LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result In dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN AUG 1 1979 L161—O.1096 40 WISCONSIN TEA .S FOE RURAL TEACHERS. Wisconsin high schools h \s' training courses have been estab- Location o schools. Countie Black River Falls. . Chilton Jackson Calumet Chippewa Forest Lafayette Iowa Pierce Grant Florence Trempealeau. Burnett Brown Jefferson Dodge Clark St. Croix.... Winnebago . Sheboygan.. Fond du Lac Shawano Washburn . . Dane Monroe Bayfield .... Waukesha. . Marquette. . Chippewa Falls Crandon Darlington Dodgeville Ellsworth . Fennimore . . . Florence Galesville Grantsburg Green Bay Hayward Jefferson May ville Neills ville ., New Richmond Omro Plymouth Ripon Shawano Spooner Stoughton Tomah Washburn Waukesha Westfield Total 1 i The total enrollment for the j were 265 graduated— 19 men and* bnt, 1913-14. Graduates, 1914. nale. Total. Male. Female. Total. 26 26 1 1 13 16 41 41 15 15 8 11 22 22 26 26 3 3 24 24 2 2 13 13 1 1 15 16 36 39 5 5 13 15 1 1 21 21 11 13 30 31 1 3 4 19 20 8 8 16 18 1 1 36 36 8 8 25 25 66 6 30 36 2 17 19 27 29 1 1 10 11 1 2 3 14 15 2 2 23 24 5 5 30 30 4 ' 4 27 27 7 7 9 12 1 1 O > 23 620 4 93 97 lese, 59 were men and 699 women. There DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1916, NO. 18 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN PREPARED IN THE DIVISION OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION BY FREDERIC ERNEST FARRINGTON BUREAU OF EDUCATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS Page. Letter of transmittal 5 Chapter I. — The problem 7 Chapter II. — Legal aspects 12 Chapter III. — Present conditions 20 Table 1. — Foreign-born white population by States 33 Table 2. — Illiteracy among foreign -bom whites by States 33 Table 3. — Inability to speak English, among foreign-born whites by States 34 Table 4. — School attendance among foreign -born whites by age groups 34 Table 5. — Foreign-born whites: Inability to speak English, illiteracy, and school attendance, by age groups for the United States as a whole 35 Table 6.— Statistics relating to evening schools, 1914-15 36 3 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington, August 10, 1916. Sir: In 1910 there were in the United States more than thirteen millions of foreign-born men, women, and children, and more than four-fifths of those coming hi that year were from southern and eastern European countries and other countries in which the per- centage of illiteracy is very large. Nearly three millions of these foreign-born men, women, and children over 10 years of age were unable to speak the English language, and more than one million six hundred thousand were unable to read and write in any language. The four years following the census year of 1910 added largely to all these classes, the average immigration for these years being more than one million annually. The tide has receded since the beginning of the war in Europe, but it will probably attain its former level and more when the war is over. For their good and our own we may not let these people remain among us either as citizens or aliens without giving them adequate opportunity and every proper inducement to learn the language of the country and whatever else may be necessary to enable them to understand the best in American social, industrial, and civic life. A general feeling of the importance of this problem has given rise to three questions: 1. What is now being done for the education of those who come to our shores after having passed the age of compulsory school attendance ? 2. What should be done for them ? 3. How can it best be done ? To help toward the answer of the first of these questions, I recom- mend the publication of the accompanying manuscript, prepared by Dr. Frederic Ernest Farrington, of the Division of Immigrant Educa- tion in this bureau. Other manuscripts intended to assist in answer- ing the second and third of these questions are in preparation and will be submitted for publication later. Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, Commissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. Chapter I. THE PROBLEM. Census returns in the last two decennial reports have brought out with increasing force the growing importance of the alien prob- lem. 1 Every citizen of the United States to-day is an immigrant or the descendant of an immigrant. Proximity to the ocean-crosser in point of time is the chief factor which fixes the position of each one in the categories of the census classification. A century and a half ago it was finally determined that English should thenceforth be the language of the land. From the begin- ning of the colonial period English had been the language of the great majority of the arrivals from across the sea, and it continued so to be for many years thereafter. Subsequent arrivals for many decades accepted unquestioningly the responsibility of learning the language of their adopted country. So long as the newcomers were of Teutonic stock the problem of educating the aliens presented no particular difficulty. They all came from countries where learn- ing occupied an honorable place in the minds of the common peo- ple, and the problem of illiteracy was almost negligible. In fact in some of the countries it was only a small proportion of what it was among the native-white population of America at the same time. With the change in the character of the immigrant tide, however, when immigrants began to come from southern and eastern Europe, new difficulties presented themselves. In the decade 1851-1860, the arrivals from southern and eastern Europe formed only about 5 per cent of the total number of immigrants. In the following decade this proportion had doubled; in another decade it had doubled again; and then for 20 years it remained almost stationary. Reduced to figures, this means 5 per cent in 1851-1860; 11 per cent in 1861-70; 26 per cent in 1871-1880; and 28 per cent in 1881-1890. Then the flood from eastern and southern Europe burst forth with increased force, nearly doubling in the following decade; and finally, in the decade 1901-1910, it increased nearly by half. 1 Table 1 shows the number of foreign-born whites, in each State, together with their per cent of the total population. 7 8 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. This change is shown schematically in the subjoined diagram: NORTHERN AND WESTERN EUROPE SOUTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE Wfflffl', AND OTHER COUNTRIES 190I TO I910 is5i i86i ieji isei iaei TO TO TO TO TO iseo 1670 ieso ieso ooo Diagram 1.— Immigration into the United States, 1S51-1910, showing per cent of increase from the less literate nations. Thus in the decade, 1891-1900, well over half the immigration tide arose in the countries of southern and eastern Europe, and 10 years later these same countries were responsible for over three- fourths of our new arrivals. It is not surprising, therefore, that the sense of responsibility for acquiring a facility in the use of English changed inversely as the number of immigrants from the less literate nations. In 1890 over half the population of one of the kingdoms of the Dual Monarchy, from which a considerable proportion of immiorants comes, were classed as illiterate. Statistics for 1910 show this figure still to be over 33 per cent. Other illiteracy figures for that eastern section of Europe range from Austria with 13.7 per cent, Roumania with 60.6 per cent, and Russia with 69 per cent, to Servia THE PROBLEM. 9 with 78. 9 per cent of her population unable to read and write their own language. If it is justifiable to assume that the literacy of the immigrants from these countries is measured by that of the population of the countries, it is evident that the United States must assume an addi- tional burden in return for economic aid derived from their labor in order to raise these newcomers to the literacy level of its own people, which at best is quite too low even for the native-born whites. According to the census of 1910/ there were 1,650,361 foreign- born whites over 10 years of age who could not read or write in any language, a number representing 12.7 per cent of the entire foreign- born white population of the country. 2 In contrast with the illit- eracy among the native whites, 3 per cent, this figure is disquietingly large. When inability to speak English is considered, an even more serious situation is disclosed, for in 1910 practically three million foreign-born white persons in the United States 10 years of age and over (to be exact, 2,953,011) were ignorant of the language of the country. 3 While it is true that some of these were merely sojourners in the land who would ultimately find their way back whence they came, 4 it is evident that during their stay in the United States they are subject to the laws and regulations of the country and must be held responsible for obeying these laws and regulations. Even though they may feel no personal need for acquiring English the welfare and safety of the Nation make it imperative that this obli- gation be forced upon them. The more these foreigners settle in groups among their own kind, the less likely are they to learn English of their own accord, and the more necessary does it become that municipal, State, or National authorities begin seriously to consider the problem. In 1910 the 2,953,011 foreign-born white persons in the United States 10 years of age and over who were unable to speak English represented 22.8 per cent of the total foreign-born population of the country. While these are scattered throughout all the States of the Union, they are largely found in the northeastern quarter of the country. More than two-thirds of them are in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts, Ohio, New Jersey, Texas, Wisconsin, and Michigan. With the exception of Texas, the States just noted are all north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi. i In the subsequent pages of this bulletin all figures relating to population, size of communities, illiterac - *, inability to speak English, and the like for the United States are based upon the returns of the census for 1910. 2 For illiteracy figures amon» foreign-born whites far the various States, see Table 2, p. 33. 3 For figures relating to inability to speak English among foreign-born whites for the various States, see Table 3. 4 From the most trustworthy information available, this represents about one-third the total number. 46803°— 16 2 10 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. Each of tliem has more than 100,000 non-English-speaking foreign- ers, with numbers ranging from 102,000 in Michigan to 597,000 in New York. Whereas these States have 67.6 per cent of the total foreign-bom white population of the country, they have 73.6 per cent of those unable to speak English. In other words, these figures would seem to strengthen the assumption that massed groups of foreigners engender a disinclination to learn English. As numbers increase, the problem increases in more than arithmetical ratio. Census figures, which show that the number of persons unable to speak English increased 1,735,731 between 1900 and 1910, or 142.6 per cent, as opposed to an increase of 29.3 per cent in the total num- ber, should therefore provide food for serious thought. Consideration of the age distribution of these people suggests an even more serious condition, for of the nearly three million who can not use the English language as a medium of communication, 2,565,612 are over 21 years of age, in other words, well beyond the compulsory school-attendance age and therefore beyond the period when in the ordinary course of events they are likely to attend school in order to acquire the common-school branches. Of the two and one-half million over 21 years of age who can not speak English, only 35,614 are in school, a paltry 1.3 per cent. 1 This situation is shown graphi- cally and forcefully in the following diagram: UNITED$TATESSCH00LjnBjDA^ &/7SI/S/9/0 m Number Attend i no School ° 35.614 Total Number 2.565.612 Attending School 35,614 Diagram 2. Handicapped by a language disability, they not only find barriers in the way of securing ready employment, but they fall into the hands of more or less unscrupulous fellow countrymen who exploit their language ignorance, or they become a ready prey to the agitator i For figures showing school attendance among foreign-born whites by age groups for the various States, see Table 4. THE PEOBLEM. 11 of smooth speech and are thus likely to become a menace to the wel- fare of both Commonwealth and Nation. The immediate significance of this is suggested by a study of the per cent of males of militia age (18 to 44 years) in New England. The figures in the following table are represented graphically in the diagram shown below: Total males of militia age (IS to 44 years) in New England. Classes. Per cent. Native parentage Negro and others Foreign or mixed parentage Foreign-born white 34.3 1.4 24.4 39.9 4% NEQRO AND OTHERS 20.2/11 Diagram 3.— Distribution of males of militia age (is to 44 years) in New England according to nativity and parentage. Only less striking are the corresponding data for the Middle Atlantic States. Since complete citizenship should be the ultimate desire of every foreigner who settles in the country permanently, there is an added reason for putting the acquisition of the speech of the land within reach of all, for according to Federal regulations ability to read and speak English is demanded before the rights and privileges of citi- zenship may be conferred. Chapter II. LEGAL ASPECTS. Public schools are universal throughout all the States of the Union. They have been established in response to the deep-seated conviction that education is essential for individual happiness and efficiency, for civic welfare, and for national prosperity. This con- viction has been embodied in constitution and statute in order to guarantee the continuance of a system of schools for the people of the land, and to-day scarcely a hamlet in the whole country lacks facilities for providing the youth with the means for further material, intellec- tual, and spiritual progress. "People" in the sense above, however, has contemplated the American people. It is only when one realizes that not all the people of this country are fundamentally American, with American standards and American ideals, that it becomes apparent that the United States has a large group of residents who are not affected by the educational organization established by the fathers. Whereas the law has safeguarded the native population, what provision does it make for assuring that the foreigner should have an educational equipment comparable to that within reach of the native born, at least to the minimum safety limit imposed upon the native popula- tion ? From the legal standpoint, immigrant education deals with three quite distinct groups: (1) Children who come within the provisions of the compulsory school-attendance law (usually up to 14 or 15 years) ; (2) youth of both sexes between the close of the compulsory school-attendance period and the close of the school-age period (18, 20, or 21 years, according to the State); and (3) all above the age limits just indicated, who may be termed adults from the school-age point of view. Children of the first group present no peculiar problem. They are taken care of more or less effectively by the compulsory school- attendance law, which affects all children alike. In communities where the machinery for the enforcement of this law is not altogether efficient, undoubtedly too many escape entirely, especially if they come in toward the end of the compulsory period. Under a co- operative arrangement between the United States Bureau of Educa- tion and the Bureau of Immigration of the Department of Labor, 12 LEGAL ASPECTS. 13 commissioners of immigration at the ports of entry are notifying the various school authorities throughout the country of the arrival of immigrant children between the ages of 4 and 16 years whose destina- tion falls within the jurisdiction of these school authorities. Besides the name of the child, facts are furnished to facilitate identification. In this way the machinery will be set in motion to enable local school authorities to learn almost immediately of the arrival of alien children within their midst and thus make it possible to bring these children into school before they are spirited away into unlawful employment. Once the law lays its hands upon such children, the chances are good that they can be kept long enough to acquire at least a working knowledge of English and some appreciation of civic life. Delay of even a few months, however, may immensely decrease the chances of Americanizing these children. Everything now depends upon the local school authorities. Vigilance on their part is bound to result in incalculable good, while indifference dooms the effort to failure. In normal times, about 160,000 children between the ages of 5 and 16 enter the United States annually, 80 per cent coming from the non-English-speaking countries of southern and eastern Europe, particularly from southern Italy, from Poland, Hungary, Russia, and other adjoining States. Unless these children come early into contact with American ideals through the school system, they are likely to prove unfit for American citizenship. For those who fall within the second category, from the close of the compulsory school-attendance period to the upper reaches of the school-age period, very little legislation is applicable. Massa- chusetts forms a conspicuous exception to the general rule, since for nearly 30 years there has been a law upon her statute books requiring illiterate minors over 14 years of age to attend some school if they have lived for a year in a city or town which maintains an evening school, although not until 1898 was instruction in the English language added to the list of subjects which must be offered in these schools. Beginning with 1906, the standard of literacy was fixed by legislation, a graduated scale being established, so that in 1908 and thereafter literacy was interpreted to mean such ability to read and write as is required for admission to the fourth grade. Five years later this was increased to the completion of the fourth grade. Labor legislation of 1909 made this law more drastic by prohibiting the employment of any minor coming within the purview of tliis education law, unless he were attending a public evening school. Furthermore, in accordance with State law, any town may maintain, and every city or town in which labor certificates are granted to 20 or more persons within a year to whom this illiteracy law applies, 14 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN". shall maintain an evening school during the following year. In effect, then, this legislation reaches every illiterate minor as denned above between 16 and 21 years of age, employed or unemployed, married or single, living in a community where evening schools are maintained. No other State has done so much to eliminate illiteracy. At best, however, many are bound to escape, for according to the most trust- worthy statistics available on March 1, 1916, for the year 1914-15, there were 23 communities in the State each having over 5,000 in- habitants and over 1,000 foreign-born whites where no evening schools were found, in one of which, according to the census returns for 1910, the foreign-born whites comprised 47 per cent of the popu- lation. More striking still is the fact that 3 of the 23 communities had over 10,000 inhabitants. Connecticut likewise has a mandatory provision in its education law for the establishment of evening schools, every town having a population of 10,000 or more being required to establish and main- tain such schools for the instruction of persons over 14 years old. Furthermore, in towns where evening schools are found, illiterates between 14 and 16 years may not be in employment save on condi- tion that they have been in regular attendance at evening school during the preceding month. New York, in its cities of the first and second class, may require all persons between 14 and 16 years of age who have work certificates and who have not completed the elementary school course to attend part-time, or continuation, or evening schools, but the imposition of this requirement is optional with the community. Permissive provisions for the establishment of evening schools are furthermore found in the education laws of several States; to wit, California, Georgia, Kansas, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin. Nearly all the so-called immigration States are thus covered, Illinois, the most significant exception, reaching illiterates between 14 and 16 years of age through the medium of labor legislation. In that State attendance at night school may be accepted in lieu of passing the literacy test. Permissive legislation, however, seldom accomplishes its purpose, and there is little reason to believe that these States in this regard form any exception to the general rule. The following figures for the principal immigration States (i. e., all those having over 500,000 foreign-born whites) will support this assertion : LEGAL ASPECTS. 15 Number of evening schools in the principal immigration States (i. e., States vit.h over 500,000 foreign-born whites) . Number of foreign- born whites. Number of urban cen- ters •— Number of States. With over 2,500 in- habitants. With over 1,000 for- eign-born whites. evening schools in 1914-15.2 2,729,272 1,430,719 1,202,500 1,1151,050 658, 188 597, 245 595. 524 543,010 517,250 512,509 148 263 144 152 88 139 77 48 70 73 71 127 32 117 61 40 43 32 30 38 41 42 19 65 30 Ohio 20 19 8 9 19 Total 1,202 591 272 1 United States census, 1910. 2 Figures up to Mar. 8, 1916, from data on file at the Bureau of Education, Division of Immigrant Education. While the figure 1,000 foreign-born whites gives a more or less arbitrary dividing line, it appeared advisable to establish some definite basis for differentiation, and this seemed a convenient division point. One should not conclude that every community above this limit has an acute alien problem, and that in no case below this figure is there crying need for educational facilities to care for the foreign born. On the other hand, the number of foreign born does not give an accurate measure of the need. Maynard, Mass., with 3,002 foreign-born whites out of a total population of 6,390 and no evening school, has a distinctly more serious problem to face than Savannah, Ga., with 3,382 foreign-born whites out of 65,064, likewise without an evening school, or Evansville, Ind., with 4,462 foreign- born whites out of 69,647 and no evening classes for foreigners. In the majority of instances, however, it is fair to say that 1,000 foreign- born whites in any community deserve some evening school facilities, especially since more than one in five of these on the average will be unable to speak English, according to the figures for the country as a whole at the time of the 1910 census. According to the foregoing table, about half the cities (following the census nomenclature that every community of 2,500 and over is classed as urban) covered by these figures have as many as 1,000 foreign-born whites, and less than half of these cities provide evening- school facilities. It is evident, therefore, that permissive legisla- tion for the establishment of evening schools offers slight guarantee that the schools will actually be provided. One may safely conclude that the age group 10 to 14 years of the foreign-born white population unable to speak English, representing 16 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOE EDUCATING THE ALIEN. 56,405 for the whole country, will be adequately taken care of by the school machinery already in existence. This conclusion is still fur- ther strengthened by the fact that 86.1 per cent of the total foreign- born white population within that age group (10 to 14) are in school. As age increases, the foreign-born white child is less and less likely to be found in school. Linguistic difficulties make it improbablo that he will be found in any of the regular schools, and the table on page 36 shows that special opportunities, as measured by the prevalence of evening schools in the 10 States under consideration, are totally inadequate. In fact less than half the communities in the immigra- tion States provide evening-school facilities for the alien. For those of 21 years of age and over unable to speak English, the problem is acute and distressing. With 2,565,612 foreign- born white persons who fall within this age group in the country in 1910 suffering from this disability, and only 35,614 foreign-born white adults in school, or 1.3 per cent, it is evident that practically no aliens are making any systematic effort to acquire the English language. Since it is not certain that all these 35,000 are drawn from the non-English-speaking group, the real facts are probably even worse than the figures would seem to indicate. Undoubtedly present facilities are already available for increasing by manyfold this insignificant number enrolled in school. The successful campaigns undertaken in cities like Detroit and Syracuse under the inspiration of the National Americanization Committee and with the valued support of the chambers of commerce justify this assertion. Unsatisfactory attendance upon evening classes is partly due to ignorance on the part of the foreign-born population as to the facilities for education that may be had for the asking. This can, of course, be remedied by awakening public sentiment to the necessity of bringing these opportunities to the attention of the foreigner through Americanization meetings, citizenship addresses, publicity campaigns in the various foreign languages, and the like, but even when all those means have been exhausted, there is still much to be done. In many instances education laws themselves need to be changed, and in some cases even the State constitution. California is the only State in the Union which mentions evening schools by name in its constitution: 1 "The public-school system shall include day and evening elementary schools and such day and evening secondary schools * * *." Missouri does this in effect when it grants to the general assembly the right to "establish and maintain free public schools for the 1 The following material relating to constitutional and legislative provisions for evening schools is based largely upon Hood, W. R., "Digest of State Laws Relating to Public Education," Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 47, 1915. LEGAL ASPECTS. 17 gratuitous instruction of all persons in this- State between 5 and 6 years of age and over 20 years of age." In some States constitutional provisions militate seriously against the establishment of free evening schools for adults, unless the community is prepared to support them entirely from its own resources. This barrier operates indirectly in those States which provide for free schools for the gratuitous instruction of all residents between certain ages, as in Colorado. It becomes effective in others by implication, as in South Dakota, where the school fund is dis- tributed according to the number of children of school age. In still other States, the same result is reached more directly and positively, as in the case of Iowa, where the school fund is distributed on the basis of youth between the ages of 5 and 21 years. The following 20 States have such limitations: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colo- rado, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Wyoming. The following are extracts from the constitutions embodying these provisions : Alabama. — Art. XIV, sec. 25G: The legislature shall establish, organize, and main- tain a liberal system of public schools throughout the State for the benefit of the children thereof between the ages of 7 and 21 years. The public-school fund shall be apportioned to the several counties in proportion to the number of school children of school age therein * * *. Arizona. — Art. XI, sec. 6: The legislature shall provide for a system of common schools by which a free school shall be established and maintained in every school district for at least six months in each year, which school shall be open to all pupils between the ages of 6 and 21 years. Sec. 8. The income derived from the investment of the permanent State school fund and from the rental derived from school lands, with such other funds as may be pro- vided by law, shall be apportioned annually to the various counties of the State in proportion to the number of pupils of school age residing therein. Arkansas. — Art. XIV. sec. 1: The State shall ever maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system of free schools whereby all persons in the State between the ages of 6 and 21 years may receive gratuitous instruction. Colorado. — Art. IX, sec. 2: The general assembly shall, as soon as practicable, pro- vide for the establishment and maintenance of a thorough and uniform system of free public schools throughout the State wherein all residents of the State between the ages of 5 and 21 years may be educated gratuitously. Iowa. — Art. IX, Part II, sec. 7: The money subject to the support and maintenance of common schools shall be distributed to the districts in proportion to the number of youths between the ages of 5 and 21 years, in such manner as may be provided by the general assembly. Kansas. — Art. VI, sec. 4: The income of the State school funds shall be disbursed annually, by order of the State superintendent, * * * in equitable proportion to the number of children and youth resident therein between the ages of 5 and 21 years. 46803°— 16 — -3 18 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN". Kentucky. — Sec. 186: Each county in the Commonwealth shall be entitled to its proportion of the school fund on its census of pupil children for each school year. Louisiana. — Art. 248: There shall be free public schools for the white and colored races, separately, established by the general assembly, throughout the State, for the education of all the children of the State between the ages of 6 and 18 years. * * * All funds raised by the State for the support of public schools, except the poll tax, shall be distributed to each parish in proportion to the number of children therein between the ages of 6 and 18 years. Minnesota. — Art. VIII, sec. 2: And the income arising from the lease or sale of said school land shall be distributed to the different townships throughout the State, in proportion to the number of scholars in each township, between the ages of 5 and 21 years. 1 Mississippi. — Art. VIII, sec. 206: The common school fund shall be distributed among the several counties and separate school districts in proportion to the number of educable children in each. Montana. — Art. XI, sec. 5: The interest on all invested school funds of the State, * * * shall be apportioned to the several school districts of the State in proportion to the number of children and youths between the ages of 6 and 21 years, residing therein respectively. Nebraska. — Art. VIII, sec. 6: The legislature shall provide for the free instruction in the common schools of this State of all persons between the ages of 5 and 21 years. New Mexico. — Art. XII, sec. 1: A uniform system of free public schools sufficient for the education of, and open to, all the children of school age in the State shall be established and maintained. North Carolina. — Art. IX, sec. 2: The general assembly * * * shall provide by taxation and otherwise for a general and uniform system of public schools, wherein tuition shall be free of charge to all the children of the State between the ages of 6 and 21 years. North Dakota. — Art. IX, sec. 154: The interest and income of this fund * * * shall be faithfully used and applied each year for the benefit of the common schools of the-State, and shall be for this purpose apportioned among and between all the several common-school corporations of the State in proportion to the number of children in each of school age, as may be fixed by law. Oklahoma. — Art. XIII, sec. 1: The legislature shall establish and maintain a system of free public schools wherein all the children of the State may be educated. Oregon. — Art. VIII, sec. 4: Provision shall be made by law for the distribution of the ill come of the common-school fund among the several counties of the State in pro- portion to the number of children resident therein between the ages of 4 and 20 years. South Carolina. — Art. XI, sec. 5: The general assembly shall provide for a liberal system of free public schools for all children between the ages of 6 and 21 years. South Dakota. — Art. VIII, sec. 3: The interest and income of this fund * * * shall be for this purpose apportioned among and between all the several public-school corporations of the State in proportion to the number of children in each of school age, as may be fixed by law. Wyoming. — Art. VII, sec. 8 : Provision shall be made by general law for the equitable distribution of such income among the several counties according to the number of children of school age in each. Sec. 9. The legislature shall make such further provision, by taxation or otherwise, as with the income arising from the general school fund will create and maintain a thorough and efficient system of public schools, adequate to the proper instruction of all the youth of the State, between the ages of 6 and 21 years, free of charge. 1 But, see legislative enactment infra, p. 19. LEGAL ASPECTS. 19 State school laws supplement and apply the constitutional pro- visions. These are summed up for the 10 principal immigration States in the following digest: California. — Cities are generally administered under separate charter wherein are defined the powers and duties of school boards. In cities of the fifth class, school boards are granted general authority to establish evening schools. Illinois. — Night schools are recognized in the child-labor law. Attendance at such schools is recognized as satisfying the provision of the law prohibiting the employment of any child between 14 and 16 who can not read and write. Massachusetts. — Any town may and every city or town in which there are issued during the year of September 1 to August 31 certificates authorizing employment of 20 or more persons who do not possess the educational qualifications enumerated in the compulsory attendance law of the State shall maintain during the following school year an evening school for instruction of persons over 14 years old in orthography, reading, writing, the English language and grammar, geography, arithmetic, industrial drawing (both free-hand and mechanical), the history of the United States, physiology and hygiene, and good behavior; such other subjects may be taught as may be de- termined by the school committee. Michigan. — No statement, direct or otherwise. Minnesota. — School board of independent district may also provide for admission of nonresident pupils and those above school age and fix tuition of such pupils. * * * Such boards may also establish and maintain evening schools for persons over 10 years old unable to attend day school and receive State aid for same. New Jersey. — Board of education of any district may maintain evening schools for education of residents over 12 years old; * * * Said board may establish and maintain a public evening school for instruction of foreign-born residents over 14 years old in the English language and in government and laws of New Jersey and of the United States; teachers in such schools must hold special teachers' certificates; * * * course of study in such school must be approved by State board. Each dis- trict maintaining evening school or schools shall receive from the State for such school or schools an amount equal to that raised by the district, such aid not to exceed §5,000 per year for any district. New York. — Board of education of each school district and of each city may main- tain free night schools. Ohio. — Upon petition of parents or guardians of not less than 25 school children who are prevented from attending day school, the school board in any district shall organ- ize an evening school; teachers for such schools must hold regularly issued teachers' certificates; board may discontinue such school when average attendance falls below 12; any person over 21 years old may be permitted to attend the evening school upon payment of tuition. The schools of each district shall be free to all youths between 6 and 21 years of age resident therein. Pennsylvania. — The board of school directors of any district of second, third, or fourth class, upon application of parents of 25 or more pupils above 14 years, shall open a free evening school for instruction in spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and such other subjects as board may determine; evening schools shall be kept open for at least 4 months per year, 20 days a month, and 2 hours each evening; no student shall be admitted unless employed during the day; evening schools may be closed when the average attendance falls below 15. Boards may admit persons under 6 and over 21 to suitable special or vocational schools. Wisconsin. — Every community of over 5,000 inhabitants must and every one of less than 5,000 may have an industrial education board, a part of whose duties shall be the fostering, establishing, and maintaining of evening schools. Such school must be established on petition of 25 persons qualified to attend such school. Chapter III. PRESENT CONDITIONS. Some indication has already been given of the prevalence of evening schools in the chief immigration States, in consequence of the permissive legislation existing on their statute books. It is pertinent to discuss in some detail the specific conditions under which these schools are actually administered. The following information is based upon questionnaire returns sent in by school administrative officers for the year 1914-15. Inquiry from the Bureau of Education brought in a wealth of valuable information from almost all the more important cities and towns in the country where evening schools for foreigners were successfully maintained. While certain details have necessarily been omitted, the returns were unusually complete, and it is safe to conclude that the most significant characteristics of evening-school manage- ment are embodied herein. SUPPORT. Eleven of the States make grants for evening-school support, to wit: California, Connecticut, Indiana (vocational), Maine, Min- nesota, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania (industrial), Rhode Island, Washington, Wisconsin. California. — Evening schools are part of the general school system. State aid is based upon average daily attendance in day and evening schools. A day's attendance, two hours, in an evening school is equivalent to a half-day's attendance in a day school. Inasmuch as the attendance unit in 1914-15 was worth $15 per year per pupil, this amounted to one-half of $15 for evening-school attendance. Connecticut. — To each town supporting an evening school the State grants $2.25 per pupil in average attendance, provided the school has been maintained for 75 nights and a report upon such school has been rendered to the board. Maine. — The State reimburses the city to the extent of two-thirds of the amount expended for salaries of teachers, provided certain vocational subjects are also offered in the school. General evening-school instruction is thus supported through a rider on the industrial education act. Minnesota. — State grant is available for evening-school pupils between 5 and 21 years, provided they have attended 40 nights or more. Only 2 out of 10 cities report- ing note any State aid, and the amounts received in 1914-15 were $200 and $2,154, respectively. Schools are opened, however, to all persons over 10 years of age who for any cause are unable to attend the public day schools. New Jersey. — State grants $80 per teacher for each one who holds a regular teacher's certificate and who teaches at least 64 evenings of two hours each. There is also a 20 PRESENT CONDITIONS. 21 per capita allowance based upon attendance. An evening attendance is reckoned as a half-day's attendance. Inasmuch as this is apportioned from a lump appropria- tion, the per capita amount varies from year to year. In case the local board so elects, the State will duplicate the local appropriation for evening classes for foreign-born residents in lieu of the grant above noted, not, however, to exceed $5,000 annually. Complaint is made that this law really provides aid for only small communities. In large systems it is claimed that the city actually loses money by taking advantage of the law. New York. — There is no specific appropriation for ordinary night schools, although aid is apportioned on the basis of the number of teachers and the number of days they teach under the regular State grant system. For each 180 days or more taught during the year $100 is allowed, and a night is regarded as half a day. Purely voca- tional schools are aided on a separate basis. Rhode Island. — State aid is granted on the basis of half the amount expended up to $1,000; then $100 for each additional $500 expended up to $3,500. The maximum amount in any one case is therefore $1,000. In 1915 the State had only $7,000 to dis- tribute, however, so that even this schedule can not always be paid in full. Washington. — Current school funds of State and county are apportioned among the several districts of the State according to the actual number of days' attendance of all pupils. For the purpose of this distribution an evening's attendance in the evening school is counted as a half day. Sessions must be two hours in length and there must be no maximum age limit. Wisconsin. — State reimburses city for one-half actual expenditures for evening schools up to a maximum allotment of $3,000, provided the schools are maintained for at least eight months and that the work is satisfactory to the State superintendent and the State board of industrial education. No tuition may be charged to residents, and schools are open to all over 14 years of age. FEES. These schedules and most of the following material relate exclu- sively to conditions in the so-called evening elementary schools, the only classes where the alien is likely to be found. Some communities support evening commercial, high, industrial, or vocational schools, but these are outside the limits of the present inquiry. Fees in evening schools do not amount to any significant figure, although a few less important places report that their school is entirely dependent upon this source of income. Several of the States have specific regulations against charging fees in the schools as a condition of receiving State grant. With relatively few excep- tions, fees where collected do not apply to foreigners learning English, and in these exceptions the amounts are seldom burdensome. Only 77 schools out of 429 report fees charged, and 54 of these are found in the States of Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. In Illinois these fees range from 50 cents per month to $2 per month for a six months' term. It is significant to note that in the city charging this higher figure no school was opened in 1915-16 because there was not sufficient enrollment of those willing to pay this fee. Iowa reports fees ranging from SI per season to $5 per 22 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. season for those over 21 years of age. Massachusetts cities charge $1 to $2 per season, hut only for those not subject to the compulsory attendance law. Michigan school fees range from $1 per season to 50 cents per week for a five months' term. New York charges in six schools from SI to $2. Ohio reports from $1 per season to 10 cents per lesson for those over 21 years of age, for an 87-lesson term. In Pennsylvania the fees range from 25 cents per season to $1 per month for a five months' term. DEPOSITS. In 150 communities deposits are required of evening-school pupils, usually as an earnest of good faith, but sometimes in order to guaran- tee satisfactory deportment, return of books loaned, or regularity of attendance. The fact that in nearly every case reasonable care on the part of the pupils will secure the return of this fee is sufficient warrant for these assertions. The most frequent attendance re- quirement ranges from two-thirds to four-fifths of the possible at- tendances, although in some cases it is left under the general state- ment of "satisfactory attendance and deportment," and one town goes so far as to demand perfect attendance on condition of returning 50 per cent of the deposit. SUPERVISION. Evening-school supervision is far from being upon a satisfactory basis. It should be as much a specialty as the many other phases of school work that are recognized as demanding expert supervision. Most of the work, however, is still under the general direction of the superintendent's office. About one-third (150) of all the cities and towns whose returns are available report a director for evening-school work, although in certain cities this direction is merely an added function laid upon an administrative officer already seriously over- burdened. Existence or nonexistence of the director of evening schools, as found in the returns, is not always a dependable criterion of the work done, for many small communities report such a director and many important places report none. For example, a city of over 250,000 inhabitants, well known for the efficiency of its general supervision, in reporting no director of evening schools, adds that such schools are supervised by the superintendent and his assistant. On the other hand, a little borough of 600 inhabitants* in the same State, for which a record happens to be available, reports a director of evening schools whose duties include teaching "reading, writing, and English work." It is not difficult to judge between the effi- ciency of the actual direction of evening schools in these two com- munities. PRESENT CONDITIONS. 23 All varieties of duties are specified in the returns, from " merely teaching," "merely providing classes for the schools," "dividing the classes and grading them," to "to cooperate with the government, to advise course of study, and to study the classroom instruction." One of the most suggestive lists of specific duties is thus enumerated by the director of evening schools in Gardner, Mass.: The principal acts as director. He speaks before the different clubs and societies. He visits the pastors of the foreign churches. He interviews the overseers at the fac- tories. He acts in an advisory capacity at the foreign clubs, aiding in the purchase of books, etc. A most comprehensive statement comes from Rochester, N. Y., a city which has made great strides in its Americanization movement: This part of our work is in charge of our Director of Immigrant Education, who prepares the outlines, supervises the teaching, and conducts normal classes for the training of teachers. From the information at hand, it is evident that effective super- vision, even as the term is used in connection with day-school work, is practically negligible in evening schools, if the country as a whole be considered. Relatively few cities are attempting it at all, and the number attacking the problem effectively is insignificant. Yet new problems of organization and method are presenting themselves, and these can not be solved as are those of the day school, largely because the age limits of evening-school pupils cover a wider range than those of the ordinary school. Special training or peculiar skill of adaptation is essential in order to cope with the unusual situations in evening-school work. TEACHERS. Teachers in evening-school classes are recruited very largely from among the day-school staff. Many superintendents follow this method from choice, and many others from necessity. The former assert that day-school teachers have already proved their efficiency, while the latter accept such teachers reluctantly and only as a last resort, at the same time maintaining that evening-school work interferes with the efficiency of both day and evening schools. It is extremely doubtful whether nine-tenths of the day teachers are able either physically or professionally to carry this double burden, under the prevailing conditions. The conscientious teacher already spends too many evenings in school work, for they provide the only available time for the outside preparation which no good teacher can get along without. Opinions differ as to the advisability of having the teachers use the language of the pupils, although from the character of the replies received it is evident that most of the judgments are purely ex cathedra, and are not based upon actual experience. Some super- 24 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. intendents require this language acquaintance; some refuse to recognize it as a qualification for appointment; and some are indiffer- ent. Ability to speak the language of the alien pupil is of un- questioned value in organizing the classes, and it undoubtedly tends » to establish a comfortable personal relationship between teacher and pupils if the pupils feel that they can find a sympathetic listener and helper in the person of the teacher. As far as subsequent classroom use is concerned, however, its advantage is not so obvious, for the prime purpose of the pupil is to learn English. Besides, in a pofyglot group of pupils, such language knowledge on the part of the teacher is practically impossible. The essential advantages of acquaintance with the language of the pupils in organizing the classes may be secured through interpreters, utilizing, for instance, the services of steamship agents, private bank- ers, and the like, who will be found in almost every immigrant com- munity. This interpreter service should by all means be provided for in some way. CERTIFICATES. So far as may be judged from available returns, only seven cities have an effective special certificate in vogue for teachers of classes of immigrants: Buffalo, New York, and Rochester, N. Y.; Hoboken and Trenton, N. J. ; Cincinnati and Middletown, Ohio. The Roches- ter requirement runs thus : Must be graduates of the normal class for teachers of English to foreigners; must be high-school graduates at least; must evince an aptitude for this work; must be familiar with methods and textbooks. Buffalo, Hoboken, and Trenton require knowledge of the native language of the pupils, but in Buffalo, at least, this language test seems to have fallen into abeyance. QUALIFICATIONS. Most cities in California, New Jersey, and New York, as well as 1 5 cities outside these States, demand the possession of the regular teachers' certificates. Five of these cities are found in Massachu- setts, while the others are scattered through Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. APPOINTMENT. Teachers are appointed in various ways, almost all methods being represented: By the superintendent, by the board on recommenda- tion of the superintendent or supervisor, by a committee of the board, by the principal, by the director of evening schools, by the supervisor of extension work, or by the board of industrial educa- tion (Wisconsin). PRESENT CONDITIONS. 25 TRAINING. Little definite training for teachers of foreigners is yet under way, yet the problems encountered in this type of work are certainly as different from those involved in ordinary elementary and secondary teaching as are those between kindergartening and ordinary teach- ing. For the year 1915-16 a few cities report special training courses. Manifestly, if such courses are not available, it is futile to attempt to impose such training requirements as a qualification for appoint- ment. Albany, Buffalo, and Rochester, N. Y., and Harris Teachers' College, St. Louis, are offering specific courses of training in this field. Wilmerding, Pa., offers a course of training for its teachers and insists that the teachers of foreigners follow it. Pittsburgh, Pa., has a printed course of study for evening schools, and endeavors by frequent conferences to make sure that it is scrupulously followed. Other cities note special meetings or conferences with evening-school teachers: Rockford and East Chicago, 111., Franklin, Mass., Hibbing, Minn., Garwood, N. J., Hudson Falls and Yonkers, N. Y., Milwaukee and Superior, Wis. Thirty-five cities report lectures on immigrant education problems, but even these reach only a small proportion of the communities that are conducting evening schools for foreigners. SALARIES. In the main, salaries of both teachers and principals in the evening schools are paid on the evening basis, although some teachers are paid by the hour, some by the week, some by the month, and some by the year. The distribution of the various bases upon which teachers' salaries are paid in the 354 places reporting on this point is as follows: Basis cf payment cf teachers' salaries. Towns and cities paying by the — Number. Hour (or period) 41 Evening 271 Week '5 Month 31 Year 2 6 Total 354 Principals' salaries are usually paid upon the same basis as the teachers', although in 14 cases the basis is different, seven of these representing the principal's salary upon a monthly basis instead of the hourly or daily basis of the teachers'; five representing a cor- responding change to the yearly basis; and two a change from the hourly basis prevailing for the teachers to the evening basis. These i Council Grove, Kans.; Westfield, Mass.; Alpena, Mich.; Conneaut, Ohio; Burlington, Vt. 2 Berkeley and Oakland, Cal.; Bordentown, Ridgewood, and Tenafly, N. J.; Ogden, Utah. 46803°— 16 4 26 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN, few differences would make the distribution basis for the principals' salaries slightly different from that of the teachers' given just before. Yearly salaries for teachers range from $80 in the case of Borden- town and Ridgewood, N. J., to $500 and $700 in Oakland, Cal. As in the case of day-school salaries, California heads the list, although the difference is not quite so striking as these figures would seem to indicate when one notes that the evening-school year in the two New Jersey towns is only 64 nights as against 187 in Oakland. The 33 monthly salaries range from the Casino Technical Night School, a privately controlled school in East Pittsburgh, with $15 per month for three times per week and a nine months' term, and Roslyn, Wash., with three times per week and a four months' term, to Tampa, Fla., with $80 per month for three times per week and a six months' term, and Spring Valley, 111., with $85 per month for six times per week and a ten months' term. Below will be found a statement in tabular form of the salaries per evening of teachers and principals in three groups of cities, ar- ranged according to population. No attempt has been made to apply exact statistical treatment to these data, but the form found herein will probably be more useful to the ordinary reader. The extremely wide variations go far to vitiate the value of the averages, but the information is sufficiently detailed to enable the school authorities of a given community to estimate roughly the extent to which the salaries in their community conform to the practice in other cities of the same general class. Salaries of teachers and principals according to population groups. 1 Population. Teachers' salaries: Average Range Most frequent salary Principals' salaries: Average Range Most frequent salary Group I. Over 100,000. $2.20 (36 cities). SI to $3. $2.00(10 cities). $3.64 (30 cities). $1.50 to $5.50. $4.00 (7 cities). Group II. 25,000 to 100,000. $1.93 (81 cities). $1 to $3.50. $2.00 (25 cities). $3.17 (60 cities). $1.50 to $6.00. $3.00 (17 cities). Group III. 10,000 to 25,000. $1.85 (S2 cities). $1 to $3.50. $2.00 (26 Cities). $2.70 (51 cities). $1.50 to $5.00. $2.00 (16 cities). From the foregoing table it is evident that on the whole there is a direct relation between the size of the community and the salaries of teachers and principals. There are, however, twice as many cities in Group II paying $3 per evening or more as there are in Group I. There are also more cities in Group III in this category than in Group I. In some respects this table does not show actual maxi- mum amounts. Hoboken, N. J., for example, a city of the second group, pays its teachers $3 or $4 per evening. For tabulating pur- poses this appears as $3.50. Pittsburgh and St. Louis each has a 1 Statistics in Table 6 represent in some instances later information. PRESENT CONDITIONS. 27 maximum principal's salary of $7 per evening, but they pay $4 and $3.50, respectively, as a minimum. In most of the cities there seems to be a fair relation between the salaries of teachers and principals. Gardner, Mass., presents the most striking salary difference, paying its teachers from 75 cents to $1.25 per evening (appearing in the table as $1), but its principal $5 per evening. NUMBER OF SESSIONS. Evening-school terms vary widely from Traverse City, Mich., with 20 sessions, 1 per week, to Los Angeles and Oakland, Cal., with 187 sessions, 5 per week. With such a wide range and so much varia- tion, averages mean little. Some of the more significant facts will be apparent from the subjoined table: Number of sessions in evening-school term, 1914-15 — Range of sessions. Population. Group I. Over 100,000. Group II. 25,000 to 100,000. Group III. 10,000 to 25,000. Cities reporting 43 83 | Over 90 sessions, 9 70-90 sessions, 24 [Less than 70 sessions, 10 102 79 Over 90 sessions, 22 60-90 sessions, 59 Less than 60 sessions, 21 113 Average number of sessions . Cities reporting 59 Over 80 sessions, 13 40-80 sessions, 78 Less than 40 sessions, 22 As might be expected, the larger cities as a rule have the longer evening-school sessions, but certain similarities are apparent in the returns for particular States, largely due to the operation of State laws. In California, for example, the session varies in the main between 140 and 187 evenings, for in that State the evening-school term is practically coextensive with that in the day schools. In Connecticut the number is almost uniformly 75 sessions per year, for that is in pursuance of the State law bearing upon the subject. New Jersey, on the other hand, insists upon a 64-session year as one of the conditions for sharing in the grant for evening schools; hence a cer- tain uniformity in that State. Massachusetts, despite its advanced position on the subject of compulsory attendance for illiterates beyond the compulsory school age, seems to have done nothing to provide for a minimum number of sessions. As a result, with few exceptions, the Massachusetts cities are below the average of their population class, as indicated in the table just above, for the num- ber of sessions of their evening schools. EVENINGS PER WEEK. The number of sessions per week varies from one to six, with three as the most frequent number. Following will be found the number of cities reporting on this point, classified according to the number of sessions per week. 28 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. Classification of cities according to number of evening-school sessions per iveek. Cities having evening school — Cities. One night per week 5 Two nights per week 54 Three nights per week 175 Four nights per week 102 Five nights per week 38 Six nights per week ' 2 Total 376 From this it appears that the distribution of frequency of evening- school sessions per week approximates the curve of normal distribu- tion. It is evident, therefore, that size of city has relatively little effect on this feature. SESSION NIGHTS. Monday is by all odds the most popular night for evening-school sessions. Of 376 cities reporting on this point, 335 have evening school on Monday. Most of the possible evening combinations are found in the returns. The most frequent combination is Monday, Wednesday, Friday, found in 86 cities, closely followed by Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, which occurs in 80 cities. Below will be found all the combinations chosen by 18 or more cities, with the number of cities choosing each combination: Evening combinations, ivith number of cities adopting each. Cities. Monday, Wednesday, Friday 86 Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday 80 Monday, Tuesday, Thursday 44 Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday 38 Tuesday, Thursday 23 Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday 20 Monday, Wednesday, Thursday 18 Scattering 67 Total 376 HOURS OF SESSIONS. Evening-school sessions are held at various times, almost any combination of hours being obtainable from 6 o'clock in the evening until half past 10. One community, Ely, Minn., which runs its evening schools in shifts in order to meet the needs of the mine workers, has one group from 4 to 6 in the afternoon and the other from 7 to 9 in the evening. From 7.30 to 9.30 is the commonest hour, 146 (out of 428 communities reporting on this point) having evening- « Chillicothe, Ohio, and Spring Valley, 111. In neither case does any individual have six nights of work. In Spring Valley it is either Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, or Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. In Chillicothe each pupil has from one to three nights per week according to subjects elected. In this latter city there is a relatively small alien population. PRESENT CONDITIONS. 29 school sessions at that period. This is closely followed by the 7 to 9 period, which is found in 122 cities and towns, and the 7.30 to 9 period, in 58 communities. Whatever the time of meeting may be, the two-hour session is very common, 323 out of 428 reporting it. If the 74 cities having a session of an hour and a hah are eliminated from the others, the residue scattered all along between one and four hours is practically negligible. Three communities report one-hour sessions, and one, Spring Valley, 111., reports a four-hour session. SUMMER SESSIONS. A few cities report summer sessions for aliens: Los Angeles and Oakland, Cal; Saginaw (west side), Mich.; Amsterdam, N. Y.; Akron, Ohio (Y. M. C. A.); Cokeburg, Pa. (Ellsworth Collieries Co.). In Los Angeles, Cal., this was a day session, opening in July and closing in August. Oakland ran its classes in the evening from June 6 to July 28. This gives Oakland practically 52 weeks of evening school, for the summer session bridged the gap between the close of the regular evening-school session, June 2, and the opening of the new school year on July 29. Amsterdam, N. Y., likewise reports a day session for aliens begin- ning July 6 and continuing for six weeks. Akron, Ohio, Y. M. C. A., with its summer school for aliens, also rounds out a 52-week year for evening work, with four sessions per week. In Cokeburg, Pa., the evening classes during the summer were classes in sewing for married foreign women. Lack of funds prevented New York City from conducting its even- ing classes in English for foreigners in the summer of 1915. These classes had been very successful in 1913-14, the attendance record in that year having been 83.6 per cent, as opposed to 71.7 per cent for the regular winter session. Summer sessions for foreigners seem especially desirable, for the summer months are the period of greatest immigration. With the short CA^ening-school term (frequently closing in March or even earlier), the first weeks of the foreigner's sojourn in the new land pass by, and a certain tactical advantage is lost. Before fall, the novelty has worn off, the early enthusiasm has been spent, language adjustments have been made, and it is more difficult to bring before the foreigner the necessity of getting into touch with our language and our institutions. OTHER SESSIONS. Racine, Wis., reports a continuation school in the afternoons during the regular school year, which was attended by unemployed and night workers. Dunkirk, N. Y., conducted a special day session 30 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEX. for aliens, which was held during the regular day-school hours in the high-school building. This class was composed of a number of foreigners over the age of 20 and up to 50, who were not working and who were glad to seize this opportunity of furthering their knowl- edge of English. The class continued during a dull industrial period (Feb. 1 to Apr. 1) as an offshoot of the regular evening classes. PUBLICITY METHODS. Evening-school authorities, taking the country as a whole, do not yet seem alive to the necessity of bringing their schools to the at- tention of the people whom they ought to reach. Too frequently a hit-or-miss plan is followed, if indeed publicity is not neglected altogether. "We only advertise through the public press," which fairly typifies the attitude characteristic of one of the more im- portant immigration States, is unfortunately more than many a community attempts to do. Evening classes for foreigners are chiefly intended to teach English, yet too frequently the only notices of such classes are published exclusively in English. What is the chance that the non-English-speaking foreigner will profit by such a notice, whether on bulletin board or in the public press 3 Where no foreign- language paper is issued in the town, it is possible to have notices in the foreign tongues inserted in the American newspaper (Ithaca, N. Y.). Too little use is made of the foreign-language press. Many cities and towns report that they are using posters in the foreign language to advertise their schools. From internal evi- dence, it is apparent that most of these places refer to the use of the "America First," poster which was sent out for the first time in the fall of 1915 by the Bureau of Education. A few communities, however, note the use of such foreign-language posters before this present year (notably Fall River, . Fitchburg, and New Bedford, Mass., Jersey City, N. J.). Posters are placed in "stores, meat markets, pool rooms, saloons, and factories" (Madison, Wis.), on electric-light poles (Milwaukee, Wis.), and in street cars (Jackson, Mich.) . Cooperating committees of foreigners are called upon in a few instances to encourage evening-school attendance, but this means of publicity seems on the whole to have been neglected. Neighborhood centers in public school buildings are surprisingly few. One super- intendent, who fortunately is not typical, expresses himself veiy for- cibly on this point: "We do not encourage foreigners' societies to meet in school buildings. Our school buildings are for Americans only." Children in the public schools are frequently used as messengers to carry invitations to parents and other adult members of their PRESENT CONDITIONS. 31 households, Chicago having distributed 400,000 handbills by this means in 1914-15. Church cooperation is utilized to some extent. In Trenton, N. J., for instance: Announcements are made in all the churches and Sunday schools, being especially- emphasized in Catholic churches by request of the bishop. Announcements are also made in day public and parochial schools. Circular letters are sent to employers, labor organizations, foreigners' clubs and societies, and civic clubs. Iii Dunkirk, N. Y., "notices are put in all the pay rolls in the city." Buffalo, N. Y., employs a home visitor, while certain Pennsylvania towns (Cokeburg, East Pittsburgh, and Ford City) have a personal house-to-house canvass made by visitors who speak the language of the foreigners. So far as is known seven cities and towns in the country (Boston and Waltham, Mass., Providence and Warren, R. I., and Manitowoc, Superior, and Two Rivers, Wis.) utilize the moving-picture theaters to show slides announcing their evening schools. In Boston — posters are placed on the dashboards of electric cars. Motion-picture establishments announce the opening of evening schools, local and foreign newspapers are used in gaining publicity, individual principals circulate notices and handbills printed in the various languages, and an attempt is made to secure.the cooperation of all existing agencies that are interested in the training of immigrants for citizenship. The extensive and successful publicity campaigns carried on in Detroit, Mich., and Syracuse, N. Y., are significant of what can be done. Detroit is a typical immigration city. Attracted by the lure of heavy demands for labor and good wages, foreign workmen had flocked there by the scores of thousands. Business men were quick to recognize the need for Americanizing these people, and they wisely turned to the evening schools as the means for accomplishing this purpose. Backed by the chamber of commerce, a city-wide campaign was opened, with cooperation of all available forces as the watchword. Employers of labor, churches, priests and pastors, municipal departments, social and philanthropic organizations, em- ployment agencies, clubs, neighboring educational authorities, inter- ested individuals, the foreign-language and the English press, all pulled together. As a first result, an increase of 153 per cent in the registration of evening schools was reported. It is yet too early to express an opinion as to the ultimate effects of this campaign. Such initial success, however, is a harbinger of greater effectiveness for the future. 1 i "Americanizing a City," a pamphlet prepared for the Bureau of Education for general distribution, contains an account of the Detroit campaign. 32 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. COOPERATION WITH NATURALIZATION AUTHORITIES. Much work remains to be done in urging the schools to greater efforts in reaching applicants for naturalization and in gathering them into the evening school. A few places send the regular truant officer, armed with the Government blanks, to the homes of appli- cants for naturalization. These applicants are thus urged through personal solicitation to attend the night school. Ninety days, how- ever, is far too short a time to accomplish much with either English or citizenship instruction. Some means must be devised of catching these prospective citizens earlier. School authorities are certainly derelict in looking up even these applicants for citizenship. Only 213 cities out of 438 reporting on this point make any definite effort to get into touch with the applicants for naturalization, and these returns cover practically all the principal cities of the country which have evening schools for foreigners. Some (132) state definitely that they do no tiling along this line, while the others (93) fail to report. It is probably safe to assume that they, too, are doing nothing. Despite the efforts of the Federal Government to bring about a closer cooperation between the naturalization courts and the schools, results are still far from satisfactory. Fewer than 20 per cent of these 438 cities report any recognition accorded English and civics classes by naturalization clerks. Ignorance on the part of school authorities with reference to the practice of naturalization clerks in recognizing school work is somewhat striking. Some confess frankly that they have no knowledge on the subject, while others disregard the question, the inference naturally being that they are not in touch with this court procedure. Los Angeles, on the other hand, has developed a unique cooperation with the naturalization courts. Every applicant who attends a citizenship class and meets a certain scholastic standard is given a certificate which is recognized by the naturalization court. Period- ically a formal welcome is given to the new citizens under the auspices of the courts, with the cooperation of the board of education and civic and patriotic organizations. With the judge of the court as presiding officer, each naturalization applicant is called up indi- vidually and is publicly awarded his certificate of citizenship. There is need, however, for wider cooperation between the courts of naturalization and the schools, for the schools can be of invaluable assistance to the court officials if an effective plan of cooperation can only be evolved. The citizenship reception in Philadelphia, May, 1915, at which the newly naturalized citizens were addressed by President Wilson, is still fresh in people's minds. Other cities have likewise done their part in holding similar gatherings to welcome the new citizens, and in giving them some realization of the solemnity of the step they are taking. STATISTICAL TABLES. Table 1.— Foreign-born white population, by States, with per cent of total white popu- lation, census of 1910. States. United States New York Pennsylvania. Illinois Massachusetts. New Jersey Ohio Michigan Minnesota California Wisconsin Connecticut . . . Iowa Washington... Texas Missouri Rhode Island . Nebraska Indiana North Dakota. Kansas Colorado Maine Maryland Oregon Number. 13, 345, 515 729, 272 436, 719 202, 560 051, 050 658, 188 597, 245 595, 524 513,010 517, 250 512, 569 328, 759 273, 484 211,197 239, 984 22s, sort 178,025 175, 865 159,322 156, 158 155, 190 126, 851 110,133 101,174 103, 001 Per cent. States. 16.3 30.4 19.3 21.8 31.6 26.9 12.8 21.4 26.4 22.9 22.1 29.9 12.4 21.7 7.5 7.3 33.4 14.9 6.0 27.4 8.3 16.2 14.9 9.8 15.7 South Dakota New Hampshire Montana Utah West Virginia Louisiana Vermont Arizona Idaho Oklahoma Kentucky Florida Wyoming Virginia District of Columbia New Mexico Alabama Tennessee Nevada Delaware Arkansas Georgia Mississippi South Carolina North Carolina Number. Per cent. 100, 628 17.8 96, 558 22.5 91,644 25.4 63, 393 17.3 57,072 4.9 51, 782 5.5 49, 861 14.1 46, 824 27.3 40, 427 12.7 40,084 2.8 40,053 2.0 33,842 7.6 27,118 19.3 26, 628 1.9 24,351 10.3 22, 654 7.4 18,956 1.5 18,459 1.1 17, 999 24.2 17, 420 10.2 16, 909 1.5 15,072 1.1 9,3S9 6,054 1.2 .9 5,942 .4 Table 2. — Illiteracy among foreign-born whites, with per cent cf total foreign-born white population, census of 1910. [Figures for 10 years of age and over.] States. Number. United States New York Pennsylvania. . . . Massachusetts Illinois New Jersey Texas Ohio Michigan California Connecticut Wisconsin Minnesota Rhode Island Virginia Missouri Indiana Iowa Maine Colorado Kansas Arizona New Hampshire. West Virginia. . - Nebraska 1,650,361 Per cent. 362, 065 2/"9,668 129,412 117,571 93,551 67, 295 66, 887 54,113 50, 292 49, 202 43, 662 40, 627 29, 781 25, 639 22, 631 IS, 300 16, 894 14,394 13, 897 13, 787 13,758 13,485 13,075 12,264 12.7 13.7 20.1 12.7 10.1 14.7 30.0 11.5 9.3 10.0 15.4 8.7 7.6 17.3 9.2 10.1 11.7 6.3 13.7 11.3 10.5 31.5 14.5 23.9 7.1 States. Louisiana Maryland Washington North Dakota Montana New Mexico Vermont Oregon South Dakota Oklahoma Utah Florida Delaware Kentucky Idaho Wyoming Alabama Disl i ict of Columbia Tennessee Arkansas Mississippi Nevada Georgia North Carolina South Carolina Number. 12, 12, 11, 085 04 7 233 474 445 580 239 120 896 828 636 390 359 300 742 548 063 944 488 466 364 344 875 477 399 Per cent. 24.0 11.9 4.8 6.3 9.4 31.0 13.1 6.1 5.0 5.9 10.5 19.8 8.3 6 9 11 9 7 3 8.2 8.3 8.9 15.1 7.6 6.0 8.3 6.8 33 34 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN". Table 3. — Inability to speak English among foreign-born whites, with per cent of total foreign-born white population, census of 1910. [Figures for 10 years of age and over.] States. United States New York Pennsylvania Illinois Massachusetts Ohio New Jersey Texas Wisconsin Michigan Minnesota California Connecticut Indiana Missouri Iowa Rhode Island North Dakota' Nebraska Kansas West Virginia New Hampshire. . Washington Arizona Colorado Number. 2,953,011 597 ; , 012 466, 825 266, 557 171,014 163, 722 i:,:i,m.i 125, 765 120, 665 102, 286 89, 850 74, 706 64, 201 40, 731 37, 747 37, 169 36, 961 33, 491 29, 519 28, 358 27, 461 26, 783 25, 568 25, 072 22, 610 Per cent. 22.8 22.7 33.6 22.8 16.8 28.3 24.2 56.0 24.0 17.6 16.8 14.8 20.1 26.2 16.9 13.8 21.5 22.3 17.1 21.5 50.3 28.8 10.9 57.3 18.4 States Maine South Dakota Maryland Florida Montana Oregon New Mexico Louisiana Vermont Utah Oklahoma Wyoming.. Idaho Delaware Virginia Kentucky Nevada Alabama Arkansas Tennessee Mississippi District of Columbia Georgia North Carolina South Carolina Number. 19, 18, 17, H, 13, 13, 11, 11, 8, 8, 7, 5, 5, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 589 486 544 049 718 531 776 547 342 129 975 970 805 824 983 816 557 028 741 648 491 349 953 779 447 Per cent. 18.6 18.8 17.4 43.7 15.3 13.4 55.5 22.9 17.5 13.1 20.4 22.6 14.7 28.5 15.5 9.6 20.0 16.6 16.7 9.2 16.5 5.7 6.5 13.6 7.6 Table 4. — School attendance among foreign-born whites, by age. groups, census I'D 10. States. United States . New York Pennsylvania Massachusetts Illinois New Jersey Ohio Michigan California Connecticut Minnesota Wisconsin Rhode Island Texas Washington North Dakota Missouri Maine Iowa Colorado Nebraska New Hampshire Indiana Maryland Kansas South Dakota Oregon Vermont Arizona Montana Utah West Virginia Florida Louisiana Oklahoma Virginia District of Columbia New Mexico Idaho Alabama Total number. 651,506 187, 69, 57, 50, 35, 26, 25 19, 17, 17, 15, 10, 10, 9, 9, 7, 7, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 3, 3. 3. 2, 2, 2. 2, 1; I: i: i. 034 257 499 451 001 412 281 203 563 469 889 285 176 672 494 834 165 755 927 528 602 210 015 538 644 416 380 783 716 520 259 838 718 554 334 195 166 128 897 10 years of age and over. 15 years of age and over. 446,745 138,253 131,541 45, 640 40, 404 32, 402 23,016 16,987 17.374 13,406 11,536 12,574 10,397 7,183 7,714 6,883 7,326 5,123 4,871 4,573 4,090 3,780 3,827 3,365 3,323 3,168 2,766 2,407 2,248 1,886 1,906 1,796 1,448 1,202 1,201 1,152 938 886 772 819 622 43,492 10, 804 14,117 9,153 6,036 4,342 5,328 4,716 3,117 4,948 2,934 1,746 2,200 2,348 2, 563 1, 542 1,409 1,735 1,261 1,419 926 1,172 1,021 1,066 1,105 920 664 423 697 629 360 346 376 424 314 397 243 323 187 21 years of age and over. 35, 614 9,603 2,894 2,976 3,463 1,766 1,184 1,357 1,146 690 1,640 1,039 479 413 564 535 567 240 671 305 509 150 537 439 2*8 300 242 70 37 161 182 80 91 84 101 73 161 26 81 44 STATISTICAL TABLES. 35 Table 4. — School attendance among foreign-born whites, by age groups, census 1910 — ■ Continued. States. Kentucky Tennessee Wyoming Georgia Delaware Arkansas Mississippi North Carolina Nevada South Carolina Total number. 896 839 848 721 627 539 371 302 283 222 10 years of age and over. 631 622 538 536 417 392 265 232 197 163 15 years of age and over. 274 236 166 206 88 152 98 88 88 54 21 years of age and over. 121 51 47 55 28 43 26 18 24 13 Table 5 .—Foreiqn-born whites: Number unable to speak English, illiterate, and attend- ing school, by age groups for the United States as a whole, census 1910. Age limits. Unable to speak English. Illiterate. Attending school. 10 years and over 1 5 years and over 21 years and over 2,953,011 2, 896, 606 2, 565, 612 1,650,361 1,657,677 1,546,535 446, 745 138, 253 35, 614 The large majority of those unable to speak English and the illit- erate are found in the " over 21 years of age " group. The number in the same group attending school is almost insignificant. 36 PUBLIC FACILITIES FOR EDUCATING THE ALIEN. o « .Sf 5^ <- S CD P< M :. ~ 3 a 03 c3 73 o © "cl ■3 C o ■a 3 h -a H H O CO o . CL- ■ « P £>H £ g2;2;^^a Z^;2;Z^^^ n o 3 o - 3 1 > '— i H -■ ; o i tg coii CC M M 3 O Oi Oi Oi OS Oi oiiooi O CC O O ^H o r^ c^ t^ t-^ t^ t>^ ~- -. ~ 35 C ~ Cv C ■ "5 C O O O u!> O t-h o O O O ^H r^ r>^ r~ r~ t^ r^ r^ 00 £>" is a'a* a .C J3 .C fe fe J3 ^V^^a" E-Ve-"^ aaa^" a"a" E-> Eh Eh Eh Eh ^>>Va" e-'ehW sa'aa" o o .a a CD CD CD CO A to ~.C © j? 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