death at Vilvorden, near 
 Brussels; he had translated the New Testa¬ 
 ment into English in 1525, and had also 
 exerted great influence in Belgium. These 
 measures not succeeding, Charles V. in¬ 
 troduced the terrors of the Inquisition to 
 subdue Protestantism (in 1550). Philip II., 
 who succeeded his father in 1560, carried 
 on the work of persecution. Many troubles 
 came upon the Reformers, owing to their 
 being confounded with the fanatical and 
 lawless Anabaptists, who abounded in the 
 country; so in 1562 they drew up The Belgic 
 Confession , containing the doctrines of their 
 faith. This Confession is based on The 
 Confession of the French Reformers , and so 
 is distinctly Calvinistic. In 1566 the Belgic 
 Confession was ratified at a Synod of Re¬ 
 formers, held at Antwerp. Meanwhile the 
 continued persecution was exasperating all 
 classes against the Government. At length, 
 when the Duke of Alva, at the head of a 
 Spanish army, renewed the massacres, the 
 Protestants took the field under the Prince 
 of Orange, Philip van Marnix, and many 
 other nobles, in 1568. A desperate strug¬ 
 gle ensued, ending in the independence of 
 Holland in 1579, the seven northern prov¬ 
 inces separating from the remaining ten. 
 In 1581 the Roman religion was forbidden 
 in the new kingdom, and Protestantism 
 had triumphed in every quarter, aided ma¬ 
 terially by the Protestant University of 
 
 Leyden. The neighboring provinces, under 
 the Spanish Duke of Parma, entered into 
 an agreement at Arras, in 1579, to help in 
 counteracting the Reformation; and this, 
 coupled with the aid of the Jesuits, finally 
 caused the papacy to be reestablished in a 
 great part of the country. 
 
 England. —It has been thoughtfully said 
 that the downfall of the papal power in 
 England began from the shameful day 
 when the miserable King John laid his 
 crown at the feet of Cardinal Pandulph, 
 and shocked the sense of the English nation 
 by that shameful enormity. From that 
 time a reaction against papal tyranny be¬ 
 gan, and the history of the Plantagenet 
 kings is continually marked by struggles 
 between papal tyranny and national inde¬ 
 pendence. The growth of intelligence and 
 piety in the English universities, as wit¬ 
 nessed in the lives of such men as Dean 
 Colet, Sir Thomas More, Linacre, and oth¬ 
 ers, was another factor in the great move¬ 
 ment. Erasmus had visited Oxford in 1497, 
 and was professor of Greek at Cambridge 
 in 1505-1508. The immediate occasion of 
 the breach was the quarrel between Henry 
 VIII. and Pope Clement VII. concerning 
 the king’s divorce, which resulted, in 1534, 
 in the overthrow of the pope’s authority 
 in England. Henry had already assumed 
 the title of “ Supreme Head of the Church 
 in England,” and the Convocations of 
 Canterbury and York had acknowledged 
 the title, with this limitation, “ so far as 
 may be consistent with the law of Christ ” 
 (1531). Henceforth, appeals to Rome were 
 forbidden, and a Court of Delegates ap¬ 
 pointed by the king was the ultimate 
 Court of Appeal in all ecclesiastical cases. 
 Thus far the English bishops and clergy 
 had accepted the changes; but beyond this 
 neither they nor the king seemed to con¬ 
 template any reformation of doctrine or 
 manners. Henry VIII. remained attached 
 to the mediaeval system until his death. 
 Although he suppressed monasteries, it 
 was not done to benefit the Church, but to 
 meet his own requirement. So far from 
 being a Reformer, he was the great ob¬ 
 stacle to the progress of Reformation. 
 Cranmer, who had been made archbishop 
 of Canterbury in 1532 for espousing the 
 king’s cause in the matter of his divorce, 
 was still a believer in the Roman doctrine 
 of transubstantiation. In 1536 the Con¬ 
 vocation of Canterbury issued ten Articles 
 of Religion, retaining all the old doctrines, 
 but cutting away flagrant abuses connected 
 with them. The sermon at the opening of 
 this Convocation was preached by Latimer, 
 bishop of Worcester, who afterward was 
 one of the most prominent of the Reform¬ 
 ers. In 1537 an English translation of the 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 798 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 Bible was presented by Cranmer to Henry 
 VIII., and The Bishop's Book; or, 1 'he In¬ 
 stitution of a Christia?i Man , was issued. 
 But from this time the Anti-Reforming 
 party, headed by Gardiner, bishop of Win¬ 
 chester, and Tunstall, bishop of Durham, 
 gained the upper hand, the king siding 
 with them. Thus, in 1539, “ The Six Ar¬ 
 ticles ” were enacted for abolishing diver¬ 
 sity of opinion. They enforced belief in 
 (1) transubstantiation; (2) communion in 
 one kind; (3) celibacy of the clergy; (4) 
 absolute obligation of vows of chastity, 
 etc.; (5) private masses; (6) compulsory 
 confession. In 1543 an Act of Parliament 
 was passed denouncing Tyndale’s “ false 
 translation ” of the Bible, and forbidding 
 the use of the New Testament in English 
 to “ women and artificers, prentices, 
 journeymen, serving-men. husbandmen, 
 and laborers.” Cranmer, however, still 
 managed to retain his influence with the 
 king, and in 1541 and 1542 a revised and 
 purified form of the Sarum Breviary was 
 issued for use in the Canterbury diocese. 
 In 1544 a Litany in English was published 
 by Convocation, and preparations were 
 being made for a new service-book in Eng¬ 
 lish up to the time of the king’s death in 
 1547 - 
 
 In the reign of Edward VI. (1547-1553) 
 the Reformation made rapid strides. The 
 Protector, Somerset, supported the move¬ 
 ment, though probably on selfish grounds. 
 Royal injunctions were at once issued di¬ 
 recting the clergy to provide one book of 
 the whole Bible, of the largest volume, in 
 English, within three months, and within 
 twelve months, the Paraphrase of Erasmus, 
 also in English, upon the Gospels; both of 
 these being set up in churches for the use 
 of parishioners. Gardiner, bishop of Win¬ 
 chester, refused to obey, and was commit¬ 
 ted to the Fleet (Sept. 25, 1547); he was 
 deposed from his bishopric for noncon¬ 
 formity in 1551. The first act in Edward’s 
 reign legalized communion in both kinds. 
 The first book of Homilies also appeared 
 this year, for the instruction of ignorant 
 preachers and their flocks. Meanwhile a 
 Committee of Divines, under Archbishop 
 Cranmer, was engaged in compiling Ser¬ 
 vice-Books in English. In 1548 they pro¬ 
 duced an English Order of the Co?nmunion , 
 and shortly afterward the Book of Com¬ 
 mon Prayer, which came into general use 
 on Whitsunday, 1549. Bonner, bishop of 
 London, refused to adopt its use, and was 
 deprived, Sept. 21, 1549. This book was 
 compiled from the old Offices; it retained 
 all the traditions and sentiments of the past 
 that were not considered wrong in them¬ 
 selves. The compilers sought to restore 
 the worship of the Church to the model of 
 
 the early Church before the rise of medi¬ 
 aeval errors. On this account the book was 
 obnoxious to many ultra-Reformers, espe¬ 
 cially to John Knox, who had received a 
 preachership at Berwick-on-Tweed, and 
 who was even offered the Bishopric of 
 Rochester, in order to urge Cranmer on 
 to a more violent Reformation. 
 
 The state of parties in England was now 
 greatly affected by the arrival of a multi¬ 
 tude of foreign Protestants in 1549. Bucer, 
 a Lutheran, became professor of divinity 
 at Cambridge, and Peter Martyr, a follower 
 of Zwingli, at Oxford. John Hooper, also, 
 who had retreated to Zurich in 1539, re * 
 turned to England this year, an ardent and 
 persistent advocate of Zwingli’s views con¬ 
 cerning the sacraments; he refused to wear 
 the vestments prescribed in the Prayer- 
 Book, and was committed to the Fleet, 
 1551. He soon complied, however, and 
 was consecrated bishop of Gloucester in 
 the same year. All these sought to intro¬ 
 duce much greater changes. Meanwhile, 
 Cranmer’s views concerning the Eucharist 
 had undergone a change: he had renounced 
 transubstantiation, and followed Calvin in 
 believing a real, virtual, but not a corporal 
 presence. Ridley, bishop of London, held 
 the same views; the result was, that a 
 second Prayer-Book was introduced in 
 November, 1552, with a few alterations in 
 the Communion Service to suit the mod¬ 
 ified views, but the book still remained in 
 accordance with the doctrines of the early 
 Church. In 1553 a regular Confession of 
 Faith of forty-two articles was published, 
 based upon the Confession of Augsburg of 
 1530, differing in one important point, viz., 
 in the doctrine of the Eucharist, which 
 followed Calvin’s tenets. 
 
 The death of Edward VI., in July, 1553, 
 and the accession of Queen Mary threat¬ 
 ened utter destruction to the Reformation. 
 Mary had inherited from her mother, Cath¬ 
 erine of Aragon, a thorough hatred of the 
 Reformers’ teachings. Immediately, there¬ 
 fore, the old Latin service-books were 
 reintroduced; the Book of Common Prayer 
 forbidden; the Romish doctrine of tran¬ 
 substantiation reaffirmed by Convocation, 
 five members only opposing it. This may 
 be accounted for partly by the fact that 
 the rapid changes during the latter part of 
 the last reign, under the influence of the 
 foreign Reformers and the extreme views 
 of Hooper, had caused a reaction, and part¬ 
 ly by the fact that the leading Reformers 
 were silenced and imprisoned, including 
 Bishops Coverdale, Hooper, Latimer, 
 Cranmer, Ridley, Holgate of York, and 
 Farrar of St. David’s. Many more, reck¬ 
 oned at 800, fled from the country. Bish¬ 
 ops Bonner, Tunstall, and Gardiner, who 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 799 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 had been deprived in the last reign, were 
 now restored to their sees, and in 1554 
 England was once more brought under the 
 supremacy of Rome, through the agency 
 of Cardinal Pole. Meanwhile, some of 
 the Reformers, who had settled at Frank¬ 
 fort (1554), sought to reject the second 
 Prayer-Book, on the ground of its being 
 still superstitious. Calvin and Knox joined 
 in condemning the book, but through the 
 influence of Dean Cox, in March, 1555, the 
 English residents were ordered by the 
 Senate of Frankfort to conform to the 
 Prayer-Book, whereupon the malcontents, 
 under John Knox, retired to Geneva, and 
 cut themselves off from the English Re¬ 
 formers. Far worse troubles were occur¬ 
 ring in England. Mary, provoked by the 
 violent language of some of the Reformers, 
 and by the insurrection under Wyatt, and 
 influenced by her marriage with the big¬ 
 oted Philip of Spain, began a most bitter 
 persecution in 1555. As many as 288 per¬ 
 sons are said to have been burnt for their 
 religion, including Cranmer and four other 
 bishops, Hooper, Farrar, Ridley, and Lat¬ 
 imer. Cranmer, after being induced by 
 disgraceful artifices to make a recantation, 
 was executed at Oxford (March 21, 1556), 
 holding fast to the Reformed faith. Car¬ 
 dinal Pole was consecrated archbishop of 
 Canterbury on the following morning; but 
 both he and the Queen died in November, 
 1558. The mistaken policy of persecution 
 had destroyed any chance the papal su¬ 
 premacy might have had in England. The 
 death of Mary was felt as a relief, and the 
 accession of Elizabeth hailed with joy. 
 
 Elizabeth’s first efforts were directed to 
 quieting religious controversy and strife. 
 A royal order, dated December 27, 1558, 
 silenced all pulpits. In 1559 the acts of 
 the late reign in reference to religion were 
 all repealed, and the royal supremacy 
 once more established, the Queen, how¬ 
 ever, refusing the title of “ Supreme 
 Head,” preferring to be called “ Supreme 
 Governor.” The Prayer-Book, revised 
 by Edmund Guest, bishop of Rochester, 
 was reissued on June 24. A few of the 
 changes in the second book of Edward VI. 
 were omitted or modified, and the whole 
 book was brought more into conformity 
 with the first book of Edward VI. With 
 one exception—Kitchen, bishop of Llan- 
 daff—all the Marian bishops refused to take 
 the Oath of Supremacy to Queen Eliza¬ 
 beth, and were deprived of their sees. 
 Matthew Parker was duly consecrated 
 archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth by 
 Bishops Barlow, Scory, Coverdale, and 
 Hodgkin; the remaining bishoprics were 
 filled by Reforming prelates. When Con¬ 
 vocation assembled in 1562 the Forty-two 
 
 Articles of Edward VI. were remodeled 
 and reissued as the Thirty-nine Articles 
 in their present form. New troubles now 
 began to vex the Reformed Church. The 
 refugees, some of whom we saw quarrel¬ 
 ing among themselves at Frankfort, 1554, 
 now flocked back to England, many of them 
 imbued with Genevan principles. On their 
 arrival they immediately raised opposition 
 to the Prayer-Book, and the established 
 customs of the Church, advocating a more 
 radical reformation. The malcontents 
 were nicknamed Puritans (y. v.), and 
 some of the more advanced of them sep¬ 
 arated themselves entirely from the com¬ 
 munion of the Church (1567) but, owing 
 to the firmness of Archbishop Parker, the 
 doctrines and discipline of the Church, as it 
 had been established,were preserved intact. 
 
 A second separation began in 1570, when 
 the Romanists, on the arrival of Pope 
 Pius V.’s Bull of Excommunication, cut 
 themselves off from the Church of England. 
 Shortly afterward Romish plots and in¬ 
 trigues came to light, resulting in repres¬ 
 sive measures being taken against the 
 Catholics. Executions became frequent, 
 especially after Babington’s plot to assas¬ 
 sinate the queen; and all their hopes were 
 shattered by the destruction of the Spanish 
 Armada in 1588. As the Romanists de¬ 
 clined, the Puritans increased in numbers 
 and influence; but all their endeavors to 
 model the Church after the fashion of the 
 Reformed Churches on the continent were 
 frustrated by the firm rule of Archbishops 
 Whitgift and Bancroft (1604). Thus the 
 Reformed Church of England has come 
 down to us—not a new Church, but merely 
 purged from distinctively Romish doc¬ 
 trine, and freed from papal oppression. 
 Cranmer, in all the changes that he made, 
 continually appealed to the Word of God 
 and the custom of the primitive Church as 
 his authority. Unbroken ties of holy 
 orders, the preservation of the ancient 
 doctrines, organization and traditions of 
 the Church, a Prayer-Book compiled al¬ 
 most entirely of pre-Reformation materials, 
 prove the present Reformed Church of 
 England to be one and the same with the 
 Church of Christ that had existed in this 
 land from the earliest times. 
 
 Scotland .—Owing to the frequent alli¬ 
 ances between Scotland and France, the 
 work of Reformation did not begin under 
 favorable auspices in Scotland, the French 
 influence being employed to uphold the 
 “ old religion.” Accordingly, when Pat¬ 
 rick Hamilton, a student at the Protestant 
 University at Marburg, in Hesse, return¬ 
 ed to Scotland, and preached against the 
 corruptions of the Church, he was burnt 
 at the stake (1528). Yet after Hamilton’s 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 800 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 death the new opinions rapidly spread—so 
 rapidly that in 1535 the Scotch Parliament 
 passed a severe Act against all who held 
 “ the damnable opinions of the great 
 heretic, Luther.” Many Reformers took 
 refuge in England, as that country had, in 
 1534, thrown off its allegiance to the pope. 
 The Papal Church in Scotland now saw 
 the need of reformation, and in 1541 pass¬ 
 ed an Act requiring clerics of every rank 
 “ to reform themselves in habit and man¬ 
 ners to God and man;” and in 1543 the 
 Parliament allowed all persons to have “a 
 good and true translation,” in English or 
 Scotch, of the Holy Bible. In 1545 Car¬ 
 dinal Beatoun, the “ Wolsey of Scotland,” 
 an able and powerful man, but guilty of 
 the grossest irregularities, began a bitter 
 persecution. Among his victims was 
 George Wishart, who was put to death 
 March 1, 1546. This act of violence caused 
 the celebrated John Knox, Scotland’s Re¬ 
 former, to rebel against Rome, and to 
 avow his sympathy with the Protestants. 
 Cardinal Beatoun was himself murdered 
 on May 29 following, and Knox showed 
 his approval by taking refuge with the 
 murderers in the town of St. Andrew’s 
 (April, 1547). The town capitulated to 
 the French (July), and Knox was taken, 
 with other prisoners, to Rouen, and de¬ 
 tained there till February, 1549. Knox 
 had been ordained to the priesthood in 
 1530; after studying the writings of St. 
 Augustine, his fiery and fearless temper 
 roused him into the greatest hostility to 
 the Church of Rome; justly indignant at 
 her many abuses, he speaks of that Church 
 as “ the synagogue of Satan,” and of the 
 pope as “ the man of sin.” Upon his re¬ 
 lease from Rouen, the English Privy 
 Council gave him a preachership at Ber- 
 wick-on-Tweed, and in 1551 a royal chap¬ 
 laincy. But on the accession of Queen 
 Mary, in 1553, Knox left England and 
 settled at Geneva, where for about five 
 years he lived in constant intercourse with 
 Calvin. Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Re¬ 
 formers, under the Earl of Argyle, re¬ 
 nounced “ the congregation of Satan, with 
 all the superstitious abomination and idol¬ 
 atry thereof,” and formed themselves into 
 what they called “ the Congregation of 
 Jesus Christ” (1558), adopting for their 
 liturgy the English Prayer-Book of 1552. 
 (In 1564 the English Liturgy was replaced 
 by the Prayer-Book used by the English 
 at Geneva, and which had received the 
 approval of Calvin.) Knox returned to 
 Scotland on May 2, 1559, a thorough Cal¬ 
 vinist. The violence of his preaching at 
 once roused the passions of the people to 
 such a height that abbeys and churches 
 were sacked, monuments destroyed, and 
 
 many kindred acts of violence perpetrated. 
 Knox lost no time in completing the work 
 of reformation. A Protestant League was 
 formed on May 31,and began its workby de- 
 creeingthe suspension of the queen regent, 
 Mary of Guise. The queen now placed her¬ 
 self at the head of herarmy.and troops were 
 sent from France to aid her in subduing 
 her disaffected subjects. Knox and his 
 party made a treaty with England, Feb. 
 27, 1560. A religious war was only pre¬ 
 vented by the death of Mary of Guise on 
 June 10. On Aug. 17 “ The Confession 
 of Faith ” of the Protestants was adopted 
 by the Scotch Parliament, and immediately 
 afterward bills were passed abolishing the 
 mass and the jurisdiction of the pope. 
 The Reformers, considering themselves as 
 exclusively the “ Congregation of Christ 
 Jesus,” felt it their duty to utterly erad¬ 
 icate all traces of the old religion, just as 
 the Canaanites were driven out by the 
 Hebrews. So not only old customs and 
 traditions in worship and ritual, but Epis¬ 
 copacy, also, was abolished in 1562, and 
 “ Superintendents ” appointed in their 
 place. Two bishops, viz., Alexander 
 Gordon, of Galloway, and Adam Bothwell, 
 of Orkney, conformed to the new religion. 
 In the midst of these changes (1561) Mary 
 Queen of Scots returned from France; but 
 the Reformed Faith was so firmly planted 
 that she was powerless to prevent its 
 growth. Knox and his followers assailed 
 her with great harshness and severity, 
 boldly calling upon her to renounce her 
 idolatrous religion, and protesting against 
 the mass in her private chapel. Event¬ 
 ually she was forced to abdicate (1567), 
 partly on the ground that she was plotting 
 to restore the old religion. It is said that 
 the murders of Rizzio (the queen’s secre¬ 
 tary, and also a pensioner of the pope) and 
 of John Black, a learned champion of medi- 
 aevalism, on the same night in Holyrood 
 Palace, were committed in order to frus¬ 
 trate the intended persecution. In January, 
 1572, the titles of “Archbishop” and 
 “ Bishop” were restored to the “ Super¬ 
 intendents,” but they were still only bish¬ 
 ops in name. In November of the same 
 year Knox died. A further change took 
 place in 1592, when, under the influence of 
 Andrew Melville, Presbyterianism was 
 established in the place of the nominal 
 Episcopacy. In 1610 Episcopacy in its 
 English form was established by the king, 
 but only to be again rejected by the peo¬ 
 ple in 1639. The last hopes of a reaction 
 in Scotland had been extinguished with 
 the execution of Mary Queen of Scots in 
 1587. Except as regards Church govern¬ 
 ment, the Scotch Reformation was entirely 
 Calvinistic. 
 
Ref 
 
 ( Sor ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 Ireland .—The Irish Parliament in 1537 
 rejected the papal supremacy at the insti¬ 
 gation of Henry VIII., and accepted the 
 royal supremacy in its place. A great 
 part of the clergy, however, headed by 
 Archbishop Cromer, of Armagh, remained 
 faithful to the pope. But as the sees fell 
 vacant, English prelates were appointed in 
 their place favorable to the reform of the 
 Church; very little, however, was done 
 during Henry’s reign, beyond suppressing 
 monasteries. Edward VI. ’s first act enjoin¬ 
 ed communion under both kinds in Ire¬ 
 land as well as in England. The first 
 Prayer-Book of Edward VI. was used for 
 the first time on Easter Day, 1551, in 
 Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, George 
 Browne being archbishop; arrangements 
 were made for the Prayer - Book to be 
 translated into Irish, and also into Latin, 
 but the plan fell through. Archbishop 
 Dowdall, who succeeded Cromer in 1543, 
 was deprived for refusing to use the Eng¬ 
 lish Prayer-Book (Oct., 1551), and hence¬ 
 forth the archbishops of Dublin held the 
 Primacy. In Mary’s reign the papal su¬ 
 premacy was restored, and with it the 
 mediaeval ritual and doctrines. In 1554 
 Archbishop Dowdall, restored to his see, 
 acting under a commission, deprived the 
 archbishop of Dublin and three other prel¬ 
 ates favorable to the Reformation. In 
 Elizabeth’s reign, with two exceptions, the 
 Irish bishops retained their sees; but after 
 1570, the date of the pope’s Bull of Ex- 
 communication, rival bishops were nom¬ 
 inated both by the queen and the pope. 
 The Irish translation of the New Testa¬ 
 ment was not issued till 1602. In 1585 
 Bishop Walsh, of Ossory, was murdered 
 in his house while engaged on the work. 
 The degraded and ignorant state of the 
 people, and of many of their ministers, 
 was the great barrier which stood in the 
 way of a general Reformation.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. For a full index of the 
 literature of the Reformation, see Appen¬ 
 dix to Professor George P. Fisher’s able 
 and interesting History of the Reformation 
 (New York, 1873). 
 
 Reformed Church, The, in America. 
 This body was formerly known as the Re¬ 
 formed Dutch Church, but the word Dutch , 
 which indicated the nationality and lan¬ 
 guage of its founders, was removed from 
 its title in the year 1867. It is Calvinistic 
 in doctrine, Presbyterian in government, 
 and partly liturgical in worship. The 
 doctrinal standards are threefold: (1) The 
 Belgic Confession, so called, because its 
 author, Guido de Bres, was a Belgian. It 
 comprises 37 articles, was adopted by the 
 Synod of Antwerp in 1566, and has ever 
 
 since been held as a standard by the 
 Churches in the Netherlands and in Amer¬ 
 ica. (2) The Catechisms: (a) The Heidel¬ 
 berg. This was prepared at Heidelberg in 
 1563, by Ursinus and Olevianus, by direc¬ 
 tion of the Elector, Frederick III., to be 
 used in the churches and schools of the 
 Palatinate. It is the exponent of a living 
 Christianity rather than a dogmatic system. 
 It was adopted at once by the Reformed 
 Church of the Netherlands. That Church, 
 as well as the Reformed Church in Amer¬ 
 ica, requires the regular exposition of the 
 Catechism from the pulpit on the Lord’s 
 Day. (h) The Compendium of the Christian 
 religion, which is an abridgment of the 
 Heidelberg Catechism, and which was 
 adopted by the Synod of Dort as a manual 
 of instruction of candidates for the Lord’s 
 Supper. (3) The Canons of the Synod of 
 Dort, which contain the explanations made 
 by that synod of such portions of the Con¬ 
 fession and Catechism as relate to the 
 five points in controvers) 7 between the Re¬ 
 monstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. The 
 doctrine of the Church may be fairly stated 
 as moderate Calvinism. Ministers and 
 professors of theology are required to sub¬ 
 scribe to these standards, but of private 
 members a knowledge only of the great 
 fundamentals of the Christian religion is 
 required. 
 
 The form of government is Presbyterian, 
 and of presbyters or elders there are two 
 classes: those who both teach and rule, 
 who are called ministers, and those who 
 only rule, who are called elders. Besides 
 these is the office of professor of theology, 
 who trains men for the ministry, and of 
 deacon, whose peculiar function it is to 
 take care of the poor. The minister is the 
 official teacher and pastor, the elders and 
 deacons are associated with him in the con¬ 
 sistory, of which body he is ex-officio presi¬ 
 dent. Elders and deacons are chosen or 
 approved by the communicants, and a 
 church may have as many as it deems nec¬ 
 essary, and there need not be the same 
 number of each. In all spiritual matters, 
 as admitting, dismissing or disciplining 
 members, or appointing delegates to the 
 Classis, or whatever pertains to doctrine or 
 worship, the elders alone have a voice, as 
 constituting with the pastor the spiritual 
 court, which corresponds to the session in 
 the Presbyterian Church. They are also 
 charged to assist the pastor in visitations 
 of the flock, and to be vigilant against the 
 intrusion into the pulpit of preachers of 
 unsound doctrine, or of immoral life. The 
 deacons, besides their peculiar function of 
 care for the poor, are joined with the minis¬ 
 ters and elders in one board, and as such 
 they “ have an equal voice in whatever re- 
 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 802 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 lates to the temporalities of the Church, to 
 the calling or dismission of a minister, or 
 the choice of their own successors.” The 
 title of incorporation of a church is usually 
 “minister, elders and deacons.” Elders 
 and deacons are elected for a term of two 
 years, but may be reelected indefinitely. 
 The mode of election is threefold; it 
 may be made by the consistory; or the con¬ 
 sistory may submit a double number of 
 nominations to the choice of the communi¬ 
 cants, or the communicants may nominate 
 and elect, without the intervention of the 
 consistory. In all cases the names are 
 published on three successive Lord’s Days 
 to the congregation, to give opportunity 
 for objections, and so to secure the tacit 
 approval of all. The Great Consistory is 
 composed of all the members who have 
 been elders or deacons, but are out of act¬ 
 ive service. It is an advisory body which 
 may be called for consultation when a min¬ 
 ister is to be chosen, or some other matter 
 of great importance demands considera¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The next higher assembly is the Classis, 
 which is a court of appeal from the decis¬ 
 ion of the consistory. It is composed of 
 the ministers within a certain district, and 
 an elder delegated from each one of the 
 churches of the district. It licenses and 
 ordains, dismisses and disciplines minis¬ 
 ters, approves calls, forms and disbands 
 congregations. It has a general oversight 
 of the churches, and makes an annual report 
 to the Particular Synod. It corresponds to 
 the presbytery of the Presbyterian Church. 
 
 The Particular Synod is a court of ap¬ 
 peal from the decisions of the Classis. It 
 is constituted of ministers and elders dele¬ 
 gated by the Classes, and has the power to 
 form new Classes, and to transfer a Church 
 from one Classis to another. It reports 
 annually to the General Synod. 
 
 The General Synod is the final court of 
 appeal in all judicial cases. It is the high¬ 
 est judicatory of the Church, meeting an¬ 
 nually, and is composed of ministers and 
 elders nominated by the Classes, and ap¬ 
 pointed by the Particular Synods. It has 
 entire control of the theological schools, 
 corresponds with other bodies of Chris¬ 
 tians, has charge of missionary and other 
 agencies, and a general superintendence of 
 the work of the Church. 
 
 The worship is partly free and partly 
 liturgical. There is an order of worship 
 prescribed by the Constitution; and forms 
 for the administration of the sacraments, 
 for ordaining ministers, elders, and dea¬ 
 cons, and forexcommunication and readmis¬ 
 sion are prescribed. The Liturgy contains 
 many other forms, the use of which is 
 optional. The present tendency is to re¬ 
 
 store much of the liturgical element that 
 prevailed in the time of the Reformation. 
 In many Churches not only are the com¬ 
 mandments read, but the Lord’s Prayer and 
 Creed are recited and the psalter is read 
 responsively. No psalms or hymns may 
 be sung in public worship but such as have 
 been approved by the General Synod. 
 
 This church is one of the smaller denom¬ 
 inations of Christians in the country, num¬ 
 bering at the present time 546 churches, 
 566 ministers, and 88,812 communicants. 
 At the same time it is one of the oldest of 
 the denominations. From its history the 
 causes of its limited spread may be learned. 
 As early as 1626 public worship was es¬ 
 tablished in New Amsterdam by two Krank- 
 besoeckers, or visitors of the sick, officials 
 of the Reformed Church of the Nether¬ 
 lands, and in 1628 a church was organized 
 by the Rev. Jonas Michaelius with fifty 
 members, Dutch and Walloons, which exists 
 at the present day under the title of the 
 Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church of New 
 York City. Michaelius was succeeded by 
 Rev. Everardus Bogardus in 1633, and with 
 him came Adam Roelandsen to take charge 
 of the parochial school which has maintain¬ 
 ed an uninterrupted existence to the pres¬ 
 ent time. Bogardus married the widow, 
 Annetie Jans, whose farm came into the 
 possession of Trinity (Episcopal) Church, 
 and brought in time great wealth to that 
 corporation. The first church edifice was 
 a plain wooden structure on Broad Street 
 between Pearl and Bridge Streets, and the 
 second was built in 1642 within the walls 
 of Fort Amsterdam on the Battery. The 
 surrender of the province of New Nether¬ 
 lands to the English took place in 1664, at 
 which time it contained less than 10,000 
 Dutch inhabitants, and New Amsterdam 
 was a village containing about 1,500 peo¬ 
 ple. There were eleven churches and seven 
 ministers in the whole province, including 
 one church at New Amstel, Del. By the 
 Articles of Surrender, the Dutch were 
 guaranteed many rights and privileges, and 
 especially all that pertained to ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal relations and affairs. The English 
 military chaplains were courteously al¬ 
 lowed to officiate in the church in the Fort 
 whenever it was not occupied by the Dutch 
 congregation. The Dutch withdrew from 
 it entirely in 1693, when their new church 
 in Garden Street was completed, after 
 which time only the English used it until its 
 destruction by fire in 1741. Although the 
 Dutch immigration well-nigh ceased after 
 the surrender, yet churches were formed 
 by the Dutch-speaking people in all their 
 settlements. These were chiefly along the 
 Hudson and Mohawk rivers, on Long and 
 Staten Islands, in northern New Jersey, in 
 
 t 
 
Ref 
 
 ( So 3 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 the valley of the Raritan, and in eastern 
 Pennsylvania. Very many Huguenots 
 identified themselves with these churches, 
 and they were a very important element in 
 them. Most of them were familiar with 
 the Dutch language, for they had found 
 refuge and had sojourned in Holland after 
 leaving their native France. 
 
 The long period of 144 years, from 1628 
 to 1772, was a period of contest with diffi¬ 
 culties and of struggles for life. The 
 churches were not, during these years, 
 united in an independent American organ¬ 
 ization, but were completely under the ju¬ 
 risdiction of the ecclesiastical authorities 
 in the Netherlands. From them they re¬ 
 ceived their ministers, and by them alone 
 cases of discipline could be finally decided. 
 The great distance between the two coun¬ 
 tries, the infrequency of communication, 
 the expense and danger attending inter¬ 
 course, the poverty of the churches, the 
 lack of educational institutions, and of au¬ 
 thority to ordain even well-qualified per¬ 
 sons made continuous vacancies in many 
 churches inevitable, and a settlement of 
 difficulties and progressive measures well- 
 nigh impossible. Two parties naturally 
 arose out of this state of things, the one 
 zealous for immediate ecclesiastical in¬ 
 dependence, the other opposing it. The 
 progressive party was called the Coetus, 
 from the name of the advisory body that 
 had been formed in 1747; the other was 
 called the Conferentie. The bitter contro¬ 
 versy that was carried on by these parties 
 for fifteen years was a great hindrance to 
 the prosperity and progress of the Church, 
 for many were led to seek peace in other 
 communions. In 1772 a plan of union 
 which had been agreed upon the previous 
 year by the two parties was approved by 
 the Classis of Amsterdam, and by this plan 
 provision was made for the education and 
 ordination of ministers in this country, and 
 the virtual independence of the American 
 churches was secured. Complete inde¬ 
 pendence, however, was not obtained until 
 1794, when a constitution embracing the 
 church orders of the Synod of Dort and a 
 body of explanatory articles was adopted. 
 
 The transfer of the government to the 
 English was a disadvantage to the Dutch 
 churches; for thenceforth the colony was 
 English, the English language was used in 
 the courts and legislative bodies, and all 
 official acts were published in it; the Dutch 
 schools were rapidly superseded by the 
 English; the royal governors were the of¬ 
 ficial patrons of the Episcopal Church and 
 labored for its interests, claiming that in 
 the colonies, as in the mother-country, it 
 was the church by law established; more¬ 
 over, all who were ambitious for advance¬ 
 
 ment in public life were tempted to become 
 its adherents. 
 
 But perhaps the most serious hindrance 
 of all was the persistent, exclusive use of 
 the Dutch language in public worship, un¬ 
 til the year 1764, when the Rev. Archibald 
 Laidlie, D. D., was called from Flushing, 
 Zeeland, to officiate in English, in the Col¬ 
 legiate Church of New York. His first 
 sermon in that language was preached in 
 the Middle Dutch Church, corner of Lib¬ 
 erty and Nassau Streets. This was the 
 small beginning only. The Dutch language 
 maintained its supremacy, even in New 
 York, until after the Revolution; and in 
 many country churches English was 
 scarcely known until after the openingof the 
 present century. Immigrants from Great 
 Britain of the Calvinistic faith and Presby¬ 
 terian order could not worship where the 
 Dutch language was used; the young 
 people of Dutch families, whose education 
 had been in English, and whose knowledge 
 of the Dutch was confined to the colloqui¬ 
 alisms of domestic life, naturally resorted 
 to English services. Where the question 
 of introducing English was proposed, it 
 awakened strong opposition on the part of 
 the older people, and resulted in delay, 
 strife and litigation. Many who desired 
 peace resorted to other churches, and then 
 the innovation was made: the strong op- 
 posers of it went to the Episcopal and 
 Presbyterian churches, where they could 
 hear nothing but English. Such were the 
 chief difficulties which the Dutch churches 
 encountered, and wrestled with so many 
 years, causing a loss of ground that can 
 never be recovered, and giving to other 
 Protestant denominations advantages that 
 can never be taken from them. 
 
 The early and long-continued efforts of 
 the churches were directed to making pro¬ 
 vision for the training of young men for 
 the ministry. In 1766 a charter was ob¬ 
 tained for a college called Queen’s, to be 
 established in New Jersey. On account of 
 some defects in this charter, a new one was 
 sought and obtained in 1770, under which 
 it went into operation, and continued, with 
 several interruptions, until 1825, when it 
 was revived under the name of Rutgers, 
 and has since advanced to its present flour¬ 
 ishing condition. In 1784 the Synod elect¬ 
 ed Rev. Dr. John H. Livingston professor 
 of theology, and Rev. Dr. Hermanus Meyer 
 instructor in sacred literature. In 1807 a 
 union was formed between the college and 
 the theological school, and, until long after 
 the revival of the college in 1825, the pro¬ 
 fessors of theology taught in the college. 
 Dr. Livingston had been educated at the 
 University of Utrecht; was a pastor of the 
 Collegiate Church of New York City, pre- 
 
 4 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 804 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 sided over the convention that adopted the 
 plan of union in 1771; was the chief framer 
 of the Constitution of 1794; the compiler 
 of the English psalmody for the Church; 
 the originator of the movement for the 
 endowment of two professorships, and the 
 leading spirit in the Church until his death, 
 in 1825. 
 
 At New Brunswick there is a Grammar 
 School for the preparation of students for 
 college. At Holland, Mich., is Hope Col¬ 
 lege, chartered in 1866; and also the West¬ 
 ern Theological School; and at Orange 
 City, Iowa, is the Northwestern Academy. 
 Students preparing for the ministry, who 
 need pecuniary aid, receive it through the 
 Board of Education, which distributes the 
 income of many scholarships and special 
 funds, and moneys contributed directly by 
 the churches. 
 
 Missions have received special attention. 
 The calls of the first ministers required 
 them to labor for the conversion of the 
 Indians, and this was done with consider¬ 
 able success by Megapolensis and others 
 at Albany, Schenectady, Schoharie, and in 
 New Jersey. Much mission work was 
 done by pastors among scattered, destitute 
 churches. Before the close of the last cen¬ 
 tury Dutch churches united with Baptists 
 and Presbyterians in a missionary organi¬ 
 zation. Afterward, contributions of money 
 and men were made for a number of years 
 through the American Board, until, in 
 1857, independent denominational effort was 
 inaugurated. Since then the work of for¬ 
 eign missions has been prosecuted with 
 great interest and success. The Amoy 
 Mission in China was begun in 1844; the 
 Arcot Mission in India in 1854; and the 
 Japan Mission in 1859. Of mission churches 
 there are fifty-one; ordained missionaries, 
 twenty-three; native pastors, twenty-six; 
 communicants, 5,089; expenditures for 
 1888, $96,641.41. 
 
 Missionary work in this country was for 
 a long time confined to communities using 
 the Dutch language, and after that a lack 
 of men and means hindered extension. In 
 1831 the Board of Domestic Missions was 
 formed, and the churches not only aided 
 feeble churches already existing, but 
 passed beyond to occupy fields in Western 
 New York, and since that time to the Far 
 West, even to Dakota. The Holland im¬ 
 migration, which began under the lead of 
 Rev. Dr. A. C. Van Raalte in 1835, and 
 still continues, has added greatly to the 
 strength of the Church in the West. In the 
 year 1888, ninety-three missionary pastors 
 serving 120 churches and stations were 
 aided, and the total disbursements were 
 $35,333.49. Forthe Church Building Fund, 
 which aids feeble churches in erecting 
 
 houses of worship, $17,413.33 were re¬ 
 ceived. There is also a Board of Publica¬ 
 tion for the publishing of books and tracts; 
 also Widows’ and Disabled Ministers’ 
 Funds. 
 
 The Christian Intelligencer , one of the 
 oldest religious weeklies in New York, is 
 devoted to the interests of this denomina¬ 
 tion, and the Mission Field is a monthly 
 representing the Boards. See Corwin: 
 Manual of the Reformed Church in America; 
 Demarest: The Reformed Church in Amer¬ 
 ica; Centennial Discourses; Centennial of 
 the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick; 
 Gunn: Life of Livingston. 
 
 David D. Demarest. 
 
 Reformed Episcopal Church, The, was 
 organized in the city of New York, in 1873, 
 under the leadership of Rev. George David 
 Cummings, assistant bishop of the Protes¬ 
 tant Episcopal Diocese of Kentucky. In 
 the controversies growing out of the Trac- 
 tarian ( q . v.) or Oxford movement, two 
 parties, known as the High-Church and 
 evangelical, sought for the ascendant in¬ 
 fluence in the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 in America. The evangelical party desired 
 to extirpate ritualistic practices, and asked 
 for a modification of the baptismal office 
 by which the word “ regenerate ” might be 
 dropped, or made optional. They were 
 disappointed in securing these changes. 
 In 1871 the Rev. Dr. Cheney, of Chicago, 
 was inhibited from preaching, by Bishop 
 Whitehouse, and tried on the charge of 
 omitting the word “regenerate” when 
 performing the rite of baptism. Dr. 
 Cheney continued to preach, and was for¬ 
 mally deposed from the ministry by Bishop 
 Whitehouse, who also forbade Bishop 
 Cummings, who had been active in the 
 councils of the evangelical party, from 
 preaching in the diocese of Illinois, a 
 prohibition which he disregarded. During 
 the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in 
 New York City in the autumn of 1873, 
 Bishop Cummings participated in a com¬ 
 munion service in a Presbyterian Church. 
 For this act he was bitterly assailed by the 
 representatives of the High-Church party. 
 Bishop Cummings, reluctantly convinced 
 that he ought not longer to remain in a 
 church where the great majority, as it 
 seemed to him, denied the brotherhood of 
 believers in Christ, and where ritualistic 
 tendencies were so strong, withdrew, in 
 Nov., 1873, from the ministry of the Prot¬ 
 estant Episcopal Church. The Reformed 
 Episcopal Church was organized, Dec. 2, 
 1873, i n New York City. Eight clergymen 
 and twenty laymen united in this move¬ 
 ment, and Bishop Cummings was elected 
 the presiding officer of the Church. At 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 805 ) 
 
 Ref 
 
 the same time they set forth the following 
 Declaration of Principles: 
 
 I. The Reformed Episcopal Church, 
 holding “ the faith once delivered unto the 
 saints,” declares its belief in the Holy 
 Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments 
 as the Word of God and the sole Rule of 
 Faith and Practice: in the Creed “ com¬ 
 monly called the Apostles’ Creed; ” in the 
 Divine institution of the Sacraments of 
 Baptism and the Lord’s Supper; and in the 
 doctrines of grace substantially as they are 
 set forth in the Thirty-nine Articles of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 II. This Church recognizes and adheres 
 to Episcopacy, not as of divine right, but 
 as a very ancient and desirable form of 
 church polity. 
 
 III. This Church, retaining a Liturgy 
 which shall not be imperative, or repressive 
 of freedom in prayer, accepts the Book of 
 Common Prayer as it was revised, propos¬ 
 ed, and recommended for use by the Gen¬ 
 eral Convention of the Protestant Episco¬ 
 pal Church, a. D. 1785, reserving full 
 liberty to alter, abridge, enlarge, and 
 amend the same, as may seem most con¬ 
 ducive to the edification of the people, 
 “ provided that the substance of the faith 
 be kept entire.” 
 
 IV. This Church condemns and rejects 
 the following erroneous and strange doc¬ 
 trines as contrary to God’s Word: 
 
 (1) That the Church of Christ exists 
 only in one order or form of ecclesiastical 
 polity: 
 
 (2) That Christian ministers are 
 “priests” in another sense than that in 
 which all believers are “ a royal priest¬ 
 hood : ” 
 
 (3) That the Lord’s Table is an altar on 
 which the oblation of the Body and Blood 
 of Christ is offered anew to the Father: 
 
 (4) That the Presence of Christ in the 
 Lord’s Supper is a presence in the elements 
 of Bread and Wine: 
 
 (5) That Regeneration is inseparably 
 connected with Baptism. 
 
 The Reformed Episcopal Church recog¬ 
 nizes but two orders in the ministry—the 
 
 presbyterate and the diaconate. A bishop 
 is simply the first presbyter in a synod. 
 They do not constitute a separate house, 
 as in the Protestant Episcopal Church, but 
 vote in council with other presbyters, and 
 are subject to confirmation or appointment 
 by the General Council. The statistics 
 of the Reformed Episcopal Church for 
 1890 shows 79 Presbyters (including S 
 bishops), 29 deacons, with 106 parishes in 
 the United States and Canada, and about 
 10,000 communicants. See Life of George 
 David Cummings , by his wife (N. Y., 1878); 
 also Canons and Joitrnals of General Coun¬ 
 cils from 1873 to 1890. 
 
 Reformed (German) Church in the Unit¬ 
 ed States. In the doctrinal controversies 
 that arose in the progress of the Reforma¬ 
 tion, there were those in Germany and 
 Switzerland who did not altogether indorse 
 the views either of Luther or Zwingli. 
 The mediating spirit of Melanchthon and 
 the influence of Calvin developed a type of 
 theology which found expression in the 
 Catechism prepared at the command of 
 Frederick III., elector of the Palatinate, by 
 Zacharias Ursinus and Casper Olevianus, 
 professors in the University at Heidelberg. 
 This Catechism, first published in 1563, be¬ 
 came the doctrinal standard of the Reform¬ 
 ed Church in Germany, Holland, and else¬ 
 where, and is the only doctrinal confession 
 of the German Reformed Church in the 
 United States. As early as 1684 there were 
 those from the Palatinate who sought 
 refuge in this country from religious per¬ 
 secution. Colonies were formed along the 
 Delaware, the Lehigh, the Susquehanna, in 
 New York, Maryland, Virginia, and North 
 and South Carolina. The attention of the 
 Synod of Holland was called, not far from 
 1730, to the fact that many Germans who 
 held to the Reformed Confession had set¬ 
 tled in America and desired religious privi¬ 
 leges. The first minister to take the reg¬ 
 ular charge of a congregation was Philip 
 Boehm, who came to this country in 1720, 
 and for some time engaged in the calling of 
 a school-teacher. Other ministers followed, 
 and in 1746 Michael Schlatter (y. v.), who 
 has been called “ the missionary father of 
 the German Reformed Church in America,” 
 began his labors. The first Synod was or¬ 
 ganized in 1747, under the care of the Re¬ 
 formed Classis of Amsterdam, with five 
 ordained ministers and forty-six organized 
 churches. Subsequently the Synod of Ohio 
 and adjacent States was formed, but there 
 was no organic union with the mother- 
 synod. This fact brought about a change 
 in the constitution, adopted in 1863, by 
 which a General Synod was organized, 
 composed of delegates elected by the 
 
Ref 
 
 ( 806 ) 
 
 Reh 
 
 Classes and meeting triennially. This is the 
 highest judicatory of the Church. 
 
 The Reformed Church has several theo¬ 
 logical seminaries and colleges under its 
 care, and maintains a board of foreign mis¬ 
 sions which has missionaries in Japan, 
 India, and among the North-American In¬ 
 dians. The Home Missionary work, es¬ 
 pecially among German emigrants, is act¬ 
 ively prosecuted. 
 
 Doctrinally, the Reformed Church in the 
 United States holds to the Calvinistic in 
 distinction from the Lutheran view of the 
 Lord’s Supper, and is presbyterial in its 
 form of government. The Heidelberg 
 Catechism is the accepted standard of doc¬ 
 trine and faith. Liturgical forms of service 
 are provided, but a certain degree of free¬ 
 dom is allowed congregations in their use. 
 The statistics of the church, as given in 
 1890, include 1,535 churches, 813 ministers, 
 and 194,044 communicants. See Lewis 
 Mayer: History of the Geri?ian Reformed 
 Church; H. Harbaugh: Life of Rev. Michael 
 Schlatter; Fathers of the Reformed Church , 
 5 vols. 
 
 Reformed Presbyterian Church. See 
 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Regeneration “is a theological expres¬ 
 sion denoting the spiritual change which 
 passes on all men in becoming Christians. 
 There are various interpretations of the 
 mode and meaning of this change, but its 
 necessity in some shape or another may be 
 said to be admitted by all branches of the 
 Christian Church. By all, man is sup¬ 
 posed, as the condition of his becoming 
 truly Christian, to pass from a state of nat¬ 
 ure to a state of regeneration; from a state 
 in which he obeys the mere impulses of 
 the natural life to a state in which a new 
 and higher—a divine—life has been awak¬ 
 ened in him. The words of our Lord to 
 Nicodemus, ‘ Verily, verily, I say unto 
 thee, except a man be born again, he can¬ 
 not see the kingdom of God,’ are accepted 
 as the expression of this universal neces¬ 
 sity by the Christian Church. It may be 
 further stated that every branch of the 
 Christian Church recognizes, although un¬ 
 der very different conditions, the Holy 
 Spirit^as the author of this change. The 
 change, in its real character, is spiritual, 
 and spiritually induced. According to cer¬ 
 tain sections of the Christian Church, how¬ 
 ever, the change is inseparably involved 
 with Christian baptism, in all cases; while 
 other sections do not acknowledge any es¬ 
 sential connection between baptism and 
 regeneration. In the view of the former, 
 baptism constitutes always a real point of 
 transition from the natural to the spiritual 
 
 life. The grace of baptism is the grace of 
 regeneration; the laver of baptism is the 
 laver of regeneration, not merely in any 
 formal sense, but in a real and living sense, 
 so that every baptized person—or at least 
 every rightly baptized person—has already 
 become a Christian truly, although he may 
 fall away from the grace that he has re¬ 
 ceived. This is what is commonly called 
 the High-Church doctrine of regeneration. 
 In the view of others, regeneration is a 
 special, conscious process, which takes 
 place independently of baptism, or of any 
 other outward fact or ceremony. It im¬ 
 plies a sensible experience—an awakening, 
 whereby men come to see the evil of sin, 
 and the divine displeasure against sin, and, 
 through the Holy Spirit, are born again, 
 put away their former evil life, and begin 
 to live a new, divine life; and many Chris¬ 
 tians have spoken with rapture of this ex¬ 
 perience , of its thoroughness, its sudden¬ 
 ness, its immediateness. There are dif¬ 
 ferent shades of opinion on the subject, 
 some holding it as a condition of regenera¬ 
 tion, that the regenerate should be able to 
 recount, or at least give some precise idea 
 of the time and manner of the change 
 through which they have passed; others 
 repudiating such views as savoring of 
 fanaticism, yet holding no less to the 
 spiritual definiteness of the change, inde¬ 
 pendently of church forms of any kind; and 
 such views,in contradistinction to the High- 
 Church doctrine, have received the name 
 of evangelical. The idea that regeneration 
 is essentially involved in baptism, or iden¬ 
 tical with baptism, is supposed by many 
 Christians to be a peculiar^ unevangelical 
 idea, opposed to the spirituality and free¬ 
 dom of divine grace.”—Chambers: Cyclo¬ 
 pedia. 
 
 Regula Fidei, a term used by the Fathers 
 in the latter part of the second century to 
 designate the fundamental doctrines of 
 Christianity, or rules of faith. These 
 were finally developed into the Apostles’ 
 Creed, which is the regula fidei in the West¬ 
 ern Church. The Eastern Church requires 
 the Nicene Creed. 
 
 Regular, one who has taken the vows of 
 a monastic house, and is bound to live ac¬ 
 cording to its rules. Regular benefices were 
 those that could be bestowed only on the 
 members of some regular Order. 
 
 Rehobo'am ( enlarger of the people ), a son 
 of Solomon by the Ammonite princess 
 Naamah (1 Kings xiv. 21), who came to 
 the throne at the age of forty-one and 
 reigned seventeen years (b. c. 975 ~ 957 )* 
 When he was anointed at Shechem he was 
 
Rei 
 
 ( 807 ) 
 
 Rel 
 
 met by representatives of the ten tribes, 
 who demanded relief from the crushing 
 burden of taxation that Solomon had laid 
 upon them. Following the advice of his 
 young courtiers, Rehoboam gave an inso¬ 
 lent reply to this request, and the ten 
 tribes revolted. Only Judah and a part of 
 Benjamin remained loyal to him. He was 
 admonished by the prophet Shemaiah to 
 forbear his purpose to put down the revolt 
 by force (1 Kings xii. 24), but continual 
 wars prevailed between the two parties. 
 The Egyptian king Shishak invaded Judah 
 and took Jerusalem. Rehoboam gained an 
 ignominious peace by surrendering all the 
 royal treasure. 
 
 Reid, Thomas, D. D., founder of Scot¬ 
 tish philosophy; b. at Strachan, Kincar¬ 
 dineshire, of which place his father was 
 minister, 1709; d. at Glasgow, 1796. He 
 studied at the Marischal College, Aber¬ 
 deen, and was appointed librarian; resign¬ 
 ing this post in 1736, he visited London, 
 Oxford, and Cambridge, and after a year 
 he settled at New Machar, Aberdeenshire, 
 as parish minister. Here he wrote an es¬ 
 say on the application of mathematics to 
 morals, with a view to contradicting an as¬ 
 sertion made by Dr. Cheyne that there is 
 a close affinity between them. The essay 
 met with such success that Reid was elect¬ 
 ed, in 1752, professor of moral philosophy 
 at King’s College, Aberdeen; and in 1763 
 he was chosen to occupy the same post at 
 the University of Glasgow, as the succes¬ 
 sor of Dr. Adam Smith. His Inquiry into 
 the Human Mind , published in 1764, pro¬ 
 cured for him the decree of D. D. from 
 the University of Aberdeen. From this 
 time till his death he continued to write on 
 metaphysics, natural law, and philosophy, 
 and in order to do so uninterruptedly he 
 resigned his professorship in 1781. Essays 
 on the Intellectual Powers appeared in 1785; 
 Essays on the Active Power of the Human 
 Mind , in 1788; a treatise on Platter and 
 Mind , and Physiological Reflections on Mus¬ 
 cular Motion. Reid has been called by F. 
 D. Maurice “ the philosopher of conscious¬ 
 ness.” “Common sense” is a phrase 
 which recurs over and over in his writings, 
 he meaning by it the sense which is com¬ 
 mon to men, and which belongs to philos¬ 
 ophers so far as they care to take up the 
 position of men. His senses convey to 
 him certain ideas, but that implies that he 
 himself is the centre of these ideas—he the 
 living recipient. But having got so far, he 
 was perforce carried on further. When, 
 beyond all outward phenomena and all sen¬ 
 sations, he perceived an inner self inde¬ 
 pendent of them, he came to discern that 
 man has certain obligations of right and 
 
 wrong—certain duties. The easy-going 
 philosophy of Hume, making sensible ex¬ 
 perience the all in all of human life, seem¬ 
 ed unsatisfying to Reid, and he wrote to 
 the popular philosopher, courteously argu¬ 
 ing against the shallowness of his conclu¬ 
 sions. Hence, as the above-named critic 
 remarks, arose a Scotch philosophy, basing 
 itself upon “consciousness.” — Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. See his Life , by Stewart; 
 ed. of his Works , by Hamilton. 
 
 Reimarus ( ri-md'roos ), Hermann Samu¬ 
 el, the author of the famous Wolfenbiittel 
 Fragments; b. at Hamburg, Dec. 22, 1694; 
 d. there, March 1, 1768. He studied at 
 Jena and Wittenberg, and became rector of 
 the gymnasium in Weimar (1723), and in 
 Hamburg (1729). He was an extreme rad¬ 
 ical among German rationalists. See 
 WoLFENBUTTEL FRAGMENTS. 
 
 Reinhard, Franz Volkmar, b. at Vohen- 
 strauss, in the upper Palatinate, March 12, 
 1 753; d. in Dresden, Sept. 6, 1812. He 
 studied theology at Wittenberg, and be¬ 
 came professor there in 1780, and court 
 preacher at Dresden in 1792. While hold¬ 
 ing rationalistic theories, he retained the 
 principal tenets of supranaturalism. His 
 collected sermons comprise thirty-five vol¬ 
 umes, and his System der Christlichen Moral 
 (i788-i8i5)passed through several editions. 
 
 Reland, Hadrian, b. at Ryp, near Alk- 
 maar, July 17, 1676; d. at Utrecht, Feb. 
 5, 1718. He studied Oriental languages 
 and ecclesiastical antiquities in Amsterdam, 
 and was appointed professor at Utrecht in 
 1689. His chief work: Palcestina ex Monu- 
 mentis Veteribus Illustrata (1714) is still an 
 authority in the study of ancient Palestine. 
 
 Relics (Lat. reliquice , remains) originally 
 designated the remains of saints and mar¬ 
 tyrs; but in time came to signify anything 
 which had once belonged to the deceas¬ 
 ed person. The respect with which relics 
 were regarded was such that the Synod of 
 Nicaea (787) commanded that no church 
 should be consecrated without them. The 
 desire to obtain relics resulted in filling 
 the churches with spurious articles. In 
 Roman Catholic countries the worship of 
 relics still continues, but it is forbidden in 
 all Protestant churches. 
 
 Religion comes from the Latin, either, 
 according to Cicero, from relegere , “ to re¬ 
 consider ” or “ read over;” or, according to 
 Lactantius and others (which seems the 
 more probable derivation), from religare 
 “ to bind fast.” The word is sometimes 
 used as synonymous with “ sect;” but in a 
 
Rel 
 
 ( 808 ) 
 
 Ren 
 
 practical sense it is generally considered 
 as the same with “ godliness,” or a life de¬ 
 voted to the worship and fear of God. Dr. 
 Doddridge thus defines it: “ Religion con¬ 
 sists in the resolution of the will for God, 
 and in a constant care to avoid whatever 
 we are persuaded he would disapprove, to 
 dispatch the work he has assigned us in 
 life, and to promote his glory in the hap¬ 
 piness of mankind.” The foundation of 
 all religion rests on the belief of the exist¬ 
 ence of God. Religion has been divided 
 into natural and revealed. These are dis¬ 
 cussed under Natural Theology and 
 Revelation. The religions which exist 
 in the world are usually classified under 
 four heads—Pagan, Jewish, Mohammedan, 
 and Christian—to the articles dealing with 
 which the reader is referred. 
 
 Religious Dramas. At a very early pe¬ 
 riod the dramatic element began to develop 
 in connection with Christian services. The 
 keeping of festivals like Easter were ac¬ 
 companied by recitations that were cast in 
 the form of rhymed dialogues, and cos¬ 
 tumes were added to represent the angels, 
 the soldiers keeping watch, etc. The 
 Christmas and Easter plays were most 
 frequent and elaborate during the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries. They were com¬ 
 posed and acted by the clergy in the 
 churches until 1210, when Innocent III. for¬ 
 bade the use of churches for this purpose, 
 and would not allow the clergy to take part 
 in them. The plays were then produced 
 in the public squares, and became more 
 elaborate and historical in character. A 
 new kind of drama came in vogue, called 
 moralities , in which the biblical text was 
 abandoned, and allegorical characters 
 adopted. From this time there developed 
 the secular drama. In Catholic Germany 
 the religious drama, called mysteries, has, 
 in some cases, continued its representations 
 until the present time. See Ober-Ammer- 
 gau. 
 
 Religious Houses, a term which partic¬ 
 ularly designates those houses used by 
 monks, nuns, penitents, and others wishing 
 to lead a religious life of seclusion. 
 
 Religious Liberty. See Persecution; 
 Toleration. 
 
 Relly, James, a Unitarian preacher, about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, who 
 became the founder of the Universalists in 
 London. His followers were known as 
 Rellyanists; but the London society did 
 not last long. Relly was a voluminous 
 writer, a careful student of Scripture, and 
 a good controversialist. His principal 
 
 work is Union; or, A Treatise of the Con¬ 
 sanguinity and Affinity between Christ and 
 his Church, in which he elaborates his doc¬ 
 trinal views, and shows the ground on 
 which they rest. He said that Christ had 
 made satisfaction for all the human race, 
 and bore their sins in his body, so that he 
 knew nothing of demanding justice on the 
 sinner; and he maintained that the state of 
 unbelievers after death cannot be a state of 
 punishment, because Christ, who tasted 
 death for every man, bore the chastisement 
 of their peace. He admitted the doctrine 
 of misery in a future state only so far that 
 men in unbelief did not know what Jesus 
 had done for them by the sacrifice of him¬ 
 self, and, therefore, might be oppressed 
 with guilt and fear; but he looked forward 
 to a time of universal restitution, when all 
 mankind would be brought to a knowledge 
 of salvation. His earliest convert was John 
 Murray, who had been a disciple of White- 
 field; he, shortly after joining Relly, went 
 to America, and there founded the Uni¬ 
 versalists (<7. v. ).—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Remigius, St., b. probably in 437; d. 
 Jan. 13, 533. He was elected bishop of 
 Rheims in 459 and was the means of the 
 conversion of Clovis to Christianity. He 
 has left four letters. For political pur¬ 
 poses Hincmar of Rheims invented two 
 fictions regarding Remigius: (1) that he 
 anointed Clovis with oil; (2) that he re¬ 
 ceived a letter from Pope Hormisdas recog¬ 
 nizing him as primate of France. 
 
 Remonstrants, a name given to the Ar- 
 minians who, in 1610, presented a remon¬ 
 strance to the States of Holland,complaining 
 of the sentence which the Synod of Dort 
 had passed, condemning them as heretics. 
 The Remonstrants were headed by Episco- 
 pius and Grotius. See Arminians. 
 
 Rem'phan, occurring only in Acts vii. 
 43, which is a quotation from Amos v. 26, 
 where the Hebrew has Chinn. The god is 
 usually identified with Saturn, or Molech, 
 the star god. 
 
 Renata, Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of 
 Louis XII. of France, and Anne of Bre¬ 
 tagne; b. at Blois, Oct. 25, 1511; d. at 
 Montargis, June 12, 1575. She was highly 
 educated, and in 1528 married Hercules of 
 Este who, in 1534, became Duke of Ferrara. 
 She early favored Protestantism, and en¬ 
 couraged the translation of the Bible into 
 Italian. Calvin came to Ferrara in 1535, 
 and the friendship then formed with Renata 
 only ceased with his death. At the instiga¬ 
 tion of her husband she became a victim of 
 
Rep 
 
 ( 809 ) 
 
 Res 
 
 the Inquisition and was imprisoned in 1554 
 as a heretic in the old castle of Este. She 
 was soon released upon making a forced 
 recantation. After the death of her hus¬ 
 band in 1559, she returned to France and 
 openly espoused the Reformation. She 
 lived for a time in Paris, but in order to 
 have the privilege of Protestant services 
 she made her home at Montargis in 1563. 
 See Sophia W. Weitzel: Retiee of France , 
 Duchess of Ferrara (N. Y., 1883). 
 
 Repentance, a term used for the sor¬ 
 row for sin which produces newness of 
 life. The Greek word most frequently 
 used in the New Testament for repentance 
 is metanoia , which signifies a change of 
 mind and disposition. Another word 
 which is also used is metamelomoi, which 
 signifies anxiety or uneasiness upon the 
 consideration of what is done. True re¬ 
 pentance involves a real hatred of sin, on 
 the ground that it is offensive to God; sor¬ 
 row on account of the wrong done to God 
 and man, and a hearty desire and reso¬ 
 lution to forsake everything repugnant to 
 the Divine Will. Repentance is preceded 
 by regeneration, the chief difference be¬ 
 tween the two being that the latter is the 
 work of the Holy Spirit, while the former 
 is the effort made by the human will to act 
 in accordance with the Spirit. The Roman 
 Catholics hold that repentance imposes 
 certain exercises, obligations, and burdens 
 on those who have sinned, and these are 
 known as penances. At the Reformation, 
 however, Luther defined repentance as a 
 “ transmutation of the mind and affections,” 
 and declared that ‘it consisted in faith in 
 God, and sorrow for past sins. The Pie¬ 
 tists laid a great stress upon the necessity 
 of repentance, and held that it necessitated 
 a great spiritual struggle, which led to a 
 controversy between them and the Luther¬ 
 ans. Others, again, hold and teach that the 
 essence of repentance consists in the change 
 of mind and attitude toward God, and the 
 turning tozuard him, irrespective of the 
 amount of sorrow for sin consciously ex¬ 
 perienced. Appealing to the Scripture, 
 they urge that it is called repentance (or 
 change of mind or heart) “ toward God;” 
 and that we are expressly taught by Paul 
 (2 Cor. vii. 9, 10) that true godly sorrow 
 luorkethy or produces, repentance, being 
 therefore a means to it, and so distinct. 
 It is also urged that in the case of the 
 young man who refused to go into the 
 vineyard, but “afterward repented and 
 went,” the essence of his repentance con¬ 
 sisted not in the amount of contrition he 
 may have felt, which was only of value 
 for the effect produced, but in the fact that 
 he changed in his own mind or will toward 
 
 his father’s command, and did what he had 
 refused to do. It has been said further 
 that the distinction so drawn is not a vain 
 or meaningless one, since God “ com¬ 
 mands ” men everywhere to repent, and 
 the lack of a conscious sorrow they do not 
 feel is made by many an excuse for inability 
 to obey; whereas it is urged that God 
 never commands any man to do what his 
 conscience does not tell him he might do, 
 and that if the command were clearly in¬ 
 terpreted and understood to mean the giv¬ 
 ing up or surrender of the will to God, 
 which every man feels he might do, a 
 great and real practical hindrance to many 
 would be taken away. All agree that the 
 evidences of true repentance are to be 
 sought and found in works “ meet ” for it. 
 —Benham: Did . of Religion. 
 
 Reph'idim. See Wilderness of the 
 Wandering. 
 
 Requiem, a mass for the dead performed 
 in the Roman Church, so called from the 
 opening words, Requiem ceterna 7 n dona eis 
 domine (“ Give them, O Lord, eternal 
 rest”). Some musical compositions per¬ 
 formed on special occasions of mourning 
 are called requiems. 
 
 Reredos (French arriere dos ), the screen 
 at the back of an altar. Beautiful ex¬ 
 amples are to be seen in some of the 
 English cathedrals. 
 
 Reservation, Mental, is a trick which 
 Jesuits teach, by which it is possible for a 
 man to tell a lieor commit perjury: namely, 
 by adding mentally some qualification to 
 the words spoken. This abominable doc¬ 
 trine was first taught by the Jesuit Sanchez 
 (d. 1610), and further developed by Palao, 
 Escobar, and others. 
 
 Residence refers to the rules for the 
 residence of ecclesiastics in their place of 
 office. At a very early date it was found 
 necessary to forbid absence. Before the 
 Reformation the accumulation of benefices 
 made the evil of non-residence very great. 
 This was checked in part by the action of 
 the Council of Trent. 
 
 Restoration is the doctrine of the ulti¬ 
 mate recovery of all rational creatures to 
 the favor of God and eternal felicity. A 
 Scriptural term, apokatastasis (Acts iii. 21), 
 offers somewhat of a basis for the idea, and 
 a number of Scripture texts—Rom. v. 18; 
 xi. 32; 1 Cor. xv. 21 ff.; Eph. i. 10; Phil. i. 
 10 f., etc. —admit of an interpretation 
 which favors it. Origen (d. 254) held that 
 souls dying impenitent would, after pass- 
 
Res 
 
 ( 810 ) 
 
 Res 
 
 ng through “ an unlimited and illimitable 
 series of worlds and of world develop¬ 
 ments,” finally all be led back to God. He 
 maintained this view asacorollary from the 
 inspired teachings that all things shall be 
 brought under the feet of Christ; but his 
 mind was also influenced by certain specu¬ 
 lations concerning the attributes of God, 
 the constitution of man, and the character 
 of sin. Later fathers in the Greek Church, 
 among them Gregory of Nyssa, have been 
 credited with similar views, but a Council 
 at Constantinople in 543 condemned the 
 opinions of Origen as heretical. They were 
 not agitated subsequently by any one of 
 prominence until the time of John Scotus 
 Erigena, in whose pantheistic system the 
 Apokatastasis formed but a part of the 
 universal process by which all individual¬ 
 ity is extinguished, and all things are at 
 last reabsorbed in God. Only a few fa¬ 
 natical spirits broached the idea in the 
 Middle Ages, but, in the general upheaval 
 of the Reformation, Denck and leading 
 Anabaptists busily spread the “ Origenistic 
 heresy,” that the damned, including Satan 
 and his angels, will finally have salvation. 
 God is love, they argued, and the punish¬ 
 ment he inflicts can only be designed to 
 effect ultimate reformation. The Reform¬ 
 ers, on the other hand,unanimously repudi¬ 
 ated such a tenet, and all the Confessions 
 of the sixteenth century agree on this 
 point with the Consensus of the Church. 
 
 Advocates of the doctrine of restoration 
 appeared again near the end of the seven¬ 
 teenth century, the members of the “ Phila¬ 
 delphian Society ” claiming personal reve¬ 
 lations on the subject. Oetinger, the 
 mystic pietist, adopted it as a part of his 
 system, and even Bengel is said to have 
 accepted it, though like Origen he admitted 
 that it was a dangerous doctrine for the 
 masses. It is the chief characteristic of 
 the Universalist denomination, and has al¬ 
 ways been a favorite notion of the Ration¬ 
 alists. Schleiermacher taught that it 
 would make an inexplicable “ dissonance ” 
 in God’s universe, if a portion of God’s 
 creatures were debarred forever from par¬ 
 ticipation in the redemption of Christ. 
 
 The Scriptures sometimes cited in sup¬ 
 port of Restoration have reference either 
 to the universality of the provisions of 
 grace, or to the totality of those who are 
 God’s children, or else to the universality 
 of the homage which both friend and foe 
 will at last render to God. And if isolated 
 or obscure utterances are not solved by 
 this explanation, their proper interpreta¬ 
 tion cannot be in conflict with the oft-re¬ 
 peated and clear declarations of the Lord 
 and his apostles. (Cf. Matt. xii. 32; xxv. 
 41; xxvi. 24; Mark ix. 48; xiv. 31.) 
 
 Apparent contradictions on this subject 
 meet us, indeed, in human thought as well 
 as in Scripture. See Martensen : Chris¬ 
 tian Dogmatics , §§ 283-289. Theological 
 considerations, he allows, point to ulti¬ 
 mate universal salvation, but anthropolog¬ 
 ical premises to the dark goal of eternal 
 damnation. This supposed autonomy pro¬ 
 nounces the Crux of thought, which it is 
 impossible for the Church to solve while 
 she remains in the stream of time and in 
 the course of development. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Restorationists. See Universalists. 
 
 Resurrection of the Dead. “ (1) Definition 
 and Biblical Notices. — The term ‘ resur¬ 
 rection ’ is a figurative one, taken from the 
 conception of the deposit of the dead body 
 under the ground. It stands in antithesis 
 to the body’s lying or resting in the grave. 
 The essential reference of the term, how¬ 
 ever, is to the revivification of the dead, 
 and the resumption of bodily and spiritual 
 existence by them after a period of inter¬ 
 ruption. The firm belief in the resurrec¬ 
 tion and the eternal life is one of the prod¬ 
 ucts of Christianity, and rests upon the 
 resurrection of Christ. Outside of Chris¬ 
 tian circles, death is and always has been 
 the king of terrors. In the Old Testament 
 the hope of the resurrection becomes clear¬ 
 er and clearer as revelation progresses. 
 The prophets declare that the righteous 
 shall participate in the consummation of 
 the kingdom of God. The resurrection of 
 the righteous is distinctly referred to in 
 Isa. xxvi. 19 sqq. Ezekiel could not have 
 used the imagery of chap, xxxviii. if he 
 had not known about it; and Daniel (xii. 
 2, 3) distinguishes between the resurrec¬ 
 tion of the just and unjust. Although this 
 hope does not seem to us to be referred to 
 in Psa. xvi. 9 sqq ., xlviii. 14; lxviii. 20, it 
 certainly is in Psa. xlix. 15; lxxxiii. 22 sqq. 
 The Book of Job also assures the continua¬ 
 tion of the communion of the righteous with 
 God after death, in xix. 25, 27. The New 
 Testament everywhere assumes or states 
 the doctrine of the resurrection. Christ 
 calls himself the ‘ resurrection and the life.’ 
 (John xi. 25.) Paul (Rom. viii. 11) con¬ 
 ceives of this resurrection as already be¬ 
 gun in the soul. He that hath the Son of 
 God hath the eternal life already begun in 
 him. (John iii. 36; 1 John v. 12.) The res¬ 
 urrection from the dead is regarded as one 
 of the elementary truths of Christianity 
 (Heb. vi. 1), and although Paul gives a 
 sort of an argument for it in 1 Cor. xv., 
 yet it may be said that the doctrine is con¬ 
 sidered so indisputable as not to be deem¬ 
 ed in need of proof by the writers of the 
 
Ret 
 
 ( 8n ) 
 
 Rev 
 
 New Testament. It takes its root in the 
 nature of God, in his relation to believers 
 as his children. 
 
 “ (2) Mode. —In regard to the manner of 
 the resurrection we must confess that we 
 know only in part. All human theories are 
 mere guesses. We are shut up to the 
 Bible: God (Rom. iv. 17, etc.) or Christ 
 (John vi. 39) raises from the dead. This 
 act will be consummated at the end of the 
 world, or the second coming of Christ. 
 According to 1 Thess. iv. 16 sq. , and 1 
 Cor. xv. 23 sqq., the righteous will be 
 raised first, and take part in the judgment 
 with Christ; then will follow the resurrec¬ 
 tion of the rest. In reference to the rela¬ 
 tion of the body of the resurrection to the 
 present body, we may say in general that 
 it will be subject to all the laws of the eter¬ 
 nal life. We shall participate in the glory 
 of God and be like Christ. There will be 
 a spiritual body. (1 Cor. xv. 44 sqq.) Au¬ 
 gustine ( Serm . 99) defined it by the attri¬ 
 butes, impassibility, lucidity,alertness, etc. 
 The main point is its freedom from the 
 service of sin and all mere sensualism. 
 We can form to ourselves some conception 
 of it from the transfiguration of Christ 
 (Matt, xxvii. 1 sqq. ) and by the words used 
 by Paul, ‘We shall be changed.’ (1 Cor. 
 xv. 51.) The difference of the sexes will 
 continue, but there will be no prolongation 
 of the sexual passion. We shall be like 
 the angels. (Luke xx. 36.) The identity 
 of the resurrection body with the earthly 
 body cannot be denied. Origen and others 
 hold to the survival of the eternal form 
 and appearance ( tb eidos ); others hold to 
 the survival only of the individuality, the 
 essential nature which forms the body; 
 others hold that already here on earth 
 there is an organ or body of the soul, the 
 ethereal body, which exists between the 
 physical body and the soul. The consum¬ 
 mation of this ethereal or spiritual body 
 occurs at the resurrection, and its present 
 relation to its future condition is repre¬ 
 sented by the relation of the seed to the 
 ripe fruit. But why should not the soul 
 be its own ethereal body? The soul itself, 
 as J. H. Fichte says, forms the body; and 
 the body of the resurrection will corre¬ 
 spond to the individuality of the soul, and 
 to the present body so far as it is charac¬ 
 teristic of the individual.”— Robert Kiibel , 
 Professor of Theology at Tubingen, in Her¬ 
 zog’s Real-Ency. (trans. in Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency. , vol. iii., p. 2032). See the various 
 works on systematic theology; Alger: His¬ 
 tory of the Doctrine of a Future Life ( Phila., 
 ' 1864). 
 
 Retreats is a term denoting the time in 
 which members in the Roman and Angli¬ 
 
 can Churches seek special retirement for 
 spiritual meditation and prayer. For a 
 long period it has been customary for 
 members of religious communities in the 
 Roman Church to go into retreat some time 
 each year, and a series of “ Exercises ” for 
 use on such occasions were prepared by 
 Loyola. They are called Mauresa, from 
 the place where they were written. In 
 recent years the practice of going into re¬ 
 treats has been revived to a considerable 
 extent in the Anglican Church. They are 
 held both for men and women, under the 
 conduct of a clergyman of experience, and 
 usually last from one to three days. 
 
 Retribution. See Punishment, Future. 
 
 Reu'ben. See Tribes. 
 
 Reuchlin, Johann, an eminent German 
 Hebrew scholar; b. at Pforzheim, Feb. 22, 
 1455; d. at Stuttgart, June 30, 1523. In 
 youth he was precocious as a scholar. 
 After the fashion of his time, he studied in 
 many places. From Heidelberg, in 1496, 
 he went to Rome in 1498, where he gave 
 special attention to Hebrew. Returning to 
 Stuttgart in 1501, he was chosen judge of 
 the Swabian League. His Rudiments of the 
 Hebrew Language appeared in 1506, and 
 made possible the free study of the original 
 Scripture. In 1509 a converted Jew named 
 Johann Pfefferkorn, of Cologne, advised 
 Maximilian to burn all the books of the 
 Rabbis, and the emperor named a commis¬ 
 sion to consider the matter. Reuchlin, as 
 a member of this commission, wrote an 
 opinion that the act would be very disas¬ 
 trous to Christian learning, and arguing in 
 the interest of religious toleration. This 
 led to a bitter persecution of Reuchlin by 
 the monks of Cologne and others, but in 
 his final trial by a commission appointed 
 by Leo X., the monks were compelled to 
 pay his expenses, and apologize for the 
 wrong done him. In 1519 he went to Ingol- 
 stadt, where he received an annual stipend 
 from the Duke of Bavaria. Two years 
 later, on the breaking out of the plague, 
 he returned to Stuttgart. Besides his He¬ 
 brew Grammar, Reuchlin wrote a treatise 
 on civil law, and other works. 
 
 Revelation ( Apocalypse ) of John the Di¬ 
 vine. “ This is the only prophetic book of 
 the New Testament, and much of it re¬ 
 mains still unfulfilled. It closes the Canon 
 of Scripture, and the revelation of God to 
 man. There is satisfactory evidence of its 
 genuineness. Justin Martyr, living sixty 
 years after its supposed date, ascribes it to 
 John; Papias acknowledges its inspiration; 
 Irenaeus (disciple of Polycarp, who was 
 
Rev 
 
 ( 812 ) 
 
 John’s own disciple) testifies to the 
 apostle’s authorship, and that he had him¬ 
 self received the explanation of one passage 
 in it from those who had conversed with 
 the apostle about it. To these may be 
 added Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus, 
 Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Jerome, Atha¬ 
 nasius, etc. 
 
 “John, after a vain attempt had been made 
 to martyr him, was banished by Domitian 
 to Patmos; but on the emperor’s death 
 (a. d. 96) he returned, under a general am¬ 
 nesty, to Ephesus, and resumed the super¬ 
 vision of the Church there. While in exile 
 he saw and recorded these visions, in the 
 introductory chapters of which incidental 
 evidence is furnished that a considerable 
 interval must have elapsed between the 
 foundation of the Asiatic Churches and the 
 composition of this book: e. g. , they are 
 reproached for faults and corruptions that 
 do not speedily arise; the Nicolaitans had 
 separated themselves into a sect; there had 
 been open persecutions, and Antipas had 
 been martyred at Pergamos (ii. 13). 
 
 “ Summary. I. Prefatory: The divine 
 authority of the record. The narrative of 
 the first vision, respecting the Churches of 
 proconsular Asia (i.). 
 
 “II. The Messages to the Seven Churches 
 (ii., iii.), viz.: 
 
 “ (1) Ephesus : reproof for forsaking its 
 first love and first works. 
 
 “(2) Smyrna: commendation of works, 
 poverty, endurance of persecution. 
 
 “(3) Pergamos: reproof for false doc¬ 
 trine, immoral conduct, idolatrous pollu¬ 
 tion. 
 
 “ (4) Thyatira : reproof to one party for 
 similar corruptions; commendation to the 
 other for their fidelity. 
 
 “(5) Sardis: reproof for spiritual dead¬ 
 ness with mere nominal life. 
 
 “ (6) Philadelphia : approval of its stead¬ 
 fastness and patience. 
 
 “ (7) Laodicea: rebuke for lukewarmness. 
 
 “ These predictions have long been ful¬ 
 filled; but much of the book is still a mys¬ 
 tery, though generally regarded as pro¬ 
 phetic of the history of the Church from the 
 close of the first century to the end of time. 
 By some the major part is considered to 
 have had its fulfillment in the early ages of 
 the Church; by others to have been grad¬ 
 ually realized by successive religious re¬ 
 vivals and persecutions; by others it is 
 regarded as a picture of the historical 
 epochs of the world and the Church. Its 
 outline is as follows: 
 
 “III. The Prophetic Visions: viz.: 
 
 “(1) The divine glory, sealed book, and 
 the Lamb (iv., v.). 
 
 “ (2) The vision of the opening of six 
 seals; the sealing of 144,000 Israelites; the 
 
 Rev 
 
 worship by innumerable multitudes of 
 saints; and the opening of the seventh seal 
 (vi., vii.). 
 
 “ (3) The vision of an angel offering in¬ 
 cense on the golden altar, followed by the 
 sounding of six trumpets (viii., ix.). 
 
 “ (4) The vision of an angel with an open 
 scroll; seven thunders, and the angel’s 
 proclamation (x.); measuring the temple 
 and altar; the two witnesses; sounding of 
 the seventh trumpet (x., xi.). 
 
 “(5) The vision of the woman and the 
 dragon; the conflict between Michael and 
 the dragon; rescue of the woman; the ris¬ 
 ing of a beast from the sea, and of another 
 from the earth (xii., xiii.). 
 
 “(6) The vision of the Lamb and the 
 144,000 on Mount Zion; the proclamations 
 of the three angels; the harvest and vintage 
 (xiv.). 
 
 “ (7) The pouring out of the seven vials 
 of wrath (xv., xvi.); the woman sitting 
 upon the beast (xvii.); the angel’s proc¬ 
 lamation of the fall of Babylon, followed 
 by songs of praise and triumph (xviii., 
 xix. 1-10). 
 
 “(8) The vision of the ‘Word of God,’ 
 attended by the faithful, who destroy the 
 three great enemies, viz., the beast, false 
 prophet, and confederate kings (xix. 11-21); 
 the binding of the dragon for 1,000 years; 
 the reign of righteousness, and final con¬ 
 flict (xx. 1-10). 
 
 “(9) Visions of the last judgment, the 
 new heaven, new earth, new Jerusalem 
 (xx. 11-xxii. 5), with closing addresses 
 from the angel, Christ, and John, enjoining 
 the universal proclamation of these visions, 
 attesting the certainty and speedy accom¬ 
 plishment of the predictions, and concluding 
 with final benediction (xxii. 6-21).”—“ Ox¬ 
 ford ” Bible Helps. For literature, see art. 
 in McClintock and Strong: Ency., and 
 Schaff-Herzog: Ency., by B. B. Warfield. 
 
 Revelation. “ The word Revelation stands 
 for the Act of God in making truth known 
 to men, and then, in a secondary sense, 
 for the truth itself which is thus made 
 known. Inspiration is the name of the 
 special divine influence under which the 
 writers of the Bible worked. We speak 
 of the revelation of God in the Bible, and 
 of the inspiration of the writers of the 
 Bible. In order to understand the ques¬ 
 tions which have been raised on these two 
 subjects, it is important that we should 
 discriminate between them in thought, but 
 in fact they are closely connected. It is 
 the association of the two that gives its 
 supreme value to the Bible. This is rec¬ 
 ognized as a book of unique character, 
 because, as we have seen, it is an inspired 
 record of divine revelation. The supreme 
 
Rev 
 
 (813) 
 
 Rhe 
 
 revelation is a self-manifestation of God. 
 He has broken the silence of eternity, 
 emerged from the darkness of the unseen 
 spiritual world and made himself known to 
 his children. But we have also a divine 
 revelation of the heart of man given to us 
 in the pages of the Bible—in the chronicles 
 of Israel, the psalms of David, the epistles 
 of apostles. And further, the thoughts of 
 God about man, the will of God in regard 
 to human duty and destiny, the way of 
 life and the Divine method of redemption 
 are all matters of revelation. God has re¬ 
 vealed himself and his truth in deeds as 
 well as words. The whole story of Israel, 
 especially in the epic incidents of the Ex¬ 
 odus, is one great revelation of God 
 through action and in history. Voices, vis¬ 
 ions, and dreams were early channels of 
 revelation. Prophets in the Old Testament 
 times, and apostles in the Christian era 
 appeared as the commissioned messengers 
 of God and of Christ. But all other forms 
 of revelation are secondary to the living 
 manifestation of the Father in his Son. 
 The highest revelation is that brought to 
 us in the person—the life, character, words, 
 and actions of our Lord Jesus Christ (see 
 Heb. i. 1-3). Revelation has been gradual 
 and progressive. God did not make known 
 to Abraham all that he revealed to St. 
 Paul. The divine self-manifestation given 
 to the Jews is far exceeded by that vouch¬ 
 safed to Christians. We have a historical 
 revelation—one given at different times 
 and by advancing stages. The neglect of 
 this truth has led to great confusion in 
 comparing Scripture with Scripture. Al¬ 
 though the acorn is vitally identical with 
 the oak, it would be absurd to limit our 
 notion of the full-grown tree out of con¬ 
 sideration for the seed from which it 
 sprang, or to complain of a discord and 
 contradiction in nature because the one was 
 not identical in shape and size with the 
 other. The difficulties rising out of the 
 seeming inconsistency between various 
 parts of the Bible, and the objections 
 which have been urged against earlier por¬ 
 tions of Scripture by viewing them in the 
 full light of the New Testament, chiefly 
 result from the great mistake of ignoring 
 the progressive course of revelation. When 
 this is recognized they assume a very dif¬ 
 ferent character. 
 
 “ Revelation is often self-evidencing. 
 The veil is lifted so that we may see truth 
 with our own eyes. A discovery which 
 we could never have reached by ourselves 
 is brought to us, but after it has been thus 
 once made known we can now recognize 
 its truth. It is like the solution of an 
 enigma when the key has been supplied. 
 The highest truth convinces us of its own 
 
 worth by its very elevation. But further 
 confirmation has been added. To contem¬ 
 poraries miracles were sometimes given 
 as ‘ signs ’ attesting the authority of a 
 divine messenger. For us the great results 
 of revelation in the history of Christendom 
 afford the principal proofs of the reality of 
 the revelation. This test has been supplied 
 us by our Lord as the rule for judging 
 between the true and the false prophet. 
 
 4 By their fruits ye shall know them.’ 
 (Matt. vii. 15-18.)”—Bagster: Bible Helps. 
 See Inspiration. 
 
 Reverend (abbreviated Bev.), a title now 
 given to the clergy generally. Archbishops 
 are called “most reverend;” bishops 
 “ right reverend; ” and deans “ very rev¬ 
 erend.” At the time of the Reformation 
 great objection was raised to the title, and 
 some still reject its use. 
 
 Revised Version. See Bible, p. 109. 
 
 Reynolds, Edward, Church of England; 
 b. at Southampton, 1599; d. at Norwich, 
 Jan. 16, 1676. Educated at Oxford, he be¬ 
 came Preacher of Lincoln’s Inn and Rector 
 of Braynton in Northamptonshire. He 
 was a member of the Westminster Assem¬ 
 bly; and contemporary authority speaks of 
 him as “ the pride and glory of the Pres¬ 
 byterian party.” He succeeded Dr. Fell 
 as vice-chancellor of Oxford University 
 and dean of Christ Church. He was eject¬ 
 ed from his deanery by the Independents, 
 but, after the Restoration, was appointed 
 chaplain to the king and warden of Merton 
 College. When the bishopric of Norwich 
 was offered him he accepted it, but did not 
 surrender his Presbyterian views. For 
 sixteen years he discharged his duties as 
 bishop with great zeal. In the Assembly 
 he was on the committee appointed to draw 
 up the Confession of Faith, and in 1661 he 
 was a member of the Savoy Conference. 
 
 Reynolds, John, D. D. (sometimes writ¬ 
 ten Rainolds); b. at Pinho, Devonshire, 
 154.9; d. at Oxford, May 21, 1607. He was 
 dean of Lincoln (1593), and then president 
 of Corpus Christi, Oxford. He was one 
 of the four Puritans who represented their 
 party at the Hampton Court Conference 
 (q. v.). He is said to have first proposed 
 the present Authorized Version of the 
 Bible, and translated most of the prophets. 
 See Neale: History of Ike Puritans ; J. I. 
 Mornbert: Handbook of English Versions , 
 pp. 338, 345. 
 
 Rhe'gium (breach), a city on the extreme 
 southwestern coast of Italy. Paul was de¬ 
 tained here for a day while on his way to 
 
Rhe 
 
 ( 814 ) 
 
 Ric 
 
 Rome. (Acts xxviii. 13.) It is now called 
 Pheggio, and is a flourishing commercial 
 town of about 10,000 inhabitants, and the 
 capital of Calabria. 
 
 Rhetoric, Sacred. See Homiletics. 
 
 Rhodes ( a rose), an island in the Medi¬ 
 terranean, ten miles distant from the coast 
 of Asia Minor. The city of Rhodes at the 
 western end of the island early became the 
 centre of an extensive commerce. The 
 brazen statue at the entrance of the harbor, 
 known as the Colossus of Rhodes, was one 
 of the seven wonders of the world. Paul 
 visited the city on his return from his third 
 missionary tour. (Acts xxi. 1.) The isl¬ 
 and prospered in the reign of Alexander, 
 but in the time of Vespasian fell into the 
 hands of the Romans, and gradually de¬ 
 clined. In the Middle Ages it was held 
 by the Knights of St. John, but was cap¬ 
 tured by the Turks in 1522, and is now 
 under their rule. The island has a pop¬ 
 ulation of about 30,000, of which 21,000 
 are Turks. 
 
 Rice, Nathan Lewis, an eminent Pres¬ 
 byterian divine and controversialist; b. in 
 Garrard Co., Ky., Dec. 29, 1807; d. in 
 Bracken Co., Ky., June 11, 1877. After 
 studying at Centre College, Danville, Ky., 
 and Princeton, N. J., he became pastor 
 (1883) at Bardstown, Ky. He established 
 an academy there, and also a newspaper, 
 the Westei'ii Protestant , afterward merged 
 in the Louisville Presbyterian Herald. In 
 1823 he had a famous debate with Alexan¬ 
 der Campbell, founder of the Disciples, on 
 the subject of baptism. From 1844 to 1853 
 he was pastor in Cincinnati, and held three 
 public debates: (1) with Rev. J. A. Blanch¬ 
 ard, on slavery (1845); (2) with Rev. E. 
 Pingree, on universal salvation; (3) in 
 1851, with Rev. J. B. Purcell (afterward 
 archbishop), on Romanism. From 1853 to 
 1858 he was pastor in St. Louis, and editor 
 of the St. Louis Presbyterian; 1858-61, pas¬ 
 tor in Chicago, and from 1859 theological 
 professor; 1861-67, pastor in New York 
 City; 1S60-74, president of Westminster 
 College, Mo., and from 1874 till his death 
 professor of theology in the Danville, Ky., 
 Seminary. Besides his debates he publish¬ 
 ed: God Sovereign, and Man Free; Romanism 
 not Christianity (N. Y., 1847); Baptis?n 
 (St. Louis, 1855); Immortality (Phila.). 
 
 Richard of St. Victor, b. in Scotland in 
 the twelfth centur) r . He became prior of 
 the Augustine abbey of St. Victor, in Paris, 
 in 1160, and d. 1173. He wrote several 
 moral, theological, and mystical works, as 
 De Statu Interioris Ho?ninis, De Eruditione 
 
 Interioris Hominis, De Verbo Incarnato, 
 De Trinitate, De Emmanuele , and De 
 Gratia Conte?nplationis. 
 
 Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, 
 Duke de, cardinal, was b. at Paris in 
 1585. He was educated for a military 
 career, but his brother, the bishop of 
 Lu$on, giving up his see and entering a 
 convent, Armand was looked upon as his 
 successor. He therefore applied himself 
 to the study of divinity, took his doctor’s 
 degree, and was consecrated bishop in 1607. 
 He gained the favor of Marie de’ Medici, 
 mother of King Louis XIII., and became 
 her almoner; but on a quarrel breaking 
 out between Marie and her son, Richelieu 
 was banished to his diocese. He after¬ 
 wards arranged a reconciliation between 
 them, and gained influence over both. He 
 was made a cardinal in 1622, and in 1624 
 gained a seat in the Council, and became 
 Prime Ministerof France. His three great 
 objects throughout his ministerial career 
 were: (1) to render the power of the crown 
 absolute, and to humble the feudal nobility; 
 (2) to annihilate the Huguenots as a political 
 party; (3) to reduce the power of the 
 House of Austria, both in its German and 
 Spanish branches, and to extend that of 
 France. In order to gain the latter object 
 he assisted the Protestant Grisons against 
 the Roman Catholic insurgents ofValtelina, 
 while in France he was doing his utmost 
 against the Huguenots, thus showing that 
 he cared much more about their politics 
 than their religion. Richelieu’s death, 
 which took place at Paris m 1642, caused 
 much rejoicing to the people, on account 
 of the burdens which he had laid upon 
 them. He was buried in a mausoleum 
 erected by Girardon in the church of the 
 Sorbonne.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Richmond, Legh, Church of England; 
 b. at Liverpool, Jan. 29, 1772; d. at Tur- 
 vey, Bedfordshire, May 8, 1827. He was 
 graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 1794, and in 1797 became a curate on the 
 Isle of Wight, where he remained until 
 1805, when he was made rector of Turvey. 
 He wrote several books, but his fame rests 
 upon The Annals of the Poor (1814), 2 vols.; 
 which contains The Dairyman's Daughter, 
 The Negro Servant, and The Young Cot¬ 
 tager. Previous to 1849 four million copies 
 of the first-named tract had been circulated, 
 in nineteen languages. See his Me?noirs, 
 edited by Bishop G. T. Bedell (Phila., 
 1846). 
 
 Richter, Christian Friedrich Gott¬ 
 lieb, M. D., an eminent German hymnol- 
 ogist; b. at Sorau, Silesia, Oct. 5, 1676; d. 
 
Rid 
 
 ( 815 ) 
 
 Rip 
 
 at Halle, Oct. 5, 1711. He was educated 
 at Halle, where he was appointed by 
 Francke principal of the academy and, 
 later, physician to the Halle Orphan 
 House. He wrote thirty-three hymns, 
 several of which have been translated. 
 Among them are: “ Jesus my King! thy 
 mild and kind control;” “ My Soul before 
 thee prostrate lies;” “ Thou Lamb of God! 
 thou Prince of peace.” Richter was a Pie¬ 
 tist and wrote four remarkable treatises 
 upon the physical sufferings of Christ dur¬ 
 ing his crucifixion,contained in vol. iii.of his 
 Opuscula Aledica (Leipzig, 17S0-81), 3 vols. 
 See Lange: Commentary on Matthew, p. 523. 
 
 Ridgaway, Henry Bascom, D. D. (Dick¬ 
 inson College, Carlisle, Penn., 1869), 
 Methodist; b. in Talbot County, Maryland, 
 Sept. 7, 1830; was graduated at Dickinson 
 College, Carlisle, Penn., 1849; was suc¬ 
 cessively pastor in Virginia, Baltimore 
 (Md.), Portland (Me.), New York City, 
 and Cincinnati (O.); professor of historical 
 theology in Garrett Biblical Institute, 
 Evanston, Ill., 1882-84, and since of prac¬ 
 tical theology. He is the author of: The 
 Life of Alfred Cookman (New York, 1871); 
 The Lords Land: A Narrative of Travels 
 in Sinai and Palestine (1873, 1874, 1876); 
 The IAfe of Bishop Edward S. Janes { 1882); 
 Bishop Beverly Waugh (1883); Bishop Mat¬ 
 thew Simpson (1885). 
 
 Ridley, Nicholas, one of the most noted 
 leaders of the Reformation in England; b. 
 at Wilmanstock, Northumberland, early in 
 the sixteenth century; d. at the stake, in 
 Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555. He was graduated 
 at Cambridge and became a fellow of Pem¬ 
 broke College in 1522. Taking orders in 
 1527, he then studied at the Sorbonne, 
 Paris, and at Louvain. Returning to Cam¬ 
 bridge in 1529, he became senior proctor, 
 and gained reputation as a preacher. In 
 1540 he was appointed king’s chaplain and 
 master of Pembroke Hall, and in 1541 preb¬ 
 endary of Canterbury. Acquitted of a 
 charge brought against him by Bishop 
 Gardiner of preaching against the Six Ar¬ 
 ticles, he became successively prebendary 
 of Westminster, 1545, bishop of Roches¬ 
 ter, 1547, and bishop of London, 1550. 
 In 1545 he had publicly renounced the doc¬ 
 trine of transubstantiation and thrown his 
 influence in favor of the Reformation. 
 Committed to the Tower, July 26, 1553, he 
 was removed with Latimer to the jail of 
 Bocardo, Oxford, and suffered martyrdom 
 Oct. 16, 1555. He wrote: A Treatise 
 
 against Image- Worship; Declaration against 
 Transubstantiation; A Piteous Lamentation 
 of the Miserable Estate of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land, etc. 
 
 Righteousness (Isa. xi. 23) “is an es¬ 
 sential attribute of the divine nature, and 
 as it is frequently used is nearly allied to, 
 if not the same with, justice, holiness, and 
 faithfulness. (Psa. cxix. 142; Isa. xlvi. 
 13; li. 5, 6, 8; lvi. 1.) The ‘righteousness 
 which is of faith’ (Rom. x. 6), is the right¬ 
 eousness which is obtained by the grace of 
 God through faith in Jesus Christ. (Rom. 
 iii. 21-26; x. 4, 10; 2 Cor. v. 21; Gal. ii. 
 21.) The word is also used to denote the 
 perfect obedience of the Son of God. (Rom. 
 v. iS.) ‘ Righteousness ’ is very commonly 
 used for uprightness and just dealing be¬ 
 tween man and man, as in Isa. xl. 17, and 
 for holiness of life, as in Dan. iv. 27; Rom. 
 xvi. 17.”—Schaff: Bible Diet. “Original 
 righteousness ” was a term used by the 
 older Protestant theologians to designate 
 the condition of man as made in the image 
 of God previous to the fall. 
 
 Rim'mon ( pomegranate ), the name of an 
 Aramaic divinity worshiped in Damas¬ 
 cus. (2 Kings v. 18.) 
 
 Rings were used as ornaments not only 
 on the fingers, but in the ears and nose and 
 about the wrists and ankles. (Isa. iii. 20, 
 21; Luke xv. 22; James ii. 2.) The ring 
 when used as a seal was an emblem of au¬ 
 thority, and the giving of a ring the im¬ 
 parting of authority. (Gen. xli. 42; Esth. 
 iii. 10, 12; Dan. vi. 17.) The custom of 
 placing a ring on the bride’s hand in the 
 marriage service is very ancient, though 
 by the early Christians it appears to have 
 been employed in the ceremony of espous¬ 
 al, and not at the marriage itself. 
 
 Ripon Cathedral. The Venerable Bede 
 is the first to mention a church at Ripon, 
 said to have been erected by St. Wilfrid in 
 the seventh century; but archaeologists 
 differ in opinion as to whether the present 
 structure occupies the same site, or 
 whether St. Wilfrid built a second church. 
 It was originally the church of a monas¬ 
 tery over which the saint presided, and 
 the crypt, known as “ St. Wilfrid’s Needle,” 
 is considered without doubt to belong to his 
 foundation. His abbey became one of the 
 three great churches of Yorkshire, and 
 the immunity of sanctuary and the right of 
 using the ordeal were among the privileges 
 granted to it by Athelstan. The church 
 was rebuilt by Archbishop Roger, of York 
 (1154-81); of this there are only small re¬ 
 mains in the choir and transepts, but they 
 form a valuable specimen of the transition 
 period. Archbishop Gray (1215-65) added 
 two western towers arid rebuilt the fa$ade 
 which connects them. About 1280 the east 
 end of the choir gave way and was rebuilt. 
 
Rip 
 
 (816) 
 
 Rip 
 
 In 1319 the Scots, during one of their in¬ 
 cursions, set fire to it; and a century later 
 it suffered from a storm which shattered 
 its lantern tower, but it was restored. At 
 the close of the sixteenth century the min¬ 
 ster again suffered by lightning. In 1842 
 it was declared to be unsafe, and precau- 
 
 endowment of the see, established in 1836, 
 is ,£4,200 a year.—Benham: Diet, of Relig¬ 
 ion. 
 
 Rippon, John, D. D., a prominent Bap- 
 t ; st divine; b. at Tiverton, Devon, April 
 29, 1751. For sixty-three years he was 
 
 ' tie 
 
 RIPON CATHEDRAL. 
 
 tions were taken to ward off the danger; 
 and in 1861 it was put into the hands of 
 Sir Gilbert Scott, who carried out a com¬ 
 plete restoration of the cathedral. The 
 cathedral body consists of a dean, two 
 archdeacons, four canons, three minor can¬ 
 ons and eighteen honorary canons. The 
 
 pastor ot a single charge in London, where 
 he d., Dec. 17, 1836. He edited the Baptist 
 Annual Register (1790-1S02); An Arrange¬ 
 ment of the Rsalms, Hymns , etc., of Dr. 
 Watts, and A Selection of Hymns (1787, 
 10th ed., enlarged, 1S00). He prepared 
 many of the hymns in this selection, but 
 
» 
 
 Rit ( 817 ) Rob 
 
 his chief work was in bringing to light 
 many beautiful lyrics that had been but lit¬ 
 tle kn6wn. 
 
 Ritter, Karl, b. at Quedlinburg, Aug. 7, 
 1779; d. in Berlin, Sept. 25, 1859. As pro¬ 
 fessor of geography from 1820, in the Uni¬ 
 versity of Berlin, he gave a great impulse 
 to this study. Of his works of special in¬ 
 terest to Bible students, The Comparative 
 Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic 
 Peninsula was translated by Gage (Edin¬ 
 burgh, 1866), 4 vols. 
 
 Ritual is “ the external body of words 
 and action by which worship is expressed, 
 and exhibited before God and man.” 
 
 Rituale, the name given to the book con¬ 
 taining the liturgy of the Roman Church, 
 mainly used by the priests. It was drawn 
 up during the thirteenth century. 
 
 Ritualism. Strictly speaking, a ritualist 
 is one who studies the history and char¬ 
 acter of the ancient rites of the Church, 
 like Bingham, the author of the Ecclesiasti¬ 
 cal Antiquities. But the name of Ritualism 
 is now given to the practical developments 
 of the High-Church views promulgated in 
 the Tracts for the Times (Tractarianism), 
 and in other writings of Pusey and Keble. 
 Those views taught that the sacraments 
 were actual means of conveying grace, 
 that Baptism conveys regeneration, and 
 that in the Eucharist Christ is verily and 
 indeed present, though in a spiritual man¬ 
 ner. The use of a new ritual in the Church 
 of England, which sprang up almost sud¬ 
 denly about the year 1859, was the as¬ 
 sertion of these views by visible symbol¬ 
 ism. No new doctrine was advanced, but 
 the doctrines which had hitherto been 
 taught to the ear were now sought to be 
 inculcated through the eye.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion , s. v. The practices of 
 the Ritualists aroused a sharp conflict 
 which was carried into Parliament and the 
 courts of law, and the contention has not 
 yet died away. 
 
 Robber Council. See Ephesus. 
 
 Robertson, Frederick William, “an 
 English preacher, was the son of a Scotch 
 gentleman, Captain Frederick Robertson 
 of the royal artillery, and was b. in Lon¬ 
 don, Feb. 3, 1816, in the house of his grand¬ 
 father, Colonel Robertson. At the age of 
 nine he was sent to the grammar-school of 
 Beverley, in Yorkshire, where he remained 
 for a few years, and then accompanied his 
 parents to the Continent, where he became 
 a proficient in French. In 1832 he entered 
 
 the Rector’s Class at the Edinburgh Acad¬ 
 emy. Next year Robertson proceeded to 
 the Edinburgh University, and while there 
 had for private tutor the Rev. Charles Ter- 
 rot, subsequently bishop of the Scottish 
 Episcopal Church in the same city. He 
 was originally designed for the bar, but 
 the study of law did not prove interesting 
 to him, and he would gladly have become 
 a soldier, for he always felt (as he after¬ 
 ward confessed) ‘ an unutterable admiration 
 of heroic daring;’ but certain difficulties 
 intervened in the way of obtaining a com¬ 
 mission, and Robertson, in obedience to 
 the wish of his father, entered Brasenose 
 College, Oxford, to study for the Church, 
 in 1836. His life had all along been marked 
 by its singular purity and depth of relig¬ 
 ious feeling; hence his new career inspired 
 him with no regret, but rather with a high 
 resolve to be worthy of his calling. His 
 first appointment was to the curacy of St. 
 Maurice and St. Mary Calendar, but his 
 health broke down in the course of a year, 
 and he was compelled to visit the Continent. 
 On his return to England he was for a time 
 curate to the incumbent of Christ Church, 
 Cheltenham, whence, in the beginning of 
 1847, he removed to St. Ebbes, Oxford, 
 and was just beginning to attract the notice 
 of the undergraduates at Oxford when he 
 was offered the incumbency of Trinity 
 Chapel, Brighton. His ‘career’ in Brigh¬ 
 ton—though it is perhaps wrong to de¬ 
 scribe a life so pure, delicate, unselfish, 
 devoted as his, by a term expressive of 
 vulgar ambition—was brief but glorious. 
 For six years he continued to preach ser¬ 
 mons, the like of which, for blending of deli¬ 
 cacy and strength of thought, poetic beauty 
 and homely lucidity of speech, had perhaps 
 never been heard before in England. 
 Robertson was, unhappily (for his comfort), 
 not very ‘ orthodox; ’ consequently he was 
 long misunderstood and vilified by the 
 ‘professedly religious portion of society;’ 
 but so true, so beautiful was his daily life 
 and conversation, that he almost outlived 
 those pious calumnies, and his death (from 
 consumption, Aug. 15, 1853) threw the 
 whole town into mourning. His sermons 
 (of which four series have been published) 
 have attained great popularity, and a very 
 large circulation. The first series was pub¬ 
 lished in i855 (nth edition, 1863). Robert¬ 
 son’s Expository Lechires on St. Pauls 
 Epistle to the Corinthians appeared in 1859. 
 His Lectures and Addresses on Literary and 
 Social Topics contain passages of faultless 
 beauty and refinement; but as they were 
 delivered to mixed audiences, and never in¬ 
 tended for publication, they do not perhaps 
 exhibit that vigorous intellectual grasp of 
 a subject, or that strong and searching 
 
Rob 
 
 ( 818 ) 
 
 Rob 
 
 criticism of which their author was so ca¬ 
 pable. A good biography, with letters, was 
 published in 1865 by the Rev. Stopford A. 
 Brooke (5th ed., i86S). M — Chambers: 
 
 Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Robinson, Charles Seymour, D. D. 
 (Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., 1866); 
 LL. D. (Lafayette College, Easton, Penn., 
 18S5), Presbyterian; b. at Bennington, Vt., 
 March 31, 1829; was graduated at Williams 
 College, Williamstown, Mass., 1849; stud¬ 
 ied at Union (New York City) and Prince¬ 
 ton (N. J.) Theological Seminaries; was 
 pastor in Troy and Brooklyn, N. Y.; Paris, 
 France; and from 1870 to 1888 of Memorial 
 Church, New York City; since 1889, editor 
 of Every Thursday. He has published: 
 Songs of the Church (New York, 1862); 
 Songs for the Sanctuary (1865); Songs for 
 Christian Worship (1866); Short Studies for 
 Sunday - School Teachers (1868) ; Chapel 
 Songs \x'&~i'i)\ Psalms , Hymns , and Spiritual 
 Songs (1874); Christian Work (Sermons); 
 Bethel and Penuel (do., both 1874); Spirit¬ 
 ual Songs (1878); Spiritual Songs for Social 
 Worship (1880); Studies in the New Testa¬ 
 ment (1880); Spiritual Songs for Sunday- 
 School (1881); Studies of Neglected Texts 
 (1883); Laudes Domini (hymn-book, 1884); 
 Simon Peter: Early Life and Times (1887); 
 Sermons in Songs (1888). 
 
 Robinson, Edward, D. D., LL. D., 
 biblical scholar and explorer of the Holy 
 Land; b. at Southington, Conn., April 10, 
 1794; d. at New York, Jan. 27, 1863. He 
 first studied law; then in 1821 was engaged 
 in literary work and instruction at Andover 
 Theological Seminary. In 1826 he went to 
 Europe, studied at Gottingen, Berlin, and 
 Halle, and returned in 1830 to his native 
 country; became biblical professor at An¬ 
 dover, and published several works eluci¬ 
 dating sacred history and literature. His 
 Dictionary of the Bible and Greek and Eng¬ 
 lish Lexicon are much used by students. 
 He was obliged to resign his professorship 
 in 1833 on account of ill-health, after which 
 he published a new edition of Newcome’s 
 Harmony of the Gospels , and in 1837 made a 
 voyage to the Holy Land, for the purpose 
 of study and exploration, returning to Ber¬ 
 lin in 1838. He spent two years in writing 
 Biblical Researches hi Palestine , Mount 
 Sinai , and Arabia Petrcea, which appeared 
 in several editions, and permanently estab¬ 
 lished his reputation as a biblical scholar. 
 After the publication of this work, he again 
 took up his professorship at Andover, 
 which he held till his death. In 1851 he 
 made another visit to Palestine, and again 
 to Europe in 1862. Besides the works 
 above mentioned, Robinson assisted Pro¬ 
 
 fessor Stuart in editing a Hebrew grammar, 
 and wrote a Physical Geography of the Holy 
 Land. —Benham: Diet, of Religion. Dr. 
 Robinson was “ the most distinguished 
 biblical theologian whom America has pro¬ 
 duced—indeed, one of the most distinguish¬ 
 ed of the century.”— Dr. Schaff. See me¬ 
 morial addresses in Life , Writings , and 
 Character of Edward Robinson (N. Y., 1863). 
 
 Robinson, John, b. 1575; d. at Leyden, 
 1625; the minister of the Independent 
 Church in Holland from which departed 
 the earliest settlers of New England. He 
 was a native of Lincolnshire, and educated 
 at Benet’s (Corpus Christi) College, Cam¬ 
 bridge—a college then much inclined to 
 Puritanism. He gained a fellowship after 
 taking his degree, and was ordained to a 
 charge in the diocese of Norwich; but his 
 Puritan convictions deepening, he left the 
 Church in 1604, and became pastor of a 
 small Independent congregation. To en¬ 
 joy the religious liberty then only to be 
 found in the Dutch Republic, these endeav¬ 
 ored to leave England, in 1607, for Holland, 
 but were prevented by the authorities. 
 Another attempt in 1608 was, however, 
 successful, and they reached Amsterdam 
 and afterwards Leyden. How a little band 
 from this settlement started, in 1620, for 
 America, is told in the article upon the 
 Congregationalists, Robinson remaining 
 behind with the intention of following with 
 the rest when the way should be cleared; 
 but this intention was frustrated by his 
 death in 1625. Robinson was a man of 
 great intelligence and candor, and, though 
 a strict Puritan and thorough Independ¬ 
 ent, was liberal and tolerant, and on va¬ 
 rious occasions after his secession com¬ 
 municated with the Episcopalians. He 
 published: A Defence of the Brownists; 
 Justification of the Separation from the 
 Church of England; People's Plea for the 
 Exercise of Prophesying (1618); Essays, Mor¬ 
 al and Divine (1618). One passage ut¬ 
 tered by John Robinson has become his¬ 
 torical, and has been quoted times without 
 number by men of widely different schools 
 of thought. It was in his memorable ad¬ 
 dress to the emigrants at the close of their 
 last solemn religious service, on the eve of 
 their departure for the New World. He 
 said: “ If God reveal anything to you by 
 any other instrument of his, be as ready to 
 receive it as ever you were to receive any 
 truth by my ministry; for I am verily per¬ 
 suaded—I am very confident—that the 
 Lord has more truth yet to break forth out 
 of his Holy Word. For my part I cannot 
 sufficiently bewail the condition of the Re¬ 
 formed Churches, who are come to a pe¬ 
 riod in religion, and will go at present no 
 
Rob 
 
 (819) 
 
 Rog 
 
 further than the instruments of their ref¬ 
 ormation. The Lutherans cannot be drawn 
 to go beyond what Luther saw; whatever 
 part of his will our good God has revealed 
 to Calvin, they will rather die than em¬ 
 brace it. And the Calvinists, you see, 
 stick fast where they were left by that 
 great man of God, who yet saw not all 
 things.”—Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 Dexter: The Congregationalism of the last 
 Three Hundred Years (New York, 1880). 
 
 Robinson, Robert, an eminent Baptist 
 minister; b. at Swaffham in Norfolk, Jan. 
 8, 1735; d. while on a visit to Dr. Priestley 
 at Birmingham, June 8, 1790. He was first 
 connected with the Calvinistic Methodists, 
 but in 1759 united with the Baptists, and 
 from 1761 was pastor of a church in Cam¬ 
 bridge. He wrote a History of Baptism, 
 published after his death, and translated 
 Saurin’s Ser?nons. He wrote the well- 
 knownhymns “Come, thou Fount ” (1758), 
 and ‘ ‘ Mighty God, while angels bless thee ” 
 ( 1778 ). 
 
 Robinson, Stuart, a distinguished Pres¬ 
 byterian minister; b. at Strabane, near 
 Londonderry, Ireland, Nov. 26, 1816; d. at 
 Louisville, Ky., Oct. 5, 1881. He was 
 graduated at Amherst College in 1836; 
 studied theology at Union Theological 
 Seminary, Prince Edward, Va.; pastor at 
 Kanawha Salines, W. Va., 1841-47; at 
 Frankfort, Ky., 1847-52; Baltimore, 1852- 
 56; professor in the theological seminary 
 at Danville, 1856-58, and from then until 
 his death pastor of the Second Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church at Louisville, Ky. He was 
 one of the most prominent defenders of the 
 cause of the South during the civil war. 
 Among his published works are: The 
 Church of God an Essential Element of the 
 Gospel (Phila., 1858), and Discourses of Re¬ 
 demption (N. Y., 1866). 
 
 Roch, St., b. at Montpellier, in 1295; d. 
 there in 1327. During the progress of a 
 plague in Northern Italy, he visi.ted the 
 sick from place to place, and wrought 
 wonderful cures. In connection with this 
 work fabulous tales gathered in time 
 about his name, and a great multitude of 
 churches, hospitals, etc., were dedicated 
 to him. 
 
 Rochester, a city of Kent, Eng., twenty- 
 eight miles southeast of London. It be¬ 
 came the seat of a bishopric in 608. The 
 cathedral was founded by Gundulf, 1077, 
 and consecrated 1130. It is principally 
 Norman and Early English in style. The 
 endowment of the See of Rochester amounts 
 to £3 ,000 a year. 
 
 Rodgers, John, Presbyterian; b. in Bos¬ 
 ton, Aug. 5, 1727; d. in New York, May 7, 
 1811. He entered the ministry in 1747, 
 and in 1749 was settled at St. George’s, in 
 Philadelphia. In 1765 he came to New 
 York City, where he was pastor until his 
 death, with the exception of the period of 
 the Revolutionary War. He was an ear¬ 
 nest patriot, and was frequently consulted 
 by Washington. See his Memoir, by Sam¬ 
 uel Miller (N. Y., 1809). 
 
 Rogation Days (from Latin rogare , to 
 ask or beseech), the name given to the 
 three days which precede Ascension Day, 
 which are set apart in the Roman and An¬ 
 glican Churches as days of fasting and 
 supplication for God’s special blessing on 
 the fruits of the earth. It was formerly 
 the custom to have public processions on 
 these days, at which litanies were sung. 
 
 Rogation Sunday, the fifth Sunday after 
 Easter, so called from the three days that 
 follow. 
 
 • 
 
 Rogers, Henry, an eminent English es¬ 
 sayist; b. Oct. 18, 1806; d. at Pennal 
 Tower, North Wales, Aug. 20, 1877. Af¬ 
 ter preaching for some time as an Inde¬ 
 pendent minister, he became professor of 
 philosophy at the Independent College at 
 Birmingham; and in 1858 principal of 
 Manchester Independent College. He 
 wrote the Eclipse of Faith , Lives of John 
 Howe, Jonathan Edwards, and Thomas Ful¬ 
 ler, and The Superhuman Origin of the 
 Bible Inferred from Itself, and many ar¬ 
 ticles and essays. He was strongly Anti- 
 Tractarian, and also Anti-Rationalistic, the 
 Eclipse of Faith showing scant courtesy to 
 any of the Neologian theories. The im¬ 
 mediate cause of its being written was the 
 publication, by one who had been a clergy¬ 
 man, of a skeptical volume called the Nem¬ 
 esis of Faith. 
 
 Rogers, John, a Protestant martyr, was 
 born at Birmingham about 1500, educated 
 at Cambridge and Oxford, and in 1535 be¬ 
 came pastor at Antwerp. Here he became 
 acquainted with Tyndale, and Coverdale, 
 and joined the Reformed Church. He af¬ 
 terward issued a translation of the Bible 
 known as Matthew’s Bible. He removed 
 from Antwerp to Wittenberg,where he re¬ 
 mained till the accession of Edward VI., 
 when he returned to England, and soon 
 after was made a prebend of St. Paul’s. On 
 the accession of Queen Mary he strongly 
 denounced Romanism, on which he was 
 seized, and, having suffered some months’ 
 imprisonment, was burned at Smithfield, 
 Feb. 4, 1555. 
 
 % 
 
Rom 
 
 ( 820 ) 
 
 Rom 
 
 Romaine, William, an eminent English 
 evangelical divine; b. at Hartlepool, Dur¬ 
 ham, Sept. 25, 1714; d. in London, July 
 26, 1795. He studied at Oxford, and was 
 ordained in 1736. He was appointed pro¬ 
 fessor of astronomy in Gresham College, 
 and became a very popular preacher, and 
 for many years drew crowded congrega¬ 
 tions in London. He was an earnest advo¬ 
 cate of evangelical views, and wrote three 
 volumes that were widely read: The Life 
 of Faith (1763); The Walk of Faith (1771), 
 and The Triumph of Faith (1794). They 
 have frequently been published in one vol¬ 
 ume. See his Life , by W. B. Cadogan, 
 prefixed to an edition of his Works in 8 
 vols. (London, 1796). 
 
 Roman Catholic Church. The very ex¬ 
 tent and influence of this vast church, and 
 the fact that it is the historical parent of 
 all Western communions—as much so of 
 those who most dissent from it as of the 
 others—have made it necessary to treat 
 various branches of the subject so exten¬ 
 sively elsewhere, under various headings, 
 that less is needed in this place than has 
 been devoted to other denominations of far 
 less importance. The foundation of this 
 church is uncertain, but we know that 
 when St. Paul wrote his Epistle to the 
 Romans he had not yet visited Rome, 
 though he did so afterwards. St. Peter is 
 said to have been the first bishop, and tra¬ 
 dition says that he was martyred there. 
 The mighty importance of the city of 
 Rome naturally gave its bishop a great 
 position, but the fact that it became for a 
 while the arbiter and ruler of all Christen¬ 
 dom is the most remarkable fact in the 
 history of Christianity. The causes of the 
 great silent change will be found under the 
 heading Papal Power, Growth of, and 
 the list of Bishops, under Popes, and the 
 emancipation of a large part of Christen¬ 
 dom under Reformation. The contro¬ 
 versy between Rome and Protestantism 
 involves two main questions: In the first 
 place, Protestants deny the authority of- 
 the pope over them at all; and secondly, a 
 large portion of the doctrine of the Roman 
 Church is rejected, as being a corruption of 
 Apostolic Christianity. The Roman 
 Church recognizes seven sacraments, viz., 
 Baptism, Confirmation, the Holy Eucha¬ 
 rist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy Or¬ 
 ders, Matrimony. One of the chief char¬ 
 acteristics of this religion is that of 
 invoking help of the Virgin and the Saints. 
 In defence, Roman Catholics say that they 
 do no more than ask the prayers of those 
 who, from their perfected state, must be 
 more worthy to offer them than they; but 
 in most books of devotion the prayers ad¬ 
 
 dressed to the Blessed Virgin and the 
 Saints are such as Protestants consider it 
 sinful to offer to any but God. The public 
 service is in the Latin tongue, which has 
 caused their opponents to say that they 
 wish to keep the laity in the dark as to 
 what they are doing. With regard to all 
 matters relating to faith, Roman Catholics 
 draw a hard-and-fast line between what is 
 of doctrine and what of discipline. Doc¬ 
 trine is what was taught by Christ and his 
 apostles; discipline, different rules laid 
 down by the various councils of the church, 
 and liable to change at any time. Since 
 the Vatican Council of 1870, when Pius IX. 
 put forth the doctrine of the infallibility of 
 the pope, the utterances of the pontiff have 
 been taken as the groundwork of the faith 
 and practice of the Church. There are va¬ 
 rious religious orders both for men and worn- 
 men, who all are obliged to take the three 
 vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 
 Their work consistsin superintending char¬ 
 itable institutions, such as asylums, orphan¬ 
 ages, and hospitals, and some of the orders 
 have large schools attached to them. The 
 number of Roman Catholics all over the 
 world is about 220,000,000. — Benham : 
 Diet, of Religion. The growth of the Ro¬ 
 man Church in the United States in recent 
 years has been rapid, owing to emigration. 
 They claim over 8,000,000 adherents in this 
 country. The peculiar doctrines, practices, 
 and terms of the Roman Church will be 
 found under their proper headings. See 
 Christianity; Jesuits; Immaculate Con¬ 
 ception; Vatican Council, etc. 
 
 Romans, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Rome, “ the capital of the kingdom of 
 Italy, on the river Tiber, about fifteen miles 
 from the mouth of that river. It is celebrated 
 alike for its existing buildings and for the 
 ruins of its ancient grandeur. Among the 
 former are the Cathedral of St. Peter (built 
 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries), 
 perhaps the finest ecclesiastical structure 
 in the world; and the Palace of the Vatican 
 (completed in its present form about the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century), the 
 residence of the popes, and celebrated for 
 its splendid library, and for its magnificent 
 collection of works of art. St. Peter's and 
 the Vatican are on the right bank of the 
 Tiber, and the principal palace occupied by 
 the king of Italy stands on the left bank. 
 Among the remains of antiquity may be 
 mentioned the Coliseum, completed A. D. 
 80, and which was capable of accommodat¬ 
 ing 87,000 persons. The city is surround¬ 
 ed by walls, nearly thirteen miles in circuit. 
 Of the district on the left bank of the Tiber, 
 however, only the northwestern portion is 
 
( 821 ) 
 
 PANORAMIC VIEW OF ROME FROM THE ROOF OF ST. PETER’S. 
 
Roo 
 
 ( 822 ) 
 
 Ros 
 
 occupied by the modern city; while the 
 portion on the right bank, enclosing a much 
 larger area than was embraced by the cor¬ 
 responding portion of ancient Rome, was 
 built in the first half of the seventeenth 
 century; and a large extent of ground to 
 the south and east of the city is occupied 
 for the most part by market-gardens and 
 vineyards. The most closely built and 
 busiest part of the city occupies the site of 
 the ancient Campus Martius; the hand¬ 
 somer and more fashionable part occupies 
 the slopes of the Quirinal, Viminal, and 
 Capitoline hills. Till the establishment of 
 the Italian kingdom, Rome was the capital 
 of the States of the Church; and it was, at a 
 much earlier period, the capital of the Ro¬ 
 man Empire. It was founded by Romulus 
 about 753 b. c. At first only a small castle 
 on the summit of Mount Palatinus, it had 
 grown by the time of Servius Tullius, the 
 sixth of its kings, who died 534 b. c., large 
 enough to occupy the ‘ seven hills of Rome ’ 
 (jP alatinus, Capitolinus , Quirinalis , Ccelius , 
 Aventinus, Viminalis, Esquilinus ), and 
 was hence called ‘ the City of the Seven 
 Hills.’ In the time of the Emperor Augus¬ 
 tus, the first of the emperors, who died 
 a. u. 14, the population of the city is esti¬ 
 mated to have been at least 1,300,000; and 
 in the time of the Emperors Vespasian and 
 Trajan (a. d. 70-117), it is believed to have 
 contained nearly 2,000,000. On its first 
 foundation, Rome was governed by kings 
 (753—5!0 B. c.); afterwards as a republic 
 by consuls, etc. (510-31 b. c.); and after¬ 
 wards by emperors (31 b. c.-A. d. 476). In 
 the time of the emperors till Diocletian, 
 the empire embraced nearly the whole of 
 the then known world. It was then (a. d. 
 296) divided into the Western and Eastern 
 Empires, but was reunited under Constans 
 in 340, and again divided by Valentinian 
 and Valens in 364. The final division was 
 in 395. The Western Empire fell in 476, 
 but the Eastern Empire survived till the 
 capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 
 1453. About 728 the city of Rome became 
 independent under the popes, and it re¬ 
 mained (with the exception of vicissitudes) 
 the seat of the papal court till the abolition 
 of the temporal power of the popes in 1870. 
 Since then, Rome has been the capital of 
 the kingdom of Italy, only the Vatican be¬ 
 ing under the sovereignty of the pope. 
 The city is the seat of a university, found¬ 
 ed in 1244. Its population in 1881 was 
 300,467.”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. See Vat¬ 
 ican. 
 
 Rood is the Anglo - Saxon word for 
 “ cross.” It was commonly applied to the 
 cross erected in mediaeval times at the en¬ 
 trance of the chancel. 
 
 Rosary (Lat. rosarium , a chaplet of roses), 
 a form of prayer recited on beads by the 
 Roman Catholics. The practice dates as 
 early as the fifth century. 
 
 Roscellin, or Roscelin, was born in the 
 diocese of Soissons in the eleventh century, 
 and educated at Rheims. About 1089 he 
 became canon of Compiegne, and put forth 
 heretical views of the doctrine of the Trin¬ 
 ity—namely, that the three names of the 
 Trinity are the names of three individual 
 substances, as distinct as three angels, and 
 that the unity of the Trinity is a mere ver¬ 
 bal expression, implying a unity in power, 
 as there may be among the angels. In 
 1092 a council was called at Soissons, at 
 which Roscellin was condemned, and oblig¬ 
 ed to recant. He fled to England, where he 
 retracted his recantation, and wrote against 
 his principal antagonist, Anselm (who had 
 written De Fide Trinitatis against him), 
 accusing him of holding heretical views on 
 the Incarnation. Anselm had lately be¬ 
 come archbishop of Canterbury, and this 
 caused a quarrel between him and the king; 
 but they were reconciled, and Roscellin 
 was forced to return to France. He became 
 canon of Tours, and shortly after began a 
 controversy with his former disciple, Abe¬ 
 lard. The latter had, in his early years, 
 been a strong partisan of Roscellin, but his 
 views took a more modified form, and 
 greatly resembled Sabellianism. Roscellin 
 accused him also of other heresies, where¬ 
 upon Abelard violently attacked his former 
 leader. No account remains of Roscellin’s 
 latter years, but he is supposed to have 
 died about 1106.—Benham: Diet, of Relig~ 
 ion. See Nominalists. 
 
 Rose, The Golden. See Golden Rose. 
 
 Rose, Hugh James, considered by many 
 the founder of the Tractarian movement in 
 England; b. at Uckfield,i795; d. in Florence, 
 Italy, Dec. 22, 1838. He was graduated 
 at Trinity College, Cambridge; vicar of 
 Horsham, 1822-30; rector of Hadley, Suf¬ 
 folk, 1830, and principal of King’s College, 
 London, 1836. He was a learned man, and 
 a very pronounced High-Churchman. 
 
 Rosicrucians, a society formed in Ger¬ 
 many at the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century. An anonymous pamphlet, pub¬ 
 lished at Cassel, in 1614, asserted that the 
 founder, Rosenkreutz, had lived 200 years 
 before, but that, according to the rules 
 drawn up at the foundation, its existence 
 had, up to that time, been kept a profound 
 secret. The pamphlet declared the mem¬ 
 bers to be possessed of fabulous scientific 
 knowledge, and to be absolutely exempt 
 
Rot 
 
 ( 823 ) 
 
 Rou 
 
 from illness or suffering of any sort. 
 Another derivation of their name is from 
 ros, “ dew,” which they held to be the most 
 powerful dissolvent of gold; and crtix, 
 “ cross,” which in the chemical style signi¬ 
 fies “ light,” became the figure of the cross, 
 “ X,” exhibiting at the same time the three 
 letters in the word lux. They were alche¬ 
 mists, who sought for the Philosopher’s 
 Stone by the intervention of dew and light. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Rothe (rot), Richard, “ one of the first 
 speculative divines of Germany, was b. at 
 Posen in 1799, and became successively 
 member, professor, director, and ephorus 
 of the Theological Seminary of Wittenberg. 
 In 1837 he was nominated professor of 
 theology at the University of Heidelberg, 
 which in 1849 he exchanged for Posen. In 
 1854, however, he removed again to Heidel¬ 
 berg. Vigorous grasp and independence of 
 thought were his chief characteristics, but 
 he never formed a school, in the strict 
 sense of the term. One of his well-known 
 works is the System of Theological Ethics, 
 or Moral Theology —a complete system of 
 speculative theology or theosophy. This 
 work is to show that religious truth is not 
 a series of disputable propositions, but a 
 divine morality; in a word, to translate the 
 scholastic dialect of the creeds back into 
 the living language of the Sermon on the 
 Mount. Another remarkable book of his 
 is the Beginnings of the Christian Church, 
 which, by the peculiarity of ‘ stand-point’ 
 assumed by the author regarding Church 
 and State, evoked many fierce counter¬ 
 treatises, like Baur’s On the Origin of Epis¬ 
 copacy. Rothe died at Heidelberg in 1867. 
 H is lectures on Dogmatik were published 
 in 1870; Sermons, in 1872, and Quiet Hours 
 (Stille Stunden) the same year.”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopedia. 
 
 Roumania. The Greek Church is the 
 State Church of Roumania. The higher 
 clergy are paid by the State, and the lower 
 clergy by the congregations, or, as is often 
 the case, they support themselves by agri¬ 
 culture. Their duties are not onerous, as 
 they only have to read the formularies and 
 perform the church ceremonies. There are 
 a few evangelical congregations under the 
 protection of the Prussian State Church. 
 Of the population of Roumania, 4,598,219 
 belong to the Greek Church, 115,420 to the 
 Roman Catholics, 8,803 to the Armenian 
 Church, 7,790 to the Evangelical Church; 
 there are also 401,051 Jews, and 25,033 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 Roundheads, a name given to the Puri¬ 
 tans because they wore their hair cut very 
 
 short, while the Cavaliers wore theirs in 
 long ringlets. 
 
 Rousseau ( roo-so '), Jean Jacques, “b. in 
 Geneva, June 28, 1712; d. at Ermenonville, 
 near Chantilly, July 2, 1778; one of the 
 prominent French socialist writers of the 
 eighteenth century, now remembered 
 chiefly for his Confessions , which were 
 written during a residence in England, in 
 1766, and an essay entitled Du Contrat So¬ 
 cial. He was the son of a watchmaker of 
 Geneva, and till the age of fifteen resided 
 in that city, where he was apprenticed first 
 to an attorney, and afterwards to an en¬ 
 graver. In his sixteenth year he wandered 
 into Savoy, a fugitive from his second mas¬ 
 ter; and there found a protector in a Madame 
 de Warens, a new convert to the Roman 
 Catholic Church, through whose instru¬ 
 mentality he also became a convert to the 
 same faith. He resided with this lady for 
 ten years, and, after various wanderings, 
 went in 1745 to Paris. On alighting at an 
 inn in that city, he fell in with a servant 
 girl, named Therese Levasseur, and with 
 her he formed a connection which lasted for 
 the rest of his life. In 1748 he became ac¬ 
 quainted with Madame D’Epinay,at whose 
 house he was introduced to Diderot, 
 D’Alembert, and Condillac,and was by them 
 engaged to write musical articles for the 
 Encyclopddie. In 1750 he obtained a prize 
 from the Academy of Dijon for an essay 
 in answer to the question whether the re¬ 
 establishment of the arts and sciences had 
 contributed to purify morals. He answered 
 the question in the negative, but displayed 
 so much ingenuity and eloquence that his 
 essay attracted much attention. In 1756, 
 at the invitation of Madame D’Epinay, he 
 took up his residence at her country house, 
 called the Hermitage, in the pretty valley 
 of Montmorency, near Paris. Here he be¬ 
 gan to write his celebrated novel, Julia; 
 or, the New Heloise, which he finished in 
 1759. This was followed in 1762 by Emile, 
 a moral romance, in which he condemns 
 every other mode of education but that of 
 following nature, and avows through one 
 of the characters a creed which amounts to 
 little more than theism. This work was 
 anathematized by the archbishop of Paris, 
 and was ordered to be burned by the Par¬ 
 liament of Paris, which proceeded crimi¬ 
 nally against the author. About the same 
 time it was burned at Geneva. Rousseau 
 now fled from France, but returned in 
 1765-66,when he accompanied David Hume 
 to England, remaining for a little more 
 than a year. In 1769 he married Therese 
 Levasseur, by whom he had had five chil¬ 
 dren. In 1770 he was once more in Paris, 
 and took lodgings in the Rue Platriere, 
 
Rub 
 
 ( 824 ) 
 
 Rus 
 
 which has since been called Rue J. J. 
 Rousseau. He was now growing old and 
 infirm, and was, besides, extremely poor. 
 He died at a cottage offered to him by the 
 Marquis de Garardin,at Ermenonville, and 
 was buried, according to his request, on an 
 island shaded by poplars in a little lake in 
 the Park of Ermenonville, where a plain 
 marble monument was raised to his mem¬ 
 ory. His Confessions were not published 
 till after his death. A good account of the 
 life and works, and likewise of the charac¬ 
 ter, of Rousseau, is given by John Morley 
 in Rousseau (1878).”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Rubrics (from the Lat. rubidns, red), a 
 name given to certain directions as to the 
 mode of conducting service, the use of 
 prayers on special occasions, etc. The 
 name is derived from the fact that the ru¬ 
 brics were originally written in red ink. 
 
 Rufinus, Tyrannius (Turranius, Tora- 
 nus), b. at Aquileja. He early entered a 
 monastery in his native city, and was bap¬ 
 tized in 370 or 371. The following year 
 he went to Egypt, where he spent six years, 
 and visited the most famous hermits. In 
 378 or 379 he built a cell and lived a hermit- 
 life on the Mount of Olives. During the 
 Origenistic controversy he was opposed 
 to Jerome. He translated many of Ori- 
 gen’s exegetical works, and in various ways 
 was an interpreter of Greek theology. 
 
 Rule of Faith. See Regula Fidei. 
 
 Rural Deans, ecclesiastical officers in the 
 Anglican Church, who are supposed to 
 superintend the clergy within their district; 
 see that their houses and churches are 
 kept in repair; discuss topics of interest 
 with them, and report the result to the 
 bishop. 
 
 Russian Church, The. The Russians 
 claim to have been converted to Christian¬ 
 ity by the Apostle Andrew, but it has been 
 conclusively proved that the conversion 
 did not take place till the ninth century. 
 The State Church of Russia is a branch of 
 the Greek or Eastern Church. In the year 
 955 Olga, widow of the Grand Prince Igor, 
 went to Constantinople to receive baptism 
 at the hands of the patriarch. She sought 
 to convert her son to the new religion, but 
 without success; her teaching, however, 
 bore fruit later in the mind of her grandson 
 Vladimir. Vladimir died in 1015, and his 
 son, Yaroslav, caused the Scriptures to be 
 translated into Slavonian, founded an arch¬ 
 bishopric at Kieff, and by getting Greek 
 priests to settle in his country sought to 
 render his Church independent of the pa¬ 
 
 triarch of Constantinople; but in this he 
 did not succeed, and for six centuries it re¬ 
 mained attached to the Greek Church. 
 After the seizure of Constantinople by the 
 Turks in 1453, the Russian bishops elected 
 their own metropolitans without the sanc¬ 
 tion of Greek patriarchs, and in 1551 a syn¬ 
 od held at Moscow framed a code of eccle¬ 
 siastical laws for the government of the 
 Church. These laws were called Stoglav , 
 or a hundred chapters. In the reign of 
 the Czar Theodore, the Greeks consented 
 to the consecration, in 1588, of an inde¬ 
 pendent patriarch of Moscow. The most 
 important of these patriarchs was Nikon 
 (1652-57). In 1642 a catechism was com¬ 
 posed in the Russian language by Peter 
 Mogilas, to check the growing tendency of 
 the Russo-Greeks to conform to Rome, 
 and Nikon did much to correct the errors 
 which still remained in the Slavonic ver¬ 
 sion of the Scriptures and in the service- 
 books. These changes in the liturgy 
 caused great commotion in the Church, 
 and in 1666 a large number separated them¬ 
 selves from the rest, and were called Ras- 
 kolniks , from raskol , “cleft,” to signify 
 schism or dissent. They, however, call 
 themselves Starovertzi , or the “ Old Be¬ 
 lievers.” Peter the Great, in 1700, on the 
 death of the tenth patriarch, Adrian, or¬ 
 dered that for the future the Russian 
 Church should be governed by a synod 
 consisting of a certain number of bishops, 
 several presbyters, and an imperial procu¬ 
 rator. Accordingly, in 1723, the Most 
 Holy Synod was established at Moscow. 
 It has now been removed to St. Peters¬ 
 burg. It is usually composed of two met¬ 
 ropolitans, two bishops, the chief secular 
 priest of the imperial staff, and the follow¬ 
 ing lay members: the procurator, seven 
 secretaries, and some clerks. It decides 
 on all matters of faith, and superintends 
 the administration of the dioceses. The 
 law of the land with regard to religion is 
 as follows: “ The ruling faith in the Rus¬ 
 sian Empire is the Christian Orthodox 
 Eastern Catholic declaration of belief. Re¬ 
 ligious liberty is not only assured to Chris¬ 
 tians of other denominations, but also to 
 Jews, Mohammedans, and pagans; so that 
 all people living in Russia may worship 
 God according to the laws and faith of 
 their ancestors.” In some respects the 
 Russian creed resembles that of the Latin, 
 but yet it differs in a few very important 
 particulars, notably that of the doctrine of 
 the Trinity. The Russians deny the double 
 Procession of the Holy Ghost. (Filioque 
 Controversy.) The worship of the Vir¬ 
 gin is not so common as in Italy or Spain, 
 but the invocation of the saints is quite as 
 usual. The laity communicate in both 
 
Rut 
 
 ( 825 ) 
 
 Rye 
 
 kinds with the priests, but with this differ¬ 
 ence, that while he partakes of each sep¬ 
 arately, the laity receive the bread soaked 
 in the wine. The Russians take their fun¬ 
 damental doctrines from the Bible and the 
 first of the seven General Councils of the 
 Church. The number of sacraments rec¬ 
 ognized by them is seven, namely, Bap¬ 
 tism, Chrism, the Eucharist, Orders, Con¬ 
 fession, Matrimony, and the Unction of the 
 Sick. In the latter there is again a differ¬ 
 ence from the Roman Catholic idea of the 
 same service. In the former, unction is ad¬ 
 ministered only at the certain approach of 
 death, whereas in Russia prayers are add¬ 
 ed for the recovery of the patient. There 
 are three orders of clergy: bishops, priests, 
 and deacons, but numerous subdivisions 
 exist in each order. It will suffice if we 
 mention those of the bishops, which are 
 three in number: First, the metropolitans, 
 of which there are only three in Russia; 
 second, the archbishops; third, the bish¬ 
 ops. The lower clergy are paid by the 
 State, and although their incomes are for 
 the most part very small, they manage, by 
 total exemption from taxation, to live. 
 They are forbidden to marry after their or¬ 
 dination, but there is no law against their 
 keeping their wives if they should have 
 been married while still laymen. The 
 number of members of this Church is said 
 to be as great as 64,000,000, of which 15,- 
 000,000 are sectarian dissenters. The rit¬ 
 ual of the service is elaborate in the ex¬ 
 treme; a description of a festival service 
 has been published in Dr. Pinkerton’s ac¬ 
 count of his visit to Russia. Great super¬ 
 stition prevails, especially amongst the 
 lower classes, and this is fostered by the 
 priests. Image-worship, or, to speak more 
 correctly*picture-worship, is a great feat¬ 
 ure of the religion of the people, many 
 thinking it utterly impossible to say a 
 prayer unless they have a picture either of 
 the Saviour or of the Virgin before them. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Ruth, Book of, “ one of the Hagiog- 
 rapha, placed in the authorized version, 
 as in the LXX., between Judges and Sam¬ 
 uel; and in the Jewish canon as the second 
 of the five Megilloth, coming after the 
 Song of Songs. It consists of four chap¬ 
 ters, and describes how Ruth, the Moabite 
 widow of a Hebrew, Mahlon by name, in 
 the time of the Judges, became—by faith¬ 
 ful, loving adherence to her mother-in-law, 
 Naomi, for whose sake she had left her 
 home and kindred—the wife of Boaz, and 
 through him the ancestress of David him¬ 
 self. A fragmentary genealogy of David’s 
 house—of which the principal links only 
 
 are given—forms the conclusion of the 
 book, which is characterized throughout 
 by the most naive simplicity and minute 
 truthfulness of detail. If there be a ten¬ 
 dency in the book—which is doubtful—it 
 would naturally be to show how utterly 
 even that strictest of prejudices, in the 
 mind of ancient peoples, especially the 
 Hebrews, against intermarriage with the 
 ‘stranger,’ is vanquished by genuine love 
 and piety; nay, that the heroine of the tale, 
 even a Moabite, was deemed worthy, for 
 her virtue, to become the foundress of the 
 royal house of Israel. Considering that 
 the book of Kings contains no details about 
 David’s genealogy, this book, apart from 
 its indescribable natural charm, becomes a 
 most useful historical record, and further 
 supplies many items on the forms and do¬ 
 mestic customs of a time about which we 
 have such very scant information else¬ 
 where. 
 
 “ The time of the events related mounts 
 back to about a century before David, yet 
 both the contents and tendency of the book 
 show clearly enough that it was hardly 
 written before the last years of David’s 
 reign, if it was at all written in his life¬ 
 time. For a change had already taken 
 place in the interval in the manners and 
 customs of the people (cf. the ‘ in former 
 time,’ iv. 7), and the genealogy carried 
 down to David shows the theocratic signif¬ 
 icance he had acquired by the time it was 
 written. ”—Chambers: Cycloptzdia. 
 
 Rutherfurd, Samuel, a Scotch divine and 
 Covenanter; b. about 1600 at Nisbet; d. 
 at St. Andrew’s, March 20, 1661; was 
 graduated at the University of Edinburgh 
 in 1621; was minister at Anworth in 1627, 
 but was deprived of his living in 1636 for 
 nonconformity, and a work in defence of 
 the doctrines of Presbyterianism as against 
 the Arminians. He was made professor 
 at St. Andrew’s in 1639; commissioner to 
 the Westminster Assembly, 1643-47, and 
 principal of New College in 1649. In 1660 
 he was deprived of his offices, and cited to 
 appear before the next Parliament to an¬ 
 swer to the charge of high treason, but 
 death prevented him from going. He 
 wrote many works in defence of his views. 
 His letters are very interesting, and were 
 published, with a sketch of his life, by 
 Rev. A. A. Bonar (new edition, London, 
 1881). S ee Manna Crumbs . . . being Ex¬ 
 cerpts from the Letters of Sa?nuel Ruther¬ 
 furd , gathered by Rev. W. P. Breed (Phil., 
 1865). 
 
 Ryerson, Adolphus Egerton, D. D., 
 LL. D., Methodist; b. in Charlotteville, 
 Canada, March 24, 1803; d. at Toronto, 
 
Ryl 
 
 ( 826 ) 
 
 Sab 
 
 Feb. 19, 1882. He became a preacher in 
 connection with the Canada Methodist 
 Conference in 1826, and soon became dis¬ 
 tinguished as an able and effective writer 
 and speaker. He was chosen editor of 
 the Christian Guardian in 1829. In 1833 
 he was sent by the Conference as delegate 
 to the Wesleyan body in England, and in 
 1841 was elected the first president of Vic¬ 
 toria University. He was appointed chief 
 superintendent of education for Upper 
 Canada in 1844, and in this important of¬ 
 fice accomplished a work of great benefit 
 to the community. He wrote many pam¬ 
 phlets and reports, and among his works 
 are Epochs of Canadian Methodism (1882) 
 and The History of the United Empire Loyal¬ 
 ists, 2 vols. (1880). 
 
 Ryland, John, D. D., a distinguished 
 Baptist minister and hymn-writer; b. at 
 Warwick, Jan. 29, 1753; d. at Bristol, May 
 25, 1825. He was pastor of the Baptist 
 Church at Northampton (1781), and after¬ 
 ward at Bristol, where he held the office of 
 president of the college there, from 1794 
 to his death. His Hymns and Verses were 
 collected by D. Sedgwick in 1862 in a 
 volume that contains a Memoir by Dr. 
 Hoby. 
 
 Ryle, John Charles, D. D., lord bishop 
 of Liverpool, Church of England; b. at 
 Macclesfield, May 10, 1816. He was grad¬ 
 uated at Christ Church, Oxford, 1837; be¬ 
 came curate of Exbury Hants, 1841; rector 
 of St. Thomas’s, Winchester, 1843; of Hel- 
 mingham, Suffolk, 1844; vicar of Strad- 
 broke*, Suffolk, 1861; honorary canon of 
 Norwich Cathedral, 1872; select preacher 
 at Cambridge, 1873-74; bishop of Liver¬ 
 pool, 1880. He has written upwards of 
 one hundred tracts on doctrinal and prac¬ 
 tical subjects, which have had a large cir¬ 
 culation: Coming Events and Present Duties 
 (1867); Bisao-frs and Clergy of Other Days 
 (1868); The Christian Leaders of the Last 
 Century (in England) (1869) ; Expository 
 Thoughts on the Gospels (1856—69), 7 vols. 
 
 s. 
 
 Sab'aoth (hosts). The phrase “ Lord of 
 Sabaoth ” is used twice in the New Testa¬ 
 ment—Rom. ix. 29; Jas. v. 4. It is the 
 Greek translation of the Hebrew Tsebaoth , 
 “hosts” or “armies,” so often found in 
 the Old Testament, and translated “ Lord of 
 hosts,” “Lord God of hosts ”— i. e., the 
 heavenly bodies, the angels, or the people 
 of God. 
 
 Sabas, St., b. at Mutalasca, or Mutala, 
 a village in Cappadocia, 439; d. near Jeru¬ 
 
 salem about 531. In extreme youth he 
 gave up an inheritance of wealth, and be¬ 
 came a hermit in Palestine, where he was 
 joined by others, and in 484 he was made 
 abbot of an order of monks, called after him 
 Sabaites. The discipline was very severe. 
 He founded the convent of Mar Saba. See 
 Kidron. 
 
 Sabbatarians. See Seventh-Day Bap¬ 
 tists. 
 
 Sabbath, The, “as a day of rest and 
 special sanctity among the days of the week, 
 appears to have been of early institution, 
 but it is first mentioned as a day ‘ holy to 
 the Lord ’ in connection with the gathering 
 of the manna in the wilderness (Exod. 
 xvi. 23); and the publication of the com¬ 
 mand requiring its observance goes no fur¬ 
 ther back than the delivery of the Law 
 from Mount Sinai. (Exod. xx. 10.) Orig¬ 
 inally observed in recognition of God’s 
 ‘ rest ’ from his work as Creator, it was 
 now enjoined as commemorative of the 
 ‘ rest ’ which he had given his people from 
 the bondage of Egypt, and its observance 
 was required as an acknowledgment of the 
 covenant that was thereupon established 
 between God and the people to all gener¬ 
 ations. The entire day was to be given up 
 in consecration to the Lord alone, not only 
 as the Creator of the heavens and the 
 earth, but as the Redeemer of Israel; and 
 the observance of it was one of the dis¬ 
 tinctive badges of membership in the Jew¬ 
 ish community. No law was held by the 
 strict Jews to be more religiously binding, 
 or was eventually so scrupulously hedged 
 round with guards against every seeming 
 violation.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. “ The 
 choice of the first day by the Christian 
 Church is due to Christ’s appearing on that 
 day, and to apostolical usage. Rev. i. 10 
 first mentions ‘ the Lord’s Day.’ The early 
 Church met to break bread on the first day 
 (Acts xx. 7); it was the day for laying-by 
 of alms for the poor. (1 Cor. xvi. 2.) No 
 formal decree changed the Sabbath from 
 the seventh to the first day; this would 
 only have offended the Jews and weak 
 Christians. At first both days were kept. 
 But when Judaizing Christians wished to 
 bring Christians under the bondage of the 
 law, and the Jews became open antagonists 
 of the Church, the observance of the Jew¬ 
 ish Sabbath was tacitly laid aside, and the 
 Lord’s Day alone was kept (see Col. d. 16). 
 Moses, the law’s representative, could not 
 lead Israel into Canaan. The law leads to 
 Christ, there its office ceases; it is Jesus, 
 the Antitype of Joshua, who leads us into 
 the heavenly rest. (Heb. iv. 8, 9.) So le¬ 
 gal sacrifices continued till the antitypical 
 
Sab 
 
 ( 827 ) 
 
 Sac 
 
 sacrifice superseded it. As the antitypical 
 sabbath rest will not be till Christ comes 
 to usher us into it, the typical earthly Sab¬ 
 bath must continue till then.”—Fausset: 
 Bible Cyclopedia. 
 
 Sabbath-Day’s Journey (Acts i. 12) was 
 about seven-eighths of a mile, and was the 
 distance which might be traveled without 
 violating the law. (Ex. xvi. 29.) 
 
 Sabbatical Year (Exod. xxxiii. 10, 11), 
 “ part of the same general law as the Sab¬ 
 bath day. The land must rest fallow each 
 seventh year. In Lev. xxv. 2-7 and Deut. 
 xv. God ordains also the release of debtors 
 every seventh year. The parts of the har¬ 
 vest crop, ungathered and ungleaned, in 
 some degree sowed themselves for a spon¬ 
 taneous growth in the idle seventh year. 
 (Lev. xix. 6; xxiii. 22.) The owners laid 
 up corn in the previous years for it. (Lev. 
 xxv. 20-22.) As the Sabbath is God’s as¬ 
 sertion of his claim on time, so the sabat- 
 ical year on the land. The sabbatical year 
 began in the seventh month, and the whole 
 law was then read during the feast of tab¬ 
 ernacles; so that holy occupation, not apa¬ 
 thetic rest, characterized it, as in the case 
 of the Sabbath day. At the completion of 
 the week of sabbatical years (fifty) the ju¬ 
 bilee year crowned the whole. Canaan’s 
 conquest took seven years, the allotment 
 of land seven more; then began the law of 
 the sabbatical year. These ‘ years ’ were 
 observed under the N. T.; and Judaizers 
 even sought to force their observance on 
 Gentile Christians. (Gal. iv. 10.) In the 
 jubilee year alienated lands returned to 
 their original owners, and Hebrew bond- 
 servants were freed. (Lev. xxv. 8-16, 23- 
 55; xvii. 16-25; Num. xxxvi. 4.) The ju¬ 
 bilee is the crowning of the sabbatical sys¬ 
 tem. The weekly and the monthly sab¬ 
 baths secured rest for each spiritually; the 
 sabbatical year secured rest for the land. 
 The jubilee secured rest and restoration 
 for the body politic, to recover that general 
 equality which Joshua’s original settle¬ 
 ment contemplated; hence no religious ob¬ 
 servances were prescribed, simply the 
 trumpets sounded the glad note of restora¬ 
 tion. The leisure of the jubilee year was, 
 perhaps, devoted to school and instruction 
 of the people, the reading of the law and 
 such services (Ewald).”—Fausset: Bible 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Sabeans. See Mend/EANs. 
 
 Sabel'lius was the author of the Sabellian 
 heresy. Very little is known of his history. 
 He was born at Ptolemais, in Libya, early 
 in the third century, and afterward be¬ 
 
 came, perhaps, the bishop of that city. 
 He owed some of his heretical views to Noe- 
 tus of Smyrna, whose disciple he was, and 
 began to publish his errors about A. d. 260. 
 They did not die out till the fifth century. 
 
 Sabellius denied the doctrine of the Trin¬ 
 ity, maintaining that God is unipersonal, 
 and that the names Father, Son and Holy 
 Ghost merely designate the same person 
 in different capacities. As the Father, 
 God created the world; as the Son, he re¬ 
 deemed it; as the Holy Ghost, he sancti¬ 
 fies the elect. These three, he said, are 
 no more different persons than the body, 
 soul, and spirit of man are three persons. 
 A deduction from this view is that the 
 Father suffered on the Cross, hence the 
 Sabellians are often included among the 
 Patripassians (</. v.). Later on the Sabel¬ 
 lians became divided, and one section—the 
 Low Sabellians—held that Jesus Christ was 
 not divine, but that an “ energy ” or ema¬ 
 nation from God dwelt in him. They all 
 accepted the Scriptures, but acknowledged 
 also some apocryphal books, the chief of 
 which was The Gospel to the Egyptians. 
 
 Sabellianism was the cause of the intro¬ 
 duction of the word person in describing 
 the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. The 
 word had not been used before in that con¬ 
 nection.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Sacerdotalism is that view of the priest¬ 
 hood which, considering the Lord’s Supper 
 a sacrifice, regards the priest as the minis¬ 
 ter of that sacrifice. See Priest; Ritual¬ 
 ism. 
 
 Sachs, Hans, a Nuremberg shoemaker, 
 who has been called “ the prince and patri¬ 
 arch of the master-singers;” b. at Nurem¬ 
 berg, Nov. 5, 1494; d. there, Jan. 20, 1576. 
 In 1511, in connection with work at his 
 trade, he visited the principal cities of Ger¬ 
 many, and among the master-singers cul¬ 
 tivated the art of poetry. These master- 
 singers were mechanics, and me ton holidays 
 and Sunday afternoons in the church or 
 in the guildhall to sing the poems they had 
 composed. Sachs soon gained a great rep¬ 
 utation, and after settling in Nuremberg, 
 while supporting a large family by his 
 trade, found time to compose poems—the 
 number of which has been put as high as 
 six thousand. Some of his productions 
 exerted a marked influence in the history 
 of the German Reformation. Some of his 
 most celebrated poems are transcriptions 
 of Luther’s translation of the Psalms. In 
 1874 a bronze statue of the poet-shoemaker 
 was erected in the Spitalplatz at Nurem¬ 
 berg. 
 
 Sack, Brethren of the, a division of 
 
Sac 
 
 ( 828 ) 
 
 Sai 
 
 the Bonihomines, or Perfecti (q. v.), found¬ 
 ed in France about 1200, and confirmed by 
 the pope in 1219. They received their 
 name from the sack which they used as a 
 garment. For a time they spread rapidly, 
 but probably on account of heretical views 
 they were dissolved in 1275. An order of 
 nuns bearing the same name was founded 
 by Louis IX. in 1261, but it was short¬ 
 lived. As late as 1357 the inmates of a 
 nunnery in London wore sacks of hemp. 
 
 Sacrament. This word signified, in clas¬ 
 sical Latin, the oath which a soldier took to 
 be faithful to his commander; and its eccle¬ 
 siastical use appears to be due to Pliny, 
 who, in his celebrated letter to Trajan, a. d. 
 112, says that he found that the Christians 
 bound themselves with an oath ( sacramento ) 
 to be faithful to Christ, and to abstain from 
 crimes. Evidently this refers to the bap¬ 
 tismal covenant. Tertullian uses the word 
 regularly in its present sense. Protestants 
 confine the number of sacraments to two, 
 viz., baptism and the Lord’s Supper, since 
 these were alone instituted by Christ and 
 commanded to be observed. The Roman 
 Catholic and Greek Churches add to these 
 sacraments five others, viz., confirmation, 
 penance, extreme unction, ordination, and 
 matrimony. 
 
 As to the efficacy and nature of the sacra¬ 
 ments Protestants consider them as signs 
 and seals of a living faith, while the Roman 
 Church regards them as the absolutely nec¬ 
 essary channels of all divine grace. See 
 Smith and Cheetham: Did. of Chris. An¬ 
 tiquities ; Baptism; Lord’s Supper. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Society of the. See 
 Jesus, Society of the Sacred Heart of. 
 
 Sacrifice. See Offering. 
 
 Sacrilege is the desecration or profana¬ 
 tion of objects consecrated to God. In the 
 ancient Church special decrees were pro¬ 
 nounced against those who in any way 
 profaned the Eucharist, or misappropriated 
 sacred property. Those who committed 
 sacrilege were often put to death, and those 
 who stole church property, if they did not 
 make restitution, were excommunicated, 
 and anathematized. 
 
 Sacristan, in the early Church, was the 
 name of the minister who had charge of 
 the sacred vessels, vestments and ftyni- 
 ture. The office is still retained in many 
 foreign cathedrals. 
 
 Sacristy formerly was a separate build¬ 
 ing belonging to the Church, or an apart¬ 
 ment in it, where the sacred vessels were 
 
 kept, and the priests put their vestments 
 on and off. It answered to the modern 
 vestry. 
 
 Sacy, Louis Isaac Lemaistre de, spirit¬ 
 ual director of the recluses of Port Royal; 
 b. in Paris, March 29, 1613; d. Jan. 4, 1684. 
 Educated at Beauvais, in 1650, two years 
 after his ordination he became confessor at 
 Port Royal. During the persecution of 
 the Jansenists he sought safety in the 
 suburb of St. Antoine, but was discovered 
 and imprisoned in the Bastille (1666). 
 After his release he returned to Port Royal 
 (1668), but in 1679 he was again compelled 
 to leave the monastery, and spend the rest 
 of his life in the house of his cousin, the 
 Marquis of Pomponne. His principal 
 works are translations of the Bible. His 
 translation of the New Testament was at¬ 
 tacked by several bishops, and condemned 
 by Pope Clement IX., but found defenders 
 in Arnauld and Nicole. La Sainte Bible , 
 containing the Vulgata , is still widely used 
 in France. 
 
 Sadducees, “a party supposed to be 
 named either from ‘ Tsedek,’ righteousness , 
 or from Zadok, disciple of Antigonus So- 
 chaeus, a president of the Sanhedrim (b. c. 
 200-170). They were the very opposite of 
 the Pharisees, denying the authority of all 
 revelation and tradition subsequent to 
 Moses; skeptical with regard to the mirac¬ 
 ulous and supernatural, they denied the 
 existence of spiritual beings, the immortal¬ 
 ity of the soul, and the resurrection of the 
 body. Hence they were deists, and view¬ 
 ed the Supreme Being as a quiescent Prov¬ 
 idence, calmly surveying from above the 
 regular working of natural laws, and the 
 creatures which spontaneously reproduced 
 themselves from the original germs. They 
 gave themselves up to ease, luxury, and 
 self-indulgence; accepted Greek culture and 
 intercourse; mingled with foreigners, and 
 were not indisposed to view with indiffer¬ 
 ent liberality the laxity of heathen morals 
 and the profanity of idol-worship. They 
 divided the hierarchy with the Pharisees, 
 and the Chief Council seems to have been 
 equally balanced between the two (Acts 
 xxiii. 6); the family of Annas belonging to 
 the Sadducean faction in our Lord’s time. 
 (Acts v. 17.)”—“ Oxford” Bible Helps. 
 
 Saint John, Knights of. See Military 
 Religious Orders. 
 
 Saint-Simon de Rouvroy, Comte Claude 
 Henri de, a French social philosopher; b. 
 in Paris, Oct. 17, 1760; d. there, May 19, 
 1S25. He came to this country in 1777 
 and fought bravely in the War of the Rev- 
 
Sai 
 
 ( 829 ) 
 
 Sal 
 
 olution. He visited Mexico and proposed 
 to cut a canal through the Isthmus, and in 
 Spain formed a project to connect Madrid 
 with the sea. During the Revolution in 
 France he bought up many confiscated es¬ 
 tates, and purposed to found a scientific 
 and industrial school. He became finan¬ 
 cially involved, and found himself penni¬ 
 less just at the time when he had formed a 
 great plan for the reorganization of society. 
 H is best-known books are: Catechisme Poli¬ 
 tique (1823) and Nouveau Christianisme 
 (1825). 
 
 Saints, Day of All. See All-Saints’- 
 Day. 
 
 Saints, Worship of the. See Invoca¬ 
 tion of Saints. 
 
 Sakya Muni. See Buddhism. 
 
 Sal'amis, the most important and largest 
 city on the Island of Cyprus. Paul and 
 Barnabas, when they visited the island, 
 preached in the synagogue. (Acts xiii. 5.) 
 
 Salem Witchcraft. See Witchcraft. 
 
 Sales, Francis de. See Francis of 
 Sales. 
 
 Salisbury, the county-town of Wiltshire, 
 Eng., is celebrated for its cathedral, which 
 was built early in the thirteenth century. 
 It has recently been restored. Salisbury 
 (formerly called New Sarurn) has been the 
 seat of a bishopric since 1217, in which it 
 was removed from Old Sarum , a town no 
 longer in existence, about two miles to the 
 north of the present city. The income of 
 the «ee is ,£5,000. 
 
 Salisbury, John of. See John of Salis¬ 
 bury. 
 
 Salmeron, Alphonso, one of the found¬ 
 ers, with Ignatius Loyola, of the Society of 
 Jesus; b. at Toledo, Oct. 8, 1515; d. at 
 Naples, Feb. 13, 1585. He was a bitter 
 opponent of the Reformation, and active as 
 a papal theologian in the Council of Trent. 
 He wrote commentaries on most of the 
 books of the Bible. 
 
 Salt. “ Indispensable as salt is to our¬ 
 selves, it was even more so to the Hebrews, 
 being to them not only an appetizing con¬ 
 diment in the food both of man (Job. vi. 6) 
 and beast (Isa. xxx. 24, see margin), and a 
 most valuable antidote to the effects of the 
 heat of the climate on animal food, but also 
 entering largely into their religious ser¬ 
 vices as an accompaniment to the various 
 
 offerings presented on the altar. (Lev. ii. 
 13.) They possessed an inexhaustible and 
 ready supply of it on the southern shores 
 of the Dead Sea. Salt might also be pro¬ 
 cured from the Mediterranean Sea, and 
 from this source the Phoenicians would 
 naturally obtain the supply necessary for 
 salting fish (Neh. xiii. 16) and for other 
 purposes. The associations connected with 
 salt in Eastern countries are important. 
 As one of the most essential articles of 
 diet, it symbolized hospitality; as an anti¬ 
 septic— durability, fidelity, and purity. 
 Hence, the expression, * covenant of salt ’ 
 (Lev. ii. 13; Num. xviii. 19; 2 Chron. xiii. 
 5), as betokening an indissoluble alliance 
 between friends; and again the expression, 
 ‘ salted with the salt of the palace ’ (Ezra 
 iv. 14), not necessarily meaning that they 
 had ‘ maintenance from the palace,’ as the 
 A. V. has it, but that they were bound by 
 sacred obligations of fidelity to the king. 
 So, in the present day, ‘ to eat bread and 
 salt together ’ is an expression for a league 
 of mutual amity. It was probably with a 
 view to keep this idea prominently before 
 the minds of the Jews that the use of salt 
 was enjoined on the Israelites in their 
 offerings to God.”—Smith: Diet. of the 
 Bible. 
 
 Salvation. See Redemption. 
 
 Salvation Army, The, is a religious or¬ 
 ganization which was originated in the 
 East of London in 1865, by Mr. William 
 Booth, the leader and general. He was 
 born at Nottingham in 1829, and in 1843 
 became a minister of the Methodist New 
 Connection. He was, in 1844, set apart as 
 an evangelist, and when, in 1856, he re¬ 
 turned to the regular pastorate he felt 
 himself out of his sphere, and in 1861 re¬ 
 quested to be allowed to again become an 
 evangelist. The request was refused, so 
 he left the Society and began an independ¬ 
 ent career. He worked in Cornwall, 
 Newcastle, and other places, and .in 1865 
 hired a theatre in Whitechapel. The so¬ 
 ciety was developed into its present form 
 and received its name in 1876. With the 
 name army came military phraseology. 
 Prayer was termed knee-drill , the leader, a 
 general; evangelists, officers; and candi¬ 
 dates, cadets. A semi-military attire was 
 assumed, barracks were built instead of 
 separate residences, and when the army 
 went out to take a place by storm, it was 
 with banners displayed and bands of music. 
 The noisiest music (drums, brass, etc.) is 
 also employed in the meetings, and other 
 proceedings of a very sensational character. 
 The object is to attract people who would 
 not enter church or chapel, and for this 
 
Sal 
 
 ( 830 ) 
 
 Sam 
 
 cause the officers, male and female, visit 
 public-houses, prisons, etc., and open-air 
 meetings are held. This organization has 
 had a remarkable growth, and is doing its 
 peculiar work in every part of the British 
 Empire, and is found in France, Sweden, 
 Africa and other countries. It has had a 
 corps of officers and members in this coun¬ 
 try for several years, with headquarters 
 in New York City, and in 1890 reported 
 360 halls, 1,024 officers and 8,771 soldiers 
 in the United States. 
 
 Salvation of Infants. See Infant Sal¬ 
 vation. 
 
 Salve {Hail) is the opening word in 
 many famous Latin hymns. Salve regina 
 is the name of an antiphon sung in the Ro¬ 
 man Catholic Church from Trinity to Ad¬ 
 vent, after Lauds and Compline. It is said 
 to have been composed by Contractus, a 
 Benedictine monk of the eleventh century, 
 with the exception of the last clause, 0 
 clemens, 0 pia, 0 dnlcis Virgo Maria, which 
 was added by St. Bernard. 
 
 Samaritans, The, “were a mixed people, 
 derived from the colonists whom the king 
 of Assyria sent to inhabit the land of Sa¬ 
 maria after he had carried the Israelites 
 captive. (2 Kings xvii.) These colonists 
 had been drawn from various Eastern na¬ 
 tions; and they brought with them their 
 various forms of national idolatry, until 
 the plagues sent among them by God led 
 them to petition for a priest of the God of 
 the country to teach them the old form of 
 worship. He was stationed at Beth-el, and 
 they endeavored to combine a formal rev¬ 
 erence of God with the practice of their 
 own heathen rites; but after the captivity 
 of Judah they sought an alliance with the 
 returned Jews, with whom they intermar¬ 
 ried. When the Mosaic law as to mixed 
 marriages was enforced, Manasses, a Jew¬ 
 ish priest, who had married the daughter 
 of Sanfcallat, chief of the Samaritans, 
 headed a secession to Shechem, taught the 
 people the Mosaic ritual, and erected a rival 
 temple on Mount Gerizim; and this mixed 
 community began to claim descent from 
 the patriarchs, and a share in the promises, 
 adopting the Pentateuch and Books of 
 Joshua and Judges as their sacred books. 
 Having the advantage of occupying a place 
 of peculiar sanctity (Shechem), surround¬ 
 ed by the tombs and memorials of the 
 patriarchs, and dividing the two portions 
 of the Israelite people (Galilaeans and Jews), 
 they held a very strong vantage-ground, 
 which they used to annoy their neighbors. 
 They erected false beacons to render nuga¬ 
 tory the announcements of the great fes¬ 
 
 tivals; refused a passage through their 
 territory to pilgrims going up to the feasts; 
 defiled the temple by scattering dead men’s 
 bones upon its altar; and finally welcomed 
 the invasion of Alexander the Great, and 
 offered him their temple for a heathen fane 
 —a proceeding which resulted in its final 
 destruction by the Jews under John Hyr- 
 canus (b. c. 130). 
 
 “ The old feud between the ten tribes 
 and the house of David was renewed with 
 double hostility by the Samaritans, She¬ 
 chem and Jerusalem being the centres of 
 animosity, each possessing rival claims to 
 sanctity. Hence the point of the Samar¬ 
 itan woman’s questions to our Lord (John 
 iv.), and the readiness with which her fel¬ 
 low-citizens accepted the overture of one 
 ‘ being a Jew ’ to receive them into full re¬ 
 ligious communion. The Samaritans now 
 number scarcely 100 persons, living at 
 Nablous (Shechem), preserving an ancient 
 copy of the Pentateuch, keeping up an an¬ 
 nual sacrifice of the Passover on Mount 
 Gerizim, living peaceful and moral lives, 
 and observing, with some peculiar varia¬ 
 tions, the Mosaic law.”—“ Oxford ” Bible 
 Helps. 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch. See Samaritans. 
 
 Samosta, Paul of. See Paul of Samo- 
 sata. 
 
 Sam'son ( sunlike ), “ the son of Manoah, 
 of the tribe of Dan, a deliverer and judge 
 of the southwestern tribes of the Hebrews 
 for twenty years, during the latter part of 
 ‘ the forty years’ period, and partly con¬ 
 temporary with Eli and Samuel. (Judg. 
 xiii.-xvi.) His birth was miraculously 
 foretold; he was a Nazarite from infancy, 
 and the strongest of men, and was equally 
 celebrated for his moral infirmities and for 
 his tragical end. He was not a giant in 
 size, though of such undaunted courage, 
 and his expoits were wrought by special 
 divine aid; * the Spirit of God came 
 mightily upon him.’ (Judg. xiii. 25; xiv. 
 6; xv. 14; xvi. 20, 28.) The prov¬ 
 idence of God was signally displayed in 
 overruling for good the hasty passions 
 of Samson, the cowardice of his friends, 
 and the malice of his enemies. The sins 
 of Samson brought him into great disgrace 
 and misery; but grace and faith triumphed 
 in the end. (Heb. xi. 32.) His story forci¬ 
 bly illustrates how treacherous and merci¬ 
 less are sin and sinners, and the watchful 
 care of Christ over his people in every age. 
 Compare Judg. xiii. 22 and Matt, xxiii. 
 37.”—Rand: Bible Did. 
 
 Samuel {heard of God), “ the son of Elka- 
 
Sam 
 
 (831 ) 
 
 San 
 
 nah and Hannah, was a celebrated Hebrew 
 prophet, and the last of their judges. He 
 is one of the purest and noblest characters 
 in the Old Testament history. While he 
 was a child he officiated in some form in 
 the temple, and was favored with revela¬ 
 tions of the divine will respecting the 
 family of Eli, the high-priest, under whose 
 care and training his mother had placed 
 him. (1 Sam. iii. 4-14.) (See Eli.) After 
 the death of Eli, Samuel was acknowledged 
 as a prophet, and soon commenced a work 
 of reformation. Idolatry was banished, the 
 worship of the true God was restored, and 
 Samuel was publicly recognized as a judge 
 in Israel. Residing on his patrimonial es¬ 
 tate in Ramah, he made annual circuits 
 through the country to administer justice, 
 until his infirmities forbade it, and then he 
 deputed his sons to execute this duty. They 
 proved unworthy of the trust, and so gen¬ 
 eral was the dissatisfaction of the people 
 that they determined on a change of 
 government. To this end they applied to 
 Samuel, who, under the divine direction, 
 anointed Saul to be their king, and Samuel 
 resigned his authority to him. (1 Sam. 
 xii.) After Saul was rejected for his dis¬ 
 obedience in the matter of Agag, Samuel 
 was instructed to anoint David as king, 
 after which he returned to Ramah, where 
 he died. (1 Sam. xxv. 1.)”—Schaff: Bible 
 Diet. See Saul. 
 
 Samuel, The First and Second Books 
 of. “ The two were, by the ancient Jews 
 conjoined, so as to make one book, and in 
 that form could be called the Book of Sam¬ 
 uel with more propriety than now, the sec¬ 
 ond being wholly occupied with the rela¬ 
 tion of transactions that did not take place 
 till after the death of that eminent judge. 
 Accordingly, in the Septuagint and the Vul¬ 
 gate, it is called the First and Second Books 
 of Kings. The early portion of the First 
 Book, down to the end of the twenty-fourth 
 chapter, was probably written by Samuel; 
 while the rest of it, and the whole of the 
 Second, are commonly ascribed to Nathan 
 and Gad, founding the opinion on 1 Chron. 
 xxix. 29. Commentators, however, are di¬ 
 vided about this, some supposing that the 
 statements in ch. ii. 26; iii. i indicate the 
 hand of the judge himself, or a contem¬ 
 porary; while some think, from ch. vi. 18; 
 xii. 5; xxvii. 6, that its composition must 
 be referred to a later age. It is prob¬ 
 able, however, that these supposed 
 marks of an after-period were interpo¬ 
 lations of Ezra. This uncertainty, how¬ 
 ever, as to the authorship does not af¬ 
 fect the inspired authority of the book, 
 which is indisputable, being quoted in 
 the New Testament (Acts xiii. 22; He¬ 
 
 brews i. 5), as well as many of the 
 Psalms. ”— Jamieson. 
 
 Sanbal'lat. His name indicates that he 
 was of Assyro-Babylonian origin. He was 
 the leader of the opposition which Nehe- 
 miah encountered in his efforts to rebuild 
 Jerusalem. (Neh. iv. 2.) During the ab¬ 
 sence of Nehemiah he married his daugh¬ 
 ter to the grandson of the high-priest, an 
 alliance from which he probably hoped to 
 gain political influence, but when Nehe¬ 
 miah returned he promptly deposed this 
 son of Joiada. (Neh. xiii. 28.) 
 
 San Benito, the garments worn by the 
 victims of the Inquisition at the Auto da 
 Fe'. They had devils and flames painted 
 on them. If the victim was to be burnt 
 alive, the flames pointed upward; if not, 
 downward. 
 
 Sancroft {sang'kroft), William, archbish¬ 
 op of Canterbury and the most distin¬ 
 guished of the nonjurors; b. at Freshing- 
 field, Suffolk, Jan. 13, 1616; d. there, Nov. 
 24, 1693. Educated at Oxford, he was 
 made fellow of his college (Emmanuel) in 
 1649, but was ejected in 1689 for refusing 
 to sign the Solemn League and Covenant. 
 He spent some years in France and Italy, 
 returning to England after the Restoration, 
 and became successively University preach¬ 
 er, 1660; Master of his college, 1662; 
 dean of York, 1663; dean of St. Paul’s, 
 1664; archdeacon of Canterbury, 1668, 
 add archbishop of Canterbury, 1677. 
 With six other bishops he was confined in 
 the Tower, in 1687, for refusing to read 
 the Declaration of Indulgence, but they 
 were all acquitted. At the accession of 
 William and Mary he refused to take the 
 oath of allegiance (1688), and was deprived 
 of his archbishopric. He then retired to 
 his native place. Among his published 
 works are: Ser?nons, Familiar Letters , and 
 Predestinated Thief. 
 
 Sanctification, the work of the Holy 
 Spirit, whereby man is renewed in the 
 image of God, and enabled to die to sin. 
 It is based upon the holiness of God, who 
 is not only absolutely pure in himself, but 
 communicates his purity to his people 
 through the Spirit. Sanctification is not 
 to be confounded with Justification, which 
 is forgiveness of sin, whereby man stands 
 before God pure in his eyes through an 
 act of God’s mercy. Sanctification is a 
 gradual progress towards holiness, follow¬ 
 ing Justification, and changing the heart 
 and life through the power of the Holy 
 Ghost. Justification removes the guilt, 
 and Sanctification the power, of sin; Justi- 
 
San 
 
 ( 832 ) 
 
 San 
 
 fication delivers us from the avenging 
 wrath of God, and Sanctification conforms 
 us to his image. Nevertheless, the two 
 are inseparably connected in the promises 
 of God, and in the doctrines and promises 
 of the Gospel.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Sanction, Pragmatic. See Pragmatic 
 Sanction. 
 
 Sanctuary, a term used in church archi¬ 
 tecture to designate the eastern part of the 
 choir of a church, enclosed by a railing, in 
 which the altar is placed. 
 
 Sanctuary, Right of, meant the privilege 
 of security from arrest and punishment 
 that was at one time granted to criminals, 
 so long as they remained in certain sacred 
 places to which they had fled. The custom 
 was greatly abused during the Middle 
 Ages. It was restricted, but not entirely 
 abolished, by the Reformation. Sanctua¬ 
 ries were done away in England in 1697. 
 
 Sandals are still much worn in the East. 
 The common sandal is made from the hide 
 of the camel’s neck, sometimes of several 
 thicknesses. It is fastened by two straps, 
 one of which passes between the great and 
 second toes, and the other around the heel 
 and over the instep. Sandals form part of 
 the bishop’s vestments in the Roman 
 Church. 
 
 Sandemanians (originally called Glass- 
 ites , by which name they are still known In 
 Scotland), a sect founded about 1728 by 
 John Glass, a Scotchman, and originally a 
 minister of the Presbyterian Church. He 
 was suspended by the Synod of Angus and 
 Mearns for holding heretical opinions, 
 which he published in a book called The 
 Testimony of the King of Martyrs. Among 
 other views, he held that national estab¬ 
 lishments of religion are inconsistent with 
 the teaching of the New Testament, and that 
 there ought to be no connection between 
 Church and State. His doctrines were 
 further developed by his son-in-law, Rob¬ 
 ert Sandeman (b. at Perth, 1718; d. at 
 Danbury, Conn., 1771), who maintained 
 the necessity of justification by faith, but 
 at the same time defined faith as a simple 
 belief in the divine testimony, differing in 
 no way from belief in any ordinary human 
 testimony. Sandeman established the sect 
 in London and America, and it exists to the 
 present day; it never numbered many fol¬ 
 lowers, and now they are probably under 
 two thousand. The Sandemanians have 
 revived several customs of the primitive 
 Church, such as abstinence from blood and 
 from things strangled, the holding of love- 
 
 feasts, the kiss of charity, washing of each 
 other’s feet, community of goods, the use 
 of the lot, and the celebration of the Eu¬ 
 charist weekly. They practice mutual ex¬ 
 hortation, and believe in a plurality of 
 elders or pastors, who are set apart from 
 amongst themselves, engagement in trade 
 being no obstacle. The late celebrated 
 Prof. Michael Faraday was a Sandemanian. 
 —Benham: Did. of Religion. Robert Sande¬ 
 man, who came to this country in 1764, 
 founded a church at Danbury, Conn. 
 Other congregations were formed, but all 
 except this one have died out, and this, in 
 1890, numbered but four members, and the 
 property is to be sold, and the church 
 formally dissolved. 
 
 Sandwich, or Hawaiian Islands. The 
 first missionaries to these islands were 
 Hiram Bingham and Asa Thurston, both 
 graduates of Andover Seminary, who were 
 ordained at Goshen, Conn., Sept. 29, 1819, 
 and sent under the auspices of the Amer¬ 
 ican Board. It was known that the religion 
 of the Hawaiians permitted human sacrifi¬ 
 ces, and the worship of idols, etc. To the 
 great surprise of the young missionaries, 
 when they arrived at Honolulu they found 
 that the. people had recently destroyed 
 their idols, abolished their priests and dis¬ 
 continued human sacrifices. They found 
 an “ open door,” and by 1822 they had re¬ 
 duced the language to writing, and a print¬ 
 ing-press was set up. In 1823 other mis¬ 
 sionaries came from the United States, and 
 the same year the queen-dowager, Kapio- 
 lani, was baptized. The Roman Catholic 
 missionaries who came in 1829 were ban¬ 
 ished, but reinstated under the protection 
 of the French in 1839. 1 ° 1834 there were 
 
 50,000 scholars in the schools, and the 
 translation of the Bible was completed in 
 1839. I n j 863 the Hawaiian Evangelical 
 Association was formed, and the churches 
 became self-sustaining, and at the present 
 time the entire population is Christian. 
 The Roman Catholics and the Church of 
 England have some adherents, but most of 
 the people are Congregationalists. The 
 island of Molokai has been set apart for 
 those who suffer from leprosy. It has a 
 population of about 800. See Anderson: 
 History of the Sandwich-Islands Mission 
 ("1872); Coan: Life in Hawaii (1882). 
 
 Sanhedrin, the supreme council of the 
 Jewish nation. According to the Talmud 
 it was instituted by Moses. (Num. xi. 16.) 
 After the Babylonian captivity it was re¬ 
 organized by Ezra. It consisted of seven¬ 
 ty-one members, and had jurisdiction over 
 all matters pertaining to religion; decided 
 whether war should be waged; and inflicted 
 
Sar 
 
 ( 833 ) 
 
 Sat 
 
 not only bodily punishments (Acts v. 40), 
 but capital punishment. Under the Roman 
 rule the power of inflicting capital punish¬ 
 ment could not be exercised by the San¬ 
 hedrin without the sanction of the Roman 
 procurator. The Small Sanhedrin was a 
 provincial court, which passed judgment 
 on capital offences which did not come 
 under the jurisdiction of the Great San¬ 
 hedrin. 
 
 Sardis, the capital of Lydia in Asia Minor, 
 renowned as the residence * of Croesus, 
 whose name is the synonym for wealth. 
 Cyrus is said to have taken from him, b. C. 
 548, treasure of the value of $600,000,000. 
 The city was situated in a rich and fertile 
 plain watered by the Pactolos. It had wide 
 commercial and industrial connections. 
 After its conquest by Alexander the Great, 
 it was less prominent, and under the Ro¬ 
 mans fell into decay. The ruins of Sardis 
 are now called Sert-Kalessi. Sardis was 
 the seat of one of the seven churches of 
 Asia. (Rev. iii. 1-5.) 
 
 Sar'gon, ( established is the king ) a power¬ 
 ful Assyrian king, successor of Shalmane¬ 
 ser and father of Sennacherib, who reigned 
 b. c. 722-705. He is mentioned but once 
 in the Bible (Isa. xx. 1), but the investiga¬ 
 tions of Assyriologists have brought to 
 light inscriptions and ruins that fill out and 
 corroborate the narrative of Isaiah. The 
 inscriptions show that Judah was a vassal 
 of Sargon at the time of the siege of Ash- 
 dod. The year after its capture, Sargon 
 marched against Merodach-baladan, king of 
 Babylon, and reduced him to vassalage. 
 He completed the magnificent palace of 
 Khorsabad, near Nineveh, in b. c. 707, and 
 here, two years later, he was murdered. 
 
 Sarpi, Paolo, generally called Fra Paolo; 
 b. at Venice, Aug. 14, 1552; d. there, Jan. 
 15, 1623. He united with the Order of the 
 Servites in 1566, and at the age of twenty- 
 seven was made Provincial. In the con¬ 
 troversy between Venice and Pope Paul 
 V. he .took an active part. He denied the 
 right of the pope to interfere in secular 
 matters, and asserted that the validity of 
 papal excommunication depended upon its 
 justice. He was summoned before the In¬ 
 quisition, but refused to come, and was ex¬ 
 communicated. Freed from the ban by the 
 peace between the popes and the Common¬ 
 wealth in 1607, he was still persecuted, and 
 attempts were made to assassinate him. 
 His most celebrated work is a History of 
 the Council of Trent (1619); trans. into Eng¬ 
 lish (1676). He urged the reformation of 
 the Roman Church, and corresponded with 
 leaders of the Reformation. 
 
 Sarum Use. See Uses. 
 
 Satan is a Hebrew word signifying 
 “ hater” or “ accuser,” and the name is 
 found in Job. i. and ii.; Zech. iii.; Psa. cix. 
 The doctrine of his personality seems un¬ 
 doubtedly more clearly taught in the later 
 than in the earlier books of the Bible, and 
 the gloss which is put upon the New Tes¬ 
 tament teaching, implying that his person¬ 
 ality is merely a Hebrew form of express¬ 
 ing an “ impersonation,” is one which cer¬ 
 tainly does considerable violence to the 
 letter of Scripture. The history of the or¬ 
 igin of evil and of the fall of Satan from 
 heaven is but dimly revealed to us. More 
 of our popular theology than we are com¬ 
 monly aware of is derived from Milton’s 
 magnificent poem. But though we are left 
 greatly in the dark as to the fall of the 
 devil, we are in none as to his works. 
 Let it be granted, in the words of Arch¬ 
 bishop Trench, that “he is only known to 
 us through his temptations, through the 
 evil suggestions which he causes to rise up 
 out of the deep of our hearts, through the 
 fiery darts with which he seeks to set on 
 fire in us the whole course of nature .... 
 so that for all practical purposes the words 
 of St. James, ‘ Resist the devil and he will 
 flee from you,’ might be translated into 
 such language as this: Strive manfully 
 against temptations, and you have God’s 
 promise and pledge that these, instead of 
 overcoming you, shall be overcome by 
 you.” But the temptations are real and 
 certain enough. The doctrine of the per¬ 
 sonality of the Tempter is nowhere assert¬ 
 ed in the Church creeds, and some English 
 divines have declined to affirm it dogmat¬ 
 ically. But the language of Scripture and 
 of Christ throws a very serious responsi¬ 
 bility upon those who deny it. Kingsley, 
 in one of his vigorous sentences, roundly 
 declares that the denial is one of the most 
 dangerous of modern heresies, and that the 
 devil’s latest device is “ shamming dead.” 
 
 Other names for Satan are Devil (Gr. 
 diabolus, slanderer or accuser); Beelzebub 
 (master of the house), a heathen deity 
 who was thus made a synonym for the 
 prince of evil, a later form of Baal-ze-bul 
 (lord of flies, probably in allusion to the 
 fact that he was regarded as the sun-god); 
 Apollyon and Abaddon, two names mean¬ 
 ing, in Greek and Hebrew respectively, 
 “ destroyer.” 
 
 The two great poetic creations by Milton 
 and Goethe of Satan and Mephistopheles 
 have had a great effect upon religious 
 thought, yet hardly more so than the 
 horned and cloven-hoofed figure of popular 
 notion. This latter figure was the pre¬ 
 scriptive mode of representing the devil in 
 
Sat 
 
 ( 834 ) 
 
 Sav 
 
 the mediaeval miracle-plays, and in conse¬ 
 quence has come to be a part of the vulgar 
 notion and language. “ To detect the clo¬ 
 ven foot ” is a phrase which is so common 
 as almost to lead the unthinking to con¬ 
 clude that there must be Scriptural author¬ 
 ity for the idea that the devil is so marked. 
 
 Meanwhile it should be seriously con¬ 
 sidered by those who reject the doctrine of 
 the personality of Satan, that such rejec¬ 
 tion may be but a step to the denial of a 
 great deal more. The New Testament is, 
 from beginning to end, an earnest testi¬ 
 mony of a real battle between the king¬ 
 doms of light and darkness; and to cast 
 doubt on the reality of that fight is to par¬ 
 alyze effort, to put off the armor of God, 
 and to set aside watchfulness and orayer. 
 —Benham: Diet . of Religion. 
 
 Satisfaction. See Atonement. 
 
 Saturninus, a celebrated missionary and 
 martyr of the third century. He was a 
 native of Italy, and was sent as a mission¬ 
 ary into Gaul by Pope Fabian, in 245. He 
 was killed by a mob at Toulouse, between 
 250 and 260. His day is Nov. 29. 
 
 Saturninus the Gnostic. See Gnos¬ 
 ticism. 
 
 Saul, “the first king of Israel, was the 
 son of Kish, a wealthy chief of the tribe of 
 Benjamin. The circumstances that mark¬ 
 ed his election to the royal dignity are 
 familiar to all the readers of Scripture, and 
 need not be repeated here. (See Samuel.) 
 Gigantic in stature, noble in mien, and im¬ 
 perious in character, he appeared admi¬ 
 rably fitted to accomplish the task of con¬ 
 solidating the dislocated tribes of Israel. 
 His earlier achievements augmented hope¬ 
 fully for his future. The deliverance of 
 the men of Jabesh-gilead; above all, his 
 victories over the Philistines, the Moabites, 
 Ammonites, Edomites, and Amalekites, 
 were unmistakable proofs of his vigorous 
 military capacity, but gradually there 
 showed itself in the nature of the man a 
 wild perversity—‘ an evil spirit of God,’ as 
 it is called—culminating in paroxysms of 
 insane rage, which led him to commit such 
 frightful deeds as the massacre of the 
 priests of Nob. Samuel, who had retired 
 from the 4 court ’ of Saul, and had secretly 
 anointed David as king, did not cease to 
 ‘ mourn ’ for the wayward monarch; but 
 nothing availed to stay his downward ca¬ 
 reer, not even the noble virtues of his son 
 Jonathan; and at last he fell in a disastrous 
 and bloody battle with the Philistines, on 
 Mount Gilboa. (1 Sam. xxxi. 4.)”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopaedia, 
 
 Saurin, Jacques, a great pulpit orator of 
 the French Reformed Church; b. at Nimes, 
 Jan. 6, 1677; d. at the Hague, Dec. 30, 
 1730. While a youth he left school, and 
 for four years served in a regiment of 
 volunteers, fighting against Louis XIV. 
 He then studied theology at Geneva, and 
 became pastor to the French Reformed 
 Congregation in London (1790) and at the 
 Hague (1705). His eloquence attracted 
 large congregations. He was accused of 
 heresy by some of his brethren on account 
 of views which he expressed “ on false¬ 
 hoods that are expedient ” in his Disserta¬ 
 tion sur le Mensonge Oficieux. This charge, 
 and the trial before the Synod of Hague, are 
 said to have shortened his days. His Ser¬ 
 mons, in the English translation, have had a 
 wide circulation in this country. 
 
 Savonarola (sa-vo-nd-ro'lei), Girolamo, 
 was b. at Ferrara on Sept. 21, 1452. He 
 seems to have been a quiet, reserved child, 
 but at the same time to have shown signs 
 at an early age of great intellectual powers. 
 His grandfather had been a celebrated 
 physician, and it was decided that Girolamo 
 should follow the same profession. But a 
 distaste for this, combined with a disap¬ 
 pointment in love, determined him to de¬ 
 vote himself to the retired life of a monas¬ 
 tery. He left home secretly in April, 
 1475, and took monastic vows at the con¬ 
 vent of St. Domenico at Bologna. He 
 went to Ferrara in 1485, and preached there 
 several times, but created no stir. He 
 asked at first to be allowed to undertake 
 merely the most humble offices in the 
 monastery, but the superiors very soon 
 recognized his intellectual powers, and 
 employed him to instruct the novices. 
 Suddenly at Bologna he burst out, entranc¬ 
 ing all hearts and filling the church with 
 excited crowds, who were spellbound under 
 his magnificent oratory.- Thence he was 
 sent to Florence, and it was in this city 
 that he made his name famous in history. 
 Lorenzo de’ Medici was then at the height 
 of his power and magnificence, and under 
 his influence the whole town was given up 
 to worldly and sensual pleasures. Savo¬ 
 narola set about awakening the citizens to 
 a sense of their danger. He preached his 
 first sermon in Florence in 1483; but, ac¬ 
 customed to the learned, subtle discourses 
 of the Schoolmen, the people at first treat¬ 
 ed with contempt one who in simple, un¬ 
 polished words urged them to repent of 
 their sins. Savonarola was not discouraged 
 by this failure. He preached for a year 
 or two in small towns outside the walls of 
 Florence. In 1490 he returned, and in a 
 very few weeks had taken the whole city 
 by storm. He became so powerful, and 
 
Sav 
 
 ( 3 3 5 ) 
 
 Sch 
 
 was supported by so many influential citi¬ 
 zens that Lorenzo became uneasy, and Sa¬ 
 vonarola was privately urged to be a little 
 less bitter against those in authority; but 
 he refused to listen. In 1491 he was made 
 prior of the Convent of St. Mark’s, but 
 utterly refused to conform to the usage of 
 paying homage to Lorenzo for it. In 1492 
 the duke was on his death-bed, and al¬ 
 though he had been granted absolution by 
 one of the attendant priests, his mind was 
 not at rest. Suddenly he thought of Savo¬ 
 narola, who had never been afraid to speak 
 the truth to him, and caused him to be 
 sent for. Writers differ as to the result 
 of this interview—Politian, a courtier, as¬ 
 serting that Savonarola granted absolution; 
 Burlamacchi, a friend of Savonarola, as¬ 
 serting equally decidedly that it was de¬ 
 nied. As the latter account was written 
 at a time when Savonarola was in very bad 
 favor, and there were plenty of people who 
 would have been only too glad to deny it 
 had it been false, it appears the more prob¬ 
 able. During the rule of Lorenzo’s suc¬ 
 cessor, Pietro, Florence lost some of its 
 prestige; but it still had great power, and 
 Savonarola was, without question, the most 
 influential man in the city. The moral 
 improvement which he effected in Florence 
 was most remarkable; the whole aspect of 
 the city changed for the better; but his 
 work now began to cause uneasiness at 
 Rome. It is said that Pope Alexander VI. 
 offered him a cardinal’s hat, hoping there¬ 
 by to silence him. Savonarola declined 
 the offer. The pope then ordered him to 
 appear in Rome; but he refused to obey. 
 In 1497 he was excommunicated. A 
 powerful hostile party was formed against 
 him in Florence, which at the beginning of 
 1498 handed him over to the Inquisition, 
 and on May 23 of the same year he was 
 publicly burned. As an author his fame 
 rests on his Treatise on the 51st Psalm, 
 his Compendium. Revelationum , and his 
 Trionfo della Croce. —Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. See his Life , written by P. Vil- 
 lari(Florence, 1859-61; English translation, 
 W. R. Clark, London, 1878). 
 
 Savoy Conference, the name given to a 
 Conference held in 1661, between twelve 
 bishops of the Church and the same num¬ 
 ber of Puritan clergymen, for the purpose 
 of settling differences, and arranging the 
 Prayer- Book so that it would be acceptable 
 to both parties. The Conference was held 
 in the Savoy Palace, and, opening on April 
 13, lasted for four months. Neither party 
 would yield,and nothing was accomplished. 
 The failure was followed in 1662 by the 
 passing of the Act of Uniformity ( q. v.), 
 which led to the secession from the Church 
 
 of England of more than two thousand 
 Puritan ministers. 
 
 Saybrook Platform. A synod convened 
 in 1708at Saybrook, Conn., by order of the 
 General Assembly (Legislature) of Con¬ 
 necticut, adopted what is known as The Say¬ 
 brook Platform, viz., The Savoy Confession 
 of Faith, The Heads of Agreement (under 
 which Presbyterians and Congregational- 
 ists had been united in England), and Arti¬ 
 cles for the Administration of CJiurch Disci¬ 
 pline. The purpose was to affiliate the 
 churches with their pastors in consociations 
 that would form standing councils. 
 
 Scapegoat. See Goat. 
 
 Scapulary (Lat. scapula, the shoulder- 
 blade), a narrow band of various colors, 
 and adorned with a picture of the Virgin or 
 the cross, worn over the shoulder by the 
 members of several monastic orders and 
 fraternities of the Roman Church. It is 
 popularly believed to be a preventive 
 against death by water or fire. According 
 to the bull Sabbatina, the Virgin promised 
 Pope John XXL that any one wearing a 
 scapulary with her image should be deliv¬ 
 ered from purgatory on the first Saturday 
 after death. 
 
 SchafT, Philip, D. D. ( hon. Berlin, 1854), 
 LL. D. (Amherst College, Mass., 1874), 
 Presbyterian ; b. at Coire, Switzerland, 
 Jan. 1, 1819. He studied in the univer¬ 
 sities of Tubingen, Halle, and Berlin. In 
 1842-44 he lectured at the University of 
 Berlin as privat-docent, on exegesis and 
 church history; and in 1843 accepted a 
 professorship in the theological seminary 
 of the German Reformed Church of the 
 United States, then locatedat Mercersburg, 
 Penn., where he remained until 1863. Dur¬ 
 ing the Civil War when the seminary build¬ 
 ings at Mercersburg were turned into a 
 military hospital, he removed to New 
 York City, and became secretary of the 
 New York Sabbath Committee (1864-69), 
 and delivered courses of lectures on church 
 history in the theological seminaries at 
 Andover, Hartford, and the Union Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, New York City, where 
 he became professor of theological ency¬ 
 clopaedia and Christian symbolics, 1870-72; 
 of Hebrew, 1872-74; and since 1875, of 
 sacred literature. Dr. Schaff was one of 
 the founders of the American branch of the 
 Evangelical Alliance and has done much to 
 advance its interests. He was president 
 of the American Bible-revision Committee. 
 Dr. Schaff has been a prolific writer. His 
 principal works are: History of the Apostolic 
 Church (1851) ; History of the Christian 
 
Sch 
 
 ( 836) 
 
 Sch 
 
 Church (1858, sqq. , 3 vols.; rewritten and 
 published in 1882-84, 4 vols.) ; Creeds of 
 Christendom, with a History and Critical 
 Notes (1877, 3 vols., 4th ed., 1884); A Com¬ 
 panion to the Greek Testament and the Eng¬ 
 lish Version (1883) ; The Oldest Church 
 Manual, called the Teaching of the Twelve 
 Apostles (1885); The Person of Christ (1865, 
 12th. ed., 1882) ; Through Bible Lands : 
 iVotes of Travel in Egypt, the Desert, and 
 Palestine (1878) ; Bible Dictionary (1880, 
 rev. ed., 1885); Commentaries on Matthew 
 and on Galatians', Christ and Christianity 
 (1885) ; St. Augustin, Melanchthon, and 
 Neander (1886). He edited the American 
 edition of Lange’s Commentary , and with 
 Samuel M. Jackson and Rev. D. S. Schaff, 
 The Religious Encyclopedia, based on Her¬ 
 zog’s great work (1884, 3 vols., rev. ed., 
 1887). These volumes represent only a 
 part of the work accomplished by his inde¬ 
 fatigable labors. 
 
 Schelling {shelling), Friedrich Wil¬ 
 helm Joseph von, an eminent German phi¬ 
 losopher; b. at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, 
 where his father was pastor, Jan. 27, 1775; 
 d. at Ragatz, Switzerland, Aug. 20, 1854. 
 He studied theology at Tubingen where he 
 came under the influence of Lessing, Her¬ 
 der and Kant. He went to Leipzig in 1796 
 to study natural science and mathematics, 
 and in 1798 began to lecture at Jena as a 
 colleague of Fichte, whose doctrines had a 
 great influence in the early development of 
 his own views on philosophy. From 1801 
 to 1806 he was professor of philosophy at 
 Wurzburg; lectured at Erlangen, 1820-26; 
 in Munich, 1827; and became lecturer on 
 mythology and revelationat Berlin in 1841. 
 
 “ While Schelling stands, on one side, in 
 the most intimate connection with the 
 great poetic and philosophic movements of 
 the last century; while especially his ear¬ 
 lier philosophy is but a philosophic expres¬ 
 sion of that yearning to comprehend the 
 absolute as it appears above all in Goethe’s 
 Faust, and while his system is the highest 
 glorification of genius as celebrated by the 
 romantic school—we have, on the other 
 side, in Schelling’s later philosophy, the 
 greatest endeavor of modern philosophy to 
 construct the system of Christian doctrine. 
 His thoughts have had great influence upon 
 modern German theology, especially his 
 idea of the three ages of church history. 
 His philosophy is an illustration of his own 
 saying: * The German nation strives with 
 her whole nature after religion, but, ac¬ 
 cording to her peculiarity, after a religion 
 which is connected with knowledge, and 
 based upon science.’”—Schaff-Herzog: 
 Ency., s. v. Schelling’s Coynplete Works 
 were published at Stuttgart and Augsburg 
 
 (1856—61), 14 vols. His principal writings 
 are: Idea of a Philosophy of Nature (1797); 
 Of the World-Soul, etc. (1798); System of 
 Transcendental Idealism (1800); Lectures on 
 the Method of Academical Study (1803); Phil¬ 
 osophical Biquiries concerning the Nature of 
 Human Freedo??i ( 1809); Lectures on Mythol¬ 
 ogy and Revelation. 
 
 Schlatter, Michael, founder of the syn¬ 
 od of the German Reformed Church in the 
 United States; b. in St. Gall, Switzerland, 
 July 14, 1716; d. near Philadelphia, Oct., 
 1790. He was ordained to the ministry in 
 Holland, and preached fora time in his na¬ 
 tive country. In 1746 he was sent as a 
 missionary to the destitute German church¬ 
 es in Pennsylvania. He prosecuted his 
 work with great zeal, and in 1747 the scat¬ 
 tered churches organized the German Re¬ 
 formed synod. Returning to Europe to 
 solicit aid, he made so strong a plea for the 
 work that a large amount was subscribed 
 to institute “charity schools.” This fund 
 proved the source of much feeling and op¬ 
 position, as it was used in a way to sub¬ 
 serve political ends. After the failure of 
 this school movement Schlatter, in 1757, 
 was appointed chaplain of the Royal Amer¬ 
 ican Regiment in the expedition against the 
 French, and was present at the taking of 
 Louisburg. See The Life of Rev. Michael 
 Schlatter, by Rev. H. Harbaugh, D. D. 
 (Phila., 1857). 
 
 Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Dan¬ 
 iel, a great German theologian; b. at Bres¬ 
 lau, Nov. 21, 1768; d. in Berlin, Feb. 12, 
 1834. He was the son of a Lutheran min¬ 
 ister at Breslau, and was educated first by 
 his father, then in a Moravian school. Un¬ 
 der the influence of the elementary teach¬ 
 ing he received he was a pious child and 
 deeply reverential in spirit; but, neverthe¬ 
 less, skepticism took such possession of 
 him that he declares that he doubted the 
 historical truth of any of the ancient Script¬ 
 ures. But he had no desire to doubt, and he 
 eagerly read the philosophical writings of 
 his countrymen, especially Kant and Spi¬ 
 noza, in the hope of having his doubts re¬ 
 moved, and in his twenty-sixth year was 
 ordained to the ministry. In 1799 he pub¬ 
 lished his Discourses on Religion —a deeply 
 earnest work intended to conciliate unbe¬ 
 lievers, and to convince them that faith in 
 an unseen world was compatible not only 
 with reason but with the deepest human 
 instincts. Neander declared that to this 
 work he owed his spiritual life. Meanwhile, 
 Schleiermacher threw himself heartily 
 into politics and social questions, urging 
 Germany, e. g. , to resist the insolence of 
 Napoleon. He was appointed court preach- 
 
Sch 
 
 ( 837 ) 
 
 Sch 
 
 er in 1802, and professor of theology at the 
 University of Halle in 1804. In 1810 the 
 University of Berlin was founded. Schlei- 
 ermacher was one of its active promoters, 
 and was the first to occupy the theological 
 chair. His translation of Plato (1804-10) 
 placed him among the most famous Greek 
 scholars of his time, and though English 
 scholars regard its criticisms as too subjec¬ 
 tive, the book holds a very high position. 
 Meanwhile he was indefatigable as a preach¬ 
 er, and his sermons, published in seven 
 volumes, are masterpieces of earnest and 
 penetrating power. He was certainly not 
 what his countrymen would regard as an 
 orthodox divine, for he had declared dog¬ 
 ma to be an incrustation on the essential 
 divinity of Christianity; but he was ear¬ 
 nest, devout, reverent, of massive under¬ 
 standing and surpassing eloquence. Being 
 seized with a fatal illness he called his 
 friends and disciples together, and solemn¬ 
 ly professed his faith in Christ as the Sav¬ 
 iour and in the propitiation made by his 
 death. He then himself celebrated and 
 distributed the Holy Communion. His 
 works are many and voluminous; the most 
 important is his Christian Dogmatics , a 
 masterpiece of theology. He regarded 
 Christ as not only perfect and sinless, but 
 as having the fullness of divinity dwelling 
 within him, and as dwelling in succession 
 in the hearts of the faithful. His Essay 
 on St. Luke's Gospel, a characteristic speci¬ 
 men of his free historical criticism, was 
 translated and published by the late Bishop 
 Thirlwall, who pronounced it a “ specimen 
 of exegetical criticism which has seldom 
 been equalled, and which cannot fail to ex¬ 
 cite the admiration even of those who do not 
 admit all its conclusions.” His conception 
 of divinity was pantheistic, but his heart 
 went deeper than his intellectual concep¬ 
 tions. He was a man of prayer, and a be¬ 
 liever, even where he found the historical 
 evidence unsatisfying. His speculations 
 are mostly left behind in the progress of 
 thought, but his earnest piety and the 
 real soundness of his inner theology and his 
 personal faith in God and in Christ, have 
 endeared him to the hearts of his country¬ 
 men. They read his sermons, and love 
 them, and reverence his memory. Among 
 his disciples are the great names of Nean- 
 der, Ullmann, Olshausen, Liickeand Bleek. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. Schleier- 
 macher’s complete Works were published 
 at Berlin (1835-64), in three divisions: (1) 
 Theology, 11 vols. (2) Sermons, 10 vols. 
 (3) Philosophy and Miscellaneous Writings, 
 9 vols. 
 
 Schmalkald, League and Articles of. 
 Under the leadership of the elector of 
 
 Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse, this 
 League was formed, Feb. 27, 1531. It com¬ 
 prised fourteen German princes and twen¬ 
 ty-one imperial cities, representing the 
 whole of Northern Germany and a con¬ 
 siderable portion of Central and Southern 
 Germany. This league brought about the 
 religious peace of Nuremberg (y. v. ) in 
 1532. The league made preparations to 
 raise a large standing army, and at a meet¬ 
 ing held on Feb. 16, 1537, the so-called 
 Articles of Schmalkald were signed by all 
 the members. This confession protested 
 earnestly against the primacy of the pope. 
 It was written by Luther, and was after¬ 
 ward given a place as one of the symbolical 
 books of the Lutheran Church. The league 
 was weakened by internal dissensions, and 
 its army was defeated at Muhlberg, April 
 24. 1547 - 
 
 Schmucker, Samuel Simon, D. D., an 
 eminent American Lutheran divine; b. at 
 Hagerstown, Md., Feb. 2S, 1799; d. at 
 Gettysburg, Penn., July 26, 1873. After 
 graduating from the University 0/ Penn¬ 
 sylvania in 1817, and from the Princeton 
 Theological Seminary, he emered the 
 Lutheran ministry, and was pastor at New 
 Market, Va., 1820-26. He took a promi¬ 
 nent part in the organization of the General 
 Synod and the founding of the theological 
 seminary at Gettysburg (1826). He was 
 elected the first professor of the seminary 
 and was connected with it until his retire* 
 ment from active duties in 1864. For many 
 years he was the leader of the Low-Church 
 American Lutherans. Deeply interested 
 in the cause of Christian unity, he did all 
 in his power to advance the interests of the 
 Evangelical Alliance, and to secure recog¬ 
 nition and cooperation among the different 
 denominations. Among his numerous pub¬ 
 lications are: Elei?ients of Popular Theology 
 (1834, 9th ed., i860); The Lutheran Symbols; 
 or, Vindication of American Lutheranism 
 (1856) ; True Unity of Christ's Church 
 (1870). 
 
 Scholastic Theology. See Schoolmen. 
 
 Schoolmen. The famous teachers so 
 called were the revivers, in the Western 
 Church, of theology as a science. In the 
 Greek Church it had become a tradition, 
 but in the West the Schoolmen set them¬ 
 selves the task of reducing the traditional 
 dogmas of the Church to a complete sys¬ 
 tem. This principle, to use the words of 
 Hallam, was “an alliance between faith 
 and reason, an endeavor to arrange the or¬ 
 thodox system of the Church, such as au¬ 
 thority had made it [all through the exis¬ 
 tence of this movement we find them 
 
Sch 
 
 ( 838 ) 
 
 Sch 
 
 turning to the laws of government, etc., 
 laid down by the various Church Councils, 
 and not to the Bible], according to the 
 rules of the Aristotelian dialectics.” The 
 natural result of the constant study of the 
 works of Aristotle was the foundation of a 
 new school of philosophy, and we find the 
 logical system of the famous Greek philos¬ 
 opher and theology treated side by side in 
 the works of the Schoolmen. At first they 
 contented themselves with long arguments 
 on natural and revealed religion, removing 
 by clever reasoning all that they consider¬ 
 ed liable to objection, treating the whole 
 thing from a purely metaphysical point of 
 view. They were, at the same time, won¬ 
 derfully united in thought and mode of 
 philosophizing; but before very long dif¬ 
 ferent parties were formed. Each lead¬ 
 ing man had his own followers, who sup¬ 
 ported him and his theories, and refused 
 to see reason in the argument of any 
 rival. These at last settled down into 
 two chief sects, the Realists and the 
 Nominalists. 
 
 The first period of the scholastic philos¬ 
 ophy reaches from Anselm to Alexander 
 Hales (1073-1200). The principal figures 
 in this period are Abelard (Rationalistic); 
 Anselm and Peter the Lombard (Realistic); 
 St. Bernard and Walter of St. Victor 
 (Mystical; “ res divinas non disputatio com- 
 petendil , sed sanctitas ”). Each great theo¬ 
 logian dogmatized from his own standpoint 
 on the doctrines of the Trinity, on sin, the 
 work of Christ, on the priesthood and the 
 sacraments. 'Jims, while Anselm in his 
 Cur deus Homo? made the first scientific at¬ 
 tempt to construct the doctrine of Redemp¬ 
 tion on the basis of law, holding that by 
 sin the honor due to God is withheld and 
 punishment is deserved, and that this pun¬ 
 ishment can only be remitted by satisfac¬ 
 tion , Abelard denied any necessary connec¬ 
 tion between the death of Christ and 
 forgiveness. 
 
 Scholasticism was at its best, and exer¬ 
 cised the most influence during the thir¬ 
 teenth century, which may be called the 
 second stage of its existence. The cause 
 may, to a great extent, be traced to the 
 establishment of the Mendicant Friars. A 
 great many men joined this order, and the 
 result was an increased number of students 
 of theological philosophy. The two most 
 famous of all the Schoolmen lived at this 
 time, Thomas Aquinas {q. v. ), a Dominican, 
 Duns Scotus ( q.v .), a Franciscan, each the 
 founder of a rival sect, named respectively 
 Thomists and Scotists. These and the Nom¬ 
 inalists—the sect started by Roscelin (q. v.) 
 in the twelfth, and revived by William of 
 Ockham in the thirteenth—were fierce and 
 bitter rivals for nearly two hundred years, 
 
 and the books written on all sides advocat¬ 
 ing their views are innumerable. The 
 leading idea still in their teaching was that 
 of theology treated as a science pure and 
 simple. The decline of this theology be¬ 
 gan in the fourteenth century, soon after 
 the appearance of Wycliffe with his new 
 doctrines. He and his followers tried to 
 teach a more spiritual Christianity, and 
 put the main facts of religion before the 
 people in a more mystical as opposed to 
 the argumentative way. From this time 
 the Schoolmen steadily declined, but for 
 different reasons their decline was very 
 slow. It might be thought that the new 
 and enlightened ideas started by the re¬ 
 vival of learning would have exploded the 
 long and laborious theories of the old 
 Schoolmen in a very short space of time; 
 but habit, and the tenacity with which *Ee 
 chief universities at first adhered to the old 
 lines of thought, made their defeat and ex¬ 
 tinction very slow. The task of stating 
 fairly the good or bad influence exercised 
 by the Schoolmen is a difficult one. On 
 the one hand, a clear, subtle style of argu¬ 
 ment was studied and brought to a fair 
 state of perfection; but, on the other hand, 
 the minute attention to the smallest detail, 
 the raising of objections for the sake of 
 answering (as it almost appears), make 
 their books frivolous and tedious. Another 
 influence they had, which produced far 
 worse consequences, was that of discourag¬ 
 ing by their methods the expansion of the 
 mind. They were content to argue and 
 discuss the rules of philosophy laid down 
 by Aristotle or the old Christian Fathers, 
 but the study of the Scriptures was neg¬ 
 lected, and they looked with horror on any 
 one making experiments, or seeking after 
 fresh sources of truth. It was the revival 
 of learning in the fifteenth century which 
 showed to the Church and the world “ a 
 more excellent way.”—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. 
 
 Schwartz, Christian Friedrich, a cele¬ 
 brated German missionary: b. at Sonnen- 
 burg, Prussia, Oct. 26, 1726; d. at Tanjore, 
 India, Feb. 13, 1798. He studied theology 
 at Halle, and in 1750 was sent as a mission¬ 
 ary to Tranquebar by the Danish Mission¬ 
 ary Society. In 1767 he became connected 
 with the Society for Promoting Christian 
 Knowledge, of London. For nearly fifty 
 years he prosecuted his missionary labors 
 in India with great success. He founded 
 many churches, gathered several thousand 
 converts, and exerted a great influence 
 among the native princes. The Raja of 
 Tanjore erected a monument to his memory 
 in one of the churches of that city. See 
 Pearson: Memoirs of C. F. Schwartz. 
 
Sch 
 
 ( 839 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 Schwegler, Albert, next to Baur the 
 most eminent representative of the Tubing¬ 
 en School; b. at Michelbach, Wiirtemberg, 
 Feb. 10, 1819; d. at Tubingen, Jan. 5, 1857. 
 He became teacher in philosophy at Tubing¬ 
 en, 1843; professor of Roman literature 
 and antiquities, 1848; professor of ancient 
 history shortly before his death. He pub¬ 
 lished in 1846 his Post-Apostolic Age, in 
 which he took the ground that early Chris¬ 
 tianity was simple Ebionism. In 1847 he 
 edited The Clementine Hotnilies, and in 1852, 
 Eusebius. He is best known in this coun¬ 
 try by his History of Philosophy (1848, Eng. 
 trans. by J. H. Seelye), and a History of 
 Ro?ne, 3 vols. (1853-58). 
 
 Schwenkfelders, the followers of Kaspar 
 Schwenkfeld von Ossig, a nobleman of 
 Silesia, who died in 1562. He was a learned 
 and pious man, but separated from the 
 Lutherans and adopted doctrines of his own 
 regarding the efficacy of the Divine Word 
 and the nature of the Eucharist. He main¬ 
 tained that the sacraments were merely 
 signs, and not a means of grace. At his 
 death it was found that many sympathized 
 with his views, and in spite of persecution 
 their numbers increased. In 1725 the main 
 body removed from Silesia to Saxony, and 
 eight years later came to this country and 
 settled in Montgomery and other counties 
 in Pennsylvania. For more than one hun¬ 
 dred and fifty years they have held each 
 year a festival in memory of their coming 
 to America. They have but five or six 
 churches and number about two hundred 
 femilies. They do not observe the sacra¬ 
 ments according to ordinary usage. In 
 doctrine, government, and discipline they 
 resemble in many respects the Friends. 
 
 Scotch Confession of Faith. See Scot¬ 
 land, Church of. 
 
 Scotists. See Duns Scotus. 
 
 Scotland, Church of. (i) The Celtic 
 Church. —Christianity is supposed to have 
 made its way into Scotland during the Ro¬ 
 man occupation of Britain, but nothing 
 certain is known of its history. The first 
 Christian teacher whose name has been 
 preserved is St. Ninian, and of him little 
 is known but that he laid the foundation of 
 a church at Whithern (known as Candida 
 Casa, the White House), on the north 
 coast of Solway Firth, about A. d. 397. 
 He settled there with the intention of con¬ 
 verting the Piets of Galloway, and won 
 over most of the inhabitants of southern 
 Scotland to Christianity. A bishop, Pal- 
 ladius, was sent to Scotland by Pope Celes- 
 tine about 420, by which time St. Ninian 
 
 was gone. In 563 St. Columba (y. v.) 
 landed in Iona from Ireland, and set him¬ 
 self to Christianize from that point the 
 whole of Scotland. He died in 597, but 
 his work was well carried on by many of 
 his disciples, one of whom, St. Aidan 
 (y. v.) founded the bishopric of Lindisfarne. 
 About the time of St. Columba’s death 
 another church was founded at Glasgow, 
 on the site of one which St. Ninian had 
 built, by St. Kentigern, more commonly 
 known among the Scottish people as St. 
 Mungo. St. Kentigern died in 612, and 
 the next great name in the history of the 
 Scottish Church is that of St. Cuthbert 
 (y. v. ), who was born about the same time, 
 and who became bishop of Lindisfarne, 
 where he died in 687. 
 
 A few years later a new class of devo¬ 
 tees arose in the Church, who were called 
 Culdees (y. v.). They were first trained 
 in the monasteries, and then went forth to 
 end their life in some cave or desolate cell, 
 some at Culross or Lochleven, some in and 
 about St. Andrew’s. The cathedral of this 
 city was founded by St. Regulus (369), 
 and dedicated to the first-named apostle, 
 who has been from that time the patron 
 saint of Scotland. St. Regulus is supposed 
 by some to have been bishop of Patras, 
 where legend says St. Andrew suffered 
 martyrdom; he was entrusted with the 
 charge of finding a grave for the bones of 
 the saint, and, being wrecked on the coast 
 of Scotland, he gained from King Angus a 
 grant of land on which to erect his church. 
 A community sprang up, consisting of St. 
 Regulus as head, his priests and deacons, 
 some hermits, and the Culdees who had 
 already inhabited the district. 
 
 (2) The Roman Catholic Church. —The 
 Church of St. Columba began to decline 
 about the eleventh century; its property 
 was lost by degrees, and abuses grew up 
 in the customs and services of the Church 
 itself. The reform which was needed was 
 brought about mainly through the instru¬ 
 mentality of St. Margaret, wife of King 
 Malcolm Canmore. With all the wonder¬ 
 ful tact and energy which she possessed, 
 she threw herself into the task, assembling 
 councils, and at one time engaging in theo¬ 
 logical discussions with the clergy, in 
 which she proved her arguments. She 
 endeavored to bring about conformity with 
 the Roman standard. The chief points in 
 which she effected a change were, the time 
 of keeping Lent, the observance of Sunday, 
 and the manner of receiving the Commun¬ 
 ion. She died in 1093, and for a few years 
 there was a reaction against the changes 
 she had made. Her three sons reigned in 
 succession, Edgar, Alexander I., and 
 David. During the reign of Malcolm Can- 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 840 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 more and his successors, a circumstance 
 took place which greatly changed the as¬ 
 pect of the Scottish Church—namely, the 
 immigration into the south and east of 
 Scotland of settlers whom the oppression 
 of William the Conqueror had driven out 
 of England. These settlers received grants 
 of land, intermarried with the Scottish 
 nobility, and introduced English customs. 
 Parishes were formed, two new dioceses 
 were created by Alexander I., and, as in 
 England, the Church became more papal. 
 David, who reigned from 1124 to 1153, did 
 much for the Church of Rome in Scotland. 
 In his time the Augustinian and Cistercian 
 orders were introduced, and fifteen relig¬ 
 ious houses were founded, among them, 
 Melrose, Holyrood, and Dryburgh. He 
 created bishoprics at Glasgow, Brechin, 
 Dunkeld, Dumblane, Ross, Caithness, and 
 Aberdeen. Lismore or Argyll, created in 
 1222, was the only one formed after his 
 death. From 1153 to the beginning of the 
 fifteenth century the Church of Rome re¬ 
 mained in possession of Scotland. The 
 Scottish Church differed from the English 
 in having no archbishop, though the kings 
 of Scotland had from time to time pressed 
 the pope to make St. Andrew’s an arch¬ 
 bishopric. The latter preferred to keep 
 the superintendence of the Church in his 
 own hands, and sent a papal legate as his 
 representative to attend the diocesan coun¬ 
 cils, much to the dislike of the Scottish 
 bishops. In 1225 Pope Honorius III. au¬ 
 thorized the holding of these councils with¬ 
 out the legate, and in 1472 St. Andrew’s 
 (held at that time by Bishop Patrick Gra¬ 
 ham) was at length erected into an arch¬ 
 bishopric; but this having been done with¬ 
 out the knowledge of the king or the 
 other bishops, the new archbishop passed 
 the rest of his life as a prisoner in Loch- 
 leven. His successor, Schevez, was made 
 primate in 1487, and in 1492 the bishop of 
 Glasgow was also promoted to be an arch¬ 
 bishop, whereupon a strife began between 
 the two dignitaries, and never ceased till 
 the Reformation. In course of time most 
 of the wealth of Scotland came into the 
 possession of the Church, and for this rea¬ 
 son the monasteries relaxed in discipline 
 and lost the esteem of the people. The 
 mendicant orders were instituted to remedy 
 this evil, and soon became popular; but 
 their popularity only tended in time to 
 produce the same effect as with the monas¬ 
 teries, for they became proud and over¬ 
 bearing towards the other clergy, disunited 
 and quarrelsome among themselves, and 
 finally objects of scorn and ridicule on ac¬ 
 count of the immorality of their lives. 
 The spark of religion which the rise of the 
 Mendicants had kindled, declined with 
 
 them, and from that time the Church of 
 Scotland sank lower than ever. Bishops 
 and clergy were appointed, not on account 
 of their piety or learning, but to gain some 
 private ends of the sovereign—in many 
 cases for the sake of the wealth which rich 
 clergy brought to the crown in exchange. 
 The state of the Church grew worse as 
 time went on; preaching was almost en¬ 
 tirely discontinued except by the friars; 
 and the only bright spots in this dark pe¬ 
 riod were the lives of a few good men who, 
 from time to time, did their utmost to stir 
 up the minds of the people to a sense of 
 their danger. No permanent effect was 
 felt till the beginning of the fifteenth cen¬ 
 tury, when some of Wycliffe’s disciples 
 made their way across the border, and be¬ 
 gan preaching in the south of Scotland, 
 some of them travelling as far north as 
 Perth. They denounced boldly the cor¬ 
 rupt customs which prevailed in the Scot¬ 
 tish Church—the Roman errors which had 
 crept in at the same time that all the life of 
 religion seemed to have died out. They 
 aimed at reforming the lives and conduct 
 of the clergy; and in spite of the hatred 
 which was everywhere felt toward them, 
 they succeeded in at least preparing the 
 minds of the people for the Reformation 
 which was to follow. 
 
 (3) The Reformation .—It is not certain 
 whether Patrick Hamilton ( q . v .), who 
 came to Scotland in 1523 from Paris, was 
 the first to preach the doctrines of the Re¬ 
 formers in Scotland. He was certainly one 
 to whom Scotland owes much for his cour¬ 
 age in preaching the Reformed religion. 
 After the death of Archbishop Beaton, 
 who had condemned Hamilton, the perse¬ 
 cution of the Reformers was entrusted to 
 his nephew, David Beaton, abbot of Ar¬ 
 broath, who had been educated in France, 
 and was a staunch Roman Catholic. He 
 extended his imitation of French customs 
 even to the manner of dealing with here¬ 
 tics, and induced the king to take part with 
 him in stamping out the Reformed religion. 
 For some years a continual inquisition 
 went on; numbers were tortured and put 
 to death, and many more were imprisoned, 
 or forfeited their possessions. 
 
 The name of George Wishart (q. v.) 
 stands out, in the early part of the six¬ 
 teenth century, as one of the most learned 
 Reformers that Scotland had yet seen; he 
 was seized and burnt to death in 1545. 
 His place was filled immediately by one 
 who had hitherto been simply one of his 
 disciples, but who was destined to become 
 far more famous than his master—John 
 Knox (q. v.). During the regency of Mary 
 of Guise for her daughter, a constant strug¬ 
 gle was going on between the two r»lig- 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 841 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 ions, and led eventually to a civil war, 
 which ended in a victory for the Protes¬ 
 tants in 1560, just after the regent’s death. 
 The result was that the Confession of 
 Faith was established by the Scottish Par¬ 
 liament. This confession was the recog¬ 
 nized standard of the Church of Scotland 
 from 1560 to 1647, when it was superseded 
 by the Westminster Confession. After 
 the accession of Mary Queen of Scots, it 
 seemed as though the tide were to turn in 
 favor of the old religion; but the queen’s 
 influence was not sufficiently great to effect 
 this, and after her defeats and humiliations 
 there was no more hope from that quarter. 
 
 Amid all the turmoil, John Knox was 
 the man among all others who had most 
 influence with his countrymen, and took 
 the best advantage of it by impressing his 
 doctrines on all sides. It was he who pre¬ 
 vailed with the Parliament to accept the 
 Confession of Faith, and he introduced the 
 Genevan Prayer-Book into Scotland. He 
 drew up the First Book of Discipline, 
 which treats mainly of the organization of 
 the Church, and of the disposal of Church 
 revenues. Knox cleared the way for the 
 introduction of Protestantism, but as yet 
 this was only the beginning of the struggle, 
 which lasted throughout the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. After Knox’s death 
 its character was altered, and, instead of 
 being a contest between Romanism and 
 Protestantism, it gradually became one be¬ 
 tween Prelacy and Presbyterianism. To 
 all appearance papacy had died out, but no 
 doubt many still clung to it secretly, and 
 would have been glad of any opportunity 
 to have the old forms and ceremonies re¬ 
 stored. A great difficulty stood in the way, 
 also, with regard to the disposal of church 
 revenues, and in order to remove this the 
 Concordat of Leith was drawn up in 1572, 
 by which it was ordained that all bishops, 
 abbots, and priors were to continue to be 
 parts of the spiritual estate, but their pow¬ 
 er was to be limited, and they were to be 
 under the control of the General Assem¬ 
 bly. 
 
 (4) Presbyterianism Established. —The new 
 attack against Episcopacy began with An¬ 
 drew Melville (q. v. ), who returned from 
 Geneva in 1575, and who used his learning 
 and power of rhetoric to such purpose that, 
 in 1580, the Assembly passed a decision 
 that Episcopacy was “ unlawful, and with¬ 
 out warrant in the Word of God.” With 
 the view of supplanting Episcopacy by 
 Presbyterianism, Melville and his party 
 compiled a second Book of Discipline, 
 which received the sanction of the Church. 
 It seemed at first that their efforts were to 
 be unsuccessful, through the conduct of 
 the young king, who insisted on having 
 
 some of the bishops maintained in their 
 dioceses, and chose for his companions 
 young Roman Catholic noblemen. A panic 
 was raised, which was only half allayed by 
 the recantation of D’Aubigny, Duke of Len¬ 
 nox; and so great was the alarm that 
 the king was seized and imprisoned at 
 Huntingtower, near Perth, where he was 
 kept for a year. He eventually made his 
 escape, and his captors were declared guilty 
 of high treason. Melville barely succeeded 
 in making his escape to Berwick, and the 
 rest of the ministers only remained in peril 
 of their lives. The result of the king’s 
 imprisonment was the passing of the 
 “ Black Acts ” in 1584, by which the sov¬ 
 ereign was declared to be supreme in all 
 matters, and ecclesiastical authority was 
 placed in the hands of the bishops. But 
 this violence raised such an outcry that 
 three years later another act was passed, 
 which put an end to the Scottish Episco¬ 
 pate; all Church revenues became the 
 property of the Crown, and were soon 
 squandered by the king and his associates. 
 From this time till 1592, when the Presby¬ 
 terian Constitution (commonly called the 
 Magna Charta of the Church of Scotland) 
 was established by law, he put no further 
 obstacles in the way of Presbytery. 
 
 (5) Reintroduciion of Episcopacy—Lauds 
 Liturgy — A T ational Covenant. —The king’s 
 feelings altered when he found that the 
 ministers would allow him no freedom in 
 dealing with some nobles in the north, who 
 were still inclined to Romanism, and for 
 whom the Presbyterians had no mercy. 
 He sought his revenge by an attempt in 
 1596 to reintroduce Episcopacy, under the 
 very plausible pretext of admitting some 
 of the wisest ministers into Parliament. 
 Probably he would not have been able to 
 carry out his design as he wished, if it had 
 not been for his succession to the English 
 throne in 1603, when, finding himself sup¬ 
 ported by English bishops, he hoped to 
 bring about a uniformity of religion, and 
 set himself to do so by dissolving assem¬ 
 blies, imprisoning ministers, and otherwise 
 exercising arbitrary power, hoping to pre¬ 
 vail on the people before long to accept the 
 bishops whom he should appoint. He en¬ 
 deavored to bribe Melville with the offer 
 of a bishopric, but, finding him still obdu¬ 
 rate, the king sent him to the Tower for 
 three years, and finally banished him to 
 France. Some bishops were consecrated 
 in England, and the Episcopal Church 
 seemed again to be established in Scotland, 
 though the absence of ritual was very no¬ 
 ticeable beside that of the English Church. 
 The change was hardly felt among the 
 people ; but a deep feeling was excited 
 among them in 1618 by the Five Articles 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 842 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 of Perth, which were submitted to the As¬ 
 sembly for its sanction, and which enjoined 
 kneeling at Communion and the observ¬ 
 ance of Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, 
 Ascension and Whitsunday, allowed con¬ 
 firmation of children of eight years old, 
 and permitted communion of the sick in 
 private houses. The people were stagger¬ 
 ed at the idea of such a departure from 
 ancient customs, and in most churches 
 refused to comply. Nothing of great 
 importance took place till the year 1633, 
 when Charles I. came to Scotland to be 
 crowned, and took the opportunity of plan¬ 
 ning some reforms in Church matters. He 
 made some changes in the revenues; form¬ 
 ed Edinburgh into a bishopric, with the 
 Collegiate Church of St. Giles as its ca¬ 
 thedral; and—a far more important mat¬ 
 ter—he ordered the introduction of a lit¬ 
 urgy, to be modeled on that of the English 
 Church. This Service-book was the work 
 of Archbishop Laud; it was completed in 
 1637, and on July 23 was to be used for the 
 first time at St. Giles’s; but the dean was 
 not allowed to proceed beyond the first 
 few words before an uproar was raised, 
 which obliged him and the bishop of Edin¬ 
 burgh, who was present, with the arch¬ 
 bishop of St. Andrew’s, to escape for their 
 lives. The innovation resulted in the 
 formation of a National Covenant, signed 
 in the Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh, 
 Feb., 1638, the members of which bound 
 themselves to defend their Church from 
 the encroachments of popery. In Novem¬ 
 ber the National Assembly met; the Five 
 Articles, the Book of Canons, and the new 
 Prayer-Book were condemned, the bishops 
 were tried and deposed from their bish¬ 
 oprics, and Presbyterianism was once more 
 restored in its original form. This pro¬ 
 ceeding on the part of the Assembly could 
 not but have serious consequences; a pe¬ 
 tition was presented to the king, but he 
 refused to take any notice of it, and the 
 Scotch army was speedily prepared for 
 war. Peace was made before actual hos¬ 
 tilities had begun, for the king began to 
 realize how much in earnest his opponents 
 were. He undertook to call a General 
 Assembly to settle the disturbances, and it 
 met the following year; its work consisted 
 in doing again what had been done by its 
 predecessor, and the Assemblies which had 
 established Episcopacy were declared to 
 have been illegal. 
 
 It was soon known that Charles was 
 again making his army ready for an inva¬ 
 sion, and the Scotch resolved to be before¬ 
 hand with him. In August, 1640, an army, 
 headed by the Marquis of Montrose, 
 marched southward and took possession of 
 Newcastle. Frightened by this decisive 
 
 measure, the king hastened to make con¬ 
 cessions, and gave up all the points on 
 which he had before insisted most strongly. 
 
 (6) Soletnn League and Covenant. —With 
 the English rebellion came new hopes to 
 the Presbyterians, who trusted that Pres¬ 
 bytery would now extend over the whole 
 kingdom, and in anticipation of such an 
 event they decided to bind themselves, 
 with their English brethren, by a religious 
 covenant, to protect the rights of their 
 Church. The Solemn League and Cov¬ 
 enant was drawn up toward the close of 
 1643, and sanctioned by the Estates, and 
 the oaths were taken by the English Par¬ 
 liament. The Scotch army immediately 
 marched again into England to unite their 
 forces to those of the English Parliament. 
 
 In 1645 the Directory for the Public Wor¬ 
 ship of God was accepted by the Assembly, 
 and in 1647 they also accepted the West- 
 ?ninster Confession of Faith, taking exception 
 only to one or two points. On the execu¬ 
 tion of Charles I., the Scots proclaimed 
 Charles II. king, and induced him to sign 
 the Covenant, for they were resolute in 
 refusing to acknowledge Oliver Cromwell. 
 On the Restoration, King Charles, who 
 hated the Covenant, dismissed the Assem¬ 
 bly, and took the government of the Church 
 under his own control. He again intro¬ 
 duced Episcopacy, and now began a ter¬ 
 rible time of persecution to the Covenant¬ 
 ers. The leader in this raid against 
 Presbyterianism was Archbishop Sharp. 
 (Sharp, James.) In 1670 was passed the 
 Conventicle Act, forbidding the meetings 
 of the Covenanters and enforcing compul¬ 
 sory attendance at church; and the next 
 few years exhibit fierce persecution, and a 
 constant struggle between the two parties. 
 
 (7) Presbyterian Church Established by Act 
 of Parliament. —The fall of James II. in 
 1688 brought down the Episcopal Church 
 also. Scotland had for many years been 
 becoming more Puritanical in its tenden¬ 
 cies, and was now most rigorous in the 
 stress laid upon the duties of prayer and 
 fasting, and the sins of frivolity and dis¬ 
 sipation. Episcopacy was at an end in 
 many parts of the country, though it was 
 not definitely abolished till 1689, when the 
 Convention of the Estates met and de¬ 
 nounced it, and in 1690 an Act of the Par¬ 
 liament of William and Mary confirmed the 
 Presbyterian Confessio?i of Faith , and or¬ 
 dered the use of the Catechism and Direc¬ 
 tory for Public Worship. The patronage 
 of the Church was conferred on the Elders 
 and Town Councils in the boroughs, and 
 on the landowners in the country. 
 
 The General Assembly, which met in 
 1690, appointed two commissions to visit 
 the clergy in different parts of the country 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 843 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 to enforce discipline. In the north the 
 arrangement was a failure; for the commis¬ 
 sioners were incapable of acting with the 
 moderation which the Assembly wished, 
 and numbers of the clergy were turned out 
 of their livings, while the people refused 
 to allow the Presbytery to appoint succes¬ 
 sors. In many places Episcopalians were 
 put in the vacant livings by the parish¬ 
 ioners, and in these parishes the Pres¬ 
 byteries lost all control, if, indeed, they 
 were not left destitute of members. King- 
 William became dissatisfied as the con¬ 
 fusion increased, delayed the meeting of 
 the Assembly, and finally refused to admit 
 any member who would not take the “ Oath 
 of Assurance ” that he was king de facto 
 and de jure. Lord Carstares, the king’s 
 confidential adviser, prevailed upon him to 
 countermand the order, and his consent 
 restored in a great measure the confidence 
 of the Scottish clergy, who had begun to 
 regard him with distrust. Liberty was 
 granted to the Episcopalians to remain in 
 possession of their benefices, though they 
 were not allowed to become members of 
 assemblies, synods, and presbyteries; and 
 the consequence was that they gradually 
 diminished in number, though they con¬ 
 sider themselves to be the old Church of 
 Scotland. From the time that King Will¬ 
 iam released the Assembly from the Oath 
 of Assurance in 1694, it has continued to 
 meet year by year, and the Established 
 Church has been Presbyterian. 
 
 Although the Scottish people had no 
 wish for the union of the English Church 
 with their own, they were generally anxious 
 for the union of the Parliaments, which 
 took place in 1707. The General Assembly 
 lost most of its power by the Act of Union, 
 but men realized that it was for the Church’s 
 good that the interests of the two countries 
 should be united. Lord Carstares was 
 elected president of the Assembly which 
 met after the act was passed, and an at¬ 
 tempt was made to enforce uniformity, but 
 with so little success that the Tory Par¬ 
 liament of Queen Anne passed an Act of 
 Toleration, giving freedom to the Episco¬ 
 palians to continue their own form of 
 worship. In the same year they revived 
 the old system of patronage, which had 
 been in abeyance for more than sixty years, 
 and to that breach of the Treaty of Union 
 are to be directly ascribed all the schisms 
 that have since rent the Church of Scot¬ 
 land. 
 
 (8' Moderatis 7 ti .—From this time till 1720 
 much work was done in setting up the 
 churches which had long been vacant, and 
 settling the borders of the Church; but in 
 that year a new feeling began to show 
 itself, which developed later into the so- 
 
 called Moderatism. It was at this time also 
 that the “ Marrow movement ” began, 
 which took its name from a book by Ed¬ 
 ward Fisher, entitled the Marrow of Mod¬ 
 ern Divinity, in which certain doctrines 
 relative to justification by faith were put 
 . forward. The book was condemned in 
 1720 by the General Assembly, whereupon 
 the “ Marrow men ” raised a protestation, 
 and petitioned against the decision of the 
 Assembly, and a contest began which 
 lasted for many years, and was aggravated 
 in 1732 by an act which was then passed 
 concerning the right of patronage. Many 
 causes combined to increase the discontent 
 among the clergy, and they were beginning 
 now to wish to shake themselves free from 
 the old groove, and to escape from the 
 strictness of discipline which had been im¬ 
 posed upon them. To this movement was 
 owing the first secession which took place 
 in 1733, and of which Ebenezer Erskine 
 (q. v.) was the leading spirit. It was the 
 beginning of party spirit in the Church, 
 and from this time the two parties of 
 “popular” and “moderate” Presbyte¬ 
 rians continued to develop. Many of the 
 followers of Moderatism laid themselves 
 open to a charge of heresy, but the per¬ 
 secutions which they suffered were the 
 means of promoting their cause, which 
 grew and flourished throughout the eight¬ 
 eenth century. With the development in 
 theological ideas there was development 
 in other directions, and in the latter half of 
 the eighteenth century the literature of 
 Scotland, principally of its clergy, was the 
 richest of the age. The first secession was 
 healed to a great extent by the policy of 
 William Robertson who, by his influence 
 on the General Assembly, succeeded in 
 reducing the Church to order and restoring 
 unity to the Presbyteries, though his policy 
 had the effect of driving many from the 
 Established Church. A second secession 
 took place in 1752, and its consequences 
 were more lasting than those of the first, 
 numbers of people leaving the Church and 
 forming a large dissenting body. In those 
 who still remained faithful to the old con¬ 
 nection, Evangelicalism, no doubt, was 
 strengthened by the schism, but the depart¬ 
 ure of such numbers from the Church 
 awakened a feeling of alarm in all its mem¬ 
 bers. No events worthy of notice hap¬ 
 pened during the closing years of the 
 eighteenth century, but the beginning of 
 the nineteenth saw many very important 
 changes, not so much in the doctrines of 
 the Church, as in the manner in which she 
 carried on her work. Hitherto the schools 
 had been utterly inefficient for the number 
 and requirements of the population, but by 
 new rules made at this period, they were 
 
Sco 
 
 ( s 44 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 subjected to the supervision of the Pres¬ 
 byteries, and better homes and salaries 
 were provided for the teachers. Sunday- 
 schools were established, and livings were 
 better endowed. At the same time the 
 Church began to take part in the work of 
 foreign missions, which had hitherto been 
 left in the hands of men not connected with 
 any religious body in particular. But the 
 most important change effected at this time 
 was that of Church extension, the idea of 
 which originated with Dr. Chalmers ( q. v.), 
 of the Tron Church, Glasgow, who was 
 much distressed at the want of accommoda¬ 
 tion for the people in his own church, and 
 set to work to influence the Scottish peo¬ 
 ple to help him in his scheme of subdivid¬ 
 ing parishes, so as to bring them more 
 directly under the minister’s control, and 
 of connecting poor and rich through the 
 Church’s influence. 
 
 (9) The Great Disruption .—The good 
 which resulted from this movement was 
 accompanied by one evil to the Church, for 
 the Dissenters thought it was a blow aimed 
 at them, and the “ Voluntary Controversy ” 
 was raised as to the advisability of dises¬ 
 tablishing the Church. Seceders and Dis¬ 
 senters united in an attack upon the Estab¬ 
 lished Church, and the struggle became 
 more political than religious, for the 
 Church claimed that her new chapels 
 should be endowed by the State, and the 
 Dissenters contested and eventually over¬ 
 ruled that claim. Another controversy was 
 raised after the passing of the Reform Bill 
 in 1832, concerning the right of the people 
 to a share in Church government, and the 
 Veto Act was passed in 1834, to enable the 
 laity to reject the nomination of any min¬ 
 ister appointed by the patron, provided that 
 the veto was agreed to by the majority of 
 the congregation. The ministers were 
 forced into accepting the decree against 
 their will, and later many of them had to 
 give way to another change—namely, the 
 admission of the ministers of unendowed 
 chapels into the General Assembly. An 
 opening once made, fresh innovations fol¬ 
 lowed, and in 1839 members of the Asso¬ 
 ciate Synod of Seceders were admitted. 
 Many ministers appealed against vetoes 
 brought against them, and trials to decide 
 on the judgment of the Presbyteries were 
 brought before the Assembly. The Court 
 of Session hastened to attempt to repair the 
 evils by impolitic measures, till the confu¬ 
 sion reached its height, and the Non-Intru¬ 
 sion party called loudly for separation from 
 the Scottish Church. The separation came 
 in 1843, ^nd caused much surprise to many 
 who did not understand the spirit of the 
 Scottish people, and believed that only a 
 few of the most violent Non-Intrusionists 
 
 would go so far as to cut themselves off 
 from communion with the Church. In the 
 midst of the general confusion which pre¬ 
 vailed about 1842, the Moderates were un¬ 
 fortunate in having no one capable of taking 
 the lead, or deciding on what course it 
 would be well to adopt, while on the other 
 side were Chalmers and Dr. Candlish, who 
 was in reality the leader of the party. In 
 November, 1842, the General Assembly 
 met, and after ten days’ discussion they 
 bound themselves to stand by one another, 
 and to unite themselves into a separate 
 body. The Free Church was formed on 
 May 18, 1843, when, of the 1,200 ministers 
 who had hitherto belonged to the Estab¬ 
 lished Church, 451 seceded. After the first 
 shock which the parent Church felt from 
 the Secession, its work went on with no less 
 earnestness and success than before; and 
 it proceeded to redress one by one the 
 grievances which had been the cause of its 
 troubles. The work of the Maintainers 
 was hard, for the Seceders put in their way 
 all the difficulties they could devise, and 
 public feeling was all against them. But 
 the Church overcame the opposition, and 
 the work of Church extension prospered, 
 mainly under the guidance of Professor 
 James Robertson, who set on foot the en¬ 
 dowment scheme, for the carrying on of the 
 Church’s work in the chapels already built. 
 Mission work also made great advances in 
 the years which followed the Secession, 
 and in this also Dr. Robertson and Dr. 
 Norman Macleod were the moving spirits. 
 The grievance of patronage was again con¬ 
 sidered, and the Scotch Benefices Act was 
 brought in; but, though hailed with de¬ 
 light by the people, it was rejected by the 
 Parliament, as giving too much power to 
 the Church. Many efforts were made to 
 bring the question fairly before the Assem¬ 
 bly, and finally in 1868 a Committee of In¬ 
 quiry was instituted, whose report to the 
 Assembly resulted in a victory to the sup¬ 
 porters of anti-patronage. The Establish¬ 
 ed Church of Scotland has 1,283 parishes, 
 and 1,479 ministers.—Benham : Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Scotland, Episcopal Church of. As 
 our previous article will have partly shown, 
 the National Church of Scotland had been 
 made, at least nominally, Episcopalian 
 upon the accession of James I. to the 
 throne of England, Presbyterianism regain¬ 
 ing the ascendancy on the accession of 
 Charles I., and Episcopacy being once more 
 restored at the Restoration of Charles II. 
 Thus it remained until the accession of 
 William III. in 1688. Presbyterianism was 
 then finally established, not so much as the 
 Church of the majority, as because the 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 845 ) 
 
 Sco 
 
 Episcopal bishops refused to take the oath 
 —were, in other words, Nonjurors. No 
 doubt the same course would have been 
 taken in England if the Church had not 
 yielded to circumstances and taken the 
 oath of allegiance. The Rebellion of 1745 
 was disastrous to the Episcopal Church in 
 Scotland. The bishops were, almost with¬ 
 out exception, Jacobites, and the govern¬ 
 ment treated them most rigorously as polit¬ 
 ical offenders and rebels. In 1746 an act 
 was passed forbidding the Episcopalian 
 form of worship, except in the presence of 
 the clergyman’s family, and that only twice 
 a year. The punishment for the first of¬ 
 fence was imprisonment for six months; for 
 the second, transportation for life. The 
 grandfather of the late bishop of Aberdeen, 
 the author of “ Tullochgorum,” which 
 Burns pronounced the noblest of all Scotch 
 songs, was imprisoned for six months in 
 1753, for the crime of reading the Liturgy 
 to more than four persons beyond his own 
 family. Many a clergyman did duty no less 
 than sixteen times on a Sunday in order to 
 keep within the law. The Episcopal 
 Church was reduced to the last extremity, 
 but a few faithful men were left, who work¬ 
 ed hard to prevent her entire extinction. 
 It was not until 1792 that these penal laws 
 were rescinded. Meanwhile a serious dif¬ 
 ficulty had been created among the Episco¬ 
 palians, which even yet has hardly died 
 out. There were some who preferred the 
 Liturgy to the Presbyterian services, but 
 had no taste for civil disabilities, and these 
 professed Episcopalian views, but without 
 placing themselves under the Scottish bish¬ 
 ops. These places of worship were desig¬ 
 nated “ qualified chapels.” Hence there 
 was introduced a cause of variance at once. 
 After the penal laws were abolished it was 
 hoped that reunion between these might 
 have been effected, and in 1804 a convoca¬ 
 tion of the Scotch Episcopal clergy met at 
 Laurencekirk, and subscribed to the Eng¬ 
 lish Articles and Liturgy as a basis. But 
 a cause of difference remained. The Scot¬ 
 tish Episcopal Church had adopted, with 
 the English Nonjurors, a Liturgy resem¬ 
 bling the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., 
 and retained the mixed chalice in the Eu¬ 
 charist, and some other matters to which 
 the “ English Episcopalians ” were oppos¬ 
 ed. It was agreed to leave to these the 
 free use of the English Liturgy, whilst the 
 Communion between them should not be 
 interrupted thereby. But many of them 
 were not contented with this. They called 
 on the bishops to abandon the Scotch Lit¬ 
 urgy and adopt the English, and on their 
 refusal the reunion was rejected. There 
 are still a few, and only a very few, of these 
 congregations in Scotland; nearly all of 
 
 them have conformed to the Episcopal 
 Church, in consequence of that Church 
 having left the choice of liturgies to the 
 congregations, and in the majority of the 
 churches the English Office is in use. A 
 memorable chapter in the history of this 
 Church is that of the consecration of Bish¬ 
 op Seabury ( q. z\), the first American 
 bishop, in 1784. 
 
 The leading gentry and nobility of Scot¬ 
 land for the most part belong to the Epis¬ 
 copal Church, but nevertheless the Church 
 is a very poor one. The income of a 
 clergyman is seldom more than ^"ioo a year, 
 though this is the minimum. It is derived 
 mostly from pew rents, and, in conse¬ 
 quence, the amount depends largely on the 
 popularity of the clergyman. The new life 
 shown in the Church of England during the 
 last fifty years has influenced Scotland, as 
 is shown by the increasing number of ser¬ 
 vices, and the building of various theolog¬ 
 ical colleges. Of these the principal are: 
 Trinity College, founded in 1841, to which 
 are attached a few scholarships; St. Ninian 
 Cathedral and College, Perth, the first 
 cathedral established in Scotland since the 
 Reformation, consecrated in 1851; Church 
 and College of the Holy Spirit, Isle of 
 Cumbrae, founded in 1849. At present 
 there are seven Episcopal sees, viz: Aber¬ 
 deen, regarded as the chief; St. Andrews; 
 Ross and Moray ; Edinburgh ; Brechin; 
 Argyll and the Isles; Glasgow and Gallo¬ 
 way. Patronage is chiefly in the hands of 
 the congregation, who have the right of 
 nominating their own pastor after they 
 have heard him preach a sermon. The 
 Episcopal Church has seven dioceses and 
 238 churches or stations.—Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Scott, Thomas, a popular biblical com¬ 
 mentator; b. at Braytoft, Lincolnshire, Feb. 
 16, 1747; d. at Aston Sandford, Bucking¬ 
 hamshire, April 16, 1821. He gained his 
 education in the face of the most adverse 
 conditions, and was ordained in 1773, and 
 in 1781 succeeded John Newton as curate of 
 Olney. In 1785 he became chaplain of the 
 Lock Hospital, London, and vicar of Aston 
 Sandford in 1801. Through the influence 
 of Newton he adopted strong Calvinistic 
 views, and in 1779 he published a small 
 volume called The Force of Truth , in which 
 he stated his opinions. His celebrated 
 Family Bible with Notes , which has passed 
 through several American editions, was 
 published in 1788-92. His Works , edited 
 by his son, appeared in 1823, 10 vols. 
 See his Life (N. Y., 1856). 
 
 Scott, Thomas, an English dissenting 
 minister in Suffolk, Ipswich (1737-74), and 
 
Sco 
 
 ( 846 ) 
 
 Scu 
 
 Hopton in Norfolk, where he d., 1775. He 
 published several poetical works, and 
 among his hymns are a few still well 
 known. Among them are “Hasten, sinner, 
 to be wise,” and “ Angels, roll the rock 
 away.” 
 
 Scotus Erigena, John, b. in Ireland, 
 probably between 800 and 815. Educat¬ 
 ed in a cloistral school, he became influen¬ 
 tial in the court of Charles the Bald. 
 While at the French court he gained a 
 great name for learning, and wrote most 
 of his works. He took part in the contro¬ 
 versy concerning the Lord’s Supper, which 
 was carried on between Paschasius Rad- 
 bertus, Rabanus Maurus, and others. He 
 considered the bread and wine used in the 
 Supper as mere symbols of the presence 
 of Christ in the sacrament. In the contro¬ 
 versy regarding predestination led by 
 Gottschalk, he wrote a book, De Prcedesti- 
 natione , in which he teaches that the only 
 predestination is that to eternal bliss. 
 Evil, he contended, had no real existence, 
 but was simply a lack or fault in the reali¬ 
 zation of good. His principal work is De 
 Divisione Natura, which develops a sys¬ 
 tem of idealistic pantheism. Soon after 
 the death of Charles the Bald, Scotus was 
 invited to England by Alfred the Great. 
 Here he became a teacher at Oxford, and 
 afterward abbot of Malmesbury. He is 
 said to have been killed in this church by 
 his own pupils, about 891. 
 
 Scribes ( writers ) “ were a learned pro¬ 
 fession, neither a party nor a sect. They 
 devoted themselves to the study of the 
 Law, of which they were the expositors 
 and transcribers. They were the lawyers 
 and public notaries of the community. 
 (Matt. xxii. 35; Mark vii. 2; Luke v. 17, 
 21.) Such were Gamaliel and Saul. In 
 doctrine and practice they favored the Phar¬ 
 isees, with whom they are often classed. 
 (Matt, xxiii. 2.) From being transcribers 
 and expounders of the Law, they supplied, 
 after the Captivity, the place of the proph¬ 
 ets and the inspired oracles, which had 
 ceased; and from them arose those glosses 
 and interpretations which our Lord rebukes 
 under the term ‘ traditions.’* These became 
 so numerous that they were collected by 
 the Rabbi Judah (a. d. 200) into six books, 
 called the Mishnah (repetition of the oral 
 law), to which was subsequently added a 
 book of comments ( Gemara ), which com¬ 
 pleted the whole traditionary doctrine of 
 the Jewish Church. The Mishnah and 
 the Gemara together constitute the Tal¬ 
 mud, of which there are two, one by the 
 Jews in Judaea (called the Jerusalem Tal¬ 
 mud), the other by those in Babylon (call¬ 
 
 ed the Babylonian).” — “Oxford” Bible 
 Helps. 
 
 Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose, 
 LL. D. (St. Andrew’s, 1872), D. C. L. (Ox¬ 
 ford, 1876), Church of England; b. at Ber¬ 
 mondsey , Surrey, Sept. 29,1813; educated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge; was graduated 
 B. A. (third in second-class classical tripos), 
 1835, M. A., 1838; became assistant master 
 of King’s School, Sherborne, 1835; curate 
 of Sandford Orcas, Somerset, 1838; per¬ 
 petual curate of Penwerris, Cornwall, 1846; 
 rector of St. Gerrans, Cornwall, 1861; 
 vicar of Hendon, Middlesex, 1876. He 
 was a member of the New Testament Re¬ 
 vision Company, and is the author of: Notes 
 on the Atithorized Version of the New Testa¬ 
 ment (London, 1845); Collation of Twenty 
 Greek RIanuscripts of the Holy Gospel (1853); 
 Codex Augiensis, and Fifty other Manu¬ 
 scripts (1859); Novu?n Testamentum Textus 
 Stephanici (i860); Plain Introduction to the 
 Criticism of the New Testafnent (1861); 
 Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus (1863); 
 Be zee Codex Cantabrigiensis (1864); Six 
 Popular Lectures on the Text of the New 
 Testament (1875); edited 1 'he Cambridge 
 Paragraph Bible (1873); (Introduction, re¬ 
 vised separate edition, 1884); Greek Testa¬ 
 ment with Changes of New Testa 7 jient Re¬ 
 visers (1881). 
 
 Scudder, John, b. at Freehold, N. J., 
 Sept. 13, 1793; d. at Wynberg, South 
 Africa, Jan. 13, 1855. He gave up his 
 practice as a physician in 1819, and became 
 a devoted missionary in India. He was 
 the founder of the Arcot mission, where he 
 spent most of his life. “ Dr. Scudder is 
 one of the heroes of foreign missions. 
 Convinced that he was doing good he cared 
 nothing for the opposition of men. He 
 endured hardness, and even severe pain, 
 without complaint. The Bible constituted 
 well-nigh his sole reading. He went about 
 doing good to body and soul, like his Mas¬ 
 ter. He preached in almost every large 
 town in Southeastern Hindostan. It was 
 his ambition ‘ to be one of the inner circle 
 around Jesus in heaven.’” See his Mem¬ 
 oir, by J. B. Waterbury (N. Y., 1870). 
 
 Sculpture, Christian. Many causes com¬ 
 bined during the early centuries of the 
 Christian Era to mark this time as deficient 
 in Christian works of art of any descrip¬ 
 tion. For two centuries before the birth 
 of Christ art had been in a state of decline, 
 and when Greece, the mistress of art, came 
 under the Roman yoke, there seemed little 
 prospect of a genuine revival. But sculp¬ 
 ture had another disadvantage, namely, 
 the association of images in the mind of 
 
Sea 
 
 ( 847 ) 
 
 Sea 
 
 the Jews with the idolatry forbidden by the 
 Mosaic Law; and the early Christians re¬ 
 garded images with scarcely less abhor¬ 
 rence. Roman art had degenerated into 
 the representation of the lowest passions 
 of human nature, and the Christian avoid¬ 
 ed it for this reason, Tertullian going so 
 far as to say that art is the invention of 
 the devil. The earliest deviations from 
 this strict avoidance of image-worship are 
 the monumental representations in sculp¬ 
 ture of biblical history; and these are of 
 the crudest and most elementary descrip¬ 
 tion. Statues representing objects of wor¬ 
 ship were very rare until about the tenth 
 century, though it seems that some Chris¬ 
 tians were found who defended them, and 
 even protested against the destruction of 
 beautiful Pagan images. Sepulchral re¬ 
 liefs gradually found their way more and 
 more into use to adorn monuments, shrines, 
 Church furniture, etc., and crucifixes be¬ 
 gan to be used, not as objects of worship, 
 but simply as beautiful works of art. In 
 the West, sculpture formed a part of ar¬ 
 chitecture, and instead of setting up soli¬ 
 tary statues inside churches, it became cus¬ 
 tomary to adorn the west fronts of the 
 larger churches with images of Christ and 
 the Virgin, angels, saints, and martyrs, 
 and with representations of scenes from 
 the life of Christ. All these figures, with¬ 
 out exception, were required to be clothed 
 in long draperies, and this necessarily 
 hampered the artists, who had none of 
 them as yet attained to the highest skill, 
 while it sometimes destroyed the distinct¬ 
 ness of a scene in which many figures were 
 grouped together. The first Christian 
 sculptor who can be named as having 
 reached any great degree of excellence was 
 Nicolo Pisano, an Italian of the thirteenth 
 century, who executed a series of bas-re¬ 
 liefs at Pisa and Siena, representing events 
 in the life of Christ and the last Judgment. 
 His pupils carried on the work, and the 
 west front of the cathedral of Orvieto, the 
 door of its baptistery and other works, 
 show traces of his influence. In the fif¬ 
 teenth century sculpture progressed under 
 Donatello, Brunelleschi, and especially 
 Ghiberti; and these prepared the way for the 
 greatest of all Christian sculptors, Michael 
 Angelo Buonarotti (1475-1564). His chef 
 d oeuvre was the figure of Moses, in the 
 Church of San Pietro in Vincolo,at Rome, 
 and his works enrich most of the principal 
 buildings at Rome and Florence.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Seabury, Samuel, b. in Groton, Conn., 
 Nov. 30, 1729; d. at New London, Feb. 25, 
 1796. He was graduated at Yale College 
 in 1748, and studied medicine and theology 
 
 in Scotland. Ordained to the priesthood 
 in 1753 by the bishop of Carlisle, he re¬ 
 turned to this country under appointment 
 as missionary at New Brunswick, N. J. In 
 1757 he removed to Jamaica, L. I., and not 
 long after to Westchester, N. Y. When the 
 conflict of opinion arose regarding the re¬ 
 lations of the mother-country to the colo¬ 
 nies, he took the side of the loyalists, and 
 expressed his views with a vigor that led 
 to his arrest and imprisonment at New 
 Haven. After his release he returned to 
 Long Island. In 1783 he was elected 
 bishop of Connecticut, and sailed for Eng¬ 
 land to be ordained. The fact that it was 
 necessary that a candidate for Episcopal 
 ordination should take the oath of alle¬ 
 giance to the king, and of obedience to the 
 archbishop of Canterbury, interposed se¬ 
 rious difficulties. Recourse was had to the 
 bishops of Scotland, and he was ordained 
 at Aberdeen, Nov., 1784. Dr. Seabury was 
 a man of strong and earnest character, and 
 his name holds an honored place in the 
 history of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 See his Life , by Dr. Beardsley (1881); 
 Episcopal Church, The American. 
 
 Seals. See Rings. 
 
 Seamen, Missions to. An association, 
 called at first The Bible Society , was organ¬ 
 ized in London in 1780 to supply English 
 soldiers and sailors in the navy with Bibles. 
 The name of the society was soon changed 
 to that of The Naval and Military Bible So¬ 
 ciety, and has continued its work until the 
 present time. The Port of London Society 
 was formed in 1818 to provide for the 
 preaching of the Gospel to sailors in Lon¬ 
 don. A floating chapel was opened, and 
 local societies were instituted in various 
 parts of the kingdom. From this ivork 
 sprang what is now known as The British 
 and Foreign Sailors' Society. Other socie¬ 
 ties have been organized under the care of 
 the Scandinavian Lutherans on the Conti¬ 
 nent. They occupy thirty-three stations, 
 scattered all over the world. 
 
 The Society for Promoting the Gospel 
 among Seamen in the Port of New York was 
 formed June 5, 1818. This society now 
 sustains a church at Madison and Catharine 
 Streets in New York, and employs several 
 missionaries. The American Seamen's 
 Friend Society was organized in 1828. This 
 has been the most efficient missionary so¬ 
 ciety among seamen that has thus far pros¬ 
 ecuted this important work. It has over 
 forty missionaries in its employ, and 
 through its system of sustaining religious 
 services, furnishing libraries for use on 
 shipboard, opening sailors’ boarding¬ 
 houses, and establishing savings-banks, it 
 
Sea 
 
 (848) 
 
 Sei 
 
 has done a work the fruits of which have 
 been seen in the thousands of sailors con¬ 
 verted to a life of sobriety and Christian 
 faith. The Church Missionary Society for 
 Seamen in the City of New York (Protestant 
 Episcopal), sustains two chapels, three 
 mission-houses, with reading and lecture 
 rooms. 
 
 Sears, Barnas, LL. D., a distinguished 
 educator; b. at Sandisfield, Mass., Nov. 19, 
 1802; d. at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 
 6, 18S0. After graduating from Brown 
 University in 1825, and Newton Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary in 1828, he was pastor for a 
 short time of the First Baptist Church of 
 Hartford, Conn. In 1829 he became pro¬ 
 fessor of ancient languages at Hamilton, 
 N. Y., in what is now Madison University. 
 In 1833 he visited Europe, and spent two 
 years in study. While there he baptized 
 the Rev. J. G. Oucken and six others, 
 forming the first German Baptist Church 
 in communion with the Baptists of England 
 and America. Through much persecution 
 these churches have increased until they 
 now have a membership of some twenty- 
 five thousand. In 1836 Dr. Sears became 
 professor of theology in Newton Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary, where he remained twelve 
 years. In 1848 he accepted the position of 
 Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of 
 Education. In 1855 he succeeded Dr. 
 Way land in the presidency of Brown Uni¬ 
 versity. In 1867 he was made General 
 Agent of the Peabody Educational Fund, 
 and continued to discharge the duties of 
 this office up to the time of his death. His 
 life was eminently useful in all the promi¬ 
 nent places he was called to fill. 
 
 Sears, Edmund Hamilton, D. D., b. at 
 Sandisfield, Mass., 1810; d. at Weston, 
 Mass., Jan. 14,1876; was graduated at Union 
 College, 1S34, and at Harvard Divinity 
 School, 1837; pastor at Wayland, Mass., 
 183S-40; at Lancaster, 1840-47; again at 
 Wayland, 1847-65; and at Weston, 1865-76. 
 He is most widely known by his two beau¬ 
 tiful Christmas hymns, “ Calm on the 
 listening ear of night,” and “ It came upon 
 the midnight clear.” He was the author 
 of: Regeneration (1854); -Pictures of the Olden 
 Time { 1857); Athanasia; or y Foregleams of 
 Immortality (1858); The Fourth Gospel the 
 Heart of Christ ( I S 72); Sermons and Songs of 
 the Christian Life (1875). While connected 
 with the Unitarian body Dr. Sears held 
 Swedenborgian views. 
 
 Se-Baptist. See Smyth, John. 
 
 Sebastian, an early Christian martyr; b. 
 at Narbonne, in Gaul, 255; d. in Rome, 28S. 
 
 In order that he might render more efficient 
 service to the Christians he concealed his 
 faith when entering the ranks of the army 
 of Diocletian. He rose to high rank, and 
 when he avowed himself a Christian the em¬ 
 peror did all in his power to induce him to 
 recant. When he refused to do so he was 
 put to death, as was supposed, by a troop 
 of archers; but a Christian lady, Irene, 
 took the body to her house, and he recov¬ 
 ered. On again avowing his faith he was 
 flogged to death in the amphitheatre. His 
 body was cast into the city sewer, but 
 according to tradition was recovered and 
 buried in the catacomb at Rome, which still 
 bears the name of St. Sebastian. His day 
 in the Roman calendar is Jan. 20; in the 
 Greek, Dec. 18. 
 
 Secession Church. See Presbyterian 
 Church (United Presbyterian). 
 
 Second Adventists. See Adventists. 
 
 Second Coming of Christ. See Mille- 
 
 narianism. 
 
 Secret Discipline. See Arcani Disci- 
 
 PLINA. 
 
 Secundians, a Gnostic sect of the second 
 century. Their founder, Secundus, was a 
 pupil of Valentinus. He maintained that 
 everything was attributable to one of two 
 main causes—Light and Darkness, or to a 
 Prince of good or evil. 
 
 Sedes Vacans, a term used in canon law 
 to denote the vacancy in the office of any 
 high dignitary in the Roman Church. 
 During the interval it was formerly the 
 custom to provide a substitute called the 
 interventor , or to entrust the duties of the 
 office to the cathedral chapter. This is 
 still done in the case of a sedes itnpedita , 
 where the vacancy is caused by unavoid¬ 
 able absence, or the illness of the occu¬ 
 pant. 
 
 See (Lat. sedes , seat, throne), a word des¬ 
 ignating the throne of a bishop in his cathe¬ 
 dral. It is thus distinguished from his 
 diocese , which means the area over which he 
 exercises spiritual power. 
 
 Seekers, a small Puritan sect which arose 
 in 1645. They professed to be seeking a 
 true church, ministry and sacraments, and 
 according to Baxter were a heterogeneous 
 company comprised of Roman Catholics 
 and infidels, as well as Puritans. 
 
 Seir, Mount, is the name of the moun¬ 
 tain ridge extending along the west side of 
 
Sel 
 
 ( 849 ) 
 
 Sel 
 
 the valley of the Arabah, from the Dead 
 Sea to the Elanitic Gulf. One of the high¬ 
 est points of the eastern range is Hor, with 
 Aaron’s tomb. (Num. xxxiii. 38.) Mount 
 Seir was originally inhabited by the Hor- 
 ites, who were dispossessed by the descend¬ 
 ants of Esau, “ who dwelt in their stead.” 
 (Deut. ii. 12.) The country was after¬ 
 ward called Edom, but the ancient name 
 survived. In the post-exile period the 
 country was taken by the Nabathaeans, who 
 again were subdued by the Mohammedans 
 in the year 629 A. D. The country is now 
 inhabited by the Bedouins. In the fertile 
 valleys peasants. Fellahin , cultivate the 
 land, and sell their produce to the pilgrims. 
 The pilgrimage route from Damascus to 
 Mecca runs on the eastern border of the 
 country. 
 
 Se'la, or Se'lah (rock)? is only twice 
 directly mentioned in the 
 Bible (2 Kings xiv. 7; Isa. 
 xvi. 1); but there are oth¬ 
 er passages in which it is 
 probably referred to. It 
 was a city of Edom, liter¬ 
 ally hewn out of the rock. 
 
 The Nabathaeans, in the 
 fourth century, B. c., made 
 it their stronghold. Pom- 
 pey captured the entire 
 region known as Arabia 
 Petraea. In the early 
 Christian centuries it was 
 the capital of a Roman 
 province, and became the 
 seat of an Episcopal see. 
 
 It appears to have been 
 destroyed by some desert 
 horde about the middle of 
 the sixth century. 
 
 “ It lay in a hollow enclosed amidst cliffs, 
 and accessible only by a ravine through 
 which the river winds across its site. A 
 tomb with three rows of columns, a tri¬ 
 umphal arch, and ruined bridges, are 
 among the remains. Laborde and Linant 
 traced a theatre for sea fights which could 
 be flooded from cisterns. This proves the 
 abundance of the water supply, if husband¬ 
 ed, and agrees with the accounts of the 
 former fertility of the district, in contrast 
 to the barren Arabah on the west. Selah 
 means a cliff ox peak, contrasted with eben, 
 a detached stone ox boulder. The khazneh, 
 ‘ treasury,’ in situation, coloring, and sin¬ 
 gular construction is unique. The fa£ade 
 of the temple consisted of six columns, of 
 which one is broken. The pediment has a 
 lyre on its apex. In the nine faces of rock 
 are sculptured female figures with flowing- 
 drapery. Palmer supposes them to be the 
 nine muses, with Apollo’s lyre above.”— 
 
 Fausset : Bible Cyclopedia. See Palmer: 
 Desert of the Exodus, pp. 366 sqq. 
 
 Se'lah. This word, which is only found 
 in the poetical books of the Old Testament, 
 occurs seventy-one times in the Psalms, 
 and three times in Habakkuk. Beyond 
 the fact that Selah is a musical term, we 
 know absolutely nothing about it, and are 
 entirely in the dark as to its meaning. 
 
 Selden, John, lawyer and antiquarian; b. 
 at Salvington, Sussex, 1584; d. at White- 
 friars, 1654. He studied at Chichester, was 
 graduated at Oxford, and entered Clifford’s 
 Inn, and afterwards the Inner Temple, for 
 the study of law. In the early years of 
 his career he published England j Epinomis, 
 Jani Anglorum Facies Altera, the Analecton 
 Anglo-Britannicon , and De Diis Syris, an 
 important work, which was published in 
 
 SELA —General View of the Ruins. 
 
 1617, and established his fame on the conti¬ 
 nent as well as in England. The History 
 of Tithes (1618) so roused the anger of the 
 king that Selden was obliged to rewrite it, 
 and to acknowledge his errors before the 
 Court of High Commission. Selden sel¬ 
 dom appeared at the Bar, but was looked 
 up to as* an authority on political matters, 
 and was imprisoned in 1621 for advising 
 the Commons to hold their ground against 
 the encroachments of the king. He rep¬ 
 resented Lancaster in several Parliaments, 
 and was zealous in the popular cause. He 
 supported the Petition of Right, but ap¬ 
 peased the king’s anger by the Mare Clau¬ 
 sum, published in 1636. In 1643 he sat in 
 the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and 
 was made Keeper of the Tower Records. 
 He was very intimate with Ben Jonson. 
 Selden was a man of great learning in legal 
 matters, and during his imprisonment he 
 wrote his chief works: De Successione in 
 
Sel 
 
 ( 850 ) 
 
 Sem 
 
 Tontificatum Hebrceorum and De Jure Na- 
 turali et Gentium juxta Disciplinam Hebrce¬ 
 orum. Probably his most popular work is 
 Table-Talk , published about 1690.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Seleu'cia, a city of Syria on the Mediter¬ 
 ranean shore, built by Seleucus Nicator, 
 300 b. c. It was celebrated for its excel¬ 
 lent harbor, from which Paul sailed for 
 Cyprus on his first missionary tour. (Acts 
 xiii. 4.) 
 
 Seleucidian Era. See Era. 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus, D. D., mis¬ 
 sionary and bishop of the Church of Eng¬ 
 land; b. at Richmond in 1809; d. at Lich¬ 
 field, April 11, 1878. He was appointed 
 bishop of New Zealand in 1841. His zeal 
 and labors were abundant and fruitful. He 
 visited England in 1854, and enlisted men 
 like Mackenzie and Patteson to enter the 
 missionary field. He returned to New 
 Zealand in 1855, where he remained until 
 186S, when, much against his will, he was 
 prevailed upon to return and take the 
 bishopric of Lichfield. 
 
 Semi-Arians, those who, whilst categor¬ 
 ically denying the Arian doctrines, held 
 them secretly in a somewhat modified form. 
 They refused to accept the word “con- 
 substantial,” but said that the Son was of 
 like substance with the Father, thereby in 
 reality denying the divinity of Christ, for 
 there can be but one God. The Councils 
 of Rimini and Seleucia were composed for 
 the most part of Semi-Arians. In modern 
 times the term is used to denote those who 
 believe that the Son was not from the be¬ 
 ginning, but was begotten by the will of 
 the Father. Such doctrines were held by 
 some of the Rationalist divines of the last 
 century, such as Drs. S. Clarke and Hoad- 
 ley. 
 
 Semi-Pela'gianism, “a modification, as 
 the name implies, of the doctrine of the 
 Pelagians as to the powers of the human 
 will, and as to the effects to be attributed 
 to the action of the supernatural grace of 
 God, and of the divine decree for the pre¬ 
 destination of the elect. The Pelagians 
 (y. v .), discarding altogether the doctrine 
 of the fall of Adam, and the idea that the 
 powers of the human will had been weak¬ 
 ened through original sin, taught that man, 
 without any supernatural gift from God, is 
 able, by his own natural powers, to fulfill 
 the entire law, and to do every act which 
 is necessary for the attainment of eternal 
 life. The condemnation of this doctrine 
 by the several councils held in the early 
 
 part of the fifth century is capable of 
 various constructions, and has been urged 
 by some to the extreme of denying alto¬ 
 gether the liberty of man, and converting 
 the human will into a merely passive in¬ 
 strument, whether of divine grace upon 
 the one hand, or of sinful concupiscence 
 upon the other. The writings of St. Au¬ 
 gustine on this controversy have been dif¬ 
 ferently construed by the Christian com¬ 
 munions (see Pelagians); and the same 
 diversity of opinion existed in his own 
 day. Among those who, dissenting from 
 the extreme view of Pelagius, at the same 
 time did not go to the full length of the Au- 
 gustinian writings in opposition to Pela¬ 
 gius, were some monks of the southern prov¬ 
 inces of Gaul, and especially of Marseilles, 
 whence their school was called Massilian, 
 from the Latin name ( Massilia) of that city. 
 Of these leaders, the chief was a priest 
 named Cassian, who had been a deacon at 
 Constantinople. Of the system which he 
 propounded, without going into the details, 
 although many of them are exceedingly 
 curious and interesting, it will be enough 
 to say that it upheld the sufficiency of 
 man’s natural powers only so far as regards 
 the first act of conversion to God and the 
 initial act of man’s repentance for sin. 
 Every man naturally possesses the capabili¬ 
 ty of beginning the work of self-conversion; 
 but for all ulterior acts, as well as for the 
 completion of justification, the assistance 
 of God’s grace is indispensable. The 
 Semi-Pelagian doctrine is often confound¬ 
 ed with that of the Molinistic (see Molinos) 
 school of Roman Catholic theology; but 
 there is one essential difference, viz., that 
 the latter persistently maintain the neces¬ 
 sity of grace for all supernatural acts, 
 even for the beginning of conversion, al¬ 
 though they are generally represented as 
 agreeing with the Semi-Pelagians as to the 
 mode of explaining the freedom of the 
 human will acting under the influence of 
 divine grace. The chief writers in the 
 controversy were Prosper, Hilary, and 
 Fulgentius; and the question was referred 
 to Celestine, bishop of Rome in 431. 
 It continued, however, to be agitated in 
 the West for a considerable time. Faustus, 
 bishop of Riez, toward the end of the 
 fifth century revived the error, and it 
 was condemned in a council held at Arles 
 in 475, and still later in a synod (the sec¬ 
 ond) held at Orange (Arausio) in 525, and 
 again in the third council of Valence in 
 530.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Semit'ic, “ a name derived from Shem , 
 the son of Noah, and applied to an exten¬ 
 sive family of languages, and also to the 
 people who speak those languages. The 
 
Sem 
 
 ( 8 5 i ) 
 
 Sen 
 
 Semitic languages may be divided into 
 three branches : the Arabic, to which the 
 Ethiopic is closely allied; the Aramcean, 
 consisting of two dialects, viz., the Baby¬ 
 lonian, or Chaldee, and the Syriac; and 
 the Hebrew , to which the Phoenician and 
 the Punic are closely related. Of these 
 languages the Arabic is the most copious, 
 and the Aramaean the poorest and least 
 developed; the Hebrew holds an interme¬ 
 diate rank between these, being more per¬ 
 fect than the Aramaean, and inferior to the 
 Arabic. The term Se?nitic is employed in 
 distinction from Japhetic, more usually 
 called Aryan or Indo-European, another 
 great family of languages. Professor Max 
 Muller says: ‘ It is impossible to mistake 
 a Semitic language; and it is impossible to 
 imagine an Aryan language derived from 
 a Semitic, or vice versa ; every root in 
 these languages must consist of three 
 consonants, and numerous words are de¬ 
 rived from these roots by a simple change 
 of vowels, leaving the consonantal skeleton 
 as much as possible intact.’ The original 
 Semitic alphabet contained only seventeen 
 letters ; the names of the letters of our 
 alphabet are mostly derived from it, but 
 not their forms, nor the words of our lan¬ 
 guage, which is an Aryan tongue. All the 
 Semitic languages are written from right 
 to left.”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Semler, Johann Salomo, one of the 
 most influential German theologians of the 
 eighteenth century, was b. Dec. 18, 1725, 
 at Saalfeld; and d. at Halle, March 4, 1791. 
 He was educated at Halle, and in 1749 
 went to Coburg as professor in the gym¬ 
 nasium. In 1751 he was appointed a pro¬ 
 fessor of theology at Halle, where he 
 taught with great success; and six years 
 later became director of the theological 
 seminary there. Semler was, in the early 
 part of his student career, somewhat of a 
 Pietist, but he was much influenced by the 
 lectures of Baumgarten, and swung round 
 to rationalism, of which he was the first 
 systematic exponent. Semler’s rational¬ 
 ism, however, was always moderate in 
 degree, though definite enough in kind. As 
 a thinker, he was deficient in philosophical 
 consistency and breadth of view; and as a 
 writer he possessed no literary skill nor 
 grace; but his works are valuable for the 
 spirit of historical criticism by which they 
 are pervaded. See his Autobiography 
 (1781). 
 
 Seneca, Lucius Ann^us, a celebrated 
 Roman philosopher; b. in Corduba, Spain, 
 about 8 b. c. ; d. by suicide, 65 a. d. He 
 received early advantages in training and 
 travel, and gained forensic success as an 
 
 orator at Rome. On a charge of an illicit 
 connection with Julia, daughter of Ger- 
 manicus, he was banished to Corsica. 
 During his residence here of eight years 
 he wrote his De Consolatione ad Helviam 
 Liber and De Consolatione ad Polybiurn Liber. 
 Recalled to Rome on the marriage of 
 Agrippina to Claudius, he was appointed 
 tutor of the future emperor, Nero. He 
 amassed large wealth, and came under the 
 suspicion of Nero. Accused of participat¬ 
 ing in the conspiracy of Piso, the emperor 
 ordered him to commit suicide. This he 
 did by opening his veins and bleeding to 
 death in a hot bath. The relation of the 
 philosophy of Seneca to Christianity has 
 aroused much attention. “ Seneca,” says 
 Dr. Reuss, “ knows nothing either of the 
 Judaistic type of Christianity, or of Christ 
 as its Alpha and Omega. Without speak¬ 
 ing of the specific Christian conceptions of 
 revelation, sin and law, Seneca stands on 
 other than Christian ground. The stoic is 
 himself the source of truth and his own 
 duty. There is, however, a Christian 
 glimmer, the moonlight of Christianity 
 diffused over his philosophy. But he is 
 not the dim reflection of a new light which 
 he has appropriated, but the faint dawn on 
 the obscure horizon of the pre-Christian 
 world, announcing the sun, which has al¬ 
 ready begun to scatter his light across val¬ 
 ley and on mountain. The fine ideas of 
 Roman stoicism were the buds which only 
 the sun of the gospel could develop into 
 beauty and perfection ; but which, left 
 alone, would never have produced rich 
 fruits.” See Farrar: Seekers After God; 
 Lightfoot: Essay on Paul and Seneca, in 
 Commentary on Philippians. 
 
 Sennach'erib, king of Assyria when 
 Hezekiah reigned over Judah, and the son 
 and successor of Sargon. Under Hezekiah 
 Judah refused to pay tribute to Assyria, 
 and, in consequence, the country was in¬ 
 vaded twice by Sennacherib. The first 
 time the tribute was given, and the Assyr¬ 
 ian army returned home. (2 Kings xviii. 
 14.) The second time that Judah revolted 
 Sennacherib sent an embassy demanding 
 submission, and forwarded an insulting 
 letter to Hezekiah, who went up to the 
 temple, and prayed for deliverance. His 
 prayer was answered in a plague, which 
 smote the Assyrian army that was besieg¬ 
 ing Libnah. The siege was raised, and 
 Sennacherib returned to Nineveh. (2 Kings 
 xix. 35.) His reign lasted twenty-two 
 years, b. c. 705-682, and he was succeeded 
 by Esar-haddon. An imperious ruler, he 
 gained many brilliant victories, and en¬ 
 larged the resources of his kingdom. He 
 adorned his capital, Nineveh, with many 
 
Sep 
 
 ( 852 ) 
 
 Ser 
 
 splendid buildings. His name is found 
 upon widely scattered monuments. 
 
 Separates, a name given about the year 
 1740 to those followers, in this country, of 
 George Whitefield and other evangelists, 
 who held that believers are guided by the 
 immediate inspiration of the Holy Spirit. 
 They were first known as “ New Lights,” 
 but after they began to organize into sep¬ 
 arate societies under the lead of Rev. Shu- 
 bal Stearne, they took the name “ Sep¬ 
 arates.” Stearne became a Baptist in 1751, 
 and many of the Separates followed him. 
 The sect early died out. 
 
 Separatists is the name given to those 
 who separate from the State Church, and 
 worship in accord with the views which 
 seem to them correct. 
 
 Sepharva'im, a city of Northern Babylo¬ 
 nia. (2 Kings xvii. 24, 31; xviii. 34; xix. 13; 
 Isa. xxxvi. 19; xxxvii. 13.) Rawlinson and 
 others identify it with Sippara, a town on 
 the Euphrates between Hit and Babylon. 
 The site of the city was discovered in 1881, 
 by Hormuzd Rassam, who unearthed the 
 ruins of its famous sun-temple. 
 
 Sep'tuagint, the Greek version of the Old 
 Testament, used by the Hellenist Jews and 
 by the early Christians. The story of the 
 Septuagint, as given by Aristeas, is as fol¬ 
 lows: Ptolemy Philadelphus, the son of 
 Lagus, king of Egypt, wished to add a copy 
 of the books of the Jewish Law to his li¬ 
 brary at Alexandria, and sent to the high- 
 priest, Eleazar, to ask for a copy, and for 
 competent persons to translate it into 
 Greek. Seventy-two men, six from each 
 tribe, were sent to Egypt, and after seventy- 
 two days spent in translation, the five books 
 of the Pentateuch were completed, the 
 translators having assisted each other. See 
 Bible. 
 
 Septuages'ima ( seventieth ) is the third 
 Sunday before Lent. 
 
 Sepulchre, Holy. See Jerusalem. 
 
 Ser'aphim (princes), beings mentioned by 
 Isaiah, who appear to be the most exalted 
 of the heavenly host. (Isa. vi. 2-6.) 
 
 Sergius Paulus. See Paul. 
 
 Sergius, the name of four popes: I. 
 (687-701); II. (844-847); III. (904-911); 
 IV. (1009-12). See Popes. 
 
 Serpent, Brazen, Num. xxi. 9. The 
 history of the brazen serpent is alluded to 
 
 by our Saviour as an illustration of his 
 work of atonement. (John iii. 14, 15.) 
 
 Serve'tus, Michael, “ or, in his native 
 Spanish, Miguel Servede, a notable and 
 unfortunate speculator in theology, was b. 
 at Villanueva, in Aragon, in 1509. At the 
 age of nineteen he quitted Spain, and com¬ 
 menced the study of law at Toulouse, which 
 he soon abandoned to devote himself with 
 ardor to the knotty points of the Reforma¬ 
 tion doctrines. In 1530 he went to Basel 
 to hear CEcolampadius, and thence to Stras- 
 burg, where Bucer and Capito taught. 
 His daring denial of the doctrine of the 
 Trinity frightened or angered these divines 
 to such a degree that they denounced him 
 as ‘ a wicked and cursed Spaniard.’ Ser- 
 vetus appealed from their judgment to that 
 of the public in his De Trinitatis Errori- 
 bus Lib. VII. (Haguenau, 1531; modern 
 edition, Nuremberg, 1791), and his Dia¬ 
 logues (Haguenau, 1532); but the public 
 thought as little of his teaching as the theo¬ 
 logians; and to avoid the odium which it 
 had occasioned, he changed his name to 
 Michael de Villeneuve, and fled to Paris; 
 where he studied medicine under Sylvius 
 and Fernel, and took his degree as a phy¬ 
 sician with honors. Servetus seems to 
 have possessed a kind of penetrating, if 
 also rash and restless, intellect, which 
 enabled him to hit truth occasionally in his 
 flighty researches, or, at least, to make 
 happy guesses in the right direction. Thus, 
 for example, he had an idea (see M. Flou- 
 rens in the Journaldes Savans, April, 1854) 
 of the doctrine of the circulation of the 
 blood. He attacked Galen and the faculty 
 with his customary violence in a treatise 
 on syrups (Syruporu??i Universa Katie, 
 Paris, 1537; Lyons, 1546). About this 
 time he made the acquaintance of Calvin, 
 with whom he had several conferences or 
 private disputations, the result of which 
 was a public challenge; but Servetus, after 
 assenting to the arrangements, decamped, 
 afraid probably, and not without reason, 
 that his precipitate,imperious way of think¬ 
 ing did not fit him for discussing with so 
 cool, wary, and merciless a logician as the 
 Genevese reformer; afraid, too, perhaps, 
 of being unceremoniously handed over to 
 the authorities for heresy! After living 
 successively for some time at Lyons, 
 Charlieu, and Avignon, and supporting 
 himself by writing for the booksellers, he 
 found an asylum in the palace of Pierre 
 Paulmier, archbishop of Vienne, in 1541, 
 where he remained for some years, and 
 wrote his famous Christianismi Restitutio, 
 first published in 1553. The work has 
 been twice reprinted, first by Dr. Meade, 
 of London (incomplete), and again by Murr, 
 
Ser 
 
 ( 853 ) 
 
 Sev 
 
 at Nuremberg, in 1790. Its celebrity is 
 due more to the fact that it sealed the fate 
 of its author than to its intrinsic merits, 
 the ideas being obscure, and the style in¬ 
 correct. After its publication, Servetus 
 wished to go to Italy by way of Switzer¬ 
 land, but in passing through Geneva was 
 arrested and imprisoned at the instigation 
 of Calvin {q. v.). After a long and compli¬ 
 cated judicial procedure, Servetus was con¬ 
 demned to be burned, and the sentence 
 was carried into execution, Oct. 27, 1553— 
 the hapless heretic expiring in agonies. 
 The fate of Servetus, after all the pallia¬ 
 tions that can be offered are weighed, re¬ 
 mains a dark stain on the memory of Cal¬ 
 vin. See Willis’s Servetus and Calvin 
 (1877).”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Servia. Modern Servia, which regained 
 her position as a kingdom in 1882, has an 
 area of 20,850 square miles and a popula¬ 
 tion of about two millions. “ The inhab¬ 
 itants nearly all belong to the Greek Church, 
 but are independent of the patriarch of 
 Constantinople. Ecclesiastical affairs are 
 managed by a metropolitan, whose seat is 
 at Belgrade, and by the three bishops of 
 Uzitza, Shabatz, and Timok. For the few 
 who acknowledge the authority of the pope 
 and the Latin church, there is a bishop in 
 part, infid., but who resides at Diacobar in 
 Austrian Slavonia. Servia, according to 
 recent estimates, had 298 churches, 651 
 parishes, and 652 priests, besides 38 clois¬ 
 ters. It also possessed upward of 300 
 educational institutions, including several 
 gymnasia, a lyceum for philosophical and 
 juristic studies, a theological college, an 
 artillery school, a school of agriculture, 
 and 300 elementary schools for boys, and 
 13 for girls. These schools are not under 
 the control of the clergy, and education is 
 consequently making rapid progress.” The 
 entire Protestant, Roman Catholic, and 
 Jewish populations together numbered in 
 1874 less than seven thousand. The dis¬ 
 tricts annexed in 1878 contained a Moham¬ 
 medan population of seventy-five thou¬ 
 sand.”— R. W. Hall , Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Servites, or Servants of the Virgin 
 Mary, an order founded at Florence in 
 1223 by seven wealthy merchants. They 
 retired to a secluded spot (Villa Camartia) 
 and devoted themselves entirely to the 
 worship of the Virgin. The order was 
 confirmed by Gregory IX. and spread 
 rapidly. Paolo Sarpi belonged to this 
 order. There are also Servite nuns. 
 
 Servus Servorum Dei {servant of the 
 servants of God), an official formula used 
 by the pope when signing his name. It is 
 
 said to have been adopted by Gregory the 
 Great as a rebuke to John, patriarch of 
 Constantinople, who signed himself “GEcu- 
 menical Patriarch.” 
 
 Session, the lowest court in the Presby¬ 
 terian Church. It is composed of the 
 pastor and elders, and examines candidates 
 for membership in the church and transacts 
 its routine business. 
 
 Sethians, an Egyptian Gnostic sect of the 
 second century. They considered Seth, 
 Noah’s son, as the most holy man of the 
 Old Testament, and believed that the Mes¬ 
 siah would descend from him. They 
 affirmed that the world was created by the 
 angels and not by God. 
 
 Seton (Mother), Elizabeth Ann {nee 
 Bayley), foundress of the Sisters of Char¬ 
 ity in the United States; b. in New York 
 City, Aug. 28, 1774; d. at Emmittsburg, 
 Md., Jan. 4, 1821. After the death of her 
 husband (1803) she became a member of 
 the Roman Catholic Church (1805). She 
 taught school for a time in Baltimore, but 
 with her sisters-in-law, Harriet and Cecilia 
 Seton, having received a legacy of eight 
 thousand dollars, she founded an establish¬ 
 ment of the Sisters of Charity at Emmitts¬ 
 burg, July 30, 1809. She became superior- 
 general of the order in this country, and at 
 her death it numbered fifty members. See 
 her Life, by Robert Seton (N. Y., 1869), 2 
 vols. See Charity, Sisters of. 
 
 Seventh-Day Baptists. Origin. — The 
 Seventh-Day Baptists assumed their pres¬ 
 ent denominational form as “ Sabbatarian 
 Baptists,” in England, during the English 
 Reformation. Their distinctive doctrines 
 were first preached by John the Baptist. 
 Christ, not “ as a Jew,” but as Christ, set 
 the example for all his followers. Sabbath¬ 
 keeping, as obedience to God’s law, and 
 baptism as the symbol of a new life, after 
 repentance, are fundamental facts in the 
 history of New Testament Christianity. 
 In these facts the Seventh-Day Baptists 
 find the warrant for their denominational 
 existence. On these points they claim to 
 be identical with the New Testament 
 Church. 
 
 History. —There has been no period since 
 the time of Christ when there were not 
 Sabbath-keeping Christians in the Church. 
 There is no evidence of any form of ob¬ 
 servance of Sunday by Christians previous 
 to the middle of the second century. Sab¬ 
 bath-keeping continued, even in the West¬ 
 ern Church, as late as the fifth century, 
 and in the Eastern until the fifteenth, or 
 later. Since Sabbath-keepers denied the 
 
Sev 
 
 ( 854 ) 
 
 Sev 
 
 authority of the Paganized Church they 
 were persecuted as heretics by the papal 
 power. Their earlier history, coming 
 through the hands of their enemies, has 
 been wholly destroyed, or much distorted. 
 As the Western Church drifted into papacy 
 these dissenters were known as Nazarenes, 
 Cerinthians, and Hypsistarii; and they 
 were stigmatized as “ Judaizers.” Later, 
 they were known as Vaudois, Cathari, 
 Toulousians, Petrobrussians, Passagians, 
 and Waldenses. These were not wholly uni¬ 
 form in doctrine and practice, but among 
 them were many Sabbath-keeping Baptists, 
 who accepted the Bible alone as authority. 
 They form the irregular, but never wholly 
 broken, chain between the New Testament 
 and the modern Seventh-Day Baptists. 
 
 Sabbath-keepers in the Eastern Church 
 were not disturbed by the papal power, 
 and were far more numerous than in the 
 West. When the Romish Church attempt¬ 
 ed to proselyte the Abyssinians, in the 
 seventeenth century, they found them ob¬ 
 serving the Sabbath, and ready to take up 
 arms in its defense. They “ had hallowed 
 it from time immemorial.” The Armenian 
 Church was founded as early as 302 A. D.; 
 from that time until English missionaries 
 entered Armenia, early in the present cen¬ 
 tury, Sabbath-keeping continued without 
 interruption. The Nestorian or Chaldean 
 Christians have also continued their orig¬ 
 inal practice of Sabbath-keeping to the 
 present century; and there is every reason 
 for believing that the Sabbath is still kept 
 in these three branches of the Church, ex¬ 
 cept where modern missionary influence has 
 modified, or set it aside. These facts are 
 of great importance, as showing what the 
 earliest practice was, and what it has con¬ 
 tinued to be, where the papal Church has 
 not had power to repress it. 
 
 When the darkness of the Middle Ages 
 began to recede before the light of the Ref¬ 
 ormation, scattered Sabbath-keepers ap¬ 
 peared at different points. Their history, 
 linked with those who had died for their 
 faith and fealty to the law of God during 
 the Dark Ages, makes the chain complete. 
 Sabbath-keepers increased as the spirit of 
 reform spread among the people. At first 
 they were more prominent in Bohemia, 
 Transylvania, and Holland. Doctor Hes- 
 sey calls the Bohemian Sabbath-keepers 
 the denominational ancestors of the pres¬ 
 ent Seventh-Day Baptists. During the 
 Reformation in England, Sabbath-keepers 
 were among the representative men of the 
 times. Their writings and sufferings form 
 an important factor in the history of those 
 years. John Trask, William Hillyard, 
 Christopher Sands, Rev. Mr. Wright, and 
 one Hebden were among those who were 
 
 prominent between 1600 and 1630 A. D. 
 Trask was pilloried, whipped, and impris¬ 
 oned under sentence by the infamous 
 “ Star Chamber.” His wife was condemn¬ 
 ed because she refused to teach school on 
 the Sabbath. “ She lay in prison fifteen 
 or sixteen years for her opinions about the 
 Saturday Sabbath.” She was a great suf¬ 
 ferer, dying at last in prison, and was 
 buried in the open fields. About 1630, 
 Theophilus Brahourne wrote several books 
 in favor of the Sabbath, and with such ef¬ 
 fect that the king ordered Bishop Francis 
 White to answer him; the answer was pub¬ 
 lished in 1635. Among the writers who 
 succeeded Brabourne were James Ockford, 
 Edward Fisher, Edward Stennett, Francis 
 Bampfield, Thomas Bampfield, Joseph 
 Stennett, and Samuel Stennett, D. D., the 
 latter a writer of hymns which are yet fa¬ 
 miliar. 
 
 The influence of the Seventh-Day Bap¬ 
 tists was a prominent factor in forcing the 
 Puritans to adopt the change of day theory, 
 which gave birth to the “Puritan Sabbath.” 
 Afraid to remain upon the no-Sabbath plat¬ 
 form of the Church party and of the Con¬ 
 tinental Reformers, and not radical enough 
 to accept the Sabbath with the Seventh- 
 Day Baptists, the Puritans sought this 
 middle ground of compromise. This 
 “ change of day ” theory was first publish¬ 
 ed by Nicholas Bownde, of Norfolk, Eng., 
 i 595 -i 6o6 a. d. A number of Seventh- 
 Day Baptist churches were organized in 
 England between 1600 and 1700 a. D. 
 Three of these were in the city of London. 
 The Mill-Yard Church still holds regular 
 Sabbath services. This congregation was 
 first gathered by Rev. John James (date 
 unknown from loss of records). On Oct. 
 19, 1661, Mr. James was arrested in his 
 pulpit, tried, and condemned on the false 
 charge of treason—a proceeding not un¬ 
 common in those days, in order to get rid 
 of men whose religious and reformatory 
 views could not be answered otherwise. 
 He was “ hung, drawn and quartered.” 
 After he was dead his heart was taken out 
 and burned, his quarters were affixed to the 
 gates of the city, and his head was set up 
 in Whitechapel, on a pole, opposite the al¬ 
 ley in which his meeting-house stood. 
 
 Churches in America .—These were the 
 result of emigration from England. Ste¬ 
 phen Mumford of London came to New¬ 
 port, R. I., in 1664. He united with the 
 Baptist Church, though a Sabbath-keeper. 
 Others embraced the Sabbath, and the first 
 Seventh-Day Baptist Church in America 
 was organized at Newport, in 1671. A 
 second branch was founded by Rev. Abel 
 Noble, near Philadelphia, about 1700. A 
 third was founded in Northern New Jersey, 
 
Sev 
 
 ( 855 ) 
 
 Sev 
 
 by converts from the Piscataway Baptist 
 Church, in 1705. From these three points 
 the denomination has spread slowly 
 through the United States. In 1818 the 
 General Conference adopted “ Seventh- 
 Day Baptist,” instead of Sabbatarian, as 
 the denominational title. 
 
 Church Polity. —This is a pure Congrega¬ 
 tionalism. Each Church is an independent 
 democracy. Associations and General 
 Conference have only “ advisory powers.” 
 Ordained officers are Pastors, Deacons, and 
 Evangelists. 
 
 Doctrines. —The Seventh-Day Baptists 
 are strictly evangelical, in the best sense of 
 that term. They are necessarily radical re¬ 
 formers ; earnest advocates of freedom, 
 equality, temperance, purity, universal 
 education, Bible schools, etc. They en¬ 
 gaged in home missions at an early day, 
 and established foreign missions about 
 1850. They commenced publishing in 1819. 
 The work of missions and publishing is be¬ 
 ing constantly enlarged. Most of their 
 publications have been in the interest of 
 Sabbath Reform. 
 
 Reasons for Observing the Sabbath. —These 
 they hold to be as follows: (a) The ten 
 commandments enunciate eternal and uni¬ 
 versal truths. They spring from man’s re¬ 
 lation to God and to his fellows. They 
 must continue while these relations con¬ 
 tinue. The Sabbath and the Sabbath Law 
 are inseparable, since no day but the Sev¬ 
 enth can represent God, the Creator, his 
 example, and consequent commandment. 
 The Bible gives no warrant for saying that 
 the law means any “seventh part” of 
 time. 
 
 (b) Christ came not to destroy the law, 
 but to fulfill it by complete obedience. He 
 and his disciples kept the Sabbath, purged 
 from Judaistic falsities. The New Testa¬ 
 ment Church did the same. Thus purified 
 it is the true Christian Sabbath. They re¬ 
 ject no-Sabbathism for the above reasons, 
 and also because the few passages from the 
 Epistles which are adduced to prove the 
 abrogation of the Sabbath cannot include 
 the weekly Sabbath, which existed before 
 Judaism,and was nota“ shadow of Christ.” 
 
 ( c ) They reject Sunday because the New 
 Testament never alludes to “ a change of 
 the Sabbath.” It never speaks of Sunday 
 as a sacred day, or as commemorative of 
 any event, or as connected in any way with 
 the Sabbath question. It does state that 
 “ Christ rose late in the Sabbath,” i. e., be¬ 
 fore sunset (Matt, xxxviii. 1), and not on 
 the first day of the week, according to tra¬ 
 dition. The phrase ‘ ‘ first day of the week ” 
 occurs in the Bible but eight times; six of 
 these refer to the same day, the one on 
 which the resurrection was announced to 
 
 the disciples. There is but one reference 
 to it in the book of Acts, and one in all the 
 Epistles; so that there are but three dis¬ 
 tinct references to the first day of the week 
 in the New Testament. On the other hand, 
 the Sabbath, in its appropriate character, is 
 mentioned fifty times, at least, in the New 
 Testament alone. They also reject the 
 Sunday because it came into the Church as 
 a semi-pagan holiday, and the temporary 
 sacredness which it attained during the 
 Puritan Reformation has been necessarily 
 lost, and it is rapidly returning to its native 
 holiday character, even in the United 
 States. Seventh-Day Baptists believe that 
 the Church will be forced to choose, soon, 
 between a return to the Bible Sabbath, and 
 being overwhelmed by no-Sabbathism. 
 
 Not Legalists. —To avoid misapprehen¬ 
 sion it ought to be stated that the Seventh- 
 Day Baptists are in no sense legalists, or 
 Judaizers. They simply accept the Sab¬ 
 bath “ as made for man;” as antedating 
 Judaism and the formulating of the law at 
 Sinai; as covering all dispensations and 
 continuing through all time. They deem 
 it no more Jewish than the law against 
 murder or profanity. They are not illib¬ 
 eral toward others. They claim and grant 
 the right of private judgment, and foster 
 free discussions, holding that each man is 
 judged according to the light he has. They 
 proclaim the Sabbath as an essential part 
 of a complete gospel, and the only remedy 
 for the flood of no-Sabbathism, under which 
 Sunday is being buried. They look for 
 marked changes in the Church through the 
 agitating influences now at work. Their 
 Sabbath Reform work, through publica¬ 
 tions, has been greatly enlarged within ten 
 years, especially through the Outlook , a 
 Sabbath Quarterly. 
 
 For literature touching the points men¬ 
 tioned above, consult: Robert Cox: Sab¬ 
 bath Literature; Augustus Hessey: Sunday 
 Bampton Lectures (i860); Ross: A View of 
 All Religions; Paggitt: Heresiography; Ful¬ 
 ler: Church History; Heylyn: History of 
 the Sabbath; Calamy: Non-Conformists' Me¬ 
 morial; Gobat : Journal of Three Years' 
 Residence in Abyssinia; Geddes: History of 
 Ethiopia; Yeates: East India Church His¬ 
 tory; Mossie: Continental India; Buchan- 
 nan: Christian Researches in Asia (earlier 
 editions); Coleman : Ancient Christianity 
 Exemplified; Aliix: History of Ancient Pied- 
 mont Church; Benedict: History of Baptists; 
 Blair: History of Waldenses; Utter: Sev¬ 
 enth-Day Baptist Manual; Bailey: History 
 of Seventh-Day Baptist General Conference ; 
 Andrews: History of the Sabbath; Lewis: 
 Seventh-Day Baptist Hand-Book; Biblical 
 Teachings Concerning the Sabbath arid The 
 Sunday; Critical History of the Sabbath and 
 
I 
 
 JSha ( 856 ) Sha 
 
 the Sunday; Critical History of Sunday Leg¬ 
 islation, and bound volumes of the Outlook , 
 a Sabbath Quarterly. A. H. Lewis. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Cooper, 3D Earl 
 of (b. 1671; d. 1713), a deist. He says of 
 himself that John Locke had the entire 
 direction of his education. He was sent to 
 Winchester; in 1693 he began his Par¬ 
 liamentary career, in which he had some 
 success; but after Anne’s accession, he de¬ 
 voted himself to literary pursuits. In 1708 
 he published his Letter on Enthusiasm ; in 
 1709 Moralists: A Philosophical Rhapsody , 
 and Sensus Co?nmunis; or, Essays on Wit and 
 Humor; in 1710 Soliloquy; or. Advice to an 
 Author. His writings, in spite of their 
 skeptical tendency, were admired, and he 
 still has a great name in the history of 
 English philosophy and literature. In 1711 
 appeared Characteristics of Men, Manners , 
 Opinions, and Times; in this work he cov¬ 
 ertly attacks Christianity, saying that its 
 only purpose was to advance morality.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 
 7TH Earl of, the descendant of a long line 
 of famous men, was born in Dorsetshire 
 in 1801; died, 1885. He was educated 
 at Harrow, and at Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where he gained a first-class in the classical 
 schools,and was graduated in 1822. In 1826 
 he was elected member for Woodstock, 
 and in Parliament specially devoted him¬ 
 self to the question of Indian administra¬ 
 tion. But soon the state of the lower 
 classes at home came under his notice, and 
 he began that work to which he afterward 
 devoted his life, and which has made his 
 name so universally famous—that of im¬ 
 proving the condition of the poor. His 
 first effort in this direction was the passing 
 of the Factory Act, which he effected after 
 much trouble and opposition on the part of 
 the Commons. But the chief of all his 
 good works, and the one with which his 
 name was most nearly associated, was the 
 institution of the Ragged Schools. He was 
 led to this work by discovering the state of 
 utter ignorance which existed amongst the 
 lower classes. He was untiring in his 
 efforts, and brought several measures be¬ 
 fore the Lower House; but in 1852, on the 
 death of his father, he succeeded to the 
 peerage, and was able to draw the attention 
 of the House of Lords to some of his 
 schemes. He went on working to the end 
 of his life, and saw many of his plans ap¬ 
 proach conclusion some time before his 
 death, and so was able to spend the last 
 years of his life in comparative retirement. 
 H is sympathies were entirely with the 
 “ Evangelical party ” in the Church, and 
 
 he was president of the Protestant Alliance, 
 the Bible Society, the Pastoral Aid So¬ 
 ciety, and the Society for the Conversion 
 of the Jews. He took a warm interest in 
 the employment of youths as shoeblacks. 
 In 1884 he was presented with the freedom 
 of the City of London, and in May of the 
 following year received an address from 
 the members of the Ragged Schools as a 
 token of their gratitude. It was proposed 
 that he should be interred in Westminster 
 Abbey, but he had expressed the wish be¬ 
 fore he died to be buried near his wife at 
 his native home in Dorsetshire.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Shakers, the name commonly given to a 
 small religious sect existing in the United 
 States. The proper or official description 
 of this sect is the United Society of Believ¬ 
 ers in Christ’s Second Appearing; but its 
 members seem to have accepted the desig¬ 
 nation of Shakers, though it was originally 
 applied to them in ridicule, on account of 
 certain rhythmical movements of the hands 
 and arms which form part of the ceremo¬ 
 nial of their worship. Though the Shaker 
 societies are found only in the United 
 States, their creed had an English origin. 
 The founder of the sect, in whose person 
 they believe that Christ has appeared a 
 second time, was an Englishwoman, named 
 Ann Lee, a native of Manchester, who 
 emigrated to New York with a small band 
 of disciples, shortly before the outbreak of 
 the Revolutionary War. One of her com¬ 
 pany, John Hocknell, purchased land seven 
 miles northwest of Albany, and erected 
 rude structures for the use of the commu¬ 
 nity. The little church was first gathered 
 in 1776, and three years after, in connection 
 with a religious revival, at New Lebanon, 
 N.Y., several persons accepted the faith of 
 Ann Lee. The Shakers’ first house of wor¬ 
 ship was built at New Lebanon in 1785, the 
 year after the death of Ann Lee. There 
 are now seventeen societies in the United 
 States (none elsewhere). These societies 
 are organized into families of both sexes 
 and all ages, and varying in numbers from 
 a few to a hundred and more. They meet 
 at a common table, kneeling in prayer 
 before each meal, and giving thanks in the 
 same way at its close. They hold meet¬ 
 ings for worship two or three times during 
 the week. “ Worship consists in singing, in 
 solo and harmony, hymns, anthems, and im¬ 
 provised songs, called ‘gift songs,’ quick 
 and slow marches, two abreast, some¬ 
 times timing with the hands to the meas¬ 
 ure, sometimes in solemn dances, in 
 ranks or circles, and occasionally inter¬ 
 changeably, but always each sex grouped 
 by itself; also prayers, exhortations, and 
 
Sha 
 
 ( 857 ) 
 
 She 
 
 sermons by both sexes. Meetings are held 
 for mental discipline, as reading and speak¬ 
 ing; others, for learning new songs, and 
 training in singing; also for social con¬ 
 verse, called ‘ Union Meetings.’ ” The 
 Shakers are loyal citizens, but refuse to do 
 any military duty unless by compulsion. 
 They take no part in politics, and will hold 
 no government office but that of postmas¬ 
 ter, road-commissioner, and school officers. 
 The leading authority of the church is 
 vested in two members of each sex, who 
 nominate elders who guide the fami¬ 
 lies in spiritual and social matters, and 
 deacons who have in charge temporal af¬ 
 fairs. These appointments, representing 
 both sexes, are confirmed by the general 
 community of the covenant members. The 
 commingling of the sexes is permitted only 
 in needful employment, social converse 
 and worship. No two individuals of op¬ 
 posite sex are allowed to work, walk or 
 talk together further than is necessary. 
 The greatest care is taken that nothing be 
 said or done that is not known to the elders. 
 The best literature on religious, scientific, 
 and general subjects is to be found in the 
 libraries of the communities. There are 
 seventeen societies, all within the bounds 
 of the United States, and they own about 
 forty-five thousand acres of land. See 
 Sketches of Shakers and Shakerism , by 
 Giles B. Avery (Albany, 1883). 
 
 Shalmane'ser “was the Assyrian king 
 whoreigned immediately before Sargon,and 
 probably immediately after Tiglath-pileser. 
 He can scarcely have ascended the throne 
 earlier than b. C. 730, and may possibly not 
 have done so till a few years later. It 
 must have been soon after his accession 
 that he led the forces of Assyria into Pal¬ 
 estine, where Hoshea, the last king of 
 Israel, had revolted against his authority. 
 (2 Kings xvii. 3.) No sooner was he come 
 than Hoshea submitted, acknowledged 
 himself a 4 servant ’ of the Great King, 
 and consented to pay him a fixed tribute 
 annually. He soon after concluded an al¬ 
 liance with the king of Egypt, and with¬ 
 held his tribute in consequence. In B. c. 
 723 Shalmaneser invaded Palestine for 
 the second time, and, as Hoshea refused 
 to submit, laid siege to Samaria. The 
 siege lasted to the third year (b. c. 721), 
 when the Assyrian arms prevailed. (2 
 Kings xvii. 4-6; xviii. 9-11.) It is uncer¬ 
 tain whether Shalmaneser conducted the 
 siege to its end, or whether he did not 
 lose his crown to Sargon before the city 
 was taken.”—Smith: Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Shammai, a Jewish rabbi who flourished 
 in the century before Christ. He founded 
 
 a school directly opposed to that of Hil- 
 lel, so that it became a proverb, “ Hillel 
 looses what Shammai binds.” Of his per¬ 
 sonal life nothing is known. 
 
 Shar'on ( the plain), the name of the level 
 tract of country extending along the Med¬ 
 iterranean between Caesarea and Joppa. 
 (Acts ix. 35.) It is twenty-five or thirty 
 miles in length, and from eight to fifteen 
 in breadth. It is also called Saron, and is 
 noted tc this day for its beauty and fertil¬ 
 ity. (1 Chron. xxvii. 29; Isa. xxxv. 2; Sol¬ 
 omon’s Song ii. 1.) 
 
 Sharp, James, archbishop of St. An¬ 
 drews; b. in the castle of Banff, May, 1618; 
 assassinated on Magus Muir, near St. An¬ 
 drews, May 3, 1679. He was educated at 
 the University of Aberdeen, and after act¬ 
 ing for a short time (1640) as professor of 
 philosophy in St. Leonard’s College, St. 
 Andrews, he became minister of Crail. He 
 was sent to London in 1656 to plead the 
 cause of the Presbyterians before the Pro¬ 
 tector. While on friendly terms with 
 Cromwell, he appears to have correspond¬ 
 ed with Charles II., and was chosen to 
 visit him at Breda in May, 1660, to look 
 after the interests of the Scotch Church. 
 He was made the bearer of a letter in 
 which the king declared his purpose 44 to 
 protect and preserve the government of 
 the Church of Scotland, as it is settled by 
 law, without violation.” In 1661, however, 
 the Scottish Parliament passed an act an¬ 
 nulling all acts passed since 1633, and thus 
 abolished Presbyterianism and restored the 
 Episcopal Church. In December of that 
 year Sharp was consecrated at London as 
 archbishop of St. Andrews. Unjust and 
 tyrannical in his action, he was exceedingly 
 unpopular. He met his death at last by 
 the hands of assassins who were watching 
 for Carmichael, one of his under-officers, 
 and did not purpose to injure him. 
 
 Shastra, or Shastras, a name applied 
 to the sacred books of the Hindus. They 
 contain their law, both civil and religious, 
 and are said to have been collected by 
 Manu, the son of Brahma. 
 
 She'chem ( shoulder ), a town thirty-four 
 miles north from Jerusalem, and nearly two 
 thousand feet above the sea-level. It lies 
 in the narrow valley between Mounts Ebal 
 and Gerizim, and was known as Sichem 
 (Gen. xii. 6); Sychem (Acts vii. 16); and 
 Sychar (John iv. 5). After being destroyed 
 in the Jewish war it was rebuilt, and called, 
 in honor of the Emperor Vespasian, Flavia 
 Neapolis ( new city). From this name comes 
 its present one, Nablus or Nabulus. The 
 
She 
 
 (858) 
 
 She 
 
 place is mentioned forty-eight times in the 
 Bible. Here Abraham halted (Gen. xi. 6), 
 and here the Israelites dedicated them¬ 
 selves to God, and Joseph was buried. 
 (Josh, xxiv.) Abimelech attempted to set 
 up an independent kingdom at Shechem, 
 but after three years he was expelled and 
 the city destroyed and sown with salt. 
 (Judg. ix.) Jeroboam rebuilt the city, and 
 made it the capital of the northern king¬ 
 dom (1 Kings xii. I-19, 25), and it became 
 the centre of the Samaritan worship. It 
 was in his conversation with the woman at 
 Jacob’s well, near the city, that Jesus first 
 definitely announced himself the Messiah. 
 
 The Jews say this “glory” was wanting 
 in the second temple. 
 
 Shedd, William Greenougii Thayer, 
 D. D. (University of Vermont, Burlington, 
 1857), LL. D. (University of the City of 
 New York, 1876), Presbyterian; b. at Ac¬ 
 ton, Mass., June 21, 1820; was graduated 
 at the University of Vermont, Burlington, 
 1839, and at Andover Theological Semi¬ 
 nary, 1843; became Congregational pastor 
 at Brandon, Vt., 1844; professor of Eng¬ 
 lish literature, University of Vermont, 
 1845; of sacred rhetoric in Auburn Pres¬ 
 byterian Theological Seminary, 1852; of 
 
 The Valley and Town of Nabulus, the ancient Shechem, from the southwestern flank of Mount Ebal, looking west¬ 
 ward. The mountain on the left is Gerizim. The Mediterranean is seen in the distance. 
 
 (John iv. 5, 26.) In later years the place 
 became the seat of a bishopric, and here 
 Justin Martyr was born. The present pop¬ 
 ulation is made up of Samaritans, Greek 
 Christians, Jews, Latins and Protestants. 
 Nearly one-half of the thirteen hundred 
 inhabitants are Greek Christians. Some 
 eighty springs in the immediate neighbor¬ 
 hood give an abundant supply of water. 
 
 Shechi'nah, ( resting-place ), a word found 
 in the Targums, and from them adopted 
 into Christian writings. It is not found in 
 the Bible, but the idea for which it stands 
 is found in the expression “ the glory of 
 the Lord.” (Luke ii. 9; Rom. ix. 4, etc.) 
 
 ecclesiastical history in Andover Congre¬ 
 gational Theological Seminary, 1853; c °- 
 pastor of the Brick (Presbyterian) Church, 
 New York City, 1862; but since 1863 has 
 been professor in Union Theological Sem¬ 
 inary, New York City, of biblical literature 
 until 1874, and since of systematic theology. 
 He is the author of: A History of Christian 
 Doctrine (New York and Edinburgh, 1865, 
 2 vols., 8th ed., 1884); Homiletics and Pas¬ 
 toral Theology (1867, 8th ed., 1884); Ser¬ 
 mons to the Natural Man (1871, 3d ed., 
 1884); Theological Essays (1877); Literary 
 Essays (1878) ; Commentary on Romans 
 (1879); Sermons to the Spiritual Rian (1884); 
 The Dodrme of Endless Punishment (1SS6). 
 
She 
 
 ( 859 ) 
 
 Sho 
 
 Shekel. See Money. 
 
 Shemitic Languages. See Semitic. 
 
 She'ol (Heb. equivalent for the Greek 
 Hades), a word denoting the under-world, 
 the place of shades. It is derived from a 
 word meaning “ to penetrate,” “ to go down 
 deep;” hence sheol is literally that which 
 is sunk deep. See Hades. 
 
 Shepard, Thomas, a noted Puritan, b. at 
 Towcester, near Northampton, Eng., Nov. 
 5, 1605; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 25, 
 1649. A graduate of Oxford, he entered 
 the ministry, but was silenced for noncon¬ 
 formity by Laud in 1630. He was chaplain 
 to Sir Richard Darly for a year, and pastor 
 at Heddon, Northumberland, for a short 
 time. Coming to New England in 1635, 
 he became minister of the church at Cam¬ 
 bridge the following year. He was prom¬ 
 inent in the Cambridge synod, and was a 
 prolific writer. His treatise, The Parable 
 of the Ten Virgins Opened and Applied 
 (1659), has often been reprinted. A col¬ 
 lective edition of his works, with memoir, 
 was published, Boston, 1853, 3 vols. See 
 Dexter: Congregationalisni, Appendix. 
 
 Shi'nar, the name of a country or district 
 referred to in Gen. x. 10; xi. 2; xiv. 1; Isa. 
 xi. 11; Dan. i. 2; Zech. v. 11. In Gen. x. 10 
 it appears to be a general name for Baby¬ 
 lonia. Among its cities were Babel (Baby¬ 
 lon), Erech or Orech (Orchoi), Calneh or 
 Calno (probably Niffer), and Accad. 
 
 Shin-Shiu, or Reformed Buddhism, 
 literally the “ True Sect,” is said by its 
 followers to have been established in China, 
 A. D. 381, by Hwui-yuen, who introduced 
 the worship of the fourth of the five Bud¬ 
 dhas. This religion was founded on a San¬ 
 scrit writing brought to China from India 
 in the second century, which has lately 
 been found in Japan. The members of the 
 sect believe in salvation by faith in Buddha, 
 and in ultimate bliss in the Paradise of the 
 West. The Jodo-shinshiu, or “ True Sect 
 of the Pure Land,” derived from the above, 
 was not established till 1173, by a priest 
 named Honen; it was afterward developed 
 by his pupil. The sect is a curious mixt¬ 
 ure of doctrines, partly resembling Prot¬ 
 estantism and partly Romanism; its chief 
 temple and archbishop are at Kioto, and 
 it numbers about ten million followers in 
 Japan alone. Other Buddhists do not ac¬ 
 knowledge Shin-Shiu, and in many Bud¬ 
 dhist countries it is unknown. See Bud¬ 
 dhism. 
 
 Shinto, or Sintooism, the most ancient 
 
 form of religion held by the Japanese, 
 which chiefly consisted in the worship of 
 the Kamis or honored dead. From these, 
 after many evolutions, sprang Izanagi and 
 Izanami, two of their chief gods, who 
 created the earth. Another important ob¬ 
 ject of their worship is the goddess Ten- 
 sio-Dai-Dsin, from whom were descended 
 the Dairi, the spiritual head of the Shin- 
 toists, and also their temporal head until 
 the middle of the twelfth century. This 
 dignitary was supposed to be invested 
 with almost superhuman attributes, and to 
 be visited by the gods once in every year. 
 The temples were called Mias, and were 
 perfectly plain, with neither images nor 
 pictures. Their worship consisted of 
 prayers and prostrations. They had fre¬ 
 quent lustrations, and twice a year a gen¬ 
 eral purification took place. In the ninth 
 century a priest, Kukai, showed that Shin¬ 
 toism was very similar to Buddhism, 
 which caused several divisions, as “ Rio- 
 bu,” a mixture of Shinto and Buddhism; 
 Yuiitsu, Buddhism with a Shinto basis; 
 Deguchi, Shinto explained by the Chinese 
 Book of Changes; and Suiga, a mixture of 
 Deguchi and the tenets of Chiu-hi. Divid¬ 
 ed into these different religions, Shinto 
 gradually disappeared. In the eighteenth 
 century, a school of writers deciphered 
 and edited the Shinto scriptures, which 
 caused the revival of Shintoism for a short 
 time; but after the restoration of the mon¬ 
 archy in Tokio it was abolished. It is 
 still, however, a living power among mill¬ 
 ions of the Japanese.—Benham: Diet . of 
 Religion. 
 
 \ 
 
 Shi'shak, king of Egypt, and the first 
 Pharaoh of the twenty-second dynasty. 
 He invaded Judah and spoiled the temple 
 and palace. (1 Kings xv. 25 sqq. ) An ac¬ 
 count of his victory is written upon the 
 walls of a temple on the south of the great 
 temple at Karnac. From this account it 
 appears that he invaded the northern as 
 well as the southern kingdom. 
 
 Showbread “ is the rendering of the 
 Hebrew lechejn hap-panim (lit. bread of the 
 face, because placed before the face of 
 Jehovah); it is also called ‘ bread of the 
 ordering’ (1 Chron. ix. 32; xxiii. 29; 2 
 Chron. xiii. 11; Neh. x. 33); once it was 
 called the ‘ continual bread ’ (Num. iv. 7), 
 and ‘ holy bread ’ (1 Sam. xxi. 5). Accord¬ 
 ing to the number of the twelve tribes of 
 Israel, twelve loaves were placed on the 
 table which stood within the holy place, 
 near the curtain of the Holy of Holies. 
 The loaves, which, according to Jewish 
 tradition, were unleavened, were placed in 
 two rows, of six loaves each. An addition 
 
Shr 
 
 ( 860 ) 
 
 Sil 
 
 to the showbread was the frankincense. 
 (Lev. xxiv. 7.) It was to be ‘ on the bread 
 for a memorial, an offering, made by fire 
 unto the Lord; ’ the two golden pots con¬ 
 taining it being (according to Josephus: 
 Ant. iii. 10, 7) taken out along with the 
 bread, and the frankincense burned on the 
 altar of burnt-offering before the bread was 
 given to the priests to be eaten. On each 
 Sabbath this took place; twelve new loaves, 
 which had been prepared the evening be¬ 
 fore by a portion of the Levites (1 Chron. 
 ix. 32), being made every returning Sab¬ 
 bath to replace the old, and fresh frankin¬ 
 cense put in. the golden vessels in the 
 room of that which had been burned.”— 
 Leyrer, Schaff-Herzog: Ency., s. v., vol. 
 iii., p. 2177. 
 
 Shrine, a repository for relics, either 
 movable or in a tomb. It was customary 
 for pilgrims to come long distances to 
 visit the shrines of eminent saints, and 
 make valuable offerings. Movable shrines 
 were carried in processions around which 
 lamps were kept burning. 
 
 Shrive. See Shrove Tuesday. 
 
 Shrove Tuesday (Shrive), the day be¬ 
 fore Ash Wednesday, so called from the 
 Anglo-Saxon shrive or shrove. This word, 
 Anglo-Saxon in form ( scrifan ), is really a 
 Latin word Anglicized, scrifere, “ to write,” 
 “to draw up a law,” and hence “to im¬ 
 pose a penance.” It was in ancient times 
 the custom to confess on the day before 
 Lent, so as to qualify to begin the Fast by 
 receiving the Communion. * 
 
 Shu'shan, known to the Greeks as 
 “ Susa,” the capital of Elam, or Susiana, 
 mentioned as follows in the Bible: Neh. i. 
 1; Esth. i. 2, 5; ii. 3, 5, 8; iii. 15; iv. 16; 
 viii. 14, 15; ix. 6, 11-15, 18; Dan. viii. 2. 
 The site of Shushan is identified with the 
 modern Sus or Shush. The first distinct 
 reference to Susa is found in the inscrip¬ 
 tions of Asur-bani-pal, from which we learn 
 that he captured the place about b. c. 655. 
 The Achaemeniden kings made it a capital 
 city and their winter and spring residence. 
 It was a very wealthy city when plundered 
 by Alexander after the battle of Arbela. 
 His preference for Babylon caused Susa to 
 decline, but it did not fall into decay until 
 captured by the Mohammedans, A. D. 640. 
 The ruins of this ancient city cover an 
 area of some three miles in circumference. 
 Remains have been found of the palace 
 built by Darius, the father of Xerxes, in 
 which the principal incidents recorded in 
 the book of Esther took place. Of four 
 spacious artificial platforms or mounds, the 
 
 western and highest is supposed to have 
 been the site of the citadel of Susa. 
 
 Sibylline Books. The name “ Sibyl ” 
 was given in classical history to certain 
 prophetesses who professed to declare the 
 decisions of the gods in reference to the 
 fate of cities and countries. The early 
 Christians sought to propagate their views 
 among the Greeks by those who prophesied 
 after the manner of the ancient sibyls. 
 These sibylline oracles enjoyed a high 
 authority in the Church and were often 
 quoted by Athenagoras, Clemens Alexan- 
 drinus, Lactantius, and others. Originat¬ 
 ing at different times and places, they are 
 now united in twelve books with some 
 fragments written in Homeric hexameters 
 and language. These prophecies are a 
 mixture of Jewish, pagan and Christian 
 ingredients. They are without historical 
 value, but instructive in the light they 
 throw upon the thought and spirit of the 
 times in which they were uttered. The 
 most important investigations of the Sibyl¬ 
 line Books are given by Bleek in his articles 
 in Schleiermacher’s Theol. Zeitschrift 
 (1819), vol. i., pp. 120-346, vol. ii., pp. 
 172-239. 
 
 Sigourney, Lydia Howard Huntley, b. 
 at Norwich, Conn., Sept. 1, 1791; d. at 
 Hartford, June 10, 1865. She was a teacher 
 in Hartford and Norwich before her mar¬ 
 riage. She began to write verses at seven, 
 and her first book, Moral Pieces in Prose 
 and Verse , was published in 1815. She 
 was a voluminous writer, and many of her 
 hymns may be found in various collections. 
 Her autobiography was published under 
 the title, Letters of Life, in 1866. 
 
 Sihor {the dark), a name given to three 
 rivers: (1) The Nile (Isa. xxiii. 3; Jer. ii. 
 18). (2) The river of Egypt (Num. xxxiv., 
 etc.); Gesenius thinks this also refers to 
 the Nile. (3) The Shihor-libnath, i. e., 
 “ block of whiteness,” mentioned only in 
 Josh. xix. 26. Some think that it is the 
 modern Nahr Naman (the ancient Belus), 
 which drains a part of the plain of Akka. 
 
 Silo'am, The pool of, is identified with 
 a pool about 450 yards south of the Haram 
 wall, and 60 yards west of the southern 
 point of Ophel at Jerusalem. It is 52 feet 
 long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet deep, and is 
 reached by a flight of steps. It is partly 
 hewn out of the rock and partly built of 
 masonry. The water comes from the 
 Fountain of the Virgin, with which the pool 
 is connected by a zigzag tunnel cut in the 
 solid rock. A remarkable inscription was 
 found in this tunnel in 1880 which narrates 
 
Sim 
 
 ( 861 ) 
 
 Sim 
 
 its completion, and is thought to belong to 
 the age of Hezekiah, or, possibly, Solomon. 
 The waters of the pool still irrigate the 
 fruitful gardens below. 
 
 Sim eon. See Tribes. 
 
 Simeon Stylites (from stylos , a pillar), 
 the originator of the custom of doing pen- 
 
 then lived as a hermit in a little house 
 under the peak of the mountain Telanas- 
 sus. Here he used to fast forty days at a 
 time, in imitation of Moses and Elias. 
 After three years he took possession of the 
 peak, had a wall built round him, and fast¬ 
 ened one end of a chain twenty cubits long 
 to a great stone, and the other to his right 
 foot, so that he could not, if he wished, 
 
 THE POOL OF SILOAM. 
 
 ance by living on a pillar, was born prob¬ 
 ably about 390 at Sisan, between Antioch 
 and Cilicia. He was brought up by Chris¬ 
 tian parents, and when fifteen years old 
 was induced to enter a monastery near his 
 home, where he stayed two years, and then 
 went to one at the foot of Mount Coryphus, 
 where he spent ten years. But the austeri¬ 
 ties were not great enough for him, and he 
 
 leave his bounds. His fame spread over 
 all the country, and the sick and palsied 
 came from far and wide—even, it is said— 
 from Spain, Britain, and Gaul, to be healed. 
 At last, wishing to escape from them, he 
 ordered a pillar six cubits high to be built, 
 which was afterward increased to twelve, 
 twenty-two, and thirty-six. Here he lived 
 for forty or fifty years, spending his time, 
 
Sim 
 
 ( 862 ) 
 
 Sin 
 
 as is related by his disciple Anthony, in 
 working miracles, teaching the people, 
 meditating, and praying. He died in 460. 
 He was buried with great pomp at Antioch. 
 
 There were two other pillar saints of the 
 name of Simeon, one being called Fulmi- 
 natus from having been killed by lightning; 
 he lived in the twelfth century, and seems 
 to have been one of the last to adopt the 
 practice.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Simeon, Charles, Church of England; 
 b. at Reading, Sept. 24, 1759; d. there, 
 Nov. 13, 1836. A graduate of Cambridge 
 University, he was from 1783 incumbent 
 of Trinity Church in that city. He has 
 been called the founder of the Low-Church 
 party. His views met with great opposi¬ 
 tion, but in time gained a large following. 
 He published a translation of Claude’s Es¬ 
 say on the Composition of a Sermon , and 
 added notes and ahundred sermon outlines. 
 Subsequently he published a series of out¬ 
 line sketches covering the entire Bible 
 {Horce Homileticce , 1819-28), 17 vols. See 
 his Life , by W. Carus (1847). 
 
 Simon ( a hearing ), contracted from 
 Sim'eon. (i) A famous sorcerer, who pro¬ 
 fessed to be a convert to the Christian 
 faith. (Acts viii. 9.) 
 
 (2) Simon Peter. (Matt, iv.' 18.) See 
 Peter. 
 
 (3) Simon the Canaanite (Matt. x. 4), or 
 Simon Zelotes, one of the twelve apostles. 
 He was a member of the party called 
 Zealots , hence his name. 
 
 (4) The brother of our Lord. (Matt. xiii. 
 55; Mark vi. 3.) 
 
 (5) A Pharisee. (Luke vii. 36.) 
 
 (6) A leper. (Matt. xxvi. 6.) 
 
 (7) The father of Judas Iscariot. (John 
 vi. 71.) 
 
 (8) The Cyrenian who was compelled to 
 bear our Saviour’s cross, when the latter 
 could no longer carry it. (Matt, xxvii. 32, 
 etc.) 
 
 (9) The tanner with whom Peter lodged 
 at Joppa. (Acts ix. 43.) 
 
 Simon Maccabseus. See Maccabees. 
 
 Simon Magus. In the second century 
 the Christian Church was assailed by what 
 proved a long and lasting trouble, viz., the 
 appearance of heresy respecting the per¬ 
 son and nature of Christ. That it had be¬ 
 gun when St. John wrote may be seen by 
 his denunciations of those who dispute the 
 doctrine of Christ. (2 John 10.) Simon 
 Magus has been by some declared to be the 
 first of the Gnostics, and to have asserted 
 that he was an ZEon, or emanation from 
 God. He was by birth a Samaritan, and 
 
 tradition identifies him with the man men¬ 
 tioned in Acts viii. 9. If we may trust the 
 somewhat uncertain traditions of him, he 
 went to Egypt and there learned all sorts 
 of heathen philosophy and magic. On his 
 return he practised his acquired arts, an¬ 
 nouncing that they were the sure signs of 
 his divine authority. He seems to have 
 had many followers, among whom may be 
 mentioned Menander and Dositheus, and a 
 small sect declared themselves his follow¬ 
 ers for some years. Tradition says that he 
 attempted to fly from tLue top of the Cap¬ 
 itol, intending to represent the return of 
 our Lord in glory, and died from the effect 
 of the fall.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Simony originally referred to the sin of 
 buying ^nd selling spiritual gifts, and is 
 derived from Simon Magus. (Acts viii. 
 18.) In the early Church the purchase of 
 ordination was severely punished as a 
 crime against the Holy Spirit. Later on it 
 became simony to buy or sell any ecclesi¬ 
 astical office or patronage, or to obtain ad¬ 
 mission to any monastic order by purchase. 
 
 Simpson, Matthew, D. D., LL. D., 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
 b. at Cadiz, O., June 21, 1811; d. in Phila¬ 
 delphia, Penn., June 17, 1884. He was 
 graduated at Madison College (afterward 
 merged into Alleghany College, Meadville, 
 Pa.), and practiced medicine from 1833 to 
 1835, when he entered the ministry of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. He was 
 vice-president and professor of natural 
 science in Alleghany College, 1837-39; 
 president of Indiana Asbury University, 
 Greencastle, Ind., 1839-48; editor of The 
 Western Christian Advocate, Cincinnati, O., 
 1848-52; bishop from 1852 till his death. 
 Bishop Simpson was an acknowledged 
 prince among pulpit orators. He was the 
 author of: A Hundred Years of Methodism 
 (18 70); Cyclopcedia of Methodism (1878); Lec¬ 
 tures on Preaching (1879); Sertnons (post¬ 
 humous ed. 1885). See his Life , by Rev. 
 Dr. G. R. Crooks (N. Y., 1890). 
 
 Sin. The commonest word for sin in the 
 Greek Testament is hamartia , and it has 
 the same meaning as the commonest word 
 in the Old Testament. (See Gesenius’s 
 Heb. Lex., s. v. chat a .) That meaning is, 
 strictly, “ a missing of the mark,” and so 
 “a failure,” “a sin.” The other New 
 Testament word, paraptotna , “ transgres¬ 
 sion,” is derived from a word signifying 
 “ to fall down beside.” Scripture gives no 
 definition of sin, but the whole tenor of it 
 indicates that this consists in failure to re¬ 
 gard and do the will of God. It is selfish¬ 
 ness which is the setting up of the indi- 
 
Sin 
 
 (863) 
 
 Six 
 
 vidual will against that of the Divine 
 Creator and King. That heavenly will is 
 righteous dealing, and love, and forbear¬ 
 ance, and hope. “ This is the will of God, 
 even your sanctification,” writes the in¬ 
 spired apostle. (1 Thess. iv. 3.) Every 
 act of self-sacrifice and kindliness, being in 
 unison with that will, is blessed; it is part 
 of a higher life, of a more perfect exist¬ 
 ence; it is a striving after the true aim of 
 life, after the ideal of perfect existence— 
 after God. And it follows that the con¬ 
 trary to this, that which thwarts the will 
 of God, is evil, and accursed. For it is not 
 only harmful in itself, but it is sinful, 
 guilty, because it bears moral responsibil¬ 
 ity. Man, we are told, was made in the 
 image of God. He is not senseless and 
 stupid. He is conscious of a free will; 
 knowing good and evil, he has the choice 
 between them. Herein he is distinguished 
 from the brutes, that he is not limited in 
 existence by a monotonous law, like the 
 growth of a plant; he can choose for him¬ 
 self. And sin is the rebellious choice, the 
 choice of that which the Creator forbids, 
 the choice of an atmosphere tainted and 
 impure, when the free air of heaven is of¬ 
 fered; the choice of sloth and impotence 
 in place of life and strength and energy. 
 The origin of sin is confessedly a mystery, 
 but so is the origin of everything which 
 exists. “ There is nothing,” writes Cole¬ 
 ridge, “ of which the ultimate good is not 
 mystery.” Mystery as it is, it is no less 
 confessedly a fact. That all opposition to 
 God’s will is evil must be clear at once, 
 but the heinousness of the guilt will vary 
 according to circumstances. The conscience 
 of mankind and the voice of Scripture both 
 bear witness to this. Thus man is, accord¬ 
 ing to Scripture, infected with original sin. 
 The Scripture also declares that all men 
 commit actual sin, and the conscience bears 
 witness to the fact. — Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. For a full treatment of this sub¬ 
 ject see The Christian Doctrine of Sin, 
 by Julius Muller (Eng. translation, Edin¬ 
 burgh), and standard works on systematic 
 theology. 
 
 Sin Against the Holy Spirit, The (Matt, 
 xii. 31, 32), “must be carefully distin¬ 
 guished from blasphemy against the Holy 
 Spirit. The latter is unforgivable ; the 
 former is not. As Matthew Henry well 
 says: 4 It is not all speaking against the 
 person or essence of the Holy Spirit, or 
 some of his more private operations, or 
 merely the resisting of his internal working 
 in the sinner himself that is here meant; 
 for who, then, should be saved ?’ But 
 blasphemy against the Holy Spirit implies 
 complete deadness to spiritual things : so 
 
 that holiness is hateful and hated. Wher¬ 
 ever there is apprehension felt that the 
 ‘ unpardonable sin ' has been committed, 
 there has been no commission of it; for he 
 who really sins^ in this way feels no con¬ 
 trition. And the latter fact is the reason 
 why it is never forgiven. The sinner con¬ 
 tinues obstinate and malignant till his 
 death. It is, therefore, equivalent to final 
 impenitence.”—Schaff-Herzog: Ency ., vol. 
 iii., p. 2188. 
 
 Sin-Offerings. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Si'nai, the name of the mountain on 
 which God revealed the law to Moses, and 
 also of the mountain range in the penin¬ 
 sula formed by the Gulfs of Suez and Aka- 
 bah. As to the exact locality of the moun¬ 
 tain-peak from which the law was given, 
 there has been much discussion. Jebel 
 Musa , the southern peak of a mountain- 
 mass, two miles long and one mile broad, 
 which bears the same name is the tradi¬ 
 tionary site, and is favored by Krafft, 
 Strauss, Graul, Ritter, and to some extent 
 by Tischendorf. But the majority of mod¬ 
 ern scholars and explorers find the condi¬ 
 tions of the Bible narrative met in the 
 northern peak, Ras Sufsafeh. At its base 
 is a plain that would give ample room to 
 the great multitude of the Israelites to 
 listen to the reading of the Law. On the 
 eastern declivity of this mountain range is 
 the convent of St. Catharine, erected in the 
 sixth century by the Emperor Justinian, in 
 the library of which Tischendorf, in 1859, 
 discovered the famous Codex Sinaiticus. 
 
 Sirach. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Sisters of Charity. See Charity, Sis¬ 
 ters of. 
 
 Sisters of Mercy. See Mercy, Sisters of. 
 
 Sisterhoods. See Deaconesses. 
 
 Siva. See Brahmanism. 
 
 Six-Principle Baptists, named from their 
 six doctrines as found in Heb. iv. 1, 2; 
 viz.: (1) repentance from dead works, (2) 
 faith toward God, (3) the doctrine of bap¬ 
 tism, (4) the laying on of hands, (5) the 
 resurrection of the dead, and (6) eternal 
 judgment. They place special stress upon 
 “ laying on of hands ” as an act of confir¬ 
 mation, and will not fellowship with those 
 who do not practice it. In theology they 
 hold Arminian views. They date their 
 organization as early as 1639. All but two 
 of the dozen weak churches of this faith 
 are in Rhode Island. 
 
Six 
 
 ( 864 ) 
 
 Smi 
 
 Sixtus, the name of five popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Skinner, Thomas Harvey, D. D., LL. D., 
 an eminent Presbyterian minister; b. near 
 Harvey’s Neck. N. C., March 7, 1791; d. 
 at New York, Feb. 1, 1871. He was pas¬ 
 tor in Philadelphia; professor of sacred 
 rhetoric at Andover; pastor of the Mercer 
 Street Presbyterian Church, New York, 
 and from 1848 professor of sacred rhetoric 
 and pastoral theology in the Union Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, New York. He was a 
 leader in the Presbyterian Church, and an 
 able preacher and theologian. He publish¬ 
 ed: Aids to'Preaching and Hearing (1839); 
 Hints to Christians (1841); Life of Francis 
 Mar hoc, and Discussions in Theology (1868). 
 
 Slater Fund for the Education of Freed- 
 men. This fund of one million dollars was 
 the gift of John F. Slater, of Norwich,Conn., 
 a descendant of William Slater, who was 
 one of the first to establish cotton manu¬ 
 factures in this country. 
 
 Smalcald Articles and League. See 
 
 SCHMALKALD, LEAGUE AND ARTICLES OF. 
 
 Smalley, John, D. D., b. in Columbia, 
 Conn., June 4, 1734; d. in New Britain, 
 Conn., June 1, 1820. After graduating 
 from Yale College he studied theology 
 with Dr. Bellamy, and was ordained pas¬ 
 tor in 1758 of the Congregational Church 
 in New Britain, Conn. He held this posi¬ 
 tion more than fifty-five years—more than 
 fifty-one years without a colleague. After 
 a custom of the times he trained many 
 young ministers for the ministry. Among 
 his pupils were Nathaniel Emmons of 
 Franklin, Mass., and Ebenezer Porter, 
 afterward professor at Andover. He held 
 strong Calvinistic views, and was a leader 
 in defence of the New England theology. 
 Some of Dr. Smalley’s sermons exerted a 
 great influence. He published a volume 
 of Discourses in 1803, and a second volume 
 in 1814. 
 
 Smith, Eli, American missionary and 
 translator of the Bible into Arabic; b. at 
 Northford, Conn., Sept. 15, 1801; d. at 
 Beyrout, Syria, Jan. 11, 1857. Educated 
 at Yale College, 1821, and at Andover 
 Seminary, 1826, he went as a missionary 
 of the American Board to Beyrout in 1827, 
 and with Mr. Dwight made a journey of 
 exploration among the Nestorian Chris¬ 
 tians in Persia. The result of this tour is 
 given in his Afissionary Researches in Ar¬ 
 menia (1833). He traveled with Dr. 
 Robinson and aided him in gathering ma¬ 
 terial for his Biblical Researches. Dr. 
 
 Smith began his translation of the Bible 
 into Arabic in 1846. 
 
 Smith, George, b. in England about 
 1825; d. at Aleppo, Aug. 19, 1876. While 
 working at his trade as an engraver he 
 taught himself the Oriental languages, and 
 in intervals of leisure made a study of the 
 Ninevite sculptures in the British Museum. 
 His investigations attracted attention, and 
 he received an appointment as an assistant 
 in the Museum, and was soon recognized 
 as a leading Assyrian scholar. He made 
 three expeditions to Nineveh (1873-75), 
 and secured a great treasure of inscriptions, 
 etc. He wrote: Assyrian Discoveries (1875); 
 History of Assyria from the Alonujnents 
 (1875); The Assyrian Eponym Canon ( 1875); 
 Chaldean Account of Genesis; History of 
 Se 7 inacherib. 
 
 Smith, Henry Boynton, D. D., LL. D., 
 one of the most eminent American scholars 
 and theologians of recent times; b. in Port¬ 
 land, Me., Nov. 21, 1815; d. in New York, 
 Feb. 7, 1877. He was graduated at Bow- 
 doin College in 1834, and studied theology 
 at Andover. In 1837 he went abroad, and 
 until 1840 enjoyed exceptional advantages 
 as a student at Halle and Berlin. He was 
 ordained as pastor of the Congregational 
 Church at West Amesbury, Mass., in 1842, 
 where he remained until called to the pro¬ 
 fessorship of mental and moral philosophy 
 in Amherst College, in 1847. In 1850 he 
 was called to the chair of church history in 
 the Union Theological Seminary, New 
 York City, and three years after was trans¬ 
 ferred to the chair of systematic theology. 
 Here he accomplished his noble life-work. 
 Beloved by his pupils, over whom he had 
 great influence, he became a recognized 
 leader in the New School Presbyterian 
 Church, and did a grand service in bring¬ 
 ing about the reunion in 1867. He wrote 
 much in The New York Evangelist and Re¬ 
 views of his church. He published: His¬ 
 tory of the Church of Christ in Chro 7 iological 
 Tables. See He 7 iry Boymto 7 i S?/iith: His 
 Life a 7 id Work , edited by his wife (New 
 York, 1881). His lectures on Syste 7 natic 
 Theology were edited by Dr. Karr (18S4). 
 
 Smith, John Cotton, D. D., a prom¬ 
 inent American Episcopal minister; b. at 
 Andover, Mass., Aug. 4, 1826; d. in New 
 York City, Jan. 9, 1882. He was graduat¬ 
 ed at Bowdoin College in 1847; rector at 
 Bangor, Me., 1850-52; assistant minister 
 at Trinity Church, Boston, 1853-59, and 
 from i860 until his death rector of the 
 Church of the Ascension, New York City. 
 He was an able scholar and eloquent 
 preacher. He published: Aliscellanies, Ola 
 
Smi 
 
 ( 865 ) 
 
 Smy 
 
 and New (1876), and Brier Hill Lectures on 
 Present Aspects of the Church (1881). 
 
 Smith, John Pye, D. D., LL. D., an Eng¬ 
 lish Congregational divine; b. at Sheffield, 
 May 25, 1774; d. at Guildford, Surrey (Lon¬ 
 don), Feb. 5, 1851. He studied theology at 
 Rotherham College, and was professor of 
 theology at Homerton College from 1805 
 to 1850. He published: Scripture Testi¬ 
 mony to the Messiah (1818-21, 2 vols., 6th 
 ed., 1868); Four Discourses 071 the Sacrifice 
 and Priesthood of Christ (1828, 5th cd., 
 1868); Scripture and Geology (1839, 5th ed., 
 1854). His First Lines of Christian Theol¬ 
 ogy was published after his death (1854, 2d 
 ed., i860). See his Memoirs , by J. Med¬ 
 way (London, 1853). 
 
 Smith, Joseph. See Mormons. 
 
 Smith, Sydney, Church of England; b. at 
 Woodford, Essex, June 3, 1771; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, Feb. 22, 1845. A graduate of Oxford 
 (1792), he was ordained in 1794 and became 
 minister of Charlotte Episcopal Chapel, 
 Edinburgh, 1797-1802; canon of Bristol, 
 1828, and resident canon of St. Paul, 1831. 
 He was famous as a wit and writer. As a 
 preacher he was earnest and forcible. He 
 published numerous Sermons and Letters o?i 
 the Subject of the Catholics by Peter Plymley 
 (1808), favoring Catholic emancipation, and 
 Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy. 
 See his Memoir , by his daughter (1855). 
 
 Smith, William Andrew, D. D., a prom¬ 
 inent minister of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South; b. at Fredericksburg, Va., 
 Nov. 29, 1802; d. at Richmond, Va., March 
 1, 1870. He was admitted to the Virginia 
 Conference in 1825, and soon rose to emi¬ 
 nence. In 1846 he became president of Ran¬ 
 dolph Macon College where he remained 
 until 1866. From 1868 until his death, he 
 was president of Central College, Fayette, 
 Mo. He was a member of every general 
 conference from 1832. He was an able and 
 eloquent preacher, and his labors were fol¬ 
 lowed by great revivals. He published 
 Philosophy and Practice of Slavery (1857). 
 
 Smith, William Robertson, LL. D. 
 (Aberdeen, 1882), Free Church of Scotland; 
 b. at Keig, Aberdeenshire, Nov. 8, 1846; 
 educated at Aberdeen University (M. A., 
 1865), New College, Edinburgh, and at 
 Bonn and Gottingen; was assistant to the 
 chair of physics at Edinburgh, 1868-70; 
 professor of Hebrew in the Free Church 
 College, Aberdeen, 1870-81, when he was 
 removed by the General Assembly on ac¬ 
 count of his alleged heretical teaching; and 
 has been since associate editor of the ninth 
 
 edition of the Encyclopcedia Britannica , and 
 was (1883-86) Lord Almoner’s professor 
 of Arabic at Cambridge; since 1886, libra¬ 
 rian to the university. He is the author 
 of: The Old Testament hi the Jewish Church 
 (London, 1881); The Prophets of Israel, a 7 id 
 their Place hi History to the Close of the 
 Eighth Century, B. C. (1882, both reprinted 
 N. Y.); Kinship and Marriage in Early 
 Arabia (1885); The Religion of the Semites 
 (1890). 
 
 Smyr'na, a city of Asia Minor, situated 
 on the Hermaean Gulf. The church here 
 was one of the seven addressed by our 
 Lord (Rev. ii. 8-ri), and Polycarp (mar¬ 
 tyred in A. d. 168, eighty-six years after 
 his conversion) was its bishop. After the 
 time of Alexander the Great, the city be¬ 
 came one of the principal commercial cen¬ 
 tres of the world. It was almost destroyed 
 by an earthquake in 178. The modern 
 city, situated two and a half miles from the 
 ancient site, has a population of about 190,- 
 000, of which not a fourth are Turks. 
 Several Greek, Roman-Catholic, and Prot¬ 
 estant churches are sustained, as there is a 
 considerable European population. 
 
 Smyth, John, founder of the General 
 Baptists; date of birth unknown; d. in 
 Holland in 1612. He was a graduate of 
 Christ’s College, Cambridge (1575-76), and 
 became vicar of Gainsborough, Lincoln¬ 
 shire, Eng. While here, in seeking to de¬ 
 fend the English Church against the Sepa¬ 
 ratists, he was finally led to accept their 
 views, and became pastor of an independ¬ 
 ent church in 1602. With his little flock 
 he emigrated to Amsterdam and formed 
 the Second English Church. While here 
 he accepted Arminian and Baptist views, 
 and, in connection with Thomas Helwys, 
 published a “Confession of Faith” in 
 twenty-six articles. After the death of 
 Smyth, Helwys and some of his company 
 returned to London and founded the Gen¬ 
 eral-Baptist Church of England. Smyth 
 wrote: Principles and Inferences concerning 
 the Visible Church (1607); Parallel's, Cen¬ 
 sures, Obsei'vations (1609); Character of the 
 Beast (1609); Differences of the Churches of 
 the Separation. See H. M. Dexter: The 
 True Story of John Smyth, the Se-Baptist 
 (1881). 
 
 Smyth (Samuel Phillips), Newman, 
 D. D. (University of the City of New York, 
 1881), Congregationalist; b. at Brunswick, 
 Me., June 25, 1843; was graduated at Bow- 
 doin College, Brunswick, Me., 1863, and at 
 Andover Theological Seminary, Mass., 
 1867; was acting pastor of Harrison Street 
 Chapel (now Pilgrim Church), Providence, 
 
Soc 
 
 ( 866 ) 
 
 Soc 
 
 R. I., 1868; pastor of the First Church, 
 Bangor, Me., 1870-75; of the First Pres¬ 
 byterian Church, Quincy, Ill., 1876-82; 
 since of the First Congregational Church, 
 New Haven, Conn. He is the author of: 
 The Religious Feeling: A Study for Faith 
 (New York, 1877); Old Faiths in New 
 Light (1879); The Orthodox Theology of To¬ 
 day (1881); The Reality of Faith (sermons, 
 1884); Personal Creeds (sermons, 1890). 
 
 Socialism. English socialism is defined 
 by its founder, Robert Owen (1771-1858), 
 as the Science of Happiness. Its object is 
 to promote the well-being of man in society 
 first of all, his well-being as an individual 
 necessarily following. Socialism is unde¬ 
 veloped positivism or Comtism (Positiv¬ 
 ism), and in this it is now for the most 
 part merged. 
 
 On its religious side, socialism is a form 
 of pantheism, and God or Nature is re¬ 
 solved into a “ mysterious power which 
 permeates every particle of the elements 
 which compose the universe, and these el¬ 
 ements possess qualities which are un¬ 
 changeable, and operate according to fixed 
 laws, which are called the laws of Nature.” 
 
 By this power man has been made what 
 he is, and he must be, in the future, what 
 that power shall make him to become. 
 Man is, therefore, entirely dependent on 
 this power for all his faculties, and all that 
 he possesses. Man is thus non-respon- 
 sible, except in so far as he is necessarily 
 amenable to the natural consequences of 
 his actions. To reward and punish him by 
 artificial means is irrational. Such being 
 man, to ensure the happiness of the human 
 race permanently, all that is required is 
 that society shall create new conditions for 
 the purpose of forming from birth a good, 
 useful, and superior character for all, ac¬ 
 cording to their natural qualities or organ¬ 
 izations. To bring about these desirable 
 ends, it is necessary first of all to abandon 
 the irrational conditions of society, “ all 
 past religious governments, man-made 
 laws, artificial marriages, modes-of pro¬ 
 ducing and distributing wealth, of buying 
 cheap and selling dear, and all other past 
 and existing institutions,” and to enter 
 upon a new life, surrounded by new condi¬ 
 tions, in which the spirit of universal char¬ 
 ity and love will govern the population of 
 the earth, as one enlightened and affection¬ 
 ate family, upon a system of perfect equal¬ 
 ity, according to age, of education and 
 condition. (Condensed from “ Socialism,” 
 by Robert Owen, in Religions of the World.) 
 Distinctions of rank and possession of 
 wealth by an individual would thus come 
 to an end in the socialist system. Owen 
 tried to propagate socialism, or, as he 
 
 called it, “ The Rational System of Soci¬ 
 ety,” by establishing cooperative work¬ 
 shops for the various industries in Great 
 Britain and in America, labor being re¬ 
 garded as a high duty for all. His follow¬ 
 ers were, as we have seen, practically 
 atheists, and they permitted as much free¬ 
 dom in the relations of the sexes as the 
 laws of the country would not actually pun¬ 
 ish. 
 
 Communism is socialism put into prac¬ 
 tice on its political side. The necessity 
 for some strong, central despotic power, 
 capable of keeping order, is recognized, 
 primogeniture is necessarily abolished, and 
 all property and the earnings of industry 
 are thrown into a common fund, from 
 which distribution is made to each person 
 according to merit. We have an example 
 of socialism carried on into communism 
 in the Commune of Paris after the Franco- 
 German War in 1871. French socialism 
 or communism was founded by Count St. 
 Simon (1760-1825), a contemporary of Rob¬ 
 ert Owen, from whom the latter probably 
 borrowed his ideas to a large extent. St. 
 Simon regarded labor as the one sacred 
 duty of life, the best laborer as the most 
 religious man and the highest in rank in 
 the social scale. He also devised a system 
 of worship, if so it can be called, in which 
 social happiness and joy were to be put be¬ 
 fore the mind by means of poetry, music, 
 painting, etc. Like Owen, he resolved God 
 into Nature, and defined him as “all that 
 is.” 
 
 Putting its practical atheism aside, there 
 is a vein of truth in socialism. It is the 
 clear duty of those who have the power, to 
 promote in every possible manner the wel¬ 
 fare of the vast numbers of their fellow- 
 men whose lot is daily labor. Property 
 not only confers rights upon those who 
 possess it, but it also implies duties to be 
 fulfilled by them. Each man, rich or poor, 
 is, whether he likes it or not, in some way 
 his brother’s keeper. But these truths are, 
 after all, but the constant teaching of 
 Christianity. Christianity is the most per¬ 
 fect form of socialism; the latter says that 
 “ if man is ever to be made rational and 
 happy, he must enter upon a new life, in 
 which the spirit of universal charity and 
 love will govern,” while the former teach¬ 
 es that “ love is the fulfilling of the law,” 
 and what is more, gives men the power to 
 practice it.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 See Owen, Robert; Positivism. 
 
 Socinians. See Socinus. 
 
 Socinus, Faustus, the founder of the 
 Socinians, was born of one of the most 
 noble families of Siena in 1539. He re- 
 
Soc 
 
 (867) 
 
 Soc 
 
 ceived very little education, but followed 
 the profession of his family, who were law¬ 
 yers. In 1559 he went to Lyons, where he 
 remained till the death of his uncle, Laelius 
 Socinus, in 1562. Laelius Socinus (b. 1525) 
 had left Italy on the breaking up, in 1546, of 
 a club which had met at Vincenza to discuss 
 the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. He had 
 formed a sect at Cracow, and finally settled 
 at Zurich, where he died. He left many 
 manuscripts containing an account of his 
 views, which his nephew studied for three 
 years. He returned to Italy in 1562, and 
 lived in the court of the Duke of Florence 
 till 1574, when he went to Basel. Mean¬ 
 while the Anti-Trinitarians at Cracow had 
 greatly increased in numbers, but in 1565 
 a division took place, some (the Farnovians) 
 becoming almost Arians, others (the Bud- 
 neians) holding the opinion that Christ was 
 merely a man, whence they belonged to 
 the Psilanthropists (Gr. psilos , merely, and 
 anlhropos, a man), while others kept a me¬ 
 dium course. In 1579 Socinus was called 
 upon to reconcile the parties, which at last 
 with some difficulty he managed to do; 
 they became one community, and received 
 the name of Socinians. Socinus wished to 
 be admitted into the Unitarian Society at 
 Cracow, but was refused, his views not 
 being quite identical with theirs. His opin¬ 
 ion was accepted at the Synod of Racow in 
 1603, and he immediately began to draw up 
 a confession of faith, called the Racovian 
 Confession, from his uncle’s papers, but 
 died in 1604, before it was completed. The 
 confession was published in 1605 in Polish, 
 in German in 1608, and in Latin in 1609. 
 The sect continued to flourish under Ja¬ 
 cobus Sienno, the founder of the Racow 
 Academy, Schmalz, Volkel, Ostrodt, Mos- 
 corovius, and others, till 1638, when some 
 of the Racovian students broke a cross on 
 the highway, and, in consequence, a decree 
 was made at Warsaw ordering the church 
 and college to be closed, the press to be 
 stopped, and the professors exiled. This 
 decree was followed by several others, till 
 in 1658 they were forbidden, under pain of 
 death, publicly to solemnize their worship 
 or profess their sentiments. If they had 
 not joined the Catholic, Lutheran, or Cal- 
 vinistic communion within two years they 
 were to be exiled. The day fixed for their 
 departure was August 10, 1660, when the 
 law was carried out with the utmost sever¬ 
 ity, and the Socinians disappeared from Po¬ 
 land. Socinian views were taught in Ger¬ 
 many by Ernst Soner (d. 1612), and some 
 of the Polish exiles came and settled here, 
 but the heresy soon died out. It took a 
 firm hold in Transylvania, through Blan- 
 drata, one of the chief advocates of the 
 Anti-Trinitarian doctrines. It did not pros¬ 
 
 per in England, the only purely Socinian 
 congregation being formed by John Biddle 
 in Gloucester during the Commonwealth. 
 He died in prison for heresy in 1662, and 
 was succeeded by Thomas Firmin, but the 
 congregation soon disappeared. 
 
 The doctrines of the Socinians are to be 
 found in the Racovian Catechism, and in 
 the writings of Socinus and other great 
 leaders of the society. The chief are: that 
 Christ did not exist before his birth; that 
 he and the Holy Ghost are not God; that 
 Christ’s death was for himself, not for his 
 sins but for the mortality and infirmities 
 of our nature which he had assumed; that 
 God could justly pardon our sins without 
 satisfaction; that Christ did not become 
 our High-Priest, nor immortal till he had 
 ascended; that the soul of man becomes 
 insensible at death, and will be raised again 
 with the body at the general resurrection; 
 and that the good will be established in 
 eternal felicity, while the wicked will be 
 consigned only to a limited punishment.— 
 Benhanr Diet, of Religion. See Unitarian- 
 
 ISM. 
 
 Socrates was born at Athens in 469 b. c. 
 He was the son of a sculptor, and followed 
 the profession of his father till he was 
 nearly forty years old, when he gave it up 
 for that of a philosopher. He came to 
 Athens about the time of the commence¬ 
 ment of the Peloponnesian war. His 
 career differed considerably from that of 
 his contemporaries, inasmuch as he in¬ 
 stituted no school, resented the title of 
 teacher, and therefore had no followers 
 in the accepted sense of the word. His 
 plan of work was to walk about the streets 
 of Athens, talking with his fellow-citizens 
 on all sorts of subjects, leading them to 
 express their views, and then proceeding 
 to show them where their argument was 
 faulty; for he believed firmly that he was 
 designed by the gods to fulfil a religious 
 mission, and that a divine teacher, a dce?no 7 i 
 (divinity) was with him at all times, and 
 was his teacher. Such was his conviction. 
 But the same conviction led him to believe 
 that his fellows all had their inward teach¬ 
 ers, and therefore he questioned his com¬ 
 panions in order to be instructed. Accord¬ 
 ingly, he was no solitary thinker, but loved 
 to draw a circle around him. And the 
 young men of Athens loved to be drawn; 
 for he was a humorist; he was genial, 
 brave, patriotic. One young man there 
 was whom Socrates regarded with intense 
 affection—Alcibiades. He was skillful, 
 handsome, fascinating in manner—all the 
 qualities of the brilliant Greek were ex¬ 
 hibited in him in their perfection. Had 
 he also but learned that there is a right 
 
Soc 
 
 ( 868 ) 
 
 Sol 
 
 and a wrong, the whole history of Athens 
 might have been different. Socrates would 
 fain have taught him. But whilst he joy¬ 
 ously listened to the bright teaching of the 
 philosopher, he did not train himself to 
 walk in the light which he found; he be¬ 
 came selfish and wilful, and turned his 
 best gifts into means of mischief. 
 
 The Socratic dialogue consisted of clev¬ 
 erly contrived questions of the philosopher, 
 intended to draw out his companion, to 
 lead him to think and reconsider his subject, 
 and view it on all sides. His aim was to 
 draw out the faculties; not to make them 
 the supreme arbiter, but to bow them be¬ 
 fore a divine power. It was the very object 
 of his life to do this, and it cost him his life. 
 For he made virtue the foundation of all 
 teaching, and the aim of all intellectual ex¬ 
 ercise, and virtue was the pursuit of good, 
 and the rejection of evil. The Athenians 
 would have cared nothing for his word- 
 splittings; they were the most tolerant 
 people in the world of abstract opinions. 
 But he declared that he was not apromulg- 
 er of opinions; that they were bound to 
 know and to distinguish truth, that it was no 
 matter of indifference. He was, upon this, 
 accused of not worshiping the gods which 
 the city worshiped, and of introducing 
 divinities of his own. Alcibiades, too, 
 who had proved a traitor to the State, was 
 known to have been a learner from Socra¬ 
 tes, and upon this fact was founded the 
 charge that he was a corrupter of the 
 youth of the State. He was brought be¬ 
 fore the judges of Athens, and his trial was 
 the most momentous which, up to that time, 
 the world had ever seen. By a majority of 
 six, 282 against 276, he was pronounced 
 guilty. There was a chance of escape for 
 him. The penalty was death, but the 
 smallness of the majority would probably 
 have induced the judges to inflict some 
 lighter punishment. He was asked to 
 speak for himself, and he boldly answered 
 as follows: “ And what shall I propose on 
 my part, O men of Athens? Clearly that 
 which is my due. And what is that which 
 I ought to pay or to receive? What shall be 
 done to the man who has never had the wit 
 to be idle during his whole life; but has 
 been careless of what the many care about 
 —wealth, and family interests, and military 
 offices, and speaking in the assembly, and 
 magistracies, and plots, and parties? Re¬ 
 flecting that I was really too honest a man 
 to follow in this way and live, I did not 
 go where I could do no good to you or to 
 myself; but where I could do the greatest 
 good, privately, to every one of you. 
 Thither I went, and sought to persuade 
 every man among you that he must look 
 to himself, and seek virtue and wisdom be¬ 
 
 fore he looks to his private interests, and 
 not think of the triumph of Athens before 
 he thinks of Athens herself; and that this 
 should be the order which he observes in 
 all his actions. What shall be done to such 
 a one? Doubtless some good thing, O 
 men of Athens, if he has his reward; and 
 the good should be of a kind suitable to 
 him. What would be a reward suitable to 
 a poor man who is your benefactor, who 
 desires leisure that he may instruct you? 
 There can be no more fitting reward than 
 maintenance at the expense of the State in 
 the Prytaneum.” 
 
 This bold answer was received by the 
 judges as a direct insult, a fresh proof of 
 audacity, and they condemned him. Plato 
 has told the story of his death with im¬ 
 mortal power. Thirty days ensued before 
 execution. Then the solemn evening came. 
 The fatal draught of poison was brought, 
 and amid the frantic lamentations of his 
 friends and disciples he drained it to the 
 dregs with his habitual ease and cheerful¬ 
 ness. He spoke to the last of his opinions 
 of immortality, and of what he hoped to do 
 in the world to come. Thus died the 
 greatest of heathen philosophers, the great¬ 
 est of heathen martyrs.—Benham: Diet . of 
 Religion. 
 
 Sod'om, the most important of the four 
 cities (Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and 
 Sodom) that were destroyed on account of 
 the great wickedness of their inhabitants. 
 (Gen. xiii. 12; xix. 2.) Lot chose Sodom, 
 with the fertile country about it, as his 
 home. It was plundered by Chedorlaomer 
 and his allies, but Abraham recovered the 
 captives and spoils. (Gen. xiv.) The fate 
 of Sodom as a warning is often referred to 
 in the Bible. (Deut. xxix. 23; Isa. i. 9, 
 10; Amos iv. 11; Matt. x. 15; 2 Pet. ii. 6- 
 8; Rev. xi. 8.) The question whether 
 these cities of the plain were upon the 
 southern or northern end of the Dead Sea 
 is one of the most vexed in biblical geog¬ 
 raphy. Able scholars advocate each of 
 these locations. 
 
 Solifidians (from Latin solus , alone, and 
 fides , faith), a name frequently given to 
 those who first adopted the doctrine of jus¬ 
 tification by faith alone, and not by works. 
 
 Sol'omon {peaceful), son and successor 
 of David on the throne of Israel (b. c. 
 1021-981). Near the close of David’s life 
 a conspiracy was discovered to place Ado- 
 nijah on the throne, and in order to settle 
 the government David resigned to Solomon 
 his sceptre. The early part of his reign 
 was marked by great prosperity and wis¬ 
 dom. (1 Kings ii. 19, 27, 31; iii. 1, 9, 16- 
 
Son 
 
 ( 869 ) 
 
 Sot 
 
 28.) The great work of his reign was the 
 erection of the temple. (1 Kings vi.; vii.; 
 viii.) In the latter part of his reign he 
 was seduced by his foreign wives and 
 concubines into the practice of idolatry 
 and other sins, and divine judgments fell 
 heavily upon him and the country. (1 Kings 
 xi.) Many have thought that Ecclesiastes 
 is an expression of his final repentance. 
 We are informed (1 Kings iv. 32) that he 
 “spake three thousand proverbs, and his 
 songs were a thousand and five.” 
 
 “ The life of Solomon is very simply 
 and truthfully told in the Bible. No ex¬ 
 cuse is made for him, no sin is glossed 
 over. This is in itself a strong proof of 
 the genuineness of the record, and a great 
 contrast to the legends, in which he is a 
 hero of unparalleled splendor, to whom all 
 power upon earth is committed. His life, so 
 brilliant in its promise, so prosperous in 
 its course, so disastrous in its close, albeit 
 his sins were forgiven, is not alone in his¬ 
 tory. Two characters are recalled—Seneca, 
 the tutor of Nero, who combined great 
 wisdom and low avarice, and Lord Bacon, 
 * the wisest, brightest, meanest, of man¬ 
 kind.’ These instances show us that there 
 may well be great elevation of sentiment 
 with great laxity of life; that the pearls of 
 wisdom can be cast before the swine of self¬ 
 ishness and folly. There is, however, this 
 difference — that Solomon was endowed 
 with divine wisdom, and that his folly be¬ 
 longs to the later period of his life, and 
 cannot impair the authority of the inspired 
 writings of his youth and manhood.”— 
 Schaff: Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Song of Solomon, The, or The Book of 
 Canticles. “ This book is called in He¬ 
 brew the Song of Songs, a title which is 
 translated in the Vulgate into Canticum 
 Canticorum. It has, till of late, been gen¬ 
 erally regarded as the work of Solomon, 
 and the composition itself viewed as an 
 allegory in which the bridegroom repre¬ 
 sents Christ, and the bride his Church, ora 
 member thereof. Of late both the Solo¬ 
 monic authorship and the allegorical intent 
 have been called in question, and by many 
 altogether denied, as entirely gratuitous 
 assumptions, the latter being in violation 
 of the natural sense, as well as never once 
 hinted at in the Song itself. It is admitted, 
 indeed, that the composition refers to the 
 time of Solomon, and that Solomon himself 
 figures in the narrative, but from the rdle 
 assigned him, and the implied censure of 
 his court, it is concluded that the piece 
 must have been written after his decease, 
 and probably in the time of Jeroboam. The 
 author is familiar with the scenery of the 
 north, was probably a member of the north¬ 
 
 ern kingdom of Israel, and his aim appears 
 to have been to present a contrast be¬ 
 tween the morals of the south and those of 
 the north, in justification, possibly, of the 
 separation. 
 
 “ When the book is analyzed, which it 
 has been only since the allegorical view was 
 given up, it appears that there are two 
 lovers in the case—a false one, represented 
 by Solomon, and a true, to whom the virgin 
 gives all her affection, represented by an 
 unsophisticated shepherd away on the hills 
 of Galilee; and this discovery has supplied 
 what has since been regarded by many as 
 the clue to its proper interpretation. Fol¬ 
 lowing this clue, the latest criticism re¬ 
 gards it as a sort of drama, in which the 
 several interlocutors express themselves 
 in lyric fashion, and in which the opening 
 scene is laid in the court of the king, and 
 the final presents a vision of the maiden 
 coming forth out of the wilderness ‘ leaning 
 upon her beloved,’ for whom she expresses 
 an undying affection. There are three in¬ 
 terlocutors introduced into the drama 
 proper: the Shulamite, the king, and the 
 daughters of Jerusalem, she as the expo¬ 
 nent of a true affection, and they with every 
 allurement, powerless to corrupt the sim¬ 
 plicity of her heart. But the story involved 
 is more than a tale of true affection; it 
 would, as hinted, appear to be the expres¬ 
 sion of a historical fact, the superiority, 
 viz., of the morals of the provinces over 
 those of the capital; and in both regards it 
 is entitled to rank among the sacred books, 
 while the strength of the passion expressed 
 is such as to account for the view of the 
 allegorists who could find no counterpart 
 to it except in the devotion of the Church 
 to her Christ.”—Bagster: Bible Helps. See 
 Zockler: Commentary on the Song of Solomon 
 (in Lange series); W. E. Griffis: The Lilv 
 Among the Thorns (1889). 
 
 Sorbonne, a celebrated college, founded 
 at Paris, in 1252, by Robert Sorbonne, chap¬ 
 lain of Louis IX. It is connected with the 
 University of Paris, and was originally in¬ 
 tended for the training of poor theological 
 students. In the first three centuries of its 
 existence it had a remarkable growth, and 
 its influence in connection with doctrinal, 
 liturgical, and ecclesiastical controversy 
 was very great. At the Revolution it was 
 destroyed with the other ecclesiastical es¬ 
 tablishments. It was reestablished in 1808 
 with a faculty of Roman Catholic theolo¬ 
 gians, but its position is very inferior to that 
 of former days. 
 
 Soteriology (from Greek soteria, salvation, 
 and logos, knowledge), that branch of the¬ 
 ology which treats of the work of the Sav- 
 
Sou 
 
 ( 870 ) 
 
 Sou 
 
 iour in the salvation of men. See Atone¬ 
 ment; Justification, etc. 
 
 Soul. This word is used as the English 
 version of the Hebrew word nephesh , and 
 the Greek psyche , and signifies primarily 
 “ animal life.” But it is used more widely 
 to express the whole region of mind as 
 contrasted with visible substance. The 
 deep conviction of mankind that there is in 
 man a nature which differentiates him from 
 the brutes led to a belief in a threefold 
 nature, and this view finds confirmation in 
 Scripture, which speaks of the body (soma) 
 or flesh (sarx), the soul or life ( psyche ), and 
 the spirit ( pneuma) (1 Thess. v. 23). 
 Speculations as to the origin of the soul, 
 its essence and seat, were afloat from the 
 earliest times, and are by no means at an 
 end in our own day, but form one of the 
 questions of some biologists. The Epicu¬ 
 reans thought that the soul was a subtle 
 air, composed of primitive atoms; the 
 stoics, that it was a flame, a portion of 
 heavenly light; while the Cartesians made 
 thinking the essence of the soul. The Ego 
 was the living personality which the body 
 covered, but was independent of it. Both 
 Pythagoras and Plato held the brain to be 
 the central dwelling-place of the soul. The 
 materialist carries that view to the length 
 of attributing all consciousness and thought 
 to the vibrations of the brain-fibre—and 
 holds the soul to be, in fact, a product or 
 property of the bodily organization, and in 
 no sense independent of it. Consequently, 
 as the body is not immortal, so neither can 
 the soul be. (This subject has been dis¬ 
 cussed in the article on Materialism.) 
 Such a view is contradicted by the inner¬ 
 most consciousness of us all. Non o?nnis 
 moriar , said the heathen poet, “ Not all of 
 me will die.” Even now I am not bound 
 to this body, for there is within me a prin¬ 
 ciple which can travel into far-off scenes, 
 while I remain at home. I can think of 
 scenes of my childhood which I may never 
 see again. Therefore, there is nothing im¬ 
 probable in the belief that, whilst chemical 
 agencies dissolve the body, they have no 
 power over the Ego, over my innermost 
 self. The doctrine of transmigration 
 (q. v.) was plainly one form of assertion of 
 the responsibility of the individual soul, 
 and so far seems to be a step above the 
 theory of absorption which has found favor 
 with many rationalizing philosophers—the 
 theory that souls are swallowed up in the 
 great ocean of a Divine Life. Such a the¬ 
 ory is a denial of moral responsibility, 
 destroying the faith in a conscious continu¬ 
 ance of intellectual life and affection. It is 
 one of the many evidences of the obscurity 
 of Spinoza’s philosophy on some points, 
 
 that he has been claimed, both by those 
 who preach the immortality of the soul, 
 and by those who deny it, as being, respect¬ 
 ively, on their side. Dr. Martineau, who 
 has not a high idea of Spinoza, believes 
 that he had no conviction of such immor¬ 
 tality. 
 
 As we review the arguments adduced in 
 favor of this all-important doctrine of the 
 Christian faith, the vast capacities of the 
 thinking part of man, the universal consent 
 of all nations, the consciousness of sin and 
 the conviction of God’s justice,we still hold 
 that beyond them all, mighty as they are, 
 is the fact of the Resurrection of Christ and 
 the evidence thereof. Death could not 
 hold him, and when he came forth from 
 the grave it was not only as the image of 
 the Invisible God, but as “ the first-born 
 of every creature.”—Benham: Diet, op 
 Religion . 
 
 South, Robert, the son of a London 
 merchant; b. at Hackney, in 1633; d. at 
 Islip, 1716. He was educated at West¬ 
 minster School under Dr. Busby, and in 
 1651 went to Christ Church, Oxford; was 
 ordained in 1658, and in 1660 became Uni¬ 
 versity Orator. He was appointed domes¬ 
 tic chaplain to the Lord Chancellor Claren¬ 
 don on account of a speech which he had 
 delivered on Clarendon’s being installed in 
 his office at Oxford. In 1663 he took his 
 D. D. degree, and became a prebendary of 
 Westminster, and in 1670 a canon of Christ 
 Church. In 1677, Laurence Hyde, son of 
 the Lord Chancellor, and afterward Earl of 
 Rochester, was sent as ambassador to Po¬ 
 land; and South, who had been his tutor, 
 accompanied him. On his return to Eng¬ 
 land he became rector of Islip, in Oxford¬ 
 shire, and chaplain-in-ordinary to the king. 
 He refused all further preferment, being 
 strongly opposed to James II.’s attempts 
 to restore Roman Catholicism. However, 
 he believed in the duty of submission to 
 the rightful sovereign, and it was with dif¬ 
 ficulty that he was persuaded to swear al¬ 
 legiance to William and Mary; and he ut¬ 
 terly refused to take the see of either of 
 those who were ejected for refusing to 
 take the oath. He remained at Islip, writ¬ 
 ing and preaching against Puritanism till 
 his death. He was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. The most famous of his works 
 are his sermons, which are characterized 
 by vigorous sense and sound English.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. An edition of 
 South’s Sermons was published in Boston 
 (1867-71), 5 vols., London (1878), 2 vols. 
 
 Southcott, Joanna, a fanatical woman 
 who lived in Devonshire, England, about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, and 
 
Sou 
 
 ( 3 7 i ) 
 
 Spe 
 
 claimed that she was the bride of the 
 Lamb, and when she was over sixty years 
 old, announced that she was about to give 
 birth to the Messiah. She published a 
 collection of her “ prophecies,” inter¬ 
 spersed with doggerel verses, which made 
 two large 8vo volumes. She gained thou¬ 
 sands of followers, and after her death 
 (Dec. 27, 1814) many of them continued 
 to observe the ceremonies she had pre¬ 
 scribed. 
 
 South-Sea Islands. See Fiji Islands. 
 
 Spain. Out of a population of 17,268,- 
 600. all but 34,000 are nominally connected 
 with the Roman Catholic Church. The 
 number of Protestants is given at 6,654. 
 The constitution of 1876 grants toleration, 
 and makes all civil and political rights in¬ 
 dependent of religious beliefs. 
 
 Spangenberg, August Gottlieb, an em¬ 
 inent Moravian; b. at Klettenberg, Prussia, 
 July 15, 1704; d. at Berthelsdorf, Saxony, 
 Sept. 18, 1792. He was graduated at the 
 University of Jena, 1726, where he began 
 to lecture and occasionally to preach. He 
 formed a friendship with Zinzendorf, which 
 resulted in his uniting with the Moravians. 
 He labored as a missionary in Germany, 
 America, England, and the West Indies. 
 While in England he organized the Society 
 for the Furtherance of the Gospel among 
 the Heathen, which still exists. After his 
 consecration as a bishop (1744), he stood 
 at the head of the Moravian Church in this 
 country, and was active in missionary 
 labors among the colonists and the Indians. 
 Returning to Europe in 1772, he took a 
 prominent part in framing the new consti¬ 
 tution of the Moravian Church. Among 
 his numerous works the most important 
 are : Exposition of Christian Doctrine 
 (trans., London, 1784), and a Life of Zin¬ 
 zendorf (trans. by Jackson, London, 1838). 
 He composed some well-known German 
 hymns; see Ledderhose: Leben Spangen- 
 bergs (1846; Eng. trans., London, 1855). 
 
 Spener, Philipp Jakob, founder of the 
 pietists (y. v. ) in Germany; b. at Rappolt- 
 stein, Jan. 13, 1635; d. at Berlin, Feb. 5, 
 1705. His father was counsellor to the 
 Count of Rappoltstein; and the countess, 
 who was godmother to Philipp Jakob 
 Spener, took a great interest in him, and 
 had him educated by the court chaplain, 
 Joachim Stoll. At the age of fifteen he 
 went to Colmar, and a year later to Stras- 
 burg University. Here he pursued his 
 theological studies under Sebastian and 
 Johann Schmidt and Dannhauer, all of 
 whom were zealous Lutherans, Here also 
 
 he studied Hebrew and Arabic. In 1659 
 he went to Basel, where he took lessons in 
 Hebrew from Buxtorf; he also visited the 
 universities of Tubingen, Freyburg, and 
 Wiirtemberg. In 1662 he was chosen pub¬ 
 lic preacher at Strasburg, and also gave 
 lectures at the university on history and 
 philosophy. In 1664 he took his D. D., 
 and the Senate of Frankfort-on-the-Main 
 invited him to become chief preacher of 
 that city. His early training had given 
 him strong religious impressions, and his 
 preaching was characterized by great ear¬ 
 nestness and sincerity, and his life by its 
 singular purity; but 'his zeal against the 
 Calvinists, who were an influential body in 
 Frankfort, made him many enemies. How¬ 
 ever, he soon ceased to contend with them, 
 and turned his mind to the great object of 
 his life, which was to enforce purity of 
 doctrine and to make his hearers acquaint¬ 
 ed with the contents of the whole Script¬ 
 ures, instead of only just the portions 
 appointed to be read during church ser¬ 
 vice. To encourage the study of the Bible, 
 he in 1670 instituted his Collegia Pietatis , 
 where he explained passages of the New 
 Testament, and invited discussion and fur¬ 
 ther inquiry from his hearers of both sexes. 
 He thus unintentionally founded the sect 
 of pietists. In 1675 he published his Pia 
 Desideria , urging the need of a general 
 reform in the mode of preaching and teach¬ 
 ing Christian doctrines. In 1686, at the 
 request of the Elector of Saxony, he ac¬ 
 cepted the post of court preacher at Dres¬ 
 den, and he soon became involved in a 
 religious dispute with the theological 
 teachers of Leipzig (Carpzov, Alberti, 
 etc.). Spener had founded in Leipzig a 
 Collegium Philobiblicum for studying the 
 Bible in its original languages, and this 
 was looked on as a censure on the univer¬ 
 sity for its neglect of exegetical teaching. 
 Jealousy, moreover, at Spener’s having 
 been appointed to one of the most coveted 
 Church preferments had much to do with 
 causing opposition to his views, and his 
 enemies succeeded in prejudicing the 
 elector against him, and getting his re¬ 
 ligious meetings forbidden. (It was at 
 Leipzig that the nickname of pietists was 
 given to Spener’s followers.) Spener, 
 therefore, removed to Berlin in 1690, and 
 here again he commenced his catechetical 
 instructions, and enjoyed universal respect. 
 His adherents at Leipzig (Francke, Anton 
 and Breithaupt) were in 1692 made pro¬ 
 fessors of theology at the new University 
 of Halle, which henceforth became the 
 home of pietism. The theologians of Wit¬ 
 tenberg next attacked Spener, accusing him 
 of founding various fanatical sects, and of 
 holding no less than two hundred and 
 
Spi 
 
 (872) 
 
 Spi 
 
 eighty-three heretical opinions. To them 
 Spener replied in 1695 by his True Agree¬ 
 ment with the Confession of Augsburg. Soon 
 after this he was mixed up in a very seri¬ 
 ous dispute concerning the necessity of 
 confession before receiving the sacrament, 
 and Spener gave it as his opinion that 
 Christians might be allowed to use their 
 own judgment in this matter. In 1694 the 
 new elector, Frederick Augustus, urged 
 Spener to return to Dresden, but he re¬ 
 fused the offer. His last work was On the 
 Eternal Godhead of Christ, which he finish¬ 
 ed shortly before his death in 1705.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. See the Life of 
 Spener , by Wildenhahn; trans. by G. A. 
 Wenzel (Phila., 1881). 
 
 Spices ( basam ), “ not pungent, as pep¬ 
 per, ginger, etc., but aromatic woods, seeds, 
 or gums. (S. of Sol. vi. 2; v. 1.) Balsam 
 or balm of Gilead , a tropical plant that 
 grew in the plains of Jericho, and the hot 
 valleys of southern Palestine. The balm 
 of Gilead tree is not more than 15 feet 
 high, with straggling branches and scanty 
 foliage. The balsam is procured from the 
 bark by incision, and from the green and 
 ripe berries. The nekoth, ‘ spicery ’ (Gen. 
 xxxvii. 25), is the storax or gum of the 
 styrax tree. Arabic nekaat , the gum ex¬ 
 uding from the tragacanth ( astragalus ); 
 when exposed to the air it hardens into 
 lumps or worm-like spires. In 2 Kings 
 xx. 13 marg., * house of spicery ’ expresses 
 the original design of the house; but it 
 was used ultimately for storing Hezekiah’s 
 other * precious things.’ Sammim , a gen¬ 
 eral term for aromatics used in preparing 
 the holy anointing oil. Certain Levites 
 specially ‘ oversaw the frankincense and 
 spices.’ (1 Chron. ix. 29, 30.) Myrrh and 
 aloes were among the spices wrapped with 
 Jesus’ body. (John xix. 39, 40; comp, also 
 2 Chron. xvi. 4; Mark xvi. 1; Luke xxiii. 
 56; xxiv. 1.)”—Fausset: Bible Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Spino'za {spe-no'za), Baruch, or Bene¬ 
 dict, “ b. at Amsterdam, Nov. 24, 1632; 
 d. at the Hague, Feb. 21, 1677; a celebrated 
 philosopher, noted as the author of a mod¬ 
 ern system of pantheistic philosophy. His 
 father was a Portuguese Jew of Amster¬ 
 dam, and was engaged in commerce in 
 that city. He was well instructed in his 
 youth in the literature of his race, as well as 
 in Greek and Latin literature; but he was 
 early induced to enter upon theological and 
 philosophical studies, which led to his 
 doubting the divine authority of Judaism. 
 Having made no secret of his doubts, he 
 was excommunicated by the Jewish rab¬ 
 bins; whereupon he attached himself to 
 som^ Christians of his acquaintance, and 
 
 frequented the assemblies of the Armin- 
 ians and Mennonites. When about twenty- 
 eight years of age he withdrew to Rhyns- 
 burg, near Leyden, and there occupied 
 himself, probably as a means of subsist¬ 
 ence, in polishing lenses for telescopes; 
 but he still pursued his philosophical stud¬ 
 ies with ardor, and in 1663 published his 
 treatise, entitled The Principles of the Carte¬ 
 sian Philosophy De?7ionstrated Geometrically , 
 but with an appendix, in which he avowed 
 opinions wholly at variance with those of 
 Des Cartes. The publication of this work 
 made him famous throughout Europe, and 
 led him into correspondence with the most 
 advanced thinkers of his day. In 1664 he 
 accepted an invitation from Jan de Witt, 
 the greatest statesman in Holland, to take 
 up his residence at the Hague; and there, 
 in 1670, he published his Tractatus Theolog- 
 ico-politicus , which was followed by several 
 other works on the same subject, his 
 greatest work, Ethica Ordine Geometrico 
 Demonstrata , not being published till after 
 his death. He died of consumption in the 
 forty-fifth year of his age. A memorial 
 statue of Spinoza was inaugurated at the 
 Hague in 1880. A good account of his life 
 and work is to be found in Spinoza , His Life 
 and Philosophy , by Frederick Pollock 
 (1880).”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 The Rev. J. H. Blunt thus constructs 
 the Spinozistic Creed from passages in the 
 philosopher’s writings: “ I believe in One 
 Infinite and Undivided God, Eternal and 
 Unchangeable, existing and acting by the 
 sole necessity of his nature; of infinite 
 attributes, whereof two only are capable of 
 being conceived by man—Extension and 
 Thought, whereof he himself is the Iden¬ 
 tity; of all things the Free Cause; imma¬ 
 nent, not transient; in whom all things 
 consist, and without whom nothing can 
 exist or be conceived. By whom all things 
 were made, not by design or for the sake of 
 any end, but predetermined, and following 
 necessarily from the absolute nature or in¬ 
 finite power of God. Of which world is 
 Man, whose consciousness is the basis of 
 all certitude, in which whatsoever is clear¬ 
 ly perceived is true, and exists objectively 
 in nature; whose will is not free, but nec¬ 
 essary or constrained; whose acts and 
 desires are good so far as they are defined 
 by reason, and whose salvation, liberty, 
 and beatitude consists, not in the reward 
 of virtue, but in the virtue itself, whereby 
 affections are restrained, and in the constant 
 and eternal knowledge and love of God; 
 whose worship by man consists in the 
 exercise of obedience, charity, and justice. 
 And I believe in the communion and 
 fellowship of all men in so far as they are 
 led by reason, and in the eternity of the 
 
Spi 
 
 ( 873 ) 
 
 Spr 
 
 mind.” Several of Spinoza’s works have 
 been translated into English. See James 
 Martineau: Spinoza (N. Y., 1882). 
 
 Spirit, Holy. See Holy Spirit. 
 
 Spiritual Gifts. See Gifts, Spiritual. 
 
 Spirit. See Soul. 
 
 Spiritualism, Spiritualists. Spiritualism 
 had its origin in America in 1848, when 
 certain yappings in the house of Mr. Fox, 
 at Hydeville, New York, were heard,which 
 could not be accounted for, and by which 
 it was said communications could be held 
 with the spirits of the departed. These 
 raps were arranged into a sort of alphabet¬ 
 ical order for the purpose of the supposed 
 communications, and were supplemented 
 by the motion of articles of furniture about 
 the room, the disembodied spirits being 
 said to have discovered the means of dis¬ 
 coursing by electric detonation; then musi¬ 
 cal instruments were said to sail about the 
 room and utter unearthly melodies; sen¬ 
 tences were written by unseen hands; 
 shadowy forms were descried in the dark¬ 
 ness; light touches felt; and, lastly, the 
 complete embodiment of a spirit so far as 
 to be recognized by relatives. The spirits 
 were also said to give their names. The 
 believers in these manifestations increased 
 very rapidly, and many converts were 
 made in England, while in the United 
 States it is said that at one time no fewer 
 than 30,000 “ spirit mediums ” were prac¬ 
 tising. The doctrines of spiritualists are 
 much as follows: “ God is a Spirit, and the 
 visible universe is an expression to man of 
 his Infinite Life. Man is a spiritual being: 
 each individual spirit is a part of the great 
 oversoul, or aninta mundi. The spirit is 
 enthralled in a body during this life; when 
 released it at once enters upon the posses¬ 
 sion of higher powers and more extended 
 knowledge, and its condition is one of reg¬ 
 ularly progressive advancement. Disem¬ 
 bodied spirits are able to hold converse 
 with those in the body; not with all im¬ 
 mediately, but through the instrumentality 
 of privileged or specially gifted persons 
 called mediums, who are, on occasion, influ¬ 
 enced or, as they term it, controlled by the 
 spirits. Spirits can also apply force to 
 physical objects, perform certain actions, 
 such as writing, and produce sounds; they 
 can sometimes show themselves in mate¬ 
 rialized forms, some of the material being 
 borrowed from the medium. A new era is 
 now dawning on us. The old religions, 
 Christianity included, have played their 
 part, and must pass away in face of clearer 
 light. By intercourse with the spirit world, 
 
 man will advance as he never has advanced 
 before in knowledge, purity, and brotherly 
 love.” Among the spiritualists who have 
 attracted most notice have been Douglas 
 Home, who gave sittings before Napoleon 
 III. and Alexander II. of Russia, and Rob¬ 
 ert Dale Owen, who emigrated to the 
 United States, and became the most prom¬ 
 inent of the spiritualists. Spiritualism has 
 been claimed by some as an adjunct to the 
 Christian religion, by others as a sub¬ 
 stitute for it. As an adjunct, it is rejected 
 by almost all the leaders of the Christian 
 Communion; as a substitute, it involves 
 the virtual setting aside, more or less com¬ 
 pletely, of the authority of Holy Scripture 
 and of the teaching of the Church Univer¬ 
 sal. Some have not inaptly called it a 
 “ ghastly caricature of religion.”—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. See R. D. Owen: Foot¬ 
 falls on the Boundary of Another World 
 (Phila., i860), and The Debatable Land Be¬ 
 tween this World and the Next (N. Y., 1872); 
 Wallace: On Miracles and Modern Spirit¬ 
 ualism (London, 1875). 
 
 Sponsors were probably unknown before 
 infant baptism came into existence. At 
 first parents usually took the vows, but in 
 time this was forbidden. The duties of 
 sponsors are laid down with much detail 
 and exactness in the Roman Church. In 
 the English Church the number of sponsors 
 is three, two godfathers and one godmother 
 for a male, two godmothers and a godfather 
 fora female. In the Roman Church it is only 
 necessary to have one godparent, though 
 there are sometimes more, and in this 
 church no person is allowed to marry his 
 or her sponsor. 
 
 Sports, Book of, a royal proclamation 
 drawn up by Bishop Morton and issued by 
 James I., in 1618. Under the direction of 
 Laud it was republished by Charles I. It 
 encouraged those who had attended wor¬ 
 ship to spend the remainder of Sunday 
 after evening prayers in such “ lawful rec¬ 
 reations ” as dancing and other forms of 
 amusement. It was required that the proc¬ 
 lamation should be read in every parish 
 church, but most of the Puritan ministers 
 refused to do so, and some were suspended. 
 
 Sprague, William Buell, D. D., LL. D., 
 Presbyterian; b. at Andover, Conn., Oct. 
 16, 1795; d. at Flushing, N. Y., May 7, 
 1876. He was a graduate of Yale College 
 (1815), and Princeton Theological Semi¬ 
 nary (1819). Immediately after completing 
 his studies he became pastor of the Con¬ 
 gregational Church in West Springfield, 
 Mass. In 1829 he accepted a call to the 
 Second Presbyterian Church of Albany, 
 

 Spr ( 874 ) Sta 
 
 N. Y., in which field he labored for forty 
 years, resigning his charge in 1869. Dr. 
 Sprague was an able preacher and beloved 
 pastor. He wrote several works, but his 
 fame rests upon his Annals of the American 
 Pulpit , of which there are nine published 
 volumes. 
 
 Spring, Gardiner, D. D., LL. D., Pres¬ 
 byterian; b. at Newburyport, Mass., Feb. 
 24, 1785; d. in New York City, Aug. 18, 
 1873. He was graduated from Yale Col¬ 
 lege, 1805; taught in Bermuda until 1807; 
 admitted to the bar, 1808; abandoned law 
 and studied for the ministry at Andover 
 Theological Seminary, 1809-10. He was 
 ordained pastor of the Brick (Presbyterian) 
 Church, New York City, Aug. 8, 1810, and 
 held this position until his death. His 
 ministry was eminently fruitful and influ¬ 
 ential. Among his published works are: 
 The Power of the Pulpit (1848); The Mercy 
 .S>a/(l85o); The Glory of Christ (1852), 2 
 vols.; Pulpit Alinistration (1864), 2 vols.; 
 and Personal Reminiscences of the Life and 
 Times of' Gardiner Spring (1866), 2 vols. 
 (his autobiography). 
 
 Spring, Samuel, D. D., b. in North- 
 bridge, Mass., Feb. 27, 1746; d. in New¬ 
 buryport, Mass., March 4, 1819. A grad¬ 
 uate of Princeton College in 1771,he studied 
 theology first with Dr. John Witherspoon, 
 and then with Drs. Bellamy, West, and 
 Hopkins. In 1775 he was a chaplain in 
 the Continental army, and in 1777 be¬ 
 came pastor of the Second Congregational 
 Church in Newburyport, Mass., which re¬ 
 lation continued until his death. Theolog¬ 
 ically he was most in sympathy with his 
 brother-in-law, Dr. Emmons. Besides 
 many sermons, he published: Dialogue on 
 the Nature of Duty (1784); Moral Disqui¬ 
 sitions and Strictures on the Rev. David Tap- 
 pan' s Letters (in reply to his Dialogue , 2d 
 ed., 1815). 
 
 Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, Baptist; 
 b. at Kelvedon, Essex, Eng., June 19, 1834. 
 The son of an Independent minister, he 
 enjoyed fair educational privileges, but was 
 disappointed in receiving a collegiate train¬ 
 ing. Near the close of 1850, when at home 
 for a holiday, he was converted in the Col¬ 
 chester Primitive Methodist Chapel, under 
 the preaching of an unknown minister, who 
 chose for his text Isa. xlv. 22, emphasizing 
 the words “ Look .... and be saved.” 
 He was immersed at Isleham, May 3, 1851, 
 and from this time actively engaged in 
 Christian work. The following year he 
 preached his first sermon from 1 Peter ii. 7, 
 at Teversham, near Cambridge. In 1852 
 he became pastor at Waterbeach, and dur¬ 
 
 ing his ministry of two years in this place 
 the membership increased from forty to 
 nearly one hundred. An address which he 
 made at the Cambridge Union of Sunday- 
 Schools, in 1853, led to his recommenda¬ 
 tion as a candidate for the then vacant Bap¬ 
 tist Church of New Park Street, South¬ 
 wark, London. This once prosperous 
 church had so dwindled that only one hun¬ 
 dred persons attended Mr. Spurgeon’s first 
 service. He accepted the pastorate in 
 April, 1854, and within a year it was found 
 necessary to enlarge the building. While 
 the alterations were being made he preach¬ 
 ed in Exeter Hall. But the enlarged build¬ 
 ing could not hold the crowds that desired 
 to hear the youthful preacher, and in 1856 
 he preached at the Royal Surrey Gardens 
 Music Hall, which seated seven thousand 
 persons. The new Metropolitan Taber¬ 
 nacle was opened for service March 25, 
 1861. This building seats about five thou¬ 
 sand persons. The Tabernacle pulpit has 
 gained a world-wide fame, and the name of 
 Mr. Spurgeon is familiar in the Christian 
 homes of every land. In addition to the 
 work of his church the great preacher has 
 founded and carried on two important en¬ 
 terprises, the Pastors’ College and the 
 Stockwell Orphanage. Mr. Spurgeon’s pen 
 has been almost as busy as his voice. 
 More than two thousand of his sermons 
 have been published, and many of them 
 have been translated in different languages, 
 and hundreds of thousands circulated. 
 Among his more important works are: 
 Morning by Morning; or. Daily Readings 
 for the Family or Closet (1866); Evening by 
 Evening; or, Readings at Eventide for the 
 Fa?nily or Closet (1868); John Ploughman's 
 Talks; or, Plain Advice for Plain People; 
 The Treasury of David (an exposition of 
 the Psalms, 1870-85), 7 vols.; Lectures to 
 My Students (2 series, 1875-77); John 
 Ploughman's Pictures; or, More of Plain 
 Talk for Plain People (1880); The Clue of 
 the Maze (1884); My Sermon Notes (outlines 
 of discourses, 1884-87), 4 vols.; Storm Sig¬ 
 nals (sermons, 1886); Salt Cellars (1889). 
 Since 1S65 Mr. Spurgeon has edited The 
 Sword and Trowel, for which he contrib¬ 
 utes largely. Since 1867 he has suffered 
 frequently from attacks of illness, but with 
 the aid of his brother, Rev. James A. 
 Spurgeon, and an efficient corps of assist¬ 
 ants, he still continues to carry forward 
 the work of his church and its various en¬ 
 terprises with remarkable efficiency. 
 
 Stabat Mater, the opening words of a 
 hymn composed about the end of the thir¬ 
 teenth century by Jacopone da Todi. It 
 is one of the most beautiful of Latin hymns, 
 and describes the Virgin at the foot of the 
 
Sta 
 
 (875) 
 
 Sta 
 
 cross, as depicted in St. John’s Gospel. 
 The beauty of the hymn, and the adoration 
 paid to the Virgin have made it a great 
 favorite in the Roman Church, and it has 
 been set to music by Nanini, Palestrina, 
 Pergolese, Haydn, and Rossini, whose ver¬ 
 sion is the best known in England. It has 
 been many times translated into English, 
 German and Dutch. Another Stabat Mater, 
 supposed to be by the same author, de¬ 
 scribes the joy of the Virgin at Christ’s 
 birth; but it is little known, and far inferior 
 to the Stabat Mater Dolorosa . One of the 
 best translations is that beginning, “At the 
 cross her station keeping.” 
 
 Stalker, James, Free Church of Scotland; 
 b. at Crieff, Perthshire, Scotland, Feb. 21, 
 1848; was graduated at Edinburgh Univer¬ 
 sity and New College; and since 1874 has 
 been minister of St. Brycedale Free 
 Church, Kirkcaldy. He is the author of: 
 The Life of fesus Christ (1879) ; The New 
 Song:Sermons for Children (1883); The Life 
 of St. Paul (1884); L?nago Christi, the Exam¬ 
 ple of Jesus Christ (1889). 
 
 Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, dean of 
 Westminster ; b. at Alderley, Cheshire, 
 where his father was rector, Dec. 13, 1815; 
 d. in London, July 18, 1881. In January, 
 1829, he entered as a scholar at Rugby, 
 where he showed a remarkable talent for 
 history, and a very retentive memory, but 
 an incapacity for the study of mathematics, 
 which was a serious drawback to his prog¬ 
 ress. He was entered at Balliol College, 
 Oxford, in 1833, where he gained the New- 
 digate prize fora poem on The Gipsies; and 
 in 1840-41 he traveled in Greece for the 
 purpose of pursuing his classical studies. 
 His father had been appointed to the bish¬ 
 opric of Norwich in 1837. On his return 
 to England, Stanley began his career as a 
 college tutor, and met with good success. 
 His lectures showed more than ordinary 
 ability, and he became known by two 
 works which he published: a Life of Ar¬ 
 nold , which appeared in 1844, and Scr?nons 
 and Essays on the Apostolic Age ( r 846), which 
 took an entirely new line in dealing with 
 the lives of the apostles. He was made 
 secretary to the first Oxford Commission, 
 and in 1850, in writing in the Edinburgh 
 Review on the Gorham judgment, he began 
 a series of criticisms on ecclesiastical ques¬ 
 tions. In 1851 he was appointed canon of 
 Canterbury, and during the years in which 
 he held that office he wrote a Commentary 
 on the Epistles to the Corinthians; Memorials 
 of Canterbury , and Sinai and Palestine , a 
 delightful volume, in which he brought the 
 observation of his travels to bear upon the 
 Sacred History. It was in consequence of 
 
 this volume that he was appointed by the 
 queen to accompany the Prince of Wales 
 in his tour in the East in 1862. He had 
 previously made a tour in Russia, which 
 led him to deliver lectures on its history, 
 published in 1861. He became dean of 
 Westminster in 1863, and soon afterward 
 married Lady Augusta Bruce, who was 
 equally in earnest with himself in the labors 
 which he undertook among the people of 
 Westminster, while neither lost sight of 
 the duties which they owed to society. 
 Dean Stanley devoted himself to beautify¬ 
 ing the abbey, and making it popular, and 
 to cultivating the friendship and religious 
 feeling of the poor of the neighborhood, 
 and he spent much time in lecturing and 
 preaching in all causes for the good of the 
 people. His tenure of the office of dean 
 was an epoch which will never be forgot¬ 
 ten in the history of Westminster, and of 
 the religious life of England. He was a 
 Broad-Churchman,always eager topromote 
 union with other denominations. His wife 
 died in 1875; this was felt by him as a life¬ 
 long sorrow. He was never the same man 
 again; but he was brave in his endurance, 
 and did not neglect his good and holy work, 
 and in 1878 he visited America, where he 
 was cordially received, and delivered nu¬ 
 merous addresses and sermons. His other 
 works are: Lectures on the Jewish Church , 
 three series (1863-1879); Historical Memo¬ 
 rials of Westminster Abbey (1868); Essays 
 on Church and State (1870); a History of 
 the Church of Scot land (1872); Christian Ln- 
 stitutes (1881); Memoirs of his Father and 
 Mother , Edward and Catherine Stanley , 
 and numerous articles in reviews. 
 
 Stanley’s courageous endeavors to pro¬ 
 mote union with Nonconformists, and 
 also to protect the freethinking divines of 
 the Church of England, notably the writ¬ 
 ers of Essays and Reviews, and Bishop 
 Colenso ( q. v.), exposed him to many hard 
 words. But his courage made him popu¬ 
 lar even with those who opposed him, and 
 his conspicuous piety and philanthropy 
 were admitted on all hands. His funeral 
 in Westminster Abbey was a marvelous 
 spectacle, from the crowds which gathered 
 to it, representing every phase of religious 
 belief and of intellectual greatness.—Ben- 
 ham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Starobradtzi, Starovertzi, or Raskol- 
 niks. See Russian Church. 
 
 Stationary Days. Wednesdays and Fri¬ 
 days are so called as being the days for 
 week-day services of greater length than 
 on other week-days ; Wednesday, because 
 it was the day on which the Jews took 
 counsel to kill our Lord; Friday, because 
 
Sta 
 
 (8?o > 
 
 Ste 
 
 it was the day of the Crucifixion. In the 
 Western Church the fast was obligatory on 
 Friday, while that on Wednesday, always 
 voluntary, gradually died out. In the 
 Eastern Church both days are still kept. 
 The fast lasted always till three o’clock in 
 the afternoon. 
 
 Staupitz, Johann von, at one time the 
 helpful friend of Martin Luther; d. at Salz¬ 
 burg, Dec. 28, 1524. He was a member of 
 the Augustinian order, and in 1500 became 
 prior of a convent in Ttibingen. Two 
 years later, at the invitation of the Elector 
 of Saxony he removed to Wittenberg to 
 aid in the founding of the university there. 
 In 1503 he was chosen vicar-general of the 
 Augustinians in Germany. He met Lu¬ 
 ther in the convent at Erfurt in 1505, and at 
 once became interested in his spiritual 
 welfare, and pointed him to Christ and his 
 atoning love. At his recommendation 
 Luther was called to Wittenberg in 1508. 
 The progress of the Reformation finally 
 severed their friendship, as Staupitz sub¬ 
 mitted to the Roman Church. He joined 
 the order of the Benedictines, and became 
 their abbot at Salzburg in 1522. 
 
 Steele, Anne, the author of many well- 
 known hymns; the daughter of a Baptist 
 minister at Broughton in Hampshire, Eng¬ 
 land, where she was b. 1716, and d. Nov., 
 1778. She was an invalid through her 
 entire life. Her Poems on Subjects Chiefly 
 Devotional, by Theodosia , appeared in 1760 
 in two volumes, and were reprinted (1780) 
 with a third volume of Miscellaneous Pieces 
 in Verse and Prose . They were reissued 
 at Boston in two volumes (1808), and a 
 large portion of them in one volume, by 
 D. Sedgwick (1863). 
 
 Stennett, Joseph, an English hymn- 
 writer; b. at Abingdon, Berks, 1663; d. 
 at Knaphill, Bucks, July 11, 1713. He 
 was ordained in 1690 pastor of a Baptist 
 Church in Devonshire Square, London, in 
 which relation he continued till his death. 
 His Hytnns for the Lords Supper appeared 
 in 1697, and with considerable additions 
 in a third edition in 1709. He published a 
 Version of Solomon's Song with the Forty- 
 Seventh Psalm (1700), and twelve hymns 
 on the Believer's Baptism (1712). He is 
 the author of the familiar hymn, “ An¬ 
 other six days’ work is done.” 
 
 Stennett, Samuel, a grandson of the pre¬ 
 ceding; b. in 1727 at Exeter in Eng., where 
 his father was pastor of the Baptist 
 Church ; d. in London, Aug. 24, 1795. 
 He was the assistant of his father in the pas¬ 
 torate of the Baptist Church in Little Wild 
 
 Street, London, and in 1758 became his suc¬ 
 cessor. He spent his life with this parish, 
 and gained wide influence. His Works 
 were published with a memoir in 1824, 3 
 vols. His best hymns are: “ On Jordan’s 
 stormy banks I stand,” “ Majestic sweet¬ 
 ness sits enthroned,” and “ 'Tis finished ! 
 so the Saviour cried.” 
 
 Stephen, the name of ten popes. See 
 Popes. 
 
 Stephen, St., patron saint and apostle of 
 Hungary; b. about 977; d. Aug. 15, 1038. 
 His father Geysa, Duke of Hungary, was 
 converted to Christianity, and all his house¬ 
 hold were baptized. Stephen, when he suc¬ 
 ceeded to the dukedom, withstood the 
 Pagan party, and in the conflict of arms 
 defeated them. He built a large number 
 of schools and churches, and divided his 
 territory into ten bishoprics. He drew up a 
 code of laws which form the groundwork 
 of the present Constitution of Hungary. 
 Stephen was canonized by Innocent XI. in 
 1687. 
 
 Sternhold and Hopkins, authors of the 
 old Metrical Versions of the Psalms. Stern- 
 hold was Groom of the Chambers to Henry 
 VIII., and afterward to Edward VI., and 
 it is said he owed that position to his poet¬ 
 ical talents. Certain it is, that although 
 many Psalms had been translated into verse 
 by different scholars, Sternhold’s version 
 was the first introduced into England. Of 
 his fellow-laborer, Hopkins, little is known, 
 save that he was a clergyman and school¬ 
 master in Suffolk, and by some considered 
 even a better poet than Sternhold. There 
 was published also a collection of Psalms 
 in verse by different poets, to which Wil¬ 
 liam Whyttingham, a friend of Calvin and 
 Knox, was a contributor. Sternhold died 
 in 1549, a °d in the same year fifty-one 
 Psalms, versified by him, were printed. A 
 more complete version was published in 
 1562.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Stevens, Abel, LL. D., Methodist; b. in 
 Philadelphia, Penn., Jan. 19, 1815. After 
 completing a course of study in the Wes¬ 
 leyan University, Middletown, Conn., 1834, 
 he was in the pastorate till 1840, when he 
 became editor of Zion's Herald, Boston, 
 of The National Magazine, 1852; of The 
 Christian Advocate, 1856; associate editor 
 of The Methodist, 1860-74. He is the 
 author of several volumes, but is best 
 known for his standard History of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church (1864-67, 4 
 vols.; abridgment, 1S67, 1 vol.). 
 
 Steward, the title of a lay officer in the 
 
Sti 
 
 ( 877 ) 
 
 Sto 
 
 Methodist Church whose duties correspond 
 to those of deacons in Congregational and 
 Reformed churches. See Discipline of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 Stier, Rudolf Ewald, b. at Fraustadt, 
 March 17, 1800; d. at Eisleben, Dec. 16, 
 1862. He studied law at Jena, but in 1816 
 he became a student of theology, and was 
 for a while a disciple of Richter, but his 
 deep religious earnestness led him to yield 
 obedience to the faith and doctrine of the 
 gospel. He went to Halle in 1818, and was 
 made head of the Burschenschaft there, and 
 he subsequently studied and taught at Ber¬ 
 lin, Wittenberg, Karalene, and Basel. He 
 became pastor at Frankleben in 1829, and 
 at Wichlinghausen in 1838 ; after eight 
 years he retired, and became superintend¬ 
 ent, first at Schkeuditz, and afterwards at 
 Eisleben. His writings are numerous, and 
 of deep value for their piety and suggest¬ 
 iveness for homiletical purposes; the most 
 important is Words of the Lord Jesus , writ¬ 
 ten in 1843, which he insists strongly on 
 the doctrine of inspiration. He wrote also 
 The Words of the Apostles and The Words 
 of the Angels; Altes und JVeues in deutscher 
 Bibel; Auslegung von 70 ausgewahlten 
 Psalmen. The most important of his works 
 are translated in Clark's Theological Library. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Stigmata, the miraculous wounds which 
 are said to have appeared in the hands, 
 feet, and side of persons, resembling those 
 received by our Lord when crucified. The 
 first instance of the appearance of the stig¬ 
 mata is that of St. Francis, who is said, in 
 1224, to have seen the crucified Saviour in 
 a vision, and when he awakened found 
 marks on his hands and feet. Among the 
 many cases that have been noted—145 are 
 upon record — of peculiar marks thus 
 appearing, “ leaving out of account the ele¬ 
 ment of fraud, it may be said that ‘ stig- 
 matic neuropathy’ is a pathological condi¬ 
 tion of occasional occurrence, explicable by 
 physical and mental conditions.” 
 
 Stillingfleet, Edward, a prelate of the 
 Church of England; b. at Cranbourne, in 
 Dorsetshire, April 17, 1635; d. at West¬ 
 minster, March 27, 1699. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, where he received a fellow¬ 
 ship in 1653. From 1670 to 1678 he was 
 canon of St. Paul’s; dean of the same ca¬ 
 thedral, 1678-88; bishop of Worcester from 
 1688 till his death. His principal work was 
 Origines Sacrce ; or, A Rational Account of 
 the Grounds of Natural and Revealed Relig¬ 
 ion (1662). This work is still esteemed a 
 classic. He took an active part in the 
 great doctrinal controversies of his age, 
 
 and made sharp attacks upon the Roman 
 Catholics in his Rational Account of the 
 Grounds of the Protestant Religion (1665), 
 and upon the Nonconformists in his Mis¬ 
 chiefs of Separation (1680). A collected 
 edition of his works, with a memoir, was 
 published in 1699. 
 
 Stipendiary Curate. See Perpetual 
 Curate. 
 
 Stoddard, David Tappan, Congregational 
 missionary; b. at Northampton, Mass., 
 Dec. 2, 1818; d. at Tabriz, Persia, Jan. 22, 
 1857. Graduating at Yale College, 1838, 
 and at Andover Theological Seminary, 
 1841, he went as a missionary to the Nes- 
 torians in 1843 and labored in this field 
 until his death, with the exception of a 
 visit to the United States from 1848 to 
 1851. He was eminently successful in his 
 work. See J. P. Thompson: Memoir of D. 
 T. Stoddard (N. Y., 1858). 
 
 Stoics, a sect of Greek philosophers, 
 who derived their name from the Stoa, or 
 colonnade, in which their leader, Zeno, 
 lectured at Athens, about 308 b. c. The 
 doctrines of Zeno, it is thought, may have 
 been derived partly from the Jewish Script¬ 
 ures, but it is certain that Socrates and 
 Plato had taught much of them before, and 
 stoicism came nearest in morality to Chris¬ 
 tianity, for which it prepared the way. The 
 stoics maintained that nature (which in 
 reality they identified with God) impels 
 man to do that which is good; and that 
 conformity to the laws of nature constitutes 
 virtue. Every one who has a right dis¬ 
 cernment of what is good, desires to follow 
 the will of Nature in all his desires and 
 pursuits; and beyond this he must have no 
 desires, but be independent of all surround¬ 
 ing circumstances. All external things are 
 indifferent, and incapable of affecting the 
 happiness of man; pain, which has nothing to 
 do with the mind, is not evil; and a wise 
 man will be happy in the midst of torture, 
 because virtue itself is happiness. Stoi¬ 
 cism gained a firm hold on the mind of the 
 Romans, chiefly through its fundamental 
 principle that action is far superior to 
 meditation or to enjoyment; and it was ex¬ 
 pounded in Rome by Seneca, and by the 
 Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus 
 the slave. Such was stoicism in theory, 
 and such were the best of its teachers; but 
 practically the stoics lived pretty much as 
 they felt inclined to live, without any very 
 strict reference to their philosophy about 
 virtue; and their theory about endurance 
 of suffering often led them to suicide as 
 the easiest way of escaping it; of which 
 Zeno himself, as well as Cato, are notable 
 
Sto 
 
 ( 878 ) 
 
 Str 
 
 examples. — Benham : Diet, of Religion. 
 See W. W. Capes : Stoicism (London, 
 1880). 
 
 Stole, the name of a sacred vestment 
 used in the Roman and Episcopal Churches 
 and, with some modification, in the Greek 
 Church. It is a narrow band of silk or 
 precious stuff, fringed with gold embroid¬ 
 ery, and is worn over the shoulders by 
 priests and deacons. The former wear it 
 over both shoulders with the ends hang¬ 
 ing in front or crossed upon the breast: 
 the latter carry it from the left shoulder 
 to the right side where the ends are fast¬ 
 ened. 
 
 Storrs, Richard Salter, D. D. (Union 
 College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1853; Har¬ 
 vard College, 1859), LL. D. (College of 
 New Jersey, Princeton, 1874), Congrega¬ 
 tionalism b. at Braintree, Mass., Aug. 21, 
 1821; was graduated at Amherst College, 
 1839, andat Andover Theological Seminary, 
 1845; became pastor of the Harvard Con¬ 
 gregational Church, Brookline, Mass., 
 1845; and of the Church of the Pilgrims, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., 1846. From 1848 to 
 1861 he was one of the editors of The In¬ 
 dependent. He is the author of: The Con¬ 
 stitution of the Human Soul (N. Y., 1857); 
 Conditions of Success in Preaching Without 
 Notes ( 1875); Declaration of Independence, 
 and the Effects of It (1876); John Wy cliffe 
 and the First English Bible (1880); Recogni¬ 
 tion of the Supernatural in Letters and in 
 Life (1871): Manliness in the Scholar (1883); 
 The Divine Origin of Christianity Indicated 
 by its Historical Effects (1884). 
 
 Stowell, Hugh, a prominent English 
 evangelical clergyman; b. at Douglas, Isle 
 of Man, Dec. 3, 1799; d. at Salford, Oct. 8, 
 1865, where he was rector of Christ Church. 
 He wrote: The Pleasures of Religion, with 
 other Poems (1832); Tractarianism Tested 
 (1845), 2 vols.; A Model for Men of Busi¬ 
 ness, and edited A Selection of Psalms and 
 Hymns (1831), which contained the familiar 
 hymn, “ From every stormy wind that 
 blows.” See his Memoir, by Rev. J. B. 
 Marsden (1868). 
 
 Strack, Hermann Lebrecht, Ph. D. 
 (Leipzig, 1872), D. D. (same, 1884), Prot¬ 
 estant theologian; b. in Berlin, May 6, 
 1848; studied at Berlin and Leipzig, 1865- 
 70; taught in Kaiser Wilhelm Gymnasium, 
 1872-73; engaged in editing the Codex 
 Babylonicus Petropolitanus in the Imperial 
 Library at St. Petersburg, 1873-76; became 
 professor extraordinary of theology at 
 Berlin, 1877. He is the author of several 
 important works. An Eng. trans. of his 
 
 Hebrezu Grammar was published.in New 
 York and London, 1886. 
 
 Strauss (strowss), David Friedrich, the 
 leader in our century of the extreme ra- 
 tionists on the subject of the Life of Christ: 
 b. at Ludwigsburg, in Wlirtemberg, 1808; 
 d. there, 1874; studied theology at Blau- 
 beuren, and afterward at Tubingen. He 
 went to the seminary at Maulbronn as pro¬ 
 fessor’s assistant in 1830, and was at first 
 a follower of Schellingand Boehme, but at 
 Berlin, where he next went to study, his 
 early opinions were exchanged for the phi¬ 
 losophy of Hegel and the theology of 
 Schleiermacher. He became under-teach¬ 
 er at the seminary at Tubingen, but for¬ 
 feited this post through the publication of 
 Das Leben Jesu , kritisch bearbeitet, in which 
 he maintained that the Gospel history is a 
 collection of myths, written in the first and 
 second centuries of the Christian era, and 
 founded on the Old Testament prophecies 
 concerning the Messiah. Strauss was 
 next appointed teacher in the Lyceum at 
 Ludwigsburg, and in 1839 was chosen by 
 the Council of Education to fill the office of 
 professor of divinity and church history at 
 Zurich; but the appointment met with so 
 much opposition from the people that he 
 was dismissed with a small pension. He 
 published: Zwei Friedliche Blatter, Charak- 
 teristiken und Kritiken, and Die Christliche 
 Glaubenslehre, in ihrer geschichtlichen En- 
 twickelung und im Kampf mit der ?tiodernen 
 Wissenschaft, between 1838 and 1841, and 
 raised thereby a controversy in which Ne- 
 ander, Tholuck, and others wrote in refu¬ 
 tation of his doctrines. In 1847 he pub¬ 
 lished Der Romantiker auf dem Throne der 
 Casaren, oder Julian der Abtriinnige, a po¬ 
 litical satire, in which he gave great offence 
 by comparing the Roman Emperor to 
 Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia. In 1848 
 he was elected a member of the Wiirtem- 
 berg Diet for Ludwigsburg, but disap¬ 
 pointed his constituents by taking the side 
 of the Conservatives, and soon after re¬ 
 signed. Strauss’s later works were: Die 
 Halben und die Ganzen, Der Christus des 
 Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschichte and 
 Der alte und der neue Glaube; in these he 
 retracted his former reverence for Chris¬ 
 tianity, denied the possibility of personal 
 religion or belief in any god but the uni¬ 
 verse, which is “ the development from a 
 blind force of law, without any foreseen 
 end,” and expressed the opinion that there 
 is no life hereafter. The hopelessness of 
 such a creed made itself evident, and even 
 rationalists recoiled from it. The theories 
 of Strauss find but little acceptance, and 
 have been successfully rebutted by both 
 English and German critics. — Benham: 
 
Str 
 
 ( 879 ) 
 
 Sub 
 
 Did. of Religion. Among the replies to 
 Strauss’s Old Faith and New is that of Ul- 
 rici, translated and annotated by Krauth 
 (Phila., 1877). 
 
 Strong, James, S. T. D., LL. D. (Wesley¬ 
 an University, Middletown, Conn., 1856 
 and 1881), Methodist layman; b. in New 
 York City, Aug. 14, 1822; was graduated 
 at Wesleyan University, Middletown, 
 Conn., 1844; engaged in teaching, and since 
 1868 has been professor of exegetical the¬ 
 ology in Drew Theological Seminary, Mad¬ 
 ison, N. J. He was a member of the 
 American Old Testament Company of Bible 
 Revisers; and has published: Harmony and 
 Exposition of the Gospels (1852); Harmony 
 in Greek ( 1854); Scripture History Delineated 
 front the Bible Records and all other Accessi¬ 
 ble Sources (1878); Irenics: A Series of Es¬ 
 says showing the Virtual Agreement between 
 Science and the Bible (1883). The work 
 with which the name of Dr. Stong is best 
 known is the Cyclopcedia of Biblical , Theo¬ 
 logical and Ecclesiastical Literature (1867- 
 Si), 10 vols., supplement in 2 vols. He 
 was connected with Dr. McClintock in the 
 editorship of three volumes of this great 
 work, and then had the entire charge of its 
 preparation. 
 
 Strong, Nathan, D. D., an eminent 
 Congregational minister; b. in Coventry, 
 Conn., Oct. 16, 1748; d. in Hartford, 
 Conn., Dec. 25, 1816. He was graduated 
 at Yale College, 1769, and ordained pastor 
 of the First Congregational Church in 
 Hartford, Conn., 1774. His ministry in 
 this place continued nearly forty - two 
 years. He was an able preacher, and ex¬ 
 erted a commanding influence far beyond 
 the bounds of his parish. He was a pioneer 
 in the cause of missions, and one of the 
 founders of the Connecticut Missionary 
 Society, the oldest of the permanent mis¬ 
 sionary societies in this country. He pub¬ 
 lished two volumes of sermons (1798-1800), 
 but his most elaborate work is entitled 
 The Doctrine of Eternal Alisery Reconcil¬ 
 able with the Infinite Benevolence of God 
 (I79 6 )- 
 
 Stuart, Moses, an eminent American di¬ 
 vine and scholar; b. at Wilton, Conn., 
 March 26, 1780; d. at Andover, Mass., 
 Jan. 8, 1852. Graduating at Yale College 
 in 1799, he studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1802. Accepting a tutorship 
 at Yale, he decided to enter the ministry, 
 and studied theology with President 
 Dwight. In 1806 he was ordained pastor 
 of the First Congregational Church at New 
 Haven, Conn. His ministry here was 
 very successful. In 1810 he became pro¬ 
 
 fessor of sacred literature in Andover The¬ 
 ological Seminary, where, in spite of ill- 
 health, he attained great eminence as a 
 teacher and author. Among his works are 
 a Hebrew Grammar , without points (1813), 
 with points (1821); Letters to Dr. W. E. 
 Cbanning on the Divinity of Christ (1819); 
 Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews 
 (1827-28), 2 vols.; Romans (1832) 2 vols.; 
 Daniel { 1850); Ecclesiastes (1851); Proverbs 
 (1852). 
 
 Stylites. See Simeon Stylites. 
 
 Suarez, Francis, a learned scholar and 
 writer of the order of the Jesuits; b. at 
 Granada, Spain, Jan. 5, 1548; d. at Lisbon, 
 Sept. 25. 1617. His works were published 
 at Lyons and Mainz (1630) in twenty-three 
 volumes and reprinted at Venice (1740). 
 They treated, for the most part, of the 
 Aristotelian philosophy and the scholastic 
 theology. He wrote a Defence of the Catho¬ 
 lic and Apostolic Eaith against the Errors of 
 the Anglican Sect (1613), which was burned 
 by the public hangman in front of St Paul’s, 
 London. 
 
 Subdeacons, the principal of the minor 
 orders of the clergy in the early Church. 
 They were ordained without imposition of 
 hands. Their chief duties were to prepare 
 the sacred vessels for the Eucharistic Ser¬ 
 vice, to deliver them to the deacon at the 
 proper time, and to attend at the doors of 
 the church during the celebration of the 
 Communion. They were also the bishop’s 
 messengers, employed by him to convey 
 letters to foreign churches 
 
 Sublapsarianism is the theory which 
 holds that God decreed to permit the fall, 
 and then, in view of his purpose of provid¬ 
 ing redemption for the race, elected out of 
 fallen men a people to his praise. See 
 Infralapsarianism and Supralapsarian- 
 
 ISM. 
 
 Substance. This word signifies, in theo¬ 
 logical language, the essence, that which con¬ 
 stitutes a thing what it is. Thus the word 
 is applied in the Athanasian and Nicene 
 Creeds to God, and signifies the Divine 
 Nature — that which distinguishes God 
 from his creatures, and in which all his 
 divine attributes inhere. (Hypostasis.) In 
 the Roman doctrine of transubstantiation 
 it is held that the substance of the sacra¬ 
 ment is changed, while the accidents of 
 bread remain. The word has no connection 
 whatever with material form or solidity, as 
 used in ordinary language. 
 
 Substrati. See Genuflectentes. 
 

 Sue ( 880 ) Sun 
 
 Succession. See Apostolical Succes¬ 
 sion. 
 
 Suc'coth-Be'noth ( tents of daughters'), an 
 idol-divinity of the Babylonians for whom 
 they built a temple upon their arrival in 
 Samaria. (2 Kings xvii. 30.) 
 
 Suffragan at one time designated any 
 ecclesiastic whose duty it was to assist the 
 bishop, but the term was more especially 
 applied to bishops in partibus infidelium, 
 who assisted regular diocesan bishops, and 
 also to designate the relation of the latter 
 to their Metropolitans. 
 
 Summerfield, John, famed for his won¬ 
 derful pulpit eloquence; b. in Preston, 
 Eng., Jan. 31, 1798; d. in New York City, 
 June 13, 1825. He was the son of a Wes¬ 
 leyan local preacher, and in 1819 entered 
 the Methodist Conference of Ireland. Emi¬ 
 grating to this country in 1821 he joined 
 the New York Conference, and at once 
 gained immense popularity as a pulpit 
 orator. He preached to great congregations 
 in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washing¬ 
 ton in 1822, but his health gave way, and 
 he spent the winter of 1822-23 in France. 
 He returned to New York in the spring of 
 1824, but was never able to resume full 
 work. A volume of his Sermons and 
 Sketches of Sertnons was published in 1842. 
 Several memoirs have appeared. 
 
 Summers, Thomas Osgood, D. D., 
 LL. D., an eminent minister of the Metho¬ 
 dist Episcopal Church, South; b. near Corfe 
 Castle, Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire, Eng., 
 Oct. 11, 1812; d. at Nashville, Tenn., May 
 5, 1882. In early youth he came to this 
 country with his parents, who settled at 
 Baltimore. He entered the Baltimore Con¬ 
 ference in 1835, and was secretary of the 
 Louisville Convention in 1845, which 
 organized the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South. He was for many years editor of 
 the Nashville Christian Advocate and of the 
 Quarterly Review. At the founding of Van¬ 
 derbilt University he was elected professor 
 of systematic theology, which position he 
 retained until his death. He wrote a Com¬ 
 mentary on the Gospels , Acts , and Romans , 
 in 6 vols.; Commentary on the Ritual of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church , South; Way of 
 Salvation , and many other works on doc¬ 
 trinal and practical subjects. 
 
 Sun. “ The worship of the sun was the 
 earliest form of idolatry (Job xxxi. 26, 27); 
 Ra was the sun-god in Egypt; On was the 
 city of the sun-worship (Jer. xliii. 13), Heb. 
 Beth-shemesh, ‘ house of the sun,’ Gr. 
 Heliopolis, Joshua’s causing the sun to 
 
 stand still, phenomenally, virtually pro¬ 
 claimed his God, Jehovah, to be Lord of 
 the sun and all creation, in the face of 
 heathendom. The valley of Ajalon is still 
 called wady el Mikteleh , ‘ the valley of 
 slaughter.’ The Phoenician Baal, the Am¬ 
 monite Moloch and Milcom, the Syrian 
 Hadad, latterly the Persian Mithras (Zoro¬ 
 aster previously had reformed the wor¬ 
 ship). The sun-images were called in He¬ 
 brew chammanii?i (Lev. xxvi. 30; marg.; 
 2 Chron. xiv. 5; xxxiv. 4), stone statues to 
 solar Baal or Baal-Haman in Carthaginian 
 inscriptions. The temple at Baalbec was 
 dedicated to the worship of the sun. Ma- 
 nasseh introduced direct sun-worship. (2 
 Kings xxi. 3, 5.) Josiah destroyed by fire 
 (the very element which was worshipped) 
 the chariots, and removed the horses con¬ 
 secrated to the sun (xxiii. 5, 11, 12). The 
 housetop was the place of sun-altars and 
 incense-burning. (Zeph. i. 5.) Worship was 
 directed to the rising sun (Ezek. viii. 16, 
 17); they used to hold a bunch of tamarisk 
 branches ( barsorn ) to their nose at daybreak, 
 whilst singing hymns to the rising sun. 
 (Strabo , i. 15, § 733.) The horses sacred 
 to the sun, and used in processions to meet 
 the rising sun, were kept at the entering-in 
 of the house of Jehovah in the portico (as 
 Gesenius explains parvarim in 2 Kings 
 xxiii. 11, not ‘suburbs’) at the western 
 side of the outer temple court. An insult 
 to the only true God, in his own house ! 
 
 “ Spiritually , God’s law is the sun. (Psa. 
 xix. 7.) He is a Sun to cheer; and ‘the 
 Sun of righteousness,’ from whom we re¬ 
 ceive all righteousness by imputation for 
 justification, and by impartation for sancti¬ 
 fication. (Mai. iv. 2; Rev. i. 16.)”—Fausset: 
 Bible Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Sun'day “ is of heathen origin (like our 
 designation of the other days of the week), 
 and means ‘ the day of the sun,’ or ‘ sacred 
 to the god of the sun.’ It does not occur 
 in the Bible, but is now in common use for 
 the first day of the week, which has taken 
 the place of the Jewish Sabbath, and 
 should properly be called the Lord’s Day 
 (Rev. i. 10), as the day of the resurrection 
 of Christ.”—Schaff: Bible Did. See Lord’s 
 Day and Sabbath. 
 
 Sunday Laws in the United States. 
 The best Sabbath laws of the various 
 States may be concisely epitomized as fol¬ 
 lows: Sunday being set apart, by general 
 consent, as a day of rest and worship, the 
 law forbids labor from midnight on Satur¬ 
 day to midnight on Sunday, except of neces¬ 
 sity and mercy, and except private work 
 by Saturday keepers; opening of business 
 places, except for milk and medicines; 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 881 ) 
 
 Sun 
 
 making contracts ( dies non for all commer¬ 
 cial paper); opening of rooms where liq¬ 
 uors are commonly sold, or hiding inte¬ 
 riors of such by screens; amusements for 
 gain, or noisy, or public; admittance fees 
 anywhere; street processions passing 
 churches with music; all court service ex¬ 
 cept criminal arrests and to prevent fraud 
 (dies non for court purposes); penalty, fine 
 and imprisonment after first offense. 
 
 The General Government has several 
 Sunday laws, enough to serve as precedent 
 for more adequate ones. The Constitution 
 in the First Article, seventh section, gives 
 the President “ten days (Sundays except¬ 
 ed)” to work upon bills sent to him by Con¬ 
 gress. The petitions, endorsed by individ¬ 
 uals and organizations representing the 
 churches and labor organizations generally, 
 that ask Congress for a “ Sunday-Rest 
 Law,” for the District of Columbia and 
 the Territories for Government employes, 
 and for those engaged in interstate com¬ 
 merce, are only a request that that acorn 
 (“Sundays excepted”) shall be allowed 
 to grow into its legitimate result, the wide- 
 spreading oak of a Sunday-Rest Law, un¬ 
 der which all who are under the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the General Government may, with 
 the President, enjoy their rightful day of 
 rest. 
 
 Sunday laws are not “ religious legisla¬ 
 tion ” because they come from the Bible, 
 any more than the laws against adultery, 
 which are as distinctly a part of biblical 
 morality in distinction from heathen mo¬ 
 rality, as Sabbath laws. Both the Bible and 
 the codes of the most advanced govern¬ 
 ments forbid murder, theft, adultery, false 
 witness, and work on the Sabbath. Religion 
 renders to God the things that are God’s 
 by forbidding these things chiefly as sins 
 against God. Government renders to Cae¬ 
 sar the things that are Caesar’s by forbid¬ 
 ding them as crimes against man. From a 
 labor standpoint a Sunday law is only a 
 six-day law , forbidding work for more than 
 six days of the week, as the ten-hour law 
 forbids work for more than ten hours of 
 the day. 
 
 Sabbath laws are constitutional. The Su¬ 
 preme Courts of the twenty-five States in 
 which the matter has been tested have so 
 declared. This is one of the rare instanc¬ 
 es in which the final decisions in all the 
 highest courts are all on one side. One of 
 these decisions, that of Judge Thurman, of 
 Ohio, was, in part, as follows: 
 
 “ We have no union of Church and State, 
 nor has our Government ever been vested 
 with authority to enforce any religious ob¬ 
 servance simply because it is religious. 
 Of course, it is no objection, but, on the 
 contrary, is a high recommendation, to a 
 
 legislative enactment, based on justice or 
 public policy, that it is found to coincide 
 with the precepts of a pure religion; but the 
 fact is, nevertheless, true that the power to 
 make the law rests in the legislative con¬ 
 trol over things temporal, and not over 
 things spiritual. Thus the statute upon 
 which the defendant relies, prohibiting 
 common labor on the Sabbath, could not 
 stand for a moment as a law of this State, 
 if its sole foundation was the Christian 
 duty of keeping that day holy and its sole 
 motive to enforce the observance of that 
 day.” Wilbur F. Crafts. 
 
 Sunday-Schools. The Sunday-school is 
 for religious instruction and worship. Its 
 text-book is the Bible; its time of meeting 
 is on Sunday; its membership comprises 
 old and young. The school method im¬ 
 plies: (i) division into classes, taught by 
 separate teachers; (2) instruction by ques¬ 
 tion and answer. 
 
 History. —Though modern in form, the 
 Sunday-school is old in fact. The Mosaic 
 law enjoined the instruction of the children. 
 (Deut. vi. 7; xi. 19.) In Samuel’s time, 
 and later, there were schools of the proph¬ 
 ets. After the captivity, schools were at¬ 
 tached to the Jewish synagogues. The 
 early Christian Church had schools for 
 catechumens. 
 
 After the Reformation. —With the Refor¬ 
 mation came a revival of Bible study. 
 Special care was given to the instruction 
 of the young. Luther published a cate¬ 
 chism in 1529. Calvin, Knox, Spener, 
 Zinzendorf and others fostered instruction 
 in the Scriptures. The nearest resemblance 
 to the modern Sunday-school was the sys¬ 
 tem adopted by Cardinal Borromeo. As 
 Archbishop of Milan he caused the children 
 to assemble in the cathedral to be taught 
 on Sunday afternoons. He died in 1584, 
 but his method long endured; and, indeed, 
 it is substantially that of many Roman 
 Catholic Churches at the present day. 
 The creed, Lord’s Prayer, Ten Command¬ 
 ments, Church festivals, etc., are explain¬ 
 ed; but the Scriptures are not taught. 
 
 Scattered Su7iday-schools. —Godly men in¬ 
 structed the young, using the school 
 method in scattered localities. Joseph Al- 
 leine (died 1668), in Bath, England, gather¬ 
 ed sixty or seventy children. In 1693 
 Bishop Frampton catechised children, and 
 explained his sermons. In 1763 Rev. 
 Theophilus Lindsey did the same. In 1765, 
 Miss Harrison, at Bedale taught in a small 
 back kitchen. Among other pioneers were 
 Hannah Ball, in 1769, James Heys, in 1775, 
 and Rev. David Simpson, in 1778. In the 
 United States, at Roxbury, 1674, and at 
 Plymouth, Mass., as early as 1680, the 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 882 ) 
 
 Sun 
 
 deacons were asked to assist the pastor in 
 the instruction of the children, between the 
 Sabbath sermons. In 1737, John Wesley- 
 instituted a Sunday-school at Savannah, 
 Ga., which was continued by Charles Wes¬ 
 ley and Rev. Geo. Whitefield. In 1739-40 
 Ludwig Hocker, at Ephrata, Pa., began a 
 Bible school, which was continued over 
 thirty years. In 1740 Dr. Joseph Bellamy 
 began a school in the Congregational 
 Church, which still exists. Many other 
 scattered examples have been accumulated, 
 but there was no real system of Sunday- 
 schools until 1780. 
 
 The Work of Robert Raikes. —Robert 
 Raikes is entitled to the honor of inaugu¬ 
 rating the Sunday-school era. He was born 
 in Gloucester, Eng., Sept. 14, 1736, and 
 succeeded his father as proprietor of The 
 Gloucester Journal. A business errand in 
 a neglected part of the city revealed to him 
 the terrible condition of the children. In 
 1780 he hired four women to teach the boys 
 and girls from six to fourteen years old, 
 on Sunday afternoons, paying them a shil¬ 
 ling a day. In a few weeks 300 children 
 were collected. A clergyman, Rev. Mr. 
 Stock, lent his aid in religious instruction. 
 Such a work then had scant recognition in 
 the newspapers, and it was not until 1783 
 that Raikes published an account of the 
 work in his own paper. The Gentleman's 
 Magazine gave the facts currency among 
 the upper classes. The Queen of England 
 granted Raikes an interview, and the Em¬ 
 press of Russia sent him her portrait. The 
 Raikes Semi - Centennial was celebrated 
 Sept. 4, 1831, the poet Montgomery writ¬ 
 ing two hymns for the occasion. The Cen¬ 
 tenary celebration in London in 1880, gath¬ 
 ered delegates from every Christian land. 
 
 Two Features of the Raikes System .— 
 There were two features of the Raikes 
 system which seem strange in our times: 
 (1) the children were given secular instruc¬ 
 tion; (2) the teachers were paid for their 
 services. Before the public-school system, 
 poor children had no other place to learn 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic. And 
 secular instruction continued within the 
 memory of those now living. Its necessity 
 ceased when the State took charge of pub¬ 
 lic education. The idea that Sunday- 
 schools are for the poorer classes and for 
 mission districts still has too much hold 
 in England; but in America the presidents 
 of the United States, cabinet officers, gov¬ 
 ernors of States, senators, judges, college 
 professors, and representatives of the high¬ 
 est official and social positions have felt 
 honored to bear the name of Sunday-school 
 teachers. The pay of teachers was from 
 one to two shillings a Sunday. The Sunday- 
 School Society expended ^500 in a single 
 
 year for teachers’ salaries, and ^4,383 in 
 twenty-four years. The Oldham Metho¬ 
 dists said, “ Let us do it ourselves,” and, 
 after 1811, Sunday-school teachers ceased 
 to receive pecuniary reward. The services 
 now rendered freely by voluntary teachers 
 could not be hired for many millions of 
 dollars. 
 
 Early Sunday-schools after Raikes. —After 
 Raikes, the Sunday-school idea made rapid 
 progress, although many clergymen op¬ 
 posed it. Rowland Hill organized the first 
 school in London at Surrey Chapel in 1784. 
 It was instructed by paid teachers for 
 twenty years. Hannah More with her sis¬ 
 ters, in Oct., 1789, began a school in a 
 parish where she saw but one Bible, and 
 that was used to prop up a flower-pot. In 
 1785, Bishop Asbury planted a Sunday- 
 school in Virginia. Others followed so 
 fast that only a few can be recorded: Paw¬ 
 tucket, R. I., 1797; New York City, under 
 Mrs. Isabella Graham and her daughter, 
 Mrs. Bethune, 1803; Bath, N. H., in 1807, 
 where the Scriptures and poetry were 
 recited ; Pittsburg, Pa., in the Court¬ 
 house, 1807; Beverly, Mass., 1810; Boston, 
 1812; Newburyport, 1814; Newark, N. J., 
 for colored children, 1815. We find it re¬ 
 corded of several of these that they were 
 “ the first Sunday-schools,” but wider re¬ 
 searches demolish the claims. 
 
 Sunday - school Societies. In Great 
 Britain. — A London merchant, William 
 Fox, corresponded with Raikes, and The 
 Society for Promoting Sunday-Schools 
 throughout the British Dominions was 
 organized, Sept. 7, 1785. Its chief object 
 was to supply Bibles, Testaments, class- 
 books, and spelling-books; and to pay 
 teachers a shilling or two a week. The 
 society existed until 1864; then its balance 
 was transferred to the Sunday-School 
 Union, London, which was organized July 
 13, 1803, and still continues its career of 
 usefulness. Associated with it are more 
 than 200 Sunday-School Unions and 6,000 
 Sunday-schools. It has a system of exam¬ 
 inations, at which 17,670 teachers present¬ 
 ed themselves in 20 years, and 30,000 
 scholars in 1889. Weekly meetings are 
 maintained for the study of the Sunday- 
 school lessons. “ Baptists, Congregation- 
 alists, Presbyterians and others have no 
 difficulty in working together,” says Foun¬ 
 tain J. Hartley. The Church of England 
 Sunday-School Institute, organized in 1S43, 
 does not use the international lessons, nor 
 take part in the great world’s conventions. 
 In 1874 the Primitive Methodists formed a 
 Sunday-School Union, followed by the Wes- 
 leyans in 1875. The Unitarians also have 
 a Sunday-school society in England. A 
 society was formed in Dublin in 1809. 
 
Sun 
 
 (883) 
 
 Sun 
 
 In America .—The First-Day, or Sunday- 
 School Society was organized at Philadel¬ 
 phia, Jan. 11, 1791. It still maintains its 
 existence, and now claims to be “ the old¬ 
 est Sunday-school Society in the world.” 
 Bishop White was the first president. 
 Men of various denominations united. It 
 paid Sunday-school teachers, after the man¬ 
 ner of the early Raikes schools in England. 
 Funds are now used for making grants of 
 lesson helps and Christian literature to 
 needy schools in Philadelphia. The New 
 York Female Union Society was founded 
 in New York by Mrs. Bethune, Feb. 26, 
 1816, and a society of men for the same 
 purpose a few months later. The same 
 year came into being the Boston Society 
 for the Moral and Religious Instruction 
 of the Poor, which in 1817 had Sunday- 
 schools under its care. The Philadel¬ 
 phia Sunday - School and Adult Union 
 was organized, May 26, 1817. After 
 
 seven years it was merged, May 25, 1824, 
 in the American Sunday-School Union, 
 whose object was and is “ to endeavor to 
 plant a Sunday-school wherever there is a 
 population.” In the prosecution of this 
 purpose the Society has planted an aver¬ 
 age of three and a half new Sunday-schools 
 every day for 66 years. Its last statement 
 for the year ending March 1, 1890, showed, 
 as the result of its work from the begin¬ 
 ning, 85,896 Sunday-schools organized, 
 containing 581,201 teachers, and 3,554,948 
 scholars. Aid was also extended to 148,- 
 804 other schools, with a membership of 
 9,414,469, making the total number bene¬ 
 fited by this Society, 12,969,417. During 
 the last year 1,685 new schools were organ¬ 
 ized in 31 States and Territories, while 
 6,313 other schools were aided. The 
 churches organized from Union schools 
 numbered one hundred; 4,852 conversions 
 were reported. Christian literature to the 
 amount of 58,000 volumes was distributed 
 through other agencies, besides that circu¬ 
 lated by missionaries. The value of pub¬ 
 lications distributed in its history has been 
 over |8,ooo,ooo. 
 
 The Baptist General Tract Society, or¬ 
 ganized at Washington, D. C., in 1824, 
 grew into the American Baptist Publica¬ 
 tion Society, located at Philadelphia. The 
 Massachusetts Sabbath-School Union was 
 organized May 24, 1825, and was auxiliary 
 to the American Sunday-School Union until 
 1839. It is now the Congregational Sun¬ 
 day-School and Publishing Society of Bos¬ 
 ton. The Sunday-School Union of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church was formed 
 in 1840, remodeled in 1844, and its first re¬ 
 port in pamphlet form issued in 1845. Its 
 headquarters are in New York. 
 
 The Presbyterian Board of Publication, 
 
 at Philadelphia, also conducts the Sunday- 
 school work of that Church. Other de¬ 
 nominations have their societies, which 
 combine the publication of Christian liter¬ 
 ature and Sunday-school helps with more 
 or less of missionary activity in gathering 
 the neglected. That more than ten millions 
 of youth in the United States are without 
 any regular religious instruction, shows 
 that the efforts of union and denominational 
 organizations combined are not adequate 
 to the needs of the times. 
 
 Organization and Methods .—There are 
 church-schools and mission-schools. The 
 Sunday-school, at first, was received with 
 little favor by church officers, since it was 
 regarded as encroaching upon the prerog¬ 
 atives of the clergy, who are the proper 
 leaders in religious instruction. Hence 
 the early schools were independent of 
 church authority, even where no antago¬ 
 nism was shown. But the Sunday-school is 
 now a recognized department of church 
 work in most religious bodies, and is put 
 under the control of the regular church 
 officers, either by church law or custom. 
 There are, however, many exceptions. 
 The mission-school may be in a frontier 
 district, or in a neglected part of a city or 
 town. It may be planted by members of a 
 neighboring church, or by missionaries of 
 the great Sunday-school societies. These 
 mission-schools often develop into church¬ 
 es. Some of the most flourishing had such 
 an origin. 
 
 The officers usually are a superintendent 
 and assistants, a secretary, treasurer, libra¬ 
 rian, and music leader. Women frequently 
 act as superintendents in the new regions, 
 where men will not serve. Teachers are 
 male and female, and of all ages and grades. 
 Some of the best educated, and those high¬ 
 est in social and official life freely give 
 their services. 
 
 Time of Meeting .—The large majority of 
 English schools have two sessions—morn¬ 
 ing and afternoon, but the afternoon attend¬ 
 ance is nearly double that of the morning. 
 In America the double session was once 
 common, but is now infrequent. In the 
 large cities the most usual time is on Sun¬ 
 day afternoon, though many adopt the 
 hour before the morning church service, 
 especially during the summer. Formerly, 
 in New England and in some parts of the 
 West, the Sunday-schools were held at 
 noon, following the morning service. These 
 were called “ hungry Sunday-schools,” 
 but the hunger indicated was rather for 
 dinner than for spiritual food. In Scotland, 
 schools are sometimes held from six to 
 eight o’clock in the evening. The usual 
 time occupied by a session is about an hour 
 and a half. 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 884) 
 
 Sun 
 
 Departments of a Sunday-school. —In the 
 smaller schools all meet in one room, but 
 the tendency is to more or less division. 
 First, the infant-class is put in a separate 
 room: others follow. A fully organized 
 school needs not less than seven depart¬ 
 ments: (1) The Infant-class (since mere 
 babies are sent, and will disturb the others). 
 (2) The Primary Department (scholars 
 from five to eight years old). (3) The In¬ 
 termediate Department (scholars from nine 
 to twelve). (4) The Main School (scholars 
 from thirteen to twenty). (5) The Bible- 
 class Department (scholars from twenty to 
 ninety years old). (6) The Normal Depart¬ 
 ment for training teachers. (7) The Vis¬ 
 itors’ Department. This last is peculiarly 
 desirable, and yet is seldom provided. 
 People will not visit Sunday-schools if no 
 place is provided for them. 
 
 Sunday-school Buildings. —The new-born 
 school must meet where it can. A tree, 
 arbor, kitchen, barn, canal-boat, freight- 
 car, railroad depot, factory, bar-room, 
 school-house, hall—all have been utilized. 
 The main audience room of a church is a 
 frequent meeting-place, putting the infant- 
 class and Bible-classes in galleries. Build¬ 
 ings are sometimes devoted entirely to 
 Sunday-school purposes. Some of the best 
 cost as much as a hundred thousand dol¬ 
 lars. These provide rooms for the super¬ 
 intendent and librarian, a teacher’s parlor, 
 kitchen, dressing-rooms, and accommodate 
 the before-mentioned six or seven depart¬ 
 ments. The model Sunday-school building 
 has not yet been erected, but it is on the 
 way. There must be a uniting of two op¬ 
 posite things not easily secured: (1) a bring¬ 
 ing together of all the departments for wor¬ 
 ship; (2) separation for the purpose of 
 instruction by departments and classes. 
 
 Sunday-school Music. —The old church 
 tunes, few and not cheerful, were the stock 
 of the first Sunday-schools, and the leader 
 fixed the key by the “ tuning-fork; ” but 
 now the brightest of hymn-writers and the 
 most gifted of composers lend their aid to 
 the children’s songs. The old melodeon 
 was followed by the organ or piano, and 
 not unfrequently quite an orchestra of 
 musical instruments is employed. 
 
 Sunday-school Lessons. —The Bible is the 
 text-book. Catechisms, which were once 
 foremost, do not supplant the Scriptures. 
 Memorizing portions of Scripture was an 
 early method, from ten to twenty verses 
 constituting a lesson. There was no uni¬ 
 formity. In the same school one class 
 might be studying Genesis and another the 
 Revelation. The London Sunday-School 
 Union, in 1842, published a select list of 
 Scripture lessons for Sunday-schools. In 
 1825 the American Sunday-School Union 
 
 published a card containing questions fora 
 year. Later the Union Question Books were 
 issued, and millions of copies were sold. 
 
 The International Lessons. —In 1872 a 
 trial series of uniform lessons was begun. 
 At the Indianapolis Convention a commit¬ 
 tee was appointed to prepare ,a series of 
 lessons which were to cover the whole 
 Bible in seven years. That system, begin¬ 
 ning in 1873, has been continued. It is 
 used extensively in the United States, 
 Canada, Great Britain, and in Europe and 
 many mission lands. Among its many 
 advantages is the fact that the Sunday- 
 school traveler may be ready for his Sun¬ 
 day-school lesson anywhere. 
 
 Lesson Helps. —The question books be¬ 
 fore noted have been very generally dis¬ 
 placed by helps upon the current Interna¬ 
 tional Lessons. These, in the form of 
 weekly papers, monthly magazines, quar¬ 
 terlies, lesson leaves, etc., are scattered by 
 the millions. Many papers not distinct¬ 
 ively religious give notes upon the cur¬ 
 rent lessons. Thus the infant-scholar may 
 learn facts illustrating the Scriptures,which 
 were unknown to doctors of divinity half a 
 century ago. 
 
 Teachers' Meetings. —These meetings are 
 held regularly in connection with many 
 schools,in church parlors or private houses, 
 conducted by pastor, superintendent or 
 teachers in turn. Everybody praises such 
 meetings but says they are not easily sus¬ 
 tained. In England “ teachers’ prepara¬ 
 tion classes ” were begun forty years ago. 
 In the larger cities and towns of America 
 union meetings for the exposition of the 
 lessons are held at some central point, fre¬ 
 quently the rooms of the Y. M. C. A. In 
 New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Brook¬ 
 lyn, Boston and other cities, such meet¬ 
 ings have awakened much enthusiasm and 
 been widely useful. 
 
 Methods of Discipline. —A teacher of half 
 a century ago said that there were times 
 in Sunday-school when “ nothing was so 
 useful as the rattan.” That day has gone 
 by. Flogging in Sunday-schools is now 
 exceedingly rare. Expulsion is the last 
 resort. Hon. John Wanamaker declared 
 that he never expelled a scholar from his 
 Sunday-school (the Bethany at Philadel¬ 
 phia) though it was probably the foremost 
 school in America. The general tone of 
 order in Sunday-schools has greatly im¬ 
 proved. Street boys who were veritable 
 “ terrors ’’soon become tractable. Rewards 
 rather than punishments are adopted. 
 Christmas festivals, summer excursions, 
 anniversaries and Children’s-Day services 
 (on the second Sabbath in June) are glad 
 days for the little folks and those who love 
 them. 
 
4 
 
 Sun (885 ) Sun 
 
 Sunday-school Libraries. —Within the mem¬ 
 ory of living men the religious books for 
 children could be counted upon the fin¬ 
 gers. The most noteworthy were Pilgrim's 
 Progress and Hannah Morts Moral Tales. 
 The first book for children, published by 
 the Philadelphia Sunday-School and Adult 
 Union, was Little Henry and His Bearer. 
 Soon the number increased to forty books, 
 and, later, five hundred juvenile books were 
 issued in a single year. Of course, many 
 of those were not religious. The books 
 now available for children cover every 
 field of their thought, in story, biography, 
 travel, history and Bible study. There is 
 no longer need for children to read trash 
 because nothing else exists to satisfy their 
 appetites. 
 
 Sunday-school Conventions , etc. — These 
 
 have been very helpful in arousing enthu¬ 
 siasm, and imparting knowledge of meth¬ 
 ods. They have been sometimes mass- 
 meetings and sometimes representative 
 gatherings. Efforts have been made to 
 carry them into every county and almost 
 every town. The Sunday-School Institute 
 was more devoted to instruction, having 
 normal classes, and lectures by specialists. 
 The Summer Assemblies are an expansion 
 of the institute idea. Chautauqua was a 
 pioneer, and now such assemblies are 
 found by the score. Extensive courses of 
 study are provided, and one may learn a 
 little of everything, though he is not likely 
 to learn everything of something. 
 
 National and International Gatherings in 
 America. —The first National Sunday- 
 School Convention met in New York City, 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL STATISTICS OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 Compiled for the World's Sunday-School Convention, London , yuly, i88g. 
 
 
 Sunday- 
 
 schools. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 Total 
 
 Membership 
 
 Europe. 
 
 
 
 
 
 England and Wales... 
 
 35 * 9^3 
 
 616,941 
 
 5 . 733,325 
 
 6,350,266 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 5*648 
 
 59.213 
 
 651,975 
 
 711,188 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 3 * 3 i 3 
 
 28,132 
 
 310,099 
 
 338,231 
 
 Total United Kingdom. 
 
 44*944 
 
 704,286 
 
 6 , 695,399 
 
 7,399,685 
 
 Austria... 
 
 140 
 
 312 
 
 4 , 5 i 9 
 
 4,83t 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 62 
 
 186 
 
 2,356 
 
 2,542 
 
 Denmark... 
 
 300 
 
 2,000 
 
 35 ,ooo 
 
 37,000 
 
 Finland. 
 
 120 
 
 800 
 
 8,000 
 
 8,800 
 
 France..... 
 
 1,200 
 
 3,110 
 
 50,000 
 
 53 * 1*0 
 
 Germany... 
 
 3.231 
 
 20,240 
 
 410,981 
 
 431,221 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1.471 
 
 5,676 
 
 152,000 
 
 157,676 
 
 
 200 
 
 850 
 
 12,560 
 
 13,4*0 
 
 Norway. 
 
 250 
 
 2,190 
 
 25,000 
 
 27,190 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 30 
 
 IOO 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,100 
 
 Russia. 
 
 23 
 
 438 
 
 6,007 
 
 6,445 
 
 
 IOO 
 
 400 
 
 8,000 
 
 8,400 
 
 Sweden... 
 
 3.350 
 
 15,355 
 
 222,727 
 
 238,082 
 
 Switzerland... 
 
 1,162 
 
 5,459 
 
 84,000 
 
 89.459 
 
 Asia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 105 
 
 1,053 
 
 5,264 
 
 6 , 3*7 
 
 India (including Burmah and Ceylon). 
 
 2.757 
 
 5,744 
 
 110,270 
 
 116,014 
 
 
 150 
 
 39 ° 
 
 7,019 
 
 7,409 
 
 Persia... 
 
 107 
 
 440 
 
 4,876 
 
 5 , 3*6 
 
 Central Turkey. 
 
 60 
 
 600 
 
 7,000 
 
 7,600 
 
 Africa. . 
 
 4.246 
 
 8,455 
 
 161,394 
 
 169,849 
 
 North America. 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 101,824 
 
 1,100,104 
 
 8,345,431 
 
 9 * 445,535 
 
 Canada. 
 
 6,636 
 
 55,050 
 
 467,292 
 
 522,342 
 
 Newfoundland and Labrador. 
 
 314 
 
 2,162 
 
 22,817 
 
 24,979 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 2,185 
 
 9.673 
 
 110,233 
 
 119,906 
 
 Central America and Mexico. 
 
 550 
 
 1,300 
 
 15,000 
 
 16,300 
 
 South America . 
 
 35 ° 
 
 3,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 153,000 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 4.719 
 
 35,295 
 
 422,434 
 
 457,729 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 890 
 
 9,988 
 
 99,884 
 
 109,872 
 
 Fiji Islands. 
 
 L 474 
 
 2,700 
 
 42,909 
 
 45,609 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 230 
 
 1,413 
 
 *5.840 
 
 * 7,253 
 
 Other Islands... 
 
 210 
 
 800 
 
 10,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 Total the World. 
 
 183,390 
 
 1,999,569 
 
 17,716,212 
 
 19 . 7 * 5 , 78 * 
 
Sun 
 
 ( 886 ) 
 
 Sun 
 
 ♦ 
 
 
 in 1832; the second at Philadelphia, in 
 1833; the third at Philadelphia, in 1859; 
 the fourth at Newark, N. J., in 1869; the 
 fifth at Indianapolis, in 1872, where the 
 International System of Lessons was adopt¬ 
 ed. Then came the first International Con¬ 
 vention (the Sixth National) at Baltimore, 
 in 1875; the second in Atlanta, in 1878; the 
 third at Toronto, in 1881; the fourth at 
 Louisville, in 1S84; the fifth at Chicago, in 
 1887; and the sixth at Pittsburg, in 1890. 
 
 In England .—The noteworthy meetings 
 have been: the Raikes’ Semi-Centenary, in 
 1831 (though Raikes began his work in 
 1780); the General Sunday-school Conven¬ 
 tion, in 1862 (at which seven delegates 
 were present from the United States, and 
 one from Canada); the Raikes’ Centenary, 
 in 18S0; and the World’s Sunday-School 
 Convention, in 1889, at which hundreds of 
 Americans were present. It is proposed 
 to hold a World’s Sunday-school Conven¬ 
 tion in the United States, in 1893, which 
 
 will synchronize with the meeting of the 
 International Convention, and the celebra¬ 
 tion of the discovery of America. 
 
 Sunday-schools in Foreign Lands .—Great 
 Britain and America are the homes of Sun¬ 
 day-schools. From those countries an in¬ 
 fluence has gone out to other lands. The 
 London Sunday-School Union has its con¬ 
 tinental work. The Foreign Sunday-School 
 Union of America carries on correspond¬ 
 ence in six or eight languages. In Ger¬ 
 many an early Sunday-school was at Ham¬ 
 burg, 1824. One in Berlin contains 1,300 
 scholars, and one in Berne, 800. In Hol¬ 
 land the first Sunday-school was in 1836, 
 when a converted Jew taught a boy and girl 
 in his own house. A Dutch Sunday-school 
 Union was organized in 1866. In France a 
 society for encouraging Sunday-schools 
 was organized in 1826, and there was a 
 Protestant Sunday-school in Paris the 
 year previous. The French Sunday-School 
 Union, founded by Paul Cook, held its first 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL STATISTICS IN CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Containing 100,000 Population and Over. 
 
 Cities. 
 
 Sunday- 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 and 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Membership. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Population . 
 
 Percent¬ 
 age of 
 Population 
 in S. S. 
 
 1. * Albany. 
 
 67 
 
 1,284 
 
 16,408 
 
 17,692 
 
 103,000 
 
 1 7 
 
 2. * Allegheny. 
 
 5 i 
 
 1,492 
 
 1 5, 2 54 
 
 16,746 
 
 120,000 
 
 14 
 
 3. * Baltimore. 
 
 338 
 
 7 . 9 6 5 
 
 75,772 
 
 83,837 
 
 500,000 
 
 16J 
 
 4. t Boston. 
 
 131 
 
 3 . 5 i 4 
 
 3 i ,475 
 
 34,989 
 
 416,226 
 
 9§ 
 
 5. * Brooklyn . 
 
 273 
 
 10,398 
 
 94,239 
 
 104,637 
 
 835,000 
 
 12* 
 
 6. * Buffalo . 
 
 147 
 
 3.653 
 
 36,315 
 
 39,968 
 
 265,000 
 
 15 
 
 7. * Chicago . 
 
 459 
 
 10,292 
 
 h 3,958 
 
 124,250 
 
 1,150,000 
 
 10 i 
 
 8. * Cincinnati . . 
 
 i 74 
 
 3,481 
 
 4 2 , 3 I 3 
 
 45.794 
 
 325,000 
 
 14 * 
 
 9. *• Cleveland. 
 
 IO7 
 
 3.109 
 
 30,043 
 
 33 , r 5 2 
 
 275,000 
 
 12 
 
 10. * Columbus . 
 
 55 
 
 1,250 
 
 12,000 
 
 13,250 
 
 100,000 
 
 j 3 £ 
 
 11. * Denver . 
 
 58 
 
 1,091 
 
 9,730 
 
 10,821 
 
 130,000 
 
 H 
 
 12. * Detroit. 
 
 125 
 
 2,625 
 
 21,250 
 
 23,975 
 
 235,000 
 
 10 
 
 13. * Indianapolis. 
 
 IOO 
 
 1,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 19,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 142 
 
 14. * Jersey City. 
 
 70 
 
 2,197 
 
 20,674 
 
 22,853 
 
 195,000 
 
 II* 
 
 15. * Kansas City. 
 
 80 
 
 1,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 8* 
 
 16. t Louisville. 
 
 137 
 
 2,031 
 
 19,442 
 
 2 i ,473 
 
 200,000 
 
 I2£ 
 
 17. t Milwaukee. 
 
 59 
 
 1,283 
 
 12,223 
 
 13,506 
 
 210,000 
 
 8 
 
 18. * Minneapolis. 
 
 J 59 
 
 2,772 
 
 40,327 
 
 43,099 
 
 225,000 
 
 19 
 
 19. * Newark. 
 
 94 
 
 2,970 
 
 25,365 
 
 28,335 
 
 175,000 
 
 ! 5 § 
 
 20. t New Orleans. 
 
 77 
 
 924 
 
 7,278 
 
 8,202 
 
 260,000 
 
 4 
 
 21. * New York. 
 
 600 
 
 15,000 
 
 172,000 
 
 187,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 10} 
 
 22. * Omaha. 
 
 58 
 
 1.357 
 
 14,042 
 
 ! 5,399 
 
 135,000 
 
 12 
 
 23. * Philadelphia. 
 
 616 
 
 16,937 
 
 178,865 
 
 195,802 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 154 
 
 24. * Pittsburg. 
 
 106 
 
 2,695 
 
 26,904 
 
 29,599 
 
 250,000 
 
 n* 
 
 25. * Providence. 
 
 150 
 
 2,715 
 
 22,285 
 
 25,000 
 
 132,000 
 
 19 
 
 26. * Rochester. 
 
 78 
 
 2,565 
 
 22,297 
 
 24,862 
 
 120,000 
 
 20j 
 
 27. t San Francisco. 
 
 75 
 
 1,247 
 
 11,316 
 
 12,563 
 
 335,000 
 
 54 
 
 28. * Scranton.. 
 
 56 
 
 1,072 
 
 11,380 
 
 12,452 
 
 100,000 
 
 12* 
 
 29. t St. Louis.. 
 
 229 
 
 3.337 
 
 36,694 
 
 40,031 
 
 500,000 
 
 IO 
 
 30. * St. Paul. 
 
 120 
 
 1,774 
 
 14,887 
 
 16,661 
 
 220,000 
 
 74 
 
 31. * Toledo. . 
 
 5 2 
 
 1,157 
 
 10,991 
 
 12,148 
 
 100,000 
 
 12 
 
 32. * Washington . 
 
 194 
 
 4,634 
 
 44,970 
 
 49.604 
 
 230,000 
 
 20f 
 
 Note. —The above statistics include Evangelical denominations only, excepting the city of Baltimore, which 
 includes Roman Catholic and other non-Evangelical denominations. 
 
 * Report presented to the Sixth International Convention, Pittsburg, Pa., June 24-27, 1890, including the per¬ 
 centage of population as given at that time. 
 
 t Report presented to th'e Fifth International Convention, Chicago, 111 ., June 1-3, 1887. 
 t Report presented to the Fourth International Convention, Louisville, Ky., June n-13, 1884. 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOL STATISTICS FOR THE UNITED STATES AND BRITISH AMERICAN 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Sixth International Conven:ion, Pittsburg, Pa., June 2 U- 27 , 1890 . 
 
 E. Payson Porter, Statistical Secretary, 195 Broadway, New York, U. S. A. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Sunday- 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Membership. 
 
 County Organization. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 and 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 Total. 
 
 No. of 
 Counties. 
 
 Organ¬ 
 
 ized. 
 
 Banner 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 3.573 
 
 22,340 
 
 193,825 
 
 216,165 
 
 66 
 
 3 ° 
 
 
 Alaska Territory. 
 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,152 
 
 . « 
 
 
 
 Arizona Territory. 
 
 32 
 
 222 
 
 1,369 
 
 i. 59 T 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 1,712 
 
 11,965 
 
 94.305 
 
 106,270 
 
 75 
 
 l6 
 
 
 California. 
 
 803 
 
 7,863 
 
 71,687 
 
 79,550 
 
 52 
 
 3 ° 
 
 
 Colorado.... 
 
 423 
 
 4,084 
 
 32,141 
 
 36,225 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 1,112 
 
 19,284 
 
 149,999 
 
 169,283 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Delaware. . 
 
 217 
 
 2 » 9 T 3 
 
 22,706 
 
 25,619 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 194 
 
 4,634 
 
 44.970 
 
 49,604 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Florida. 
 
 1,080 
 
 6,158 
 
 56,594 
 
 62,752 
 
 45 
 
 1 7 
 
 , # 
 
 Georgia... 
 
 6,748 
 
 55,338 
 
 298,498 
 
 353,836 
 
 i 37 
 
 58 
 
 3 
 
 Idaho Territory. 
 
 43 
 
 396 
 
 3,223 
 
 3,619 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 Illinois.- 
 
 6,908 
 
 77,213 
 
 583,756 
 
 659,969 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 24 
 
 Indian Territory. . 
 
 260 
 
 I >333 
 
 10,455 
 
 11,788 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 5.50 8 
 
 45.109 
 
 374 ,i 85 
 
 419,294 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 28 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 5. 112 
 
 43,295 
 
 319,128 
 
 362,423 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 15 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 3.544 
 
 32,132 
 
 214,422 
 
 246,554 
 
 106 
 
 86 
 
 3 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 2,647 
 
 31,606 
 
 225,801 
 
 257,407 
 
 Il6 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 522 
 
 4,131 
 
 32,617 
 
 36,748 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 
 Maine.... .. 
 
 1.336 
 
 11,625 
 
 92,875 
 
 104,500 
 
 l6 
 
 II 
 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 2,126 
 
 26,065 
 
 206,196 
 
 232,261 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 1,79° 
 
 33 , 9 2 3 
 
 237,593 
 
 271,516 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 3 . 5 oo 
 
 37,800 
 
 277,200 
 
 315,000 
 
 79 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 t. 564 
 
 15,014 
 
 133-784 
 
 148,798 
 
 80 
 
 61 
 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 1,614 
 
 11,767 
 
 84,677 
 
 96,444 
 
 74 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 3,955 
 
 37,284 
 
 280,922 
 
 318,206 
 
 114 
 
 9 ° 
 
 14 
 
 Montana. 
 
 122 
 
 745 
 
 5,883 
 
 6,628 
 
 13 
 
 • • 
 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 2 , 3 I 4 
 
 23,324 
 
 161,014 
 
 184,338 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 30 
 
 812 
 
 2,060 
 
 2,872 
 
 15 
 
 % % 
 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 5 i 9 
 
 6,640 
 
 49,335 
 
 55,975 
 
 IO 
 
 IO 
 
 I 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 2,000 
 
 33.709 
 
 247,648 
 
 281,357 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 
 45 
 
 225 
 
 i ,345 
 
 1,570 
 
 13 
 
 . • 
 
 # # 
 
 New York. 
 
 7,193 
 
 108,272 
 
 979,415 
 
 1,087,687 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 IO 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 4,273 
 
 32,172 
 
 255,013 
 
 287,185 
 
 96 
 
 72 
 
 2 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 500 
 
 2,760 
 
 20,240 
 
 23,000 
 
 53 
 
 19 
 
 . . 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 6,760 
 
 88,461 
 
 620,107 
 
 708,568 
 
 88 
 
 51 
 
 5 
 
 Oklahoma Territory. 
 
 45 
 
 360 
 
 2,340 
 
 2,700 
 
 , . 
 
 
 
 Oregon. . 
 
 290 
 
 2 , 53 i 
 
 20,749 
 
 23.280 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 , , 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 8,729 
 
 123,484 
 
 964>599 
 
 1,088,083 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 3 l6 
 
 5,178 
 
 49,422 
 
 54,600 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 1,667 
 
 13,054 
 
 103,315 
 
 116,369 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 I 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 860 
 
 6,300 
 
 40,700 
 
 47,000 
 
 78 
 
 30 
 
 . . 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 4,224 
 
 38,016 
 
 274,560 
 
 312,576 
 
 96 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 Texas. 
 
 3.097 
 
 23,161 
 
 190,625 
 
 213,786 
 
 172 
 
 80 
 
 I 
 
 Utah Territory. 
 
 93 
 
 554 
 
 6,741 
 
 7,295 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 • • 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 632 
 
 7 , 39 ° 
 
 53.809 
 
 61,199 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 • • 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 3,907 
 
 43.531 
 
 283,336 
 
 326,867 
 
 IOO 
 
 75 
 
 • , 
 
 Washington. 
 
 732 
 
 4,210 
 
 29,475 
 
 33,685 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 • . 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 1,888 
 
 19,212 
 
 120,811 
 
 140,023 
 
 54 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 1,610 
 
 15,211 
 
 114,869 
 
 130,080 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 
 Wyoming Territory. 
 
 69 
 
 332 
 
 2,816 
 
 3,148 
 
 5 
 
 •• 
 
 
 Totals for United States. 
 
 108,252 
 
 1,143,190 
 
 8,643,255 
 
 9,786,445 
 
 2,625 
 
 i ,557 
 
 I92 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 Quebec. .... 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 3,961 
 
 707 
 
 804 
 
 867 
 
 189 
 
 150 
 
 11 
 
 37,867 
 
 4,639 
 
 6,195 
 
 5,297 
 
 1,051 
 
 600 
 
 57 
 
 320,613 
 
 40,128 
 
 55,487 
 
 41,414 
 
 9,554 
 
 5,000 
 
 427 
 
 358,480 
 
 44.767 
 
 61,682 
 
 46,711 
 
 10,605 
 
 5,600 
 
 484 
 
 38 
 
 62 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Totals for Canada. 
 
 6,689 
 
 55,706 
 
 472,623 
 
 528,329 
 
 141 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 Newfoundland and Labrador. 
 
 3 i 4 
 
 2,162 
 
 22,817 
 
 24,979 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 Totals for United States and Brit¬ 
 ish American Provinces. 
 
 115,255 
 
 1,201.058 
 
 9 ,! 38,695 
 
 io, 33 o ,753 
 
 2 7 66 
 
 1,612 
 
 197 
 
 ( 887 ) 
 
Sup 
 
 ( 888 ) 
 
 Swe 
 
 public meeting in Paris, April, 1S53. In 
 1889 a hundred schools were reported in 
 Paris, and 1,200 in France. Russia is out¬ 
 side the current, but a report comes of the 
 founding of a Sunday-school at St. Peters¬ 
 burg. Special Sunday-school buildings 
 are rare on the continent; but good ones 
 exist in Berlin, Lausanne, Stockholm, 
 Berne and Utrecht. 
 
 In Mission Lands .—Sunday-schools are 
 associated with mission day-schools. India 
 has fifty million youths, of whom 110,000 
 are under Sunday-school instruction. A 
 Sunday-School Union was organized in 
 1876; and in 1890 Rev. Dr. J. L. Phillips 
 returned to India under appointment as 
 general secretary of Sunday-school work 
 for India. Other facts concerning the ex¬ 
 tent of the work throughout the world 
 may be learned from the statistical tables 
 accompanying this article. 
 
 Bibliography. —The literature of the Sun¬ 
 day-school is so voluminous, that there is 
 no space even to attempt a catalogue of 
 books useful for reference. Those who 
 desire an extended list of such works are 
 referred to pp. 381-392 of Dr. H. Clay 
 Trumbull’s Yale Lectures on the Sunday- 
 school. Moseley H. Williams. 
 
 Supererogation, Works of, in the Ro¬ 
 man Church, are good works done beyond 
 those which God absolutely requires for 
 eternal salvation. The merit of all such 
 works is gathered up, and may be given to 
 those who have not done enough. This 
 doctrine is defended by Matt. xix. 21, where 
 it is alleged our Lord distinguishes be¬ 
 tween works necessary to eternal life, and 
 works which make perfect. The Greek 
 Church rejects this doctrine, and it is not 
 mentioned in the Council of Trent, but is 
 held by all Romanists. See Indulgences. 
 
 Supralapsarianism, “a theory held by the 
 strictest Calvinists, according to which 
 God not only foresaw and permitted, but 
 actually decreed, the fall of man, and over¬ 
 ruled it for his redemption; it being sup¬ 
 posed that nothing could happen independ¬ 
 ently of the divine will. It is logically the 
 most consistent type of Calvinism, but 
 borders on fatalism and pantheism, and 
 hence was excluded from the Reformed 
 Confessions, all of which deny emphatically 
 that God is the author of evil.”—Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency. See Infralapsarianism; 
 SUBLAPSARIANISM. 
 
 Supranaturalism. See Rationalism. 
 
 Surplice (Latin superpelliceum , overgar¬ 
 ment), a loose white garment worn by the 
 Episcopal clergy while engaged in the ser¬ 
 
 vices of the Church. It is also worn dur¬ 
 ing the celebration of the Lord’s Supper 
 by clergymen of the Danish, Norwegian, 
 and Swedish Churches. The white gar¬ 
 ment is supposed to be the emblem of the 
 light and purity of the Gospel. 
 
 Susannah. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Sweden. Christianity was introduced 
 to this country by Ansgar, a monk of 
 Westphalia, about 830, but it was not until 
 1026 that it became the religion of the 
 state. Even at this time a very large part 
 of the population were pagans. The Ro¬ 
 man Catholic Church gained a very strcng 
 hold in Sweden, but after the great political 
 revolution of 1523 the Reformation made 
 rapid advance, and in a short time the whole 
 country became Lutheran. The relations 
 of the Church with the State are very close. 
 Unlike the Lutheran Church of Germany, 
 the government is Episcopal. They have 
 one archbishop and eleven bishops, but the 
 king is considered the head of the Church. 
 In late years, especially in the north of 
 Sweden, thousands have withdrawn from 
 the Established Church, and, while they 
 have no regular pastors, carry on religious 
 services as best they can. 
 
 % 
 
 Swedenborg. Emanuel Swedenborg, the 
 founder of the body of Christians called 
 after his name, was born at Stockholm, 
 1688; died in London, 1772. His father 
 was bishop of Skara, in West Gothland, 
 and much esteemed by Charles XII. 
 Emanuel was sent to the University of 
 Upsala, where he distinguished himself in 
 physics and mathematics. For some years 
 he held the office of Assessor of the Metal¬ 
 lic College, which he retained under 
 Charles’s successor, Ulrica Eleonora, who, 
 in recognition of his great talents, gave 
 him a patent of nobility in 1719. He 
 still spent much time at his favorite studies, 
 and in 1733 completed his Opera Philo- 
 sophica et Mineralia , in 3 vols. The first 
 volume treats of the elementary world, 
 and the two latter of the mineral kingdom. 
 His next work was Philosophy of the In¬ 
 finite. In 1745 he gave up secular pursuits 
 and his official duties, believing himself 
 called in a miraculous manner to a holy 
 office, which he thus himself describes:— 
 “ I have been called to a holy office by the 
 Lord himself, who most graciously mani¬ 
 fested himself before me, his servant, in 
 the year 1745, and then opened my sight 
 into the spiritual world, and gave me to 
 speak with spirits and angels, as I do even 
 to this day. From that time I began to 
 publish the many arcana which I have 
 either seen, or which have been revealed 
 
Swe 
 
 ( 8s 9 > 
 
 Swe 
 
 I 
 
 to me, concerning heaven and hell, con¬ 
 cerning the state of man after death, con¬ 
 cerning the true divine worship, and 
 concerning the spiritual sense of the Word, 
 besides other things of the highest im¬ 
 portance, conducive to salvation and wis¬ 
 dom.” He says he was permitted several 
 times to enter heaven, and describes the 
 abodes of bliss as “ arranged in streets and 
 squares like earthly cities, but with fields 
 and gardens interposed.” Of the angels 
 he writes: “ From all my experience, 
 which has now continued for several years, 
 I can say and affirm that angels, as to»their 
 form, are altogether men; ” and elsewhere 
 he affirms that they marry as mankind do. 
 He also gives an account of a Coicncil of 
 Angels: —“ There was shown to me a 
 magnificent palace, with a temple in its in¬ 
 most part, and in the midst of the temple 
 was a table of gold, on which lay the Word, 
 and two angels stood beside it. About the 
 table were three rows of seats; the seats 
 of the first row were covered with silk 
 damask of a purple color; the seats of the 
 second row with silk damask of a blue 
 color; and the seats of the third row with 
 white cloth. Below the roof, high above 
 the table, there was seen a spreading cur¬ 
 tain, which shone with precious stones, 
 from whose lustre there issued forth a 
 bright appearance as of a rainbow when 
 the firmament is clear and serene after a 
 shower. Then suddenly there appeared 
 a number of clergy sitting on the seats, 
 all clothed in the garments of their 
 sacerdotal office. On one side was a ward¬ 
 robe, where stood an angel who had the 
 care of it, and within lay splendid vest¬ 
 ments in beautiful order. It was a Council 
 convened by the Lord , and I heard a voice 
 from heaven saying, ‘ Deliberate;' but they 
 said, ‘ On what?' It was said, * Concern¬ 
 ing the Lord the Saviour , and concerning 
 the Holy Spirit.' But when they began to 
 think on these subjects they were without 
 illustration; wherefore they made supplica¬ 
 tion, and immediately light issued down 
 out of heaven, which first illuminated the 
 hinder part of their heads, and afterward 
 their temples, and last of all their faces; 
 and then they began their deliberations.” 
 
 Of Swedenborg’s capacity, knowledge, 
 and perfect honesty, there can be no doubt: 
 but his diary of the year 1744, which was 
 discovered so late as the year 1858 by Herr 
 Klemming, royal librarian at Stockholm, 
 leaves no doubt in the minds of ordinary 
 readers that in that year he suffered a de¬ 
 plorable mental derangement, from which 
 he never recovered. This may account for 
 his strange moral judgments; for Sweden¬ 
 borg classes David and St. Paul amongst 
 the lost, while Louis XIV. and George II. 
 
 are amongst the distinguished angels! It 
 is also noteworthy, that while he narrates 
 visits of angels from all the known planets, 
 there are none from Uranus and Neptune, 
 then undiscovered. 
 
 Swedenborg explained his peculiar views 
 in a work of eight vols., 4to., Arcana Cceles- 
 tia, in which he presses his doctrine of 
 Correspondences, a science which he says 
 had been lost since the time of Job till now 
 restored to him by a special revelation from 
 the Lord. He says that there are certain 
 links of harmony and correspondence exist¬ 
 ing between the natural and spiritual 
 worlds, so that matter and spirit are con¬ 
 nected by an eternal law, and wherever an 
 analogy exists, it must be a predetermined 
 “ correspondence.” By this test he tries 
 the authenticity of Scripture, and rejects as 
 uncanonical all those books in which he 
 fails to discern a spiritual sense. In the 
 Old Testament he only accepts twenty-nine 
 books, and rejects the whole of the New 
 Testament but the four Gospels and the 
 Apocalypse. When once the spiritual sense 
 of a word is ascertained by the spiritual 
 key, its application is uniform wherever it 
 may occur. Thus water is said to be the 
 representative of truth; blood , of divine 
 truth , etc. The writings of Swedenborg are 
 held by his followers to contain the true 
 exposition of Scripture as revealed to him 
 by a special illumination from the Lord. 
 
 Amongst his chief doctrines are that the 
 Last Judgment has already taken place (in 
 ^Syl.that the “ New Jerusalem ” has come 
 in the form of the “ New Church,” and 
 that the power and glory of Christ as 
 shown in this New Church is spiritually 
 his second coming. Of the Trinity he held 
 and expressed views resembling those of 
 Sabellius. He rejects the doctrine of justi¬ 
 fication by faith alone, and says, “ To fear 
 God and to work righteousness is to have 
 charity; and whoever has charity, what¬ 
 ever his religious sentiments may be, will 
 be saved.” The resurrection is to be that 
 of a spiritual body only, which will pass at 
 first into a state of purgatory, where the 
 good will be fitted for heaven, and the bad, 
 having rejected all truth, will be utterly 
 lost. His system is remarkable, further, for 
 the prominence and permanence which it 
 assigns to the relation of the sexes. 
 
 The last twenty-seven years of Sweden¬ 
 borg’s life were spent in writing and pub¬ 
 lishing his books, which were mostly 
 printed in Amsterdam. He does not seem 
 to have anticipated the immediate formation 
 of a separate Church,and therefore did not 
 dissever himself from the Lutherans. He 
 died in Great Bath Street, Colbath Fields, 
 on March 29, 1772, and was buried in the 
 Swedish Church in Ratcliffe Highway. 
 
Swi 
 
 ( 890 ) 
 
 Syn 
 
 For the history of the sect of Svveden- 
 borgians after their founder’s death see 
 New Jerusalem Church. —Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. See W. White: Swedenborg, 
 His Life and Writings (1856, Phila., 1866). 
 
 Swithin, St., bishop and patron saint of 
 Winchester; d. July 2, 862. Of noble birth, 
 he was educated at the Old Monastery in 
 Winchester, where he became dean. Eth- 
 elwolf, the son of Egbert, king of the 
 West Saxons, was educated under his care, 
 and when he succeeded his father he ap¬ 
 pointed his old teacher bishop of Winches¬ 
 ter. St. Swithin’s Day is July 15. There 
 is an old saying that “If it rains on St. 
 Swithin’s Day, there will be rain, more or 
 less, for forty succeeding days.” See But¬ 
 ler: Lives of the Saints. 
 
 Switzerland. Christianity was estab¬ 
 lished at Geneva in the middle of the third 
 century. It was not until after the sixth 
 century that it was everywhere received. 
 Previous to the sixteenth century the 
 churches had again and again asserted 
 their independence, in many ways, of the 
 papal power, but with the majority of the 
 people it still continues a controlling influ¬ 
 ence. For the period from 1519 till 1556 
 see Reformation. The conflict between 
 Protestants and Roman Catholics did not 
 terminate until after the second battle of 
 Vilmergen in 1712. With the opening of 
 the present century there was increased re¬ 
 ligious activity, but rationalistic views 
 found a welcome in many directions and 
 stayed the progress of evangelical truth. 
 In 1845 the Vaudese clergy left the Estab¬ 
 lished Church, and formed the Free Church 
 of the Vaud Canton. In 1847-48 the regu¬ 
 lation which forbade the establishment of 
 Reformed churches in the Roman Catholic 
 cantons and vice versa, was abrogated. Ac¬ 
 cording to the census of 1886 the popula¬ 
 tion of Switzerland was 2,846,102, of which 
 1,667,109 were Protestants (Reformed 
 Church),1, 160,782 Roman Catholics, 10,838 
 of minor Christian sects, and 7,373 Jews. 
 
 Syllabus, The Papal, a list of heresies 
 condemned by Pius IX. in 1864. They 
 number eighty, and are divided into ten 
 sections. They attack rationalism, pan¬ 
 theism, latitudinarianism, etc., and treat 
 of errors concerning the Church, society, 
 marriage, the power of the pope, etc. The 
 Syllabus claims to be infallible,and upholds 
 all the dogmas of the Roman Church. 
 
 Sylvester, the name of three popes: I. 
 314-335. II. 999-1003. III. The antipope 
 of Benedict IX. and Gregory VI.—was de¬ 
 posed, 1046. See Popes. 
 
 Symbol (Gr. symbolon, that which is 
 thrown together with) denotes a sign or 
 emblem. Originally it had reference to 
 the Apostles’ Creed as a confession or sign 
 distinguishing Christians from all others. 
 Luther and Melanchthon first applied the 
 words to Protestant creeds. Baptism and 
 the Lord’s Supper are now spoken of as 
 symbols, or visible signs, of an invisible 
 salvation. 
 
 Symphorosa, a Christian widow, whose 
 husband suffered martyrdom. She refused 
 to obey the command of the Emperor 
 Hadrian to sacrifice, and take part in the 
 pagan consecration of the imperial palace 
 at Tibur. With her seven sons she was 
 cruelly tortured and killed. They are com¬ 
 memorated July 18. 
 
 Synagogue, The Great, according to 
 tradition a council organized at the return 
 of the Jews from Babylon to arrange relig¬ 
 ious matters. 
 
 Synagogue (Gr. synagd, to assemble) is 
 the name of a Jewish place of worship. 
 Synagogues appear to have been unknown 
 previous to the Captivity. Until this time 
 the temple and the tabernacle had been 
 the only sacred buildings recognized by the 
 Jews. After the Captivity synagogues in¬ 
 creased rapidly, and at the time of the 
 Maccabees there were 480 in Jerusalem 
 alone. The services are simple, and consist 
 almost entirely in reading the Law, first in 
 Hebrew, and then translated by an inter¬ 
 preter. Forms of prayer in Hebrew are 
 also used. Services are generally held on 
 Monday evening, Friday evening, and 
 Saturday, and in some places on Thurs¬ 
 day. The interior of the Synagogue is 
 severely plain, with Scripture texts printed 
 on the whitewashed walls. The platform 
 is enclosed by a rail, and beyond it stands 
 the ark of the covenant, which contains 
 copies of the Law. The entire congrega¬ 
 tion sits so as to face the ark. Any male 
 member of the synagogue may read and 
 expound the Law. 
 
 Syncellus, a term having several signifi¬ 
 cations. (1) At first it was a name given 
 to any monk who shared a cell with another. 
 (2) The attendant of a bishop or abbot. (3) 
 An ecclesiastical dignitary. The highest 
 dignitaries in the Greek Church are called 
 Syncelli. 
 
 Syncretism, a word used to designate 
 the attempt to reconcile discordant views, 
 especially those relating to religion. The 
 word came into general use in Germany at 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
 
Syn 
 
 ( 891 ) 
 
 Syr 
 
 It is said to be derived from a saying 
 among the Cretians, that while disposed to 
 quarrel among themselves, they were to 
 unite in fighting a foreign foe. 
 
 Synergists (Gr. synergesis , cooperation), 
 a name given to some German divines of 
 the sixteenth century, who held that the 
 cooperation of man was needed in the 
 work of renovation, in addition to the grace 
 of God. This was first stated by Melanch- 
 thon in opposition to Luther, who in his 
 
 cius Illyricus, both of whom were profess¬ 
 ors at Jena. The discussion took place at 
 Weimar. The Duke of Saxony favored 
 Strigel, but the latter refused to sign a 
 paper drawn up by Flacius’s party, and 
 fled to Leipzig, refusing to return to Jena 
 in spite of all overtures of friendship. 
 Three disciples of Melanchthon were called 
 to Jena, but on the accession of a new duke 
 in 1567 these were turned out, and Flacians 
 took their place.—Benham: Diet, of Relig¬ 
 ion. 
 
 A MODERN SYNAGOGUE. 
 
 De Servo Arbitrio( 1524)strongly maintain¬ 
 ed justification by faith alone. But before 
 his death his views became modified, and 
 he had partially adopted the doctrine of 
 free-will and of good works. These views 
 were explained by Pfefflnger, professor of 
 Leipzig, who, with his followers, received 
 the name of Synergists from Amsdorff and 
 ochers, who opposed them. In 1560 the 
 “ Synergistic controversy ” was at its 
 height, the leaders being Victorin Strigel, 
 a pupil of Melanchthon, and Mathias Fla- 
 
 Synod, The Holy. See Russian Church. 
 
 Synods. See Council. 
 
 Syria, a division of Asiatic Turkey, 
 bounded on the north by portions of Asia 
 Minor, on the west by the Mediterranean, 
 and on the south by Arabia Petraea. “The 
 history of Syria stretches far back into re¬ 
 mote antiquity. In the time of Abraham 
 (2006 b. c.) Damascus was a city; in the 
 oldest literature of Greece Sidon figures as 
 
Syr 
 
 ( 892 ) 
 
 Tab 
 
 the capital of a rich, populous, and civilized 
 state; and in the Hebrew Scriptures, Ca¬ 
 naan or Palestine is crowded with towns 
 at the period of its conquest by Joshua; 
 but, like most other so-called nations in 
 early times, Syria did not form a single 
 state; it was rather a congeries of inde¬ 
 pendent states, whose inhabitants belonged 
 to the same race. Every important city 
 had its king, whose normal occupation 
 was fighting with his neighbors. Under 
 David and Solomon something like political 
 unity was achieved; yet it does not appear 
 that these great rulers dispossessed the 
 princes whom they subdued, but only 
 made them tributary, and after their death 
 things reverted to their previous condition. 
 Rezin, a slave, then made himself master 
 of Damascus, and extended the Damascene 
 monarchy over all northern and central Syr¬ 
 ia; but the conquests of Tiglath-pileser 
 resulted in its becoming a province of the 
 Assyrian Empire. Subsequently the whole 
 land, including Palestine, became part of 
 the successive empires of Babylonia, Me¬ 
 dia, Persia, and Macedonia. Then follow¬ 
 ed the dynasty of the Seleucidae. After 
 their fall Syria passed into the hands of 
 the Romans, who retained it, though not 
 continuously—for on several occasions the 
 Persian Sassanidse managed to wrest it 
 from them—until the Arab conquest (sev¬ 
 enth century A. D.). During the crusades 
 (y. v .) of the Middle Ages several Chris¬ 
 tian principalities were established here, 
 but endured only for a short period. Syria 
 now became a possession of the sultans in 
 Egypt, in whose time it was frightfully 
 devastated by the Mongols. In the six¬ 
 teenth century it was conquered by the 
 Turks, and has ever since formed part of 
 the Turkish empire .”—International Cyclo¬ 
 pedia. 
 
 The population of Syria in 1881 was es¬ 
 timated at 2,076,300, distributed as follows: 
 
 Mohammedans, 
 
 • 1,000,000 
 
 Nusairiyeh, 
 
 . 250,000 
 
 Maronites 
 
 . 250,000 
 
 Orthodox Greeks, 
 
 235,000 
 
 Papal Sects, 
 
 . 80,000 
 
 Jews, 
 
 . 30,000 
 
 Ismailiyeh Gypsies, 
 
 etc., 30,000 
 
 Armenians, 
 
 . 20,000 
 
 Jacobites, 
 
 . 15,000 
 
 Druzes, 
 
 . 100,000 
 
 Protestants, 
 
 6,300 
 
 Bedouin Arabs, 
 
 . 60,000 
 
 The Maronites are fervent followers of 
 the papacy; the Ismailiyeh are heretical 
 Mohammedans, as are also the Bedouins; 
 theDruzesand Nusairiyeh are semi-pagan. 
 The native Oriental Churches are the Or¬ 
 thodox Greek, the Maronite, the Papal 
 
 Greek, the Jacobite, and Armenian. Amer¬ 
 ican missionary societies have founded 
 several flourishing missions, notably at 
 Beirut. Several of the Protestant mission¬ 
 ary societies of Europe have successful 
 missions in the country. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabernacle “(Heb. Ohel Moed , tent of 
 meeting, scil. , between God and man; LXX. 
 Skene, Vulg. Tabernaculum Foederis ), or, 
 more fully, ‘ tabernacle of the congrega¬ 
 tion,’ was the tent first erected by Moses 
 in the desert as a visible symbol of the 
 divine Presence in the midst of the people. 
 It was the place where he went to receive 
 his inspirations as their representative 
 when they ‘came to seek Jehovah.’ A 
 cloudy pillar descended, and stood at the 
 door of the Tabernacle while ‘ the Lord 
 spake to Moses.’ The detailed description 
 of the tabernacle, contained in Ex. xxv. 
 sqq. ; xxxvi. sqq. , renders more than a brief 
 outline superfluous in this place. Suffice 
 it to mention that it was divided into the 
 ‘ sanctuary ’ proper—which formed the 
 front part, and the dimensions of which 
 were twenty cubits in length, ten in width, 
 and ten in height—and the ‘Holy of Holies,’ 
 which was ten cubits square, and ten high. 
 A kind of courtyard, formed by curtains 
 suspended between columns, ran round the 
 tabernacle, one hundred cubits long, and 
 fifty wide. The entrance was toward the east 
 —the rising of the sun—and closed by 
 another costly curtain, into which, like unto 
 the first covering, figures of ‘ cherubim ' 
 were woven. The surrounding court was 
 much larger on this eastern than on the 
 1 western side, for here it was that the peo¬ 
 ple assembled for the purpose of worship. 
 Here also stood the altar, made of acacia- 
 wood, upon which a perpetual fire was kept 
 burning, and the brazen laver. The sanc¬ 
 tuary contained the gilded table with the 
 showbread to the right, the golden candle¬ 
 stick with the seven branches to the left, 
 and between both the ‘ golden altar,’ or the 
 ‘ altar of incense,’ upon which the high- 
 priest burned incense in the morning and 
 evening. In the Holy of Holies, the holy 
 ark, or ark of the covenant, alone was kept; 
 a box of acacia-wood, plated with pure 
 gold, both inside and outside, containing 
 the two tables of the Ten Commandments. 
 On the top of it were the two cherubim, 
 their faces turned toward each other; and 
 between them there was the symbolical 
 presence of Jehovah (the Shechinah), to 
 which Moses appealed for guidance. 
 
 “ Only once a year, on the Day of Atone¬ 
 ment, the high-priest was allowed to enter 
 the Holy of Holies,while the sanctuary was 
 
Tab 
 
 ( 893 ) 
 
 Tab 
 
 the ordinary place of the priests, and the 
 court that of the Levites. The tribe of 
 Levi was also that to which the place near¬ 
 est to the tabernacle, around which the 
 twelve tribes were grouped, was assigned, 
 as it also was the duty of its members to 
 convey the building from place to place 
 during the migrations. 
 
 “ The tabernacle, after the people had 
 settled in Canaan, was erected at Shiloh, 
 where it was still found at the time of 
 Saul, although the ark of the covenant it¬ 
 self had been carried away by the Philis¬ 
 tines, in the time of Eli, and when restored, 
 placed at Kirjath-jearim. Nor was the tab¬ 
 ernacle of Shiloh the only sanctuary, as it 
 was intended to be. We find other local sanc¬ 
 tuaries with priests—at Bethel, Nob, Si- 
 chem, Mizpah, etc.—at which even Samuel 
 worshiped, as in legally instituted places. 
 
 it did not prove effective enough.”—Cham¬ 
 bers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Tabernacle, another name for Baldac- 
 chino (q. v.). 
 
 Tabernacles, The Feast of, the last of 
 the three yearly festivals which were cele¬ 
 brated according to the Mosaic law in the 
 tabernacle. It was also called the feast of 
 ingathering. (Exod. xxiii. 16.) The festi¬ 
 val was celebrated seven days, in memory 
 of the time when the Israelites dwelt in 
 booths in the wilderness, and is described 
 in Exod. xxiii. 14 sqq .; Lev. xxiii. 34 sqq.; 
 Deut. xvi. 13 sqq. The booths were erect¬ 
 ed in the streets, outside the walls of Jeru¬ 
 salem, and on the roofs. They were the 
 scene of joy and mirth. Four hundred 
 and twenty-four priests were in attendance 
 
 A FRONT VIEW OF THE TABERNACLE, WITH ITS TENT. 
 
 When David is reported to have removed 
 the ark from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem, 
 nothing is said about the tabernacle of 
 Shiloh; on the contrary, David erected a 
 new one on purpose for the ark. It seems 
 probable that it was removed at some time 
 or other from Shiloh to Nob, and thence 
 to Gibeon, whence Solomon seems to 
 have fetched it away, with all its vessels, 
 thus putting an end to the double worship 
 that under David had divided the faithful 
 between Gibeon, where Zadok officiated, 
 and Jerusalem, with Asaph’s worship. 
 Nothing is further known of the tabernacle, 
 which, besides being a symbol of God’s 
 presence, has also served the purpose of a 
 visible political and religious link between 
 the tribes. As a safeguard against idolatry 
 and unlimited sacrificial worship, however, 
 
 to serve in the public sacrifices, and there 
 were brilliant illuminations at night. Once 
 in each day the people surrounded the al¬ 
 tar of burnt-offering, waving palm-branch¬ 
 es. This was repeated seven times on the 
 seventh day, in memory of Jericho. Dur¬ 
 ing the sacrifices the great Hallel (Psa. 
 cxiii.-cxviii.) was sung, and when the 
 twenty-fourth verse of Psa. cxviii. was 
 sung every one shook his palm-branch sev¬ 
 eral times. Wine and water from the 
 brook of Siloam was used morning and 
 evening as a drink-offering. A priest car¬ 
 ried a cup of the water through the water- 
 gate of the temple, and another priest as he 
 took it repeated the words,“With joy shall 
 ye draw water out of the wells of salvation.” 
 (Isa. xii. 3.) The eighth day of the feast 
 (Lev. xxiii. 39) the booths were dismantled. 
 
Tab 
 
 ( 894 ) 
 
 Tad 
 
 Ta'bor ( mount ), one of the most re¬ 
 markable of the mountains of Palestine. 
 It is beautifully situated at the northeast¬ 
 ern extremity of the plain of Esdraelon, 
 about six or eight miles east of Nazareth. 
 The ruins of an ancient fortress are found 
 upon its summit. It is now called Jebel et 
 Tilr. “ Whilst now a little chapel stands 
 here, where the priests from Nazareth per¬ 
 form divine service, in olden times the 
 mountain had cities and a large population. 
 Thus a city of Tabor is mentioned in the 
 lists of 1 Chron. vi., as a city of the Me- 
 rarite Levites in the tribe of Zebulun. 
 Mount Tabor makes a prominent figure in 
 ancient history. Here Barak assembled 
 his forces against Sisera. (Judg. iv. 6-15.) 
 
 tified the mount, at whose base the main 
 street runs from Egypt to Damascus. In 
 their time Mount Tabor was an archiepis- 
 copal see belonging to the patriarch of Je¬ 
 rusalem. Tancred built a church there, 
 and the Cluniacensians a monastery. But 
 all was lost in the battle of Hattin, July 5, 
 1187. The Saracens, under Saladin, de¬ 
 stroyed the fortresses; and in 1283 Bro- 
 cardes only found the remains of palaces, 
 convents, and churches there.”— Riietschi. 
 Cf. Schaff-Herzog: Ency., vol. iii., p. 2290. 
 
 Taborites. See Utraquists. 
 
 Tad'mor (Heb. Tamar , palms), a city 
 built by Solomon. (1 Kings ix. 18; 2 Chron. 
 
 MOUNT TABOR, GALILEE. 
 
 The brothers of Gideon were murdered 
 here by Zebah and Zalmunna (viii. 18, 19). 
 In the year b. c. 218 Antiochus the Great 
 got possession of Tabor by stratagem, and 
 strengthened its fortifications. In the mo¬ 
 nastic ages Tabor, in consequence partly of 
 a belief that it was the scene of the Saviour’s 
 transfiguration, was crowded with hermits 
 (but there is no foundation for this tradi¬ 
 tion); partly because, according to Matt, 
 xvii. 1; Mark ix. 2; Luke ix. 28, the trans¬ 
 figuration must have taken place on some 
 high mountain near Caesarea-Philippi; and 
 partly because a fortified and inhabited 
 place could hardly have been a proper place 
 for such a scene. The crusaders again for- 
 
 viii. 4.) It is undoubtedly the ancient Pal¬ 
 myra, which became famous in Roman his¬ 
 tory about A. D. 260, in connection with 
 Zenobia, “ the Queen of the East,” who, 
 after the death of her husband, Odenathus, 
 extended the supremacy of Palmyra over 
 Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Egypt. 
 Conquered by the Roman emperor, the un¬ 
 happy queen was led through the streets 
 of Rome in his triumphal procession. Pal¬ 
 myra never regained its former impor¬ 
 tance. Porter says: “ In describing the 
 ruins of Palmyra, it would be almost im¬ 
 possible to exaggerate. There is nothing 
 like them in the world. In no other spot in 
 the world can we find such vast numbers of 
 
Tai 
 
 ( 895 ) 
 
 Tal 
 
 temples, palaces, colonnades, tombs, and 
 monuments grouped together so as to be 
 seen at a single glance. The ruins extend 
 over a plain about three or four miles in 
 circuit.” See Wood: The Rums of Pal¬ 
 myra (London, 1753); Porter: Handbook for 
 Syria and Palestine. 
 
 Tai-ping, a recent sect among the Chi¬ 
 nese, founded by Hung-sew-tseuen, a man 
 of humble birth, who had unsuccessfully 
 sought Government employment. Some 
 Christian tracts which came into his hands 
 caused him to renounce idolatry, and then 
 he pretended to have Visions from a man 
 whom he chose to identify with Christ, 
 who commanded him to root out the Tar¬ 
 tars and establish a new kingdom of Tai- 
 ping; or Universal Peace. In 1840 he 
 gathered together a number of followers, 
 and proceeded to uproot idolatry. He took 
 on himself the name of Heavenly Prince, 
 and declared himself to be equal with 
 Christ in power on the earth. His follow¬ 
 ers he called “ God-worshippers,” and he 
 made five of them princes with himself. 
 In 1850 they fought against the Govern¬ 
 ment, and succeeded in taking Nankin, and 
 made further conquests, but they were 
 repulsed at Shanghai, in 1S60, by the Eng¬ 
 lish and French, and though they after¬ 
 wards rebelled many times, they were fi¬ 
 nally suppressed by General Gordon. Their 
 religion was a mixture of the Chinese and 
 Christian; polygamy was allowed, and 
 while they adopted baptism they rejected 
 the Lord’s Supper.—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Tait, Archibald Campbell, archbishop 
 of Canterbury; b. in Edinburgh, Dec. 22, 
 1811; d. at Croydon, Dec. 3, 1882. He 
 was graduated at Balliol College, Oxford, 
 in which he became tutor, and took a 
 prominent part in opposing Tractarianism. 
 In 1842 he was appointed Dr. Arnold’s 
 successor at Rugby, where he labored suc¬ 
 cessfully until 1850, when he accepted the 
 deanery of Carlisle. In 1856 he was ap¬ 
 pointed bishop of London, and in 1868 was 
 raised to the see of Canterbury. Arch¬ 
 bishop Tait was a man of large sympathies, 
 sound judgment, and great courtesy, and 
 by his catholic views endeared himself to 
 Christians of every name. Among his 
 writings are two volumes of Sermons ( 1861); 
 The Dangers and Safeguards of Modern 
 Theology (1861); The Word of God and the 
 Ground of Faith (1863). 
 
 Talmage, Thomas DeWitt, D. D., Pres¬ 
 byterian; b. near Bound Brook, N. J., Jan. 
 7, 1832; was graduated at the University of 
 the City of New York, 1853, and at the New 
 
 Brunswick Theological Seminary, N. J., 
 1856; pastor of the Reformed Dutch Church 
 at Belleville, N. J., 1856; Syracuse, N.Y., 
 1859; Second Church, Philadelphia, Penn., 
 1862; Central Presbyterian Church, Brook¬ 
 lyn, N. Y., since 1869. As a preacher he 
 draws large congregations, and his sermons 
 are widely published both in Europe and 
 America. He is the author of many vol¬ 
 umes, most of which are made up of his 
 sermons and lectures. Among the best 
 known are: Crumbs Swept Up', Abomina¬ 
 tions of Modern Society; Around the Tea- 
 Table; Night Side of New York; The Mar¬ 
 riage Ring; The Pathway of Life. 
 
 Talmud (from the Hebrew, lamad , he 
 has learned, doctrine). It signifies among 
 the modern Jews an enormous collection 
 of traditions, illustrative of their laws and 
 usages, forming twelve folio volumes. 
 There are two works which bear this name 
 —the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Tal¬ 
 mud of Babylon. Each of these consists of 
 two parts—the Mishna, which is the text, 
 and the Gemara, or commentary. The 
 Mishna, or Second Law, is a collection of 
 Rabbinical rules and precepts, made in the 
 second century of the Christian era. The 
 whole civil constitution and mode of think¬ 
 ing, as well as language, of the Jews, had 
 gradually undergone a complete revolu¬ 
 tion, and were entirely different in the time 
 of our Saviour from what they had been 
 originally. The Mosaic books contained 
 rules no longer adapted to the situation of 
 the nation; and its new political relations, 
 connected with the change that had taken 
 place in the religious views of the people, 
 led to many difficult questions, for which 
 no satisfactory solution could be found in 
 their law. The Rabbis undertook to sup¬ 
 ply this defect, partly by commentaries on 
 the Mosaic precepts, and partly by the 
 composition of new rules, which were 
 looked upon as almost equally binding with 
 the former. These comments were called 
 the oral tradition, in contradistinction to 
 the old law or written code. This was 
 the work of the Rabbi Jehudah (or Judah) 
 Hakkadosh, surnamed the “ holy,” who 
 was the ornament of the school of Tiberias, 
 and it is said to have occupied him forty 
 years. The commentaries and additions 
 which succeeding Rabbis made were col¬ 
 lected by the Rabbi Jochanan ben Eliezer 
 about 230 A. D. , under the name Gemara, 
 the Chaldaic word for completion. 
 
 The Mishna is divided into six parts: 
 (1) Seeds or fruits; (2) Feasts; (3) Women; 
 (4) Damages; (5) Sacrifices and holy things; 
 (6) Purifications. These are divided into 
 sixty-three treatises, and these again into 
 chapters. It contains traditions said to 
 
Tam 
 
 (896) 
 
 Tar 
 
 have been delivered to Moses during the 
 time of his abode in the mount, which he 
 afterward communicated to Aaron, Eleazar, 
 and his servant Joshua; by these they 
 were transmitted to the seventy elders; by 
 them to the prophets, who communicated 
 them to the men of the great Sanhedrim, 
 from whom the wise men of Jerusalem and 
 Babylon received them. According to Dr. 
 Prideaux, they passed from Jeremiah to 
 Baruch, from him to Ezra, and from Ezra 
 to the men of the Great Synagogue, the 
 last of whom was Simon the Just, who de¬ 
 livered them to Antigonus of Socho, and 
 from him they came down in regular suc¬ 
 cession to that Simeon who took our Sav¬ 
 iour in his arms; to Gamaliel, at whose 
 feet Paul was educated; and last of all to 
 Rabbi Judah, who committed them to writ¬ 
 ing in the Mishna. This Mishna and Gemara 
 together formed the Jerusalem Talmud, 
 relating chiefly to the Jews of Palestine; 
 but after most of the Jews had removed to 
 Babylon, and the synagogues of Palestine 
 had well-nigh disappeared, the Babylonian 
 Rabbis, Aseand Abina, gradually composed 
 new commentaries on the Mishna, which 
 were completed about 500 A. D., and thus 
 formed the Babylonian Talmud. This Tal¬ 
 mud is the one most valued by the Jews: 
 an abridgment of it was made in the twelfth 
 century by Maimonides, in which he re¬ 
 jects some of the greater absurdities with 
 which the Gemara abounds. The latter is 
 written in a somewhat coarse style, but the 
 Mishna is much purer. The language of 
 the Talmud is Aramaic or Chaldee, and is 
 without vowel-points, and abounds in ab¬ 
 breviations. The Mishna was first printed 
 at Naples, 1492; the Talmud of Jerusalem 
 at Venice, about 1523; the Babylonian Tal¬ 
 mud, which is four times as large, at Ven¬ 
 ice, about 1520. It has been translated into 
 Latin, and is also published in most of the 
 European languages.—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. 
 
 Tam'muz, a sun-god worshiped among 
 the Chaldaeans. It is identified by some 
 with the Adonis of Grecian mythology. 
 The worship of Tammuz in Syria was con¬ 
 ducted with obscene rites. (Ezek. viii. 14.) 
 
 Taoism, or Taouism, one of the three re¬ 
 ligions of China. Its founder, Laotse, lived, 
 according to tradition, six hundred years 
 before Christ. Tao is a word meaning 
 “ way,” and so far as the mystical teaching 
 can now be understood, it would seem that 
 Tao represented the course which Laotse 
 thought a man should pursue in order to 
 overcome evil. The whole teaching was 
 vague and unsatisfactory; but its followers 
 made an advance on those that had pre¬ 
 
 ceded them, by believing firmly that ulti¬ 
 mately good would gain the victory over 
 evil. The head of the body was a sort of 
 patriarch, who had the power of transmit¬ 
 ting his dignity and office to a member of 
 his own family, and the descendants of the 
 first are said to have held the office for cen¬ 
 turies. They attributed to their Tao, 
 whom they regarded as the first being of 
 the universe, various qualities, such as 
 eternity and invisibility; but they do not 
 seem to have regarded him as being in any 
 way able to assist or comfort his followers. 
 All they had to do was to contemplate him 
 and his virtues—and to strive to keep in 
 the Way. When Buddhism (q. v.) appear¬ 
 ed, which offered something more tangible, 
 both Taoism and Foism ( q. v.) to a great 
 extent disappeared, though some traces of 
 the teaching of both are still to be found in 
 Chinese theological books. — Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Tappan, Henry Philip, D. D., b. at 
 Rhinebeck, N. Y., April 23, 1805; d. at 
 Vevay, Switzerland, Nov., 1881; was grad¬ 
 uated at Union College, 1825; studied 
 theology at Princeton; pastor Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, Pittsfield, Mass., 1828-32; 
 professor of moral philosophy in the Uni¬ 
 versity of the City of New York, 1832-38; 
 chancellor of the University of Michigan, 
 1852-63. The rest of his life was spent in 
 Europe. He wrote several works on the 
 Will that attracted wide attention. 
 
 Targum, a name given to the Chaldee 
 paraphrases of the books of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. They are called paraphrases because 
 they are rather comments than literal trans¬ 
 lations. During the Babylonish exile, 
 Chaldee became more familiar to the Jews 
 than Hebrew, so that when the Hebrew 
 text was read in the synagogue, it was 
 often followed by an exposition in Chaldee. 
 It is probable that this was the case even 
 in the time of Ezra, since, in reading the 
 Law to the people in the temple, he ex¬ 
 plained it to make it understood by the 
 people. (Neh. viii. 7-9.) Though the cus¬ 
 tom of making these explanations was a 
 very ancient one with the Jews, they had no 
 written Targums before the era of Onkelos 
 and Jonathan, who lived about the time of 
 our Saviour. Onkelos is said to have been 
 the friend of the elder Gamaliel; his Targum 
 is the most esteemed of all, and copies are to 
 be found in which it is inserted verse for 
 verse with the Hebrew; it is short and sim¬ 
 ple, and in style approaches nearly to the 
 purity of the Chaldee as it is found in Ezra 
 and in Daniel. It is a paraphrase of the 
 Pentateuch only. There are two other Tar¬ 
 gums on the Pentateuch, one by Jonathan 
 
Tar 
 
 ( 897 ) 
 
 Tav 
 
 ben Uzziel, and the Targum Jerushalmi; 
 but they are both recensions of that by 
 Onkelos. Another Jonathan wrote a Tar¬ 
 gum on the greater and lesser prophets, 
 and he is much more diffuse than Onkelos, 
 running often into an allegorical style. 
 The Targum of the Rabbi Joseph the Blind 
 is upon the Hagiographa \q. v.). He has 
 written on the Psalms, Job, the Prophets, 
 the Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, and Es¬ 
 ther; his style is a corrupt Chaldee, with 
 a mixture of words from foreign languages, 
 and therefore his Targum is the least 
 esteemed. The Targum Jerushalmi seems 
 to be merely a fragment of some ancient 
 paraphrase now lost; even the Pentateuch 
 is not complete. The only Targum on 
 Daniel is a Persian version, supposed to 
 belong to the twelfth century. These 
 Targums were first printed at the close of 
 the fifteenth century. They were published 
 in Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bible at Basel in 1610. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Pick: 
 art. “Targum,” in McClintock and Strong’s 
 Cyclopeedia, vol. x., pp. 202-217. 
 
 Tar'shish. The best authorities agree that 
 Tarshish must have been near the mouth 
 of the Guadalquiver. Some think that in 
 course of time the knowledge of the real 
 Tarshish was lost among the Hebrews, 
 and that it came to be a term designating 
 all distant countries in the west and south. 
 
 Tar'sus, “ the chief town of Cilicia, ‘ no 
 mean city ’ in other respects, but illustri¬ 
 ous to all time as the birthplace and early 
 residence of the Apostle Paul. (Acts ix. 11; 
 xxi. 39; xxii. 3.) Even in the flourishing 
 period of Greek history, it was a city of 
 some considerable consequence. After 
 Alexander’s conquests had swept this way, 
 and the Seleucid kingdom was established 
 at Antioch, Tarsus usually belonged to 
 that kingdom, though for a time it was un¬ 
 der the Ptolemies. In the civil wars of 
 Rome it took Caesar’s side, and on the oc¬ 
 casion of a visit from him had its name 
 changed to Juliopolis. Augustus made it 
 a 1 free city.’ It was renowned as a place 
 of education under the early Roman em¬ 
 perors. Strabo compares it in this respect 
 to Athens and Alexandria. Tarsus also 
 was a place of much commerce. It was 
 situated in a wild and fertile plain on the 
 banks of the Cydnus. No ruins of any 
 importance remain.”— Smith. At the time 
 of the council of Nice, Tarsus was the seat 
 of a bishopric and during the period of the 
 crusades had an archiepiscopal see. The 
 modern town is called Tersous. In the 
 winter it sometimes has a population of 
 30,000, but in the summer it is reduced to 
 4,000 or 5,000 by the migration of the peo¬ 
 
 ple, who leave the country on account of the 
 miasma which makes it very unhealthy. 
 
 Tar'tan (2 Kings xviii. 17; Isa. xx. 1), 
 not a proper name, but an Assyrian title, 
 equivalent to that of commander-in-chief 
 of an army. 
 
 Tasmania, an island one hundred and 
 twenty miles south of Australia. It has a 
 delightful climate, and is a popular resort 
 for people from the neighboring colonies. 
 The population is not far from one hundred 
 and fifty thousand, composed of English, 
 Irish and Scotch. The Episcopalians are 
 the mostnurnerous religious body, although 
 all the different denominations are well 
 represented. 
 
 Tate, Nahum, b. in Dublin, 1652; d. 
 Aug. 12, 1715, at Southwark, London. He 
 was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 went to London, and gained considerable 
 fame as a poet, receiving the appointment 
 of poet-laureate in 1690. He is best known 
 by his metrical version of the Psalms, 
 which he prepared in conjunction with 
 Nicholas Brady, D. D., chaplain to William 
 and Mary. This version was appended to 
 the Prayer-Book, and came into general 
 use, taking the place of the version by 
 Sternhold and Hopkins. 
 
 Tatian, a Syrian and early disciple of 
 Justin Martyr. His great learning was 
 first used in the service of Christianity, 
 but after the death of Justin he left Rome 
 and returned to the East, where he opened 
 a school in Mesopotamia. Here he became 
 connected with the Gnostics, and was the 
 leader of the Encratites. He wrote an 
 apology for Christianity, entitled an Ad¬ 
 dress to the Greeks , which is usually printed 
 with Justin’s works. 
 
 Tauler (tow'ler), John, a prominent rep¬ 
 resentative of German mysticism, and a 
 great preacher; b. at Strassburg, about 
 1290; d. there, June 16, 1361. Very little 
 is known of his life. After studying the¬ 
 ology at Paris, and entering the Dominican 
 order, he returned to his native city, where 
 he preached with great eloquence and 
 power. The first collected edition of his 
 sermons was printed at Leipzig in 1498, 
 Eng. trans. by Miss Winkworth (London, 
 
 1857) , edited bv Dr. Hitchcock (New York, 
 
 1858) . 
 
 Taverner, Richard, b. at Brisley, Nor¬ 
 folk, 1505; d. July 14, 1575. He was 
 graduated at Oxford; studied law; clerk of 
 the signet under Cromwell; licensed to 
 preach by Edward VI., 1552; appointed 
 
Tay 
 
 (898) 
 
 Tay 
 
 high sheriff of Oxfordshire, 1569. His 
 fame rests upon his translation of the 
 Bible, commonly called Taverner s Bibte 
 (London, 1539). It was a revision of Mat¬ 
 thew’s Bible. 
 
 Taylor, Dan., founder of New Connec¬ 
 tion of General Baptists; b. at North- 
 owram, Halifax, York, England, Dec. 21, 
 1738; d. in London, Dec. 2, 1816. The 
 son of a miner, he early showed marked 
 intellectual gifts. After his conversion he 
 first joined the Wesleyans, and became a 
 “ local preacher.” After acting as pastor 
 for a time of a small congregation made up 
 of those who, like himself, had withdra/wn 
 from the Methodists, he accepted Baptist 
 views. Finding that there was a Unitarian 
 drift in the belief of some of those who be¬ 
 longed to the General Baptists, he, togeth¬ 
 er with the Barton Independent Baptists, 
 formed, in June, 1770, the New Connection 
 of General Baptists. He was pastor of 
 Birchcliffe, 1763-83 ; Halifax, 1683-85 ; 
 Church Street, Whitechapel, London, 1785- 
 1S16. He wrote much, and was the leading 
 spirit in the affairs of his denomination. 
 He was the founder of its college (1797), 
 and editor of its magazine. Among his 
 published works are: Fundamentals of Re¬ 
 ligion in Faith and Practice ; Dissertations 
 on Singing in Public Worship; Letters on 
 Andrew Fuller s Schetne. See Underwood: 
 Life of Rev. Dan. Tavlor (1870). 
 
 Taylor, Isaac, b. at Lavenham, Suffolk, 
 Aug. 1787; d. at Stanford Rivers, Essex, 
 June 28, 1865. He is the author of several 
 works that still retain a place in literature. 
 Among them are: The Nattiral History of 
 Enthusiasm; The Natural History of Fanat¬ 
 icism; The Physical Theory of Another Life; 
 The Restoration of Belief ; Spirit of Hebrew 
 Poetry , and Considerations on the Penta¬ 
 teuch. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, “ b. at Cambridge, Aug. 
 15, 1613; d. at Lisburn, in the county of 
 Down, Aug. 13, 1667; an eminent divine, 
 from 1660 to his death bishop of Down and 
 Connor, and of Dromore in Ireland. He 
 was the son of a Cambridge barber, and 
 entered Caius College as a sizar. His elo¬ 
 quence as a preacher procured for him the 
 patronage of Archbishop Laud, whose 
 chaplain he became, and afterward he was 
 appointed chaplain to the king (Charles I.). 
 In 1638 he was instituted to the rectory of 
 Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, where he 
 resided for some years, and where, at the 
 command of the king,he wrote his Defence of 
 Episcopacy; but the breaking out of the civil 
 wars caused him many vicissitudes of for¬ 
 tune, and ultimately he retired into Wales, 
 
 where he attempted to gain a subsistence 
 as a schoolmaster. After a while he was 
 interdicted from teaching, and he seems to 
 have been more than once imprisoned; but 
 his sufferings for conscience’ sake had at 
 least the effect of giving him some idea of 
 those principles of toleration which he 
 probably would not have learned in more 
 favorable circumstances (and certainly not 
 at the feet of Archbishop Laud), and in 
 1647 he published his great work: A Dis¬ 
 course of the Liberty of Prophesying (i. e. , of 
 preaching), showing the Unreasonabletiess of 
 Prescribing to Other Aden's Faith , and the 
 Iniquity of Persecuting Different Opinions. 
 Three years afterward he published The 
 Rule and Exercises of Holy Living, and a 
 year later The Rule and Exercises of Holy 
 Dying. About this time he married (as a 
 second wife) a natural daughter of Charles 
 I., who owned an estate in Carmarthen¬ 
 shire; and he also became chaplain to the 
 Earl of Carbery, the serious and ultimately 
 fatal illness of whose Countess led to the 
 preparation and publication of the work 
 last mentioned. In 1653 he published The 
 Great Exemplar; or, The Life and Death of 
 the Holy Jesus, a work that became deserv¬ 
 edly popular; and in 1657 he became the 
 minister of a small number of Episcopa¬ 
 lians who met for worship in London. His 
 career in the metropolis was not, however, 
 unattended with difficulty; for in 1658 we 
 find him a prisoner in the Tower, to which 
 he had been committed in consequence of 
 his bookseller having prefixed to a Collec¬ 
 tion of Offices which he published a print 
 of Christ in an attitude of prayer, a mode 
 of representation which had then recently 
 been declared illegal. His friend, John 
 Evelyn, procured his release from this im¬ 
 prisonment; and in the following year he 
 emigrated to the north of Ireland, where, 
 on the restoration of Charles II., he was 
 appointed to the bishopric, first of Down 
 and Connor, and shortly afterward of Dro¬ 
 more also, which he held till his death. 
 He was buried in the choir of the Cathe¬ 
 dral of Dromore. His Works (which are 
 chiefly remarkable for their learning, and 
 for the gorgeousness of their eloquence) 
 were first published in a collected form by 
 Reginald (afterwards bishop) Heber, in 
 1822, with a copious life of the author.”— 
 Cassell: Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Taylor, Nathaniel William, D. D., a 
 distinguished Congregational preacher and 
 theologian; b. at New Milford, Conn., 
 June 23, 1786; d. at New Haven, March 
 10, 1858. After his graduation from Yale 
 College in 1S07, he studied theology with 
 President Dwight, and became pastor of 
 the First Church in New Haven in 1S11. 
 
Tay 
 
 ( 899 ) 
 
 Tea 
 
 In 1822 he was elected professor of dog¬ 
 matic theology in the theological depart¬ 
 ment of Yale College, in which office he 
 continued until his death. He was an able 
 and eloquent preacher, and the author and 
 defender of an elaborate system of theol¬ 
 ogy, that was popularly termed “The New 
 Haven Theology.” It was one of the most 
 influential of the types of the so-called 
 “ New School Divinity.” 
 
 “ Among the points of doctrine upon 
 which he insisted are the following: (1) 
 The elective preference, in which charac¬ 
 ter, good or evil, consists, though begin¬ 
 ning in an act of choice, is a permanent 
 voluntary state, ‘ a ruling purpose.’ (2) 
 Natural ability involves a continued ‘power 
 of contrary choice.’ There is previous 
 ‘ certainty, with power to the contrary,’ in 
 regard to moral choices. (3) * Nature,’ in 
 the phrase, ‘ we are sinful by nature,’ in¬ 
 cludes both the subjective native condition 
 and the outward circumstances of human 
 life, which, as joint factors, give the cer¬ 
 tainty, but not the necessity, of sin from 
 the beginning of moral agency. (4) Regen¬ 
 eration is the change of the predominant 
 elective preference from love * to the 
 world ’ to love to God. It is effected by 
 influences of the Holy Spirit, which give 
 the certainty, but not the necessity of the 
 effect. (5) The involuntary desire to hap¬ 
 piness, or ‘ self-love,’ is the subjective an¬ 
 tecedent of all choices, whether good or 
 evil. The excellence of virtue is its ten¬ 
 dency to produce the greatest happiness of 
 the universe. (6) Election is founded in 
 benevolence, which, guided by wisdom, so 
 dispenses grace as to insure the best re¬ 
 sults. (7) Sin is not the ‘ necessary means 
 of the greatest good,’ since it is avoidable 
 by the creature, and is not so good as holi¬ 
 ness in its stead, but may not be prevent¬ 
 ive by the act of God in the best system.” 
 —George P. Fisher, D. D. Several vol¬ 
 umes of Dr. Taylor’s writings have been 
 published since his death: Practical Ser¬ 
 mons (N. Y., 1858); Lectures on Moral Gov- 
 ernment (1859), 2 vols.; Essays , Lectures, 
 etc., on Select Topics of Revealed Theology 
 
 (i 859 )- 
 
 Taylor, William, D. D. (Mount Union 
 College, O.), bishop of the Methodist Epis¬ 
 copal Church; b. at Rockbridge County, 
 Va., May 2, 1821. In the itinerant ministry, 
 1842-49; missionary in California, 1849-56; 
 engaged in evangelistic work in the Eastern 
 States and Canada until 1862, when he 
 visited Australia and thence went to Africa 
 and India. At Bombay he founded, in 
 1872, an independent, self-supporting mis¬ 
 sion, from which originated the South India 
 Conference. In 1878 he visited Chili and 
 
 Peru Elected bishop in 1884, having 
 charge of missionary work on the west 
 coast of Africa. He is the author of: Seven 
 Years' Street Preaching in San Francisco 
 (N. Y., 1856); California Life Illustrated 
 (1858); The RIodel Preacher (i860); Four 
 Years' Campaign in India (1878); Ten Years 
 of Self-Supporting Missions in India (1882); 
 Pauline Methods of Missionary Work. 
 
 Taylor, William Mackergo, D. D. 
 (Yale University, New Haven, Conn., and 
 Amherst College, Mass., both in 1872), 
 LL. D. (College of New Jersey, Princeton, 
 1883), Congregationalist; b. at Kilmarnock, 
 Scotland, Oct. 23, 1829; was graduated at 
 the University of Glasgow, 1849, anc ^ at the 
 United Presbyterian Theological Seminary, 
 Edinburgh, 1852; became pastor (United 
 Presbyterian) at Kilmaurs, Scotland, 1853; 
 of Derby-road Church, Liverpool, Eng., 
 1855; and of the Broadway Tabernacle 
 Church (Congregationalist), New York City, 
 1872. Among his published works are: Life 
 Truths (sermons) (Liverpool, 1862); Pray¬ 
 er and Business (N. Y., 1873); David, King 
 of Israel (1875); Elijah, the Prophet (1876); 
 The Ministry of the Word (Lyman Beecher 
 Lectures in Yale Seminary) (1876); Songs 
 in the Night (1877); Peter the Apostle (1877); 
 The Gospel Miracles in their Relation to Christ 
 and Christianity (Princeton Lectures, 1880); 
 Paul, the Missionary (1882); Jesus at the 
 Well (1884); John Knox: A Biography 
 (1885); Joseph, the Prime Minister (1886). 
 
 “ Teaching of the Twelve Apostles ; or, 
 The Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve 
 Apostles to the Gentiles ”—for the work 
 has a double title—is the name of part 
 of a Greek MS., containing, also, other 
 Christian writings, discovered in the year 
 1877 by Philotheus Bryennios, Metropoli¬ 
 tan of Nicomedia, in the Library of the Most 
 Holy Sepulchre, belonging to the patriarch¬ 
 ate of Jerusalem. This volume is dated 
 1056. Bryennios edited and published the 
 Teaching of the 'Twelve Apostles in 1883. 
 
 It has been supposed, with much prob¬ 
 ability, that the writer or compiler of this 
 work—who is quite unknown — lived in 
 Egypt, and from internal evidence a date 
 must be assigned to the original, of which 
 this MS. is a copy, not later than the first 
 quarter of the second century (80-110 A.D.). 
 It may thus possibly be the oldest Chris¬ 
 tian writing after the books of the New 
 Testament — perhaps even earlier than 
 some of them. The subject-matter of this 
 short treatise is the simplest of practical 
 teaching, such as may well have been cur¬ 
 rent in similar forms; and being taught 
 orally and then committed to memory by 
 those who had to teach others, was written 
 

 Ted ( 900 ) Ten 
 
 down by some teacher in the form which 
 we have in the Teaching. The work con¬ 
 tains moral precepts, some rules as to 
 prayer, fasting, baptism, and the Eucha¬ 
 rist, and the teachers of the Church, and 
 ends with a solemn reference to the coming 
 of the Lord and the resurrection. 
 
 There is no sign of any canon of the New 
 Testament; only the “ Gospel ” or the 
 “ Commandment of the Lord ” is referred 
 to, most often according to St. Matthew, 
 sometimes St. Luke, seldom quite word for 
 word; sometimes there is a text agreeing 
 with neither. There are no clear references 
 to the writings of St. Paul, nor any signs 
 of the influence of some special points of 
 his teaching. The mention of the Twelve 
 Apostles in the second title points to a 
 time when, as in the body of the writing, 
 the title Apostle was not confined to those 
 subsequently called “ the Twelve.” 
 
 One of the precepts for Sunday will give 
 an idea of the style of the Teaching: “ And 
 on the Day of the Lord come together and 
 break bread, and give thanks after confess¬ 
 ing your transgressions,that your sacrifice 
 may be pure.”—Benham: Diet, of Relig¬ 
 ion. For full literature on the subject, see 
 Schaff: The Oldest Church Manual , called 
 the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (New 
 York, 1885; 2d ed., 1886). 
 
 Te Deum ( Te Deum Laudamus). This 
 celebrated hymn is a translation in part, 
 probably by Ambrose, of an older Greek 
 hymn. 
 
 Teleology (from the Gr. telos, an end), is 
 the doctrine of ends, or the reasoning con¬ 
 cerning the divine purpose of all the 
 created universe, and is applied to the ar¬ 
 gument from design in proof of the exist¬ 
 ence of God. Aristotle was the first to 
 bring the word into philosophical discus¬ 
 sion. 
 
 Temple “was the name given to the 
 whole sacred precincts of Mount Moriah, 
 including the ‘ fane ’ erected by Solomon 
 on the summit, the various ‘courts’ of Is¬ 
 raelites and women, each on their separate 
 platforms below it, and the great area, 
 
 ‘ court of the Gentiles,’ at the foot of this 
 pyramid of ‘ courts ’ and steps. The ‘ fane ’ 
 was a permanent copy of the temporary 
 tabernacle, so far as its ground-plan was 
 concerned, having its ‘Holy of Holies’ 
 (through whose floor projected for a few 
 inches the time-honored apex of Mount 
 Moriah), its ‘ Holy Place,’ in which, how¬ 
 ever, there were ten tables of shewbread 
 and ten golden candlesticks (five of each on 
 each side), and the great brazen ‘ laver ’ 
 standing on twelve brazen oxen, with their 
 
 faces outwards. It occupied only one-third 
 of the uppermost platform, the rest being 
 the ‘court of burnt-offering,’ in which was 
 the great altar. Below the first series of 
 steps (extending round three sides) was 
 the ‘ court of Israel;’ below the next flight, 
 the ‘ court of women;’ and at the base of 
 the succeeding flight of steps was a trel- 
 lised fence, on which were ‘notices’ in 
 various languages, warning none but the 
 circumcised to pass within the sacred en¬ 
 closures. Then came the great area, 
 
 ‘ court of the Gentiles,’ extending 600 feet 
 each way, but nearly doubled in its extent 
 by Herod the Great. This area was reach¬ 
 ed by a succession of terraces or steps, cut 
 in the face of the mountain on its eastern 
 and southern sides.” — “Oxford” Bible 
 Helps. Cyrus permitted the Jews to return 
 to their country in the year 536 b. c. , and 
 rebuild the temple. This was completed 
 516 b. c. Herod began the building of a 
 new temple, 20 or 21 B. c., which was de¬ 
 stroyed by the Romans in the year 70. See 
 Jerusalem, pp. 471-72. 
 
 Templars. See Military Orders. 
 
 Temporal Power. See Church and 
 State. 
 
 Ten Commandments, The, the usual 
 title of the writings contained on the two 
 tables of stone given on Mount Sinai. 
 “ The number ten symbolizes the compre¬ 
 hensiveness and completeness of this moral 
 law. The first table, with five command¬ 
 ments, enjoins the duties to God; the sec¬ 
 ond, with five commandments, the duties 
 to our neighbor. All these duties are 
 comprehended and summed up in this: 
 Thou shalt love God supremely, and thy 
 neighbor as thyself. Love is the fulfill¬ 
 ment of the whole law. (Matt. xxii. 37, 38; 
 Rom. xiii. 9; Gal. v. 14; James ii. 8.)”— 
 Schaff: Bible Diet. 
 
 Tennent, Gilbert, b. in County Armagh, 
 Ireland, April 5, 1703; d. in Philadelphia, 
 July 23, 1764; he was the son of William 
 Tennent, who came to Pennsylvania from 
 Ireland in 1718, and after a time opened an 
 institution of learning known as “ Log Col¬ 
 lege,” in which three of his sons and other 
 youth, who became distinguished in the 
 Presbyterian Church, were educated. 
 After acting as a tutor in “ Log College ” 
 for a year, he was ordained pastor in New 
 Brunswick, in 1727. He was a great ad¬ 
 mirer of Whitefield, and in connection with 
 his pastoral duties he made many evangelis¬ 
 tic tours which were attended with remark¬ 
 able success. He founded and became pas¬ 
 tor of the Second Presbyterian Church in 
 
Ten 
 
 ( 901 ) 
 
 Ter 
 
 Philadelphia, in *743, with which he re¬ 
 mained connected until his death. He vis¬ 
 ited Great Britain in 1753, and raised some 
 fifteen hundred pounds for the College of 
 New Jersey. In his later years he did 
 much to heal the division that had distract¬ 
 ed the Presbyterian Church in connection 
 with the earlier evangelistic labors of 
 Whitefield, himself, and others. He pub¬ 
 lished a volume of sermons, also various 
 pamphlets. 
 
 Tennent, William, D. D., brother of 
 Gilbert; b. in County Armagh, Ireland, 
 June 3, 1705; d. at Freehold, N. J., March 
 8, 1777. He studied under his father in 
 Log College, and theology with his brother 
 Gilbert at New Brunswick; ordained pastor 
 of the Presbyterian Church at Freehold, in 
 1733, where he remained until his death. 
 While preparing for examination for li¬ 
 censure he fell ill. His friends thought he 
 was dead, and only the protest of his phy¬ 
 sician, who noticed a slight tremor under 
 the left arm, saved him from burial. He 
 lay in this condition for three days, when 
 vitality became perceptible. It was a year 
 before he regained his health, and for a 
 long time his memory and past knowledge 
 seemed entirely lost. After awhile he felt 
 a sudden shock in his head, and gradually 
 recovered his memory. He then recall¬ 
 ed the circumstances connected with the 
 three days in which he lay in a trance. 
 During the time he was, as he believed, in 
 heaven and heard “ unutterable things.” 
 “ For three years,” after the recovery of 
 his health, he said, “ the sense of divine 
 things continued so great, and everything 
 appeared so completely vain, when com¬ 
 pared with heaven, that could I have had 
 all the world for stooping down for it, I 
 believe I should not have thought of doing 
 it.” Mr. Tennent was in many respects a 
 remarkable man, and his labors as a 
 pastor and preacher were abundantly pros¬ 
 pered. See Sprague: Annals , vol. iii.; 
 Gillett: History Presbyterian Church, vol. i. 
 
 Ter'aphim, a word designating small 
 statues or images which were thought to 
 possess certain magical virtue. They 
 were objects of worship and consulted as 
 oracles. (Ezek. xxi. 26; Zech. x. 2.) The 
 Israelites derived their use from the Ara¬ 
 maeans. They were set up in houses as 
 household gods, or worn as personal 
 charms. On every revival of true piety in 
 Israel the teraphim were discarded with 
 other idols. (2 Kings xxiii. 24.) 
 
 Tenths. See Tithes. 
 
 Terminism, a doctrine which occasioned 
 
 a controversy at Leipzig in the seventeenth 
 century, the chief movers in which were 
 Reichenberg, who upheld the doctrine, and 
 Ittig, who denied it. It is the belief that 
 there is a terminus in each man’s life, 
 which only occurs once, after which he is 
 no longer capable of receiving grace or par¬ 
 don for his sins. 
 
 Terry, Milton Spenser, S. T. D. (Wes¬ 
 leyan University, Middletown, Conn., 
 1879), Methodist; b. at Coeymans, N. Y., 
 Feb. 22, 1840; was graduated at Yale The¬ 
 ological Seminary, 1862; was pastor, 1863— 
 84; and since professor of Old Testament 
 exegesis in Garrett Biblical Institution, 
 Evanston, Ill. He is the author of a com¬ 
 mentary on Joshua to Samuel (1873); and 
 on Kings to Esther (1875); Biblical Herme¬ 
 neutics (1883). 
 
 Tersteegen, Gerhard, a well-known 
 German hymn-writer and pietist; b. at 
 Meurs, in Rhenish Prussia, Nov. 25, 1697; 
 d. at Mtilheim, in Westphalia, April 3, 
 1769. He was apprenticed to a merchant 
 in Mtilheim, but at the age of sixteen re¬ 
 ceived religious impressions that awakened 
 so strong a desire for private meditation 
 that he learned the trade of a ribbon-maker. 
 In time he began to preach and write, al¬ 
 though, through his entire life, he suffered 
 from pain and illness. His evangelistic 
 labors were attended with great success, 
 and he translated the works of Madame 
 Guyon and other French mystics, and pub¬ 
 lished several original works. He wrote 
 many hymns, some of which were trans¬ 
 lated by Wesley. See his Life , by Kerlin 
 (1853) and Stursberg (1869). 
 
 Tertiaries, a name given to those who 
 observed the third rule of St. Francis. 
 They led a religious life, according to def¬ 
 inite regulations, but were not obliged to 
 live in monasteries. They represented in 
 the world the interests of the order with 
 which they were connected. In this way 
 the Emperor Charles IV., King Louis IX. 
 of France, Queen Blanche of Castile, and 
 others were members of the Franciscan 
 Order. 
 
 Tertullian (ter-tul'-i-an), Quintus Sep- 
 timius Florens, was the first of the eccle¬ 
 siastical writers who wrote in Latin, and is 
 therefore called by Milman “ the father of 
 Latin Christianity.” He lived at the end 
 of the second and the beginning of the 
 third centuries, under the Emperors Seve- 
 rus and Caracalla. The son of a centurion, 
 he was born at Carthage, and brought up 
 in the religion of his heathen parents, but 
 was afterwards converted to Christianity, 
 
Tes 
 
 ( 902 ) 
 
 Tha 
 
 and became a priest at Carthage or Rome. 
 It is known that he was married, from the 
 fact that he addressed certain books to his 
 wife; and it is hence inferred that the cel¬ 
 ibacy of the clergy was not yet customary. 
 In middle age he joined the sect of Mon- 
 tanus, the asceticism and rigorous disci¬ 
 pline of the Montanists being probably 
 peculiarly attractive to a man of his aus¬ 
 tere character and vehement temper. Of 
 his after-life nothing certain is known, but 
 it is said that he lived to a venerable age. 
 
 Tertullian was a voluminous author. 
 His style is harsh, but vigorous and pow¬ 
 erful. He seems to have been educated 
 for the law (though he is not to be con¬ 
 founded with a namesake who was a juris¬ 
 consult about this time), and the effect of 
 his training is apparent in his works. He 
 treats Christianity, it has been said, as a 
 client for whose defence he is retained, and 
 does not scruple to make use of any argu¬ 
 ment. Some of his chief works are: 
 
 (1) His Apology , addressed to the gov¬ 
 ernors of Proconsular Africa, under Seve- 
 rus. It contains a complaint that the mere 
 name of Christian was made a test by 
 judges; that Christians were not allowed 
 to state their opinions; that they were fre¬ 
 quently confounded with the Jews; and 
 that ignorance and prejudice were the 
 cause of the feeling against them. It also 
 shows that Christians could not be sus¬ 
 pected of disaffection, as they never at¬ 
 tempted to avenge their wrongs, but offer¬ 
 ed supplications for the emperors, and 
 readily paid their taxes. 
 
 (2) On the Prescription of Heretics. —Pre¬ 
 scription is a legal term, signifying the 
 exception taken by a man when an attempt 
 was made to dispossess him of his proper¬ 
 ty, that the case should not be heard, on 
 the ground that he has been in undisturbed 
 possession for a number of years. Tertul- 
 lian’s book is an application of this princi¬ 
 ple, maintaining that it is unnecessary to 
 argue with heretics on the merits of the 
 case, for they are excluded from a hearing 
 on account of their novelty. 
 
 (3) Five books against the heresy of Mar cion. 
 
 (4) On Baptism , showing the necessity 
 of the sacrament, and refuting the opinion 
 that faith alone is sufficient for salvation. 
 
 Tertullian also wrote on Penitence, on 
 Patience, on Martyrdom, on the Soul; be¬ 
 sides books against Praxeas and Valentinus, 
 and numerous other works. The work on 
 the Trinity, sometimes ascribed to him, is 
 not now considered genuine.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Test and Corporation Acts, “ the name 
 given to certain acts which were passed in 
 the reign of Charles II., by which all mem¬ 
 
 bers of corporations, and afterward all 
 holders of other public offices, were compell¬ 
 ed (in addition to taking the oaths of alle¬ 
 giance and supremacy, etc.) to declare their 
 adhesion to the Church of England by re¬ 
 ceiving the Communion of the Lord’s Sup¬ 
 per in connection with that Church at least 
 once every year. These acts were to a 
 large extent evaded, an act of Indemnity 
 being passed every year in favor of those 
 who from conscientious motives had failed 
 to comply with the terms of the Acts. 
 They were repealed in 1828. — Cassell : 
 Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Te'trarch, properly the sovereign or 
 governor of the fourth part of a country. 
 (Matt. xiv. 1.) In the Scriptures the name 
 is applied to any one who governed a 
 province of the Roman empire. The te- 
 trarch had the title of king. (Matt. xiv. 9.) 
 
 Tetzel (tet’sel), John, b. at Leipzig be¬ 
 tween 1450 and 1460; d. there in July, 1519. 
 He entered the Dominican order in 1489, 
 and in 1502 was commissioned by the pope 
 to preach the jubilee indulgence. His life 
 was shamefully corrupt, and he carried on 
 the business of selling indulgences with 
 such impudence that he offered absolution 
 for every sort of crime, not excepting mur¬ 
 der, adultery, and perjury. Luther preach¬ 
 ed openly against him, and when the great 
 reformer nailed his theses on the church- 
 door in Wittenberg, Tetzel attempted to 
 answer them. His answers were burned 
 in derision by the students in the market¬ 
 place, and the authorities at Rome soon 
 found it politic to disavow the notorious 
 vender of indulgences. Tetzel retired to a 
 Dominican convent in Leipzig, where he 
 died, shortly after, of the plague. 
 
 Textus Receptus. See Bible, p. no. 
 
 Thacher, Peter. D. D., Congregational¬ 
 ism b. at Milton, Mass., March 21, 1752; d. 
 in Savannah, Ga., Dec. 16, 1S02; was grad¬ 
 uated at Harvard, 1769; ordained minister 
 at Malden, Mass., 1770; from 1785 till his 
 death, pastor of the Brattle Street Church 
 in Boston. He was a member of the Pro¬ 
 vincial Congress, a delegate to the State 
 Constitutional Convention of 1780, and 
 served frequently as chaplain of the State 
 Legislature. He was a man of eloquent 
 utterance, and was called “ the silver- 
 tongued Thacher.” He was connected 
 with many literary and charitable institu¬ 
 tions, and published many works, among 
 them: Observations upon the Present State of 
 the Clergy of New England , with Strictures 
 upon the Power of Dismissing Them, Usurp¬ 
 ed by Some Churches (Boston, 1783). 
 
Tha 
 
 ( 903 ) 
 
 The 
 
 Thaddae'us. See Judas. 
 
 Theatines, a religious order of regular 
 priests, founded in 1524 by Cajetan of 
 Thiene, bishop of Chieti, afterward Pope 
 Paul IV. The members owned no property, 
 and devoted themselves to the care of the 
 sick and criminals, and preaching against 
 heretics. The order flourished in Italy, es¬ 
 pecially at Naples, and spread into Ger¬ 
 many, Spain and Poland, but not to a great 
 extent. 
 
 Theism. Theists are those who believe 
 in the existence of God, as distinguished 
 from atheists, but the name includes va¬ 
 rious degrees and phases of that belief. 
 Theism is really the same as deism (the 
 former coming from the Greek, the latter 
 from the Latin, word for God), and was 
 first used by some writers in the seven¬ 
 teenth century instead of it. Deism—the 
 chief form of anti-Christian thought in the 
 last century—was a theory which implied 
 the existence of a Personal God as a con¬ 
 clusion of the natural reason, but denied 
 the need for, and the possibility of, any 
 revelation besides the work of Nature. 
 God had made the world once for all, and 
 interfered no further in its concerns. This 
 name fell into discredit, and similar opin¬ 
 ions are now held under the term theism. 
 But as infidelity has, in the present day, 
 become more open in its opposition to God, 
 theists have come to be ranged on the 
 side of Belief, and the term now includes 
 not only those holding the old deistic opin¬ 
 ions, but all who believe in a Personal God 
 who is possessed of power, wisdom, and 
 goodness; all, in short, who confess the 
 God of Abraham. Indeed, Jews, Chris¬ 
 tians and Mohammedans—as against athe¬ 
 ists of all kinds, as well materialists as 
 pantheists—are properly called theists.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. See Deists; 
 God. 
 
 Theoc'racy ( the rule of God) is a word 
 used to designate that constitution of a 
 state in which the Almighty is regarded as 
 the sole sovereign. It was first applied by 
 Josephus to the peculiar state organiza¬ 
 tion of the Jews. 
 
 Theod'icy denotes a vindication of the 
 Deity, in respect to the government and 
 organization of the world. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia, “ a well-known 
 writer of the Syrian Church, and especial¬ 
 ly notable in connection with the contro¬ 
 versy of ‘ The Three Chapters,’ was born 
 of a wealthy and distinguished family at 
 Antioch, in the first half of the fourth cen¬ 
 
 tury. He was the school-fellow and friend 
 of St. John Chrysostom, and his fellow- 
 pupil under the philosopher and rhetorician, 
 Libanius; and he was induced by the ear¬ 
 nest exhortation of Chrysostom, to join 
 with him in embracing the monastic life. 
 His theological and scriptural studies were 
 made under Flavian of Antioch, and Dio¬ 
 dorus of Tarsus; and having received 
 priest’s orders, he resided for a time at 
 Antioch, where his learning and eloquence 
 won the highest applause, and afterward 
 at Tarsus, under his old teacher, Diodorus. 
 About the year 390, or a little later, he was 
 chosen bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia. 
 In 394 he preached in the presence of the 
 Emperor Theodosius at Constantinople, on 
 occasion of a synod held in that city. Of 
 his further history little is known; but his 
 literary activity must have been prodig¬ 
 ious, if we can judge by the contemporary 
 accounts, and by the number of the works 
 which are ascribed to him, but of which 
 only fragments now remain. The most 
 important of these consisted of commen¬ 
 taries on almost all the books of Scripture, 
 and various polemical writings. A sup¬ 
 posed tendency to Pelagian and Nestorian 
 errors was observable in Theodore, and 
 was, in part, the occasion of the long con¬ 
 troversy of the three chapters. This con¬ 
 troversy, however, did not arise till long 
 after the death of Theodore, which took 
 place about 427. Considerable fragments 
 of Theodore’s commentaries have been 
 published by Cardinal Mai in his Spicilegium 
 Romanian , and some of his works still 
 exist in Syriac; but by far the greater pro¬ 
 portion has been lost.”—Chambers: Cyclo- 
 pcedia. 
 
 Theology ( Theos , God, and logos , doc¬ 
 trine), the doctrine which God has given 
 concerning himself, the science which 
 treats of the existence and character of 
 God, and the relations in which we stand 
 to him. The word “ theology " was in use 
 among the heathen, who applied it to the 
 works of those who speculated on the 
 nature and worship of the gods, and there¬ 
 fore Hesiod and Plato were both regarded 
 as theologians. Eusebius and Varro (as 
 quoted by Augustine in his De Civitate) 
 distinguished the heathen theology into 
 three sorts: the fabulous (that of the poet), 
 the natural (that taught in the philosoph¬ 
 ical schools, and the political (that of the 
 priests and common people). The two 
 former were open to the will of the profess¬ 
 ors to alter as they pleased, but the last 
 was settled by authority, and could not be 
 altered without national consent. The 
 Roman Law was very strict on this point 
 (Cic.: De Legibus). The State theology of 
 
The 
 
 ( 904 ) 
 
 The 
 
 the heathen consisted in the solemn ser¬ 
 vice of the gods, and in attendance on the 
 oracles and divinations. 
 
 The word theology is not used in the 
 Bible. Its nearest equivalent is found in 
 such phrases as “ the mysteries of God,” 
 “ the form of sound words,” “ sound doc¬ 
 trine.” (1 Cor. ii. 7; 2 Tim. i. 13; Tit. i. 1, 
 9.) We have also in Scripture the words 
 from which the term is compounded; e. g ., 
 ta login ton Theou , “ the oracles of God.” 
 (See Mark vii. 13; Rom. iii. 2; Heb. v. 
 12; 1 Pet. iv. 10, in the original.) But the 
 Christian fathers applied the term especial¬ 
 ly to the doctrine concerning our Lord; and 
 St. John, who wrote so much concerning 
 him as “ the Word of God,” is called “ the 
 Divine ” Theologos. But the word was 
 used in a wide as well as restricted mean¬ 
 ing, and covered the whole subject of re¬ 
 vealed truth. 
 
 The source of theology is regarded as 
 twofold, natural and siipernatural. The 
 one is that which is revealed to man by the 
 light of nature, i. e., by the voice of God 
 in each man’s conscience, and the teachings 
 of the creation. St. John distinctly claims 
 a place for such theology when he speaks 
 of “ the true Light which lighteth j^everv 
 man that cometh into the world.” (John i. 
 9.) Supernatural theology is that which 
 comes by special revelation, embracing 
 what we have learned from natural theol¬ 
 ogy, but stating it more definitely, and 
 establishing it by additional evidence, 
 making known what could not have been 
 known in any other manner. Thus the 
 two do not conflict. Each has its own 
 province. Reason, recognizing its own in¬ 
 ability to explain all the facts and myster¬ 
 ies of life and of the universe, does not 
 proudly seek to be so independent of all 
 knowledge as to refuse any revelation of 
 himself which the Unseen Creator may 
 choose to make, and supernatural theology 
 does not refuse the aid of reason or its 
 claim to respect. Any doctrine which 
 could be shown to contradict reason would 
 have no claim on man’s obedience. 
 
 Natural theology teaches the existence 
 of God, and leads us to believe' that he 
 governs the world; that it is in accordance 
 with his will that men should be pious, 
 just, benevolent; that the soul is immortal. 
 Philosophers do not agree as to how the 
 knowledge comes, whether from ancient 
 traditions or from innate ideas, but it is 
 the admitted fact that all over the world 
 God “ left not himself without witness.” 
 (See Acts xiv. 15; xvii. 23; Rom. i. 19; ii. 
 14.) And thus the heathen confessed that 
 they were the offspring of God; they 
 taught that there is a duty incumbent on 
 men to be pure, chaste, honest. But it is 
 
 also manifest from the facts of history that 
 natural theology was altogether inad¬ 
 equate to meet the purposes for which 
 such knowledge is needed (“ the world by 
 wisdom knew not God ”), though it con¬ 
 fessed his existence, and felt and groped 
 after him. And in the moral systems which 
 the philosophers taught, not only some 
 great duties were omitted, but some of 
 their virtues proved to be vices. When 
 Cicero taught that the true reward of 
 virtue is praise, and Zeno that we ought 
 not to forgive injuries, and the cynics that 
 there is no shame in lewdness, and Aristip¬ 
 pus that theft and adultery were admissi¬ 
 ble if the pleasure consequent upon them 
 could be insured without after evil—all 
 this teaching tended to the moral degrada¬ 
 tion of mankind. Hence heathenism in¬ 
 volved a general depravity of manners, 
 which extended not to the lower and un¬ 
 educated classes only, but to the better in¬ 
 formed, and even to the religious teachers 
 themselves. The poetry of Horace and 
 Ovid, beautiful as it is, gives terrible proof 
 that the awful picture of heathen morals 
 given in the first chapter of the Romans is 
 not overdrawn. 
 
 Supernatural theology was revealed to 
 men “ by divers portions and in divers 
 manners.” From the few particulars of 
 the ancient world which Moses gives us, 
 we could hardly tell whether they knew of 
 a general judgment to come. There was 
 evidently a gradual development, an evolu¬ 
 tion, an increase of light from the faint 
 dawn till the splendor of noonday in Christ. 
 
 When we come to separate the science 
 of theology into different provinces, the 
 following divisions will perhaps be regard¬ 
 ed as covering the field : There is the the¬ 
 ology of the Evidences , the grounds on 
 which we believe that our religion is true. 
 Such evidences are partly inward, partly 
 outward. Men believe in God because he 
 speaks to them. But they also have to 
 weigh the evidences on which the Old and 
 New Testaments claim to be regarded as 
 authoritative, that they are genuine and 
 authentic. Then theology is also exegetic , 
 i. e., it aims to interpret and explain the 
 Scriptures ( exegesis , “ the bringing out ” of 
 the meaning). If Revelation is the source 
 of theology, it is plain that we cannot 
 overrate the importance of the accurate 
 knowledge of what the inspired writers said 
 and meant. The study of biblical exege¬ 
 sis, or hermeneutics, as it is sometimes 
 called (from hermeneuo, “to interpret”), 
 is one which has received much more at¬ 
 tention of late years than it formerly did; 
 and this is one of the happiest signs of the 
 time. Dogmatic theology is that which 
 gathers up and exhibits the results of exe- 
 
The 
 
 ( 905 ) 
 
 The 
 
 getic theology by stating doctrines in a 
 systematic manner and showing what their 
 proofs are and whence derived. Polei?iic 
 theology (from polemos, “war”) has for 
 its province to refute, cover, or defend the 
 doctrines of a systematic or dogmatic the¬ 
 ology. The epithet is said to have been 
 first given by Friedman Beckmann, a the¬ 
 ologian of Jena, in the seventeenth century. 
 Many hold it in great disrepute, on the 
 ground that sophistical arguments and un¬ 
 hallowed acts have been used in its service, 
 and that the odium theologicu?n generated by 
 religious strife has been an emeny to 
 Christian charity. But it cannot be denied 
 that the peace of the Church is dearly 
 bought if the price be the sacrifice of truth. 
 It behooves us to cast forth from our 
 armory every weapon which God does not 
 approve; but the truth must not be left 
 undefended nor error unassailed. The es¬ 
 tablishment of sound principles of criticism 
 will be the surest method of terminating 
 theological warfare. Practical theology 
 has its way prepared by all the depart¬ 
 ments of theological science that we have 
 named; it depends on them, and at the 
 same time is the crown of them all. It 
 exhibits the precepts of religion and the 
 motives which should guide us. There are 
 those who declare that this department 
 of theology alone is of importance—that all 
 else is mere trifling. Thus Pope writes: 
 
 “For modes of faith let senseless bigots fight. 
 
 His can’t be wrong whose life is in the right.” 
 
 But the answer to this is that the mode of 
 faith was revealed by God in order that 
 men might be guided by it to better living, 
 and therefore it cannot be lightly regarded. 
 An opposite error is that which reserves 
 all its admiration for the mysteries of faith. 
 Religion is barren when it is cherished 
 merely as a system of abstract truth, and 
 it is weakness and inefficiency itself whep 
 regarded merely as a system of injunctions 
 and prohibitions. Though it is a system 
 of doctrines, it uniformly contemplates 
 practical results, while the rules depend 
 for all their power on the doctrines upon 
 which they are based. Casuistry is the 
 part of practical theology which applies it¬ 
 self to cases of conscience,decides difficulties 
 as to what a man may or may not do in the 
 way of duty.—Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Theoph'any, another name for the Epiph¬ 
 any. See Epiphany. 
 
 Theophilanthropists, the name of a re¬ 
 ligious society founded in Paris during the 
 French Revolution. It developed in a kind 
 of family worship, suggested by Chemin 
 (author of a pamphlet, Manuel des Theo- 
 philanthropes , published in 1796), who with 
 
 four others, in 1796, gathered their fami¬ 
 lies for prayer and conversation. Others 
 desired to meet with them, and their first 
 public meeting was held in January, 1797. 
 “ The basis of the whole organization was 
 pure deism. God, virtue, and the immor¬ 
 tality of the soul, formed the three articles 
 of the theophilanthropist creed.” The 
 movement for a time met with great suc¬ 
 cess, but with the return of peace, and the 
 reestablishment of services by the Ro¬ 
 man Catholics, they began to decline, and 
 in 1802 Napoleon I. ordered the churches, 
 that had been used by them at the instance 
 of the Directory, to be restored to the Ro¬ 
 man Church, and after this time they disap¬ 
 peared as a body. 
 
 Theoph'ilus, bishop of Alexandria (385— 
 412). He took an active part in the Ori- 
 genistic controversy. Three letters, which 
 he wrote in opposition to Origen, are ex¬ 
 tant in a Latin translation by Jerome. 
 
 Theophilus, bishop of Antioch (176-186). 
 He was an able writer. The only one of 
 his works extant is his Apology of Chris¬ 
 tianity , addressed to a learned heathen 
 friend, Autolycus. The best edition is by 
 Otto (Jena, 1861). 
 
 Theoph'ylact, a learned Greek exegete, 
 appointed archbishop of Achrida, in Bul¬ 
 garia, 1078; d. about 1107. He wrote 
 commentaries on most of the books of the 
 Bible, which were the best produced at 
 this period in the Latin Church. 
 
 Theopneus'ty. See Inspiration. 
 
 Theos'ophy (from Theos, God, and sophia, 
 wisdom) “ is distinguished from mysti¬ 
 cism, speculative theology,and other forms 
 of philosophy and theology, to which it 
 bears a certain resemblance, by its claims 
 of direct divine inspiration, immediate di¬ 
 vine revelation, and its want, more or less 
 conspicuous, of dialectical exposition. It 
 is found among all nations—Hindus, Per¬ 
 sians, Arabs, Greeks (the later Neo-Plato¬ 
 nism), and Jews (Cabala)—and presents 
 itself variously under the form of magic 
 (Agrippa of Nettesheim, Paracelsus), or 
 vision (Swedenborg, Saint Martin), or rapt 
 contemplation (Jacob Boehme, Oettinger).” 
 —Schaff-Herzog: Ency. 
 
 Therapeu'tae, the name of a Jewish sect, 
 allied to the Essenes and early Christian 
 monks, described in a work once attributed 
 to Philo, entitled On a Contei 7 iplative Life. 
 The work is now thought to be a forgery 
 of ascetic origin, and the sect only an im¬ 
 aginary existence. 
 
The 
 
 ( 906 ) 
 
 Thi 
 
 Thessalonians, Epistle to the. See 
 Paul. 
 
 Thessaloni'ca,a city situated at the north¬ 
 east corner of the Thermaic Gulf, on the 
 Macedonian shore. Its early name was 
 Therma (hot baths), from the hot springs 
 near by. When rebuilt by Cassander (b. c. 
 315) he called it Thessalonica, after the 
 name of his wife, the sister of Alexander. 
 It became a populous and flourishing city, 
 and after its capture by the Romans (168), 
 was made one of the capitals of the four 
 divisions of Macedonia. When Paul, ac¬ 
 companied by Silas and Timothy, visited 
 the city on his second missionary journey 
 (51), he preached three Sundays in the 
 synagogue, and a church composed mostly 
 of Gentiles, was gathered there. Among his 
 
 still the most important town in European 
 Turkey next after Constantinople. It is 
 beautifully situated on a hill sloping back 
 from the gulf. Many of the mosques were 
 formerly Christian churches. It is still 
 the seat of a Greek metropolitan, and con¬ 
 tains many churches and schools of differ¬ 
 ent denominations. Of its population of 
 some 80,000, 30,000 are Jews and 10,000 
 Greeks. Some remains of its ancient grand¬ 
 eur, of historical interest, still exist. 
 
 Theu'das ( God-given ), the name of an 
 insurgent leader mentioned by Gamaliel in 
 his speech before the Jewish Council. (Acts 
 v. 35-39.) He is not the Theudas men¬ 
 tioned by Josephus (Ant. xx. 5, 1), since 
 the rebellion referred to took place some 
 years after Gamaliel’s address. The prob- 
 
 thessalonica. 
 
 converts were Caius, Aristarchus, Secun- 
 dus, and perhaps Jason. (Acts xvii. 1—13; 
 xx. 4; xxvii.; cf. Phil. iv. 16; 2 Tim. iv. 
 10.) The two epistles which Paul wrote 
 to the Thessalonian Church are the earliest 
 of his preserved writings. The accuracy 
 of Luke is corroborated by the reference 
 which he makes to the title, “ politarchs,” 
 of the chief magistrates. (Acts xvii. 8.) 
 “ This term occurs in no other writing; 
 but it maybe read to this day conspicuous¬ 
 ly on an arch of the early imperial times, 
 which spans the main street of the city.” 
 —How son. Thessalonica was an impor¬ 
 tant centre of Christianity for several cen¬ 
 turies, and the missionary enterprises were 
 here set in action that converted the Sla¬ 
 vonians and Bulgarians. It is now a Turk¬ 
 ish city under the name of Saloniki , and is 
 
 abilities are, that the leader here mention¬ 
 ed was Matthias, a prominent Jewish 
 teacher, who headed a band in the time of 
 Herod, and destroyed the Roman eagle 
 placed by the king over the gate of the 
 temple. Matthias in Greek is equivalent 
 to “ Theudas.” 
 
 Thirty-nine Articles. See Articles of 
 Reljgion. 
 
 Thirty Years’ War, a great religious war 
 that raged from 1618-48, and was ended by 
 the Peace of Westphalia. The cause was 
 nominally religion, but in reality it was the 
 ambition of the house of Austria. It began 
 in Bohemia, where the intolerance of the 
 emperor (Ferdinand II.) produced a revolt, 
 and the old animosities of the Hussite wars 
 
Tho 
 
 ( 907 ) 
 
 Tho 
 
 were all revived. Their cause was taken 
 up by the Protestant princes, and soon all 
 Central Europe was aflame. The war di¬ 
 vided itself into three distinct periods. In 
 the first, Austria, under the famous Gen¬ 
 eral Wallenstein, was completely victori¬ 
 ous, and threatened to subdue all Germany. 
 In the second, owing to the military genius 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
 who became their leader, the Protestants 
 carried all before them; and in the third, 
 victory was more uncertain and more 
 equally divided. France took an active 
 part on the Protestant side, under Turenne 
 and Conde. The great French minister, 
 Cardinal Richelieu, though he oppressed 
 the Protestants in France, helped those of 
 Germany, in pursuance of his policy of 
 French rivalry of German greatness. The 
 chief provisions of the Peace of Westphalia 
 (1648) were: 
 
 (1) Austria lost Alsace, which became a 
 possession of France, and also Lusace, by 
 which she had bought the help of the Elect¬ 
 or of Saxony. 
 
 (2) Sweden acquired Bremen, Verden, 
 part of Pomerania, Stettin, Riigen, and 
 Weimar, which made her a member of the 
 German Federation. 
 
 (3) Brandenburg obtained Magdeburg, 
 Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin. 
 
 This was, therefore, to inflict a blow 
 upon Germany which she had to wait until 
 the present generation to recover. Not 
 only were Alsace and other territories lost, 
 but the right of France to the Lotharingian 
 bishoprics was conceded; and Switzerland 
 and the United Provinces, which had prac¬ 
 tically ceased for some time to belong to 
 the empire, were formally cut off. But 
 the mischief to Germany was far greater 
 than loss of territory. While France be¬ 
 came united and compact as she pushed 
 her boundaries to the Rhine, Germany was 
 exhausted and prostrate through the long 
 struggle for which she had formed the field. 
 The authority of the empire and the free¬ 
 dom of the people seemed to have perished 
 together, and the once powerful unity was 
 dissolved into a mere lax confederation of 
 petty despotisms and oligarchies. The 
 State of Brandenburg, which, as we have 
 seen, received additions, began to lay the 
 foundations of that monarchy which, under 
 the name of Prussia, became, after a while, 
 the leading State in the Confederation, and 
 is now the all-absorbing power of the Ger¬ 
 man Empire.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Tholuck, Friedrich August, D. D., an 
 eminent German divine, author, and preach¬ 
 er; b. at Breslau, March 30, 1799; d. at 
 Halle, June 10, 1877. Of humble parent¬ 
 age, through the assistance of friends he 
 
 was enabled to pursue a university course 
 at Berlin, where he was converted from 
 skepticism through the influence of Nean- 
 der and others. Graduating in 1821 as 
 licentiate of theology he delivered lectures 
 as privat-docent until 1824, when he was ap¬ 
 pointed extraordinary professor of Oriental 
 literature. In 1826 he became ordinary 
 professor of theology in the University at 
 Halle, where he accomplished a life-work 
 of remarkable influence in behalf of evan¬ 
 gelical faith. He was a gifted and versatile 
 scholar, and a preacher of rare eloquence. 
 His relations with his students were inti¬ 
 mate, and he took peculiar care of those 
 who were struggling with adverse circum¬ 
 stances. He was especially attached to 
 many of the American students who studied 
 under him at Halle, and through them his 
 life has had a marked influence upon theo¬ 
 logical thought in this country. Some of 
 his principal works are: Sin and Redemp¬ 
 tion', or , the True Consecration of the Skeptic 
 (1825); The Credibility of the Gospel History 
 (1837); Hours of Christian Devotion (1840), 
 2 vols. He prepared Co 7 nmentaries on Ro¬ 
 mans, Gospel of John, Hebrews, and the 
 Psalms. 
 
 Thomas, one of the twelve apostles, 
 known also by the Greek equivalent, Didy- 
 mus, meaning twin. He was probably a 
 Galilean. (John xxi. 2.) There are many 
 traditions in regard to his history after the 
 ascension. Gregory Nazianzen speaks of 
 his preaching in India where, according to 
 a later tradition, he suffered death at the 
 king’s command, by being pierced with 
 lances. The Christians of St. Thomas 
 ( q . v. ) show his grave at Meliapur, India. 
 The Gospels “ present him as one whom a 
 deep earnestness of spirit inclined to mel¬ 
 ancholy, and a desire of knowledge made a 
 doubter. He is the representative, among 
 the apostles, of the critical spirit. By the 
 way of honest doubt and questioning, he 
 arrived at an imperturbable and joyous 
 conviction and faith.”— Lange. Two apoc¬ 
 ryphal works are connected with his name: 
 The Gospel according to Thomas and The 
 Acts of Thomas. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas. See Aquinas, Thom¬ 
 as. 
 
 Thomas A Becket. See Becket. 
 
 Thomas A Kempis. See Kempis. 
 
 Thomas Christians. See Christians of 
 St. Thomas. 
 
 Thomists, the followers of Thomas Aqui¬ 
 nas (y. v .). They were called Thortiists, in 
 
Tho 
 
 ( 908 ) 
 
 Tho 
 
 opposition to the Scotists, or followers of 
 Duns Scotus. The two sects were at va¬ 
 riance in their views as to the nature of the 
 divine cooperation with the human will, 
 the measure of divine grace that is neces¬ 
 sary to salvation, the unity of form in man, 
 or personal identity, and other abstruse 
 questions. The Thomists followed the 
 doctrine of Augustine as to grace, and dis¬ 
 puted the Immaculate Conception of the 
 Virgin Mary. Most of the Thomists be¬ 
 longed to the Dominican Order, while the 
 Scotists were Franciscans. 
 
 Thompson, Charles L., D. D. (Mon¬ 
 mouth College, Ill., 1876), Presbyterian; 
 b. at Cooperstown, Penn., Aug. 18, 1839; 
 was graduated at Carroll College, Wis., 
 1858; studied theology at Princeton Sem¬ 
 inary, 1858-60; was graduated at McCor¬ 
 mick Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1861. 
 He has held the following pastorates: 
 Janesville, Wis., 1862-67; First Church, 
 Cincinnati, O., 1867-72; Fifth Church, Chi¬ 
 cago, 1872-77; Third Church, Pittsburg, 
 Penn., 1877-81; Second Church, Kansas 
 City, Mo., 1881-1888; since 1888 of Mad¬ 
 ison Avenue Church, New York City. He 
 was the Moderator of the Centennial Gen¬ 
 eral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church 
 held at Philadelphia, in 1888. He has pub¬ 
 lished: Times of Refreshing: A History of 
 American Revivals from 1740 to 18 77. 
 
 Thompson, Joseph P.,D. D., LL. D., b. 
 in Philadelphia, Aug. 7, 1819; d. in Berlin, 
 Germany, Sept. 20, 1879. He was gradu¬ 
 ated at Yale College in 1838; studied the¬ 
 ology at New Haven and Andover; ordain¬ 
 ed pastor of the Chapel Street Congrega¬ 
 tional Church, New Haven, 1840; pastor 
 of Broadway Tabernacle Church (Cong.), 
 New York City, 1845-71. During his long 
 and prominent pastorate in New York he 
 exerted a wide influence as a preacher, 
 writer, and advocate of philanthropic en¬ 
 terprises. He was one of the founders 
 and editors of the New Englander , and aid¬ 
 ed in the establishment of The Independent , 
 a newspaper with which he was connected 
 editorially for fourteen years. He was a 
 prolific writer of books, pamphlets, and 
 reviews. Among his published works are: 
 The Theology of Christ in His Own Words 
 (1870); The United States as a Nation 
 (1877), and Church and State in the United 
 States { 1873). When he resigned his pas¬ 
 torate in 1871, on account of ill-health, he 
 went to Germany, where he did much in 
 defence of American institutions, both 
 with his pen and voice. Dr. Thompson 
 devoted much time to Oriental studies, 
 and was recognized as an authority in 
 Egyptology. 
 
 Thomson, Edward, D. D., LL. D., Meth¬ 
 odist Episcopal bishop; b. at Portsea, Eng., 
 Oct. 12, 1810; d. at Wheeling, W. Va., 
 March 22, 1870. He came to the United 
 States in 1818, and made his home in 
 Wooster, O. He was graduated in medi¬ 
 cine at the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1829. He joined the Methodist Church in 
 1831, and in 1833 was admitted into the 
 Annual Conference. He was principal of 
 the Norwalk (Ohio) Seminary, 1838-43; 
 editor of the Ladies' Repository , 1844-46; 
 president of the Ohio Wesleyan University 
 1846-60; editor of the New York Christian 
 Advocate, 1860-64. In 1864 he was elected 
 bishop, and made an extended episcopal 
 tour through Egypt and the East. He 
 published: Moral and Religious Essays; Ev¬ 
 idences of Revealed Religion; Our Oriental 
 Missions — India, China, and Bulgaria, 2 
 vols. 
 
 Thorn, The Conference of, was held in 
 1645 by the order of Ladislaus IV., king 
 of Poland. It was composed of distin¬ 
 guished representatives of the Roman, 
 Lutheran, and Reformed Churches. The 
 design was to bring about a reconciliation, 
 and secure, if possible, a reunion of the 
 various bodies of Christendom. The con¬ 
 ference lasted for three months and, while 
 not altogether fruitless, revealed differ¬ 
 ences and antagonisms that could not be 
 overcome. It was often called The Chari¬ 
 table Co7iference. 
 
 Thorndike, Herbert, d. 1672. One of 
 the most learned and able advocates of the 
 Laudian theology in the seventeenth cen¬ 
 tury. He held several preferments, among 
 them the mastership of Sidney College, 
 Cambridge, from all of which he was 
 ejected in the Great Revolution, but re¬ 
 ceived a stall at Westminster at the Res¬ 
 toration. He took part in the Savoy Con¬ 
 ference, and gave much assistance to 
 Walton in his Polyglot , being a very accu¬ 
 rate Oriental scholar. Thorndike’s works 
 have been republished in the Anglo-Catholic 
 Library, in 6 vols.; the most eminent of 
 them is the Epilogus to the Tragedy of the 
 Church of England (1659), an earnest asser¬ 
 tion of the grace of the sacraments.—Ben- 
 ham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Thornwell, James Henley, D. D. ,LL. D., 
 an eminent divine of the Presbyterian 
 Church; b. in Marlborough District, S. C., 
 Dec. 9, 1812; d. at Charlotte, N. C., Aug. 
 1, 1862; was graduated at South Carolina 
 College, Columbia, 1831; studied theology 
 at Andover and Harvard; ordained pastor 
 of Presbyterian Church, Lancaster, S. C., 
 1835; professor of logic and belles-lettres 
 
Thr 
 
 ( 909 ) 
 
 Thy 
 
 in South Carolina College, 1837; pastor of 
 Presbyterian Church in Columbia, 1839; 
 recalled to the college in 1841, with which 
 he was connected during the following 
 fifteen years. In 1855 he was transferred 
 from the college to the theological semi¬ 
 nary, and from 1858 was professor of didac¬ 
 tic and polemic theology, and also editor of 
 the Southern Quarterly Review. He was a 
 recognized leader in the meetings of the 
 General Assembly (Old School Branch) of 
 which he was moderator in 1847. The col¬ 
 lected writings of Dr. Thornwell, edited 
 by Rev. James B. Adger, Richmond, 1871- 
 73, are contained in 4 vols.: (1) Theological; 
 (2) Theological and Ethical; (3) Theological 
 
 which Ibas was said to have written to the 
 Persian Maris. As both Theodoret and 
 Ibas had been indorsed by the Council of 
 Chalcedon this action of Justinian implied a 
 censure of that Council. A long and bitter 
 controversy grew out of this edict. See 
 Church histories, and Hefele : Councils of 
 the Church. 
 
 Thugs, an organized body of secret 
 assassins and thieves who were the terror 
 of India for many years. They were the 
 worshipers of the bloody goddess, Kali. 
 They were suppressed during the ad¬ 
 ministration of Lord William Bentinck 
 (1828-35). 
 
 THYATIRA, ASIA MINOR. 
 
 and Controversial; (4) Ecclesiastical. See 
 his Life and Letters , by B. M. Palmer, 
 (Richmond, 1875). 
 
 Three-Chapter Controversy, The, grew 
 out of the Monophysite Controversy. 
 Through the influence of Theodorus Asci- 
 das, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, the 
 Emperor Justinian was led to believe that 
 many of the Monophysites might be won 
 to the Church if the chief representatives of 
 the Nestorian theology were rebuked. He 
 therefore issued an edict in 544, condemning 
 (1) the person and writings of Theodore of 
 Mopsuestia; (2) the writings of Theodoret 
 in defence of Nestorius, and (3) the letter 
 
 Thummim. See Urim and Thummim. 
 
 Thurible, Thuribulum, a vessel in which 
 incense is burned. It is usually made of 
 gold or silver, with perforations in its cover 
 through which the fumes escape. The 
 censer is suspended by three long chains by 
 which it is swung backward and forward. 
 
 Thyati'ra, “a city on the Lycus, founded 
 by Seleucus Nicator, lay to the left of the 
 road from Pergamos to Sardis, on the very 
 confines of Mysia and Ionia, so as to be 
 sometimes reckoned within the one, and 
 sometimes within the other. Dyeing ap¬ 
 parently formed an important part of the 
 
Tia 
 
 ( 9io ) 
 
 Til 
 
 industrial activity of Thyatira, as it did of 
 that of Colossae and Laodicea. (Acts xvi. 
 14.) The principal deity of the city was 
 Apollo; but there was another supersti¬ 
 tion, of an extremely curious nature, which 
 seems to have been brought thither by 
 some of the corrupted Jews of the dispersed 
 tribes. A fane stood outside the walls, 
 dedicated to Sambatha —the name of the 
 sibyl who is sometimes called Chaldsean, 
 sometimes Jewish, sometimes Persian—in 
 the midst of an enclosure designated ‘ the 
 Chaldaean’s Court.’ This seems to lend 
 an illustration to the obscure passage in 
 Rev. ii. 20, 21, which some interpret of the 
 wife of the bishop. Now, there is evidence 
 to show that in Thyatira there was a great 
 amalgamation of races. If the sibyl Sam¬ 
 batha was really a Jewess, lending her aid 
 to the amalgamation of different religions, 
 and not discountenanced by the authorities 
 of the Judaeo-Christian Church at Thyatira, 
 both the censure and its qualification be¬ 
 come easy of explanation.”—Smith: Diet, 
 of the Bible . 
 
 Tiara, a kind of round high cap worn as 
 a crown by the pope on solemn occasions. 
 It is encircled with three golden crowns set 
 with jewels. The original tiara was sim¬ 
 ilar to that of an ordinary bishop, but John 
 XIII. (965)added a golden crown; Boniface 
 VIII. (1295) the second, and Benedict XIII. 
 (1335) the third. 
 
 Tibe'rias, the modern Ttibariya , situated 
 on the western bank of the sea of Galilee. 
 It was built by Herod Antipas, after the 
 fashion of the Roman cities, with palaces, 
 theatres, gymnasiums, etc. After the de¬ 
 struction of Jerusalem it became the seat 
 of the Sanhedrin, and for many centuries 
 was a seat of Jewish learning. The modern 
 city covers only a small part of the space 
 occupied by the ancient city. It has a pop¬ 
 ulation of some four thousand, about one- 
 half of whom are Jews and the rest Mo¬ 
 hammedans and Christians. The city is 
 mentioned but once in the New Testament 
 (John vi. 23), and there is no record that 
 Christ ever visited it. 
 
 Tide, the Saxon word for hour, time, and 
 sometimes for a festival, as Eastertide, 
 Whitsuntide, etc. 
 
 Tig'lath-Pile'ser, the second Assyrian 
 king of that name, who reigned B. C. 745- 
 727, and is identical with Pul. He invaded 
 Samaria (2 Kings xv. 29), and, later, de¬ 
 stroyed Damascus and carried many away 
 captive. (1 Chron. v. 26.) After the cap¬ 
 ture of Damascus he put Rezin to death 
 (2 Kings xvi. 9), and it was here that Ahaz 
 
 visited him and became his vassal. (2 Kings 
 xvi. 10.) 
 
 Tillotson, John, “ archbishop of Canter¬ 
 bury, was the son of a clothier, and was 
 b. at Sowerby, in Yorkshire, in 1630. His 
 father, Mr. Robert Tillotson, was a zealous 
 Puritan—a circumstance that is not a little 
 curious, when we consider that the son 
 ultimately turned out the most catholic 
 churchman of his age. Tillotson studied 
 at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took 
 the degree of B. A. in 1650, and of M. A. in 
 1654. The writings of Chillingworth are 
 said to have exercised a powerful influence 
 on his mind during his university curricu¬ 
 lum; but he owed not less to his friendly 
 intercourse with Cudworth, More, Rust, 
 Smith, Wilkins, and other eminent schol¬ 
 ars. In 1656 he became private tutor in 
 the house of Edmund Prideaux of Ford 
 Abbey, Devonshire, attorney-general under 
 the protector, but appears to have return¬ 
 ed to London shortly before Cromwell’s 
 death. At what time Tillotson entered 
 into orders, or who ordained him, is not 
 known; but he was a preacher in 1661, 
 attached apparently to the Presbyterian 
 party in the Church of England, for at the 
 famous Savoy Conference (q. v.) he was 
 present on the Presbyterian side; but he 
 submitted at once to the act of uniformity 
 (1662); and in December of that year was 
 offered the church of St. Mary, Alderman- 
 bury, London, of which Edmund Calamy 
 had been deprived, but declined it. In 1663 
 he was appointed to the rectory of Ked- 
 dington, in Suffolk, but almost immediate¬ 
 ly thereafter was chosen preacher at Lin¬ 
 coln’s Inn, where his mild, evangelical, but 
 ^//doctrinal morality was at first little rel¬ 
 ished. ‘ Since Mr. Tillotson came,’ said 
 the benchers, ‘ Jesus Christ has not been 
 preached among us.’ However, as the 
 graces of his character gradually displayed 
 themselves his popularity increased, espe¬ 
 cially when it was found that, although not 
 a Puritan, he was, nevertheless, averse to 
 atheism and popery. In 1664 he published 
 a sermon on ‘ The Wisdom of being Re¬ 
 ligious; ’ and in 1666, * The Rule of Faith,’ 
 in reply to a work by an English clergy¬ 
 man named Sargeant, who had gone over 
 to the Church of Rome. About the same 
 period he took the degree of D. D., and in 
 1670 was made a prebend of Canterbury. 
 Two years later he was promoted to a 
 deanery; and in 1680 published a some¬ 
 what notable sermon, entitled ‘ The Prot¬ 
 estant Religion Vindicated from the Charge 
 of Singularity and Novelty,’ in which he 
 advanced the proposition, untenable by a 
 Protestant, that ‘ no man is at liberty to 
 affront (i. e., to attack) the established re- 
 
Tim 
 
 ( 9ii ) 
 
 Tit 
 
 ligion of a nation, though it be false.’ This 
 proposition he subsequently, on reflection, 
 abandoned. Along with Burnet, he attend¬ 
 ed Lord Russell during his imprisonment 
 for complicity in the Rye-house plot; and 
 on the accession of William III., rose high 
 into favor. In 1689 he was appointed clerk 
 of the closet to the king, and in April, 
 1691, was raised to the see of Canterbury, 
 vacant by the deposition of Sancroft (q. v .), 
 after vainly imploring William to spare 
 him an honor which he foreboded would 
 bring him no peace. Nor was he mistaken 
 in his painful presentiment. The nonjuring 
 party pursued him with unrelenting rage 
 to the end of his life; but their animosity 
 could not extract one murmur of complaint, 
 or one vindictive retaliation from the meek, 
 humane, and tolerant primate. He did not 
 long enjoy his dignity, dying of palsy, Nov. 
 18, 1694, at the age of 65. A collected 
 edition of his Sermons was published after 
 his death by his chaplain, Dr. Barker, and 
 has been frequently reprinted. They were 
 translated into German by Mosheim, and 
 were long highly popular on account of 
 their clear, solid and refined thought, their 
 easy eloquence, and their humane and 
 moral piety.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Tim'othy ( honoring God), the co-laborer 
 and pupil of Paul. A native of Derbe or 
 Lystra; he had a heathen father and a Jew¬ 
 ish mother. Both his mother and grand¬ 
 mother were distinguished for piety, and 
 early educated him in the Scriptures. (2 
 Tim. i. 5; 2 Tim. iii. 15.) Converted in 
 youth, probably during Paul’s visit on his 
 first missionary journey, when the apostle 
 visited Lystra on his second missionary 
 tour he heard such reports of Timothy 
 that he made him his companion. The let¬ 
 ters of Paul reveal the tender tie of affec¬ 
 tion that bound their hearts together. 
 Probably Timothy was thirty-four or thir¬ 
 ty-five when left in charge of the church 
 at Ephesus. (1 Tim. iv. 12.) According 
 to tradition Timothy was the first bishop 
 of Ephesus, and suffered martyrdom un¬ 
 der Domitian. 
 
 Timothy, Epistles to. See Paul. 
 
 Tindal, Matthew, a distinguished deist- 
 ical writer; b. in Devonshire, about 1657; 
 d. in London, Aug. 16, 1733. A graduate 
 of Oxford, he joined the Roman Catholic 
 Church, but soon returned to the Church 
 of England. His principal work was: 
 Christianity as Old as the Creation; or. The 
 Gospel a Re-publication of the Law of Nat¬ 
 ure (1730). It treats the Scriptures from 
 the standpoint of rationalism, and its at¬ 
 tacks upon the Old Testament dispensation 
 
 as a divine revelation called forth many 
 replies. It is said that the Analogy of Bish¬ 
 op Butler was meant especially to be a 
 reply to this work. Tindal’s other works 
 are: The Rights of the Christian Church 
 Asserted, an attack upon High-Church 
 views (1706), and several pamphlets. 
 
 Tischendorf, Lobegott Frederick Con¬ 
 stantine von, “a very eminent biblical 
 scholar, was born at Lengenfeld, in Sax¬ 
 ony, on Jan. 18, 1815. His labors in search 
 of the best and rarest MSS. in reference 
 to the Bible, in which he was liberally as¬ 
 sisted by the Saxon and Russian govern¬ 
 ments, were exceedingly valuable. Among 
 the most important of his numerous excel¬ 
 lent works are the editions of the Sinaitic 
 MS. (1862, 1863, 1865); the Eighth Critical 
 Edition of the New Testament (1864-72), 
 and the Monumenta Sacra Inedita (185 5— 
 70). After being an extraordinary and or¬ 
 dinary professor at Leipzig, from 1845, he 
 became professor of theology and of bibli¬ 
 cal palaeography in 1859, a chair in the lat¬ 
 ter subject having been instituted for him. 
 He was created a count of the Russian 
 empire, an LL. D. of Cambridge, a D. C. L. 
 of Oxford, etc. He died on Dec. 1, 1874.” 
 —Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Tithes, tenths of produce, property, or 
 spoils, dedicated to sacred use. “ The 
 principal tithal rules are as follows: (1) 
 The tenth part of the fruits of the earth 
 and cattle were given to the Levites, who 
 received it as a compensation for their 
 want of an inheritance, and might eat it at 
 their several places of abode. (Num. xviii. 
 21.) (2) The Levites must give one-tenth 
 
 part of this tithe to the priests (Num. xviii. 
 26); this latter portion after the exile (Neh. 
 x. 38), and, perhaps, before (2 Chron. xxxi. 
 12), had to be delivered at Jerusalem. (3) 
 A second tenth was eaten at the tabernacle, 
 at a joyous feast (Deut. xiv. 22 sq.)\ the 
 offerers, if they were ceremonially clean, 
 and the Levites, joining therein. In case 
 the distance was so great as to make the 
 transportation of the tenth part inexpedi¬ 
 ent, it might be converted into money, and 
 the money used again in the purchase of 
 the necessary vegetables and meat for the 
 feast. (Deut. xiv. 25, 26.) (4) Every 
 
 third year this tithal feast was celebrated 
 by the people at their homes (Deut. xxvi. 
 12); the Levites, stranger, fatherless, and 
 widows being invited thereto. The tithes 
 were considerably neglected after the exile 
 (Neh. xiii. 10; Mai. iii. 8, 10); and, at the 
 later period of Roman rule, high-priests 
 often laid violent hands on the priestly 
 tithes. (Joseph.: Ant. xx. 8, 8; 9, 2.) The 
 Pharisees, on the other hand, insisted upon 
 
Tit 
 
 ( 912 ) 
 
 Tol 
 
 the tithal rules as conditions of righteous¬ 
 ness, and entered upon a casuistical and 
 minute application of them. Our Lord 
 refers to their particular care in this regard. 
 (Matt, xxiii. 23.)” — Leyrer. Cf. Schaff- 
 Herzog: Ency ., vol. iii., pp. 2365-66. 
 
 Titular, a term applied to a person 
 who has merely a title to a benefice, not 
 having yet entered on its privileges. 
 
 Ti'tus, the “ fellow-helper” of Paul, a 
 Gentile (Gal. ii. 3), was probably one of 
 Paul’s converts (Tit. i. 4), but was never 
 circumcised. (Gal. ii. 3.) Titus was the 
 companion of Paul in many of his mission¬ 
 ary journeys (2 Cor. viii. 6, 16, 23), and 
 was with him in his second Roman im¬ 
 prisonment. (2 Tim. iv. 10.) According to 
 tradition Titus died as bishop of Crete. 
 
 Tobit. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Todd, John, D. D., a distinguished 
 Congregational minister and author; b. at 
 Rutland, Vt., Oct. 9, 1800; d. at Pittsfield, 
 Mass., Aug. 24, 1873. He was graduated 
 at Yale College, 1822, and Andover Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, 1826; pastor in Groton, 
 Mass., 1827-33; of the Edwards Church, 
 Northampton, 1833-36; of the First Con¬ 
 gregational Church, Philadelphia, 1836-42; 
 of the First Church, Pittsfield, Mass., 
 1842-70. He wrote many widely circulated 
 books. Among them are: Lectures to Chil¬ 
 dren; Student's Manual; Index Rerum; 
 Future Punishment (1863) ; Hints and 
 Thoughts for Christians (1867); Woman's 
 Rights (1867); The Sunset-land, or the 
 Great Pacific Slope (1870). See John Todd: 
 The Story of his Life told mainly by Him¬ 
 self (New York, 1876). 
 
 Toledo, Councils of. Toledo is a fa¬ 
 mous old city in Spain, and is still the seat 
 of an archbishopric. Many Church synods 
 were held there. About the date of the 
 first council there is much difference of 
 opinion, but it was probably called about 
 400 by Patronus, bishop of Toledo, in the 
 pontificate of Anastasius, to pass decrees 
 against the Priscillianists. Another was 
 called for the same purpose in 447 by Leo 
 the Great. 
 
 That, however, known as the Second 
 Council of Toledo was held in 531, under 
 the presidency of the Archbishop Mon- 
 tanus, and five canons were passed con¬ 
 cerning ecclesiastical discipline, which had 
 much relaxed under the Arian princes. 
 
 The Third Counci -1 of Toledo was held 
 after the conversion of the Goths from 
 Arianism, in order to fortify the people in 
 their creed, and bring the discipline of the 
 
 Church into better form. It was held in 
 589, under Leander, bishop of Seville: 
 there were sixty-three prelates present, 
 besides five proctors for those who were 
 absent. King Reccared, who had been 
 converted that year, ordered a fast of three 
 days to be kept before the opening of the 
 assembly; three - and - twenty important 
 canons were passed against Arianism, and 
 the same number on matters of the Church. 
 The second canon enjoined repeating the 
 Creed before receiving the Communion, 
 and the eleventh regulated Penance. The 
 synod was closed with an eloquent address 
 by Leander on the conversion of the Goths. 
 Two smaller synods were held in 597 to 
 guard the sobriety of priests, and in 610 to 
 settle the primacy upon the see of Toledo. 
 
 The Fourth Council of Toledo was held 
 in 633, under the presidency of St. Isidore; 
 it discussed both discipline and doctrine, 
 and seventy-five canons were made re¬ 
 garding the rights of the king. It was at¬ 
 tended by seventy-two bishops. 
 
 The Fifth Council was convened in 636 
 under Eugenius of Toledo; twenty bishops 
 were present, and nine canons were pass¬ 
 ed confirming the decrees of the last as¬ 
 sembly. 
 
 The Sixth Council, in 638, met to secure 
 the orthodox faith, and amongst other 
 things a canon was made that none but 
 Catholics should be allowed to live in 
 Spain. Sylva, archbishop of Narbonne, 
 was president, and fifty-two bishops at¬ 
 tended. 
 
 The Seventh Council was held in 646; 
 the eighth in 653, when measures were 
 taken against Jews and heretics; the ninth, 
 in 655; the tenth, in 656; the eleventh, in 
 675, settled the better partition of the 
 diocese, and denounced the licentiousness 
 of the priests; the twelfth, in 681, consist¬ 
 ed of thirty-five prelates, presided over by 
 Julian, archbishop of Toledo; it confirmed 
 King Erwig’s title to the throne, and gave 
 a check to the Jews; the thirteenth, in 683, 
 made thirteen canons against those who 
 should plot against or despise the authority 
 of the sovereign; the fourteenth, in 684, 
 was against the Monothelites and Apolli- 
 narians; the fifteenth, in 688, discussed the 
 substance and nature of Christ; the six¬ 
 teenth, in 693, protested against idolatry 
 and the licentiousness of priests; the seven¬ 
 teenth, in 694, was against the Jews. The 
 eighteenth, and last, was held in 701; its 
 decrees are lost. Other Synods of Toledo 
 are mentioned, down to 1473, but none of 
 importance.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Toleration, the liberty allowed, in 
 countries which have an established relig¬ 
 ion, to persons holding other views or 
 
Tol 
 
 ( 913 ) 
 
 Tol 
 
 opinions to teach publicly their own tenets, 
 and to worship in the mode of their own 
 choice, or not at all. Such liberty is so 
 entirely taken for granted in the conditions 
 under which we live, that it is difficult to 
 realize how different was the state of things 
 in former times. It is unfair to the Church 
 of Rome to reckon intolerance as her 
 special monopoly, though it may fairly be 
 claimed for the Reformation that tolera¬ 
 tion only became possible under it. It was 
 nc cruelty on the part of the authorities of 
 the Church previously which led them to 
 punish with fine, imprisonment, and death 
 those who challenged the received doc¬ 
 trines. For as a State claims to itself the 
 right to imprison thieves and hang mur¬ 
 derers, so it was believed that there was a 
 like duty to punish those who depraved 
 morals and ruined the souls of men. A 
 man who wilfully poisons a soul was as 
 sinful as he who wilfully poisons a body. 
 And the Church of Rome, holding itself to 
 be infallible, and its doctrines to be neces¬ 
 sary to salvation, proclaimed it her duty to 
 visit with the heaviest penalties those who 
 fell into heresy concerning the faith de¬ 
 livered to the Church. It also appears 
 possible that the mode of execution by 
 burning, so constantly adopted, had in it 
 originally some idea of expiating, by burn¬ 
 ing on earth, sins which it was held de¬ 
 served eternal torment of the same kind in 
 a most literal sense. It does not, there¬ 
 fore, surprise us that some of the gentlest 
 of men were uncompromising “ persecu¬ 
 tors;” such men were St. Francis de Sales 
 and Sir Thomas More. It was the disbe¬ 
 lief with which men came to regard this 
 claim to infallibility which led them to 
 deny the right of any man, or body of men, 
 to be regarded as an authority over con¬ 
 sciences. We can therefore do justice to 
 men like St. Dominic, and some of the pro¬ 
 moters of the Inquisition, whilst we thank 
 God that their day of persecution is over. 
 
 But the rejection of Roman infallibility 
 was by no means the signal for general 
 toleration. When Henry VIII. destroyed 
 the pope’s authority in England he took it 
 to himself, continued the censorship of 
 books, and extended it over not only the¬ 
 ological but political writings. In Queen 
 Elizabeth’s reign the right of printing was 
 confined to the few presses in London, 
 Cambridge, and Oxford, which held royal 
 licenses, and in 1637 a decree of the Star 
 Chamber limited the number of printers in 
 the whole country to twenty, and of type¬ 
 founders to four, and the work of these 
 was subject to the strictest supervision. 
 The danger to life and liberty into which a 
 dissenter from Roman doctrine ran in the 
 days of Queen Mary was transferred to 
 
 Roman Catholics themselves under Queen 
 Elizabeth. Not only so, but the animosi¬ 
 ties which divided Protestant from Protes¬ 
 tant were no better. Barnes, a Lutheran, 
 who himself had been imprisoned for her¬ 
 esy, impeached Lambert for heresy con¬ 
 cerning the sacrament in the days of Henry 
 VIII., and procured his burning, and no 
 sect recognized any shadow of divergence 
 from its own standards. While the Ro¬ 
 manist regarded all outside his dominion 
 as outcasts from grace, the Anglican could 
 only extend the terms of salvation to those 
 who took the sacraments from the apostol- 
 ically ordained minister: Lutherans anath¬ 
 ematized those who denied the Real Pres¬ 
 ence, Calvin burned the Unitarian Servetus, 
 and the Unitarians were uncompromising 
 against those who denied the inspiration of 
 the Scriptures. When the Star Chamber 
 was abolished in 1640, the right which it 
 had exercised was claimed by the Parlia¬ 
 ment, which pursued the same policy by 
 an ordinance for the regulation of printing. 
 When the Westminster Assembly met in 
 1643, the Independents proposed that all 
 sects should be tolerated, but the Presby¬ 
 terians successfully opposed them, and the 
 Westminster Confession (ch. 23) asserts the 
 duty of the magistrate to promote the true 
 religion, and to restrain and punish hetero¬ 
 doxy. That the Independents themselves 
 had not learned to practice the principles 
 of religious freedom is evident from the 
 history of their proceedings in New Eng¬ 
 land. “ From the Reformation to the Com¬ 
 monwealth,” says Bishop Heber, “ there 
 is abundant proof that, much as every re¬ 
 ligious party in its turn had suffered from 
 persecution, and loudly and bitterly as each 
 had, in its own particular instance, com¬ 
 plained of the severities exercised against 
 its members, no party had yet been found 
 to perceive the great wickedness of perse¬ 
 cution in the abstract, or the moral unfit¬ 
 ness of temporal punishment as an engine 
 of religious controversy. Even the sects 
 who were themselves under oppression 
 exclaimed against their rulers, not as be¬ 
 ing persecutors at all, but as persecuting 
 those who professed the truth; and each 
 sect, as it obtained the power to wield the 
 secular weapon, esteemed it also a duty as 
 well as a privilege not to bear the sword 
 in vain.” The first home of religious lib¬ 
 erty was Holland, where the.keen discus¬ 
 sions that went on opened the eyes of 
 religious men to the sacredness of the 
 conscience. But the greatest apostle of 
 toleration in England was John Milton, 
 whose Areopagitica: A Defence of the Liber¬ 
 ty of Unlicensed Printing , published in No¬ 
 vember, 1644, is perhaps the noblest 
 pamphlet in our language. “ The principle 
 
Tol 
 
 ( 9i4 ) 
 
 Ton 
 
 for which he contended,” writes Professor 
 Morley, “ is that upon which all healthy 
 growth and national prosperity, in its true 
 sense, must depend. He took for his 
 model an oration written to be read, which 
 was addressed by Isocrates to the Areop¬ 
 agus, the great Council of Athens. Isoc¬ 
 rates called on the Parliament of Athens 
 to undo acts of its own; Milton was mak¬ 
 ing a like call on the Areopagus of Eng¬ 
 land.” (Preface to Famous Pamphlets.') The 
 first, however, to lay down unflinchingly 
 this great principle was Roger Williams 
 (q. v.)\ and other works which have pro¬ 
 moted the cause of the slowly learned les¬ 
 son of toleration have been Bishop Jeremy 
 Taylor’s Liberty of Prophesying , Barclay’s 
 Apology for the Quakers, Locke’s Treatise 
 on Toleration; Sydney Smith’s Peter Plym- 
 leys Letters; Dr. Martineau’s Rationale of 
 Religious Enquiry, and John Stuart Mill’s 
 Essay on Liberty. The result may be sum¬ 
 med up in the language of Mr. Froude: 
 “ An enlarged experience of one another 
 has taught believers of all sects that their 
 differences need not be pressed into mortal 
 hatred; and we have been led forward un¬ 
 consciously into a recognition of a broader 
 Christianity than as yet we are able to pro¬ 
 fess. in the respectful acknowledgment of 
 excellence wherever excellence is found. 
 Where we see piety, continence, courage, 
 self-forgetfulness, there, or not far off, we 
 know is the Spirit of the Almighty and, as 
 we look around us among our living con¬ 
 temporaries, or look back with open eyes 
 into the history of the past, we see that 
 God is no respecter of ‘ denominations * 
 any more than he is a respecter of persons. 
 His highest gifts are shed abroad with an 
 even hand among the sects of Christendom, 
 and petty distinctions of opinion melt away 
 and become invisible in the fullness of a 
 larger truth.”—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Toleration Act, “an act of Parliament, 
 passed in the first year of the reign of Wil¬ 
 liam and Mary (1689), by which the free¬ 
 dom of worship was granted to such Dis¬ 
 senters from the Church of England as 
 should make a declaration against transub- 
 stantiation, and take the oaths of alle¬ 
 giance and supremacy. Its benefits were 
 not extended to Unitarians nor to Roman 
 Catholics, nor did it relieve Dissenters 
 from the Test and Corporation Acts. In 
 1813 the clause in the act which excepted 
 Unitarians was repealed; and subsequent 
 legislation has given full religious freedom 
 to Dissenters of all kinds, and likewise to 
 Roman Catholics.”—Cassell: Cyclo. See 
 Test and Corporation Acts. 
 
 Tongues, Gift of. “ The promise of 
 
 our Lord to his disciples, * They shall 
 speak with new tongues ’ (Mark xvi. 17), 
 was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost, when 
 cloven tongues like fire sat upon the dis¬ 
 ciples, and ‘ every man heard them speak 
 in his own language.’ (Acts. ii. 1-12.) It 
 is usually supposed that this supernatural 
 knowledge of languages was given to the 
 disciples for their work as evangelists; but 
 it appears from the narrative that the 
 ‘ tongues ’ were used as an instrument, not 
 of teaching, but of praise, and those who 
 spoke them seemed to others to be under 
 the influence of some strong excitement, 
 ‘ full of new wine.’ Moreover, the Gift of 
 Tongues is definitely asserted to be a ful¬ 
 fillment of the prediction of Joel ii. 28; and 
 we are led, therefore, to look for that 
 which answers to the Gift of Tongues in 
 the other element of prophecy which is in¬ 
 cluded in the Old Testament use of the 
 word; and this is found in the ecstatic 
 praise, the burst of song. (1 Sam. x. 5-13; 
 xix. 20-24; 1 Chron. xxv. 3.) The First 
 Epistle to the Corinthians supplies fuller 
 data. The spiritual gifts are classified and 
 compared, arranged, apparently, according 
 to their worth. The facts which may be 
 gathered are briefly these: (1) The phe¬ 
 nomena of the Gift of Tongues were not 
 confined to one church or section of a 
 church. (2) The comparison of gifts, in 
 both the lists given by St. Paul (1 Cor. 
 xii. 8-10, 28-30), places that of tongues, 
 and the interpretation of tongues, lowest in 
 the scale. (3) The main characteristic of 
 the ‘ tongue ’ is that it is unintelligible. 
 The man ‘ speaks mysteries,’ prays, 
 blesses, gives thanks, in the tongue (1 Cor. 
 xiv. 15, 16), but no one understands him. 
 (4) The ‘ tongues,’ however, must be re¬ 
 garded as real languages. The ‘ divers 
 kinds of tongues ’ (1 Cor. xii. 28), the 
 ‘ tongues of men ’ (1 Cor. xiii. 1), point to 
 differences of some kind, and it is easier to 
 conceive of these as differences of language 
 than as belonging to utterances all equally 
 wild and inarticulate. (5) Connected with 
 the ‘ tongues,’ there was the corresponding 
 power of interpretation.”—Smith: Diet, of 
 the Bible. For the alleged modern revival 
 of the gift of tongues see Catholic Apos¬ 
 tolic Church. 
 
 Tonsure. From an early date it was 
 customary for the priests in the Roman 
 and Greek Churches to shave a portion of 
 the skull. After the sixth century the 
 fashion was adopted by monks. The ex¬ 
 tent of the tonsure distinguishes the higher 
 from the lower clergy. Most of the men¬ 
 dicant and cloistered orders permit only a 
 narrow strip of hair to grow around the 
 head: all above and below is shaved. The 
 
Top 
 
 ( 915 ) 
 
 Tra 
 
 tonsure is conferred by bishops, cardinal 
 priests, and abbots. 
 
 Toplady, Augustus Montague, b. at 
 Farnham, Surrey, Nov. 4, 1740; d. in Lon¬ 
 don, Aug. 11, 1778. He was ordained in 
 1762, and became vicar of Broad Hembury, 
 Devonshire, in 1768, where he remained till 
 his death. At the age of nineteen he pub¬ 
 lished Poems on Sacred Subjects', but his 
 most important hymns were written in 
 later years. Among them was: “ Rock of 
 Ages, cleft for me,” first published in 1776, 
 in the Gospel Magazine , of which he was 
 then the editor. A complete edition of his 
 verses was published by D. Sedgwick, in 
 i860. Toplady was a Calvinistic Metho¬ 
 dist, and engaged in a controversy with 
 John Wesley, in which very bitter words 
 were employed on both sides. 
 
 Torquemada, Thomas de, an infamous 
 Inquisitor of the Dominican order; b. at 
 Valladolid, 1420; d. at Avila, Sept. 16, 
 1498. He founded the Inquisition in Spain, 
 in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. It 
 is said that 9,000 victims perished at the 
 stake by his command. He was influential 
 in procuring the banishment of the Jews 
 from Spain. 
 
 Torrey, Joseph, D. D., Congregational¬ 
 ism b. at Rowley, Mass., Feb. 2, 1797; d. at 
 Burlington, Vt., Nov. 26, 1867; was grad¬ 
 uated at Dartmouth College, 1816, and at 
 Andover Theological Seminary, 1819; pas¬ 
 tor at Royalton, Vt., 1819-27; professor of 
 Latin and Greek in the University of Ver¬ 
 mont, 1827-42. He was professor of intel¬ 
 lectual and moral philosophy from 1842 
 until his death, and from 1863 to 1865 pres¬ 
 ident of the university. The literary work 
 by which he is best known is a translation 
 of Neander’s General History of the Chris¬ 
 tian Religion and Church (Boston, 12th ed., 
 1881), 5 vols., with index and copious notes. 
 
 Tractarian Movement, the name given to 
 the religious revival which commenced in 
 Oxford in 1833. Two influences were at 
 work in causing it. One was the tendency 
 to rationalism, brought about by the study 
 of German theologians; the other the per¬ 
 functory way in which the clergy per¬ 
 formed their clerical duties. Pluralists 
 abounded, and there was a general spirit 
 of money-getting abroad amongst the cler¬ 
 gy. The rubrics were not carried out; 
 there was no daily service, except in the 
 cathedrals; the Holy Communion was ad¬ 
 ministered only at long intervals, and, al¬ 
 together, church-life was at a very low ebb. 
 
 The Reform Bill of 1831, with its polit¬ 
 ical liberalism, had made a deep impres¬ 
 
 sion, especially on some of the clergy of 
 Oxford, and roused them up to a defence 
 of the Established Church. The leaders of 
 the movement were two celebrated Fellows 
 of Oriel—John Keble and John Henry 
 Newman, with whom were joined Richard 
 Hurrell Froude, Arthur Philip Perceval, 
 Frederick William Faber, William Palmer, 
 of Magdalen and William Palmer, of Wor¬ 
 cester, Edward Bouverie Pusey, and Isaac 
 Williams. To these must be added one 
 great Cambridge name, that of Hugh James 
 Rose ( q . v .). 
 
 Keble, by the publication in 1827 of the 
 Christian Year , had exercised an immense 
 influence. His was a singularly beautiful 
 personal character, and to him the Church 
 of England was the only possible Church. 
 Newman, till the age of twenty-one, had 
 been brought up under Calvinistic influ¬ 
 ences. Richard Hurrell Froude was a man 
 of versatile genius, but of no real depth, 
 very impetuous, the “knight-errant” of 
 his party, and he undoubtedly led Newman 
 toward Rome. These three men had, be¬ 
 tween 1828 and 1833, been gradually ap¬ 
 proaching toward a definite plan of action. 
 On July 14, 1833, Keble preached an assize 
 sermon, entitled “ National Apostasy,” 
 which so moved Newman that a meeting 
 was at once agreed on, at which the method 
 of action should be decided. This meeting 
 took place at Hadleigh, where Hugh James 
 Rose was the rector, and at which all those 
 named above were present except Faber, 
 Pusey, and Williams. They had previously 
 published a book called The Church's 
 Manual , in which they had prominently 
 brought forward the significance of the 
 sacraments and the importance of the 
 priesthood; this manual they now revised, 
 and as a means for further teaching, New¬ 
 man started the idea of Tracts for the 
 Times, which were to be backed by higher 
 pulpit teaching. Newman is called the 
 tractarian par excellence. Of the ninety 
 which were published in the course of 
 eight years he wrote twenty-eight. In 
 1835 Pusey, who at first had held aloof 
 from the movement, came into the ranks 
 with his tract on Baptism; he was a man 
 of higher standing than the rest, being 
 Hebrew Professor, a D. D.,and a canon of 
 Christ Church. His accession gave the 
 movement name and force, and originated 
 the term Puseyite, which was so long the 
 epithet of a High-Churchman. In 1838 
 the bishop of Oxford animadverted on the 
 Tracts, but he did not oppose their publi¬ 
 cation; but the opposition waxed louder 
 year by year, especially on the publication, 
 in 1839, by Newman and Keble, of R. H. 
 Froude's Remains (he having died in 1836). 
 This book contained words of the strongest 
 
Tra 
 
 ( 9* 6 ) 
 
 character against the Reformation, and 
 opened the eyes of many who had hitherto 
 doubted as to the tendency of the move¬ 
 ment. In 1841 came the celebrated Tract 
 go, from the pen of Newman, which was 
 said to teach that a man might subscribe 
 the Thirty-nine Articles, even when he held 
 the doctrines of the Church of Rome. This 
 raised a tremendous storm in Oxford. 
 Four tutors published a protest against it, 
 and it was censured by the Heads of 
 Houses. This was the last of the Tracts. 
 The bishop of Ox.ford, Dr. Bagot, wrote to 
 Newman requesting that the series might 
 cease, and Newman immediately yielded. 
 Though their publication made so much 
 noise at the time, the Tracts are now but 
 little read, and those who do read them 
 wonder that they should have caused so 
 much excitement. The name “Tractarian” 
 was given to the writers by Dr. Christo¬ 
 pher Benson, Master of the Temple, who 
 was one of their strongest opponents. 
 Cardinal Newman’s Apologia, written in 
 1864, is eminently the best book to read for 
 the history of the movement.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Transfiguration. This wonderful episode 
 in the earthly life of Christ is recorded 
 with almost exact repetition in the synop¬ 
 tical gospels (Matt. xvii. 1—13; Mark ix. 
 2-13; Luke ix. 28-36), and is alluded toby 
 Peter. (2 Peter i. 16-18.) “ The design of 
 this miraculous event was manifold; but 
 chiefly to attest in the most solemn and 
 mysterious manner the divinity of the 
 Messiah’s person and mission; to support 
 the faith of the disciples by evidence of the 
 existence of a separate state, which was 
 furnished by the appearance and conversa¬ 
 tion of Moses and Elias; and as showing, 
 by the audible declaration of the Father, a 
 broad distinction between this prophet and 
 all others: ‘ This is my beloved Son, hear 
 ye him.’ The place of the transfigura¬ 
 tion was probably the southern slope of 
 Hermon, as it occurred a few days after 
 the confession of Peter at Caesarea-Phi¬ 
 lippi, which lay at the foot of Mount Her¬ 
 mon, and on the eve of Christ’s last jour¬ 
 ney to Jerusalem. Mount Tabor, the 
 traditional site, does not answer the con¬ 
 ditions. The summit was then a fortified 
 and occupied camp. The time of the event 
 was most likely the night, as then it would 
 be better seen; besides, the disciples were 
 awakened by the light. Again, it was the 
 next day before they descended. (Luke ix. 
 37.) Peter, James and John were the sole 
 spectators ; our Lord, Moses and Elijah 
 the actors. It was partly an objective ap¬ 
 pearance, partly spiritual vision.”—Schaff: 
 Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Transubstantiation (from irons and sub¬ 
 stantia, a change of one substance into 
 another), in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 the miraculous conversion of the bread and 
 wine used in the Eucharist into the “ very 
 body and blood ” of Christ, a change said 
 to be wrought by the act of consecration. 
 “The forerunnersof the Reformation oppos¬ 
 ed this doctrine, especially Wycliffe, Huss 
 and Wessel. The Reformers were unan¬ 
 imous in rejecting transubstantiation as a 
 fundamental error, contrary to Scripture, 
 to reason, to the testimony of the senses, 
 to the very nature of the sacrament, and 
 leading to gross superstition and the ado¬ 
 ration of the host (first prescribed by Car¬ 
 dinal Guido in Cologne, 1203). The last 
 was denounced as downright idolatry 
 (though it follows as a logical consequence 
 from the doctrine that the very body and 
 blood of our Lord are literally present on 
 the altar). There was, however, a serious 
 difference among the Reformers in the ex¬ 
 tent of opposition. Luther, from consci¬ 
 entious conviction, adhered to the literal 
 interpretation of the words of the institu¬ 
 tion, the doctrine of the corporeal presence 
 and the fruition of the true body and blood 
 of Christ by all communicants (though 
 with different effect); but substituted for 
 transubstantiation the idea of co-existence 
 of body and blood ‘ in, with, under ’ bread 
 and wine during the sacramental transac¬ 
 tion; while Zwingli and Calvin gave up the 
 literal interpretation, and the latter sub¬ 
 stituted for the idea of a corporeal pres¬ 
 ence the idea of a spiritual real presence, 
 and for manducation by the mouth and the 
 teeth, a spiritual real fruition by faith 
 alone.”— Dr. Philip Schaff in Schaff-Her- 
 zog: Ency., vol. iii., p. 2387. See Lord’s 
 Supper. 
 
 Trappe, La, an abbey of the Cistercian 
 Order, founded in 1140 by Rotrou, Count 
 of Perche. As in many other such abbeys, 
 the discipline became greatly relaxed, 
 but it was reformed by the Abbot Ar- 
 mand Jean le Bouthillier de Ranc6. He 
 was born in 1626, and ordained a priest in 
 1651, and in 1662 he determined on the ref¬ 
 ormation of his abbey, which he had al¬ 
 ready held in commendam for twenty-five 
 years, it being in those days no uncommon 
 thing to confer these posts on children of 
 tender years. Cardinal Richelieu had given 
 him this and several other pieces of prefer¬ 
 ment, and, having also succeeded to a large 
 fortune, the abbot led for a time a dissi¬ 
 pated life in Paris; but his heart being 
 touched by the loss of a friend, he deter¬ 
 mined to sell everything and distribute the 
 money to the poor, and, giving up all other 
 benefices, he retired to La Trappe. He or- 
 
Tra 
 
 ( 917 ) 
 
 Tre 
 
 darned that his monks should return to the 
 “strict observance” of the Cistercians, 
 and in 1663 he got leave from the king to 
 hold the abbey as a regular abbot. Having 
 entered on a new novitiate, he succeeded 
 by his eloquence and example in persuad¬ 
 ing his monks to consent to the increased 
 austerities, which forbade them to take 
 wine, meat, fish, or eggs, and to cut them¬ 
 selves off completely from the outer world, 
 and devote themselves to manual labor. 
 They even exceeded the strict rules of the 
 Cistercians; they rose at two o’clock, and 
 went to rest at seven in the winter and eight 
 in summer. From two till half-past four 
 they spent in prayer and meditation, and 
 then retired to their cells till half-past five, 
 when they said Prime. At seven they went 
 to labor, either out or in doors; at half-past 
 nine was said Tierce, followed by the Mass, 
 Sext, and None; then they dined on vege¬ 
 tables; at one o’clock returned to work for 
 another two hours, and then retired to 
 their cells till Vespers at four o’clock; this 
 was followed by a meal of bread and water, 
 and spiritual reading till six o’clock, when 
 Compline was said; at seven they went to 
 their cells and slept on pallets of straw. 
 Absolute silence was enjoined at all times, 
 and they had to make their wants known 
 by signs. Their dress was a long gray 
 cloak with wide sleeves and a black cowl; 
 they wore their dress by night as well as 
 by day. Ranee died in 1700. In 1790, 
 when other monasteries were suppressed, 
 the Trappists were turned out of France, 
 and took refuge in Switzerland, in the 
 monastery of Val Sainte in Freiburg, under 
 Augustin de Lestrange; but this was de¬ 
 stroyed by the French in 1798, and they 
 wandered about till the Bourbon restora¬ 
 tion in 1817, when they recovered La 
 Trappe.and Lestrange established branch¬ 
 es in connection with it in Spain, Italy, 
 England, Belgium, and Ireland.—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. As early as 1803 a col¬ 
 ony of Trappists settled near Conewago, 
 Penn., but they made several changes of 
 place, and finally settled at Tracardie, 
 N. S., in 1813. In 1848 Trappists from 
 Meillerage, France, founded an establish¬ 
 ment in Kentucky, and another has been 
 founded at Dubuque, Iowa. 
 
 Trappists. See Trappe, La. 
 
 Treggelles ( tre-gelz '), Samuel Prideaux, 
 LL. D., an eminent New Testament critic 
 and editor; b. at Wodehouse Place, Fal¬ 
 mouth, Jan. 30, 1813; d. at Plymouth, 
 April 24, 1875. He was educated in the 
 Falmouth classical school. From 1828 to 
 1834 he was employed in the iron-works 
 at Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire, and yet 
 
 at the age of twenty-five he formed the de¬ 
 sign of preparing a critical edition of the 
 Greek New Testament. In the prosecu¬ 
 tion of his work he visited the great libra¬ 
 ries of Europe, and collated numerous 
 manuscripts. Besides his Greek New Testa¬ 
 ment , published 1856-72, he edited the 
 Codex Zacynthius (1861), and the Canon 
 Muratorianus (1868), and was the author 
 of: Remarks on the Prophetic Visions of the 
 Book of Daniel (1847); On the Original 
 Language of St. Matthew’s Gospel (1850); 
 The Jansenists (1851); Account of the Print¬ 
 ed Text of the Greek New Testament, with 
 Remarks on its Revision on Critical Prin¬ 
 ciples (1854). 
 
 Trench, Richard Chenevix, D. D., 
 archbishop of Dublin; b. in Dublin, Ireland, 
 Sept. 9,1807; d. in London, March 28,1886. 
 Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 he became curate of Curdridge, 1835, and 
 Alverstoke, 1840; rector of Itchinstoke, 
 Hants, 1845; dean of Westminster, 1856; 
 archbishop of Dublin, 1864. He was Hul- 
 sean lecturer at Cambridge, 1845-46, and 
 professor of divinity in King’s College, 
 London, 1847-58. Archbishop Trench’s 
 works occupy no inconsiderable place in 
 English literature. His best-known theo¬ 
 logical works are his Notes on the Parables 
 of our Lord, and Notes on the Miracles of 
 our Lord’ Lectures on Mediceval Church 
 History; Lessons in Proverbs; The Sermon 
 on the Mount Lllustrated from St. A ugustine; 
 St. A ugustine as an Interpreter of Scripture; 
 Synonyms of the New Testament; and The 
 Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. 
 Further, Archbishop Trench was an ardent 
 student of philology, and the work by 
 which he is best known in literature is that 
 entitled, Gn the Study of Words. 
 
 Trent, Council of, the nineteenth or ; as 
 some authorities reckon, the eighteenth of 
 the oecumenical councils recognized by 
 the Roman Catholic Church. It receives 
 its name from Trent ( Tridentium ), a city in 
 the southern part of the Tyrol, where it 
 was held with interruptions from Dec. 13, 
 1545, to Dec. 4, 1563. The council grew 
 out of the Reformation and was desired by 
 many in both parties. The Emperor, 
 Charles V., urged it zealously, but it was 
 again and again postponed by the policy of 
 the papal court. In the final result, the 
 Protestants were allowed no active part in 
 its action, and thepapal delegates controlled 
 the entire management. It was convened 
 by Pope Paul III.; transferred to Bologna 
 in March, 1547, on account of the plague; 
 indefinitely prorogued, Sept. 17, 1549 ; 
 brought together again at Trent, May 1, 
 1551, by Pope Julius III. The sittings 
 
Tre 
 
 ( 918 ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 were again suspended by the victory of the 
 Elector Maurice of Saxony over the Em¬ 
 peror, Charles V. The council again as¬ 
 sembled, under the orders of Pius IV., on 
 Jan. 18, 1562, and continued till its final 
 adjournment on Dec. 4, 1563. The decrees 
 and canons of the council were confirmed 
 by a bull of Pius IV., Jan. 26, 1564. The 
 object of the council was to condemn the 
 doctrines and principles of the Reformation, 
 and to define the position of the Roman 
 Church on all disputed points, and also to 
 effect a reformation in discipline which it 
 was generally conceded had become neces¬ 
 sary. The council abolished some eccle¬ 
 siastical abuses, but as touching doctrinal 
 decisions emphasized the peculiar dogmas 
 of Rome regarding the seven sacraments; 
 the withdrawal of the cup from the laity, 
 the sacrifice of the mass, the sacrament of 
 matrimony, etc. The council approved the 
 scholastic doctrines of purgatory, the invo¬ 
 cation and veneration of saints and their rel¬ 
 ics, and sacred images, also on the selection 
 offood, fasts, festival days, etc. Thedecrees 
 of the council were received in Italy, Portu¬ 
 gal, Spain, France, the Low Countries, 
 Poland, and the Roman Catholic portion of 
 the German Empire. Two very different 
 histories of this famous council have been 
 written. One, by the liberal Fra Paolo 
 Sarpi, of Venice, which appeared in 1619, 
 and the other, in the interest of the papacy, 
 by Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino, Rome, 
 1656-57. Among Protestant historians of 
 the Council of Trent are: J. A. Buckley, 
 London, 1852; Bungener (in French; Eng. 
 trans. by D. S. Scott), 1855. 
 
 Trespass Offering. See Sacrifice. 
 
 Treves, Holy Coat of. It is alleged 
 that the seamless coat of our Blessed 
 Saviour is preserved in the city of Treves, 
 it having been given to this place by the 
 Empress Helena. The earliest mention of 
 it is in the Gesta Trevirorum in the twelfth 
 century. It was used at the consecration 
 of Bishop Bruno in 1121, and translated 
 from the choir to the high altar of the 
 cathedral in 1196. In 1512, and several 
 times since, it has been exposed for the 
 veneration of the faithful; the last time was 
 in 1844, when eleven bishops and thousands 
 of people flocked to Treves on the occasion 
 of the finding of an ancient ivory belonging 
 to the cathedral, which had been lost, and 
 which is supposed to confirm its authentic¬ 
 ity. Many miracles were reported to have 
 taken place at this time. Examination of 
 the garment, however, has greatly shaken 
 the faith of the most learned of the Roman 
 Catholics in its genuineness, which is now 
 pronounced not a matter of faith, but of 
 
 “ pious opinion.”—Benham: Diet, of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Tribes of Israel. The children of Israel 
 were already divided in Egypt into twelve 
 tribes, according to the number of the sons 
 of Jacob. As the tribe of Joseph divided 
 itself into two bodies, politically alike, the 
 number of tribes was really thirteen, but 
 the separation of the tribe of Levi from 
 the rest restored the original number, as 
 may be seen from the order of the camp dur¬ 
 ing the wandering in the wilderness. (Num. 
 ii.; x. 13 seq.) In the midst, round the 
 tabernacle, we find the priests and the three 
 families of Levi, and then, toward the re¬ 
 gion of the sky, the twelve tribes in four 
 triads, each led by a prince. The triads 
 are formed with respect to the maternal 
 relationship: (1) Judah, Issachar, Zebulun; 
 (2) Reuben, Simeon, Gad; (3) Ephraim, 
 Manasseh, Benjamin; (4) Dan, Asher, 
 Naphtali. Since Levi received no portion, 
 the number “ twelve ” forms the basis for 
 the division of the country. In the bless¬ 
 ing of Jacob (Gen. xlix.), where Levi is 
 mentioned with the other tribes, Ephraim 
 and Manasseh are combined under the 
 name of Joseph. 
 
 The tribes were again divided into fa?n- 
 ilies; these, again, into houses; then came 
 “ man by man.” (Josh. vii. 14, 17 seq.) 
 At the head of the tribes stood the princes 
 (Ex. xxxiv. 31), called also heads. (Num. 
 xxx. 1.) Then came the heads of the fam¬ 
 ilies and houses of the fathers. 
 
 (1) Asher, son of Jacob by Zilpah (Gen. 
 xxxv. 26), had four sons and one daughter. 
 (Gen. xlvi. 17.) His tribe, when numbered 
 at Sinai, amounted to 41,500 (Num. i. 41), 
 and in the plains of Moab, 53,400. (Num. 
 xxvi. 44-47.) In the time of David it fur¬ 
 nished 40,000 soldiers (1 Chron. xii. 36), 
 but it never rose to any importance. Its 
 territory is described in Josh. xix. 24-31, 
 but it did not expel the Canaanites (Judg. 
 i. 31, 32) with whom it mingled, thus estran¬ 
 ging itself from the common interest; 
 hence reproved for not aiding Barak. (Judg. 
 v. 17.) 
 
 (2) Benjamin , the youngest son of Jacob, 
 by Rachel. (Gen. xxxv. 18, 24.) When 
 his tribe was numbered it counted, the first 
 time, 35,400 (Num. i. 37), and the second 
 time, 45,600. (Num. xxvi. 41.) Though 
 small, yet its men were famous for using 
 the sling (Judg. xx. 16) and the bow in 
 archery. (1 Chron. viii. 40; xii. 2; 2 
 Chron. xiv. S.) Its territory, which is 
 described in Joshua xviii. 11-28, com¬ 
 prised twenty-six cities, among which 
 were Jericho, Bethel, and Jerusalem. 
 Soon after Joshua’s death the tribe of Ben¬ 
 jamin, whose emblem, according to Jacob’s 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 919 ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 blessing, was the wolf (Gen. xlix. 27), was 
 involved in a civil war with the other 
 tribes, which almost extinguished it. (Judg. 
 xix.; xx.) Shortly afterward it furnished 
 a deliverer of the country in the person of 
 Ehud, who killed Eglon, the king of the 
 Moabites. (Judg. iii. 12 seq.) This tribe 
 also furnished the first king, Saul (1 Sam. 
 
 ix. ; x.), whose dynasty (2 Sam. ii.), as 
 well as that of David (1 Kings xii. 21; 1 
 Chron. xxi.) it supported, even after the 
 division of the kingdom. (1 Kings xii. 21; 
 2 Chron. xi. 1.) After the exile, together 
 with the tribe of Judah it constituted a 
 main part of the Jewish people. (Ezra i. 5; 
 iv. 1; x. 9.) To this tribe, also, belonged 
 Mordecai and Esther (Esth. ii. 5)—more 
 especially, Saul=Paul the apostle. (Rom. 
 xi. 1; Phil. iii. 5.) 
 
 (3) Dan , Jacob’s son by Bilhah (Gen. 
 xxx. 6; xxxv. 25), had, at the mustering at 
 Sinai (Num. i. 39), 62,700, and at the 
 second (xxvi. 42, 43), 64,000 descendants. 
 Though originally one of the strongest 
 tribes, it required a long time before this 
 tribe could take possession of its territory, 
 which is described in Joshua xix. 40 seq. 
 Driven to the hills by the Amorites, they 
 were helped by Ephraim and Judah. (Judg. 
 i. 34, 35.) The tribe of Dan soon became 
 one of the most insignificant among the 
 other tribes, though its boldness is charac¬ 
 terized by the taking of Laish. (Judg. 
 xviii.) A distinguished Danite was Sam¬ 
 son. 
 
 (4) Ephraim , son of Joseph (Gen. xii. 
 52), whom Jacob preferred to Manasseh. 
 According to Gen. xlviii. 5 Joseph was to 
 receive a double portion; and this he re¬ 
 ceived through his sons, Ephraim and 
 Manasseh. At the census in the wilder¬ 
 ness the tribe numbered 40,500 (Num. i. 
 33), and at the second census only 32,500. 
 (Num. xxvi. 37.) But its territory was in 
 the heart of Canaan (Josh. xvi. 5-9; xvii. 
 10, 15-19), and though small in numbers, 
 it yet played an important part in the his¬ 
 tory of the Jewish nation. It produced 
 Joshua; quarreled with Gideon and Jeph- 
 thah (Judg. viii. 1; xii.); revolted from the 
 house of David (1 Kings xii. 25; 2 Chron. 
 
 x. 16), and formed, under Jeroboam, a 
 kingdom in opposition to that of the house 
 of David. This kingdom is often marked, 
 therefore, as that of Ephraim. (Isa. vii. 2 
 seq.) 
 
 (5) Gad , son of Jacob by Zilpah, and 
 brother of Asher. (Gen. xxx. 9 seq.) His 
 descendants (Gen. xlvi. 16) were twice 
 numbered. (Num. i. 14, 24,-25; xxvi. 15- 
 18.) Having much cattle (xxxii. 1), the 
 tribe was permitted to settle east of the Jor¬ 
 dan, but it assisted the other tribes to con¬ 
 quer the Canaanites. (Num. xxxii. 16-32; 
 
 Josh. i. 12-18; xxii. 1-8.) The character 
 of the tribe is described by Jacob (Gen. 
 xlix. 19), and among David’s heroes the 
 Gadites distinguished themselves. (1 
 Chron. xii. 8.) It was taken captive by 
 Assyrians. (1 Chron. v. 26.) 
 
 (6) Issachar (i. e., rezvard), Jacob’s son 
 by Leah (Gen. xxx. 18), had many de¬ 
 scendants. (Gen. xlvi. 13; 1 Chron. vii. 1.) 
 At the first census they counted 54,400 
 (Num. i. 28, 29), and at the second, 64,300. 
 (Num. xxvi. 25.) In David’s time the tribe 
 had 87,000 soldiers. (1 Chron. vii. 25.) Its 
 inheritance is described in Joshua xix. 17— 
 23: it assisted Deborah and Barak (Judg. 
 v. 15), supplied the country with a judge 
 in the person of Tola (x. 1), and its “ ex¬ 
 perienced men ” joined David. (1 Chron. 
 xii. 39, 40.) 
 
 ( 7 ) Joseph. See Ephraim and Manasseh. 
 
 (8) Judah , Jacob’s fourth son by Leah. 
 (Gen. xxix. 35.) For his character, life, 
 etc., comp. Gen. xxxviii.; xliii. 3; xliv. seq. 
 The future prominent position among his 
 brethren is indicated by the blessing of 
 Jacob. (Gen. xlix. 8-12; comp. 1 Chron v. 
 2.) The tribe of Judah developed itself in 
 Egypt out of Judah’s descendants, of 
 whom three sons, Shelah, Pharez and Zerah, 
 together with Hezrott and Hamul , sons of 
 Pharez, went there. (Gen. xlvi. 12; comp, 
 chap, xxxviii.) Thus, three main families 
 of the tribe and two side lines (Num. xxvi. 
 20 seq.) developed themselves. In Egypt 
 the tribe increased rapidly, and at the first 
 mustering it numbered already 74,600 adult 
 males (Num. i. 26, 27), and at the second, 
 76,500. (Num. xxvi. 22.) On account of the 
 authority of the ancestor, the tribe of Judah 
 took the first place at the exodus, as the 
 order of the camp shows. (Num. ii.) In 
 the wilderness, and at the taking of Ca¬ 
 naan the great Caleb stood at the head of 
 this tribe. (Num. xiii. 6; xxxiv. 19.) After 
 Joshua’s death this tribe is appointed to 
 attack the Canaanites. (Judg. i.) The ter¬ 
 ritory of this tribe is described with more 
 minuteness than that of the others, and 
 comprised: (1) the “Mountain,” the “ hill- 
 country of Judah,” with 38, or, according 
 to the Septuagint, with 48 cities (Josh. xv. 
 48-60) ; (2) the “ Wilderness ,” the district 
 adjoining the Dead Sea (xv. 61 seq.); (3) 
 the “South” (xv. 21 seq.), and (4) the 
 “ Lowland” (xv. 33 seq.). To this tribe be¬ 
 longed Othniel (Judg. iii. 9) and Ibzan (xii. 
 8 seq.); it made David king (2 Sam. ii. 4), 
 and adhered to his house. (1 Kings xii.; 2 
 Chron. x.; xii.) After the disruption of 
 the kingdom, it formed, together with 
 Benjamin, the southern kingdom, in oppo¬ 
 sition to the northern or Ephraimitic king¬ 
 dom, to which the ten tribes belonged. (1 
 Kings xi. 31.) To this tribe belong proph- 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 920 ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 ets like Amos, Isaiah and Micah; perhaps, 
 also,Obadiah,Joel, Nahum,Zephaniah.Hab- 
 akkuk and others. Most of the exiles who 
 returned also belonged to this tribe; and 
 since the majority of those who constituted 
 the new commonwealth in Palestine be¬ 
 longed to that tribe, the name “ Jew,” for 
 Hebrew or Israelite, came into use. This 
 name occurs already in Jer. xxxiv. 9, but 
 more frequently in the post-exile books; 
 also in the New Testament, especially in 
 St. John’s Gospel. The highest honor, 
 however, which was bestowed on this 
 tribe consists in the fact that it gave the 
 Messiah to the world, who, as “ the Lion 
 of the tribe of Judah” (Rev. v. 5), has 
 overcome the world and become an eternal 
 ruler. 
 
 (9) Manasseh , eldest son of Joseph, 
 adopted by Jacob. (Gen. xli. 51; xlvi. 20; 
 jdviii. 5.) At the beginning this tribe was 
 the smallest—it only numbered 32,200 
 (Num. i. 34 sec/.); but itafterward increased 
 to 52,700. (Num. xxvi. 29.) At the distri¬ 
 bution of the country, one-half of the tribe 
 settled east of the Jordan, while the other 
 half settled on the west side (Num. xxxii. 
 33, 39, 42; Josh. xiii. 7, 29-31; xvii. 1-11), 
 but the tribe did not drive out all the Ca- 
 naanites. (Judg. i. 27.) To this tribe be¬ 
 longed Gideon, but it is doubtful whether 
 Jephthah was a member of it. 
 
 (10) Naphtali , the son of Jacob by Bil- 
 hah. (Gen. xxx. 8; xxxv. 25.) His de¬ 
 scendants numbered, at the time of the ex¬ 
 odus, 53,400 (Num. i. 43), and at the end of 
 the wandering through the desert, only 
 45,400. (Num. xxvi. 50.) The inheritance 
 of that tribe was in the mountains of the 
 northern border (Josh. xix. 32-39), and the 
 country suffered much from heathenish 
 syncretism: for this cause this district was 
 called the Galilee of the nations, or merely 
 Galilee (Josh. xx. 7; xxi. 32; Isa. ix. 1), 
 whence the name Galilee, which was after¬ 
 ward applied to a larger territory. This 
 tribe produced Barak, who fought against 
 the Canaanites and Midianites. (Judg. iv.; 
 v. 18.) 
 
 (11) Reuben , Jacob’s first-born child, the 
 son of Leah (Gen. xxi. 32), forfeits his 
 birthright (xlix. 4) for his transgression. 
 (Gen. xxxv. 22.) His descendants amount, 
 at the first census (Num. i. 20, 21), to 
 46,500, and at the second (xxvi. 7), to 
 43,730. The tribe aids in conquering Pal¬ 
 estine (Josh. i. 12-18; iv. 12; xxii. 1-6), 
 and assists in building the altar of witness 
 (xxii. 10-29), but it soon isolates itself 
 from the rest, and is reproved for not aid¬ 
 ing against Sisera. (Judg. v. 15, 16.) But 
 it fights its own battles. (1 Chron. v. 10.) 
 Its geographical position—from the Arnon 
 to Heshbon—was, no doubt, the cause of 
 
 its isolation from the common interest of 
 Israel. 
 
 (12) Simeon , Jacob’s second son by Leah 
 (Gen. xxix. 33), who, with Levi, avenged 
 Dinah’s dishonor (xxxiv. 25-30), and was 
 accursed with Levi, by the father. (Gen. 
 xlix. 5-7.) At the first mustering the de¬ 
 scendants numbered 59,300 (Num. i. 22, 
 23), and at the second only 22,200. (Num. 
 xxvi. 14.) At the taking of Canaan this 
 tribe unites with that of Judah. (Judg. i. 3.) 
 A portion of the tribe afterward emigrates 
 to Gedor. (1 Chron. iv. 28-43.) 
 
 (13) Zebulun, Jacob’s son by Leah (Gen. 
 xxx. 19, 20); his descendants increased, 
 during the wandering through the wilder¬ 
 ness, from 57,400 to 60,500. (Num. i. 30, 
 31; xxvi. 26, 27.) Its territory (Josh. xix. 
 10-16) was amid the picturesque hills and 
 plains of Lower Galilee, having Tabor on 
 the east, and the Great Sea at the base of 
 Carmel on the west. Although in com¬ 
 mercial relations with the Gentiles, the 
 tribe assisted Barak (Judg. iv. 6, 10) and 
 Gideon (vi. 35) against the neighboring 
 nations. This tribe furnished a judge, 
 Elon, who ruled the people ten years (xii. 
 11 sec/.), and aided David with 50,000 
 soldiers. (1 Chron. xii. 23, 40.) Although 
 the region of this tribe, like the later Gal¬ 
 ilee, was historically and theocratically 
 very insignificant, yet it was to be more 
 honored at the end of time, according to 
 Isa. ix. 1; for, indeed, the small territory 
 of Zebulun, uniting with it the western 
 shore of the Galilean sea, was the usual 
 theatre of the life and work of Jesus. 
 
 Of the twelve tribes, only two seem to 
 have returned from Babylon, those of Ju¬ 
 dah and Benjamin: of the other ten, Jose¬ 
 phus (Ant. xi. 5, 210) states that up to his 
 time they were beyond the Euphrates in 
 great numbers. [Condensed from Oehler- 
 Orelli’s art. in Herzog’s Real-Ency ., 2d ed., 
 vol. vii.,pp. 174-180,269 seq.] p p ICK 
 
 Tridentium. See Trent, Council of. 
 
 Trine Baptism denotes the administra¬ 
 tion of baptism in which the person bap¬ 
 tized is immersed thrice in the water, or 
 the water is poured upon the head thrice, 
 in the name of the three persons of the 
 Holy Trinity. It had its origin probably 
 in apostolic times. 
 
 Trinitarians, a monastic order, founded 
 in 1197, for the purpose of ransoming 
 Christians who were taken captive by the 
 infidels. The order took its name from the 
 fact that all its churches and houses were 
 dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The order 
 used one-third of its revenues for its spe¬ 
 cial work. 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 92 i ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 Trinity, The. All branches of the Chris¬ 
 tian Church teach the doctrine of the di¬ 
 vine unity. That there is none other God 
 but one is the most unequivocal, positive 
 and continuous testimony of both the Old 
 and the New Testaments. It is the sub¬ 
 stance of the first commandment, and the 
 primordial basis of all true religion and 
 morality. (Exod. xx. 3; Deut. vi. 4; Psa. 
 lxxxvi. 10; Isa. xliv. 6; xlv. 6; Mark xii. 
 29, 32; John xvii. 3; 1 Cor. viii. 4-6; 1 
 Tim. ii. 5.) Yet most clearly and unmis¬ 
 takably does the Gospel recognize distinc¬ 
 tions in the Godhead, and ascribe divinity 
 to three, the Father, the Son, and the Holy 
 Ghost. (Matt, iii. 16, 17; xxviii. 19; 2 Cor. 
 xiii. 14; John xiv. 15-26; xvi. 13, 15; Eph. 
 ii. 18.) The first article, therefore, the 
 fundamental belief of the Christian system, 
 holds God to be both one and triune, a 
 truth for which man is indebted entirely to 
 revelation, which reason acknowledges to 
 be incomprehensible, and which, depending 
 on its own resources, it is wont to pro¬ 
 nounce absurd and impossible. Taught 
 from the Scriptures the doctrine of Eternal 
 Love, some divines have held that the dog¬ 
 ma of the Trinity can be argued from this. If 
 God from eternity is love, there must have 
 been from eternity an object upon which 
 that love could flow out; an object person¬ 
 ally distinct and independent of him, yet 
 sustaining such relations to him as to be 
 worthy of the infinite fullness of divine 
 love. Of this no object could be worthy 
 if it were short of equality with God, if it 
 were not itself God. 
 
 Again, God is per se unconditioned, ab¬ 
 solute, infinitely removed beyond the creat¬ 
 ure; yet he comes into relation with the 
 finite, as creator and ruler, and the only 
 reconciliation of this apparent contradic¬ 
 tion lies in the conception of an organ or 
 medium by which he comes into relation 
 and revelation to the creature, an entity 
 which sustains the innermost essential re¬ 
 lation to the divine Being, and is yet, at the 
 same time, a personally distinct and self- 
 subsistent existence. Thus, while there 
 are no a priori grounds for this mystery of 
 mysteries, some a posteriori confirmations 
 or illustrations of it may be offered. Its 
 proper and only source is revelation. 
 
 It must not be premised, however, that 
 the Scriptures in direct terms present this 
 doctrine in the form in which it has come 
 to be defined, or that the Christian Church 
 entered upon its career with a distinct doc¬ 
 trinal formula embracing it. They furnish 
 the constituent elements of the dogma, they 
 set forth alike the unity of the divine Being, 
 the distinct personality and the true and 
 equal divinity of the Father, the Son and 
 the Holy Ghost, and the relations in which 
 
 they stand to each other, to the Church 
 and to the world. It is from the collation 
 of these elements and the consciousness of 
 the Christian Church that the doctrine of 
 the Trinity became satisfactorily and im¬ 
 movably established. In keeping with the 
 law of development, the germs of it are 
 found in the Old Testament, but it is only 
 by the light thrown back from the gospel 
 that they are so recognized. They may 
 have served to prepare devout minds for 
 its clear and full disclosure in the New 
 Testament. (Gen. i. 1-3; Num. vi. 23-26; 
 Psa. ii. 7; xxxiii. 6; li. 11; cx. i.; Isa. vi. 3; 
 xlviii. 16.) The most.strikingrepresentations 
 of a threefold hypostatic distinction in God 
 meet us at the baptism of Christ, in the 
 baptismal formula (Matt, xxviii. 19), and 
 in the apostolic benediction. (2 Cor. xiii. 
 14.) In John xiv. Jesus speaks to the Father 
 and of the Father, and promises to send 
 his Spirit upon the disciples. In r Cor. 
 xii. Paul mentions a diversity of gifts, but 
 the same spirit, diversity of administra¬ 
 tion, but the same Lord, and diversity of 
 operations, but the same God. In Eph. 
 iv. he says there is one Spirit, one Lord, 
 one God and Father of all; while in 1 Pet. 
 i. 2 another apostle distinguishes between 
 the foreknowledge of God the Father, the 
 sanctification of the Spirit, and the obedi¬ 
 ence of Jesus Christ. 
 
 The form under which the specific script¬ 
 ural demonstration of the dogma has been 
 commonly exhibited is the proof of the 
 personality and the divinity of each con¬ 
 stituent of the Trinity. Peculiar evidences 
 of deity ascribed to any being prove the 
 essential deity of that being. Among these 
 evidences are embraced titles, perfections, 
 operations and worship; and as the Script¬ 
 ures in a number of texts apply to the Son 
 and to the Holy Ghost the same titles, the 
 same perfections, the same operations and 
 the same worship which they ascribe to 
 the Father, the coequal divinity of the 
 Three cannot be denied by any who accept 
 the Bible as the infallible, authoritative, 
 and final source of truth. 
 
 Whatever the measure of clearness in 
 Scriptural teaching, the deity of her Lord 
 was from the first the assured and common 
 faith of the Church. “ To him,” says 
 Pliny, “ they sang their praises as to God,” 
 and the whole organism of the Church, 
 her festivals, sacraments, cultus, martyr¬ 
 doms, and the utterances of her first teach¬ 
 ers, attest irrefutably this faith. To claim 
 this as the result of exegetical deductions 
 is, however, unhistorical. It was the ex¬ 
 pression of an immediate, conscious faith. 
 As this became clearer, and unfolded 
 itself through the study of the word, con¬ 
 troversy with error and the speculative 
 
Tri 
 
 ( 922 ) 
 
 Tri 
 
 activity of the Christian mind, confusion 
 and misapprehension were gradually re¬ 
 moved, and clear definitions were necessa¬ 
 rily called for, and the astounding paradox 
 of believing in one God, and yet offering 
 to another the honor which belongs to the 
 infinite Father, grew into a fixed doc¬ 
 trinal formula. The original faith of the 
 heart developed into an unalterable dogma 
 of theological science. 
 
 Significantly, it was the first doctrinal 
 task of the Church to reconcile the divinity 
 of her Lord with the unity of the Godhead. 
 Not for a moment could she surrender 
 either truth, or suffer any infringement of 
 it, the former being the centre of her life, 
 the latter a treasure deposited with God’s 
 people for ages. The problem taxed the 
 utmost resources of Greek metaphysics, 
 and a century of controversy elapsed be¬ 
 fore a final solution was attained. 
 
 The struggle after a suitable expression 
 for the incomprehensible mystery develop¬ 
 ed, and finally destroyed, two serious er¬ 
 rors. To save the absolute unity of God, 
 it was proposed to confine the idea of the 
 absolute, the preeminent prerogative of 
 deity to the Father, and to condition the 
 coming forth of the Son, or the Logos, into 
 a distinct hypostatic form of existence by 
 the limits of time or the interests of the 
 finite. This came into conflict with the 
 consciousness of the Church, which had 
 always associated Christ with the Father 
 as the object of faith and worship, and 
 which could not consent thus to sever him 
 from the essence of the Father, or agree to 
 any theory of subordination. In the same 
 interest it was attempted to show, on the 
 other hand, that the unity of essence ad¬ 
 mits of no hypostatic distinctions, but un¬ 
 folds itself in three different forms or man¬ 
 ifestations. God comes forth from the 
 absolute state in one period as Father, in 
 another as Son, in another as Holy Ghost. 
 This sacrifices the self-subsistence of the 
 historic Christ, making him in every re¬ 
 spect identical with the Father. 
 
 Each view held half the truth : one, 
 Christ’s distinction from the Father; the 
 other, his unity of essence with the Father, 
 but the former surrendered his proper di¬ 
 vinity, the latter his proper personality; 
 the former making the world’s Redeemer 
 less than God; the latter, while coming 
 much nearer to the Church’s consciousness, 
 obliterated the personal distinction between 
 the Son and the Father, turned the econ¬ 
 omy of redemption into a scenic exhibition, 
 and lost, in the idea of abstract unity, the 
 whole compass of Christological truth. 
 
 The idea, first developed by Origen, of 
 the eternal generation of the Son, namely, 
 that it inheres eternally in the nature of 
 
 God to pour forth his fullness in a subject 
 that is the absolute image of himself, that 
 the Son is an immanent Self-importation, 
 was a great advance in the construction of 
 the dogma. Three cardinal points were 
 now established: sameness of essence, 
 personal distinction, eternal generation. 
 What was yet wanting was an approxi¬ 
 mately adequate expression combining 
 these points. The predicate ho??ioousios was 
 adopted by the Council of Nice as embrac¬ 
 ing both the idea of unity and that of dis¬ 
 tinction, and the whole Christian Church 
 has ever since united in declaring its faith 
 in “ the Only Son of God, Begotten of his 
 Father before all worlds, God of God, Light 
 of Light, Very God of very God, Begotten, 
 not made, Being of one substance with the 
 Father.” 
 
 The same premises which resulted in 
 this settlement of the relation of the Son 
 to the Father eventually and of necessity 
 brought about a similar conclusion con¬ 
 cerning the Holy Ghost; the Symbol of the 
 Church being expanded at the Council of 
 Constantinople, a. d. 381, by the addition 
 to the third article: “ the Lord and Giver 
 of Life, who proceedeth from the Father, 
 who with the Father and Son together is 
 worshipped and glorified,” the Church 
 thus affirming the absolute divinity alike 
 of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, 
 ascribing to each the attributes and perfec¬ 
 tions of deity, while always, on the other 
 hand, maintaining that there is one God 
 only, that the divinity of the Father, of the 
 Son, and of the Holy Ghost is an absolute 
 unit. It cannot be claimed that all difficul¬ 
 ties were surmounted. Long struggles 
 ensued, even after the Church had, in suc¬ 
 cessive Councils, defined the doctrine; but 
 the formulation in the Athanasian Creed of 
 the Catholic Faith, “ That we worship one 
 God in Trinity,and Trinity in Unity, neither 
 confounding the Persons, nor dividing the 
 substance,” presents this mystery in such 
 a way that, as Hagenbach says, “all 
 further endeavors of human ingenuity to 
 solve its apparent contradictions in a dia¬ 
 lectic way must break against this bulwark 
 of faith, as the waves break upon an in¬ 
 flexible rock.” 
 
 Misapprehensions have arisen, not only 
 from the transcendent range of the subject, 
 and the poverty of human language, but 
 also from the failure to observe the specific 
 terms which differentiate the constituent 
 parts of the doctrine. Unity, for instance, 
 is affirmed of the nature of God. He is 
 one in essence. Trinity relates to the 
 mode of existence, the distinctions which 
 subsist in the divine essence; Unity and 
 Trinity are not predicated of the same 
 thing and do not therefore contradict each 
 
Tri 
 
 . 923 ) 
 
 Tro 
 
 other. The Godhead is one and three, not 
 in the same sense, but in different senses. 
 By Person, again, a term which may easily 
 mislead, is meant the peculiarity or prop¬ 
 erty by which each is not the other, nor a 
 part or quality of another, but a subject 
 subsisting of itself. Unlike the essence 
 which is common and communicable, the 
 personal subsistence cannot be communi¬ 
 cated from the one to # another. Each “ per¬ 
 son ” possesses its own ultimate form of 
 subsistence. The Father differs from the 
 Son, the Holy Ghost differs from both. 
 The Father is unbegotten, the Son is be¬ 
 gotten, the Holy Ghost proceeds from the 
 Father and (according to the Western 
 Church) from the Son. Yet neither is 
 God without the other; neither works in- 
 
 are: Dorner: The Person of Christ ; Bull: 
 Defence of the Nicene Creed; Waterland: 
 The Trinity; Shedd: History of Christian 
 Doctrine; Hodge: Systematic Theology. 
 
 E. J. Wolf. 
 
 Trinity Sunday, the first Sunday after 
 Pentecost (Whitsunday), celebrated in 
 honor of the Holy Trinity. In the Greek 
 Church the Monday in Whitsun-week is set 
 apart for the same purpose. The observ¬ 
 ance of the festival appears to have come 
 into universal use in the Western Church 
 in the time of Pope John XXII. (1334). 
 
 Tritheism denotes that conception of the 
 doctrine of the Trinity which gives such 
 prominence to the triad of persons as to 
 
 TROAS. 
 
 dependency of the otherj the Three are 
 One. 
 
 The importance of this dogma cannot be 
 overstated. It underlies the whole system 
 of Christian truth. It determines the 
 economy of grace. It is “ the point,” says 
 Meyer, “ on which all Christian ideas and 
 interests unite; at once the beginning and 
 the end of all insight into Christianity.” 
 Every sect or system that has denied to 
 the Son and to the Holy Ghost equal rank 
 and honor with the Father has made ship¬ 
 wreck of the faith. Arians, Socinians, 
 Unitarians, Rationalists, whatever may 
 have been their original purpose, have 
 each by turns subverted every fundamen¬ 
 tal truth of the Gospel. Those who have 
 no Trinity have no Saviour. Among 
 standard English treatises on the Trinity 
 
 minimize or lose sight of the unity. The 
 name of tritheists was given a party in 
 Alexandria which made a very sharp dis¬ 
 tinction between the three divine persons. 
 During the reign of Justin II. (565-578), 
 they held a disputation at Constantinople 
 with the orthodox Patriarch John. The 
 later history of the sect is unknown. Ros¬ 
 celin, the fatherof nominalism, was accused 
 of tritheism by Anselm. He retracted 
 after his views had been condemned by the 
 Synod of Soissons (1093). 
 
 Tro'as, a city of Lesser Mysia in Asia 
 Minor, on the sea-coast, six miles south of 
 the entrance to the Hellespont. It was 
 founded by Alexander the Great. A Ro¬ 
 man colony was placed there during the 
 reign of Augustus, and it became a place 
 
Tru 
 
 ( 924 ) 
 
 Tub 
 
 of great commercial importance. Paul 
 visited Troas twice, and perhaps three 
 times. (Acts xvi. 8—11; xx. 5, 6; 2 Cor. ii. 
 12, 13; 2 Tim. iv. 13.) Troas is now a 
 heap of ruins. The walls can still be traced 
 for several miles. There are the remains 
 of a gymnasium, 413 feet long and 224 feet 
 wide, which Prof. A. H. Sayce describes 
 (1880) as “a vast ruin whose desolation 
 was only equalled by the solitude of the 
 forest in the midst of which it stood.” 
 The place is now known as Eski Stamboul, 
 or “ Old Constantinople.” 
 
 Truce of God, an arrangement during the 
 Middle Ages by which, in time of war, hos¬ 
 tilities ceased during all the important 
 church festivals, and from Thursday even¬ 
 ing to Sunday evening each week. This 
 plan was recommended by the Councils of 
 Orleans (1016) and Limoges (1031), and en¬ 
 forced by the bishop of Aquitaine (1030). 
 The second (1139) and third (1179) Lateran 
 Councils adopted it. 
 
 True Reformed Dutch Church. See 
 
 Reformed Dutch Church. 
 
 Trumbull, Henry Clay, D. D. (Lafay¬ 
 ette College, Easton, Penn., 1881; Uni¬ 
 versity of the City of New York, 1882), 
 Congregationalist; b. at Stonington, Conn., 
 June 8, 1830; education chiefly private; re¬ 
 ceived honorary M. A. from Yale College, 
 1866; became State missionary of the 
 American Sunday-School Union for Con¬ 
 necticut, 1858-62; chaplain in the Union 
 army, 1862-65; missionary secretary for 
 New England of American Sunday-School 
 Union, 1865-71; normal secretary of the 
 same Society, 1871-75; editor of the Sun¬ 
 day-School Times , Philadelphia, since 1875. 
 Among his published works are: The 
 Knightly Soldier (1S65); Childhood Con¬ 
 version (1868); The Model Superintendent: 
 Sketch of the Life, Character, and Methods 
 of Work of Henry P. Haven (1880); 
 Kadesh Barnea (1884); Teachers and 
 Teaching (1885). The Blood Covenant 
 (1885); The Sunday-School: Its Origin, Mis¬ 
 sion, Methods , and Auxiliaries (1888). (The 
 Lyman Beecher Lectures in Yale Divinity 
 School for 1888.) 
 
 Tiibingen, a small town on the Neckar, 
 eighteen miles from Stuttgart, has been for 
 400 years the chief nursing place of the 
 scholars of Wlirtemberg. Not only poets 
 (Wieland, Uhland, etc.), but philosophers 
 (Schelling and Hegel), Protestant theolo¬ 
 gians (as CEcolampadius, Osiander, Pfaff, 
 Otinger, Storr, Baur, Dorner), and Roman 
 Catholics (Mohler, Hefele, etc.) were all 
 graduates of Tubingen. This University, 
 
 though the character of the country is 
 deeply religious, has produced some of 
 the most learned opponents of Christianity 
 —Paulus the deist, Baur the pantheist, and 
 Strauss, the author of the Life of fesus. 
 The theological students, though they are 
 tinctured more or less with Hegelian pan¬ 
 theism, cherish with grateful reverence the 
 memory of such men as Bengel, who firmly 
 taught Gospel doctrine during the infidel 
 apostasy of the eighteenth century, and 
 they crowd the churches. The Tubingen 
 theologians of the last century were mark¬ 
 ed by mysticism. They had a special taste 
 for speculations on apocalyptic and mille- 
 narian topics. Thus Gottlieb Storr, their 
 principal representative in his time (b. 1746; 
 d. 1805), occupied a position analogous to 
 that of the eighteenth-century Methodists 
 in England: he asserted the authority of 
 the Scriptures against the rationalism of 
 Kant, and laid especial emphasis on the 
 evidential value of the miracles. 
 
 But a darker side of the university life 
 of Tubingen is seen in the prevalence of 
 the Hegelian philosophy. The founder of 
 the new school was F. C. Baur (b. I7g2;d. 
 i860), whose critical investigations in the 
 New Testament led him to the opinion that 
 the pastoral Epistles were the production 
 of the second century, that some of St. 
 Paul’s Epistles are not genuine, and that 
 a great gulf separated St. Paul from the 
 other apostles. In fact, this may be re¬ 
 garded as the special tenet of the later 
 Tubingen school. Peter and John were 
 Jewish in their views, only distinguished 
 from their brethren by their faith that 
 Christ was the promised Messiah. Paul 
 maintained a doctrine that the crucifixion 
 made Christ the Savior of the world, and 
 elaborated a theory of justification which 
 to them was strange, and of religious 
 freedom which to them was abhorrent. 
 For the sake of peace they were for a while 
 silent, but the animosity broke out in the 
 Apocalypse, which referred to St. Paul and 
 his teachings when denouncing the Nico- 
 laitans. The Gospel of St. John, Baur 
 pronounced not genuine. But as he grew 
 older he modified his views greatly, and 
 his Christianity of the First Three Centuries 
 (1853), though it hardly rises above Uni- 
 tarianism, is a more conservative work 
 than his previous writings. He asserts the 
 pure morality of Christianity, while he 
 denies its miracles. The tendency of mod¬ 
 ern criticism in the Tubingen school has 
 been to reverse all this. The judgment 
 concerning St. John and the synoptic Gos¬ 
 pels has been to recognize their historic 
 truth;and the manifest untenableness of the 
 theories of Strauss, who was Baur’s schol¬ 
 ar, has driven the scholars to a closer ap- 
 
Tub 
 
 ( 925 ) 
 
 Tyl 
 
 proximation to the ancient faith of Chris¬ 
 tendom.— Benham: Diet, of Religion. See 
 G. P. Fishier: Supernatural Origin of 
 Christianity (N. Y., 1877); Schaff: Church 
 History (1882), vol. i., pp. 205-217. 
 
 TUbingen School. See above. 
 
 Tulloch, John, D. D., a prominent divine 
 of the Church of Scotland; b. near Tibber- 
 muir, Perthshire, June 1, 1823; d. at Tor¬ 
 quay, Eng., Feb. 13, 1885. He was edu¬ 
 cated at St. Andrew’s and at Edinburgh; 
 became parish minister at Dundee, 1845, 
 and at Keltins, Forfarshire, 1849; principal 
 and professor of divinity, St. Andrew’s 
 University, 1854 ; and senior principal, 
 i860. He was the author of several valu¬ 
 able theological works, the principal being: 
 Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy 
 (1872), 2 vols.; The Christian Doctrine of 
 Sin (1877); Modern Theories in Philosophy 
 and Religion (1884); Movements of Religious 
 Thought in Britain during the Ninetee 7 ith 
 Century (1885). 
 
 Tunkers. See Dunkers. 
 
 Turkey. The Ottoman Turks who laid 
 the foundations of the Turkish Empire 
 were Mohammedans, and carried on their 
 wars in the name of the prophet. After 
 the conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim, he 
 held as captive at Constantinople the 
 last of the caliphs of the family of Koreish 
 until he ceded to him his rights as caliph. 
 Since that time the claim of the Ottoman 
 sultans as successors to the Prophet has 
 been generally recognized. The constitu¬ 
 tion of the country has been and still con¬ 
 tinues strictly Mohammedan, and as the 
 Koran declares that any Mohammedan 
 denying his faith shall be put to death, it 
 will at once appear how difficult it is to se¬ 
 cure religious liberty in Turkey, or gain 
 converts among the Mohammedans. The 
 attitude of foreign governments, especially 
 of England, has secured partial relief and 
 security. The work of Protestant mission¬ 
 ary societies has been confined for the most 
 part to the Jews and the Oriental Chris¬ 
 tians. The American Board of Commis¬ 
 sioners for Foreign Missions was the first 
 society from this country to undertake 
 missionary work in Turkey (1819). The 
 board has now four distinct missions in that 
 empire—the European, Western, Central, 
 and Eastern Turkey. In 1890 they had in 
 that country 169 male and female mission¬ 
 aries, and supported, wholly or in part, 768 
 native pastors, teachers, etc. The mission 
 in Syria was transferred to the Presbyte¬ 
 rian Church in 1870. The United Presby¬ 
 terian Church has a flourishing mission in 
 
 Egypt. (See art. Egypt, p. 285.) The 
 Methodist Church, the Reformed Presby¬ 
 terian, the Disciples, and the Society of 
 Friends have also established missions 
 within the bounds of the Turkish Empire. 
 Robert College at Constantinople and the 
 Syrian Protestant College at Beyrout are 
 independent, endowed institutions. The 
 Roman Catholic Church has a large num¬ 
 ber of missionaries in the empire, native 
 and foreign, of both sexes, estimated at not 
 less than ten thousand. They have con¬ 
 verted many of the Jacobites, control the 
 Maronites in Syria, and have made some 
 progress among the Greeks and Copts, but 
 they have made no converts among the 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 Turner, Samuel Hulbeart, D. D., b. in 
 Philadelphia, Jan. 23, 1790; d. in New 
 York City, Dec. 21, 1861. After graduat¬ 
 ing from the University of Pennsylvania, 
 in 1807, he took orders in the Episcopal 
 Church and officiated as rector of church¬ 
 es in Chestertown, Md., New York, and 
 Brooklyn. In 1818 he became professor 
 of historic theology in the General Theo¬ 
 logical Seminary, New York, and from 1821 
 till his death, professor of biblical learning. 
 He wrote valuable commentaries on He¬ 
 brews , Ro?nans , Ephesians , and Galatians. 
 Among other works are: Co?npanion to the 
 Book of Genesis; Teachings of the Master; 
 Spiritual Thifigs compared with Spiritual; 
 or , Gospels and Acts Illustrated by Parallel 
 References. See his Autobiography (1862). 
 
 Twisse, William, D. D., first moderator 
 of the Westminster Assembly of Divines; 
 b. near Newbury, Berkshire, Eng., 1575; 
 d. in London, July 20, 1646. He was edu¬ 
 cated at Oxford, and became vicar of New¬ 
 bury, where he remained until the opening 
 of the Civil War. He was a high Calvinist, 
 and distinguished himself by his writings 
 against the Arminians. See Opera (Am¬ 
 sterdam, 1652), 3 vols. 
 
 Tyler, Bennet, D. D.; b. in Middlebury, 
 Conn., July 10, 1783; d. at East Windsor, 
 Conn., May 14, 1858. He was graduated 
 from Yale College in 1804, and ordained 
 pastor of the Congregational Church in 
 South Britain, Conn., in 1808. He was 
 elected president of Dartmouth College in 
 1822; succeeded Dr. Payson as pastor of 
 the Second Congregational Church, Port¬ 
 land, Me., in 1828. He took a prominent 
 position in opposition to the views of Dr. 
 Taylor of New Haven—a college classmate 
 —and when the controversy led to the 
 founding of a theological seminary at East 
 Windsor (now removed to Hartford) he was 
 appointed the first president and professor 
 
Tyn 
 
 ( 9 26 ) 
 
 Tyn 
 
 of theology in 1834. He resigned on ac¬ 
 count of failing health in 1857. He pub¬ 
 lished: History of the New Haven Theology; 
 Memoir of Asahel Netlleton; Review of 
 “ Day on the Will ; ” 1 'reatise on the Suffer¬ 
 ings of Christ; Letters to Dr. H. Bus line ll on 
 Christian Nurture. 
 
 Tyndale, William, translator of the Bible, 
 was born at a small village in Gloucester¬ 
 shire, about 1484; died, 1536. Most writers 
 say that the name of the village was Slym- 
 bridge, but there is a certain amount of 
 uncertainty about all the facts of his early 
 days. The exact date of his entrance at 
 Oxford is also unknown, but recent re¬ 
 searches have discovered that he took his 
 degree in 1512. A few years later he went 
 to Cambridge, his zeal for studying the 
 Bible probably inducing him to go and con¬ 
 sult Erasmus, then at the height of his 
 fame. In 1521 he became tutor to a gentle¬ 
 man named Welch, who lived in Gloucester¬ 
 shire, and it was there that he finally re¬ 
 solved to undertake the task of translating 
 the Bible into English. He was much dis¬ 
 satisfied with the teaching and general be¬ 
 havior of the clergy in the neighborhood 
 of Sir John Welch, and translated a pam¬ 
 phlet which Erasmus had written in Latin, 
 called The Manual of a Christian Soldier; 
 this was a violent protest against the wicked 
 lives of the clergy, and, of course, brought 
 down a storm of abuse on Tyndale’s head; 
 he was, however, firmly supported by his 
 master and patron. In 1523 he went to 
 London with an introduction to Tunstall, 
 bishop of London, expecting to have extra 
 facilities for carrying out the work to which 
 he was resolved to devote himself. He 
 found that, so far from that being the case, 
 it was impossible to do the work there, so 
 many impediments being thrown in his 
 way. In the following year, therefore, he 
 went to Hamburg, from thence to Witten¬ 
 berg, where he became acquainted with 
 Luther, and there he translated the New 
 Testament into English. He used fey text¬ 
 books Erasmus’s Greek Testament, the 
 Vulgate, and the German translation by 
 Luther. It was printed at Cologne, and it 
 was decided that the first edition should 
 consist of 3,000 copies. An enemy to the 
 Reformation, named Cochloeus. tried to 
 prevent its being printed at all; but, failing 
 in this, he sent word to Henry VIII. and 
 Cardinal Wolsey to advise that all the ports 
 should be strictly watched, in order that 
 its admission into England should be pre¬ 
 vented. It arrived in England about the 
 middle of the year 1526, and immediately 
 an assembly of the bishops was called to¬ 
 gether, and they unanimously denounced 
 it. The bishop of London went so far as 
 
 to say that any one in his diocese found to 
 be possessing a copy was to be excommuni¬ 
 cated. Of this first edition a portion of one 
 copy only, so far, is known to exist, and 
 that is in the British Museum. In language, 
 except for spelling, it is astonishingly like 
 our Authorized Version published in 1611, 
 which we still have in use. The next few 
 years of his life were devoted to writing 
 pamphlets on the doctrine of Justification 
 by Faith, the first of which was entitled the 
 Wicked Mammon. It was condemned on 
 all sides, Sir Thomas More going so far as 
 to call it “ a very treasury and well-spring 
 of wickedness;” but Tyndale was nothing 
 daunted by this unfavorable reception, and 
 in the following year published The Obedi¬ 
 ence of a Christian Man , next to his trans¬ 
 lation the most important work of his life. 
 He now began to translate the Old Testa¬ 
 ment, and published the Pentateuch in 
 1530, of which there is one perfect copy 
 extant in the British Museum; and in the 
 same year he wrote the Practice of Prelates , 
 in which he again fiercely denounces the 
 customs and ways of the Roman Catholic 
 priests. All this time he was still living in 
 Germany, chiefly at Marburg; but in 1534 
 permission was given to print the Bible in 
 England, and Tyndale intended to return 
 home. With that intention he went to Ant¬ 
 werp; but his enemies, by treachery, took 
 him and had him put into prison. He was 
 kept there for nearly two years, in spite of 
 all the efforts made in England and on the 
 Continent; and at last, in 1536, he was 
 burnt to death at Vilvorden, near Brussels, 
 with the prayer on his lips, “ Lord, open 
 the king of England’s eyes.”—Benham: 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Tyng, Stephen Higginson, D. D., an 
 eminent and eloquent Episcopal clergy¬ 
 man; b. at Newburyport, Mass., March 1, 
 1800; d. at Irvington-on-the-Hudson, Sept. 
 4, 1885. After graduating at Harvard 
 College in 1817, he was in business for a 
 short time. After studying theology he 
 was rector at Georgetown, D. C., 1821-23; 
 in Queen Anne Parish, Md., 1823-29; of 
 St. Paul’s, Philadelphia, 1829-33; of the 
 Church of the Epiphany in the same city, 
 1833-45; of St. George’s, New York City, 
 1845-78, when he retired as pastor emeri¬ 
 tus. Dr. Tyng was a leader in the Low- 
 Church party, and was in great demand as 
 a platform speaker. A man of rare ex¬ 
 ecutive gifts and pastoral faithfulness, his 
 ministry was one of great usefulness. 
 Among his published works are: Lectures 
 on the Law and the Gospel (1832); R/emoir 
 of Rev. G. T. Bedell (1835); Christ is All 
 (1852); The Rich Kinsman; or , the History 
 of Ruth (1855); Forty Years’ Experience in 
 
Tyr 
 
 ( 927 ) 
 
 Ull 
 
 Sunday-Schools (i860); The Office and Duty 
 of a Christian Pastor (1884). 
 
 Tyre, an ancient and famous city of 
 Phoenicia situated on the coast of the 
 Mediterranean, about twenty miles south 
 of Sidon. Its site was upon what was 
 originally an island, and there was a city 
 called “ Old Tyre ” on the mainland. The 
 first mention of Tyre in the Scriptures 
 is found in Joshua xix. 29. It was one of 
 the great commercial cities of antiquity and 
 its king, Hiram, was on friendly terms 
 with David (2 Sam. v. 11) and Solomon. (1 
 Kings vii. 13-45.) The purchase and sale 
 of Hebrew captives as slaves by the Tyr¬ 
 ians changed this relation to hostility. 
 (Joel iii. 4-8; Amos i. 9, 10.) The power 
 of this wealthy city steadily increased, and 
 it successfully resisted a siege by Shal¬ 
 maneser in 721 b. c. , and in 585 b. C. by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, which lasted thirteen 
 years. When Alexander the Great entered 
 Phoenicia after the battle of Issus (331) 
 Sidon submitted to his rule, but Tyre in 
 its pride resisted, and after a siege of seven 
 months was taken, and never regained its 
 former prosperity. It became a part of the 
 Seleucidian kingdom of Syria. It is men¬ 
 tioned in Matt. xi. 21; xv. 21; Luke vi. 17; 
 x. 13, and a Christian Church was gather¬ 
 ed here, with whom Paul stayed for seven 
 days. (Acts xxi. 3-7.) During the Middle 
 Ages it was a place of considerable im¬ 
 portance. After being subject to the 
 Romans for four hundred years, it came 
 under the dominion of the Saracens in the 
 seventh century. Captured by the Cru¬ 
 saders in 1124 it was regained and destroy¬ 
 ed by the Muslims in 1291. The modern 
 city is made up of dilapidated houses, and 
 has a population of about 5,000, nearly half 
 of whom are Mohammedans, and the rest 
 Christians with a sprinkling of Jews. Huge 
 stones and fragments of marble columns, 
 the ruins of ancient Tyre, are found along 
 the shore and partially submerged. Here, 
 to-day, fishermen spread their nets. A 
 wonderful fulfillment, it has been well said, 
 of a prophecy uttered twenty-four hundred 
 years ago: “ I will make thee like the top 
 of a rock; thou shalt be a place to spread 
 nets upon.” (Ezek. xxvi. 14.) 
 
 u. 
 
 Ubiquitarians (from Lat. ubique, every¬ 
 where), a sect of Lutherans which rose 
 and spread itself in Germany, and whose 
 distinguishing doctrine was that the body 
 of Jesus Christ is everywhere, or in every 
 place. Brentz, one of the early Reformers, 
 is said to have broached this error in 1560; 
 Andreas and Flacius helped to spread it. 
 
 They were heartily opposed by the Uni¬ 
 versities of Wittenberg and Leipzig. Soon 
 after, a controversy began in the Palatinate 
 about the oral manducation of the body of 
 our Lord in the sacrament. To prevent 
 the ill consequences of this dispute Fred¬ 
 erick III. ordered the Heidelberg Cate¬ 
 chism to be drawn up. (Heidelberg 
 Catechism; Ursinus.) Afterwards, at the 
 Conference at Maulbronn, 1564, they 
 argued about the sense of the words used 
 at the receiving of the sacrament. Luther 
 and Melanchthon both denied that they held 
 the doctrine of ubiquity, but after their 
 death the disputes were renewed, and this 
 hypothesis was dressed up in a specious 
 and plausible form by Brentz, Chemnitz, 
 and others, who maintained the communi¬ 
 cation of the properties of Christ’s divinity 
 to his human nature. In 1577, at the 
 monastery of Bergen, it was recognized as 
 a Lutheran doctrine in the Formula of 
 Concord, though by no means all the 
 Lutheran divines are agreed on this point. 
 The divines of Tubingen in the seventeenth 
 century upheld the theory in opposition to 
 the divines of Giessen.—Benham: Did . of 
 Religion. 
 
 Ubiquity. See Ubiquitarians. 
 
 Ullmann ( ool'rnan ), Karl, an eminent 
 German evangelical theologian; b. at 
 Epfenbach, near Heidelberg, March 15, 
 1796; d. at Carlsruhe, Jan. 12, 1865. He 
 studied in the Universities of Heidelberg 
 and Tubingen, and in 1817 was ordained 
 vicar at Kirchheim. This position he soon 
 resigned, and entered upon a course of 
 professional preparation at Berlin. Here, 
 under the influence especially of Neander, 
 he adopted evangelical views of theology. 
 He began to lecture at Heidelberg in 1819, 
 and was elected professor in 1821. With 
 Umbreit he founded the Theologische 
 Studien tend Kritiken (Theological Studies 
 and Discussions) which became the leading 
 organ of the evangelical school of theology. 
 The opening article, On the Sinlessness of 
 Jesus , from the pen of Ullmann, was en¬ 
 larged and published in book form, and 
 passed through many editions. In 1829 he 
 was called to Halle. While here he wrote 
 his principal historical work, The Reform¬ 
 ers'before the Refomnation (Eng. trans., 2d 
 ed., 1866), 2 vols. Returning to Heidel¬ 
 berg in 1836 he accepted the position of 
 prelat in 1853, and in the face of much op¬ 
 position labored earnestly to unite the dif¬ 
 ferent Protestant parties in Baden and im¬ 
 prove the general status of the Lutheran 
 clergymen. He published several articles 
 against Strauss’s Life of Christ. See his 
 Life, by W, Beyschlag (Gotha, 1866). 
 
Ulp 
 
 (923) 
 
 Uni 
 
 Ulphilas, “apostle of the Goths” (313- 
 383), belonged to a family in Cappadocia, 
 which was taken captive by the Goths, and 
 remained among them. Ulphilas received 
 the Gothic name, Willjila (Little Wolf), but 
 was educated as a Christian, and destined 
 for the Church. The Goths were heathen, 
 but through the earnest labors of Ulphilas 
 many of them became Christians. He was 
 ordained their bishop in 343, probably by 
 an Arian bishop, as he declared that he 
 had always been an Arian in belief. Per¬ 
 secutions led him to obtain permission to 
 immigrate with his converts to Moesia, in 
 the Roman Empire. Meanwhile mission¬ 
 ary work continued among the Goths, and 
 after Athanaric, the great Gothic chief, 
 embraced Christianity, the conversion of 
 the whole nation was completed. They 
 were Arians, and while efforts were made 
 to reconcile them with the orthodox Greek 
 Church, they proved unavailing. 
 
 Ulphilas translated the Bible into the 
 Gothic language, for which he had to in¬ 
 vent a new alphabet. Only fragments of 
 this translation have been preserved. The 
 Codex Argenteus, so called because written 
 in silver letters, was discovered in the 
 Benedictine abbey of Werden in 1597. It 
 is preserved in the library of Upsala. 
 Seven codices in all have been discovered 
 and published. See Schaff: Companion to 
 the Greek Testament (N. Y., 1883, pp. 160 
 sqq.)\ C. A. A. Scott: Ulfilas, Apostle of the 
 Goths (London, 1885). 
 
 Ulrich, bishop of Augsburg, the son of 
 a German nobleman; b. at Augsburg in 
 890; d. there, July 4, 973. He became 
 bishop in 923, and discharged his duties 
 with great vigor and ability. His wealth 
 was used in the construction of churches 
 and religious houses, and he enforced the 
 rules regarding hours of worship with 
 great rigor. Insisting upon the celibacy 
 of the clergy, he held them to the strict 
 observance of their duties, and enforced 
 peculiar regard of relics. He was canon¬ 
 ized by Pope John XV., in 993. 
 
 Ultramontane (Latin ultra monies , be¬ 
 yond the mountains,/, e. , the Alps), the 
 name given to a party in the Roman Cath¬ 
 olic Church who hold that the pope is 
 superior to general councils, and inde¬ 
 pendent of their decrees. They desire to 
 concentrate all ecclesiastical power in his 
 hands, in opposition to the views of those 
 who desire the right of self-government 
 by national churches. See Gallican 
 Church. 
 
 Umbreit (oom'brit), Friedrich Wilhelm 
 Karl, b. at Sonneborn, near Gotha, April 
 
 11, 1795; d. at Heidelberg, April 26, i860. 
 He studied at Gottingen, where he became 
 deeply interested in Oriental studies under 
 the direction of Eichhorn. He accepted a 
 professorship at Heidelberg in 1820, and 
 during the remainder of his life devoted 
 himself almost exclusively to the study of 
 the Old Testament, and prepared several 
 well-known commentaries. They “are 
 practical, and display a profound sympathy 
 with the life of the Old Testament. What¬ 
 ever may be the opinion about their liter¬ 
 ary merits, there can be no doubt that he 
 opened the eyes and hearts of many to the 
 beauties and religion of the Old Testa¬ 
 ment.”— Kamphausen . His first commen¬ 
 tary was on Ecclesiastes (1818), followed by 
 one on the Song of Solomon (1820); Job 
 (1824); Proverbs (1826); the prophetical 
 books, except Jonah and Daniel (1841-46); 
 Romans (1856). From 1828 Umbreit was 
 coeditor with Ullmann of the Theolog. Stu- 
 dien und Kritiken (Theological Studies and 
 Discussions). 
 
 Unbelief. See Infidelity. 
 
 Uncial (from uncia , the twelfth part of 
 anything) and Cursive (/. e. , in running, sc., 
 hand) Manuscripts. The former are written 
 usually in large capital letters; the latter 
 in small letters. See Bible, p. 106. 
 
 Uncleanness. See Purification. 
 
 Unction. See Extreme Unction. 
 
 Unigenitus, the name of a famous bull 
 issued by Clement XI. (Sept. 8, 1713), in 
 which he condemned one hundred and one 
 propositions drawn from the works of 
 Quesnel (q. v.). These propositions were 
 taken almost literally from the Bible or ac¬ 
 cepted authorities of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. See Jansenism. 
 
 Uniformity, Acts of. Acts which se¬ 
 cure in every congregation of the Church of 
 England the same form of public prayer, 
 administration of sacraments, and other 
 rites. The first was passed in 1559, which 
 confirmed the Revised Prayer - Book of 
 Edward VI., and inflicted severe penalties 
 on those who should have any other form 
 used in church: for the first offence they 
 were to forfeit their goods; for the second, 
 to be imprisoned a year; for the third, life- 
 imprisonment. All who absented them¬ 
 selves from church on Sundays and Holy 
 Days, without just cause, were to be fined 
 a shilling. 
 
 The second and by far the most impor¬ 
 tant Act of Uniformity was passed in 1662, 
 by which all ministers were required to 
 
( 929 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 # 
 
 Uni 
 
 give their assent to the Book of Common 
 Prayer, and to read the Morning and Even¬ 
 ing Services from it, on pain of being de¬ 
 prived of their benefices. They were or¬ 
 dered to make a declaration that it was 
 unlawful on any pretext to bear arms 
 against the king and to deny the binding 
 force of the Solemn League and Covenant. 
 Episcopal Ordination was also declared to 
 be indispensable to the retaining of a bene¬ 
 fice. In consequence of this act some 
 2,000 clergy resigned their livings. This 
 act was set aside by the Act of Toleration 
 under William and Mary. — Benham. Did. 
 of Religion. See Toleration, Act of. 
 
 Unitarian Church, The. The English 
 word “ Unitarian,” and the Latin word 
 “ Unitarius,” are both of comparatively re¬ 
 cent origin, while the word “ Trinitarius” 
 is as old, at least, as the fourth century, 
 implying a person who believes in the doc¬ 
 trine of the Trinitas, or Trinity. The word 
 “Unitarius” has not been found earlier 
 than the discussions which followed the 
 Diet of Thorda, held in Hungary, in the 
 year 1567. This was one of the politico- 
 religious conventions of the time, made 
 necessary by the existence in Hungary of 
 Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans, 
 and Socinians. Different religious parties 
 had in turn had their little measure of suc¬ 
 cess, and at the Diet of Thorda an edict 
 of toleration was drawn up, which gave 
 equal rights to believers of every commun¬ 
 ion. Exactly as the word “Federalist” 
 might be applied to persons who believed 
 in a federal union, the words “ Uniti ” or 
 “ Unitarii ” were applied to those who held 
 bv this edict of toleration. It soon proved 
 that neither Catholics, Calvinists, nor Lu¬ 
 therans had any permanent love for unity, 
 and the Socinians alone, of the four parties, 
 retained the name “ Uniti,” or “ Unitarii,” 
 which had been given to the body of tolera¬ 
 tion. They were known in Europe as 
 “ Unitarii,” having gained this name by 
 this loyalty which we now consider so hon¬ 
 orable. As, at the same time, they were 
 steadfast in refusing an assent to the doc¬ 
 trine of the Trinity, as it was proclaimed 
 in most Protestant churches, it was easy 
 to associate their belief with the doctrine 
 of the unity of God; and, in popular use, 
 the word “ Unitarian,” then and now, was 
 connected with persons who rejected the 
 scholastic doctrine of the Trinity. It seems 
 necessary to say this, because Trinitarian 
 authors have often claimed, with a just 
 and natural indignation, that they also are 
 Unitarians, because they believe in one 
 God. Thus, Archdeacon Hook, of Leeds, 
 in his Church Dictionary, says that “ the 
 word is a title which certain heretics, who 
 
 do not worship the true God, assume most 
 unfairly.” 
 
 It is well known to all theologians that 
 the Christian Church of Palestine was Ebio- 
 nite in its Christology, to the very end of 
 its separate existence. That is, it regarded 
 Jesus Christ as a man in the same sense 
 in which John and Peter and James were 
 men, and knew no difference between his 
 birth and the birth of those spoken of in 
 Scripture as his brethren. When, in the 
 Council of Nice, the great discussions be¬ 
 tween Arians and Athanasians took place 
 (see Arius; Athanasius), the churches of 
 Palestine were unanimously and always 
 found in support of the Arian rather than 
 the Athanasian view. A similar antiquity, 
 to be traced in written theology, is claimed 
 by Unitarian students for the other distinc¬ 
 tive views which they are most active in 
 proclaiming. Thus, the doctrine*of free¬ 
 will was proclaimed by Morgan, whose 
 name in Latin is Pelagius ( q. v.), in the 
 discussions of which, between him and 
 Augustine,the name is still retained,though 
 the bigotry of the triumphant church has 
 detroyed all the treatises which came from 
 Morgan’s pen. Indeed, the fundamental 
 principle on which the Unitarian Church 
 stands, is the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. 
 Expressed in Scripture language, it is this: 
 “ When the Comforter shall come, he shall 
 guide you into all truth.” The Unitarian 
 Church accepts all such statements in their 
 fullest range and extent. It believes that 
 the Church of each succeeding century is 
 expected to do greater works than the Mas¬ 
 ter did, and it finds in history, therefore, 
 those who have led on in its work among 
 heretics of every time. Many of these 
 heretics have been martyrs, but their blood 
 has been the seed of the Church of the fu¬ 
 ture, and their word has gone out into all 
 the earth. 
 
 It is, indeed, generally acknowledged by 
 Christian theologians that, wherever else 
 the scholastic doctrine of the Trinity is to 
 be found, it is not scientifically stated in 
 the four gospels. Distinguished Trinita¬ 
 rian divines have suggested that the apos¬ 
 tles themselves did not know that Jesus 
 Christ was God until after his death, and 
 that they received that truth only at the 
 Day of Pentecost. To this indifference of 
 the evangelists to the doctrine, the Unita¬ 
 rian Church ascribes the fact that, whenever 
 any body of Christians falls back upon the 
 New Testament for its dogmatic statement, 
 it asserts Arian or Unitarian doctrine re¬ 
 garding the Saviour. This doctrine admits 
 of a wide range of opinion regarding the 
 nature of Christ and his relation to God. 
 But it does not admit that he is God in 
 the sense in which the Holy Spirit is God. 
 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 930 ) 
 
 
 Uni 
 
 
 It may admit his divinity, but it denies his 
 deity. 
 
 Indeed, it has been claimed by Unitari¬ 
 ans that, if the Latin language had admit¬ 
 ted the distinction which the Greek pre¬ 
 sents, between o thcos, the God, and theos , 
 a god, always inferior, and representing 
 simply the divinity inherent in the being 
 spoken of, the Trinitarian doctrine of the 
 modern church would never have come 
 into existence. 
 
 The heretics of all ages, therefore, have 
 generally, not always, been Unitarians. It 
 was clearly the political interest of Con¬ 
 stantine to ally himself with the Athanasian 
 doctrine. He did so with such effect that 
 the Trinitarian view prevailed, though with 
 the greatest difficulty, at the General Coun¬ 
 cil of Nicaea. It has since been one of the 
 central doctrines of the Church of Rome, 
 and of * the churches which claim close 
 historic connection with that communion. 
 
 So soon as the omnipotence of that 
 church was challenged in Western Europe, 
 there appeared in all religious communions 
 men who proclaimed that Jesus Christ is 
 the son of God, and not Very God of Very 
 God. Persons who practically hold to this 
 belief are probably found in all commun¬ 
 ions. 
 
 The principal organizations of the Uni¬ 
 tarian Church in modern times are the 
 Unitarian Church of Hungary, the Uni¬ 
 tarian Church of England, the Unitarian 
 Church of America, and the Unitarian 
 Church of France. It is understood that 
 the Protestant communions of Switzerland 
 and the Low Countries are largely in sym¬ 
 pathy with Unitarian views, but the name 
 is not known in those countries as the dis¬ 
 tinctive title of a church organization. 
 
 In each of these countries the history 
 of this body has been in general the same. 
 So soon as the critical interpretation of the 
 New Testament became familiar to scholars, 
 the doctrines known as the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, of foreordination, of total deprav¬ 
 ity, and of the vicarious atonement, began 
 to be severely attacked, on the simple 
 ground that they are not the doctrines of 
 the four gospels. Without entering into 
 that controversy here, it is enough to say 
 that prominent theologians of the orthodox 
 parties have admitted that the New Testa¬ 
 ment alone did not give its support, in 
 scientific statement to these doctrines; 
 that they lie latent there, but that they 
 must be developed by the after-conscious¬ 
 ness of the church. This is, for instance, 
 the view of Cardinal Newman. Begin¬ 
 ning in each country by seeking to over¬ 
 throw the five great doctrines of Augus- 
 tinianism or Calvinism by Scripture criti¬ 
 cism, the Unitarian Church has advanced 
 
 by a progress almost the same in each 
 country to its present attitude. This may 
 be familiarly stated by the expression 
 which has been cited, which calls it “ the 
 Church of the Holy Spirit.” It accepts 
 literally every Scripture phrase which calls 
 men the children of God, and makes a dis¬ 
 tinction between his children and beings 
 which are only his creatures. It accepts 
 without hesitation the statement that men 
 may be “ partakers of the divine nature.” 
 It accepts in the same way the statement 
 that the Church will do greater things than 
 the Saviour did. If Arius denied the 
 divinity of men and women generally, in 
 seeking to claim that divinity for one son 
 of God alone—the Unitarian Church of to¬ 
 day is rather Athanasian than Arian,'for 
 it holds, as a happy epigram has said, to 
 “ the humanity of God, and the divinity of 
 man.” 
 
 The Unitarian Church of to-day, there¬ 
 fore, permits no written creed enforced by 
 any authority upon its individual mem¬ 
 bers. Each man and woman must make 
 his creed or hers, and will. This church 
 is indifferent to the common demand for 
 uniformity of ritual or dogma. It is all 
 the more urgent in proclaiming the unity 
 of the Holy Spirit as the bond of peace. 
 Among its members are to be found per¬ 
 sons who would give to Jesus Christ a 
 position of higher dignity, more complete¬ 
 ly separated from the position of other 
 sons of God than even Arius claimed for 
 him. There are, on the other hand, per¬ 
 sons who would relegate him to the same 
 relationship with God as King David held, 
 —even accepting the destructive language 
 of the recently discovered “ Catechism of 
 the Twelve Apostles.” But Unitarians in 
 general are indifferent to the dogmatic 
 views even of their own companions in 
 their own church. Absolute believers in 
 the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, accepting 
 the strongest statements of the four gos¬ 
 pels with regard to his presence and 
 authority, the Unitarian Church prizes 
 most highly the teacher who most surely 
 receives his instruction at first-hand. Its 
 business is to proclaim the present rule of 
 a present God. The immanent presence 
 of God is the theology of its pulpit, and 
 the duty of man, as the son of God, to bear 
 his brother’s burdens, and to bring in the 
 kingdom of God—this constitutes the basis 
 of its ethics. 
 
 It will be seen that it is wholly impos¬ 
 sible for such a Church to maintain the 
 methods of the Roman Catholic Church, or 
 any of its imitators, in the establishment of 
 colleges, in the organization of missions, 
 in any other system of propagandism which 
 can be compared with the methods of an 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 931 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 organized army. On the other hand, the 
 Unitarian Church has the great advantage 
 that, as the friend of the freedom of abso¬ 
 lute thought, it has the encouragement of 
 all other friends of freedom. It is in the 
 position of an army made up from men of 
 various services, operating in a country 
 where people are friendly to it, as compared 
 with an army of close discipline and one 
 method of service, operating in an alien 
 country where all men hate it. The Uni¬ 
 tarian Church is not dissatisfied with this 
 position. It believes that it sees the ad¬ 
 vance of its own views in the churches of 
 every communion. Its theological position 
 is that of the Quakers; in believing that 
 “salvation is free” it is atone with the 
 Methodists; in the independence of its con¬ 
 gregations it is at one with the great Bap¬ 
 tist body; in its indifference to dogma it 
 has the sympathies of the Episcopal 
 Church; and in requiring man’s strictest 
 obedience to the highest law that he can 
 find, it is still at one with the severest dic¬ 
 tates of that Puritanism from which, in 
 England and in America, it was born. The 
 familiar statement of its members is that it 
 must be judged by its fruits only, and that 
 it is a religion of character. 
 
 In England the Unitarian Church is rep¬ 
 resented in about 350 pulpits. Its working 
 centre is the British and Foreign Unitarian 
 Association, established in 1825. It main¬ 
 tains three theological schools for the 
 training of its ministers, and measures 
 have been lately taken for the establishment 
 of a Unitarian college in Oxford. In 1813 
 the penal act by which a Unitarian could 
 be tried and executed for his belief was re¬ 
 pealed, and in other regards the law of 
 England toward them has gradually become 
 more humane. In France they make nearly 
 one-half of the Protestant body recognized 
 by the State, and in a series of annoying 
 controversies, which have lasted for fifty 
 years, the Unitarian churches have held 
 their own, and have, perhaps, advanced in 
 securing equal rights. In the principal 
 cantons of Switzerland the Unitarians di¬ 
 rect the religious establishments; but this 
 is a business which they do not do very 
 well, not having, as has been said, any 
 felicity in the use of the mechanism of 
 church organization. 
 
 In Hungary the Unitarian Church has 
 existed as one of the four communions rec¬ 
 ognized by the Government since 1568. 
 The number of separate churches is no. 
 The Church maintains a college at Klausen- 
 berg, and two academies to prepare pupils 
 for the college. 
 
 In Holland the critical writers of the lib¬ 
 eral churches have founded what may be 
 called a school of criticism in the presenta¬ 
 
 tion of the most distinct humanitarian view 
 of the work of Jesus Christ. 
 
 The Unitarian Church in America, in 
 its present organization, springs histor¬ 
 ically from the freedom of the Congrega¬ 
 tional churches of New England. These 
 churches, formed by the Puritans, were 
 anxious to escape from the tyranny which, 
 as they supposed, had repressed the 
 Church of England in the pathway of re¬ 
 form. The religious men among the first 
 emigrants were so decided in their relig¬ 
 ious views that each of them knew that he 
 could not make a creed which would be 
 assented to by the other leaders who were 
 nearest to him. From the mere force of 
 circumstances, therefore, though they 
 did not rise to the level of a broad tol¬ 
 eration, they were obliged to form their 
 churches without what we call creeds. 
 They also determined that each church 
 should be independent of each other 
 church, and should form its own covenant, 
 although they undoubtedly supposed that 
 there would be a general harmony of re¬ 
 ligious belief. These covenants, there¬ 
 fore, always left very great freedom to the 
 individual worshiper. Thus the covenant 
 of the first church in Boston: the members 
 “ unite into one congregation or church, 
 under the Lord Jesus Christ our head,” 
 . . . . “ binding themselves to walk in all 
 our ways according to the rule of the gos¬ 
 pels.” But there is no definition of opin¬ 
 ion, there is no statement of belief, no ex¬ 
 pression as to the person of Christ or the 
 nature of God. Formal statements of be¬ 
 lief or doctrine did not come into New 
 England for more than a hundred years, 
 and into most of the older churches of 
 Massachusetts they have never come to 
 this day. This freedom of the individual 
 to form his own statement from his own 
 reading of the Scripture, resulted, in Mas¬ 
 sachusetts, precisely as similar freedom has 
 resulted everywhere where it has been 
 allowed. That is to say, the creed, what¬ 
 ever it was, of the dogmatic theologians of 
 one day, has never satisfied the theolo¬ 
 gians of the next age; and unless it were 
 obligatory by some statute difficult to re¬ 
 peal, it has been abandoned with the change 
 of times and opinions. It therefore proved 
 in New England, before the middle of the 
 last century, that many of the more prom¬ 
 inent churches were served by ministers 
 who preached pure Arminianism, and re¬ 
 fused any sort of assent to Calvin’s and 
 Augustine’s doctrines of foreordination. In 
 harmony with this freedom as to the nature 
 of man, there came in what Whitefield and 
 other Calvinists thought very lax views as 
 to the atonement by Christ. Gradually, 
 in the same indifference to dogmatic state- 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 932 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 ment, there appeared a tendency to speak 
 of Christ as the Son of God, and not as 
 “ very God of very God.” It was, of 
 course, readily observed that this was a 
 return to the language of the New Testa¬ 
 ment. It therefore came about that, at the 
 time when the American Revolution was 
 shattering men’s political prejudices, many 
 preachers were charged by their enemies 
 with holding “ Socinian ” doctrines with re¬ 
 gard to the being of Christ; and thesecharges 
 were undoubtedly true in many instances. 
 
 The increase of the number of persons 
 in Unitarian churches in America has been 
 rather more rapid than the increase of the 
 native population. But the Unitarians 
 themselves believe that, besides this visible 
 increase of their organizations, the doc¬ 
 trine of the Holy Spirit, which is their 
 central doctrine, is working as a leaven in 
 all churches, and that less and less defer¬ 
 ence is paid with every year in Catholic or 
 any Protestant communions, to any doc¬ 
 trines which involve an idolatry of the 
 Bible, or a deference to creeds or rituals 
 which rest upon human authority. 
 
 Under such auspices, for better or for 
 worse, the Unitarian Church of America 
 is now represented in four hundred and 
 fifty pulpits. It maintains a divinity school 
 at Meadville, Pennsylvania, and the au¬ 
 thorities of Harvard College, at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, give it a fair share in the 
 teaching of theology in the divinity school 
 of the college, in which the representatives 
 of four communions are professors. The 
 State universities of this country are now 
 compelled to appoint Unitarians as pro¬ 
 fessors on the same terms on which they 
 appoint Christians of other communions, 
 and this can be said to be the custom of 
 one or two more of the principal colleges 
 
 of the country. Edward E. Hale. 
 
 Literature: The Works of Joseph Priest¬ 
 ley (1817-32), 26 vols., and of William E. 
 Channing (Boston, 1845), 6 vols.; The Life 
 of W. E. Channing , by W. H. Channing; R. 
 Wallace: Anti- Trinitarian Biography (Lon¬ 
 don,1850); The IAverfool Controversy (1838), 
 conducted by Revs. James Martineau, J. H. 
 Thom, and Henry Giles; George E. Ellis: 
 Half Century of Unitarian Controversy (Bos¬ 
 ton, 1851); J.F.Clarke: Orthodoxy: Lts Truths 
 and Errors (Boston, 1870), and the vol¬ 
 umes of the Christian Exa7niner (Boston). 
 A complete bibliography would include 
 very many writings of importance inferior 
 to the above. Christianismi Restitutio , by 
 Servetus ( ipsa varitati rarior in its first 
 edition; second edition, Nuremberg, 1790); 
 Racovian Catechism; Bibliotheca Fratrum 
 Polinarum (Irenopolis, 1656) [Irenopolis 
 was a pretended city, the publishers of the 
 
 book fearing prosecution on account of its 
 heresy. It contains a collection of the 
 theological work of the Polish Unitarians]; 
 Emlyn: Inquiry into the Scriptural Ac¬ 
 count of Jesus Christ; Sparks’s Essays and 
 Tracts ( Boston, 1823; Unitarian arguments 
 drawn from writers of all communions). 
 
 Unitas Fratrum. See Moravians. 
 
 United Brethren in Christ, a body of 
 evangelical Christians, founded by Philip 
 William Otterbein. This great evangelist 
 and able organizer was b. at Dillenburg, 
 Germany, June 4, 1726. He received a 
 classical education, and after his ordination 
 became pastor of a German Reformed 
 Church in Dillenburg. In response to a 
 call for missionaries to go to America, 
 Otterbein was one of six young men who 
 responded. In 1752 he began his labors as 
 pastor of the German Reformed Church at 
 Lancaster, Penn. It was here that he pass¬ 
 ed through a spiritual experience which he 
 regarded as his first real change of heart. 
 From this time the whole spirit of his min¬ 
 istry and its methods changed, and exten¬ 
 sive revivals followed his preaching. From 
 Lancaster, Mr. Otterbein went to Tulpe- 
 hocken, Penn., then to Frederick, Md., 
 York, Penn., and finally to Baltimore City 
 from 1774 till the time of his death, Nov. 
 17, 1813. At Tulpehocken he inaugurated 
 the plan of holding evening praver-meet- 
 ings and other evangelistic services. This 
 was an innovation that greatly disturbed 
 many in the German Church who had little 
 sympathy with earnest and vital godliness, 
 but the divine favor followed the labors of 
 his servant, which were extended in evan¬ 
 gelistic tours far and near. During his 
 pastorate in York, Penn. (1766), Otterbein 
 was brought, under peculiar circumstances, 
 into close relations with Martin Boehm of 
 the Mennonite Church, who had passed 
 through a spiritual experience very similar 
 to his own. The greeting which Otterbein 
 had given Boehm, after hearing him 
 preach for the first time, “We are breth¬ 
 ren,” gave rise to the name, “ United 
 Brethren in Christ.” 
 
 From this time on, Otterbein and Boehm 
 often met and labored together. It was 
 not their purpose to organize a new Church, 
 but to labor together and separately, each 
 within the pale of his respective denomina¬ 
 tion. They hoped in this way to awaken 
 the people and lead them into the experi¬ 
 ence of a new life. They met with no little 
 opposition. 
 
 During the nine years that Otterbein 
 spent at York, he and Boehm held many 
 services together and separately in various 
 parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir- 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 933 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 ginia. Scores of souls were brought into 
 the light; some of whom commenced to 
 exhort and preach. A few ministers in the 
 old denominations were aroused, and united 
 with them in their evangelistic work. But 
 they labored under great disadvantages be¬ 
 cause of the opposition, both by the clergy 
 and members of the old churches, nearly 
 all of whom were opposed to the new meas¬ 
 ures introduced by Otterbein and Boehm. 
 Still the leaven was at work, and could not 
 be suppressed. 
 
 In 1774 Mr. Otterbein removed to Balti¬ 
 more, Md. “ Nearly twenty years had 
 passed since he had entered into the light. 
 During all these years he had labored in¬ 
 cessantly in public and private to promote 
 in the church a revival of Bible religion.” 
 While his labors had not accomplished all 
 he desired, they were far from being a 
 failure. Scores and hundreds of seals were 
 added to his ministry. 
 
 Soon after Mr. Otterbein’s removal to 
 Baltimore he commenced the organization 
 of a congregation which was distinct from, 
 and independent of, the German Reformed 
 Church. “ This was not his own choice; 
 there was a combination of circumstances, 
 over which he seemed not to have control, 
 that forced him into this measure.” There 
 were elements of spiritual power scattered 
 through Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir¬ 
 ginia, which could not be brought into 
 harmony with the formalism of the old de¬ 
 nominations, but it was without organiza¬ 
 tion. Otterbein and Boehm saw this, but 
 had no desire to organize a new church. 
 
 The organization of the United Brethren 
 Church was not accomplished in a day: it 
 took months and years. It was a gradual 
 development. The leaders moved forward 
 only as they were compelled by the force 
 of circumstances. 
 
 Otterbein was a German Reformed, and 
 Boehm a Mennonite. They represented 
 denominations widely different in polity. 
 About this time Mr. Otterbein formed the 
 acquaintance of Mr. Asbury, the first 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
 in America. They became very intimate 
 friends, and, by special request of Asbury, 
 Otterbein assisted in his (Asbury’s) ordina¬ 
 tion to the office of bishop. This friend¬ 
 ship, without interruption, continued 
 through many years. They often met in 
 council over the condition of the churches 
 in America. Four months after the death 
 of Otterbein, Asbury preached in his pul¬ 
 pit. Referring to the occasion in his jour¬ 
 nal, Mr. Asbury said: “ By request, I dis- 
 coursed'on the character of the angel of the 
 church of Philadelphia, in allusion to Will¬ 
 iam Otterbein—the holy, the great Otter¬ 
 bein. Forty years have I known the re¬ 
 
 tiring modesty of this man of God; towering 
 majestic above his fellows in learning, 
 wisdom, and grace, yet seeking to be known 
 only to God and the people of God.” 
 
 Mr. Otterbein’s association with Bishop 
 Asbury no doubt had considerable in¬ 
 fluence over his mind in outlining the 
 polity of the church, of which, by the 
 providence of God he was placed at the 
 head. Selecting from the German Reform¬ 
 ed, Mennonite, and Methodist Episcopal 
 Churches such items of polity as could be 
 made to harmonize, Otterbein and his co¬ 
 adjutors commenced the formation of a 
 polity, which, in several respects, differed 
 from any other in America. There is a 
 fortunate balancing of power between the 
 laity and ministry, so that neither can act 
 independently of the other. It has some 
 of the elements of the Presbyterian form, 
 some of the Congregational, and some of 
 the Methodist Episcopal, thus making it, in 
 some respects, the counterpart of the 
 American Republic. But for the Revolu¬ 
 tionary War the organization of the church 
 would have progressed more rapidly. The 
 ministers cooperating with Otterbein and 
 Boehm in the evangelistic work would 
 meet in council at such times and places 
 as they could. 
 
 The first conference was held in Balti¬ 
 more in 1789. Seven preachers were 
 present, and seven absent. At this con¬ 
 ference some definite action was taken, 
 looking toward a more perfect organiza¬ 
 tion; but the organization was not com¬ 
 pleted until the conference of 1800, at 
 which time Otterbein and Boehm were 
 formally elected bishops. Up to this time, 
 by common consent, without any formal 
 vote, Otterbein acted as general superin¬ 
 tendent. From 1800, Otterbein and Boehm 
 were continued in the office of bishop un¬ 
 til their death. Boehm died in 1812, and 
 Otterbein in 1813. 
 
 When the denomination was first organ¬ 
 ized most of the members spoke the Ger¬ 
 man language exclusively, but at the 
 present time that language is used by less 
 than four per cent, of the congregations. 
 
 The United Brethren in Christ are 
 Arminian in doctrine, and the government 
 of the church is vested primarily in the 
 General Conference. They acknowledge 
 but one order in the ministry, that of elder. 
 There are bishops and presiding elders, 
 but these do not constitute a separate 
 order. The bishops are elected by the 
 General Conference for a term of four 
 years, and the presiding elders by their 
 respective Conferences annually. There 
 are local and quarterly conference preach¬ 
 ers, who have no regular charge, but 
 preach as they have opportunity. The 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 034 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 churches are supplied with pastors on the 
 itinerant plan. The first Board of Mis¬ 
 sions was organized in 1853 for home, 
 frontier and foreign work. Its foreign 
 missions are in West Africa and Germany, 
 and have been very successful. 
 
 The denomination has ten colleges, 
 several academies-, and one Theological 
 Seminary under its care. The publishing- 
 house of the church is located at Dayton, 
 0.,and represented a capital, in 1889, of 
 $280,000. The general statistics of the 
 church for 1889 show a membership of 
 210,517; ministers, 2,050; scholars in Sun¬ 
 day-schools, 219,846; and 32,026 teachers 
 and officers. Value of church property, 
 $ 5 , 255 , 977 - 
 
 During the last quadrennium the net 
 increase in membership was a little over 
 forty thousand. The church is more thor¬ 
 oughly organized and better equipped for 
 aggressive work than at any period in its 
 history. Educated young men from her 
 colleges and seminaries in larger numbers 
 than ever before are entering the ministry. 
 The church was born in a revival, and that 
 spirit has continued till the present time. 
 
 J. Weaver. 
 
 Literature: Lawrence: Histoy-y of The 
 United Brethren in Christ; The United 
 Brethren Year-Book. A. W. Drury: Life 
 of Rev. Philip William Otterbein (Dayton, 
 1884). 
 
 Universalism, or The Universalists. In 
 the nomenclature of theology—particular¬ 
 ly in Germany—the term “ Universalism ” 
 has been applied to the view of the scope 
 of the Gospel taken by St. Paul, in con¬ 
 trast to the narrower view which confined 
 its benefits to a race or class. But this 
 article deals with the denomination of 
 Christians found mostly in the United 
 States, and known as Universalists, whose 
 distinguishing doctrine is the belief that 
 good is naturally superior to evil, and that 
 all souls shall finally attain the end for 
 which they are created—salvation, or moral 
 perfection. 
 
 History. —As a religious body with a dis¬ 
 tinctive name, the Universalists date from 
 the missionary labors of the Rev. John 
 Murray, a disciple of James Relly of Lon¬ 
 don. Mr. Murray came to America in 
 1770, and began preaching at Good Luck, 
 N. J., whence he extended his ministry 
 into New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
 Island, and finally to Massachusetts. But 
 the characteristic doctrine of the Univer¬ 
 salists has been held by many persons in 
 every age since the apostles. A scheme 
 of Universalism was advocated among the 
 more prominent sects of the Gnostics as 
 early as 130 a, D. Of the Church Fathers, 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Diodorus, 
 and Theodore of Mopsuestia are well 
 known to have held and taught Universal¬ 
 ism. It was taught in the greatest of the 
 early schools of Christian theology at 
 Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea and Edessa. 
 In the Middle Ages Maximus, Clement of 
 Ireland, John Scotus Erigena, Raynold, 
 abbot of St. Martin's in France, with many 
 others less noted, proclaimed the final sal¬ 
 vation of all men. A portion of the Albi- 
 genses (eleventh century), of the Lollards 
 (fourteenth century), of the Mystics (fif¬ 
 teenth century), were Universalists. From 
 the Reformation down, both the doctrine 
 and its advocates appear with increasing 
 frequency. The seventeenth article of the 
 Augsburg Confession (1536) was express¬ 
 ly framed to condemn the Universalism of 
 the Anabaptists. John William Petersen 
 published in 1710 three folio volumes in 
 defense of the doctrine, one portion of 
 which, entitled The Everlasting Gospel, had 
 a wide circulation. Numerous other works 
 appeared in Germany, England, and Amer¬ 
 ica during the latter part of the seventeenth 
 and the whole of the eighteenth centuries, 
 so that the collection of what remains of 
 them forms a considerable library, now in 
 possession of the Universalist Historical 
 Society. 
 
 Dr. George De Benneville, of French 
 lineage, and a Mystic, preached Universal¬ 
 ism in Germantown and in Oley, Pa., as 
 early as 1742, and subsequently for many 
 years; but it was with the preaching of the 
 Rev. John Murray that the gathering of 
 distinctively Universalist congregations 
 and the organization of societies began. It 
 was discovered that persons holding the 
 same sentiments were to be found in many 
 places; some of whom had been preachers 
 in Baptist, Congregational, Episcopalian, 
 and other churches, and who. as opportu¬ 
 nity offered, were proclaiming the views for 
 which they had been dismissed from their 
 former connection. But during all the 
 earlier years the organized advance of 
 Universalism was beset with many hin¬ 
 drances. In 1803, when the “ Profession of 
 Belief ” was adopted, and a plan of organ¬ 
 ization agreed upon, there were scarcely a 
 score of ministers and not more than forty 
 congregations in existence. From that 
 period the growth of the denomination be¬ 
 comes more regular and rapid. A princi¬ 
 pal cause contributing to this result was 
 the appearance among the advocates of 
 Universalism of Hosea Ballou (1771-1852), 
 affectionately called “ Father Ballou,” a 
 man of singular originality and power, and 
 well fitted to give coherency and impetus 
 to a new religious movement. He possess¬ 
 ed an acute and logical mind, had uncom- 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 935 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 mon power over popular assemblies, and 
 was endowed with the genius of leadership. 
 Joined with these qualities was a homely 
 wisdom, frequently breaking forth in wit, 
 and an apostolical character, all of which 
 conspired to give him commanding in¬ 
 fluence for half a century. It was not, 
 however, until sixty years from the date 
 of its first organization that any practical 
 plan for associated missionary effort and 
 church extension was devised. In 1870 
 the persistent endeavor of a few earnest 
 and sagacious men was crowned with suc¬ 
 cess in the adoption of a comprehensive 
 and uniform system of organization for 
 parishes, State Conventions, and the Gen¬ 
 eral Convention. This plan, modeled on 
 that of our political system, secured at 
 length the assent of the whole body, and 
 under it a really new denomination has 
 come into existence. 
 
 Statistics. —The most trustworthy infor¬ 
 mation places the numerical force of the 
 Universalist body at 250,000. Many of 
 these are not gathered into parishes, and 
 so are not reported in the official statistics. 
 But their existence is well established from 
 the circulation of the denominational liter¬ 
 ature among them, and from the recent 
 canvass of cities and large towns, under¬ 
 taken by committees representing all the 
 churches. In every instance this canvass 
 showed that there are nearly as many Uni¬ 
 versalist families not heretofore enrolled 
 as had already been reported by the sev¬ 
 eral parishes. The Annual Register for 
 the year 1889 reported 974 parishes, 732 
 organized churches, 815 church edifices, 
 700 ministers, 40,844 families, and 42,952 
 communicants, and $8,018,046 in church 
 property. This represents a gain over the 
 previous year of 11 church organizations 
 and 4,172 communicants. The educational 
 institutions founded and maintained by the 
 denomination, are: The Clinton Liberal 
 Institute, located at Fort Plain, N. Y. (1831); 
 The Westbrook Seminary, Deering, Me. 
 (1832); The Goddard Seminary, Barre, Vt. 
 (1863); The Dean Academy, Franklin, 
 Mass. (1865); The Green Mountain Perkins 
 Institute, So. Woodstock, Vt. (1848); Tufts 
 College, College Hill, Mass. (1S52); Lam- 
 bard University, Galesburg, Ill. (1851); 
 St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. 
 (1856); and Buchtel College, Akron, O. 
 (1870). Three Divinity Schools have been 
 established in the order named: Canton, 
 Tufts and Lambard. These institutions 
 have properties and endowments aggregat¬ 
 ing $10,000,000. The General Convention 
 holds invested funds to the amount of 
 about $200,000, the income of which is used 
 to educate ministers, and to carry forward 
 missions at points not provided for by the 
 
 State Conventions. The New York Con¬ 
 vention holds funds amounting to over 
 $100,000, and the Massachusetts Conven¬ 
 tion has about $50,000. Other State Con¬ 
 ventions have similar funds of less 
 amounts. 
 
 Literature. —Hosea Ballou’s Treatise on 
 the Atonement (1821) was the first book is¬ 
 sued under the auspices of the Universal¬ 
 ist denomination that challenged public 
 attention. As before noted, there had 
 been many Universalist books, like Sieg- 
 volsk’s Everlasting Gospel, and Elhanan 
 Winchester’s Dialogues (1788). But the 
 Treatise and other writings of Mr. Ballou 
 first gave to Universalism the character of 
 a system of religious doctrines. The Ex¬ 
 positor , now the Universalist Quarterly , was 
 established by Mr. Ballou in 1830. He 
 also founded the first Universalist paper, 
 the Evangelical Magazine, in 1819, of which 
 the Christian Leader , Boston, is the succes¬ 
 sor. Some idea of Mr. Ballou’s literary 
 activity, as well as of the part he perform¬ 
 ed in shaping the thought and life of the 
 denomination, may be obtained from the 
 fact, that he was the author of over one 
 hundred volumes. After Mr. Ballou, 
 Thomas Whitteman, for many years editor 
 of The Trumpet, and author of a number 
 of volumes, the most widely circulated of 
 which was the Plain Guide to Universalism, 
 takes rank among the chief propagators of 
 the faith. Hosea Ballou (2d), D. D., first 
 President of Tufts College, was a pains¬ 
 taking scholar, whose Anciejit History of 
 Universalistn holds its place among the 
 standard works of the Church. I. D. Wil¬ 
 liamson, D. D., exerted great influence 
 through his books for a generation, but his 
 chief work, Rudiments of Theological and 
 Moral Science, failed to make any marked 
 impression. T. Southwood Smith’s Lllus- 
 trations of the Divine Government sustains 
 its early reputation. Dr. Thos. B. Thayer 
 produced a number of books of permanent 
 value. His Theology of Universalism has 
 passed through several editions, and his 
 Over the River, a volume of consolatory 
 meditations, has been widely welcomed 
 among Christian people of every name. 
 The works of Dr. Edwin H. Chapin, the 
 great orator of the denomination, have had 
 an extensive popularity, and are still in 
 demand. Universalism a Practical Power, 
 by the late Dr. E. G. Brooks, is a justly 
 prized volume. Lucius R. Paige, D. D., and 
 Rev. W. E. Manley, D. D., have written 
 elaborate commentaries of the New and 
 Old Testaments, respectively. More recent 
 works are: A ion, A ionios; Bible Proofs; The 
 Leaven at Work; The New Covenant, by J. 
 W. Hanson, D. D.; The L.atest Word of 
 Universalism, thirteen essays by thirteen 
 
Uni 
 
 ( 936 ) 
 
 Uni 
 
 clergymen; Essays Doctrinal and Practical , 
 by fifteen clergymen; Probation Examined , 
 and The Bible and Modern Thought , by G. 
 H. Emerson, D. D.; and a series of mono¬ 
 graphs on God the Father , Christ in the 
 Life , Revelation , Salvation , The Birth from 
 Above , Retribution, etc., by prominent writ¬ 
 ers of the denomination. A work of great 
 value, the fruit of long industry and con¬ 
 scientious research, is Dr. Richard Eddy’s 
 Universalism in America (Boston, 1886), 2 
 vols. Endless Punishment in the Very 
 Words of its Authors is a volume of im¬ 
 portant testimonies gathered by the Rev. 
 Thos. J. Sawyer, D. D., Dean of Tufts 
 Divinity School. All the above works, and 
 about one hundred more, are published by 
 the Universalist Publishing House (Boston 
 and Chicago), an incorporated institution 
 holding property to the value of over 
 $200,000, owned by the denomination. 
 
 Doctrines. — The Profession of Belief 
 adopted by representatives of Universalist 
 parishes in 1803, and re-adopted on the oc¬ 
 casion of the completer organization of the 
 body in 1870, consists of three articles, as 
 follows: 
 
 Art. I. We believe that the Holy Script¬ 
 ures of the Old and New Testaments con¬ 
 tain a revelation of the character of God, 
 and of the duty, interest, and final destina¬ 
 tion of mankind. 
 
 Art. II. We believe that there is one God, 
 whose nature is Love, revealed in one Lord 
 Jesus Christ, by one Holy Spirit of Grace, 
 who will finally restore the whole family of 
 mankind to holiness and happiness. 
 
 Art. III. We believe that holiness and 
 true happiness are inseparably connected, 
 and that believers ought to be careful to 
 maintain order and practice good works; 
 for these things are good and profitable 
 unto men. 
 
 Though there is unanimity in subscrib¬ 
 ing this creed, it does not fully satisfy 
 many influential clergymen in the denom¬ 
 ination, and a committee on revision of 
 the Profession has been regularly appoint¬ 
 ed by the General Convention in annual 
 session for several years. Such a commit¬ 
 tee will report a revised creed at the next 
 session in 1891. It is with the Universal- 
 ists, however, as with other Christian sects: 
 their historic creed is neither an exact nor 
 complete summary of their distinctive opin¬ 
 ions. Two chief postulates underlie the 
 system known as Universalism: (1) That 
 truth and right and good are stronger than 
 their opposites, and are sure finally to pre¬ 
 vail. (2) That the end for which man—each 
 man and all men—is made, is to become 
 righteous, wise, and good; in other but 
 equivalent terms, to be saved. Standing 
 on the reasonableness and truth of these 
 
 propositions, Universalism goes on to 
 say: 
 
 (1) Every man is capable of salvation. No 
 human being has been found, none is likely 
 ever to be found, who is not a moral per¬ 
 son. Every such person, and only such a 
 person, is amenable to moral discipline and 
 susceptible to moral influence; which is 
 another way of saying that every one is 
 capable of being saved. 
 
 (2) God loves men and desires their sal¬ 
 vation. They are his spiritual children: 
 they all belong to him. And he desires the 
 salvation of the bad. The good do not 
 need to be saved. The meaning of the 
 Gospel is that God loves men and will have 
 them to be saved. 
 
 (3) Men are saved when they acquire 
 moral likeness to God. Man is a spiritual 
 child of God by nature: he is capable of 
 becoming a child of God in character. But 
 he cannot be depended on to acquire this 
 likeness without divine help. Where he 
 is not postively sinful he is carnal, worldly, 
 unspiritual. Christianity is perhaps not 
 the only means, but it is the chief means 
 through which divine help is extended to 
 man. Christ is the power of God unto sal¬ 
 vation. His righteousness is not substi¬ 
 tuted for man’s; but by his aid man is en¬ 
 abled to have righteousness of his own. 
 
 (4) Since man was made to be righteous 
 and good, his happiness or peace depends, 
 and will always depend, on his attaining 
 the moral character for which these terms 
 stand. However long the period of indif¬ 
 ference or insensibility, it is certain to be 
 succeeded by unrest, and, whenever the 
 man “ comes to himself,” by a conscious¬ 
 ness that his unhappiness is due to his 
 alienation from his Father. Thus the nat¬ 
 ure of man, the inevitable fruit of sin, and 
 the unchanging moral law, conspire with 
 the purpose of God to insure the salvation 
 of the sinner. If it is permissible to assume 
 that the constitution of the human soul 
 will remain what it is, and that sin and 
 righteousness will continue to yield their 
 respective fruits, and that God will never 
 be any less desirousof having men attain the 
 end for which he created them than he was 
 when he raised up his Son, Jesus, and sent 
 him to bless mankind by turning every one 
 of them away from iniquity,theUniversalist 
 conclusion would seem to be valid and solid. 
 
 If it should be said that we cannot know 
 certainly that everyone will be saved, and 
 cannot, therefore, with propriety say more 
 than that it is a “hope,” the Universalist 
 would answer that this is a contingency 
 which attaches equally to all the great 
 affirmations of religion—that there is a God, 
 that man is his spiritual child, that Jesus 
 Christ is the messenger of God, that duty 
 
Uph 
 
 ( 937 ) 
 
 Uri 
 
 is imperative, and that the immortal life is 
 a reality. If the logical strain would break 
 the conclusion that all men are to be saved, 
 it would at the same time snap the certainty 
 that all men are created in the image of 
 God, and relegate to a “ hope” the future 
 life and blessedness of any one. All that 
 can be said for any of these conclusions is, 
 that they acquire so high a degree of prob¬ 
 ability that the human soul, dealing fairly 
 with the facts and with itself, is constrained 
 to accept them. Universalism rests with 
 at least as great security as any of the sys¬ 
 tems of Christian doctrine on the triple 
 support of Revelation, of Reason, and of 
 the observed tendency of the moral crea¬ 
 tion. 
 
 J'endencies. —Two tendencies which ap¬ 
 pear to be inharmonious, if not antagonistic, 
 are noticeable in the denomination in recent 
 years, (i) There is a marked increase in 
 the religious life of the churches. This 
 manifests itself in special religious meet¬ 
 ings; in accessions of communicants; in 
 larger contributions for missionary work, 
 culminating in the sending out of Dr. 
 George L. Perin as a missionary to Japan, 
 the present year, and the raising of over 
 $60,000 to maintain the mission; and in a 
 more spiritual tone pervading the preach¬ 
 ing and literature of the sect. (2) At the 
 same time, and not seldom on the part of 
 the same persons, may be observed the 
 growth of rationalistic habits of thought 
 among certain of the clergy. The symptoms 
 are: a freer handling of the Bible, a disposi¬ 
 tion to discard or to make light of miracles, 
 and eagerness to make more of Science and 
 Literature,and correspondingly less of Rev¬ 
 elation. How widely this temper prevails 
 can only be estimated. Hitherto, the Uni- 
 versalist Church and ministry, while exer¬ 
 cising a large liberty, have stood firmly on 
 the ground of the historic credibility of the 
 New Testament records. Perhaps the rela¬ 
 tive strength of the historic position of the 
 denomination is fairly shown by the fact 
 that the following resolution was unani¬ 
 mously adopted, by a rising vote—a few, 
 however, not voting—at the session of the 
 General Convention in Lynn, Mass., in 
 October, 1889: 
 
 “ Resolved , That the Universalist Church 
 of America, in General Convention assem¬ 
 bled, reaffirms the position which it has 
 consistently held from the beginning, to 
 wit: That it rests on, and believes in, the 
 historical veracity of the New Testament 
 records of the life and words and works 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ.” 
 
 I. M. Atwood. 
 
 Upham, Thomas Cogswell, D. D., Con¬ 
 gregationalism b. at Deerfield, N. H., Jan. 
 
 30, 1799; d. in New York City, April 2, 
 1872. He was graduated at Dartmouth 
 College, 1818, and at Andover Seminary, 
 1821. From 1825 to 1867 he was professor 
 of mental and moral philosophy in Bow- 
 doin College. He was a prolific writer. 
 Among his works are: Elements of Mental 
 Philosophy (1839, 2 vols., abridged ed., 
 1864); Outlines of Disordered Mental Ac¬ 
 tion (1S40); Life of Madame Guyon (1847); 
 Life of Faith (1848); Treatise on the Will 
 (1850); Alethod of Praver (1859); The Abso¬ 
 lute Religion (1872). 
 
 Ur of the Chaldees, the land of Abra¬ 
 ham’s ancestors. (Gen. xi. 28, 31; xv. 7; 
 Neh. ix. 7.) It is thus described by Schra¬ 
 der: “ In the extreme south of Babylonian 
 Chaldea, west of the Euphrates, from un¬ 
 known times there existed a very famous 
 seat of the moon-goddess, Sin.calledUru up¬ 
 on the Babylonian cuneiform inscriptions, 
 to-day represented by the ruins of Mug- 
 heir. It is certainly natural to identify 
 this Uru with the Ur of Abraham’s ances¬ 
 try. And this conjecture is supported by 
 considering that (1) the name Abram, in the 
 pronunciation ‘ Aburamu, ’is Assyrian-Baby- 
 lonian; (2) Ur, whence Abraham emigrated, 
 and Haran, where he rested, were alike 
 seats of the worship of Sin, the moon- 
 goddess; (3) the West Semites and the He¬ 
 brews also had the same religious ideas 
 and traditions as the Babylonians; (4) He¬ 
 brew poetry in its parallelism and methods 
 resembles Babylonian poetry.” 
 
 Urban is the name of eight popes. See 
 Popes; Papal Power. 
 
 Urim and Thummim (lights and perfec¬ 
 tions). “ These were the sacred symbols 
 (worn upon the breastplate of the high- 
 priest, ‘upon his heart’), by which God 
 gave oracular responses for the guidance 
 of his people in temporal matters. What 
 they were is unknown; they are introduced 
 in Exodus without explanation, as if famil¬ 
 iar to the Israelites of that day. Modern 
 Egyptology supplies us with a clue; it 
 tells us that Egyptian high-priests in every 
 town, who were also its chief magistrates, 
 wore round their necks a jeweled gem, 
 bearing on one side the image of Truth, 
 and on the other sometimes that of Justice, 
 sometimes that of Light. When the ac¬ 
 cused was acquitted the judge held out 
 the image for him to kiss. In the final 
 judgment Osiris wears round his neck the 
 jeweled Justice and Truth. The LXX. 
 translates Urim and Thummim by ‘ light 
 and truth.’ Some scholars suppose that 
 they were the twelve stones of the breast¬ 
 plate; others that they were two additional 
 
Urs 
 
 ( 938 ) 
 
 Uss 
 
 stones concealed in its fold. Josephus adds 
 to these the two sardonyx buttons worn on 
 the shoulders, which, he says, emitted 
 luminous rays when the response was fa¬ 
 vorable; but the precise mode in which the 
 oracles were given is lost in obscurity.”— 
 “Oxford ” Bible Helps. 
 
 Ursi'nus, Zacharias, one of the most 
 eminent divines of the sixteenth century; 
 b. at Breslau in Silesia, 1534; d. at Neu- 
 stadt, 1583. He was educated at Witten¬ 
 berg, and here made the acquaintance of 
 Melanchthon, who entertained a great 
 friendship for him, and took him to the 
 Conference at Worms in 1557, from whence 
 he went to Geneva, and thence to Paris, 
 in order to learn the French language and 
 perfect himself in Hebrew under the fa¬ 
 mous Jean Mercier. On his return to 
 Breslau he wrote Theses de Sacramentis de 
 Baptismo et de Coend Domini , in which he 
 took the side of Calvin and Melanchthon, 
 but he so managed the subject of Coena 
 Domini that the leading party in the town 
 accused him of being a Sacramentarian. 
 He endeavored to justify himself, but, not 
 giving satisfaction, he chose rather to quit 
 his country than continue a quarrel, and, 
 his friend Melanchthon being now dead, he 
 went to Zurich, where he fraternized with 
 Peter Martyr, Bullinger, etc. In 1561 he 
 was invited by the University of Heidel¬ 
 berg to settle there in their “ Collegium 
 Sapientise,” and they made him their pro¬ 
 fessor “ Locorum Communium,” a chair 
 which he held till 1568. In 1564 Ursinus, 
 with Olevianus, drew up the Palatinate or 
 Heidelberg Catechism, and at the instance 
 of the Elector, Frederick III., wrote a de¬ 
 fence of it against the attacks of Flacius 
 Illyricus and other rigid Lutherans. The 
 Elector was accused of having set forth a 
 doctrine concerning the Eucharist which 
 the Augsburg Confession had condemned, 
 so he ordered Ursinus to write a tract ex¬ 
 plaining the doctrine of the sacraments. 
 Ursinus was present at the Conference of 
 Maulbronn, where he argued vigorously 
 against the Ubiquitarians (y. v. ). On the 
 death of Frederick III., in 1577, his son 
 and successor, Lewis, would allow no min¬ 
 ister to live in the Palatinate who was not 
 a thorough Lutheran, so Ursinus had to 
 leave Heidelberg for Neustadt, where he 
 was made divinity professor in the Schola 
 Illustris, newly founded by Prince Casi- 
 mir, the second son of Frederick III. Here 
 he died in 1583, in the forty-ninth year of 
 his age.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. There 
 is an English translation of his Su?n?ne of 
 Christian Religion , published in New York 
 under the title Commentary on the Heidel¬ 
 berg Catechism. See also Hundeshagen: 
 
 Ursinus, in Lives of the Leaders of our 
 Church Universal (1879). 
 
 Ur sula, a Roman Catholic saint, regard¬ 
 ing whom two legends find supporters. 
 According to one, she was the only daugh¬ 
 ter of the Christian King Deonotus, or 
 Diognetus, of Britain. Sought in marriage 
 by the heathen prince Holofornes, she put 
 off its consummation for three years, and 
 with ten near friends and eleven thousand 
 other virgins started on a pilgrimage. They 
 made their way to Rome, and on their re¬ 
 turn were accompanied by Pope Cyriacus. 
 Not far from Cologne they were attacked 
 by a party of Huns, and all were killed 
 with the exception of Ursula, who, on ac¬ 
 count of her beauty was spared to become 
 the wife of the king, but, resisting, she was 
 slain by an arrow. A host of angels then 
 put the Huns to flight. The city of Cologne, 
 in gratitude for this deliverance, buried the 
 martyred virgins separately, and placed a 
 stone, bearing the name of the occupant, 
 over each grave. Subsequently the St. 
 Ursula Church was built over the spot. The 
 fact that no Pope Cyriacus lived at this 
 period, and that the Huns had not then 
 appeared in Europe led many in the Middle 
 Ages to adopt the legend given by Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth in his Hist. Regum. Britan ., 
 which relates that Deonotus sent over 
 seventy-one thousand virgins to Gaul at 
 the demand of the usurper Maximus (383— 
 388). Driven upon islands inhabited by 
 barbarians they were slain by Huns and 
 Piets. See Mrs. Jamieson: Legend. Art. 
 
 Ursulines, The, an order founded by 
 Angela Merici (b. March 21, 1470; d. Jan. 
 27, 1540; canonized by Pius VII., 1807) in 
 Brescia, Nov. 25, 1535. Its vows did not 
 bind to strict conventual rules, and it had 
 for its special object the instruction of girls, 
 and the care of the poor and sick. The 
 rules in time were made more strict, and 
 convents were established in France and 
 Germany. Many members of this order, 
 however, still live in their homes. They 
 wear a black dress, with a white veil and 
 a longer black veil. There are Ursuline 
 convents in this country at Morrisania, 
 New York, Cleveland, Toledo, etc. 
 
 Ussher, or Usher, James, archbishop 
 of Armagh and primate of Ireland, an emi¬ 
 nent and learned divine; b. at Dublin, Jan. 
 4, 1581; d. at Ryegate, Surrey, March 21, 
 1656. From 1607 to 1620 he was professor 
 of divinity in the University of Dublin; 
 bishop of Meath, 1620-24, and from 1624 
 archbishop of Armagh. When the Irish 
 rebellion broke out in 1641 he retired to 
 England, where he was made bishop of 
 
Usu 
 
 ( 939 ) 
 
 Vai 
 
 Carlisle, but did not enter upon the duties 
 of his see, owing to the disturbed condition 
 of affairs. He resided for the most part at 
 Oxford and in Wales. In 1647 he was 
 chosen preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, London, 
 a position which he held until about a year 
 before his death. Ussher was a man of re¬ 
 markable gifts of mind and heart, and wrote 
 numerous works. The best known is An- 
 nales Veteris et Novi Testamenti (1650-54). 
 The dates from this work are given in our 
 English Bibles. His apologetic and histor¬ 
 ical writings are of value, especially with 
 reference to the early Church of Britain. 
 An incomplete work, Chronologia Sacra,vizs 
 published after his death. Ussher’s com¬ 
 plete works, to which his Life is prefixed, 
 were edited by Elrington (1847-62), 16 vols. 
 
 Usury originally signified the taking of 
 any interest at all. The Mosaic law did 
 not allow a Hebrew to take interest from a 
 Hebrew, but he might do so from a for¬ 
 eigner. (Deut. xxiii. 20.) The New Testa¬ 
 ment does not forbid the taking of interest, 
 but recommends the loaning of money 
 gratuitously. (Luke vi. 34.) The taking of 
 interest was unanimously condemned by 
 the Fathers; and the popes, by canon law, 
 forbade the clergy and afterward members 
 of the Church from doing so. The penalty 
 for the clergy was suspension, and for the 
 laity excommunication. Luther condemned 
 the taking of interest; Melanchthon was un¬ 
 decided in regard to the matter, while Cal¬ 
 vin took the position that is now universally 
 accepted. 
 
 U'traquists (Lat. utraquistce, from utra- 
 que, i. e., specie , in both kinds), “ a name at 
 first given to all those members of the 
 Western Church, in the fourteenth century, 
 principally followers of John Huss, who 
 contended for the administration of the Eu¬ 
 charist to the laity under both kinds; but 
 in later times restricted to one particular 
 section of the Hussites, although all the 
 members of that sect alike claimed this as 
 a fundamental principle of their church dis¬ 
 cipline. The name may be said to date 
 from 1415, when the followers of John 
 Huss, in Prague and elsewhere in Bohe¬ 
 mia, adopted ‘ The communion of the cup ’ 
 as their rallying cry, and emblazoned the 
 cup upon their standards, as the distin¬ 
 guishing badge of the association. In 1417 
 the University of Prague, by a formal de¬ 
 cision, directed that all the laity should 
 communicate in both kinds; and the Coun¬ 
 cil of Constance, in consequence, prohibit¬ 
 ed students from any longer resorting to 
 Prague for the purpose of study. The 
 Hussite party, on the contrary, made the 
 demand one (the second)of the four points 
 
 upon which they insisted as the condition 
 of their submission to the Church. Their 
 demands were rejected by the Council of 
 Constance; but the Council of Basel, in 
 1433, acceded to the demand for the cup, 
 under the condition that, whenever com¬ 
 munion was so administered, the minister¬ 
 ing priest should accompany the ministra¬ 
 tion with a declaration that Christ was 
 contained whole and entire under each 
 species. A portion of the Hussite party 
 was content with the explanation of this 
 and the other points offered by the council, 
 but the more violent held out. The former 
 were called Utraquists, and continued to 
 be so designated. During the Reformation 
 troubles, this division was still maintained. 
 The Utraquists were favorably regarded 
 by the imperial party; and after the battle 
 of Mlihlberg, in 1547, they alone were 
 formally tolerated in Bohemia and Mora¬ 
 via. One of the most celebrated leaders 
 was Jacobus v. Mies. The name Utraquist 
 is still applied to certain districts or villages 
 in Bohemia and Moravia; but it is used not 
 in reference to this theological controversy, 
 but merely to convey that, in these villages 
 or districts, both languages , Bohemian and 
 German are spoken.”—Chambers: Cyclo- 
 pcedia. 
 
 Uzzi'ah ( might of Jehovah), the tenth 
 king of Judah, son and successor of Ama- 
 ziah. In 2 Kings (xiv. 21) and elsewhere 
 he is called Azariah. He came to the 
 throne at sixteen and reigned fifty-two 
 years (b. c. 808-756). The prophets Amos, 
 Hosea, Isaiah, and possibly Joel lived in 
 his time. His piety was followed by great 
 prosperity and many victories. Lifted 
 up by pride in his successes he finally pre¬ 
 sumed to take the priest’s office and burn 
 incense on the altar. Azariah and eighty 
 other priests resisted him, and he was 
 smitten with leprosy, and as a leper lived 
 and died in a house separate from the pal¬ 
 ace. (2 Kings xv. 1-7; 2 Chron. xxvi.) 
 
 V. 
 
 Vagantes, a name given in canon law to 
 clergy who were ordained without having 
 been nominated to any office. Laws 
 against such clerics were made as early as 
 the fourth and fifth centuries. The abuse 
 was continued until it was enacted that a 
 bishop should support all whom he or¬ 
 dained without an office. This put a stop 
 to the evil. Ordination without office is 
 forbidden in the English Church. 
 
 Valens, Roman emperor from March 2S, 
 364 to Aug. 9, 379. His name is conspic¬ 
 uous in the history of the Church as the 
 
Val 
 
 ( 940 ) 
 
 Vat 
 
 last upholder of Arianism among the rul¬ 
 ers of the Eastern Empire. 
 
 Valentine, St., a Roman presbyter who 
 was very active in his efforts in behalf of 
 the martyrs during the persecution under 
 Claudius II., and was, in consequence, ar¬ 
 rested and beheaded (Feb. 14, 270). The 
 habit of “ choosing valentines ” is probably 
 associated with St. Valentine’s Day by 
 pure accident, as the custom was of pagan 
 origin. 
 
 Valentinus, St. There are a number of 
 saints of this name, but the most impor¬ 
 tant was the reputed bishop of Passau, and 
 one of the first Christian missionaries in 
 southeastern Germany in the fifth century. 
 
 Valentinus the Gnostic. See Gnos¬ 
 ticism. 
 
 Valerian, Roman emperor, 253-259. In 
 the early part of his reign he was friendly 
 to the Christians. But in the year 257 
 there was a sudden change. The perse¬ 
 cution was directed principally against the 
 bishops and leaders of the Church. The 
 first edict was comparatively mild, and sim¬ 
 ply forbade the holding of meetings; the 
 second ordered those who disobeyed to be 
 sent as slaves to work in the mines; and 
 the third (258) demanded that all bishops, 
 presbyters and deacons should be put to 
 death. Among the victims of this edict 
 were Sixtus of Rome and Cyprian of Car¬ 
 thage. The persecution was terminated in 
 260 by the defeat of Valerian by the Per¬ 
 sian king Sapores. 
 
 Valentine, Milton, D. D. (Pennsylvania 
 College, Gettysburg, Penn., 1866), Lu¬ 
 theran (General Synod); b. near Union- 
 town, Carroll County, Md., Jan. 1, 1825; 
 was graduated at Pennsylvania College, 
 1850; in the pastorate till 1866, when he 
 became professor of ecclesiastical history 
 and church polity in the theological sem¬ 
 inary of the Lutheran Church, Gettysburg, 
 Penn.; president of Pennsylvania College, 
 1868; and since 1884 president and profess¬ 
 or of systematic theology in Gettysburg 
 Theological Seminary. He edited the Lu¬ 
 theran Quarterly, 1881-75, 1880-86. He is 
 the author of Natural Theology , or Rational 
 Theism (1885), and numerous pamphlets 
 and addresses. 
 
 Vandals, a powerful German people who, 
 with the Goths, overran portions of Eu¬ 
 rope in the fifth and sixth centuries. They 
 invaded Spain early in the fifth century, 
 and in 429 they crossed over into Africa, 
 and thence invaded Italy. In 535 their 
 
 kingdom in Africa was destroyed by the 
 army of the Emperor Justinian, but “ the 
 Vandal dominion had lasted long enough 
 to annihilate almost every trace of Roman 
 civilization, and to almost destroy com¬ 
 pletely the Christian Church in Africa.” 
 
 Various Readings is the name given to 
 the differences that are found in the text of 
 the various manuscripts, translations, and 
 patristic quotations from the Scriptures. 
 These variations havearisen from the care¬ 
 less reading of scribes, and in copying. 
 More than one hundred and fifty thousand 
 of these variations have been noted in the 
 New Testament manuscripts, but in the 
 majority of cases they are slight, and con¬ 
 sist in differences of spelling, the order of 
 words, etc., and do not affect doctrines. 
 In the Old Testament manuscripts the 
 number of variations is quite small, not 
 over 2,000. The reason for this is found in 
 the fact that the number of manuscripts is 
 small, and the transcribing was done by an 
 official class under strict regulations. 
 
 Vatican, Palace of the. The residence 
 of the pope, called by this name, is the 
 largest palace of modern Rome, and takes 
 its name from the Vatican Hill upon which 
 it stands. It is an irregular group of 
 buildings, containing twenty-two court¬ 
 yards and an immense number of rooms, 
 estimated at from 4,500 to 16,000, and built 
 at different periods. An Etruscan temple 
 is said to have stood on the site, which 
 gave rise to the name Vatican, from vates, 
 “ a prophet.” The first palace of the Vat¬ 
 ican is reported to have been built by 
 Symmachus about the beginning of the 
 sixth century, and to have been occupied 
 by Charlemagne during his residence in 
 Rome; it was rebuilt and enlarged in the 
 twelfth century. It was first used as the 
 papal residence after the healing of the 
 great schism, as being convenient from its 
 nearness to the Castle of St. Angelo; the 
 two buildings were connected by Pope 
 John XXIII., and the palace was enlarged 
 and beautified from time to time by his 
 successors. Nicholas V. (1447-1455) began 
 the “ Tordi Borgia,” which was completed 
 by Alexander VI. (1492-1503); the Sistine 
 Chapel was built in 1473,and the Belvedere, 
 formerly a garden-house, in 1490. The 
 part now used as the pope’s residence was 
 finished at the beginningof the seventeenth 
 century. The Sistine Chapel is adorned 
 on the walls and ceiling by the famous 
 frescos of Michael Angelo, and the stanze 
 and loggie are ornamented with paintings 
 by Raphael. The Vatican contains other 
 very famous paintings by Raphael, Titian, 
 Domenichino, etc., but they are few in 
 
( 941 ) 
 
 PALACE OF THE VATICAN—RESIDENCE OF THE POPE 
 
Vat 
 
 ( 942 ) 
 
 Vei 
 
 number. The Vatican Library is the finest 
 in the world, containing nearly 25,000 MSS. 
 and about 50,000 volumes. The most 
 valuable of the MSS. is the Codex Vatica- 
 nus, which reaches back to the fourth cen¬ 
 tury, and is a little older than the Codex 
 Sinaiticus. It contains the LXX. version 
 of the Old Testament with very few omis¬ 
 sions, and all the New Testament as far as 
 Hebrews ix. 14.—Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Vatican Council, the last General Coun¬ 
 cil of the Roman Church. It was con¬ 
 vened by Pope Pius IX. by an encyclical 
 letter, June 26, 1868, to discuss papal in¬ 
 fallibility and to condemn rationalism and 
 liberalism. The council was opened Dec. 
 5, 1869. There were 719 members present, 
 the numbers afterwards rising to 764—the 
 largest number that has been reached since 
 the Second Lateran Council of 1139. “ All 
 
 bishops of the Churches of Oriental rite 
 not in communion with the Apostolic See,” 
 and all “ Protestants and Non-Catholics” 
 were invited to attend, in order, as Cardi¬ 
 nal Manning says, that they might be refer¬ 
 red to “experienced men” and have their 
 difficulties solved. The council was pro¬ 
 rogued on Oct. 20, 1870, in consequence of 
 the Franco-German War, and is not yet 
 completed, as it may be reconvened at any 
 time by the pope. 
 
 The chief work which has been com¬ 
 pleted consists of two constitutions: The 
 first, De Fide Catholica; or. Decrees on the 
 Dogmatic Constitution of the Catholic Faith , 
 contains the primary truths of natural re¬ 
 ligion, on revelation, faith, and the relation 
 between faith and reason, and is directed 
 against modern pantheism, atheism, ma¬ 
 terialism, etc. The opening clauses hint 
 that Protestantism is responsible for mod¬ 
 ern infidelity, which was strongly denied 
 by Bishop Strossmayer from the Turkish 
 frontier. But the constitution was unani- 
 mouslyaccepted by the 667 Fathers present, 
 and confirmed by the pope at the third 
 public session on April 24, 1S70. 
 
 The second constitution was far more 
 important, being De Ecclesia Christi; or, 
 Decrees on the Dogmatic Constitution of the 
 Church of Christ, which discusses the ab¬ 
 solutism and infallibility of the Roman see 
 over all Christians. Nothing had been 
 said openly of such a question before the 
 council began, but the subject was men¬ 
 tioned at the end of 1869. In 1870 the dis¬ 
 cussion was objected to by 135 bishops, 
 and Dr. Dollinger and others outside the 
 council, who objected, formed themselves 
 into a separate body of resistance, but were 
 excommunicated. They assumed the name 
 of Old Catholics ( q. v.). The constitution 
 was laid before the council early in May, 
 
 and was first voted upon in general con¬ 
 gregation on July 13, when 451 Fathers 
 agreed, 62 were ready to accept it subject 
 to alterations, 88 refused, and 70 did not 
 vote at all. It was again read on July 18, 
 when several who disapproved absented 
 themselves, and it passed with only two 
 dissenting votes, and was confirmed by 
 papal authority. For the contents of this 
 decree see Infallibility. —Benham: Diet, 
 of Religion. 
 
 Vaudois. See Waldenses. 
 
 Vaughan, Henry, b. at Newton St. 
 Bridget, in South Wales, 1621; d. there, 
 April 23, 1695. Educated at Oxford, he 
 studied medicine in London, and practiced 
 as a physician in his native place. He 
 wrote in prose: The Mount of Olives (1652), 
 and Flores Solitudinis (1654) but he is re¬ 
 membered by his poems, that are written 
 in the style of Herbert. H. F. Lyte, in 
 1847, and again in 1858 published an edi¬ 
 tion of some of Vaughan’s poems, with a 
 sketch of his life, that is well known. 
 
 Vaughan, Robert, D. D., an eminent 
 English Congregational minister; b. in 
 Wales, 1795; d. at Torquay, June 15, 1868. 
 With limited advantages in early life, he 
 prepared for the ministry, and became pas¬ 
 tor of a church in Worcester in 1819. He 
 then accepted a call to Kensington, London. 
 Having become very proficient in historical 
 studies, he was made professor of modern 
 history in the University of London. As 
 a preacher, teacher, lecturer, and platform 
 speaker he was exceedingly popular. In 
 1843 he was called to the principalship of 
 Lancashire College, near Manchester. Here 
 he remained until 1857, when he took 
 charge of a small parish at Uxbridge, near 
 London. He subsequently removed to St. 
 John’s Wood, and in 1867 became pastor of 
 a newly formed Independent congregation 
 at Torquay. He was chairman of the Con¬ 
 gregational Union in 1846, and visited the 
 United States as a delegate of that body in 
 1865. Among his numerous works, the 
 best known are: his Life and Opinions of 
 Wyclife, 2 vols. (1828) ; A Monograph, 
 7 uith some Account of the Wyclife MSS. 
 (1853); A History of England under the 
 House of Stuart (1840); Revolutions in His¬ 
 tory, 3 vols. (1859-63). 
 
 Vedas, the oldest portion of the sacred 
 books of the Hindoos. See Brahminism. 
 
 Veil is the translation in the Authorized 
 Version of several Hebrew words which 
 properly mean shawls or mantles. (Gen. 
 xxiv. 65; Ruth iii. 15; Cant. v. 7; Isa. iii. 
 
Vei 
 
 ( 943 ) 
 
 Ves 
 
 23.) These shawls were sometimes drawn 
 over the face, but they were not designed 
 for this purpose. Veils were worn only 
 on special occasions by Hebrew women. 
 At the present time in Bible lands women 
 are never seen in public without a veil; 
 but this custom dates from the injunction 
 of the Koran, xxx. 55, 59. 
 
 Veil, Taking the, the ceremony by 
 which a woman is received into a nunnery. 
 On her first profession the novice takes 
 the “ white veil,” and if, at the end of the 
 year, she desires to become a nun, she 
 takes the “ black veil,” and makes her ir¬ 
 revocable vows of chastity and obedience. 
 
 Vellum, a parchment made of sheep and 
 other skins. 
 
 Venerable is the title of an archdeacon 
 of the Church of England. 
 
 Venerable Bede, The. See Bede. 
 
 Veni, Creator Spiritus, an ancient hymn, 
 that for a long time was supposed to 
 have been written by St. Ambrose, but 
 more recent investigations show that it was 
 probably the composition of Rabanus 
 Maurus, poet to Charlemagne. From the 
 year 1000 it has formed a part of the ser¬ 
 vice for the consecration of bishops and 
 priests. See Duffield: The Latin Hymn 
 Writers and their Hymns (N. Y., 1886). 
 
 Venn, Henry, a leader in the Evangel¬ 
 ical movement in England during the eight¬ 
 eenth century; b. at Barnes, in Surrey, 
 March 2, 1724; d. at Yelling, Huntingdon¬ 
 shire, June 24, 1797. He was graduated 
 at Cambridge, 1745, and became fellow of 
 Queen’s College, 1749. He held several 
 curacies, and was vicar of Huddersfield, 
 and afterward of Yelling. His ministry 
 was remarkably effective in its spiritual 
 results, and he entered earnestly into evan¬ 
 gelistic labors in conjunction with White- 
 field. He published two works: The Com¬ 
 plete Duty of Man (1763), and Mistakes in 
 Religion (1774); also a collection of essays 
 on the prophecy of Zachariah, the father of 
 John the Baptist. See John Venn: Life and 
 Letters of Henry Venn (1834, 7th ed., 1853). 
 
 Verger, supposed to be derived from the 
 Latin word virga , a twig. The name is 
 given to the officers of the cathedral who 
 carry the mace, or verge, before the cleri¬ 
 cal dignitaries. 
 
 Veroni'ca, according to the common leg , 
 end, was a pious woman of Jerusalem,who, 
 when Christ was on the way to be crucified, 
 
 took off the cloth wrapped about her head, 
 and gave it to him that he might wipe the 
 blood and sweat from his face, and when 
 he returned it to her it was found that the 
 impression of his features was left upon it. 
 The Emperor Tiberius falling sick, and 
 learning that wonderful cures had been 
 wrought by this portrait, he sent for Vero¬ 
 nica. She came to Rome, and as soon as 
 the emperor touched the cloth he was heal¬ 
 ed. Veronica remained in Rome, and at 
 her death bequeathed the relic to Clement, 
 the successor of Peter. Both Milan and 
 Jaen, in Spain, claim to possess the genu¬ 
 ine head-cloth of Veronica. 
 
 Ves'perale, the book which contains the • 
 vesper services. 
 
 Vespers, one of the Canonical Hours 
 (Y z'-)* 
 
 Vestments. There have been two theo¬ 
 ries as to the origin of Christian vestments: 
 one is that they are derived from those 
 used by the Jewish priests; the other, that 
 they have their origin in the ordinary dress 
 worn in early Christian times. The first 
 view is now seldom accepted. Some of the 
 chief Jewish garments were not known in 
 the Christian Church. Thus no distinctive 
 head-dress was worn for the first thousand 
 years, and the girdle was not known till 
 the eighth century. On the other hand, 
 the chasuble, the chief Christian vestment, 
 was unknown among the Jews. Also, their 
 garments were of many different colors, 
 while in the primitive Christian Church 
 white only was worn. The second view 
 seems much more tenable. The three 
 vestments mentioned at the Fourth Coun¬ 
 cil of Toledo (633) seem to have been the 
 alb, the planeta or plenaia , and orarium or 
 stole: the first of which is the tunic, the 
 under-garment worn by the Romans; the 
 second, the toga, or over-garment; and the 
 orarium or stole was a garment worn by 
 Roman matrons. From these garments the 
 ecclesiastical vestments of the Eastern and 
 Western Churches were developed. The 
 chief vestments worn in the Greek Church 
 are: the sticharion , so called from its black 
 lines ( stoichos ), which answers to the Latin 
 alb, and is always white; the phelanion , 
 the chief garment of the priest, resembling 
 a chasuble, which is of various colors; and 
 the epigonation , a square pouch or satchel 
 richly embroidered. The bishops instead 
 of the phelanion wear the saccos , a garment 
 with sleeves, resembling the dalmatic, and 
 the '>” , ophorion or pallium , and over the 
 saccos the mantia, a loose blue or black 
 garment ornamented with stripes. They 
 wear a mitre in the sanctuary, a panagia or 
 
Ves 
 
 ( 944 ) 
 
 Vin 
 
 pectoral cross, and carry the paterissa or 
 pastoral staff, which is shorter and less 
 ornamented than that of the Western 
 Church. 
 
 The chief ornaments of the Roman 
 Church are the alb , which is white, made 
 of linen, held by the cingulum or belt, 
 which was formerly a broad sash, but now 
 is very narrow; the chasuble or casula, 
 which formerly resembled the Roman toga. 
 These are white for greater and red for 
 lesser festivals, and black for Lent, etc. 
 Also the manipuleum , like the Greek orari- 
 um, and the biretta. The bishops wear 
 the mitre, tiara, and pallium. 
 
 These garments are chiefly worn at the 
 celebration of the mass, so at the Reforma¬ 
 tion they were all discarded, and the plain 
 black cassock adopted.—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Vestry is the name of the room attached 
 to Episcopal churches where the clergy 
 robe, and where the articles used in the 
 service are kept. As the meetings for busi¬ 
 ness are usually held in this room the 
 name has come also to mean the assembling 
 together of the minister of the parish, the 
 church wardens, and the parishioners for 
 electing church wardens, etc. The term 
 “vestry” is also employed to designate 
 the room connected with non-Episcopal 
 churches where the meetings for prayer, 
 and other social and business gatherings 
 are held. 
 
 Viaticum (from the Latin via , a way). 
 This term, which in classical use referred 
 to provision for a journey, was early ap¬ 
 plied to the Eucharist when given to dying 
 persons, “to sustain and conduct them 
 safely on their way in their passage through 
 this world to eternal life.” In this sense 
 it is used several times in the canons of 
 the Nicene Council. 
 
 Vicar literally means representative or 
 vicegerent ( vicarius). In England the name 
 is applied to parish priests of a particular 
 standing. If the priest owns all the tithes 
 of the parish he is called the rector; if he 
 receives a part only, he is called the vicar. 
 The Roman Church styles the pope the 
 Vicar of Christ, and the pope has his vicars 
 in the person of primates, archbishops, 
 and bishops, etc., and these in turn have 
 their vicar-generals, and, finally, the priests 
 have their vicars acting in their place when 
 temporarily or perpetually disabled. 
 
 Vicarious Atonement. See Atonement. 
 
 Victor, the name of three popes and two 
 antipopes. See Popes. 
 
 Vienne, an ancient city of France situated 
 on the Gere, near its union with the Rhone; 
 the seat of several councils. The first was 
 held in 474, the last in 1557. The most im¬ 
 portant of these councils was opened Oct. 
 16, 1311, and closed May 6, 1312. It ordered 
 the dissolution of the order of the Templars, 
 and passed decrees against the Fratricelles, 
 the Dolcinists, Beghards, etc. 
 
 Vigilantius, b. in the latter half of the 
 fourth century at Calagurris in southwest¬ 
 ern Gaul. He was ordained at Barcelona 
 in 395, and visited St. Jerome at Jerusalem, 
 with whom he soon came into conflict of 
 opinion. Vigilantius condemned image- 
 worship, monasticism, and celibacy. St. 
 Jerome attacked these views in an essay, 
 Contra Vigilantium. 
 
 Vigils originally were watches ( vigilice) 
 kept in the church by the early Christians 
 during the night preceding a great fes¬ 
 tival. At first the night was spent in 
 prayer and the singing of hymns, but in 
 time scandals arose in connection with 
 these celebrations, and only Easter and 
 Christmas night vigils were allowed. The 
 vigils irr connection with holy days were 
 celebrated in the daytime, or changed into 
 simple fasts. 
 
 Vincent, St., a native of Saragossa, and 
 one of the most celebrated martyrs of the 
 ancient Church. He was archdeacon of 
 the church of Saragossa, and suffered mar¬ 
 tyrdom during the persecution of Diocle¬ 
 tian, about 303. 
 
 Vincent of Lerins, St., a native of Gaul 
 of noble birth; b. near the close of the 
 fourth century; d. in 450. After some 
 years spent in the army he retired to the 
 monastery of Lerins, where he remained 
 the rest of his life. In 434 he completed 
 his famous Corn-monitory against Heretics , in 
 which he principally attacks the Nestorians. 
 He gives full evidence to tradition as a 
 necessary complement of Scripture. 
 
 Vincent de Paul, St., was b. at Pouy, 
 in Gascogne, on April 24, 1576. He was 
 educated by the Franciscans at Toulouse, 
 and ordained priest in 1600. On a voyage 
 which he made from Marseilles to Nar- 
 bonne he was captured by corsairs and sold 
 at Tunis. He belonged successively to 
 three masters, the last of whom, a Savoy¬ 
 ard renegade, he converted, and the mas¬ 
 ter and servant escaped together and land¬ 
 ed in France in 1607. He went for a short 
 time to Rome, and was sent thence on a 
 mission to the French Court, where he be¬ 
 came almoner to Queen Marguerite de Val- 
 
Yin 
 
 ( 945 ) 
 
 Yin 
 
 ois. He did not remain at court long, but 
 became tutor in the family of Count Gondy. 
 He at this time began to form the Confrerie 
 de Charite, an association of women who 
 nursed the sick and visited the poor. In 
 1619 he became, through Count Gondy, 
 almoner-general of the galleys, and he 
 seems to have had wonderful success in 
 softening the stony hearts of the repro¬ 
 bates with whom he was brought into con¬ 
 tact. It is said that he once offered him¬ 
 self, and was accepted, in place of one of 
 the convicts who would have left his fam¬ 
 ily in the utmost poverty. He founded 
 other societies, as the Society of St. Bor- 
 romeo,against begging in Burgundy (1623), 
 and a congregation called Priests of the 
 Mission, which was confirmed by Pope 
 Urban VIII., in 1632, under the name of 
 Lazarists ( q. v.). The members of the 
 Confrerie de Charite were mostly married, 
 so he instituted the Order of Filles de 
 Charite, the members of which were not 
 nuns, but after their novitiate they took 
 vows for one year. This congregation soon 
 spread all over Europe. St. Vincent died 
 at St. Lazare, Sept. 27, 1660, was beatified 
 in 1727, and canonized by Clement XII. on 
 July 19, 1737, on which day he is com¬ 
 memorated. He was not learned, but his 
 sermons, though very simple, were affect¬ 
 ing and impressive, and he is considered 
 one of the most eminent saints of the mod¬ 
 ern Roman Catholic Church.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Vincent, John Heyl, S. T. D. (Ohio 
 Wesleyan University, Delaware, O., 1870), 
 LL. D. (Washington and Jefferson College, 
 Washington, Penn., 1885), bishop in the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church; b. at Tusca¬ 
 loosa, Ala., Feb. 23, 1832. Educated in 
 the academies at Lewisburg and Milton, 
 Penn., and in Newark (N. J.) Wesleyan 
 Institute, he entered the ministry in 1852. 
 In 1868 he was appointed corresponding 
 secretary of the Sunday-School Union of 
 the M. E. Church, New York City. In 1874 
 he became identified with the development 
 of the summer schoolat Chautauqua, N.Y., 
 and since 1884 has been Chancellor of 
 Chautauqua University. He was elected 
 bishop in 1888. Among his published 
 works are: Sunday-school Institutes and 
 Normal Classes (1866); The Chautauqua 
 Movement (1886); The Home Book 
 Better Not (1888). 
 
 Vincent, Marvin Richardson, D. D. 
 (Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., 1868), 
 Presbyterian; b. at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 
 Sept. 11, 1834; was graduated at Colum¬ 
 bia College, 1854; became professor of 
 Latin in Troy University, N, Y., 1858; 
 
 pastor of First Presbyterian Church, Troy, 
 1863-73; of the Church of the Covenant, 
 New York City, 1873-88; since 1889 pro¬ 
 fessor in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York City. With Dr. Charlton T. 
 Lewis he translated Bengel’s Gnomon of 
 the New Testament (1862). He is the au¬ 
 thor of: Amusement a Force in Christian 
 Training (1867); The Two Prodigals (1876); 
 Gates into the Psalm-Country (1878); The 
 Minister s Handbook (1882); In the Shadow 
 of the Pyrenees (1883); God arid Bread (ser¬ 
 mons, 1884); Word Studies in the New Tes¬ 
 tament (1888-90), 3 vols. 
 
 Vinet, Alexandre RoDOLPHE(b. 1797; d. 
 1847), was born and educated at Lausanne. 
 He was ordained a minister of the Swiss 
 Protestant Church in 1819, holding, besides 
 his cure, the chair of professor of theol¬ 
 ogy at the University of Basel. He was 
 obliged to resign both in 1840, on account 
 of being unable to agree with the union 
 which existed between the Church and the 
 State, the Church being, as he considered, 
 completely subservient to the State. At 
 the same time he explained most fully to 
 his friends and parishioners that by this 
 act he did not consider himself in any way 
 severed from his National Church, which 
 he held to be perfectly sound in doctrine, 
 and to which he was firmly attached. All 
 this time he seems to have been privately 
 engaged by the University to give lessons 
 in French literature, of which he was par¬ 
 ticularly fond, and which he had studied 
 carefully for years. In 1845 he formed art 
 assembly of all those who, like himself, 
 had seceded from the National Church, 
 under the name of the Constitution of the 
 Free Church of Vaud. His works are 
 partly theological, partly historical—the 
 latter being mostly on the history of French 
 language and literature. A great many of 
 them have been translated into English. 
 His theology is entirely such as is known 
 by the word “ Evangelical,” insisting 
 strongly on the necessity of repentance and 
 salvation by faith. His basis of belief is 
 the subjective—that the divine origin of 
 Christianity is proved by its fitness to meet 
 the deepest needs of the human heart. He 
 denies the need of any priestly character 
 in the minister, who is simply a Christian 
 commissioned by his brother Christians to- 
 carry out their views, but possessing only 
 such authority as his study and practice 
 give him.—Benham: Did. of Religion . 
 Among the works of Vinet that have been 
 translated into English are: Christian Phi¬ 
 losophy (1846); Selected Sermons (1849); Gos¬ 
 pel Studies (1851); Pastoral Theology (1851); 
 Outlines of Philosophy and Literature (1865); 
 Outlines of Theology.\ 
 
Vin 
 
 ( 946 ) 
 
 Vow 
 
 Vinton, Francis, D. D., b. at Provi¬ 
 dence, R. I., Aug. 29, 1809; d. at Brook¬ 
 lyn, L. I., Sept. 29, 1872. He was gradu¬ 
 ated at West Point, 1830; admitted to the 
 bar at Portsmouth, N. H., 1830; resigned 
 from the army in 1S36, and studied for the 
 ministry; assistant minister of Trinity 
 Church, New York City, 1855-69. In 1869 
 he accepted the chair of ecclesiastical law 
 and polity in the General Theological 
 Seminary, New York City. He published: 
 Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity 
 (New York, 1865); and Manual Com? 7 ientary 
 on the General Canon Law of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church in the United States (1870). 
 
 Vishnu. See Brahminism. 
 
 Visitants, or Nuns of the Visitation, a 
 religious order founded in 1610 at Annency, 
 by St. Francis of Sales and Madame de 
 Chantel. The ascetic exercises were mild, 
 so that ladies who were not in strong health 
 might join the association, and they wore 
 no distinctive dress. The visitation of the 
 poor and sick was the special work of the 
 order. In 1618 a change was made, by 
 which seclusion was enforced upon the 
 members,and they thendevoted themselves 
 more especially to the education and in¬ 
 struction of young girls. 
 
 Vitringa, Campegius, b. at Leeuwarden, 
 May 16, 1659; d. at Franeker, March 31, 
 1722. He was professor in the University 
 at Leyden from 1681 till his death—first of 
 the Oriental languages, then (1683) of theol¬ 
 ogy, and finally of church history (1693). 
 His fame rests upon a Connnentary on 
 Lsaiah , of which it has been said that it is 
 “ distinguished as much by astounding 
 learning, penetration, and sober sense, as 
 by elegance of style and practical warmth.” 
 Besides this Com?nentary, Vitringa wrote 
 an important work on the Old Synagogue. 
 
 Voltaire, Francois-Marie Arouet de, 
 b. at Chatenay, near Sceaux, a few miles 
 from Paris, Feb. 20, 1694; d. in Paris, May 
 30, 1778; “ a brilliant French writer, dis¬ 
 tinguished as historian, poet, and drama¬ 
 tist, but also noted for his opposition to re¬ 
 ceived opinions, both in regard to religion 
 and to social policy. His name was Arouet, 
 but he early assumed that of Voltaire, 
 which is believed by Carlyle to be an ana¬ 
 gram of Arouet l. j. (le jeune). He was in¬ 
 tended by his father for the bar, but soon 
 abandoned the study of law for literature, 
 in which, however, he made such use of 
 his faculty of satire that he was twice com¬ 
 mitted to the Bastille. In 1726, having 
 been ordered to quit the country, he re¬ 
 paired to England, where he remained 
 
 (living a part of the time in Maiden Lane, 
 Covent Garden, London,and during another 
 part at Wandsworth) for about two years, 
 and where several of his dramas were pro¬ 
 duced or published. Afterwards he re¬ 
 turned to France, where, at Rouen, he pub¬ 
 lished his History of Charles XII. of Swe¬ 
 den, and his Philosophical Letters , the latter 
 abounding in indecent sarcasms against 
 religion, which led to the book being public¬ 
 ly burned in Paris, and to a warrant being 
 issued for the apprehension of the author. 
 Under these circumstances he again medi¬ 
 tated flight, not only from Paris, but from 
 France; but he was received by Madame 
 du Chatelet, in her Castle of Cirey, on the 
 borders of Champagne and Lorraine, and 
 there he spent about fifteen years. During 
 these years, however, he frequently visited 
 Paris, Brussels, and Berlin, where Frede¬ 
 rick the Great had contracted a friendship 
 for him. In this period he produced his 
 Discourses on Man , his Age of Louis XIV., 
 and his Essay on the Morals and Spirit of 
 Nations, as well as his licentious poem. 
 The Alaid of Orle'ans. Subsequently he 
 lived in Paris for a time, where the posi¬ 
 tion of Historiographer-Royal was given to 
 him; but from 1750 to 1753 he resided at 
 Berlin and at Potsdam, quitting Prussia 
 finally in consequence of a quarrel with 
 Frederick. Thenceforth he resided chiefly 
 at Ferney (a village of France, on the bor¬ 
 ders of Switzerland, about five miles from 
 Geneva), where he wrote largely for the 
 Encyclopedie. His house at Ferney is still 
 shown. His death took place during a 
 visit to Paris. He was buried first in the 
 Abbey of Scellieres, in Champagne, but 
 thirteen years afterwards his body was re¬ 
 moved by the Revolutionists to the Pan¬ 
 theon.”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. See James 
 Parton: Life of Voltaire (1881), 2 vols. 
 
 Voluntary, the name given the music 
 played at the beginning or end of divine 
 service, and occasionally in other parts of 
 the service; it is so called because the 
 music played is usually extemporaneous 
 or voluntary. 
 
 Vows. A vow is a special promise made 
 to God, binding the maker to do or forego 
 something for the promotion of God’s glory. 
 Vows took a prominent part in Judaism, as 
 they have also done in the religious observ¬ 
 ances of all races. Vows are common in 
 the Roman Catholic Church, which holds 
 that to be valid they must be of free and 
 deliberate choice, and therefore must be 
 made by persons capable by age of con¬ 
 tracting the obligation. As they are al¬ 
 ways made to God, and are acts of divine 
 worship, it follows that to vow to a saint 
 
Vul 
 
 ( 947 ) 
 
 Wah 
 
 means vowing to do something to God’s 
 worship in honor of a saint. Thus to vow 
 a church to St. Agatha would mean a 
 church for God’s worship, where the purity 
 of St. Agatha should be specially com¬ 
 memorated. The Reformers held that, as 
 it is the duty of man to devote himself 
 wholly, his life and his goods, to God, 
 vows as a religious observance were un¬ 
 necessary; but, with the Roman Catholic, to 
 take a vow is considered to be a great merit, 
 as works of supererogation are. The 
 merit conferred is said to be threefold: it 
 elevates the acts performed under the vow 
 to the rank of sacrifice, and raises a good 
 action to the level of divine worship; it of¬ 
 fers not only the action but the faculty 
 from which it proceeds, so that the whole 
 spirit is elevated thereby; and it strength¬ 
 ens the will to the perfection of virtue. 
 There are two sorts of religious vows in 
 the Roman Church: simple and solemn. 
 Simple vows are those taken in all religious 
 orders when the period of noviceship has 
 elapsed. They are held for three years, 
 and then, if the superior allows it, solemn 
 vows are taken. The chief difference be¬ 
 tween them is that in solemn vows of 
 chastity, marriages contracted afterwards 
 are null and void, while a simple vow of 
 chastity makes it unlawful to marry, but, 
 except in the Jesuit Society, does not in¬ 
 validate a marriage if subsequently con¬ 
 tracted. Solemn and certain simple vows, 
 as those of chastity and of greater pilgrim¬ 
 age, can only be dispensed by the pope, or 
 by a superior specially delegated for the 
 purpose; but most of the simple vows can 
 be dispensed by the bishops.—Benham: 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Vulgate, the name given Jerome’s ver¬ 
 sion of the Scriptures. See Bible, p. 105. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wace, Henry, D. D. (Oxford, 1882; 
 Edinburgh, 1882), Church of England; b. 
 in London, Dec. 10, 1836; was educated at 
 * Oxford; ordained priest, 1862; was curate 
 of St. Luke’s, London, 1861-63, and of St. 
 James’s, 1863-69; lecturer of Grosvenor 
 Chapel, 1870-72; chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn, 
 1872-80; professor of ecclesiastical history 
 in King’s College, 1875-83; Bampton Lect¬ 
 urer at Oxford, 1819, and select preacher, 
 1880-82; since 1880 preacher at Lincoln’s 
 Inn; since 1881 prebendary in St. Paul’s 
 Cathedral; since 1883 chaplain to the arch¬ 
 bishop of Canterbury, and principal of 
 King’s College; and since 1884 honorary 
 chaplain in ordinary to the queen. Among 
 his published works are: The Foundations 
 of Faith (Bampton Lectures, 1880); The 
 
 Gospel and its Witnesses: So?ne of the Chief 
 Facts in the Life of our Lord (1883); The 
 Student's Manual of the Evidences of Chris¬ 
 tianity (1886). With Dr. William Smith he 
 edited A Dictionary of Christian Biography 
 (1880-86), 4 vols.; and, alone, The Bible 
 (Speaker’s) Conunentary on the Apocrypha 
 (1886), 2 vols. 
 
 Waddell, James, D. D., an eloquent 
 Presbyterian preacher; b. at Newry, Ire¬ 
 land, July, 1739; d. at Hopewell, Louisa 
 Co., Va., Sept. 17, 1805. He was educated 
 at Dr. Finley’s academy, at Nottingham, 
 Penn., and entered the ministry of the 
 Presbyterian Church in 1761. He was 
 blind for the last twenty years of his life. 
 The reputation that he won for eloquence 
 comes to us from contemporary testimony, 
 as all his manuscripts were burned at his 
 request. See description given of his 
 preaching in Wirt’s British Spy; Sprague’s 
 Annals , iii. 255. 
 
 Wadding, Luke, Roman Catholic; b. at 
 Waterford, Ireland, Oct. 16, 1588; d. at 
 Rome, Nov. 18, 1657. He entered the 
 Franciscan order in 1605, and in 1625 found¬ 
 ed, at Rome, the College of St. Isidore for 
 Irish students of that order. His fame 
 rests up_on his great history of the Fran¬ 
 ciscans, which he brought down to 1540. 
 
 Wafer, the name given to the thin circular 
 portions of unleavened bread used in the 
 Roman Church in the celebration of the 
 Eucharist. They are prepared by the 
 priests, and are frequently stamped with 
 sacred emblems, such as the figure of the 
 cross, the lamb, the initials I. H. S., and 
 other symbols. They are made of differ¬ 
 ent sizes, the smallest about an inch in di¬ 
 ameter, for the communion of the people; 
 another, much larger, for the celebration 
 of the mass; and a third, still larger, to be 
 placed in the monstrance, for the service 
 of benediction or exposition. The use 
 of the wafer does not probably date earlier 
 than the eleventh century. Previous to 
 this ordinary bread was used. 
 
 Wahabees, a name given to the repre¬ 
 sentatives in a reform movement which 
 arose within Mohammedanism in the mid¬ 
 dle of the last century. They accepted the 
 Koran, but condemned the worship of 
 Mohammed as idolatrous. The leader of 
 the movement was Mohammed-ben-Abd- 
 el-Wahab, of the tribe of Nedshi in Yemen. 
 In 1802 they occupied Mecca, and com¬ 
 pelled the Turkish pilgrims to pay a tribute 
 before they were allowed to enter the city. 
 They invaded Syria, but were defeated in 
 1812 by Mehemet Ali, who sent an army 
 
Wai 
 
 ( 948 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 into Arabia, and in 1818 his son, Ibrahim 
 Pasha, captured Abdallah, the leader of 
 the Wahabees, and sent him to Constanti¬ 
 nople to be executed. Their political pow¬ 
 er is now mostly confined to their tribe in 
 Yemen. 
 
 Wainwright, Jonathan Mayhew, D. D., 
 b. in Liverpool, Eng., Feb. 24, 1792; 
 
 d. in New York City, Sept. 21, 1854. He 
 came to this country, 1803, and was grad¬ 
 uated at Harvard College, 1812; became 
 rector of Christ Church, Hartford, Conn., 
 1816; assistant minister of Trinity Church, 
 New York, 1819; rector of Grace Church, 
 1821; of Trinity Church, Boston, 1834; in 
 charge of St. John’s Chapel, Trinity parish, 
 New York, 1837. He was elected provi¬ 
 sional bishop of New York in 1852. He 
 wrote several books of travel and con¬ 
 troversy. See his Life , by J. N. Norton 
 (New York, 1858). 
 
 Waldenses, a remarkable Christian sect 
 dwelling in some of the Swiss valleys, 
 principally in those of the Pellice (or Lu- 
 serna) and the Germanasca, in the Western 
 Alps. A large amount of information re¬ 
 specting them is found in some old MSS. 
 in the possession of the University of Cam¬ 
 bridge, and a very valuable account is 
 given in Histoire Litte'raire des Vattdois du 
 Piemont, d’apres les Manuscrits Originaux , 
 par Edouard Montet (1886). They owe 
 their origin and name to Peter Waldus 
 (Waldo, Vaud), a rich citizen of Lyons. 
 About 1170 Waldo, from reading the Bible 
 and some passages from the Fathers of the 
 Church, which he caused to be translated 
 into his native tongue, determined to im¬ 
 itate the mode of life of the apostles and 
 primitive Christians, gave his goods to the 
 poor, and by his preaching collected nu¬ 
 merous followers, chiefly from the class of 
 artisans who, from the place of their birth, 
 were called “ Lyonistssometimes “ Poor 
 men of Lyons,” on account of their volun¬ 
 tary poverty; or “ Sabotati,” on account 
 of their wooden shoes or sandals (sabots); 
 or “ Humiliatists,” on account of their hu¬ 
 mility. They have often been confounded 
 with the Cathari or Albigenses, but M. 
 Montet has proved conclusively that they 
 had no connection with them; they even 
 spoke of the Albigenses as “daemones.” 
 In their contempt for the degenerate clergy 
 and their opposition to the Roman priest¬ 
 hood, the Waldenses resembled other sects 
 of the Middle Ages; but as early as 1184, 
 by which time they had spread over South¬ 
 ern France and North Italy, they were ex¬ 
 communicated by the pope, though the 
 reason is not clear. They were distinguish¬ 
 ed from “heretics” generally, and seem 
 
 to have held the doctrines of the Church, 
 going to Catholic sources for literature and 
 to the priests for the sacraments. Prob¬ 
 ably the objection to them was that they 
 were preachers; the same objection which 
 was afterward made to the mendicant fri¬ 
 ars. But once driven from the Catholic pale, 
 they made the Bible alone the rule of their 
 faith, and, rejecting whatever was not 
 founded on it, or conformable to apostolic 
 teaching, they gave the first impulse to a 
 reform of the Christian Church. They, or 
 at least the Italian branch of them, began 
 to preach that a bad priest cannot validly 
 administer the sacraments, and to reject 
 confession. As the French Waldenses 
 were stamped out by persecution, the Ital¬ 
 ians assumed the lead. The body thus sep¬ 
 arated from the Church held their way 
 until the war broke out against the Albi¬ 
 genses, by which time they had spread and 
 established themselves in the South of 
 • France, under the protection of the Counts 
 of Toulouse and Foix. At that time (1209— 
 1230) many Waldenses fled to Aragon, 
 Savoy and Piedmont. Spain would not 
 tolerate them at all. In Languedoc they 
 were able to maintain themselves till 1330; 
 in Provence, under severe oppression, till 
 1545, when the Parliament at Aix caused 
 them to be exterminated in the most cruel 
 manner; still longer in Dauphiny; and not 
 till the war of the Cevennes were the last 
 Waldenses expelled from France. In the 
 middle of the fourteenth century^single con¬ 
 gregations of this sect went to Calabria and 
 Apulia, where they were soon suppressed; 
 others to Bohemia, where they were call¬ 
 ed “ Grubenheimer,” because they used 
 to hide themselves in caverns. These soon 
 became amalgamated with the Hussites, 
 though, as they were not so advanced in view 
 as the Taborites, there was a good deal of 
 delay. From them the Bohemian Brethren 
 derived the consecration of their bishops. 
 They found a safe retreat, fortified by nat¬ 
 ure, in the valleys of Western Piedmont, 
 where they founded a distinct Church, 
 which has remained till the present day ■* 
 the main centre of their sect. A corre¬ 
 spondence which two of their pastors, Mo¬ 
 rel and Masson, had with CEcolampadius 
 in 1530, is preserved in the library of 
 Trinity College, Dublin, from which it 
 appears that among the Waldenses there 
 were sisterhoods bound by vows of cel¬ 
 ibacy; that the preachers received confes¬ 
 sions, but resorted to the Catholic priest¬ 
 hood for the sacraments. But now they 
 resolved to abolish confession, two sacra¬ 
 ments only were acknowledged, and the doc¬ 
 trine of predestination was asserted. Their 
 doctrines rest entirely on the Gospels, 
 which, with some catechisms, they have 
 
Wal 
 
 ( 949 ) 
 
 Wal 
 
 in their old dialect, a mixture of French 
 and Italian. In this language their wor¬ 
 ship was performed till 1630, when their 
 old “ barbes ” or teachers became extinct. 
 They then had recourse to Geneva to sup¬ 
 ply the vacancies, and ever since the 
 French language has been used in their 
 services, and teachers are sent from the 
 Calvinistic colleges. The constitution of 
 their congregations, which are chiefly em¬ 
 ployed in the cultivation of vineyards, and 
 the breeding of cattle, is republican. Each 
 congregation is governed by a council, 
 consisting of the elders and deacons under 
 the presidency of the pastor, which main¬ 
 tains the strictest discipline. The congre¬ 
 gations are all united at the yearly synod. 
 From their origin the Waldenses have 
 been distinguished for their pure morals 
 and industry, and have always been re¬ 
 garded as good subjects. After they had 
 joined the Calvinists, in the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury, they were again exposed to the 
 storm which was intended to sweep away 
 the Reformation, the doctrines of which 
 they had held practically for nearly three 
 hundred years. This was the cause of 
 their being expelled from France. Those 
 who had settled in the duchy of Saluzzo 
 were totally exterminated by 1633; and 
 those in the other valleys, having received 
 from the Court of Turin, in 1654, new 
 assurances of religious freedom, were 
 treacherously attacked, in 1655, by monks 
 and soldiers, and shamefully treated. By 
 the aid of other Protestant Powers they 
 procured a new though limited promise 
 of freedom by the Treaty of Pignerol, 
 signed Aug. 18, 1655, but the persecution, 
 again brought about by French influence, 
 obliged thousands to take refuge in Prot¬ 
 estant countries: in London they joined 
 the French Huguenots; in the Nether¬ 
 lands, the Walloons; in Berlin, the French, 
 while nearly 2,600 went to Switerland. 
 They now enjoy religious freedom and all 
 civil rights in Lucerne, St. Martin, and 
 Perusa, where they number over 20,000, 
 while there are about 1,600 settled in Wiir- 
 temberg. 
 
 M. Montet has given a very thorough 
 ’account of Waldensian literature, dividing 
 it into three periods: (1) The Catholic 
 period, during which the dogmas and prac¬ 
 tices of the Church were accepted. The 
 writings of this period are taken from the 
 Fathers and the Liturgies. The pope dur¬ 
 ing this period is never attacked, the sev¬ 
 en sacraments and transubstantiation are 
 assumed, and ascetic views are strongly 
 maintained. (2) The Hussite period. Now 
 the pope is fiercely attacked, the sacra¬ 
 ments are invalid by reason of the wicked¬ 
 ness of the priests, and there is a strong 
 
 leaning towards the Universal Priesthood. 
 (3) The Calvinistic. Unhappily, this last 
 period has been marked by a wholesale fal¬ 
 sification of documents, by forgery and by 
 mutilation, with the object of showing that 
 the Waldensian is a Christian body which 
 had descended from apostolic times, pre¬ 
 serving their faith through the ages in 
 primitive form. This fiction M. Montet has 
 altogether destroyed, though, as he ac¬ 
 knowledges, the late Mr. Henry Bradshaw 
 had already discovered and exposed the 
 real character of some of the documents 
 adduced. Much kindness has been ex¬ 
 pended on the Waldenses by English, 
 Scotch, and American sympathizers, and 
 every year, in the first week of September, 
 delegates from these countries attend the 
 Synod. A short time since, the Waldensian 
 inhabitants of Dormiltrouse in Dauphine 
 were transported by mistaken kindness to 
 Algeria, the result of which was that their 
 bones were scattered, not on Alpine moun¬ 
 tains, but on scorching African plains. The 
 services are the very plainest and barest 
 type of Genevan Protestantism; the min¬ 
 ister taking the whole service, and the peo¬ 
 ple taking no share except the occasional 
 singing of a hymn.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. See Maitland: Fads and Documents 
 of the Waldenses (London, 1862); E. Comba: 
 Waldenses before the Refor?nation (N. Y., 
 1880). 
 
 Waldo, Peter. See Waldenses. 
 
 Walloon Church. See Holland. 
 
 Walpurgis, or Walpurga, St., a native 
 of England, who spent her life in Germany 
 assisting her brother, St. Willibald, and her 
 uncle, St. Boniface, in their missionary la¬ 
 bors. She became abbess of a convent at 
 Heidenheim in Franconia, and died about 
 777. Many traditions are linked with her 
 name. 
 
 Walton, Brian, Church of England; b. at 
 Seymour, Yorkshire, 1600; d. in London, 
 Nov. 29,1661. He was graduated at Cam¬ 
 bridge, 1623, and became rector of St. Mar¬ 
 tin’s Orgar, London, in 1626. When the 
 Puritans came into power he was ejected 
 from all his appointments, and retired to 
 Oxford, where he gathered the materials 
 for his famous Polyglot Bible. Nine 
 languages are used in the course of this 
 work. At the Restoration he was made 
 chaplain to Charles II., and in 1661, a few 
 months before his death, was consecrat¬ 
 ed bishop of Chester. He published an 
 Introduction to Oriental Literature (1655). 
 See his Life , by Todd (London, 1821), 
 2 vols. 
 
Wan 
 
 ( 950 ) 
 
 War 
 
 Wandering in the Wilderness. See Wil¬ 
 derness of the Wandering. 
 
 Wandering Jew. See Jew, Wandering. 
 
 Warburton, William, bishop of Glouces¬ 
 ter, was born at Newark-upon-Trent, in 
 1698; died at Gloucester, 1779. He was 
 the son of an attorney, and his father, wish¬ 
 ing to train him in the same profession, ap¬ 
 prenticed him, in 1714, to an attorney at 
 East Markham. He was there five years, 
 and then gained admittance to one of the 
 courts at Westminster; but, having by this 
 time come to the conclusion that his talents 
 were not suited to the law, he gave it up, 
 and in 1723 took deacon’s orders. Two 
 years later he published his first literary 
 work, entitled Miscellaneous Translations, 
 in Prose and Verse, from Ro 7 tian Authors, 
 with a dedication to Sir Robert Sutton, 
 who, in return, presented him, on his be¬ 
 ing admitted to priest’s orders in 1726, with 
 a small living. In 1727 he began to dis¬ 
 tinguish himself as an original author by 
 his Inquiries into ihe Causes of Prodigies and 
 Miracles, which he dedicated to Sir Robert 
 Sutton. His patron gave him the living 
 of Brant Broughton, in Lincolnshire, and 
 by his interest at Cambridge caused War- 
 burton’s name to be placed on the list of 
 the King’s Masters of Arts, a favor which 
 proved of great service in his after-career, 
 supplying to some extent the position he 
 would have lost by not having received a 
 university education. In 1736 appeared 
 his Alliance between Church and State; or, 
 The Necessity and Equity of an Established 
 Religion and a Test Lazo, demonstrated fro?n 
 the essence and end of civil society upon the 
 fundamental principles of the law of nature 
 and nations, which passed through four 
 editions during the life of the author, 
 though it is said to have given satisfaction 
 neither to the upholders of the Church nor 
 to those who advocated religious liberty. 
 The first volume of his chief work was 
 published in 1738, under the title of the 
 Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated on 
 the Principles of a Religious Deist, from the 
 Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State 
 of Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish 
 Dispensation. This brought a storm of 
 abuse upon his head from all Church par¬ 
 ties; but, nothing daunted, Warburton re¬ 
 mained firm in his opinions, and published 
 a Vindication of them. In 1740 he wrote a 
 defence of Pope’s Essay on Man in a lead¬ 
 ing journal called Works of the Learned, 
 which so enchanted Pope that he bequeath¬ 
 ed Warburton half his library and the copy¬ 
 right of such of his works already printed 
 as were not otherwise disposed of. In 
 1746 he became preacher at Lincoln’s Inn, 
 
 and in the following year appeared as an 
 editor of Shakespeare. His name was by 
 this time famous, and his rise in the clerical 
 profession was rapid. He became preb¬ 
 endary of Gloucester in 1753, king’s 
 chaplain in 1754, prebendary of Durham 
 the same year, dean of Bristol in 1757, and 
 bishop of Gloucester in 1759. He died at 
 Gloucester in 1779, an( l was buried in the 
 cathedral. After his death his works were 
 collected and published in six volumes, by 
 his friend, Bishop Hurd, and a biographical 
 memoir, forming a seventh volume, ap¬ 
 peared some years later. Doctor Johnson, 
 in his Life of Pope, thus describes Warbur¬ 
 ton: “ He was a man of vigorous faculties, 
 a mind fervid and vehement, supplied by 
 incessant and unlimited inquiry, with won¬ 
 derful extent and variety of knowledge, 
 Avhich yet had not oppressed his imagina¬ 
 tion, nor clouded his perspicuity. To 
 every work he brought a memory full 
 fraught, together with a fancy fertile of 
 original combinations, and at once exerted 
 the powers of the scholar, the reasoner, 
 and the wit. But his knowledge was too 
 multifarious to be always exact, and his 
 pursuits were too eager to be always cau¬ 
 tious. His abilities gave him a haughty 
 consequence which he disdained to correct 
 and modify; and his impatience of opposi¬ 
 tion disposed him to treat his adversaries 
 with such contemptuous superiority as 
 made his readers commonly his enemies, 
 and excited against the’advocate some who 
 favored the cause.” 
 
 Warburton Lectures. —This lecture¬ 
 ship, the object of which is “to prove the 
 truth of revealed religion in general, and 
 of the Christian in particular, from the 
 completion of those prophecies in the Old 
 and New Testaments which relate to the 
 Christian Church, especially to the apos- 
 tacy of papal Rome,” was established in 
 1768 by Bishop Warburton. — Benham : 
 Did. of Religion. 
 
 Wardlaw, Ralph, D. D., “the most cel- 
 brated preacher and theologian in the roll 
 of Scotch Independents, was a seceder by 
 extraction, and studied in connection with, 
 the Associate Secession Church. Before 
 he had completed his curriculum, however, 
 he had convinced himself that congrega¬ 
 tional independency was the scriptural sys¬ 
 tem of church government. In 1800 he 
 began to preach, and after some time set¬ 
 tled in Glasgow as pastor of an Independ¬ 
 ent church. In 1811 he was appointed pro¬ 
 fessor of theology to the Congregational 
 body in Scotland, in conjunction with the 
 Rev. Greville Ewing; an office he retained, 
 along with his pastorate, to the period of 
 his death, which happened on Dec. 17, 
 
War 
 
 ( 95i ) 
 
 Wat 
 
 1853. Wardlaw’s life was a very laborious 
 and earnest one. Besides discharging 
 faithfully and ably the duties of the pulpit 
 and the professor’s chair, he was a volu- 
 minousauthor, often involved intheological 
 controversy, and a prominent actor in the 
 public religious and philanthropical move¬ 
 ments of the day. His intellect was acute, 
 his understanding sound, and his style re¬ 
 markable for its perspicacity, vigor, and 
 grace. The most important of Wardlavv’s 
 works are: Discourses on the Socinian Con¬ 
 troversy (1813); Lectures on Ecclesiastes , 2 
 vols. (1821); Essays on Assurance of Faith, 
 and on the Extent of the Atonement and Uni¬ 
 versal Pardon (1830); Discourses on the 
 Sabbath (1832); Christian Ethics (1833); 
 Discourses on the Nature and Extent of the 
 Atonement of Christ (1843); The Life of Jo¬ 
 seph and the Last Years of Jacob (1845); 
 Congregational Lndependency (1848); On 
 Miracles (1852). See Life and Correspond¬ 
 ence of Ralph Wardlaw, by Dr. Alexander 
 (1856).—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Ware, Henry, D. D., b. at Sherburne, 
 Mass., April 1, 1764; d. at Cambridge, 
 Mass., July 12, 1845; was graduated at 
 Harvard College in 1785; pastor of the 
 First Church, Hingham, Mass., 1787-1805; 
 Hollis professor of divinity in Harvard, 
 1805-40, when he resigned on account of 
 the loss of his sight. His election as pro¬ 
 fessor led to what may be regarded as the 
 commencement of the Unitarian contro¬ 
 versy that was waged, especially in eastern 
 Massachusetts, for many years. Dr. Ware 
 wrote (1820): Letters to Trinitarians and Cal¬ 
 vinists, in reply to Dr. Leonard Woods’s 
 Letters to Unitarians; also An Lnquiry into 
 the Foundation, Evidences, and Truths of 
 Religion (Cambridge, 1842), 2 vols. See 
 Sprague: Annals op the American Ptilpit, 
 viii. 199. 
 
 Ware, Henry, Jun., D. D., b. at Hing¬ 
 ham, Mass., April 21, 1794; d. at Framing¬ 
 ham, Mass., Sept. 22, 1843. He was grad¬ 
 uated at Harvard, 1812; pastor of the 
 Second Church in Boston, 1817-30; Park- 
 man professor of pulpit eloquence at the 
 divinity school at Cambridge, 1830-42. 
 He was one of the editors of the Christian 
 Disciple, afterward the Christian Examiner, 
 the first Unitarian newspaper. He pub¬ 
 lished: Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching 
 (1824); On the Formation of the Christian 
 Character (1831). He wrote some hymns 
 of merit. See Metnoir, by his brother 
 
 (1845). 
 
 Washburn, Edward Abiel, D. D., a 
 distinguished clergyman of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church; b. in Boston, Mass., 
 
 April 16, 1819; d. in New York, Feb. 2, 
 1881. He was graduated from Harvard 
 College in 1838, and studied theology at 
 Andover and New Haven. From 1845 to 
 1851 he was rector of St. Paul’s, Newbury- 
 port. After two years of travel in Europe 
 and the East he became rector of St. John’s, 
 Hartford; in 1862 he accepted the charge 
 of St. Mark’s, Philadelphia, and in 1865 was 
 called to Calvary Church, New York, 
 where he remained until his death. Dr. 
 Washburn was a recognized leader in his 
 church, eminent as a scholar and writer, 
 and a preacher of great intellectual force 
 and power. His writings are mostly con¬ 
 fined to review articles. He published one 
 volume, The Social Law of God; and two 
 volumes of selected sermons and lectures 
 have been published since his death. 
 
 Watch-Night, The, is the name given to 
 the service held by Methodists on the last 
 night of the old year, and the beginning of 
 the new. The custom of holding night 
 meetings started in Bristol, Eng., but was 
 brought into general use by Wesley. They 
 were at first held frequently, but are now 
 restricted to the one evening mentioned. 
 
 Water, Holy. See Holy Water. 
 
 Water of Jealousy. See Jealousy. 
 
 Watson, Richard, bishop of Llandaff; 
 b. at Heversham, Westmoreland, Aug., 
 1737; d. at Calgarth Park, Westmoreland, 
 July 4, 1816. He was graduated at Cam¬ 
 bridge University, where he was appointed 
 teacher of chemistry in 1764, and regius 
 professor of divinity, 1771. He became 
 rector of Somersham, 1771; prebendary of 
 Ely, 1774; bishop of Llandaff, 1782. He 
 is remembered by his works: Apology for 
 Christianity (1776), addressed to Gibbon; 
 Apology for the Bible (1796), addressed to 
 Thomas Paine, and Collection of Theological 
 Tracts (1785), 6 vols. See his autobi¬ 
 ography, Ancedotes of the Life of Richard 
 Watson, published by his son (1817), 2 
 vols. 
 
 Watson, Richard, D. D., an eminent 
 Wesleyan Methodist theologian; b. at Bar¬ 
 ton - upon - Humber, Lincolnshire, Eng., 
 Feb. 22, 1781; d. in London, Jan. 8, 1833. 
 With limited early educational advantages' 
 he began to preach when but fifteen. Ac¬ 
 cused unjustly of Arianism, he joined the 
 Methodist New Connection, 1801, but re¬ 
 turned to the Wesleyans in 1812, and be¬ 
 came actively interested in the organization 
 of their foreign missionary society, of 
 which he was one of the secretaries from 
 1816 to 1830. He was active in the anti- 
 
Wat 
 
 ( 952 ) 
 
 Wee 
 
 slavery movement. He published: A De¬ 
 fense of the Wesleyan Methodist Missions in 
 the West Indies (1817); Conversations for the 
 Young (1830); Life of John Wesley (1831); 
 Biblical and Theological Dictionary (1832); 
 7 'heological Institutes (1823-24). (This has 
 long been one of the most popular compen- 
 diums of Arminian theology.) Watson’s 
 Life , by Rev. T. Jackson, is in the 
 first volume of the collected edition of 
 his Works (1834-37, 13 vols.; 7th ed., 
 
 1857-58). 
 
 Watts, Isaac, a famous English hymn- 
 writer; b. at Southampton, July 17, 1674; 
 d. at Abney Park, Nov. 25, 1748. The son 
 of a Nonconformist schoolmaster, he was 
 educated at Newington, near London, and 
 after pursuing a course of theological 
 study he became assistant minister to the 
 Independent Church of Mark Lane, Lon¬ 
 don, 1698, and pastor in 1702. The con¬ 
 nection was not severed until his death, al¬ 
 though ill-health compelled him to retire 
 from active service as early as 1712. Dur¬ 
 ing this year he was invited by Sir Thomas 
 Abney to spend a week at Abney Park, 
 near London, but remained for thirty-six 
 years a welcome guest in this family. He 
 was never married. His poetical gifts de¬ 
 veloped at an early age, but his first volume 
 (Horce Lyricce') was not published till 1706. 
 In the following year his Hymns and Spirit¬ 
 ual Songs appeared, and in 1719 he publish¬ 
 ed The Psalms of David Imitated in the 
 Language of the New Testament. His well- 
 known Divine and Moral Songs for the Use 
 of Children was published in 1720. His 
 hymns and psalms at once became very 
 popular, and effected a remarkable change 
 in the service of song in the churches. 
 Watts wrote also upon logic, astronomy, 
 and other subjects. He was an able 
 preacher, and three volumes of his dis¬ 
 courses were published. His remains were 
 interred in the cemetery of Abney Park, 
 but he has a monument in Westminster 
 Abbey, a statue at Southampton (1861), 
 and a memorial hall there (1875). His 
 Works were published in London, 1812, 
 -9 vols. 
 
 Wayland, Francis, D. D., LL. D., an 
 eminent Baptist divine and educator; b. in 
 iNew York City, March 11, 1796; d. at 
 Providence, R. I., Sept. 30, 1865. He was 
 graduated at Union College in 1813, and 
 studied medicine, but soon after entering 
 upon its practice was converted, and united 
 with the Baptist Church in 1816. In 1816 
 and 1817 he studied at Andover Theolog¬ 
 ical Seminary, and was tutor in Union Col¬ 
 lege, 1817-21 ; pastor of First Baptist 
 Church in Boston, 1821-26; professor in 
 
 Union College, 1826; president of Brown 
 University, 1827-55. In this position he 
 won a reputation as one of the most re¬ 
 markable educators and preachers of his 
 time. His published works include: Dis¬ 
 courses (1832); Elements of Moral Science 
 (1835); Elements of Political Economy (1837); 
 University Sermons (1850); Elements of In¬ 
 tellectual Philosophy (1854); Letters on the 
 Ministry (1863). 
 
 Weaver, Jonathan, D. D. (Otterbein 
 University, Westerville, O., 1873), bishop 
 of the United Brethren in Christ; b. in 
 Carroll County, O., Feb. 23, 1824. Was 
 educated in common schools and at Ha- 
 gerston Academy, O.; he entered the min¬ 
 istry at the age of twenty-one; was pastor, 
 1847-52; presiding elder, 1852-57; general 
 agent for Otterbein University, 1857-65; 
 bishop since 1865 by successive reelections; 
 now in Ohio diocese. He is the author of: 
 Discourses on the Resurrection (1871); Di¬ 
 vine Providence (1873); Universal Restora¬ 
 tion not Sustained by the Word of God 
 (1878). 
 
 Week. “ There can be no doubt about 
 the great antiquity of measuring time by a 
 period of seven days. (Gen. viii. 10; xxix. 
 27.) The origin of this division of time 
 is a matter which has given birth to much 
 speculation. Its antiquity is so great, its 
 observance so wide-spread, and it occupies 
 so important a place in sacred things, that 
 it must probably be thrown back as far as 
 the creation of man. The week and the 
 Sabbath are thus as old as man himself. In 
 Exodus, the week comes into very distinct 
 manifestation. Two of the great feasts— 
 the Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles 
 —are prolonged for seven days after that 
 of their initiation. (Ex. xii. 15-20, etc.) 
 The division by seven was expanded so as 
 to make the seventh month and the seventh 
 year sabbatical. In the New Testament, 
 we of course find such clear recognition 
 of, and familiarity with, the week as needs 
 scarcely be dwelt upon. The Christian 
 Church, from the very first, was familiar 
 with the week. St. Paul’s language (1 
 Cor. xvi. 2) shows this. We cannot con¬ 
 clude from it that such a division of time 
 was observed by the inhabitants of Corinth 
 generally; for they to whom he was writ¬ 
 ing, though doubtless the majority of them 
 were Gentiles, yet knew the Lord’s day, 
 and, most probably, the Jewish Sabbath. 
 But though we can infer no more than this 
 from the place in question, it is clear that, 
 if not by this time, yet very soon after, 
 the whole Roman world had adopted the 
 hebdomadal division.”—Smith: Diet, of 
 the Bible. 
 
Wei 
 
 ( 953 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 Weights and Measures Among the He¬ 
 brews. 
 
 i. The Longer Scripture Measures. 
 
 Cubit. 
 
 Eng. miles. 
 
 paces. 
 
 0 
 
 feet. 
 
 1.824 
 
 Stadium or furlong. 
 
 
 145 
 
 4.6 
 
 Sabbath-day’s journey... 
 
 
 132 
 
 4 
 
 Eastern mile. 
 
 
 4°3 
 
 I 
 
 Parasang. 
 
 
 *53 
 
 3 
 
 Day’s journey. 
 
 
 172 
 
 4 
 
 2. Shorter Measures of Length. 
 
 Eng. feet, inches. 
 
 Digit. < • • <.. o 0.9x2 
 
 Palm. o 3.648 
 
 Span. o 10.944 
 
 Cubit. 1 9.888 
 
 Fathom. 7 3-552 
 
 Ezekiel’s reed. 10 11.328 
 
 Arabian pole. 14 7.104 
 
 Schoenus, or measuring line. 145 1.104 
 
 3. Jewish Weights. 
 
 Troy weight. 
 lbs. oz. dwt. gr. 
 
 Gerah...... o o o 12 
 
 Beka. 0050 
 
 Shekel. o o 10 o 
 
 Maneh. 2600 
 
 Talent.. 125 000 
 
 4. Jewish Liquid Measures. 
 
 gall, pints. 
 
 Caph. o 0.625 
 
 Fog. o 0.833 
 
 Cab . o 3.333 
 
 Hin. 1 2 
 
 Seah. 2 4 
 
 Bath, or ephah. 7 4 
 
 Corus, chomer, or homer. 75 o 
 
 The sextarius, rendered a pot (Mark vii. 4), was a 
 Roman measure of liquids, equal to about a pint and a 
 half (English). 
 
 The metretes , rendered Jirkin (John ii. 6), is supposed 
 to be equal to the Hebrew bath. 
 
 5. Jewish Dry Measures. 
 
 Gachal.. 
 
 Cab. 
 
 Omer, or gomer......... 
 
 Seah.. 
 
 Ephah. 
 
 Letech. 
 
 Corus, chomer, or homer. 
 
 English Corn Measure. 
 
 pecks. 
 
 gall. 
 
 pints. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 14x6 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 2.8333 
 
 . O 
 
 0 
 
 5 -i 
 
 . I 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 • 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 . l6 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 The choenix, rendered a measure (Rev. vi. 6), was a 
 Grecian measure of capacity, about a pint and a half. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church, 
 The. See Calvinistic Methodists, p. 
 59 6 - 
 
 Welsh Presbyterian Church, the name 
 by which the Calvinistic Methodists (see p. 
 596) are known in the United States. The 
 first church was organized in this country 
 at Peny-caerau, Remsen, Oneida County, 
 N. Y., in 1826. The denomination is 
 strongest in the States of New York, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin and Minne¬ 
 sota, and its synods bear the names of these 
 States. Doctrinally the Welsh Calvinists 
 in the United States are in accord with 
 their brethren in Great Britain, but in pol¬ 
 ity they are, in some respects, more nearly 
 
 assimilated to the Presbyterian form of 
 government. Their General Assembly, 
 formed in 1870, meets triennially. In 
 1890 they reported 186 churches, 99 minis¬ 
 ters, and 10,652 communicants. See W. 
 Rowlands: The Welsh Calvinistic Metho¬ 
 dists (Rome, N. Y., 1854). 
 
 Wesley, Charles, the youngest of the 
 nineteen children of Samuel Wesley, was 
 b. at Epworth, Lincolnshire, Dec. 29, 1708; 
 d. in London, March 29, 1788. He was 
 educated at Westminster school and Christ 
 Church College, Oxford, 1876, where, with 
 his brother John, and one or two others, 
 he received the nickname of £< Methodist,” 
 because of the earnest and systematic 
 methods carried out in a devotional gather¬ 
 ing for religious improvement which they 
 held. He was ordained in 1735, and with 
 his brother John came to Georgia (1735-36). 
 In 1738 (May 21) “ he experienced the wit¬ 
 ness of adoption,” and from this time en¬ 
 gaged with his brother in the evangelistic 
 labors that laid the foundations of Method¬ 
 ism. Two of his eight children became 
 eminent as musicians. “ It was Charles 
 Wesley who sang the doctrines of the 
 Methodists into the hearts of believers, 
 and his evangelical fervor is such that he 
 has made all Christendom his parish in a 
 grander sense even than his administrative 
 brother John.” The Poetical Works of 
 John and Charles Wesley , as reprinted by 
 the Wesleyan Conference, 1868-72, fill 
 thirteen volumes of nearly six thousand 
 pages. See his Life, by Jackson, 2 vols. 
 (1841). 
 
 Wesley, John, the second son of Sam¬ 
 uel and Susannah Wesley; b. at Epworth 
 in Lincolnshire, June 28, 1703. At six 
 years of age he nearly lost his life 
 through the burning of the parsonage 
 house, set on fire, according to his own ac¬ 
 count, by some of the ill-conditioned par¬ 
 ishioners who resented his father’s plain 
 speech. The memory was always potent 
 in the child’s imagination, who frequently 
 refers to it in his writings. He was deep¬ 
 ly religious from the beginning, and at 
 eight years of age became a communicant. 
 He was sent to Charterhouse, to which 
 school, though he suffered a good deal from 
 bullying, he was always affectionately at¬ 
 tached, and used to visit it yearly to the 
 end of his life. The big boys used to eat 
 his meat, and he was often reduced to a bit 
 of bread for his day’s meal; but he was 
 hardy, and obeyed his father’s strict com¬ 
 mand to run round the Charterhouse Gar¬ 
 dens three times every morning. From 
 the Charterhouse he went to Christ Church, 
 Oxford, and in due time took his B. A. 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 954 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 He soon became conspicuous as a scholar 
 in the learned languages, but also for the 
 religious earnestness of his life. He put 
 away all acquaintances that he found inju¬ 
 rious to his soul’s health, new modelled 
 his life so as to regulate his time, his stud¬ 
 ies, his expenses, and chose all his com¬ 
 panions from among those that he thought 
 likely to help his efficiency in the ministry, 
 for which he was now zealously preparing. 
 In 1725 he was ordained by Potter, then 
 bishop of Oxford, and officiated for a while 
 as his father’s curate. But in 1726 he was 
 elected a Fellow of Lincoln College (taking 
 his A. M. degree the same year), and be¬ 
 came resident at Oxford as Greek Lecturer, 
 and Moderator of the Passes. He wrote 
 a form of prayer for his pupils, showing 
 how desirous he was that they should be 
 good as well as learned. His impressions 
 deepened, and he joined an association 
 which had been formed by his brother 
 Charles, then an undergraduate of Christ 
 Church, along with James Hervey, White- 
 field, Morgan, and others. They met to 
 read divinity on Sunday evenings, and the 
 classics on other days. And they also ar¬ 
 ranged to visit the prisoners in the castle, 
 and the sick poor of the town. Then it 
 came to Greek Testament readings very 
 frequently on the week evenings instead 
 of the classics. “ We were now,” he says, 
 “ about fifteen in number, all of one heart 
 and of one mind.” How the name of Meth¬ 
 odists came to be applied to this little band 
 has already been told (Methodists); but 
 in truth this little Oxford society, never 
 exceeding thirty in number, had nothing in 
 common with the Methodism which after¬ 
 wards arose, save religious earnestness. 
 It was of a most pronounced High-Church 
 character, had no organization or bond of 
 union, and hence its members became scat¬ 
 tered in different directions. Whitefield 
 bent in one direction and Wesley in an¬ 
 other; Clayton remained High-Church to 
 the end; James Hervey became a fervid 
 Evangelical Churchman; Gambold, a Mora¬ 
 vian bishop; Ingham, a Dissenter. While 
 thus the name, once given to Wesley’s 
 friends remained, the Methodists he found¬ 
 ed must not be confused, as they so often 
 have been, with that Oxford company of 
 which he was also the leading spirit. 
 
 One of his intimate friends at this time 
 was Law, whose Serious Call had been one 
 of the books which had most strongly im¬ 
 pressed him. Twice or thrice in the year 
 John and Charles Wesley had visited him, 
 travelling for sixty miles on foot in order to 
 save the more money for the poor. One day 
 Law said to John, “ You would have a phil¬ 
 osophic religion, but there can be no such 
 thing. Religion is the most plain, simple 
 
 thing in the world. It is only — we love 
 him because he first loved us.” This re¬ 
 mark he never afterward forgot. Another 
 time Law saw him much depressed, and in¬ 
 quired the reason. “ It is because I see so 
 little fruit of my labors,” was the answer. 
 “ My dear friend,” said Law, “ you reverse 
 matters from their proper order. You are 
 to follow the divine light, wherever it leads 
 you, in all your conduct. It is God alone 
 that gives the blessing. I pray you, always 
 mind your own work, and go on with 
 cheerfulness, and God will take care of his.” 
 
 Wesley’s father wished his son to suc¬ 
 ceed him at Epworth, but he was so wedded 
 to a college life and to the advantages he 
 enjoyed of his retirement and his chosen 
 companions, that he could not be persuaded 
 to consent. His father died in 1735. He 
 had desired John to present to Queen Caro¬ 
 line a book he had just finished, and he 
 went to London for that purpose. There 
 he was strongly solicited by Dr. Burton, 
 one of the trustees for the new colony at 
 Georgia, to go there and preach to the In¬ 
 dians. He refused at first, but afterward 
 consented; and on Oct. 14, 1735, he sailed 
 from Gravesend with his brother Charles 
 and two other friends. They arrived at the 
 Savannah in the February following, and 
 preached to the people whom they found 
 on landing, who were the more rejoiced, 
 that means of grace had been scarce with 
 them. Not finding any open door for the 
 prosecution of work among the Indians, 
 the two brothers labored incessantly where 
 they landed. “ The inconveniences and 
 dangers,’’says one of Wesley’s biographers, 
 “ which he embraced that he might preach 
 the Gospel and do good of every kind to all 
 that would receive it at his hands; the ex¬ 
 posing of himself to every change of season 
 and inclemency of weather in the prosecu¬ 
 tion of his work, were conditions which few 
 but himself could have submitted to. He 
 frequently slept on the ground as he jour¬ 
 neyed through the woods, covered with the 
 nightly dews, and with his clothes and his 
 hair frozen, in the morning, to the earth. 
 He would wade through swamps and swim 
 through rivers, and then travel till his 
 clothes were dry. His health in the mean¬ 
 time, strange as it may seem, was uninter¬ 
 rupted.” 
 
 On his return to England (1737) Wes¬ 
 ley became conscious of a great change in 
 his religious feelings, which may be told 
 in his own words: “ It is upward of two 
 years since I left my native country, in 
 order to teach the Georgian Indians the 
 nature of Christianity, but what have I 
 learned, myself, in the meantime? Why, 
 what I least of all suspected, that I, who 
 went to America to convert others, was 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 955 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 never converted myself.All this 
 
 time that I was at Savannah I was beating 
 the air. Being ignorant of the righteous¬ 
 ness of Christ, which by a living faith in 
 him bringeth salvation to everyone that 
 believeth, I sought to establish my own 
 righteousness, and so labored in the fire 
 all my days.” 
 
 He arrived in England, Feb. i, 1738, and 
 found that Whitefield had sailed for Amer¬ 
 ica the day before, on purpose to assist 
 him. It is characteristic of him that on his 
 journey from Deal to London he preached 
 and read prayers at several places. He 
 was still under concern from a sense of sin 
 and a want of assurance of forgiveness, 
 but he says that the light came to him 
 through the conversation of Peter Bohler, 
 a Moravian, whom he renewed acquaint¬ 
 ance with on his arrival. As he attended 
 the afternoon services at St. Paul’s, he 
 heard the 130th Psalm sung as an anthem, 
 and the same evening he attended a relig¬ 
 ious meeting in Aldersgate Street, where 
 one was reading Luther’s Preface to the 
 Epistle to the Romans. And he says: “I 
 felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I 
 did trust in Christ alone for salvation, and 
 an assurance was given me that he had 
 taken away my sins, even mine.” This 
 event he regarded as his conversion. Dur¬ 
 ing his absence the religious movement 
 which began to be known by the name of 
 Methodism, had made great progress in 
 London, Bristol and other parts of the 
 South of England, under the impulse of 
 the enthusiastic preaching of Whitefield. 
 With this enthusiasm Wesley now found 
 himself in full accord, and under its influ¬ 
 ence he determined, three weeks after his 
 “ conversion,” to retire for a short time to 
 Germany. He hoped, he said, that the con¬ 
 versing with those holy men (the Mora¬ 
 vians), who were themselves living wit¬ 
 nesses of the power of faith, and yet able 
 to bear with those who were weak, would 
 be a means, under God, of establishing his 
 soul. Accordingly, in June, 1738, he cross¬ 
 ed to Rotterdam and went on to Herrnhut, 
 the Moravian settlement in Upper Lusa- 
 tia, where Count Zinzendorf introduced him 
 to the Prince Royal of Prussia, afterwards 
 Frederick the Great. On his return to 
 England, in September, he heard that 
 Whitefield had returned from Georgia, and 
 they once more became intimately asso¬ 
 ciated. From this time the history of 
 Wesley becomes merged in that of Meth¬ 
 odism, and we refer the reader to the 
 article on that subject. (Methodists.) It 
 only remains to note the main dates of the 
 rest of his biography. He began his open- 
 air preaching early in 1739, and the same 
 year gave his sanction to lay-preaching, to 
 
 the disgust of his High-Church brother, 
 Samuel. In 1740 he broke with the Mo¬ 
 ravians, on what he regarded as doctrinal 
 points, and'from that time the two parties 
 were in undisguised, and even bitter, hos¬ 
 tility. Before the year was ended he had 
 also broken with Whitefield, the result of 
 which was a division of the new religion¬ 
 ists into two permanently distinct bodies, 
 though after a while the two men them¬ 
 selves renewed their personal friendship. 
 
 From that time his whole life was spent 
 in hard labor for the consolidation of his 
 new society. He rode forty, fifty, even 
 sixty miles a day, reading as he rode, and 
 preaching sometimes five times a day. Tow¬ 
 ard the end of his life he exchanged horse¬ 
 back for a chaise, and not the severest 
 weather ever hindered him. His journals 
 are filled with graphic accounts of his 
 preachings. We extract his account of his 
 visit to his native Epworth: “ Sunday. 
 June 6, 1742. A little before the services 
 began I went to Mr. Rowley, the curate, 
 and offered to assist him, either by preach¬ 
 ing or reading prayers. But he did not 
 choose to accept of my assistance. The 
 church was exceedingly full in the after¬ 
 noon, a rumor being spread that I was to 
 preach. After sermon, John Taylor stood 
 in the churchyard and gave notice, as the 
 people were coming out: ‘ Mr. Wesley, 
 not being permitted to preach in the church, 
 designs to preach here at six o’clock.’ Ac¬ 
 cordingly, by six o’clock I came, and found 
 such a congregation as I believe Epworth 
 never saw before. I stood near the east 
 end of the church, upon my father’s tomb¬ 
 stone and said: ‘The kingdom of God is 
 not meat and drink, but righteousness and 
 peace and joy in the Holy Ghost.’ Friday, 
 the nth, I preached again at Epworth, on 
 Ezekiel’s vision of the resurrection of the 
 dry bones. And great indeed was the 
 shaking among them; lamentation and 
 great mourning were heard; God bowing 
 their hearts so that, on every side, as with 
 one accord, they lifted up their voice and 
 wept aloud. Saturday, the 12th, I preach¬ 
 ed on the righteousness of the Law and the 
 righteousness of Faith. While I was speak¬ 
 ing, several dropped down as dead, and 
 among the rest such a cry was heard of 
 sinners groaning for the righteousness of 
 faith as almos| drowned my voice. But 
 many of these soon lifted up their heads 
 with joy, and broke out into thanksgiving, 
 being assured they now had the desire of 
 their souls, the forgiveness of their sins.” 
 
 In 1750 Wesley married Mrs. Vizelle, a 
 widow with four children, having not long 
 before written a tract recommending celi¬ 
 bacy. The marriage was a most unhappy 
 one. He had stipulated that he was not 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 956 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 to preach or to travel less, but his wife be¬ 
 came dissatisfied at his continual absences, 
 and was even jealous. He had a high 
 opinion of marital authority, and wrote to 
 her to know him, and know herself: “Sus¬ 
 pect me no more, asperse me no more, 
 provoke me no more. Do not any longer 
 contend for the mastery; be content to be 
 a private, insignificant person, known and 
 loved by God and me,” etc. In conse¬ 
 quence she several times left him, and was 
 induced to come back. But at length he 
 besought her no more. “ Non earn reliqui , 
 non di?nisi, non revocabof he wrote (“ I did 
 not desert her, I did not dismiss her, I will 
 not recall her”). She died ten years later, 
 in 1771. 
 
 Wesley himself lived twenty years lon¬ 
 ger, keeping up his indefatigable labors till 
 the last. The amazing amount of work he 
 got through could only be accomplished 
 by the most rigid economy of time, and 
 resolution in the use of it, under a strain 
 that would have broken most men down; 
 but his health only failed about three years 
 before his death. In spite of this he still 
 rose at four o’clock in the morning, and 
 preached and traveled as usual until the 
 Wednesday before his death, when he 
 preached for the last time at Leatherhead, 
 in Surrey. On Friday symptoms appeared 
 which left little doubt as to the end, and 
 the next four days were mainly occupied 
 by him in praising God. He died about 
 ten o’clock on the morning of Tuesday, 
 March 2, 1791, in the eighty-eighth year 
 of his age, and after lying in state in his 
 ministerial robes at his chapel in City 
 Road, was interred there on March 9.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. See Life of 
 Wesley, by Southey (1820), 2 vols. (N. Y., 
 1847), and Luke Tyerman, 3 vols. (London, 
 1870); Abel Stevens: History of Methodism, 
 3 vols. (1859-62). 
 
 Wesley, Samuel, Sr., the father of John 
 and Charles Wesley; b. at Winterbourne- 
 Whitechurch, in Dorset, November, 1662; 
 d. at Epworth, April 22, 1735. His early 
 life was spent among the dissenters, but 
 he connected himself with the Church of 
 England in 1683, and was graduated at Ex¬ 
 eter College, Oxford, in 1688. After filling 
 several preferments Queen Mary gave 
 him the living of Epworth in Lincolnshire 
 (1696), in recognition of hi! dedication to 
 her of his Life of Christ: An Heroic Poem 
 (1693). He had a family of nineteen chil¬ 
 dren, nine of whom died in infancy. He 
 was a versatile writer, both in prose and 
 verse, and by the use of his pen eked out 
 his salary,which was scarcely large enough 
 to support his family. One of his hymns, 
 “ Behold the Saviour of mankind,” written 
 
 in 1709, has been extensively used. See 
 Tyerman: Life and Times of the Rev. Sam¬ 
 uel Wesley (London, i 860 ). 
 
 Wesley, Samuel, Jr., elder brother of 
 John and Charles; b. in London, Feb. io, 
 1690; d. at Tiverton, Nov. 6, 1739. Edu¬ 
 cated at Westminster and Oxford, he be¬ 
 came head usher at Westminster School, 
 1712, and head-master of the Free School 
 at Tiverton, 1732. He was a man of abil¬ 
 ity and strong in his attachment to the 
 Church of England. He did not sympa¬ 
 thize with the “ new faith ” of his brothers. 
 His Poe?ns on Several Occasions (1736), re¬ 
 printed with additions and his Life (1862), 
 have received high praise from competent 
 critics. 
 
 Wesley, Susannah, the mother of the 
 Wesleys; b. in London, Jan. 20, 1669; d. 
 there, July 23, 1742. Her father, Samuel 
 Annesley, LL. D., was an eminent Non¬ 
 conformist divine, but in her thirteenth 
 year she united with the Church of Eng¬ 
 land. In 1689 she married Samuel Wesley 
 ( q. v.). The story of her home life, the 
 training of her children, and the beauty 
 and devotion of her Christian character 
 reveal her as a remarkable woman. See 
 J. Kirk: The Mother of the Wesleys (1872). 
 
 West, Stephen, D. D., b. in Tolland, 
 Conn., Nov. 2, 1725; d. at Stockbridge,* 
 Mass., May 15, 1819. He was graduated 
 at Yale College, 1755, and became military 
 chaplain at Hoosac Fort in 1757. The fol¬ 
 lowing year he was invited to succeed Jon¬ 
 athan Edwards in the Indian Mission at 
 Stockbridge, Mass. For sixteen years he 
 preached every Sabbath forenoon to the 
 Indians with the aid of an interpreter, and 
 in the afternoon to the English. From 
 1775 he confined his labors to the English. 
 During the early part of his pastorate at 
 Stockbridge he passed through a religious 
 experience that had a marked effect upon 
 his life and labors. At first dissatisfied 
 with the theological views of his prede¬ 
 cessor, he afterward accepted them with 
 great satisfaction. He was an able scholar 
 and teacher, and after the custom of the 
 times he trained many young men in their 
 theological studies, some of whom became 
 eminent divines. His most important pub¬ 
 lications were: An Essay on Moral Agency 
 (1772); Essay on the Scripture Doctrine of 
 the Atonement (1785); The Life of Rev. 
 Samuel Hopkins , D. D. (1806). 
 
 Westcott, Brooke Foss, D. D., D. C. L., 
 bishop of Durham; b. near Birmingham, 
 Jan. 12, 1825. He was educated at Trin¬ 
 ity College, Cambridge,and ordained, 1851; 
 
Wes 
 
 Wes 
 
 v 957 )' 
 
 assistant master at Harrow School, 1S52- 
 69; rector of Somersham with Pidley and 
 Colne, Hunts, 1870-82; regius professor 
 of divinity, Cambridge, 1870-89; canon of 
 Westminster, 1884-89; bishop of Durham, 
 1890. He wasamemberof the New Testa¬ 
 ment Revision Company (1870-81). He is 
 the author of: Introduction to the Study of the 
 Gospels (i860, 6th ed., 1882); The Bible in 
 the Church (1864, gth ed., 1885); The Gos¬ 
 pel of the Resurrection (1866, 5th ed., 1884); 
 The Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882); 
 The Historic Faith (1883); conjointly with 
 Dr. Hort edited The Hew Testament in the 
 Original Greek (1881; 2 vols. with text 
 alone, 1885); Epistles of St. John, Greek 
 
 Text , Notes , and Essays (1883); Revelation 
 of the Father: Titles of the Lord (1884), etc. 
 
 Westminster Abbey. “ The early his¬ 
 tory of Westminster is that of the abbey, 
 still the most interesting of its public 
 buildings. In early times, that part of 
 Westminster which adjoins the Thames was 
 surrounded by a branch of the river, so as 
 to form an island called Thorney Island, 
 from its being covered with brushwood. 
 Here, on the site of the present abbey, 
 Sebert, king of the East-Saxons, is said, in 
 the seventh century, to have built a church. 
 It is supposed to have been replaced by an 
 abbey called Westminster, to distinguish it 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 958 ) 
 
 Wes 
 
 from the cathedral church of St. Paul’s, 
 called, originally, Eastminster. The first 
 edifice erected on the site, of which we have 
 any certain account, was one built of stone 
 by Edward the Confessor in 1065. The 
 Pyx house, a low apartment, no ft. long 
 by 30 ft. wide, vaulted and divided by a 
 certain range of eight plain pillars with 
 simple capitals, is nearly all that remains of 
 it. The principal parts of the existing 
 abbey were built by Henry III. In 1820 
 he erected a chapel dedicated to the Virgin, 
 and a quarter of a century later he took 
 down the old abbey of the Confessor, and 
 erected the existing choir and transepts, 
 and the Chapel of Edward the Confessor. 
 The remainder of the building was com¬ 
 pleted under the abbots, the western parts 
 of the nave and aisles having been erected 
 between 1340 and 1483. The W. front and 
 its great window were the work of Richard 
 III. and Henry VII. The latter pulled 
 down the Chapel to the Virgin, erected by 
 Henry III. at the E. end of the church, and 
 the chapel known as Henry Vll.’s Chapel. 
 This completed the interior of the abbey as 
 it now stands; the only important addition 
 made since then having been the upper 
 parts of the two western towers, which 
 were the work of Sir Christopher Wren. 
 The whole building forms across. Its ex¬ 
 treme length, including Henry Vll.’s 
 Chapel, is 511 ft.; its width across the tran¬ 
 septs is 203 feet. The width of the nave 
 and aisles is 79 ft.; of the choir, 38 ft.; and 
 of Henry Vll.’s Chapel, 70 ft. The height 
 of the roof is 102 ft., a loftiness unusual in 
 English churches. It is the interior of the 
 abbey which has at all times excited the 
 most enthusiastic admiration. The harmony 
 of its proportions, and the ‘ dim religious 
 light ’ of the lofty and long-drawn aisles, 
 leave on the mind impressions of grandeur 
 and solemnity which churches of greater 
 size fail to produce. The abbey was at one 
 time the bury-ing-place of the English kings, 
 and it has become a national honor to be 
 interred within its walls. It is crowded 
 with tombs and monuments. The chapel 
 of Edward the Confessor, at the E. end of 
 the choir, contains his shrine erected by 
 Henry III., the altar-tombs of Edward I., 
 Henry III., Henry V., and Edward III. 
 The canopy of that last mentioned deserves 
 special notice. It is considered to be one 
 of the greatest works in wood extant, a-nd 
 equal to anything in the best age of mediae¬ 
 val art. Against the altar-screen in this 
 part of the church stand the two coronation 
 chairs. One, the king’s chair,incloses the 
 stone brought by Edward I. from Scone, 
 on which the Scotch kings were crowned. 
 The other, the consort’s chair, was con¬ 
 structed for the coronation of Mary, wife 
 
 of William III. Both are still used for 
 coronations. Most of the English kings, 
 from the time of Henry VII., down to 
 that of George III., were buried in Henry 
 Vll.’s Chapel, and there, accordingly, are 
 the tombs of Queen Elizabeth and Mary 
 Queen of Scots. The most remarkable 
 monuments in other parts of the church 
 are those in the E. aisle of the south¬ 
 ern transept, known as ‘ Poets’ Corner,’ 
 where many of the most eminent British 
 poets have been buried. There monu¬ 
 ments are erected to Chaucer, Beaumont, 
 Drayton, Cowley, Dryden, Milton, Gray, 
 Prior, Shakespeare, Thomson, Gay, Gold¬ 
 smith, Addison, and Ben Jonson. In the 
 N. transept are the monuments of Pitt, Fox, 
 Chatham, Canning,and Wilberforce. Else¬ 
 where are the monuments of the great en¬ 
 gineers and inventors—Telford, Watt, and 
 Stephenson.”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. See 
 Dean Stanley: Memorials of Westminster 
 Abbey (London, 1867, 5th ed., 1882). 
 
 Westminster Assembly (1643-52), the 
 most important synod ever held in the Re¬ 
 formed churches. It was called together 
 by the famous Long Parliament, to form, 
 on a Calvinistic and Puritan basis, a creed 
 and system of church polity and worship 
 for England, Scotland, and Ireland. All 
 of the members were appointed by Parlia¬ 
 ment, and consisted of one hundred and 
 twenty-one English clergymen, five Scotch 
 commissioners, and thirty lay assessors, 
 ten of whom were peers, and twenty com¬ 
 moners. The body only had advisory 
 power, and its decisions were subject to 
 the ratification of Parliament. The as¬ 
 sembly was opened July 1, 1643, in West¬ 
 minster Abbey, when Dr. William Twisse 
 preached a sermon before the two Houses 
 of Parliament. The meetings were first 
 held in the Chapel of Henry VII., and after¬ 
 ward in the Jerusalem Chamber. Except 
 on Saturday and Sunday daily sessions 
 were held from 9 till 2, and once a month 
 it met with Parliament in a service of pub¬ 
 lic humiliation and prayer. An attempt 
 was made to revise the Thirty-nine Articles, 
 but this was not found feasible, and a new 
 confession of faith was prepared, together 
 with a directory of polity and worship. 
 (See following article). After completing 
 this work (1648) the assembly became an 
 executive body, and soon lost its impor¬ 
 tance. The last session was held March 25, 
 1652. The assembly never received the 
 recognition of the bishops, and it was pro¬ 
 hibited by the king. While it failed in its 
 purpose as far as England and Ireland were 
 concerned, and episcopacy, with the resto¬ 
 ration of the Stuart dynasty, was 'soon 
 dominant, its doctrinal and disciplinary 
 
Wes 
 
 ( 959 ) 
 
 Wha 
 
 standards have been accepted by the Pres¬ 
 byterian Churches of Scotland and Amer¬ 
 ica. The official manuscript records of the 
 Westminster Assembly, from 1643 to 1652, 
 were long supposed to have perished in 
 the London fire of 1666, but a few years 
 since they were discovered in Dr. Will¬ 
 iams’s library, London, and have since been 
 partly edited (Edinburgh, 1874). See 
 Mitchell: The Westminster A ssembly: Its His¬ 
 tory and Standards (London, 1883); Schaff: 
 Creeds of Christendotn , vol. i., pp. 725-811. 
 
 Westminster Standards. These related to 
 doctrine, discipline, and worship, and were 
 ratified by the Long Parliament, as report¬ 
 ed by the Westminster Assembly of Di¬ 
 vines, with few changes. They were set 
 aside in England after the restoration of 
 the Stuarts, but retained in Scotland and 
 in the Presbyterian churches of America. 
 The doctrinal standards, with some modi¬ 
 fications, were also accepted by the Inde¬ 
 pendents, or Congregationalists.in England 
 and New England. The Doctrinal Stand¬ 
 ards were: (1) The Westminster Confession 
 of Faith. —Its original title was, The Hum¬ 
 ble Advice of the Assembly of Divines, now, 
 by Authority of Parliament, sitting at West¬ 
 minster, concerning the Confession of Faith, 
 with the Quotations and Texts of Scripture 
 annexed. Presented by them lately to both 
 Houses of Parliament. This work was 
 completed, Dec. 4, 1646, and ratified, with a 
 few changes, by the Long Parliament, in 
 1648, under the title Articles of Religion. 
 It had been adopted the year previous 
 without change by the Church of Scotland, 
 and in this form it still continues to be 
 printed in Great Britain. 
 
 The American Presbyterian Churches 
 adopted the Westminster Confession with¬ 
 out alteration until after the Revolutionary 
 War, when it became necessary to change 
 the articles on church polity to adapt them 
 to the voluntary system brought about by 
 the separation of Church and State. (See 
 Schaff’s Creeds, vol. i., 806 sqq.) For doc¬ 
 trinal changes made in the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian Church see the article (Cum¬ 
 berland Presbyterian Church). (2) 
 Westminster Catechisms. —There are two of 
 these. The larger Catechism was for 
 ministers, and to be explained by them from 
 the pulpit; the shorter Catechism was for 
 the instruction of children. (See Cate¬ 
 chism.) 
 
 The Directory of Public Worship was 
 prepared during 1644, sanctioned by Par¬ 
 liament, Jan. 3, 1645, and approved by the 
 Scotch Assembly and Parliament in Feb., 
 1645. It was intended to take the place of 
 the Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 The Directory for Church Government 
 
 sets forth the principles of Presbyterian 
 church polity.- See Presbyterianism. 
 
 Westphalia, The Peace of, was signed 
 Oct. 14, 1648, and brought to a close the 
 Thirty Years’ War. One part of the con¬ 
 gress, consisting of deputies of the emper¬ 
 or, and of Sweden, and princes of the em¬ 
 pire, sat at Osnabruck, a city of Westphalia, 
 and completed its work, Aug. 8, 1648; the 
 other part, consisting of deputies of the 
 emperor, and of France and other foreign 
 powers, sat at Munster, and finished its 
 work, Sept. 17, and it was here that the 
 peace was signed. It confirmed the Peace 
 of Augsburg, and settled the relations be¬ 
 tween the Protestants and Roman Catholics 
 within the boundaries of the German Em¬ 
 pire. By its provisions full equality was 
 established between the Lutheran and Re¬ 
 formed Churches. 
 
 Wetstein, Johann Jakob, b. in Basel, 
 March 5, 1693; d. in Amsterdam, March 
 22, 1754. In 1720 he became assistant to 
 his father, who was pastor of St. Leonard’s 
 Church in Basel. In this relation he still 
 continued the study of the various manu¬ 
 scripts of the New Testament, in which he 
 very early took a deep interest. In con¬ 
 nection with a discussion regarding the 
 value and age of Codex E, which he did 
 not rate as high as Bengel and two Basel 
 professors who were then collating the 
 codices in the Basel Library, an unhappy 
 personal feud was engendered. He was 
 accused of Arian and Socinian views for 
 changes which he made in the textus recep- 
 tus, found guilty, and deposed May 13, 
 1730. The way opened to a professorship 
 in the Remonstrants’ College, at Amster¬ 
 dam, where he afterward made his home. 
 His fame rests upon his edition of the 
 Greek New Testament (1751-52), 2 vols. 
 He collated more manuscripts than any of 
 his predecessors, and introduced the pres¬ 
 ent mode of designating uncial manuscripts 
 by Roman capitals, and cursive by Arabic 
 figures. 
 
 Whately, Richard, D. D., archbishop 
 of Dublin; b. in London, Feb. 1, 1787; d. 
 in Dublin, Oct. 8, 1863. He was graduated 
 at Oxford, 1808, and elected fellow of Oriel 
 College, 1811. While here he published 
 his first work, Historic Doubts Relative to 
 Napoleon Bonaparte (1819). By a very 
 acute handling of unquestioned facts rela¬ 
 tive to Napoleon, he pretended to doubt 
 his very existence, and in this way showed 
 the absurdity of Hume’s argument against 
 the credibility of miracles in spite of any 
 evidence. In 1822 he was Bampton Lect¬ 
 urer, and took, for his subject, On the Use 
 
Whi 
 
 ( 960 ) 
 
 Whi 
 
 and Abuse of Party Feeling in Religion. In 
 1825 he was elected principal of St. Alban’s 
 Hail, Oxford, and in 1830 professor of 
 political economy. In 1825 he published 
 his essays On Some Peculiarities of the 
 Christian Religion , and in 1828 a series On 
 Some Difficulties in the Writings of St. 
 Paul. In this work he attempted to prove 
 that the doctrines of election, justification, 
 etc., as generally accepted, were not pre¬ 
 sented in accord with the views of St. Paul. 
 In 1830 appeared another series of essays, 
 The Errors of Romanism traced to their 
 Origin in Human Nature. His position as 
 a liberal thinker and theologian was such 
 that his appointment to the archbishopric 
 of Dublin, in 1831, was a great surprise. 
 In this position, however, he won the con¬ 
 fidence of both Protestants and Roman 
 Catholics by his fearless independence and 
 impartiality. Whately earnestly opposed 
 the Tractarian movement, and denied apos¬ 
 tolic succession and the authority of the 
 Church. His Elemejits of Rhetoric (1828) 
 have been widely used, and also his edition 
 of Bacon’s Essays (1856), with annotations. 
 See his Life and Correspondence , by his 
 daughter, Miss E. J. Whately (1866, 2 
 vols., popular edition, 1868, 1 vol.). 
 
 Whichcote, Benjamin, one of the most 
 prominent of the ‘ ‘ Cambridge Platonists; ” 
 b. at Stoke in Shropshire, March 11, 1609; 
 d. in 1683. He was educated at Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge, of which he became a 
 fellow, and was appointed one of the Uni¬ 
 versity preachers. In 1644 he was made pro¬ 
 vost of King’s College. He was a leader of 
 thought in the University, but at the Res¬ 
 toration was removed by order of the king, 
 not so much because of his Puritanism as 
 the fact that he had been appointed under 
 the Commonwealth. In 1662 he was pre¬ 
 sented with St. Ann’s, Blackfriars, London, 
 where he remained till 1666, when the 
 church was burned in the great fire of that 
 year. Two years later he became rector 
 of St. Lawrence Jewry, which he held till 
 his death. He was not a prolific writer, 
 but exerted a remarkable influence by his 
 sermons and speeches. Four volumes of 
 Discourses , a series of Moral and Religious 
 Aphorisms, and his Correspondence comprise 
 his published works. 
 
 Whiston, William, a prominent defend¬ 
 er of Arianism in England; b. at Norton, in 
 Leicestershire, Dec. 9, 1667; d. in London, 
 Aug. 22, 1752. He was graduated at Cam¬ 
 bridge, and after his ordination was chap¬ 
 lain of the bishop of Norwich. In 1698 he 
 became vicar of Lowestoft, Suffolk, and in 
 1703 was appointed successor of Sir Isaac 
 Newton as professor of mathematics at 
 
 Cambridge. Having avowed himself an 
 Arian, he was expelled from his professor¬ 
 ship in 1710, and his writings were con¬ 
 demned as heretical. The rest of his life 
 was spent in London. His chief works 
 were: Theory of the Earth (1755), contain¬ 
 ing some peculiar notions regarding the Del¬ 
 uge; Primitive Christianity Restored (1711— 
 12), 2 vols.; several scientific works, and a 
 translation of Josephus (1736), which has 
 passed through many editions. SeehisAA’- 
 moirs. Written by Himself (1749-50), 3 vols. 
 
 White Brethren, hermits who appeared 
 in the Alps, in Northern Italy, in the four¬ 
 teenth century. From their dress of white 
 linen, which covered all the face except the 
 eyes, and reached to their feet, they were 
 called “ White Brethren,” “ Albati,” or 
 “ Bianchi.” Under the leadership of a 
 priest, who called himself the prophet 
 Elias, they descended to the Italian plains 
 in 1399, and urged the people to follow 
 them in a crusade to regain the Holy Land 
 from the Turks. They are said to have 
 gathered an army of forty thousand per¬ 
 sons, and were marching from city to city 
 when Pope Boniface, fearing their strength, 
 sent a company of soldiers, who met the 
 pilgrims at Viterbo and dispersed them. 
 Their leader was put to death as a heretic 
 at Rome. 
 
 White, Henry Kirke, b. at Nottingham, 
 March 21, 1785. While an apprentice in a 
 lawyer’s office he gained sufficient education 
 to enter St. John’s College, Cambridge, 
 1804. It was his purpose to prepare for 
 the ministry, but his plans were premature¬ 
 ly cut short by death from consumption, 
 Oct. 19,1806. In 1802 he published a little 
 volume of poems, which attracted the at¬ 
 tention of Southey, some of which have 
 found a place in collections of hymns. 
 His Remains were published in 2 vols., by 
 Southey (1806). 
 
 White, William, D. D., often called 
 the “Father” of the American Episcopal 
 Church; b. in Philadelphia, March 24, 
 1747; d. there, July 17, 1836. He was 
 graduated at the College of Philadelphia 
 in 1765, and after studying theology sailed 
 for England in 1770 to receive orders. In 
 1772 he returned to Philadelphia, and en¬ 
 tered upon the duties of assistant minister 
 of Christ Church and St. Peter’s. At the 
 breaking out of the Revolutionary War he 
 earnestly espoused the cause of the colo¬ 
 nies, and was chosen chaplain to the Con¬ 
 tinental Congress in September, 1777. In 
 1779 he became rector of Christ Church, 
 Philadelphia. When the independence of 
 the United States was recognized, his 
 
Whi 
 
 ( 96i ) 
 
 Whi 
 
 counsel had great influence in the organi¬ 
 zation of the Church. Elected bishop of 
 Pennsylvania, Sept. 14, 1786, he sailed 
 for England, where he received consecra¬ 
 tion in Lambeth Palace, Feb. 4, 1787. 
 For nearly half a century he stood at the 
 head of the American Episcopal Church. 
 His principal published work is his Memoirs 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church (1830, 
 third ed., with an introduction and notes by 
 B. F. De Costa, D. D., 1880). 
 
 Whitefield, George, a great evangelist; 
 b. at Gloucester, Eng., Dec. 27, 1714; d. in 
 Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 30, 1770. The 
 son of an innkeeper, the influences about 
 him in early life were not helpful. Through 
 the care of his mother attention was given 
 to his education, and when a lad of twelve 
 years he was placed in the grammar-school 
 at Gloucester, where his ability as a speaker 
 was noticed. Before entering the University 
 at Oxford his mind had received deep re¬ 
 ligious impressions, and at Oxford he met 
 the Wesleys, and joined the famous “ Holy 
 Club.” He was the first among its mem¬ 
 bers to profess conversion. He was or¬ 
 dained in 1736, and very soon became 
 widely known as an eloquent pulpit orator. 
 In 1738 he spent several months in Georgia, 
 at the invitation of the Wesleys, but re¬ 
 turned to England the following year. His 
 relations with the Oxford Methodists, and 
 the emphasis which he placed upon the 
 doctrine of the “ new birth,” closed many 
 churches against him, but he preached 
 wherever he found an open door, and labor¬ 
 ed among the Moravians and other relig¬ 
 ious societies in London. In 1739, con¬ 
 nection with the Wesleys and Oxford 
 Methodists, he began to preach to congre¬ 
 gations gathered in the open air. Great 
 multitudes flocked to hear him. He visited 
 Wales and Scotland, and traveled through 
 every part of England. His arraignment 
 of the clergy as “ blind guides ” stirred up 
 a fierce controversy. Coming to America 
 the Episcopal churches were generally 
 closed against him, but other churches 
 gave him a welcome. He preached in the 
 leading places along the seaboard, on his 
 way to Georgia, to vast congregations. 
 Visiting New England, a great awakening 
 followed his labors. He crossed the ocean 
 no less than seven times, and both in 
 America and Great Britain he continued 
 his evangelistic tours with unremitting 
 zeal. Holding to Calvinistic views he 
 came into a sharp conflict of opinion with 
 John Wesley, but this did not sever their 
 relations of friendship. The name of 
 vVhitefield still stands as a synonym for the 
 most marvelous exhibitions of pulpit elo¬ 
 quence. His collected works, with Metnoir 
 
 by Dr. Gillies, were published in London 
 (1771-72), in 7 vols. See his Life, by Tyer- 
 man (London, 1876), in 2 vols. 
 
 Whitgift, John, D. D., archbishop of 
 Canterbury; b. at Great Grimsby, Lincoln¬ 
 shire, about 1530; d. at Lambeth, Feb. 29, 
 1604. He was educated at Cambridge 
 University; ordained priest, 1560; became 
 Lady Margaret professor of divinity, 1563; 
 regius professor of divinity, 1567; prebend¬ 
 ary of Ely, 1568; dean of Lincoln, 1568; 
 bishop of Worcester, 1577; and in 1583 was 
 made archbishop of Canterbury. He kept 
 in retirement during Mary’s reign, but at 
 the accession of Elizabeth he became an 
 active defender of the Church of England, 
 and opposed and persecuted the Puritans. 
 He engaged in a controversy with Thomas 
 Cartwright (<7. v. ), and insisted that the 
 clergy should subscribe to articles which 
 he knew the Puritan ministers would not 
 sign; and when they refused suspended 
 hundreds of them, and treated many with 
 great cruelty. The fact that he was liberal 
 in his expenditures for the Church, and 
 very earnest in his labors cannot excuse 
 his measures of severity and intolerance 
 against the Puritan party. His Works 
 were published by the Parker Society 
 (Cambridge, 1851-54), 3 vols. See Neale: 
 History of the Puritans; Hook: Lives of the 
 Archbishops of Canterbury. 
 
 Whitsunday, the common English name 
 for the Feast of Pentecost, celebrating the 
 gift of the Spirit and the foundation of the 
 Christian Church on earth. The deriva¬ 
 tion of the word has been the subject of 
 much dispute. Three solutions have been 
 offered, but there is a certain amount of 
 doubt about each of them. The most com¬ 
 mon is that the word was originally spelt 
 “White Sunday,” and was so called because 
 in the early Church the catechumens were 
 baptized on that day, and that their white 
 garments gave name to the festival. But 
 when it is noticed that the Prayer-Book 
 speaks of Whitsun Week, Whitsun Mon¬ 
 day, and not Whit Monday, this deriva¬ 
 tion hardly holds good. Others derive 
 it from the German Pfingsten—“ Pente¬ 
 cost,” and say that though some of the 
 links in the chain are missing, the word, 
 through various changes, has come to 
 Whitsunday. The other solution is sug¬ 
 gested by an old poem, probably written 
 - about the fourteenth century, in which the 
 writer evidently takes for granted that 
 Whit is a corruption of Wit or Wisdom — 
 
 “ This day Whitsonday is cald, 
 
 For wisdom and witsevene fald 
 Was goven to the Apostles as the day.” 
 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
Wic 
 
 ( 9 62 ) 
 
 Wic 
 
 Wichern, Johann Hf.inrich, D. D., the 
 founder of the Inner Mission ( q. v.)\ b. at 
 Hamburg, April 21, 1808; d. there, April 
 7, 1881. He studied theology at Gottingen 
 and Berlin, and on his return home inter¬ 
 ested himself in mission work among the 
 children in the worst section of the city of 
 Hamburg. From these labors developed 
 an institution which he called the “Rough 
 House ” ( Das Rauhe Haus ), opened Nov. 
 1, 1833, at Horn, a suburb of Hamburg. 
 It was a house of correction for juvenile 
 offenders, where the inmates received care¬ 
 ful instruction and were taught various 
 trades. Similar institutions sprang up 
 elsewhere, and in 1845 a “ Brotherhood” 
 was started to train teachers and helpers in 
 this line of service. In 1844 Wichern be¬ 
 gan the publication of his Fliegende Blatter 
 
 Flying Leaves ”), which aroused great 
 interest in behalf of the wretched and suf¬ 
 fering classes, and resulted in the founding 
 of the Inner Mission (q. v.). Wichern was 
 commissioned by the Prussian Govern¬ 
 ment, in 1851, to visit all the penal and re¬ 
 formatory institutions of the kingdom and 
 suggest improvements. In 1858 he found¬ 
 ed the Evangelische Johannisstift at Berlin, 
 on the plan of the Rauhe Haus. Honors 
 came to him from Church and State, and 
 his influence in behalf of philanthropic ser¬ 
 vice was both powerful and remarkable. 
 
 Wiclif," John, was born in Yorkshire, 
 which was so largely the cradle of the Pil¬ 
 grim movement, and whose sturdy sons 
 have won the title of the Yankees of Eng¬ 
 land. The date of his birth was about 1320. 
 This preceded, by long centuries, the Pil¬ 
 grim emigration, so he belongs to America 
 as fully as to the mother-country. 
 
 He appears to have found his way to 
 Oxford at about 1335. Here a noble spirit 
 like his would catch the inspiration of the 
 great names that were the heirlooms of the 
 University, such as Grosseteste and Roger 
 Bacon. Here, too, he would find books, 
 not cheap and plenty—for a Bible then cost 
 ^3, the equivalent of two hundred and 
 forty days’ wages, or three yoke of oxen 
 —but there were some books owned by 
 the colleges, and others let for hire. He 
 would also be stimulated by thousands of 
 other eager youth. 
 
 Of his next twenty-five years, history has 
 made little note, but in those years he ap¬ 
 plied himself to the learning of the age, 
 that is, the trivium and the quadrivium, the 
 noble castle “ Seven times encompassed 
 with lofty walls.” His attainments were 
 
 * The name is found spelled in twenty-eight different 
 ways. The spelling adopted in this article is that of 
 Prof. Lechler, whose biography of him is the standard 
 one. 
 
 so preeminent that he became, to quote 
 one of his enemies, “as a philosopher, 
 second to none, and as a scholar, incom¬ 
 parable.” During these years, too, no 
 doubt, he gained his astonishing familiar¬ 
 ity with the Bible, and his supreme love 
 and loyalty to its teaching. So that long 
 period of obscurity was most fruitful in 
 making him the man he was to be. 
 
 In 1361 we find him Master of Balliol 
 College, in Oxford. He had now entered 
 his beneficent career as a teacher, and it is 
 significant that his popular title was the 
 “ Evangelical Doctor.” 
 
 All his rare stores of logic and of learn¬ 
 ing were made tributary to the explanation 
 and enforcement of “God’s law;” and no 
 period of his life was probably more use¬ 
 ful than this quiet one, when from his 
 professor’s chair he molded so many choice 
 young minds. He was at the same time 
 village priest or pastor. Underneath his 
 scholar’s peaceful garb there' beat a sol¬ 
 dier’s heart of fire and persistence, and his 
 times soon afforded the opportunity for 
 these qualities to be shown in the patriot¬ 
 ic defence of his country against Rome. 
 In 1366 he denounced the pope’s claim 
 to tribute so effectively that the demand 
 was never repeated; and in 1374 he went 
 to the splendid city of Bruges, as ambas¬ 
 sador, to remonstrate against the assign¬ 
 ment of English Church livings by the 
 papal see to its favorites, whose sole con¬ 
 nection with their charges would often be 
 the gold that they extorted. 
 
 Wiclif’s life-work was now rapidly devel¬ 
 oping. He soon saw that the English 
 hierarchy had many of the traits that made 
 Rome intolerable, and in 1377, and again 
 in 1378, he was summoned before church 
 tribunals to answer for his attacks, but in 
 each case powerful friends protected him. 
 By 1381 we find him assailing the whole 
 body of ecclesiastics and religious orders 
 for their corruptions, and striking at the 
 root of sacerdotal pretensions, by denying 
 the doctrine of transubstantiation. 
 
 This last assault carried him far beyond 
 his age, to the position taken by Luther a 
 hundred and fifty years later; in conse¬ 
 quence, his nation, that had delighted to 
 support his previous demands for reform, 
 held its breath at his audacity, and his 
 great defender, John of Gaunt, commanded 
 him to hold his peace; and even his belov¬ 
 ed university silenced her most illustrious 
 son in the midst of one of his lectures, so 
 he quietly went down from his chair with 
 the simple word: “ Nevertheless, I think 
 the truth will conquer.” 
 
 Although his voice was no more heard 
 in Oxford, his activity and power were 
 vastly increased. He wrought with the 
 
Wic 
 
 ( 963 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 "builder’s trowel, no less than with the war¬ 
 rior’s sword, and in his last years his con¬ 
 structive labors were most conspicuous. 
 These may be divided into three classes: 
 The first and chief was the translation of the 
 whole Bible into the language of the peo¬ 
 ple. He is the father of our English Bible, 
 and it is remarkable to see at how many 
 points its latest revision returns to the first 
 translation. It shows what a welcome that 
 translation had, that in 1850 one hundred 
 and seventy manuscript copies of all, or a 
 part, were found, that had survived the 
 long and bitter war upon it in the fifteenth 
 century. His second constructive agency 
 was his “ poor priests,” or itinerant preach¬ 
 ers, whom he taught and sent forth every¬ 
 where, and who leavened England with 
 “Christ’s law.” A third agency of great 
 power was his English writings. In his 
 old age he turned from scholastic Latin to 
 the new tongue that was appearing in Eng¬ 
 land, and became—though this was but in¬ 
 cidental to his great purpose—the “ found¬ 
 er of English prose writing.” 
 
 Infirmities thickened upon him, and mar¬ 
 tyrdom continually threatened him, but his 
 activity as translator, author, and director 
 of his itinerants in these last years is in¬ 
 credible. The number of his works “ baffles 
 calculation.” It is a beautiful fact also, 
 that while directing this great evangelical 
 movement, he was,at the same time,ahum- 
 ble, faithful parish priest in the little vil¬ 
 lage of Lutterworth—the original, it is 
 thought, of Chaucer’s “ poure persoune 
 (parson) of a town.” 
 
 ‘ * But Christe’s lore, and his apostles twelve. 
 
 He taught, and first he follow’d it himselve.’* 
 
 While he was hearing mass* in his church, 
 Dec. 28, 1384, he received a final stroke of 
 paralysis, and was taken out by a little 
 door, in a chair that is still preserved in 
 the chancel. Three days later he died. 
 
 His influence lived on in court and cot¬ 
 tage. His Bible appears to have been the 
 companion of the queen, jgood Anne of 
 Bohemia, and the writer has seen, in the 
 British Museum, a copy of his Bible, with 
 illuminated borders, which bears the arms 
 of the Duke of Gloucester, uncle to the 
 king;onthe contrary, the rudeness of many 
 a transcription shows it to have been in¬ 
 tended for humble hands. In spite of per¬ 
 secution, the movement he had set in opera¬ 
 tion continued to “ work underground” in 
 England, until it burst out in the Reforma¬ 
 tion of the sixteenth century. Courtiers 
 and students carried his writings over to 
 Queen Anne’s native country, and they 
 there found even heartier acceptance than 
 
 * He could do this consistently with his hostility to 
 transubstantiation, for the service is older than the doc¬ 
 trine. 
 
 at home. John Huss caught his spirit, re¬ 
 peated his teachings, and died for his faith. 
 The influence of his character and writ¬ 
 ings, and, above all, his English Bible, 
 knows no limit of time or country. Al¬ 
 ready the quaint old prophecy, uttered up¬ 
 on the burning of his bones, and the cast¬ 
 ing of his ashes into the Avon in 1428, at 
 the order of Rome, has come to pass— 
 
 “ The Avon to the Severn runs, 
 
 The Severn to the sea, 
 
 And Wiclif’s dust shall spread abroad 
 Wide as the waters be.” 
 
 Selected Authorities , all in English. —R. 
 Vaughan’s Introduction to Wycliffe's Tracts 
 and Treatises —a delightful and loving tri¬ 
 bute; Lorimer’s Translation of John Wiclif 
 and his English Precursors —full, recent and 
 accurate (London Religious Tract Society 
 edition, the best); J. Loserth’s Wiclif ana 
 Huss; M. Burrow’s Wiclif s Place in His¬ 
 tory; F. F. Matthew’s booklet, entitled, 
 Life of John Wycliffe —a little gem ; Ar¬ 
 nold’s and Matthews' editions of his Eng¬ 
 lish writings; Forshalland Maddin’s edition 
 of his Bible. 
 
 Contemporary Writers. —Chaucer, Lang- 
 land, Froissart, Maundeville. 
 
 The Roman Catholic view of Wiclif 
 may be found in Lingard’s England , and 
 Alzog’s Church History. 
 
 J. L. Ewell. 
 
 Wil'berforce, William, “ b. at Hull, 
 Aug. 24, 1759; d. in London, July 29, 1833; 
 a distinguished philanthropist; chiefly cele¬ 
 brated for his efforts for the extinction of 
 slavery. He was the son of a Hull mer¬ 
 chant, and was educated at St. John’s Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge. By the death of his grand¬ 
 father and of an uncle he became the 
 possessor of a handsome fortune, and he en¬ 
 tered Parliament, as the representative of 
 his native town, when he had scarcely 
 completed his twenty-first year. In 1784 
 he became member for the county of York, 
 and he held this position till 1812, when he 
 became member for Bramber. In 1789 he 
 first proposed in the House of Commons 
 the abolition of the slave trade, and, with 
 the aid of Charles James Fox, this measure 
 was carried in 1806. He afterward devoted 
 himself to an agitation for the extinction of 
 slavery, and this measure also he lived to 
 see all but carried, the bill being finally 
 passed a few days after his death. In 1797 
 he published a Practical View of Christian¬ 
 ity , which has gone through innumerable 
 editions; and all through life he gave his 
 warmest sympathy to efforts for the spread 
 of Christianity at home and abroad. He 
 was buried in Westminster Abbey, where 
 a statue is erected to his memory. The 
 Life of Wilberforce was written by his sons, 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 04 ) 
 
 Wil 
 
 one of whom, Samuel Wilberforce (b. 
 1S05; d. July 19, 1873), was bishop of Ox¬ 
 ford from 1845, and bishop of Winchester 
 from 1S69.”—Cassell: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Wilderness, this term, as used in the 
 Bible, does not necessarily mean a waste 
 or desert land, but rather portions of coun¬ 
 try under cultivation, and affording rich 
 and abundant pasturage. (Josh. xv. 61; Isa. 
 xlii. 11.) 
 
 Wilderness of the Wandering. The 
 following is an itinerary of the journeyings 
 of the Israelites from Egypt to their settle¬ 
 ment in Canaan: 
 
 Rameses (from) near Port Said, to Succoth (?). 
 Southward. 
 
 To the borders of the Wilderness of Egypt. 
 Southward. 
 
 Pi-hahiroth (to), between Migdol (Suez) and the 
 (Red) Sea. Eastzuard. 
 
 Through the Red Sea to the “Wells of 
 Moses.” 
 
 Etham (Wilderness of). 
 
 Shur (Wilderness of). Three days without water. 
 Marah. Bitter water sweetened. Southward. 
 
 Elim. Twelve wells, seventy palm-trees. Southward. 
 Sin (Wilderness of). Quails and manna sent. East¬ 
 ward. 
 
 Rephidim. Water from the rock of Horeb. Eastward. 
 
 Battle of Rephidim. 
 
 Massah and Meribah. 
 
 Altar ofjehovah-nissi. 
 
 Sinai, in the third month. Northward. 
 
 Sinai (from), through the Wilderness of Paran or Zin. 
 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Taberah (“burning”). Murmurings at fatigue; pun¬ 
 ishment by fire; three days' journey. 
 Kibroth-hattaavah (“graves of lust ”). Murmurings 
 for flesh; flock of quails, and plague. 
 
 Council of seventy elders. 
 
 Hazeroth. Sedition of Aaron and Miriam, and leprosy 
 of the latter. 
 
 Kadesh-barnea. Twelve spies sent to Canaan. 
 
 Ten spies destroyed; forty years’ wandering de¬ 
 clared; defeat of the Israelites. 
 
 Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. 
 
 Rebellion of the congregation (14,700 die of 
 plague). 
 
 Forty Years’ Wanderings in the Wilderness of 
 Zin. 
 
 Kadesh-barnea (return to). Water from rock at Mer¬ 
 ibah; the sin of Moses and Aaron. 
 
 Death of Miriam. 
 
 Refusal of passage through Edom. 
 
 Mount Hor (in Moab). Death of Aaron. 
 
 Hormah (“ utter destruction ”). Defeat of Canaanites. 
 Edom (circuit of borders of). Crossing Zared (/?.), 
 through Moabites’ territory, to Amon ( R.). 
 
 Plague of fiery serpents. 
 
 Free passage refused by Sihon; his defeat. 
 
 Edrei. Similar refusal by Og, king of Bashan; his de¬ 
 feat. 
 
 These two victories gave to Israel possession of 
 the whole country E. of Jordan, from the River 
 Arnon (which falls into the Dead Sea) to Mount 
 Hermon. 
 
 Shittim. Alliance of Moabites, Ammonites, and Mid- 
 ianites, under Balak, against Israel. Balaam’s 
 fruitless attempt to curse Israel. Fornication 
 of Israel, and defection to worship of Baal. 
 24,000 slain by a plague. Zeal of Phinehas. 
 Defeat of Midian; Balaam slain. 
 
 Moab (plains of). Review of Israelite army, 625,030 
 males above twenty years old (b. c. 1451). Book 
 of the Wars of the Lord. 
 
 Repetition and confirmation of the Law by 
 Moses, to the new generation of Israel. Moses' 
 view of Canaan from Pisgah. His death. 
 Jordan (crossing the). 
 
 Gilgal (encampment at). Circumcision. 
 
 Jericho (fall of). March on Ai. 
 
 Ai (its capture). Achan’s sin. 
 
 Shechem. The whole congregation (half on Mount 
 Ebal, half on Mount Gerizim) swear to the 
 Covenant, in presence of the ark. The Law 
 written on twelve stones on Ebal; the cursings 
 read from the same mountain, and the bless¬ 
 ings from Gerizim. 
 
 Gilgal (return to). Treaty with the Gibeonites. 
 Gibeon (march to relief of). 
 
 Beth-horon. Defeat of Adoni-zedek and four other 
 kings. 
 
 Conquest of Southern Canaan. 
 
 Merom. Defeat of Northern Canaanite confederacy. 
 Shiloh. Settlement of the twelve tribes in their pos¬ 
 sessions. 
 
 See E. H. Palmer: Desert of the Exodus; 
 Geikie: Hours -with the Bible. 
 
 Will, that faculty of the soul by which 
 it chooses or refuses anything which is 
 offered to it. It is therefore distinct from 
 the understanding. “ I see and approve 
 the better things,” said the heathen moral¬ 
 ist, “ and I follow the worse.” Herein he 
 confessed that his will was not in accord 
 with his intellectual faculties. Nor is the 
 will synonymous with the desires and ap¬ 
 petites. These may be spontaneous and 
 either good or bad, but other motives act¬ 
 ing on the will may lead it to resist them. 
 That the will is free is implied in the very 
 term, “for if a man acts in any given 
 manner because he is forced, it is no longer 
 an action of the will.” The will, indeed, 
 is finite, because man himself is a finite 
 being, but within the extent of its capacity 
 it is, and must be, able to choose. We 
 may put it broadly thus: According to the 
 Roman Catholic view, man lost control of 
 his will by sin, and recovers it by super¬ 
 natural grace conveyed in the sacraments. 
 The Reformers of the sixteenth century, 
 following Augustine, held that, since the 
 Fall, man is totally depraved, and can do 
 no spiritual good save through the special 
 grace of God, given according to God’s 
 sovereign will. 
 
 The tendency of modern materialistic 
 philosophy is towards what is called De¬ 
 terminism (q. v.) y the belief that the will 
 depends, like the physical constitution, up¬ 
 on a chain of causes, so that all future 
 volition might be predicted by any one 
 who knew all the present facts. But this 
 is, in fact, to blot out the soul from exist¬ 
 ence, and repeat the sinful cry which the 
 prophets denounced, “ We are delivered to 
 do these abominations.” In opposition to 
 it is the Christian belief that we are placed 
 in the world by the Creator for the very 
 
!s£a§i™r ao,„ ^ 
 
 °Wm 
 
 
 
 
 f/ltu, . .. 1 U V f 
 
 1 IIV."*'"' •>••.»> 
 
 'f/t IM«\V'< 
 
 
 
 «»•nili*"'' 
 
 
 
 ^ i ' *• % 
 
 
 •<»H . V ,1 
 
 V'rtll>l»lllliX, 
 
 
 ^ Vffisj 
 
 
 
 
 ( 1 '}}.'", 
 
 %i<“«iift' 
 
 MimlmiMm 
 
 $ It 
 
 Ik 
 
 VO* -■' ' i. 
 
 mm 
 
 Gsm&m 
 
 Mw 4 ^ 0 ^ 
 
 ( 9^5 ) 
 
Wil 
 
 (966) 
 
 Wil 
 
 purpose of fighting against the sin which 
 doth most easily beset us, and of being 
 conquerors by his grace. Another form of 
 determinism is very different, that of Jon¬ 
 athan Edwards, who dwells upon the 
 power of habits to enfeeble and even des¬ 
 troy the will. This is the determinism of 
 character. But neither does this fix the 
 destiny of a human soul. The grace of 
 God is offered to apostates and reprobates, 
 for the very purpose of restoring the en¬ 
 feebled and powerless will. The same 
 voice which cried to the paralytic, “ Rise, 
 take up thy bed and walk,” is saying to us, 
 when we are bound and enslaved by sin, 
 “Arise and be free; shake thyself from the 
 dust.” The work of the Holy Ghost, and 
 the grace of Christian ordinances are per¬ 
 petual miracles, a continual work of res¬ 
 toration to those who believe, and have 
 faith to be healed.—Benham: Did. of Re¬ 
 ligion. 
 
 Williams, John, D. D., LL. D., Episco¬ 
 palian, bishop of Connecticut; b. at Deer¬ 
 field, Mass., Aug. 30, 1817; was graduated 
 at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., 1835; 
 tutor in the college, 1837-40; assistant in 
 Christ Church, Middletown, Conn., 1841- 
 42; rector of St. George’s, Schenectady, 
 N. Y., 1842-48; president of Trinity Col¬ 
 lege, 1S48-53; assistant bishop of Connect¬ 
 icut, 1851-65; bishop since 1865. He is 
 the author of: Ancient Hymns of Holy 
 Church (1845); Thoughts on the Gospel Mir¬ 
 acles (1848); The English Reformation (Pad- 
 dock Lectures, 1881); The World’s Witness 
 to Jesus Christ (Bedell Lectures, 1882). 
 
 Williams, Roger, the founder of the col¬ 
 ony of Rhode Island. There is a singular 
 lack of definite information regarding his 
 early life. He was b. about 1600; d. April, 
 1683, at Providence, R. I. The place of 
 his birth has been claimed both for Wales 
 and Cornwall, and his university course 
 was probably pursued at Pembroke Col¬ 
 lege, Cambridge. He was admitted to or¬ 
 ders in the Established Church, but soon 
 took an attitude of strong opposition against 
 its organization and ceremonies. He sailed 
 for America/arriving in Boston, February, 
 1631. His services were at once sought 
 after by the church in Boston, but he de¬ 
 clined to accept the position of teacher, be¬ 
 cause they did not take as strong ground as 
 he deemed necessary against the national 
 church. He then went to Salem, where he 
 was asked to become teacher. The author¬ 
 ities in Boston were very much displeased 
 that the church in Salem should have called 
 him as their teacher, without advising with 
 them. The result of these differences was, 
 that Williams withdrew to Plymouth, where 
 
 he remained for two years, acting as an as¬ 
 sistant minister. Governor Bradford bears 
 testimony that he was “a man godly and 
 zealous;” at the same time intimating that 
 his views did not always meet the approval 
 of those about him. In 1633 he returned 
 to Salem with some of the Plymouth people 
 who were in sympathy with him, and after 
 acting as assistant, in 1634 was made pastor 
 of the church. He appears to have won 
 the love and esteem of his people, but his 
 attitude in regard to matters of church and 
 state aroused the hostility of the authori¬ 
 ties of the colony, and he was cited again 
 and again to appear before the General 
 Court. In 1635 it was “ordered that the said 
 Mr. Williams shall depart out of this juris¬ 
 diction within six weeks now next ensuing.” 
 He asked permission to remain at Salem 
 until the following spring, and this was 
 granted; but as he continued to express his 
 obnoxious views, an officer was sent, in 
 January, to apprehend him and put him on 
 shipboard to be sent back to England; but 
 before the officer reached Salem, Williams 
 had departed for parts unknown. What¬ 
 ever may be said in regard to the merits of 
 this controversy, there are unhappy rev¬ 
 elations on both sides, of the perversity 
 and weakness of human nature, when good 
 and honest men come into sharp conflict of 
 opinion. Williams stood for the doctrine 
 that the civil magistrate had no right to 
 inflict punishment for purely religious er¬ 
 ror, and for this he deserves honor and 
 praise. Had he expressed no other views 
 antagonistic to those of the General Court 
 of Massachusetts, it is quite possible he 
 might have remained unmolested. 
 
 After leaving Salem, Williams, with four 
 companions, spent a few weeks at Seekonk, 
 but finding that it was within the jurisdic¬ 
 tion of the Plymouth Colony, they pressed 
 further on into the wilderness, and made 
 a settlement, which they called “ Provi¬ 
 dence.” In 1639 Williams received baptism 
 by immersion, and at the same time bap¬ 
 tized several others. This was the origin 
 of the First Baptist Church in Providence. 
 Williams was connected with this society 
 for only a short time, as he was dissatis¬ 
 fied with his baptism, as not coming down 
 from the apostles. After his withdrawal 
 he henceforth remained outside all ecclesi¬ 
 astical organizations. In 1643 he sailed for 
 England, and was successful in procuring 
 a charter for the Providence and Rhode 
 Island colonists. The remainder of his 
 long life was spent in seeking to advance 
 their interests. Roger Williams was a man 
 of a heroic type of character, and enjoyed 
 the friendship of Cromwell, Milton, Vane 
 and other champions of religious and civil 
 liberty. Most of his writings have been 
 
Wil 
 
 ( 07 ) 
 
 Win 
 
 republished by the Narragansett Club, 
 Providence. See Lives, by J. D. Knowles 
 (1834); W. Gammell(1845); R. Elton(i853); 
 Z. A. Mudge (1871); Arnold: History of 
 Rhode Island (1859-60), 2 vols.; H. M. 
 Dexter: As to Roger Williams , and his 
 Banishment frotn the Massachusetts Planta¬ 
 tion (1876). 
 
 Williams, William R., LL. D., S. T. D., 
 a learned and eloquent Baptist minister; 
 b. in New York City, Oct. 14, 1804; d. 
 there, April 1, 1885. He was graduated 
 at Columbia College in 1822, and first stud¬ 
 ied for the bar. After his conversion he 
 abandoned the law and entered the Baptist 
 ministry. From 1832 till his death he was 
 pastor of the Amity Church in New York 
 City. Among his published works are: 
 Miscellanies (N. Y., 1850; 3d ed., i860); 
 Religious Progress: Discourses on the De¬ 
 velopment of Christian Character (1850); 
 Lectures on the Lord's Prayer (1851; new 
 ed., 1878); Eras and Characters of History 
 (1882). 
 
 Willson, James Renwick, D. D., Reform¬ 
 ed Presbyterian; b. near Pittsburg, Penn., 
 April 9, 1780; d. at Cincinnati, O., Sept. 
 29, 1853. He was graduated at Jefferson 
 College, Pennsylvania, 1806 ; licensed to 
 preach, 1807; teacher at Bedford, Penn., 
 1806-1815 ; in Philadelphia, 1815-1817 ; 
 pastor of churches at Newburgh and Col- 
 denham, N. Y., 1817-30; pastor at Albany, 
 1830-40; professor in the theological sem¬ 
 inary of his denomination at Allegheny, 
 Penn., 1840-45, and after its removal to 
 Cincinnati, 1845-51, when he retired from 
 active service. He was an able and elo¬ 
 quent preacher, and a leader in the coun¬ 
 cils of his church. He was editor of The 
 Evangelical Witness (1822-26), and for a 
 short time of The Christian Statesman and 
 The Albany Quarterly. He published An 
 Historical Sketch of Opinions on the Atone¬ 
 ment (1817). 
 
 Wilson, John, an eminent missionary to 
 India; b. near Lander, in Scotland, Dec. 
 11, 1804; d. in Bombay, Dec. 1, 1875. He 
 was educated at the University of Edin¬ 
 burgh, and went as missionary to India in 
 the service of the Scottish Missionary So¬ 
 ciety. He spent his life in Bombay, and 
 as the head of the mission college in that 
 city he gained a commanding influence. 
 His counsel was sought by the British 
 authorities, and in many directions his life 
 was eminently useful. See his Life , by 
 George Smith, LL. D. (Edinburgh, 1870). 
 
 Wilson, Thomas, bishop of Sodor and 
 Man. ; b. at Burton, Cheshire, Dec. 20, 
 
 1663; d. on the Isle of Man, March 7, 1755. 
 He was educated at Trinity College, Dub¬ 
 lin, and became curate of Newchurch, Ken¬ 
 yon, Eng., 1686, and in 1697 was appointed 
 bishop of Sodor and Man. Through his 
 earnest labors a great change for the bet¬ 
 ter was brought about in his diocese. He 
 wrote a few devotional works that have 
 taken high rank. His earnest piety and 
 fervent missionary spirit gave him noble 
 distinction as a model bishop and a saintly 
 man. The best edition of his works is by 
 Rev. John Keble (Oxford, 1847-52, 7 vols., 
 new ed., with Life , 1863, 2 vols.). 
 
 Wine. One of the most important social 
 movements of the present century is that 
 of abstinence from intoxicating drinks. 
 But total abstainers comprise two classes, 
 who take very divergent lines. The one 
 side holds that wine, though lawful, is not 
 expedient, in the face of the terrible evils 
 which afflict modern society through strong 
 drink. These abstainers take the pledge 
 of total abstinence as an example to others, 
 following the example of St. Paul, who 
 said that he would rather not eat meat at 
 all than cause his brother to offend. But 
 the other class of abstainers maintain that 
 wine is an evil in itself, that it is a sin to 
 drink it, as it is to indulge in any other for¬ 
 bidden pleasure. 
 
 It is manifest that they who hold this 
 view must also hold that the wines which 
 our Lord created at Cana and which he 
 used at the Last Supper were non-alcoholic, 
 were, in fact, unfermented liquor, and not 
 what we commonly know as “ wine.” It 
 is quite conceivable that though Christ 
 may have given wine which would intox¬ 
 icate when used in excess, it may be desir¬ 
 able under present conditions to forego the 
 right to drink such wine, just as St. Paul 
 recommends abstention from marriage un¬ 
 der certain circumstances. (1 Cor. vii.) 
 But it is impossible to believe that Christ 
 gave what is, in its very nature, an evil 
 thing. Accordingly, those who hold the 
 essential evil of all intoxicating drinks ex¬ 
 pound the various passages in which wine 
 is commended in Scripture as referring to 
 unfermented liquors. 
 
 The commonest Hebrew word of the Old 
 Testament, which is rendered “ wine,” is 
 Yayin, and it is derived from a word sig¬ 
 nifying “ to ferment.” It is used for intox¬ 
 icating drinks in Gen. ix. 21; xix. 34; 2 
 Sam. xiii. 28, and many other places. It 
 is spoken of with implied commendation in 
 Gen. xiv. 18; Num. vi. 20; Psa. civ. 15; 
 Deut. xiv. 26, etc. Its evil use is con¬ 
 demned in Prov. xx. i;xxiii. 31; Isa. v. 22, 
 etc. Another word is tirosh , from a root 
 signifying “ to possess,” and so called. 
 
Win 
 
 ( 968 ) 
 
 Wis 
 
 says Gesenius, “ because it gets possession 
 •of the brain, and inebriates.” This is the 
 •word used in Gen. xxvii. 28, 37; Deut. vii. 
 13, etc. 
 
 In the New Testament the commonest 
 word is oinos , a word closely connected 
 with the English equivalent, “ wine.” This 
 is the word used in John ii. 9, and that it 
 was fermented and intoxicating is shown 
 by reference to Mark ii. 22; Eph. v. 18, 
 where the same word is used. Another 
 Avord, gleukos , “ sweet wine,” is also used 
 in Acts ii. 13 of intoxicating drink. The 
 argument which is sometimes brought for- 
 Avard, that the wine used at the Last Supper 
 was unfermented, because the Jews at that 
 season rejected all things leavened, fails 
 from the fact that the Jews have never 
 been in the habit of putting away wine, 
 though at the Passover season they are 
 most rigid in abstaining from the taste or 
 touch of any drink into which grain has 
 entered, and to use only the fermented 
 juice of the grape, prepared by their own 
 hands. 
 
 On these grounds it is very strongly con¬ 
 tended by strict rubricians that the use of 
 what is called “ Unfermented Wine ” in the 
 Holy Communion is altogether inadmis¬ 
 sible. as being contrary to the use of the 
 Avhole Church from the beginning, and 
 that such matter is not in the scriptural 
 sense wine at all. But there is no reason 
 to be urged against those abstainers, who, 
 regarding abstinence in common life as in 
 the highest sense expedient, desire also to 
 keep the Holy Communion, as far as may 
 be, free from that which may intoxicate, 
 and therefore use a wine which, though 
 fermented, and therefore genuine wine, 
 contains but little alcoholic strength.— 
 Benham: Did. of Religion. 
 
 Winebrennerians, or “ Church of God,” 
 is the name of a Baptist denomination, 
 founded by Rev. John Winebrenner, who 
 was settled in 1820 as pastor of the German 
 Reformed Church at Harrisburg, Penn. A 
 remarkable revival followed his labors, 
 which was in many ways opposed by mem¬ 
 bers and ministers of the synod. This 
 state of affairs continued for five years, 
 when Mr. Winebrenner and his people 
 separated from the German Reformed 
 ‘Church, and formed an independent con¬ 
 gregation. Revh^als broke out in the sur¬ 
 rounding towns, and new churches were 
 organized. In 1830 the ministers of these 
 churches organized themselves in a body 
 called “ The Church of God,” and appoint¬ 
 ed Mr. Winebrenner speaker of the con¬ 
 ference. This body meets annually, and 
 fourteen other conferences have since been 
 organized, besides a general eldership that 
 
 meets triennially. They accept the Script¬ 
 ures alone as the rule of faith and prac¬ 
 tice, and recognize immersion of believers 
 as the only form of baptism. The Lord’s 
 Supper, they hold, should be “adminis¬ 
 tered to Christians only, in a sitting post¬ 
 ure, and always in the evening.” They 
 practise feet-washing as a religious ordi¬ 
 nance. Their ministry is itinerant, and the 
 appointments are made by the eldership in 
 conference. The Church has a publishing 
 house at Harrisburg, and a college at Find¬ 
 lay, O. They reported in 1890: 525 church¬ 
 es, 491 ministers, and 33,000 communi¬ 
 cants. 
 
 Winer ( wee'ner ), George Benedikt, an 
 eminent biblical scholar; b. at Leipzig, 
 April 13, 1789; d. there, May 12, 1858. 
 He was educated at Leipzig, where he be¬ 
 came extraordinary professor, 1819; called 
 to Erlangen as ordinary professor, 1823; 
 returned to Leipzig, 1832, and filled the 
 same position there until his death. His 
 fame rests upon a Bible Dictionary ( Bib - 
 lisches Realwo'rterbuch) (1820, 1 vol.; 3d 
 ed., 1847, 2 vols.). A Grammar of the Chal¬ 
 dee Language , as contained in the Bible and 
 the Targu 77 is (1824; Eng. trans. by Pro¬ 
 fessor H. B. Hackett, Andover, 1845); A 
 Grammar of New Testa 77 ie 7 it Greek (1822; 
 Eng. trans. from the 7th ed., by Rev. J. 
 H. Thayer, Andover, 1869). 
 
 Wines, Enoch Cobb, D. D., LL. D., b. 
 at Hanover, N. J., Feb. 17, 1806; d. at 
 Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 10, 1879. He was 
 graduated at Middlebury College, 1827; 
 and acted as chaplain in the navy from 
 1829 till 1831. He taught and preached in 
 several places until 1854, when he became 
 professor of ancient languages in Wash¬ 
 ington College, Pennsylvania, and in 1859 
 president of the City University, St. Louis. 
 In 1862 he entered upon his labors in con¬ 
 nection with prison reform. Both in Eu¬ 
 rope and this country he accomplished a 
 great Avork in this direction. He Avrote 
 many official reports of interest, and The 
 State of Prisoris a 7 id Child-savmg Institutions 
 Throughout the World ( 1880). 
 
 Winfrid. See Boniface. 
 
 Wisdom of Solomon. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal and arch¬ 
 bishop of Westminster; b. in Seville, 
 Spain, Aug. 2, 1802; d. in London, Feb. 
 16, 1865. Educated in England and at 
 Rome, he Avas ordained to the priesthood, 
 1S26, and appointed professor of Oriental 
 languages at the Roman University, and 
 vice-rector of the English College, 1827, and 
 
Wis 
 
 ( 9^9 ) 
 
 Wol 
 
 rector the following year. Returning to 
 England in 1835 he was recognized as a 
 preacher of remarkable power. In 1840 
 he was made bishop of Melipotamus and 
 president of St. Mary’s College, Oscott, 
 and at the restoration of the Roman Cath¬ 
 olic hierarchy in England, Sept. 29, 1850, 
 he was made cardinal and archbishop of 
 Westminster. He published: Twelve Lect¬ 
 ures on the Connection between Science and 
 Revealed Religion , delivered in Rome (1836), 
 2 vols.; Letters on the Principles , Doctrines 
 and Practices of the Catholic Church (1836); 
 j Fabiola, a Tale of the Catacombs (1855); 
 Recollections of the Last Four Popes , and of 
 Rome in their Ti??ies (1858); Daily Medita¬ 
 tion ( 1868). His Works have been publish¬ 
 ed in New York, 14 vols. 
 
 Wishart, George, a famous Scottish 
 martyr; b. in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century; d. at the stake, March 1, 1546. 
 In 1538, while master of the grammar- 
 school at Montrose, he was summoned by 
 John Hepburn, bishop of Brechin, for 
 teaching his scholars the Greek New Testa¬ 
 ment, and fled to England to save his life. 
 In 1539 he was arrested at Bristol for 
 preaching against the worship of the Vir¬ 
 gin Mary, and compelled to make a public 
 recantation. From 1539 to I 543 he a P* 
 pears to have lived on the Continent. Re¬ 
 turning to England he resided for a time at 
 Cambridge. About 1545 he ventured back 
 to Scotland, where he engaged in evangel¬ 
 istic labors. Among his converts was John 
 Knox. Arrested by the emissaries of 
 Cardinal Beaton, he refused to recant, and 
 suffered martyrdom at St. Andrews. See 
 Fox’s Book of Martyrs. 
 
 Wishart, or Wiseheart, George, a 
 prominent Scottish bishop of the Restora¬ 
 tion period; b. in 1609; d. in 1671. He 
 was educated at the University of Edin¬ 
 burgh, and became a minister of St. An¬ 
 drews, where he remained until 1639, when 
 he was deposed for refusing to sign the 
 covenant. His attachment to Charles I. 
 and episcopacy cost him much persecution. 
 After the fall of Montrose, whose fortunes 
 he had followed since 1645, he became 
 chaplain to Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia, 
 and sister of Charles I. At the Restora¬ 
 tion he was appointed rector of Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne, and in 1662 made bishop of 
 Edinburgh. The pictures of his character 
 as given by Presbyterians and Episcopa¬ 
 lians, are very different. He wrote a his¬ 
 tory of the campaign in Scotland, in which 
 his patron, the Marquis of Montrose, took 
 so active a part. 
 
 Witchcraft “ means the production of an 
 
 effect by means of spirit-powers, super¬ 
 natural and yet subordinate, and presup¬ 
 poses belief in the existence of such pow¬ 
 ers, and in the existence of a science 
 (magic) by which they can be controlled.” 
 — Henke. Witchcraft was condemned by 
 the Mosaic law. (Deut. xviii. 10.) In the 
 Middle Ages it was treated by the Church 
 as a kind of heresy, and punished through 
 the Inquisition. The very efforts made to* 
 suppress the mania seemed only to increase 
 its prevalence. It raged with violence in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and 
 continued through the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries. The early history 
 of the first New England colonies contain 
 sad pictures of the results of this fearful 
 mania. During its height in 1692 at Salem, 
 Mass., nineteen persons were hanged. The 
 English laws against witchcraft were re¬ 
 pealed in 1736, and the last witch con¬ 
 demned in Prussia was tried and executed 
 in 1796. As late as 1881 a peasant com¬ 
 munity in Russia tried and burned a witch. 
 See H. Williams: The Superstitions of 
 Witchcraft (London, 1865); Chas. W. Up- 
 ham: Salem Witchcraft (1867), 2 vols. 
 
 Wolf, Edmund Jacob, D. D. (Franklin 
 and Marshall College,- Lancaster, Penn., 
 1876), Lutheran, General Synod; b. near 
 Rebersburg, Centre County, Penn., Dec. 
 8, 1840; was graduated at Pennsylvania 
 College, Gettysburg, Penn., 1863; studied 
 theology at Gettysburg, Tubingen, and 
 Erlangen; entered the pastorate in 1866, 
 and in 1873 was called from the Second 
 English Lutheran Church, Baltimore, Md., 
 to the professorship of Church history and 
 New Testament exegesis in the Theologi¬ 
 cal Seminary at Gettysburg, Penn. He has 
 been a prolific contributor to the religious 
 press, and since 1880 associate editor of 
 The Lutheran Quarterly and the Lutheran 
 Evangelist. Besides numerous published 
 sermons and addresses he is the author of: 
 The Church's Future (1882); The Dra??ia of 
 Providence on the Eve of the Reformation 
 (1884); Ltitherans in America (N. Y., 1889). 
 
 Wolfenbiittel Fragments, the name given 
 to a deistical work, of which Lessing began 
 to publish fragments in 1774. It was not 
 until the publication of the fourth install¬ 
 ment in 1777 that general attention was 
 called to the character of the work. In 
 1778 Lessing published a new fragment in 
 an independent book, which at once lost 
 him the privilege of publishing anything 
 without the permit of the royal censor. 
 This action aroused a bitter controversy. 
 Some portions of the fragments which 
 Lessing had in his possession at his death, 
 but had not published, appeared in 1787. 
 
Wol 
 
 ( 970 ) 
 
 Worn 
 
 The entire work has been frequently re¬ 
 printed. The secret of the authorship of 
 the six fragments was long kept, but there 
 is now no doubt but that they were written 
 by Reimarus (q. v.). 
 
 Wolsey, Thomas, a cardinal of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, and one of the 
 most eminent statesmen of the time of 
 Henry VIII.; b. at Ipswich, 1471; d. at 
 Leicester, Nov. 29,1530. He was graduated 
 at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was 
 early introduced to court, where he gained 
 the favor of Henry VII., who in 1508 made 
 him dean of Lincoln. On the accession of 
 Henry VIII. he became the king’s Almon¬ 
 er, and received other preferments. In 1515 
 he was consecrated archbishop of York, 
 and not long after appointed Lord Chancel¬ 
 lor and Prime Minister. In the following 
 year he was made cardinal by Pope Leo X. 
 His influence was great, and his immense 
 revenues enabled him to live in a state of 
 pride and splendor. In 1529 he was ap¬ 
 pointed, on behalf of Pope Clement VII., to 
 inquire into the validity of the king’s mar¬ 
 riage with Queen Catherine. The inquiry 
 ended in a postponement, which aroused 
 the anger of Henry. Wolsey was deprived 
 of the Great Seal, and allowed to retire to 
 his diocese of York. In the following 
 year (Nov. 4, 1530) he was arrested on a 
 charge of high treason, but while on the 
 way to London he sickened, and died in 
 the monastery of Leicester. 
 
 During his last illness he is reported to 
 have said: “If I had served God as 
 diligently as I have done the king, he 
 would not have given me over in my gray 
 hairs. But this is the just reward that I 
 must receive for my diligent pains and 
 studies that I have had to do him service, 
 not regarding my service to God, but only 
 to satisfy his pleasure.” 
 
 Wolsey was a very able statesman, a 
 patron of learning, an astute ecclesiast, 
 proud and ambitious. His character has 
 been very often and differently interpreted. 
 See Froude: History of England fro?n the 
 Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth , 
 vol. i. 
 
 Woman. The change effected by Chris¬ 
 tianity in the position of woman has been 
 of a most marked character. Under the 
 Roman law, women were under the perpet¬ 
 ual tutelage of their male relatives, the 
 object being to keep their property in the 
 family. They had no voice in public affairs, 
 nor, legally, in the government of their 
 own household. A child desiring to marry 
 need not obtain the mother’s consent—only 
 that of the father. On her marriage her 
 property became that of her husband, and 
 
 all her earnings were his. In the Oriental 
 world her position was still more debased; 
 she was a slave, not a copartner with her 
 husband. Mr. George Smith, in his Assyr- 
 ian Discoveries , tells how a man could pay 
 half a mina to his wife, and say to her, 
 “ Thou art not my wife,” which freed him 
 from her thenceforth; though, if a woman 
 repudiated her husband, she could be 
 drowned. 
 
 It was with the Oriental condition that 
 the Old Testament found its points of con¬ 
 tact. It was emphatically proclaimed in 
 the first book of the Scriptures that mo¬ 
 nogamy was the original intention of the 
 Creator, and though polygamy was prac¬ 
 tised, it was discouraged; while, as our 
 Lord said, divorce was only permitted “for 
 the hardness of men’s hearts.” It was one 
 of the darkest features of the growth of 
 Hebrew civilization that royal polygamy 
 became frequent in the days of David and 
 Solomon, and was the chief cause of the 
 troubles of each of those reigns. As the 
 Old Testament moves onward, the sacred¬ 
 ness of marriage is more and more dwelt 
 upon. 
 
 The times of the New Testament brought 
 religion into contact with European civ¬ 
 ilization. Roman law had undergone a 
 change. There had arisen another form 
 beside the ancient one, called “ Free Mar¬ 
 riage,” recognized by law, and of which the 
 children were held to be legitimate, but not 
 always held to be a respectable connection. 
 It was a form established in the interest of 
 the Avoman, for she was allowed to keep her 
 own property, worship her own gods, and 
 keep up intercourse with her paternal fam¬ 
 ily. Such a wife was called uxor and ma~ 
 trona , a name less honorable than the inater- 
 fatnilias of the old law. The “ Free 
 Marriage ” had almost superseded the older 
 form in the first Christian century, and un¬ 
 der it there was the utmost freedom of 
 divorce, and morality had sunk to a terri¬ 
 ble depth. Juvenal tells of a woman who 
 had had eight husbands in five years. 
 When Christianity became the national re¬ 
 ligion, Constantine, although himself fur¬ 
 ther from the Christian standard of morals 
 than some of the pagan emperors, pro¬ 
 ceeded at once to legislation with a view of 
 diminishing the moral evils of the time. 
 By laws passed in 330-331, a wife could be 
 divorced from her husband only under 
 three conditions—viz., when he was a mur¬ 
 derer, or a magician, or a violator of tombs. 
 A wife repudiating her husband was ban¬ 
 ished, with loss of her property. A hus¬ 
 band could be divorced on proof of his 
 Avife’s unfaithfulness, but Avas prohibited 
 from having a concubine. The mischief, 
 however, had eaten too deeply into the pub- 
 
Worn 
 
 ( 97 i ) 
 
 Worn 
 
 lie life for the then-existing type of Chris¬ 
 tianity to be able to end it; and to this fact 
 is to be attributed the piecemeal and inef¬ 
 fective legislation of succeeding emperors. 
 “ It need not be said,” writes Mr. Brace 
 (Gesta Christi, p. 29), “ that the Christian 
 system of morals demand the utmost pur¬ 
 ity of life, as well from the man as from 
 the woman. In regard to masculine purity, 
 it is still in advance of the current opinion 
 of the civilized world. So strongly is this 
 elevation of morals characteristicof Christ’s 
 life, that we do not look for or expect di¬ 
 rect teachings against vice. No direct de¬ 
 nunciation is transmitted from him against 
 one of the most terrible organized evils of 
 ancient or modern times—prostitution—or 
 against the unnatural vices which were eat¬ 
 ing out the heart of Roman and Greek so¬ 
 ciety. The impression, however, which 
 an impartial reader would get from the nar¬ 
 rative, is of a person so pure and elevated 
 that such vices could not even be thought 
 of when under his influence. His power 
 goes to the back of organized vices, and 
 touches the sources of character. His re¬ 
 lations to abandoned women; the story of 
 the adulteress which, whether true or 
 imagined, shows the popular conception of 
 his character; and the few words reported 
 from him on these and related topics, to¬ 
 gether with the character of his early fol¬ 
 lowers, all point to the unique elevation 
 and nature of his influence on the great 
 weakness and sin of mankind. He required 
 absolute purity from man as from woman. 
 He was not, however, alone in this. The 
 stoical moralists had done the like; yet but 
 few of their followers had ever practiced 
 this high self-restraint, and no great exam¬ 
 ple stimulated them to it. Even the stoical 
 jurists alluded to the principle, but there 
 is little question that, before Christianity 
 entered the world, comparatively few per¬ 
 sons felt this obligation of morals. Had 
 the Founder of Christianity simply taught 
 purity as some of the early Fathers taught 
 it—as meaning absolute asceticism and celi¬ 
 bacy—the world would have been compara¬ 
 tively little benefited. The nature of man 
 would have reacted against it. We should 
 have had even more celibate sects, greater 
 reactions, a more unnatural condition of 
 society, and a falling again into vices and 
 habits as bad as those of the imperial era. 
 Such a system of morality could not have 
 met some of the first conditions of a divine¬ 
 ly sanctioned system; it would have been 
 only temporary and incomplete. But it is 
 evident that Christ set the highest value 
 on marriage. The only human institution 
 in regard to which he departed from his 
 ordinary habit was that of marriage. He 
 lays down here a direct and positive rule. 
 
 The words are so clear and definite that a 
 mistake of the historian or transcriber 
 seems hardly possible. He evidently felt 
 the bond as one which, more than any other, 
 binds human society together. He foresaw 
 the boundless evils which would arise to 
 the world from a looseness of its ties; the 
 breaking up of homes; the neglect and ruin 
 of children; the low position which freedom 
 of divorce would give to woman; the temp¬ 
 tation to man to choose and to throw aside; 
 the destruction and degradation of family 
 life whichmustensue where marriage is tak¬ 
 en up and broken at every whim. He either 
 foresaw these evils, now so familiar to 
 moralists, or he felt the sacredness of the 
 union so deeply as to command that only 
 one cause should break it—unfaithfulness 
 to the tie, or its moral equivalent.” 
 
 It is an interesting question to consider 
 what are the proper religious functions of 
 women in the ministry of the Church. What 
 they have done in one direction of that min¬ 
 istry we have considered under Deacon¬ 
 esses; but what are we to make of their 
 work as public teachers ? St. Paul in 1 Cor. 
 xiv. forbids women to speak in the congre¬ 
 gation. Some divines hold that the prohi¬ 
 bition was intended to apply only to certain 
 conditions; others, that it was intended for 
 all time. Those who hold the former view 
 dwell on the fact that the apostle gives 
 directions (1 Cor. xi. 5-6) as to the dress of 
 the women who “ prophesied,” and that St. 
 Peter quotes Joel ii. 28, 29, declaring it to 
 be a part of the Pentecostal gift that the 
 daughters of men should prophesy as well 
 as the sons, and that God would pour out 
 his Spirit on the handmaids. Professor 
 Godet, in his valuable commentary on r 
 Cor. xiv. 33-36, reconciles t*his direction 
 with the passage in chapter xi. by suppos¬ 
 ing that the latter refers to exceptional 
 cases of a special revelation. In support 
 of his contention, he adduces 1 Tim. ii. 11— 
 14, the appeal to Gen. iii. 16, indicating in 
 his opinion that the divine sentence was 
 never to lose its binding force. By way of 
 example, he cites the Montanist prophet¬ 
 esses and the women of the French Protes¬ 
 tant Church after the Revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, as sources of weakness. 
 Speaking of more modern instances, such 
 as those of Mrs. Fry and Miss Marsh, he 
 says that the Gospel does not lose its life- 
 giving power, even when preached in a 
 manner not altogether in accordance with 
 apostolical prescription; but thinks these 
 devoted women might have labored still 
 more usefully in some other manner. It 
 seems very difficult to take such a view of 
 work so obviously honored of God; and 
 those who hold a different opinion reason 
 that St. Paul simply dealt with the condi- 
 
Worn 
 
 ( 972 ) 
 
 Woo 
 
 tions of his day. In that day it was “a 
 shame ” for a woman to speak in public as¬ 
 semblies, and accordingly, they say, he for¬ 
 bade a public scandal: in these days, when 
 it is no longer shameful, it is argued that 
 his judgment would be very different.— 
 Benham: Diet, of Religion. See Deacon¬ 
 esses; Divorce; Marriage. 
 
 Women’s Christian Associations, bands 
 of women representing different denomina¬ 
 tions of Christians, who unite to do a work 
 not specifically undertaken by the churches 
 of which they are members, but upon 
 whose aid and financial support they prin¬ 
 cipally depend for donations and subscrip¬ 
 tions. 
 
 The number of these associations is con¬ 
 stantly increasing. The latest Directory, 
 Faith and Works (Jan., 1890), gives an al¬ 
 phabetical list of sixty-three in the United 
 States and the Dominion—details the spe¬ 
 cial branches of effort? and furnishes the 
 names and addresses of the respective Cor¬ 
 responding Secretaries. 
 
 The object is to promote the temporal, 
 spiritual and religious welfare of women, 
 especially young women, who are dependent 
 upon their own exertions for support. 
 
 The means employed vary in accordance 
 with the locality and social surroundings, 
 but there is a remarkable similarity of in¬ 
 strumentalities. 
 
 Temporal welfare is promoted by fur¬ 
 nishing neat and cheerful boarding-houses, 
 convenient restaurants with good and well- 
 cooked food at moderate prices; employ¬ 
 ment bureaus; free medical advice; good 
 hospital care in cases of protracted sick¬ 
 ness ; instruction by skilled teachers in 
 evening or day classes in penmanship, 
 commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, ste¬ 
 nography, typewriting, retouching photo¬ 
 negatives, photography, choir music, 
 hand and machine sewing, dressmak¬ 
 ing, millinery, cooking, laundry-work, 
 German for business, gymnastic exercises, 
 and whatever useful branch may be desired 
 by applicants for financial or hygienic pur¬ 
 poses. 
 
 Moral welfare is promoted by surround¬ 
 ing young women with a healthy moral 
 atmosphere ; bringing them together so¬ 
 cially in a spirit of good-will, courtesy, 
 and mutual support and sympathy; sup¬ 
 plying free evening entertainments, music, 
 recitations, games, illustrated lectures, 
 reading-rooms, circulating libraries of 
 good books ; opportunities of direct per¬ 
 sonal contact and conversation to those 
 who may desire the aid, advice, encour¬ 
 agement or sympathy of older Christian 
 women, and especially by the kindly, moth¬ 
 erly influence of superintendents who have 
 
 charge of the morale of the boarding de¬ 
 partments. 
 
 The religious welfare is promoted by 
 cheerful services of song, by family and. 
 social prayer-meetings, by Bible study, by 
 arranging free seats in many churches; by 
 the cooperation of the more thoughtful 
 working-girls, who form Circles for mutual 
 improvement, encouragement and emu¬ 
 lation in well-doing, and holding out hands 
 of help to tempted and struggling sisters; 
 by inculcating habits of self-respect, the 
 true dignity of honest labor, the perform¬ 
 ance of daily duty as to God, and not as to 
 man, and by keeping prominent the sus¬ 
 taining hopes and promises of the Gospel 
 of Christ. 
 
 Besides the houses in the cities, most of 
 the larger associations have houses at the 
 sea-shore or inland, where the daughters 
 of toil find healthful recreation during the 
 summer vacations. 
 
 Cheap lodgings for transient boarders 
 prove of great benefit to young girls look¬ 
 ing for employment in strange cities, or 
 whilst unexpectedly delayed in traveling 
 by failure to make railroad or boat con¬ 
 nections, and consequently often with fail¬ 
 ing resources. 
 
 An International Conference is held 
 biennially, at which essays are read and 
 discussed by delegates from many cities of 
 the United States. The object is to elicit 
 the best results gained, and to suggest 
 plans for future guidance. These papers 
 and discussions are printed and distrib¬ 
 uted through the country by the Associa¬ 
 tions. The last International Conference 
 was held at Baltimore, Md., in October, 
 1889. 
 
 A few of the Associations publish 
 monthly journals. Faith and Works, pub¬ 
 lished by the W. C. A. of Philadelphia, 
 devotes space in its columns to the “ Di¬ 
 rectory ” and “ The Outlook,” the latter 
 containing reports from other Associa¬ 
 tions. Caroline A. Burgin. 
 
 Woods, Leonard, D. D., Congregation¬ 
 alism b. at Princeton, Mass., June 19, 
 1774; d. at Andover, Aug. 24, 1854. He 
 was graduated at Harvard College, 1796, 
 and was pastor at Newbury, Mass., from 
 1798 to 1808. At the founding of Andover 
 Seminary in 1808 he was elected professor 
 of theology, and held this position until 
 his retirement from active service in 1846. 
 He was the defender of orthodox Calvinism 
 against the assaults of Unitarian leaders. 
 He aided in founding the American Tract 
 Society, the American Education Society, 
 and American Board of Commissioners for 
 Foreign Missions. Among his published 
 works are: Letters to Unitarians (1820); 
 
Woo 
 
 ( 973 ) 
 
 Wor 
 
 The Inspiration of the Scriptures (1829); 
 Theological Lectures (1849-50), 5 vols.; 
 Theology of the Puritans (1851); History of 
 Andover Seminary (published in 1884). 
 
 Woolsey, Theodore Dwight, D. D., 
 LL. D., an eminent educator and scholar; 
 b. in New York City, Oct. 31, 1801; d. at 
 New Haven, Conn., July 1, 1889. He was 
 graduated at Yale College in 1820, and 
 studied theology at Princeton Theological 
 Seminary, 1821-22. After filling the posi¬ 
 tion of tutor at Yale for two years, he went 
 to Europe, where he spent three years, 
 and studied Greek under distinguished 
 scholars at Leipzig, Bonn, and Berlin. In 
 1831 he was appointed professor of Greek 
 at Yale College, and held this position 
 until he was chosen president of the Col¬ 
 lege in 1846, in which office he continued 
 for twenty-five years. He was a member 
 of the American Company of Revision of 
 the New Testament, and its chairman 
 (1871-81). Besides editions of the Greek 
 text of several works, with English notes, 
 he published an Introduction to the Study of 
 International Lazu ( i860); enlarged (1879); 
 Essays on Divorce and Divorce Legislation, 
 with Special Reference to the United States 
 (1869, revised ed., 1882); Religion op the 
 Present and of the Future (sermons, 1871); 
 Political Science; or. The State , Theoretically 
 and Practically Considered (1877): Commun¬ 
 ism and Socialism in their History and 
 Theory'. A Sketch (1880). Dr. Woolsey 
 “ was a man of clear and vigorous and 
 powerful mind, of tender and loving, yet 
 strong heart, of rich, deep, earnest soul. 
 He was a scholar unsurpassed in his gener¬ 
 ation ; a teacher who impressed all his 
 pupils, and moved to earnestness in study 
 and life the best among them; a preacher 
 whose-thoughts were ever fresh and stimu¬ 
 lating, and whose insight into the workings 
 of human character was so penetrating 
 that his words had for every hearer the 
 emphasis of truth. He was honest, sin¬ 
 cere, faithful, just; a manly man, a believ¬ 
 ing Christian, a disciple of the Lord Jesus, 
 who laid hold upon the kingdom of God, 
 and endured as seeing the invisible." 
 Memorial Address (1890) of President 
 Dwight, p. 27. 
 
 Worcester, Samuel, D. D., first corre¬ 
 sponding secretary of the American Board; 
 b. at Hollis, N. H., Nov. 1, 17.70; d. at 
 Brainerd, a mission station in East Tennes¬ 
 see, June 7,1821. He was graduated at Dart¬ 
 mouth College, 1795; pastor at Fitchburg, 
 Mass., 1797-1802; Salem, Mass., 1803-21. 
 He was one of the most active founders of 
 the American Board, and in 1810 was elect¬ 
 ed its first corresponding secretary. He 
 
 edited two Hymn-Books, and for five years 
 edited the Massachusetts Missionary Maga¬ 
 zine, which later was united with the Pan- 
 oplist, and then with the Missionary Herald. 
 See his Memoir (1852), 2 vols., by his son, 
 Rev. S. M. Worcester, D. D. 
 
 Wordsworth, Christopher, D. D., lord 
 bishop of Lincoln, Church of England; b. 
 at Booking, Oct. 30, 1807; d. at Lincoln, 
 March 21, 1885. He was graduated at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, 1830; became 
 head-master of Harrow School, 1836-44; 
 canon of Westminster, 1844-69; vicar of 
 Stanford, Berkshire, 1850-69; archdeacon 
 of Westminster, 1865-69; consecrated 
 bishop, 1869. He was a voluminous writ¬ 
 er. Among his published works are: 
 Scripture Inspiration ; or. On the Canon of 
 Holy Scriptzire (Hulsean Lectures for 1847) 
 (1848); On the Inspiration of the Bible 
 (1861); The Old Testament in the A uthorized 
 Version, with Notes and Introductions (1864— 
 7r), 6 vols.; A Church History to the Coun¬ 
 cil of Chalcedon , A . D. 481 (1881-83), 4 
 vols. 
 
 Worship. The Hebrew words so trans¬ 
 lated are from the following roots: (1) segad, 
 “ to prostrate oneself," a Chaldaic word 
 found in Isa. xliv. and in Daniel, and ap¬ 
 plied to obeisance done to an idol; (2) abad, 
 “ to labor for as a servant;” (3) shachah , 
 ‘‘to bow down before.” This last is by 
 far the most commonly used word, from 
 Gen. xxii. 5 toZech. xiv. 16. 
 
 In the Greek we have (1) latreuo and the 
 noun, latreia. This is from latris, “ a hired 
 servant,” and came to mean, both in heathen 
 and Christian phraseology, “ to serve with 
 sacrifices and prayers,” used in Acts xxiv. 
 14; Phil. iii. 3; Heb. x. 2; (2) threskei , der¬ 
 ivation uncertain, but probably signifies 
 “ religious fear ” (Liddell and Scott); used 
 very seldom. (Col. ii. 18; Acts xxi. 5; 
 James i. 26, 27.) (3) Proskunein, lit. “to 
 
 kiss the hand as a token of obeisance or 
 homage,” and so “to prostrate oneself.” 
 This is the most usual word in the New 
 Testament. (4) Sebomai, “to feel awe,” 
 applied in classical authors to honor 
 due to parents and to the gods; used in 
 Matt. xv. 9; Acts xvi. 14; xviii. 7; xix. 
 27, etc. 
 
 Worship comprises two elements, the 
 inward feeling of the heart, and the out¬ 
 ward expression of it in outward sign. 
 The emotions of the heart toward God are 
 manifold. Thus, there is gratitude for 
 goodness received, which is expressed in 
 praise; there is admiration and love for the 
 beauty of the divine character revealed to 
 us, which is expressed in such words as 
 “ We give thanks to Thee for Thy Great 
 
Wor 
 
 ( 974 ) 
 
 Wri 
 
 Glory,” and this we call adoration. There 
 is also supplication—the approach to God 
 with requests to supply our needs, and 
 this is prayer. 
 
 The outward worship, therefore, is in¬ 
 tended to express the emotions, and also 
 to kindle them. This is admirably ex¬ 
 pressed by Canon Hoare in the following 
 words: 
 
 “ Worship kindles emotion. I can un¬ 
 derstand a man going in to the throne of 
 grace with a heart unmoved by deep emo¬ 
 tion, but I cannot understand how it is 
 possible that he should come out from it 
 with his heart still cold, after the expe¬ 
 rience of such wonderful mercy. If love 
 prompts worship, it must surely follow 
 that worship will kindle love. David teach¬ 
 es us the twofold effect, in a comparison of 
 Psa. xviii. and Psa. cxvi. In both he de¬ 
 clares his love for Jehovah, and in both he 
 connects it with his worship. But there is 
 this difference. In Psa. xviii. the love 
 leads to the worship, and in Psa. cxvi. the 
 worship calls forth the love. In Psa. xviii. 
 he first says, ‘ I will love thee, O Lord,’ 
 v. r, and then adds, as a consequence of that 
 love, v. 3, ‘I will call upon the Lord who 
 is worthy to be praised;’ whereas, in Psa. 
 cxvi. i, he says, ‘ I love the Lord because 
 he hath heard the voice of my supplication.’ 
 He loved as he went in, but he loved still 
 more as he came out. Now if we are per¬ 
 mitted to draw near the throne of God, we 
 who are not worthy so much as to gather 
 up the crumbs under his table; we who 
 only deserve to be outcasts from his pres¬ 
 ence for ever; if we are permitted to have 
 the sacred privilege of speaking to him, of 
 drawing near to him through the atoning 
 blood; of calling him Father, of being 
 treated by him as sons, of being admitted 
 into the blessings of sacred intercourse, of 
 feeding at his table, and of being ever loved 
 by him with an everlasting love, are we to 
 come back just as if nothing had happened? 
 Are we to be as cold as before ? Is there 
 to be no joy in the heart, no glow on the 
 countenance, and no evidence either to 
 ourselves or others that we have had the 
 sacred privilege of being with Jesus ? 
 Surely such worship must kindle emo¬ 
 tion.” 
 
 The notices which we have of Christian 
 worship in the New Testament are frag¬ 
 mentary. Brethren used to assemble to¬ 
 gether, especially on the first day of the 
 week. The fullest passage bearing on the 
 subject is in i Cor. xiv., a careful exegesis 
 of which throws much light on apostolic 
 practice. After the days of the New Testa¬ 
 ment, the first notice we have of Chris¬ 
 tian worship is in the letters of the hea¬ 
 then Pliny, and we get additional partic¬ 
 
 ulars from Justin Martyr (q. v.), who tells 
 how, in his time, “ on the day called the 
 Day of the Sun,” the Christians meet to 
 read the Gospels and the Prophets, how a 
 sermon is preached, exhorting to holy liv¬ 
 ing, how prayer is said, to which the peo¬ 
 ple respond with loud “ Amcns,” and how 
 the sacrament is distributed to those pres¬ 
 ent and sent to the sick, and a collection is 
 made for the poor. There is no doubt that 
 the Holy Communion was regarded as the 
 highest and most essential act of Christian 
 worship. The liturgical use of the Old 
 Testament Psalms is also a clear fact, and 
 there is little doubt that distinctive Chris¬ 
 tian hymns also were in use from the be¬ 
 ginning. The addition of these from age 
 to age to the treasures of church worship, 
 forms a very striking and beautiful chapter 
 of religious history. 
 
 Tastes will no doubt vary as to the ad¬ 
 missibility of complicated music in public 
 worship. On the one hand, there are those 
 who hold that no music should be used in 
 the church but such as all the congregation 
 can join in; while others maintain that, 
 while some music should undoubtedly be 
 of this character, so that all may be enabled 
 to join, it is not inconsistent with the true 
 spirit of worship that the congregation 
 should listen to an anthem. If the thoughts 
 are elevated and calmed by listening to such 
 a strain as Handel’s “ Comfort ye,” this 
 may fairly be called “ edification ” such as 
 St. Paul bade us seek. Christian people, 
 however much their tastes and prejudices 
 may vary, will find themselves drawn 
 closely together in spirit so long as they 
 pay earnest heed to the great apostle’s ex¬ 
 hortations, “ Let all things be done to edi¬ 
 fying,” and “ Let all things be done de¬ 
 cently and in order.”—Benham: Did. of 
 Religion. 
 
 Writing among the Hebrews. “Not only 
 did the Israelites learn from Egypt the art 
 of writing, but also borrowed thence, as it 
 would seem, nearly all the requisites for 
 its practice. There are two expressions in 
 the Bible for pen, both of which carry 
 etymologically the idea of a graving-in- 
 strument. (Ex. xxxii. 4; Isa. viii. 1.) One 
 of them is even characterized sometimes as 
 a ‘ pen of iron.’ (Job xix. 24; Jer. xvii. 1.) 
 This is due to the fact that the same style 
 of utensil was used for writing, and for en¬ 
 graving on wood or metal. For ordinary 
 writing the reed-pen was undoubtedly the 
 most common. (Psa. xlv. 1; Jer. viii. 8.) 
 Both the pen and the little store of ink 
 were carried by professional writers in the 
 girdle. A knife was also found convenient 
 for keeping the reed-pen in order, and for 
 cutting the material on which the writing 
 
Xav 
 
 ( 975 ) 
 
 Xim 
 
 was done. The ink was ordinarily black. 
 We are not informed how it was prepared 
 in the earliest times. It is probable that the 
 first writing material was papyrus paper. 
 The plant grows luxuriantly in Egypt, and 
 somewhat abundantly, also, at the present 
 day in some parts of Palestine. Insignificant 
 fragments of papyrus paper, inscribed with 
 Phoenician characters, have been found, 
 but none with the ancient Hebrew. The 
 first actual mention of this material in the 
 Bible is in 2 John 12; but there is no good 
 reason, sa ir e lack of sufficient occasion, 
 why it should not have been noticed in the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 “ It is still a matter of discussion wheth¬ 
 er the Hebrews wrote on the prepared 
 skins of animals. Most authorities hold 
 that they did: but there are very good ones 
 who regard it as at least doubtful. There 
 is no direct evidence that the Egyptians 
 used this material. It can only be said 
 with certainty, at present, that there are 
 some passages of Scripture where leather 
 as a material for books seems to be most 
 naturally implied. (Num. v. 23; Jer. xxxvi. 
 23.) It is urged by some that in the pas^ 
 sage from Jeremiah, it is unlikely that the 
 king would have thrown any considerable 
 amount of leather on an open fire in his 
 own apartments. But, considering his 
 angry mood, and what he actually did, it is 
 hard to say, without positive knowledge, 
 what he would or would not do. Parch¬ 
 ment, which is claimed to have been a dis¬ 
 covery of the time of the Ptolemies, is 
 spoken of in the Bible only in the New 
 Testament. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) As is well 
 known, the early form of books was that 
 of the roll. The papyrus or parchment, 
 having been cut into long strips, and writ¬ 
 ten over on one side, was nicely fastened 
 together, and then rolled up as maps are 
 often rolled at the present day. Doubtless 
 engraving on wood, stone, and the metals 
 was well understood by the Hebrews. 
 The only recorded instance in the canon¬ 
 ical books of continuous writing on stone, 
 excepting the Decalogue, is in Joshua viii. 
 32.”—Bissell: Biblical Antiquities. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xavier (:zav'-i-er ), Francis, a great Ro¬ 
 man Catholic missionary; b. in Castle 
 Xavier, Navarre, April 7, 1506; d. on the 
 island of Sancian, opposite Macao, Dec. 2, 
 1552. Of noble birth, he was educated at 
 the College of St. Barbara at Paris, and 
 became professor of philosophy at Beau¬ 
 vais. It was here he met Ignatius Loyola 
 (q. v.), and became interested in his plan 
 
 for founding the order of Jesuits. They 
 were both ordained in 1534,and desired to go 
 to Palestine as missionaries. This service 
 was withheld, and Xavier visited every part 
 of Italy, preaching from church steps and 
 market-crosses, and wherever the oppor¬ 
 tunity offered. On April 7, 1541, he set 
 sail for the East Indies. The ship wintered 
 at Mozambique, and while ministering in 
 the hospital there he caught a fever which 
 nearly cost him his life. In May, 1542, he 
 arrived at Goa, the Portuguese capital of 
 India. He labored for a year among the 
 profligate Portuguese and the heathen na¬ 
 tives, and then for a time settled among 
 the pearl-fishers, a miserable race, who 
 had been baptized and then left without in¬ 
 struction. Accepting their mode of living, 
 he toiled with indefatigable zeal for their 
 spiritual advancement. From the college 
 which he organized at Goa he secured na¬ 
 tive teachers to aid him, and pushing on 
 into the kingdom of Travancore, in a single 
 month he baptized 10,000 persons. The 
 Brahmins sought to kill him, but the peo¬ 
 ple, who called him “the great father,” 
 protected and cared for him. He fixed 
 upon Malacca as a centre of labor, being 
 the great mart between India, China and 
 Japan, but did not remain long, as he was 
 persuaded by a young Japanese convert, 
 named Angerso, to go to Japan. Here he 
 arrived in August, 1549, and in the face 
 of many difficulties and privations went 
 from place to place and made many con¬ 
 verts, and left a flourishing mission. In 
 1552 he returned to Malacca, fired with the 
 purpose of attempting the conversion of 
 China. He found the plague raging at 
 Malacca, and did much by his skill and 
 courage to stay its progress. The Portu¬ 
 guese, fearing the loss of trade, would not 
 give him a passage to China, and when 
 they found he had chartered a small ves¬ 
 sel, stopped him. He contrived to reach 
 the island of Sancian, where he was strick¬ 
 en with fever and died. He was buried at 
 Goa. His Life, in Latin, was written by 
 Tursellino (Rome, 1594); in Italian, by 
 Bartoli and Maffei; in German, by De Voss 
 (1877); and in English, by Venn (1862) and 
 Coleridge (1873). 
 
 Ximenes ( zi-?nee'neez ), DeCisneros, Fran¬ 
 cisco, b. at Torrelaguna, in Castile, in 
 1436; d. at Roa, Nov. 8, 1517. His family 
 belonged to the nobility, but were without 
 wealth or position. He was educated at 
 Alcala and Salamanca, and after entering 
 the priesthood he visited Rome, and re¬ 
 ceived from the pope the benefice of Uze- 
 da. The archbishop of Toledo, angered at 
 this infringement upon what he deemed his 
 rights, confined Ximenes for six years in a 
 
Yea 
 
 ( 976 ) 
 
 Yea 
 
 convent prison. After his release he was 
 appointed, in 1480, vicar-general to the 
 bishop of Siguenza, where his great ad¬ 
 ministrative gifts were disclosed. Sudden¬ 
 ly giving up the official career that prom¬ 
 ised so much, he entered a Franciscan 
 monastery in Toledo, where his ascetic 
 life and fervid eloquence as a preacher 
 soon won recognition. From here he re¬ 
 tired to a lonely monastery, where he built 
 a hut and lived as a hermit. In 1492 he 
 was appointed confessor to Queen Isabella, 
 and soon became her confidential adviser. 
 He was made archbishop of Toledo in 1495, 
 a position of great influence, and not long 
 after, grand inquisitor of Spain. He still con¬ 
 tinued to live in a most austere manner, and 
 when a bull from Rome commanded him to 
 keep up an outward style in keeping with the 
 dignity of his office, he continued to wear a 
 hair shirt under his robes of state. Until his 
 death Ximenes retained great influence at 
 the Spanish Court. He was fanatical in his 
 faith, and opposed the translation of the 
 Bible into the language of the people,and al¬ 
 so the giving of publicity to the transactions 
 of the Inquisition; still, he did much to pro¬ 
 mote education, and founded the Univer¬ 
 sity of Alcala. One of his greatest un¬ 
 dertakings was the publication of the 
 Complutensian Polyglot (see Polyglot). 
 He was a remarkable statesman, and in 
 1509, in his seventy-second year, at his 
 own expense, raised an army of ten thou¬ 
 sand infantry and four thousand cavalry, 
 and, crossing the Mediterranean, led them 
 in person and conquered Oran, and put an 
 end to Moorish piracy on the coast of 
 Spain. See his Life , by Hefele (1844, 
 translated into English by Dalton, i860); 
 Prescott: Ferdinand and Isabella . 
 
 Y. 
 
 Year, The Ecclesiastical. The Chris¬ 
 tian Year is that arrangement of seasons 
 which commemorates, one by one, the great 
 facts in the life of Christ and the doctrines 
 which spring out of them. Some account of 
 these seasons will be found under their re¬ 
 spective headings; it remains for us here 
 to set forth a conspectus of them as a 
 whole. 
 
 The first is Advent, which commemo¬ 
 rates the coming of Christ into the world 
 in his great humility, and also bids us look 
 for his second coming. The two subjects 
 are closely blended together in the Advent 
 services, especially in the Epistles and Gos¬ 
 pels. There are four Sundays in Advent, 
 which is followed by Christmas, the great 
 festival of the Incarnation, to which are 
 
 appended three commemorations, respect¬ 
 ively of one who died in the prime of life, of 
 little children dying in infancy, and of the 
 apostle who died in extreme old age—all 
 ages alike sanctified and redeemed by the 
 Incarnation. On January i, that being the 
 eighth day after Christmas, is kept the 
 feast of the Circumcision. The Epiphany 
 season, starting with the visit of the wise 
 men, brings before us the manifestation of 
 Christ during his sojourn on earth. Thus 
 the Gospel for the first Sunday after Epiph¬ 
 any shows us Christ in his boyhood, sit¬ 
 ting among the doctors, and declaring that 
 he must be about his Father’s business; 
 they are the first recorded words of his that 
 we have. On the second Sunday we have 
 his first miracle, a simple act of creation, 
 almost the only miracle of his that has 
 naught to do with suffering, carrying us 
 back in thought to the original Eden. The 
 third Sunday shows him the healer of sick¬ 
 ness; the fourth the restorer of peace after 
 disorder, both in the natural and spiritual 
 world; the fifth and sixth the future judge. 
 
 The Epiphany season varies in length ac¬ 
 cording as Easter comes early or late. A 
 marked change then follows, as is shown 
 by the names for the three Sundays, Sep- 
 TUAGESIMA, SEXAGESIMA, QUINQUAGESIMA 
 (“Seventieth,” “Sixtieth,” “Fiftieth,”), 
 so called because they are, in round num¬ 
 bers, so many days before Easter. Quin- 
 quagesima, the Sunday before Lent, 
 brings before us the supreme necessity, in 
 all religious exercises and works, of culti¬ 
 vating love as the most needful grace of 
 all. Then comes the season of Lent, in 
 which are blended together most closely 
 the humiliation and sufferings of Christ, 
 and the Christian work of repentance for 
 sin. Easter (y. v.) follows, the Queen of 
 Festivals, and then the Sundays after East- . 
 er, covering the great forty days during 
 which Christ showed himself before his 
 ascension. On the fortieth day comes As¬ 
 cension Day, or Holy Thursday, and ten 
 days after, Whitsunday. The series of 
 festivals closes with Trinity Sunday. 
 
 These seasons together make up, as nearly 
 as possible, half the year; they are follow¬ 
 ed by the Sundays after Trinity.—Benham: 
 
 Diet, of Religion. 
 
 Year, The Hebrew. The “ sacred year” 
 was reckoned from the moon after the 
 vernal equinox; the “civil year” began in 
 September (the less productive period of 
 the year). The prophets speak of the 
 sacred year; those engaged in secular pur¬ 
 suits, of the civil year. The year was di¬ 
 vided into twelve lunar months, with a 
 thirteenth, or intercalary month, every 
 third year. See following table: 
 
 (n 
 
 1 
 
Yor 
 
 ( 977 ) 
 
 You 
 
 Month of 
 
 
 V. j: 
 
 
 Products. 
 
 Sacred 
 
 Civil 
 
 Name. 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 VII. 
 
 j Abib, or Nisan. ) 
 
 j (Exod. xii. 2; xiii. 4.) f 
 
 30 
 
 March, April. 
 
 j Barley ripe. ) 
 
 J Fig in blossom, j 
 
 II. 
 
 VITI. 
 
 Tyar, or Zif. 
 
 29 
 
 April, May. 
 
 Barley harvest. 
 
 III. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Si van. 
 
 3 ° 
 
 May, June. 
 
 Wheat harvest. 
 
 IV. 
 
 X. 
 
 Thammuz. 
 
 29 
 
 June, July. 
 
 Early vintage. 
 
 V. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Ab. (Ezra vii. 9.) 
 
 30 
 
 July, August. 
 
 Ripe figs. 
 
 VI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 El ill. (Neh. vi. 15.) 
 
 29 
 
 August, Sept. 
 
 General vintage. 
 
 VII. 
 
 I. 
 
 Tisri. (1 Kings viii. 2.) 
 
 30 
 
 Sept., Oct. 
 
 j Ploughing and / 
 
 ( sowing. j 
 
 VIII. 
 
 II. 
 
 Bui. (1 Kings vi. 38.) 
 
 29 
 
 Oct., Nov. 
 
 Latter grapes. 
 
 IX. 
 
 III. 
 
 Chisleu. (Zech. vii. 1.) 
 
 3 ° 
 
 Nov., Dec. 
 
 Snow. 
 
 X. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Tebeth. (Esth. ii. 16.) 
 
 2 9 
 
 Dec., Jan. 
 
 Grass after rain. 
 
 XL 
 
 V. 
 
 Shebat. iZech. i. 7.) 
 
 3 ° 
 
 Jan., Feb. 
 
 Winter fig. 
 
 XII. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Adar. (Ezra vi. 15.) 
 
 29 
 
 Feb., March. 
 
 Almond blossom. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 
 Ve-Adar, Intercalary. 
 
 
 jtcwish 
 
 Festivals. 
 
 Passover. 
 
 Unleavened 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Pentecost. 
 
 Feast of Trum- 'l 
 pets. 
 
 Atonement. \ 
 Feast of Taber- j 
 nacles. 
 
 Dedication. 
 
 Purim. 
 
 York Minster. A little wooden hut was 
 the beginning of York Minster, over which 
 rose a larger church of stone, finished by 
 Oswald in 642. This was repaired by St. 
 Wilfrid about 720, and destroyed by fire in 
 741; rebuilt by Bishop Egbert (732-766), 
 and demolished by the Danes. Thomas of 
 Bayeux rebuilt the church, but it was again 
 partially burnt in 1137, in the time of 
 Thurstan. Roger took in hand the work 
 of restoration, and rebuilt the choir and 
 crypt on a larger scale. Walter de Gray 
 (1215-1255) in all probability built the 
 south transept as it now exists. The cen¬ 
 tral tower was built in 1260 by John Ro- 
 maine, the treasurer. In 1291 Archbishop 
 Romaine removed the early Norman nave 
 of Thomas of Bayeux, and began to build 
 the present one, which was finished by 
 Archbishop Melton in 1335. In 1361 Arch¬ 
 bishop Thoresby began the Lady Chapel 
 and Presbytery, which were finished in 
 1373, and between that time and the close 
 of the century the Norman choir was taken 
 down, and the present one built. In 1472 
 the church was reconsecrated and dedi¬ 
 cated anew to St. Peter the Apostle. In 
 1829 the choir was set on fire by a maniac, 
 named Jonathan Martin, and so much dam¬ 
 age was done that it cost ^65,000 to repair 
 it. Another fire, in 1840, destroyed the 
 southwest tower and the entire nave roof, 
 which were repaired at a cost of ,£23,000. 
 —Benham: Diet, of Religion. 
 
 The Diocese of York consists of York 
 City, the entire East Riding, part of North 
 and West Riding, and comprises 631 bene¬ 
 fices. The chapter consists of a dean, four 
 archdeacons, four canons, five minor 
 canons, and thirty prebendaries. The in¬ 
 come of the see is £10,000 per annum. 
 
 Young, Brigham. See Mormons. 
 
 Young, Edward, b. at Upham, Hamp¬ 
 shire, 1684; d. at Welwyn, Hertfordshire, 
 April, 12, 1684. He was educated at Win¬ 
 chester and at Corpus Christi, Oxford; or¬ 
 dained 1727; rector of Welwyn, 1730. He 
 published three tragedies, letters, essays, 
 poems, etc., but he is remembered by his 
 Night Thoughts (1742-46), which were once 
 very popular. 
 
 Young Men’s Christian Association, The. 
 The Young Men’s Christian Association 
 movement, which now encircles the globe, 
 had its birth in the parent organization ef¬ 
 fected in the city of London, June 6, 1844, 
 through the instrumentality of George 
 Williams, a young clerk in one of the large 
 dry-goods establishments in that city. 
 
 The first Association in America, after 
 the plan of that in London, was organized 
 in Montreal in Dec., 1851; and a little later 
 in the same month a similar organization 
 was formed in the United States, at Boston. 
 
 The object of the Association is the spirit¬ 
 ual, intellectual, social, and physical wel¬ 
 fare of young men. The agencies used to 
 accomplish this fourfold purpose are Bi¬ 
 ble classes, prayer and gospel meetings, 
 educational classes, lectures, libraries, 
 reading-rooms, receptions, social parlors, 
 gymnasiums, bowling clubs, athletic 
 grounds, outing clubs, etc. 
 
 The membership of the Association is 
 made up of two classes of young men, 
 those that are members in good standing 
 of evangelical churches, and those that are 
 simply of good moral character. The first 
 class is termed active, and alone is entitled 
 to vote and hold office; the latter class (by 
 far the larger) is termed associate, and en¬ 
 joys like privileges with the former except 
 voting and holding office. This “ test of 
 active membership,” as it is called, which 
 
You 
 
 ( 9/8 ) 
 
 You 
 
 existed in many of the American Associa¬ 
 tions from the beginning, was formally 
 adopted by the convention of the Associa¬ 
 tions of the United States and Canada, held 
 in Portland, Me., in 1869, and made a con¬ 
 dition of admission to that body of Associa¬ 
 tions organized after that date. This 
 gathering also defined the term “ evangel¬ 
 ical churches.” This action affects, of 
 course, only the American Associations. 
 The European Associations have varying 
 tests. 
 
 The government of many of the village 
 Associations somewhat resembles a democ¬ 
 racy, much of the business being transacted 
 in a meeting of all the members. The 
 
 business of the larger Associations is man¬ 
 aged by a Board of Directors elected by 
 the members. The chief executive officer 
 of this body is entitled the General Secre¬ 
 tary. He holds the same relation to the 
 Association that the general superintend¬ 
 ent does to the railroad; is a salaried officer 
 and devotes all his time to the Association’s 
 interests. The work of the Association, 
 outside of the purely business manage¬ 
 ment, is performed, under the guidance of 
 the Board of Directors, by a band of vol¬ 
 unteer workers from the membership, 
 who constitute the standing committees. 
 
 In the larger cities, where there is a de¬ 
 mand for work at more points than one, 
 
 YORK MINSTER 
 
You 
 
 ( 979 ) 
 
 Zac 
 
 there is generally one central or parent 
 organization, with branches in various other 
 sections of the place. At many railroad 
 centres in America there are one or two 
 branches devoted exclusively to the wel¬ 
 fare of railroad employes; in the cities 
 containing a large German-speaking popu¬ 
 lation there are German branches; in over 
 three hundred colleges and universities 
 there are branches composed exclusively 
 of students. There are other branches 
 devoted to colored young men, Indians, 
 French-speaking young men, etc. 
 
 The latest statistics show 3,700 Associa¬ 
 tions in the world. Of this number, 1,194 
 are in the United States, 79 in Canada, 610 
 in Great Britain, 61 in France, 673 in Ger¬ 
 many, 459 in Holland, 380 in Switzerland, 
 the rest in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, 
 Spain, Italy, Belgium, Russia, Japan, Chi¬ 
 na, India, Australia, Africa, etc. The total 
 membership is probably 350,000. A con¬ 
 siderable number of the Associations in 
 Great Britain own the buildings that they 
 occupy, and employ General Secretaries. 
 On the continent of Europe the work is but 
 poorly provided with these necessary 
 equipments, there being as yet but few 
 General Secretaries, and still fewer build¬ 
 ings. There has been, however, decided 
 progress of late in these directions. 
 
 The country in which the work has made 
 the greatest advances along all lines is 
 America, and the present condition there 
 is indicated by the following statistics: 
 
 1,273 Associations; total membership, 
 200,000; members of working committees, 
 34,000; buildings, 187, valued at $7,750,- 
 000; General Secretaries and other paid 
 officers, 900; annual current expenses, 
 $1,500,000; total net value property, $9,- 
 500,000; Bible classes, 759; weekly prayer 
 and gospel meetings for young men, 1,350; 
 lectures and entertainments, 4,346; so¬ 
 ciables, 2,948; different students in educa¬ 
 tional classes, 13,945; libraries, 522, with 
 385,728 volumes; reading-rooms, 648; daily 
 visits to the rooms, 50,000; gymnasiums, 
 294; literary societies, 148; situations se¬ 
 cured annually, 7,619; boys’ departments, 
 162. 
 
 While the Associations are and have been 
 entirely independent of each other in the 
 management of their own local affairs, 
 there has existed for years a bond of union 
 between them for mutual help, and for 
 missionary effort in their own line of special 
 Christian effortv Since 1855 they have 
 been meeting every three years in World’s 
 Conferences. There now exists a Central 
 International Committee, with headquarters 
 in Geneva, Switzerland. This Committee 
 has members in sixteen countries, and 
 since 1879 has employed a traveling secre¬ 
 
 tary, who has devoted his time and efforts 
 to the work in Europe. 
 
 The American Associations first met in 
 convention in 1854, and thereafter con¬ 
 tinued to meet annually till 1.877, since 
 which time they have met biennially. 
 They have a general executive committee, 
 known as the International Committee, 
 composed of thirty-three members, repre¬ 
 senting various sections of the United 
 States and Canada, and with a working 
 quorum in New York City. This Com¬ 
 mittee is incorporated, has a board of trus¬ 
 tees, and employs a force of nineteen secre¬ 
 taries, whose efforts are engaged in help¬ 
 ing existing Associations and in extending 
 and fostering the work in new and sparsely 
 settled portions of the two countries. This 
 Committee also assists the various State 
 Committees (appointed by the conventions 
 of the respective States, which were orig¬ 
 inally called by the International Commit¬ 
 tee by direction of the International Con¬ 
 vention) in their work, which is now 
 organized, with traveling secretaries, in 
 most of the States and Provinces. By in¬ 
 struction of the last convention (Philadel¬ 
 phia, 1889), the International Committee, 
 in response to earnest solicitation from 
 missionaries and others, has undertaken 
 work for young men in foreign mission 
 lands, and already has a secretary stationed 
 in Japan and another in India. 
 
 P. Augustus Wieting. 
 
 Young, Robert, LL. D., Scotch Presby¬ 
 terian layman; b. at Edinburgh, Sept. 10, 
 1822. He was educated in private schools, 
 and learned the trade of a printer, and for 
 a time engaged in bookselling and print¬ 
 ing. In 1856 he went to India to take 
 charge of the Mission Press at Surat. Re¬ 
 turning to Scotland in 1861, he conducted 
 “ Missionary Institutes,” 1864-74, and 
 since then engaged in literary work. Dr. 
 Young is well known in this country by 
 his Analytical Concordance (1876-79), a 
 monumental work. He has written a large 
 number of books, mostly in the line of 
 textual criticism and translation of differ¬ 
 ent versions of the Bible. 
 
 Young Women’s Christian Associations. 
 
 See Women’s Christian Association. 
 
 Yule, an old English name for Christinas. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacchse'us ( pure ), the name of a Roman 
 tax-collector, the story of whose conver¬ 
 sion is told in Luke xix. 2-10. According 
 to tradition Zacchaeus became bishop of 
 Caesarea in Palestine, by ordination of 
 
Zac 
 
 ( 98o ) 
 
 Zed 
 
 Peter. A partly ruined tower in Jericho, 
 used as a Turkish garrison, is pointed out 
 to travelers as the house of Zacchaeus. 
 
 Zachari'as, pope, 741-752. He was 
 very adroit and successful in advancing the 
 interests of the Roman See. See Popes. 
 
 Zamzum'mim (Deut. ii. 20), or Zu'zim, 
 the Ammonite name for a numerous and 
 powerful race of giants who inhabited the 
 country east of the Jordan and the Dead 
 Sea. Cherdorlaomer attacked and routed 
 them, and they were finally driven out of 
 the country by the Ammonites. 
 
 Zanchi, Hieronymus, b. at Alzano, near 
 Bergamo, 1516; d. at Heidelberg, Nov. 19, 
 1590. He entered the order of the regular 
 canons of St. Augustine in 1531, but hav¬ 
 ing studied the writings of the German and 
 Swiss Reformers he espoused their cause, 
 and was compelled to flee from Italy. In 
 1 553 he was appointed professor of the Old 
 Testament at Strasburg, but he became 
 so zealous an advocate of the doctrines of 
 Calvin that trouble arose, and he removed 
 to Chiavenna as pastor of the Reformed 
 Church. In 1568 he became professor at 
 Heidelberg, where he lectured on the Sum- 
 ma, and gained a great reputation as a the¬ 
 ologian. He took an active part in the 
 controversy with the Antitrinitarians, and 
 wrote De Tribus Elohim (1572), with other 
 works, which were published at Geneva 
 (1619), 3 vols. 
 
 Zeal'ots, the name of a party or faction 
 in Palestine noted for their advocacy of the 
 Mosaic law. Their founder was Judas the 
 Galilean, or the Gaulanite. (Acts v. 37.) 
 They refused to pay tribute to the Romans 
 on the ground that God was the only king 
 of Israel. Their rebellion was soon sup¬ 
 pressed, but they carried on a kind of 
 guerrilla warfare, and degenerated into the 
 Sicarii (from the Latin sica, a dagger) and 
 by their crimes of brigandage did much to 
 bring on the Jewish War. 
 
 Zeb'ulun. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Zechari'ah ( Jehovah remembers ), the elev¬ 
 enth of the Minor Prophets. He was the 
 son of Berechiah, and was born in Baby- 
 loq, and while yet young returned from 
 exile with Zerubbabel and the high-priest 
 Joshua. (Ezra v. 1.) He was both a 
 priest and prophet, but very little is known 
 of his life. 
 
 The Book of Zechariah consists of two 
 divisions: The first includes chapters i.- 
 xviii., and “ contains visions and prophe¬ 
 cies from the second year of the reign of 
 
 Darius Hystaspes, while the temple was 
 rebuilding, exhortations to turn to Jehovah, 
 and warnings against the enemies of the 
 people of God. About the authorship of 
 this part of the book there is no doubt. 
 The second division (chaps, ix.-xiv.) gives 
 a prophetic description of the future for¬ 
 tunes of the theocracy in conflict with the 
 secular powers, the sufferings and death 
 of the Messiah under the figure of the 
 shepherd, the conversion of Israel to him, 
 and the final glorification of the kingdom 
 of God. About the authorship of this part 
 of the book doubts have been raised, some 
 ascribing it to Jeremiah, because in Matt, 
 xxvii. 9, 10, a passage is quoted under the 
 name of Jeremiah, while others have put 
 it at a much earlier or much later period, 
 on account of the peculiarities of the style. 
 
 “ Of all the prophets, Zechariah is the 
 most obscure, owing to the brevity and 
 conciseness of the diction, the predomi¬ 
 nance of symbolic and figurative language, 
 and the peculiar character of the subject— 
 the suffering Messiah. But he has a pro¬ 
 found insight both into the spiritual mean¬ 
 ing and object of the Mosaic dispensation 
 as a schoolmaster leading to Christ, and 
 into the character of the Messiah and the 
 universality of his kingdom. The book 
 contains six specific references to Christ: 
 iii. 8; vi. 12; ix. 9; xi. 12; xii. 10; xiii. 7, 
 representing him as a lowly servant; a 
 priest and king building Jehovah’s temple; 
 the meek and peaceful but universal mon¬ 
 arch; the shepherd betrayed for the price 
 of a slave (thirty pieces of silver); the 
 leader to repentance, and the Fellow of 
 Jehovah smitten by Jehovah himself, at 
 once the Redeemer and the Pattern of his 
 flock.”—Schaff: Bible Dictionary. Twenty- 
 seven other persons bearing the name of 
 Zechariah are mentioned in the Script¬ 
 ures. See Chambers in Lange’s Cor?imeti- 
 tary (1874); C. H. H. Wright (Bampton 
 Lectures, London, 1879). 
 
 Zedeki'ah {to whom God will be just), the 
 third son of Josiah, and the last king of 
 Judah. His proper name was Mattaniah 
 {gift of Jehovah). His name was changed 
 when Nebuchadnezzar raised him to the 
 throne (597 b. c.) in the place of Jehoiachin. 
 His reign of eleven years was marked by 
 weakness and prevailing disorder. He 
 failed to protect Jeremiah (Jer. xxxviii. 5, 24 
 sq.), and placed confidence in false proph¬ 
 ets. He allowed those who had been 
 set free from bondage to be again reduced 
 to slavery, and for this act the prophet an¬ 
 nounced the downfall of the nation. (Jer. 
 xxxiv. 8-22.) In the fourth year of his 
 reign he visited Babylon to pay his re¬ 
 spects to the Babylonian king and secure 
 
Zei 
 
 (981 ) 
 
 Z id 
 
 the release of the captives, with other fa¬ 
 vors. In the ninth year of his reign he re¬ 
 belled (Jer. xxxvii. 5 sqq. ; Ezek. xvii. 15 
 sqq.), and Nebuchadnezzar, after taking 
 several cities, besieged Jerusalem for many 
 months. Zedekiah attempted to escape by 
 flight, but was overtaken at Jericho. His 
 sons were slain in his presence, his own 
 eyes were put out, and, heavily ironed, he 
 was carried to Babylon, where, according 
 to tradition, he ground in a mill until he 
 died. (Jer. xxxix.) Thus the prophecy 
 concerning him was literally fulfilled. 
 (Ezek. xii. 13; xvii. 19.) 
 
 Zeisberger, David, Moravian missionary 
 among the Western Indians of North 
 America; b. at Zauchtenthal, in Moravia, 
 April 11, 1721; d. at Goshen, O., Nov. 17, 
 1808. His parents were Moravians, and 
 emigrated to Georgia, and then to Bethle¬ 
 hem, Penn. Converted in 1743 he deter¬ 
 mined to devote his life to missionary 
 labors among the Indians, and for sixty- 
 two years he continued in this service with 
 unflagging zeal. He established at dif¬ 
 ferent points thirteen Christian Indian 
 towns, and gained a wonderful influence 
 among’the aborigines, many of whom were 
 converted, and led consistent Christian 
 lives. He spoke with fluency the Dela¬ 
 ware, Mohawk, and Onandaga languages, 
 and was familiar with other native tongues. 
 Several of the Indian tribes gave him a 
 prominent place in their councils. For a 
 long time he prevented the Delawares in 
 Ohio from joining the British Indians dur¬ 
 ing the Revolutionary War. In 1781, with 
 other missionaries, he was tried at Detroit 
 on the charge of being an American spy, 
 but was acquitted. The following year a 
 large number of the Christian Indians at 
 Gnadenhiitten were massacred, and Zeis¬ 
 berger led the survivors to Canada. In 
 1798 he came back with some of them to 
 the Tuscarawas Valley, where Congress 
 had made a grant of a large tract of land 
 to the Moravian Indians. The station 
 which he established he called Goshen, 
 and here spent the rest of his long life. 
 He wrote a number of works in the Indian 
 languages. See his Life , by De Schweinitz 
 (1870). 
 
 Zend-Avesta. See Parseeism. 
 
 Zephani'ah {Jehovah hides'), (1) Ninth of 
 the minor prophets. He was the son of 
 Cushi, and lived in the days of Josiah. 
 
 His prophecy was uttered in the early 
 part of the ministry of Jeremiah, between 
 b. c. 620 and 609. It is mainly designed 
 to excite the Jewish nation to repentance, 
 in view of threatened judgments, and to 
 
 comfort the people of God with promises 
 of the final triumph of righteousness. The 
 description of the judgment in ch. i. 14, 15, 
 “ The great day of Jehovah is near" (in 
 the Latin version, Dies irce , dies ilia), has 
 furnished the keynote to the sublimest 
 hymn of the Middle Ages, the Dies Irce of 
 Thomas a Celano (1250)—so often trans¬ 
 lated, but never equalled—which brings 
 before us, with most thrilling effect, the 
 awful judgment as an awful impending 
 reality.”—Schaff: Bible Did. (2) A priest 
 in the reign of Zedekiah. (2 Kings xxv. 
 18-21; Jer. xxi. 1; xxix. 25-29; xxxvii. 3; 
 lii. 24-27.) (3) Father of Josiah. (Zech. vi. 
 
 10.) (4) A Kohathite Levite. (1 Chron. 
 vi. 36.) 
 
 Zerub'babel {begotten in Babylon ), the 
 leader of the first band that returned from 
 the captivity in Babylon. (Ezra ii. 2.) The 
 sacred vessels returned to Jerusalem by 
 Cyrus were put in his care. A lineal de¬ 
 scendant of David, and a prince of Judah, 
 he laid the foundations of the temple, and 
 with Jeshua (Joshua) the high-priest re¬ 
 stored the religious rites of his people. 
 The work of building the temple was hin¬ 
 dered by the opposition of enemies who 
 had influence within the Persian court, but 
 was finally completed. (Ezrav. 2; Hag. i. 
 12, 14; ii. 2, 4; Zech. iv. 6, 10.) Zerubba- 
 bel was an ancestor t of our Lord. (Matt. i. 
 12; Luke iii. 27.) 
 
 Zi'don, or Si'don, the present Saida, 
 situated on the Mediterranean coast, 
 twenty - five miles south of the modern 
 Beirut. It is one of the most ancient cities 
 of the world. Named after “ the first-born 
 of Canaan” (Gen. x. 15; 1 Chron. i. 13), it 
 was the metropolis of Phoenicia. It was 
 famed for its manufactures and commerce. 
 Its idolatrous practices and corrupting in¬ 
 fluence called forth prophetic threatenings. 
 After its conquest by Alexander, and the 
 founding of Alexandria, it lost its mercan¬ 
 tile prominence. It was visited once by 
 Jesus (Matt. xv. 21), and Paul touched at 
 Zidon on his voyage from Caesarea to Rome. 
 It was the seat of a Christian bishop in the 
 second century. During the crusades it 
 suffered terribly. After being several 
 times taken and fortified by the Christians 
 it was finally conquered and burned by the 
 Muslims. Many interesting relics have 
 been found in its ruins, among them the 
 sarcophagus of King Ashmanezer, which 
 in 1855 was placed in the museum at Paris. 
 Zidon in its situation is one of the most 
 beautiful spots in Syria. It has a present 
 population of about 10,000, of whom about 
 7,000 are Muslims, and the rest Greeks, 
 Catholics, Maronites, and Jews. The 
 
Z in 
 
 ( 982 ) 
 
 Z in 
 
 American Presbyterian Hoard has a flour¬ 
 ishing mission here. 
 
 Zinzendorf, Nicolaus Ludwig, Count 
 von, “ the founder of the existing sect of 
 the Moravian Brethren, or Herrnhuters, 
 was b. at Dresden, May 26, 1700. His 
 father, a Saxon state minister, dying while 
 Zinzendorf was a child, the latter was edu¬ 
 cated by his grandmother, a learned and 
 pious lady, the Baroness von Gersdorf. 
 Spener, the head of the pietists, was a 
 frequent visitor at her house, and his con¬ 
 versation and the devotional exercises in 
 which Zinzendorf took part influenced his 
 character while a mere child. In 1710 he 
 went to Halle, where he spent six years, 
 under the special care of Francke, the 
 
 Christian David, a member of the old sect 
 of Moravian Brethren, of whom some still 
 remained in Moravia, professing the doc¬ 
 trines taught by John Huss. David de¬ 
 scribed the persecutions to which the sect 
 were exposed; and Zinzendorf invited him 
 and his friends to settle on his estate. 
 They accepted the proposal, and the colony 
 received the name of ‘ Herrnhut.’ Zinzen¬ 
 dorf acted with great liberality to the set¬ 
 tlers, and their success attracted much at¬ 
 tention. In 1734 Zinzendorf went, under a 
 feigned name, to Stralsund to pass an exam¬ 
 ination in theology, and was ordained a 
 minister of the Lutheran Church. In 1736 
 he was banished from Saxony on a charge 
 of introducing dangerous novelties in relig¬ 
 ion. He repaired to Holland, where he 
 
 ZIDON, FROM THE NORTH. 
 
 philanthropist. Zinzendorf founded among 
 his fellow-pupils a religious society, to 
 which he gave the name of the ‘ Order of 
 the Grain of Mustard-Seed.’ In 1816 he 
 was sent by his relatives to Wittenberg, 
 where pietism was in less repute than at 
 Halle; but he adhered to his early relig¬ 
 ious impressions. Two years afterward 
 he traveled through Holland and France, 
 everywhere endeavoring to convert the 
 distinguished persons whom he met to his 
 own religious views. On his return to 
 Dresden he was appointed a member of 
 the Saxon State Council, and married the 
 sister of the Count Reuss von Ebersdorf. 
 But political life was little to his mind, and 
 he returned to his country-seat in Upper 
 Lusatia. While residing there, he acci¬ 
 dentally met a wandering carpenter, named 
 
 founded a Moravian colony, and afterward 
 to Esthonia and Livonia, where he also 
 founded colonies. In 1737, at the request 
 of King Frederick William I. of Prussia, he 
 was ordained bishop of the Moravians. 
 In the same year he went to London, where 
 h'e was received with much consideration 
 by Wesley. In 1741 he went to North 
 America, accompanied by his daughter, 
 and founded the celebrated Moravian col¬ 
 ony at Bethlehem. The Herrnhuters, in 
 the meantime, by their good conduct and 
 industry, had won the respect of all classes 
 in Saxony, and in 1747 Zinzendorf was al¬ 
 lowed to return to Herrnhut. Having re¬ 
 ceived authority by act of Parliament to 
 establish Moravian settlements in the Eng¬ 
 lish colonies of North America, he return¬ 
 ed thither to do so. He finally settled at 
 
Zio 
 
 ( 983 ) 
 
 Zoe 
 
 Herrnhut; and, his first wife being dead, 
 married Anne Nitschmann, one of the 
 earliest colonists from Moravia. He died 
 on Ma^ 9, 1760. Thirty-two preachers, 
 from all parts of the globe, accompanied 
 the coffin to the grave. Zinzendorf was 
 the author of more than 100 works inverse 
 and prose. Some of his hymns are objec¬ 
 tionable on account of their sensuous ex¬ 
 pression. The same may be said of his 
 sermons, especially of those which refer to 
 the Holy Ghost as a spiritual mother. 
 His writings are often incoherent or mys¬ 
 tical, but they abound with passages in 
 which deep and original thought is express¬ 
 ed with great clearness and beauty. There 
 are lives of Zinzendorf by Spangenberg 
 (1775), Varnhagen von Ense (in his Bio- 
 graphische Denkmale , 1830), and Burkhardt 
 {1876).”—Chambers: Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Zi'on, or Si'on. See Jerusalem. 
 
 Ziska, or Zizka, John, of Trocznow, 
 the leader of the Hussites; b. at Trocznow 
 in Bohemia about 1360, the son of a Bo¬ 
 hemian nobleman; d. at the siege of the 
 castle of Przibislav, in 1424. He was first 
 a page at the court of King Wenceslas of 
 Bohemia, and afterward fought for a time 
 as a volunteer in the English army in 
 France; he then went to Poland, and served 
 under King Ladislas against the Teutonic 
 Knights. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Tannenberg, and was loaded with 
 high honors; and at the battle of Agincourt 
 in 1415 he also acquitted himself honorably. 
 He was now a zealous follower of John 
 Huss, and was roused to indignation by the 
 cruelties heaped upon his leader and col¬ 
 leagues; a party was formed by several of 
 the more patriotic and religious nobles, 
 one of whom was Ziska, who endeavored 
 to rouse the king to oppose the cruel de¬ 
 cisions of the Council of Constance. In 
 1419 Ziska headed an outbreak of the Huss¬ 
 ites at Prague, where the rebels avenged 
 themselves with interest for the wrongs 
 done by the Roman Catholics; and the 
 news proved fatal to the weak-minded King 
 Wenceslas, who had never summoned up 
 sufficient courage to take any steps to pre¬ 
 vent a catastrophe. Sigismund, brother of 
 Wenceslas, arrived with a large army to 
 take possession of the throne, but was de¬ 
 feated by the Hussites, who followed up 
 their advantage by the capture of the castle 
 of Prague (1521). Their chief stronghold, 
 Tabor, procured for them the name of Ta- 
 borites. Ziska became totally blind by a 
 wound received while besieging the castle 
 of Rabi; but he continued to hold the com¬ 
 mand of the Hussite army, and gained a 
 series of victories which have had few paral¬ 
 
 lels in history. Sigismund’s second army 
 was defeated in 1422, and driven back into 
 Moravia; in the same year the German 
 army, headed by Frederick of Saxony and 
 the Elector of Brandenburg, was routed at 
 Aussig; and Ziska gained ten other battles, 
 convincing Sigismund that it was hopeless 
 to attempt the conquest of Bohemia. He 
 therefore proposed to make a treaty with 
 the Hussites; but before matters were 
 brought to a conclusion Ziska was seized 
 by the plague at Przibislav, and died there. 
 The glory of his conquests was to some 
 extent marred by the cruelty with which 
 he treated his enemies; but the circum¬ 
 stances under which the war was carried on, 
 and the causes which led to it, are almost 
 sufficient excuse for the accusation.—Ben- 
 ham: Did. of Religion. See Hussites. 
 
 Zo'an, a city of Lower Egypt, the mod¬ 
 ern San. It is a very ancient city, built 
 seven years after Hebron. (Num. xiii. 22.) 
 According to tradition it was here that 
 Moses had his interviews with Pharaoh. 
 “ The field of Zoan” was the scene of 
 Jehovah’s wonder-working power. (Psa. 
 lxxviii. 12, 43.) The great city, now a bar¬ 
 ren waste, was strongly fortified by the 
 shepherd kings. The remains of edifices, 
 and several obelisks and statues of kings, 
 and a number of sphinxes, have been dis¬ 
 covered in recent years. The ruins of the 
 temple adorned by Rameses II. are re¬ 
 markable in their extent and richness. 
 
 Zo'ar, one of the cities of the plain (Gen. 
 xiii.), originally called Bela. (Gen. xiv. 2.) 
 It was spared from the destruction which 
 overtook Sodom and the other cities, and 
 it was here that Lot found a refuge. (Gen. 
 xix. 20-30.) The prophets include it among 
 the cities of Moab. (Isa. xv. 5; Jer. xlviii. 
 34.) Its exact location has been a matter 
 of much discussion among scholars. 
 
 Zo'ba, or Zo'bah {station) a part of Syria 
 between the northeast of Palestine and the 
 Euphrates. It was inhabited by a power¬ 
 ful and warlike people, who frequently 
 came into conflict with Israel. (1 Sam. xiv. 
 47; 2 Sam. viii. 3-8, 12; 1 Chron. xviii. 
 3-8. The natural resources of the country 
 are great, but at present it is deserted, ex¬ 
 cept by wandering Bedouins. 
 
 Zoeckler, Otto, D. D. (Giessen, 1866), 
 Lutheran; bo at Griinberg, Hesse, May 27, 
 1833; studied at Giessen, Erlangen, and Ber¬ 
 lin, 1851-56; became privat-docent at Gies¬ 
 sen, 1857; professor extraordinary, 1863; 
 ordinary professor at Greifswald, 1866, 
 where he was appointed consistorialrath, 
 1885. Since 1882 he has edited the Evan- 
 
 a 
 
Zor 
 
 ( 984 ) 
 
 Zwi 
 
 gelische A'ire hen zeitung. Among his works 
 is a commentary on Chronicles , Job , Prov¬ 
 erbs, Ecclesiastes , Canticles , and Daniel 
 (trans. in Lange series, N. Y., 1870); 
 
 Kreuz Christi (The Cross of Christ , Eng. 
 trans., London, 1877); Gottes Zeugen im 
 Reich der Natnr (1881), 2 vols. (Eng. trans., 
 1886). 
 
 Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, the founder 
 of the old Persian religion. We can speak 
 with no certainty about the life of Zoroas¬ 
 ter, so much that is told us is mythical, 
 and even the period at which he lived is so 
 variously stated. Some say that he lived 
 5,000 years before the Trojan War; others 
 that he reigned over Babylon, 2200 b. c.; 
 the Parsees place him at about 550 B. C., in 
 the time of Darius Hystaspes; others even 
 deny that he ever existed. Legend says 
 that he was born in Bactria; that his father, 
 Pourushaspa, and his mother, Daghda, 
 were in lowly circumstances, though of 
 princely origin, and that the future great¬ 
 ness of Zoroasterwas foretold to his mother 
 before his birth. When he grew to man’s 
 estate he spent many years in retirement, 
 and then Ormuzd, the good spirit, appear¬ 
 ed to him, and gave him this command: 
 “ Teach the nations that my light is hidden 
 under all that shines. Whenever you turn 
 your face toward the light, and you follow 
 my command, Ahriman (the evil spirit) 
 will be seen to fly. In this world there is 
 nothing superior to light.” He then hand¬ 
 ed him the sacred book, Avesta, and bade 
 him take it to Vishtasp (Hystaspes); he 
 did so, and this prince became a powerful 
 propagator of his faith. 
 
 Zoroaster was probably one of the So- 
 shyantos, or fire-priests, amongst whom 
 the religious reform began which he after¬ 
 ward carried out so boldly. The religion 
 of Iran had become mixed with that of the 
 Hindoos and Chaldaeans, the worship of el¬ 
 ements had been introduced, and Zoroaster 
 restored the religion of his ancestors to a 
 state of greater purity; but after his death 
 many schisms were introduced, and at 
 length it degenerated into an idolatrous 
 worship of the sun and fire. The leading 
 features of his religion have already been 
 stated in the article. Parsees ( q. v.). 
 
 Owing to the different dates assigned to 
 Zoroaster, some writers have maintained 
 that there were no less than six men of 
 that name; others have identified him with 
 Moses, Elijah, Esdras, and the servant of 
 Ezekiel. It is said that he was a great ma¬ 
 gician and astrologer.—Benham: Diet, of 
 Religion. 
 
 Zosimus, bishop of Rome, 417-418; the 
 successor of Innocent I. He canceled the 
 
 condemnation of PeLagius and Coelestius, 
 which had been confirmed by Innocent I. 
 This action led the African bishops to call 
 a new synod at Carthage, which secured 
 from the Emperor Honorius a sacrum re- 
 scriptum against the Pelagians. Zosimus 
 then yielded and condemned Pelagius in an 
 encyclical to the Eastern churches. Coeles¬ 
 tius retracted. 
 
 Zwingli ( zwing'lee ), Huldreich, the 
 great Swiss Reformer; b. at Wildhaus, in 
 the canton of St. Gall, Jan. 1, 1484; d. Oct. 
 11, 1531, on the battlefield of Kappel. He 
 was educated in the schools of Basel and 
 Berne and the University of Vienna. In 
 1502 he returned to Basel, where he taught 
 school and studied theology till 1506, when 
 he was ordained a priest, and appointed 
 pastor of Glarus. During the ten years 
 spent in this parish he applied himself with 
 great zeal to the study of the Bible, the 
 Greek language, and the works of the 
 Fathers, and gained a reputation for learn¬ 
 ing that secured him a pension of fifty 
 gulden a year from the pope to continue his 
 studies. While pastor at Glarus he had 
 acted as chaplain several times to regiments 
 of Swiss soldiers who had hired out their 
 services to foreign powers. In this way 
 his attention was called to the evils of this 
 mercenary system, and he attacked it with 
 great earnestness, and also opposed the al¬ 
 liance with France, which had gained pop¬ 
 ular favor. This action aroused so much 
 opposition that Zwingli, in 1516, left Glarus, 
 and accepted the office of preacher at Ein- 
 siedeln. This was a favorite place of pil¬ 
 grimage, and Zwingli, observing the suffer¬ 
 ing caused by this superstition, sought in 
 his sermons to show that the true source 
 of comfort was to be found in other ways. 
 As early as 1517 he began to discuss with 
 friends the possibility of doing away with 
 the papacy, and when an indulgence-seller, 
 Samson by name, made his appearance he 
 drove him out of the canton. An attempt 
 was made to quiet the aggressive spirit of 
 the fearless preacher by giving him the 
 appointment of a titular chaplain to the 
 pope. Not long after, he accepted a call as 
 preacher at the cathedral of Zurich, and 
 began his labors on New Year’s Day, 1519. 
 His ministry soon became a mighty power 
 in the city. Great crowds gathered to listen 
 to his preaching of the Gospel, and his in¬ 
 fluence was potent also in political affairs. 
 He prevented Zurich from joining the other 
 cantons in their alliance with France, and 
 thus aroused the bitter enmity of those who 
 raised the cry of “ heretic.” Zwingli now 
 found himself face to face with the author¬ 
 ities of the Roman Church. In the spring 
 of 1522 he published his tract, Von Erkiesen 
 
Zwi 
 
 ( 985 ) 
 
 Zwi 
 
 und Fryheit der Spysen , and, soon after, his 
 Archeteles. These polemic writings aroused 
 intense interest, and Z,wingli was recog¬ 
 nized as one of the foremost leaders in the 
 Reformation, which was spreading far and 
 near. It was decided to hold a public re¬ 
 ligious disputation in the City Hall- of 
 Zurich. When it opened, Jan. 29, 1523, 
 Zwingli presented sixty-five theses, in 
 which he maintained the doctrine of justifi¬ 
 cation by faith, and held to the Scriptures 
 as the only authoritative guide in matters 
 of religion. The papacy, mass, absolution, 
 indulgences, penance, pilgrimages, monas- 
 ticism, etc., were condemned, and the prin¬ 
 ciple asserted that the congregation repre¬ 
 sented the Church. The popular verdict 
 sustained Zwingli, and he soon began to 
 put his views into practical action. The 
 female convents in the city were closed, 
 and the chapter of the cathedral became a 
 theological school for the training of minis¬ 
 ters of the reformed faith. In 1523 Zwingli 
 published his De Canone Missce Epichresis , 
 and the following year his Antibolon Ad- 
 versus Em serum , in which he broached his 
 views on the Lord’s Supper (see Lord’s 
 Supper, p. 539), and condemned image- 
 worship. This led to another public dis¬ 
 cussion, and a victory for the reformer that 
 abolished images and relics from the 
 churches, and did away with many festivals 
 and other ceremonies. At Easter, 1525, the 
 Lord’s Supper was for the first time cele¬ 
 brated in the Reformed manner, and the 
 cup given to the laity. 
 
 While the Reformation had taken firm 
 root in Zurich the position of Zwingli and 
 his followers was beset with many diffi¬ 
 culties. The Anabaptists caused much 
 
 trouble, and the Roman Church, through 
 the union of the cantons, made every effort 
 to regain its foothold in the city. An in¬ 
 vitation was extended to a great disputa¬ 
 tion at Baden, where the Roman Catholics 
 were represented by Faber and Eck. Zwingli 
 did not consider it safe to attend, and the 
 diet placed him under the ban. At this 
 time the controversy with Luther was 
 opened regarding the doctrine of the 
 Lord’s Supper, which resulted in a hope¬ 
 less difference of opinion between the two 
 great reformers. The progress of the Ref¬ 
 ormation brought the Protestant and 
 Roman Catholic cantons into open conflict. 
 In May, 1529, a Protestant pastor of Zurich 
 was seized on the highway, carried into 
 Schwyz, tried for heresy, and sentenced to 
 be burned. War was at once declared by 
 Zurich, but a temporary peace was arrang¬ 
 ed. On Oct. 10, 1531, the army of the 
 Roman Catholic cantons crossed the fron¬ 
 tier of Zurich, and the following morning 
 the battle of Kappel was fought. The 
 army of Zurich was defeated, and Zwingli 
 fell while in the act of giving comfort 
 to a dying soldier. His last words were, 
 “ They can kill the body, but not the 
 soul.” 
 
 The first collected edition of Zwingli’s 
 writings was published at Zurich, 1545; the 
 last and most complete by Schuler and 
 Schulthess (Zurich, 1828-42, supplement, 
 1861). Several of his works were early 
 translated into English. Among modern 
 biographies of the great reformer are those 
 of J. J. Hottinger (Zurich, 1842; Eng. 
 trans., Harrisburg, 1857); R* Christoffel 
 (Elberfeld, 1857; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 
 1858). 
 

 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 

 i 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦