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BULLETIN NO. 39 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 
 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
 
 TWO 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF CURRICULUM 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 By 
 
 Walter S. Monroe 
 Director, Bureau of Educational Research 
 
 Darwin A. Hindman 
 The Ohio State University, Cohimbus, Ohio 
 
 and 
 
 Roy S. Lundjn 
 
 Principal, Community High School, Staunton, Illinois 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA 
 
 1928 
 
i70 
 v^o, 59 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 Chapter I. The General Theory of Curriculum 
 
 Construction 7 
 
 Chapter II. Constructing a Curriculum in Physical 
 
 Education FOR Boys ON THE High-School Level ... 14 
 
 Chapter III. Constructing a Curriculum in Horticulture 
 
 FOR the High School ZZ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The general theory of curriculum construction has re- 
 ceived extensive consideration in our educational literature 
 during the past ten years. Those who undertake the con- 
 struction of a curriculum usually find it very difficult to 
 apply this general theory because it is necessary to effect 
 some adaptation to the particular field under consideration. 
 This bulletin reports in a somewhat summary form the ap- 
 plication of a general procedure of curriculum construction 
 to two fields of instruction on the high-school level. The 
 application to physical education was made by Mr. Darwin 
 A. Hindman of Ohio State Universit}'; the one to horticul- 
 ture by Mr. Roy S. Lundin, Principal, Community High 
 School, Staunton, Illinois. In both cases the work was done 
 under the immediate guidance of the Director of the Bureau 
 of Educational Research while these men were graduate 
 students at the University of Illinois. The original manu- 
 scripts were accepted as theses in partial fulfillment of the 
 requirements for the master's degree. 
 
 In preparing this bulletin the Director of the Bureau of 
 Educational Research has utilized only those portions of 
 these theses that seemed to be essential in describing the 
 method of working out the curriculum. No attempt has 
 been made to publish the curricula formulated by these stu- 
 dents. A reader who is interested in the complete theses 
 will find them in the Library of the University of Illinois. 
 
 Walter S. AIonroe, Director. 
 November 22, 1927. 
 
TWO ILLUSTRATIONS OF CURRICULUM 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE GENERAL THEORY OF CURRICULUM 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The educative process. The child learns as the result of his own 
 activities — perceiving, thinking, doing, and feeling. The outcomes of 
 these activities are designated as controls of conduct (abilities), or 
 achievements. Most of the learning activities in school occur in re- 
 sponse to exercises set by the teacher and are based on or have to do 
 with books, pictures, apparatus, and the like. These are called materials 
 of instruction. A child's achievement — i.e., what he learns — is de- 
 termined in part by the materials of instruction provided for his use. 
 The learning exercises he is asked to do and the instructional pro- 
 cedures to which he is subjected are also potent factors, but they are 
 partially determined by the materials of instruction. Hence the ma- 
 terials of instruction sustain an important relation to the educative 
 process and the achievements of pupils. 
 
 The problem of curriculum construction. The central problem of 
 curriculum construction is to select appropriate materials of instruc- 
 tion. Since materials of instruction and learning exercises are inti- 
 mately related, the curriculum-maker sometimes specifies the former 
 by enumerating the exercises to be used. Hence the central problem 
 of curriculum construction may be described also as devising and 
 selecting the learning exercises to be used. 
 
 This brief description of the central problem of curriculum con- 
 struction does not adequately indicate what the curriculum-maker has 
 to do. In order to determme the materials of instruction or learning 
 exercises, it is necessary to determine first what the children should 
 learn; that is, the objectives of the school. Then the curriculum- 
 maker faces the task of determining the learning activities required for 
 the attainment of the controls of conduct specified as objectives. Hence 
 the logical steps in the construction of a curriculum are : ( 1 ) deter- 
 mination of objectives or controls of conduct to be acquired by the 
 oupils ; (2) determination of the learning activities required for this 
 purpose; (3) determination of the materials of instruction and learn- 
 ng exercises that will form an efficient basis for the necessary learning 
 ictivities. 
 
8 Bulletin Xo. 39 
 
 Variation in terms in which objectives may be conceived. Although 
 objectives were defined in the preceding paragraph as the controls of 
 conduct that the children are expected to acquire, the term needs fur- 
 ther explanation. The word objective in education is an adaptation of 
 the military term. A military objective is a "point," the occupancy or 
 capture of which is set by those in command as the goal for the ad- 
 vance of troops. For example, the city of Paris was the most im- 
 portant objective of the German army during the World War. 
 Similarl}- in education, the learning activities in which children engage 
 have or should have objectives. In describing educational objectives, 
 writers have differed in their use of terms. The confusion resulting 
 from such variation in terminology' has been accentuated by the failure 
 to define clearly the terms used. In order to give the reader a proper 
 orientation, attention is called to three points of view. 
 
 1. Remote versus immediate objectives. The city of Paris was an 
 objective for the German army. But Paris was a long distance away, 
 and before it could be reached, other positions had to be taken and 
 these positions became in military language "secondary objectives." 
 Reaching a secondary objective required first reaching still nearer ones, 
 and these, yet nearer objectives, and so on. At the other end of the 
 scale, the taking of Paris was itself secondary' to a larger objective, and 
 this to a larger and so on until the ultimate objective is lost in meta- 
 physical speculation. 
 
 In education, likewise, it must be recognized that there can be 
 objectives, and sub-objectives, and super-objectives of all degrees. The 
 objective in today's arithmetic lesson is the correct solution of certain 
 problems. But why? Because it contributes to the more remote ob- 
 jective, the ability to solve other problems. But why the ability to solve 
 problems? Because it is necessary to the objective of earning a living. 
 But why earn a living? Because it contributes to a further objective, 
 and this one to others, and so on until one finds himself facing the 
 problem of human destiny. The objectives mentioned in this illustra- 
 tion by no means exhaust the possibilities, for between any two of 
 those mentioned others can easily be thought of, and the first objective 
 in the series can easih^ be made to yield subsidiary ones, so that it is 
 possible to think of objectives of many degrees of remoteness or near- 
 ness. For some purposes it is helpful to classif}' objectives as ultimate 
 or immediate, but when doing so it is necessary to remember that the 
 remoteness or nearness of an objective is a relative rather than an I; 
 absolute characteristic. 
 
Curriculum Construction 9 
 
 2. General versus specific objectives. A second relation between 
 objectives is that some may be subdivisions of others ; the same ob- 
 jective may be stated in one large unit or in a number of small ones. 
 "Caring for one's health" is no more remote than "brushing one's 
 teeth twice daily"; it is merely more general, more inclusive. Any 
 division of character or of conduct can, in principle at least, be divided 
 into many constituents which differ from the larger unit only in being 
 more specific and less inclusive. Failure to maintain the distinction 
 between the variation in size of unit and the variation in degree of 
 remoteness is an important cause of confusion in the consideration of 
 objectives. 
 
 3. Conduct objectives versus control objectives. The outcomes 
 of learning activity are subjective qualities which function as controls 
 of later conduct. In considering objectives, one may think either of 
 the subjective controls of conduct or of the conduct which they con- 
 trol. For example, one may say that an objective is the performance 
 by the pupil (in adult life) of the activities which constitute good 
 citizenship, or that the objective is the possession by the student of the 
 subjective equipment which will ensure such conduct on his part. One 
 may state as an objective: "use of grammatically correct language," or 
 "ability and disposition to use grammatically correct language." To 
 give an example of a more specific objective : one may say an objective 
 of arithmetic is "to respond with 'twelve' whenever the stimulus 
 'square-root of 144' is received," or he may say it is "the habit of 
 responding with 'twelve' whenever the stimulus 'square-root of 144' is 
 received." Similarly for any conduct objective of any degree of 
 generalness, or of any degree of remoteness, it is possible to think 
 of corresponding control objectives consisting of all the subjective 
 qualities which are necessary in order to bring about the given conduct 
 objective. 
 
 Consideration of remote objectives required because education in 
 school is preparation for adult life. Some writers insist that the 
 function of the school is to assist and direct pupils in realizing their 
 present purposes rather than in attaining some remote good. How- 
 ever, the principal function of the secondary school (and probably of 
 other schools as well) is to prepare youth for adult life. This principle 
 is expressed by saying that the objective of the high school is the best 
 possible adult life.^ Hence the consideration of ultimate objectives is 
 inevitable. We must look toward the future, but in doing so, we should 
 not overlook the more immediate objectives. 
 
 'This is, of course, a conduct objective, expressed in the most general terms possible. 
 
10 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 General character of immediate objectives. It has been explained 
 above that for an}- unit in terms of which conduct may be described, 
 there is a control objective which consists of all the subjective equip- 
 ment necessary to ensure such conduct. In order to understand the 
 nature of this subjective equipment, which becomes an immediate 
 objective, it is helpful to recognize certain distinctions. The following 
 analysis of controls of conduct has been proposed : 
 
 I. Specific habits: motor skills and fixed associations. Under this head are 
 placed all those outcomes of learning activity that function as automatic or 
 largely mechanical controls of conduct. 
 
 II. Knowledge or adaptive controls of conduct. Under the head of knowl- 
 edge are grouped those controls of conduct (abilities) that function in over- 
 coming difficulties presented by new situations. 
 
 III. General patterns of conduct. These include ideals, attitudes, interests, 
 and tastes. Their general character is suggested by the ideal which may be 
 thought of as a general pattern to which conduct will conform in a variety of 
 situations." 
 
 The controls of conduct usually classified under these rubrics do 
 not alone determine what behavior shall be. They function on a 
 foundation of general capacities and powers. General organic effi- 
 ciency, general muscular strength, and general intelligence are also 
 controls of conduct. They might be considered as elements of the 
 controls of conduct usually classified as specific habits, knowledge, or 
 general patterns of conduct, but for some purposes it seems desirable 
 to recognize them as separate controls of conduct. Consequently, in 
 the exposition of the objectives of a curriculum in physical education, 
 these controls of conduct will be designated as "foundational" to dis- 
 tinguish them from the three rubrics given above which will be called 
 "functional." These terms are suggested by Bobbitt : 
 
 The foundational education is the unfoldment of the powers of the indi- 
 vidual without consciousness of the relation of these powers to specific functions. 
 The child at play, for example, is having experiences for the joy of the experi- 
 ences . . . And yet his experiences are conditioning — and in a sense, produc- 
 ing — his general growth : physical, social, intellectual, aesthetic, moral . . . 
 the experiences are to be carefully conditioned and guided by the teachers in 
 such a way that they will lead to growth along physical, social and aesthetic lines 
 of sorts that are needed as foundations of the specific abilities that are to be 
 built thereon.' 
 
 Approach to the determination of objectives. The problein of 
 determining immediate objectives is that of determining just which 
 particular foundational and functional controls of conduct are needed 
 for desirable adult life. The construction of a curriculum in the field 
 of a particular school subject is restricted to the determining of those 
 
 -Monroe, Walter S. Directing Learning in the High School. Garden City, New York: 
 Doubleday, Page and Company, 1927, p. 30-31. 
 
 'Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 
 1924, Chapter V. 
 
Curriculum Construction 11 
 
 objectives that may be engendered in part or wholly by means of 
 materials of instruction in that field. A preliminary step in the de- 
 termination of immediate objectives is to formulate a description of the 
 kind of adult life that is desirable. This has been done innumerable 
 times, in extremely various terms, and with all degrees of generality. 
 The following statement is typical : 
 
 Education is the development of the individual b}- means of his own 
 activity, in response to social influences, toward a realization of the values of 
 life, and participation in the development of a society where the vakies of life 
 will be realized by each in proportion to his capacity for such realization.'' 
 
 Such a general description of desirable adult life should be kept in 
 
 mind as a guiding influence, but in the practical task of curriculum 
 
 construction, it furnishes little direct aid. It is necessary that adult 
 
 conduct be analyzed and re-analyzed until units of working size are 
 
 reached. Bobbitt has proposed the following ten groups of activities : 
 
 1. Language activities, social intercommunication 
 
 2. Health activities 
 
 3. Citizenship activities 
 
 4. General social activities — meeting and mingling with others 
 
 5. Spare-time activities, amusements, recreations 
 
 6. Keeping one's self mentally fit — analogous to the health 
 
 activities of keeping one's self pliA'sicalh' fit 
 
 7. Religious activities 
 
 8. Parental activities, the upbringing of children, the main- 
 
 tenance of a proper home life 
 
 9. Unspecialized or non-vocational practical activities 
 10. The labors of one's calling^ 
 
 Courtis has given a slightly different analysis : 
 
 1. The nurturing activities — care of the immature, the ill, the 
 
 unfortunate, the handicapped, the vicious 
 
 2. The maintenance activities — concerned with the consump- 
 
 tion of food, clothing, shelter, specialized service, etc. 
 
 3. The recreational activities of leisure hours 
 
 4. The home-making activities of choosing mates, begetting 
 
 children and raising them 
 
 5. The production activities, concerned with the preparation 
 
 of food, clothing, shelter, specialized service, etc. 
 
 ^From a lecture by Professor E. C. Hayes, University of Illinois. The idea is given in 
 1 expanded form, though not the definition itself, in: Hayes, Edward Gary. Introduction to 
 ithe Study of Sociology. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1918, Chapter XXXV. This 
 chapter is an unusually valuable and stimulating discussion of education with emphasis, 
 I naturally, on the sociological aspects. 
 lo-,, ^Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 
 1924, p. 8. t j< 
 
12 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 6. The self-improvement activities, of study, reflection, wor- 
 
 ship, etc. 
 
 7. Communication 
 
 8. Transportation and exchange 
 
 9. Government" 
 
 A committee of the North Central Association of Colleges and 
 Secondary Schools suggests that the activities of life may be divided 
 into four groups : 
 
 1. To maintain health and physical fitness 
 
 2. To use leisure time in right ways 
 
 3. To engage successfully in vocational activities 
 
 4. To sustain successfully certain definite relationships such 
 
 as domestic, community, civic, and the like' 
 
 Further analysis necessary for the determination of functional 
 objectives. The proper performance of the activities of any one of 
 the above three lists could be considered to express, in very large units, 
 the conduct objectives of education. The foundational controls, being 
 very general in their scope, and influencing practically all of life rather 
 than specific parts of it, do not require any further analysis of life 
 activity for their determination. The functional controls of conduct, 
 on the other hand, exert their influence over limited sections of life 
 activity — in some cases over only very small and specific acts. For 
 their determination, therefore, it is necessary that one consider the 
 smaller and smaller units into which life activity can be analyzed. 
 Accordingly, the next step in curriculum construction is to extend the 
 analysis of adult life by subdividing the large units in terms of which 
 the first analysis is expressed. The further this analysis is extended, 
 the clearer will be the curriculum-maker's concept of the conduct ob- 
 jectives. 
 
 Objective methods of curriculum construction versus systematic 
 and critical judgment. Our present curricula are frequently criticized 
 on the grounds that they represent opinion. As a result of this criti- 
 cism there have been many attempts to base the construction of a 
 curriculum upon objective data ; i.e., to employ procedures such that the 
 resulting curriculum would be relatively independent of the opinions of 
 its maker.' The illustrations of curriculum construction described in 
 the following chapters involve little or no use of objective data. The 
 
 'Courtis, S. A. "Reading Between the Lines," Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the National 
 Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing 
 Company, 1926, p. 97. 
 
 '"Report on Standards for Reorganization of Secondary School Curricula, 1924." North 
 Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. March 20, 21, 22, 192+, p. 6. 
 
 ^See p. 34. 
 
Curriculum Construction 13 
 
 procedure employed may be described as "systematic and critical judg- 
 ment." The general plan has been described in the preceding pages. In 
 both cases, the first major step was to formulate an analytical descrip- 
 tion of the ultimate or conduct objectives for which the proposed 
 curriculum was considered to contribute equipment. From these con- 
 duct objectives, the immediate or control objectives were derived. The 
 last two steps include the predicting of the learning activities necessary 
 for acquiring the specified controls of conduct, and the learning exer- 
 cises that will serve as efficient bases for these activities. 
 
 Certain objective data would have been helpful in carrying out 
 these steps, but "systematic, critical judgment" is believed to possess 
 merit. Another curriculum-maker following the same procedure and 
 governed by the same point of view probably would produce a some- 
 what different list of learning exercises, but it is difficult to believe 
 that many of the differences would be fundamental. In any case, 
 relatively few objective data are available for the teacher, principal, or 
 superintendent who faces the task of constructing a curriculum for 
 next year. Hence he is forced to rely largely upon "systematic, critical 
 judgment." 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 CONSTRUCTING A CURRICULUM IN PHYSICAL EDUCA- 
 TION FOR BOYS ON THE HIGH-SCHOOL LEVEL 
 
 Two general classes of objectives. In dealing with the objectives 
 of physical education it appears helpful to distinguish between those 
 that are foundational and those designated as functional,^ However, 
 the difference between foundational objectives and functional objectives 
 is not so distinct as may at first appear. A human being is a unit, and 
 efforts to divide him into mind, body, and spirit, or into faculties and 
 processes, are certain to encounter difficulties if they are carried far 
 enough. The foundational controls of conduct are often spoken of as 
 being the product of "natural growth and development." They are 
 probably no more the result of growth and development than are 
 specific controls, and the word "natural" is most likely used as a result 
 of a misapprehension. There is one sense, however, in which they are 
 more natural than the functional controls. Nature herself has provided 
 the individual with instinctive urges to engage in the educational activ- 
 ities for the engendering of these controls of conduct. Such activities 
 are play. 
 
 Attempts to analyze fundamental powers and abilities difficult and 
 misleading. Foundational controls of conduct are so fundamental and 
 so general in their scope that it is difficult to ascertain their exact 
 nature or to analyze them into small units. Functional controls of 
 conduct, on the other hand, are more easily analyzed into small and 
 relatively specific constituents. The results are a short and incon- 
 spicuous list of foundational objectives and a longer and more impos- 
 ing list of functional objectives. A cursory reading of the two sets of 
 objectives is likely to give a false impression of their relative im- 
 portance. As a matter of fact, the foundational objectives of physical 
 education are overwhelmingh^ more important than the functional. 
 Physical education has its greatest duty to perform in replacing the 
 natural work and play activities that formerly occupied so much of the 
 life of children and securing if possible a better fundamental training 
 and development. 
 
 Relative importance of foundational controls of conduct not so 
 great at high-school age as in earlier years. It must be recognized, 
 however, that the greatest need for the fundamental physical, intel- 
 lectual, and social development from physical education is in the early 
 
 ^See p. 10 for a description of these types. 
 
 14 
 
Curriculum Construction 15 
 
 years of life, probably before school age. When a child has reached 
 high-school age he has lost forever the chance for much of the benefit 
 which he might have received from physical education some years 
 earlier. Also, it is very important that physical education in high school 
 engender certain specific controls of conduct. This is not saying that 
 the foundational objectives have become unimportant; they are still 
 important, probably predominantly so. They are merely much less im- 
 portant, and the functional controls more important, than on the ele- 
 mentary-school level. 
 
 Points of emphasis in foundational objectives. It has already 
 been stated that our knowledge of foundational controls of conduct is 
 so limited and their nature is so peculiar, that it is difficult and mis- 
 leading to attempt their complete description or analysis. However, it 
 seems necessary as a guide for determining the general character of 
 the learning activities, to indicate the foundational objectives that 
 should be emphasized. The following outline is given, then, not with 
 the idea that it is a complete analysis of the desirable foundational out- 
 comes of physical education, but with the hope that physical education 
 carried on so as to achieve these objectives will include the best possible 
 "broad range of diversified activity." 
 
 Foundational objectives of physical education. The general na- 
 ture of the foundational objectives in physical education is indicated 
 in the following outline:^ 
 
 A. Organic strength, efficiency, and skill 
 
 1. Power and efficiency of the "vital" organs: circulatory, 
 
 respiratory, digestive, and eliminative 
 
 2. Nervous strength and efficiency 
 
 3. Strength and endurance of the fundamental muscles 
 
 4. General skill of the fundamental muscles 
 
 B. Foundational knowledge 
 
 1. Knowledge of the world which comes from dealing with 
 it in a motor way 
 
 -It is clear that there is a great difference between the objectives of group A and those 
 of group B, and it seems also that the former group are foundational in a sense in which the 
 latter are not. Accordingly, a good case can be made for separating the two groups, including 
 group B with the functional objectives, or making them a third class. However, after long 
 and careful thought and with some misgiving, it has been decided to leave them where they 
 are, on the following grounds: (1) The objectives of group B must be included somewhere. 
 An important duty of physical education is to see that children have the abundant and varied 
 motor experience which will enable them to learn of the material world, of their own bodies, 
 and of their companions. (2) These objectives cannot be included with the functional 
 objectives. All objectives are, of course, functional, but the ones here called functional in a 
 restricted sense are those controls of conduct which have specific functions to perform, while 
 the objectives of group B above are to be engendered without any activity in mind much 
 more specific than in the case of organic efficiency. (3) As bases for the selection of learn- 
 ing exercises, the two groups above have much in common. They demand educational experi- 
 ence of a certain type, not of an exact kind. 
 
16 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 2. "Judgment in the speed, range, vigor, and timing of 
 
 movements"^ 
 
 3. Knowledge of the uses and Hmits of one's own power 
 
 4. Knowledge of one's human environment 
 Justification of the objectives of organic strength, efficiency, and 
 
 skill. The foundational objectives classed under A might be considered 
 as the results of proper growth and development of bodily mechanisms 
 in structure and function. The importance of physical education for 
 this development depends on two facts : first, that proper growth and 
 development demand exercise of function; second, that the only way, 
 under ordinary conditions, to regulate the exercise of function of the 
 vital organs and the nerve centers is to reach them indirectly through 
 the exercise of the muscles. 
 
 Man is provided by heredit}- with certain growth tendencies or 
 potentialities. Proper growth, however, requires other conditions than 
 the mere potentiality. Potential growth will become actual only with 
 proper diet, proper rest, proper elimination, and other essential condi- 
 tions. It is a fundamental law of growth that development of the 
 organism in structure and function requires exercise of function. Every 
 one understands that, if the arm of an infant should be strapped so 
 that the muscles of this arm could not be used, the muscles would not 
 grow and would soon lose all power to function. It is not always so 
 clearly understood that the same statement is true of other functions 
 and other parts of the body. A child's stomach that does not have 
 exercise in performing its natural function will not develop as a 
 stomach should. A similar statement can be made for all parts of the 
 body, including the digestive, respiratory, and circulatory systems, and, 
 let it not be forgotten, the nervous system.* The development of the 
 visceral organs and of the fundamental nerve centers depends upon 
 their being stimulated to vigorous normal functioning in the only way 
 in which they can be so stimulated ; viz., by a demand on the part 
 of the muscles for their services in enabling the muscles to perform 
 their work. 
 
 Justification of the objectives under "foundational knowledge." 
 The expressions used in stating the objectives under "fundamental 
 knowledge" are borrowed largely from John Dewey. His belief in the 
 importance of varied motor and sense experience for the acquiring of 
 this fundamental kind of knowledge is expressed in many passages, of 
 which the following may be taken as a good sample : 
 
 ^Quotation from an unknown source. 
 
 ^There are a few apparent exceptions to this rule, notably the reproductive system. 
 The fact is, however, that the developing reproductive system has no reproductive function to 
 perform; functioning does not appear until development is complete. 
 
Curriculum Construction 17 
 
 Physical growth is not identical with mental growth, but the two co:ncide 
 in time, and normally the latter is impossible without the former. If we have 
 reverence for childhood, our first specific rule is to make sure of a healthy 
 bodily development. Even apart from its intrinsic value as a source of efficient 
 action and of happiness, the proper development of the mind directly depends 
 upon the proper use of the muscles and the senses. The organs of action and of 
 reception are indispensable for getting into relation with the materials of 
 knowledge. . . . Consequently the activities of the child are not so aimless as 
 they seem to adults, but are the means by which he becomes acquainted with his 
 world and by which he also learns the use and limits of his own powers.^ 
 
 The use of the muscles and of the senses which are so necessary 
 for the foundations of knowledge in the child are obtained very largely 
 through play. Not all play, of course, comes within the definition of 
 physical education. Much play is quiet and involves little or no big- 
 muscle activity. But for the child and youth, play is predominantly of 
 the physical-education kind, involving big-muscle activity, but with 
 large sensory, intellectual, emotional, and social elements. Thus it is 
 that second only to the duty of providing a needed condition for proper 
 organic development is the duty of physical education to provide for 
 boys and girls an abundance of intense and varied play experience. 
 
 The functional objectives of physical education. As pointed out 
 in Chapter P the determination of the functional objectives is ap- 
 proached by effecting an analysis of out-of -school life. The analyses 
 suggested by Bobbitt and others do not appear to be very helpful as a 
 basis for determining the functional objectives within the field of 
 physical education. Consequently the following is proposed as a list 
 of the principal fields of adult activity for which high-school physical 
 education should be expected to engender functional controls of con- 
 duct : 
 
 I. The activities of maintaining health and physical efficiency 
 II. Spare time activities, amusements, recreations 
 
 III. General social activities — meeting and mingling with others 
 
 IV. Emergency activities requiring certain special strengths and 
 skills 
 
 V. Parental activities — the upbringing of children^ 
 It now remains to consider each of these groups of activities in 
 order and to list the controls of conduct which it is believed physical 
 education can contribute to their proper performance :^ 
 
 ^Dewey, John, and Dewey, Evelyn. Schools of Tomorrow. New York: E. P. Button 
 'and Company, 1915, p. 7-8. 
 
 ^Sec p. 11. 
 
 'Adapted from: Bobbitt, Franklin. Hoiv to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, 1924, p. 910. All of the rubrics except IV are used by Bobbitt. Rubric IV 
 was suggested by the following reference: "Aims and Scope of Physical Education," American 
 Physical Education Review, 25:254-261, June, 1920. 
 
 *There is no significance in the order in which the controls of conduct are mentioned. 
 
18 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 I. The activities of maintaining health and physical efficiency 
 
 1. The health ideal (including not onh' a strong feeling of satis- 
 
 faction in the possession of health and of annoyance at 
 its lack, but also a strong feeling of satisfaction when 
 doing one's best to maintain health and of insufferable 
 annoyance when not doing so) 
 
 2. The practice of setting aside a regular time each day for 
 
 physical exercise 
 
 3. Knowledge of the hygienic values of different forms of phy- 
 
 sical-education activity 
 
 4. Knowledge of the proper relation between time of exercise 
 
 and time of meals 
 
 5. An attitude of pride in an erect and self-respecting carriage 
 
 of the body 
 
 6. Knowledge of the distinction between good posture and poor, 
 
 in one's self and in others 
 
 7. Knowledge of the value of a general vigorous workout for the 
 
 prevention or relief of constipation 
 
 8. Ability to use abdomen-kneading exercises for the prevention 
 
 or relief of constipation 
 
 9. Ability to control sex functions and emotions in the interest of 
 
 health 
 
 10. Abilit}' to secure vigorous and pleasurable exercise from using 
 
 a medicine ball 
 
 11. Ability to use correctly one good set of calisthenic exercises 
 
 12. Ability to use for the double purpose of maintaining health 
 
 and enjoying leisure time a variety of physical-education 
 . activities for different conditions of weather, available 
 companions, and other factors 
 12A. Specifically, the ability to participate in as above, the 
 following : 
 
 a. Playground baseball 
 
 b. Indoor baseball 
 
 c. Soccer football 
 
 d. Volleyball 
 
 e. Handball 
 
 f. Tennis 
 
 g. Boxing 
 h. Wrestling 
 
Curriculum Construction 19 
 
 i. Fundamentals of running^ 
 j. Fundamentals of jumping^ 
 k. Fundamentals of throwing® 
 
 1. Fundamentals of climbing, including the ability to 
 climb a twenty- foot rope® 
 m. Swimming^" 
 n. Diving 
 o. Stunts^^ 
 
 Backward circle on horizontal bar 
 Big drop from horizontal bar 
 Kip-up on horizontal bar 
 12B. The ability to participate properly in one of the above 
 activities includes all of the follow^ing that can apply 
 to the activity : 
 
 a. Skill in the performance of the activity 
 
 b. Knowledge of the rules of the activity 
 
 c. Knowledge of the values of the activity 
 
 d. Knowledge of the conditions for which the activity is 
 
 best suited 
 
 e. Knowledge of the equipment needed for the activity 
 
 f. Ability to prepare, direct the preparation of, or select 
 
 and purchase the equipment needed 
 
 g. Ability to teach the rules to others 
 
 h. Ability to help others develop skill in the activity 
 i. Knowledge of the kind of clothing that is most sen- 
 sible for the activity under different conditions 
 j. The disposition to wear the most sensible kind of 
 
 clothing for the activity 
 k. The ideal that physical-education activities are pri- 
 marily to be practiced rather than watched (The 
 functioning of this ideal will be manifested as a 
 tendency to participate in activities rather than to 
 watch them) 
 1. The disposition to do one's best when playing 
 m. The "play spirit" — i.e., the spirit of playing for the 
 game itself, and of getting real joy from playing 
 
 'The idea here is not that the adult should be prepared to engage in formal contest in 
 •running, jumping, throwing, or climbing, but that he should have the fundamental abilities 
 that can be used in improvised or other informal play activities. 
 
 ^"Standards of attainment are specified for both swimming and diving. 
 
 "A limited number of stunts are specified. 
 
20 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 n. The spirit of constant courtesy to companions, oppo- 
 nents and officials 
 
 o. The attributes, beside those mentioned, which make 
 one a true sportsman^- 
 
 II. Spare time activities, amusements, recreations 
 
 13. Such a keen desire to engage in wholesome physical activity 
 
 that one will turn to it in preference to less desirable 
 forms of activity 
 
 14. Ability to secure the pleasures of a connoisseur as a spectator 
 
 of the wholesome physical activities of others 
 
 15. The attitude of a sportsman when acting as a spectator at the 
 
 physical activities of others 
 
 16. x\bility to use for the double purpose of keeping fit and enjoy- 
 
 ing leisure time, a variety of physical-education activities 
 16A. The same as 12A 
 16B. The same as 12B 
 
 III. General social activities — meeting and mingling with others 
 
 17. Ability to participate in physical-education games and other 
 
 activities as a means of becoming acquainted with pleas- 
 ant and desirable people 
 
 18. Ability to participate in physical-education games and other 
 
 activities as a means of social intercourse (as in playing 
 cards) 
 
 19. A feeling of self-respect as a result of a knowledge of physical 
 
 power and efficiency, and of possessing an erect and dig- 
 nified carriage of the body 
 
 20. Skill in certain elements of social intercourse as a result of 
 
 practice in social games 
 
 21. Ability and disposition to be courteous 
 
 IV. Emergency activities requiring certain special strengths and skills 
 
 22. The ability to save one's self from danger of drowning 
 
 23. The ability to save others from danger of drowning (as indi- 
 
 cated b}' the ability to pass the Red Cross life-saving test) 
 
 24. The ability to run with fair speed and endurance 
 
 25. The ability to perform the simpler marching movements in co- 
 
 operation with others under leadership 
 
 26. The ability to protect one's self, or others, from undesirable 
 
 persons, and to rid one's self of such persons 
 
 ^-See: Staley, Seward C. "The Program of Sportsmanship Education," University of 
 Illinois Bulletin, VoL 21, No. 49, Bureau of Educational Research Circular No. 28. Urbana, 
 Illinois: University of Illinois, 1924, 27 p. 
 
Curriculum Construction 21 
 
 27. The ability to withstand physical hardship 
 
 28. The ability to bear heavy burdens 
 
 29. The ability to climb with power and sureness 
 
 V. Parental activities — the upbringing of children 
 
 30. The ability to control one's sex functions 
 
 31. The ability to provide one's children with the benefit of phy- 
 
 sical education in their growing years 
 
 The question of character-building. One of the favorite claims 
 for physical education, especially athletics/^ has been that it "develops 
 character," or that it is "character-building." The explanation given 
 has usually been that desirable social or moral qualities are exercised 
 and strengthened by physical training. Among the qualities most often 
 mentioned in this connection are : loyalty, self-sacrifice, initiative, re- 
 sourcefulness, leadership, self-confidence, alertness, courage, aggres- 
 siveness, self-control, obedience to authority, and spirit of fair play. 
 This conception is in terms of faculty psychology- and as such has been 
 rather effectively discredited. Nevertheless, the writers believe that 
 the facts in the case are such as to make physical education an im- 
 portant agency in the development of desirable character. 
 
 Monroe explains character as "essentially a composite of the gen- 
 eral patterns of conduct, especially ideals, which one possesses."^* 
 These general patterns of conduct are not inborn, but neither are they 
 learned in the same way that knowledge or skills are learned. Rather 
 they are acquired from one's associates through the processes that 
 Hayes^^ calls "suggestion and sympathetic radiation. "^^ It seems that 
 physical education offers unusually favorable, in some ways unique, 
 conditions for these processes to take place. The most important factor 
 here is the unusual prestige of the leader. As Hayes says in another 
 connection : "The play leader who knows more about the ver}- things 
 that interest them than the children do, who excels them in sports, 
 who gives them the time of their lives, easily gains great prestige over 
 them."^'^ There are also other factors to be considered. For one thing, 
 active social play abounds in obvious moral situations — in which de- 
 cisions must be made and in which rights and duties must be deter- 
 
 ^•'Sce, for example, the editorials or other articles of John L. Griffith in almost any 
 issue of his Athletic Journal. 
 
 "Monroe, Walter S. Directing Learning in the High School. Garden City, New York: 
 Doubleday, Page and Company, 1927, p. 322. 
 
 ^"Hayes, Edward Cary. Introduction to the Study of Sociology. New York: D. Apple- 
 ton and Company, Chapter XVII. 
 
 ^*As Monroe explains, general patterns of conduct are results of pupil activity, exactly 
 as other controls of conduct are. The difference is in the way that the learning activity can 
 be caused to take place, or can be guided. Learning activities leading to specific habits or 
 I knowledge can be commanded; those leading to general patterns of conduct cannot be com- 
 I manded. 
 
 '"Hayes, Edward Cary. Op. cit., p. 674. 
 
22 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 mined. Still another factor is the fact that it is easier to generalize 
 many of the patterns of conduct involved in play activities than those 
 of other school activities. Play life is real social life, as contrasted 
 with the artificial and special character of most school life. For ex- 
 ample, if a child actually develops the ideal of courtesy to opponents in 
 games it is relatively probable, although by no means inevitable, that 
 he will apply this ideal to his other social relations. 
 
 It seems, then, that physical-education teachers have a unique 
 opportunity to exert favorable influence on the development of desir- 
 able character traits in their pupils. The physical-education teacher of 
 the right kind is more than a teacher in the usual sense — he is an 
 admired leader in the child's own world. Consequently, he should 
 make character development a significant objective; in fact, he should 
 consider it second in importance only to the development of organic 
 power as the foundation of health. ^^ 
 
 Character traits are not outcomes of engaging in physical-educa- 
 tion activities. Nothing in the preceding paragraphs should be con- 
 strued to mean that character and morals are developed by engaging 
 in physical-education activities, but only that physical-education ac- 
 tivities furnish a very favorable opportunity for these traits to be 
 engendered under proper leadership. ^^ The process by which ideals and 
 other general patterns of conduct are engendered is quite obscure and 
 one can do little more than to say that, under proper conditions, they 
 are "produced as a by-product of the engendering of specific habits 
 and knowledge. "^° Consequently the curriculum-maker cannot assign 
 definite learning exercises for the engendering of ideals and attitudes, 
 and can do little more than indicate the general patterns of conduct 
 that should be objectives for the teacher.-^ 
 
 All character traits cannot be specified. Even to mention all of 
 the general character traits and moral standards that might wisely be 
 included as physical-education objectives is quite beyond the scope of 
 
 ^^Organic development is placed first because here physical education (in school or out) I 
 is absolutely necessary and cannot be replaced, while in character training its functions can) 
 be performed by other activities. 
 
 I'For an extended discussion of general patterns of conduct and an explanation of what! 
 is known about their acquisition see: Monroe, Walter S. Directing Learning in the High\ 
 School. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1927, Chapter X. 
 
 ^Hetherington makes this explanation: "All activities have character-training values] 
 according to the instinct tendencies they exercise. The worth of any activity for character! 
 discipline is determined primarily by the nature of the instincts and the emotions exercised.! 
 Some activities are better for the development of certain traits; others are better for the! 
 development of other traits. . . . The expressions of character or of morals may be goodl 
 or bad, hence the development tends to be good or bad according to the leadership." (This! 
 sounds suspiciously like faculty psychology, but, taken with its context it is much less sol 
 than it sounds.) T 
 
 Hetherington, Clark W. School Program in Physical Education. Yonkers-on-the-Hud-f 
 son, New York: World Book Company, 1923, p. 27 and 29. 
 
 -^On the development of ideals through athletics J(?e: Kirkpatrick, William H. "Certait 
 Moral and Social Aspects of College Athletics," American Physical Education Review, JuneJ 
 1922. 
 
Curriculum Construction 23 
 
 any work no more pretentious than the present one, if indeed it can 
 be done effectively at all. Aside from the intrinsic difficulty of making 
 such an analysis is the fact that the nature of the objectives, being 
 determined by many factors such as the present character of the pupils, 
 qualifications and characteristics of the teacher, etc. varies greatly 
 from one situation to another and can hardly be specified except for 
 the individual set of conditions. Accordingly, those general character 
 traits, or general patterns of conduct, that apply to activities having 
 no relation to physical education, have not been included in the list of 
 functional objectives. The writer will content himself by repeating 
 that the physical-education teacher has a unique opportunity to en- 
 gender in pupils ideals, attitudes, enthusiasms, and detestations, and 
 that the positive endeavor to engender such of these character traits 
 as under the condition seem possible and most desirable constitutes for 
 him a prime duty. 
 
 On the other hand, those general patterns of conduct have been 
 included whose function it is to regulate and control activities in which 
 habits, skills, and knowledge are also included. Whenever one takes 
 to himself the task of providing others with habits, skills, or knowl- 
 edge, he should also equip them with the ideals, interests, enthusiasms, 
 and hatreds which will ensure the wise and effective use of the habits, 
 skills, and knowledge. 
 
 Relation between physical-education activities and learning exer- 
 cises. The curriculum in physical education consists of learning exer- 
 cises; that is, of specific things which pupils are requested to do. For 
 example, in connection with swimming, a pupil may observe the teacher 
 as he gives a demonstration, listen to an explanation, read a book of 
 instructions, practice a certain breathing exercise, practice a particular 
 leg stroke, swim twenty yards in a race with other pupils, and so on. 
 The learning exercises in physical education are, by the very definition 
 of physical education, based on, or centered around, or made necessary 
 by, certain forms of play, athletics, gymnastics, dancing, or other kinds 
 of physical-education activity. The values of physical education are 
 to be obtained from the physical-education activities, and learning exer- 
 cises are justified only as they contribute to the realization of these 
 values, either by calling for practice of the activities, or by helping to 
 engender controls of conduct which will govern future practice of the 
 [activities. Accordingly, the next step in the formulation of a physical- 
 ^ education curriculum must be the determination of the physical-educa- 
 |tion activities upon which this curriculum is to be based. This determi- 
 ! nation will be arrived at through an examination of the objectives with 
 
24 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 a view to selecting the kinds of activities best suited to their achieve- 
 ment. 
 
 Development of organic strength, efficiency, and skill requires a 
 large amount of motor activity. As has already been explained, the 
 value of physical education for proper organic development is based 
 on the fact that increased muscular activity causes increased organic 
 activity. The primary requirement for the proper developmental efifect 
 of this activity is that it be vigorous and prolonged. Consequently, the 
 activities which are selected w4th this first group of objectives in view 
 must be those that give large amounts of work to all the fundamental 
 muscle groups. Arm waving, toe touchings, dumb-bell swingings, and 
 the like, have no value here. Further, the amount of activity needed 
 for this objective is much larger than it is possible to include in any 
 ordinary school program, and it follows that the activities used in 
 school for this purpose must be such as will be practiced spontaneously 
 by the children out of school hours. 
 
 This one fact should be sufficient to show the inadequacy of the 
 traditional program of marching, drills, and calisthenics. The march- 
 ing and drill program is not vigorous ; it does not evoke the hearty co- 
 operation of the pupils; it is not practiced in a healthy state of mind; 
 and it is never resorted to spontaneously out of school. The activities 
 which meet this objective must not only be valuable, but they must 
 also be ones to which children will turn when they have spare time. 
 
 Foundational-knowledge objectives require varied experience. The 
 primary requirement of activities selected for achieving the objectives 
 of foundational knowledge is that they furnish a large amount of 
 varied experience in handling one's own body, in using one's senses, 
 in dealing with the fixed environment and with large objects, and in 
 dealing with other persons.-^ 
 
 Activities for functional controls of conduct largely implied in 
 objectives. The functional controls of conduct listed as objectives 
 have to do largely with particular physical-education activities. Hence 
 the basic activity is automatically determined by the objective itself, 
 since obviously the basic activity in learning to engage in a game or 
 other motor activity usually is the game or activity itself. Therefore, 
 a mere inspection of the list of functional objectives will suggest a 
 number of games and other activities that must be included in the 
 curriculum. 
 
 ^"While other and higher reaches of insight into human nature are gained through the 
 specialized linguistic and social activities, for the majority of children the more fundamental 
 insights are gained through big-muscle play." Hetherington, Clark W. School Program in 
 Physical Education. Yonkers-on-the-Hudson, New York: World Book Company, 1923, p. 31. 
 
Curriculum Construction 25 
 
 Summary of criteria for the selection of physical-education ac- 
 tivities. The criteria to be observed in selecting a physical-education 
 curriculum may be summarized as follows : 
 
 I. The curriculum must include all of the activities specifically 
 mentioned in the objectives; namely: 
 
 a. All of the activities mentioned in objective 12A^^ 
 
 b. Calisthenics to the extent necessary for acquiring the abil- 
 
 ity to use one set of calisthenic, or setting-up, exercises 
 
 c. Enough throwing of the medicine ball to acquaint the 
 
 pupils with its use 
 
 d. Marching to the extent necessary to engender the ability to 
 
 execute the simplest marching movements, and to fur- 
 nish a foundation for acquiring skill in, and knowledge 
 of, good posture 
 
 e. Life-saving methods 
 
 11. A large per cent of the activities must provide for vigorous 
 and prolonged use of all the large fundamental muscle 
 groups ; 
 
 III. The activities must provide for a varied experience in explor- 
 
 ing and testing one's own powers, in using one's senses, 
 in dealing with the physical environment, and in dealing 
 with other people as part of one's environment; 
 
 IV. The activities of I and II must, and the others should 
 
 when possible, be so pleasant and their practice result in 
 
 such satisfaction as to lead to their spontaneous practice 
 
 away from school ; 
 V. They must include activities abounding in intensely social 
 
 relations and in situations demanding moral decisions ; 
 VI. They must include social games and activities that provide an 
 
 opportunity for pleasant meeting and mingling with other 
 
 people. 
 It is immediately apparent that many activities satisfy more than 
 one of the above requirements. It is especially noticeable that the ac- 
 tivities implied by objective 12A, comprising the major portion of those 
 selected for adult use, seem to meet most of the important criteria. 
 Naturally, if other things are equal, the activit}" that satisfies several 
 of the requirements is better than one that satisfies but one. On the 
 other hand, it is ver}^ important to have a balanced ration of learning 
 
 ^As far as objective 12A {see p. 18) is concerned, these activities need to be included 
 only to the extent necessary for acquiring the abilities to use them as adults. But they are 
 also of great value in meeting other objectives and hence will be included to an extent not 
 justified by this objective alone. 
 
26 BuLLETix No. 39 
 
 exercises. Taking into account the importance of a balanced ration, 
 and the importance of each of the above ten requirements, it seems 
 that the curriculum should be based on the following types of physical- 
 education activity : 
 
 1. Stunts, or self-testing activities. These activities are the 
 most useful of all for the development of foundational knowledge 
 of one's own powers and of the material environment. They also 
 provide vigorous activity, and are extremely enjoyable to boys of 
 all grades of abilit}^ Other advantages of stunts are the facts that 
 they require no apparatus or only easih- available apparatus (such 
 as tree limbs, fences, etc.) and that they can be practiced by one 
 person alone or by small groups. 
 
 2. Dancing. Athletic dances and the more vigorous folk 
 dances are very valuable for their vigor and rhythmic appeal. Boys 
 sometimes object to dancing on account of the name, but they soon 
 learn to be extremely fond of it. 
 
 3. Group games and group relays. This class includes ac- 
 tivities that are social, but which have either no teams at all or 
 loosely organized and temporary teams. Alan}^ of the activities 
 shade over into athletics ; in fact, the whole group might be con- 
 sidered to be one form of athletics. The games or races can be 
 enjoyed without previous practice and can be organized without 
 notice, and are adaptable for groups of various sizes. 
 
 4. Individual athletics. These are measurable activities that 
 can be practiced by one person alone or in competition with any 
 number of others; for example, running, jumping, throwing, and 
 climbing. There is never any resistance to the activity of one 
 participant by others, as there is in athletic games. Compare, for 
 example, competition in the hundred-yard dash or the running 
 high jump with that in tennis or baseball.'* These events shade 
 off into stunts. 
 
 5. Athletic Games. In athletic games one team competes 
 against another, and the activity of one is always resisted by that 
 of the other. There is a fairly well-marked distinction between 
 those games in which a team consists of one or tw^o (e. g., tennis, 
 handball) and those in which a team is larger. The games arej 
 all social and competitive and are nearly always vigorous. 
 
 6. Combative activities. These are chiefly boxing and wrest- 
 ling, but include also minor activities such as Indian wrestling. 
 
 ^^This distinction classes golf with individual athletics, rather than with athletic games. 
 
Curriculum Construction 27 
 
 7. Water activities. This class is really not coordinate with 
 the others, but on account of its special nature, is so classified. 
 
 8. Marching. A small amount of ability in marching to 
 command is sometimes very useful, as in tire-drills. Marching also 
 furnishes a basis for learning correct posture and is useful in the 
 physical-education class itself. 
 
 9. Calisthenics. The objectives should include the ability to 
 use one calisthenic drill. With this exception, calisthenics do not 
 contribute to the objectives anything that cannot be better supplied 
 by other activities. Hence, calisthenics will be included, but only 
 to the extent necessary for achieving the objective mentioned. 
 Many desirable activities excluded because impracticable. Many 
 
 types of activities that are extremely desirable are omitted from the 
 above list because they are not practicable in the ordinary school. For 
 this reason ice and snow sports and bowling are omitted, as are boat- 
 ing, equestrianism, and many others. 
 
 Curriculum is for class time only. The curriculum which follows 
 is intended to supply learning exercises for the class period only. It is 
 assumed that the pupils will have the opportunity, either at the school 
 or elsewhere, to practice the activities which they have learned in the 
 class period. The school may properly cooperate with other agencies 
 in organizing and directing the leisure-time activities of pupils, but this 
 function of the school is not treated here. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE" 
 I. Stunts, or self-testing activities'^ 
 
 A. Forward roll 
 
 1. Observe a demonstration of the stunt by the teacher; 
 
 2. Observe demonstrations by volunteers from the class, 
 who believe that they can perform the stunt ; 
 
 3. Listen to explanation and instruction by teacher ; 
 
 4. Attempt to perform the stunt ; 
 
 5. Receive criticisms and suggestions from the teacher and 
 from pupils who have been successful ; 
 
 6. Practice further until stunt is learned ; 
 
 ^°0nly the curriculum for the seventh grade, the first year of the junior high school, is 
 reproduced here. Mr. Hindman's thesis includes also the curricula for the other years. 
 
 -*It is not considered practicable to list all of the stunts that are to be used. One reason 
 is that the stunts and their nomenclature are not standardized and it is consequently im- 
 possible to describe them properly without illustrations. The present curriculum will include 
 the learning exercises for all of the stunts that are to be learned permanently, and for 
 samples of the others. For complete descriptions and illustrations of a great variety of 
 stunts, the reader is referred to: Pearl, N. H., and Brown, H. E. Health by Stunts. New 
 York: The Macmillan Company, 1919. 216 p. It is recommended that a class be given one 
 fairly complicated stunt (such as the forward roll above) each month and from one to three 
 or four minor stunts (such as the knee-dip above) each week. 
 
28 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 7. Review stunt after it is expected to have been learned; 
 
 8. Take a test on ability to perform the stunt ; 
 
 9. Perform the stunt frequently as a part of class work. 
 
 B. Elephant walk (for two boys) 
 
 10. Observe demonstration by two pupils under direction of 
 teacher ;-" 
 
 11. Go through motions slowly on command of teacher; 
 
 12. Practice the stunt ; 
 
 13. Request aid, if necessary, from teacher or from success- 
 ful pupils ; 
 
 14. Practice stunt until proficiency is attained; 
 
 15. Change places with partner and try again; 
 
 16. Practice informally for pleasure; 
 
 17. Review stunt occasionally in class ; 
 
 18. Take a test on ability in stunt. 
 
 C. Knee-Dip 
 
 19. Observe demonstration by teacher (or try stunt at direc- 
 tion of teacher, without demonstration) ; 
 
 20. Practice until successful; 
 
 21. Try again after an interval of time.-^ 
 
 II. Dancing 
 
 A. Ace of Diamonds 
 
 22. Listen to the music and note the rhythm ; 
 
 23. Observe the teacher as he demonstrates the entire dance ; 
 
 24. Observe the teacher as he demonstrates the first step ; 
 
 25. Without music, go through the motions of the first step 
 very slowly according to the description and demonstra- 
 tion of the teacher; 
 
 26. Try the first step with the music ; 
 
 27. Repeat 22-27 for the next step ; 
 
 28. Combine first and second steps ; 
 
 29. Repeat the process of analysis and synthesis until entire 
 dance is learned ; 
 
 30. Practice the dance for pleasure. 
 
 B. Seven Jumps 
 
 31. Learning exercises similar to the above. 
 
 "This stunt can be done at the first trial by boys of average ability. 
 
 2*Tlie first two stunts to be mentioned are valuable after they are learned. The poinl 
 to the knee-dip, on the other hand, is in learning to do it, and the stunt has little value foj 
 one who is proficient in doing it. 
 
Curriculum Construction 29 
 
 III. Group games and group relays-^ 
 
 A. Dodgeball 
 
 32. Take proper position on instruction from teacher ; 
 
 33. Listen to an explanation of the game; 
 
 34. Observe a demonstration of important features of the 
 game ; 
 
 35. Play the game. 
 
 B. All-up Indian Club Relay 
 
 36. Take proper position according to instructions of teacher; 
 
 37. Observe a demonstration by teacher; 
 
 38. Engage in the relay as a contest. 
 
 C. Other games and relays 
 
 39. Participate in Black and White f'^ 
 
 40. Participate in Stake Guard; 
 
 41. Participate in Poison Snake ; 
 
 42. Participate in Ball Pass Relay. 
 
 IV. Individual athletics 
 
 43. Observe a model of correct start for a sprint; 
 
 44. Practice correct starting for a sprint ; 
 
 45. Run 25 yards in competition; 
 
 46. Compete in a relay race, running 25 yards ;^^ 
 
 47. Practice the soccer dribble ; 
 
 48. Compete against others in the soccer dribble ; 
 
 49. Practice the volleyball serve ; 
 
 50. Compete in the volleyball serve ; 
 
 51. Practice throwing goals with a basketball ; 
 
 52. Compete in basketball goal throwing, from various dis- 
 tances. 
 
 -'As with stunts, it is not possible to select in advance the exact games and relays that 
 are best. The best ones and the number to be used will be determined by a large number of 
 influences, such as nature of the play space, number of pupils, local traditions, play experi- 
 ence of pupils. Accordingly, the following games are given with the understanding that the 
 list is to be altered, expanded, or abbreviated, as conditions seem to warrant. 
 
 The author feels that most teachers attempt to use too many different games and 
 relays. The tendency is to use a poor game because it is a new one rather than an old one 
 that is good. Let it be said again that there is little virtue in learning these games; they are 
 to be played. The games listed here are all old and well-known, in most cases throughout 
 the world. 
 
 '"It is to be understood that participation in a game or relay implies such learning 
 exercises as the ones listed for Dodgeball and for All-up Indian Club Relay. 
 
 '^This is the comparatively formal relay for small teams, and is considered an athletic 
 event. The relays previously listed are comparatively informal, are not usually practiced for 
 proficiency, and are adapted for large and variable-sized teams. They are therefore con- 
 sidered group, or mass events. 
 
30 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 V. Athletic games^- 
 
 A. Speedball 
 
 53. Practice the dribble ; 
 
 54. Practice hand passing in circle formation f^ 
 
 55. Practice goal kicking from various positions ; 
 
 56. Practice drop-kicking from various positions ; 
 
 57. Listen to explanations of the rules by the teacher ; 
 
 58. Read and study the rules ; 
 
 59. Watch the older students play ; 
 
 60. Play in a short game ; 
 
 61. Play in other short games, occupying different positions 
 on the team. 
 
 B. Basketball ( Xo games played ; learning exercises for basket- 
 
 ball included under individual athletics) 
 
 C. Volleyball 
 
 62. Practice serving; 
 
 63. Practice batting from one player to another (on the same 
 team) ; 
 
 64. Practice passing and "spiking" f* 
 
 65. Listen to an explanation of the rules ; 
 
 66. Study the rule book ; 
 
 67. Practice passing in different "formation"; 
 
 68. Play short games with the added rule that the ball must 
 not be returned over the net before the third stroke. 
 
 D. Playground baseball 
 
 69. Practice throwing and catching in groups of two to six 
 boys ; 
 
 70. Practice pitching; 
 
 5-In view of the statement, repeated several times in this thesis, that the value from 
 physical-education activities comes from engaging in them and not in learning them, it may 
 seem that the learning exercises, especially under athletic games, include altogether too little 
 actual participation in fam.iliar activities, and too much learning of new ones. Two answers 
 are offered to this objection: First, the thesis has assumed throughout that the activities must 
 be practiced outside of the regular class hour and has attempted to follow the criterion that 
 the activities used must be of such a nature that the pupils will be anxious to practice them 
 outside of class hours. Consequently, when a fair degree of skill and knowledge is required 
 for effective participation, it is here considered that the first duty of the school is to see that 
 these are acquired. It is the firm opinion of the author that the school should organize the 
 spare time of the pupils for participation in the activities, but the organization of the spare 
 time is not considered here. Second, with the exception of basketball and speedball, the 
 athletic games here included are expected to be practiced by the pupils when they become 
 adults. Hence it is an important duty of the school to engender in the pupil the degree of 
 skill and knowledge of the games which is essential to ensure their continued practice. 
 
 ^'According to the language of soccer, which has been largely borrowed by speedball, a 
 "pass" is made with the foot; hence the necessity for the term "hand passing," which is not 
 used in soccer. 
 
 '■•Volleyball should be played by seventh-grade boys with a net about a foot lower than 
 the regulation height. As the boys become taller and more skillful the net should be raised 
 gradually, the full height not being used by any players except full-grown and experienced 
 ones. The eight-foot net for boys is another example, so common in athletics, of the stand- 
 ards of the professional or expert being forced upon boys and "dubs." 
 
Curriculum Construction 31 
 
 71. Practice throwing from base to base; 
 
 72. Practice catching batted flies ; 
 
 73. Practice catching batted ground balls ; 
 
 74. Practice bunting slowly thrown balls ; 
 
 75. Practice easy hitting of slowly thrown balls f^ 
 
 76. Practice hitting and placing slowly thrown balls ; 
 
 77. Practice hitting balls thrown with ordinary pitching 
 speed ; 
 
 78. Listen to an explanation and demonstration of the most 
 important rules ; 
 
 79. Demonstrate knowledge of rules by setting up situations 
 which explain them ; 
 
 80. Play short games, rotating from one position to another. 
 
 VI. Combative activities 
 
 A. Minor combative activities f^ practice such contests as : 
 
 81. Cockfight 
 
 82. Pulling Sticks 
 
 83. Back-to-Back Tug 
 
 84. Hand Wrestle 
 
 VII. Water activities 
 
 85. Without any attempt to swim, practice a number of exer- 
 cises for overcoming the fear and sense of strangeness in 
 the water, such as : 
 
 Duck with nose held and eyes shut ; 
 
 Duck and count ten ; 
 
 Duck and open eyes ; 
 
 Duck, open eyes, and count fingers ; 
 
 Lie flat on water ; 
 
 Go to bottom in shallow water ; 
 
 86. Following teacher, go through arm motions for crawl 
 stroke, and then practice; 
 
 87. Holding edge of pool with hands, go through leg stroke, 
 and then practice ; 
 
 ^^By far the most important element of baseball, at least as far as this thesis is con- 
 cerned, is hitting. The chief reason why most players are such very poor hitters is that they 
 "try to kill the ball," swinging wildly with the eyes shut or looking anywhere but at the 
 ball. The exercises named in connection with hitting are designed to get the player into the 
 habit of looking at the ball, and meeting it squarely, rather than trying to "knock the cover 
 off." 
 
 ^^All of the minor combative activities mentioned in this thesis are described in one or 
 both of the following books: 
 
 Johnson, George Ellsworth. Education by Plavs and Games. Boston: Ginn and Com- 
 pany, 1907. 234 p. 
 
 Staley, Seward Charles. Games, Contests, and Relays. New York: A. S. Barnes and 
 Company, 1924. 354 p. 
 
32 Bl-lletix Xo. 39 
 
 S8. Following teacher, practice breathing while standing and 
 alternately ducking and withdrawing the head : 
 
 89. Without breathing and without moving legs, swim several 
 strokes with the arms ; 
 
 90. Repeat, adding the leg motion ; 
 
 91. Repeat, adding the breathing: 
 
 92. Receive corrections and continue practice ; 
 
 93. Repeatedly observe model of crawl stroke ; 
 
 94. Repeatedly study written directions for crawl stroke ; 
 
 95. Continue practice of crawl stroke until able to swim 
 twenty yards ; 
 
 96. Observe a model of a plain dive from edge of pool ; 
 
 97. Attempt to make a plain dive : 
 
 98. Observe model, receive corrections, and try again.^'' 
 
 VIII. Marchings^ 
 
 99. Observe a model of correct standing posture; 
 
 100. Study a chart describing correct standing posture and 
 common faults :^® 
 
 101. Assume, with help if necessary, a correct standing po- 
 sition ; 
 
 102. Practice assuming the correct position and slumping to 
 ordinary one i assuming that the usual position is fault}-) ; 
 
 103. Discuss in class the values of good posture and its nature ; 
 
 104. Practice standing, walking, and sitting in good posture 
 until it becomes habitual ; 
 
 105. Practice following the command '"forward march"; 
 
 106. Practice following the command '"class halt" : 
 
 107. Practice following informally the commands ""column left 
 march'' and '"column right march" ; 
 
 108. Practice following the commands '"right face, left face, 
 about face." 
 
 '"Ability to make a dive is not to be insisted on for the seventh grade, but the dive 
 should be introduced so that students can practice it during the summer before taking it uj 
 in class in the eighth grade. 
 
 '^It is not expected that any definite class time will be allotted to marching, but tha^ 
 the marching will be used in moving the pupils about for the other work, and thus learned 
 it might be said, incidentally. 
 
 '*A set of six such charts, each 24 by 34 inches, can be purchased for fifty cents froi 
 the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing OflSce, Washington, D. C. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 CONSTRUCTING A CURRICULUM IN HORTICULTURE 
 FOR THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Concept of objectives. In formulating the objectives of horticul- 
 ture one should distinguish between ultimate and immediate objectives. 
 Ultimate objectives are those that look to the future. They are the 
 standards, the goals toward which educational endeavor is directed. 
 They represent the conduct or the desired behavior of adults or of the 
 pupil after he leaves school or when he is out of school. Ultimate 
 objectives are also known as conduct objectives. Educational writers 
 have proposed numerous statements of headings under which ultimate 
 or conduct objectives may be grouped. The list proposed by the Com- 
 mission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the National 
 Education Association/ known as the "Cardinal Principles of Second- 
 ary Education" ; the list of the North Central Association of Colleges 
 and Secondary Schools;^ and the list of objectives proposed by Bobbitt^ 
 are well-known statements of captions for classifying conduct objec- 
 tives. 
 
 Ultimate, or conduct, objectives are sometimes listed as rather 
 vague terms, using such generalizations as citizenship, health, and 
 ethical character, as defined in the statement of the "Cardinal Prin- 
 ciples of Secondary Education." They may also be defined by specify- 
 ing the duties to be performed or the occasions for the functioning of 
 the controls of conduct. It does not make a great deal of difference 
 how these ultimate objectives are stated. Personally the writer prefers 
 the second type of statement — in terms of duties or occasions for the 
 use of abilities. 
 
 Immediate, or control, objectives are the abilities or controls of 
 conduct which pupils are to acquire. These act as determinants of 
 conduct and are to be engendered by the school in order that the con- 
 duct designated by the ultimate or conduct objectives mav be realized. 
 They are controls leading to the attainment of the conduct objectives. 
 They are the direct outcomes or products of learning activity on the 
 part of the pupil. They are a means towards an end. The ultimate 
 objectives are the end. An illustration from the field of horticulture 
 
 ^Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. "Report on Cardinal 
 Principles of Secondary Education," United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1918, No. 
 35. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1918. 
 
 ^"Report on Standards for Reorganization of Secondary School Curricula, 1924." North 
 Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, March 20, 21, 22, 1924, p. 6. See 
 p. 12 of this bulletin. 
 
 ^Bobbitt, Franklin. How to Make a Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 
 1924, p. 8-9. See p. 1 1 of this bulletin. 
 
 33 
 
34 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 will make this distinction clear. We may say that one ultimate aim 
 of horticulture is the efficient production of orchard products by the 
 pupil after he has left school or even while he is in school. To attain 
 this end many controls of conduct must be acquired by the pupil; such 
 as : the ability to control insects and fungus diseases by spraying, the 
 ability to prune fruit trees in the best known manner, the ability to 
 fertilize the trees, the ability to cultivate the trees, the desire to have 
 an efficient orchard, and so forth. It is the aim of the work in horti- 
 culture to engender these abilities or controls of conduct in the par- 
 ticular divisions of the field that are chosen by the individual school. 
 
 The relationship between ultimate and immediate objectives is 
 this : ultimate or conduct objectives are the goals, or desired future 
 behavior, while the immediate or control objectives are the means of 
 reaching these goals. 
 
 Technique of determining conduct objectives. The best con- 
 ceivable forms of adult horticultural activity, as determined by analysis 
 and appraisal of the activities in which farmers engage, are to be taken 
 as the objectives of horticulture.'^ The conduct objectives can be de- 
 termined only by a thorough study of the horticultural activities in 
 which farmers engage. Charters^ gives four methods of making ac- 
 tivity or job-analyses; namely, by introspection, interviewing, working 
 on the job, and by the questionnaire. Introspection is the method used 
 by those already familiar with the job in which the duties are to be 
 analyzed. In the second method, the interviewer asks the one perform- 
 ing the job to list his activities. In the third method, the one making 
 the analysis performs the job by carrying through the activities him- 
 self. The written questionnaire is sometimes used as a method of 
 analysis, but this method is not very satisfactory. 
 
 Bobbitt summarizes the method of activity-analysis he used in the 
 determination of objectives after the major fields of human action 
 have been defined. He takes what he calls the major fields and analyzes 
 them into their more specific activities. "In this analysis, one will first 
 divide his field into a few rather larger units, and then break them up 
 into smaller units . This process of division will continue until he has 
 found the quite specific activities that are to be performed."® These 
 are the immediate objectives of the field. 
 
 ^This method of determining objectives is the same as that given in the following: 
 "The Foundations of Curriculum-making." The Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the Na- 
 tional Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School 
 Publishing Company, 1926, p. 12-13. 
 
 ^Charters, W. W. Ciirricuhim Construction. New York: The Macmillan Company, 
 1925, p. 38-39. 
 
 "Bobbitt, op cit., p. 9. 
 
Curriculum Construction 35 
 
 The determination of the activities by job or activity-analysis tells 
 us what things people do. It does not automatically tell us what are 
 to be the objectives of horticulture, however. For example, a survey 
 of practices in connection with the care of the home orchard in a given 
 community might show that the majority of farmers having fruit trees 
 do not spray or prune their trees according to the methods recom- 
 mended by their own state experiment station. It is obvious that the 
 abilities to prune and to spray trees should not be left out of a state- 
 ment of objectives. The curriculum-maker must put such abilities into 
 the list. Or, if in considering another phase of insect control, the cur- 
 riculum-maker finds that farmers are laboriously picking or knocking 
 off the Colorado potato beetles from their potato vines, he should not 
 neglect to include the ability to spray the vines with the proper in- 
 secticide to control the pests in question, rather than to set up the 
 common practice as a desirable one. Evaluation or appraisal of the 
 activities is necessary. Some of the activities are good and should be 
 perpetuated. These selected activities should be made objectives of 
 horticulture. Other activities are not good and should be eliminated. 
 An analysis of horticultural activities will determine only what are the 
 common practices. To determine those which are good and those which 
 are bad is equally important. 
 
 Provision for differences between individuals. There should he 
 differ ent expectations zvith respect to the accomplishment of pupils who 
 learn rapidly and those ivho learn slowly. All pupils cannot reach the 
 same goal. The eft'ort should be made to engender in the pupil those 
 habits, ideals, attitudes, interests, and other general patterns of conduct 
 and adaptive controls of conduct that will enable him to tg^ke the place 
 he desires in horticultural activities out of school. Not all, probably, 
 desire to reach the same goal. The pupil should be encouraged to do 
 the best that he can. Superior pupils will cover more ground than will 
 those who learn less rapidly. They should be permitted to do so, for 
 it is through these superior pupils that our future advancement will 
 come. There should be certain minimum essentials of the materials of 
 horticulture which all pupils must cover. The better pupils should be 
 required to do additional work. For instance, in setting up the abilities 
 or immediate objectives of horticulture, one should include those that 
 have been determined to be most important, which all pupils should be 
 required to master, and others which the teacher may demand of the 
 better pupil in addition to the minimum essentials. The ideal scheme 
 would be to set up immediate objectives for each pupil, but this is not 
 [possible. This would be individual instruction, or rather curriculum- 
 
36 Bulletin Xo. 39 
 
 making for each individual pupil, and as such is not considered in this 
 study. 
 
 Provision for differences between communities. There should he 
 different objectives in the currlcnhim in horticulture in different com- 
 munities. There is a great difference in the horticultural activities of 
 communities. In portions of western and southern Illinois there are 
 extensive commercial orchards. In the northern part of Illinois there 
 are extensive areas devoted to vegetable gardening. In other portions 
 of the state the only horticultural activities engaged in are those of the 
 home vegetable garden and the home orchard. The curriculum should 
 be adapted to the needs of the community in which the school is 
 located. But this should not be carried too far. There are certain 
 abilities and skills which are common to all those engaging in horticul- 
 tural activity of any kind. These should not be slighted. For instance, 
 such activities as the care of the home vegetable garden, of the home 
 orchard, and the growing of potatoes for home use, at least, are com- 
 mon to all communities. They should not be left out in a community 
 where some special type of horticultural activity, such as commercial 
 apple growing, is dominant. 
 
 Allowance for out-of-school learning. Allozvance shoidd be made 
 for education received through other agencies than the school such as 
 the home, the community, and the extension service of the state agri- 
 cidtural college. This principle recognizes the fact that some boys 
 taking the high-school work in horticulture may have had extensive 
 experience at home in some of the work covered by the high-school 
 curriculum in horticulture. For instance, in many counties there are 
 boys' and girls' agriculture clubs which give instruction in certain 
 phases of agriculture ; such as : the production of corn, potatoes, straw- 
 berries, apples, and so forth ; the feeding and care of livestock, such as 
 swine, sheep, poultry, dairy cattle, and beef cattle. If the pupil has 
 official record of his work approved by his club leader, it would be 
 unwise to insist that he go through with the same kind of work again. 
 For him, the immediate objectives could be adjusted. He should be 
 given other work to do. 
 
 The school's duty in engendering ideals, attitudes, and so forth. 
 The curriciduni in horticidture should engender ideals, attitudes, appre- 
 ciations, tastes, and other general patterns of conduct, as zvell as skills 
 and knowledge. The terms "ideals," "attitudes," "appreciations," 
 "tastes," and so forth are called general patterns of conduct. They are 
 plans, outlines, or patterns. These general patterns are more perma- 
 nent, more lasting, than the controls included under the term know!- 
 
Curriculum Construction Zl 
 
 edge. Ideals, for instance, are spoken of as "master-ideas."' In addi- 
 tion to the intellectual element there is an emotional element which 
 adds power in controlling conduct. Some ideals commonly known are 
 those of honesty, loyalty, patriotism, neatness, accuracy, and so on. 
 The term "attitudes" is applied to another group of patterns of con- 
 duct. They are less tangible than ideals, but are also very important in 
 determining conduct. Some common terms which designate certain 
 attitudes are "prejudiced," "radical," "open-minded," "conservative," 
 "scholarly," and so on. Interests, tastes, and desires are also patterns 
 of conduct. We speak of an interest in sports, a taste for good liter- 
 ature, good taste in selecting one's clothing or in furnishing one's 
 home, a desire to produce a crop of the finest apples or to have a 
 vegetable garden which will supply the family with the vegetables 
 needed, and so forth. All of these patterns are powerful determinants 
 of conduct or behavior. 
 
 How are these general patterns of conduct to be engendered? The 
 ideals, attitudes, interests, and tastes of the teacher are very important 
 in engendering these controls of conduct. The pupil can be interested 
 in horticulture and may develop a desire to partake of an activity by 
 being shown how others have succeeded, and by having the proper 
 examples held up before him at every opportunity. The teacher should 
 emphasize accuracy and neatness in the performance of a job by re- 
 fusing to accept work lacking in these qualities. The teacher should 
 have these general patterns of conduct in mind and should himself 
 feel that the desired outcomes are worthy. His faith and belief will 
 be expressed in his acts, in the tone of his voice, in the expression on 
 his face. "As he thinketh in his heart, so is he." The curriculum- 
 maker can do little more than indicate the general patterns of conduct 
 which should be considered a desirable part of the pupil's learning. 
 
 The other types of controls of conduct are well known. Specific 
 
 \, habits are automatic or largely mechanical controls of conduct which 
 
 i function in familiar situations. They are known as fixed controls of 
 
 ; conduct. They are stored-up controls on hand to be used as needed. 
 
 [ Names, dates, events, or other facts which have been memorized belong 
 
 I to this group. In addition, there are many habits which provide auto- 
 
 i' matic motor responses. Examples of these are found in typewriting, 
 
 Ii swimming, sewing, playing the piano, and so on. In the field of horti- 
 
 i culture, the farmer or fruit-grower is spoken of as being an expert 
 
 pruner, or skilled in spraying, or in thinning apples on the trees. This 
 
 means that he has performed these dilTerent operations so many times 
 
 'Bagley, ^^^ C, and Keith, John A. H. An Introduction to Teaching. New York: The 
 Macmillan Company, 1924, p. 241. 
 
 I 
 
38 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 that their performance has become habitual. Specific habits provide 
 ready-made responses to famihar situations. 
 
 The third type of control of conduct is that known as knowledge. 
 Under this term we group those controls that function in overcoming 
 difficulties presented by new situations. They are commonly referred 
 to as ideas, concepts, meanings, principles, and laws. The distinction 
 between specific habits and knowledge is mainly on the basis of the 
 type of situation for which a response is provided. If the situation is 
 familiar and one possesses a ready-made response, the control of con- 
 duct is called a specific habit. If the situation is new; that is, if it 
 presents a problem to be solved, knowledge is the term given to the 
 control of conduct that functions. The controls belonging to the group 
 classed as knowledge are known as adaptive controls of conduct. It 
 is obvious that there cannot be enough fixed controls of conduct (spe- 
 cific habits) to take care of the great number of situations that are 
 constantly arising in our present-day life. Even if ready-made re- 
 sponses could be set up, there would be no way of knowing what the 
 future has in store for the pupil. 
 
 Bobbitt's analysis unsatisfactory as a basis for constructing a 
 curriculum in horticulture.® There is no doubt in the writer's mind 
 that horticulture may contribute to groups of activities or forms of 
 conduct named by Bobbitt other than the vocational activities — such as 
 health activities ; spare-time activities, amusements, and recreations ; 
 keeping one's self physically fit ; unspecialized or non-vocational activi- 
 ties; and so forth. But it is probable that other subjects of the high- 
 school curriculum provide more efficiently for the above objectives 
 than does horticulture. A subject such as physical education, for ex- 
 ample, which has for its primary goal the activities leading to better 
 health, will, no doubt, function more effectively towards establishing 
 the health objectives than can the study of horticulture whose primary 
 object is to equip the individual with such controls of conduct that he 
 may perform the various essential horticultural activities. Hence it has 
 seemed wise to base the construction of the curriculum in horticulture 
 upon a different analysis of out-of-school life, restricting it to the field 
 of horticulture. 
 
 Methods used in determining conduct objectives in this thesis. A 
 study of the horticultural activities of farmers of the corn-belt section 
 of Illinois was made b}^ the writer^ in the manner described below. 
 During the past year, while the writer was a graduate student at the 
 
 ^See p. 11 for Bobbitt's analysis. Compare this statement with the one on p. I' 
 relative to constructing a curriculum in physical education. 
 
 ®The writer is Mr. Lundin, from whose thesis the material for this chapter was taken.l 
 
Curriculum Construction 39 
 
 University of Illinois, he had the opportunit}" to interview a number of 
 teachers of vocational agriculture of the State. From them he was able 
 to ascertain some of the things which should be included in the high- 
 school courses in vocational agriculture. At the same time, he ob- 
 tained the opinions of members of the department of horticulture of 
 the University of Illinois on this subject. These men have the oppor- 
 tunity of studying horticultural conditions in the state in their work 
 among the farmers. Especially is this true of the extension horticul- 
 turists of the department of horticulture whose work takes them regu- 
 larly into all parts of the State. The opinions and observations of such 
 men appeared to the writer to be very much worthwhile and reliable. 
 During the past year, the writer, as an instructor in the University 
 of Illinois, has come into intimate contact with a group of young men 
 in the freshman courses in horticulture. Interviews with these young 
 men have given him many valuable points of information in regard to 
 the horticultural needs of their own home farms. 
 
 Before attending the University of Illinois as a graduate student, 
 the writer was for six years connected with the agricultural extension 
 service of Purdue University, as county agricultural agent, in two 
 counties in portions of Indiana very similar agriculturally to the Corn- 
 Belt of Illinois. This work brought him into close touch with the 
 conditions and needs of farmers of the counties in which he was 
 located. 
 
 The conduct objectives in horticulture. As a result of the study 
 of horticultural activities of the Corn-Belt of Illinois and of similar 
 portions of Indiana, made in the manner given above, it is the writer's 
 belief that the following general objective is the one towards which 
 the high-school course in horticulture should strive : the economical 
 i production of fruits and vegetables, primarily for home use. To make 
 I this very general objective more specific and more easily understood, 
 i the following seven conduct objectives, or activities, are given: 
 j A. Planning the w^ork (This includes such factors as: deciding to 
 
 I have a garden or orchard ; selecting the location and site ; 
 
 1 selecting and purchasing seeds, trees, and plants ; making 
 
 plans for the garden and orchard) 
 B. Starting the plants (This includes: testing and inspecting seeds 
 and plants, caring for seeds and plants before planting, 
 preparing the ground for planting, setting out trees and 
 plants in the orchard and small fruit garden, planting 
 vegetable seeds in the open and under glass, and con- 
 structing and operating the hotbed and coldframe) 
 
40 Bulletin- Xo. 39 
 
 C. Growing the plants ( This includes : transplanting vegetable 
 
 plants, maintaining and supplying plant food and organic 
 matter, cultivating the orchard and garden, growing cover 
 crops and intercrops and preventing washing and erosion 
 of the soil, forcing vegetables, and intensive cropping) 
 
 D. Pruning and thinning 
 
 E. Preventing damage by insects, diseases, and other plant pests 
 
 F. Harvesting and storing the crops 
 
 G. ^Marketing fruits and vegetables 
 
 Each of the conduct objectives, or activities, is to be considered in 
 connection with the crops of the following : 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden (including such crops as: toma- 
 
 toes, sweet corn, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, onions, 
 cabbage, peppers, lettuce, turnips, beans, melons, and so 
 forth) 
 
 2. The home orchard (including such crops as: apples, peaches, 
 
 pears, cherries, plums, and so forth) 
 
 3. The small fruit garden (including such crops as: blackberries, 
 
 strawberries, grapes, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, 
 
 and so forth) 
 In other words, the following simple table will show how the seven 
 above-named activities will apply to the crops of the home vegetable 
 garden, the home orchard, and the small fruit garden : 
 
 A. Planning the work 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 B. Starting the plants 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 C. Growing the plants 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 D. Pruning and thinning 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
Curriculum Construction 41 
 
 E. Preventing damage by insects, diseases, etc. 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 F. Harvesting and storing the crops 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 G. Marketing fruits and vegetables 
 
 1. The home vegetable garden 
 
 2. The home orchard 
 
 3. The small fruit garden 
 
 The above-named seven activities designate the types of conduct 
 or behavior which the control objectives should enable the individual 
 to perform. 
 
 Methods of determining controls of conduct. The methods used 
 by the writer in determining the controls of conduct to be engendered 
 are those of job or activity-analysis by introspection and by interview- 
 ing.^° The seven activities or conduct objectives were divided into 
 smaller sub-units, and under each of these the abilities needed as con- 
 trols of conduct were listed. The results of this procedure are illus- 
 trated by the conduct objectives placed under the first activity: 
 
 PLANNING THE WORK 
 A. Deciding to have a garden or orchard 
 
 1. Knowledge of the value of fruits and vegetables for food, such 
 as their importance in supplying necessary proteins, fats, minerals, vita- 
 mins, and so forth (Exercises 1, 2V^ 
 
 2. Knowledge of the economic importance of fruits and vege- 
 tables, such as their value in the United States, Illinois, and the local 
 community (Exercise 3) 
 
 3. Appreciation of the work of such agencies as agricultural col- 
 leges, experiment stations, and the United States Department of Agri- 
 culture, in improving the varieties and methods of producing fruits 
 and vegetables (Exercises 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) 
 
 4. Desire to have an efficient garden or orchard which includes 
 the determination to do the necessary work, spend the necessary 
 
 ^''Charters, W. W. Curriculum Construction. New York: The Macmillan Company, 
 1925, p. 38-39. 
 
 '^After each of the objectives listed in this chapter, reference is given in parenthesis 
 to the learning exercise requesting the pupil to perform some activity. The exercises referred 
 to are given in numerical order beginning on p. 51. 
 
42 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 money, and do the necessary studying to make the project a success 
 (Exercises 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9) 
 
 5. Faith in scientific methods of orchard management, vegetable 
 growing, and so on, as recommended by the agricultural experiment 
 stations (Exercises 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) 
 
 6. Willingness to take advantage of available information pertain- 
 ing to fruit and vegetable growing, such as is found in bulletins of 
 experiment stations, in farm papers, and from individuals producing 
 these crops successfully (Exercises 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) 
 
 7. Appreciation of the large amount of available material relating 
 to fruit and vegetable growing, such as the materials published by 
 experiment stations, reports of investigations by individuals, and so 
 forth (Exercises 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)^- 
 
 B. Selecting the location and site 
 
 8. Knowledge of the kinds of soils best suited for the production 
 of fruits and vegetables (Exercises 11, 12) 
 
 9. Knowledge of the temperature requirements of the different 
 fruits and vegetables (Exercises 13, 14, 16) 
 
 10. Knowledge of the moisture requirements of the different fruits 
 and vegetables (Exercises 13, 14) 
 
 11. Knowledge of the capital, labor, and information necessary to 
 establish an orchard and to operate it efficiently (Exercise 10) 
 
 12. Knowledge of the water and air drainage of the land to be 
 used in the production of fruits and vegetables (Exercises 12, 15, 16) 
 
 13. Ability to provide proper water drainage for the orchard and 
 garden (Exercises 12, 15) 
 
 14. Knowledge of the effect of elevation and of the proximity of 
 large bodies of water on the production of fruits and vegetables, espe- 
 cially the former (Exercises 12, 15, 16) 
 
 15. Knowledge of the reasons for the success or failure of par- 
 ticular fruit and vegetable crops in the community (Exercises 12, 14, 
 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21) 
 
 16. Ability to avoid locations where the soil may be infected with 
 soil diseases, such as fusarium wilt of tomatoes, cabbage yellows, and 
 so forth (Exercises 17, 18, 19, 20, 21) 
 
 17. Ability to select the best site on a given farm for fruits and I 
 vegetables (Exercise 22) 
 
 ^"General patterns of conduct, such as are listed under each of the units in this chap- 
 ter, may be concomitant or indirect outcomes of all of the learning exercises. The teacher 
 must have these general patterns in mind when assigning learning exercises or when other- 
 wise directing the pupil's learning activity. See p. 36f. 
 
Curriculum Construction 43 
 
 C. Selecting and purchasing seeds, trees, and plants 
 
 18. Knowledge of the reliability of dealers and growers of nursery 
 stock and vegetable seeds (Exercises 23, 24) 
 
 19. Ability to understand the descriptions used in nursery and 
 seedsmen's catalogues (Exercises 23, 25, 27) 
 
 20. Ability to select the kinds and varieties of fruits and vege- 
 tables best suited to local climatic and soil conditions (Exercises 23, 26, 
 27, 28) 
 
 21. Ability to select kinds and varieties of fruits and vegetables 
 most desirable for immediate use in the farm home (Exercises 23, 26, 
 27, 28) 
 
 22. Ability to select kinds and varieties of fruits and vegetables 
 most desirable for home storage for use during the winter months 
 (Exercises 23, 26, 27, 28) 
 
 23. Ability to select the kinds and varieties of fruits and vege- 
 tables best suited to market demands (Exercises 23, 26, 27, 29) 
 
 24. Ability to determine the number of each kind of trees and 
 bushes to include in the orchard and small fruit garden (Exercises 23, 
 26, 27, 30, 32) 
 
 25. Ability to determine the amount of each kind and variety of 
 vegetables to include in the vegetable garden (Exercises 23, 26, 27, 
 31, 32) 
 
 26. Ability to order the seeds, plants, and trees (Exercises 23, 25) 
 
 D. Making plans for the garden and orchard 
 
 27. Knowledge of habits of growth and time of maturity of vege- 
 tables in the home garden (Exercise 33) 
 
 28. Ability to make a garden plan (Exercises 33, 34, 35) 
 
 29. Ability to make a plan of the orchard and small fruit garden 
 (Exercises 33, 36) 
 
 30. Appreciation of the value of making definite plans of any kind 
 of farm work before the season opens (Exercises 33, 37) 
 
 31. Appreciation of the importance of carefully thinking over the 
 operation of the farm work before beginning to do the actual job 
 (Exercises 33, 37) 
 
 Types of materials of instruction. Materials of instruction are the 
 tangible or observable things which a student uses in the course of his 
 learning activities. They include textbooks, maps, charts, farm ani- 
 mals, trees, w^oods, rivers, factories, adult activities in the community 
 that may be visited, and so on. Materials of instruction are not learn- 
 ing exercises, but they afi:'ord a basis for learning exercises. Materials 
 
44 Bulletin" Xo. 39 
 
 of instruction are the things on which the curricukim-maker has his 
 attention centered in building a curriculum. He selects materials of 
 instruction for the learning activities of the pupil so that the latter 
 may develop certain controls of conduct which in turn determine 
 future conduct or behavior. Stating it in another way, the learner 
 uses materials of instruction in his learning activities to develop certain 
 controls of conduct which in turn will determine his future behavior. 
 A learning exercise comes first in the chain just suggested. Xot until 
 the learning exercise is comprehended by the learner does he make use 
 of the materials of instruction in his learning activities. 
 
 The definition of materials of instruction just given is. of course, 
 very general. Something simpler is needed to make the term more 
 clear. ^^laterials of instruction may be divided into four main groups^^ 
 as follows : 
 
 A. A'erbal statements 
 
 B. \'isual aids 
 
 C. Apparatus 
 
 D. Extra-school environment 
 
 ■■\'erbal statements" are things that the pupil may read or hear. 
 Included under this head is probably the most important of the ma- 
 terials of instruction; namely, the textbook. Supplementar\- reading 
 materials, such as magazines, books other than texts, newspapers, 
 bulletins, and so forth, are included under "verbal statements." as are 
 also the spoken words of the teacher or others. 
 
 '■\'isual aids" are materials that the pupil observes but does notJ 
 manipulate. Included under the heading come such things as maps,] 
 charts, pictures, moving pictures, demonstration apparatus, and so on. 
 They are used by the teacher or someone other than the class. 
 
 "Apparatus" is the term applied to the materials the pupil handles] 
 or uses. Some of these may have been used by the teacher as visual 
 aids before the pupil uses them. For instance, the class in horticulture 
 may first observe a demonstration put on by the teacher or someone] 
 else in pruning an apple or peach tree, in the mixing of spray materials,] 
 in the manipulation of a spray gun or rod, or in any of the things 
 which may make up the laboratory work in horticulture. The pupil 
 may then be required to handle or use some of the apparatus itself as a 
 part of his learning activity. 
 
 "These groups of materials of instruction are referred to again on p. J If., where 
 each learning exercise is followed by a reference containing one or more of the letters A. B, 
 C, and D. These letters refer to the groups of materials of instruction herein described; 
 namely, A refers to verbal statements, B to visual aids, C to apparatus, and D to extra-school 
 environment. 
 
 I 
 
Curriculum Construction 45 
 
 "Extra-school environment" includes such things as adult activities 
 in the community which may be visited by the pupil as part of his 
 learning activity. The pupil in horticulture may need to visit orchards, 
 gardens, or farms near the school to study various operations in horti- 
 culture. When a study is being made of the selection of land to be 
 used for growing peaches, for instance, the class may visit several 
 good peach-growing sites, and some poor ones, too. The teacher may 
 supplement the laboratory w^ork in the construction of hotbeds or cold- 
 frames by taking his class to study the methods of a market-gardener 
 or truck-grower who is producing a large number of plants under glass 
 and who has equipment that would emphasize points of importance. 
 
 Outcomes resulting from use of materials of instruction. There 
 are two general types of outcomes resulting from the proper use of 
 the materials of instruction in horticulture that the curriculum-maker 
 and teacher must recognize. These are intrinsic outcomes and con- 
 comitant outcomes. Intrinsic outcomes are those which are intimately 
 connected with particular items of materials of instruction; for ex- 
 ample, certain specific habits or skills. For instance, in the use of 
 apparatus such as a small garden sprayer, a definite type of skill will 
 be acquired by the pupil. In operating a wheel-hoe skill may also be 
 acquired. In the use of textbooks and other verbal statements, knowl- 
 edge may be acquired by the pupil. These are the outcomes resulting 
 from the use of the particular materials of instruction and no other. 
 
 Other outcomes, such as general patterns of conduct — ideals, atti- 
 tudes, tastes, interests, and so forth — are somewhat independent of the 
 materials of instruction. As explained before, a general pattern of 
 conduct is a control that functions in a variety of situations and which 
 stimulates one to make his conduct conform to a pattern. An ideal of 
 accuracy or of honesty may have a marked influence upon one's con- 
 duct. A desire to do a thing is a potent factor in determining behavior. 
 For example, a pupil in horticulture may possess the knowledge and 
 j skill required to treat seed potatoes with corrosive sublimate for scab 
 before planting, but he is not likely to apply these controls of conduct 
 unless he has a desire to do so or possesses the ideal of a field of clean, 
 j marketaVjle potatoes as a result of his activity, the preference for clean 
 potatoes rather than scabby ones, or some such general pattern of 
 conduct. 
 
 Principles governing the selection of materials of instruction. 
 Those materials of instruction must be selected that will be most effec- 
 tive in engendering the controls of conduct that have been agreed upon 
 as the immediate or control objectives of horticulture. There are some 
 
46 Bulletin Xo. 39 
 
 materials of instruction that will be more effective in engendering 
 certain controls than will others. For example, if the curriculum had 
 for one of its immediate objectives the attainment of skill in pruning 
 grape vines, the most efficient materials of instruction for the ac- 
 complishment of this skill would be: an unpruned vineyard, pruning 
 shears, the teacher's directions, and probably some pictures illustrating 
 what was wanted. Obviously, this skill could not be acquired by the 
 pupil from reading a book or by listening to a lecture. Practice in 
 doing the job alone would engender the skill desired. If knowledge of 
 the life habits of the Colorado potato beetle were to be acquired, 
 pictures, charts, and the actual live specimens, accompanied by the 
 teacher's explanation might be very efficient materials of instruction, 
 while a very technical textbook in entomology might be of little aid 
 to the high-school pupil. 
 
 Learning takes place most effectively and economically under con- 
 ditions which are vital and worth while to the learner}*' This means 
 that those materials of instruction should be selected that will contain 
 much of the factor of lifelikeness or of naturalness. The learner 
 should feel that the situation is worthy of his efforts and attention. 
 Learning is best acquired when the pupil identifies himself most com- 
 pletely with the thing to be learned. This is not always possible since 
 some activities in the field of horticulture are not intrinsically inter- 
 esting. However, interest may often be stimulated by the type of 
 materials used. For example, the pruning of young apple trees in an 
 orchard would be a more lifelike situation than the pruning of a few 
 branches or small trees brought into the laboratory. Again, to en- 
 gender in the pupil the ability to select a good orchard site, a visit to 
 several places in the community would be more lifelike and interesting 
 than reading about this topic or studying pictures showing orchard 
 sites. 
 
 The materials of instruction in horticulture shoidd he adapted to i 
 the interests and needs of the pupil. Counts emphasizes a principle] 
 similar to the one above when he says, " Nothing should be included in] 
 the curriculum merely because it is of interest to children ; but what- 
 ever is included should be brought into the closest possible relation 
 with their interests. "^'^ In the curriculum in horticulture the class mayj 
 be studving certain diseases of tomatoes — wilt disease — for instance. 
 
 ^^Counts says, "Learning is prosecuted most effectively when the individual identifies 
 himself most completely with the thing to be learned. Only under these conditions is ther^ 
 neither dispersion of attention nor dissipation of energy." 
 
 Counts, Geo. S. "Notes on the Foundations of Curriculum-making." The Twentyi 
 Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington^ 
 Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1926, p. 79. 
 
 '^Counts, op. cit., p. 80. 
 
Curriculum Construction 47 
 
 One kind of materials of instruction would be pictures or slides show- 
 ing this wilt disease. Another kind would be the teacher's description 
 of the disease. Another and far more interesting kind of materials of 
 instruction would be actual tomato plants infected with the disease. 
 
 The materials of instruction should also be adapted to the needs of 
 the pupil. They should be of such a nature that the}^ will be of use to 
 the pupil in his out-of -school life. For example, in constructing a 
 hotbed, it would be of little value to most pupils to construct one to 
 be heated by steam or hot water since such materials are seldom avail- 
 able on the farm. The construction of a simple manure hotbed would 
 afford more practical training for boys in a rural community. The 
 adaptation of the materials of instruction to a pupil's out-of-school life 
 is also important in other school subjects, but sometimes the use of 
 unusual materials of instruction is justified for exploratory purposes. 
 For example, in manual training the pupil often has the use of planers, 
 jointers, sanding machines, and so forth, in his school work which he 
 will probably never have opportunity to use out of school unless he 
 finds employment in the wood- working industry. The only justification 
 for such elaborate materials of instruction would be for exploratory 
 purposes. That is, the pupil may be introduced to such materials so 
 that he may be helped to determine the field of work for which he is 
 best suited. However, the curriculum-maker should keep in mind this 
 factor of the needs of the pupil, especially out of school, in selecting 
 materials of instruction in horticulture. 
 
 These two principles — the one just discussed and the principle of 
 lifelikeness — are very closely related to each other. It is believed, 
 however, that each is of sufficient value in horticulture to be considered 
 as a separate principle. 
 
 Only those materials of instruction should be selected which are 
 reasonably available and zvhich are zvithin the means of the school and 
 the pupil. The materials of instruction should be readily obtainable 
 when wanted without the loss of much time or effort. The pupil's 
 time is valuable. It would be unwise to have him spend a great amount 
 of time and energy journeying to visit a distant commercial plantation 
 of asparagus or rhubarb, for instance, when such materials could be 
 obtained closer to the school, even if not in exactly the form or quan- 
 tity considered the most desirable. It seems that there should be no 
 question but that the materials of instruction should be obtainable with- 
 out too great an expense to the school or the pupil. The discussion on 
 he phases covered under this principle seems to resolve itself into this 
 —the materials of instruction must be practical. 
 
48 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 Materials of instruction should be selected that are suited to the 
 qualifications of the teachers of vocational agricidture. While this 
 principle is undoubtedly important in the construction of curricula for 
 many high-school subjects, it can scarcely be considered very import- 
 ant in the field of vocational agriculture of which horticulture is a part. 
 Teachers in vocational agriculture are required by ruling of the State 
 Board of Vocational Education to be graduates of agricultural colleges 
 whose work is of acceptable quality. These young men should be able 
 to handle any of the materials that could be used in teaching horticul- 
 ture to classes of high-school pupils. For this reason the factor of 
 qualifications of the teachers is not important. 
 
 Organization of the materials of instruction. After the objectives 
 of horticulture have been determined and the materials of instruction 
 which the pupil is to use in acquiring the desired controls of conduct 
 have been selected, the next problem is "How shall these selected 
 materials of instruction be organized for teaching purposes?" This 
 question might be answered generally by saying that the materials of 
 instruction should be so grouped and distributed that in using them in 
 his learning activities the pupil will acquire the desired controls. The 
 principles that have guided the writer in the organization of the ma- 
 terials of instruction refer to the following factors : 
 
 1. The time to be given to the various units of horticulture 
 
 2. Consideration of other subjects in the school 
 
 3. The best time for using a given unit of materials of instruction 
 
 4. The best place for using a given unit of materials of instruction 
 
 5. The best method of using a given unit of materials of instruc- 
 
 tion 
 In the organization of the materials of instruction in horticulture 
 the first thing to consider is the amount of time which shall he given 
 to the different units of horticulture. Horticulture, as has been ex- 
 plained in an earlier part of this thesis, is composed of several units. 
 In regard to the time to be given to the different units which have been 
 decided upon as a part of the curriculum, the writer has aimed to 
 emphasize those of greatest value to the community. How much time 
 is a unit worth? In the central part of the State, the Corn-Belt, the 
 dominant t\'pes of agriculture are grain and livestock farming. Gen- 
 erally speaking, there is little interest in horticultural activities except 
 in the production of vegetables and fruits for home use. The teacher 
 must determine just what phases of these horticultural activities are 
 most suitable to his school and community, and emphasize these ac- 
 tivities. For instance, if he feels that potato growing should receive 
 
 I 
 
Curriculum Construction 49 
 
 considerable attention he can use more time for this phase of horticul- 
 ture and cut down on his time for something else. If an improvement 
 in the home orchards of the community is felt to be necessary, the 
 teacher may emphasize the abilities leading to the attainment of this 
 condition. 
 
 In the organization of the materials of instruction, consideration 
 must he given to other subjects in the high school. There are many 
 materials of instruction that might advantageously be included in the 
 curriculum if horticulture were the only subject in the school. There 
 are many places that could be visited, such as distant orchards, gardens, 
 farms, stores, warehouses, and so on, which would require so much time 
 that the pupil would have to neglect other school work. Certain class 
 projects, such as the care of a large orchard, the production of several 
 acres of potatoes, and the spraying of fruit trees in the community, 
 might involve the use of excellent materials of instruction; namely, the 
 large orchard, the field of potatoes, the fruit trees in the community 
 that need spraying, and the equipment necessary to care for these 
 things. But if the use of these materials of instruction would conflict 
 with other valuable work of the school, it might be best to leave them 
 out of the curriculum, or to adopt other materials that would take less 
 time. 
 
 The curriculum-maker should determine the best time for using 
 a given unit of the materials of instruction. In organizing the ma- 
 terials of instruction the question "When shall a given unit of materials 
 be used as a basis for learning exercises?" is an important one in hor- 
 ticulture. There is undoubtedly one time that is better than any other 
 time to introduce a given unit of the materials of instruction. In horti- 
 culture the seasonal use of materials of instruction will be most life- 
 like or natural. In engendering the ability to prune young peach trees, 
 for instance, the early spring would be the most seasonal time to per- 
 form this job. The orchardist would do the job at that time. In the 
 construction of a hotbed, the early spring or late winter would be the 
 time the vegetable gardener would be doing this job. The pupil would 
 be most interested in using such materials at or as near as practical to 
 the time the hotbed would actually be needed. To make a hotbed in 
 the early fall would be to perform this job out of season. In the use 
 of the materials of instruction for the dormant spraying of apple trees 
 for San Jose scale, these materials should be used in the winter or 
 early spring at or near the time the apple grower would be performing 
 the operation. This factor of season not only affects the naturalness 
 of the materials of instruction but it is closer to the needs of the pupil. 
 
50 Bulletin No. 39 
 
 The curriculum-maker should determine where the materials of 
 instruction are to be used. This principle is similar to the one just dis- 
 cussed. In organizing the materials of instruction, the question of the 
 place in which to use the materials is important. Shall all of the ma- 
 terials of instruction be brought to the classroom or school laboratory, 
 or shall the class be taken to visit the place where the proper materials 
 are found? Some materials are best used in their natural setting. Ex- 
 amples of this type of materials of instruction are found in many of 
 the horticultural specimens with which the pupil must work. Again 
 using the young peach trees as the materials of instruction for en- 
 gendering ability to prune this type of tree, the factor of lifelikeness 
 would be greatest if the peach trees were used in the peach orchard 
 rather than if specimens were brought into the classroom. Under this 
 principle, too, the needs of the pupil are better met if he goes into the 
 peach orchard to learn how to prune the trees. 
 
 TJic curriculum-maker should indicate the best method for using 
 a given unit of materials of instruction. How shall the materials of 
 instruction be used by the pupil? In engendering the ability to con- 
 struct a vegetable storage pit, for instance, shall each pupil actually 
 perform the various operations himself or shall the class observe a 
 demonstration put on by the teacher and one or two others? Again 
 referring to the example cited before, the pruning of young peach 
 trees, the curriculum-maker must determine whether a demonstration 
 by the teacher or the actual doing of the pruning by each member of 
 the class would be best. Undoubtedly, the latter case would be most 
 lifelike for the pupil, and best suited to the needs of his after-school 
 life. There are many other factors under this simple principle which 
 require study. In pruning the young peach trees, several types of 
 materials of instruction might be used. The teacher might give a 
 lecture on pruning of the trees, followed by a demonstration by him- 
 self, and then have the members of the class do the job. Or he might 
 take his class directly to the orchard and have them tackle the job 
 after they had made a study of illustrative material in texts or bul- 
 letins. The curriculum-maker should indicate which method is best in 
 his organization of the materials of instruction. 
 
 The learning exercises. The learning exercises determined are 
 illustrated b}" the following which are proposed as a basis for the at- 
 tainment of the first objective given on page 39. 
 
Curriculum Construction 51 
 
 PLANNING THE WORK 
 
 A. Deciding to have a garden or orchard 
 
 1. Study in textbook and in bulletins the value of fruits and vege- 
 tables in the human diet; (Materials A; objectives 1, 4)^® 
 
 2. Inquire of teacher of home economics or others the importance 
 of vitamins, proteins, etc. in the diet; (Materials A; objectives 1, 4) 
 
 3. Listen to a lecture and study in textbook the economic import- 
 ance of fruits and vegetables in the United States, in Illinois, and in 
 the county or community; (Materials A; objectives 2, 4) 
 
 4. Listen to a talk on the work of such agencies as agricultural 
 colleges, experiment stations, and the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, in improving varieties and methods of producing market- 
 ing fruits and vegetables; (Materials A; objectives 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) 
 
 5. Examine publications of own state experiment station to get 
 an idea of its work in improving varieties and methods of producing 
 and marketing fruits and vegetables; (Materials A; objectives 3, 5, 7) 
 
 6. Obtain information from home or elsewhere of the work of 
 experiment station, agricultural college and other extension agencies 
 in the community; (Materials A; objectives 3, 5, 6, 7) 
 
 7. Listen to a discussion of the successes of individuals in the 
 community who have followed the advice of such educational agencies 
 as the agricultural college, experiment station, etc.; (Materials A; ob- 
 jectives 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) 
 
 8. Visit successful growers of fruits and vegetables in the com- 
 munity who have made a success in their horticultural activities. Ob- 
 tain from them their opinions of the importance of the agricultural 
 college, experiment station, etc.; (Materials D; objectives 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) 
 
 9. Examine a few farm papers or magazines and note emphasis 
 placed upon horticultural activities; (Materials A; objectives 3, 4, 5, 
 6,7) 
 
 B. Selecting the location and site 
 
 10. Listen to a lecture regarding the capital, labor, and informa- 
 tion necessary to establish and operate an orchard; (Materials A; ob- 
 jective 11) 
 
 ^^The first part of the parenthetical statement refers to the type of materials of in- 
 struction to be used. (See p. 4+.) The second part of the reference refers to the objective or 
 control of conduct which is to be the outcome of the pupil activity resulting from the learning 
 exercise given. (See p. 41 f.) For example, Material A indicates that verbal statements are 
 the materials of instruction used in this exercise. Objective 1 means that this exercise will 
 contribute to bringing about the ability indicated, which is as follows: "Knowledge of the 
 value of fruits and vegetables for food, such as their importance in supplying necessary 
 proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, and so forth." It does not necessarily mean that this exer- 
 cise will result in the desired outcome, but it will, at least, make some contribution towards 
 the desired result. 
 
52 Bulletin Xo. 39 
 
 11. Study in textbook and bulletins and discuss the kinds of soils 
 best suited for the production of fruits and vegetables; (Materials A; 
 objective 8) 
 
 12. Visit several orchard sites in the community. Pick out the 
 most desirable sites for orchards from the point of view of the proper 
 soil and air drainage, the proximit}^ to large bodies of water, etc. ; 
 (Materials C; objectives 8, 12, 13, 14, 15) 
 
 13. Study in textbook and discuss the temperature and moisture 
 requirements of different fruits and vegetables; (Materials A; objec- 
 tives 9, 10) 
 
 14. Study records of weather bureau to determine climatic charac- 
 teristics of the community; (Materials A; objectives 9, 10, 15) 
 
 15. Study the water drainage of sites under consideration and 
 recommend methods of improving it; (Materials C; objectives 12, 13, 
 14, 15) 
 
 16. Determine the importance of the proximity of large bodies 
 of water in the production of fruits; (Materials A; objectives 9, 12, 
 14,15) 
 
 17. Make a list of fruits and vegetables which have been success- 
 ful in the community and a list of fruits and vegetables which have not 
 proved successful; (Materials A; objectives 15, 16) 
 
 18. Listen to a lecture, and study in textbook and bulletins the 
 effect of soil diseases on certain crops; (Materials A; objectives 15, 16) 
 
 19. Study photographs and pictures showing the effect of such 
 soil diseases as fusarium wilt of tomatoes, cabbage yellows, etc.; (Ma- \ 
 terials B; objectives 15, 16) 
 
 20. Study in textbook, and discuss the methods of avoiding loss 
 because of soil diseases; (Materials A; objectives 15, 16) 
 
 21. On field trip study the effect of soil diseases on certain crops, 
 such as fusarium disease on tomatoes, cabbage yellows on cabbage, 
 etc.; (Materials C, D; objectives 15, 16) 
 
 22. On a field trip to a nearby farm, select the best site for the 
 home orchard and the small fruit and vegetable gardens, considering 
 all factors brought out previously; (Materials C; objective 17) 
 
 C. Selecting and purchasing seeds, trees, and plants 
 
 23. Study seedsmen's and nursery catalogues; (Materials A; ob- 
 jectives 18 to 26, incl.) 
 
 24. Listen to a talk on the reliability of dealers and growers of 
 nursery stock and vegetable seeds; (Materials A; objective 18) 
 
Curriculum Construction 53 
 
 25. Make out an order for fruit trees, shrubs, and vegetable seeds 
 adapted to local climatic and soil conditions; (Materials C; objectives 
 19, 26) 
 
 26. Study in textbook and in bulletins amounts and kinds of fruits 
 and vegetables most desirable for immediate use in the farm home, 
 for home storage, and to meet the market demands ; (Materials A; ob- 
 jectives 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25) 
 
 27. Make a list of the fruits and vegetables most desirable for 
 immediate use, for home storage, and to meet the market demands ; 
 (Materials A; objectives 19 to 25, incl.) 
 
 28. Examine home orchards in the community and list the kinds 
 and varieties of fruits included; (Materials C, D; objectives 20, 21, 22) 
 
 29. Examine commercial orchards in the community and list the 
 kinds and varieties of fruits included; (Materials C, D; objective 23) 
 
 30. Listen to a lecture and study in textbook and bulletins the 
 number of each kind of trees and bushes to include in the orchard and 
 small fruit garden for a family of a given size; (Materials A; objec- 
 tive 24) 
 
 31. Study in textbook and bulletins the amounts of each kind and 
 variety of vegetable to include in the home vegetable garden; (Ma- 
 terials A; objective 25) 
 
 32. Determine the amount of each kind and variety of fruits and 
 vegetables for the home of each member of the class, considering the 
 various factors involved; (Materials A, C; objectives 24, 25) 
 
 D. Making plans for the garden and orchard 
 
 33. Study in the textbook and bulletins, and discuss the import- 
 ance of making careful plans of the orchard, small fruit garden, or 
 vegetable garden; (Materials A; objectives 27, 28, 29, 30, 31) 
 
 34. Examine representative plans of vegetable gardens; (Mater- 
 ials A, B ; objective 28) 
 
 35. Make a plan for a vegetable garden to serve the needs of your 
 own family; (Materials C; objective 28) 
 
 36. Make a plan of an orchard and small fruit garden for your 
 own family needs; (Materials C; objective 29) 
 
 37. Discuss the importance of careful planning in any kind of 
 farm work, especially in the horticultural activities under consider- 
 ation; (Materials A; objectives 30, 31)