3 'C'~?> u. J ^ 
 
 S . V . \4’ 2_ 
 
 University of Oregon Bulletin 
 
 New Series NOVEMBER, 1916 Vol. XIV No. 2 
 
 Elementary Primer of 
 Electricity for Light 
 and Power Customers 
 
 Department of Industrial and Commercial Service 
 University of Oregon 
 H. B. MILLER, Director 
 
 Published monthly by the University of Oregon and entered at the postoffice at 
 Eugene, Oregon, as second-class matter. 
 
Return this book on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
 Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books 
 are reasons for disciplinary action and may 
 result in dismissal from the University. 
 University of Illinois Library 
 
Developed and Undeveloped Water Powers of Oregon 
 
 .0 J 
 
 TOTAL UNDEVELOPED 3^7^540 tf»l 
 
 r_/Y\ •>-</ TOTAL DEVELOPED I58J86 !K> 
 
 Guide — No. 1, Rogue River; No. 2, Umpqua River; No. 3, Yaquina River; 
 No. 4, Trash River ; No. 5, Columbia River ; No. 6, Willamette River ; No. 7, 
 Deschutes River; No. 8, John Day River; No. 9, Willow Creek; No. 10, Umatilla 
 River; No. 11, Grande Ronde River; No. 12, Snake River; No. 13, Imnaha River; 
 No. 14, Pine Creek; No. 15, Powder River; No. 16, Alder River; No. 17, Malheur 
 River; No. 18, Owyhee River. 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 The following remarks will serve to illustrate the interpretations of the 
 map markings. It should be borne in mind that the figures relative to the 
 horsepower of the various streams indicated on the above map are merely 
 approximations and are not presented as absolute and scientific facts. 
 
 On the Rogue River, in Southern Oregon, we find (reading inland from the 
 mouth of the river) : 
 
 P 21200, P 66000, P 33540, F D 3750. Thus between the mouth of the river 
 and the first mark (1), we see that the undeveloped horsepower is 212000. 
 That section of the river between the first and second marks is capable of a 
 development of 66000 horsepower. By the flag (F) and the figures 3750, is 
 meant that at this point is developed a horsepower of 3750. 
 
 and undeveloped horsepower of each stream may be readily ascertained. The 
 greatest developea power at this time is found in the Columbia and Willamette 
 River basins, but, as will be seen from the map, the streams of the northeastern, 
 north-central and southwestern sections are capable of vast development, 
 central and southwestern sections are capable of vast development. 
 

WHITE RIVER FALLS IN LOWER DESCHUTES VALLEY 
 
ELEMENTARY PRIMER OF 
 ELECTRICITY FOR LIGHT 
 AND POWER CUSTOMERS 
 
 WE LiOHAfiy OF THE 
 
 NOV 1 - 1929 
 
 DIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Published by 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SERVICE 
 UNIVERSITY OF OREGON 
 
 H. B. MILLER, Dtrectok 
 
 Salem, Oregon : 
 
 State Printing Department 
 1916 
 
Preface 
 
 At a Commonwealth Conference held at the University on May 16 
 and 17, 1913, the following were appointed for the purpose of studying 
 and investigating the hydro-electric interests of the State of Oregon: 
 
 H. B. Miller, chairman, Director, School of Commerce, U. of O. 
 
 Prof. Thos. A. H. Teeter, O. A. C. 
 
 Prof. P. G. Young, U. of O. 
 
 Dr. J. F. Watt, Hood River, Oregon. 
 
 W. H. Graves, Oregon Society of Engineers, Portland. 
 
 J. V. Tallman, Commercial Association of Pendleton. 
 
 H. L. Boyce, Underwriters’ Equitable Rating Bureau, Lumbermen’s 
 Building, Portland. 
 
 Hon. John McCourt, Corbett Building, Portland. 
 
 Wm. Hanley, Burns, Oregon. 
 
 C. A. Park, Salem, Oregon. 
 
 T. H. Burchard, 829 E. 11th St. N., Portland. 
 
 Mrs. Clara Waldo, Macleay, Oregon. 
 
 W. D. B. Dodson, Portland Chamber of Commerce, Secretary. 
 
 This committee has made a complete survey of the development of 
 hydro-electric powers throughout the world through the Departments 
 of Commerce and State of the general government and have a large 
 amount of material on hand for the publication of bulletins on the 
 subject. This Hydro-Electric Commission has turned over all of this 
 material to the School of Commerce of the State University with 
 instructions to issue sucn bulletins as they may deem important. This 
 bulletin is the first to be issued as the result of their investigations. 
 It probably will be followed by another. 
 
 The approximate undeveloped horsepower of the State of Oregon is 
 3,500,000. The developed is approximately 158,000. There is already 
 developed some 30,000 horsepower more than the market demands. 
 This development, however, is in large quantities and cannot be easily 
 distributed for the purposes specified in this bulletin. The map 
 included in the bulletin shows that there are various streams in almost 
 all sections of the state with large undeveloped powers. Perhaps 
 there is no section of the United States where there is such a splendid 
 distribution of water powers as in the State of Oregon. Vast quanti- 
 ties of minor powers are susceptible of being used for such purposes as 
 this bulletin deals with in a small way. Whether it is capable of being 
 developed on an economic basis must be determined by each locality. 
 In most cases it is more economical to develop in larger quantities and 
 distribute from a main station, but there are a great many localities 
 where it is profitable to develop the very small powers rather than 
 make a long transmission. One of the most remarkable developments 
 
 4 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 o 
 
 W.s. v. I4 a 
 
 of this nature that I have discovered is at the Logan mine at Waldo, 
 Josephine County, where the power is used not only in the operation 
 of the placer mines in lifting the waste from the mines some fifty 
 feet or more, for furnishing light for the mine, but it is also used for 
 lighting the house and barn, operating the churn, washer, for cooking 
 purposes and all household requirements. The Pacific coast is the 
 richest part of the United States in waterpower, as more than half of 
 the waterpower of the entire United States is west of the Rocky 
 Mountains. This vast quantity, and well distributed water power is 
 sure to develop in time the cleanest and most efficient conditions of 
 industrial and social activities within the state. 
 
 It is for the purpose of encouraging the development and use of 
 this power that we have issued this bulletin. 
 

 
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CHAPTER I 
 
 Elementary Primer of Electricity for Light and 
 Power Customers 
 
 As this paper is intended for the non-technical reader, and as the 
 use of electricity is becoming ever more nearly universal, it is perhaps 
 not inappropriate to discuss first the unit of measurement of electrical 
 energy and the reason for the basis of charge therefor, which knowledge 
 should be as universal as the use of electrical energy itself. We will 
 make this explanation simple by means of analogies with well under- 
 stood units of measurement of other forms of energy: 
 
 Volt, Ampere, Watt and Kilowatt 
 
 Suppose that a man, in shoveling loose earth from the ground-level 
 into a wagon five feet high, can shovel one cubic yard, or about 3,000 
 pounds, per hour. For the purpose of our analogies, we will call this 
 rate of doing work one “manpower,” which, as you will see, is the 
 ability to lift 3,000 pounds per hour or fifty pounds per minute to a 
 height of five feet. 
 
 If the man were to lift the material ten feet high he might first 
 throw it onto a platform five feet high and then climb up there and 
 throw it up the other five feet. It is evident in this case that he would 
 handle only one-half as much earth per minute but would raise it to 
 twice as great a height. His physical effort, or the true amount of 
 work done would be just the same. This is expressed in “foot-pounds” 
 of work, which is the product of weight lifted times height raised. 
 Thus one “manpower” would be the ability to raise fifty pounds per 
 minute to a height of five feet, or twenty-five pounds per minute to 
 a height of ten feet; which again would be equivalent to lifting 250 
 pounds per minute one foot, or one pound per minute 250 feet in height, 
 or any other combination of weight and height whose product would 
 give 250 so-called “foot-pounds.” 
 
 Now a “horsepower” (usually written h. p.) is just 132 times what 
 I have here used as a “manpower,” or is the ability to do work at the 
 rate of 132 times 250 foot-pounds, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, 
 equivalent to 550 foot-pounds per second. 
 
 It is not necessary that some weight be actually lifted in order 
 to permit expressing the power required in horsepower. If an engine 
 needs to pull on a car with a pull of 500 pounds to move it, and moves 
 it with a speed of fifty-five feet per second, or 37.5 miles per hour, 
 then the power required is 55x500, which is equal to 27,500 foot-pounds 
 per second, or equal to 27,500,550, or 50 horsepower. If it requires 
 a pull of thirty-three pounds on the crank of a cream separator to turn 
 it, and the crank travels around the circle at the rate of 200 feet per 
 minute, then the power will be 200x33, or 6,600 foot-pounds per min- 
 ute, or 6,600 divided by 33,000, which is equal to one-fifth of one 
 horsepower. If you pump 200 gallons of water per minute to a height 
 of fifty feet, or 200x8.36 (one gallon weighs 8.36 pounds) equals 1,672 
 
8 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 pounds of water per minute to a height of fifty feet, you will need to 
 apply useful power at the rate of 1,672x50 equals 83,600 foot-pounds 
 per minute, which divided by 33,000 gives 2.53 1 horsepower. If you 
 have a steam engine driving a pump and it takes an average steam 
 pressure against the engine piston of 5,000 pounds to move it, and it 
 moves at an average speed of 300 feet per minute, then the power 
 exerted by the steam is 300x5,000 divided by 33,000, or 45.5 
 hosrepower. 
 
 Now the principle of electrical power computation is quite as 
 simple. The term “volt” is analogous to the height of five feet through 
 which the man lifts the earth with his shovel in filling the wagon, or 
 the pressure of water against which the pump must operate, while the 
 term “ampere” is analogous to the amount of earth which he raises 
 per minute, or the amount of water pumped, and the product of volts 
 times amperes or “watts” is the power or rate of doing work. A “kilo- 
 watt” (usually written k. w.) is 1,000 watts, and is able to accomplish 
 the same mechanical work as 1.34, or just a trifle rpore than one and 
 one-third horsepower; or, reversing this, a horsepower is only 0.746 
 kilowatts, or about three-quarters of a kilowatt. Thus, in the previous 
 illustration the pump which required 2.53 useful horsepower to operate 
 it would, if run by an electric motor without losses, require 0.746x2.53, 
 or about 1.89 kilowatts. For nearly all ordinary purposes it is suffi- 
 ciently accurate to say that one horsepower is three-fourths of one 
 kilowatt, or that one kilowatt is one and one-third horsepower. 
 
 HGURt-I 
 
 FIG. 1 — ILLUSTRATES THE PRINCIPLE OF AN ELECTRIC “CIRCUIT” 
 BY ANALOGY WITH THE FLOW OF WATER 
 
 The Electric Circuit 
 
 Figure 1 illustrates the principle of an electric “circuit” by analogy 
 with the flow of water. At the left is a gasoline engine driving a cen- 
 trifugal pump and raising water through a height of say 120 feet from 
 the lower water surface to the upper one. The water is discharged 
 into a long flume which we will say is one mile long and has a fall of 
 five feet per mile. Many small water wheels are scattered along and 
 take water from the flume, discharging it again into a lower flume 
 which returns it to the pump and which also has a drop of five feet. 
 The water wheels are used by small factories which pay the owner of 
 the pumping plant for furnishing them with their water. The man 
 who uses the water near the pumping station derives more power for the 
 same amount of water than the man at the end of the flume because 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 9 
 
 his useful fall is 120 feet, as compared with 110 feet at the end of the 
 flume, and the power value of falling water is proportional to the 
 product of fall and quantity, as previously explained. Each man pays 
 for only the true amount of power used, however. 
 
 Now the pump can pump only the amount of water which returns 
 to it through the lower flume, or the amount used by the customers. If 
 one customer stops his water wheel, the supply of water 
 for the pump is soon reduced by this amount and only enough 
 water is delivered to the pump and then to the upper flume to supply 
 those who want it. The storage capacity of the upper flume provides 
 water for a wheel when first started until the return water from this 
 newly started wheel gets back to the pump and is pumped up into the 
 upper flume and reaches the newly started wheel again. Pumping 
 this added amount of water makes the engine consume more fuel and 
 do more work. Thus, the pump, up to the limit of its capacity, auto- 
 matically furnishes just enough water to supply the customers’ demand 
 at any moment. 
 
 The pump must be large enough to supply the greatest amount 
 required by the customers at any one time. If all the customers use 
 their water wheels at the same time, then the pump must equal the 
 total capacity of all the wheels, but if some customers use power during 
 one part of the day and others during other hours of the day, then the 
 pump can be smaller and the flumes smaller. The complete round trip 
 route of the water might be called its “circuit.” 
 
 FIGURE-2 
 
 FIG. 2— SAME PRINCIPLE IN ELECTRIC “CIRCUIT” SHOWING 
 “LINE DROP” 
 
 Figure 2 shows the same principles in an electric circuit. At the 
 left is shown a gasoline engine, steam engine or water wheel driving an 
 electrical generator or dynamo creating a voltage of 120 volts in exactly 
 the same manner as the pump lifts the water 120 feet. There is a loss 
 in voltage, or “line drop,” of five volts in the upper wire in the mile 
 and another drop in the return wire of five volts, making the net voltage 
 at the end only 110 volts. 
 
 When any customer turns on an electric light or a motor, the effect 
 is instantly felt at the generator, which must immediately supply more 
 “amperes” fpr this new load. In order to do so the engine must use 
 more gasoline, steam or water, because the generator turns harder 
 than before; this is all automatically regulated by the governor, as 
 might be the case with the pump of Figure 1. 
 
10 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Efficiency and Loss of Power 
 
 Now we really cannot do work without some loss of effort or wasted 
 energy. The man who was shoveling earth into the wagon probably 
 lifted about ten pounds of earth in each shovelful which was useful 
 work; but, unfortunately, he also had to lift the shovel which would 
 weigh about five pounds. Thus he lifted fifteen pounds for every ten 
 pounds of useful work. His “efficiency” or “ratio of useful work to 
 total work” would then have been ten divided by fifteen, or about 
 sixty-seven per cent. 
 
 All machinery offers a frictional resistance to its own movement, 
 and a pipe and pump offer frictional resistances to the water passing 
 through them, which friction must be overcome in addition to the useful 
 work. Thus, if the 200 gallon per minute pump mentioned in a 
 previous example were of centrifugal type built with only ordinary 
 care, you would need about five horsepower instead of 2.53 horsepower 
 to operate it, as its efficiency would be only about fifty per cent. If 
 you measure the electrical power furnished to a motor and the useful 
 work accomplished by the motor, you find that the latter will be less 
 than the former, as you will also find for all other machinery. 
 
 Kilowatt-Hour 
 
 Thus, power is the rate of doing work, but it has nothing to do with 
 the length of time the work is in progress and hence with the amount of 
 work accomplished. A man may shovel earth into a wagon for one 
 hour and stop, or he may work an entire day. In either case his power 
 was one “manpower”; in the former case the amount of work accom- 
 plished might be called one “manpower-hour” and in the latter case 
 one “manpower-day,” meaning the work of one man for a period of an 
 hour or a day. I,f you run the five horsepower motor previously men- 
 tioned and pump 200 gallons per minute until you have filled a tank 
 holding 48,000 gallons, it would require 48,000 divided by 200, which is 
 240 minutes or four hours, to accomplish the purpose. The power used 
 was five horsepower for four hours or four times five equals twenty 
 “horsepower-hours” (usually written h. p. h.), or if measured in elec- 
 trical terms would be three-fourths of that or fifteen kilowatt hours 
 (usually written k. w. h.). You could accomplish the same purpose 
 by using a ten-horsepower motor and a 400-gallon pump and pumping 
 for only two hours. You would consume ten times two, or twenty, 
 horsepower-hours, or fifteen kilowatt hours, as before, but your “horse- 
 power” would be twice as great and you would have much more 
 expensive equipment. If instead of employing one man for all day you 
 were to employ two men for one-half day they would produce two “man- 
 power” but only the same total amount of work, for tw r o times one-half 
 equals one (one “manpower-day”). In other words, “power” repre- 
 sents a rate of doing work, while power multiplied by the length of 
 service indicates the actual total amount of work accomplished or 
 “energy” expended. * 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 11 
 
 Buying the Services of a Man, a Motor, or an Electric Light 
 
 The principles and justice of the usually existing basis of rates for 
 electrical service will be demonstrated by continuing the foregoing 
 analogies: 
 
 You can hire a farm hand by the year, by the month, by the day, by 
 the hour, or perhaps even upon “piece-work” basis. If you hire him by 
 the hour, or even by the day, you usually can keep him busy during all 
 of the time for which you pay him. If you pay him by the month or 
 year there will be rainy days, dull periods of the year, holidays, and 
 perhaps a vacation during which you will not realize the full value of 
 his time. In fact, you will be required to furnish him with board and 
 lodging during these periods. If you were sure that you could get a 
 man on a moment’s notice who would be satisfactory help, you would 
 not hire by the month or year, but the individual differences in men 
 and the uncertainty of the labor market often makes this impracticable. 
 
 When you hire a man by the year you base your offer upon how 
 much you expect to use him and how much extra you are willing to pay 
 to be sure of having a man when you want him. He basis his acceptance 
 upon what he thinks he probably could earn if he depended upon day 
 labor for his income and he deducts a little to give a certainty the 
 benefit of the doubt. 
 
 Minimum Charge 
 
 Now there is a minimum price per year for which a man would 
 hold himself in readiness to serve you at any moment. That amount 
 would vary with the labor market but would not be less than the cost 
 of his meals, lodging, clothes, and a reasonable allowance for recrea- 
 tion. You might offer to pay him at that rate throughout the year and 
 an additional small amount per day or per hour for the time actually 
 spent in working. 
 
 Load Factor 
 
 If you find that you use him only twenty-five per cent of the entire 
 time, you might say that his “usefulness factor” is twenty-five per cent. 
 Now, in electrical terms, we call this “load factor,” which means the 
 amount of use to which a piece of apparatus is put in proportion to the 
 use derived if it rah all the time. 
 
 When you contract for electric light or power, the conditions are 
 very similar. In the early days of electric service the “flat-rate” of 
 charge was prevalent and is still used to some extent. Under this 
 system the customer would pay definite and constant price per month 
 or per year for each electric light of a certain size, or for each horse- 
 power of motor equipment, whether he used it all of the time or not. 
 This is the same as hiring a man by the month or the year. Under 
 this system, some consumers would sleep in a lighted room and keep 
 the lights burning throughout the day to “get their money’s worth”; 
 others who used the lights only when they were needed would be 
 required to pay for the waste of the “electricity hog,” as the price 
 would be the same to all and must be large enough to pay a profit on 
 the amount of use of the average customer. 
 
12 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Fixed Charges and Operating Expenses 
 
 This system has long since given way, for most classes of electric 
 customers, to a more scientific basis of rates. When an electricity 
 company runs service wires into your house, it contracts to be ready on 
 an instant’s notice to supply you with lights or power, no matter how 
 many other people are demanding service at the same instant. The 
 company hires out to you for a year, or indefinitely. To be able to do 
 so, it is compelled to invest not only the cost of poles, transformers and 
 service wires, but also a sufficient portion of the cost of its generating 
 station and the equipment to serve you must be charged up to your 
 service. Upon this investment, interest and “depreciation” must be 
 borne by the electricity company whether you use your equipment or 
 not, just as the farm laborer in the last method of hiring out, etc., 
 must have his meals, lodging, clothes, and other unavoidable expenses 
 if he is to remain with you and can be ready to work at any moment 
 you may need him. 
 
 The farmer very often neglects this element of cost as unimportant. 
 This cannot be done properly. You would be compelled to suffer these 
 expenses if you had purchased your own gasoline engine and generator 
 for running your lights and motors. If you borrow money to buy an 
 engine and electric generator, you realize that you must pay interest 
 upon the cost. If you do not need to borrow to buy the equipment this 
 amount of interest is nevertheless properly chargeable to the cost of 
 your electric energy since if you had not invested in the equipment you 
 might have lent the money and had it earning interest elsewhere. Such 
 equipment is also short lived not only because it wears out but also 
 because it becomes “out-of-date”; after you have used your machinery 
 for a few years something more modern is offered for sale, which is 
 more economical or convenient in operation and you can afford to 
 abandon your old equipment in favor of the new. Past experience indi- 
 cates that such equipment seldom is used more than ten or twelve years. 
 If a useful life of twelve years be assumed then about eight per cent, 
 must be charged each year (100 divided by twelve equals about eight) 
 to the cost of your power to cover this annual loss in the value of your 
 plant and with seven per cent, added for interest you have obtained 
 “fixed charges” of fifteen per cent, of the original investment. These 
 expenses are called “fixed charges” because they are the same whether 
 you use your plant or not. The cost of gasoline, oil, and repairs are 
 “operating expenses.” 
 
 Now, again, this situation is closely analogous to hiring a farm hand. 
 If you must depend upon having his services at any moment then you 
 must pay him for at least meals, lodging and clothes all the time. 
 These are the fixed charges, and the wages by the day or hour for the 
 time worked are the “service charges” or “operating expenses.” 
 
 Sliding Scale 
 
 Now, we will say that this farm hand is working on a one-year 
 contract and is paid $25 per month plus board and lodging, or the 
 equivalent of $40 per month, or $480 per year. This might be called a 
 “flat rate” of pay. This $480 would amount to $1.60 per day, assuming 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 13 
 
 300 working days per year. Now there are several equally legitimate 
 ways in which this laborer’s services could be purchased. Suppose, for 
 example, that he agrees to work for you by the day during one year 
 whenever you need him, but will pay for his own room and board 
 elsewhere. You agree to pay him $4.00 per day for the first thirty 
 days’ work which he does for you during that year, $3.00 per day for 
 the next thirty days’ work, $2.00 per day for the next thirty days, and 
 $1.00 per day for all the remaining time; and you further agree that in 
 no case will you pay him less than the amount of his board and lodging 
 at $15 per month, equal to $180 per year, whether you use him that 
 much or not. This might be called a “sliding rate” or “sliding scale” 
 of pay. If he works the entire 300 working days of the year, his pay 
 would be as follows: 
 
 30 days at $4 per day $120.00 
 
 30 days at $3 per day 90.00 
 
 30 days at $2 per day 60.00 
 
 210 days at $1 per day 210.00 
 
 300 days, total ..$480.00 
 
 Thus, if he loses no time during the year, he will earn the same 
 amount as under the other or “flat rate” form of contract. There are 
 features, however, in this “sliding rate” form of contract which make it 
 mutually advantageous to both employer and employe. If the man is 
 hired under the “flat rate” contract, there will presumably be days and 
 seasons when he will have little or perhaps nothing to do. Under 
 the “sliding scale” form of contract the employer would be glad td 
 release him during these periods and thereby save one dollar per day; 
 and the employe ordinarily would be glad of this release as he pre- 
 sumably could secure employment during these periods at two dollars 
 per day, or other “going wage” greater than one dollar. Thus they 
 both might profit. 
 
 Again, this situation is closely analogous to the purchase of electric 
 service. In Portland, for example, the small residence consumer 
 usually pays according to a “sliding scale” of nine cents per kwh. for 
 the first ten kwh’s, seven cents for the next ten kwh’s, and four cents 
 for all above these twenty kwh’s, the plan being comparable with the 
 second plan of hiring a farm laborer. If the consumer paid for his 
 electric service on a “flat rate” for each electric light in use, which is 
 comparable with hiring the laborer by the month or year, he probably 
 would use lights all the time whether needed or not. Experience 
 teaches that this is the case. This waste of service must all be paid 
 for by the consumers, and results in an economic loss to the entire 
 consuming public. 
 
 Under the method of charging for the amount of energy consumed, 
 the economical consumer has a chance to save just as the employer of 
 labor could save. This purpose would be accomplished, of course, 
 without the sliding scale, by charging, say, six cents per kwh. for all 
 energy consumed, whether much or little. This, however, would be 
 unfair. An electric company cannot install your meter, read it once 
 per month, mail you a monthly bill, make the collection, keep a record 
 of your account, and keep its generating machine ready to serve you, 
 
14 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 any cheaper if you use one kwh. per month than they can if you use 
 several hundred kwh’s per month. A drayman might haul one trunk 
 from the depot to your residence for fifty cents; if he hauled two 
 trunks for you he should not charge you as much for the second one, 
 say only thirty-five cents; if he hauled three trunks, all on one trip, he 
 should not charge over twenty-five cents perhaps for the third one. He 
 only makes one trip in any event and hauling more trunks merely 
 consumes more time in handling them at each end but no more time 
 en route. 
 
 This is also the case with the electric service company and justifies 
 the “sliding scale.” It must collect also a minimum rate (in Portland, 
 $1.00) no matter how little energy you use, just as the drayman would 
 need to charge you for the time of a trip whether he brought you a 
 spool of thread or a trunk. 
 
 These principles will be further justified when you see the cost of 
 generating your own electricity. 
 
 COST OF GENERATING YOUR OWN ELECTRICITY 
 One Kilowatt Unit 
 
 Assume, for example, that you have your own generating plant con- 
 sisting of a one kilowatt gasoline engine generating unit with storage 
 battery sufficient for twenty-four twenty-watt lamps for five hours or 
 a smaller number for a correspondingly greater time. This would 
 cost you complete about $600. Interest and depreciation, or the 
 so-called “fixed charges,” on this equipment would be at least fifteen 
 per cent., or $90 per year, which is $7.50 per month, or twenty-five 
 cents per day. This small engine will use about oner-fifth gallon of 
 gasoline per kwh. running at full load, and about two-fifths running at 
 one-third load, as it might some of the time; or with gasoline at fifteen 
 cents per gallon the cost would vary from three cents to six cents per 
 kwh. If only a residence were lighted and the service economically 
 used, the consumption might not exceed one kwh. per day, which would 
 be a “load factor” of about one divided by twenty-four, or about four 
 per cent., in which case the cost of service would be: 
 
 Fixed charges 25 cents 
 
 Gasoline, etc., about 6 cents 
 
 Total 31 cents 
 
 Per kilowatt-hour 31 cents 
 
 A large house well lighted and equipped with such utensils as ven- 
 tilating fans, vacuum cleaner, electric iron, toaster, etc., might use 
 perhaps two and five-tenths kwh. per day, or a load factor of about 
 two and five-tenths divided by twenty-four, or ten per cent. The cost of 
 service per day would then be: 
 
 Fixed charges (interest and depreciation) 25 cents 
 
 Gasoline and oil, 2.5 kwh. at 4c per kwh 10 cents 
 
 Total per day 35 cents 
 
 Per kilowatt-hour 14 cents 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 15 
 
 There are many operations which can be done by a one-kilowatt 
 motor and by so arranging the plan of work as to do no two of them at 
 once, the generating equipment might be kept busy for a much greater 
 portion of the day, thus resulting in a higher load factor. Thus for 
 twelve kwh. daily consumption (or a fifty per cent, load factor) the 
 cost of energy would be: 
 
 Fixed charges 25 cents 
 
 Gasoline and oil at 3%c per kwh 42 cents 
 
 Total 67 cents 
 
 Or about 5.6 cents per kwh. 
 
 If this one-kw. unit were to operate continuously twenty-four hours 
 per day at full capacity, thus generating twenty-four kwh., the cost 
 of generating would be: 
 
 Fixed charges 25 cents 
 
 Gasoline and oil at 3c per kwh 72 cents 
 
 Total 97 cents 
 
 Cost per kwh. about 4 cents. 
 
 Hours per Day of Full Use 
 
 The upper curve in Figure 3 shows in a striking manner this 
 immense variation in cost. At the left, are figures representing cost per 
 kilowatt-hour and at the bottom “load factor,” or average proportion 
 of the day that the generating equipment is in full service, as shown by 
 the actual number of hours at the top. To use this diagram, first esti- 
 mate the hours per day which you would expect to use the equipment 
 at full capacity (or the “load factor”) and then find this figure along 
 
16 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 the upper or lower scale, then follow along vertically above or below 
 this figure until you come to the curve, then turn to the left and follow 
 along horizontally to the scale at the left where the cost per kilowatt- 
 hour is given. 
 
 Five-Kilowatt Unit 
 
 Now a larger generating unit' costs less per kilowatt of capacity. 
 Thus the cost of a five-kw. gasoline generating station with storage 
 batteries would be about $1,400, or $280 per kw., and of a ten kw. 
 station about $1,750, or $175 per kw., all of which estimates are 
 necessarily only rough approximations due to differences in types of 
 equipment and the continual fluctuations in market prices. All these 
 estimates are based on the same sizes of storage battery, it being 
 assumed that only the lights or small utensils be operated without 
 starting the engine. 
 
 Size in Kilowatts 
 
 FIG. 4 — APPROXIMATE COST OF SMALL GASOLINE ENGINE 
 GENERATING PLANTS 
 
 Figure 4 shows graphically the approximate cost per kilowatt of 
 these small gasoline generating stations in sizes up to ten kilowatts. 
 It is evident here how rapidly the cost per kilowatt decreases as the 
 size of the station increases. 
 
 The fixed charges for the larger engines will, therefore, be less per 
 kwh., provided they are kept as busy in proportion to their capacities. 
 Thus in Figure 3 are shown curves of the cost of electrical energy 
 from a one-kilowatt, five-kilowatt and a ten-kilowatt gasoline engine 
 generating set with small storage battery good for twenty-four twenty- 
 watt lamps for five hours, for lighting and small uses when the 
 generator is not running. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 17 
 
 The analysis of cost of energy for the five-kw. and ten-kw. generating 
 units is as follows: 
 
 For a five-kw. unit the fixed charges would be # fifteen per cent, of 
 1,400 divided by 365, or 57.5 cents per day. The analysis would then 
 be: 
 
 For five-kw. output per day (or one hour’s full use per day): 
 
 Fixed cha'rges 57.5 cents 
 
 Gasoline, etc., at (say) 5%c 27.5 cents 
 
 85.0 cents 
 
 Cost per kwh 17.0 cents 
 
 For twelve-kwh. output per day: 
 
 Fixed charges 57.5 cents 
 
 Gasoline, etc., at (say) 5c 60.0 cents 
 
 117.5 cents 
 
 Cost per kwh 9.8 cents 
 
 For sixty-kwh. output per day: 
 
 Fixed charges 57.5 cents 
 
 Gasoline, etc., at (say) 4c ....240.0 cents 
 
 297.5 cents 
 
 Cost per kwh 4.95 cents 
 
 For 120-kwh. output per day: 
 
 Fixed charges 57.5 cents 
 
 Gasoline, etc., at 3c 360.0 cents 
 
 417.5 cents 
 
 Cost per kwh 3.5 cents 
 
 Ten-Kilowatt Unit 
 
 For a ten-kw. unit the fixed charges would be fifteen per cent, of 
 $1,750 divided by 365, or seventy-two cents per day. 
 
 The cost of generation would be: 
 
 Output 
 
 Fixed Charges 
 
 Gasoline and 
 
 Other Expenses 
 
 Total 
 
 per kwh. 
 Cost 
 
 10 kwh. per day 
 
 72 cents 
 
 at 5%c per kwh., .55 
 
 127c 
 
 12.7c 
 
 24 kwh. per day 
 
 72 cents 
 
 .—.at 5 c per kwh., 1.20 
 
 192c 
 
 8.0c 
 
 120 kwh. per day 
 
 72 cents 
 
 .....at 4 c per kwh., 4.80 
 
 552c , 
 
 4.6c 
 
 240 kwh. per day 
 
 72 cents 
 
 .—at 3 c per kwh., 7.20 
 
 792c 
 
 3.3c 
 
 Effect of Size of Generating Unit 
 
 From Figure 3 you might be led to believe that it would pay to 
 buy a plant larger than you actually need in order to reduce the cost of 
 energy per kilowatt-hour. This would be a wrong conclusion. Suppose 
 that you expect to use about twenty-four kwh. per day. If you could 
 use this energy at a uniform rate throughout twenty-four hours each 
 day, you could purchase the one-kilowatt generating unit, and it would 
 operate with a load factor of 100 per cent. This is very unlikely, 
 however, as almost no service is continuous for twenty-four hours per 
 day. You would more than likely purchase the five-kilowatt unit 
 which would need to run only four and eight-tenths hours per day if 
 
18 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 fully loaded but longer if not; the load factor would be twenty-four 
 divided by (five times twenty-four), or twenty per cent. If you werd 
 to generate the same amount of energy with the ten-kilowatt unit it 
 would require only half as long or else it would operate only at one-half 
 capacity; the load factor would be only ten per cent. Now, if you refer 
 to the foregoing computations or to Figure 3 for the three prices of 
 energy per kwh., you will find the cost of twenty-four kwh. per day 
 to be: 
 
 Per kwh. Total 
 
 From a 1-kilowatt generating unit (100 per cent, load factor). ...4 cents $0.96 
 
 From a 5-kilowatt generating unit (20 per cent, load factor) 7.2 cents 1.73 
 
 From a 10-kilowatt generating unit (10 per cent, load factor). ...8 cents 1.92 
 
 FIG. 5 — ILLUSTRATES COST WITH REFERENCE TO ACTUAL OUPUT IN 
 KWH. PER DAY INSTEAD OF LOAD FACTOR HORIZONTALLY 
 
 To illustrate this point better the three curves of Figure 3 have all 
 been redrawn in Figure 5 with actual output in kwh. per day instead of 
 load factor horizontally. Above twenty-four kwh. you will find the 
 costs above quoted. 
 
 Now, this increase in cost for the larger units results from the 
 fact of the higher fixed charges without any increase in output; whereas 
 the curves shown in Figure 3 apply to the case where the output in 
 each case is as much greater as the size of the unit. The conclusion is 
 at once apparent that the cost of a given amount of electrical energy 
 per kwh. will generally be least when produced by the smallest engine 
 and generator which is capable of yielding the required output. 
 
 Peak Load 
 
 Your size of generating station, however, cannot always be chosen 
 simply with reference to the most economical size for producing a 
 certain number of kwh. per day; in addition to this requirement it must 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 19 
 
 not be smaller than the largest load which it will be required to carry 
 at any one time, which is called the “peak load.” Thus you may have 
 a twelve-horsepower motor for threshing, and it may be used only a 
 few days each year, yet your generating unit must be large enough to 
 care for this peak load no matter how little it is used during the 
 remainder of the year. Your load factor is thus decreased because of 
 this one motor, and your average cost of energy greatly increased. In 
 the case discussed above you would need the ten-kw. plant and your 
 load factor would be only about ten per cent., making your cost of 
 energy about eight cents per kwh. 
 
 Surplus Power 
 
 If, however, you could cooperate with your nearby neighbors by 
 running wires to their farms and by moving the motor around to each 
 farm to do their threshing one at a time, you would not need to 
 increase the size of your generating plant above ten kw., and yet you 
 would increase the number of kwh. used during the year and thereby 
 increase your load factor and decrease the average cost of energy per 
 kwh. In fact, the saving to you would be so great that you could 
 afford to offer your neighbors a very cheap price for their service, pro- 
 vided they would agree to use it only when you would not otherwise be 
 using the full capacity of your generator; in other words, when you 
 had a “surplus.” 
 
 The case is again analogous to that of the farm hand who is hired 
 by the year and is prevented from working for an occasional week of 
 rainy weather. You find that your neighbor has some indoor work, such 
 as corn-husking, for which he needs help. You can offer him the 
 assistance of your man at a very low price for these periods, as 
 anything which he earns for you then will be clear profit. 
 
 The dream of the electrical household, where all the heat is fur- 
 nished and a good many of the chores are done by the simple turning 
 of a button, has been partly realized in Sweden. In that country the 
 waterfalls are being harnessed on a large scale, and since distances 
 are not so great as in America, power is being delivered in the homes 
 of the people in all the larger cities and in some of the country dis- 
 tricts. A factor in the practical use of power, wliich is running over 
 the falls all the time while factories are operating chiefly in daylight, 
 is a plan for heating water in insulated tanks on the tops of houses 
 when the electricity is not otherwise used and can be had at a cheap 
 rate. When the factories start up the heat in the tanks is cut off 
 automatically, and a small amount of power is employed to create 
 a circulation of warm water through the building. The method is so 
 simple and so cheap that there is hope that it will some day be 
 universal. 
 
 As you can see readily, the economic and engineering problems 
 involved in the selection of proper power equipment, if you intend to 
 build a plant, are such as to make it nearly always advisable and 
 economical to secure the advice of a disinterested specialist. Specialists 
 representing machinery manufacturers often furnish such advice osten- 
 
20 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 sibly “for nothing,” but such advice usually, although not always} 
 proves expensive in the end, as their interest is always in selling much 
 equipment at the largest profit possible. 
 
 Purchase of Electrical Energy from a Central Steam Station 
 
 We will extend our analogy to the case of the large central steam 
 generating stations, showing the similarity of the problems and the 
 reason for the existing basis of rates with the apparent immense differ- 
 ence between the prices paid by different classes of consumers, which 
 leads often to the charge of discrimination. The steam stations are 
 similar to the gasoline stations in that the total cost of production is a 
 combination of the cost of fuel, labor, etc., known as “operating 
 charges,” and “fixed charges.” Specific items of cost will, of course, 
 differ but the principles involved are strictly comparable. 
 
 *4.m. prr 
 
 szo.voo /2 2 4 6 0/0/224 6 3 /O /2 
 
 L oc7C / factor ~ O. S~S7 
 
 /VOT £ — r/&o/r£s fo/t n//.L4fi£rT£: m j.L£y /9// 
 
 /rj ter urban / 7 . O 7° 
 
 S/-re&f 7rac//on 23.7 % 
 
 28. S % 
 
 /’orrer 30 . B 'A 
 
 FIG. 6 — LOAD CURVE OF SEATTLE ELECTRIC CO., JAN. 12, 1911 
 
 Typical Daily Load Curve 
 
 Figure 6 is the “load curve” of the Seattle Electric Company of 
 January 12, 1911, serving a general traction, lighting, and power 
 system. The hours of the day from midnight to midnight are shown 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 21 
 
 along the bottom of the diagram; the vertical height of the curve at any 
 hour, as given by the figures at the left, indicates the total amount of 
 power being used by the customers of this power system at that 
 moment. 
 
 As would be expected, the demand is very small from 3 a. m. to 
 5 a. m., but thereafter the “owl-car” service of the street railway lines 
 gives place to a more frequent service as early laborers begin going to 
 their work, and houses are lighted up for the preparation of breakfast 
 for later risers; a small “peak” in the load curve extends from 7 a. m. 
 to 9 a. m., during the heaviest morning street car traffic; and then the 
 demand remains nearly constant until about 4 p. m., when rush hours 
 again commence on the street cars, which, together with the lighting of 
 homes for the evening meal-time, cause the high peak in the load curve 
 at about 6 p. m. Now, this typical “load curve” is something which 
 every user of electrical energy should understand, for this curve, cor- 
 rectly interpreted, is of fundamental importance to the science of elec- 
 trical rate-making, and hence, also to the scientific purchasing and 
 using of electrical energy. 
 
 Effect of Low Load Factor on Rates 
 
 You were shown in a previous paragraph, illustrated by Figures 3 
 and 5, how enormously the cost of generating electrical energy is 
 increased per kwh. when it is used for only a short time per day (or as 
 we say, “when the Toad factor’ is small”). House lighting is a load of 
 short daily duration and yet forms a large proportion of the total load 
 of any city power system. In fact, it largely causes the high peak 
 which in turn determines the size of the generating station. If, there- 
 fore, a central station increases its lighting customers, it must increase 
 its station capacity and distribution lines, and the lighting service is 
 properly chargeable with the fixed charges of interest and depreciation 
 against this extra size of power station and extra lines for only a short 
 daily use. A simple residence lighting load has a load factor which, 
 although it varies much, will generally be only about twenty per cent. 
 Referring again to Figure 3 you will see that the cost of service is neces- 
 sarily high for this low load factor, being about fifty per cent, greater 
 than for a load factor of fifty per cent. 
 
 Effect of Small Consumption on Cost of Service 
 
 Again, residence lighting consumers are the smallest of all con- 
 sumers; their accounts must be kept, meters must be read, bills com- 
 puted, written out and mailed, and accounts collected, all of which 
 operations require nearly, if not quite, as much time as for large 
 consumers. This fact furnishes further justification for the principle 
 of a minimum monthly rate for service, and for the principle of 
 charging a higher rate to small consumers than to large ones. 
 
 Effect of Cost of Distribution on Rates 
 
 A further element of great importance is the cost of distribution. 
 The investment in distribution lines of the central station company in 
 the average city of, say, 100,000 people is about $100 to $150 per 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 kw. of peak generating capacity. This is a very considerable proportion 
 of their total investment (in fact, it is about twice the cost of an entire 
 steam generating plant) and in residence districts is much greater per 
 customer and per kilowatt-hour sold than elsewhere, because of the 
 smaller number of customers per mile of line. In addition to the fixed 
 charges upon this large investment, which is the shortest lived portion 
 of a company’s property, the distribution losses of each class of service 
 must be charged against the respective classes of consumers. Now, 
 these losses are large, especially in the case of residential service. 
 
 The following diagram, Figure 7, illustrates the large losses which 
 unavoidably accompany the distribution of electric energy. It is taken 
 from the Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,' 
 Vol. XXXI, 1912, page 4 82, and shows the average annual efficiency of 
 the Seattle Municipal Electric Station for the year 1911. You will 
 note that the final amount of electrical energy which is paid for by the 
 consumers is only about sixty-five per cent, of the amount of electrical 
 energy generated at the hydro-electric station, and only about forty 
 per cent of the energy represented by the falling water used by the 
 water wheels. The average consumer, for this reason, must pay 
 fixed charges upon a plant much larger than the size of his actual 
 demand, and the ratio is greater for residence lighting than elsewhere. 
 
 Off Peak Service 
 
 FIG. 7 — ILLUSTRATES LARGE LOSSES WHICH UNAVOIDABLY ACCOM- 
 PANY THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC ENERGY 
 
 Some classes of consumers, as for example most manufacturing 
 motor loads, do not coincide with the evening peak and, therefore, can 
 be served without increasing the size of power station otherwise neces- 
 sary. The real cost of service to such consumers is the cost of fuel, 
 and fixed charges on the proportion of service wires and meter charge- 
 able to their individual service. Central stations often offer induce- 
 ments of very low rates to manufacturers or other consumers who will 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 23 
 
 change their hours of use so as to be idle during the peak load; this 
 class of service is known as “off-peak” service. In some other cases 
 the manufacturer has two meters and is charged a higher rate for the 
 energy he uses during the peak load. 
 
 HYDRO-ELECTRIC SERVICE 
 
 Cost of Generation 
 
 In previous pages you have been shown the economic principles 
 involved in the cost of generation of electrical energy from fuel engines, 
 and the economic principles of rate making for such service. It will be 
 remembered that the cost of service involves the items of “fixed charges,” 
 “maintenance and operation” and “fuel” (the last two previously 
 grouped under “operating expenses.”) 
 
 In the case of hydro-electric generation some fundamental differ-* 
 ences should be recognized: 
 
 1. The lack of need of a fuel to that extent reduces the cost of generation. 
 
 2. The capital cost per kw. capacity, and for this reason the fixed charges 
 vary more than for fuel plants because the natural conditions for the construc- 
 tion of dams and other structures are seldom alike at two different power sites, 
 in general, however, it may be said that hydro-electric generating stations cost 
 considerably more to build than fuel stations of equal size, resulting in higher 
 fixed charges. 
 
 3. Steam stations are usually located near the center of a city or near the 
 center of distribution, whereas hydro-electric stations are usually at a considerable 
 distance from a market, necessitating the large expense and losses of trans- 
 mission and transformation to high voltage for this purpose. 
 
 Whether or not the advantage of no fuel-cost outweighs the disad- 
 vantage of extra fixed charges is a matter which can be determined 
 only for each individual case. Near the coVl districts of the East a 
 hydro-electric power site must be a good one in order to compete with 
 the cost of steam generation for general distribution purposes. 
 
 Low Load Factor and Off-Peak Service 
 
 The relative importance of fixed charges in the hydro-electric sta- 
 tion has a very great significance in the matter of relative rates for 
 different classes of service. In discussing the cost of generation by 
 gasoline engine power it was shown (see Figure 3) that, although the 
 cost of fuel per kwh. increases somewhat for low load factors, yet the 
 chief reason for the very high relative cost is the fact that the fixed 
 charges must be charged against the production of a smaller amount of 
 energy. Now in hydro-electric development this difference is still 
 further magnified since the fixed charges are relatively more 
 important. This fact has an important bearing upon the relative 
 advantages of hydro-electric power for various classes of consumers, 
 and the relative rates that can be offered. Thus, the disparity between 
 the cost of service per kwh. for residence lighting and for those manufac- 
 turing plants where the power is used almost twenty-four hours per day, 
 has a tendency to be greater for hydro-electric than for steam-electric 
 service. Likewise, off-peak service could not be offered from a steam 
 plant at a price below the cost of fuel, labor, oil, and some extra 
 
24 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 expenses; whereas, in a hydro-electric station off-peak loads might in 
 some cases be served for almost nothing except for the cost of lubri- 
 cating oil and the charges on service connections. Much, however, 
 depends upon storage facilities at the particular power site; thus, if no 
 storage exists and water must flow over the dam and go to waste 
 during hours of small load, then off-peak service could be supplied for 
 a very low rate, whereas this rate could not be so low if the pond 
 above the dam is large enough to permit saving the water for the peak 
 load hours, when better prices could be obtained. 
 
 POWER TARIFFS 
 
 Several methods of charging for electric service are now in vogue, 
 nearly all of them, however, resulting in a variation in price similar 
 to that shown in the curves of Figure 3, the economic justification for 
 which should now be clear. 
 
 Sliding Scale 
 
 The “Residence Lighting Schedule” of the Portland Railway, Light 
 & Power Company, the largest electric service company in Oregon, is 
 as follows: 
 
 First six per cent, of the monthly maximum consumption at nine cents per 
 kwh. (“Monthly maximum consumption” means one-third of the maximum 
 amount of energy which the installed lights could use in one month if operated 
 twenty-four hours per day for the entire 730 hours of the average length of 
 month, the installed lights in no case to be taken as less than 700 watts.) 
 
 Next six per cent, of monthly maximum consumption at seven cents per kwh. 
 
 All in excess of the above twelve per cent, of the monthly maximum con- 
 sumption at four cents per kwh. 
 
 Minimum charge, $1.00 per month. 
 
 A six-room house economically equipped would have about the 
 following lights: 
 
 Living room, two 40 watt Tungsten lamps 80 watts 
 
 Dining room,* two 40 watt Tungsten lamps 80 watts 
 
 Kitchen, one 40 watt Tungsten lamp 40 watts 
 
 Three bedrooms, one each 40 watt Tungsten lamps - .120 watts 
 
 Bathroom, porch, basement and hall, each one 25 watt Tungsten lamp.... 100 watts 
 
 Total installed capacity , 420 watts 
 
 As this equipment is less than the minimum residence installation, 
 namely 700 watts, upon which bills are rendered, you must use 700 
 watts as the installed capacity. One-third of this capacity used con- 
 tinuously 730 hours per month would consume 700 times 730 divided 
 by three times 1,000 equals 170 kwh. 
 
 Now six per cent of this, or ten kwh. is billed at nine cents per kwh.; 
 the next six per cent, or the next ten kwh., is billed at seven cents per 
 kwh.; and all above at four cents per kwh. Thus if a residence were to 
 consume twenty-five kwh. per month the bill would read: 
 
 10 kwh. at 9 cents $0.90 
 
 10 kwh. at 7 cents.. 70 
 
 5 kwh. at 4 cents 20 
 
 Total monthly bill 
 
 $1.80 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 25 
 
 If this total had amounted to less than $1.00 the minimum bill of 
 $1.00 would have been charged nevertheless. 
 
 Tariffs throughout the remainder of the state are generally higher 
 than the above. This is to be expected as the “manufacture” of elec- 
 trical energy, like all manufacturing, can be done at a smaller cost when 
 done on a large scale, and moreover the cost of distribution becomes 
 less as the density of population becomes greater. 
 
 Fixed Charge Plus an Energy Charge 
 
 Instead of the large variation of the foregoing lighting schedule 
 from nine cents to four cents per kwh. the same general purpose can 
 be attained by means of a “service charge” or “fixed charge” plus a 
 charge for energy, which latter then varies through a narrower range, 
 or in some cases not at all. This method is simpler theoretically as the 
 “fixed charges” are meant to cover the fixed charges on the capital 
 invested by the power company, as discussed for the case of the gas 
 engine, and the “energy charge” is for the cost of generation. 
 
 This form of contract is illustrated by the “Wholesale Power Sched- 
 ule” of the Portland Railway, Light & Power Company, as follows: 
 
 A monthly service charge of $1.25 per kw. of maximum demand, 
 plus energy charges as follows: 
 
 First 1,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 2.00 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 2,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 1.50 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 4,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 1.25 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 8,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 1.00 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 16,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 80 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 32,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 70 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 64,000 kwh. of monthly consumption 60 cents per kwh. 
 
 Next 127,000 kwh. of monthly consumption... 50 cents per kwh. 
 
 Minimum charge in no case less than $150 per month. 
 
 To apply the above rate suppose that a manufacturer has a motor 
 installation and a “maximum demand” of 200 h. p. or 150 kw., and that 
 his consumption for March as shown by his meter is 30,000 kwh., which 
 corresponds approximately to the consumption for a ten-hour working 
 day at an average consumption during these ten hours of about three- 
 fourths of the motor capacity. The load factor would then be seventy- 
 five per cent, for the actual operating hours but only seventy-five times 
 ten divided by twenty-four or 31.2 per cent for the entire day. His 
 bill would be computed as follows: 
 
 Fixed charges, 150 kw. at $1.25 $187.50 
 
 1.000 kwh. at 2 cents 20.00 
 
 2.000 kwh. at 1.5 cents 30.00 
 
 4.000 kwh. at 1.25 cents 50.00 
 
 8.000 kwh. at 1.00 cents 80.00 
 
 15.000 kwh. at .80 cents 120.00 
 
 $487.50 
 
 The average price would thus be $487.50 divided by 30,000, or 1.625 
 or 1 % cents per kwh. 
 
26 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 If this same manufacturer should operate two full shifts of ten 
 hours each per day he would consume twice as much energy or 60,000 
 kwh. per month, but his maximum demand would be unchanged. His 
 bill would then be computed as follows: 
 
 Fixed charges, 150 kw. at $1.25..... $187.50 
 
 1.000 kwh. at 2 cents 20.00 
 
 2.000 kwh. at 1.5 cents 30.00 
 
 4.000 kwh. at 1.25 cents 50.00 
 
 8.000 kwh. at 1.00 cents 80.00 
 
 16.000 kwh. at .80 cents. 128.00 
 
 29.000 kwh. at .70 203.00 
 
 60,000 $698.50 
 
 The average price would then be $698.50 divided by 60,000, or 
 1.164 cents per kwh. This reduction in price again illustrates the 
 economy of getting all the use possible out of a given investment so 
 that the fixed charges will be divided up among a greater number of 
 units of production. 
 
 RELIABILITY AND READING OF A METER 
 Regulation of the Public Service Commission 
 
 It is not necessary here to describe the method by which a meter 
 measures electrical energy. Their necessary accuracy is prescribed by 
 the duly constituted authority of the Public Service Commission of the 
 State of Oregon, which has issued the following rules:* 
 
 Rule 2. Testing Facilities. 
 
 a. Each utility shall provide such laboratory, meter-testing shop, and other 
 facilities as may be necessary to make the tests required by these rules. All 
 tests made by any utility under these rules shall be carried out in a manner and 
 at such places as may be approved by the Commission, and the apparatus and 
 equipment used for these tests shall be at all times available for the inspection 
 or use of any member or authorized representative of the Commission. 
 
 Rule 3. Records of Tests and Meters. 
 
 a. A complete record of all tests of quality, service, or meter accuracy as 
 made under these rules, shall be kept by each utility accessible to the public 
 during business hours at the principal office in the town or city where the service 
 is furnished, or at such other place as the Commission may designate. The 
 record so kept shall contain complete information concerning each test, including 
 the date and hour when the test was made, the name of the inspector conducting: 
 the test, the number of any meter tested and its capacity, the point at which 
 pressure, voltage or other tests were made when not made at the regular testing 
 laboratory of the utility, the results of the tests, and such other data as may 
 hereinafter in these rules be specially required, or as the Commission may from 
 time to time require, or as the utility making the test may deem desirable. 
 
 ^Public Service Commission of Oregon, File No. U-F-61, effective July 1, 1914. 
 
 b. Whenever any service meter is tested, the original test record shall be 
 preserved, indicating the information necessary for the identifying of the meter, 
 the reason for making the test, the reading of the meter before being disturbed, 
 and the accuracy of measurement, together with all data taken at the time of the 
 test, in sufficiently complete form to permit the convenient checking of the 
 methods employed and the calculations. 
 
 c. A record shall also be kept, numerically arranged, indicating approximately 
 when each meter was purchased, its size, its identification, its various places of 
 installation and removal, and the dates and general results of all tests. 
 
 Rule 4. Meter Testing. 
 
 a. Every meter hereafter installed for measuring gas, electric current, heat 
 or water to any customer shall be tested and if necessary repaired and adjusted 
 by the utility installing it before being placed in use, or. in the case of electricity 
 meters, within thirty days thereafter, as provided by Rule 21 ; and every meter 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 27 
 
 tested (except water meters installed underground) shall have firmly attached 
 thereto a tag or label, or be stencilled, giving the date of test, which tag, label 
 or stenciled mark shall not be defaced or removed until a subsequent test shall 
 have been made. 
 
 Rule 5. Meter Testing on Request of Customer. 
 
 a. Bach utility shall, at any time when requested by a customer, test the 
 accuracy of the meter in use by him free of charge, provided such meter has 
 not been tested by the utility or by the Commission within the period of one year 
 immediately preceding the request. 
 
 b. Any customer may at any time make application to the Commission for a 
 test of his meter and shall deposit with the Commission a fee for said test, fixed 
 as hereinafter in these rules provided. Such fee shall be returned to the custo- 
 mer by the Commission, and the amount thereof paid by the utility to the 
 Commisison, if the meter is found to be fast in excess of the following limits, 
 viz. : 
 
 Electricity meters, four per cent. 
 
 Rule 6. Adjustments of Bills for Meter Error. 
 
 a. If on test of any meter, for any cause, either on removal from or while 
 in service, it shall be found fast beyond the limits specified in Rule 5b, the 
 utility shall refund to the customer such percentage of the amount of the bills 
 of the customer for the period of three months just previous to such test of the 
 meter as the meter shall have been shown to be in error at the time of said test. 
 If the meter is found not to register or to register less than fifty per cent, of 
 the actual consumption, an average bill may be rendered to the customer by the 
 utility, subject to the aproval of the Commission. 
 
 Rule 7. Meter Readings and Bill Forms. 
 
 a. Every meter shall indicate clearly the cubic feet, kilowatt hours, gallons, 
 or other units of service for which charge is made to the customer. In cases 
 where the dial reading on a meter must be multiplied by a constant to obtain 
 the units consumed, the proper constant to be applied shall be clearly and 
 plainly marked on the meter. 
 
 b. Bills rendered customers by utilities shall show the readings of the meters 
 at the beginning and end of the period of time for which rendered, the number 
 and kinds of units of service supplied, and the price per unit, and on all bills 
 computed on demand or connected load basis, the amount of connected load, 
 maximum demand, or other factors used in computing the bill, shall be clearly 
 stated, and all bills shall be made out in such a way that the amount may be 
 readily re-computed from the information appearing plainly upon the face of the 
 bill. 
 
 c. On written request by a customer, the utility shall cause the meter 
 reader at the time the customer’s meter is read, to leave on such meter or with 
 the customer a card showing the date and time such reading was made, and the 
 reading of the meter, expressed in kilowatt hours, or other unit of service upon 
 which the charge is made, or the position of the hands on the meter dials. 
 
 Rule 8. Deposits and Meter Rentals. 
 
 a. Any utility may require from any customer or prospective customer a 
 deposit on account of current bills (1) in the case of customers whose bills are 
 payable in advance, not to exceed an estimated thirty days’ bill ; ( 2 ) in the case 
 of customers whose bills are not payable in advance, not to exceed the estimated 
 sixty days’ bill of such customer. Interest thereon, at the rate of six per cent, 
 per annum, payable annually or upon the return of the deposit, shall be paid by 
 the utility to each customer making such deposit, for the time such deposit was 
 held by the utility and the customer was served, unless such period of time be 
 less than three months. 
 
 b. No utility may require from any customer or prospective customer a 
 deposit to pay any part of the cost of installation, except under rules and 
 regulations approved by the Commission and set out in the published schedules 
 of the utility. 
 
 c. No rental shall be charged by any utility for any meter installed by it, 
 which is used by the utility as the basis for the rendering of bills. 
 
 Rule 9. Interruptions of Service. 
 
 a. Each utility shall keep a record of all interruptions of service upon its 
 entire system or major divisions thereof, including therein a statement as to the 
 time, duration and cause of such interruptions. Such record shall be open at all 
 times to public inspection and the Commission may at any time require from the 
 utility a copy thereof. 
 
 Rule 10. Complaints. 
 
 Each utility shall make full and prompt investigation of all complaints made 
 to it by its customers, either directly or through the Commission, and it shall 
 keep a record of all complaints which shall show the name and address of 
 
28 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 complainant, the date and character of the complaint, and the adjustment or 
 disposition made thereof. The information contained in such record shall be 
 furnished to the Commission upon its request. 
 
 Rule 11. Information to Customers. 
 
 a. Every utility shall specifically inform its customers as to the conditions 
 under which efficient service may be secured from its system, and render its 
 customers reasonable assistance in securing lamps or other appliances best 
 adapted to the service furnished. 
 
 Rule 20. Meter Testing Equipment. 
 
 a. Every electric utility furnishing metered service shall own suitable working 
 standards for the testing of electricity meters ; and either maintain these stand- 
 ards correct within one-half of one per cent., or apply the proper correction to 
 all tests. Secondary standards of some approved type shall be owned and main- 
 tained by each utility having more than 250 electricity meters in service. 
 
 Rule 21. Installation Tests. 
 
 a. Each watt hour meter shall be checked for correct connection, mechanical 
 conditions, suitable location and, if necessary, shall be adjusted to be correct 
 within one per cent, at approximately three-quarters and one-tenth of the rated 
 capacity of the meter, by comparison of the meter in its permanent position in 
 place of service with approved suitable standards at the time of installation or 
 within thirty days thereafter. 
 
 Rule 22. Periodic Tests. 
 
 a. Each watt hour meter shall be tested according to the following schedule, 
 and shall be adjusted whenever it is found to be in error more than one per 
 cent., the tests both before and after adjustment being made at approximately 
 three-quarters and one-tenth of the rated capacity of the meter. The tests shall 
 be made by comparing he meter, while connected in its permanent position, on 
 the premises of the customer with approved suitable standards, making at least 
 two test runs at each load, of at least thirty seconds each, which agree within 
 one per cent. 
 
 b. Single phase induction type meters having current capacities not exceeding 
 fifty amperes, shall be tested at least once every three years, and as much 
 oftener as the results obtained shall warrant. 
 
 c. Single phase induction type meters having current capacities exceeding 
 fifty amperes, all polyphase meters having voltage ratings not exceeding 550 
 volts and current capacities not exceeding fifty amperes and all commutator meters 
 having voltage ratings not exceeding 550 volts and current capacities not 
 exceeding fifty amperes shall be tested at least once every twelve months. 
 
 d. All other watt hour meters shall be tested at least once every six months. 
 Rule 23. Fees for Meter Tests. 
 
 a. The amount of fee to be collected for meter tests made in accordance with 
 the provisions bf paragraph “b” of Rule 5 shall be as follows: 
 
 For each single phase or continuous current electricity meter having a 
 
 voltage rating of not exceeding 250 volts and a current capacity not 
 
 exceeding twenty-five amperes without having instrument transformers. ...$2.00 
 
 For other electricity meters having a capacity not exceeding 100 amperes 4.00 
 
 For all other electricity meters 8.00 
 
 Rule 24. Defective Meters. 
 
 a. No electricity meter shall be placed in service or allowed to remain in 
 service which registers upon no load or which has an incorrect register constant, 
 test constant, gear ratio, or dial train. 
 
 Rule 25. Voltage Variation. 
 
 a. Every electric utility shall adopt a standard voltage for the entire constant 
 potential system in every city served by it having a population of 1,500 or more, 
 or, with the approval of the Commission, may divide its distributing system in 
 such a city into districts and adopt a standard voltage for each such district. 
 Notice of the adoption of such standard voltage shall be given by the utility to 
 the Commission. Except as may be caused by the operation of ’ apparatus by the 
 customer, in violation of the utility’s rules, or by the action of the elements or 
 causes beyond the utility’s control, every electric utility shall maintain the 
 voltage constant in every such city so that the same shali not vary for periods 
 exceeding five minutes more than the following amounts : 
 
 1. Lighting Circuits: Between sunset and 11 p. m. more than three per cent, 
 above and five per cent, below the standard voltage for such locality. 
 
 2. Lighting Circuits: Between 11 p. m. and the following sunset, more than 
 five per cent, above and ten per cent, below such standard voltage. 
 
 3. Other Circuits : More than ten per cent, above or below such standard 
 voltage. 
 
 (This rule may be waived by the customer by special agreement, separate 
 from his service contract or application, particularly referring to this rule.) 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 29 
 
 Rule 26. Voltage Surveys. 
 
 a. Every electric utility shall provide itself with one or more portable 
 indicating voltmeters, and each electric utility serving more than 250 customers 
 shall have one or more portable graphic recording voltmeters. Such instruments 
 shall be of a type and capacity suitable to the voltage supplied. Bach electric 
 utility shall make a sufficient number of voltage surveys to indicate the service 
 furnished from each feeder, and, when ordered by the Commission, from any 
 designated transformer, to satisfy the Commission of its compliance with the 
 voltage requirements. Utilities having graphic recording voltmeters shall keep 
 at least one of these voltmeters in continuous service at the plant, office, or 
 some customer’s premises ; and shall indicate on the graphic records the causes 
 of extreme variations in voltage. All voltage records are to be kept open for 
 public inspection. 
 
 It is shown by Rule 22 that a test every three years an error of 
 not more than one per cent, is specified. Rule 5 indicates that a custo- 
 mer may secure a more frequent test by the Commission, to be paid for 
 either by the company or customer at a rate shown in Rule 23 if the 
 meter is more than four per cent, fast or slow, respectively. 
 
 Although the customer may not understand so well the measure- 
 ment of electrical energy, yet with the safeguards imposed by law, he 
 need not fear fraud from this source to any greater extent and prob- 
 ably much less than he fears short weights in his other purchases. 
 
 Reading a Meter 
 
 It is, however, desirable that a consumer of electrical energy under- 
 stand the reading of a meter. To this end, several views of meter dials 
 are given in Figure 8 and the method of reading discussed. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR READING DIALS 
 
 A kilowatt-hour is equal to 1,000 watt-hours. 
 
 To correctly read the sum indicated on the dial of an integrating kilowatt- 
 hour meter the following instructions should be carefully followed : 
 
 The figures (tenths, Is, 10s, 100s, 1000s) over each dial circle refer to the 
 divisions of the circle over which they stand. 
 
 Therefore, each division on the dial circle to the extreme right indicates .1, 
 .2. .3. .4 or .6 of a kilowatt-hour, while a complete revolution of the hand or 
 pointer would be 1.0 or 1 kilowatt-hour, and will have moved the pointer on the 
 second dial circle one division (1 kilowatt-hour). 
 
 Thus in reading diagram No. 1, the first dial circle (that on the extreme 
 right) indicates .1, one-tenth, the next (Is) indicates 1, the next (10s) indicates 
 1, the next (100s) indicates 1, and the remaining dial circle (1000s) also indicates 
 1, making the total reading or indication 1111.1 kilowatt-hours. 
 
 A hand or pointer to be read as having completed the division must be con- 
 firmed by the dial before it (to the right). It has not completed the division on 
 which it may appear to rest, unless the hand before it has reached or passed 0, 
 or, in other words, completed a revolution. Therefore, it is always advisable 
 to read dials from right to left. 
 
 In reading diagram No. 2, the first dial circle (to the extreme right) indicates 
 .9, nine-tenths. The second hand apparently rests on 0, but since the first rests 
 only on .9 and has not yet completed its revolution, the second dial circle also 
 indicates 9. This 9. placed before the .9 already obtained, gives 9.9. This is 
 also true of the third dial circle. The second dial circle hand at 9 has not yet 
 completed its revolution, so the third has not completed its division ; therefore, 
 another 9 is obtained, making 99.9. The same is true of dial circle 4, thereby 
 making the total reading 999.9 kilowatt-hours. When the hand on the first dial 
 circle (extreme right) completes its revolution or reaches 0, then the reading 
 will be 1000 kilowatt hours. 
 
 The hands are sometimes slightly misplaced. In diagram No. 8 the first 
 dial circle (the extreme right) reads 0, no tenths. The hand of the second dial 
 is misplaced. As the first rigesters 0. the second should rest exactly on a 
 division ; therefore it should have reached 8. The three remaining dials are 
 correct and make a total of 9928 kilowatt-hours. 
 
 In diagram No. 9 the second dial hand is misplaced, for since the first 
 indicates .1 (one-tenth) the second should have just passed a division. As it is 
 near to 8 it should have just passed that figure. The ramaining three dial circles 
 are approximately correct. The total indication is 9918.1 kilowatt-hours. 
 
30 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 In diagram No. 10 the second dial circle hand is slightly misplaced by being 
 behind its correct position, but not enough to mislead in reading. The total 
 indication is 9928.3 kilowatt-hours. 
 
 By carefully following these directions little difficulty will be experienced in 
 reading the dials, even when the hands or pointers become slightly misplaced. 
 
 Some meters do not have the last dial which is shown in the above 
 diagram and, therefore, do not record “tenths” of a kilowatt-hour; also 
 some do not have the first dial. In fact, the last dial is of little use, as 
 one seldom needs to measure as accurately as 0.1 kwh.; and the first 
 dial is of no use except on meters for large consumers. Meter dials 
 are often designated other than shown in Figure 8 by indicating the 
 number of kwh. for a complete revolution instead of for a single space 
 on the dial. Thus the dials shown in Figure 8 could be marked either 
 of the following ways: 
 
 As in Figure 8: 1000s, 100s, 10s, Is, tenths. 
 
 As often numbered: 10000, 1000, 100, 10, 1. 
 
 If the first and last dials be omitted, as now customary for a resi- 
 dence meter, and if the second system of marking be adopted, the 
 dials will be marked 1000 — 100 — 10, meaning that one complete revo- 
 lution of the last dial gives ten kwh. or one space is one kwh.; one 
 complete revolution of the middle dial is 100 kwh., etc. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Electricity in the Home 
 
 This chapter is offered to the public to acquaint it in a disinterested 
 manner with the advantages and disadvantages of the many uses to 
 which electrical energy has been applied in the home. 
 
 At the outset it may be stated that electrical energy is always 
 technically adaptable to any operation which requires light, heat or 
 motion, all being forms of energy into which electrical energy is con- 
 vertible and into which it must be converted before its value is realized. 
 It does not follow, however, that it can always be economically applied 
 to all such uses in competition with other means of securing the 
 desired light, heat, or motion. 
 
 Electric Lighting 
 
 Not many years ago electric lights were considered a luxury to be 
 indulged in only by the wealthy or well-to-do. Since that time, 
 improvement of electrical generating machinery and other influences, 
 have so reduced the cost of electric service that electric lights are 
 rapidly approaching, in our cities, a state of universal application com- 
 parable with that of city water. Not the least important influence in 
 thus reducing the cost of production, is the reaction from the increased 
 production itself; all manufacturing can be done cheaper per unit of 
 output when done on a large scale than on a small one, and this is 
 especially true in the “manufacture” of electrical energy. Furthermore, 
 the increased use has resulted in more consumers per mile of wire and 
 consequently in a decreased cost of distribution. 
 
 The cost of electric lighting has not, however, reached the low cost 
 of kerosene lamp, unless under very favorable conditions where a 
 cheaper cost has sometimes been claimed for it. But despite this fact, 
 the kerosene lamp and most other sources of light are doomed to 
 ultimate extermination by the new invader. The cause is not far to 
 seek. Considerations of convenience and health outweigh purely 
 economic reasons. In other words, electric lights are a luxury the 
 advantages of which so greatly transcend the increased cost as to put 
 them practically into the class of a present day necessity. It would be 
 as futile to argue otherwise as it would have been futile twenty-five 
 years ago to have argued for the use of the pine knot or the tallow dip 
 of our grandparents in preference to the kerosene lamp because of 
 cheapness. The advantages of the electric light may be briefly stated 
 thus: 
 
 No waste gases in the room. 
 
 Ease of lighting and extinguishing, even from a distance. 
 
 Reduced fire danger. 
 
 No renewals of wall-paper from smoky lamps. 
 
 No danger of explosion. 
 
 No lamps for the housewife to clean and fill daily, with the resulting kerosene 
 smell permeating the house, and often the food. 
 
 Not blown out by a gust of wind. 
 
 No danger of asphyxiation from escaping gas. 
 
32 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 One of the greatest advantages is the ease of lighting and extin- 
 guishing, and the chief source of this convenience is the use of the wall 
 switch, with its further development, the “three way” switch. By the 
 use of the former beside the door you may turn on the light when 
 entering a room frequently visited but not continuously occupied and 
 turn it off when leaving, with resulting economy in use of energy, and 
 without any inconvenience whatsoever, no matter how frequent the 
 visits. Without the wall switch many lights would be burned contin- 
 uously to avoid the irritating task of locating a lamp in midair and in a 
 dark room. This convenience, therefore, also reduces the consumption 
 of energy. 
 
 With only ordinary economy in use, the average monthly consump- 
 tion of electric lights alone for a five or six-room family residence need 
 not exceed an average of twenty kwh. per month, the cost of which 
 would be nine cents per kwh. for the first ten kwh., seven cents for the 
 next ten kwh., or $1.60 per month at Portland rates for service, which, 
 however, are below the rates offered in most parts of the state. Energy 
 consumption will everywhere be given so that a correction for local rates 
 can be made easily by the reader. 
 
 Heat Values of Common Fuels 
 
 An understanding of the value and limitations of electrical energy 
 for heating and cooking requires a knowledge of the comparative heat 
 values of common fuels. 
 
 The unit of measurement of heating ability is called the “British 
 Thermal Unit” and is written “B. T. U.” One B. T. U. is the amount 
 of heat required to increase the temperature of one pound of water one 
 degree (Fahrenheit). The following table shows the heating value in 
 B. T. U’s of unit amounts of each common fuel or source of heat 
 energy and much other valuable data regarding the cost of these fuels 
 at Portland prices. The heating value of fuels, especially of coal and 
 wood, vary greatly so that all of these figures except for electrical 
 energy are subject to variation for different grades of fuel. They 
 represent merely average approximate values: 
 
TABLE I 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 I =■ 
 
 5 § 
 
 a ^ 
 
 fcJD^ej 
 
 o ^ 
 
 © ft 
 “lo 
 
 00 LT5 
 
 rri 
 
 5 © « 
 
 « 5 « 
 
 00 o N 
 
 §ftp 
 hO ° 
 
 ftS§ 
 
 o** 0 . 
 
 O i-l 
 
 c© 
 
 ° O 
 
 t- t- 
 
 Lft 
 
 S « s 
 
 “ o 
 
 W H . 
 
 £ £ 
 h ■* 
 
 a a 
 ft 
 
 ,3 
 
 £ o 
 
 £ 
 
 rH® 
 
 P 
 
 H 
 
 PQ 
 
 G 
 
 a? 
 
 3 
 
 ; *3 
 
 ii 
 
 M o 
 
 o >» 2 ° 
 
 fcJD +-> rH 
 
 || 'S 'S 
 
 O © 1~> +-> 
 a m w 
 C o o 
 
 S a, <J U U 
 
 Crude Oil 
 
 1 gal. equals 7.9 lbs. 
 
 1 bbl. equals 42 gals. 
 
 or 332 lbs. 
 
 18,000 per lb. 
 
 $1.25 per bbl. 
 
 0.13 lb. 
 
 0.0715c 
 
 2.1c 
 
 1-42 
 
 or 21/2% 
 
 Douglas Fir Wood 
 
 1 cord equals 
 2,500 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 8,000 per lb. 
 
 $6 per cord 
 ! 0.427 lb. 
 
 0.102c 
 
 3.0c 
 
 1-29 
 
 or 3 %% 
 
 o 
 
 00 *3 
 § 6 
 
 ■3 £ 
 s 0 
 
 3 os 
 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 ~ 3 
 
 P 5 P 0 . 
 
 © — t-. O 
 
 ft ^ m t- cq ^ 
 
 © 00 ,_i . 1 
 
 0 ft (M . . eO 
 
 8}^ 0 
 rH 
 
 i 
 
 a c 
 
 |3 
 
 per 
 
 er tc 
 
 i lb. 
 
 75c 
 
 lc 
 
 17 
 
 6% 
 
 g T3 j 
 
 s 
 
 00 
 
 4 p 
 
 0.25 
 
 0.1 
 
 5. 
 
 1- 
 
 or 
 
 £ S 
 
 <0 i-H 
 
 co **■ 
 
 
 TH 
 
 £ 
 
 ‘3 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 © 'a 
 <« 2 
 
 0 CD 
 
 1 | 
 
 © .S 
 g _ 
 o © 
 
 _ 3 
 
 «H P d 
 
 0 . > 
 
 ■M H ^ 
 
 1 n |>? 
 
 §o-2 
 
 ® O ^ h 
 
 .2 © §,t> 
 
 ,3 o 5 © 
 
 — G 
 © 2 
 .° 2 
 
 £ 
 
 x m w 
 o o o 
 U O O 
 
34 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Thus from the last line in this table electrical energy for heating 
 purposes would cost from five to forty-two times as much as other 
 fuels at approximate Portland prices, assuming that each fuel is used 
 without any waste. The cheapest fuel is crude oil and the next fir 
 wood, being respectively one-forty-second and one-twenty-ninth as 
 expensive as electrical energy, while denatured alcohol costs nearly as 
 much as electrical energy and gas one-fifth as much. It is interesting 
 to note that wood is not much cheaper than bituminous coal and costs 
 forty-five per cent more than crude oil. 
 
 ELECTRIC HEATING OF BUILDINGS 
 Relative Efficiencies 
 
 The figures in the table represent, of course, the total heat produc- 
 ing abilities of the several fuels, assuming none to be wasted. In 
 reality a fuel cannot be burned in a stove or furnace without waste. In 
 a stove some escapes as smoke, which is merely unburned fuel, and 
 some escapes up the chimney as invisible heated gas; in a hot water, 
 hot air, or steam furnace, some heat also escapes from the pipes con- 
 ducting the heat to the rooms so that more fuel is commonly required 
 to heat a house by furnace than by stove. Thus the coal furnace of a 
 steam or hot water boiler averages less than fifty per cent, efficiency, 
 while gas is said to yield about ninety per cent, efficiency. In heating 
 electrically by direct radiation from resistance heaters no losses what- 
 ever are suffered. Heating by fuel, therefore, has not quite the enor- 
 mous economy over electric heating that it. would appear to have from 
 the above table.. 
 
 Experiments at Seattle 
 
 The municipal generating plant of the City of Seattle has conducted 
 tests to determine the energy consumption for heating Seattle resi- 
 dences. Due to the similarity of climatic conditions, these tests 
 indicate what might be expected in Portland and the Willamette Valley. 
 The data follows: 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 225 37th Ave. N., Seattle 
 Installed Load, 32 kw. 
 
 Date Consumption 
 
 March 18, 1914 000 kwh. 
 
 April 30, 1914 1,928 kwh. 
 
 May 28, 1914 968 kwh. 
 
 June 29, 1914 : 534 kwh. 
 
 July 30, 1914 79 kwh. 
 
 August 31, 1914 260 kwh. 
 
 September 29, 1914 3,015 kwh. 
 
 October 28, 1914 2,950 kwh. 
 
 November 30, 1914. 6.357 kwh. 
 
 December 30, 1914 9,551 kwh. 
 
 January 29, 1915 8,068 kwh. 
 
 February 27, 1915 5,728 kwh. 
 
 March 19, 1915 3.412 kwh. 
 
 1505 36th Ave., Seattle 
 Installed Load, 32 kw. 
 
 Date Consumption 
 
 November 7, 1914 000 kwh. 
 
 December 7, 1914 5,820 kwh. 
 
 January 6, 1915 9,720 kwh. 
 
 February 5, 1915 5,200 kwh. 
 
 March 5, 1915 5,040 kwh. 
 
 April 5, 1915 3,180 kwh. 
 
 May 5, 1915 280 kwh. 
 
 June 4, 1915 : 260 kwh. 
 
 July 6, 1915* 0 kwh. 
 
 August 4, 1915* 0 kwh. 
 
 September 3, 1915* 0 kwh. 
 
 October 5, 1915 500 kwh. 
 
 November 5- 1915f 3,000 kwh. 
 
 Total, one year 42,850 kwh. Total, one year 33,000 kwh. 
 
 640 feet of radiation in each installation. 
 
 * Away during summer, 
 t Estimate. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 35 
 
 The houses referred to are two-story, eight-room residences and 
 were heated previously by a hot water system using coal furnace. 
 Electric heaters were installed in series with the furnace, with a 
 cut-off between the furnace and the electric heaters. There is no 
 record of the cubical contents of the residences or the number of 
 square feet of window area or wall area. Each installation has an 
 installed capacity of 32 kw., which, during the entire year (8,760 
 hours) could consume, if run continuously at full load, thirty-two times 
 8,760, or 280,320 kwh. The load factor in the first example was thus 
 42,850 divided by 280,320 equals 15.3 per cent. In the second example, 
 if July, August and September be assumed equal to the same months in 
 the first example, then the annual consumption would become 36,354 
 kwh., and the load factor thirteen per cent. In both cases the installed 
 load is one kw. for twenty square feet of radiation (hot water). 
 
 To have produced the same amount of heat in a furnace by means 
 of bituminous coal, assuming forty-five per cent efficiency of the coal 
 furnace, and 100 per cent for the electrical furnace, would have required 
 the following amounts of coal: 
 
 FIRST EXAMPLE SECOND EXAMPLE 
 
 42,850 x 3,413 
 
 =13.3 tons. 11.3 tons. 
 
 0.45 x 12,200 x 2,000 
 
 which at $9.00 per ton would have cost respectively $120 and $102 per 
 year, or only 0.28 cents per kwh. of electric energy consumed. 
 
 It is legitimate, however, to add to the cost of coal the following 
 items which do not enter into the cost of electric service: 
 
 Kindling per year $ 2.00 
 
 Hauling ashes 5.00 
 
 Damage to house and furnishings from coal and ash dust 20.00 
 
 Repairs and cleaning of furnace and chimney 10.00 
 
 Attending labor and inconvenience, nine months at $5.00 45.00 
 
 $82.00 
 
 This added to the cost of coal, $120 and $102, gives total costs of 
 $202 and $184 respectively. To have cost the same for electric 
 heating the prices of electric service could not have exceeded the 
 absurdly low figures of $6.30 and $5.75 respectively per kw. of 
 installed capacity per year, or 0.47 and 0.51 cents respectively per kwh. 
 of actual consumption. 
 
 In another experiment at Seattle a solid concrete house of five rooms 
 with floor area 418 square feet, cubic contents 3,252 cubic feet, outside 
 wall area 491 square feet, and window area 127 square feet, required 
 2,430 kwh. in December and 10,250 kwh. for the year with an installed 
 load of nine kw. direct radiation or two and eight-tenths watts per 
 cubic foot of space heated. 
 
 The former houses have an installed capacity of thirty-two kw., as 
 compared with nine kw., or three and six-tenths times as large, and the 
 consumption of the first was likewise about four times as large for 
 both the annual and December record. Using the same proportion in 
 the case of fuel, the coal cost for heating this room would have been 
 about $30 per year at $9.00 per ton. This probably represents approx- 
 
36 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 imately the minimum cost of fuel for five-room cottages or bungalows 
 in this climate when economically used. It is apparent that the house 
 is not as well heated as the two preceding eight-room houses. 
 
 To this should be added the items for ash disposal, damages, clean- 
 ing of furnace and attendance, which would bring the total up to $50 
 or $60 per year, equivalent in cost to electrical service at 0.5 cents to 
 0.6 cents per kwh. 
 
 In the case of heating with gas, if a suitable furnace were used, the 
 efficiency probably would be nearly twice that with coal or wood and the 
 attendance, ashes and other similar items eliminated or much reduced. 
 The cost of fuel alone for the equivalent value of one kwh. would be 
 (see fuel table) : 
 
 16.7 x 3 cents 
 
 88 x .90 (efficiency of gas) 
 
 or 0.5 5 cents per kwh., to which something should be added for furnace 
 repairs and attendance, say 0.65 cents in all. 
 
 Crude oil would also burn with a good efficiency, assumed to be 
 seventy-five per cent, but its storage and use make it more expensive 
 than its relative cost per B. T. U. would indicate. The cost of the oil 
 would be about 0.1 cents per kwh. and total cost of perhaps 0.25 cents. 
 
 The above data indicates that in order for electric heating to com- 
 pete on the basis of cost alone with fuel for large residences, electric 
 service must be furnished at approximately the following rates: 
 
 Anthracite coal at $14.00 per ton, electric service at 0.7 cents per kwh. 
 
 Bituminous coal at $9.00 per ton, electric service at 0.5 cents per kwh. 
 
 Gas at $1.00 per 1,000 cubic feet, electric service at 0.65 cents per kwh. 
 
 Crude oil at $1.25 per barrel, electric service at 0.25 cents per kwh. 
 
 Douglas fir at $6.00 per cord, electric service at 0.4 c^nts per kwh. 
 
 Conditions When Favorable 
 
 It is not to be hoped that electric service can be furnished at the 
 house for these prices except perhaps under the most favorable and 
 peculiar circumstances. On the Minidoka Irrigation Project in Idaho 
 (U. S. Rec. Ser.) a large hydro-electric project is developed for irriga- 
 tion pumping. The irrigation load comes in the summer and does not 
 conflict with the heating season in the winter. The hydro-electric 
 plant must operate in the winter to care for the lighting business and 
 small motors in the adjacent towns and in the country, so that most of 
 the expense of attendance is incurred irrespective of the size of the load. 
 With sufficiently large service wires and meters in many cases already 
 upon the premises of the settlers, they can be served without additional 
 expense except the trivial cost of lubricating oil and machinery repairs, 
 and in any case the cost of service is only the cost of extra large dis- 
 tribution wires and customer service-meters and transformers. The 
 water would otherwise flow over the dam and would not be stored, so 
 that operation of the station is insignificant in cost. The power plant 
 built for irrigation is self-sustaining for that purpose and any income 
 from electric heating in the winter is almost clear profit. This service 
 is therefore “off-peak” service (in this case meaning “not coinciding 
 with the yearly peak”) the principles of which have been previously 
 discussed. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 The monthly rates for heating obtaining on the Minidoka project 
 are as follows: * 
 
 TO DISTRIBUTER 
 
 Per device, per 1,000 watts, September 1-June 1 . $0.50 
 
 Per device, per 1,000 watts, June 1-September 1 1.50 
 
 TO CONSUMER 
 
 Per device, per 1,000 watts, September 1-June 1 $1.00 
 
 Per device, per 1,000 watts, June 1-September 1 2.50 
 
 The power is sold by the U. S. R. S. to distributing companies in each 
 city at the rates shown in the first column, the contract providing that 
 they, in turn, shall not charge the customer to exceed the rates in the 
 second column. It will be noted that the rate to the consumer for the 
 irrigation season is made two and five-tenths times as great per month 
 as the off-peak load during the remainder of the year. 
 
 If we apply the consumers’ rate to the second eight-room house of 
 Table I, the cost of the thirty-two kw. of installed heaters would be 
 $9.00 per kw. (nine months) or $288 for the season. The total con- 
 sumption was 33,000 kwh. and the rate per kwh. would, therefore, have 
 been 0.87 cents. 
 
 In the case of the five-room house at Seattle, the nine kw. installed 
 capacity would have cost nine times nine, or $81 for the heating season, 
 and at the total consumption of 10,250 kwh. the equivalent price would 
 have been 0.79 cents per kwh. In reality, Minidoka has a colder season 
 than Seattle and the total annual cost would have exceeded that at 
 Seattle. 
 
 These rates are such as to make possible the competition of elec- 
 trical with fuel heating for people of moderate income, as one may 
 reasonably consider the advantages of cleanliness and convenience as 
 worth the difference in actual cost. 
 
 Similar possibilities of offering cheap winter service for electrical 
 heating are likely to be found in any irrigation district where a distri- 
 bution system already exists, and where power is developed for irriga- 
 tion pumping beyond the capacity which can be sold for December 
 lighting and small motor service, so that the surplus can be sold without 
 much, if any, additional capital investment. 
 
 In Oregon, the California-Oregon Power Company operating in 
 Jackson and Josephine counties has been promoting the use of elec- 
 trical heating with the result that a number of customers make use of 
 electrical heating service for heating a part of their residences, and in 
 one or two instances the entire residence is electrically heated. The 
 “flat” rates in effect are: $3.00 per month for one kw. air heater, $4.00 
 per month for a two kw. heater, $5.00 per month for a three kw. heater, 
 and at this rate for any additional capacity, no heating to be done 
 during the irrigation season. 
 
 The five-room cottage at Seattle required a nine kw. installation 
 which would cost at this rate $15 per month. At this price the average 
 consumer could not consider electric heating except as a luxury. If 
 operated at full capacity twenty-four hours per day, this rate would be 
 
 * Extract from Thirteenth Annual Report U. S. R. S., page 36. 
 
38 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 equivalent to only 0.23 cents per kwh. In reality, however, no one 
 would use it continuously, or if they did would any benefit be derived 
 at certain times, as a large part of the energy would need to be wasted 
 on warm days and during the nights to avoid overheating. This service 
 is not furnished during May, June, July and August because of need 
 for the power for irrigation. If these four months be eliminated from 
 the first Seattle experiment (Table I), then the total consumption for 
 eight months would be 41,000 kwh., which is twenty-two per cent, of 
 what could have been generated by continuous operation at full capacity 
 twenty-four hours per day (load factor is twenty-two per cent). Assum- 
 ing similar conditions to obtain for Medford service, and assuming that 
 the installed equipment is sufficient to heat the house during the 
 coldest weather, the actual average use probably would not exceed 
 twenty-two to twenty-five per cent, of the maximum (twenty-five per 
 cent, load factor), which would place the cost of energy actually used at 
 about one cent per kwh. This is in the neighborhood of twice the rate 
 previously estimated, at which electricity can compete with soft coal or 
 wood. Moreover, if paid for on the flat rate as given above, the thirty- 
 two kw. installed capacity at Seattle would cost thirty-two divided by 
 three times $5.00, or $53.33 per month, a prohibitive price for the man 
 of moderate means. 
 
 In certain classes of buildings and certain rooms in other buildings, 
 such as hotel lobbies and railway stations, heating is almost continuous, 
 twenty-four hours per day, during the winter season. In such cases it 
 is conceivable that the consumption of enough kilowatt-hours might be 
 realized for a given connected load, if paid for on a flat rate, to so reduce 
 the cost per kwh. as to make electric heating practicable at these Rogue 
 River Valley rates. 
 
 Suggested Economies 
 
 There are means also by which the cost of heating in a home could 
 be reduced below that indicated in the foregoing analysis for the flat 
 rate service under discussion. Few, if any, home owners heat the entire 
 house at one time. Many bedrooms are never heated, or are only heated 
 during the night or for a short time before retiring. The kitchen is 
 not heated during the evening, but would need to be during the day 
 time. This suggests the plan of heating only the living rooms and 
 kitchen during the daytime, omitting the kitchen and substituting the 
 bedrooms during the night to an amount to suit the requirements of 
 the occupant. The heaters, which are very light in weight, might be 
 carried to the bedrooms from the kitchen, or, preferably, permanent 
 heaters could be installed in all rooms and double throw switches be 
 provided so that all could not be heated at once. The consumer on the 
 flat rate would then be required to pay for little if any more than the 
 maximum which he could use at any one time. 
 
 There is another method of economizing in the cost of electric heat- 
 ing on a flat rate. Thus, in Portland the minimum winter temperature 
 is seldom below thirty-two degrees F., and then only for short periods. 
 By providing electrical heating capacity sufficient only for this temper- 
 ature, and depending upon a fireplace, furnace or stove for the remain- 
 ing heat required during rare “cold snaps,” a large economy could be 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 39 
 
 effected. Thus, if the first eight-room house in Table I can be main- 
 tained at seventy degrees F. during fifteen degrees F. weather with the 
 thirty-two kw. installation, then only seventy minus thirty-two divided 
 by seventy minus fifteen, or about seventy per cent, as much heating 
 capacity would be required to heat the house in thirty-two degrees F. 
 weather, or only about twenty-two kw. At the flat rate paid in Med- 
 ford this would save ten divided by three times $5.00, or $16.70 per 
 month in the cost of electric service, or $133.30 for the eight months’ 
 season. If the thermometer should drop to fifteen degrees F. for a 
 period of one month during the winter, the cost of fuel for furnace, 
 fireplace or stove in the living rooms to provide for the difference 
 between a temperature of thirty-two degrees F. and fifteen degrees F. 
 would be trivial in comparison with the $133.30 for electric service. 
 
 By the practice of reasonable economy in house heating it should be 
 possible under Rogue River Valley rates to reduce the cost of electric 
 heating to within a sufficient margin of the cost of furnace heating to 
 justify its adoption for families who are fortunately enough situated 
 financially to be able to pay some extra for the luxury and convenience 
 of electric heating. You turn the switch and the “stove” is fully 
 heated in a few seconds; there are no ashes, no smoke, no black hands 
 and no soiled furnishings. It is all as simple and convenient as the use 
 of the electric light. You can turn on the heat from your bed in the 
 morning, or you can have the clock do so at a definite time before you 
 awake. All of these conveniences are worth paying for, for one who can. 
 
 Possibilities of Only Off-Peak Service in Large Cities 
 
 Electrical heating is not likely to meet with as much success in 
 large cities as in those smaller cities which are located in irrigated 
 regions, for in any large city the peak lighting load on any electrical 
 system comes in December during the heating season, and the heating 
 service ceases to be a seasonal off-peak load. Furthermore, electrical 
 heating by direct radiation does not lend itself to daily off-peak service. 
 If the heat were shut off for two hours or more during the evening 
 peak, the house would become quite cold. The Seattle experiments are 
 said to have demonstrated that electrical service for heating must be 
 upon an off-peak basis or be prohibitive in cost. Consequently, they 
 have there abandoned direct radiation and have applied the electrical 
 energy to heating water in an ordinary hot water heating system with 
 the addition of a hot water storage tank of sufficient size to heat the 
 house during the evening peak while the service is cut off. This is 
 objectionable because of losses of heat from the storage tank, boiler, and 
 piping system, and consequent reduction in efficiency partly offsetting 
 the advantage in price of energy gained by off-peak use. It is also 
 objectionable because it sacrifices one of the most important possibilities 
 of electrical heating, i. e. the fact that the heat can be turned on 
 instantly to full temperature and instantly shut off again when not 
 needed, the same as an electric light, without the necessity of waiting 
 for the heating of a large volume of water before getting any benefit. 
 
 Under these fundamental difficulties it is quite probable that con- 
 tinuous electrical heating of residences will not make much progress in 
 the near future except among the wealthy and at isolated localities 
 
40 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 favored by very special conditions conducive to low rates of service, 
 one instance of which has been discussed previously, i. e. for secondary 
 cities in irrigated regions. Some c the types of small radiators designed 
 to be attached to the lighting or cooking circuit and used during chilly 
 evenings in the summer when the expense and trouble of starting a 
 furnace would not be warranted, are, however, becoming popular and 
 for such service are proDably cheaper than starting a furnace. How- 
 ever, as the use of electric energy becomes ever more universal, the 
 price will progressively lower because of the smaller cost of distribution 
 and one would indeed be justified in predicting a considerable ultimate 
 consumption for heating purposes. 
 
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL COOKING AND HEATING UTENSILS 
 General Facts 
 
 In the previous pages the conclusion was reached that the heating 
 of houses by electricity is not generally economical except in localities 
 favored by special conditions. These conclusions must be greatly mod- 
 ified for many special applications of heat, such as for electric flat- 
 irons, toasters and many other small utensils which can be operated 
 from the lighting circuit. 
 
 It is a matter of common observation that a wood or coal fire is 
 very uneconomically used for cooking purposes. In a wood or coal 
 range the area of effective cooking surface is very small compared with 
 the total area heated. To heat two or three stew kettles, frying pans, 
 or other utensils a whole range must be heated up and the hot iron 
 surfaces will heat the atmosphere and radiate heat from the entire 
 surface of the range, whereas only that amount furnished to the small 
 area of the kettles or other utensils is accomplishing its purpose. In 
 winter the heat which is wasted for cooking purposes is of some use in 
 heating the house, but in summer is not only total waste but also a 
 source of discomfort and fatigue to the housewife. 
 
 Although a gas flame is concentrated underneath the cooking 
 utensils and is more efficient than wood or coal, it is nevertheless 
 impossible of as efficient application as electrical cooking. The diffi- 
 culty lies in the fact that the gas flame must be open to the atmosphere 
 to receive oxygen for combustion and for the escape of the burned 
 gases which carry away and thus waste a large amount of heat. Not 
 only does it thus waste the heat but it also consumes the oxygen of the 
 room and substitutes burned gases more or less harmful in nature 
 
 Electrical heating Is done by means of resistant wires. We do not 
 know much about the real nature of electricity but we do know that in 
 flowing through a metallic wire it encounters a resistance which causes 
 a part of its energy to be used to heat the wire. Electrical lighting and 
 electrical heating differ only in one respect. In heating, only enough 
 electricity is passed through the wires to heat them to a dull red color 
 which does not burn the wire, while for lighting they are heated to a 
 white heat and must be in a vacuum or in some gas containing no 
 oxygen, to prevent them from burning up. In either case, these resis- 
 tance wires will work as well in an air-tight chamber as elsewhere. 
 
PRIMER OP 1 ELECTRICITY 
 
 41 
 
 This permits an electrical “hot-plate” or heating stove to be sur- 
 rounded on all sides, except the side next to the vessel to be heated, by 
 asbestos, porcelain or some similar substance which is a poor conductor 
 of heat and will largely prevent its escape except into the vessel to be 
 heated. Thus, for example, in one make of electric ranges, two types 
 are furnished, one with a thick walled insulated oven, and one with iron 
 walls, the latter requiring fifty per cent, more energy for the same 
 purpose, due to the waste of heat. 
 
 Thus, electrical cooking can be very efficient, whereas cooking by 
 fuels is very inefficent. Contrast this fact with the fact that in heating, 
 both electricity and fuels are efficient; although electricity is more 
 efficient than fuels, yet not to nearly as great an extent as for cooking. 
 In fact, the loss in cooking by fuel consists of heat which escapes into 
 the room instead of into the substance being cooked. In heating, this 
 would not be called a loss; hence the greater efficiency of heating. This 
 condition is what makes electrical cooking economical in many cases 
 where electrical heating would be expensive. In cooking by fuels the 
 waste of heat is very great and electricity, although having a much 
 greater cost per B. T. U., can be used with so much greater economy as 
 to compete with fuels in many cases where electrical heating would be 
 prohibitive. 
 
 Although electrical cooking can thus be made very efficient, yet it 
 is to be regretted that many of the cooking utensils now on the market 
 have not taken full advantage, in their design, of the possibilities of 
 economy to the consumer along this line, probably in order to reduce 
 the first cost which too often appeals to the consumer as the most 
 important consideration. 
 
 In giving the cost of electrical cooking and other operations, Port- 
 land prices will generally be referred to because they apply to a greater 
 proportion of the population than any other one rate and complete 
 statistics would be too voluminous. Energy consumption is always 
 
 given, however, so that coresponding costs elsewhere can always be 
 
 figured. They are generally higher elsewhere, as would be expected to 
 some extent, since a large consumption in a thickly populated area can 
 always be served more cheaply, other conditions being equal. In most 
 Portland homes on the 9-7-4 schedule the first ten kwh. cost ninety 
 
 cents and the next ten kwh. seventy cents, or a total of $1.60 per 
 
 month for the first twenty kwh. If this amount of energy is regularly 
 consumed for lighting, as it would be in the average home, then any 
 additional energy for flat-irons, toasters, and the many other uses would 
 ^ost only four cents per kwh. 
 
 Flat-Irons 
 
 After the electric light, the next utensil in point of present popu- 
 larity in the home is the electric iron. About 3,026,000 are now said 
 to be in use in the United States. It consumes about 550 watts or 
 0.55 kw. (oj»e kw. equals 1,000 watts). If used in a home already 
 electrically lighted on the Portland 9-7-4 schedule, this additional load 
 wouls* receive the benefit of the low rate in the sliding scale. The 
 flat-iron would then cost 0.55 times four, or two and two-tenths cents 
 Der hour if used continuously. In actual use the current must be fre- 
 
42 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 quently disconnected to prevent overheating, and the actual cost prob- 
 ably would not exceed two cents per hour for Portland rates, provided 
 the customer’s consumption would otherwise equal twenty kwh. If not, 
 then a part of the flat-iron service would need to be charged at seven 
 cents per kwh., or about three and one-half cents per hour of use. A 
 usual size of flame on a gas stove consumes about twenty cubic feet of 
 gas per hour, which, at $1.00 per 1,000 cubic feet would cost two cents 
 per hour. Heating is continuous with a gas flame, one iron being 
 heated while another is being used, and the cost of ironing is, therefore, 
 about the same with gas as electricity. The economy of time, more 
 uniform heat, no changing of irons, and absence of a fire in warm 
 weather, contribute to make electric irons popular utensils in a large 
 proportion of homes equipped with electric lights. 
 
 Toaster 
 
 This utensil consumes about the same amount of energy as the flat- 
 iron, or 550 watts. It will readily toast one slice of bread per minute. 
 At four cents per kwh. the cost of operation would thus be 0.55 times 
 four equals two and two-tenths cents per hour, or twenty-seven slices 
 of toast for once cent. Higher rates of service would increase this but 
 even with energy at ten cents per kwh., ten slices could be toasted for 
 one cent. Electric toasters are usually made of very ornamental design, 
 nickel plated and highly polished, to be used on the dining table, connec- 
 tion being made to a lighting socket above. This eliminates the 
 necessity of frequent trips to the kitchen and permits toast to be made 
 on the table at about the rate consumed by a medium family. About 
 412,000 toasters are now said to be in use in the United States. 
 
 Warming Pad 
 
 This is one of the most useful applications of electrical energy. It 
 takes the place of the time-honored rubber “hot-water bag,” the heated 
 brick, or flat iron for local heat applications to the sick, for warming 
 the bed at night before retiring, or keeping it warm thereafter. The 
 
 heating wires are in the interior of a soft pad, and the temperature in 
 
 the more modern ones is automatically controlled by a “thermostat” or 
 automatic switch which turns off the electricity automatically so that 
 it cannot overheat. In addition, a regulating switch is provided at one 
 corner of the pad which can be readily operated in the dark to secure a 
 different temperature. This appliance eliminates the continual changing 
 of hot applications, the heating of water and refilling of hot water 
 
 bottles in caring for the sick, for it will retain its temperature indefi- 
 
 nitely until turned off. For the highest temperature, some styles con- 
 sume the same amount of energy as a flat-iron or toaster but as gen- 
 erally used, need only a very small portion of this amount, probably 
 seventy-five watts for continuous use. 
 
 Hot Plates or Table Stoves 
 
 These are heating plates or grids, made in several sizes and styles 
 of ornamental design, intended for use on the dining table for cooking 
 small dishes or for keeping the food hot or boiling slowly while the 
 meal progresses. They are usually adjustable in temperature by means 
 of a switch. One style consists of a heated grid which for broiling of 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 43 
 
 meat is placed on top of the steak in a china platter on the dining 
 table, without injury to the platter, and by thus broiling from the top 
 the juices are retained. The same appliance may be used for toasting 
 and cooking. This consumes about 600 watts and the hot plates from 
 400 to 800 watts, depending upon the size. The former will broil a 
 thick steak well done in about fifteen or twenty minutes, which would 
 result in a consumption of about 150 or 200 watt-hours, costing, at 
 four cents per kwh., less than one cent to broil. 
 
 Coffee Percolators 
 
 These consume about 55 0 watts and will make about eight cups of 
 coffee in twelve minutes at a total cost for electricity of less than 
 one-half cent. 
 
 Chafing Dishes 
 
 These are electrically operated at 600 watts consumption, and hence 
 at a cost of about two and four-tenths cents per hour, and serve several 
 useful purposes best known to the ladies. 
 
 Water Heaters for the Table 
 
 These are made of various sizes from half-pint upward and provided 
 with resistance wires concealed in the bottom and with a lamp cord and 
 plug to be attached to the lighting circuit. They can be used for making 
 many small cooking operations on the table and for keeping other 
 dishes warm. 
 
 Another variety, known as an “immersion heater” consists of a 
 resistance wire concealed in a small metal tube or disk which is placed in 
 any dish on the table in the same manner as a spoon and thus heats it 
 or keeps it hot while eating. They vary greatly in consumption, the 
 largest using about 600 watts. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD POAVER UTENSILS 
 
 In addition to the heating and cooking utensils above considered, 
 s there are several small electric power utensils whose merits deserve 
 special discussion. It is indeed in the field of the power appliances that 
 electric service appears to offer the greatest service for the least cost. 
 
 Electric Fan 
 
 Thus, an eight-inch electric fan, with all of its apparent activity 
 which suggests a large consumption of electricity, in reality consumes 
 only forty watts, the same as the usual size of electric tungsten lamp. 
 A twelve-inch fan consumes about seventy-five watts. You all seek to 
 get within the range of an electric fan when you visit a restaurant. 
 Why not have one or several in your home? The costs of operation at 
 four cents per kwh. would be about six hours for one cent for an eighth 
 inch fan, and three hours for one cent for a twelve-inch fan. At these 
 prices one can hardly afford to be without this source of summer 
 comfort. 
 
 Electric Sewing Machine Motors 
 
 These are a great convenience in the home. They consume only 
 about, forty watts and would run for six hours for a cost of only one 
 cent with service at four cents per kwh. The machine is started and 
 
44 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 adjusted perfectly by means of a small foot switch; increasing the 
 pressure increases the speed, and the machine stops instantly when the 
 pressure is released. 
 
 Vacuum Cleaner 
 
 This is one of the most useful applications of electricity in the home. 
 It is not only more convenient but also more sanitary and vastly more 
 efficient than a broom. Dust underneath a heavy firm grained carpet 
 is readily drawn through the carpet and into the cleaner by its powerful 
 suction. No dust is raised in the room with its unsanitary results 
 necessitating “dusting” after sweeping as when a broom is used. The 
 energy consumed by the usual size of vacuum cleaner used in the home 
 is only about 150 to 190 watts, which would cost, at four cents per kwh., 
 only one cent for one and one-third to one and one-half hours’ use. 
 
 Washing Machine and Wringer 
 
 Many are now regularly operated by electric motor and rapidly 
 becoming popular. If a laundress is employed to come to the home on 
 washing day, much of her time would be saved for the reason that both 
 wringer and washing machine are electrically operated. The machine 
 goes on washing one batch of clothes while she wrings the last batch, 
 and furthermore this wringing requires no hard turning but only feed- 
 ing in the clothes with both hands, and is, therefore, quicker. These 
 machines are built in many sizes, but the usual size for a family washing 
 requires a one-quarter horsepower motor and consumes about 0.25 
 kwh. per hour for use, costing only one cent at a rate of four cents per 
 kwh. The laundress only needs to be at the machine for a small part 
 of the time, which permits her to prepare each batch for the machine 
 and to wring and rinse the last batch while the machine is running; 
 while for hand work she would either be using a rubbing board or 
 turning the handle of the machine herself during this time. The saving 
 of time and cost for the laundress would exceed by several times the 
 cost of the electric service. By thus relieving the washing operation of 
 its heavy physical exertion, many housewives who, from lack of strength 
 hire their washings done, could do their own washings with little 
 exertion and much saving in cost, except the first cost of the equipment. 
 
 Other Small Utensils 
 
 In addition to the utensils already described, it should be said that 
 electrical energy has already been applied to nearly every purpose 
 requiring light, heat or motion, some not heretofore mentioned being: 
 glue pots, soldering irons, hair dryer, curling iron, vat dryers, oil 
 tempering bath, small table ovens (ovenettes), travelers’ pressing iron 
 for attachment to lighting fixtures in your hotel room, small motor 
 driven knife grinder and silverware polisher (buffer), ice cream freezer, 
 dough mixer, flour sifter, meat grinder, egg beater, waffle iron, broiler, 
 vulcanizer, plate warmer, cigar lighter, household ozonator, foot 
 warmer. 
 
 In a kitchen, where' several small utensils are to be operated by 
 motor, one motor with a small line shaft near the ceiling, and belts to 
 each utensil arranged along a shelf, are sometimes used, or the motor is 
 sometimes made detachable and moved from one utensil to another. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 45 
 
 COOKING EXCLUSIVELY BY ELECTRICITY 
 
 While previous discussion has indicated the great convenience and 
 frequent economy of many electric cooking utensils for special purposes, 
 yet the advisability of complete replacement of fuel by electric cooking 
 is not so generally obvious. Considerable study of relative advantages 
 and disadvantages is required. 
 
 Relation to Heating the Kitchen 
 
 The wood or coal range diffuses heat in all directions, only a very 
 small part finding its way into the food to be cooked; the gas range is 
 superior in this respect as the flame for most processes is concentrated 
 on the vessel to be heated, and much less heat escapes merely to warm 
 the room; the electric range is yet far more efficient, for when properly 
 built the heat escapes almost exclusively into the material to be cooked. 
 This great advantage, however, is sometimes in another way a dis- 
 advantage. Many housewives now use chiefly wood or coal in cold 
 weather when the kitchen needs heating and use gas in the summer 
 when it is desired to keep the kitchen as cool as possible. In thiB 
 particular then, the electric range is still more advantageous than a 
 gas or wood range in the summer and less so in the winter. In a house 
 heated by furnace, this winter disadvantage does not apply but where 
 stoves are used, as in many small homes, it has some importance. Just 
 as gas cooking is more popular in summer than in winter, so also would 
 be the case with electric cooking. 
 
 Relation to the Hot Water Supply 
 
 Again, most houses are now equipped with a circulating water heater 
 and tanks. It is customary to heat this tank by means of a coil in the 
 furnace during the winter and by means of a gas heater during the 
 summer. To substitute electric for gas cooking exclusively would 
 require electric heating of the tank in the summer or the payment of the 
 minimum gas rate to permit its use for this purpose alone in the sum- 
 mer. For one who is committed to the use of the hot water tank even 
 in summer, the practicability of exclusive electric cooking is therefore 
 related to the practicability and economy of electric heating of the 
 water tank. 
 
 Additional Wiring and Meter Required 
 
 In the case of the small utensils previously considered, the demand 
 for energy is so small that they can be served from the lighting circuit 
 by the very simple expedient of attaching a plug and cord in the place 
 of the lamp bulb. This can commonly be done up to a demand of 600 
 watts as for a flat-iron, toaster, etc. 
 
 The proposal to cook exclusively by electricity demands a range with 
 its possible consumption of 3,000 or more watts, so that a separate 
 meter and separate service wires are required, thus usually entailing 
 additional expense, although in many places the service companies are 
 absorbing this expense to encourage electric cooking. The rate for 
 electric range service in Portland has been reduced to three cents per 
 kwh. if fed by such separate and heavier service wires and recorded by 
 
46 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 a separate meter. If an electric range is installed, the Portland com- 
 panies agree that the other smaller utensils may all be fed from the 
 cooking circuit at this three cent rate, whereas they would otherwise 
 get the benefit only of the four cent rate in the 9c-7c-4c schedule. The 
 utensils previously described can, therefore, be operated for three 
 quarters of the prices previously stated if an electric range is also in 
 use. 
 
 Rapidity of Cooking 
 
 In fairness to other methods it should be said that electric cooking 
 as now practiced is slower than cooking by fuel. A gas flame may 
 cover the whole bottom of a stew kettle, thus subjecting it to an intense 
 heat. It is obvious that the high temperature of a flame cannot be 
 secured with resistance wires else they would burn up or melt. A 
 means of increasing the speed of electric cooking will be discussed later. 
 
 Circulating Water Heaters 
 
 Several makes of electric circulating water heaters are on the 
 market. They are placed in the pipe line of an ordinary kitchen hot 
 water tank such as is usually heated by a pipe coil in the furnace or 
 stove. The maintenance of hot water by the furnace coil in winter is 
 ordinarily sufficient, economical and as convenient and automatic as 
 electric service. When such a hot water tank is heated by a coil in 
 the furnace or stove the hot water is a by-product; the tank is usually 
 located in the kitchen and the heat it radiates helps to warm the 
 room and is not lost from the heating system. When the water tank 
 is heated by the electric heater, the heat radiated is also used td 
 heat the room but is in general uneconomical for this purpose, as pre- 
 viously discussed under that subject. This leads to the necessity of 
 heavy lagging to prevent the escape of heat if electricity is to be 
 adapted to this service. 
 
 In the Rogue River Valley cities, a cheap flat rate is made for these 
 water heaters of $3.00 per month for a one kw. heater and $5.00 per 
 month for a two kw. heater. These rates amount to less than 0.5 cents 
 per kwh. if operated continuously. The companies in Portland offer a 
 rate of $5.00 for a one kw. heater alone, or $3.50 in connection with an 
 electric range with double throw switch so that both cannot be used at 
 once. The former rate is about equivalent to 0.9 cents per kwh. if 
 used all of the time available. 
 
 It is questionable, however, if electric heating of water tanks will 
 ever become very popular except in summer, even at these low rates, 
 because of the fact that at other times this service is a by-product of 
 house heating. 
 
 Instantaneous Water Heaters 
 
 Heaters are on the market which may be attached to the faucet of 
 a bath tub, lavatory or sink so that turning on the water also turns on 
 the electricity with sufficient capacity to heat the stream of water as 
 rapidly as it flows through the heater, thereby obtaining hot water at 
 once. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 47 
 
 This is a purpose very much to be desired, as it would avoid the 
 continual waste of heat by radiation from the usual kitchen tank as 
 with the above mentioned circulating heater. It cannot, however, be 
 accomplished without either a very slow rate of flow of water or a 
 very large demand on rate of use of electric energy. Thus, from Table 
 I, one kwh. produces 3,413 B. T. U. of heat-energy, of which 3,000 B. T. 
 U. would be effective if the efficiency were 88 per cent. From the 
 definition of a B. T. U., this would heat 3,000 pounds per hour of water 
 through one degree F., or equivalent. Now, during the winter, water 
 would need to be heated from about forty degrees F., to 110 degrees F, 
 for bath or similar purposes, a total increase of seventy degrees. One 
 kw. could raise only 3,000 divided by seventy, or forty-three pounds per 
 hour through this range of temperature. This is equivalent to one 
 quart in about three minutes; a rate of heating probably sufficient for 
 shaving mug, lavatory or sink, but entirely inadequate for a bath tub 
 as the water would probably cool nearly as rapidly as furnished. 
 
 It would seem to the writer that to be practicable, except for the 
 above small uses, at least one quart of water per minute should be 
 heated, requiring 3,000 watts, or three kw., for its accomplishment, 
 From the standpoint of the central station, such equipment would not 
 offer a desirable load because of its large demand of short duration. 
 This demand could only be met in a house already specially equipped 
 with large wires and meter for serving a kitchen range, and would 
 probably then require some increase in equipment, or provision of a 
 double throw switch so that range and water heater could not both be 
 used at once. Under these conditions it is not to be expected that 
 instantaneous bath water heating will be offered by the companies at 
 a cheap enough rate to become very popular for residences, although 
 for small uses of hot water, or for bath purposes in a building already 
 provided with large service wires and meter for other purposes it may 
 prove desirable from the standpoint of the consumer and not seriously 
 objectionable to the company. One might safely predict that this 
 load would always be of off-peak nature, coming either in the morning 
 or in the late evening, except in the case of the small demand for use 
 in the lavatory. It would seem to the writer that no serious effect on 
 the system would be felt by connecting any small heating units for the 
 latter purpose to the lighting circuit or permanently to the cooking 
 circuit, and any large units for bath purposes to the cooking circuit 
 with a double-throw switch to prevent their use while the range is in 
 operation. 
 
 The use of these instantaneous heaters is really in the experimental 
 stage and not enough is now known regarding their operation to permit 
 a satisfactory estimate of the conditions of service and rates governing 
 their use. 
 
 Kitchen Ranges 
 
 These are made in many sizes and styles with appearance very 
 similar to gas ranges. The burners of the gas range are replaced, how- 
 ever, by electric heating wires sometimes exposed and sometimes con- 
 cealed below a metal disk making a so-called “hot-plate” or stove. A 
 
48 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 range is usually provided with two or more such hot-plates about eight 
 inches in diameter and adjustable to two or three rates of energy con- 
 sumption, said to be “two-heat” plates or “three-heat” plates. One 
 style can be regulated to 250 watts, 500 watts or 1,000 watts energy 
 consumption. A stew, for example, is first brought up to a boil by 
 using 1,000 watts; the switch should then be turned to 500 watts or 
 even to 250 watts to complete the process by slow boiling. 
 
 A great advantage possessed only by the electric range is that of a 
 fixed rate of cooking or baking. If the hot-plate switch is turned to 
 1,000 watts, for example, the resulting heat will always be the same and 
 cooking can be done with uniform results by timing the operation. This 
 is especially useful in baking, for which some ranges have an automatic 
 circuit breaker which can be set to turn off the current at any desired 
 time. This would permit one to start Sunday dinner before going to 
 church and find it properly cooked and still hot upon return. It is 
 also entirely practicable to put breakfast foods or other foods on the 
 stove at night and to turn on the heat from the bedroom upon rising 
 or even to have it automatically turned on by a clock at the desired 
 time so that when dressed and ready to eat, a part of the breakfast will 
 be ready. Toast can then be made on the table at the rate of one slice 
 per minute while eating, thus greatly economizing the valuable morning 
 hours. 
 
 Present Cost of Electrical Cooking 
 
 It is a very difficult task to procure data representative of the cost 
 of electric cooking just as it would be of gas, or other methods. The 
 reason for this is the wide latitude in efficiency of different cooks. 
 One cook, at a cost for gas of perhaps $1.25 or $1.50 per month, will 
 often do fully as much cooking as her neighbor can do at a cost at 
 least twice as great. You have probably all seen a kettle upon the gas 
 stove with the flame leaping out far from under the kettle on all sides. 
 If the gas is regulated so that the bottom of the kettle is covered with 
 flame, nothing is accomplished by increasing the flame. Likewise, you 
 have all seen an open kettle boiling violently during the whole process 
 of cooking, making it necessary to frequently replace the water lost by 
 steam to prevent boiling dry. This is absurd; the temperature of vio- 
 lently boiling water is no greater than that for gentle boiling. Also it 
 is true that a cover on a kettle retains much of the heat otherwise lost 
 by escape of steam and by radiation and convection, but if the kettle 
 tends to “boil over” it appears to be customary to remove the cover 
 instead of to reduce the flame. Other wastes of gas are customarily 
 indulged in by the average cook. 
 
 Similar possibilities of economy or waste exist under the conditions 
 of electric service. For this reason, it is only possible to compare the 
 general average consumption of a large number of ranges for families 
 of known sizes. If you are economical, you can then depend upon get- 
 ting along with less than the average and otherwise with more. 
 
 The “Electric Range Committee” of the “Northwest Electric Light 
 and Power Association” (Proceedings, 1915) have accumulated con- 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 49 
 
 siderable data bearing upon the cost of operating electric ranges. The 
 four following tables, Nos. Ill, IV, V and VI, give the actual operating 
 results of four apartment house range installations: 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 Apartment House at 15 Irving Street, Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Total number suites 18 
 
 Total number occupied 16 
 
 Total number people -37 
 
 No. of 
 
 Apts. 
 
 No. in j 
 Family 
 
 | 
 
 Days . Kwh. 
 Used Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Day 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Month 
 
 I 
 
 Kwh. per 
 Person 
 per Day 
 
 Cost per Month — 30 Days 
 Bate per Kwh. 
 
 3c | 
 
 4c 
 
 5c 
 
 1L 
 
 3 
 
 89 62 
 
 .70 
 
 21 
 
 .23 
 
 $ .63 
 
 $ .84 
 
 $1.05 
 
 2L 
 
 2 
 
 89 168 
 
 : 1.9 
 
 57 
 
 .95 
 
 1.71 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.85 
 
 3L 
 
 2 
 
 89 373 
 
 | 4.2 
 
 | 126 
 
 j 2.1 
 
 3.78 
 
 5.04 
 
 6.30 
 
 4L 
 
 2 
 
 69 221 
 
 j 3.2 
 
 96 
 
 j 1.6 
 
 ; 2.88 
 
 3.84 
 
 4.80 
 
 1R 
 
 3 
 
 89 431 
 
 s 4.85 
 
 1 145 
 
 ! 1.61 
 
 4.35 
 
 5.80 
 
 7.25 
 
 2R 
 
 2 
 
 89 135 
 
 1.5 
 
 45 
 
 .75 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.25 
 
 3R 1 
 
 3 
 
 89 354 
 
 4.0 
 
 120 
 
 1.33 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.80 
 
 6.00 
 
 4 R 
 
 2 
 
 89 141 
 
 1.6 
 
 48 
 
 .80 
 
 5 1.44 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.40 
 
 1 i 
 
 2 ! 
 
 89 178 
 
 2.0 
 
 i 60 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.00 
 
 
 2 
 
 89 162 
 
 1.8 
 
 54 
 
 .90 
 
 1.62 
 
 2.16 
 
 ; 2.70 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 89 189 
 
 2.1 
 
 63 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.52 
 
 3.15 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 i 89 65 
 
 .73 
 
 22 
 
 1 .73 
 
 .66 
 
 .88 
 
 1.10 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 i 69 151 
 
 2.2 
 
 66 
 
 1 .73 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.64 
 
 3.30 
 
 6 
 
 vacant 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 89 255 
 
 j 2.87 
 
 86 
 
 i .96 
 
 2.58 
 
 3.44 
 
 4.30 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 89 166 
 
 i 1.85 
 
 1 55 
 
 .92 
 
 ; 1.65 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.75 
 
 9 . . 
 
 vacant 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 ! 45 100 . 
 
 2.2 
 
 66 
 
 1 73 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.64 
 
 i 3.30 
 
 Average kwh. per person per day, 1.02. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Jensen Apartments, Great Falls, Montana 
 
 Total number suites.. , 21 
 
 Total number occupied 21 
 
 Total number people 52 
 
 I 
 
 No. of 
 Apt9. 
 
 No of 
 Boom 
 
 | 
 
 No. in j 
 Family 
 
 Days 
 
 Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Kwh. per 
 Person 
 
 Bate per Kwh. 
 
 Cost per Month — 30 Days 
 
 Day 
 
 Month 
 
 per Day 
 
 3c 
 
 4c 
 
 5c 
 
 Base- 
 
 ment 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 420 
 
 1343 
 
 3.2 
 
 96 
 
 1.6 
 
 $2.88 
 
 $3.84 
 
 $4.80 
 
 101 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 420 
 
 ! 1290 
 
 3.1 
 
 92 
 
 1.03 
 
 2.76 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.60 
 
 102 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 270 
 
 1261 
 
 4.7 
 
 140 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.20 
 
 5.60 
 
 7.00 
 
 103 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 390 
 
 844 
 
 2.2 
 
 6? 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.95 
 
 2.60 
 
 3.25 
 
 104 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 | 420 
 
 1 1328 
 
 3.2 
 
 95 
 
 | 1.6 
 
 2.85 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.75 
 
 105 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 360 
 
 836 
 
 2.3 
 
 70 
 
 ! 1.15 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.50 
 
 201 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 420 
 
 i 861 
 
 2.0 
 
 61 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.83 
 
 2.44 
 
 3.05 
 
 202 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 ' 420 
 
 j 1311 
 
 3.1 
 
 94 
 
 1.55 
 
 2.82 
 
 3.76 
 
 4.70 
 
 203 
 
 3 
 
 I 2 
 
 1 420 
 
 570 
 
 1.4 
 
 41 
 
 .70 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.64 
 
 2.05 
 
 204 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 390 
 
 812 
 
 2.1 
 
 62 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.86 
 
 2.48 
 
 3.10 
 
 205 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 ! 360 
 
 773 
 
 2.1 
 
 64 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.56 
 
 3.20 
 
 301 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 420 
 
 1111 
 
 2.6 
 
 79 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.37 
 
 3.16 
 
 3.95 
 
 302 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 i 420 
 
 i 1660 
 
 3.9 
 
 119 
 
 1.3 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.76 
 
 5.95 
 
 303 
 
 3 
 
 ! 2 
 
 420 
 
 777 
 
 1.8 
 
 55 
 
 .90 
 
 1.65 
 
 2.20 
 
 2.75 
 
 304 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 420 
 
 ; ii57 
 
 2.8 
 
 83 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.49 
 
 3.32 
 
 4.15 
 
 305 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 420 
 
 942 
 
 2.2 
 
 67 
 
 .73 
 
 2.01 
 
 2.68 
 
 3.35 
 
 401 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 360 
 
 ’ 1131 
 
 3.1 
 
 94 
 
 .62 
 
 2.82 
 
 3.76 
 
 4.70 
 
 402 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 390 
 
 | 2223 
 
 5.7 
 
 171 
 
 1.1 
 
 5.13 
 
 6.84 
 
 8.55 
 
 403 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 390 
 
 762 
 
 1.9 
 
 58 
 
 .95 
 
 1.74 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.90 
 
 404 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 420 
 
 i 1128 
 
 2.7 
 
 81 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.24 
 
 4.05 
 
 405 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 | 420 
 
 j 896 
 
 2.1 
 
 64 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.56 
 
 3.20 
 
 Average kwh. per person per day, 1.15. 
 
50 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 Whitmore Apartments, Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 Total number suites 26 
 
 Total number occupied 24 
 
 Total number people 71 
 
 No. of 
 Apts. 
 
 No. of 
 Booms 
 
 No. in 
 Family 
 
 Days 
 
 Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Day 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Month 
 
 Kwh. per 
 Person 
 per Day 
 
 Bate per Kwh. 
 
 Cost per Month — 30 Day* 
 
 3c i 
 
 4c 
 
 5c 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 54 
 
 175 
 
 3.2 
 
 96 
 
 .80 
 
 $2.88 ! 
 
 $3.84 
 
 $4.80 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 95 
 
 r.7 
 
 51 
 
 .85 
 
 1.53 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.55 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 160 
 
 2.5 
 
 75 
 
 .62 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.75 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 78 
 
 264 
 
 3.4 
 
 102 
 
 .85 
 
 3.06 
 
 4 08 
 
 5.10 
 
 5..'. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 51 
 
 97 
 
 1.9 
 
 57 
 
 .48 
 
 1.71 
 
 2.28 
 
 2.85 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 .5 
 
 i 15 
 
 .50 
 
 .45 
 
 .60 
 
 .75 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 205 
 
 4.0 
 
 I 120 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.80 
 
 6.00 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 48 
 
 2.8 
 
 84 
 
 .93 
 
 2.52 
 
 3.36 
 
 4.20 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 151 
 
 2.6 
 
 ! 78 
 
 1.30 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.90 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 129 
 
 2.1 
 
 63 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.89 
 
 2.52 
 
 3.15 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 198 
 
 4.5 
 
 135 
 
 1.50 
 
 4.05 
 
 5.40 
 
 6.75 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 1.6 
 
 ! 48 
 
 .40 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.40 
 
 26 
 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 184 
 
 3.4 
 
 : 102 
 
 1.13 
 
 3.06 
 
 4.08 
 
 5.10 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 58 
 
 84 
 
 1.4 
 
 42 
 
 .47 
 
 1.44 
 
 1.92 
 
 2.40 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 81 
 
 240 
 
 2.9 
 
 87 
 
 .97 
 
 2.61 
 
 3.48 
 
 4.35 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 1.0 
 
 30 
 
 .50 
 
 .90 
 
 1.20 
 
 1.50 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 83 
 
 230 
 
 2.7 
 
 81 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.24 
 
 4.05 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 78 
 
 181 
 
 2.4 
 
 72 
 
 .60 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.88 
 
 3.60 
 
 35.*, 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 293 
 
 4.0 
 
 120 
 
 2.00 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.80 
 
 6.00 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 60 
 
 .8 
 
 24 
 
 .20 
 
 .72 
 
 .96 
 
 1.20 
 
 37 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 108 
 
 1.4 
 
 42 
 
 .70 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.10 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 74 
 
 145 
 
 2.0 
 
 60 
 
 .67 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.00 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 118 
 
 2.0 
 
 60 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.40 
 
 3.00 
 
 40 
 
 1 7 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 231 
 
 2.5 
 
 165 
 
 .42 
 
 4.95 
 
 6.60 
 
 8.25 
 
 Average kwh. per person per day, 0.89. 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 Alpine Apartments, Anaconda, Montana 
 
 Total number suites 29 
 
 Total number occupied 22 
 
 Total number people 50 
 
 Days 
 
 5c 
 
 $3.45 
 
 2.10 
 
 2.25 
 3.30 
 
 3.75 
 3.00 
 
 1.65 
 4.05 
 
 2.75 
 
 4.25 
 
 4.65 
 
 4.65 
 
 6.25 
 
 3.30 
 
 2.30 
 1.40 
 
 5.65 
 5.10 
 
 .90 
 
 3.45 
 
 1.95 
 
 2.95 
 
 No. of 
 Apts. 
 
 No. of 
 Booms 
 
 ! No. in 
 | Family 
 
 1 
 
 Days 
 
 Used 
 
 ! 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Used 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Day 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 per 
 
 Month 
 
 Kwh. per 
 Person 
 per Day 
 
 Cost per Month — 3C 
 Bate per Kwh 
 
 3c 
 
 4c 
 
 3B 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 135 
 
 2.3 
 
 69 
 
 1.15 
 
 $2.07 
 
 $2.76 
 
 2C 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 78 
 
 1.4 ! 
 
 42 
 
 .47 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.68 
 
 3C I 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 81 
 
 1.5 
 
 45 
 
 .50 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.80 
 
 1C 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 45 
 
 „ 99 
 
 2.2 
 
 66 
 
 .73 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.64 
 
 ID 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 112 
 
 2.5 i 
 
 75 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 3.00 
 
 3F | 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 82 
 
 2.0 
 
 60' 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.40 
 
 2F i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 1.1 
 
 33 
 
 .37 
 
 .99 
 
 1.32 
 
 2G 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 99 
 
 2.7 
 
 81 
 
 1.35 
 
 2.43 
 
 3.24 
 
 2B: 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 [ 55 
 
 102 
 
 ! 1.85 1 
 
 55 
 
 .92 
 
 1.65 
 
 2.20. 
 
 3A 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 55 
 
 157 
 
 ! 2.85 
 
 85 
 
 1.42 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.40 
 
 3H 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 173 
 
 3.1 
 
 93 
 
 1.03 
 
 2.79 
 
 2.72 
 
 2 A 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 55 
 
 172 
 
 3.1 
 
 93 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.79 
 
 3 7 2 
 
 2H 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 55 
 
 228 
 
 4.15 
 
 125 
 
 1.04 
 
 3.75 
 
 5.00 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 82 
 
 2.2 
 
 66 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.64 
 
 1G 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 1.52 
 
 46 
 
 .76 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.84 
 
 IF 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 .95 
 
 28 
 
 .95 
 
 .84 
 
 1.12 
 
 1A 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 90 
 
 3.75 
 
 ! 113 
 
 1.87 
 
 3.39 
 
 4.52 
 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 3.4 
 
 j 102 
 
 1.13 
 
 3.06 
 
 4.08 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 .61 
 
 18 
 
 .30 
 
 .54 
 
 .72 
 
 3D 
 
 3 
 
 ; 2 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 2.3 
 
 69 
 
 1.15 
 
 2.07 
 
 2.76 
 
 D 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 1.3 
 
 39 
 
 1.30 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.56 
 
 3G 
 
 2 
 
 i 2 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 1.95 
 
 59 
 
 .97 
 
 1.77 
 
 2.36 
 
 Average kwh. per person per day, 1.01. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 51 
 
 From these tables the average consumption per person is seen to 
 vary from 0.89 to 1.15 kwh. per day, and the average of all four tables is 
 1.02 kwh. per day. During the average month this would amount to 
 thirty-one kwh. per person, and at Portland prices (three cents per 
 kwh.) would cost ninety-three cents per month for each member of the 
 family. Thus, an average family of five persons would have an average 
 bill of $4.65 per month. 
 
 COST OP ELECTRIC COOKING AT BISMARCK, N. D. 
 
 (Electric World, June 6, 1914) 
 
 The Hughes Electric Company, of Bismarck, N. D., furnishes central station 
 service in Bismarck, Fort Lincoln and Mandan, N. D., and in Glendive, Mont., 
 and has connected to its lines about a hundred electric ranges, energy to operate 
 which is sold at four cents per kwh. Herewith is given a compilation of the 
 average bills of these hundred customers for ten months, making a mean 
 monthly cost of $2.83 for electric cooking: 
 
 $3.09 August $3.82 
 
 2.09 September 2.88 
 
 2.89 October 2.74 
 
 2.54 November 2.04 
 
 4.04 December 2.18 
 
 March 
 April . 
 May ... 
 June ... 
 July ... 
 
 Average $2.83 
 
 The above data does not reveal the total number of persons served 
 but the average bill of $2.83, if reduced to three cents per kwh., would 
 amount to $2.12 per month, which is certainly not more than the 
 average cost of gas, per family, for cooking purposes, and probably less. 
 
 ELECTRICITY FOR COOKING AND HEATING 
 
 R. C. Powell, Superintendent of Electrical Distribution, Pacific Gas 
 and Electric Company, in Oakland, Cal., says as follows: 
 
 One kwh. of electricity contains 3,412 B. T. U. 
 
 One cubic foot of gas averages 600 B. T. U. 
 
 Electricity is used for heating and cooking purposes at an average efficiency 
 of seventy-five per cent. 
 
 Gas is used for heating and cooking purposes at an average efficiency of 
 twenty-five per cent. 
 
 Effective heat units in one kwh. of electricity 2,559 B. T. U. 
 
 Effective heat units in one cubic foot of gas 150 B. T. U. 
 
 Therefore, sixty kwh. of electricity is equivalent to (approximately) 1,000 
 cubif’ feet of gas. 
 
 Therefore, 
 
 TABLE VII 
 
 Gas at $0.75 per M. 
 Gas at 0.90 per M. 
 Gas at 1.00 per M. 
 Gas at 1.25 per M. 
 Gas at 1.50 per M. 
 Gas at 1.75 per M. 
 Gas at 2.00 per M. 
 Gas at 2.25 per M. 
 Gas at 2.50 per M. 
 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 equals electricity at 
 
 1.25 cents per kwh. 
 
 1.50 cents per kwh. 
 1.67 cents per kwh. 
 2.08 cents per kwh. 
 
 2.50 cents per kwh. 
 2 92 cents per kwh. 
 3.33 cents per kwh.- 
 3.75 cents per kwh. 
 4.17 cents per kwh. 
 
 Based upon this estimate of Mr. Powell, the electric cooking in 
 Portland would require a price of 1.67 cents per kwh. in order to com- 
 pete with our $1.00 gas. Applying this rate to the average apartment 
 house consumption for a family of five, as shown by tables III, IV, V 
 and VI, would result in a cost of $2.59 per month instead of $4.65 as 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 at present rates. This price probably represents reasonably well the 
 average cost of gas for a family of five at Portland rates, and tends to 
 corroborate Mr. Powell’s estimate for the usual method of application of 
 electrical cooking. 
 
 Actual Costs in Portland, 1915 
 
 The sale of electric ranges in Portland was not actually pushed until 
 the year 1915. A considerable number of ranges were in service 
 throughout the year, mostly the older styles, but most of those in use 
 were installed during the year 1915. Therefore, when a length of 
 record less than twelve months is given, the period included is the last 
 months of the year. In the following tables are given the monthly con- 
 sumptions in kwh’s of all ranges served by the P. R. L. & P. Co. during 
 1915. Each table refers to one make of range but the names of the 
 makers are omitted. The individual ranges are numbered instead of 
 giving the name of the consumers. 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “A” Ranges, Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 Month 
 
 Average bill 
 per Kwh. 
 at 3c 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 382 
 
 $11.46 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 120 
 
 3.60 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 2.52 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 253 
 
 7.59 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 102 
 
 3.06 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 203 
 
 6.09 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 146 
 
 4.38 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 92 
 
 2.76 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 155 
 
 4.65 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 81 
 
 2.43 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 47 
 
 1.41 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 52 
 
 1.56 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Average bill 
 at 3c 
 
 
 Month 
 
 per Kwh. 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 $ 2.28 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 198 
 
 5.94 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 72 
 
 2.16 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 364 
 
 10.92 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 145 
 
 4.35 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 62 
 
 1.86 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 283 
 
 8.49 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 280 
 
 8.40 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 205 
 
 6.15 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 118 
 
 3.54 
 
 23 
 
 5 v 
 
 77 
 
 2.31 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “B” Ranges, Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Average bill 
 at 3c 
 
 
 Month 
 
 per Kwh. 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 67 
 
 $ 2.01 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 166 
 
 4.98 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 1.38 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 1.14 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 119 
 
 3.57 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 1.00 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 182 
 
 5.46 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Month 
 
 Average bill 
 at 3c 
 
 per Kwh. 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 $ 3.00 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 217 
 
 6.51 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 2.88 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 345 
 
 10.35 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 161 
 
 4.83 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 99 
 
 2:97 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 1.98 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “C” Ranges, Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Average bill 
 at 3c 
 
 
 Month 
 
 per Kwh. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 223 
 
 $ 6.69 
 
 2 
 
 2 ' 
 
 118 
 
 3.54 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 141 
 
 4.23 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 182 
 
 5.46 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 77 
 
 2.31 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Average bill 
 at 3c 
 
 
 Month 
 
 per Kwh. 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 106 
 
 $ 3.18 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 133 
 
 3.99 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 68 
 
 2.04 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 44 
 
 1.32 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 106 
 
 3.18 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “D” Ranges, Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 
 Kwh. per 
 
 Month 
 
 Average bin 
 at 3c 
 per Kwh. 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 Service 
 
 Average 
 Kwh. per 
 Month 
 
 Average btU 
 at 3c 
 per Kwh. 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 $ 1.00 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 $ 1.47 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 1.50 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 1.00 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 103 
 
 3.09 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 170 
 
 5.10 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 1.00 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 43 
 
 1.29 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 86 
 
 2.58 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 107 
 
 3.21 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 1.26 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 1.00 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 1.00 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 1.68 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 73 
 
 2.19 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 2.40 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 1.00 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 62 
 
 1.86 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 121 
 
 „ 3.63 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 1.00 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 1.20 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 1.00 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 109 
 
 3.18 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 107 
 
 3.21 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 1.29 
 
 33 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 2.40 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 1.62 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 51 
 
 1.53 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 69 
 
 2.07 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 '53 
 
 1.59 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 57 
 
 1.71 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 65 
 
 1.95 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 1.00 
 
 37 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 2.04 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 124 
 
 3.72 
 
 38 
 
 12 
 
 165 
 
 4.95 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 68 
 
 2.04 
 
 39 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 1.23 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE* XII 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “E” Ranges. Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 Months in 
 
 Average Kwh. 
 
 Average Bill at 
 
 Service 
 
 per Month 
 
 3c per Kwh. 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 153 
 
 $ 4.59 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 Showing Monthly Consumption in Kwh’s of “F” Ranges, Portland, 1915 
 
 Owner 
 
 1 
 
 Months in 
 
 Service 
 
 3 
 
 Average Kwh. 
 per Month 
 89 .... 
 
 Average Bill at 
 3c per Kwh. 
 $ 2.67 
 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 
 
 Summary of Range Data Shown in 
 to December, 
 
 Tables VIII to 
 1915, Inclusive 
 
 XIII, January, 
 
 1915, 
 
 MANUFACTURER 
 
 “A” 
 
 “B” 
 
 “C” 
 
 “D” 
 
 “E” : 
 
 “F” 
 
 Number of 
 Ranges 
 in Use 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Used in 1915 
 Total Months 
 
 123 
 
 139 
 
 43 
 
 351 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Average Monthly 
 Consumption 
 in Kwh. 
 
 114 
 
 98 
 
 94 
 
 63 
 
 154 
 
 89 
 
 Average 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Bill 
 
 $3.42 
 
 2.94 
 
 2.82 
 
 1.89 
 
 4.62 
 
 2.67 
 
 Totals 
 
 Weighted average ... .. 
 
 88 
 
 671 
 
 83 Kwh. 
 
 $2.49 
 
 A striking feature of the above tables is the wide variation in the 
 monthly consumptions of the individual consumers. This may be 
 because of several things such as differences in economical use, size of 
 families, the amount of food purchased at delicatessen stores already 
 cooked, and perhaps in some cases the amount of cooking done by other 
 means than electrical. These facts are not all available but from the 
 conditions so far as known it is believed the average consumption here 
 shown is indicative of a cost which can be realized for exclusive electrical 
 cooking by the exercise of reasonable economy in operation. 
 
 In Table XV are shown the monthly bills for the existing record of 
 only three months, of one apartment house installation in Portland 
 where both electric lights and electrical cooking are included in the 
 
54 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 same bill. It will be noted that the average monthly bill has been 
 $3.45, the same being about $1.00 higher than the average bill from 
 Table XIV for all residence range installations served by this company. 
 This is no doubt accounted for by the lighting consumption included in 
 the bill. 
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 Combined Light and Range Bills for an Apartment House Installation 
 
 in Portland 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 to Nov. It 
 
 Nov. 
 
 it to Dec. It 
 
 Dec. 
 
 It to Jan. 6 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Bill 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Bill 
 
 Kwh. 
 
 Bill 
 
 249 
 
 $ 8.07 
 
 157 
 
 $ 5.3f 
 
 114 
 
 $ 4.02 
 
 79 
 
 2.97 
 
 181 
 
 6.03 
 
 194 
 
 6.42 
 
 140 
 
 4.80 
 
 185 
 
 6.15 
 
 48 
 
 2.04 
 
 5 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.20 
 
 20 
 
 1.20 
 
 130 
 
 4.50 
 
 119 
 
 4.17 
 
 141 
 
 4.83 
 
 166 
 
 5.58 
 
 213 
 
 6.99 
 
 210 
 
 6.90 
 
 112 • 
 
 3.96 
 
 101 
 
 3.63 
 
 56 
 
 2.28 
 
 111 
 
 3.93 
 
 90 
 
 3.30 
 
 93 
 
 3.39 
 
 77 
 
 2.91 
 
 74 
 
 2.82 
 
 50 
 
 2.10 
 
 86 
 
 3.18 
 
 71 
 
 2.73 
 
 46 
 
 1.98 
 
 96 
 
 3.48 
 
 147 
 
 5.01 
 
 94 
 
 3.42 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 131 
 
 4.53 
 
 118 
 
 4.14 
 
 139 
 
 4.77 
 
 0 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 144 
 
 4.92 
 
 8 . 
 
 
 90 
 
 3.30 
 
 15 
 
 1.00 
 
 77 
 
 2.91 
 
 72 
 
 2.76 
 
 105 
 
 3.75 
 
 49 
 
 2.07 
 
 58 
 
 2.34 
 
 46 
 
 1.98 
 
 121 
 
 4.23 
 
 142 
 
 4.86 
 
 39 
 
 1.77 
 
 103 
 
 3.69 
 
 101 
 
 3.6.3 
 
 92 
 
 3.36 
 
 85 
 
 3.15 
 
 78 
 
 2.94 
 
 63 
 
 2.39 
 
 8 
 
 
 143 
 
 4.89 
 
 134 
 
 4.62 
 
 16 
 
 1.00 
 
 164 
 
 5.52 
 
 180 
 
 6.00 
 
 18 
 
 1.10 
 
 128 
 
 4.44 
 
 148 
 
 5.04 
 
 73 
 
 2.79 
 
 57 
 
 2.31 
 
 72 
 
 2.76 
 
 86 
 
 3.18 
 
 87 
 
 3.21 
 
 84 
 
 3.12 
 
 0 
 
 
 44 
 
 1.86 
 
 78 
 
 2.94 
 
 0 
 
 
 25 
 
 1.35 
 
 100 
 
 3.60 
 
 2 
 
 
 80 
 
 3.00 
 
 88 
 
 3.24 
 
 130 
 
 4.50 
 
 107 
 
 3.81 
 
 119 
 
 4.17 
 
 166 
 
 5.58 
 
 146 
 
 4.98 
 
 175 
 
 5.85 
 
 37 
 
 1.71 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 21 
 
 1.23 
 
 23 
 
 1.29 
 
 82 
 
 3.06 
 
 92 
 
 3.36 
 
 145 
 
 4.95 
 
 156 
 
 5.28 
 
 170 
 
 5.70 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 22 
 
 1.26 
 
 30 
 
 1.50 
 
 3 
 
 
 89 
 
 3.27 
 
 71 
 
 2.75 
 
 90 
 
 3.30 
 
 53 
 
 2.19 
 
 17 
 
 1.04 
 
 53 
 
 2.19 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 115 
 
 4.05 
 
 76 
 
 2.88 
 
 113 
 
 3.99 
 
 1 
 
 
 74 
 
 2.82 
 
 181 
 
 6.03 
 
 15 
 
 1.00 
 
 128 
 
 4.44 
 
 134 
 
 4.62 
 
 102 
 
 3.66 
 
 79 
 
 2.97 
 
 96 
 
 3.48 
 
 35 
 
 1.65 
 
 153 
 
 5.19 
 
 173 
 
 5.79 
 
 65 
 
 2.55 
 
 53 
 
 2.19 
 
 83 
 
 3.09 
 
 82 
 
 3.06 
 
 76 
 
 2.88 
 
 97 
 
 3.51 
 
 58 
 
 2.34 
 
 39 
 
 1.77 
 
 26 
 
 1.38 
 
 69 
 
 2.61 
 
 54 
 
 2.22 
 
 57 
 
 2.31 
 
 187 
 
 6.14 
 
 139 
 
 4.77 
 
 111 
 
 3.93 
 
 9* 
 
 3.42 
 
 61 
 
 2.43 
 
 69 
 
 2.67 
 
 131 
 
 4.53 
 
 126 
 
 4.38 
 
 160 
 
 5.40 
 
 72 
 
 2.72 
 
 79 
 
 2.97 
 
 103 
 
 3.69 
 
 19 
 
 1.15 
 
 38 
 
 1.74 
 
 38 
 
 1.74 
 
 599 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 360 
 
 
 1,023 
 
 
 1,357 
 
 
 1,502 
 
 
 254 
 
 
 272 
 
 
 284 
 
 
 5,514 
 
 $135.66 
 
 6,669 
 
 $163.94 
 
 6,912 
 
 $171.27 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 55 
 
 Distinctive Attributes of Electrical Cooking 
 
 It is quite impossible to offer any marked innovation and secure its 
 adoption by the public. The only types of electric heating and cooking 
 utensils which could have been sold initially were the toasters, flat- 
 irons and others which could be tried by the consumer at small first 
 cost. Even though the range might have been perfected at that time 
 it would not have been sold; it was too different from familiar equip- 
 ment. Hence the development of the electric range has been compelled 
 to accommodate itself to that characteristic of human nature, its 
 “inertia,” which resists accommodation to anything radically new in 
 principle or method of application. Thus, the past and, to a lesser 
 extent, the present tendency in the development of electric ranges is ta 
 substitute for the gas-burner an electric “hot-plate,” leaving the general 
 method of application little changed. The condition might be likened 
 to the history of the automobile in which the first stage was to install a 
 gas engine in a horse-drawn vehicle with little more change than that 
 necessary to support the engine, transmit the power and steer the 
 vehicle. The present motor car hardly would be taken as its 
 descendant. 
 
 The present electric ranges are not adapted to taking advantage to 
 the full extent of the great inherent possibilities of economy in the 
 application of electric heat for cooking possessed by no other source of 
 heat. Designers, no doubt, recognize this fact but until the purchasing 
 public grasps these possibilities and applies the distinctive attributes 
 of electrical service more generally than now, any comparison of the 
 cost of electrical with other cooking is without important significance. 
 It is a case of comparing new equipment with equipment which has 
 undergone many years of development. The attributes to which I refer 
 are: 
 
 Number apartments occupied 
 
 Average kwh. per occupied apartment.... 
 
 Average bill per occupied apartment 
 
 Maximum bill for occupied apartment 
 Minimum bill for occupied apartment.. 
 
 Oct. 1 to 
 
 Nov. k to 
 
 Dec. k 
 
 Nov. k 
 
 Dec. Jf 
 
 Jan. 6 
 
 41 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 .... 90 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 $3.31 
 
 $3.47 
 
 $3.56 
 
 8.07 
 
 6.99 
 
 6.90 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.00 
 
 1. Electric heating can be applied in an air-tight and heat insulated chamber. 
 
 2. It can be so distributed as to be of equal intensity over the entire inside 
 surface of the chamber. 
 
 3. Electric heat can be regulated so that when the same switches are turned 
 the same current always will be supplied, the same oven heat obtained and the 
 same time be required for the baking or cooking process. 
 
 In the quotation from Mr. Powell, which appears previously in this 
 chapter, the statement is made that “electricity is used for heating and 
 cooking purposes at an average efficiency of seventy-five per cent.” If 
 this were true of electrical cooking, there would be little room for 
 improvement, as no efficiency can be greater than 100 per cent. Let us 
 see how well the efficiency of seventy-five per cent, is maintained in 
 boiling water on the regular hot plates of a range. Some recent tests by 
 a local electric service company showed the following results for several 
 makes of ranges all reduced to the same rate of consumption, 1,000 
 watts: 
 
56 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 TIME TO BOIL 
 
 EFFICIENCY 
 
 Fastest 
 
 Range 
 
 Slowest 
 
 Range 
 
 Average 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest Average 
 
 11 min. 
 
 14 min. 
 
 12 min. 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 .19 min. 
 
 22 min. 
 
 20 min. 
 
 41 
 
 34 
 
 37 
 
 32 min. 
 
 40 min. 
 
 37 min. 
 
 45 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 Average results of range tests when boiling water. Boiling water on top units. 
 
 The two following tests were made in a tea kettle instead of open 
 pans as above and are reported by the electric range committee of the 
 Northwest Electric Light and Power Association: 
 
 TEST No. 1 
 
 Two quarts water in nickel-plated tea kettle. 
 
 Nine tests on four makes of stoves. 
 
 Discs all started cold. 
 
 Boiling point reached 202 degrees F. 
 
 Average watts applied, 1,070. 
 
 Average interval of time to boil, 22.1 minutes. 
 
 Average kwh., 0.339. 
 
 A-^ercige cost at 3c, 1.20c. 
 
 Average time of boiling after current was shut off, seven minutes. 
 
 TEST No. 2 
 
 Four quarts of water in nickel-plated tea kettle. 
 
 Seven tests on five makes of stoves. 
 
 Discs all started cold. 
 
 Average watts applied, 1,012. 
 
 Average interval of time to boil, 37.6 minutes. 
 
 Average kwh. consumed, 0.621. 
 
 Average cost at 3c, 1.863c. 
 
 Average time of boiling after current was shut off, seven minutes. 
 
 Unfortunately, the initial temperature of the water is not given. 
 If it be taken as fiftj rj -two degrees F., then the approximate efficiencies 
 would be fifty-two per cent, for Test No. 1 and fifty-seven per cent, for 
 Test No. 2, both higher than those in the open pans, as should be 
 expected. It is then evident that the efficiency of boiling on top of 
 the range in an open stew kettle is not likely to equal forty or forty-five 
 per cent., and in a tea kettle perhaps sixty per cent. 
 
 Now, it is not the inefficient application of the electric heat which 
 causes this low efficiency; in a properly designed electric hot-plate 
 there is almost no escape for the heat except into the vessel to be 
 heated. The loss really occurs because the whole upper surface of this 
 kettle is exposed to the air and a part of the heat thus goes from the 
 electric heater through the water and the walls of the tea kettle 
 directly into the surrounding air and is lost. 
 
 Here is an opportunity to apply to good advantage the first named 
 attribute of electric heating, namely, that of heating in a closed and 
 insulated chamber. When this is done, it is quite probable that the 
 difference in cost of $1.00 gas and three-cent electricity, as shown by 
 Powell elsewhere in this chapter, will have been nearly, if not com- 
 pletely, eliminated. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer, the ultimate electric range will have 
 few, if any, “hot-plates” on the top but will comprise a series of 
 depressed chambers, or “compartments,” similar to the “cookers” now 
 furnished in part on the better ranges, with insulated walls and insu- 
 lated cover. The cooking dishes will consist of a set of pots which will 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 r>7 
 
 be set down into the*e chambers, to be subsequently covered by the 
 thick insulated cover having only a small vent for the escape of steam. 
 These chambers have all the properties of the so-called “fireless 
 cookers,” in which slow cooking will continue for a long period after 
 closing off the supply of heat;. they have the further advantage that a 
 small supply of electricity can be kept flowing so that the food will 
 continue to cook rapidly instead of gradually cooling as in the real 
 fireless cooker. That the energy consumption in these cookers is far 
 less than in the surface heaters is certain but tests are not at hand. 
 
 Another lesson which must be learned by the range-user cook is to 
 turn off the electric heat before the cooking is complete. Thus, in the 
 tests previously shown it is stated that the water boiled in each case for 
 seven minutes after turning off the heat. This is one-third of the 
 total time required in Test No. 1 to bring the water to a boil, and the 
 improvement in efficiency in this case would here be very great. 
 
 The second attribute, that of even distribution of the heat, is of 
 great importance. The housewife well knows that with a concentrated) 
 flame under a boiling pot of thick food the most rapid cooking occurs 
 near the flame and in the center of the pot where the steam bubbles 
 chiefly rise, while the surface is so cooled by the air as to prevent it 
 from cooking properly. This necessitates continual stirring to keep 
 the outer surface cooking as rapidly and to keep the bottom from burn- 
 ing. Now, in the insulated compartment of a modern electric range 
 the heat cannot escape; the whole compartment assumes practically the 
 same temperature whether the heating unit is equally distributed about 
 the inside surface or not. This eliminates burned food (unless all the 
 water evaporates), also the necessity of stirring and the danger of 
 unevenly cooked foods, as when, in boiling potatoes, some will nearly 
 always become done before others in the same pot. Bread in the electric 
 oven bakes evenly on all sides of the loaf. It is also claimed that meat 
 shrinks less in the closed compartments and ovens of electric ranges 
 than in ovens where a circulation of air or burned gases through the 
 oven tends to carry off the volatile elements of the food. 
 
 The third important attribute of electrical cooking is the ease of 
 obtaining a definite cooking or baking temperature so that baking 
 bread, or any other cooking process, will always require the same 
 length of time. The value of this feature scarcely can be estimated; 
 it implies no burned food, no undercooked food, no need of opening 
 and cooling the oven every few minutes to see how the bread is baking, 
 and no worrying on the part of the cook in trying to watch several 
 things at once. She merely sets the automatic timer for the baking 
 period which she has found correct by experience, and sets the thermo- 
 stat for the baking temperature she wants to use, turns the switch to 
 start the heat and then dismisses the matter entirely from her mind 
 while she goes on with some other work. The better makes of ranges 
 all comprise these features of the thermostat control which turns off 
 the heat if the oven becomes too hot, an<J turns it off completely by a 
 clock mechanism at the time desired, when the operation is completed, 
 and also starts the range in the morning so that the breakfast may be 
 cooking w T hile one is dressing. These features make it possible to reduce 
 
58 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 cooking to an exact fccience, so that uniformly good results may be 
 secured with definite directions and with minimum knowledge and 
 experience. 
 
 To be sure, the range equipped with these improvements costs more 
 than the range which simply substitutes an electric heating unit for a 
 gas burner, but without it you are not getting the benefit of electric 
 service. Without these improvements electric servcie has little if any 
 advantage except sanitation; and unless nearly as cheap, its use would 
 not be warranted. Plowever, the special features described are proba- 
 bly economical even at the increased cost. If your money is worth six 
 per cent, and the depreciatioh of your equipment is twelve per cent., 
 then you should need to save only seventy-five cents per month on your 
 electric bill in order to save the interest and depreciation on a $50 
 greater cost of your range. Let us see what the prospects are for 
 making this saving by using the compartment cookers instead of the 
 heating elements on top of the stove. Assuming the efficiency of the 
 hot-plates for average purposes, as shown elsewhere in this chapter, to 
 be about thirty-five per cent., and the average bill as shown by Table 
 XIV to be $2.5 0, then it is only necessary for the closed compartments 
 to yield an efficiency of fifty per cent, in order to save the required 
 seventy-five cents per month. It is very probable that the improvement 
 is equal to this amount, or even more. In Table XI the “D” ranges are 
 of an old type in which the hot plates on the top are so slow in speed 
 that the owners are said to have been discouraged, fortunately, from 
 using them, but prefer instead the closed compartments.* The differ- 
 ence in the average monthly bill between this range and the next most 
 economical is more than seventy-five cents in all cases and in most cases 
 is much greater. 
 
 Present practice in the design of ranges is to provide the cooking 
 compartments with only a small heating element intended to continue 
 the cooking process after first bringing the food up to a boil on the 
 more rapid surface hot-plates which, in turn, are slower than gas flames* 
 and coal or wood ranges. It would seem that one of the most serious 
 present objections to electrical cooking, its slowness on the surface 
 units, could be eliminated by providing the closed compartments with a 
 larger heating element and starting the boiling process in them, instead 
 of on top of the range, afterward so reducing the heat automatically as 
 to continue merely the boiling process. This would require the use of 
 an automatic switch or a thermostat, as, otherwise, should the reduction 
 in heat be forgotten by the cook and the food be allowed to “burn dry” 
 the compartment might be ruined by the intense heat which would 
 result. 
 
 * Electrical Review and Western Electrician, l-23-’15. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 59 
 
 FIRST COST OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 
 
 Most electric utensils are considerably more costly than fuel utensils. 
 They are undoubtedly more expensive to manufacture but this does not 
 explain the reason completely. In some cases the excessive first cost 
 results from the fact that they are new and patented, and not affected 
 by competition. In such cases competition is likely to arise at any 
 time and patents will eventually expire. 
 
 Another reason for high cost is the fact that most electric utensils 
 are made of highly ornamental design and finish, intended for use on 
 the dining table. The use of these on the table is often a great con- 
 venience and an economy of time; but many do not or cannot afford to 
 recognize the value of these qualities. It would seem probable that a 
 much greater demand would be found to exist if the makers would also 
 provide a line of utensils of high grade as regards the heating element, 
 but less pretentious in other particulars. 
 
 The experimental work which has been necessary to evolve successful 
 utensils for all purposes has been very expensive. Likewise the expense 
 of sales organizations and advertising to interest and educate the 
 people in using them is immense and probably greater than any other 
 one factor in causing the high cost. The purchaser must pay liberally 
 for the time and expense of the agents and their literature and advert 
 tising, as well as for the cost of developing and perfecting the utensil! 
 If it were not for the inertia of human nature this advertising cost 
 would be eliminated. When the electric range and other items of 
 equipment become so well known and appreciated that the publid 
 demand them, the cost without doubt can be considerably reduced. 
 This expense is borne largely by those who purchase during the first 
 few years, until the maker is reimbursed for the immense expense of 
 developing and advertising his product. Thus, in the case of the tung- 
 sten light, the original price for forty-watt lamps was $1.50, whereas* 
 the price is now only thirty cents; the electric flat-iron began at $7.50 
 and is now only $3.50 or less. Such great reductions in price are not 
 to be generally expected hereafter, but in special cases a great reduction 
 may be anticipated and, indeed, must take place to stimulate their use. 
 
 The approximate cost and energy consumption of some of the most 
 important utensils is given below, although considerable variation may 
 be expected for different sizes, makes and types: 
 
 Flat-iron, 550 watts 
 
 Warming pads, 20-75 watts 
 
 “Hot-plates” or stoves, 400-800 watts 
 
 Coffee percolator, 550 watts 
 
 Toaster, 550 watts : 
 
 Sewing machine motor, 40 watts 
 
 Vacuum cleaners, 150-190 watts 
 
 Kitchen ranges, simple types 
 
 Kitchen ranges with modern features, generally including about as 
 follows: 250-500-1,000 watt hot plates, 500-1,000 watt oven, 
 1,000 watt broiler 
 
 $ 3.00-$ 4.00 
 
 4.50- 7.25 
 
 3.50- 7.00 
 
 8 . 00 - 12.00 
 3.50- 5.00 
 
 15.00 upward 
 27.50 upward 
 25.00- 60.00 
 
 60.00- 150.00 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Under rates of service now prevailing, the foregoing discussion indi- 
 cates that the heating of buildings is seldom, if ever, economical as 
 compared with other sources of heat and, indeed, that its cost is usually 
 
GO 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 too high to warrant its adoption even when its obvious advantages of 
 convenience and sanitation are given due weight. Exceptions were 
 found to this statement in irrigation districts where the heating season 
 is an off-peak season, and means were also suggested by which a con- 
 siderable reduction in cost could be introduced in electric heating by 
 the principle of rotation of service between the various rooms which do 
 not need to be heated simultaneously, and also by the use of furnace, 
 fireplace or stove as auxiliary during extremely cold weather, to avoid 
 the installation and therefore the further cost of a sufficient electric 
 radiation to maintain living temperature under extreme conditions. 
 
 In regard to electrical cooking, it can be stated that many small 
 heating and cooking utensils, such as flat-irons and toasters, have 
 gained great popularity even when rates were high, as their obvious 
 advantages in convenience outweigh purely economical considerations. 
 Under rates existing in Portland, their cost of operation is probably 
 little, if any, in excess of the cost from other sources of heat. 
 
 The proposition of exclusive electrical cooking, as generally applied, 
 is not as cheap as cooking by gas but the margin of difference is not 
 great. It is believed that this margin can be eliminated almost, if not 
 entirely, by taking advantage of economy in electrical energy consump- 
 tion, made possible by the use of the closed compartments instead of 
 surface heating units for nearly, if not all purposes in the electric range. 
 The accomplishment of this purpose involves the education of the house- 
 wife to sefe the advantage and economy to be gained thereby, and as 
 ranges must be built to suit the purchaser, they will be designed to 
 utilize this principle of closed cooking just as fast as the public becomes 
 educated to use this principle. This principle will further tend to elim- 
 inate one present disadvantage of electrical cooking, namely, its 
 somewhat slow speed on the surface heating unit. 
 
 Several small power appliances such as ventilating fans, vacuum 
 cleaners, etc., for the home are useful and convenient beyond all pro- 
 portion to their cost, and their almost universal adoption is inevitable. 
 
 The initial cost of electrical equipment now retards its adoption. 
 As the demand for this equipment increases, production in much larger 
 quantities to some extent result in its accompanying cheaper cost of 
 production. In addition, as the public becomes better acquainted with 
 such equipment and absorbs the output without the expense of the 
 present immense development and advertising campaign, the cost will 
 reduce. Remember that the purchaser of any product pays the 
 manufacturer for convincing him of the merits of his purchase. 
 
 Probably the most important point to be borne in mind in any dis- 
 cussion of this subject is that all conclusions must apply only to present 
 conditions and that these conditions will change continually to the 
 increased advantage of the electricity consumer. Electrical energy can 
 be generated more cheaply in large quantities than in small, and 
 increased use will, therefore, mean decreased cost of production. Of 
 still greater importance is the fact that increased use w r ill very greatly 1 
 decrease the cost of distribution, which is now the principal charge 
 against the cost of service, rather than the cost of generation. 
 
 Thus, the Electric Range Committee of the Northwest Electric Light 
 and Power Association, in its report of September, 1915, estimates the 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 61 
 
 average monthly bill for home use throughout the region covered by 
 the report, which includes 389,842 homes, to be $20 per year per home, 
 or $1.67 per month. Commenting upon this, the committee says as 
 follows: 
 
 Eventually we will secure average earnings of $60.00 per year from a large 
 portion of our residence customers, and this increase of $40.00 per customer can 
 be secured by an investment on our part of less than $70.00 per customer, 
 including plant, transmission and distribution system. Meanwhile the operating 
 expense per customer has very slightly increased, especially so in the case of 
 hydro-electric plants. 
 
 This quotation is of great significance in view of the fact that this 
 association and its committee are composed almost entirely of 
 commercial men actually engaged in the sale of electrical energy. 
 
 In other words, increasing the capital investment of the companies 
 only $70 is expected to secure a gross increase in income of $40 per 
 year, or fifty-seven per cent, gross income on the additional investment 
 required. It is evident from this that with commission regulation when 
 this increased consumption of electricity in the home has been realized, 
 the price of service must materially reduce the cost to the consumer. 
 
 The conclusions herein advanced, therefore, apply only to the present 
 time. The margin is now so small that one might, for this reason, 
 predict with reasonable assurance that electric service for most pur- 
 poses, at least in large centers of population, will soon reach a price 
 which can compete with any other method. Even in the case of electric 
 cal heating of houses, one would be unsafe in predicting that it would 
 remain for many years uneconomical in comparison with most other 
 fuel. 
 
 Looked at from the standpoint of the community as a whole, the 
 way to make electrical service cheaper and more economical is to use 
 it more universally. This increased use still further reduces the cost, 
 which still further increases and encourages the use, the development 
 of the industry continually gaining in momentum. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Electricity on the Farm 
 
 One application of electricity which promises to be of great value 
 and importance both to the electric service- companies and the customers, 
 is the use of electricity in rural districts. 
 
 This field of application has hardly more than begun to develop in 
 the United States as a whole, although in some populous districts of 
 the eastern states and in irrigation districts of the western states con- 
 siderable progress has been made. In some parts of Europe, especially 
 in Germany, electrification of farming operations has reached a high 
 state of development. Central stations are now supplying about 50,000 
 to 75,000 rural customers in the United States. 
 
 The farmer is one of the greatest of all users of power, but, on the 
 whole, he still clings to such primitive methods as hand labor, horses 
 and mules, although more recently the gasoline engine has become a 
 familiar sight on the farm. 
 
 The problem of labor is becoming a serious matter with the farmer. 
 The sons drift toward the cities; transient help is independent and unre- 
 liable; permanent help requires pay and subsistence for seasons of the 
 year when not needed; horses must be fed at all times and cared for 
 whether used or not; moreover, both horses and men are limited in 
 hours of service to ten or twelve hours per day. It has been estimated 
 (in Gillette’s Hand Book of Cost Data) that the average farm horse 
 works only eleven and one-half per cent, of the time, or two and three- 
 quarters hours per day on the average throughout the year. On the 
 average farm the cost to the farmer of feeding a horse per month when 
 working is about: 
 
 One-quarter ton of hay at $10.00 $2.50 
 
 Fifteen bushels of oats at forty cents 6.00 
 
 Total $8.50 
 
 The average cost throughout the year is about $7.00 per month. 
 One horse working eight hours per day can accomplish only about two- 
 thirds of a mechanical horsepower, or two-thirds times three-fourths 
 equals one-half kilowatt. If the horse works three hours per day, or 
 ninety hours per month, on the average throughout the year, then it 
 will accomplish forty-five kwh. per month, which, at a monthly rate 
 of $7.00, would cost to the farmer $7.00 divided by forty-five, or fifteen 
 and one-half cents per kwh. These figures are, of course, only rough 
 approximations but serve to gain a rough conception of the cost of 
 animal power. No account is here taken of the interest, depreciation 
 and care of horses. If these be considered, the cost of animal power 
 will be nearly doubled and the advantage will be strongly with the 
 motor, as the cost, care and depreciation of horses very greatly exceed 
 that of motors of equal capacities. In fact, a motor will run auto- 
 matically on many kinds of service and only needs to be- visited once in 
 two or three days to oil it. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 63 
 
 It is commonly assumed that it takes ten men to exert one horse- 
 power, or thirteen to exert one kilowatt. If a man’s time is worth fif- 
 teen cents per hour, his services would thus cost about $2.00 per kilo- 
 watt hour. It requires one man, or a one-eighth horsepower motor, 
 to run a cream separator. A one-eighth horsepower motor, at twelve 
 cents per kwh. would cost only one and one-eighth cents per hour to 
 operate. Man power is thus about sixteen times as expensive as electric 
 power at twelve cents per kwh. and twenty-four times as expensive as 
 eight-cent electric power. A wage of fifteen cents per hour for a man 
 is about the same as $2.00 per kwh. for electric service. 
 
 A windmill is unreliable and more expensive for the same capacity. 
 A gasoline engine costs about twice as much as a motor; usually weighs 
 about two or three times as much; occupies much more floor space; is 
 noisy, more subject to trouble; and requires more skill to operate, and 
 has several other less important disadvantages. A motor does not need 
 a heavy foundation. It can be mounted on a timber frame and carried 
 from place to place by two men, like a stretcher, or can be drawn by a 
 horse, like a “stone boat,” and is ready for service in its new location 
 as soon as the belt is attached. 
 
 The above illustrations are given to indicate the nature of the 
 problems which confront the farmer in considering the introduction of 
 electric service on the farm, when service is offered him at a definite 
 price. These problems will be discussed in greater detail in considering 
 the individual applications of electric service on the farm. 
 
 Lighting and Household Uses 
 
 It is unnecessary to discuss electric lighting and other house uses at 
 length, as they were treated in the preceding chapter under “Electricity* 
 in the Home.” 
 
 It may be said, however, that electrical lighting assumes on the 
 farm greater value than in the city. This is because its nearest competi- 
 tor is the kerosene lamp and lantern, while in the city the consumer 
 has the alternative of gas lighting. A farmer’s property does not have 
 the protection of a trained city fire department; moreover, it is subject 
 to greater danger from fire because of the hay and other combustible 
 products stored in the buildings. Many fires have been caused by kero- 
 sene lamps and lanterns. In this respect, electric lights are almost 
 invaluable to the farmers. 
 
 In regard to other household utensils as discussed in the preceding 
 chapter, the same general remarks apply except that the cost of electrid 
 service is likely to be higher than in the city and the economy of electric 
 service not, therefore, as marked. Such equipment as electric washing 
 machines, wringers, mangles, meat grinders, coffee grinders, sausage 
 stuffers, bread mixers, buffers and grinders, however, assume far greater 
 importance in the rural home than in the city home. 
 
 Water Supply for House and Bam 
 
 In districts where water must be pumped for the kitchen, and for 
 the use of livestock, the electric-driven pump is superior to any other 
 source of power, as the windmill or gasoline engine, both in cost and 
 
64 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 convenience. It is very easy and surprisingly inexpensive to provide a 
 motor-driven pump with automatic control operated by a float in the 
 water tank so that the motor will start as soon as the water has fallen 
 below a certain elevation, and stop again when the tank is full. 
 
 Pumping Water for Irrigation 
 
 Pumping water for irrigation is a use for which the electric motor 
 has been gaining enormously in popularity. There are many farmers 
 who prefer the independence resulting from owning and operating their 
 own irrigation system in preference to a water right in a large ditch 
 system. The practicability of economical irrigation by pumping depends 
 much upon the lift and the water supply. If one lift is twice as great as 
 another, the cost of power will be twice as great or nearly unless on a 
 sliding scale contract. The initial cost of a pumping plant is usually 
 much less than a ditch water right, usually costing only about $10 per 
 acre for a plant lifting fifty feet, whereas a ditch right seldom costs 
 less than $40 per acre, and more generally about $60. However, the 
 cost of operation of the pumping plant is greater because of the cost of 
 electricity or gasoline, but if interest on the first cost be considered, as 
 it always should be, this item will often be so much greater for the 
 ditch right as to more than offset the extra cost of operating a pumping 
 plant. In 1909 there were said to be 500,000 acres in the United States 
 irrigated by pumping, and consuming 243,000 horsepower. This 
 acreage has doubtless been almost doubled since the census. 
 
 The conditions attending proposed irrigation installations are so 
 varied as to make each case a problem in itself to determine what 
 system is to be preferred. The problems are of such technical nature 
 as to make it advisable to secure the advice of a disinterested expert 
 rather than to be guided by the solicitations of either the engineers of 
 the machinery agent, the power company or the ditch company, all of 
 whom may be influenced by personal motives. 
 
 ELECTRICITY IN THE DAIRY 
 
 Cream Separators 
 
 Cream separators should be one of the first devices to be electrified 
 when the dairy farmer secures electric service. Only a one-eighth horse- 
 power motor is usually required and the cost of operation at twelve 
 cents per kwh. would be only about one and one-eighth cents per hour. 
 The motor can be started and the farmer can go about other “chores,” 
 leaving the separator to care for itself. 
 
 Milking Machines 
 
 Milking machines have been growing in popularity although they 
 apparently have not always been successful, either for want of intelli- 
 gent application on the part of the farmer, or the proper mood on the 
 part of the cow, as well as the fact that considerable experimental work 
 has been required to develop them. They are now declared to give 
 excellent results. One person can milk eight cows at the same time with 
 the aid of the machine. The cost of a three horsepower motor, vacuum 
 pump and two milking machines is about $450, and $75 extra for each 
 extra machine. The power required for milking each cow is about 0.019 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 65 
 
 kwh., which, at eight cents per kwh., would cost about 0.15 cents, or 
 approximately one-seventh cent per cow. For hand milking, an expert 
 can milk about ten cows per hour, and his services at fifteen cents per 
 hour would thus be one and one-half cents per cow. To the cost of 
 electricity for electric milking must be added the interest and depre- 
 ciation upon the cost of the equipment. This should be taken at about 
 sixteen per cent. A three horsepower motor and pump will care for 
 about ten milking machines which will milk about 110 cows per hour, 
 but strangely enough a smaller number of machines does not permit 
 the use of a smaller motor and pump. The amount of the interest and 
 depreciation, therefore, depends very largely upon the number of cows , 
 milked. 
 
 In electric milking contamination is reduced or prevented by first 
 cleaning the cow with the vacuum pump used for milking, and also 
 because the milk does not flow into an open pail where it can accumulate 
 dirt from the cow’s hide and from the dirt of the barn during milking, 
 but flows into a closed vacuum pail. 
 
 Refrigeration 
 
 Many perishable products on the farm are lost from a lack of cold 
 storage facilities. It is entirely practicable for the farmer to have a 
 small insulated room with a small refrigerating machine driven by an 
 automatic motor, which will always keep the room at nearly the same 
 temperature. Whether or not the cost of this plant is justified in any 
 individual case depends upon the nature of the farmer’s products, the 
 size of his crops, reliability of the market, etc. 
 
 Churns and Butter Workers 
 
 Where the dairy farmer makes his own butter, the need of electric 
 service is dependent upon its relative economy and convenience as com- 
 pared with gasoline engine or other source of power. Where this is 
 the case, the advantage will nearly always favor electric service. The 
 results of several tests indicate that one kwh. of electric energy will 
 churn and work about 160 to 170 pounds of butter, which at eight 
 cents per kwh. for electric service would amount to a cost of about 
 twenty-one pounds of butter for one cent. 
 
 Other Dairy Utensils 
 
 Other dairy utensils which lend themselves to electric operation 
 include bottle washers, butter cutting and printing machines, cream 
 testers, pasteurizers, etc. 
 
 ELECTRICITY IN THE FARM SHOP 
 
 Electricity for power purposes is nearly always economical. Man 
 power is very expensive; a wage of fifteen cents per hour for a man is 
 about equivalent to a price of $2.00 per kwh. for electricity of equal 
 power ability. A price of twelve cents per kwh. is therefore only about 
 one-sixteenth as expensive as man power; which, even after adding for 
 the interest and depreciation on the machinery, will not exceed about 
 one-tenth or even one-eighth as much as man power. 
 
60 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 The farmer is a large user of machinery, and all machinery needs 
 occasional repair. He is often far from town where such repairs can 
 be made. The result is that the modern farmer must be equipped to do 
 much of his own repair work. 
 
 Small Tools 
 
 The farm shop should contain several small repair utensils such as 
 grindstone, emery wheel, hack saw, drill press, and forge blower, all of 
 which could be easily operated by belt from a line shaft driven by one 
 motor. None of these require more than about one-fourth horsepower 
 each. Wood saws, lathes and planers require some more power and 
 could be operated by individual motors or from a line shaft driven by a 
 larger motor than in the former case. 
 
 Why should not the farmer saw up his cordwood by electricity, 
 instead of by hand, into stove lengths for his own use, and likewise that 
 which he hauls to town for sale? 
 
 ELECTRICITY IN THE BARN AND FIELD 
 
 It is here that the largest power using machinery on the farm is to 
 be found. It is here that the electric motor comes into competition 
 with animal power and other sources of mechanical power. For the 
 comparatively large consumption of such equipment a lower price is 
 nearly always granted and would probably not exceed five to eight 
 cents per kwh. 
 
 Ensilage Cutters 
 
 In one instance the first cost is reported to have been $575 including 
 the machine and a fifteen horsepower single-phase motor. The interest 
 at six per cent, and depreciation at ten per cent, would amount to $92 
 per year. The machine cut ninety tons per day and consumed 1.38 kwh. 
 per ton of ensilage, costing eleven cents per ton, at eight cents per kwh. 
 Other recorded tests indicate about the same energy consumption. 
 
 Com Shelters 
 
 One is reported to have cost: For the machine, $35; for the one 
 horsepower single-phase motor, $75; total, $110. The fixed charges 
 would be fifteen per cent., or $16.50 per year. It shelled twenty- 
 six bushels per hour at a rate of thirty-six bushels per kwh. In another 
 similar instance, the output was twenty-five bushels per kwh. Two men 
 are required for hand operation and only one with electric operation. 
 
 Com Grinders 
 
 Reported cost of machine, $25; cost of five horsepower single-phase 
 motor, $160; electrical consumption, 0.433 kwh. per bushel of shelled 
 corn; fixed charges about sixteen per cent., or $29.60 per year. 
 
 Root Cutter 
 
 One is reported to have a capacity of six tons of turnips per hour; 
 to cost $26.30; and to be operated by a two horsepower motor costing 
 $86. It is used fifty-two hours per year, or about one hour per week* 
 cutting 300 tons of beets and turnips at a total cost of $35.94, or eleven 
 and nine-tenths cents per ton, including fixed charges. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 67 
 
 FARM BY-PRODUCTS 
 
 In Germany neighboring farmers are often equipped with electri- 
 cally driven plants for utilizing by-products. Beet and potato tops are 
 dried and used for fodder, cider, starch, also frozen potatoes are imme- 
 diately converted into alcohol. When a surplus of potatoes are pro- 
 duced, making the price low, they are peeled, cut up and dried for sup- 
 plying future demands. There are 436 plants in Germany for drying 
 potatoes. 
 
 Oat Crushers 
 
 Cost of crusher and motor, $300; rate of crushing, fifty bushels per 
 hour; twenty-two bushels crushed per kwh. 
 
 Horse Groomers 
 
 Horse groomers are a vacuum cleaner of a special type adapted for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Hay Hoists 
 
 Hay hoists are readily operated by an electric motor. In one 
 instance the cost of the rigging was $105; ten horsepower motor, $163; 
 fixed charges (interest and depreciation) at sixteen per cent. $42.90 
 per year. A load of 2,450 pounds of hay was hoisted and placed in 
 thirteen minutes, at a cost of two and one-half cents for power (ten 
 cents per kwh.) and ten cents for labor, in addition to fixed charges or 
 “overhead” expenses. In another instance the load is reported to have 
 been completely handled in less than five minutes. 
 
 Electrical Plowing 
 
 Electrical plowing is considerably used in Germany, where it has 
 been carried on for about fifteen years, and to a lesser extent in Italy 
 and other European countries. Two systems are in use. One has 
 mounted on the plow a 100 horsepower motor operated drum around 
 which a cable makes a few turns and then attaches to anchor wagons at 
 each end of the field, these wagons being automatically moved the 
 required distance at each reversal. The energy is derived from a two- 
 wire trolley supported by the wagons. The machine plows in both 
 directions by a reversal of the shares. In the two-motor system a 
 motor is mounted on each anchor wagon but none on the plow. Each 
 system plows about two acres per hour. The one-motor system costs 
 about $8,000 and the two-motor, $11,000, and both consume about 
 twenty-five kwh. per acre for ten-inch plowing. In Italy the cost, 
 including fixed charges, is reported to be about $3.00 per acre at three 
 cents per kwh., as compared with $4.30 per acre for steam and $5.30 to 
 $5.75 for horses. 
 
 Electrical Threshing 
 
 Electrical threshing has developed in several districts. It is 
 reported that in Iowa* the first cost of an installation was $800 for the 
 motor and all electric equipment, whereas the cost of a steam or gas 
 engine would have been $1,800 to $2,500. It is also stated that the 
 
 * Explanation offered by the electric company. . 
 
68 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 « 
 
 cost of electric power at five cents per kwh. was at least twenty-five 
 per cent, cheaper than steam or gasoline. Electrical threshing would 
 relieve the fire hazard and, by virtue of the convenient arc lighting 
 facilities made possible, would permit threshing in double shifts. 
 
 Electrical Trucking 
 
 Electric driven auto-trucks are steadily growing in popularity in the 
 cities. They are more expensive in first cost than gasoline trucks 
 because of the high cost of the storage batteries. They also require a 
 daily period of rest while the batteries are being charged, or else two 
 sets of batteries for exchanging. The period of rest w r ould not incon- 
 venience the farmer who could have his own charging plant to operate 
 at off-peak hours and thus improve his load factor. Because of the 
 large initial investment and consequent high fixed charges, such equip- 
 ment is, however, only economical where it can be kept almost contin- 
 ually in service and so spread the fixed charges over a large annual 
 tonnage hauled. 
 
 Other Uses 
 
 Other uses are: Hay presses, incubators, alfalfa mills, sheep 
 shearers, hay balers, cider mills, apple sorters, spraying machines, apple 
 wipers, etc. 
 
 RURAL CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY 
 
 In districts where irrigation pumping or any of the large uses of 
 energy, such as plowing or threshing, are undertaken, the average 
 energy consumption is of little significance. In Wisconsin twenty-three 
 central stations report rural customers from one to sixty in number and 
 averaging eight. The line voltage is usually 6,600 and investment of 
 the company $125 to $350 per kw. of connected load. This connected 
 load averages 2.79 kw. per consumer; the kwh. per annum per conn 
 sumer, 446; the gross annual income, $41.35 per customer (about ten 
 cents per kwh.); income per kw. of connected load, $17.74. From the 
 size of the average connected load, two and seventy-nine hundredths kw., 
 it is probable that nearly all of the small power applications such as 
 cream separators, water pumping, lighting, ironing, and perhaps some 
 others, are electrically served. 
 
 The following table gives statistics of consumption in the Central 
 States: 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 G9 
 
70 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 The Farmer’s Equipment 
 
 The farmer’s equipment, in addition to lighting in house and barn 
 and surroundings, should consist of distribution lines connecting 
 important farm buildings; several hundred feet of armored cable pro- 
 vided with special contacts to be connected to the line by merely 
 reaching up with a long pole and hooking over the wires, this cable 
 being on a reel and long enough to reach from the nearest pole line to 
 any machine; a one-eighth or one-fourth horsepower motor for use 
 around the house; a one horsepower and a three or five horsepower 
 motor for use around the farm buildings. 
 
 An electric motor is light in weight and, because of the fact that it 
 has no reciprocating parts, it does not require a heavy foundation and 
 heavy anchorage. The weights of the above motor would be about 
 100 pounds for the one horsepower motor, 180 pounds for the three 
 horsepower and 220 pounds for the five horsepower motors. These 
 weights are small enough to permit two men to carry for short distances 
 even the five horsepower motor on a small wooden frame built like a 
 stretcher. For longer distances or larger motors, the frame can be 
 dragged like a stoneboat, and the motor is ready to operate as soon as 
 the belt or, preferably, a flexible direct coupling and the electric cable 
 are attached. Thus, although many items of farm equipment have been 
 mentioned, it must be remembered that comparatively few motors are 
 required to serve them. 
 
 For service where large motors are Required, such as threshing or 
 ensilage cutting, it would be uneconomical for each farmer to have hig 
 own motor, transformers and other equipment, as it would be used only 
 a few days or weeks per year. To make the conduct of such operations 
 practicable by electricity, it will be necessary to have some community 
 interest in a large motor and necessary transformers and controlling 
 devices, all mounted on a covered wagon which can be taken from one 
 farm to another. By thus doing this heavy work in rotation, the size 
 of main transmission lines and transformers can be greatly decreased 
 and probably cheaper rates obtained from the power company. Instead 
 of a cooperative interest, one farmer might own the equipment and rent 
 it on a basis similar to that now employed for threshing with steam 
 power. 
 
 RURAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
 To the power company the great problem is to get the electric 
 energy to the farmer at a cost which will interest him. The farmer 
 seldom realizes how serious this problem really is, and how diligently 
 the companies are working to solve it. Through long experience, cer- 
 tain types of line constructions, transformer types and transmission 
 voltages have gradually superseded others for municipal distribution 
 and have become generally recognized as standards. Thus, we have the 
 insulated wire made necessary by interference of tree branches and 
 danger to pedestrians in case of a broken “live wire.” This insulation 
 adds weight which requires shorter wire spans. Frequent service wires 
 leading to the houses exert a lateral pull on the poles and necessi- 
 tate closer pole spacing than otherwise necessary. Now, the standards 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 71 
 
 pf line construction which have been evolved for city systems, if used 
 in rural districts, would make the cost of service absolutely prohibitive 
 to the farmer. 
 
 The great problem of rural service is to cheapen the cost of the 
 transmission line. We know that pole spacing must be increased and 
 that transformers and wires must be cheapened as much as possible 
 without subjecting the line to excessive weakness during storms and to 
 unwarranted electrical losses and dangers of interruption of service. 
 
 To what limit these economies can be carried can only be learned 
 by the experience gained in actual construction and operation. 
 
 There is a limit to the amount of power used by any customer below 
 which the expense of protective apparatus and substation is not justified. 
 The development of successful outdoor substations for high voltages 
 has decreased this limit so that a much smaller consumer living near a 
 high voltage or “high tension” line can be served than formerly. Other 
 economies advocated by some are the use of bare instead of insulated 
 wires because of the smaller danger to life from fallen wires in rural 
 districts and the possibility of avoiding trees. Iron wire has also been 
 proposed and used to some extent, both to cheapen the cost and to 
 increase the strength and thereby permit the use of longer spans. 
 “Copper-clad” steel has also been used. 
 
 The cheapest class of 2,300 volts rural distribution line construction 
 formerly in use costs about $7 00 per mile if all paid for by the company. 
 If there is but one consumer per mile the cost is prohibitive unless he 
 uses a large amount of power. Even if there are four or five consumers 
 per mile of line, the investment would amount to nearly $200 per 
 consumer, probably more than the cost of the generating station. 
 
 The distance which must.be covered to locate and make repairs is 
 greater than in a city and maintenance correspondingly increased. One 
 large company in the Northwest will extend a line at its own expense 
 one mile for each fifteen hprsepower of motor irrigation load to be 
 secured. In some cases the power companies require the farmer to 
 build the line where the income will not otherwise warrant the invest- 
 ment. Sometimes this line is afterward paid for by the company by 
 deducting a proportion of the monthly bill of the consumer, while 
 sometimes the company builds the line but requires a guarantee of a 
 definite amount of business during the first year to five years. Indi- 
 vidual conditions differ so widely that no universal method of financing 
 could here be advocated. 
 
 / 
 
The Relation of Hydroelectric Power Resources to 
 the Prospective Industrial Development of Oregon. 
 
 The various industries using electrical energy may be divided into four 
 classes : 
 
 Class A — Those industries which can use electricity chiefly for mechan- 
 ical power. 
 
 Class B — Those which require both mechanical power and a moderate 
 heat. 
 
 Class C — Those which require a furnace heat higher than can be 
 produced by fuels ; a high heat in the absence of air or other conditions 
 which cannot be obtained by fuel. 
 
 Class D — Those which require a chemical decomposition or deposi- 
 tion by electrolytic action. 
 
 The conditions which determine what locality shall experience the most 
 rapid industrial development are, in brief : 
 
 ( 1 ) Availability of needed raw materials ; 
 
 (2) Transportation facilities for raw materials and finished products; 
 
 (3) Proximity to market for manufactured products; 
 
 (4) Cost of labor; 
 
 (5) Cost of power; 
 
 (6) Factory construction costs, and cost of factory sites. 
 
 The degree of relative importance attaching to the above considerations 
 varies greatly in respect to the several classes of industries first named. 
 
 Class A. — Industries Requiring Chiefly Mechanical Power 
 
 The following table shows, for many manufacturing industries, the 
 horsepower required per $1,000.00 value of goods produced ; also the horse- 
 power required per employe.* This table, Although based only upon the 
 census statistics, is yet sufficiently dependable to throw T much light upon 
 the choice of industries most likely to succeed on the Pacific Coast, assum- 
 ing cheaper w r ater power to be obtainable here. 
 
 \ 
 
 *David B. Rushmore, General Electric Review, January, 1916. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 78 
 
 POWER REQUIRED FOR MANUFACTURING, BASED ON 1909 
 UNITED STATE'S CENSUS 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Boots and shoes - 
 
 Copper, tin and sheetiron products 
 
 Cotton goods 
 
 Electrical machinery 
 
 Fertilizers - 
 
 Foundry and machine shops 
 
 Leather (tanned, curried and finished) 
 
 Printing and publishing 
 
 Packing houses 
 
 Woolen, worsted and felt goods 
 
 Brick and tile ... 
 
 Cement 
 
 Flour and gristmill products 
 
 Manufactured ice 
 
 Iron and steel (blast furnaces) 
 
 Iron and steel (rolling mills) 
 
 Lumber and timber 
 
 Paper and wood pulp 
 
 Copper smelting and refining 
 
 Average all industries, 1909 
 
 Average all industries, 1904. 
 
 Horsepower 
 required per 
 $1,000.00 
 production 
 0.69 
 0.30 
 0.19 
 0.31 
 2.07 
 0.72 
 0.62 
 0.71 
 0.45 
 0.40 
 0.15 
 0.83 
 3.68 
 5.90 
 0.97 
 7.40 
 3.00 
 2.13 
 2.46 
 4.88 
 0.42 
 0.91 
 0.91 
 
 Horsepower 
 
 used 
 
 per person 
 engaged in 
 industry 
 1.67 
 0.89 
 0.45 
 0.72 
 3.35 
 1.50 
 2.95 
 
 1.41 
 2.21 
 0.77 
 1.92 
 2.06 
 4.00 
 
 12.60 
 
 12.90 
 
 15.05 
 27.30 
 
 8.06 
 
 3.62 
 
 16.05 
 
 9.41 
 2.45 
 2.17 
 
 To begin with, it must be admitted that labor, more especially unskilled 
 labor, is normally higher in the West than in the East. For this reason, 
 other things being equal, that industry will be least handicapped by high 
 wages in the West in which the horsepower used per person engaged in the 
 industry is greatest. Thus, if we assume for the moment that hydro- 
 electric power can be developed and sold for general industrial service in 
 the West at a price $15.00 cheaper per horsepower year less than steam power 
 in the East, and that a certain industry requires 10 horsepower per person 
 engaged in the industry, then the total saving in power cost per person 
 engaged would be 10X15, or $150.00 per annum, which is 50 cents per work- 
 ing day. Thus the assumed saving in power would offset the loss to the 
 industry resulting from an average daily wage about 50 cents per day 
 higher than in the East. If less power is used a smaller difference in 
 wages is justified, and vice versa. 
 
 Moreover, it may be generally stated, other things being equal, that 
 industry will be best adapted to the West in which the amount of power 
 required per $1,000.00 production is the greatest. This is because a given 
 saving in the price of power will result in a greater percentage reduction in 
 the cost of manufacture. 
 
 Thus, generally speaking, in the two columns in the accompanying table 
 the industries with the highest horsepower in either or both columns are 
 the ones best adapted to the West, unless other important conditions, of 
 which several were previously enumerated, contrive to offset the effect of 
 the two conditions here tabulated. 
 
 One of the largest consumers of electric energy of Class A is the textile 
 industry. One who has never lived in the Atlantic States does not often 
 realize the magnitude of this industry. It uses about 2,250,000 mechanical 
 horsepower in the United States alone. This is, of course, an old industry, 
 and the cotton and woolen mills were all formerly driven by steam engines 
 or water wheels through belts and shafting. Electrification has been 
 steadily going forward since the advent of direct motor drive, until now 
 
74 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 750,000 horsepower, or about one- third of the entire amount used in the 
 industry, is electrically driven. Much of this energy is generated by water 
 powers in the New England States and by the Southern Power Co., in the 
 South Atlantic States. 
 
 The entire cost of power in the textile industries is said to be only about 
 5 per cent of their total cost of production, yet if they could save one-half 
 of this, which is improbable, by moving to the West and using hydro- 
 electric power, the net saving to the industry as a whole would be only 
 about 2 V 2 per cent of their cost of production, whereas this amount would 
 probably again be lost by higher prices paid for labor and the higher freight 
 rates eastward on fabricated goods than on raw materials. 
 
 What has been said of the textile industries applies also, to a large 
 extent, in the case of nearly all industries which can use electricity only or 
 chiefly for power purposes. Such industries usually comprise those with a 
 large number of lathes, planers, drill presses and special machinery, each 
 machine or group of machines having an attendant whose pay far exceeds 
 the cost of the power used by the machine attended. Among such indus- 
 tries, in addition to textiles, may be mentioned the first twelve shown in 
 the table. 
 
 In probably all such industries the cost and proximity of raw materials, 
 the labor supply and the market for the output are the controlling condi- 
 tions in seeking a location. It may confidently be stated that no such 
 industries now exist here, or are likely in the future to be attracted here 
 because of the inducement which can be offered due to any possible 
 difference in cost of power for such services, as compared withe Eastern 
 locations. The growth which has already taken place would undoubtedly 
 have coine without relation to our waterpower resources. The completion 
 of the Panama Canal, which many have looked upon as a boon to Western 
 manufacturing, can only operate to the detriment of this class of industries, 
 since it permits the Eastern manufacturer to lay his goods dowm on the 
 Western market at a cheaper price than formerly, and thus still further 
 restrict the expansion of the local factories by reducing the transportation 
 charges from the East, the only important differential which the Western 
 producer enjoys tending to compensate for his higher cost of production 
 resulting from his smaller output and higher cost of labor. 
 
 In reality the expansion in most industries of this class must go hand 
 in hand with the expansion of tributary population, although to a lesser 
 extent; also by securing a greater proportion of the local trade than at 
 present. These industries cannot flourish without a local population to 
 absorb the output, and the local population cannot legitimately expand 
 without the growth of industries to furnish employment. An exception 
 must, of course, be made in the case of lumber, flour, fish and other 
 products which the remainder of the world demands from us. 
 
 However, in some cases, notably in the case of lumber manufacture, the 
 industry itself yields a combustible by-product which can serve as fuel for 
 power production, and which, moreover, requires disposal by burning, 
 whether used or not. In such instances hydroelectric energy has little 
 prospect of general adoption, although electrical operation from local refuse 
 burning steam stations is rapidly replacing engine drive through belts, 
 pulleys and shafting in these industries, as well as elsewhere. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 75 
 
 Of the remaining industries in this table, some show a large demand for 
 power' per unit output and per person employed. Let us consider these 
 industries in detail : 
 
 Brick and tile are always made as close to the point of consumption as 
 possible because of the high transportation charge in proportion to the 
 value of the product. Thus, 1,000 common brick weigh about 4,500 pounds 
 and cost in Eastern markets about $6.00 to $7.00. The lowest price quoted for 
 Portland to New York transportation through the Panama Canal before 
 the war was 30 cents per hundred, which would be $13.50 per 1,000 bricks. 
 This cost would be prohibitive except for high grade brick for special 
 purposes. Cement weighs 380 pounds per barrel net, or nearly 400 pounds 
 with containers. The cost of transportation alone to New York would thus 
 be about $1.20 per barrel, which is about equal to the usual market value 
 of cement in the East. Cement would need to be produced for less than 
 nothing to compete. In reality, both brick and cement cost more to produce 
 in the West because of the smaller producing units and higher labor cost. 
 
 Flour and grist mill products appear to require only a small amount of 
 power per unit value, but a large amount per person employed. 
 
 This latter condition is favorable to this industry, as indicating the 
 relative unimportance of the labor handicap, but the former condition indi- 
 cates that a saving in power could benefit the cost of production but 
 slightly as compared with the East ; the net significance of the two figures 
 being that the industry is not so handicapped as others due to labor, but, 
 on the other hand, has little interest in seeking a location with reference 
 to cheap power supply. 
 
 However, the West produces a large amount of wheat for exportation, 
 either in the form of wheat or flour. To mill a large part of the export 
 wheat before shipment is a policy to be encouraged in every legitimate way 
 and, judging from the growth already accomplished, can be done with profit. 
 
 The manufacture of ice is greatly cheapened by a saving in the price of 
 power. The ice market, however, is only subject to local competition and is 
 nearly proportional to the local population. Cheap power cannot obviously 
 encourage the industry to localize in one section of the country. 
 
 The iron and steel trade demands a large amount of power for rolling 
 mills and other mechanical purposes. Much of this is now supplied by gas 
 engines using blast furnace gas which is a by-product. This gas can often, 
 however, be more advantageously used for reheating if cheap hydroelectric 
 power were available to displace the gas for power purposes, so that hydro- 
 electric power is of value to the steel industries. Moreover, not enough gas 
 is generally obtained from the furnace to furnish the necessary power and 
 also for reheating purposes. This field will be treated more thoroughly 
 under “Electro-metallurgical Industries.” 
 
 Lumber and timber industries flourish under normal conditions in the 
 Northwest, but not because of hydroelectric power. In fact, very little wa- 
 ter power is used in this industry, preference usually being given to power 
 generated by wood refuse, their own by-product. The success of the indus- 
 try is attributed to the abundance of our raw product and the lack of same 
 over a large part of the populous area of the United States and Europe. The 
 world must come to us for a large amount of lumber regardless of high cost 
 of transportation and regardless of the cost of our power. 
 
76 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Paper and wood-pulp industries flourish also in this region. This is 
 largely the result of waterpower, but also dependent upon the supply of 
 pulp-wood. Cheap waterpower is a necessity for the pulp and paper indus- 
 try. Paper produced heretofore, which has been largely of news print 
 quality has had little other than a Western consumption, but it is to be hoped 
 and expected that the reduction of the freight rate through the Isthmus, 
 together with the rapid exhaustion of pulp wood in the East and prevailing 
 high prices will stimulate more rapid development of our pulp-wood re- 
 serves, and with it our waterpower. It might here be suggested that a higher 
 import duty on pulp and paper might serve to turn the attention of the 
 buyer from Canadian sources, now largely depended upon, and simultan- 
 eously stimulate the development of our paper industry. 
 
 Copper smelting and refining will be treated under “Electro-metallurgi- 
 cal Industries.” 
 
 Class B. — Industries Requiring both Mechanical Power and Heat. 
 
 Among such industries may be mentioned laundries, fruit canneries, fish 
 canneries and makers of soap, beet sugar, pottery, glass, steel, cement, brick, 
 tile, etc. 
 
 In many of these industries such as laundries and sugar factories, heat 
 is not only required in the process, but moreover is required in the form of 
 steam. In such cases the steam engine usually gets the preference, and often 
 the steam for other purposes can be obtained very cheaply from the exhaust. 
 In most cases the adaptation of hydroelectric power to such industries is of 
 questionable practicability because of the relatively higher cost of electric 
 heat, compelling a larger use of fuels in any case which may then conven- 
 iently supply the power even though this steam power may first be used to 
 drive electric generators for electric transmission to the individual machines 
 rather than by belts, pulleys and shafting. 
 
 Class C. — Chiefly Electro-Metallurgical Industries. 
 
 Within recent years electricity has found a wdde field of application in 
 the reduction of metals from their ores and in refining them thereafter. 
 This use of electricity is believed to be only in its infancy, and yet the 
 total consumption of energy for this purpose is already immense. 
 
 In some industries electricity finds favor over combustion processes 
 because of the more accurate control over heat generated and the resulting 
 finer grade and greater uniformity of the product ; in other cases electricity 
 furnishes the only available process because the required high heat can be 
 produced in a closed chamber in the absence of air, which cannot be 
 accomplished with fuels if a high heat is required, and in still other pro- 
 cesses electricity is used because there is no other known way of securing 
 a sufficiently high temperature. 
 
 In some of these industries electrical energy, although essential to the 
 process, is yet not a predominating element in the cost of production, but in 
 other cases the cost of energy is so important a proportion of the total ex- 
 pense as to cause the selection of a factory site to be governed largely by 
 the cheapness of the power supply, unless other attendant conditions are 
 very unfavorable. 
 
 Electricity is used in many metallurgical processes in a small way not 
 sufficiently important for detailed consideration here. As examples may 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 be cited that of electrolytic refining of gold, silver, calcium, magnesium, bis- 
 muth and copper. In these industries the electrolytic refining is only one 
 link in the much larger refining process, almost always conducted either 
 at the smelters or near New York, the metal market of the United States. 
 To interrupt the general refining process when it reaches the stage where 
 electricity is demanded, and to then ship the material to a location where 
 cheap energy is available and back again to complete the remainder of the 
 process is found to be impracticable. Although the electrolytic refining of 
 copper especially is a large industry, yet it need not be considered as a 
 probable consumer of any important amount of our hydroelectric power, 
 and then only in case power and copper ore are found in close proximity, 
 and other conditions make it advisable to conduct the entire reduction and 
 refining process at or near the mines. 
 
 The metallurgical industries which are or promise to be large enough 
 consumers of power to deserve consideration here are as follows : reduction 
 of metals from their ores, aluminum, iron, copper, zinc ; subsequent treat- 
 ments to manufacture steel and ferro-alloys. 
 
 Classified as to their state of development it may be said that the 
 processes for the reduction of aluminum and iron from their ores and the 
 manufacture of steel and ferro-alloys are thoroughly practicable and highly 
 developed processes in daily and successful use on a large scale. The 
 electric smelting of copper and zinc are still somewhat experimental both 
 commercially and technically, and it cannot be said that they have as yet 
 assumed the rank of established industries. These industries will now be 
 considered individually. 
 
 Aluminum is perhaps the most abundant metal in nature, being a con- 
 stituent of nearly all clay and rock, and yet its separation into metallic 
 form has always been and still is a difficult and expensive process. Only 
 certain compounds of aluminum, themselves not very abundant, have 
 yielded to separation and principally one compound bauxite, at a cost which 
 permits its extensive use. Thus, although aluminum is far more abundant 
 than iron, its usual cost of production is roughly twelve cents per pound 
 for ingot metal as compared with less than one cent for pig iron. This fact 
 limits the use of aluminum to those purposes where light weight, non-corro- 
 sive qualities, high conductivity, etc., are required, rather than for general 
 structural purposes such as iron. 
 
 In the manufacture of aluminum, electricity enjoys a monopoly over 
 combustion processes for the supply of the necessary heat as well as for the 
 electrolytic operation. The market for electrical energy in this industry will 
 therefore expand as the use of aluminum expands. The annual production 
 of aluminum in the United States is reported by. the United States Geologi- 
 cal Survey as follows : 1883, 83 tons ; 1885, 283 tons ; 1890, 61,281 tons ; 
 1895, 920,000 tons; 1900, 7,150,000 tons; 1905, 11,347,000 tons; 1910. 
 47,734,000 tons; and 1915, 99,806,000 tons. 
 
 In 1910, our production of aluminum in the United States was about 
 thirty-seven per cent of the world’s production, but figures for 1915 are not 
 available. 
 
78 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Mr. Dorsey A. Lyon has estimated the cost of production of aluminum 
 at The Dalles as follows:* 
 
 COST OF PRODUCTION OF ALUMINUM AT THE DALLES, OREGON 
 
 - c« 
 
 o° 
 
 2 tons of aluminum, $28.75 per ton 
 
 200 pounds of cryolite at l%o per pound 
 
 1,400 pounds of electrodes at 5c per pound , 
 
 Other fluxes, etc. - 
 
 28,000 kilowatt hours electrical energy at .2c per kilowatt hour or 
 
 $13.00 per horsepower year 
 
 Labor - - 
 
 Repairs : l 1 , 
 
 Amortization, depreciation, 5 per cent each 
 
 Interest, 6 per cent 
 
 General - 
 
 Total per ton - 
 
 $ 57.50 17.7 
 3.00 .9 
 
 70.00 21.5 
 
 10.00 3.1 
 
 56.00 17.3 
 
 70.00 21.5 
 
 10.00 3.1 
 
 18.00 5.6 
 
 10.00 3.1 
 
 20.00 6.2 
 
 $324.50 
 
 Price 16.22 cents per pound. 
 
 In considering the practicability of establishing this industry in Oregon 
 certain comparisons of the above items with Eastern costs are instructive. 
 The “alumina” shown in the above estimate is refined bauxite which is found 
 in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia and Tennessee. Bauxite is normally worth 
 about $4.75 per long ton at the mine, and four tons are required per ton of 
 aluminum produced. The refined product, alumina, is worth about $19.50 
 per short ton at the mine, and two tons are required per ton of aluminum 
 produced. The cost in the above table is based upon refinement before ship- 
 ment, the cost of freight to The Dalles being $9.25 per ton, constituting an 
 added cost of ore in favor of Eastern manufacture amounting to 47.5 per 
 cent of the cost at the mine. There is a bauxite in India of which little is 
 known, and there is some possibility of eventual success in extracting 
 aluminum from other ores which exist in the Western United States as from 
 alunite from Utah, but little can be promised from either source at present. 
 Cryolite all comes from Iceland, and because of extra transportation cost 
 would be worth fifty per cent more in Oregon. 
 
 The electrodes in the above estimate are carbon terminals similar to those 
 in an electric arc light except much larger. They are made from charcoal 
 or coke, either of which would cost about twice as much in Oregon as in the 
 East. 
 
 Labor costs about $1.00 per day in European aluminum plants, $1.50 per 
 day in Eastern United States plants, and is figured at $2.50 per day in the 
 above estimate for Oregon. If we now add the above savings which Eastern 
 United States plants enjoy we have: 
 
 Saved from alumina cost $18.50 
 
 Saved from cryolite cost 1.00 
 
 Saved from electrode cost . 35.00 
 
 Saved from labor cost 28.00 
 
 Total saving $82.50 
 
 Thus the saving on other items would permit the Eastern United States 
 manufacturer to pay $82.50 plus $56.00 or $138.50 per ton of aluminum for 
 electric energy or $32.20 per horsepower year. The average price paid for 
 
 ♦Columbia River Power Project Report — Journal of Electricity. Power and Gas, 
 San Francisco, California. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 79 
 
 electric energy at Niagara Falls is not more than one-lialf of this amount 
 and many power sites yet remain to he developed in the East at a cost for 
 generation much less than this. 
 
 Although the above figures are only rough approximations, they never- 
 theless indicate that there is little hope of competition with the East in the 
 aluminum industry without a reduction in labor rates, discovery of bauxite 
 in the West, a cheapening of carbon cost by the introduction of Alaska coal, 
 or other changes in conditions which might influence these important ele- 
 ments of the cost of aluminum. 
 
 Even with the cost of production as above estimated for The Dalles, 16.22 
 cents per pound, however there should be a profit in the local manufacture 
 of aluminum since the market price for the total has seldom if ever fallen 
 below twenty cents per pound. To float such an industry would, however, 
 demand the use of home capital interested in the general development of 
 the resources aftd population of Oregon. Outsiders interested only in the 
 production of aluminum for profit would naturally select the cheapest 
 location or would require some form of subsidy. 
 
 Reduction of Iron Ore. — In the iron industry the electric furnace was 
 first applied to the manufacture of steel, but shortly afterward, in 1904, Dr. 
 Heroult of France, succeeded in producing pig iron from iron ore in the 
 electric furnace. 
 
 Also the Canadian government, through the efforts of Dr. Haanel, 
 appointed a commission in 1904 to investigate the possibilities of this 
 industry for Canada. They studied the industry in Europe, and in 1916 
 established an experimental plant at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, which was 
 later abandoned. The process was technically successful, but unfavorable 
 commercial conditions, probably aggravated by the economic stress of 
 succeeding years, resulted in the discontinuance of the enterprise. 
 
 On the other hand it may be said that electric pig iron has been to a 
 large degree and promises to remain the savior of the Swedish iron industry. 
 The Swedes have long enjoyed a very enviable reputation for the quality 
 of their iron. This quality w^as partly the result of the high grade of the 
 ores, but more especially of the use of charcoal instead of coke in the blast 
 furnaces, the former being a purer form of carbon. The paper industry 
 finally created such a demand for w^ood as to discourage the production 
 of charcoal, except at prices almost prohibitive to the iron industry, in 
 competition with other iron producing districts having a supply of coal 
 and coke. Now, it so happens that an electric pig iron furnace uses only 
 one-third as much charcoal or coke as does a blast furnace, since its use is 
 confined to that of a reducing agent and not for combustion, the heat being 
 obtained from the electric arc. This made the electric furnace attract- 
 ive, but to effect an economy it was of course necessary that electrical 
 energy be produced at a cost approximately less than the saving in charcoal, 
 although other conditions also entered, to a lesser extent. 
 
 The experiments in Sweden w^ere financed to the extent of $90,000.00 by 
 an association of Swedish ironmasters encouraged by cheap power furnished 
 by the Swedish government. The first commercial plant at Trollhattan 
 has been in almost continuous service since its installation in November, 
 1910. In 1914, the total of electric pig iron furnaces in Sw r eden consumed 
 40,000 horsepower. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 80 
 
 An electric furnace consumes about 100 horsepower per ton of pig: iron 
 produced per twenty-four hour day and therefore 2,400 horsepower hours 
 or 1,800 kilowatt hours per ton of pig. At a power cost of $10.50 per 
 horsepower year this would amount to $4.50 per ton of pig iron. 
 
 It must be distinctly borne in mind that in the electric pig iron industry 
 electrical energy is competing directly with carbon in the form of charcoal 
 or coke used in the blast furnace, and the relative advantage of the electric 
 method will increase in proportion as carbon is expensive and electric energy 
 cheap. Electricity here enjoys no such monopoly as it does in the aluminum 
 industry. 
 
 As applied to Pacific Coast and particularly to Oregon conditions, it 
 should be said that for the local market, electricity as a source of heat 
 must not only thus compete locally with local carbon costs, but must more- 
 over compete with Eastern or foreign costs in production of pig iron by 
 either blast furnace or electric power plus the cost of transportation to the 
 Coast. 
 
 Not many favorable situations exist on the Pacific Coast and especially 
 in Oregon for the production of pig iron. The electric production of pig 
 iron requires electric energy, iron ore, charcoal or coke, and limestone, 
 the last named acting as a flux. None of these materials is so valuable 
 as to sustain a large transportation cost to assemble them at the source of 
 power, and the transmission of power so increases its cost as to prohibit 
 this treatment of the problem. To be successful all must be obtainable 
 within reasonable distance of each other and of the market for pig iron, or 
 very cheap transportation by water must contribute to reduce the cost of 
 assembling the raw materials and marketing the product. 
 
 Coking coal exists on Vancouver Island as well as in Alaska and at 
 Crow’s Nest Pass, British Columbia, but $6.00' or $7.00 per ton f. o. b. Port- 
 land appears to be about the minimum cost at which it could be delivered 
 as compared with about one-half of this in Eastern iron districts. Raw 
 material for charcoal exists nearly everywhere in the West, but all experi- 
 ments have failed to produce it or estimate its cost at less than $8.00 per 
 ton, even by allowing for the best probable use of the by-products under 
 present competition with the by-products of Southern yellow pine. 
 
 Limestone is found near Roseburg and in the Blue Mountains of East- 
 ern Oregon, as well as upon Puget Sound, Northern California and North- 
 eastern Washington. On the Snake River, in Northeastern Oregon, are 
 both limestone and power, but coke and iron ore would need to be brought 
 from long distances and the pig iron would not then be near a market. 
 
 There appears to be no sufficient known supply of iron ore in Oregon 
 upon which to predicate a large pig iron industry. Southern California 
 ore would be too expensive upon reaching Oregon, as it is located several 
 hundred miles inland from a seaport. Chinese ore offers the greatest 
 promise. It could probably be loaded directly upon sea-going vessels on the 
 Yangtse River and delivered on a dock in the Columbia River for about 
 $5.00 per ton, which is about the price of Lake Superior ore delivered in 
 Pittsburg. 
 
 The islands in Puget Sound would probably furnish the cheapest supply 
 of limestone, while charcoal would probably serve best as a reducing agent. 
 The cost of production has been estimated by Dorsey A. Lyon* to be about 
 
 Report on the Columbia River Power Project near The Dalles Oregon. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 81 
 
 $26.00 per ton of pig iron as compared with a usual market price in San 
 Francisco, the only market of importance which would be available, of 
 $20.00 to $25.00 per ton, shipped from the East by rail and about $18.00 
 by water through the Panama Canal. 
 
 Electric reduction of copper has been tried in Norway with apparent 
 success, and has been proven technically practicable in experiments in the 
 United States. Its use is only in lieu of the use of fuel, however, and the 
 only inducements for its use would be that of econo ny, not likely to be 
 realized under very special conditions and also possible better quality, 
 concerning which there appears to be a lack of data. 
 
 Electric reduction of zinc is in regular commercial use at Trollhattan. 
 in Sweden, where about 13,000 horsepower \yas consumed in 1914, and 
 also in other Swedish localities. 
 
 Much trouble has been experienced in the development of the electric 
 zinc reduction process due to the fact that the zinc vaporizes in the furnace 
 instead of liquefying, and the resulting vapor tends to condense into 
 “blue powder”, and does not readily condense into metallic zinc under the 
 peculiar conditions of the electric furnace. Enough success has attended 
 the experimental work, however, to result in the very considerable develop- 
 ment at Trollhattan. 
 
 Very recently the Anaconda Copper Mining Company has developed an 
 electrolytic zinc reduction process. The zinc concentrates after being 
 roasted, are treated with a dilute sulphuric acid which causes the zinc to 
 be dissolved to zinc sulphate. The zinc sulphate solution is electrolyzed, 
 using insoluble anodes with a production of metallic zinc at the cathode. 
 The Anaconda Copper Mining Company is making (September, 1916) about 
 fifty tons of this zinc per day, requiring about 12,500 horsepower, and within 
 two months will double its capacity. 
 
 Electric Steel. — In the manufacture of pig iron from iron ore little effort 
 at purification is attempted, and the electric furnace must rise or fall 
 largely according to its relative cost of production as compared to that of 
 a blast furnace. Not so in the case of steel. 
 
 The manufacture of steel is ordinarily a secondary treatment, being 
 merely the process of refining pig iron. Moreover steel is of many grades 
 varying widely in quality and physical properties and demanding corre- 
 sponding prices on the market. Steel made by the Bessemer furnace and 
 used mostly for rails and structural purposes is the cheapest quality, and 
 from here the qualities grade upward through that of “open hearth” steel 
 to the higher grades of “crucible” steel and special tool steels, at increas- 
 ingly higher market values. 
 
 It has been fully demonstrated that a much more accurate control of the 
 composition of steel can be secured in the electric furnace than by other 
 methods, and the value of this close control becomes of increasing value 
 to the higher grades of steel. A special Canadian Government commission 
 visited the electric steel furnaces in Europe in 1904 and reported that 
 steel equal in all respects to the best Sheffield crucible steel could be pro- 
 duced in the electric furnace at considerably less cost, but that a cheap 
 grade of steel, such as Bessemer, could not be produced electrically to 
 compete with present methods. 
 
 The electric furnace has found favor, however, partially because it can 
 use poorer grades of material, such as scrap, and partially for the refining 
 
82 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 to higher grades, of steel initially produced in Bessemer furnaces. Experi- 
 ments are also said to have proven technically successful for the production 
 of steel directly from the iron ore, one successful application on an experi- 
 mental scale having been made at Belleville, Ontario. Meanwhile the use 
 of the electric furnace for the production of high grade steels and to some 
 extent for rails has been steadily growing, the amount reported from the 
 entire world being as follows, with several countries not reporting : 3908, 
 
 26,610 tons ; 1909, 47,039 tons ; 1910, 120,116 tons ; 1911, 126,476 tons. 
 
 Dorsey A. Lyon has shown* that a large-tonnage steel plant in Oregon 
 would not be commercially feasible, although a small demand for special 
 purposes might be manufactured locally. 
 
 On the other hand, it seems probable that there is sufficient demand in 
 coast cities for cast steel for the many machinery manufactures serving 
 the lumber, shipbuilding, and other trades to warrant the development of 
 electric furnace steel plants to an extent sufficient to consume the scrap 
 steel of the West, which now brings almost no return because of the distance 
 it must be shipped to the steel mills of the East. The scrap steel could now 
 be purchased for one-fifth, and with an active market established prob- 
 ably for one-half the cost of importing pig iron from the East or producing 
 it locally. 
 
 Ferro-Alloys. — The modern industrial world has learned to make a vast 
 number of grades of steel from which to select one best fitted for every 
 special purpose in the foundry, the machine shop or the rolling mill. A very 
 small amount, usually less than 1 per cent, of some ingredient such as man- 
 ganese, chromium, silicon, nickel, vanadium, phosphorus, molybdenum, tita- 
 nium, tungsten and some other metals, in addition to the best-known ingre- 
 dient carbon (not classified as a ferro-alloy), are found to radically change 
 the physical properties such as strength, ductility, durability, thermal expan- 
 sion, resilience, thermal conductivity, permanence of temper when heated, 
 and other qualities, each requisite for some special purpose. 
 
 The manufacture of these special alloy steels is in most cases accom- 
 plished by first making ordinary steel in the usual furnaces and then, just 
 when the charge is ready to be poured, in introducing into the furnace a 
 definite amount of molten “ferro-alloy” which is merely the desired alloy 
 in very concentrated form. Most of these concentrated alloys are now 
 produced in the electric furnace, and before the war at least, principally in 
 Europe. 
 
 The great value of the electric furnace in the manufacture of these 
 “ferro-alloys” arises from the purity and the concentration secured, although 
 in some cases a high enough heat cannot be obtained in any other manner. 
 Thus the electric furnace has increased the possible content of silicon in 
 ferro-silicon from 12 per cent to 50 per cent, and of chromium in ferro- 
 chrome from 35 per cent to 65 per cent, or more. 
 
 The fact that the chief growth of these industries has been in Europe 
 was the result largely of the cheaper waterpowers and of the fact that 
 their use was first developed there, and the demand was greater. Euro- 
 peans have quite generally been ahead of Americans in the advancement 
 of metallurgical processes. 
 
 Several of these ferro-alloys are now made at Niagara Falls and else- 
 where in the East. Whether or not these industries could be profitably 
 developed in Oregon depends upon the usual variety of conditions including 
 
 * Columbia River Power Project Report. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 83 
 
 that of cost of power. Only ferro-silicon and ferro-chrome are large 
 enough consumers of electrical energy upon which to predicate a power 
 development or to be considered as important possible customers of existing 
 developments. The manufacture of other ferro-alloys could best serve as 
 sidelines for the larger industries. 
 
 Ferro-silicon requires iron in some form, as for example, iron ore, steel 
 scrap or the turnings from iron- or steel-working machines, also some form 
 of silica and some form of carbon. Iron ore would require being brought 
 in from a long distance, although this might perhaps be done economically 
 from China ; the amount of turnings and scrap now available is small but 
 would increase with industrial growth; probably the supply of iron would 
 not be a serious problem. A sufficiently pure form of silica is not abundant 
 as it is in many eastern localities. Quartzite rock does not seem to be 
 available, and our sand is a mixture of grains of many minerals instead of 
 nearly pure quartz (or silica) as often occurs in regions of greater geologi- 
 cal age, where the less resistant grains have been leached and worn away. 
 We have, however, several deposits of diatomaceous earth of high purity 
 along the Columbia and Deschutes Rivers which, because of its soft pow- 
 dery texture could be cheaply mined and used, but might be wasteful in the 
 furnace through excessive “dust loss.” The most serious difficulty would 
 probably be encountered, as for nearly all industries thus far considered, 
 in obtaining a supply of carbon in the form of either charcoal or coke at a 
 reasonable price. The amount of power required is about one and six- tenths 
 horsepower-years per ton of 50 per cent ferro-silicon. 
 
 Dorsey A. Lyon has estimated* that the cost of producing ferro-silicon 
 at The Dalles, based upon power at $11.70 per horsepower-year, would 
 be about $60.00 per long ton, and the cost delivered and sold in Pittsburg 
 would be about $73.50 per ton, while the market price . in Pittsburg 
 ranges from $70.00 to $75.00 per ton. He concludes that the ferro-silicon 
 industry is not well enough suited to local conditions to be assured of any 
 profit in competition with the foreign sources, and therefore reports 
 unfavorably. 
 
 Ferro-chrome requires chromite, which can be obtained in California, 
 and some form of carbon as coke or charcoal. The power required is 
 about one and twenty-five hundredths horsepower-years per ton of 60 per 
 cent ferro-chrome. 
 
 Dorsey A. Lyon estimates the cost of producing this material at The 
 Dalles and marketing it in Pittsburg to be about $85.00 per ton, which 
 would yield a net profit of about $15.00 per ton. This ferro-alloy is, however, 
 supplied almost entirely from domestic sources ample to meet the demand. 
 An active competition would at once result, for which no duty could provide 
 a remedy and the consequences of which would be uncertain. He concludes 
 that the ultimate capacity of a successful plant would not require more 
 than 3,000 horsepower of the 10.000 horsepower now devoted to this industry 
 in the United States. 
 
 Class D — Electro-Chemical Industries. 
 
 In this subdivision of electrical industries, many, if not most, of the 
 processes are similar to those of the electro-metallurgical industries in that 
 they require the electric furnace or electrolytic bath, except not primarily 
 
 Columbia River Power Project Report. 
 
84 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 concerned with the reduction and treatment of ores for the recovery and 
 refinement of the metal. The electro-chemical industries require the electric 
 furnace or the electrolytic hath usually for the recombination of chemical 
 compounds or the synthetic production of chemical compounds rather than 
 for the extraction of the metalliferous substances from existing compounds 
 or ores. 
 
 For this purpose the electric methods have permitted the discovery and 
 manufacture of many useful compounds hitherto unknown in nature or the 
 arts, and which cannot be produced by any other than electric methods. On 
 the other hand, some of the electro-chemical products can be produced by 
 other means, and the adopted method will depend upon relative costs and 
 quality. 
 
 The most complete and unbiased published study of the possibility of 
 electro-chemical developments in the West is the chapter by F. O. Stafford 
 in the report on The Columbia River Power Project near The Dalles, 
 Oregon,* which will frequently be referred to herein, and upon which most 
 of the following conclusions are based. He discusses the possibilities with 
 respect to the production of abrasives, caustic and bleach, calcium carbide, 
 chlorates, cyanides, graphite nitrogen compounds and phosphorus 
 compounds. 
 
 Abrasives formerly consisted of natural sand or emery formed into 
 wheels and stones, or mounted on paper. 
 
 Sand and coke in the intense heat of the electric furnace unite to form 
 “carborundum” or “crystolon” (trade names for the same substance), a 
 substance nearly as hard as the diamond and now extensively used as an 
 abrasive. 
 
 Another substance, “alundum,” or aluminum oxide fused in the electric 
 furnace, has become useful as an abrasive. 
 
 These abrasives are now made at Niagara Falls and there is no hope of 
 transferring or developing a rival source for several reasons: (1) One of 
 the two constituents of carborundum is coke, the extra cost of which, 
 together with the cost of labor in the West, would offset any possible cheaper 
 cost of power than at Niagara, and aluminum oxide in the form used for 
 alundum is chiefly, if not only, obtainable in the East; (2) the present 
 makers of abrasives also make the finished wheels, hones, etc., and enjoy 
 a monopoly in their sale not easy to overcome; (3) 98 per cent of the 
 finished product is now used in the region tributary to Niagara. 
 
 Caustic and bleach are inseparably related. The former is produced 
 by the electrolysis of a solution of common table salt in water, and the 
 chlorine gas, which escapes, is then treated with quicklime to obtain 
 bleaching powder. 
 
 Bleaching powder is the real aim of the electrical process since caustic 
 (or lye) is principally and more cheaply produced by the old process and 
 only serves in the electrical method as a by-product which can be sold at 
 any market price in competition with old-process lye, thus merely tending 
 to cheapen the cost of bleach. 
 
 Even assuming power to cost twice as much at Niagara, where this 
 material is now chiefly produced, as it might in Oregon, the additional cost 
 of lime, labor, and salt at The Dalles would add about $15.00 to the cost of 
 producing one ton of lye and the accompanying two and one-half tons of 
 bleach ($90.00 at The Dalles and $75.00 at Niagara), and if transportation 
 
 Published by the Journal of Electricity — Power and Gas, of San Francisco. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 85 
 
 at $6.00 per ton to New York, the lowest price yet quoted through the Pan- 
 ama Canal be added, the cost is increased $36.00 over the Niagara product or 
 to about $111.00. The usual market price in the East is about $45.00 per ton 
 for lye and $25.00 or $30.00 for bleach, amounting to $107.50 to $120.00. 
 The conclusion is evident that The Dalles at least could not produce these 
 materials to successfully enter the Eastern market and higher cost of 
 power elsewhere than that assumed by Stafford for The Dalles ($9.00 per 
 horsepower-year) would make the same conclusion generally applicable for 
 the West. There is little doubt, however, that the West could successfully 
 compete with Eastern sources in supplying its own demands. Unfortunately 
 this West coast demand is chiefly for caustic, which does not require the 
 electric method. The production of caustic would, therefore, be limited by 
 the demand for bleach. The demand is for about 4,000 tons of caustic and 
 
 5.000 tons of bleach, whereas to produce 4,000 tons of caustic would necessi- 
 tate that 10,000 tons of bleach be sold. Any development must, therefore, 
 anticipate the production of only 2,000 tons of lye in order not to over- 
 produce the 5,000 tons of salable bleach and the market for power thus 
 created would be only about 1,000 horsepower. It is evident that the market 
 for these products is limited by the market for bleach, and the expansion of 
 this market is dependent upon the expansion of the textile industries which 
 in turn would use hydroelectric power. 
 
 Calcium carbide is made by subjecting a mixture of lime and carbon 
 (coke, charcoal or anthracite coal) to the intense heat of the electric 
 furnace, and it, like the abrasives, can be made only in this manner. 
 
 The industry, however, was on the decline for some years. This material 
 is used chiefly for making acetylene gas, which once promised a great future 
 for lighting purposes, but has been nearly superseded by the electric light, 
 even on automobiles. More recently the oxyacetylene flame has come into 
 extensive use for cutting and welding iron and steel, which promises to 
 furnish a permanent market. 
 
 The industry was once greatly over-developed, but since 1899 production 
 has been limited by selling agreements in Europe and monopoly in America, 
 as the industry contracted, many carbide furnaces were converted into 
 other uses. It was furnaces thus thrown out of use that were converted 
 in several European countries for the manufacture of ferro-alloys previously 
 discussed and perhaps to some extent the fortunate position of Europe in 
 the ferro-alloy trade is thus the involuntary result of its misfortune in the 
 carbide industry. 
 
 Also some carbide plants have continued in operation, the product not 
 being sold but used as a basis for further treatment, yielding other products 
 to be discussed under “nitrogen compounds.” 
 
 The world’s production of carbide is about 300,000 tons, consuming about 
 
 180.000 horsepower, about one-fourth of which is produced in the United 
 States at Niagara Falls and at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. 
 
 If consumption is assumed to be in proportion to population, then the 
 Pacific Coast could only use about 3,000 tons per annum, whereas a plant 
 -producing 25,000 tons is considered the smallest economical producing unit. 
 
 The cost of producing this material in the East is probably about $35.00 
 per ton packed for shipment, although the business is so closely guarded 
 that statistics are difficult to obtain. About $10.00 per ton of this cost is for 
 power figured at $15.00 per horsepower-year, a rather higher proportion 
 
86 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 than for most chemical or metallurgical industries. It is also a product of 
 rather low value per ton, a condition always favorable (other things being 
 equal) to Western manufacture to the extent of Western consumption. 
 
 A Western development of this industry for West Coast and perhaps 
 Asiatic consumption may be an ultimate possibility although the complete 
 present monopoly of the field by the Union Carbide Company would make 
 the commercial problem a difficult one unless operated as a branch of this 
 company. 
 
 Chlorates. — Explosives with potassium chlorate or sodium chlorate as an 
 oxidizing agent, instead of sodium nitrate, as now generally used, have long 
 been the desire of explosive manufacturers. 
 
 Several have been made with potassium chlorate and placed upon the 
 market but have never been very popular, due principally to some unfortu- 
 nate premature explosions during their early development. They are now 
 declared to be entirely successful, both as to safety of manufacture and 
 storage. Potassium chloride, the raw material, however, has been almost 
 exclusively imported from Germany prior to the war, and probably will be 
 principally after the war, although attempts are now being made to utilize 
 the alunite deposits of Utah and elsewhere and to extract potash from the 
 kelp, a variety of seaweeds abundant along the Pacific coast. 
 
 More recent developments seem to have been successful in producing 
 satisfactory explosives using sodium chlorate, a material much cheaper than 
 potassium chlorate, and made from common salt, a material abundant in the 
 United States. 
 
 The manufacture of either potassium chlorate or sodium chlorate is an 
 electrical process, the raw materials being potassium chloride or radium 
 chloride (common table salt) respectively. This industry, if developed 
 on the Pacific Coast, would be chiefly for explosive manufacture and its 
 success would depend upon the success and popularity which the chlorate 
 powders, especially the radium chlorate powders, meet with in the future. 
 If the powder proves much cheaper, as it should, then the industry for 
 Western consumption would be justified as the consumption of powder for 
 land clearing, mining and railroad construction is considerable. There is 
 little prospect, however, of successfully entering the eastern market with 
 Western-made chlorate. 
 
 Graphite. — This material occurs in nature, from which the entire supply 
 was obtained before the invention of the electrical process. . 
 
 The Atcheson Graphite Company at Niagara Falls now manufactures in 
 the electric furnace a high grade of this material for all purposes, one of the 
 important uses being for electrodes used in electrical furnaces. The raw 
 material is anthracite coal, which we do not have, and the market is almost 
 entirely in the East. A large growth of electric furnace industries in the 
 West would demand electrodes, but since the anthracite coal is in the East 
 there is no apparent prospect of this industry in the West. 
 
 Nitrogen Compounds. — Nitrogen in chemical combination is one of the 
 three essential elements of soil fertility (the other two being potash and 
 phosphorus) ; it is used in nearly all explosives now manufactured ; it is 
 essential to the dye industry and to other chemical industries. 
 
 In the free state it exists in the fabulous amount of 70,000,000 pounds 
 of nitrogen gas over each acre of the earth’s surface. In this free state, 
 however, it is of no value to the arts and of apparently little value to 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 87 
 
 plants, only certain few of which seem to possess the power to utilize this 
 atmospheric nitrogen. These plants, the clover family, are very widely 
 used in exhausted soil to replenish its nitrogen content, since these plants 
 not only extract from the air enough nitrogen for their own use but also 
 leave highly nitrogen-bearing “legumes” in the soil, which upon decay 
 replenish this needed element. For intensive agriculture this source is not 
 generally economical unless the clover, alfalfa, or the hay product brings 
 as high a market price per acre as the other crops, and the artificial appli- 
 cation of nitrogen compounds to the soil is consequently resorted to. 
 
 Nitrogen compounds occur in nature to only a very limited extent except 
 in Chile, upon which the world has largely depended for many years for its 
 supply, where it is found in the form of sodium nitrate. This supply can 
 only last for perhaps fifty years, and is becoming increasingly expensive 
 to recover. The Chilean government now charges an export duty of $11.1)0 
 per ton on nitrate, which brings the normal cost of delivery to American 
 ports to about $30.00 to $35.00 per ton. 
 
 The recovery of ammonia as a by-product in the manufacture of coal 
 gas and coke promises a large and increasing supply, but not enough to 
 meet the demands of the trade, while the use of packing-house waste, such 
 as dried blood, “tankage,” and fish scrap, as nitrogen-bearing material for 
 fertilizer, is decreasing because of the greater value of this material for 
 other purposes. 
 
 The only available sufficient source of commercial nitrogen compounds 
 is from the air, and until scientists learned to recover this nitrogen com- 
 mercially, economists feared the world was facing a nitrogen and therefore 
 a food famine. 
 
 Three general processes have been perfected for obtaining nitrogen 
 from the air : (1) Direct fixation or oxidation process, (2) cyanamide 
 
 process, (3) synthetic ammonia process. 
 
 (1) Direct fixation is a direct combination of atmospheric nitrogen and 
 atmospheric oxygen, or burning, so to speak, of nitrogen, which takes place 
 in the intense heat of the electric arc. To accomplish this, three different 
 furnaces or processes have been developed and patented, the Birkland-Eyde. 
 the Schoenherr and the Paulinge. The Birkland-Eyde appears to have been 
 the most sucessful, at least it has been more used since it is the basis of 
 the immense industry in Norway, which started as an experimental plant 
 with twenty-five horsepower in 1903 and in 1912 was utilizing 220,000 horse- 
 power for this purpose and had become one of the largest electric power 
 consuming manufacturing industries in the world. The material formed 
 in the electric arc is an oxide of nitrogen, which is then passed through 
 water, where it forms nitric acid, which may then be sold as such or applied 
 to limestone or common salt to form the calcium nitrate or sodium nitrate 
 commonly used as fertilizer or the potassium nitrate more commonly used 
 for pow’der. 
 
 The process requires electric power and the desirable mineral element as 
 raw materials. 
 
 (2) The cyanamide process uses calcium carbide as a raw material, 
 which in itself requires the electric furnace for its manufacture as pre- 
 viously discussed. This industry owes its development somewhat to the 
 over-development of the carbide industry and the experiments which were 
 then undertaken to find a use for the product. 
 
88 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 The process merely involves the heating of carbide in an atmosphere of 
 pure nitrogen upon which the nitrogen is absorbed to form cyanamide. This 
 product contains slightly more nitrogen per pound than does the sodium or 
 calcium nitrate of commerce, and has formed a considerable field of use- 
 fulness or a constituent of commercial fertilizers. By a secondary treat- 
 ment with water, ammonia is readily obtained and this is what actually 
 occurs when used as a fertilizer. 
 
 Synthetic ammonia process or Haber process is of more recent origin. 
 It consists of heating a mixture of the correct proportions of nitrogen and 
 hydrogen gases under high pressure to a temperature of 500 degrees C. 
 The required temperature is so low that electric heating is not absolutely 
 necessary although said to be desirable. This process is now controlled 
 by the Badusche Anilin and Soda Fabrik of Berlin. 
 
 If nitrogen fixation is to prove commercially feasible in Oregon, the 
 favored process most likely to succeed here, as compared with the East, 
 other things being equal, will be one having a large power requirement, 
 small consumption of carbon and perhaps also of limestone and soda, and 
 a high percentage of nitrogen, thus reducing transportation rates per unit 
 of active element. 
 
 Comparing these methods on this basis, it should be said that direct 
 fixation requires about one and one-sixth horsepower-years per ton of 
 calcium nitrate containing about 14 per cent of nitrogen ; calcium cyanamide 
 requires only about six-tenths horsepower-years per ton of product contain- 
 ing a slightly larger amount of nitrogen ; while data as to the demands of 
 the Haber process are not available. 
 
 Direct fixation requires no carbon, nor does the Haber process, while 
 the cyanamide process does. Direct fixation and the cyanamide process 
 both require limestone (or the former may use salt) while the Haber process 
 does not. 
 
 Thus in the case of direct fixation, the high-power consumption is prob- 
 ably an advantage in competition with Eastern United States producers but 
 a disadvantage in competition with the cheaper power of Norway. The 
 high cost of limestone and salt in most parts of Oregon is a disadvantage, 
 as compared with the East and with Europe. 
 
 In the case of the cyanamide process, the need for both carbon and lime- 
 stone is a local disadvantage and the comparatively small demand for power 
 would not draw this industry to Oregon as a base of operations for other 
 than the Western United States market in any event. 
 
 Little is known of the Haber process except that it uses no raw materials 
 except water and air and a small amount of power. It could probably best 
 seek a location near the Eastern centers of population or remain in Europe. 
 
 There is, however, one nitrogen product whose manufacture is remark- 
 ably suited to local conditions as compared with Eastern United States con- 
 ditions, namely, ammonium nitrate. This product is made from ammonia 
 and nitrate acid. The former could be produced either by the cyanamide 
 process or the Haber process ; the latter by direct fixation, thus demanding 
 a large amount of power. If the Haber process were to be used for pro- 
 ducing ammonia, then no mineral resources locally expensive would be 
 demanded, the only requirements being water, air and power ; if the cyana- 
 mide process were used, carbon in the form of charcoal or coke would be 
 needed, but this objection is small as compared with the difficulties sur- 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 89 
 
 rounding the manufacture of the metallic nitrate salts. Moreover ammonia 
 nitrate carries over twice as much nitrogen per ton, and therefore lends 
 itself much better to meeting the demands of world market from a location 
 somewhat remote from the center of population. 
 
 Ammonia nitrate not only carries about 35 per cent of nitrogen, making 
 it very rich as a nitrogenous fertilizer, but it also finds a large and growing 
 field of application in the manufacture of high explosives ; it can he used 
 as a source of nitric acid or of ammonia. The market should be almost 
 unlimited. Stafford has estimated its cost of production at The Dalles to be 
 about $50.00 per ton. 
 
 Phosphates. — Phosphorus is one of the three essential elements of soil 
 fertility. Eighty-five per cent of the National reserve of phosphate rock is 
 in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Montana. There are two methods of pre- 
 paring phosphate rock for use as a fertilizer, one by treating it with sul- 
 phuric acid and one by the use of electric energy. The electrical method 
 has been developed on an experimental scale and is evidently believed by 
 those in touch with the experiments to be commercially attractive, judging 
 from the activity and money which have been expended in acquiring wate^ 
 rights and promotion of a large power on the Saguenay River in Canada, 
 looking toward the establishment of this industry. The electrical method 
 yields a product of much higher purity than the sulphuric acid process, thus 
 adapting itself better for use at points remote from the market as in the 
 Western phosphate fields. However, the phosphate deposits are not far 
 from the smelting centers at Anaconda. Butte and Salt Lake City, where 
 sulphuric acid derived as a by-product may prove to be an important com- 
 petitor of electricity. Information is not available upon which to base a 
 comparison. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 In the case of the great mass of small manufacturing industries whose 
 combined activities made up the commercial life of a large city, the cost of 
 power is a relatively unimportant factor to be considered in choosing 
 between two factory locations in widely separated districts, as for example 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific coast cities of the United States ; the 
 influence of cheaper power may, however, considerably affect the choice of 
 location as between two sites in the same general industrial district not 
 differing much as to desirability in other respects. 
 
 If the product is for general public consumption, the advantage of being 
 in the midst of a region of large cities and populous rural districts is prob- 
 ably the paramount consideration. For it is from such a vantage point that 
 the retailer can be most quickly supplied and therefore relieved from the 
 burden of carrying a large stock ; the manufacturer can keep in closer 
 touch and enjoy more rapid communication with his customers and gain 
 the advantage of personal acquaintance with many of them ; labor for 
 seasonal or unexpected rushes of business can be most easily secured ; and 
 labor is normally cheaper in such populous districts ; the cost of transpor- 
 tation is also less. 
 
 Next in importance to market is the supply of raw materials, including 
 coal, but a little reflection and study of the map will convince the reader 
 that these two conditions, generally speaking, go hand in hand, the avail- 
 ability of raw materials, including the products of agriculture, conducing 
 
90 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 to an important extent to the aggregation of large populous industrial 
 regions, which in turn attract more industries. To this incentive must he 
 added good distribution facilities and ocean harbors if the industries are 
 to be predicated to any important extent upon foreign trade. 
 
 A study of existing cities indicates clearly that important general com- 
 mercial districts are made by some special advantage, as for example, a 
 good harbor naturally draining a populous and prosperous interior or a 
 natural distributing center for a populous district ; while industrial centers 
 leaning toward some Special industries are usually attributable to an abun- 
 dance of some raw material, the exploitation of which creates a populous 
 district, which in turn justifies general manufacturing industries. 
 
 The waterpowers of New England before the advent of the steam 
 engine were largely instrumental in the growth of the textile, shoe, and 
 other manufacturing industries here, these industries generally needing 
 electricity for power only, the Pennsylvania coal districts justifying the 
 growth of the Pittsburg district foundry, steel, and machinery industries, 
 which are enormous consumers of coal chiefly for fuel purposes rather 
 than for power ; the large Illinois coal fields and the wonderful tributary 
 agricultural territory, account for Chicago and St. Louis, whose large 
 activities include the steel and machinery and the allied coal-using indus- 
 tries and the packing of agricultural products ; the falls of Niagara account 
 for the immense electro-metallurgical and electro-chemical industries, the 
 industries most dependent upon cheap power in large amounts ; mining, a 
 good seaport, and agriculture built San Francisco ; agriculture and lumber, 
 Portland ; lumber and Alaska mining, Seattle ; and Coeur d’Alene mining, 
 Spokane. 
 
 The question then with which this paper is chiefly concerned is : “To 
 what extent may we expect the waterpowers of Oregon to stimulate its 
 industrial growth ; what industries are sufficiently adapted to local condi- 
 tions to deserve the efforts and financial support of our citizens ; how may 
 this support best be rendered?” 
 
 The industries which have thus far built Oregon are lumber, cattle and 
 sheep raising, and agriculture, fishing and some pulp, and paper and mining. 
 These industries are predicated upon the supply of raw materials. Only 
 enough water power has been developed to supply light and street railway 
 service to the citizens together with the supply of power for a few small 
 industries. Not one industry known to the writer, unless it be the paper 
 and pulp industry, exists in Oregon as a result of the waterpower resources 
 of the State which would not have existed had Oregon been devoid of 
 waterpower. This is because there are few industries to which power is 
 the controlling cost of production, and these industries are busy in the 
 East exerting all the influence they can to secure the release of more water 
 for power development at Niagara ; for the right of development of the 
 immense powers on the St. Lawrence River at Massena, N. Y., and for the 
 right of development of Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee River ; Saguenay 
 River in Quebec, many waterpowers in Montana and for other Eastern 
 waterpower privileges, while Oregon waterpowers go almost unoticed. 
 
 The reasons are that we have no coal fields to supply coke needed by 
 the foundry, steel, and machinery industries and which material cannot be 
 replaced by waterpower except to a limited extent ; we have only a limited 
 supply of limestone and this not readily accessible and expensive for use 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 91 
 
 as flux in the metallurgical industries ; we have no important copper and 
 zinc mines, which are rapidly utilizing the waterpowers of Montana ; we 
 have, to be sure, a large but not yet highly developed agricultural region, the 
 products of which do not yet require an immense industry for packing and 
 marketing, and which has not yet to be supplied with innumerable necessi- 
 ties manufactured in nearby cities; we are not at the natural gateway or 
 on the natural route of transportation for any important proportion of the 
 existing foreign trade of the United States, although there is every reason 
 to believe that our trade will grow immensely ; we have very few of the 
 raw materials of the electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical industries 
 whose consumption of hydroelectric power is becoming tremendous ; we 
 have no great tributary area of dense population to be supplied with manu- 
 factured products. For the general manufacturer the local and West coast 
 market is small and the Eastern market is out of reach in competition with 
 Eastern industries under cheaper labor and transportation conditions. The 
 only compensating advantage is the cost to his Eastern competitor of trans 1 
 porta tion to the West. This feature tends to make each supreme in his own 
 territory to an extent depending upon the proportion which transportation 
 bears to the value of the product. But the smaller volume of production for 
 the Western manufacturer again operates to so increase his costs as to 
 largely, if not at times entirely, offset this differential. 
 
 Thus it must be remembered that the chief handicap which has been 
 discussed in each of the industries in this paper, except the absence of raw 
 materials, is the limited market. It has been necessary in this paper to 
 consider chiefly present conditions, hut it is true that in regions of agricul- 
 tural resources, such as Oregon, an increase in market is inevitable, and 
 moreover the effect of industry is itself reactive. Industrial expansion 
 requires an increase in market, and therefore in population, and an 
 increased population cannot subsist except with industries to furnish 
 employment, and to create cities to consume the products of agriculture. 
 
 Also to a variable extent industries are interdependent. Few manufac- 
 turers make all the parts of their product, but preferably sublet much of 
 the work to specialists. If a manufacturer requires brass castings, for 
 example, he must have use for enough such to justify him in equipping a 
 brass foundry and keeping it busy, or he could more advantageously subhit 
 this work to a specialist, who, together with such work from other manu- 
 facturers, could operate such a foundry to capacity. 
 
 Thus the growth of a general industrial district is gradual ; is inter- 
 dependent upon other industries ; is reactive in its effect and is funda- 
 mentally based upon the existence of a region rich in agriculture, raw 
 materials of manufacture, mineral resources, or with a strategic commercial 
 location. Only in a comparatively few industries is it dependent to any 
 important extent upon hydroelectric power. 
 
 What then, if any, is the industrial future of Oregon as of interest .o 
 the utilization of our wasting waterpower, and how can the State and 
 public-spirited citizens be of assistance to promote the desired end? In 
 the opinion of the writer the desired end can be realized only through 
 sacrifice, real work, and financial support by the citizens of Oregon. The 
 public has long recognized the value of public support for agriculture 
 taking the form of experimental research on plant and insect life, public aid 
 to irrigation, etc. But unfortunately in the mind of many the name “man- 
 
92 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 ufacturer” suggests the mental picture of the octopus ; the picture of dis- 
 honest wealth as contrasted with the honest poverty of the farmer. This 
 feeling cannot he too strongly discouraged. We must have manufacturers 
 and we must have a large urban population to create a home market for 
 the products of agriculture; neither can flourish without the other. The 
 public must realize that the local initial handicaps for most industries are 
 such as to require the maximum of public encouragement if we are ever 
 to have industrial development. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer increase in population must come first 
 through expansion of agriculture and the utilization of our forest products, 
 which activities will gradually demand an increasing supply of equipment, 
 and manufactured supplies, thus increasing the market for existing indus- 
 tries and gradually justifying new ones; these industries will react to 
 increase the market for our hydroelectric power rather than the powers 
 attracting the industries. 
 
 However, the prospect of the successful introduction of several electro- 
 metallurgical and electro-chemical industries appears to be sufficiently 
 promising to justify every legitimate effort to promote them, and in this 
 case our waterpowers would be one of the attractions to the industry. 
 Other industries offering such possible prospects are in an experimental 
 stage of development but if perfected would become immense consumers of 
 hydroelectric power and are better suited to local resources than most of 
 the developed industries. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that we have competition in the supply of hydro- 
 electric power. There is no doubt in the mind of the writer that popular 
 objection must eventually yield to economic progress and permit the utili- 
 zation of Niagara to the extent of the minimum flow. This would yield 
 at least 1,000,000 more horsepower. The St. Lawrence at Massena, N. Y.. 
 would yield a reported 1,000,000 horsepower ; the Saguenay River in 
 Quebec, some 300,000 horsepower, and Muscle Shoals on the Tennessee 
 River is also large. The only Oregon powers which could bid successfully 
 for recognition by the chemical and metallurgical industries would be those 
 of the Deschutes, Columbia and Snake Rivers with perhaps one or two 
 smaller ones on the Rogue and Klamath Rivers. Some of these large 
 powers could undoubtedly generate power more cheaply than Niagara, or at 
 least well under the selling price at Niagara, but information is not avail- 
 able for a comparison with the other powers referred to. The eastern 
 powers referred to are, however, in most cases in a populous region with 
 abundant coke, limestone, and salt, which enter into most of the chemical 
 processes. Their location near the market also justifies nearly all of these 
 electric industries, and their competition with Oregon powers for priority 
 of development will be difficult to meet. Moreover, the few industries of 
 this class which are reported favorably by Stafford and Lyons in the 
 Columbia River Power Project Report herein referred to would not con- 
 sume in the aggregate enough power to justify one of the larger develop- 
 ments unless some of those now in an experimental stage, as ammonium 
 phosphate and ammonium nitrate could be perfected. 
 
 The condition which compelled Stafford and Lyons to report unfavorably 
 on most of these industries w T as the absence of local supplies and cost of 
 obtaining distant supplies of coke, limestone, salt, bauxite, iron ore. etc. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 93 
 
 Tlie possible extent of development of miscellaneous small manufactur- 
 ing industries in Oregon is limited in general by the limitations of the 
 local and West coast markets, although local manufactures should be 
 able to share some of the Oriental trade with direct transportation lines. 
 The success of such manufacturing adventures depends primarily upon 
 manufacturing efficiency and commercial genius for organization, manage- 
 ment, and advertising. Such industries would labor under a handicap as 
 compared with Eastern competitors except perhaps for local trade, and it 
 must be clearly borne in mind by the people of Oregon that such industries 
 are not going to locate in Oregon because of hydroelectric power, nor can 
 it be expected that much outside capital can be interested on any pretext. 
 Such industries will develop here chiefly to the extent that Oregon citizens 
 are willing to support them financially. 
 
 The class of industries which utilize our raw materials and our agri- 
 cultural products should be encouraged by the public to every legitimate 
 extent. Oregon should have an industrial experiment station in addition to 
 its agricultural experiment station. This station should have an able corps 
 of specialists provided with ample funds. One of their problems would be 
 to find a use for wood refuse. This might perhaps be accomplished by a 
 distillation process using part of the refuse as fuel to distill the remainder 
 and obtaining therefrom acetic acid, sugar of lime, wood alcohol, turpentine, 
 and several other articles of commerce, with much needed charcoal as a 
 residue. The system would need to be adapted to installation at each mill 
 as the wood refuse would be too expensive to transport. It is possible 
 that the sawdust could be removed by blower and the larger pieces chipped 
 by machinery and all then digested to form “sulphite pulp” to supplement 
 “ground wood pulp” for paper manufacture, or that the refuse itself might 
 be ground if appropriate machinery could be devised. Whatever its nature, 
 it is certain that a use for wood refuse is of paramount importance and the 
 commercial problem of producing to compete with such products elsewhere 
 is not less difficult than the technical one. Another industry deserving 
 support is the milling of woolens, and perhaps linen. We should refine 
 every agricultural product to its final market form before permitting it 
 to leave Oregon. We should mill our own wheat and. ship it as flour ; we 
 should make starch ; we should pack our own meat ; can all the fruit not 
 consumed as fresh fruit ; manufacture furniture with such local timber as 
 is suitable for the purpose : and many similar operations. 
 
 By the development of such industries using native resources, we should 
 so increase our population as to improve the market for and thus stimulate 
 every other industry. 
 
 The industrial experiment situation and industrial commission should 
 devote themselves to producing carbon at reasonable cost. One method by 
 utilizing wood refuse has already been suggested. The possibility of obtain- 
 ing coking coal from Alaska should be investigated, also the possibility of 
 iron ore from China and perhaps bauxite from India. Reducing aluminum 
 from other minerals than bauxite is a worthy study. The commercial 
 possibilities of potash from kelp and salt from Oregon lakes should be 
 studied. Congress should be urged to extend the Columbia and Snake 
 River improvements to make the rivers navigable for a tow of limestone 
 barges from the mouth of the Grande Ronde on the Snake or from the 
 limestone deposits on the upper Columbia. 
 
94 
 
 PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 Tlie desirability of developing an ocean-going barge similar to the large 
 ore boats on the Great Lakes to carry limestone from the islands of Puget 
 Sound, iron ore from China, coal from Alaska or Vancouver Island, etc., 
 can not be too strongly emphasized as related to the chemical industries, 
 and indeed all industrial development of Oregon. 
 
 The Columbia, Snake, and Deschutes Rivers are believed by the writer 
 to offer several opportunities for large power developments within the 
 limits of cost which would attract chemical industries if the raw materials 
 were available, but this region is greatly handicapped in this respect. 
 
 The Columbia River, as far as Cascade Rapids, is suitable for ocean 
 draft navigation, and this site, if a dam proves economically and technically 
 feasible, is a strategic location for chemical industries except for the local 
 supply of raw materials, as there are few large power sites anywhere 
 where ocean boats can touch with raw materials and return with the 
 manufactured products. This asset might indeed largely offset the cost of 
 bringing in the raw materials. With the development of Cascade Rapids 
 should be included the construction of a lock to extend ocean navigation to 
 The Dalles, thus adding the transportation asset to The Dalles project. 
 
 The writer believes that the industrial development of Oregon requires 
 State support. Import duties from other states are prohibited by the 
 Constitution. State aid might be extended in the form of bonuses on 
 general production ; subsidy for transportation lines touching at Oregon 
 ports and bringing in needed raw materials ; exemption from taxation fo'- 
 a period of years ; a paid industrial commission and industrial experiment 
 station ; free factory sites, and even by State guarantee of securities or 
 purchase of a part of the securities. A few years ago the man who would 
 advocate state or even Federal aid for irrigation was considered an extreme 
 socialist, seeking to have the government encroach upon the legitimate 
 field of banking. We now find that irrigation projects cannot often stand 
 the financial strain of the development years, faced with high rates of 
 interest, and we see the ablest bankers of Oregon publicly advocating State 
 aid. Truly, “necessity makes strange bedfellows.” 
 
 This is equally true of industrial development in general, and the writer 
 believes that it must be recognized and proper encouragement given before 
 industrial development can be expected. 
 
 Bonuses, free factory sites and exemption from taxation for several 
 years are common offers made by Eastern cities to prospective industries. 
 In Oregon every available factory site goes soaring in price at the first 
 intimation of a “prospect.” Statesmen clamor for more factories to increase 
 the taxable wealth, and the average citizen is so optimistic as to believe 
 that the whole industrial East is pining for an opportunity to come to 
 Oregon, and that the stampede is just about to begin ; but like tomorrow, it 
 never comes. 
 
 Oregon cannot hope for industrial development by flooding the East with 
 advertising literature showing pictures of waterfalls. The State should 
 take from the “wildcat” promoter the business of advertising Oregon. It 
 should, through cooperation with the Federal government, extend stream 
 flow measurements; investigate, through competent engineers, the cost of 
 development and generation of power at Oregon power sites ; publish high 
 grade technical and nonpolitical reports on the projects, making the money 
 so expended a lien against the rights of development. 
 
PRIMER OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 95 
 
 This work and that of the industrial experiment station should be 
 entrusted to a paid industrial commission, consisting of an hydroelectric 
 engineer, an industrial engineer, a chemical engineer, a metallugical engi- 
 neer, and an attorney, with an advisory unpaid board of prominent business 
 men, not members of the Legislature, and having only advisory powers. 
 
 This commission should be of the same high grade demanded of public 
 utility commissioners, and should have broad executive powers within 
 limits prescribed by the Legislature in the matter of negotiating contracts 
 with industries, paying bonuses, organizing and assisting industrial enter- 
 prises, etc. 
 
 I do not wish by the above remarks to discourage sound industrial 
 development in Oregon. I do wish, however, to correct the generally- 
 prevailing local belief that, because of cheaper power and the Panama 
 Canal, our cities are soon destined to become great manufacturing centers, 
 bidding for Eastern United States and foreign trade. This popular miscon- 
 ception leads to ruinous stock jobbing and exploitation of the credulous 
 Eastern and local small investors, but more particularly also the false 
 advertising of the local opportunities, unwarranted booms, inflation of 
 realty values and consequent periodical collapses. 
 

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